^ - in fo^o HARVARD UNIVERSITY -^ Library of the Museum of Comparative Zoology LI _J / l) BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN MOS. EOMP. ZOQl mm. TICKS OF THE NEVADA TEST SITE by D Eldlen Beck, Dorald M. Allred and Elias P. Brinton > Biological Series — Vol. IV, No. 1 October, 1963 .^^\ ^ .o'^ BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN TICKS OF THE NEVADA TEST SITE by D Elden Beck, Dorald M. Allred and Elias P. Brinton Biological Series — Vol. IV, No. 1 October, 1963 MUS. COMP. ZOOL UBRARy JAN 2 196^ NARVAfi9 UNMSITY 5^1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION 1 METHODS AND PROCEDURES 1 DELIMITATIONS 1 PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 2 HOST-TICK ASSOCIATIONS 3 SPECIES DISCUSSION 4 Argas persicus 4 Otoblus lagophilus 4 Demiacentor albipictus 4 Dermacentor partimapertus 5 Haemaphysalis leporis-palustris 6 Ixodes angustus 7 Ixodes kingi 7 Ixodes ochotonae 8 Ixodes pacificus 8 Ixodes sculptus 8 Ixodes spinipalpis 9 DISCUSSION 9 REFERENCES 10 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 1, October 1963 H t A T 8 ^ ^ LINCOLN CLARK LAS VEGAS "^ >lAKe"mE-AD SOUTHERN NEVADA STl'DY AREA NEVADA TEST SITE Fig. 1 Map of Southern Nevada TICKS OF THE NEVADA TEST SITE INTRODUCTION Tliis report on the tick fauna of the Nevada Test Site is one of tlie series of pubHcations re- sulting from ecological studies conducted by the Brigham Young University Department of Zoology and Entomology in cooperation with the United States Atomic Energy Commission.' The principal objectives of the over-all project were maintained in this study, namely, to de- termine kinds, population, seasonal occurrence, and geographical and ecological distribution of ticks in areas where nuclear detonations have taken place compared with undisturbed areas. (For a detailed account of the over-all project and description of the general ecology of the area, see "Biotic Communities of the Nevada Test Site" by Allred, Beck and Jorgensen, 1963a.) Published accounts of ticks collected in Ne- vada are for the most part instances of isolated collections, such as reported by C(X)ley and Kohls (1944), Philip, Bell and Larson (1953), Parsons (1947), and Allen (1960). As far as is known, our report is the first which deals with a periodic collection of ticks in a specific area of that state. METHODS AND PROCEDURES Although the tick collections were a by- product of studies of the mammalian fauna, es- peciallv the rodents and leporids, they were not incidental. A planned set of procedures and methods involving examination of each host for all kinds of ectoparasites, including ticks, was followed. Rodent hosts were obtained by two trapping methods, and all s{>ecimens thus taken were placed in separate paper sacks which were sealed and returned to the laboratory. Speci- mens trapped in live-catch traps were killed in the field and sacked or taken to the laboratory where they were killed and sacked. Those cap- tured in break-back traps were sacked in the field. Rabbits and larger vertebrates collected by use of jaw traps, shot guns, or rifles were also placed in paper bags when possible. The specific site where a host was collected was related to a particular plant commimity 'AEC Research Granl .\T(n-li7Sii and reference area which enabled an identifi- cation code to be attached to each parasite col- lection (see "Nevada Test Site Study Areas and Specimen Depositories" by AUrcd, Beck and Jorgensen, 1963b). Hosts returned to the laboratory were re- frigerated for several hours and then examined in a large, white enamel pan exposed to good illumination. The ticks were obtained by brush- ing the fur of the host as well as close examin- ation of its body to locate those which remain- ed attached in places such as the ears and axillae. Some ticks readily detached from the host after the heat of illumination stimulated them. Others had to be removed with forceps. Even with care the latter method of removal resulted in broken mouth-parts of some ticks. This was especially true of species of Ixodes. Ticks were preserved in glass vials contain- ing 70 percent ethyl alcohol. Those collected from each host were kept separate and labeled with necessary coded information. When ticks were prepared for specific inden- tification each collection was supplied with a reference number. This same number referred to a line of data on a collection record form (CR form) and was also entered on an identifi- cation sheet in column style after which the identifier wrote the name of the organism. Data on the CR form also included the collection code and a serial number for each collection. From the identification sheet the species name was entered opposite the same reference num- ber on the CR form. The coded collection data were then transcribed from this sheet to IBM punch cards preparatory to computer tabula- tion and analysis. Computer analysis provided statistical information on host-parasite relation- ships, seasonal incidence and ecological distri- bution with reference to a previously identified plant community at the Nevada Test Site. DELIMITATIONS As already mentioned, the tick collections in this study were principally from rodents and leporids. Such sources naturally would not re- veal all the kinds of ticks which may occur at the test site. For example, only a few nests of Hmu.iiam Younc University Science Bulletin the desert wood rat, Neotonut Icpidu. were ex- amined. Although no ticks wcrt- found, the original discovi-ry of an atypical (Davis and Ma\r()s, 1956) soft-lxnlicd tick of Oniithodoroa hermsi Wlicclcr, Ilcrms, and Mcver in Utah was reported from w(H)d rat nests by Beck (1955). These specimens were first taken from wood rat nests by Allred in 1950. Since that time man\' collections ha\e been made in Utah, al- though sjH'cimens \\ere not found in every nest. Undoubtedlv a thorough studv of many wocxl rat nests at the \e\ada Test Site would supply this and perhaps O. tdlajc or other related species. Inasmuch as Jellison (1940) found O. parkeri on the burrowing owl, Spcolijto ctiiiicuhirid, and in its n<'sts and burrows in Washington, it is possible that this tick mav be present at the test site. Ccies were nymphs collected from various kinds of leporids. Typical of some species of ticks, in the larval stage O. liii^ophiliis is found on a variety of hosts. Wood- bur)- (19.>J) reports an unsuccessful attempt to get newly hatched, laboratory reared larvae of this species to attach to kangaroo rats. On the other hand, we have found them on the chisel- toothed kangaroo rat, Dipodomijs microps. Of special interest are nymphs taken in June, July, and August which were shipped alive in glass, cotton-stoppered vials to the Brigham Young L^niversitv laboratory for life history studies. Within five days after collection, the greatly engorged nymphs had transformcxl to the adult stage during transit from the test site. Plant community relationships. \s would be expected, the geographic distribution for the ticks would be determined by host distribution. The black-tailcxl jack rabbit is generally distri- buted over the test site with greatest abundance in the Grayia-Lvcium community and is next most abundant in the Mixed c-ommunitv'. In- asmuch as lar\ae were collected from bats, birds and several species of rcxlents it is obvious that much more extensive collecting must be done at the test site in order to cx)rrelate larval stage with plant c-ommunities. Dermacentor albipictus (Packard) Hosts. One male and three females were found on two mule deer. Seasonal incidence. The adult ticks were collected in October. Plant community relationships. .■Vt the test site the mule deer are found mainly in the Pin- von-Juniper community of the high mesas. They are known to migrate through the valleys, going from one mountain range to another. No doubt this tick species is relegated to the habitat of the mule deer. Comments. This species is common on deer and elk in the western United States and oc- c-asionall\' infests horses and cattle. It is a one- host tick. The engorged females drop to the ground where they lay eggs in the autumn. The lar\ae await contact with the preferred host (the mule deer) or mav os'er-winter. When a likely host comes along in the spring, they attach to it. Larvae once attached remain on the host, engorge and undergo developmental changes througli the ii\in|)lial to the adult stage. In the Biological Sehies. Vol. 4, No. 1, October 1963 adult stage, a final engorgement takes place and the cycle is repeated. Ticks taken in our collections were from hosts which were shot during a deer hunt. No year-round survey for these ticks has been made of the larger vertebrates at the test site, especially those at higher elevations. Dermacentor pantmapertus Neumann Hosts. Totals of 869 larvae, 243 nymphs, and 199 adults were collected from 10 species of rodents, 44 rabbits of two species, and one species of carnivore. Larvae were most com- monly encountered on kangaroo rats, pocket mice, and the black-tailed jack rabbit. Nymphs were common on kangaroo rats and were less abundant on other rodents. They were com- pletely absent on carnivores. Almost without exception the adults were taken from black- tailed jack rabbits. Exceptions were two fe- males collected from the chisel-toothed kan- garoo rat and three males from the Golden Eagle, Aqtiila chnjsaetos. Seasonal incidence. Larvae were collected every month of the year except July (Fig. 2). The highest incidence was in February and the greatest number of hosts with larvae was in April, with kangaroo rats and the antelope squirrels predominating. Nymphs were collected every month of the year except July and September, with the high- est population in May. Average numbers of nymphs found were constant for each month, in- creasing slightly in April, abruptly in May, de- clining slightly in June and abruptly in July. LARME NruPHS ADULTS J FMAMJJ ASOND Fig. 2. Seasonal incidence of Dermacentor parumapertus . Their host predominance and preference were similar to the larvae. Adults were collected from June through September, with the highest population oc- curring in August. There were no systematic collections of the jack rabbit over a 12 month period at the test site. Consequently the season- al picture of adult ticks is incomplete. This is not the case with the immature forms. Plant community relationships. Larvae were not found in the Pinyon-Juniper and Atriplex- Kochia communities. They were most frequent- ly encountered in Coleogyne. Nymphs were absent from Salsola and Atriplex-Kochia, but were most frequent in Grayia-Lycium. The adults were likewise most abundant in Grayia- Lycium. No adults were taken in the Pinyon- Juniper and Salsola communities. Comments. Although the type specimens from which Neumann (1901) described the species were "taken on a man and in a chicken house" in California, practically all adult speci- mens collected since that time have been found on the black-tailed jack rabbit. All stages of development are known to oc- cur in the temperate deserts of the western United States where rodents of several species serve as hosts for the immature stages, kangaroo rats being the principal hosts. The host-parasite association at the test site follows somewhat the same pattern as found in other parts of the desert areas of western United States. From the data at hand it appears that there is onlv one generation a year, with eggs laid from July through September and hatching be- ginning as early as August. In studying the life history of this species, Allred and Roscoe (1956) found that the females oviposited within 20 days after detachment from a host. Incubation per- iod of the eggs varied from 28 to 37 days, and the newly hatched larvae attached to hosts within nine days. Larval engorgement varied from 4 to 13 days and the larvae molted within 16 days. Nymphal engorgement and molting re- quired up to 16 and 28 days, respectively. Our seasonal observations of these ticks at the test site are in agreement with Allred's and Roscoe's findings. The pattern of distribution by stage and sea- son agrees for the most part with the findings of Beck ( 1955), Gastfriend ( 1955) and Fremling and Gastfriend (1955) for similar studies conduct- ed in Utah. Beck found the main seasonal peak for larvae to be m April and May, June for nvmphs. and julv for adults. Fremling and Bkk.iiam Volsc University Science Bulletin Castfriend obsiTvod brief larval peaks from Sep- tember to October, in December, P'ebniary, and Marcli to May. Xymplis were liighest in their study during May, June, and September and adults liigliest in July. Fremling's and Ca.stfriend's observations were based on small samples from rabbits taken for only a one-year jx-riod. Inasmuch as rab- bits are not the jirincipal hosts for the im- mature stages of D. parumapcrtus. limited val- idity can be attributed to their study e.xccpt for the adult stage of this tick. Beck's study was conducted for several years and involved rodent as well as rabbit hosts. Consetjuently, his study is assumed to be more representa- tive of the cycle of D. punimapcrtus in Utah. The major points of difference between the Nevada and Utah results were the spring peak in larval population which occurred earlier in Nevada than in Utah, the earlier nymphal jx)pu- lation in Nevada, as well as the bimcnlal June and August peaks for adults which at the test site were earlier and later than the Utah studies. Our observations agree in part with Beck, Fremling, and Castfriend except for the slight differences in season as mentioned alx)ye. The February-March larval population likely was re- sponsible for the May nvTuphs, which in turn were responsible for the August adults. These adults probably gave rise to the February- March larvae. However, other {X)pulation jx?aks in Nevada possibly indicate a separate popula- tion of ticks which demonstrate different sea- sonal activity (Fig. 2). In this case the August larval population likely gave rise to the Febru- ary nymplis, which in turn were responsible for the June adults, and so on to the August larvae. There is little doubt that these ticks are in- fluenced in their ecological distribution by the nature of the physical environment when off their hosts. Tiic ticks at the test site were found most frequently where the plant cover and humus were more abundtyit than elsewfiere and likely furnished a better chance of survival for the ticks by providing protection from high temperatures and low humidities. In the Salsola and Atriplex-Kochia communities where plant cover and humus are minimal, few ticks are apt to survive ex]X)sure to the elements when off their hosts. Conse(|uently, few ticks of this species were found in these communities Oven though the common hosts of their immature stages occurred there in abundance. Such small numbers as were found in the Pinyon-Juniper community probably were due to the lower temperature extremes. Similar situations are known to occur farther north in the Creat Basin where D. pantmapertux occupies only the low- er elevations of the valleys and foothills. .More intensive studies on all stages of de- velopment of this tick must be done Ijefore the entire life cycle can be considered as well known. This is especially true for the adults and their hosts. More data are needed with re- ference to the emergence of the various de- velopmental stages as they are affected by en- vironmental factors such as temperature and humidity. lldcnmphijsalis leporis-palustris (Packard) Hosts. Only four larvae were collected. They were taken from a chisel-toothed kan- garoo rat and the desert cottontail. Ninety-five nymphs were taken from a southern pocket gopher, six Lincoln's sparrows, and desert cot- tontails. No adults were found. Seasonal incidence. The larva on the rab- bit was found in November, whereas those on the kangariK) rat were taken in February. The nymph on the bird was taken in May; all other nymphs were found in November. Plant community relationships. The larvae were taken from the Grayia-Lycium and Mixed plant communities. The nymphs were found predominantly in Mi.xed, with small numbers found in Grayia-Lycium and Pinyon-Juniper. Comments. This tick commonly occurs on rabbits and less fre((uently on rodents and birds. It is surprising that adults of this tick have not been found on black-tailed jack rabbits for many rabbits were examined. It is also un- usual that only a few sptx-imens of the im- mature stages have been collected from the hundreds of small rodents that were examined in this study. There likely are two reasons for the scarcity in mnnbers of specimens of all stages of de- velopment having been taken at the test site. The collections of cottontail rabbits have been few in number. In addition, these cottontails are somewhat limited in their distribution at the site. They were encountertxl principally where some water was available as springs or seeps. A year-round study of cottontails at the few springs and seeps would no doubt provide a much different record than at present. On De- cember 21. 1950, Beck collected 60 nvmphs and 121 adults from a cottontail at Beaver Dam Wash, L'tah, in an ecological situation some- what similar to that at the Nevada Test Site. Although it has been the rule rather than the exception for cottontail rabbits to be the main Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 1, Octobek 1963 hosts for this species of tick, a thorough survey of the ectoparasites of birds Hkely would pro- duce additional specimens of this species. Ixodes aiigiistus Neumann Hosts. No larvae of this species were taken. Thirty-si.\ nymphs were found on eight rodents of four species. Three adults were taken from an antelope squirrel and two chisel-toothed kan- garoo rats. Seasonal incidence. Nymphs were found from April through June and in September and November. Adults were found from November through January. Plant community relationships. Nymphs were found most commonly in the Mixed com- munity but were also taken in Atriple.x-Kochia and Pinyon-Juniper. Comments. Cooley and Kohls (1945) listed 16 genera of animals which serve as hosts for /. angitsfus in northwestern United States. Greg- son (1956) listed 13 genera as hosts from his studies in Canada. Allred, et al. (1960) listed six species from four genera of hosts for this tick in I'tah, with larvae being taken only from Peromyscus manicuhtus. The tick has an ex- tensive geographic range in North America, ex- tending from Alaska to southern California and to the eastern part of the United States. The information from the literature indicates that this species is more abundant and has a wider range of distribution in nondesert situ- ations. All the collections in Utah have been taken at high elevations in mountainous areas or in the northern part of the state. Gregson mentions the species extending across Canada, from Alaska to California, and "east to New York State." An examination of the host listing by Cooley and Kohls also shows host animals whose ecological distribution is either at higher altitudes in mountain ranges, foothills, the Pacific coastal region, or in the northern part of the United States. It appears that a principal factor directly affecting distribution is humidity. On the above basis, the Mojave area would not be considered a region which would be productive of hosts on which this tick is nor- mally found, and hence one would expect the tick to be limited in numbers collected as well as range of distribution at the test site. Such was the case! The seasonal occurrence of this species at the test site is in agreement with findings of other workers. Ixodes kingi Bishopp Hosts. This tick was taken from 48 animals including two carnivores, a rabbit, and eight species of rodents. A total of 82 larvae was col- lected from the rabbit and from 45 rodents of seven species. The greatest number was taken from wood rats, with none found on carnivores or antelope s()uirrels. Thirty-two nymphs were taken from all the host species on which larvae were found except the coyote and the le{X)rids. They were most abundant on the wood rat and chisel-toothed kangaroo rat. Only two adults were taken: a male from a coyote and a female from the chisel-toothed kangaroo rat. Seasonal incidence. Larvae were found from March through December except in August and September. They were taken most fre- quently in April, although greatest numbers were found in October. From October through December they were found on a rabbit and wood rats, whereas from March through July they occurred on rodents of other species. Nymphs were found in December and January and from April through September except in July. They were taken most frequently from April through June. During the winter months they were taken principally from wood rats, whereas in summer they were found on other rodents. The male from a coyote was taken in November, and the female from a kangaroo rat in June. Plant community relationships. Larvae were taken most frequently in the Grayia-Lycium and Coleogyne communities. Nymphs were found most frequently in Grayia-Lycium and Mixed. The adults were found in Grayia- Lycium and Atriplex-Kochia. Comments. Cooley and Kohls (1945) and Allred et al. ( 1960 ) listed many species of hosts for this tick. Although the deer mouse and kangaroo rat are preferred hosts in Utah (Allred et al., 1960), wood rats apparently are a common host at the test site. Except for their occurrence on wot)d rats in October, they were seldom found on a host in numbers of more than one or two. This is in agreement with Allred et al. who stated that few animals are heavily infest- ed with this tick and most had only one or two. Their seasonal occurrence is similar to that found by Cooley, Kohls, Allred et al. Figure 3 shows the population fluctuations of /. kingi lar- vae and nymphs. Adults were taken in insuffi- cient numbers for inclusion. These data are in- dicative of possiblv two generations a year. This assumption is based on the relative populations Hhigham Vounc Univehsity Science Bllleiin of larvae and iiNtiiplis for eacli season. It is un- likely that a given lar\a! population could give rise to a larger nvniplial population. Conse- (|uentlv tlie larval peak in .\pril likely gave rise to tlie nvmplis in June and the larvae in Oc- tober to the nvniphs in Deceniher. Adults, which were not collected in anv niiniher at the test site, likely attain highest numbers on their hosts (unknown to us) about August and Feb- ruary. It is interesting to note that although the nymphs were frequently found in the Mi.xed community, larvae were not so frequently found there. The relative frequency of occurrence of lar\'ae and nymphs in other communities where they were found was about equal. Ixodes ochototuic Gregson Hosts. Se\en lar\'ae were taken from five antelope s(]uirrels and a cliff chipmunk. Seasonal incidence. Larvae were taken from January through June except in March. Plant community relationships. Collections were made in Crayia-Lycium, Larrea-Franseria, Coleogyne, and Pinvon-JunijKT communities. They were taken most frequently in Grayia- Lycium. Comments. Cooley and Kohls (1945), Greg- son (1956), and Allred et al. (1960) listed nine species of si.x genera of mammals which serve as hosts for this tick. Our data from the test site for collectiims from antelope scjuirrels and the cliff chipmunk apparently are new host re- cords. The seasonal occurrence of the larvae at the test site is e;u-lier than found by Cooley and Kohls, Allred ct al. This is e.xpected inasmuch as collections reported by them were made at high- er elevations at more northerly latitudes. Most published records of this tick arc from hosts taken in forested mountain areas. Inas- much as Allred et al. stated that in Utah it was found about ecjually in coniferous forest and desert shnib areas, its occurrence at the test site is not unusual. Gregson (1956) cited this tick as tlie "pika tick," but most of the records for collections in Utah as reported bv Allred et al., and those taken at the test site indicate this species to have a wide selection of hosts. Ixodes parificiis Co()le\' and Kohls Hosts. Twelve larvae and a nymph were taken from four pocket mice. XULPTUS - MruPMS KiNGi- LA/nne Fig. 3. Seiisonal incidence of Ixodes sculptus and /. kingi. Seasonal incidence. The larvae were taken in April and the nymph in October. Plant community relationships. All the larvae were found in the Coleogyne community, whereas the nymph was taken in a Mi.xed com- munity. Comments. Cooley and Kohls (1945), Greg- son ( 19.56), and Allred et al. ( 1960) listed a var- iety of hosts for this tick including lizards, domestic animals, and man. Records include pocket mice from California, but our records for other species of pocket mice at the test site ap- parently are new. The seasonal incidence agrees with that stated by Cooley and Kohls. Ixodes sctdptus Neumann Hosts. Two lars'ae, 58 n\Tnphs, and two fe- males were taken from 22 antelo[x? squirrels. One nymph was taken from a Merriam's kan- garoo rat. The antelope sfjuirrel apparently is the preferred host of the nymphs. Seasonal incidence. The larvae were found during the winter, nymphs in winter and spring, antl the adults in the spring. No ticks of any stage of dcN'elopment were collected during the summer months. Plant commimity relationships. The larvae were found only in the Coleogyne community. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 1, Octobeh 1963 The nymphs were found principally in the Coleogyne and Grayia-Lyciiim but also in the Mixed and Larrea-Franseria communities. The adults were taken in Coleogyne. Comments. Cooley and Kohls (1945), Greg- son (19.56), and Allred et al. (1960) listed squirrels of several species as the preferred hosts of this tick. Collection data for ticks found on the antelope s(juirrel and kangaroo rat at the test site apparently are new host records. Our winter records for the larvae are later than those listed by Cooley and Kohls, Allred et al. Although collections of larvae and adults of /. sculpius at the test site essentially are lack- ing, the data on nymphs are suggestive of more than one generation of ticks per year or more than one separate population (Fig. 3). Ixodes spinipalpis Hadwen and Nuttall Hosts. One nymph was taken from a kan- garoo rat and seven nymphs from three pocket mice of two sf>ecies. Seasonal incidence. Nymphs were taken in February, April, June, and November. Plant community relationships. The two communities represented by our collections were Larrea-Franseria and Mi.xed. Ticks were taken most frequently from the latter. Comments. Cooley and Kohls (1945), Greg- son (19.56), and Allred et al. (1960) listed re- c(jrds of this tick from birds, rabbits, and ro- dents including pocket mice and kangaroo rats. Our records from the chisel-toothed kangaroo rat and little pocket mouse apparently are new. Seasonal findings are in agreement with other workers. DISCUSSION Of the 24 species of animals found infested with ticks, 17 were infested with larvae, 19 with nymphs, and only six with adults. Rodents of only two species were found to harbor adults. The paucity of adult ticks of some species taken may be explained on the basis of their known host and ecological relationships. Antelope squirrels, chisel-toothed and Mer- riam's kangaroo rats were hosts for ticks of more species than were other animals. Derma- centor parumapertus apparently is the most widespread species at the Nevada Test Site. This is true with respect to both host and ecological distribution, although Ixodes kingi is almost as widespread. According to recent studies of this latter species by Gregson and Kohls, Gregson (correspondence) states that ticks of /. kingl in the Great Basin area are not typical of the kingl found east of the Rocky Mountains and may prove to be a different species. Adults of Argas persicus are principally para- sites of birds. The relatively small number of birds examined and the limited seasonal ob- servation for their parasites at the test site would account in part for the low number of collections of this species. The mule deer, if examined on a year-round basis in a systematic manner, likely would produce a great number of Dermacentor albipictiis. Adults of Hacma- phijsalis leporis-palnstri.^ occur most commonly on cottontail rabbits not only at the test site but elsewhere. Only a few of these hosts were taken at the test site mainly because of the limited areas in which they occur and lack of a system- atic year-round collection. With reference to Ixodes angustus, I. ocho- tonae, I. pacijiats, I. spinipalpis, and I. sculptus, host records reported in the literature indicate that they occur on animals which commonly live in the Desert Woodland, at higher ele- vations, or in mountain forest areas. Migrations of animals such as domestic stock, deer, and carnivores across the lower valleys of the test site may account for the maintenance and oc- currence of the immature stages of these species on rodents at the site. Beck (1955) reports sev- eral collections of /. pacifictts taken from the mule deer in Utah. Most literature reports list the adults from larger animals such as deer, dogs, and man. Adults of some Ixodes such as /. kingi may infest carnivores. Badgers, bob- cats, foxes, and coyotes occur commonly at the test site, but relatively few were examined for ectoparasites. As expected with Dermacentor parumapertus and Otobius lagophilus, their adults and nymphs, respectively, were common- ly taken from jack rabbits which occur in a- bundance at the test site. Our results are indicative that the nature of the habitat is influential on survival of the ticks when not on a host. Ticks were collected most frequently in the Grayia-Lycium, Mixed, and Hhk.ma.m YoiNc Univehsity Science Bulletin Coleogynt- communities (Table 2). The greatest miinber of species was also found in tliese coniminiitics. Altliougli almost as many species uori' taken in tiie Larrea-Franseria commimity, tlieir fretjuency of oceurrence was only one- third to one-half that of the three communities above. Frccjuency of collections and fewest species of ticks occurred in the Salsola. These relationships likely are correlated with the a- mount of plant cover and humus under the Table 2. Fre(juency of tick collections by plant community. Percent No. tick species frequency of total collections" Plant Community Atriple.x-Kochia 3 4.8 Coleogyne 6 24.4 Crayia-Lvcium 7 33.6 Larrea-Franseria 5 10.3 Mixed 7 22.9 Pin\()n-Juniper 3 3.0 Salsola 1 1.0 •Slightly skewed because of differences in collecting attempts. plants which may provide microhabitats favor- able for survival of ticks when not on their hosts. The unusual number of species of ticks which occur in the comparatively small area of the Nevada Test Site may be explained in part on the nature of its geographical and eco- logical location. Relatively high mountain ranges and intervening valleys extend south- ward from the Great Basin region and merge into the Mojavc region. In such a place of zoo- geographic merging one may expect the un- usual. For example, six species of Ixodes have been taken from the test site whereas less than a dozen are known for the whole state of Utah. A total of eleven kinds of ticks are known from the test site and only 17 are known for all of Utah. Other species of ticks and new host associ- ations for species already known most likely will be discovered at the test site, especially if emphasis is placed on the examination of birds, carnivores and other less frequently col- lected animals as well as their nests and bur- rows. Systematic surveys at higher elevations would likewise produce additional species. REFERENCES Allen, R. W. 1962. Parasitism in Bighorn Sheep on the Desert Game Range in Ne- vada. Desert Bighorn Council Trans., Las Vegas, Nevada. Allred, D. M. and E. J. Roscoe. 1956. Life history of the tick Dernuicentor fMrunui- pertits in Utah. J. Parasitol. 42:. 51 6-522. Allred, D. M., D E. Beck and L. D. White. 1960. Ticks of the genus Ixodes in Utah. Brigham Young "niv. Sei. Bull., Biol. Ser., Vol. 1, No. 4. Allred, D. M., D E. Beck and C. D. jorgensen. 1963a. Biotic communities of the Nevada Test Site. Brigham Young Uni\-. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser., Vol. 2, No. 2. Allred, D. M., D E. Beck and C. D. Jorgensen. 1963b. Nevada Test Site study areas and specimen depositories. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser., Vol. 2, No. 4. Beck, D E. 195.5. Distributional studies of parasitic arthro[XKls in Utah, determined as actual and potential vectors of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and plague, with notes on vector-host relationships. Brig- ham Young Univ. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser., Vol. 1, No. 1. Beck, D E. 1955. Some unusual distribution records of ticks in Utah. J. Parasitol. 41(2): 198-201. Cooley, R. A. and G. M. Kohls. 1940. Two new species of .\rgasidae (Acarina: Ixo- doidea). Public llealth Repts. (U.S.) 55:925-933. Cooley, R. A. and G. M. Kohls. 1944. The Argasidae of North .\merica. Central .\mer- ica and Cuba. \m. Midland Naturalist, Monograph No. 1. Cooley, R. A. and G. M. Kohls. 1945. The genus Ixodes in North America. Natl. Inst. Health Bull. 184:1-246. Davis, G. K. and .\. J. Mavros. 19.56. An at\pical Oruithodoros hrnnsi from Utah (Ixodoidea, .\rgasidae). J. Parasitol. 42(3): 293-296. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 1, Oc:toueb 1963 Fremling, L. and A. Gastfriend. 1955. Sea- sonal abundance of tlic tick, Dcrmaccntor pantniapcrttis: Ecology 36:162-163. Gastfriend, A. 1955. New host records for the immature stages of the tick Dermaccn- tor parumapcrttis. J. Parasitol. 41:63-65. Gregson, J. D. 1956. The I.xodoidea of Can- ada. Canada Dept. Agric, Ottawa, Ont., Publ. No. 930. Jellison, W. L. 1940. The burrowing owl as a host to the argasid tick, Ornithodoros paikcri. Public Health Repts. (U. S.) 55:206-208. Neumann, L. G. 1901. Revision de la Ixo- dides. E.\tr. des Mem. Soc. Zool. de France, pp. 267-268. Parker, R. R. 1923. Transmission of Rocky Mountain spotted fever by the rabbit tick Haemaphysalis leporis-pahistris Packard. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 3:39-46. Parsons, L. 1947. Relapsing fever at Lake Tahoe, California, Nevada. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 17:388-392. Philip, C. B. 1942. Rocky Mountain spotted fever: known and potential tick vectors in the U. S. Proc. 6th Pacific Sci. Cong. 5:581-584. Philip, C. B.and L. E. Hughes. 1953. Disease agents found in the rabbit tick Dcrmacen- tor parumapcrtus in southwestern U. S. Sixth Congr. Intern, di microbiol. Sezioni VHI-X\T, 2(793):600. Philip, C, B., J. F. Bell and C. L. Larsen. 1953. Evidences of infectious diseases and parasites in a {jeak population of black- tailed jack rabbits in Nevada. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 19:225-2.3,3. Stoenner, H. G., R. Holdenried, D. Lackman and J. S. Orsbom, Jr. 1959. The oc- currence of Coxiella burncti. Brucella and other pathogens among the fauna of the Great Salt Lake Desert in Utah. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 8:590-596. Vest, D. E. 1957. Study on the ecology and epizoology of the native fauna of the Great Salt Lake Desert: Annual report of the res- ident director and staff. Ec-ol. and Epizool. Ser., No. 41, Ecol. Research, Univ. Utah. Woodbury, A. M. 1954. Ecology of dis- ease transmission in native animals: Semi- annual report, 1 June to 30 November. Ecol. Research, Univ. Utah. yr ^„'"'''^Vo'if°S,^^'''/Q^is,f ^. . &v-jv, AMVONnOa 3ilS lS3i \M S'^/^' ^/j^^J Brigham Young University Science Bulletin MUS. COMP. ZOOU. LIBRARY [APR 2 1 1976 u^Ntv^^^R^'s^Tv ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF THE PLANTS OF MESA VERDE, COLORADO by Stanley L Welsh and James A. Erdman Biological Series — Vol. IV, No. 2 April, 1964 Brigham Young Universify Science Bulletin ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF THE PLANTS OF MESA VERDE, COLORADO by Stanley L. Welsh and James A. Erdman Biological Series — Vol. IV, No. 2 April, 1964 A'orking toward / of Colorado, flora of Mesa i of the whole rry on theh- re- y work resulted is a part of the al Park Service National Geo- ; indebted for a lis study. ■y Archaeologist ,1cal Project )Ution No. 40 Errata sfieet for Mesa Verde Plant List p. 6: 2iid coliiinn, sptxics 10, line 3; argenta read argentea p. 7: 2nd column, species 5, WGRS 2274, Host Lupinus sp. read W GRS 2276 Arnelanchier-utahensis p. 7: 2nd column, species 14; WE 2.534 read WE 2524 p. 10: 2nd coliunn, Berberideacae read Berberidaceae p. 10: 2nd column, species 5; Ascelepias read Asclepia.s p. 11: 1st column, species 3; Cnjthantha read Cnjptantha p. 13: 1st column, species 5; Agoseris aurantiaica read Agroseris aurantiaca p. 14: 1st column, species 4; brachtjphlla read brachtjphtjlla p. 14: 2nd column, species 1; Drawf rabbit brush read Dwarf rabbit brush p. 16: 2nd column, species 8; Verbena read Verbesina p. 17: 1st column, species 4; Arbis read Arabis p. 21: 1st column, species 7; distant read distans p. 21: 2nd column, species 4; Ellisia ntjceteki read Ellisia nijctelea p. 23: 2nd column, species 5; Medicaga read Medicago p. 24: 2nd column, species 3; Mentbelia read Mentzelia p. 2.5: 2nd column, species 2; giganteus read gigantea p. 27: 1st column, species 2; hirstissima read liirstttL^sima p. 28: 1st column, species 1; Sn 171 read SN 1713 p. 28: 2nd column, species 7; Comnmndra read Comandra p. 30 2nd colunm, species 6; Cymptcrus read Ci/moplenis p. .30: 1st column, species 5; thapus read thapsiis FOREWORD The extended scientific program of the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project is devel- oping many bodies of information, well worthy of publication, which do not lie in the main- stream of its own effort. This checklist of the plants of Mesa Verde, Colorado, is one of them. Dr. Welsh, associate professor of botany at Brigham Young University, has worked with the project since 1961 as its botanical taxonomist. During this period he has identified many thousands of plant fragments from our exca- vations. Mr. Erdman, the project's plant ecolo- gist, has been with us since 1959 doing several ecological studies and carrying the responsi- bility for an environmental measurement pro- gram. He is a graduate student working toward the doctorate at the University of Colorado. Both men needed to know the flora of Mesa Verde National Park and indeed of the whole Mesa Verde area in order to carry on their re- search. Their field and laboratory work resulted in this valuable contribution. The Wetherill Mesa Project is a part of the research program of the National Park Service locally financed in part by the National Geo- graphic Society, to which we are indebted for a major share of the support for this study. Douglas Osborne, Supervisory Archaeologist Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project Contribution No. 4 of the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project, and Contribution No. 40 of the Brigham Young University Herbarium. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 5 ANNOTATED CHECKLIST 6 NONVASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS Fungi 6 Lichens 8 Mosses 8 VASCUL.\R CRYPTOGAMS — Ferns and allies 9 PHANEROGAMS GYMNOSPERMAE — Conifers and allies 9 ANGIOSPERMAE — Flowering plants 10 REFERENCES : 31 CHECKLIST OF PLANTS OF MESA VERDE, COLORADO INTRODUCTION Mesa Verde is part of the pinyon-juniper climax region that extends through parts of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and California, and into northern Mexico. Situ- ated in the southwestern corner of Colorado, its 200 square miles encompass the 80-square-mile Mesa Verde National Park, widely known for its prehistoric Indian cliff dwellings. The plateau rises nearly 2,000 feet from the surrounding valleys to its highest elevation at the North Rim, 8,575 feet, and slopes gently southward to about 6,500 feet at the southern end, where the Mancos River cuts it off from Johnson Mesa, some 4 miles short of the New Mexico state line. The 18-mile-long plateau is laced through- out with nimierous parallel canyons, which gen- erally run north-south. Thus Mesa Verde has many narrow, peninsular-like mesas rather than the one large "green table" that its name would suggest. As might be expected the variations of slope, altitude, and soils support a vegetative cover that is far from unifonn. Wliile dominated by the pinyon pine and Utah jumper, Mesa Verde harbors small stands of Douglas-fir along tlie higher, nortli-facing slopes of the North Rim and in some of the more moist and protected canyon sites. A shrub zone of Gambel oak and Utah serviceberry is found along the upper reaches of the plateau. Sagebrush grows on the sandy loam terraces along the canyon floors, and also on some of the deep soils in burned- over areas and on prehistoric Indian sites. The concern of the early Indian for his im- mediate plant en\ iionment was one of necessity — there was no turning to other markets. He derived sustenance directly from it; material for his dwellings and clothing; and even a measure of solace when he likely smoked a common weed, the wild tobacco. In the archaeological work done on Weth- erill Mesa (part of the Mesa Verde National Park) from 1959 through 1963, more than SO species were recovered from the prehistoric ruins. (The most common of those recovered are indicated in the checklist by an asterisk. ) If the Indians of Mesa Verde have been vitally interested in the vegetation, so have the botanists. The area was visited by T. S. Bran- degee in 1876 with the Hayden Survey. Hazel Schmoll and Deric Nusbaum (192.5) have con- tributed to the understanding of the flora in the area, as have E. H. Bader (1928 and 1929), Mesa Verde Explorers Camp for Boys (1944), W. A. Weber (1949), and J. A. Erdman (1962). We have based our work on the collections of other authors, as well as on our own. This paper is an attempt to bring all the previous lists up to date. A few species have been removed; many others have been added. Our use of nomenclature is as current as possible, and we have used several sources to check the terminology (see list of references). In general, identifications are by the authors, though many of Erdman's collections were de- termined by W. A. Weber of the University of Colorado. Gerald Ownbey, University of Minne- sota, identified critical thistle specimens. Speci- mens of Astragalus missouricmis and A. deterior were verified by Rupert Barneby, New York Botanical Garden. Qttercus ajocnsis was deter- mined by J M. Tucker, University of California. Fungi were identified by K. H. McKnight, Brigham Young University, and W. G. Solheim, Universit)' of Wyoming. Besides the specimens attributed to him, Weber verified critical ma- terials from the Mesa Verde Park herbarium. Collectors of a few specimens in the check- list are indicated with full names. More fre- quent contributors are keyed to the list of ab- brevaations below. EHB E. H. Bader JAE J. A. Erdman MVEC Mesa Verde Explorers Camp N D. Nusbaum PRF P. R. Franke S H. Schmoll SLW S. L. Welsh SN H. Schmoll and D. Nusbaum WAW W. A. Weber ^VE S. L. Welsh and J. A. Erdman WEM S. L. Welsh, J. A. Erdman, and G. Moore WGRS W. G. and R. Solheim WW S. L. and S. L. Welsh 6 BrtlGHAM YOVNG UNIVERSITY SCIENCE Bl'LLETIN Tlu' collections of Bader, Franke, Mesa Verde Explorers Camp, Nusbaiim, Schmoll, and Solheim are in the hernariuin of the Mesa Verde Park; Erdman's and Weber's are in the her- baria of the University of Colorado Museum; specimens collected by Welsh, at al., are in the Brigham Young University herbarium. We wish to express our appreciation to Dr. Douglas Osborne, supervisory archaeologist of the Wetherill Mesa Archaeological Project, for his support and encouragement. Our thanks also go to Chester A. Thomas, Mesa \'erde Park su- perintendent, and Mrs. Jean Pinkley, the park's chief archaeologist, for their cooperation. ANNOTATED CHECKLIST NONVASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS Fungi, Lichens and Mosses This section of the checklist concerns plants uliich ha\e not been investigated thoroughh' and must be considered tentative. Fungi Agrocybe dura ( Bolt, ex Fr. ) Sing. Mushroom Wetherill Mesa, Bobcat Canyon, WE 2557. Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Annillaria alhoaiuiripes Atkinson Bobcat Canyon, WE 2547. Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Astractis Iitjf^iometricu.s (Pers.) Morgan Star puffball Wetherill Mesa, Rock Springs, JAE F-118U. A star puffball with a reticulated endopcri- dium, occurring on dry slopes. Occasional throughout the pinyon-juniper forest. Boletus brevipes (Peck) O. Kuntze Bobcat Canyon, WE 255L Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Calvatia sp. Puffball Navajo Canyon, North Rim, SLW 1757. A large puffball in excess of five inches in di- ameter. Summer Clitocybe sp. Mushroom Little Moccasin Mesa, WE 2536. Pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Clitocybe sp. Bobcat Canyon, WE 2553. Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Clitoajbe sp. Bobcat Canyon, WE 2554. Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Coprinus comatus (Fr. ) S. F. Gray Shaggy mane inky cap Wetherill Project Laboratory, JAE s.n. Pin- yon-juniper forest. Late summer. Coprinus viicaceiis Fr. Moccasin Mesa, JAE s.n. Oak thicket. Late summer. Cortinarius sp. Little Moccasin Mesa, WE 2-537. Pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Ciepidotus herbarum Peck Bracket fungus Bobcat Canyon, WE 256L Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Crucibidum lecis (DC.) Kambly & Lee Bird's nest fungus Bobcat Canyon, WE 2.566. Small drainage in Pinyon-juniper forest. Late summer. Cyathis striatus Pers. Bobcat Canyon, WE 2562. Small drainage in pinvon-junipcr forest. Late summer. Disciscda subtcrranea (Peck) Coker & Couch Bobcat Canyon, WE 2566a. Small drainage in pinyon-juniper forest. Late summer. Enjs-iphe cichoracearum DC. Powder)' mildew Chapin Mesa, main campground WGRS 2291. Host, Gutierrezia sarothrae. Fnbraco maculata (Lev.) Atkinson Chapin Mesa, Far Vicu Group, WGRS 2282. Host, Amclanchicr utafwnsis. Fomes ellisianus Anderson Bracket fungus Mancos Canyon, WEM 2166a. Host, Shcp- herdki argenta. Fuligo intermedia Macbr. Slime mold Chapin Mesa, Headquarters, WE 2444. Duff in pinyon-juniper forest. Late summer. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 2, April 1964 Fuligo megaspora Sturgis Chapin Mesa, Headquarters, WE 2445. Duff in pinyon-juniper forest. Late summer. Geastrum fenestiiatum (Pers.) Fich. Star puffball Bobcat Canyon, WE 2558a. Duff in pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Geastrum mammosus Fr. Wetherill Mesa, Long House, JAE F-11812. The common star puffball in the pinyon- juniper forest. Geastrum sp. (near G. arenarius Lloyd) Bobcat Canyon, WE 2558b. Duff in pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Gymnosporangium speciosum Peck Spnice Tree Canyon, WGRS 2267. Host, Fendlcra rupicola. Hadotrichum lupini Ell. & Ev. Far View Group, WGRS 2274. Host, Lupi- nus sp. Hijgrophorus albiflavus Hesler & Smith Mushroom Little Moccasin Mesa, WE 2.535. Pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Hijgrophorus conicus ( Fr. ) Fr. Bobcat Canyon, WE 2550. Oak thicket un- der ponderosa pines. Late summer. Hygrophoius sp. Bobcat Canyon, WE 2548. Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Inoajhe fastigiata Bres. Bobcat Canyon, WE 2549. Oak thicket un- der ponderosa pines. Late summer. Inocijbe umbrina Bres.? Little Moccasin Mesa, WE 2538. Pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Inoctjbe sp. Little Moccasin Mesa, WE 2.538. Pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Lactarius deliciosus (Fr.) S. F. Gray Chapin Mesa, Headquarters, WEM 2114. Pinyon-juniper forest. Summer. Leocarpus fragilis Rost. Slime mold Bobcat Canyon, WE 2564. Attached to pon- derosa pine cone, needles, and to an oak leaf. Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Lepiota clypeolaria (Fr.) Quelet Mushroom Little Moccasin Mesa, WE 2539. Pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Lepiota sp. Little Moccasin Mesa, WE 2540. Pinyon- juniper forest. Late summer. Leucopaxillus albissimus (Peck) Singer. .Moccasin Mesa, JAE s. n. Oak thicket. Late summer Lycoperdon umbrinum Pers. Puffball Bobcat Canyon, WE 2559, 2560. Oak thicket under ponderosa pines. Late summer. Microsphaera alni (Wallr.) Salm. Powdery mildew Spruce Tree Canyon, WGRS 2263. Host, Quercus gambelii. PhyUactinia corylea (Pers.) Karst. Far \'iew Group, WGRS 2274. Host. Luphms sp. Phyllosticta jcrax Ell. & Ev. Far View Group, WGRS 2274. Host. Lupinus sp. Phyllosticta soIi5, 389, WEM 2196. The common blue-flowered penstemon of the North Rim shrub zone. Summer. Penstemon strictu^ ssp. stiictiformis (Rydb.) Keck Soda Canyon Tipoff, MVEC 47; ruin No. 16 draw, JAE 69; Long House, JAE 180; Pine Canyon, JAE 369; Chapin Mesa, Headquar- ters, WW 1546. The common blue-flowered penstemon in the mesa-top pinyon-juniper forest. Spring-summer. Verbascum thapus L. Mullein Chapin Mesa, Headciuarters, WEM 2095. Disturbed sites and waste places; introduced from the Old World. Summer. Veronica mwgallis-aqucitica L. Chapin Mesa, Headcjuarters, WEM 2103. Moist places, locally c-ommon. Summer. SoLANACEAE — Potato Family Lycittni pallidum Miers Tomatilla Far View Group, SN 1677, SLW 1857; Nava- jo Canyon, JAE 219, SLW 1750. Rare; occur- ring on floodplain in Navajo Canyon and on trash slopes of prehistoric sites. Spring-siun- mer. 'Nicotiana attenuata Torr. ex S. Wats. Wild tobacco Chapin Mesa, ruins road, J.AE 2.33, SLW 1847. A weed in waste places; known only from the location cited. Summer-autumn. Solanuni jamesii Torr. Wild potato Confluence of Spnice and Navajo Canvons, WAW .5627. Rare. SoUinum trijlorum Nutt. Nightshade Morfield canyon, EHB 208; Far View Group, SLW 1854. A plant of disturbed soils; rare. Summer. Tamaricaceae — Tamarix Family Tamarix pentamlra Pallas Salt cedar Soda Canyon Tipoff, MVEC 24; Rock Can- yon, JAE 105. Restric-ted to intermittant stream channels in canyons, and to springs and seeps. .\n Old World adventive (Chris- tensen, 1962). Summer-autumn. Tvphaceae — Cattail Familv "Tijpha latijolia L. Cattail Chapin Mesa, Headquarters, WAW 5227; Rock Canyon, JAE 175, WE 1619. Restricted to seeps and springs throughout the Mesa Verde. Summer. UMBELLiF£aiAE — Carrot Family Aletes macilougalii Coult. & Rose Long House, JAE 2; Rock Canyon, ruin No. 12, JAE 195. Common; slopes of side can- yons. Summer. Cijmpterus bulbosus A. Nels Lower Soda Canyon, EHB 48; Wetherill Mesa, North Rim, J.\E 194; Chapin Mesa, JAE 250; Park Point, JAE 251; Jackson Butte, west escarpment, JAE 277. Occasional in suc- cessional mesa-top stands. One of the earliest plants to flower in the spring. Ci/moptcrus purpurascens (A. Gray) M. E. Jones Rock Canyon, ruin No. 12, JAE 205. Canyon slopes. Spring. Cijmoptents ptirpureus S. Wats. Chapin Mesa, south rim, JAE 320. Rare. Spring. Lir(ier Hhasmatoptera, Superfamily Phasmatoidea, Family Phasmatidae 118 Subfamily Pachymorphinae 119 Ptiwhdcillus hcsperus Hebard 119 Subfamily Heteronemiinae 119 Pseudoscrmijle stramineus (Scudder) 119 Sulx)rder DiL-tyoptera 121 Superf;miilv Mantodea, Family Manteidae 121 Subfamily Amelinae 121 IMuncutria minor (Scudder) 122 Subfamily Manteinae 122 StagmonuinILt californicus Rehn and Hebard 123 Superfamily Blattodea, Family Polyphagidae 124 Arenivaga crratica Rehn 125 Arenivaga apacha (Saussure) 126 EremobUitta subdiaphuna ( Scudder ) 126 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 127 LITERATURE CITED 128 APPENDICES I. Depositories of Specimens Collected in This Study 130 II. Notes on Collecting and Preserving Orthoptera 130 III. Glossan^ 131 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Plate I. Morphology of a typical acridid, Trimerutropis pallidipennis pallidipennis 19 Figure 1. Trimerotropis pallidipennis pallidipennis, female, caudal appendage 21 2. T. pallidipennis pallidipennis, female, pronotum, lateral view 21 3. T. pallidipennis pallidipennis, female, pro.\imal abdomen showing auditory appartus, lateral view 21 4. T. pallidipennis pallidipennis, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view 21 5. Capnohotes fuliginosus, female, distal femur and proximal tibia, showing auditory apparatus, lateral view 21 6. C. fuliginosus, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view 21 7. Trimerotropis pallidipennis pallidipennis, female, head, facial view showing insertion of antennae 22 8. Tridactylus apicalis, male, head, facial view, showing insertion of antennae 22 9. T. apicalis, male, cephalic appendage 22 10. Paratettix rnexicanus, female, distal tibia and tarsus of mesothoracic appendage, lateral view 23 11. P. rnexicanus, female, pronotum ;md tegmen, lateral view 23 12. Trimerotropis pallidipennis pallidipennis, female, distal segment of caudal tarsus showing claws and aroliiun 23 13. Morsea califomica piute, female, head and pronotum, lateral view 23 14. M. calif ornica piute, female, head, facial view 23 15. Tanaocerus koebelei hoebelei, female, head, facial view 23 16. Morsea califomica piute, female, antenna, lateral view 25 17. M. califomica piute, male, cercus, lateral view 25 18. M. califomica piute, male, apex of abdomen, dorso-caudal view 25 19. Tytthottjle inaculatu, male, distal Ubia and pro.ximal tarsu.s of caudal appendage, lateral view 31 20. Dracotettix plutonius, female, distal tibia and proximal tarsus of caudal appendage, lateral view 31 21. Melanoplus complanatipes canonicus, female, prostemal spine, cephalic view 31 22. Dracotettix plutonius, female, head and pronotum, lateral view 32 23. Tytthotyle maculata, female, head and pronotum, lateral view 32 24. Hesperotettix viridis nevadensis, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view 36 25. Melanoplus complanatipes canonicus, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view 36 26. Aeoloplides tenuipennis, male, caudal femur, lateral view 36 27. A. minor, male, caudal femur, lateral view 36 28. Hesperotettix viridis termius, male, head, pronotum, and tegmina, dorso-lateral view 41 29. H. viridis viridis, male, head, pronotum, and tegmina, dorso-lateral view 41 30. //. viridis nevadensis, male, head, pronotum, and tegmina, dorso-lateral view 41 31. Melanoplus aridus, male, head, pronotum, and tegmina, dorso-lateral view 44 32. M. aridus, male, apex of abdomen, dorso-lateral view 44 33. M. complanatipes canonicus, male, apex of abdomen, dorso-lateral view 44 34. Amphitornus coloradus ornatus, male, head and pronotum, lateral view 49 35. A. coloradus ornatus, male, head and pronotum, dorsal view 49 36. Psoloessa delicatula delicatula, male, head and pronotum, lateral view 49 37. P. delicatula delicatula, male, head and pronotum, dorsal view 49 38. Eremiacris pallida, male, head and pronotum, dorsal view 49 Figurt- Page 39. Booti'tlix imnclatu.t. inali-. hi-al and proiiotum, lateral view 49 40. Cimlilliirris occipilalis ciiurea, male, liead and proiiotum, dorsal view 49 41. Ligiirotcltix coijuilletti cantator, male, dLstal tibia and tarsu.s of caudal appendage showing internal apical spines, lateral view 49 42. Ageneotettix deorum deorum. male, head and pronotum, dorso-lateral view 49 43. Ligurotcttix coquitletti cantiilor, male, head, pronotum, and tegmen, lateral view 49 44. CiiioUicris paniccps tiridus, male, head and pronotum, dorsal view 50 45. /Xnconiu integra, male, head and pronotum, dorsal view 50 46 Arphui compersa, male, mctaslenium and proximal abdominal stemites, ventral view 50 47. A. conspcTsa, male, pronotum, lateral view 50 48. Trimerotropis pallidipennis pallidipennis, male, metastemum and proximal abdominal stemites, ventral view 50 49. Xanthippws coraltipes corullipes, male, pronotum, lateral view 50 50. Leprux glaucipennii, male, pronotum, lateral view 50 51. Xanthijiini.s corullipes corullipes. male, pronotum. dorsal view 50 52. Lcprus gLiucipennis, male, pronotum, dorsal view 50 53. Mestohregmu inipexum, male, pronotum, lateral view 50 54. Derotmema delicutulum, male, pronotum, lateral view 50 55. Trimerotropis pullidipennit pullidipennis, female, pronotum, lateral view 50 56. T. strenua. male, pronotum, lateral view 50 57. Derotnwma delicutulum, male, pronotum, dorsal view 50 58. Trimerotropis bilohata, male, pronotum, lateral view 67 59. T. strenuu, male, pronotum, lateral view 67 60. Anoplodusa urizonensis, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view 82 61. Acheta aisimilis, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view 82 62. A. ussiniilis, female, head, pronotum, tegmina, dorso-lateral view 82 63. Anoplodusa arizonenxui, male, cephalic tibia showing auditory apparatus, lateral view 82 64. Captwbotes fuliginosu-i, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view 82 65. Itisara elegans nuicuUitu, female allotype, tegmen and wing 83 66. Arethuea brevicauda, male, tegmen and wing 83 67. A. brevicauda, male, modification of first abdominal tergite, cephalo-lateral view 83 68. Insara elegans maculata, female allotype, pronotum, dorso-lateral view 83 69. /. coiilleae, male, pronotum, lateral view 83 70. /. covilleue, male, pronotum and proximal tegmina showing striilulating mtxhanism, dorsal view 83 71. 7. eleguns maculata, female allotype, apex of abdomen and ovipositor, lateral view 84 72. /. elegans maculata, male holotype, pronotum and proximal tegmina showing stridulating mechanism, dorsal view 84 73. I. elegans maculata, male holotype, apex of abdomen, dorso-lateral view 84 74. /. covilleae, female, apex of abdomen and ovipositor, lateral view 85 75. /. covilleae, male, apex of abdomen, dorso-lateral view 85 76. Arethaea brevicauda, male, pronotum and proximal tegmina showing stridulating mechanism, dorsal view.. 86 77. Ateloplus luteus, male, pronotum and tegmina, dorsal view 87 78. Capnobotes fuligirwsus, male, prostenuim showing spines, cephalo-ventral view 87 79. C. fuliginosus, female, caudal femur, lateral view 87 80. C. fuliginosus, male, apex of abdomen, dorso-lateral view 87 81. Stenopelmatus fuscus, male, head, facial view 91 82. Ceuthophilus fossor, female, head, facial view 91 8.3. C. fossor, female, cephalic coxa showing spine 91 84. Pristoceutltophilus pucificus, male, apex of abdomen, dor.so-lateral view 94 8.5. /'. pacificus, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 94 8fi. P. pacificus. male, distal segment of caudal tarsus showing claws and sen.sory setae 94 87. Ceuthophilus lamellipes, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 94 88. C. tu'vadensis, male holotype, subgenital plate, caudal view 95 89. C fiissor, male, subgenital plate, caudal view 95 90. C. fossor, male, cephalic margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 95 91. C. heburdi. male, cephahc margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 95 92. C. lamellipes. male, cephalic margin of caudal femur. Literal view 95 Figure Page 93. C. lamellipcs, female, distal end of cephalic margin of caudal femur, lateral view 95 94. C. deserticola, male holotype, caudal tarsus, lateral view 95 95. C. deserticola, male holotype, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view 95 96. C. deserticola, male holotype, subgenital plate, caudal view 95 97. C. hebardi, male, caudal tarsus, lateral view 95 98. C. hebardi, male, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view 95 99. C. hebardi, male, subgenital plate, caudal view 95 100. Acheta assimilis, female, caudal tibia and tarsus, lateral view 112 101. Cycloptilum comprehendens fortior, male, caudal tibia and tarsus, lateral view 112 102. Myrmecophila manni, male, caudal appendage, lateral view 112 103. OEcanthus califoniicus calif amicus , male, caudal appendage, lateral view 112 104. OE. c. californicus, male, detail of caudal tibia, lateral view 112 105. OE. c. californicus, male, proximal antennal segments, cephalic view 115 106. OE. tiigricornis quadripunctatus, male, proximal antennal segments, cephaUc view 115 107. Arenivaga erraticu, female, caudal femui showing distal spine, lateral view 124 108. A. erratica, male, concealed genital structures 125 109. A. apacha, male, concealed genital structures 125 110. Ceuthophilus nevadensis, male parat\pe, epiphallus 98 111. C. nevadensis, female allotvpe, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 98 112. C. nevadensis, female paratype, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 98 113. C. nevadensis, male holotype, apex of abdomen, lateral view 98 114. C. nevadensis, male holotvpe, subgenital plate, caudal view 98 115. C nevadensis, male holotype, distal epiproct 98 116. C. nevadensis, male holotype, abdominal tergites, dorsal view 98 1 17. C. nevadensis, male holotype, cephaUc margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 98 118. C. nevadensis, male paratype, cephaFic margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 98 119. C. nevadensis, male holotype, caudal femur, lateral view 98 120. C. nevadensis, male holotype, caudal tarsus, lateral view 98 121. C. deserticola, male paratype, epiphallus 102 122. C. deserticola, female allotype, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 102 123. C. deserticola, male holotype, apex of abdomen, lateral view 102 124. C. deserticola, male holotvpe, subgenital plate, caudal view .102 125. C deserticola, male holotype, epiproct 102 126. C. deserticola, male holotype, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view 102 127. C. deserticola, male holotype, cephalic margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 102 128. C. deserticola, male holotype, caudal femur, lateral view 102 129. C. deserticola, male holotype, caudal tarsus, lateral view 102 130. C. hebardi, male, epiphallus 104 131. C. hebardi, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 104 132. C. hebardi, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view 104 133. C. hebardi. male, subgenital plate, caudal view 104 134. C. hebardi, male, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view 104 135. C. hebardi, male, cephalic margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 104 136. C. hebardi, male, caudal femur, lateral view 104 137. C. hebardi, male, caudal tarsus, lateral view 104 138. C. fossor, male, epiphallus 106 139. C. fossor, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 106 140. C. fossor, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 106 141. C. fossor, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view 106 141. C fossor, male, subgenital plate, caudal view 106 143. C. fossor, male, epiproct 106 144. C. fossor, male, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view 106 145. C. fossor, male, cephahc margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 106 146. C. fossor, male, caudal femur, lateral view 106 147. C. fossor, male, caudal tarsus, lateral view 106 148. C. lamellipes, male, epiphallus 108 149. C. lamellipcs, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view 108 Figure Page 150. C. lamfllipes, mail-, apex i)( alxlomrii. latiTal vww 108 151. C. knwUipes, male, suhgeiiital plate, caudal view 108 152. C. lamellipcs, male, cliMal alHlominal tergites, dorsal view 108 153. C. Uimcllipcs. male, cephalic margin of cephalic femur, lateral view 108 154. C. lamellipcs, male, caudal appi-ndage, lateral view 108 155. PrLstoccutliophilitx pucificus, male, epiphailu.s 11 1 156. P. pacifictis. female, di.stal valves of ovipo.sitor, lateral view Ill 157. P. iMcificus, male, apex of alKlomcii, lateral view Ill 158. P. pucificus, male, subgeiiital plate, caudal view ill 1.59. P. /JO(i/ic-ii,v, male, di.stal ahdominal tergites, dorsal view Ill 160. /'. pacifictis, male, caud.il Icuiiir. Literal view Ill LIST OK DIAC:iUMS AM) lABLES Page Diagram 1. Tvpical quadrate .showing position of can traps 7 Table 1. Sea.sonal distribution of the Orthoptera characteristics of the SaLmla hai)itat (Study IF) 7 2. Seasonal distrii)ution of the Orthoptera characteristic of the Grayia-Lijcium habitat (Studies IB, IG, 4A, 5E) 8 3. Seasonal distribution of the Orthoptera characteristic of the Larrea-Franseria habitat (Studies 5A, 5CQ) 9 4. Seasonal distribution of the Orthoptera characteristic of the Atriplcx-Kochia habitat (Study 6A) 10 5. Seasonal distribution of the Ortlioptera characteristic of the Culcogyne haliitat ( Stuches lOD, TA ) 11 6. Seasonal distribution of the Orthoptera characteristic of the piiiyon-juniper habitat (Studies 12A, 12E) .. 12 7. SeiLsonal distriI)ution of the Orthoptera characteristic of Cane Springs (Study CM) 13 8. Seasonal ihstribution of the Orthoptera 16 9. Size variation of Morsea calif ornica piute 25 10. Size variation of Tanaoccnis koebelei koehelei 28 11. Size variation of Dracotetlix plutonius 32 12. Size variation of Tytthotyle maculata 34 13. Size variation of Aeoloplitlcs tenuipennis 37 14. Size variation of Aeoloplidcs minor 39 15. Size variation of Hesperotcttix liridis viridis 41 16. Size variation of Ilcsperotcttix viridis nevadensis 42 17. Size variation of Ilcsperotcttix liridis tcrmimis 44 18. Size variation of Mcltinoplus aridus 45 19. Size variation of Meltnwjtlus covipUnuitipcs canonicus 46 20. Size variation of Poecilotettix sanguineus 47 21. Size variation of Eremiacris pallida 51 22. Size variation of Bootettix punctatus 52 23. Size variation of Amphitornus coloradus orantus 54 24. Size variation of Cordillacris occipitais cinerca 55 25. Size variation of Ageneotcttix deorum deorum 56 26. Size variation of Psolocssa deliratuUi dcUccituhi 57 27. Size variation of Ligurotettix coijuilUlli innldtor 58 28. Size variation of Arphia conspcrsa 60 29. Size variation of Xanthippus coridlipes corallipes 62 30. Size variation of Lepras gluucipcnnis 63 31. Size variation of Derotmema delicatulum 64 32. Size variation of Mestohrcgnta impcxum 65 33. Size variation of Trimerotropus hilohata 67 34. Size variation of Trimerotropis fontnna 68 35. Size variation of Trimerotropis albescens 69 36. Size variation of Trimerotropis strenua 70 .37. Size variation of Triincrotro)ii\ pallidipcunis pallidipcnnis 72 Table Page 38. Seasonal distribution of Trimcrotropis pallidipcnnis pallidipennis 74 39. Size variation of Trimerotropis inconspiciia 74 40. Size variation of Trimerotropis cyaneipennis 75 41. Size variation of Trimerotropis sparsa 76 42. Size variation of Arwonia Integra 77 43. Size variation of Cibolacris parviceps aridus 78 44. Seasonal distribution of Cibolacris parviceps aridus 81 45. Size variation of Insara covilleae 83 46. Size variation of Arethaea brevicauda 86 47. Size variation of Capnobotes fuliginosus 87 48. Measurements of Capnobotes occidentalis 88 49. Size variation of Anoplodusa arizonensis 89 50. Size variation of Ateloplus luteus 90 51. Size variation of Stenopelmatus fuscus 93 52. Size variation of Ceuthophilus nevadensis 99 53. Size variation of Ceuthophilus deserticola 102 54. Seasonal distribution of Ceuthophilus deserticola 103 55. Size variation of Ceuthophilus hebardi 104 56. Size variation of Ceuthophilus fossor 105 57. Seasonal distribution of Ceuthophilus fossor 106 58. Size variation of Ceuthophilus lamellipes 107 59. Seasonal distribution of Ceuthophilus lamellipes 109 60. Size variation of Pristoceuthophius pacificus Ill 61. Size variation of Cycloptilum comprehendens fortior 113 62. Measurements of OEcanthus nigricornis quadripun 114 63. Measurements of OEcanthus nigricornis quadripunctatus 116 64. Size variation of Myrmecophila manni 117 65. Size variation of Pseudosermyle stramineus 121 66. Size variation of Litancutria minor 122 67. Measurement of Stagmomantis califomicus 123 68. Size variation of Arenivaga erratica 125 69. Measurements of Arenivaga apacha 126 70. Size variation of Eremoblatta suhdiapluina 127 LIST OF DISTRIBUTION MAPS Map Page 1. Morsea calif omica piute 26 2. Tanaocerus koebelei koebelei 26 3. Dracotettix plutonius and Tytthotyle maculata 26 4. Aeoloplides tenuipennis and A. minor 26 5. Hcspcrotcttix viridis 43 6. Melanoplus aridus and M. complanatipes canonicus 43 7. Poecilotettix sanguineus 43 8. Eremiacris pallida 43 9. Bootettix punctatus 53 10. Amphitornus coloradus ornatus 53 11. Cordillacris occipitalis cinerea 53 12. Ageneotettix deorum deorum and Psoloessa delicatula delicatula 53 13. Ligurotettix coquilletti cantator 59 14. Arphia conspersa, Xanthippus corallipes corallipes, and Leprus glaucipennis 59 15. Derotmema delicatidum and Mestobregma impexum 59 16. Trimerotropis bilobata, T. fontana, and T. albescens 59 17. T. strenua 71 18. T. pallidipennis pallidipennis 71 Map Page 19. T. mcuiuspictm, T. cyuucipciiiiis, and T. sparsa 71 20. AncoiiUi inft'gra VI 21. CiboUicris parviceps aridus 79 22. Inxara elegatts maculata and /. covillcac 79 23. Arcthaca hrevicaiida, Capnoholes ftiliginosus, and C. occidentalis 79 24. Anoplodusa arizuncnsis and Atcloplus luteus 79 15. Steiwpc'lmatiis fuscus 92 26. Ceuthophilus nevadensis, C. deserticola, and C. hebardi 92 27. C. fossor 92 28. C. Uimcllipcs 92 29. Prviloccuthophilus pacificus 110 30. Cijcloptilum comprcnhendens forlior and Acheta assimilis 110 31. OEcatilhus ailifornicus californicus and OE. nigricornis quadripunctatus 110 32. Mijrmccophiliu muiini 110 33. Pardhacillu.s Iwspcrux and Pseudosernujle strumineus 120 34. LitancutrUi minor and Stagjuonuintis californicus 120 35. Areniiuga erraticu and A. apacha 120 36. Eremobltttta xubdiuphana 120 ORTHOPTERA OF THE NEVADA TEST SITE by Andrew H. Bamum" Reseiirch Associate INTRODUCTION This study is part of a larger ecological pro- ject to comparatively analyze the native animals at the Nevada Test Site. The objectives of this study were to (1) classify the species and pro- vide taxonomic keys for their differentiation, (2) evaluate the populations, and (3) determine the seasonal and geographical distributions of native Orthoptera in areas disturbed by atomic explosions as compared to those in undisturbed areas, both contiguous and distant. The area encompassed by the Nevada Test Site and covered by this report lies principally in the southeastern part of Nye County and approximating both Clark and Lincoln counties. The overall study was begun in 1959 and continued into late 1963 with tlie periodic sam- pling of Orthoptera from some areas of the test site. The use of special sunken can traps instru- mented tlie collecting of ground-inhabiting species. These traps were establisiied in tran- sects or quadrates according to standardized techni(jues. In addition, thorough collecting was done at intervals bv field personnel. The author began organized collecting at the test site as soon as the weather pennitted in the spring of 1961. PeriocUc trips extended througii March, April, and May. Extensive col- lecting was done nearly every day tliroughout the months of June, July, and August, when these insects were most active. Periodic collect- ing was again resorted to through September, October, and November, until cold weather did not justify a return to the test site. Other collect- ing was done, as indicated, by field personnel instructed in the techni(|ues of collecting during all months of the years that the study was in progress. Primary emphasis was directed toward a complete systematic and ecological study of those ground-dwelling animals which may be selected as indicator animals because of their distribution and abundance in manv plant com- munities throughout the test site. Analysis of data was facilitated by an IBM punch card system. Field data were recorded on special fonns and were transferred to IBM punch cards. The Brigham Young University Computer Research Center analyzed tlie project results with an IBM 650 Computer. HISTORICAL REVIEW The taxonomy and distribution of the Ameri- can Orthoptera are actually well known in com- parison with other insect orders. The Orthop- tera of die Western United States, however, are still imperfectly known. The actual collecting of Nevada Orthoptera began in the early history of entomology when workers of the geological and geographical surveys entered the territory and made limited collections of the more con- spicuous species. Of primary interest to tlicse collections and the subsequent publication of the infonnation were Cyrus Thomas and Lawr- ence Bruner. Although he was never in the state, Samuel II. Scudder did more for the systematic °Di.xie College, St. George, Utah. treatment of Orthoptera than any other indi- vidual in the nineteenth century. He not only named many new species, but revised many of the recognized groups into a unifonn order. The first quarter of the present century was dominated bv James A. C. Relin and Morgan Hebard, both representing the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. On a number of occasions they entered the state and collected intensively, particularly in the southern sections, as well as collecting extensively throughout southwestern United States. Not only did they build up a large collection of Orthoptera from die south- west, which included a number of new species BiiK.iiAM V<>i\<; L'mm.iimiv ScitNc t Bulletin frlive Jorgensen, field director; D. I'"lmer Johnson and .Merlin Killpack. consultants antl specialists; (Carl Ingersoll, Mor- ris (ioates. and Ci-rald Hichards. field biologists; and espcciailv lor the long hours of collecting witii and driving lor the author, field biologists \\ illis .\. I'ackluini. Arthur .\nclerson. and .\mold OrtoiL The autlior is inrlJur indebted io Dr. .Ashlev H. (iurnev oi tlic (' . S. .National Museum for verifving and classilving certain six^cies of Or- thoptera; and Dr. .Xrthur ('. (]ole, project con- sultant and specialist, lor tiie determination of several species of ants. -Appri'ciation is extended to those other indi- V iduals who contributed in anv wav to the com- ])ictii)n of tiie |)rcsi'iit research. Ml, 1 HODS OF SITDY \\ lull the autlior began an Dii-silc iiivcsliga- The cans were' cmptictl regularly three times tioii of the Orthoptera of the Nevada Test Site per wei-k in all ari>as, and the invertebrates col- in 1961. certain (|uailrate and transect studies lecled were placed in 70V alcohol. Major sam- had alreadv been established. A reconnaissance pling areas were run continuously over a onc- of the test siti- was made to determine the most year period so that a total .seas(mal sampling ideal habitats lor Orthoptera and lo check addi- lould be achieved. .Ml the Orthoptera thus col- tional areas that might be sam|)led. Special sunken can traps ( Allred, <■! ai. 19(i.3) w ere esl.iblisheil at ri'gular intervals around the pe- ripherv of i|ua(lrales and along line transects. I'cted have beiMi submitted to the author for studv and identification. .Special berlese and host-plant studies were undertaken periodicallv and svstematicallv, but Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, Septembeh, 1964 the Orthoptera collected were of minor signifi- cance to the overall study. Several of the field biologists carried collect- ing nets and kept accurate information on the specimens captured. To effect a systematic study, the author visit- ed current study plots on every trip to the test site during die spring and autumn, and during the summer visited study plots at least twice a week, generally three times a week. Because of the many miles between some study plots this systematic collecting occupied at least half the time; the remainder of the time was spent in collecting from special areas, in between or adjacent to the study plots, and in night obser- vations and collecting. Because of the e.xtensive area, some study plots were visited only once by the author during the entire season. The collecting method most generally em- ployed, in addition to the special can traps, was use of a sweeping net on shrubbery and other vegetation, and an aerial net to capture the great majority of specimens, as most of the orthopteran inhabitants of the southwest deserts are strong fliers. A great deal of difficulty was encountered in sweeping desert plants because of their spinose nature. When these plants were sampled, an observation was first undertaken. The entire shrub or plant was carefully examined and notes taken on any orthopteran present. Periodically an entire shrub was torn apart to reveal the presence of specimens. Many insects not visible because of their concealing colora- tion and patterns were thus captured. During the hot summer months many of the desert shrubs lose their leaves. The most thor- ough, accurate, and speedy collection from these slirubs was by trampling. Each shrub was trampled systematically, spirally from the out- side to the inside. It is believed that very few orthopterans escaped when such methods were employed. An aerial net was used to captiu'e those specimens trying to escape. Many of the data recorded are sight records. If all the observed specimens had been captured there would have been insufficient time to ex- amine all the areas. No special sweeping data were maintained with reference to length of stroke, distance from the ground, speed, etc. Most species of the desert are so different that sweeping methods must be adjusted to the habits of the various forms to achieve maximum effectiveness. The height at which some species occur on vegetation is variable according to atmospheric conditions. During the hottest hours of the sum- mer day many species are found characteris- tically at the tips of branches of shrubs, others near the groimd in the shade, and some on the ground imderneath the vegetation. Very few specimens can be foimd on die ground in full sun during the hot summer hours. Desert vegetation is topically that of scat- tered plants, and it is possible to check an area in a siiort time by rapid walking between plants to observe or capture die strong flyers, and by systematic visual or mechanical examination of the plants. Night collecting was chiefly visual with flashlights or lantenis and the use of aerial nets to capture specimens. No systematic night light collecting was maintained, although some sam- pling was done with black (ultra violet) light. Baits of rolled oats and/or molasses in can traps or scattered upon the ground were tried in some areas. No special advantage could be de- termined, however, inasmuch as the cans fre- cjuently contained mice and other rodents or other predaceous animals. As a matter of fact, as evidenced by parts of bodies, many ground- dwelling specimens captured in the traps were consiuned b\- these animals, notably grasshopper mice {Om/chomys) and less frequently by shrews ( S'orc.v ) .Wherever these rodents occurred in the cans, few or no arthropods were present. Some lizards and predaceous arthropods, especially tenebrionid beetles and scorpions, were respon- sible for the destruction of large numbers of s|iecimens. Notes were made, wliere\er possible, on the songs of the xarious species, both by day and night, though this is a minor contribution of the o\'erall study because of the seemingly in- active nature of so many of the desert species and the absence from the test site of many stridulating nocturnal forms. More than 8,000 specimens, both nymphs and adults, were collected and preserved in the course of the investigation. As noted earlier, specimens collected from the can traps were placed directly into separate vials of 10% alcohol. Some of the specimens of the most common species were captured, examined, and later re- leased in the same area. Frequency and Abundance No statistical frequency and abundance (i.e., numbers of specimens per sweep) was attempted because of the general scarcity of orthopteran forms at the test site. Some visual observations on abimdance were made. It must be emphasized that the present dis- cussion is relative to the Orthoptera of the Nevada Test Site (mlv during the years when the Bmicham Vol'nc Univebsity Science Bulletin study was in progress. Tlie same six;cies or com- parative luiiiihers of s[x;ciinens may not be pres- ent in any otlier year, before or after tlu- testing program was begun. Cyclic appearance of cer- tain species must he taken into consitleration, and tlie same specii-s tliat were numerous during the recorded period may actually be less nu- merous than some otlier sjK'cies at some otlier time. Nearly all grasshoppers fluctuate in numbers from year to year. One year they may be very numerous, whereas the next year few will ap- pear. Such insects occur in small numbers for a year or two, gradually increase, and when a favorable season occurs appear in enormous numbers and may cause great damage, only to disappear again for several years. The reason for this fluctuation is apparent. While grasshoppers are capable of increasing twenty to si,\ty times in one year, their enemies and diseases are capable of increasing several hundred and up to thousands of times in one season. While the grasshoppers are scarce, their parasites have a difficult time to find the hosts, and, as a result, the majority of the parasites perish. Then, as the grasshoppers increase in numbers, the few parasites left have no trouble in finding them and thev, too, increase enor- mously. The year tlie grasshoppers are most nu- merous is often the year in which the parasites increase to such an e.xtent that jiractically no grasslio])pers or eggs are left to produce a bnxKl the following year. Hut they are not present in sufficient numbers to cope with the swarms of grasshoppers in the \ear in uhich they are most needed. The weather phu's an iiii[)(>rtant part in fluc- tuation of numbers. C-old, wet weather in tiie spring will destro\' a large number of young grassh()])pi'rs. Hot, drv weather allows all eggs to hatcli .111(1 the Noting insects to thri\e. The same hot dr\ NM'ather burns up the vegetation so that there is less tor them to iced on. nrougiit and grasshoppers often go together, especiall)' if the drought extends through sc\eral years. In some test site areas \isited regularlv a large population of robber flies, bee flies, liz- ards and otlu'r predaceous animals were present that might have accounted for the scarcit\ ot specimens. In the author's experience of colltit- ing in desert environments, the specimens wru' far too few at the Nevada Test Site while tlic sfiidv was in progress. Whenever a species was clisiDNcnd in aii\ area, as large a series as possible was colk'cted to show variations. Too manv inor|)liologists and taxonomists fail to realize the iinportaiice of a series and submit descriptions and drawings on only one specimen without recognizing \ari- ation within the groiij). .Many new sjx-cies have been describi'tl from unii|ue t\jx's. and in many instances this has resulted in a long list of con- fusing synonyms. Study of Individual Species Each species represented by a series of speci- mens was studied for variability, and notes and measurements in millimeters were made of rep- resentative specimens of both sexes. Measure- ments were made with a standard micrometer in a binocular microscope. The length of the body and tegmen on large specimens was detennined by metric callipers. The most accurate sjwcies analysis should be made upon consideration of all measurements given, rather than reiving on a single measure- ment, such as total bod\' length, as has been used in the past. .\ccordingl\', the following measure- ments were made on the series of specimens. Length of body. The measurement was made from \'ertex to tip of ovipositor of female or subgeiiital plate of male, but excluding teg- miiia and wings that extend be\()nd the tip of the abdomen. Although this is one of the stand- ard measurements made on Orthoptera it is variable and actually less valuable than some other measurements. The female that has been oN'ipositing or copulating often has the abdomen abnormalK- stretched; in some cases the abdo- men is abnormallv retracted. In the male, espe- cially in some groups such as Aeolaplulcs, the abdomen is consistently upturned, and measure- ments are unreliable. In such cases the measure- ments are gi\en to the most posterior part of the abdomen. Greatest depth of bodv. This measurement was not used consistcntiv. The greatest liod\' depth in nearl\- all s]ieci('s was mcasm-ed from the mesosteriHim to tlie iiicdian carina of the [jronotum. Length of pronotum. I lie proiiotal length was taken in most cases, although it \aried be- causi' of caudal prolongation. In some specimens the pronotum was iiotit cabK' aberrt'iit, probably due to dr\cl(ipinrnlal iiijurN or malfomiation. Cireatesl breatllli of pronotum. The greatest ])n)iiotal hreadtli (iicms in most species on the disk ol the metazona. Deptli of pronotum. The measurement is of importaiKi" to some groups with a high me- dian pnmotal carina, and to otliers with modi- fied lateral pronotal lobes. The measurement Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, Septemiseh, 1961 was from the ventral edge of the lateral lobe to the highest dorsal part, usually the median carina. Length of tegmen. The tegminal length is considerably variable in some groups. The measurement was made of the wing in resting position from the angle of the radius, media, and costal veins in the area of the pronotum to the tip of the tegmen. In some cases where the pro- notum is greatly prolonged the measurement is given as projecting beyond the pronotum. This is individually stated in the account of the species. No measurements were made on tlie total length of the wing, but in some species a measurement is given for wings projecting be- yond the tegmina. In nearly all species examined the tegmina and wings are subequal in length. Length of caudal femur. Measurements on the caudal femora have not been consistently reported, but may be important to Orthoptera systematics. This structure shows less variability than other body structures. The length was measured from the anterior development to the greatest prolongation of the genicular lobe. Greatest breadth of caudal femur. This measurement, with the length, shows the salta- torial ability of the insect. Other miscellaneous measurements were made according to the species and are included in the account of the individual species. DESCRIFnON OF THE AREA Location The Nevada Test Site is located in Nye County, Nevada, contiguous to both Lincoln and Clark counties. It is appro.xiinately 65 miles northwest of Las Vegas, Clark County, Nevada, just off U. S. Highway 95. The test site encompasses some 1000 square miles, being an area appro.xiinately 40 miles from north to south by approximately 25 miles from east to west. The present study is limited by these boundaries. Most of the collecting was restricted to areas immediately surrounding the numerous access roads within the area. Physiography The obvious features of the Nevada Test Site are the two playa lakes, Frenclunan and Yucca, and the very gradual sloping flats sur- rounding these areas. Scattered throughout and actually isolating these areas is a series of moun- tains, especially prominent to the northwest. The land is typically desert and very arid, hav- ing a total precipitation of approximately five inches per year, tliis occurring largely in July and December, with the most arid months being October and May. The soil is very poor and highly alkaline, especially around the playas where there is an associated, hazardous desert pavement, the small pebbles scattered over the surface of the earth. Immediately below the surface is a very dusty, powdery soil. These areas extend to the bajadas and the mostly bar- ren foothills and higher elevations, variously covered with pinyon and juniper. The only permanent water is restricted to few areas. Cane Springs, west of Frenchman Playa, has a small empoundcd water area of approximately two hundred scjuare feet. The water at Tippipah Spring, northwest of Yucca Playa, is restricted to the inside of a tunnel, but provides water for some animals that venture into tile shaded interior. White Rock Valley, north of Tippipah Spring, lias a tiny amount of water from one spring. In addition there are some few areas to the northwest with minute amounts of permanent water, and a few wells have been built for industrial purposes. Such an environment is not conducive to some orthop- terans, but is more typical of the habitat of the strong flying grasshoppers. VECETAriON Much of the Nevada Test Site is typical of the Lower Sonoran Life Zone. The southern part is typically Mohave Desert with its Larrea- Fratiscria vegetation. More typical Upper Sono- ran conditions are found in the northern section and around the bajadas adjacent to the northern limits of the Mohave Desert. The third faunal zone represented at the test site is the Transi- tional of higher elevations. Some higher valleys are typical of the Great Basin Desert with its associated Artemisia. Immediately surrounding the completely bar- ren Frenchman Playa of compacted silts and clays is a fringe area of Lijcium pallidum, the dominant plant, with some Gratjia spinosa, Lij- cium andeisonii, Dalea pohjadcnia, Eurotia la- nata, and other plants. This fringe area of Lijcium. is bordered by a mucli larger, very ex- tensive area of almost pure Larrca divaricata with its associated Frameria dumosa, Hijmeno- KitiniiAM VotNf: U.sivEHsi-n' Science Bulletin cU'a jusciculutti, Giuijui vpinosa. Lyciuin amler- sviUi. Ephedra iicuuiLiuiiA, and Dalca pultja- ilcniu. 'Iliu Luin-a-ir(iiij,cria vegetation is con- tiMiiuiis upon tiic bujuda;) to tlie wn.' steep and sharp lulls and ridges with their seattered grasses anil otlic-i vegetational types. Sepaiat'.iig Frenchniaii and Yucca playas is a seiies of hills and ridges \sith some growths of Coleugtjne lumoauisinui and Yucca brevifolia. Iminediatel) to tlie north of Yucca Pla>a is an association ul AtripU \ confcrtifolUi and Kochia anwricaiui, with some Eurotia laiuita and Arte- iniiiti spincsccn^, designated as Atriplex-Kuchia. The next belt of vegetation, very extensive to the north and east, less extensive to the west and represented by a small fringe to the south between the plava and the steep hills, is a belt of Graijui-Lijcium. The two dominant species, Grai/ui spinosa and Eijcitim audcrsonii, are as- sociated with some EuiutUi latuita. Atriph'x cane- scens, Orijzopsis Iti/mcnoidcs. ArtemiA-ia spine- scens, Stipa speciosii. and other plants variously scattered throughout the entire belt. Through the Gratjia-Lijciuni, at various ground zero loca- tions where atomic detonations have occurred, are extensive areas of Sulsola kali, the first plant to appear in a new succession. To the nortliwest and northeast of the Graijia- Lijciitiii belt is a well-deNciopcd conimiinitx- of Coleogijne, which is the dominant flora surround- ing Yucca Flat and extending to the various mountain ranges. The flora of the canyon ap- proaches to the higher mesas to the north and west is transitional. Oak, Qucrcus gamhclli, and bitterbnish, Pitishui () i ARETHAEA BREVICAUDA ATELOPLUS LUTEU5 BOOTETTIX PUNCTATUS - X i -" ^^^^^^1 ^^^MHIH CAPNoeOTES FULIGINOSUS CEUTH0PHILU5 DE5ERTIC0LA CEUTHOPHILUS FOSSOR X 1 1 ^1^1 1 ■ CEUTHOPHILUS LAMELLIPES CIBOLACRIS PARVICEPS ARIOUS DEROTMEMA DELICATULUM ^^^^_ ^^^H ^ ^_ - ^^^ ^M B EREMIACRIS PALLIDA EREM08LATTA SUBDIAPHANA IH5ARA COVILLCAE -^ 9 - M J^^ LtOUROTETTIX COQUILLETTI CANTATOR LITANEUTRIA MINOR ME1.4N0PLUS ARIOUS - m ^ 1 *" ^ 1 OECANTHUS CALIFORNICUS PSOLOE55A OELICATULA DELICATULA STAGMOMANTIS CALIFORNICUS X X TANAOCERUS KOEBELEI KOEBELEI TRIMEROTROPIS INCONSPICUA T. PALLIOIPENNIS PALLIDIPENNIS ^■■^■^^^ - ^ ^ ^^ ^^m ^^^^H ^^HB T STRENUA TYTTHOTYlE MACULATA X X X Table 3. Seasonal di.stribution of the Orthoptera characteristic of the Larrea-Franseria habitat (Studies 5A, 5CQ). man Playa, the average elevation of this study was only shghtly lower than studies 5A and 5CQ and was considerably more alkaline. A nearby outwash leading to Frenchman Playa was very alkaline with an abundance of Atriplex cancscens and A. confertifolia. The alkali grasshopper, Anconia Integra, was most common to this latter area. The can traps in this study were open from September 22, 1960, to September 22, 1961. Area 6. (Yucca Flat, adjacent to the north- ern edge of Yucca Playa) Study 6A was a typi- cal quadrate located in an Atriplex-Kochia habi- tat. The vegetation consisted of A. confertifolia and K. americana, with some Eurotia lanata and Artemisia spinescens. The vegetation was scat- tered, with large areas of alkali-encrusted sur- face. During most of the season the vegetation was green only in the immediate confines of the roads and along some of the lower depressions. In other areas it was very dry and brittle. The can traps in this study area were open contin- uously from September 22, 1960, to September 23, 1961. Table 4 summarizes the Orthoptera collected in this Atriplex-Kochia habitat. Area 10. (Bajada, north of Yucca Playa) This typical quadrate, known as study lOD, was situated in a Coleogijne habitat. The rolling ter- rain, drained by a sandy wash with numerous large rocks, sloped between the ridges and Yucca Flat. The study was situated near an ex- tensive area of active radiation, the debris being collected in long windrows. Whether or not any of the Orthoptera collected in the area had come in direct contact with this radiation is unknown. BiiKjiAM VouNf; Univuisitv Science Bulletin JAN FEB MAR APR MAY junJjul AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ACMfTa ASSIMILIS ACOLOfLIDCS MINOR ANCONIt INTCCRA ' ^ • tKCNIViOA CKKATICA ATCLOPLUS LurCUS C€UTHOPHILUS OeSCdTICOLA < ^^ C rOSSOK C LAMCLLIPeS DCnOTMCUA DCLICATUWM ' r::. ^^"" ^^ ^^^^ <^H^ CDCMOSLATTA SUBDIAPHANA LITAN€UTRIA MINOR TRIueROTPOPIS BILOBATA •" X X ► ^^H T PALLIOIPeNNIS PALLIDIPCNNIS T SPARSA ■■ ^^ ► ^ - ■1 - ^^1 Table 4. Seasonal distribution of the Orthoptcra characteristic of the Atriplcx-Kochiu habitat (Study 6A). No grasshopjxT migrations were observed at tlie Nevada Test Site, and direct body contact with tliis debris is (juestionable. Dates of operation of can traps were from September 22, 196(), to Septemlx-r 23, 1961, and from October 10-12, 1961. Coleogynv is a poor environment tor Ortliop- tera. Some other Ncgetation, typical of the ba- jada, was present. Table 5 summarizes the speci- mens collected in this Coleogijne environment. Area 12. (Particularly Rainier Mesa, north- west of Yucca Flat) A typical pinyon-juniper association is found on Rainier Mesa. Two com- parative studies were established. Study 12A was situated in a disturbed area near tlie detona- tion of a nuclear explosion. Most of the trees were killed olf by the physical effects of the explosion. The dominant \egetation consisted of small oaks, Qucrciis ganibelli, and bitterbrush, Purshia glandtilo.sd. The surface rocks had beiMi disturlx'd, and a series of large fissures in the ground from the rim of tlie mesa outward was evidence of the explosion. The other studv, 121'], was in an uiidisturbed piuNon-juniper area of living trees anil no rock disturbance or ground fissures. Ten cans were open in studv 12A, fifteen cans in study 121>:, from July 24-28, 1961, and frotJi August 11-19, 1961. Then, ten cans were open in each studv from Octolier 19 to Novem- ber 17, 1961, and' from April 10 12, 1962. The can traps in botli studies were estab- lished to test the effectiveness of natural cover (flat rocks) as opposed to the artificial cover (masonite boards) generally used with the cans, or no cover; and to test the effectiveness of bait as opposed to no bait. One of the best ways to capture ground-dwelling Orthoptera, particularly camel crickets, is by the use of rolled oats or molasses. (Although no molasses was used in these areas it was tested in study 5CQ in a con- trolled bait experiment. The study was carried out for all animals, especially arthropods, and the data on the Orthoptera were recorded along with the other captures. The baits were changed from time to time during the course of the ex- periment and consisted of banana oil, stale beer and brown sugar, molasses, molasses diluted with diesel fuel, rolled oats, and meat of various kinds. ) Eight of the cans were «)\cred with flat rock co\ers elevated sufficient!}' to permit anv animal to crawl under for protection; twelve of the cans were covered with the masonite boards; and five cans were left without covers. In some of the cans oatmeal was placed only in the cans, some were left without bait, and the remainder had bait scattered about the ground as well as in the can. Tlie baiting practice was abandoned after the secx>nd visit to the areas because tliere was no signiticant difference in the results and many of the arthropod in- habitants as well as the bait had been eaten by vertebrate predators. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, Septemueh, 1964 11 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC aCHETA aSSIMILIS AEOLOPLIDCS M/NOB AGENEOTETTIX DCORUM DEOHUM . X AMPHITORNUS COLORADUS ORNATUS ANOPLODUSA ARIZ0NEN5IS ARENIVAGA ERRATICA X ^B ■ ■■ CAPNOBOTES ruLIClNOSUS CEUTHOPHILUS DESERTICOLA C FOSSOR ^^^ ■ ► M X X C LAMELLIPES CIBOLACRIS PARVICEPS ARIDU5 COROILLACRIS OCCIPITALIS CINEREA 1 ^^_ ^^— ^^_ *~~ 5 ► 1 DRACOTETTIX PLUTONIUS EREMIACRIS PALLIDA EREMOBLATTA SUBDIAPHANA ( ^^ ^ ► HESPEROTETTIX VIRIOIS INSARA COVILLEAE 1. ELE6ANS MACULATUS •• ^iP • m ^^" LEPRU5 OLAUCIPENNIS LIOUROTETTIX COOUILLETTI CANTATOR LITANEUTRIA MINOR < ^ • ^^B ^^^ MELANOPLUS ARIOUS M COMPLANATIPES CANONICUS MORSEA CALIFORNICA PIUTE m ^ • - PARA8ACILLUS HESPERUS PSEUDOSCRUYLE STRAMINEA PSOLOESSA DELICATULA DELICATULA X ) t m STAOMOMANTIS CALIFORNICUS STENOPELMATIS FUSCUS TANA0CERU5 KOEBELEI KOEBELEI ► X X -^^^■■i TRIMEROTROPIS ALBESCENS T. FONTANA T. INCONSPICUA ^ ■ T PALLIOIPENNIS PALLIDIPENNtS T STRENUA TiTTHOTfLE MACULATA 1 1 '^^H • XANTHIPPUS CORALLIPES CORALLIPES ^ ^^ Table 5. Seasonal distribution of the Orthoptera characteristic of the Coleogyne habitat (Studies lOD, TA). Iiiiii:iiAM ^nrsr. UvivKusi-n- Scientk Bii.LtTiN Most of llif Ortlioptrra were colU'itcd fniiii tlic ciistiirlx-d ari'a, study 12A. This area also con- tained niort' sMfciilcnl annuals and liionnials and smalliT pc-rennials, tlius proNiding a more suitable loot! supply for some species. The n)()st numerous collections in tliese areas were of camel crickets — two species of Cetitho- pliilus and I'rusloccutliopliihis — as well as Sleiw- prlnuilux and the ant-lo\ing cricket, Myniwco- philti. All specii's, excc-pt the Stcu(>i)clmtilus. were more numerous in the disturbed area, probably because of the loosening of the rocks and the large fissures in the earth, providing places to hide during the day. One species of ('culhophihis was foinid in only two areas of the eiitir(> test site — at the timnel at Tippipah Spring and in Area 12A. The latter collections were made from the fissures which this species, primarily a cave- dweller, had likely in\aded. A great deal of time was spent during the month of August collecting in these and associ- ated areas. During Septeml>er, October, and November the studies were visited less fre- quently. In addition to the can collecting, the sweep- ing of vegetation, and the collecting of the strong fliers with aerial nets, man\ hours were spent in overturning loosened rocks in the dis- turbed stud}' as well as undisturbed rocks in both studies. Many fossorial Orthoptera were obtained in this manner. Because of the difficulty of access and the distances involved, no night collecting was done in these studies. Table ft summarizes the residts of collecting in the piiivoii-juniper area of studies 12.\ and 12E. C:ane Springs. Immediately to the west of Frenchman Playa, but separated from it by a series of hills and ridges was one of the best habi- tats for Orthoptera at the test site. Clane Springs was situated on a north slope with drainage from the higher sl()[)es to Frenchman l'la\a below. The water originated from a man-made tunnel and was empounded in a small reservoir. Natural vegetation of cat-tails, Tijphd dotnin- f^ciisis, filled much of tlie reservoir, while dcxk, Rtimcx cri.spns. and wafer-parsnip. Bcruht rntia. were in the depressions. Nearby was an associ- ation of grass, Elymii.s- cinereus, large shrubs, Atriplex (aiicscnhs, and in the small valley below a good growth of salt grass, DiMichlui stricta. The small reservoir, itself, was open at one end, but nomially contained \ariable growths of algae and a 7 0£. NIORICORNIS 0UADRIPUNCTATU5 POECILOTETTIX SANGUINEUS PSEUDOSCRMYLE STB/IM/WA X X STAGMOMANTIS CALIFORNICUS TANAOCERUS KOEBELEI K0E8ELEI TRIMEROTROPIS INCONSPICUA T. PALLIDIPENNIS P/ILLIDIPENN/S • ► • j____ ^B X 4 ^^ ^- Tabic 7. Seasonal distribution of thu Orthoplcra i haratlcristic- of Cane Springs (Study CM). No night collecting was possible in tlie Cane Springs area because it was restricted to day- time access. Jackass Approach Area. (West of Mercury and southwest of Cane Springs) The quadrate study established as JA, in a mi.xcd xegetation situation, was located along a rolling slope lead- ing to Jackass Flats. The area was considerably more rocky than previously defined studies ( ex- cept CBA at Cane Springs) and consisted of vegetation including Ltjcium (indersonii, Dalea pohfadcnui, Graijia spinosa. and some Lanea (livaricata and iain.scria diimosa. Can traps in this (juadrate were open continu- ously from March 21, 1961, to March 24, 1962, and for tlirce-dav periods in the first and third weeks of each month from April 3 to May 18, 1962. The most numerous species of Orthoptera in the area were Li^urotettix coquillctti, Tritncro- tropis incoiispirua, and T. paUidipeniiLi. At least 45 species of Orthoptera were collected in these studies of mixed vegetation, and no tabu- lar summary is made. Mercury Area. The Mercurv campsite, as such, has been listed as study MD. Few records of Orthoptera are recorded for this area, which is not conducive to day-time collecting because of the lack of vegetation due to tlie presence of extensive asphalt or gravel surfaces. Because of the numerous lights, however, it was checked often at night for Ortlioptera attracted to lights. Miscellaneous Collecting Areas In addition to the above regularly visited and collected areas, the following areas and studies were infrequently collected, or can traps were established for shorter periods of time. Area 3. (Yucca Flat, immediately north of Yucca Playa) Wfiile several transects were being used for the purpose of collecting mammals by field biologists, the author visited a number of the studies for the express purpose of collecting Orthoptera. Studies .3CG and 3CH were associat- ed with very Ught soil, and the whitish Trinier- otropw albescens was well represented in tfie areas. Some night collecting was done in Area 3. Area 12. Study 12D, known also as White- rock Spring, consisted of a small intermittent stream-bed associated with white rock ledges from which originated a small amount of water. The area appeared to be a typical habitat of the p\'gmy locust, Paratettix, but none was collect- ed. The vegetation was a rni.xed type including BiuuHAM VouNC Univkhsity Science Bulletin some Atriplcx amescetts. The soil types were an extreiiu' eontrast: from the very dark redcHsh- hrowii soils of the surroimding areas to tlie wliite ledges and the white gravels of tlu- stream beil. Stiid\' 12(;F was established in the approaeh to Kowieh N'alley at tlie jimetion of tliat road and the liainier Mesa road. Coneerted collect- ing was done on several occasions, resulting in the capture of Trimcrotropis foitlaiui and several other species. The area vvas one of sagebrush and bunch grass. Sand Dunes-Target Rock .Areas. These sand dunes on the test site are stationary type dunes in a very restricted area approaching south Rainier Mesa. The area vvas visited as frecjuently as possible during August through November. No early season collecting was done there, al- though it may have resulted in some species peculiar to that environment. The study known as EC.\ was originally a transect through the dunes. Bitterbrush, Purshia gUindulosa, is pri- marilv associated with the dunes themselves. .\lso in the area is Juniperus ostcosjwrma, a tree cholla, Opiintia sp., Atriplex canesccns. Erio- gonum fusciaikittiin, and along the flats many species of small plants. Five can traps were established in this study and maintained from .August 16 to September 23, 1961. They were placed to take advantage of tlie best possible movement of fossorial Ortho- ptera. Tlie dunes were of very light-colored sand, and the light-colored Trimcrotropus aJhcsvcns vvas abundant. Also collected in tliis area were Me.vtohregma impcxum (the only collection for the test site), Mchinophts complatuitipcs (found in direct opposition to the habitat of very heavy vegetation of Cane Springs), and Morsea calif - ornica (associated with Pttrshui). Study ECB, originally a line transect, was also known as the Target Rock area. It consisted of the same type of white sand as at the sand dunes and vvas located in a long narrow valley approach to the south end of Rainier Mesa. It was covered by a rather dense growth of sage- brush, Artemisia tridcntata, and Atriplex canc- scens on the shoulders of the graded road. Some junipers were in the area, especially along the marginal hills. Tlie area vvas not extensively col- lected, but some time was spent on sevejal oc- casions in overturning rocks in an attempt to captiu-e anv secretive orthopterans that might not otherwise be captured. No can traps were established in this ;irea. Tippipah Spring-Midvalley Areas. These areas, situated at higher elevations, were col- lected extensivelv on the few occasions they were visited. Due to the inaccessible nature of the areas, however, they were only visited several times during the course of the study. .\ ([uadrate vvas established in Midvalley, sludv T.\, following the patterns already out- lined, but the can traps were closed except for a few davs during each month. On several occas- ions while thev were opi-n, however, extensive collecting was done both with sweeping and aerial nets, and resulted in the discovery of an apparent isolated community of Dracotettix plutonius associated with Artemisia tridentata, which is dominant in the valley. The results of collecting are summarized in Table 5 with Coleogyne, as the sagebrush here is considered a subclimax to Coleogijne. Study TCB, originally set up as a transect through the bottom of one of the small driiiii- age canyons from the higher elevations to Yucca Flat, was another of the inaccessible areas visit- ed only a few times. The vegetation in the bot- tom of the small rock-covered canyon was pre- dominently Purshia glandulosa, vvitli some Atri- plex canesccns, Eriogonttm fasciculatum, and (^ucrciis gambclli. The ortliopteran Morsea lali- fornica was common on Piushiii and Lepras glattcipennis was found along the steeper slopes. A new subspecies of Insara elegans was also collected on Purshia. Study TE, known as Tippipah Spring, con- sisted of a man-made tunnel dug in the liillside. A perennial water supply was found in the pro- tected confines of the tunnel, making it cool and humid. Several species of birds, rabbits, and one snake were found in the tunnel. This was the type locality of a new species of Ceittho- philus. The onlv other place this species was found, as discussed previously, was on Rainier -Mesa associated with the cracks and fissures of the disturbed area. No otliiT ortliopteran was found in the tunnel proper, but some acridids were found in the immediate vicinity. The vegetation was primarily sagebrush. Numerous other studies were established at the test site as (luadrates or transects. A con- siderable amount ol collecting was done between the major established studies. Can traps were open in inanv areas for ten-dav pericxis during late 1961 and early 1962. These were visited in the course of the study by the author or by field personnel associated with the ecxilogy pro- jects, but are not outlined here because of the limitetl collivting reported. Further tximments on these areas will be made with the report of the individual species. Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Septemueh, 1964 ENVIRONMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE ORTHOPTERA 15 The environmental factors which determine the distribution of the Orthoptera are not clearly understood, particularly as they pertain to a restricted area such as the Nevada Test Site. This is complicated by the fact that the Ortho- ptera as a group are not restricted to a particular plant. Isely (1937) based his studies in Te.xas on the correlation of the Acrididae and the dis- tribution of soil types. Cantrall (1943), on the other hand, found that in Micliigan it was easier to correlate the distribution of the Orthoptera with vegetation. At the Nevada Test Site some of the species can be correlated with vegetation, which is necessarily determined by soil types and other physiographic features. Because of the severe environment it is more meaningful to correlate the distribution of the Orthoptera, for the most part, with the vegetation. Tables 1 through 7 have been prepared to show the seasonal relationships of tlie various specit'S of Orthoptera in the major plant habitats. The earliest and latest observed records for each species are shown. The broadest part of the line in each case represents the maximum abund- ance. It is of the same width for all species, re- gardless of their comparative abundance to other species. It is assumed that each species is as abundant during any season as the conditions of its environment will permit, and the broadest part of each line therefore represents the maxi- mum seasonal abundance and is equal to 100 per cent of the possible population density under the existing conditions. The immediate environment of the fossorial Orthoptera is incident to that of the major plant communitv. The presence of any species is necessarily dependent upon such conditions as subterranean runways and nests of rodents, fis- sures and caves, rocks, and ground debris, or, in the case of the symbiotic Mijrmecophila, the presence of an ant colony. Tliese Orthoptera, nevertheless, are included with the major plant communities if they were collected in that parti- cular plant habitat. Where there is insufficient evidence to cor- relate the relative distribution or abundance of a species, each record for that species is plotted as ".x" on the table. A complete summary of the species of Ortho- ptera collected at the test site is given in Table 8. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORTHOPTERA The classification of the Orthoptera has shown an evolution that parallels other insect groups. Interpretation of morphological char- acteristics by different individuals has resulted, in the past, in an emphasis of different entities above the rank of genus, for which there is no established priority. Many students in the Ortho- ptera have elevated lesser groupings to the rank of order, thus creating two or more orders out of what should actually be one diversified order. Numerous recent studies on detailed internal morphology, particularly the phallic complex of the male, the spermatheca and accessory or- gans of the female, as well as a re-evaluation of the external morphological characteristics has re- sulted in a more complex system of classification that actuallv simplifies an understanding to the Orthoptera. Some of the problems that have existed with reference to the relationships of cer- tain groups are cleared up. As these studies continue this classification will undoubtedly change, as it has in the past. 'Families included only as hypothetical owitij^ to th Test Site in whieli members of the family would be foil It is exceedingly difficult to present a clear analysis of any major group in a limited area. Certainly a complete revision of a group is need- ed to point out special relationships. This present study, however, is not an attempt at revision of any group. From an evaluation of data derived from similar studies others can more properly bring about the major revisions. As an aid to such a study, this tiiesis will have been worth- while. The classification as used herein is modified from Rehn and Grant ( 1961 ) to include those insects definitely found or likely to be found at the Nevada Test Site. Order Orthoptera Suborder Caelifera Superfamily AcRrooiDEA Family Tetrigidae' Family Eumastacidae Family TANAOCERroAE Family Acrididae ■ lack of extensive environmental areas at the Nevada nd. UiiK.iiAM ^'ouNG Univkhsity Sciencf Bulletin JAN FEB MAR APR {may[jun|jul |aug|sep OCT NOV DEC ACHC» ASimiLIS AtOLOPLIDCS MINOH A TCNUIKNHIS "^ M^ ^^^^^^m H ^^ ^^^ ^^■■H^- AGCNeOTCTTIX OtORUM OCOHUM ANCONIA INTEORA AMPHirORNUS C0L09A0US ORNATUi - M m ^^^^^^■^^^~- ■^^H ► ANOPLOOUSA AHIZONCNSIS ARtTHAtA BRCVICAUDA IRCNIVACA «PACHA X ^1 ^^ X X A CRRATICA ARPHIA CONSP£RSA ATCLOPLus Lureus "^ 1 ^" ^^1 M X . eOOTCTTIX PUNCTATUS CAPNoeores fuucinosus c ocaoenTALis -. - ^^Mg^^ X C£UTHOPHILUS OesePTICOLA c rossoR C HE8ARDI ™ ™ ■^ ■"- — .« '^ — ^^ ..... C LAMCLUPiS C NCVADENSIS CieOLACRIS PARVICCPS ARIDUS ^^^H 1 : I — COROILLACRIS OCCIPITALIS CINiRtA CICLOPriLUM COMPREHEWENS FORTIOR DCROTUCMA DCLICATULUM M ^^H ^MI^M>J i X X ■^^H ► DRACOTCTTIX PWTomus CRCMIACRIS PALLIDA CRCMOBLATTA SUBDIAPHANA X X M 1 X ►■ 1^^ I^^H^^I ^^^ ^^^^^^2 ^^^ ^^^p^^^ HESPCROTZTTIX VIRIDIS NCVADCNSIS H. VIRIDIS TCRUIUS H. VIRIDIS VIRIDIS (ATYPtCAL) < l^^^^v X X INSARA COVILLCAC 1. ELEGANS MACULATA LEPRUS OLAUCIPCNNIS ^^^^^ - ^1 , ■I^^M ^^^^^" ► LICUROTCTTIX COOUILLCTTI CANTATOR UTANCUTRIA MINOR UUANOPLUS ARIDUS ■ ^■^WH ► p^^ ^- , ±... _ - M^^- M COMPLANATIPCS CANONICUS uesToaRccuA impexum MORSEA CALIFORNICA PIUTE _^M ► -i X X Table 8. Seasonal distrihiition of the Orthoptera. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. .3, Septembeh. 1964 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC| MYRMECOPHtLA MANNt OEC&NTHUS CALIFORNtCUS CALIFORNICUS OC NIGRICORNIS OUADRIPUNCTATUS X X X X X X X X) X PARABiCILLUS HESPERUS POECILOTETTIX SANGUINEUS PRISTOCEUTHOPHtLUS PACIEICUS ^ X 1 •~ 1 ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^1 ^^^^^^1 ^^^ PSEUDOSERMYI-E STRAMINEA PSOLOESSA OELICATULA DEUCATULA STAGMOMANTIS CAUF0RNICU5 X X X ^1 ■■L.... STENOPELMATUS ruSCUS TANAOCERUS nOEBELEI KOESELEI TRIMEROTROPIS ALBESCENS ^^^^^^B ! ^^^^ ^^ 1 = ^ T BILOBATA T CYNEIPENNIS T INCONSPICUA 1 ^ ^ 1 ^^B ^ ^H T FONTANA T PALLIDIPENNIS PALUDIPeNNIS T SPARSA X X i ► ^ T STRENUA TYTTHOJYLE MACULATA XANTHIPPUS CORALUPES CORALLIPES ^. fl > 1^1 — ■ ^^H ^ Table 8. Continued. Superfamily Tridactyloidea Family Trbdactylidae' Suborder Ensifera Superfamily TETXicoNiomEA Family Tettigoniujae Family GRYLLACRicmAE Family Grylud.^e Suborder Phasm.-vtoptera Superfamily PHASMATomEA Family Phasmaitdae Suborder Dictyoptera Superfamily Mantodea Family Manteidae Superfamily Blattodea Family PoLYPHAcroAE- ExTERNAJL Anatomy (Plate I; Figures 1-6) The body of the Orthoptera is divided into three general regions, head, thora.x, and abdo- men, each of which beiu-s certain essential parts and appendages used in classification. (See Al- brecht, 1953, for detailed anatomy.) ■No consideration is given to those roaches wliich may be estabhshed in the buildings, such as Blattella germanica, Blatta orientalis, Periplaneta americana and others, which under normal circumstances would not become a part of the natural fauna of the area. The head is typically of an oval shape, ex- cept in certain groups in which it is variously produced. The anterior portion is called the irons, immediatch' below which and connected to it is the somewhat moveable segment, the clypeus. Along the frons and between the anten- nae is the frontal costa, variously modified ac- cording to the species and in some groups an important structure in the classification of that group. The upper surface of the head between the large compound eyes and in front of them is the vertex. This may be either horizontal or sloping forward in front of the eyes. The margins of the vertex are often well raised and sharp, and sometimes fairly broad; in the latter case they often bear regular depresions, called the foveolae of the vertex, which structures are im- portant in ta.xonomy. That portion of the dorsal surface of the head immediately in front of the interocular space is the fastigium. The part of the head behind the compound eyes is the occi- put. The lateral sides of tlie head, immediately below the occiput, and separated from the frons by a definite groove, the subocular suture, are the genae. Three simple eyes, or ocelli ( occasion- HiiiciiAM \orN(: UsivmsiTY Science Bulletin ally onlv two are prfst'nt in tlu- Ortlioptcra, and flii'v arr rart'ly not i-vidi-nt or absent), are typi- cally loiatitl, one at the niidcllc- of tlif frontal costa, a little- bi-low the base of the antennae, and t\yo paired lateral ocelli close to the upper front inari^ins of tin- coniponnd eyes. The appendages of the head are the antennae ant! the inoiithparts. The antennae are ninltiarti- culate. In some gronps they are nnich longer than the body and consist of a \ery large ninnher of small segments; in other groups a determinate number of segments, general!)' a relati\ely small number (not more than 28) of fairly large seg- ments, the length of which seldom exceeds that of the entire hotU-. Tin- shape of the antennae is usually filiform and e(|ually broad throughout, but in some species they are yariously modified, ensiform or clavate. Tlie mouth is mandibulate. The i7iandibles are usually of a grinding type. In addition to the pair of mandibles, a pair of ma.\illae with fi\e-jointed palpi, a labium with three-jointed palpi, and a labrum, which struc- ture is continuous with the clypeus, but distinct from it by definite sutures, are present. The thorax consists of three segments, the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax, each of which bears a pair of legs. The prothorax is moveable to a degree, frequently developed into a dorsal structure which covers most or all of the mesonotum and sometimes tlie metanotum, and in one family even most or all of the abdomen. The shape and details of the pronotum are of great importance in the systematics of the Ortho- ptera, especially its raised ridges or carinae and transverse furrows. The mesothorax and meta- thorax are usually not freely moveable. The lower surface of the prothorax, or the prosternum, be- tween the bases of the front legs, is more deeply sunk than that of the mesosternum and meta- sternum. In some groups of acridids this pro- sternum is provided with a raised tubercle or spine of different sliapes. It is used as a criterion for separating sufjfamilies and for classification of some species within that subfamily. Its pre- sence, however, is not restricted to one sub- family. The tvvo posterior segments of the thorax, the mesothorax and the metathorax, bear, in addition to the ventral or latero-ventral legs, the dorsal tegmina and wings, except in the ap- terous forms. In some species opposite sc.xes are alate and apterous, the female usually being the apterous sex. The true, or hind wings, attached to the metanotum, are sometimes very greatly re- duced. The front wings, or tegmina, are fixed to the mesonotum. They are relatively coriaceous (liard or leathery), not folding and scarcely or not at all transparent. In the resting position they repose and are usually overlapping and closed over the dorsum of the abdomen and the more delicate hind wings, thus protecting them. Till- hint! wings are usiialK more niembranous. transparent (sometimes brightly colored), and furnished with radiating or divergent veins. When not in use they are folded like a fan un- der the tegmina. The hind wings are the active appendages where flight is possible, the tegmina being used more for balance. On the wings and on the tegmina is a complicated system of longitudinal and transverse veins, a study of which venation is often important in the classifi- cation of a species. The limbs of the Orthoptera arc simple in structure, or variously modified, and consist of coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsus. The coxa is often provided with spines or projections meaningful to taxonomy. Tlie tibia, and fre- (juently the femur, is armed with spines (spurs, calcars, tul)erclcs, spinules, etc. ) on the sides and at the apex. The tarsus is one- to five-jointed, terminating in two claws, between wliich, in some groups, is an arolium. The proximal or first joint may also bear a plantula. The front limbs are ambulatorial, or occasionally enlarged, pincer-iike and developed for grasping prey. The middle limbs are always ambulatorial, and the liind limbs are adapted for running, jumping, or walking. The abdomen consists of several segments, connected by feebly sclerotized elastic mem- branes. Each segment is divided into upper and lower halves, called tergites and sternites, re- spectively, .'^t the lower margin of each tergite a small opening, the spiracle, is visible, while the first tergite bears a large structure, the tym- panal organ. This organ, if present, is located on the protibia of the Tettigoniidae and Gryllidae. The number of \isible segments is different in the two se.xes, while, even in the same sex, their arrangement is different on the dorsal and ven- tral side. In tlie male there are eleven tergites, the 9th and 10th being partly or wholly fused. The 11th tergite is represented by the epiproct. Laterally to the epiproct. and arising independently from the membranous areas behind the posterior mar- gin of the 10th tergite, are the cerci, developed as a single unit or multiariculate, and often im- portant in taxonomy. On the ventral surface nine sternites are visible, the 1st being fused with the metasternum, but still distinguislied from it. Tlie distal part of the 9th sternite forms the subgenital plate, an inflated structure in the male under which the Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Septemher, 1964 19 Plate I. Morphology of Trimerofropis paRidipennis pallidipennis. Fig. 1, female, lateral view; Fig. 2, female, head, facial view; Fig. 3, female, head and pronotum, dorsal view; Fig. 4. female, tegmen and wing; Fig. 5, fe- male, ape.\ of abdomen, lateral view; Fig. 6, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view. , FRONTAL SULCUS RONTAL CARINA FIG. 2 FIG. 3 ^EPIPROCT ^PARAPROCT FIG. 5 ,tPIPROCT 'PARAPROCT CERCUS FIG. 6 FIG. 4 20 Ukiuiiam Vijung Univejisitv Science Buu.in'iN copiilatory organs are concealed. The copulatory organs of the male are usually syniinetricai, very nirelv asyiniiictricai. The lOtli sternito of tlie male is not visible externally in the adult and the lltli sternite consists of the latcro-veiitral plates or paraprocts associated with the epiproct, represented by the 11th tergite. The abdomen of the male thus terminates in a more or less conical, or obtuse, genital plate. The se.xes of the Orthoptera are easily dis- tinguished. In the female there are also eleven dorsal tergites, the 11th segment forming the epiproct, as in the male. On the ventral surface, however, there are onlv eight sternitcs, the 8th being usually considerably longer than the others and called the subgenital plate. The 9th and 10th sternitcs are not visible externally and the 11th forms the paraprocts as in the male. The tip of the female abdomen is formed by the two pairs of \alves ol the ovipositor which resemble strong chitinous hooks or appendages. The shape of the ovipositer varies in different species in accordance with the conditions under which the eggs are laid, since its function is to prepare the hole in which the eggs are deposited. In the species that insert their eggs into the ground, the valves of the ovipositor are shaped like strong hooks, while in those species that lay their eggs in the stems of plants, the valves are built on the principle of a saw. Thus, different modifications of the ovipositors exist in the different groups. The genital structures of both sexes are imjK)rt ant criteria to the classification of the Ortho- ptera. Notes on Development The first nymphal instars are recognizable as Orthoptera and differ from the parents in size, in the total lack of wings, and external genitalia, and in the proportionately large head. Their metamorphosis is gradual ( paurometabolous of some authors), the growth to adults being accomplished by a series of stages or instars, during which they feed ravenously. These stages are separated bv periodic molts (ecdyses) of the chitinous exoskeleton. After ecdysis the in- sect increases rapidly in size before the body wall becomes rigid. The wings, if present in the adult, appear in the third instar as sliglit backward outgrowths of the second and third thoracic nota. These wing pads increase in size with each subsequent ecdysis. They may extend over several segments of the abdomen in the last immature instar. The instar of the nymph can generally be determined by the comparati\'e size of the wing pads. The external genitaha are present in the ulti- mate or penultimate nymphal instar. After the series of usually five ecdyses the insec-t attains the adult form and does not again shed its exoskeleton. ANNOTATED LIST OF THE ORTHOPTERA AT THE NEVADA TEST SITE Use of the Keys Keys based on only the more salient char- acters are imperfect instruments. They are only partialK' descriptive, and are for convenience only, as the\' are intended as a short-cut in identi- fication. In cases involving any doubt of identi- fication, comparisons should be made with accur- ately determined specimens. In some instances a full description of the species in question mav be checked. In the matter of descriptions the worker may run into difficulty. Early entomologists published descriptions to species that are com- pletel\' inadecjuate, if not entirely useless. These descriptions perhaps identified the species known at the time of publication, but the con- stant addition of new species to the literature has limited the use of the original description to present-day useage. It may, therefore, be neces- sary to check a complete description given by a recent author. Descriptions used in this paper are, for the most part, incomplete and may be (juite useless in some cases of mistaken identity or establishment of new records. No taxonomic work is so complete as to be absolute. The keys presented here are c-onfined to the species definitely known from the Nevada Ti'st Site and some definitely known from siu- rounding areas. Others mav e\entually be found within the confines of the test site, necessitat- ing a re\ision of the keys. Most of the structures made use of in the keys are discussed in "External Anatomy" and are further identified by separate figures. These and ailditioual structures, about which there may be some uncertainty, are illustrated in other draw- ings inserted near the keys as characters for easy reference. Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Septembek, 1964 { MdclitiLil from Utlin and Grant, h IS Ixcn omitted. ) Key to the Suborders of the Orthoptera 1961. Any rtfcrfiicc to groups not found 21 thf prest'nt study area Caudal limbs saltatorial in type, the femur great))- enlarged (Fig. 1); pronotum generally developed as a large saddle-shaped stnicture co\ering most of thora.v laterally and dorsally (Fig. 2); evident auditory organs generally present on pro.ximal abdominal segment or on cephalic tibia; tarsi always less than five-jointed 2 Caudal limbs ambulatorial or cursorial in type; pronotum compressed, flattened above and below or not markedly different from mesonotum and metanotum, never as in alternative; evident auditory organs not present; tarsi five-jointed 3 Antennae short, usually no longer than the head and pronotum combined (the chief ex- ception being the family Tanaoceridae in which the antennae are slightly less than the total body length); antennal segments less tlian thirtv' in number, filiform or sometimes flatten- ed; auditory apparatus, when evident, placed on each side of the pro.ximal abdominal ter- gite (Fig. 3); female ovipositor composed of four short valves; caudal tarsi with three seg- ments (Fig. 4) Suborder Caelifera, page 22 Antennae usually long, setaceous and with many minute segments, almost always exceeding the body in length; auditory apparatus present on cephalic tibiae (verv rarelv absent) (Fig. 5); female ovipositor usually long and and well developed, often spear- like or sword- shaped, rarely reduced in length, composed of four or si.\ valves; caudal tarsi usually with four segments (Fig. 6) Suborder Ensifera, page 81 Body very slender and elongate, of cylinderical, stick- or twig-like form; pronotum shorter than mesonotum or metanotum; tegmina and wings completely absent; cerci a single seg- ment; no styles present on the subgenital plate of the male; ovipositor of female formed of si.x short valves, not surpassing the subgenital plate; limbs ambulatorial, long, similar in type; coxae never elongate, well separated Sul^order Phasmatoptera, page 118 Body ranging from slender and elongate (in .\Ianteidae) to stock)' and robust, somewhat flattened (in Polyphagidae ) ; pronotum ovate or elongate, larger and more conspicuous FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 3 Figs. 1-6. 1. Trimcrotroph palUdipciiim palUdijwnuifi. female, caudal appendage. 2, T. p. piiUkUpennis, female, pmnotum, lattral \ic\\ . 3, T. p. pallidipcuuin, female, proximal abdomen showing auditory apparatu.s, lateral view. 4. T. p. pallidipennii, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view. 5. Capnohotcf^ fuliginosus, female, distal femur and proximal tibia, showing auditory apparatus, lateral view. 6, C. fuliginosus, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view. Hhk.ium Vounc UsiNKiiM-n- ScitNcE Bullktin than thf mesonotum or metanotnm; tegmina and wings generally present, but often rcxluced or absent; eerei innltisegmented; styles present on tlie subgenital plate of adult male; ovi- positor of female little de\elo[x;d; limbs all cursorial, or the cephalic pair strongly modi- fied and developed as efficient raptorial organs, in the latter ease with the covae greatly lengthened, median and caudal coxae closely placed, often in contact Suborder Dictyoptera, page 121 Suborder C aixifkra Key to the Superfarrulies of the Caelifera Antennae inserted mesad of the eyes (Fig. 7), and almost aiwa\s with more than twelve segments; cephalic limbs of ambulatory type; cerci c-omposed of a single segment; ovi- positor of female formed by two pairs of opposed valves; caudal tarsi with tliree segments Superfamily Acridoidea, page 22 Antennae inserted below the eyes (Fig. 8), and with from six to twelve segments; cephalic tibia of s|i(ci.ili/.cd tspc. aclaptcci lor tossorial iiabit ( Fis^. 9); eerei composed of one or two segments; ovipositor of female composed of four divergent valves; caudal tarsi with a single segment. Total length less than 10 mm. Superfamilv Tridactvloidea, page 81 FIG. 8 FIG 7 Figs. 7-9. 7, Trimerotropis pallidipennis paUidipennis, female, head, facial view showing insertion of antennae. 8. TrUlactylus iipicalix, male, head, facial view showing insertion of antennae. 8, T. apicalis, male, head facial view, sliowiiig insertion of antennae. 9, T. apicalis; male, cephalic appendage. ,. , ., , range from the 8 mm. eumastacid male, the SuiXMtaillllv .ACKIIKJIDE.V ii . . .1 xi i t- . ' • smallest s|H'cies oeeurrmg at the Nevada Test The general form of tiiese insects is largely Site, to the 50 mm. body, 100 mm. wing spread of the so-called "grasshopper" type, although the of the acridids. Some of the tropical acridids, not body ma\' be \ariousl\- de\elopecl from extremely of this area, may aehie\e a wing-spread of over elongate to siiort and flatti'ued. In size they -00 mm. Key to the Families of the Acsudoidea / Mo.lilird hoiM Urlin and Cirant. UJOP 1. Cephalic and median tarsi two-segmented (Fig. 10), caudal tarsi three-segmentetl, no aroh- um present between tlie tarsal claws; pronotmn always extended caudad. covering all of mesonotum, metanotum, and generally, most or all of abdomen (Fig. 11); prosternum de- veloped into a broad apron-like sternomentum which encircles a portion of the moutli parts; frontal costa ventrad of median ocellus always a single carinate ridge l'"ainil\' Tetrigidae, page 2,'^ All tarsi three-segmented, arolium present between tarsal claws (Fig. 12); pronotum rarely extended caudad sufficiently to cover the remainder of the thoracic nota and much of the abdomen; prostermnn not developed into a definite sternomentum 2 2. Abdominal spiracles situated in the terga; pro.xiinai abdoininal segment generally with evi- dent lateral tympanic membrane Famil\ Aerididae, page 29 Abdominal spiracles situated in the latero-dorsal membrane between the terga and sterna; proximal .ibdoniinal Icr^ilcs without rxidciit lateral t)'mpanic membrane, wingless 3 Biological Series, Vol. 4, \o. 3, September, 1964 3. Antennae short and stubby, shorter than the caudal femora in both sexes (Fig. 13); frontal costa bicarinate ventrad of the median ocellus (Fig. 14); no specialized stridulatory organ present on tlie sides of tlie abdomen in tlie male se.\ Family Eumastacidae, page 24 Antennae very long in tlie male exceeding the body length, in the female at least equalling the caudal femoral length; frontal costa, especialh in the male, unicarinate ventrad of the median ocellus (Fig. 15); specialized stridulatory organ present in the male sex laterad on the third abdominal tergite Family Tanaoceridae, page 27 Cte=^ FIG 10 FIG II FIG. 12 FIG FIG Figs. 10-15. 10, Parutcttix mexicanus, female, di.stal tibia and tarsus of mesothoraeic appendage, lateral view. 11, P. mexicanus, female, pronotum and tegmen, lateral view. 12, Trimcrotropls pcillidipcium pallidipennis, female, distal segment of eaudal tarsus showing elaws and arolium. 1.3, Mor.sea cutifornicu piutc, female, head and pronotum, Literal view. 14, .\/. c. piute, female, head, facial view. 15, Taiiaocerus koebclei koebelei, female, head, facial view. Family TETRicmAE Subfamily Tetriginae (Figures 10, 11) Members of this family are among the small- est of the Acridoidea and are commonly referred to as the pygmy or grouse locusts. They may be readily recognized by the prolonged pronotum, frequently with a very high median carina, which covers most or ail of the abdomen, often including the terminal abdominal appendages. This specialization pr<)\'ides protection for the delicate wings and replaces the tegmina which have been reduced to small oval lobes or scales. The wings are usually present and well develop- ed, the length varying with the length of the pronotum. Both long and short winged individ- uals, accordingly those with a long or short pron- otum ( macropronotal and brachypronotal of Rehn) are found in the same species. The prosternum projects forward as a chin piece, the sternomentum, encircling the caudal section of the mouthparts. The arolium between the tarsal claws is absent, which may be correlat- ed with the habit of resting on the ground in- stead of living on plants. The front and middle tarsi are two-segmented, the caudal tarsi three- segmented. The subgenital plate of the male is conical or triangular. The cerci are very small. The female may be recognized by the serrulate ovipositor with sharp diverging extremities. The Tetrigidae are found in practically all liabitable areas of the earth, even to relatively higli elevations. They occupy a variety of terres- trial habitats, but are nearly always associated with damp situations or water and are generally common along streams and other bodies of water. They feed upon algae, lichens, mosses, sprouting seeds, sedges, and other tender plants and debris. Their coloration is protective, resembling the soil background in pattern, and, altliough often varied, is never such as to make the insect con- spicuous in its habitat. Individual and local variations are obvious and overlap geographic- ally, adding to the complexity of the group. Representatives of this family have not been actually collected from the Nevada Test Site, but the area is within the range of two species. These insects could survive only in the areas within the confines of the test site where there is a perennial water source, such as at Cane Springs or Whiterock, questionably on Rainier Mesa, and perliaps could become established around some of the water tanks in the areas. Numerous attempts were made to secure these insects in the possible habitats at the test site. 24 Hlllc.IIAM ^d median dorso-proximal sclerotizetl lingui- form process. Form as a whole more robust: frontal costa broadi-r proportionately than in the same sex oi (lie a!l<'niatc category Pstjrlionuisldx Rehn .nid Ilebard Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 25 FIG. 16 FIG. 17 FIG. 18 Figs. 16-18. Morsea californica piute. 16, female, antenna, lateral view. 17, male, cercus, lateral view. 18, m.ile, apex of abdomen, dorso-caudal view. Genus Morsea Scudder 1898. Morsea Scudder, Psyche, VIII, p. 179. Morsea californica piute Rehn and Grant ( Figures 13, 14, 16-18; Table 9; Map 1 ) 1958. Morsea californica piute Rehn and Grant, Trans. Amei. Entom. Soc, LXXXIV, pp. 239- 250, figs. 18-22. Distinctive Features. Fonn slender and elongate, the males especially with deep, narrow head and very large and prominent eyes. Anten- nae witli tliirteen segments, witli a xentral spini- form tootii on the 10th. Pronotum long in relation to depth, about twice as long as deep in males; ventro-caudal angle of lateral lobes rounded, especially evident in females. Male cerci falcate, the subgenital plate with a median, dorsal, anteriorly projecting linguiform process. Caudal femora with mcdio-dorsal and dorso-lateral min- ute, spiniform processes; genicular lobes similarly armed. Tarsal claws asymmetrical. Size Variation. The series from the Nevada Test Site represents nymphs from 2.9 mm. long to adults. Size variation of adults selected at ran- dom are gi\en in Table 9. As discussed previously, the total length of the insect is probably the least accurate measure- ment because of the abnormal stretching of the abdomen of the female and the abnormal curva- ture of the abdomen of the male. Tlie above measurements of total body length of females are considerably larger than previously publish- ed measurements. There is a possibility, of course, that the Nevada Test Site specimens re- present atypical forms, intermediate between M . californica piute and M. californica califor- nica. a more western form which averages larger. The proper placement cannot be made without comparison to typical specimens of that sub- species. Coloration. This subsj^ecies as represented by the series from the test site is more vari- able in color phases than in morphological characteristics. This same variation is noticeable in a series of specimens from Utah (3 miles southwest of Shivwits Indian Reservation on U.S. Highway 91, Washington Co., I'tah, September 9, 1959, A. H. Bamum, on desert-almond, Prunus fasciculata, and cliff-rose, Cowania mexicana, and from Nevada ( Lee Canyon, Clark Co., Nev- ada, August 13, 1961, A. H. Barnum, from bitter- brush, PursJiia glandulosa. In coloration the iivmphs are light brown or tan, occasionally gray- brown, rarelv dark; the adult coloration is brownish-black, with an occasional gray-brown or tan individual. No correlation could be made with reference to habitat, se.x, or color phase, as individuals collected even from the same shrub, or from the same group of shrubs in one area Table 9. Size variation of Morsea californica piute. O « 1 e 3 1 1 hi) c c tog c CI. E male and absent in tlie female. When present tliey are alwavs at least as long as flie wings, usually duli-eolored and thickened or coriaceous. In numerous cases certain veins of the marginal or discoidal fields mav he specialized for stridu- lating purposes. Hind wings are developed ac- cording to the tegmina, from fully developed to very abbreviate, or absent, but never exceeding the tegmina in length. In some c;ises the radiate veins of the wings are thickened and rod-like, and their surfaces are specialized, along with certain veins of the anterior field and the anal complex, for stridulating purposes. The mem- branous hind wings may be briglitly colored and very attractive, especially noticeable in the species found in the southwestern deserts. The auditory organs are with few exceptions ( in some apterous s[X'cies ) on the side of the proximal tergite. The external genitalia of both sexes are basically as in the other families of the Acridoidea. The abdominal spiracles are placed ventrad in the sides of the dorsal sclerites, not in the membrane as in the Tetrigidae and Eum- astacidae. The prosternum is with or without a median spine or tubercle. When present this is usually well marked, and its form varies in dif- ferent groups. Cephalic and median limbs are short, relati\'e- ly slender, usually sul)e(jual in size and general form. The caudal femora arc much larger, sait- atorial. Stridulating organs are often located on the inner side of the caudal femora. All species in the family show the outer surface of the caudal femora with the same ts'pe of impressed striae. The caudal tibiae have their exten.sor margins armed with spaced spines for the greater part of their length, and two distal spurs ( calcaria ) are found on each side. The tarsi of all limbs are composed of three seg- ments, the proximal one (the metatarsus) with three pads or pulvilli. The tarsal claws ha\e a distinct pad or arolium between them. In recent years application of the male ami female genital structures, both external and inter- nal, have been regularK- ap]5lied to many orders of insects. These structures have been especially useful to show phvlogenv both within a group and the relationships of different groups. Tlie male organs of intromission have been especially useful in re\isions of several acridoid genera, and overall studies of the epiphallus of the superfamilv .\cridoidea have been made to es- tablish certain families and subfamilit's. The phallic structures for many species of Acrididae ha\e been described by several auth- ors, and the relationships of the subfamiUes and families of the .•\cridoitlea have been reveal- ed. As a matter of fact, the present scheme of Orthoptera phylogeny is a result of these studies. The .'\cridida<' contains species which are highly variable. The large body size and environ- mental differences to which species are subjected are undoubtedly responsible for this \ariation for the most part. This is especially true of species from western North .America which may be subjected to extremes of altitudes, tempera- tures and general habitat, and also for species throughout the western hemisphere. Environmental conditions pla\- an important part in variation of external morphological char- acters, but internal characters such as the phallus should be less variable, except as may be in- cidental to external changes. These highly vari- able characters can not often be relied upon as a basis for classification. .Apparently the more bizarre a structure may be, such as a cristate median pronotal carina, the more variable it is. In a number of recent studies based on the internal genital structures of the male, on the other hand, it was found that the so-called phallic complex and especially the epiphallus of the male, and the shapes and relationships of the valves of the cingulum and the apical valves of the penis are not .subject to variation to any great degree, and when it does occur it is found in a complex species group which occurs over an extended area. There appears to be little variation in tlie genital structures of any species. Such variation may result from the different technitjues of dis- secting or treatment of the dissected structures. The degree of sclerotization of parts is obvious and especially apparent when teneral specimens are examined. The sclerotization of internal structures apparently proceeds more slowly than externally, and specimens which are apparently completely sclerotized externally show internal teneral conditions. The determination of whether or not a specimen is fully mature is problem- atical, but important, and can best be determined b\' the internal structures. Anyone who is going into a serious study of the Acrididae would benefit by a detailed study of the internal genitalia, especially of the male. As previously statcnJ, these structures are less variable than the external characters. Only the external characters are used as criteria in the following key, so it is limited in use to the im- mediate area. Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 Key to the Subfamilies of AcRiDroAE 1. External distal spine of caudal tibia present, with the appearance of three apical external spurs' (Figs. 19 and 20); median carina of pronotum ranging from virtually obsolete to strong- ly elevated; wings reduced or fully developed in both sexes Romaleinae, page 31 External distal spine of caudal tibia absent (in species at the Nevada Test Site) 2 2. Prosternum armed with some type of process, usually a spiniform tubercle (Fig. 21); wings reduced, sometimes with marked se.xual difference, or fully developed Cyrtacanthacridinae, page 35 Prosternum rarely armed with any type of process, generally relatively flat (if a flat trans- verse prosternal process is apparently present, then the species is elongate, the form being very slender and linear); wings generally well developed, rarely reduced, never apterous, often brightly colored; pronotum often with a marked well elevated median carina page Acridinae, 48 FIG. 20 FIG. 2 I FIG. 19 Fig.s. 155-21. 19, Tytthotyle maculata, male, distal tibia and pro.\imaI tarsus of caudal apix-ndage, lateral view. 20, Dracotcttix plutonius, female, distal tibia and pro.\imal tarsus of caudal appendage, lateral view. 21, Mchinoplus complanatipes canonicus, female, prosternal spine, cephalic view. Subfamily Romaleinae The common name of "lubber grasshoppers" has been inappropriately applied to the members of this subfamily, inasmuch as many of them are winged ( often with brightly colored hind wings ) and very graceful in appearance, though large. Others, suggestive of the true "lubber" condition are completely wingless or have these organs greatly reduced. Tlie family is principally tropical in distribution. The subfamily exhibits a great diversity in external appearance, and the two species found at the Nevada Test Site show little e.xternal similarity. The internal genitalia must be studied to show this true relationship. Key to the Genera of Romaleinae (Modified from Rehn and Grant, 1959b) Median carina of pronotum very high, lateral earinae well developed (Fig. 22); tegmina and wings shorter than the abdomen in both sexes; fastigium with a marked rostral development; pronotum with surface rugose, caudal margin of disk with distinct spaced nodules Dracotcttix Bruner The world-wide subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae shows the general presence of the external distal spine of the caudal tibia. The spine is absent, however, in two genera, one of which is North American. The genus Sjxiuiacris is apparently limited in distribution to extreme southern Cahfornia in the Coachella and Imperial val- leys. There is no obvious "third spine" in the genera presently under consideration, and this key character is re- liable only for this immediate area. ^The subfamily Oedipodinae is now considered a.s a part of the Acridinae. The variability of intermediate forms with respect to such external characters as the median carina of the pronotum, the lateral profile of the face, the presence or absence of stridulatory mechanism on the caudal femora, the presence or absence of an in- tercalary vein of the tegmina, can not be relied upon for the separation of these groups. Recent studies on the internal genitalia load to a synonymizing of this old subfamily Oedipodinae and an inclusion of these genera in the Acridinae. (See Rehn and Grant, 1960, for discussion of this problem.) 32 BiiiciivM ^l)l■^(; I'nivkiisitv Sciiknc k Bfi.LhrnN Mcdi.iii liiriiia ol pronotimi ohsdli-tr to siibohsolc'c. no l.itci'.il caiiiiac |>ri'si'iit on disk ( Fig. 23); iiilK winncil in liolh scvcs; raslit^iiini latlifr hroadk rounding inio tin- liontal costa; pron- olnni rclaliM'K' snioolli, tlic pro/ona ol tlii' cliA idinidcil transvcisi'h' Ti/lllioliilc Scndder FIG. 22 Figs. 22-2.3. Drill nil Ilix y.liilimiiis. Icni.i lic.id and piipiKiliini. I.ilrr.d \iiw. Iliad and pruiiotiiiii. lad FIG. 23 il \ II u 2}, ri/llluitiilc timiiilula, female, (iciiiis l)rmnliilix Hnincr 1SS9. Diiunlvllix i5iunci-. i'roc. U.S. ,\at. .\Ius., .Ml. p. 50, pi. I, Fig. 1. Dmcdiiilix philoniiis Unini'r (Fii;iires 20, 22; Tal.l.' II; M.ip 3) 1893. Diacotctlix pliitoniits Hrnncr, \oitIi .Anicr- itan Fanna, V'll, p. 267. Di.stincti\e Features. Tlicrc is nn (itlur spi'C'ii's in tlic area witli wliitli tliis could he mn- fnsod. The prodiici'd lostium (hfst scon in later- al ontlint'), the distincti\(.' pronotal crest, the broad lingnilorni proslcnial sjiinc, aTul (lie ali- bre\iafed tegniina and wings will dislingnisli tlie species. Size Variation. Tliiri' is a rein.irkable sex- ual diniorpliisni in this species, the females be- ing considerabU- larger. No coinpari.sons were made with other specimens, bnt apparently the series varies only in size from the pre\ionslv known material. The most noticeable differenci's, both in the male and the female, are in the length (il ihe tegmina ;iiid the candal femor.i. (Coloration. In color the speiies pri'si'nls an interesting contrast of darks and lights, the base olor of whitish gray oNcrlaid with a luscous to ilull black p;ittern. This pattt'rii consists of dark longitudinal tlonds on tin- head and proiiotnm and ilark distal trans\t'rse clouds on all the abdo- minal tergites with sullnsions ol darkness on the lateral abdominal tergites. The caudal Icmora ha\e two, or sometimes a third, transverse dark cloudings which are obsolete on the external lace. The tegniina are less contrasted, being gia\ -brow n. w itli (he scnation somewhat darker. Distribution. Tliis species was originally described Iroin the I'ananiint N'allev and .\rgus \I(iiiii(,(iiis ill lu\() C"oimt\', California. The dis- trihndon gi\(ii 1)\ Kehn and CIrant (1959b) is ■,i liinltcd ;irc.i ol lu\(i (]ount\', California, be- tween (lie Muiiiii(.iiiis (o the east of Owen's Lake (which is now ;i s.dine sink) and the western side ol the l'a!iarnint Range, which borders and o\erhangs Death \'allev on the west", from "ele\ations of Ironi 45()() to possiblv as high as C^!)()() Icel". The li\c sjiecimens from the Nevada T(s( .Site arc (lie onl\ specimens collected out Tal.l .Si/r N.iri.ilion of Drill nlftlix pUilotiiiis. § „ E cT, TA, April 8, 1961 (^ , MeaMiremrnIs cif Rehn and Cr.int ( I'Kil ) 9 , 'ICC. \l.it. Il 21. I'Jfil 9 , lA. April Hi. MKil 9 , 'IW. .Septenilxr I!), 1961 9 , M( .iMwiimnts of Relin and Cr.int ( H)01 ) C 1 Greatest Breadth Pronotni Dorsum i; — CQi 1 a. CQCJ 21.8 6.7 7.3 5.4 5.2 8.8 10,0 3.0 18.9-23.3 8.2-9.4 ,5.3-5.5 9.1-11.2 11.2-11.6 .37. (> \)A 10.7 7.5 7.0 10 1 13.7 3.8 ■4 1 r, 9.,S 11.7 7.5 8 1 10.9 1-1.2 3.7 3.5. 1 1(1.0 112 (.( 7.0 11.6 13.2 4.0 .3l..5-l.-> 11. .5- 1.3.2 7.5-8.8 12.3-14.2 15.4-17 0 Biological Series, Vol. 4, N*o. 3, Septemuek, 1964 of tlie Invo County area and the State of Cali- fornia. Tliis locality at the Nevada Test Site now represents tlie most eastern (and northern) dis- tributional limits known for the species. Habitats. According to Rehn and Grant (19.59b), the species occurs in the "upper part of the Lower Sonoran Life Zone, and probably enters the Upper Sonoran, although we ha\e no definite evidence except known elevations to support the assumption". The authors furtiicr state that "little information is available on the e.xact conditions where phitonius has been taken. Apparently ... it occurs above the Larrea belt and below that of juniper and pinyon. No clear- ly associated vegetational notes are available, but the localities where the species has been taken by others have been visited by the senior author, but unfortunately not at the time when Dracotcttix has been taken". Several trips were made into the area where the original discovery was made in March, and extensive collecting by the author produced only one specimen, the female collected on April 16, 1961. The preferred vegetation of the insect at the Nevada Test Site is definitelv sagebrush (Artemisia tridcntata), of what might be con- sidered the Upper Sonoran Zone. Attempts at securing this species by sweeping the brush were futile. It was also useless to try to spot the insect visually. The one specimen obtained by the author was from a shrub that had been inspectctl visually and then kicked forcefully at the base. It was found that a strong kick at the base of the shrub would be violent enough to remove the other Orthoptera, so this techni(|ue was used, finally, in securing the specimen. After being kicked out of the sagebrush it tried to recover to the bush immediately in a series of cpiiek hops, the wings being useless to the large body. The insects apparently rest on the stouter vertical brandies where they are almost perfectly con- cealed bv the patches of light and dark bark of the shrub. The feeding habits of the insect are unknown, but from an examination of the area the insect undoubtedly feeds on Aitemisia tridcn- tata. The other four specimens in the series were "accidental" discoveries, the insects hopping from the bush when disturbed. Many hours of concen- trated efforts by several collectors by visually spotting or sweeping have not produced more than the five specimens. Seasonal Occurrence. Rehn and Grant (1959b) comment as follows: "clearly a Spring form, all known material of phitonius was se- cured in April and May. Field work in the same areas hv the senior author later in the year dur- ing the period of greatest heat ( August and Sep- tember), and in three different vears, failed to produce the species." One adult female collected on September 19, 1961, extends the seasonal distribution to at least late summer. It is probably present, though never common, from early spring (the earliest spring record being March 24, 1961 ) througli late summer, or early autumn. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 5. Studies TA and TCC, Midvalley, 2 males, 3 females, from March 24 to April 16 and Sep- tember 19, all on Artemisia tridcntata. No im- mature specimens were collected. Genus Tt/ttlioti/Ie Scudder 1897. Ttjttliotijle Scudder, Canad. Entom., .WIX, p. 74. Tijttliotijlc macidata (Bruncr) (Figures 19, 23: T.ililc r2; Map 3) 1889. Thrinchtis {?)maculatus Bruner, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XII, p. 79. Distinctive Features. This large, fully w ing- ed (in both sexes) species is so distinct it should not be confused with any other acridid in the southwest. Tile body surface is rather smooth, not rugose, although a few minute tubercles are generally present on the metazona of the prono- tum. The median carina of the pronotvim is faintly evident, the lateral carinae al)sent. Three transverse sulci are evident on the pronotum, the most anterior sulcus ending on the disk and not continuous on the lobes as are the other two. The metazona is distinctly longer than the pro- zona. The tegmina and wings are long, well surpassing the apices of the caudal femora. Morphological Variation. There is consider- able morphological variation in this species, as is found in many of the large-bodied acridids. The relative length of the pronotum is especially variable, due to the angulation of the caudal margin of the disk. The surface of the pronotum, as well as the carinations and sulcations of the head, is variable. Size Variation. As noted in Table 12, vari- ation in size of body and structure is apparent. Coloration. "The general pattern seen in this species is a multi-maculate overlay of tones of brown of varying density and shade on a base which may range from chalky white through pale vellowish to a light buff, or rarely Biiif.iiAM Vi)i N<; (.'mvkiisity Scieste Bulletin TaliK- 12. .Size- varialion of TijIIIidIijU- macuUita. (;i..i.t I nmi i cf, CB, Aug. 28, 1959 cf , MCC, ,\iig. 12. 1901 (^, j.\, j.iK 18. iwn ^ , Mc.isiirimciils ol Hill 9 , .5M, Jiilv 24, 1961 9 , .5DA, Jiil) 1.5, 1961 9 , 5M, .Sept. 26, 1961 9, Mfiisiircminls of Uilm ;iikI Cniiif (1961) >. s 1 E 3 E U n £ f2 c ■EMS JJ £0U 22.1 6.1 23.8 12.6 3.0 23.5 6.7 25.6 12.8 3.3 27.1 7.0 5.3 27.1 14.2 3.3 22()-.i.i.O 5.6-8 8 4.4-6.3 23.6-34.5 12.3-17.8 .'52.8 9.5 6.6 34.8 17.6 4.5 ;i.i.7 10.5 7.5 36.6 18.3 4.6 38.9 9.5 6.8 33.4 19.1 4.4 31.0-48.5 9.4-12.4 6.1-8.3 33.9-45.7 18.7-25.6 i'\'cn i^rciMiisli while. ()ltin tlicrc is what may lie callc'il a wasli (it liiiicstoiic' hhiisli gray on tlic lifatl and proiintinn I'lic iiilrin.il surface of tlic caudal femora is in greater part carmine, the \c-ntral snieiis phmi pnrple, tlie internal face of the eand.d til>iae carmine; tlie wing.s are very faintlv marked uitli hhiisli and the apex is very HghtK infnscatc-." ( Mehn and Cirant, 1961) hi tile .series from tin- \(\ad.i Test Site the coloration is variable as (|iioted al)o\e. The teg- mina are verv maenlate, the general color \ary- ing from light to dark. The suffusion of lilnish gray on the head and pronotum is often encount- ered and especially noticeahle across the dorsal pronotum. e.vtending onto the lateral lobes. The carmine- of the caudal femora is reduced to a lesser extent in some specimens. Distribution. This species is known onl\- from the hottest and most ,iiid sections ot the southwest, inehiding sonlhe.isteni Calilornia, southern Nevad.i, western \ii/iiTi.i .uid extreme southwestern I t.ili. It is most liei|uentl\ encountered in the liiwest |)orti(ins ul the Lower Sonoran Life Zone within its range. "The species is often much localized, prob- ablv due to habitat and food preferences not yi't fuUv determined. .Mtiludinally its occurrence varies, apparentlv de|)eiiding on the general con- ditions of the terrain and |)robabl\- the tenipera- tme. Ill arc-as of ver\ high summer tc-inperature it .ippears to rc-ach higlu-r le\<'ls than it does in other s(-ctions within its range-. In .\ri/on,i ihi high(-st localit\- from which we delimteK know it is appro\imatc-I\- 16(H) fc-(-t. On the otlu-r hand ill till- desert arc-as of southern C^alifornia and \e\, 1(1.1 It le.iehes miuh higher, 17(K) to 4.S()() feel biiiii^ known ele\,itiiins while it has liec-n tak(-n at 2."> lei-t below sea-le\,l .it S.ill Mit. in Death \'allc-v, (l.difornia." (Helm .uid (;r.mt, IWil ) .\t the .Nevada Test Site it has been found in onl\' a few of the- lower areas where it is not common. Habitats, .\ccording to the authors pre- \iousl\' <|uoted ( Rehn and Grant. 1961) "the species is known to feed on tlie creosote bush ( lAirrca ) and in a large number of cases has })een taken or flushed from this dominant Lower Sonoran shrub .... The senior author, who has collected it many times in a number of localities over a period of fifty years, has found it onlv on Lurrcd (and often feeding on it) or an the ground. On the- latter it inav be found on or about la\ a fragments, or on silt and outwash slopes which have no la\a. .-Mso it will frc-(|uent areas with pel)bles and rock fragments other than la\a. occasionally these glazed with 'desert \arnish'. Sometimes it will be found crouching toad-like on top of a lump of la\a. .\s has been note-el In- either ol)se-r\ers it is a strong flier, and fnini pc-rsonal knoxvledge- it is more liable to settle on the spraws of a l.dirfci bush than on the groimel. WTien it does settle on the ground it will crouch and allow a net to pa.ss o\er it before hurtling intei the air and flying off. it has been seen in alighting to crawl between pebbles or e-ve-n throw itself sidewise into a small crevice, whe-rc- it laid motionlc-ss and was rc-aclil\ picked u|i b\ the finge-rs. On the surface it mav l)e said to lie slow and awkward in its me)\-e>ments, but on the wing it e-\hibits exceptional abilitv in eluding ,i |iursuer. .-Mso on account of the blend- ing ol its coloration in its usual habitats it is difficult to follow with the eye. Clearly Ti/itho- li/lc .ippreciates and enjovs heat. It was active in Death \'alle-v in .\ugust, 1919, wlu-n official shade tempc-ratures were in tlie ne-ighliorhood of \H) F." The h.iliitat summar\ abo\ e- clearh- indicates the obseixations iit the .mthoi. In colle-cting JiOLOGiCAL Series, \'ol. 4, Xo. 3, September, 1964 at the Nevada Test Site the species was gener- alh' found on \egetation other than Larrea, e\ en in areas where Larrea was present. In all areas, however, it was characteristic of the so-called "desert pavement", the numerous small rocks scattered about on the surface of the ground. In the recorded captures it was noted that the in- sect was found at the tips of the shrubs during the hottest part of the day and could best be obtained by capti^ire with the fingers, inasmuch as many of the shrubs upon which it was found were spiny, and sweeping would end in failure of capture. Seasonal Occurrence. Adidts have been re- corded as earlv as April 7 and as late as October 8, with immatures found late in March and into April. At the Nevada Test Site the earliest adult occurrence was June 10, with September 26 re- presenting the latest date. The greatest activitv of the species was in August. No nvmphs were collected during the course of the studv. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 9. Studv 5.\, I specimen, Jime 10, on groimd, in area of Larrea divaricata. Study 5DA, 1 specimen, Julv 15, in area of Larrea divarieata. Area 5, 2 specimens, Julv 24 and September 26, vegetation unidentified. Area 6, 1 specimen, .\ugust 15, on Coleo'^i/iie ramosissinia. Studv CB, 1 specimen, .\ugust 28, on C. raniosi'isima. Study .\1CC, 1 specimen, August 12, vegeta- tion unidentified. Studv JA, 2 specimens, July 18 and August 19, on Ltjciiun andersonii. SubfamiK Cvrt.\( anth.\cridinae The species of this subfamilv, commonly known as the "spine-breasted" locusts, mav be easilv recognized by the presence of a conical or cvlindrical elevation, termed the prosternal spine, projecting from the prosterum. The face is usuallv vertical, the head decidedly roimded. The tarsal pulvilli are exceptionallv large, a feature correlated with the characteristicallv plant-loving habitats, and a well-developed arolium is present between the tarsal claws. These insects are customarily found on vegetation, in sharp contrast to the soil-frecjuent- ing habits of most of the other acridids. Although some are decidedlv colorful, thev are generally drab, less attractiv ely colored, the coloration be- ing generally protective. This coloration is main- ly a combination of olivaceous, yellow and brown of varying shades with ornamental touches of reds or blues. As with the other groups of the Acrididae, in order to present a comprehensive picture of the subfamily, a study of the internal genital struc- tures would be required. Apart from these structures, the most reliable e.xternal features are the form of the cercus and other terminal abdominal appendages of the male. In Mekino- pliis, one of the largest of the North American genera of grasshoppers, a knowledge of these structures is absolutely essential. The females of this genus are very difficult to classify owing to the variability of external characters. The important economic species which are found in cultivated areas and on the ranges are found in this group. Most of the economic species belong to the genus Melariaphis. Many are omnivorous, others are selective in food habits, feeding primarily on dicotyledons, especi- ally the perennial members of the plant family .\steraceae. The migrations and plagues of grass- hoppers throughout history were primarily due to species belonging to this subfamilv. Because of their seeming preference for cul- tivated areas or meadows, the subfamily is poor- ly represented at the Nevada Test Site. This area is well within the distribution of a number of species that may never be found at the test site because of this preference, unless, of course, they are found in migration. This ecological factor undoubtedly explains the absence of such common species as Sehistocerea shoshone ( Thomas ) , Melanoplui inexieaints ( Saussure ) , .\/. femur-rubrum (DeCeer), A/, paekurdi Scud- der. A/, differentialis nigrieam Cockerell, M. bivittatus (Say), and A/, ijarroui (Thomas). It is possible that Ocdaleonottts borekii orien- tis Hebard may be found at higher elevations on the Nevada Test Site, but is not included in the key. It would fit the first couplet (with Mela- nophis), but is distinct from that genus by the presence of distinct lateral keels on the pro- notum. The species was described from speci- mens taken at Lee Canyon, a few miles from the Nevada Test Site. The key presented is a very artificial one, but will be (juite adequate for the few species found in this area. Anyone attempting to utilize the key should be cautioned by the variability, both as to color and as to the development of the wings of individual species. 36 Bkiciiam Vmsr. L'nivkhmtv Science Bulletin Key to the Genera of Cybtacanthacridinae 1. Siil)^t'iiital pl.itf ol malf uitli a distinct siibapical tulxTcIc (Fig. -i): body color green (or grcenisli) or h.iff, usualls with contrasting colors on pronotum or tegmina 2 Siihgeiiital plate of male without a subapical tubercle (Fig. 25); body color dark. no\er as abo\e; tegmina and wings variously developed from completely alate to reduced to small nonrniictional pads Melanuplus Stal 2. Bod\- \ariouslv marked witli coutrasting red and yellow; tegmina and wings projecting be- yond the caudal femora by at least the breadtii of the tegmina Poecilolctlix Scudder Body not marked with contrasting red and yellow; tegmina and wings variously developed from short nonfunctional pads to completely alate 3 3. Body bright green (occasionally lighter) with dorsal white stripes on pronotum and white lateral patches on thorax; tegmina bluish-green, with very narrow white stripes Hesperotettix Scudder Body uniformly colored, buff or tan, without light stripes, or if present never bright green. (There mav be a dark median dorsal stripe and postocular stripes on head and pro:iotum, but not as in alternate. ) Aeoloplkles Caudcll FIG. 24 FIG. 25 Figs. 24-2.5. 24, Hesperotettix viridis nevadensis, mile, ape.\ of abdomen, later.il \icw. 2.5, Melanoplus com- planatipes canonicus, male, ape.t of abdomen, lateral view. Genus Acoloplidcs Caudell Genus Acoloplidcs Caudell" 1915. Acoloplidcs Caudell. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.. 49, p. 2S. Ke\- to the Species of Aeoloplides (Modified from Wallace, 19.5,5.) Ventral basal wedge on hind femur of male projecting ventrad for a distance appro.\imateIy etjual to its width at base when viewed laterad (Fig. 26); tegmina e(|ualling or surpass- ing the abdomen and/or hind femora A. Iciuiipcnnis (Scudder) Ventral basal wedge on hind femur of male projecting ventrad for a distance less than its width at ba>.e when viewed laterad ( Fig. 27); tegmina not reaching the tip of abdomen and/ or hind femora, sometimes not much longer than pronotum A. minor (Bruner) FIG. 26 FIG. 27 Figs. 26-27. 26, .Aco/o/j/k/c.v Icmiipcwiis. m.ile. e.iiid.il femur, l.itcr.il view. 27. A. niiitor. ni.ilc r.iiul.il Iriiiiir, lateral view. "The name Acoloplidcs wa.s proposed by C.uidell to replace the name Acoloplus of Scudder, now con- sidered lo be a synonoym of ^^clalU)plus. See Wallace, 1955, for the historiciJ development involving the name change. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. .3, September, 1964 37 Aeoloplides fenuipennis (Scudder) (Figure 26; Table 13; Map 4) 1897. Aeolophts tenuipeiinis Scudder, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XX, p. 68. Established Synonomy. Aeoloplus arizone- nsis Scudder; Aeoloplus ociihitus Scudder. Distinctive Features. This species, supposed- ly, has tlie ventral basal wedge on the hind femora extended more than in minor, and the tegmina of both se.xes are "almost always" sur- passing the tip of the abdomen. Wallace (1955) states that the "xentral basal wedge of hind femur well developed in both sexes, in male usually projecting ventrad for a distance about twice its width at base in lateral view, in female usually projecting about two-thirds of width at base in lateral view". This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as, even in typical forms, the ventral basal wedge projects onl\' approximately equal to the basal width of the wedge. In his illustra- tions Wallace shows tliis to be about equal. Size Variation. The length and breadth of the ventral basal wedge of the caudal femur is diffi- cult to measure. Comparative measurements were made, however, using a standard grid micrometer in a stereoscope. The averages of five male specimens are as follows: length of the ventral basal wedge 0.31 mm; breadth of the \entral basal wedge 0.48 mm. The a\erages of seven female specimens are as follows: length of the \entral basal wedge 1.78 mm; breadi of the ventral basal wedge 0.42 mm. A comparison of the Nevada Test Site speci- mens was made with typical tenuipennis deter- mined by Wallace and used in his revision of the genus. The specimens compare favorably except in the most important external character, the ventral basal wedge of the caudal femur. Coloration. The predominant color of this insect is light gray with a yellowish or greenish- yellow tinge, older individuals being darker and brownish. A median dorsal brown stripe extends from the occiput of the head over the pronotum; a light sti-eak, the same as the ground color, is usually present in the center, starting as a fine line at the anterior margin of the pronotvim, or occasionallv beginning at the transverse incis- ion of the pronotum. A postocular stripe is some- times faintly indicated on the head and sides of the pronotum. Tlie tegmina are usually light olive-gray, often with small, indefinite dark inaculations. The hind femora contain three broad indefinite bands on their external surface; the hind tibiae, in specimens from the Nevada Test Site, are light mauve, this color becoming less intense dorsally and distally. Table 13. Size variation of Aeolopides tenuipennis. o n g J 3 g ►J fl ■5 C 0) a 3 1l n u cf. .5M, September 26, 1961, 2.9 9.4 6.9 2.2 cf. CM, August 22, 1961 13.3 3.4 10.5 7.5 2.5 cr> CM, August 22, 1961 13.3^' 3.6 11.9 8.3 2.6 cT. 5E, June 17, 1961 13.7 3.6 12.3 8.2 2.6 d' 5A, June 20. 1961 14.3 3.8 13.7 8.2 2.7 d' 5E, July 14 ,1961 14.6' 3.1 13.4 7.6 2.8 cT. CM, July IS, 1961 15.0' 3.4 11.8 7.5 2.7 d' Measurements of Wallace (1955) 14.0-28.0 3.4-5.6 10.4-21.5 7.6-12.0 2.5-3.7 $, CM, August 22, 1961 14.7 3.8 10.7 9.1 2.8 9, CM, August 10, 1961 15.0 3.9 10.2 8.8 2.8 ?, 5A, June 20, 1961 15.1 4.5 14.9 9.6 2.9 9. 5M, September 26, 1961 15.2 3.5 11.2 7.9 2.6 9, CM, July 13, 1961 15.5 3.9 11.7 8.2 2.9 9, CM, June 17, 1961 15.9 3.9 10.7 9.0 3.0 9. 5M, September 26, 1961 16.0 3.8 12.1 8.1 2.5 9 , , 5M, September 26, 1961 16.1 3.5 10.5 7.8 2.5 9. Measurements of Wallace (1955) 15.5-24.0 4.2-5.8 11.5-21.0 9.7-13.3 2.8-4.0 'Abdomen curved upward. Ri(ii;iiAM Vdlng L'mvkhsitv Science Bulletin The nvmphs, represented only by later in- stars from tlie Nevada Test Site, are often diffi- c lilt to tell from llcspcrotcltix t iridis nymplis, in- asiniieli as tliey are often briglit green, with or without a pronotal stripe, or more freipiently tan, whieh color phase is also loiind in nymphs of tirspnolctlix. It is <|nite iinpraetieal to try to ciistinguish the n\niplis of tctniipcimis and minor. Additional eomiiients, I'speeially as to com- parative fi-atnres and iiiori)li()logical \ariation, distrihntion, habitats, anti seasonal occurrence, are given under the discussion ol Acoloplidcs minor. Localities Represented. .Specimens examin- ed (nvmphs and adults): 3fi. Studv CM, Cane Springs, 10 nymphs, June 22 to August 22; 9 adults, June 17 ti) August 22, all on Alriplcx canc.sccii\. Stiidv IF, I nv-mi-)]!, |unc 19, on SaLsola kali. Area 5, 1 nvmph, July 1; 8 adults, June 20 to September 26, vegetation unidciitilicd, hut pro- bably on Atriplex coiifciiifolid. Studv 5K, 2 n\mphs. May 27 to June 15; 4 adults, June 17 to Jul) 14, on Atriplex conferti- folia. Area 3, 1 nxinph. .\ugust 15, on Atriplex coiifrrtifolid. Aeoloplicles minor (Bruner) ( Figure 27; Table 14; Map 4 ) 1904, Aeoloplm- minor Ikuner. Colorado Agri- cidtural K\p. Sta. Bull. 94, pp. 60-61. Established Svnononiv. Aeoloplu.i eremiO' philo llebiU'd. Ciomparative Features. Of this s[K'cies. Wal- lace (1955) states that it resembles tenuipennis ])ut is usuallv much smaller and the tegmina seldom reach the tip of the abdomen ( usually much shorter) and ;ire e\'enlv narrowed to a rounded apex. The following st;itement is made in its entirety from Wallace's revision of the genus: "The difficultv encountered in constructing that portion of the kev which separates tcniii- penni.s from minor emphasized the possibilit\' that minor is a subspecies of trniiipcnni.s. Length of tegmin.i. the Tuost obxioiis tlistinguishing char;tcter. is not \('rv s;itisfactorv for chagnosis in this genus. In most of the specimens of tentii- pcnni-t from Williams in C^oconino Co.. .Arizon;i. iuid northward the tegmin;i rciuh \'er\- slightK' short of the tip of the ;d)domen. though longer (egmina are tvi)ic;>l of the s[)ecii's. Specimens of minor from N'almes'. Ne\ada. have the tegmina slightly surpassing the tip of the abdomen in the male and nearly that long in the female. In minor the length of the tegmina is not clearly corri'lated with north-south distribution as it is in tenuipennis. Specimens of minor from Lovelock. .\i'\;ida. have the wings sufficiently deselopcd for Might, uhile those from Wads- uorth. 5.S miles to the southwest, are brachy- ptlTOUS. "The ilifference in the yentr;il l)asal wedge of the hind femur, particularly in the male, ap- pears to be dependable (except in the few avail- able specimens of tenuipennis from Coconino County, .\rizona, some of which have a femoral \\edge similar to that of minor), but it is a small difference in degree of development. The shape of the prosternal spine will separate most speci- mens of these two form.s ( including the Coconino CountX' specimens ) but it is somew hat \ ariable and cannot be used as an absolute criterion. The width of the intermetasternal space of the female presents a small difference which is not too dependable. The differences in the phallic structures of the two forms are slight and not de- pendable, though small but constant differences e.xist between all of the other species of the genus. Further collecting in the areas of contact of overlap of the ranges of these two forms may demonstr;ite the regular occurrenc-e of specimens internu'diate in all of these characters. The few specimens a\;iihd)le from these areas indicate that the txvo forms are distinct. Specimens of tenuipennis from Cima in California. Beatty in Nexada and Zion National Park in Utah are typi- cal of the species xxliile sfx>cimens from the ad- jacent localities Cuchenberry Ranch in Calif- ornia. Spring Mountain in Nex'ada and Pipe Springs in .\rizona are typical of minor. The Coconino County popidation of tenuipennis is separated from minor by the Crand Ciuixon so interbreeding cannot occur. In any case, the two forms are certainK' distinct enough to be re- tiiined ;is subsjx'cies, exen if thex' should be determined to be conspecific. "Tinkham (19.38. p. ,347) referred to 'Aeolo- plus tenuipennis tenuipennis Scudder' indicating that he recognizi'd at least two subspecies of tcmiijxnnis. llelxud, in notes in the possession ol r. II. Ilubbell. listed under Aeoloplus the form 'tenuipennis minor Bruner 1904' with the uncompleti'd comment: 'Reduced to race by . . . . ' .\ se;irch of the literature has failed to reveal th;it minor has been reduced to sub- s|ietific rank in a public;ition. Until more mater- i.d from the areas of cont;ict or oxerlap of these two tornis is studied, it seems Ix'st to retain Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Septembeh, 1464 minor as a distinct species, which, in truth, it may be." In collecting at the Nevada Test Site, and in a study of the entire collection from that area, I find it difficult to justify conclusive evidence of typical tcnuipennis. Specimens have been found with long tegmina, surpassing the abdomen bv more than their own width, a sup- posed characteristic of tenuipennis. The abdo- men as a comparative structure in size, especially in Aeoluplides males cannot be relied upon as a criterion because of the usual nature of the up- turned abdomen, and the pwssibilitv of stretch- ing the abdomen in the female. Size Variation. The averages of the ventral basal wedge of the caudal femur are as follows: three male specimens length 0.2 mm, breadth 0.4 mm; three female specimens, length 0.15 mm, breadth 0.47 mm. Coloration. The color is ver\' similar in all parts of the insect to tenuipennis except that the dark postocular stripes on the head and pronotum are sometimes well defined and of the same color as the median dorsal stripe. The dark spots on the sides of the first two or three abdo- minal segments are present in about three- fourths of the specimens (according to Wallace). Darker specimens of minor are more common than lighter specimens. Distribution. The distribution of minor is given by Wallace as being well restricted to the Great Basin to include e.xtreme southwestern Idaho, southeastern Oregon, northeastern Cali- fornia, and southeastern California across the state line from Las Vegas, Nevada, all of which are within the confines of the Great Basin. Ac- cording to Wallace's records the only specimens from outside the Great Basin are from Coconino Table 14. Size variation of Aeolopides minor. Co., .\rizona, near Pipe Springs, and Delta Co., Colorado, at Delta, the type locality! It is interesting to note that the tvpe locality is so far distant from the Great Basin confines. Specimens before me, not pre\ iously record- ed, that seem typical of minor are from VVashing- ton County, Utah (Shivwits Indian Reserva- tion, September 9, 1959, Andrew H. Barnum and one mile north of St. George, June 10, 1959, Andrew H, Barnum); Sanpete Countv, Utah (Palisade Park, August 6. 1961, Andrew H. Barnum); Grand County, Utah (Westwater, August 9, 1953, Andrew H. Barnum, and Ruby Canyon, on the Colorado River near Westsvater, August 1.3, 19.50, Andrew H. Barnum); and Mesa Countv, Colorado (Grand Junction, Julv 26, 19.5,3, and August 12, 19.56, Andrew H. Barnum). The distribution of tenuipennis, by contrast, is given bv Wallace as being south and east of minor, forming a semi-circle in distribution around that form. Habitats. At the Nevada Test Site, Aeoh- plidcs is associated with the various species of Atripk'x. No absolute correlation could be made with reference to the two species. Generallv, A. minor frequents Atriplex confertifolia. but is found with regularity on Kochia iiinericutui in the Kochia- Atriplex association. On the other hand, A. tcnuipennis is most frequently encoun- tered on Atriplex canescens. The nymphs are easily obtained bv sweeping the vegetation, but the agility of the adults makes them more difficult to collect. The adults were never common and could not be obtained in larger series. The adults are fre([uentlv encountered near the ends of the stems of the shrubs, but when disturbed jump into the center of the bush. The best method of collecting, where the insects are t rf. IG, Julv 10, 1961 11.6' 2.8 5.3 7.4 2.3 W. 6A, July 12, 1961 12.4 3.3 6.0 7.8 2.3 r^. IG, Julv 12, 1961 14.1 2.9 6.7 7.5 2.5 ri". Measurements of Walluee (1955) 11.5-17.5 3.0-4.3 5..5-7.5 7.0-9.1 2.3-2.8 9. 6A, August 14, 1961 12.7 4,2 7.1 9.4 2.9 9. 6A, August 16, 1961 14.9 3.8 6.1 8.9 2.7 9, ECB, August 11, 1961 15.4 3.6 6.8 8.3 2.7 9, Measurements of Wallace (1955) 13.5-21.0 3.3-5.0 5.3-9.0 7.5-11.0 2.3-3.5 "Abilomen curved upward. Bmk.iiam Voisc Univehsity Science BtuLETi.v so uncommon, is to tramplt- the hush. The speci- minis art- satisfactoriK' dislodgi'd, but are so wary tliat tlu'v rccovi-r to anollicr slinib nctv (jiiicklv. Tlii'N' cliaracti-risticallv jump, hut will not ht'sitati- to IK' short tlistain-cs. Seasonal Occurrence. Aeoloplides is typi- cally a mid-summer form and no dctinite cor- relation could he made between tlie occurrence of minor and Icniiipcniiis. Adult iiiiiior was found only in July and August, wheri'as tcnui- pcituwi occurred earlier and later. Localities Repesented. Specimens i\aniiii- eti (nxinplis and adults): 22. Stud\ 6A, If n\inpiis, June Hi to August Hi; .3 adults, JuK 12 to .Vugiist 16, on both Atriplrx confertifolid and Kocliiu americana. Study IG, 2 nymphs. May 28 and JnJx 19; 2 adults, July 10 and 12, on Alii})lr.\ conjcrti- folia. Study ECH, 1 adult. August 11, on Atriplrx cancscens. Additional Remarks. In a comparison of the total serii's before me there is little correlation in wing length, a very unreliable character in the Orthoptera, especially in arid areas. There is little correlation in the extension of the yentral basal wedge of the caudal femur, and no correlation in the width of the intermetasternal space of the female. Tliere is only a slight difference in date of appearance and habitat. The assignments made herein on tlie txisis of all of the aboxe cliaractcrs ma\' be faulty. The differences noted in morpholog\- ma)' l)e due to environmental differences. Study 6A, most characteristic of minor, is a very arid area of low Afriplcx confertifolid and Kochiii umcriaina. These environmental situations are suggestive of sniallness of size and sliortness of wings. According to the complete series from the Nevada Ti'st Site which liave been assigned to the two species, little reliance can be given to a single character. All of the specimens were at first considered to be minor, but on the basis of Wallace's re\isionary study, after comparison of this si'ries with specimens in the author's col- lection from I'tali and (lolorado, after compari- son to original material designated b\' Wallace in his stud\-, and after considerable hesitation, tlie present assignments are inatle. A comparison of a\ailable specimens with those from the ti-st site indicates that subspecia- tion is presi-nt in the tcntiifHiinis-minor complex, in which case Tinkham and llebard were cor- rect in their subspecifie assiginnents, inasmucli as tfnnipcnnis has prioritN'. The N't'vada Test Site is an area of inti-rgratlation. No types have been studied to confirm these opinions, however, or to test the hypothesis of minor bi'iug an absolute synonym. CJenus llcspcrolcltix Scudder 1875. Hcspcrolcttix Scudder, Bull. U.S. Ceol. Surv. Ti'rr., II, p. 262. Hcspcrolcttix viridus complex 1872. Cdloptcniis tiridi-s Thomas, U.S. Geol. Smpn. Hep. Mont. .Adj. Terr., p. 4.50. Kstablished S\nonomy. llcspcrotcttix fcstiv- iis Scudder. Distinctive Features. This group, as present at the Nevada Test Site, consists of a single vari- able species which has been sul3di\ided into a number ol different subspecies. The adults are distincti\c and should not be confused with an\- other form from the area. Nymphs, however, may be confused with Aeoloplides, as certain color phases of Aeoloplides are suggestive of Hesperotettix. Most of the specitni'us collected at the Nevada Test Site show an intermediate condition between two t\pical subspecies. Others are typi- cal of one subspecies. The Nevada Test Site is apparently an ;u-ea of intergradation where all three forms arc found. Tlie group could, con- ceivably, be discussed as a single, variable species. Subspecifie differences can not be dis- tinguished in any immature stage, and such im- mature specimens are assigned only on the basis of adult collections. The species can be recognized by the follow- ing morphological features and color pattern: In profile, the face is noticeabU' slantinJ, es])eciall\' in males. The vertex is very narrow betuei'u the eves, but expanded immediately in front of the eves. The median and lateral carinae of the pronotum are absent, or nearly so, but marked bv contrasting colors. The tegmina and wings are variously developed according to the characteristics given in the key to the subspecies. The hind femora are elongate and slender. Morphological N'ariation. In its typical eoiulitiou the species is highly v .triable in size, brilliancy and intensity of marking, which is largely if not entirely in keeping with the luxur- ious and green through light vellowish-brown to brow n color of tlii' plants on which it lives. C^oloration. .\ most striking color pattern exists. It is bright green to greenish brown (in older specimens ) marked with thin whitish or vi-Ilowish longitudinal streaks. The median car- ina is striped vv ith a whitish line which arises on Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 41 Key to the Subspecies of Hesperotettix viridis 1. Distal margin of tegmen truncate, subequal to the length of the pronotuni (Fig. 28) H. viridLs tertnius Hebard Distal margin of tegmen acutely produced, never truncate, variable in length from short to long' - - 2 2. Tegmen extending to end of caudal femiu-, or slightly beyond, its apex broadly rounded (Fig. 29) H. viridis viridis (Thomas) Tegmen generally short, subequal to the length of pronotum, often considerably longer, its apex pointed (Fig. 30) H. viridis nevadensis Morse FIG. 28 FIG. 29 FIG. 30 Figs. 28-30. 28, Hesperotettix viridis termius, male, head, pronotum, and tegmina, dorso-lateral view. 29, H. V. viridis, male, head, pronotum, and tegmina, dor^o-hileral view. 30, H. v. nevadensis, male, head, pro- notum, and tegmina, dorso-lateral view. the occiput, bordered on each side with a thinner blackish line, viuiously developed and often ab- sent, and extending to the posterior margin of the pronotum. A whitish line, sometimes indistinct, arises on the margin of the occiput against the comjxjund eye and continues along the humeral angle of the pronotum, and continues down the humeral angle of the tegmen. A third white line generally extends from the compound eyes across the lateral lobes of the pronotiim. The typical specimen is marked with black or dark brown on the lateral lobes of the pronotvim between the two light lines. The light coloration is variously developed on the thorax and caudal femora. The nymphs of the species are generally marked with the single dorsal white line. Distribution. The species is characteristic- ally a western form, common from the Great Plains to the Pacific Coast. It is recognized as subspecies or geographic varieties throughout its range. Seasonal Occurrence. Adults are found at Table 15. Size variation of Hesperotettix viridis viridis. the Nevada Test Site concurrently with nvmphs from June to September, with the greatest occiu- rence being in late July and early August. Hesperotettix viridis viridis (Thomas) ( Atypical ) (Figure 29: Table 15; Map 5) Morphological Variation. This species is not found in the typical condition at the Nevada Test Site, but is intermediate between viritlis and nevadensis. Because some specimens are more representative of viridis. the group is included herein. The intermediate viridis-nevaderisis forms collected are slightlv smaller than typical viridis and lack the pink coloration of the hind femora, which color character is tvpical of the viridis c-ondition. The black markings on the lateral lobes of the pronotum are variously developed. Distribution. Typical viridis is absent from most of the desert portions of the southwest, but is widespread, abundant, and generally distri- § 2 J a. t ^6 ^r= ^, 3CH, July 22, 1961 (small) 12.3 3.0 10.3 7.4 1.7 ^, 3CH, July 22, 1961 (large) 12.9 3.3 10.8 7.6 1.95 9 , 3CH, July 22, 1961 (smaU) 14.4 3.9 12.0 9.0 2.2 $, 3CH, July 22, 1961 (large) 16.4 3.9 13.3 9.7 2.1 "The variabihty of tegminiil length is very obvious in the group. This single character is one of the most controversiiil in the group collected at the Nevada Test Site, 42 liKII.IIAM VoL'NC UnIVKIISITV SCIENCE BULLKTIN billed over the Croat Plains and al liiglior flo\'a- fions (if the southwest. Thesi' iiitei'ine(h'ate hiiiiis were colleeted in onl\' tme ari'a at the Nevada Test .Site, and all nymphs loileetcd hen- were assigned to (Ills sanii- iiileniiediate group. It is impossiliie to distingnish any difterenees between (lie iivniplis colleeted over tlie test site, and all other nymphs have been assigned to either tcmiius or nectulcnaifi on the basis of adult collections. Loculities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adnlts): 25. Study .3CJII, July 22, on ('linisotliniiniiis li.sci- (Hflorus and Tctnuhjmia sp. Hrsj)ci(}liilix riiidi.s uctdclcitsis ,\h)rsc (iMgurcs 21, 28; Table 16; Map 5) 190.3. Ucs'pcrotellix nevailcnsis Morse, Ps\che, X, p. 115, Ivstahlished Syiumoiny. Ilehard in 1931 eslahlislicd //. <^illctlri Hruner as a synonym. //. cuilipcnnui Henderson nee Sciidder is also a synonym. Morphological Variation. Specimens from the Ne\ada Test Site which have been assigned as typical iwvadcnsis show a reduced condition of the legmina and wings. One t\pical tein;de was collected in copula with an interinetliate twvddciisi.s-tcntiiiis male. The j)resent series is indistinguishable from those marked intermedi- ate viridus-ncvadensis except for the short teg- mina and wings which are typically pointed at the apex. Distribution, .\ccording to llebard (1920a) the present race, in the state of Utah, "supplants virUlLs- ciridis wiiere aridity has become progress- i\i'ly more decided, and is in turn supplanted by the much more local and less numerous liiidi.s Icniiiw^ in the extensivi- desert areas of large Wfsteru |iortions of the state". II both races are indeed found at the Nevada Test Site the same comments with reference to numbers and distribution apply. F.(Halilies IU|)resented. Specimens exiunin- ed (n)-mplis ami adults): 19. Study 6CR. 2ailults, September 19, on Cairo- fltjni' rtiniosissiina (not a natural host, but prob- abh' an accidental occurrence). Study T.\. 13 nymphs and adnlts. June 23 to August 31, on ('liii/sotliatimus liscidiflonis. StiuK- 3("C;, 1 adult. June 27, \egetation not clctenniMrd. Stu(l\ I'.M, 2 adults. July 2-4, vegetation not (li'Icrmined, probabK Cliiysathammtfi viscidi- flonts. Study C;B.\. 1 iidult. July IS. on Clinjso- fhainniis liscidiflonis. llcspciotctlix viridis nevadensis (Atypical) Two males (measurements given below with ncvddouis) are considered intermediate be- tween nccadcmis and fennitis, in each case there being an "in between" condition of the pointed and truncate apex of the tegmina. In one speci- men a variability was noticed in each tegmen on tlie same specimen, one tegmen being t\ pi- ca! ol e.icli subsjM'cies. Ilcspciotrtli.x viridis fenniiis Hcbartl (I'igurc .30; Table 17; Map .5) 1918. Jlcsperotcllix ncvademis tennius llebard. Trans. .Amer. I'aitom. Soc., XI.IV, p. 16.3. Table 16. Size variation of llcspcrotettix viridis nevud mui. cf , 6CR, September 19, 1961 (typical) ering, extend- n S H b. b t g fl s ■3 g C 3 1l J JO- J caH JU pqU 15.1 3.5 2.4 1.2 9.0 2.4 12.4 2.7 2.15 0.8 7.8 2.3 13.6 2.8 2.1 1.0 7.7 2.1 18.7 3.5 2.4 1.2 8.2 2.6 20.2 4.0 3.2 1.3 10.2 2.7 19.3 3.8 2.9 1.4 10.0 2.8 20.0 2.6 2.2 1.2 9.9 2.65 18.2 3.5 2.0 1.05 9.0 2.4 cf, TA, August 17, 1961'" (f , 5C, September 3, 1961 cT, JA, October 15, 1961 2 , CM, September 30, 1961 $ , TCB, October 14, 1961 9 , 5M, October 3, 1961"' V , JA, October 15, 1961 9 , 5M, September 26, 1961 '"Specimens submitted to the U. S. National Museum for comparison. Bhicham Vounc Univebsity Science Bulletin ing In-yond tlie apices of the hind femora. Caudal margin of pronotiim obtiise-angulat<', MH'diaii carina distinct on the metazona, more (il)solfte on the pro/.ona. (,'erci of male slender, narrouing on basal third, the middle third nar- rower, then expanding to a nearly equal slight- ly spatnlate tip. Fnrcula of male very broad on basal third, tapering to parallel appendages, two- thirds as long as the epiproct. Morphological Variation. There is consider- able variation in the production of the tcgmina bevond the abdomen, especially the females, in the series examined from the Ne\ada Test Site. It should be re-emphasized that the use of the abdomen as an organ for comparison is ques- tionable because of the stretching or contracting of that organ. A comparison of two extremes showed the 18.3 mm long tegmina projecting 1.1 mm beyond the abdomen and the 21.0 mm long tegmina projecting 4.6 mm be\()nd the abdomen. C^oloration. Brownish fuscous, sometimes with a ferruginous tinge, more or less feebly flecked with obscure maculations. I'ostncular black streak extends to pronotal lateral lobes between transverse incisions. Mind femora in- distinctly marked by two black bands, strong dorsallv, with some red on inner face of caudal femora. Hind tibiae very pale glaucous. The nymphs are characteristicalK' colored and can be recognized easily b\' the conspicu- ously striped pronotum. The median carina is outlined with a light stripe, the lateral carinae are outlined with dark stripes which extend onto the head. Distribution. This species, described from the (Jrand C^anvon of Arizona, is common in the sagebrush areas of the Great Basin Desert. It is frequently associated uith the vegetation on and near sand dunes. Habitat. This group was known earlv in the literature as a sagebrush inhabitant. In this i'n\ironment the gray and rusty colors harmon- ize with its surroundings making it extremely difficult to detect when at rest. It was found in only two areas at the Nevada Test Site, both ha\ing a different etnirotunent. It was common, though not abundant, in the sand dune area, where it was collected only after persistence because of its remarkable ability of flight and escape. The other habitat was in the very heavy vegetation (Rumex) at Cane Springs, where it was cjuite common but difficult to collect because of its escape into the tall t-dt- tails when disturbed. LaRivers (1948) gave some details of the habits and habitats that compare favorably with obser\ations from the test site: "In addition to sagebrush I have taken it on Chrysothamnus, Oryzofysis hytnemndes, Dalea pohjadenui and several other utudentitied succulent sand dune plants. While it has a considerable distribution ill sagebrush areas, I ha\e found it in swarm- ing conditions only in the \icinit\' of sanded regions, particularly acti\e dunes. W'hen dis- turbed, coinpkinotipcs flies to on adjacent bush or plant, making it non-stop if the distance is only a matter of a few feet; if the distance is greater, the insect usually alights on the ground and almost immediately flies off again to sanctu- ary long before the collector can get within disturbing range again. At several sand dune localities, large series could be obtained by merely sweeping a net rapidly in front of the collector while walking through the insects." It might be noted that nowhere at the Nevada Test Site was the race that numerous. Tubii- 19. Size variation of Melanoplus complanatipes canonictis. SQ ti J Jl s JJ 19.6 4.0 18.5 11.4 2.9 19.9 4.5 21.0 11.7 2.9 20.5 4.2 18.3 11.1 2.8 20.9 4.1 20.7 11.5 2.8 23.4 4.8 22.1 11.9 3.0 25.7 4.9 20.7 13.1 3.0 26.3 6.1 25.2 14.6 3.6 28.0 5.8 24.0 14.3 3.7 cT, EGA, September 30, 1961 cT. CM. July 13. 1961 (f, CM, July 15, 1961 C^, CM, July 15, 1961 cf , CM, J.il'v 1.5, 1961 9 , ECA, September 30, 1961 9 , CM. July 18. 1961 9 . CM. July 18. 196! Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 Seasonal Occurrence. The earliest occur- rence of the insect was May 27 (nymphs). Adults were found from June through October 14. Nyinphal instars were found as late as Aug- ust. The insect is most abundant during August and September. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 71. Study 12CF, Kowich Valley approach, 3 specimens, August 12 and August 21, on Ar- temisia tridentata. Study EGA, sand dunes, 35 specimens from August 11 to October 14, on the various plants growing on the sand dunes. Study CM, Cane Springs, 33 specimens, from May 27 (nymph) to August 22 (late instar nymphs and adults), on Rtiinex sp. and Ttjpha domingetisis. Genus Poecilotettix Scudder 1897. Poecilotettix Scudder, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XX, pp. 385-386. Poecilotet^x sanguineus Scudder (Table 20; Map 7) 1897. Poecilottettix sanguineus Scudder, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XX, pp. 387-389. Established Synonomy. This species is also recognized as P. longipennis (Townsend) ( = Dactylotum longipennis Townsend ) . Distinctive Features. The species shows a general relationship to Mekinoplus, but can be distinguished not only by the bright colors but morphologically by the tuberculate abdomen. In this respect it resembles Hcsperolcltix, which genus has a subapical tubercle. In Poecilotettix the tubercle is apical. The prosternal spine is very slender. Coloration. This beautiful, long-winged species will not be confused with anything else on the Nevada Test Site. The general body color is yellow to olivaceous, the long tegmina pale greenish, and the posterior tibiae dark bluish green. The body is conspicuously marked with contrasting red, one median line on the head and along the median carina of the pronotum; the posterior margins of the lateral lobes of the pronotum are outlined in red. Liirge red spots are present at the humeral angles of the prono- tum, variously arranged on the head and on the femora. The metazona of the pronotum is con- spicuously punctate with black spots, especially noticeable in the females. Distribution. This species is an inhabitant of the southwest, being found in the Lower and Upper Sonoran life zones of California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. The type locality is Brad- shaw Mountain, Arizona. At the Ne\ada Test Site it was found widely distributed at lower ele\ations and was collect- ed from four areas. Habitats. In keeping with the colors of the insect, green \egetation is the characteristic habitat of the species. It was recorded from Hijmenoclea salsola, Coleogyne ramosissima, Chnjsothainnus viscidiflorus, and Ephedra viri- dis. C. ramosissima is the only non-green shrub listed. No preferred vegetation could be deter- mined because of the uncommon occurrence of the species at the test site. Seasonal Occurrence. The earliest collect- ing date for adults was June 19; the latest Sep- tember 8. No nymphs were collected. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 10. Study IG, 5 adults, June 19 and July 10, on C. viscidiflorus and E. viridis. Table 20. Size variation of Poecilotettix sanguineus. •^ 1 3 i 3 t g C o •5 g ►J bb'O C 3 ^c3 16.7 3.0 15.1 8.2 2.0 17.3 3.3 16.5 8.3 2.4 17.6 3.4 15.7 8.7 2.1 24.5 4.6 21.6 11.0 2.8 25.8 4.9 23.3 11.8 2.8 26.1 4.6 21.8 11.0 2.8 ^, JA, July 18, 1961 J-, JA, July 18, 1961 cT, IG, July 10, 1961 9 , IG, July 10, 1961 $ , 4A, August 11, 1961 9 , CM, August 3, 1961 Bhh:iiam VoLNf; University Science Bulletin Study 4A, 1 adult, August 11, on H. salsola. Study JA, Jackass approacli, 3 adults, July IS and SeptcrnlKT 8, on C. mntosissimti. Studv CM, Cane Springs, 1 adult, August 3, on //. sdlsold. Siibfamilv Acridinae This subfamily, as now recogni/od, IikIikIcs Acridinae (or Tryxalinac ), the so-called "slant- faced locusts," and the Oedipodinae, the "hand- uingi'd locusts." These two groups were until recently considered as distinct subfamilies, dis- tinguished on the basis, primarily, of the cliar- acters of the head, the face in lateral view slant- ing or sub-perpendicular, a characteristic that has alwavs lead to confusion in trying to separate the genera; the characters of tlie pronotum, the presence or absence of distinct median and later- al carinae, while reliable for most genera, fail completelv as a criterion in soiue; the intercalary \ein of the tegmen, used as a characteristic, leads to difficulties. The coloration of the wings, and all other characters have been useless in the absolute separation of some genera. The recent emphasis of the internal genital structures has proved the close relationships and has led to the grouping of these two subfamilies under one, the Acridinae. As now recognized, the sublamilv includes a great varietv of species showing a diverse ex- ternal morphology, and includes the majority of the species from the Nevada Test Site. These are the conspicuous grasshoppers of every-day occurrence. They are well represented in a desert environment and are common c\ery- where. .\lthough general and specific collecting has l>een rather extensive at the test site only two- lliirds of the expected species have been found. In addition to those species reported here as definite records and included in the keys, the following species mav be fovmd that are not iMciiidcd: Orplnilclla coinpta Scudder, a form of the Lower Sonoran life zone, although found com- monlv in moist areas, should be presi'ut along .some of the foothills, and higher grassv areas; Aiilocara elliotti ( Thomas ) common in short grass o\er much of its range; Dussosteira sfnircata Saussure; Trepkluhts rosaceits (Scudder), pre- \iouslv collected in the \icinitv of Las Wgas, Nevada; Conozoa sulcifroris stilcifrans { Scud- der) and Conozoa wallula (Scudder); Circo- tcttix crofcdttni Rehn. described from Lee Can- von, Nevada, perhaps present at higher eleva- tions at the test site; Cratypedes negJcrttis (Thomas) should be found at some of the high- er elevations; Xcnicri.s inininiiis (Scudder). one of the smallest acridids; Coniana snowi Caudell, found onlv on sand dunes or in the vicinitv of dunes; Ccininulu pclluckia (Scudder), while not a desert species, mav be encountered at some of the higher elewitions. Key to the Genera of .\c.-ridi.\.\e 1. Face stronglv receding so that the \ertex is angled sharply with the front of the face (Fig. 34), to the extent that the lateral foveolae of the vertex are iinisible dorsad (Fig. 35) 2 Face more or less vertical, the vertex broadly rounded into the face (Fig. 36), the lateral foveolae of the vertex, if present, visible dorsad (Fig. 37) 5 2. Antennae ensiform; lateral carinae of pronotum parallel or subp;irallel (Fig. 38) Eremiacris Heb- ard .Antennae simple, if slightlv flattened the lateral carin.ic of pronotum curved 3 3. Head distinctly elevated above pronotum which is strongly scUate (Fig. .39) Bootettix Bruner Head not distinctly elevated above pronotum wliiili is tl.it or nearly so 4 4. Lateral carinae of pronotum parallel or subparallel; antennae simjile; fastigium of vertex with surface largely convex, lacking a conspicuous infra-marginal impression (Fig. 35) ^ Ampliitonuis McNeill Lateral carinae of pronotum well indicated in ailor, divergent in middle of pronotum; an- tennae subensiform; fastigium of vertex with surface largely concave, with a conspicuous infra-marginal impression (Fig. 40) CordiUacris Rehn 5. Hind wings not brightlv colored, never m;uked with a conspicuous black band; median carina of pronotum nt)t stronglv elevated 6 Hind wings brightlv colored, red, vellow oi liliu , ,uid/or marked with a conspicuous black baud; median c;irina of pronotum variously cK\atcd, low to strongly carinate 10 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, Septemder. 1964 49 6. Internal apical spines of caudal tibiae unequal in length (Fig. 41); lateral foveolae of the ver- tex well marked on all sides (Fig. 42) 7 Internal apical spines of caudal tibiae subequal in length; lateral foveolae of the vertex not well indicated 9 7. Costal field of the tegmen broadly expanded by one series (in males) or by two series (in fe- males) of enlarged hyaline cells (Fig. 43) Ligurotettix McNeill Costal field of the tegmen not broadly expanded as in alternate 8 8. Lateral carinae of pronotum continuous and sharply constricted in middle; prozona shorter than metazona (Figs. 36, 37) P soloessa Scxxdder Lateral carinae obsolete on prozona (Fig. 42); prozona longer than metazona At'eneotettix McNeill FIG. 35 FIG. 36 FIG. 37 FIG. 38 FIG. 39 FIG. 40 FIG. 41 Figs. 34-4.3. 34, Amphitornus colowdus ornutiis, male, head and pronotiim, lateral view. 35, A. c. ornatus, male, head and pronotum. dorsal view. 36, Psolofstd (Iclicatuhi dclicatuhi, male, head and pronotum, lateral view. 37, P. d. dcticatula, male, head and pronotum, dorsal view. 38, Eremiacris fudUdo, male, head and pro- notum, dorsal view. 39, Bootcttix inmctcitus, male, head and pronotum. lateral view. 40, Corddlacris oc- cipitalis cincrcii, male, head and pronotimi, dorsal view. 41, Ligurotettix coipnlletti cuntutor, male, distal tibia and tarsus of caudal appendage showing internal apical spines, lateral \iew. 42, Agencotettix deorum deorutn, male, head and pronotum, dorso-lateral view. 43, L. c. cuntutor, male, head, pronotum, and tegmen, lateral view. 9. Occiput with a series of transverse carinae medio-caudad of compound eyes, the fastigial im- pression elongate in both sexes; metazona of pronotum not greatly expanded (Fig. 44) Cibolacris Hebard Occiput with a series of transverse carinae medio-caudal of compound eyes, the fastigial im- pression broadly rounded in both sexes; metazona of pronotum conspicuously enlarged, much wider than prozona (Fig. 45) Anconia Scudder 10. Interspace of metasternum linear, or distinctly longer than broad in male, narrower than inter- space between the mesosternal lobes in female (Fig. 46); median carina of pronotum distinct, intersected by one transverse incision (Fig. 47) Arphia Stal Interspace of metasternum broad, quadrate in male, transverse in female (Fig. 48) 11 so Bmr.HAM VoiNG UNr\EB.siTY Science Bulletin 11. Median carina of pronotiim intersected by two sulci, the anterior one of which is shallow, lateral carinae long and intersected by the posterior sulcus (figs. 49, 50, 51, 52); form ro- bust ' 12 Median carina of pronotum intersected by two nearly equal sulci; lateral carinae of pronotiirn distinct or not intersected by the posterior sulcus (Fig. 53); form slender 13 12. Median carina of pronotum conspicuous and well elevated (figs. 49, 51); wing disk red Xanthipptis Saussure Median carina of pronotum slight (figs. 50, 52); wing disk blue Lepnis Saussure 13. Lateral lobes of pronotum acutely produced (Fig. S3) Mestobregma Scudder Lateral lobes of pronotum rounded (figs. 54, 55), a small tooth may be present on lower lateral lobes (Fig. 56) ' 14 14. Lateral prominences present near median tariua of [ironotum, more pronounced in male (figs. 54, 57) Denrtmcina Scudder Disk of pronotum without high lateral prominences near median c-arina (figs. 55, 56) Trimerotropis Stal FIG. 52 FIG. 53 FIG 56 Figs. 44-57. 44, Ciholacris parciceps aridus, male, head and pronotum, dorsal view. 45, Anconia intcgra, male head and pronotum, dorsal view. 46, Arphia conspersa, male, metastemum and proximal abdominal stem ites, sentral view. 47, A. conspersa, male, pronotum, lateral view. 48, Trimcrotropis pallidipcnnis pctlli clipennis, male, metastemum and proximal alKloininal steniites, ventral view. 49, Xaitthippus coriillipes, male, pronotum, lateral view. 50. Lcpriis ^kucipcniiis, mali'. pronotum. Literal view, 51, .V. c. corcillipcs, male, pronotum, dorsal view. 52, L. gUnuipciiiiis, male, pronotum, dorsal \iew. .53. Mcstohrcgma impcxum male, pronotum, lateral view. 54, Dcrotmenia dclicatttlum, male, pronotum, lateral view. 55, T. p. /xj//i- dipennis, female, pronotum, lateral view. .56, T. strcmiii. male, pronotum, lateral view. 57, D. delicatulum male, pronotum, dorsal view. Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 Genus Eremiacris Hebard 1929. Ercmkicris Hebard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 81:303-425. Eremiacris pallida (Bruner) (Figure 38; Table 21; Map 8) Distinctive Features. A species of slender form, small to medium in size, with the head strongly slanted. The wings are variously de- veloped, generally reaching to the end of the abdomen. A poorly developed prosternal spine is present, which character led to the place- ment of the genus in the subfamily C\rtacan- thacridinae until recent years when a study of the genital characters showed a true relationship of the group. Coloration. The degree of color variation in the species leads to the assumption that per- haps two or three species are actually found in the area. The color of the insect ranges from light tan or decidedly yellowish and yellowish-green through darker. These different color phases to some extent may be correlated with vegetation upon which the insect lives. Most of the s{>eci- mens show a marking of lateral bars on the head and pronotum, which markings are suppressed in the yellowish and greenish specimens. An oc- casional unifomi yellow or uniform light green is encoimtered, and yellowish tegmina on a uni- form light green body is found. In some of the light brownish specimens there is a suffusion of white on the head, on the pronotum and on the caudal appendages. All of the nymphs collected showed a definite pallid coloration. The darker colors are apparently found only in the adult specimens. Nearly all of the specimens collected at the Nevada Test Site were of the light, yellowish- green phase; about twentv percent were of the darker phase. Although there was no consistency of color in the areas collected, the specimens do vary according to habitats. In the sagebrush area the insects tend to be more grav or brown; those insects collected in and among grasses were rather consistently light. Some of the intermedi- ate areas, between the two extremes showed both phases. Distribution. This species is widely distri- buted throughout the southwest. Its known range extends from north central New Mexico west to California. At the Nevada Test Site it is one of the more common species and has a wide distribution. Habitats. The species is most often associat- ed with Oryzopsis hijmcnoidcs. It is \ery active and a strong jumper, especially in the nymphal stage, and is most difficult to collect, not only because of its agility but because of its color- ation. It readily escapes in \egetation where it is well hidden. Or if it happens to alight on the ground it is well concealed because of its resemblance to the small bleached desert sticks and t\\igs. In the Cane Springs area the insect was most common on Ehjmus ciiicretis and Distichlis stiictua, the common grasses. Seasonal Occurrence. Nymphs of Eremiacris were collected from May 13 (where they were common in study area IBF) to mid-.\ugust (as sub-adults). Adults were collected in early June and were present to October 4. They were most common and numerous during July, and are a summer insect at the test site. Their numbers are maintained throughout the hottest months. Localities Represented. S[)ecimens e.xamin- ed (nymphs and adults): 112. Study TA, Midvalley, 22 nymphs and adults, June 22 to September 19 (most common in Aug- ust at this higher station), on Oryzopsis lujmen- cndes. Table 21. Size variation of Ereiyiiacris pallida. t B e2 ta ! a ~ a 5 ffld 17.6 2.8 12.1 8.1 1.4 18.4 2.8 12.9 8.0 1.5 19.1 2.9 12.8 8.3 1.5 26.6 4.3 17.6 11.2 1.9 27.3 4.3 18.1 11.3 2.0 31.3 4.6 20.5 12.6 2.3 J' , TA, August 17, 1961 cT , CM, August 10, 1961 J', CM, July 15, 1961 9 , EGA, August 12, 1961 9 , TA, August 17, 1961 9 , CM, August 22, 1961 52 Bkkmiam VoiNf: Univebsity Science Bl'lletin Study 3CD, 4 ii\ niplis, June 27, on O. hijmni- oules. Study fiCL, 5 adults, July 13 and It, on Bni- mils tectorum. Studv 5A, 1 adult, August 31, vegetation un- rt'corded. Studies C;M and CB, at Cane Springs, 38 nvinplis and adults. May 27 to August 10, on E. citwrcus and D. strictus. Miscellaneous Graijui-Lycium studies (IB, IG, etc.), 10 nvmplis and adults. May 13 to Aug- ust 17, on O. Iii/mciu>i([e.s. Miscellaneous mixed \egetation studies (JA, EGA, ECU, ACC, TCB), 32 nymphs and adults, June 6 to October 4, vegetation, wliere recorded, O. hijmenoides. Genus Bootettix Bruner 1889. Bootettix Bnmer, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Xll, p. 57. Bootettix punctatus (Scudder) (Figure 39; Table 22; Map 9 ) 1890. Gtjttinrs punctatus Scudder, Psyche, V, p. 440. DistiiK'tive Features. This insect is one which shows a strong slant to the face. A distinct angle is formed with the vertex, and the lateral foveolae form a right or acute angle with the plane of the fastigium. The head is distinct- ly elevated above the saddle-shaped pronotum. The antennae are short and simple (filiform). The coloration is the most distinctive feature. Coloration. This is one of the most interest- ing insects found in the southwestern United States. It has an unusual rich green coloration with silvery white or mother-of-pearl markings in addition to brown and black on tlie pronotum. pleura and limbs. The tegmina ha\e small black dots. An occasional brownish specimen is found. These two extremes (green and brown) corre- late to till- Lcirrca divaricata, upon wliicli it is al- ways found. This shrub varies from a deep green to brown. ( See additional remarks under "Habi- tats".) Distribution. This insect is found wherever Larrea grows in the Lower Sonoran life zone of the southwest. M the Nevada Test Site the species was collected wherever the shrub was present, and was collected, even, in some areas where the shrubs are very scattered, not at all common. It is com[)letelv restricted in habitat to the creosote bush and the distribution is about ecjual to that of the host plant within the borders of the United States, Habitats. Recognition is difficult because of the rich olive-grL-en base color which blends so completeh' with the foliage of the creosote bush. Tlie markings produce the effect of the silvery sheen of the seed capsules of the shrub. This is one of the few species of insects strictly limited to one shrub, and shares with Insara covilleac as being one of the two orthopterans found only on Larrea. Larrea achieves a \ery deep green and dense growth under optimum conditions, especially along the margins of roads where it recei\es more moisture than its neighbors away from the road. M the Nevada Test Site, as with other areas of the arid west, its growth is very stunted and it takes on a brownish foliage. Bootettix most commonly fretjuents the dense growth, but is also found on stunted, brown shrubs in few numbers. Collecting indicated that the majority of specimens taken in the dense, deep green shnibs were predominanth' of the gi"een pluise; in the areas where the shrub was more brown the incidence of the brown phase in the insects Table 22. Size variation of Bootettix jmnctatus. ! JO 14.6 2.5 14.0 8.3 2.0 15.3 2.8 14.0 8.4 1.8 15.8 2.8 13.6 8.3 2.0 20.3 3.6 15.4 10.1 2.2 20.8 3.7 14.4 10.7 2.2 21.1 3.5 13.5 10.7 2.2 5CQ, July 13, 1961 5A, Aiipist 16, 1961 .5CQ, jiilv 13. 1961 .5A, July 14, 1961 5A, August 16, 1961 5CQ, July 13, 1961 Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Septembeh, 1964 53 was very high, pointing out the vahie of protec- tive coloration as an advantage to the insect. The species is most commonly collected by sweeping the outer branches with a net. By actual comparison, ver)' few specimens were visually spotted in collecting before sweeping was resorted to, in some instances several min- utes of close observation were retjuired to spot a group of specimens. They characteristically rest at the tips of the branches on the upper side and will frequently not even move when touched with the finger. Tlie insect is a very excellent jumper and a good flyer and if removed from the shrub to the ground will very quickly regain the protecti\e confines of the shrub, either by flight or a series of f|uick jumps. The nyniphs are easy to recognize as of that species, inasmuch as they are colored like the adults, but are also difficult to spot and collect except by sweeping the branches. The stridulation of the males is distinct. Seasonal Occurrence. The insect is a sum- mer species. The earliest occurrence was June 15 (nymphs) and the latest date of collection of adults was October 22. Adults occurred early in July, while n)niphs were present into August. The greatest activity of the insect was during July and August. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 320. Area 5 (5A, 5CQ, 5HP), Frenchman Flat, 280 nymphs and adults, June 15 to October 22. Study 3CD, 16 adults, June 27 to August 15. Studies JA (Jackass Approach) and CB (Cane Springs), 23 nymphs and adults, June 24 to October 15. Study ACC, 1 adult, October 2. Genus Amphitomus McNeill 1897. Amphitornus McNeill, Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., VI, p. 223. Bhiciiam Vounc Univeiisitv Science Bulletin Anipliilornus coUnadus ornatus McNeill (Figures 34, 35; Table 23; Map 10) 1897. Ainphilornus ornatus McNeill, Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., VI, pp 224-225. Established Synonomy. Acentetus unicolor McNeill; Acciitctii.'i cariiuitus Scudder; Steno- hothrus biculor Thomas. Distinctive Features. The vertex of the head is a little declivent, advanced in front of the eyes, the antennae are slightly flattened. The pronotal disk is well rounded and the lateral carinae are extremely faint and not interfering with the rounded outline of the humeral angles. The median carina is distinct and accompanied by more or less distinct supplementary carinae on the disk. All of these carinae are intersected by the posterior principal sulcus only a little or considerably behind the middle. Tlie posterior angle of the disk is moderately rounded. The tegmina are well developed. Coloration. The insect is dull brown with fine yellow bars on the sides of the pronotum. A dorsal light stripe may be present on the pro- notum and, if present, generally extends onto the head. Two black bars are present on the outer face of the hind femora. The posterior tibiae are bluish. Distribution. This race is widely distribut- ed throughout western North .America, in the Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran and Transition life zones. At the Nevada Test Site its distribu- tion was limited bv the grasses with which it is associated and it was uncommon in all collect- ing areas. Habitats. Amphitomus was found in some of the same situations as Eremiacris, with wliich it should not be confused because of its different appearance and different habits. Amphitornus seeks the denser grass and tries to Table 23. Size variation of Amphitomus coloradus ornatus. cf , 6CL, Jiilv 13, 1961 cT, CM, Auguvt 22, 1961 (if, TA, September 19, 1961 9 , 12CF, August 12, 1961 9 , 12CK, August 21, 1961 9 , CM, August 22, 1961 1 ^ u 3 [2 J 26 ^1 § 3 15.7 2.8 12.7 7.7 2.4 17.2 3.6 14.5 9.6 2.1 17.8 3.1 13.7 9.5 2.2 23.2 4.1 17.2 12.8 2.7 24.0 4.3 17.3 13.1 3.0 26.0 4.2 18.3 12.8 3.0 Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Septemuer, 1964 55 escape by concealment in the bunches instead of tn'ing to escape by movement. The insect loses its caudal legs very readily when picked up and care must be exercised in collecting good specimens. The insect was most common on Distichlis strictus (at Cane Springs), Eltjmiis cincreus (at the approach to Kowach Valley) and Onjzopsis hymenoides (in Midvalley). Seasonal Occurrence. No accurate seasonal occurrence can be given for this group because of the few numbers collected. The earliest adults were collected, however, on July 13; the latest on September 19. No nymphs were collected. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 16. Study 6CL, 1 adult, July 13, no record of the vegetation with which it was associated. The area is very rocky. Study 12CF, the approach to Kowich Valley, 4 adults, August 12, on Elijmus cinereus. Study TA, Midvalley, 4 adults, September 19. on Onjzopsis hijmeiundes. Study CM, Cane Springs, 7 adults, August 22, on Distichlis strictus. Genus Cordillacris Rehn 1901. Cordilktcrk Rehn, Canad. Ent., .XXXIII, p. 271. Cordillacris occipitalis cinerca (Bruner) ( Figure 40; Table 24; Map 1 1 ) 1889. Ochrilidia {?)cinerea Bmner, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XII, p. 52. Established Synonomy. Cordillacris affinis Morse. Distinctive Features. A slender insect with slanting head and subensiform antennae. The lateral carinae of the pronotum are well indi- cated in color, but obsolete or subobsolete in contour. A distinctive feature of the group is the conspicuous infra-marginal impression (concave surface) of the fastigium of the verte.x. Tlie tegmina and wings reach to the end of the abdomen. Coloration. This insect is buff colored with brown markings. A dark brown stripe extends from the posterior margin of the eve, widening on the sides of the genae to the anterior edge of the pronotum, then continuing across the pro- notum to encompass the upper lateral lobes. Im- mediately below on the head and lateral lobes of the pronotum is a cinereous area, the cinere- ous repeating on the lower half of the caudal fe- mur. These markings are bent abrupdv inward on the disk of the pronotum. The tegmina ha\e dark brov\Ti and cinereous spots, giving the in- sect a grizzled appearance. The posterior tibiae are testaceous. Nymphs are easily recognized by the pro- notal markings, the ensiform antennae and the projection of the \ertex. In these markings it could be confused only with Psoloessa delicatida dclicatula (Scudder), the only other species of the Nevada Test Site with similar markings, but the groups can be recognized by the projection of the head. One male and t^vo females ( from studies TA, IBF and 12E) have a less maculate appearance, but with a dark brown stripe extending down the tegmen half its length. Except for the color pat- terns the entire series is quite consistent. The caudal tibiae are testaceous, except in about half the males which have a pinkish cast. Distribution. This race is widely distribut- ed throughout the Great Basin and east to the Colorado Rockies and Arizona. It was common in most of the studies maintained at the test site. Habitats. The species is found t)nlv in areas of short grass, especially Onjzapsis lujmenoides, where it is well concealed. It is a fairly strong Table 24. Size variation of Cordillacris occipitalis cinerea. •^ E 1 fe B a J5 = t § ►J C 3 ^c3 no 15.0 2.6 12.2 9.4 1.8 16.2 2.6 12.3 9.1 1.8 16.8 2.8 13.4 9.9 1.9 20.5 3.4 15.5 11.9 2.1 21.5 3.6 157 11.7 2.5 22.6 3.6 17.3 11.9 2.2 cf, EGA, July 30, 1961 cT, IC, July 12, 1961 cf , EGA, August 12, 1961 5 , 12E, June 16, 1961 9 , TA, August 17, 1961 ? , EGA, June 22, 1961 56 Bkk.iiam VoiNG Umvebsity Science Bvlletin fixer and acti\c jumper and wlien disturbed will leave tlie spot to remain concealed in its new location. It is difficult to collect because of its habits and markings. Seasonal Occurrence. .-Kilidts have been col- lected as earl)- as Ma) 13 and as late as August 31. The greatest activity is in June. Localities Represented. S[X'cimens examin- ed (nvmphs and ailults): 5S. Studies IG, IF and IB, 28 specimens. May 13 to July 12, on O. hijmcnoicles. Stud\- 3C"C, 1 specimen, June 27, on Bramtis tcctomni. Area 3, miscellaneous c-ollecting, 1 specimen, Julv 15, vegetation not recorded. Studv lOD, 1 specimen, June 14, on O. hi/inciioides. Study 12E, Rainier Mesa, 1 specimen, June 26, vegetation not rec-orded. Studv EGA, near sand dunes, 5 specimens, June 27 to .August 12, on O. hijmcnaides. Study T.\, Mid\alley, 21 specimens, June 22 to August 31, on O. htjmetioides. Genus Ageneotcttix McNeill 1S97. A':,ciwolcttix McNeill, Psyche. X'lll. p. 71. Agciicotettix deorum dcorum ( Scudder ) (Figtire 42; Table 25; Map 12) 1876. Chnjsochmon deontm Scudder, Bull. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., II, p. 262. Established Synonomy. Aidocaru scntddcri Bruner; At(itix occidcnUdis Bruner; Aims hi/mcnoidcs. Seasonal Occurrence. Ageneatettix has a summer appearance. It was first collected on Julv 16 and the c-ollection date extended to Sep- tember .30. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- etl ( adults ) : 8. Table 25. Size variation of Ageneatettix deorum deorum. tl to a)i cf , TA, August 31, 1961 cC, TCB, Julv 16, 1961 cf, TCB, July 16. 1961 9 , TA, Aupist .31, 1961 9 , ECA, Stpfcinlier 4. 1961 9 . KCA, StptrmlH-r ;5(», 1961 9 , TA, Augu-st 17, 1961 13.3 2.4 9.1 8.8 2.7 13.5 2.5 10.0 8.9 2.6 14.0 2.6 9.6 9.0 2.6 16.1 3.1 11.2 II.O 3.0 17.7 3.1 11.7 11.2 3.1 17.9 3.1 11. 1 11.1 3.15 18.2 3.1 12.2 11.0 3.1 Biological Series, \'ol. 4, \o. 3, September, 1964 Study EGA, sand dunes, 2 adults, September 4 to September 30. Studv TA, Midvalley, 3 adults, August 17 to August 31. Study TCB, near Midvalley, 3 adults, July 16. Genus Psoloessa Scudder 1875. Psoloessa Scudder, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XVII, p. 512. Psoloessa delicatula deUcatula (Scudder) ( Figures 36, 37; Table 26; Map 12 ) 1876. ScijUina delicatula Scudder, Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., II, p. 263. Established Synonomy. Psoloessa colaradcn- sis Thomas; Stiraplcura decussata Scudder; Stirapleiira teinticarina Scudder; Psoloessa (?) eurotiae Bruner. Distinctive Features. This insect closely re- sembles Agetwotettix, but can be distinguished by its larger size and the color of the caudal tibiae. In Psoloessa the tibiae are pink with no sharp demarcation of white on the pro.ximal end. It further differs from that insect by the con- tinuous lateral carinae of the pronotum which are sharply constricted in the middle, making the prozona shorter than the metazona. Coloration. In coloration and pattern this insect most closely resembles Cordillacris. It should not be confused with that insect, how- ever, because of the nearly rounded vertex. Cordillacris is typically slant-faced. The dorsal abdomen under the wings is bright, colored the same as the caudal legs. The distinct markings and maculations are very contrasting. One fe- male, perhaps a teneral specimen, had very bright markings. Rehn (1942) has published at length to show the size and color variants of this forni. Distribution. Psoloessa shiires nearK' the same distribution as Ageneotettix, from the Great Plains westward. It has a wide distribution over the Nevada Test Site. Habitats. This species is found on the ground associated with Ortjzopsis, Haplopappus, and probablv other perennial plants. It is a very active jumper and is well concealed on the ground among the desert debris. When disturb- ed it generally flies into or near the shrub or grass. Seasonal Occurrence. The species appears early in the spring and remains throughout the summer. The first specimen was collected on April 15, the last on September 30. Its most abundant occurrence was in Mav. No specimens were collected during the month of Julv, and no nvmphs were collected during the course of the studw so there is no indication of whether or not tlie August and September specimens were from a second brood. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 24. Study IB, 15 adults, April 15 to June 21, associated with On/zopsis hipueiioidcs and Hap- lopappus sp. Studv 3CD, 1 adult, June 27, vegetation not recorded. Area 12, Rainier Mesa, 1 adult, June 26, vegetation not recorded. Study EGA, sand dunes, 2 adults, Septem- ber 30, vegetation not recorded, probably O. hijmenoides. Study JA, Jackass Approach, 1 adult, August 31, vegetation not recorded. Study TA, Midvalley, 4 adults, June 22 to August 31, apparently associated with O. hijmen- oides. Table 26. Size variation of Psoloessa dclicutulit dcUcatuh. I§ S H b fa g fl g 2 ►J &. MI'S a 3 fflO 14.2 2.5 13.4 8.8 2.45 14.4 2.6 13.9 9.1 2.6 24.4 4.0 19.5 13.4 3.7 25.6 4.3 20.7 13.2 3.7 c^, 1BF27, May 13, 1961 (j", 1BF30, May 13, 1961 9 , 1BF25, May 13, 1961 9 , 1BF25, May 13, 1961 58 Biiir^iiAM ^()^^■o Univeiisity Science Bulletin Genus LiiJ^iiroteltix McNeill Proc. Da\cii()()it 1897. Li'^motvttix McNeill Acad. .Sci., VI, pp. 198, 2.57. l.tf^iiroli'llix coijuillriti ((inlatur Helm (Figures 41, 43; Table 27; Map 13) 192.3. IJfiurolrttix coquilletli cantator Rehn, Trans. .Amer. Entom. Soc, XLIX, p. 64. Distinctive Features. Lateral hni-olae of tlie fastigiuin dccpK' impressed, trapezoidal in shape; antennae short; e\es prominent, occiput higher than disk of pronotum; medi;m carina slight but distinct, intersected near the middle by the principal sulcus; lateral carinae obsolete; pro- sternum furnished with a large pyr;unid;il spine; sciipular ;irea of tegmina greatly expanded, one- third the widtii of the tegmina, hyaline, with strong, curved oblitjue veins, forming an efficient organ for the production of sound. Coloration. The body of the insect is brown, the tegmina grav suffused with brown, the cand- id femorii with two black bands and dark genicu- lar lobes. The caudal tibiae iirc gray. The in- sect is well concealed in its habitat, on the leaf- less branches of the .xerophytic shrubs. Distribution. This insect is typical of the western Ney;ida areas, extending into the higher parts of Death Valley and the Inyo regions of California. The type loc;dity is Mason, Lyon Co., Nevada. The insect was very common during the summer in all lower areas at the Nevada Test .Site, ;ind could be heard during the hottest hours of the d;i\-. The present series ha\e not been compared with t\pical material, so may be ;itvpic;d toward kitnzci. The drawings and de- scriptions presented by Rehn ( 1923 ) show the insect is mori- typic;il of rcintator. According lo the notes with the origiiKil ile- scription, this subspecies is found t\pic;dl)- in the L'pper .Sonoran life zone. .\t the Ne\ada Test Site, again, it was more numerous in the Lower Sonoran life zone. Habitats. The most obvious character about this insect is its ability to produce sound. It is, in fact, yer\' noisy but difficult to see in the shrubs. In order to study the habits of the in- sect some were \'isually spotted and captured by hand. The insect is not characteristically strong and any disturli;ince results in its jumping into the center of the sliruh. It generally rests on the outer limbs. .\hmy of the desert shrubs drop their lea\es iluring the hot summer, and Ligurotettix was especially common upon these shnibs. It was foimd on Larrea and other leaved shrubs, but not to any great extent, comparatively. Sweep- ing for these insects is not successful because of the spiny nature of the shrubs. To collect a series it was found that the best method was to completely trample the shrub, working system- iiticiilh' ;ir()und the periphery first beeeuise the insects ne;uly alw;i\s hop into the center branch- es. B\' the time the shrub is completeK- broken down most of tin- insects ha\e tried to escape to another shrub, where they can be captured if spotted. The notes of Rehn (192.3) on the biolog\- of the group are interesting. "The scattered gray green bush of the Nevada Basin, a land of broad desert plains and \allevs and long mountain ranges, is the favored habitat of this subspecies. In the Great Basin greasewood {Scircobatus), in Atriplcx. and other species of the wiry ;md spiny shrubs which sparsely clothe the valle\s and lower mountain slopes of this region, it will bi' found at home. In but two phices (Daylight Spring and Hole-in-the-Rock Spring) w;is it found on creosote bush (Coiilica) [now Lar- rea] which is so much favoretl by the other sub- species, which is reatliK understood when it is Table 27. Size variation of Ligurotettix coquilletti aintator. t S 8 1 1 3 B ft ti t bC-3 ■f-S J c 2 5 3 JO 11.8 2.1 11.9 6.9 1.9 13.2 2.5 12.2 7.3 2.1 13.8 2.(5 12.2 7.35 2.1 18.1 3.1 15.2 8.5 2.4 18.9 3.3 Ki.O 9.2 2.5 19.3 3.6 16.7 8.9 2.6 cT, IC, July 10, 1961 cT, JA, July 1,5, 1961 cf . CM, .September .K), 9 , JA, July 13, 1961 9 . 5A. AugiLst 3, 1961 9 . JA, July 13, 1961 Biological Series, \'ol. 4, \o. 3, September. 1964 59 realized that tliis plant is almost absent from tlie area otenpii'tl hv true (v/n/^/or. Internu'diates hi'- tsveen cantcitor and the other subspecies frequent- ly occur on creosote bush. This subspecies was noted bv Hebard as stridulating after dark, the two specimens from Fernlev, N'e\ada, being taken bv stalking their sound well after night had fallen. Manv others were stridulating at the same time in the brush of a Sarcohatits flat, and as long as the air remained warm and still they continued their perfonnance. On the passing of a shower accompanied bv a cool wind the entire assemblage ceased strididating and nothing fur- ther was heard." Seasonal Occurrence. Tiie i-arjiest idIIci lion was made on June 20, the latest on September 30. Because of the numbers present at that time it undoubtedh- is a part of the fauna well into October, at least. It was about ecjually numer- ous during July, August and September. No n\inphs were collected. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): SS. (This number represents only the collected specimens. Actually the insect is very common and present in large numbers, ac- cording to the stridulations. An actual estimate of numbers is difficult to make. ) Area 1 (studies IB and IC), 14 adults, June 24 to September 4, on Gratjia spiuosa, Lijnttm pallidum and L. andcrsonil. Other \egetati()n not recorded. Study 3CD, 2 adults, .\ugust 15, on Lurrca (livaricata. Study 5.-\, 11 adults, June 20 to August 31, on L. divdricatii. Study 5K, 12 adults, Jiuie 24 to September 2, on Lijciiim p(dlidum and Dalca pohjadcnia. Study lOD, 2 adults, August 14 and 16, on Colco<^tjnc ram osis^m a . Study CM, Cane Springs, 17 adults, Septem- ber 30, on G. i^pitiosa. C. ramosissima and /-. pallidum, principally. Study J.\, Jackass .\p[M()aeh, '>() ailults, July Table 28. Size variation of Arphia conspersa. Bhicha.m Vocng U.nivebsity Science Bclletin 13 to September 3, on C. ramosiers found in the area and so common throughout the south- west. The best characteristic to differentiate this species from the other orthopterans with bright- ly-colored wings is the condition of the ineta- sternal interspace. In Arphia this is distinctly linear ( longer than broad ) in the male and nar- rower tlum the interspace between the meta- sternal IoIh's in the female. The pronotum is carinate, with one incision. Morphological Variation. This is a very vari- able species as is indicated b\- the abo\e svnon- omv. Hebard (1937) published at length on the phases of conspersa. and established fi\e phases, e;ich with a geographic distribution. Each phase is subject to decided individual \ariation, and shows such a remarkable response to ctinditions of the immediate en\ironment "that its extremes are often i|uite as widely different as any of the typical representatives of the other phases. Moreover, in some cases, one phase fades into ;uiother gradually over a wide extent of territory. For these reasons, though it long setMned possible that some \alid races existed, I do not feel justi- fied in recognizing any geographic races what- I'ser in the case of cons^pcrsa." & S H b u. t ■^f t a-^ •=-3 J ^1 J JJ (So 19.8 4.5 20.8 11.6 3.6 20.4 4.3 20.6 10.8 3.3 20.9 4.3 22.5 11.8 3.6 cT. 5M. Jtilv 14. 1961 cC. 5M. jiiK li. nm\ cf . 5M. J.ilv 14. 1961 Biological Series, \ol. 4, No. 3, Septemuer, 1964 Coloration. From the Nevada Test Site the insect is dark gra\ish brown, mottled with dark- er brown and black. Most of the specimens e.\- hibit a pale dorsal stripe on the tegmina (this condition is variable in the series ) . The hind wings are red" with a black outer band, the spur of the black band extending well inward to the base of the wing. Between the spur and the ape.x is an area of dark veins and lighter cells, with the ape.x infuniate, slightly lighter than the dark band. The ventral sulcus of the interior femur is bluish, the hind tibiae bluish with a pale basal annulus. Distribution. This species has a very wide distribution, ranging from Alaska to Mexico and from Texas to Nevada. It was found in only one area at the Nevada Test Site. Habitats. ArphUi was collected at or near the top of one of the mountains between French- man and Yucca flats. It was found in an area of sparse grasses and small shrubs, typical of its habits and habitats. It is a fairly strong flyer and is deceptive, trying to hide after flight. Three biologists were unable to collect any fe- males after extensive collecting. The females are, however, more sluggish and remain hidden. It is quite possible that the females appear at a different time than the males. No nymphs were found. Seasonal Occurrence. The only collection dates of the insect were July 13 and July 14. The insect has been collected by the author in similar habitats from May to July, however. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed ( adults ) : 6. Area 5, south end of French Petik, 6 adult males, July 13 and 14, not found on vegetation and the only observation of vegetation from the area was Bromiis teetotum. Additional Remarks. This insect has not been reported from Nevada previously and is assigned here pending complete revision of the genus. It is identical to one specimen in the author's collection from Las Vegas, Clark Co., Nevada, and is slightly atypical to a series of specimens from several localities in Washington County, Utah. The bluish hind tibiae with the pale basal annuli agree with tliose specimens from Utah, and are very much like a series of specimens from southern Arizona, supposedly Arphia abeirans Bruner. A series of eonspcrsa from north and east in Utah and from Colorado "Authors have iist-il Ridgwiiy (1912) a.s a means of difficult to obtain for c-omparative purposes. show a variable condition of the tibiae, ranging (in dr\' specimens) from very light blue to \el- lowish. The condition of the tibiae of the Ne- \ada Test Site specimens is suggestive of Arphia ramomi Rehn from California, but that insect, represented in the author's collection by speci- mens from Riverside County, California, and one female from Baja California, is quite different morphologically from the present series. These insects suggest a close relationship of eonspcrsa and aberrans and the present series is assigned to conspersa after much consider- ation. Arphia hchrensi Saussure has been reported from Nevada by Baker, Essig and LaRivers (in Ormsby County). I have not seen this sup- posedly yellow-winged species, so have made no comparison of it witli the series from the test site. Genus Xanthippus Saussure I8S4. Xanthippus Saussure, Mem. Soc. Geneve, XXVIII, pp. 46, 88. Xanthippus corallipcs corallipcs ( Haldeman ) (Figures 49, 51; Table 29; Map 14) 18.53. OEdipoda coraUipes Haldeman, Appendi.x C in Stansbury, E.xploration of Great Salt Lake, p. .371, PI. X, Fig. 2. Established Synonomy. OEdipoda paradoxa Thomas; Hippiscus {Xanthippus) conspicuus Scudder; Hippiscus (Xanthippus) macuhtus Scudder; Hippiscus {Xanthippus)crcniitus Scud- der. Distinctive Features. This large, ponderous grasshopper is easily recognized by its very large size (especially the females) and markings. It is the largest acridid found at the Nevada Test Site and is very robust in appearance. The pro- notum is enlarged, extending over the occiput approaching the eyes. The head and pronotum are very rugose, the median carina of the pro- notum partially obliterated. The tegmina and wings extend beyond the abdomen. Morphological Variation. This species is very variable over its entire range, and has been grouped into eight or nine subspecies through- out its distribution. The specimens from the Ne- vada Test Site are very typical of those from the Salt Lake Valley, the type locality. [itif\ini; color of specimens. The book, however, is 62 Bhiciiam Vounc University Science Bulletin Table 2y. Size variation of Xaiitliippus coruUipes coriillipes. ! II to s 26.7 6.5 28.5 14.3 3.9 27.2 6.4 28.6 13.6 4.0 28.9 6.5 29.0 13.3 4.2 43.8 10.2 40.7 20.4 6.1 44.6 10.1 41.7 21.0 6.1 53.8 12.2 45.0 24.1 6.7 cf , TCC, March 22, 1961 cf , 1BF26, May 28, 1961 <^, 1BF22, .May 28, 1961 V , TCB, julv 16, 1961 9, IBF21, Viay 28, 1961 9 , 1BF20, April 15, 1961 C^oloration. Brown, with dark and ligl't markings on the liead and pronotum, the lateral carinae of the pronotum, especially, marked with a lighter color, gi\ing the insect a general "X" pattern on the disk of the pronotum. The teginina have conspicuous large dark spots, larger nu'.dialK-, smaller and somewhat indistinct distalK-, the humeral angle marked with a yel- lowish line, with the area to the posterior being largelv darkened. The posterior femora are marked with dark, the internal femora in females almost solid bright coral, the inner margins of the caudal tibiae coral, tlie outer margins yel- lowish. In the males the internal face of the caudal femora show three indistinct dark cross bands, the coral color less pronounced, and both the inner and outer margins of the caudal tibiae coral, the color less intense than in females. On the outer surface onl\ the proximal tibiae are more vfllowish. The vers' large n\niphs show the character- istic pronotal markings of tlie adult, the "X' pattern on the disk of the pronotum being e\en more recognizable than in the adults. Distribution. This species is widely . distri- buted throughout the Great Plains area to the west. The subspecies corallipes is found from Utah and Nevada south through Arizona, New Mexico and into Mexico. .Xt the Nevada Test Site it is wi>ll distributeil ovi'r most of the area. Habitats. Both adults and nymphs were ver\- common in early spring to mid-summer, in open areas. Tlie few specimens found on \ege- tation had apparentlv crawled onto the shrubs to escape the intense desert heat. The females characteristicallv hid in On/zopsi.s htjmcuoulcs, where present, but no \-egetation was ileter- iniiu'd upon which the insect fed. Ill one burned area (.Midvalley, .April 16, 19fil ) specimens were \'erv numerous, especially ak)ng the road, representing a population of at least one sjH'cimen per S(|uare \ard throughout the entire large burn. The nymphs and females are exceedingly easv to collect because of their ponderous size and slow movements, the females fiving for only short distances and never far off the ground. The males are strong and active flyers. This is undoubtedlv the most conspicuous, although not the most abundant nor widespread, acridid on the test site. Seasonal Occurrence. N^Tiiphs were collect- ed as early as January 8 and were present into April. The earliest adult occurrence was March 1.3, the latest July 16. The latest record is from a higher ek'vation, in Mid\alley, where the in- sect is apparentlv able to sur\i\e for nearly a month longer than in the intense heat of the lower elevations. It was most abundant during .\pril, decreasing sharply in numbers in May. Localities Represented. Sjjecimens examin- ed (ininphs and adults): 112. (This represents a small percentage of the total number of speci- mens ()bser\ed. ) Studv IBF, 17 specimens. March 13 to May 28, in a Crdi/ia-Li/ciiim area. Most of the speci- mens were collected just bcNond the fringe of \egetation eradication due to the effects of the atomic blast, in an area of desert shrubs and scattered bunch grass {Ortjzcffys-is hymeiiaidcs). Study IF, 3 adults, June 19 to 21. The only \egetation in this area was Salsoh kali, a pioneer species due to complete erailication of vegetation as a result of the nuclear explosion. .\rea 4, miscellaneous collecting, 7 specimens, March 13. .Vri'.i 12, Miiscclhineuus collecting. 1 speci- men, Nhirch 16. Studv I'XTl, 3 luinplis. Jaiuiaiy S to .\pril 1. Studies TA, TCB, TCC, all Midvalley area. 81 specimens, March 14 to July 16. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September. 1964 63 Genus Lepras Saussure 1861. Lepnis Saussure, Revue et Magasin de Zoologie, 2e Ser., XIII, p. 398. Leprtis glaucipennis Scudder (Figures 50, 52; Table 30; Map 14) 1900. Lepnis glaucipennis Scudder, Psyche, IX, pp. 75-76. Distinctive Features. Morphologically this species most nearly resembles XantJiippus but is distinct because of tlie slight median carina of the pronotum, not elevated as in Xantliippiis. The species is generally not as robust as tliat species. The pronotum is very rugose. Coloration. The species is easy to recognize in flight because of the bright blue wings. Col- lected specimens can further be recognized by the prominent dark spots on the tegmina. There is considerable variation in the series from the Nevada Test Site. Tlie head of some specimens shows a definite ash-gray color, other specimens are darker. The pronotum is variable from light to very dark (one female) and even a reddish suffusion in some specimens. Tire basal ground color of the tegmina is of the same general color as the pronotum (except the one dark female) to the first dark tegminal bar, which extends across the entire tegmen; the next light space is lighter. The second dark bar is present only anterior to the median vein. The next distinct area, exceedingly light, is followed by a series of dark spots on a light background, the dark decreasing in intensity to the tip of the tegmen. Some specimens show less obvious banding on the tegmina, the dark areas prac- tically continuous with each other. There is a light yellowish Hne extending along the humeral angle of the tegmen. The caudal femur has one conspicuous preapical dark band, variously Table 30. Size variation of Leprus glaucipennis. darkened with two other bands on some speci- mens. The posterior tibia is dull with a light subpro.ximal area. The dorsal tergites of the abdomen (especiallv in the males) are washed with blue. The inner face of the caudal femur is blue with one large basal and one preapical black band. The hind wings are light blue to deep blue with a very broad black band and a dark spot at the apex of the wing. Distribution. The species is distributed from southern California, Nevada, and Arizona south into Mexico. At the Nevada Test Site it was found only at intermediate elevations in two general areas. Habitats. Leprus is imcommon on the test site, but the somewhat robust size and sluggish movements make them eas)- to capture once they fly. Until they do fly they blend well with the background. The typical habitat upon which they are found is one of small to medium sized rocks among sparse \egetation in the can\ons of footliiUs. None was found directly associated with vegetation. Seasonal Occurrence. The species was col- lected from June 22 to September 19. It was most common during the month of August. Two subadults were collected in July. Localities Represented. Sjiecimens examin- ed ( subadults and adults ) : 22. Study CM, Cane Springs, 1 adult, Septem- ber 2. Studies TA and TCB, Midvalley area, 21 subadults and adults, June 22 to September 19. Additional Remarks. This series from the Ne- vada Test Site is very variable in size and color, less variable in morpholog)', and is assigned to glaucipennis pending a complete revision of the {^, TA, August 31, 1961 cT , CM, September 2, 1961 ^, TA, AugiLst 17, 1961 J-, TCB, July 16, 1961 9 , TA, July 19, 1961 9 , TA, August 17, 1961 9 , TA, August 17, 1961 9 , TCB, August 7, 1961 s £ s H •5 C 5.2 22.8 5.6 23.3 5.6 23.3 6.5 26.4 8.3 33.2 7.2 28.8 8.0 31.8 8.1 33.7 E C 3 c2 10.9 3.2 12.0 3.6 12.3 3.7 13.8 4.0 17.0 5.0 15.5 4.5 16.5 5.0 17.1 5.1 19.1 20.5 22.7 22.0 29.9 32.6 32.3 32.2 Bhiciiam Vounc University Science Bulletin genus. Typical specimens have greenisli-blue hind wings (hence tlie name), and tlie speci- mens from tliis area would have to be atypical of that species on the basis of wing color. The species was at first considered to be L. interior Bruner, to which it is closely related, if not synonymous. Genus Derotinema Scudder 1876. Derotmema Scudder, Appendi.x H9 of .\p- pendi.x Jj of Ann. Rep. Chief Eng. U. S. Geogr. Sur\'. W. lOOth Merid., p. 513. Derotmema cleliaitulum (Scudder) (Figures 54, 57; Table 31; Map 15 i 19(X). Derotmema delicatulum Scudder, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sci., XXXV, p. 390. Distinctive F'eatures. This small sized, very active insect can be recognized by the enlarged head and prominent eyes. The pronotal disk has prominent rugae and lateral prominences near the median carina. It is less rugose than is typical in the genus, the females being less rugose than the males. The posterior angle of the metazona is broadly rounded or slightly angulate in some specimens. The tegmina and wings are variously produced, always reaching beyond the abdomen, excessively so in some specimens of both sexes. The nymphs can be recognized by the very large eyes and rugose pronotum. Coloration. The insect is pallid testaceous, flecked more or less with fuscous and with no distinct banding on the tegmina. A series of dark spots on the proximal tcgmen adjacent to the metazona gives tlie pronotum an elongated ap- pearance. Tlic hind wings have a light yellow disk and a variable black band. The posterior tibiae are light, generally grayish. The antennae arc pallid, interrupted with fuscous. Table 31. Size variation of Derotmema delicatulum. Distribution. The general range of the in- sect, as listed by Kehn and Hebard (1908) is the ".Mohave and Yuma deserts, ranging from the western edge of the Mohave at Mohave and Lancaster, California, to at least Sentinel, Mari- copa County, Arizona." It was uncommon at many of the stations at lower elevations in both Frenchman and Yucca flats and adjac-ent areas. Habitats. The most commoa habitat for the species at the Nevada Test Site was the Atriplcx- Kochia vegetation on the margins of Yucca Playa. It has not been associated with \egeta- tion, inasmuch as the insect is found on bare ground and it attempts to escape by flight rather than to escape into the vegetation. This is one of the few orthopterans collected around lights at night, in the Mercury Area. Seasonal Occurrence. Tlie earliest record of n\mphs of Derotmema is June 21, with adults oc- curring July 3. The last series of adults were cx)l- lected on September 4. Nymphs were present only into July. It was equally abundant in July and August. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed ( nymphs and adults ) : .36. Study IB, 4 adults, September 4; the domin- ant vegetation in tlie area was Graijia-Lycium. Study 3CD, 3 adults, August 15, no record of vegetation around which the insects were found. Study 5A, Frenchman Flat. 5 adults, July 3 to August 10. Tlie vegetation was practically all Larrea divaricata. but, of course, the insects were not determined to be associated uith the vegetation. Study 5E, 2 adults, July 13 and August 17, no record of vegetation associated with the speci- mens. Study fiA, on the margins of Yucca Playa, 14 nymphs and adults, June 21 to August 16. t cf,6A, July 10, 1961 J', ,5E, July 3. 1961 cf,6A. July 12, 1961 9 , MD, J lily 15, 1961 9 , 5E, July 13, 1961 9 , 5M, July 20, 1961 12.3 12.9 15.1 19.4 20.1 21.4 2.6 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.8 4.1 t 14.8 16.3 15.1 20.3 21.0 22.2 c = JO 8.6 9.2 8.7 10.4 10.5 10.8 •5- 1.9 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.8 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 65 Study JA, Jackass Approach, 7 adults, July 15 to August 22, no record of vegetation. Mercury, 1 adult, July 15, attracted to lights at night. Genus Mestobregma Scudder 1876. Mestobregma Scudder, Hayden's BuU. U.S. Geol. & Geogr. Surv., II, p. 264. Mestobregma impexum Rehn ( Figure 53; Table 32; Map 15 ) 1919. Mestobregma impexum Rehn, Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc., XLV, pp. 239-242, Plate XXVI, figs. 9 and 10; Plate XXVIII, figs. 13 and 14. Distinctive Features. Size medium, form slender. The median carina of the pronotum is intersected by two nearly equal sulci, the carina is elevated and bilobate on the prozona, reduced on the metazona. There are accessory projec- tions on either side of the median carina in the middle of tlie pronotal disk. The pronotum is moderately rugose on the dorsal surface. The tegmina and wings surpass the apex of the abdo- men. The lateral lobes of the pronotum are acutely produced, which character will dis- tinguish it from both Derotmema and Trimer- otropis. Coloration. The color pattern is light, suf- fused with dark maculations. Tlie posterior margins of the pronotum are outlined in light, without maculations, the sides of the pronotum marked with black in the male (absent in the female). The lower margins of the lateral lobes are light in both sexes. The tegmina have two dark bands extending from the edge, indistinct and broken into suffusions of maculations be- yond the humeral angle, the area between the two bands without maculations, the distal two- fifths suffused with dark. Only two specimens were collected at the Nevada Test Site, one male and one female. The hind wings in the male are red, in the fe- male yellow (either color can appear in both sexes), with black fuscous band and several maculate areas in the clear wing tip. The caudal femur has one black subapical band and a second incomplete band. The caudal tibiae are bluish gray mottled with brown. Distribution. Mestobregma impexum is found from northern Arizona, southern Nevada and southern California, tlirough Utah and into Idaho. The species was described from speci- mens taken at Milford, Beaver Co., Utah (type locality) and Cima and Bird Spring Mountains, California, from August 11 to September 5. "The species was scarce at Milford, occurring on sage covered ridges at 5000 feet and on relatively bare slopes, with scattered sage and yellow- flowered bushes, at 4900 to 5000 feet elevation." (Rehn 1919) At the Nevada Test Site it was found only in the sand dune area. Habitats. This has been reported as "a rare species found in sandy or dry soil with scatter- ed clumps of short grass in the sagebrush des- ert." (Ball, et al., 1942). As indicated previously, both specimens were collected from the sand dune area. The collecting was made from an area of scattered shrubs {Eriogonum sp.) and small annuals and perennials with scattered grasses, rather than on the dunes themselves, al- though the areas are adjacent to each other. Extensive collecting was done during August and into November throughout this same area, but no other specimens were found. The species was very active, flying some distance when disturbed. The red wings of the male made this a conspicuous insect in flight, but the yellow wings of the female could scarcely be discerned from the yellow-winged Trimerotropis albescens, so common in the area. The habits of the two were quite different, however, the Trimerotropis being a more slug- gish insect, moving only short distances when disturbed. Seasonal Occurrence. The two specimens were collected on July 30 and August 12. Table 32. Size variation of Mestobregma impexum. s % i JO oao 10.7 12.5 2.8 3.3 J', EGA, August 12, 1961 9 , EGA, July 30, 1961 18.9 23.4 4.1 4.7 20.1 23.4 Bitic.iiAM VoL'Nc Univeiisity Science Billetin Localities Represented. L-d (adults): 2. Specimens examin- Study EGA, sand dune area, 2 adults, July 30 and August 12, no association was made with vegetation. Genus Trimerotropis Stal 1873. Trimerotropis Stal Recensio Orthopteror- um, 1, p. 118. .More species belong to the genus Trimero- tropis than anv other genus found at the Nevada Test Site. One of tiiese (T. pallidipcnnis palli- dipcnnis) is flie most widespread acridid found. .Members of the genus can be recognized by the following combination of characters: Head of moderate size, the lateral foveolae distinct and triangular, the antennae filiform, of variable length. Disk of the pronotiun nearly flat, smooth or granulate to minutely tuberculate on metazona, which is strongly broadened. .Median carina of pronotiun \'ariable, cristate, even bilobate, or low on prozona, alwavs less elevated on metazona, and with two transverse incisions. .Metazona much longer than prozona, from one and one-half to more than twice as long. Lateral carinae indistinct or absent except occasionally on front of metazona and prozona. Posterior margin of pronotum distinctK' angu- late; lateral lobes of pronotum parallel, posterior angle well rounded. A tooth projected down- ward from the posterior angle of the lateral lobe is characteristic of two species. The tegmina and wings surpass the apex of the abdomen, oc- casionally are plain or commonlv maculate over the entire surface of the tegmen, or much more frecjuentlv ananged in three well-marked bands, the two proximal bands generally much better defined than the distal band. Key to the Species of Trimerotropis 1. Median carina of prozona cristate, the anterior and median lobes distinctly bilobate (Fig. 58); tegmina without solid, distinct fasciations or bands T. bilobata Rehn and Ilebard Median carina of prozona neither bilobate nor highly cristate, the lobes indistinct and more or less fused (Fig. 59) 2 2. Disk of wing yellow, always with a well defined black band 3 Disk of wing blue or bluish, with or without a well defined black band 7 3. Gaudal tibiae yellow or yellowish, occasionally light brownish in some drit>d sj^cimens, but never blue, green or red'- T. palUdipcniiis pallidipcnnis (Burmeister) Caudal tibiae not yellowish 4 4. Gaudal tibiae red; posterior angle of the lateral lobes of pronotum with a small tooth (Fig. 59) T. strentta McNeill Gaudal tibiae never red; posterior angle of lateral lobes of pronotum without a tooth 5 5. Caudal tibiae greenish (occasionally drying to tan) T. inconspicua Bnmer C;uidal tibiae blue or bluish 6 6. Ground color white; tegmina white or very pale with thrt-e narrow dark bands; caudal tibiae light blue, sometimes drying to pale gray T. albescens MciNeill Ground color brown, never white; caudal tibiae dark blue, sometimes dr)'ing to almost black T. fontanel Thomas 7. Wing deep blue, with a well defined dark band T. cyaneipennis Bnmer Wing light blue, without a dark band T. s}>arsa Thomas '•An (icfasioiiai tlriod .-ipfcimcii of 7'. iuctm.spiciui will show a \ellowish tibia; liut tho color is actually grceii- i.sh. They can In- ilistini;iiis}u-ci from piilliilipcnnis i)y size, liowcNcr. Tiu- ptillUliiwnnis males arc larger than 20 mm, tile fc'males larger than 29 mm; iiicompicua i.s alw.iys smiillcr than tliesc measurements. In inconspicua the proximal fasciation of tlic tegmen is not conspicuous be.ausc of the dark coloration of the tegmen from this first fasciation to the base of llu' tcgmrn. in palUdipcwiis the first fasciation is distinct. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 67 Figs. 58-59. 58, Trimcrotropis bitobata, male, pronotum, lateral view. 59, T. strenua, male, pronotum, lateral Trimerotropis bilobata Rehn & Hebard (Figure 58; Table 33; Map 16) 1906. Trimerotropis bilobata Rehn & Hebard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., LVIII, pp. 382-385. Distinctive Features. The great elevation of the prozonal section of the median carina of the pronotum definitely characterizes this from any other species of the genus found at the Nevada Test Site. Morphological Variation. This species sup- posedly has no distinct projecting process on the ventro-caudal angle of the pronotum, but the specimens from the Nevada Test Site are variable in this character. In a series of eight specimens collected at one time, two show a definite tooth, while the remainder show only a slight projection. Three specimens taken one week later are without any trace of a tooth. Coloration. Body color light brown, with dark markings and lighter color on the head and pronotum. Tegmina with two complete trans- verse bars, the distal third with small irregular maculations chiefly along the veins. Wing disk yellow with a dark band. The caudal tibiae, in the specimens from the test site, are grayish- blue with a definite pro.ximal ring, the colors fading in dried specimens. Distribution. The type locality of the species is Antlers, Mesa Co., Colorado, flebard (1929) commented: "We believe that it is very widely distributed over the Great Basin, in desert en- vironment at lower elevations." This species has now been collected throughout the western states, the eastern limits being Arizona, Colo- rado, Wyoming and Idaho. The species was common in Study 6.\, the only locality at the Nevada Test Site where it was found. This study was located on the mar- gin of Yucca Playa. Habitats. In its original description, the authors commented on the habitat and habits of the species. "This species was found in the arid valley of the Crand river ( the Colorado River ) near Antlers station, where the only vege- tation was a heavy growth of low cactus inter- spersed with occasional sage. Specimens were bv no means uncommon and could have been easily taken in numbers had the cactus not inter- fered so much with collecting, as when alarmed the individuals would invariably seek refuge in the dense beds of cactus." M the Nevada Test Site it was found only in the Atriplcx-Kuchia vegetation {A. confcr- tifolki and K. amcricana), although its habits were not tied in with either shrub. It is a Table 33 Size variation of Trimcrotroi)is bilobata. cf , 6A, July 10, cf , 6A, July 10, cf, 6A, July 19, J-, 6A, July 19, ^, 6A, July 19, 9 , 6A, July 12, 9 , 6A, July 12, 9 , 6A, July 12, 9 , 6A, July 19, 9 , 6A, July 19, 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 >N 1 i a n e H ^ £ fn If ^ ^^ ■^-^ a a 2 S 3 J ji; J JU ra u 16.2 3.1 19.6 10.0 2.3 18.0 3.2 18.2 9.0 2.2 17.4 2.8 19.3 8.8 2.5 17.4 3.0 19.8 9.4 2.4 19.2 3.5 21.8 10.5 2.4 22.0 3.9 23.7 11.6 2.8 23.7 4.4 24.0 11.5 2.9 23.4 4.3 24.0 11.9 2.95 24.1 4.5 25.3 12.4 3.0 26.8 5.6 28.6 13.2 3.6 Bkicmam Vol'nc UNivtiisiTY Science Bulletin inoderaff stridulator during fliglit and on oc- casion a good flier. It was mucli easier to cap- ture than Trimeralropis sparsa, witli wliicli it was associated. It was always found on bare ground and would invariably fly to another bare area. Seaiional Occurrence. The adults were col- lected from June Hi to .August 16. They were most numerous during the month of July. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed ( adults ) : 22. No nymphs were collected. Study 6A, 22 adults, June 16 to August 16. Additional Remarks. In describing this species, the authors remarked: "This species is one of a number which might with almost equal propriety be placed in either Conozoa or Tri- mcrotiopis. but which we have placed here chiefly because McNeill has considered its allied species as a member of Trimerotropis rather than Conozoa." In his catalogue to the world Ortho- ptera, Kirby placed it in Conozoa. The state- ment indicates that many of these related forms vary and might be confused with one another to some extent. Over its complete range it is \ery variable in many external characters as well as the phallic complex of the male. The species should ob- viously be subdivided into geographic races. Trimerotropis fontanel Thomas (Table 34; Map 16) 1876. Trinierotropis fontana Thomas, Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., I, pp. 255-256. Established Synonomy. Trimerotropis juluina Scudder; Trinierotropis- fcrruginea McNeill; Tri- merotropis calignona .McNeill; Trimerotropis caeruk'ipes Scudder. Distinctive Features. This species, as well as many of the members of the genus, is best characterized by color and pattern rather than morphology. Coloration. The ground color of the species is ash-brown, the head and pronotum the dark- est and without distinct markings. The tegmina show the t\pical trifasciation of the genus, the proximal fuscous band being the darkest and extending from the costal margin half way across the tegmen; the middle band, which is about in the middle of the tegmen, extends nearly or (juite across the wing; the distal band is indis- tinct and situated about one-third the length from the apex of the wing; the apical portion of the tegmen is transparent, marked with a few pale fuscous spots. The wings are pale trans- parent \cil()w at the base, with a rather nar- row, fuscous band ;uk1 transparent apex with dark veins. The posterior femora arc black (possibly bluish-black when living) internally at the base, with a black band toward the apex; the apex is black internally and fusa)us extemal- 1\'. The antennae appear to be marked in some specimens with indistinct pale annulations. The caudal tibiae are deep blue in living specimens, changing to a dark color in dried specimens. Distribution. The type IcK-alit)' of the species is Spring Lake, Utah Co., Utah. Tlie present dis- tribution includes all states of the Rock\' Moun- tain area west to the Pacific Coast and north into British Columbia and Vancouver Island. At the Nevada Test Site it was found only in one area (Kowitli \',i!lc\ Junction), near Rainier Table 34. Size variation of Trimerotropis fontana. a g 18.8 11.0 19.6 10.8 18.S 10.0 U).9 10.4 20.2 10.5 24.2 11.3 24.2 12.4 26.2 12.7 28..5 14.0 25.9 12.7 11 cf, 12CF, d-, 12CF, d". 12CK, d". 12CK, d-. 12CK, 9 , 12CK, 9 . 12CK, 9 , 12CK, 9 , 12CF, 9 . 12CF, August 12, Augii.st 12, AiipLst 21, Aupist 12, August 12, August 21, AuRUNt 12, August 12, August 12, Augu.st 12, 1961 1961 1961 H)61 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 17.4 17.5 17.9 18.5 18.6 21.8 23.8 26.5 27.2 27.7 3.8 3.9 3.3 3.9 3.7 4.7 4.7 5.8 5.4 5.0 2.9 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.8 3.7 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 69 Mesa, but it is probably present in most of the habitats suggestive of that study area. Habitats. The grasshopper is a loud stridu- lator during fhght, the topical fhght of the indi- vidual being ten to fifteen feet. Tlie species is verv warv and flies often. Some specimens re- quired nine or ten attempts before capture. One attempt to collect the species during cloudy, rain-tiucatening weather, indicated that the in- sect would trv to escape by hiding in the shrubs or grass, rather than fly. The insects were found on very dark soil in an area of large clumps of Ehjmiis cinereiis and Artemisia tridentata. Seasonal Occurrence. Collections in this area were made only on August 12 and August 21. Males and females were found on both dates. No nymphs were collected. Locah'ties Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 12. Study 12CF, 12 adults, August 12 and 21. Additional Remarks. The established synon- omy indicates that variation is found within the group. The species is fre(jucntlv referred to in the literature as jiiliatui. Specimens collect- ed near the type locality bv the author show a tendency towards typical cincta in the black banding across the face. This character is shown in the minority of specimens in the series, how- ever. Triinerotropis albescens McNeill (Table 35; Map 16) 1901. Triinerotropis albescens McNeill, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXIII, pp. 418-419. Distinctive Features. This species is small in size for the genus, but the best distinguishing characters are found in the color and markings. Coloration. The ground color is whitish, sparsely punctate with fuscous on the pronotum and conspicuouslv banded with fuscous on the tegmina and posterior femora. The tegmina are whitish like the bodv, with the basal band nar- row and nearl)' solid, the median and third bands narrow and obviouslv made up of maculations, but very conspicuous; beyond the third fuscous band a few groups of fuscous annuli are present. All of the light areas are very broad and im- punctate, except the basal, with a few dusky points, and an oblique fuscous dash just beyond the edge of the pronotimi, best seen when the tegmina are at rest over the abdomen. The wing disk is light yellow, nearly transparent, bordered by a few fuscous clouds representing the fuscous band; the ape.x is hyaline. The pos- terior femur has the lower sulcus light except for a narrow stripe on the basal h;df and a band preceding the preapical light spot. The e.xterior face is whitish, except for a \ery distinct fuscous band preceding the preapical light band and a few faint clouds representing the other bands. The posterior tibia is blue with the base black, followed by a distinct light annulus. N\niplis resemble adults in body color and iiie alwa\s found on the ground where they blend in with the environment. The specimens at the Nevada Test Site are somewhat \ariable according to the color of sand upon which they are found. They are al- ways very pale, however, and found on light sandy soils. Specimens found at lower eleva- tions, where the sand is very white, show an ex- cei'tlingly light color; those at higher elevations, where the sand is more yellowish, show a yel- lowish suffusion of the ground color. The caudal tibiae are alwaj's light blue, lre(|uently with blue under the femora, the ventral band may be solid, broken, or nearly in- Table 35. Size variation of Trimewtropis albescens. -5 C S i JO 17.8 9.0 18.6 9.2 18.9 9.2 19.4 9.6 21.4 10.3 23.7 11.1 23.0 11.9 24.2 12.6 24.2 12.5 26.4 13.4 ■B — J- , EGA, August 12, 1961 cf , ECB, August 11, 1961 J', EM, Julv 23, 1961 ^, 3M. July 15, 1961 (^, ECB, August 11, 1961 $ , EGA, August 16, 1961 9 , 3GH, July 22, 1961 9 , EGA, July 30, 1961 § , EM, July 23. 1961 9 , ECB, August 11, 1961 16.7 17.0 18.0 18.2 20.8 23.9 24.4 24.8 25.8 27.9 3.3 3.7 3.4 3.6 4.1 4.4 4.6 4.8 4.9 4.9 2.7 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.9 70 Bhigiiam Young Univeksity Science Bulletin distinct. Specimens collected early in the season ( these specimens were from lower elevations ) averaged considerably paler than later specimens at higher elevations. Distribution. Tlie species is apparently limit- ed in distrii)iition to California and adjacent areas in Nevada. At the Ne\ada Test Site the species is found only in very light colored sand. Habitats. LaRivers (1948) commented that the insect is an "effortless and wary flier." In c-oUccting albescens from the test site it was determined that the insect is ver\' active, though wary, with a distinct undulating flight and a loud stridulation during the flight. Generally, if the insect was not captured on the first attempt after the first flight, it would escape because of its remarkable resemblance to the environment and because of the scattered desert shrubs un- der which it would eventually hide. As with other members of the genus, albc- scens is found on sand, never on vegetation until the extreme heat of the day forces them onto the branch tips of shrubs. Seasonal Occurrence. Adults were collected from June 22 to October 14. Three subadults were found during the months of July and Aug- ust. Adults were most common during July and August. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (subadults and adults): 40. Study EGA, sand dunes, 18 specimens, July 22 to October 14. Study EGB, target rock area, 9 specimens, June 22 to August 11. Area E, miscellaneous collecting near Area 12 garbage dump, 8 specimens, July 23 and 24. Study 3GH, 1 specimen, June 27. More speci- mens were seen in this area, but were exceeding- ly difficult to collect. Area 3, miscellaneous, near Study 3GH, 4 specimens, July 15. T rime rot ropis strenua McNeill (KiguRs .56, 59; Tahli- 36; M.ip 17) 1901. Trimciolropis strenua McNeill, Proc. U. S. Nat. .\Ius., XXIII, pp. 432-433. Established Synonomy. Trimcrotrapis mon- taiui .McNeill. Distinctive Features. The proz(jnal carina of the pronotum is slightly elevated. The lateral lobe of the pronotum is armed with a distinct tooth (in the Nevada Test Site specimens) which character will distinguish it from tlie other members of the genus. The caudal tibiae are coral red. Coloration. This species closely resembles pallidipcnnis in size, coloration and markings, but can be distinguished by the following mark- ings: The tegmen has a \erv narrow basal band, distinct and well defined, the median and apical bands are less distinct, composed of dark macu- lations, the intervening light areas entirely un- spotted. The wing disk is yellow, the fuscous band rather broad. The disk of the posterior femur has a black inner face, with two yellow bands on the apical half and one subapical black band. The lower sulcus is yellow. The outer face is plain, with a single fuscous transverse sub- apical band. The most distinct difference be- tween pallidipcnnis and strenua is the c-olor of the caudal tibiae. In strenua they arc coral red; in pallidipennis, buffish-yellow. Distribution. The distribution of this species ranges from Oregon and Idaho south and east to western Colorado, New Mexico and western Texas and into northern Chihuahua, Mexico. The species lias been described by Rehn and Hebard (1909) as a "Great Basin and interior desert form." At the Ne\'ada Test Site it was widely distri- buted, but limited seasonally. Habitats. At the test site the species was found onl\' in sandy areas where they were cap- Table 36. Size variation of Trimcrotropis strenua. i g. 3 S 3 E m E b2 £ u. ^ u t t^ g Jl a Ic3 21.6 4.5 24.7 12.0 3.3 23.9 4.2 25.7 11.6 3.1 29.1 5.4 29.7 14.4 3.9 29.1 5.5 30.6 14.5 3.8 31.5 5.7 30.2 14.7 4.0 cf, EGA, August 12, 1961 cT, EGA, August 18, 1961 9 , IF, August 9, 1961 9 , EGA, August 12, 1961 9 , IF, August 9, 1961 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 71 72 Biti(;iiAM VouNc Univeiisitv Science Bulletin tiirc'd only with ditficultv because of their con- triistiiii; markings and strong fliglit. The onlv feeding records are upon Sahulu kali, upon wliich tlu'V were found in stud\- II'". Seasonal Occurrence. Adults were collected from August 9 to September 4. All but two of the specimens were collected during the month of August. At the Nevada Test Site it apparent- ly has a \er\- short adult life. No ininphs xvcre collected. Locah'ties Represented. Specimens examin- ed (subadults and adults): 1.5. Stud\' IM, 1 specimen, .\ugust 16. Study IF, 3 specimens, August 9 and li. feeding on Sal.iola kali. Study 3CD, 1 specimen, -August 15. Study .5A, 1 specimen, August 31. Area 6, miscellaneous collecting, 2 sjjeci- mcns, August 15. Stud)' EGA, sand dunes, 7 specimens, Aug- ust 12 to September 4. .Additional Remarks. The original description of strcnua indicates its closeness to T. californica Brunei. TIicn ' inay be but varieties of an c.\- ceedingK- variable species." Rehn and Hcbard also commented on the closeness of these species. In an examination of the phallic structures of the male the author found tlie two species practical- ly inseparable, certainly no more than subspe- cies, but the original designation of species is maintained until complete revision is made of this very difficult genus. Triiitcnilropis pallidipcnnis pallidipcnni.s (Burmeister) (I'l.ite I; Kigiires 48, 55, Tables .j7, ,3«; Map 18 i 1838. OEdipoda piUlidipennis Burmeister, liandb. Ent., II. p. 641. Fstablished Synonomy. Trirnerotropis vin- ctddld Scudder; Trirnerotropis similis Scudder. Distinctive Features. At the .Nevada Test Site this insect is the most widely distributed and most common acridid appearing through- out the entire year. It can be recognized among the nuTiibers of the genus Trirnerotropis h\ its large size, sharing the large size in common with T. strcnua, and b\' bc-iiig tlie onlv member (jf tlic genus witli \elic)\\ wings and yellow caudal tibiae. Coloration. This is the large, flashy, yellow- winged species of the desert. Specimens from the -Nevada Test Site ha\e a defim'te tendency for "X" markings on the pronotum because of the contrasting colors. The insect has the usual dark band on the hind wings, typical of the entire group of band-winged grasshoppers. As stated previously, the caudal tibiae are yellow, often drying to a yellowish-tan. The species has a ver\- definite color as a re- sponse to soil, being light in light-colored soil, dark in dark-colored soil, more gra\'ish in gray soil, and even (not observed at the Nevada Test Site) reddish in red soil. Distribution. Tiiis grasshopper has, without a doubt, as great a distribution as any other grasshopper in the world. Relm (1940) sum- marized its distribution as follows: Table 37. Size variation of Trirnerotropis pallidipennis pallicHjK'nnis. t ti to 3 5i ^ J^ 22.0 4.3 24.7 11.1 3.0 22.3 4.3 26.9 11.1 3.0 22.8 4.6 25.5 1(1.9 3.3 23.2 5.0 27 2 12.5 3.5 29.2 5.8 32.8 14.6 4.3 30.3 6.2 32.7 15.0 4.2 30.5 5.7 31.5 15.1 4.1 32.3 6.0 .35.1 14.5 4.2 ,32.4 7.0 34.8 15.5 4.4 .■33.2 6.1 32.7 15.2 4.1 34.0 6.2 35.7 15.5 4.5 (^ , 6A, July 12, 1961 J", 5A, July 6, 1961 cf , IG, Augvist 9, 1961 cT, JA, October 15, 1961 9 , CM, July 6, 1961 9 . 5M, Octob.r 3, 1961 9 , ,5E, July 18, 1961 9 , 5A, July 6, 1961 9 , CM, September 30, 1961 9 , 5A, July 11, 1961 9 , JA, August 3, 1961 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 73 "This wide-ranging and quite variable sub- species is one of that interesting group of forms which have marked discontinuous distribution. Almost universally distributed over the western United States west of the eastern edge of the Great Plains e.xcept in boreal areas, and occur- ring from depressions below sea-level to con- siderable elevations, where the form is often the sole geophilous acridid, it extends southward in arid or semi-arid Mexico at least as far as the state of Oaxaca .... From tliis point southward it is absent until sub-Andean conditions in southern Ecuador and Peru are reached ... a third area, in which the race is apparently as abundant locally as in the western United States, extends from Bolivia at the Argentina border . . . southward . . . and eastward. . . ." It is found distributed over the entire Nevada Test Site except at highest elevations such as Rainier Mesa and other similar areas, where it should be present, but was not collected. Habitats. This acridid is at times a very loud stridulator during flight, is a very strong flier, and difficult to approach during optimum tem- peratures. Tlie species is invariably found in a clearing, except during extreme temperatures of the summer when it may be found on vege- tation, usually the highest tips of the shrubs. When disturbed it always lands in a clearing and when approached increases its flight dis- tance with each stop as it is pursued. In the course of chasing and capturing one female three attempts had been made and the next flight took her in the area of a male of the same species. The male was not observed until he gave a quick short jump. He was observed approaching the female from a distance of about six feet in a series of quick, short, jerky move- ments (about one body length at a time), often flexing his hind legs. In the meantime the fe- male had flexed her hind legs in the same man- ner. At a distance of about twelve inches he stopped and the only movement of either was the characteristic waving of the antennae. He then quickly approached her and jumped on her back from the side in a position of copula- tion. After about two seconds he jumped off and almost immediately flew about 25 feet. An attempt was then made to capture the female, but she was very elusive and after six or eight attempts and covering at least 75 feet in a circle she again lit in the vicinity of the same male. He went through the same movements as be- fore, except that he stayed on the back of the female for about ten seconds. Almost immediate- ly, upon parting, I tried to collect both speci- mens, but the female flew away. Again I fol- lowed her and the course took her in pro.ximity of a second male, who carried out the same manners as the first, but without actually mount- ing the female. As he hopped slowly away from the female I was able to capture them both. In the late season and as the temperatures decrease with the approach of winter, the species is found less frequently, but even during wann- er days of winter it can be found in the bright sunshine. The colder temperatures bring about a change in body color, and after the first cold night the specimens exhibit a darkened sternum and abdomen, very suggestive of Dissosteira Carolina. The species was commonly obscr\ed about the lights at night. Seasonal Occurrence. Adults were first col- lected on March 11; the last collecting date was November 28. Nymphs were first collected on December 8 and present into July. No speci- mens, nymphs or adults, were collected during the months of January and February, probably because collecting activities had slowed down considerably, but the one nymph present in De- cember, and again in March, would indicate that they would have been present on warm days during those months, seeking protection during the cold days, and that they overwinter in the nymphal stage. They were nearly equal in abundance during the months of June through October. In November their numbers sharply decreased. ( See Table 38 for summary of speci- mens of pallkUpennis throughout the test site.) Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed ( nymphs and adults ) : 299. Sahol^ (studies IF and 5P), 19 specimens, June 19 to November 3. Grayia-Ltjcium (studies IB, IG and 4A), 78 specimens, April 5 to December 8 (last adult collected in November; December 8 record was one nymph). Lijcitim (Study 5E), 18 specimens, March IS to July 27. Larrea-Franseria (studies 5A, 5CQ, 3CD), 27 specimens, April 8 to October 1. Atriplex-Kochia (studies 6A and miscellane- ous), 17 specimens, April 27 to August 14. Colcogijne (studies lOD and Area 6 mis' cellaneous), 24 specimens, June 14 to August 28. Artemisia (studies ECB, TA, TCB and mis- cellaneous), 14 specimens, June 22 to August 18. Cane Springs (CBA and CM), 24 specimens. May 27 to October 14. 74 Bitrr.iiAM VouNc UNrv'EnsiTY Science Bulletin JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL Iaug SEP OCT NOV DEC ARTEMISIA ATRIPLEX-KOCHIA CANE SPRINGS i I-4B ^ - m^Hm ^ ■ 1 i ^^ COLEOGYNE GRAYIA- LYCIUM LARREA- FRANSERIA < ^^^^ ^^ L , ^^^ ^" *- , 1 ^^1 Ni^ ^Hi l^^l 1 MIXED PLANTS ROCKY AREAS SALSOLA ^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^"^^^ ^^^ ^^■j j^^^^^^M - ^ ^^i^^H 1 Table 38. SlmsomuI distribution of Trimerotropis pallidipcnni.s paUidipennis. Mixed vegetation (studies JA and EGA), 49 specimens, March 19 to October 15. Study 5CK, rocky area, 8 specimens, July 14 to November 6. Area 5, miscellaneous collecting, 18 speci- mens, March 11 to October 16. Area 15, miscellaneous collecting, 1 speci- men, November 28. Study ACC, 9 specimens, October 2. Trinwrotrapis inconspicua Bnuicr (Table 39; .Map 19) 1904. Trimerotrapis iiwonspicua Brimer. Bull. Agr. Exp. Sta. Colorado, 94, p. 59. Establislied Synonomy. T rimerotropis viri- (litibialis Henderson. Table 39. Size variation of T rimerotropis inconxpicua. Distinctive Features. This species is very similar to T. pallidipcnnis paUidipennis, but smaller, and can be recognized by the characters given in the key and by the remarks under "Coloration." Coloration. This species is lighter in color than pallidipcnnis, which it resembles, except for the tegminal area between die pro.ximal band and the base of the tegmen, which area is as dark, usually, as the band; tegminal bars are comparatively narrow, but well defined, con- verging posteriorly. While the bands on the tcgmina are not solid thev are (juite prominent and made up of clusters of dark dots or bv the infuscation of certain \einlcts. On the basal por- tion these bands arc narrower than usual and show a decided tendency towards converging t ^11 Jl JJ (^, 3CD, Auguit 15, 1961 J', CBA, July 18, 1961 J', JA, July 18, 1961 cT, JA, October 4, 1961 cT, 3CD, Augu.st 15, 1961 9 , IG, July 10, 1961 9 , 5M, September 26, 1961 9 . 3CF, June 27, 1961 9 , J A, October 15, 1961 o , TA, July 17, 1961 17.0 3.4 18.3 9.5 2.8 18.2 3.3 19.5 9.6 2.5 18.4 3.6 19.0 9.3 2.4 18.5 3.7 19.3 9.6 2.7 19.2 3.8 22.3 10.0 2.9 22.7 4.8 23.9 11.2 3.5 23.3 4.6 24.9 11.5 3.3 23.6 4.9 25.1 11.8 3.4 24.6 5.0 25.4 12.3 3.2 28.5 6.0 26.9 12.9 4.0 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 75 posteriorly, while the apical portion is nearly destitute of markings e.xcept for the infuscation here and there of a few veinlets. The wing has a very pale greenish-yellow disk, crossed about the middle by a narrow fuliginous band, with a transparent apical portion beyond the dark band. The lower sulcus of the caudal femur is yellow or at least with two pale bands. Tlie hind tibiae are pale greenish or slightly yellowish, except on the extreme base where they are dark brown and they are somewhat infuscated beyond the subbasal pale annulus and apically. The front and middle legs and antennae are well marked with dusky annulations. Distribution. The type locality of this species is Palisade, Mesa Co., Colorado. At the time of description it had very limited known distribution. The species has been collected in Arizona, and Henderson's description of viridi- tibialii' was from Central Utah. At the Nevada Test Site it is widely distributed, though not abundant, in many of the areas. Habitats. The species is not an active flier, moving only five or six feet (males) or not at- tempting to move before capture (females). No attempt was made to correlate it with any vege- tation types because Trimerotropis, generally, is found on bare ground and upon alighting re- turns to bare ground. Seasonal Occurrence. The species was col- lected from June 12 to October 15. Adults were equally common through the months of June to September. One nymph was assigned to the species, and only one subadult was found. It is likely that the nymphs of incontpicua could be confused with those of pallidipcnnis, and may be told only by the general pronotal characters, the smaller size, and the banding on the femora. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed ( nymphs and adults ) : 49. Table 40. Size variation of Trimerotropis cyaneipennis. Study IG, 2 specimens, July 10. Study 3CD, 2 specimens, August 15. Study 3CF, 1 specimen, June 27. Study 5A, 1 specimen, July 18. Area 5, miscellaneous collection, 4 specimens, September 26. Area 6, miscellaneous collections, 1 specimen, August 11. Study lOD, 4 specimens, June 14 to Aug- ust 16. Study CM, Cane Springs, 1 specimen, Aug- ust 19. ' Area E, miscellaneous collecting near Area 12 garbage dump, 1 specimen, July 24. Studies JA and CBA, 23 specimens, June 12 to October 15. (These two studies are grouped because of a mixed vegetation.) Study TA, Midvalley, 9 specimens, June 22 to August 17. Additional Remarks. This species shows con- siderable variation in both morphology and color pattern throughout its distribution at the Nevada Test Site. Specimens were sent to the U. S. Na- tional Museum for confirmation. Trimerotropis cijaneipcnnis Bruner (Table 40; Map 19) 1889. Trimerotropis cyaneipennisn [Sic] Bru- ner, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XII, pp. 68-69. Established Synonomy. Trimerotropis ajanea Scudder. Distinctive Features. Coloration is the main distinguishing character of the species. The only other dark blue winged species, Leprus glauci- peiinis Scudder, is so distinct from the genus Tri- merotropis morphologically that it should not be confused with the present species. 1 b2 1 J s bJOTa C 3 ^c3 mo 15.7 3.5 19.0 9.1 2.2 20.6 3.7 22.3 9.9 2.7 21.3 3.8 21.8 10.8 2.8 21.6 4.4 23.7 12.8 3.0 27.0 5.3 28.7 13.2 3.5 27.1 5.3 29.3 13.6 3.5 28.3 5.4 28.9 13.1 3.3 29.9 5.8 30.0 14.1 3.9 ,?. 5HQ, August 12, 1961 fT, 12E, July 24, 1961 cT, 12E, August 12, 1961 J', 12E, August 12, 1961 5 , 12A, June 26, 1961 9 , 12A, July 27, 1961 § , 12A, July 9, 1961 9 , 12A, August 11, 1961 76 BiiiciiAM VouNC Univehsity Science Bulletin C^oloration. Tlir gcnrral IkkIv color is dark gr.iy, ottci) with a Icrnigiiious tinge, piofiisi-ly inottlc'l and markfil witli tiiscoiis. Tlic lifaci is mottlcil will) gray and hrouii. Tlic proiioliim is marked with tlie saine contrasting colors; tlie tegmina arc rnottied with rather large quadrate brownish spots, which in most specimens are grouped info tliree bands or patches, the first occupying the iiasal third, the second the center of the middle, and the third the outer third of the tegmen, not forming definite bands as in most of the other members of the genus. Wings \er\' dark blue on their basal half, crossed bevond hv a rather \\ ide fuliginous band that docs not continue annmd towards the anal angle; the apical third hyaline \\ ith tlie veins black. Tlie caudal femora are crossed externally by three moderately broad oblique brown bands, internally with the basal half and a single black band in advance of the light yellow preapical an- nulation. Caudal tibiae deep cocrulean blue with a light basal annulation, the spines black- tipped. Abdomen deep blue above in some specimens, inclining to greenish along the sides, suffused ^\^th gray below. Distribution. This sj:>ecies was described from specimens collected in the Salt Lake Val- ley, Utah, near the mouth of Ogden Canyon. It ranges from western Texas west to California and north to southern Idalio. At the Nevada Test Site it was (juite common on Rainier Mesa, less common in the other arejis where it was found. Habitats. The species is a strong flier and loud stridulator. One specimen was observed flying for more than 1()0 feet before alighting. TTie flash of blue as the insect flies is very obvious. The specimens from Study 5HQ average smaller and are considerably lighter in color, suggesting a response to soil environment, inas- much as Area 12 has very dark soil; Area 5, much lighter soil. Table 41. Size varLition of Trimerotrofm sparsa. There is no correlation between vegetation and the species. Seasonal Occurrence. .Adults were collected Irom June 2ti to October 4. Most of the speci- mens were collected during the month of July. No specimens were collected during the month of September, as no collecting trips were made onto Hainier Mesa, and only one specimen was captured in October. No nvmphs were collected. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 76. Study SMQ, 4 specimens, August 12 and 13. The occiu-rence of this species at this low ele- vation is surprising. It was an area of Sahola kali. Studies 12A and 12E, Rainier Mesa, 58 speci- mens, June 26 to August 21. At least 90 percent of the specimens were collected in Study 12A, the disturbed area. Study ACC, 1 specimen, October 4. Area E, miscellaneous collecting near the Area 12 garbage dump, 10 specimens, July 23 and 24. Study TCB, 3 specimens, .\ugust 12 and 13. Trimerotropi-s sparsa Thomas (Table 41; Map 19) 1S75. OEiUpoda sparsa Thomas, Wheeler's Re- port, Ckx)g. Geol. Expl. Sur^'. West 100th Merid- ian, pp. 883-884. Established Synonomy. Trimerotropis azure- scens Bruner; Trimerotropis perplexa Bruner. Distinctive Features. The species is distinct as being the only member of the genus without a black band. In flight it may not be recognized because of the transparent light blue wings. C^oioration. The body of the insect is dull gra\ish brown throughout, sprinkled with fus- cous dots. The tegmina are somewhat darker on U ■£ — to wro Si JO 1-6 05 (J 20.0 9.5 2.6 21.9 10.4 2.8 21.3 10.9 2.8 21.6 10.8 2.7 26.8 12.6 3.3 6A, July 26, 1961 6A, July 26, 1961 6A, July 17. 1961 6A, Julv 17, 1961 6A, August 16, 1961 19.6 20.5 21.2 21.3 27.3 3.9 4.3 4.3 4.5 5.5 Biological Sehies, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 77 the basal third, the other two thirds being lighter and sparsely sprinkled with the fuscous dots. The wings are a transparent light blue with promin- ent and strong veins. The caudal tibiae are yellow. Throughout its range, especially to the north- east there is considerable variation in color and intensity of the wings, and the development of the wing band. The specimens from the Nevada Test Site, however, are quite consistent in pat- tern and coloration. Distribution. The species is widely distri- buted in all of the western states from North Dakota, Montana, and Alberta, Canada, south to western Te.xas and New Mexico (the type local- ity) and west into the Great Basin. At the Ne- vada Test Site it was found in only one sti^idy, in the Atriplex-Kodiia association immediately adjacent to Yucca Playa. Habitats. A very loud stridulator and strong flier, this species flies short distances of 20 to 25 feet, loudly stridulating with each flight. It is a very wary insect on the ground and, at times, it has been impossible to approach any nearer than ten feet. At least a dozen attempts were made on one specimen, which finally escaped by a longer flight and apparently hid in an Athplex. Seasonal Occurrence. Adults were collected from June 28 to August 16. They were most numerous in July. No nymphs were collected. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 10. Study 6A, 10 specimens, June 28 to Aug- ust 16. Genus Anconia Scudder 1876. Anconki Scudder, Appendix H9 of Ap- pendix JJ of Ann. Rep. Ghief Eng. U. S. Geogr. Surv. W. 100th Meridian, pp. 514-515. Anconia integra Scudder (Figure 45; Table 42; Map 20) 1876. Anconia integra Scudder, Appendix H9 of Appendix JJ of Ann. Rep. Chief Eng. U. S. Geogr, Surv. W, 100th Meridian, p, 515, Distinctive Features. There is a remarkable size difference in the sexes of this species. The females are large, the males small. Morpho- logically they are distinct from other species found at the Nevada Test Site. The head and most of the anterior lobe of the pronotum are smooth, the posterior lobe of the pronotum pro- fuseh' punctulate. The head and pronotum are both small in comparison to the expanded meso- sternum and metasternum. The tegmina and wings are very long, the caudal femora very long and narrow. The pronotum is broadly rounded posteriorly. Coloration. This species is variable in color from ash gray to yellow with minute fuscous maculations on the pronotum and head, and with larger maculations on the tegmina. The lateral carinae of the pronotum are noticeably marked with a cream-color to produce an "X" on the pronotum. Occasionally, especially the females, the entire body, including the tegmina and caudal femora, is green with yellow mark- ings and brown maculations. The wings are transparent, clear, or slightly smoked in some specimens, with the larger veins fuscous. The caudal femora have two indistinct black bands both externally and internally, the outer central area of the caudal femora with ash-gray wash. The caudal tibiae are the same color as the body, bifasciate proximally. Klost of the body markings fade somewhat in drying. At the Nevada Test Site the brown specimens predominate, the green phase was only occasion- ally found, and specimens exhibiting the true yellowish phase were not collected. Table 42. Size variation of Aticonia integra. cf , 6A, July 10, 1961 J', 5E, August 13, 1961 J' , 5E, May 27, 1961 § , 5E, April 29, 1961 9 , 5E, September 9, 1961 ? , SCI, June 29, 1961 t 21.0 21.9 22.0 34.5 36.7 38.0 ►J (C 4.1 4.6 4.7 7.0 7.9 7.6 1 1 3 3 t J •5-3 bOT3 $ s K (S «U 21.8 11.4 2.3 25.1 10.9 2.3 23.9 12.6 2.4 32.7 17.1 3.3 34.3 17.7 3.7 37.6 18.7 3.6 78 Bkkmiam Vounc University Science Bulletin Distribution. TIh- range of the sjx'cios is now known to extend from Las Vegas, Nevada, and Death \alley, Cahfornia, south to Indio, Calif- ornia and Y'uma, Arizona, and from the western portion of the Molui\e Desert to at least tlie vieinitv of Tueson, Arizona. Tlie Nevada Test Site distribution is limited to lower elevations. Habitats. The eolleeting results at the Ne- \ada Test .Site somewhat contradict some of the pMhlished comments on this species. Caudell (1908) reported that "these grasshoppers are wild and hard to catch, especially as they often fly in thorny shrubs, where they are \ery diffi- cult to get. They are protectively colored when on the ground and when flushed fly long dis- tances, especially the females which fly much farther than the males." Rehn and Ilebard (1908) reported: "At Tucson this species was taken among high weeds both in damp and dry locations. They were very wary and alert and when missed flew for some considerable dis- tance. A preference to alighting on the ground when pursued rather tlian on weeds and bushes was observed, tliough invariably first discovered among vegetation." .At the Nevada Test Site this grasshopper was found only on alkaline outwashes. Several specimens were found directly on Atriplex con- fertifolia. More often, especially the males, they were found on the groimd, where they were well concealed. It was observed that these speci- mens were weak fliers, never flying high nor far. Manv of the specimens were collected during the middle of the day when they should be most active. No nymphs were collected, but the species did show a preference to A. confertifolia. in which they were well concealed, and upon which they fed. Seasonal Occurrence. Adults were collected from March 14 to September 9. Tliey were most numerous during April, May and June, and are Table 43. Size variation of Cibolacris parviceps aridus. a late spring and very early summer form. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 37. Study IB, 1 adult, .\ugust 27, vegetation not recorded. Study .3CI, 1 adult, June 29, vegetation not recorded, probably on A. confertifolia. Study 5A, 1 adult, .August 31, vegetation not rec-orded, although the area is predominantly Larrea divdricata and Franseria dumosa. Study 5E, 28 adults, March 14 to September 9, always on A. cimfcrtifolia or on alkaline ground. Study 6A, 6 adults. June 14 to July 10, on Atriplex confertifolia. Oni- specimen was found on Kochia anicricitna. Genus Cibolacris Hebard 1937. Cibolacrui Hebard, Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, LXIII, pp. 368-369. Cibolacris fmrviceps aridus (Bruner) (Figure 44; Table 43; Map 21) 1889. Thrincus (?) avidus (= ariilus) Brunei, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XII, p. 78, pi. 1, figs. 2 and 3. Distinctive Features. Form moderately ro- bust, the general contour of the head suggesting Anconia, the vertex with fine lateral Ciirinae sud- denly and strongly convergent distad and briefly separated at the apex of the fastigium. The an- tennae are very short, the eyes more prominent. The pronotum is weakly sellate, definitely cx)n- stricted in the cephalic portion (but not as de- cidedly so as in Ariconia), the cephalic margin of the disk with two, usually definite, small adja- c-ent median con\exities. The disk of the pro- notum is broadly rounded posteriorly. The caudal femora are short and robust. There is no trace of the band on the hind wing. t J £ t a 2 I ^1 ^c3 cf, 5CQ, July 10, 1961 cf , CM, July 6, 1961 cT, JA, July 6, 1961 9 , 5B, July 3, 1961 9 , .5B, July 3, 1961 9 , 5E, July 13, 1961 16.4 17.3 18.1 27.8 28.2 31.6 3.2 3.0 3.2 4.2 4.9 5.7 15.5 17.4 17.1 24.0 23.7 26.4 8.7 9.1 9.8 13.9 13.5 13.6 2.5 2.8 2.8 3.6 3.8 3.8 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September. 1964 80 Bricham Younc UNi\'EHsrTY Science Buluetin Coloration. The color variation in fin's siib- specit-s is interesting. The general gronnd color varies from \er\ dark gray, brown, and even red- brown, to verv light gra\-, buff, and almost while. There are usually rather coarse and scattered dark dots in \ar\ing degrees of contrast, some specimens presenting a decided speckled ap- pearance. The insect has a strong tendency to duplicate the soil coloration. This is more notice- able over its entire range. From the White Sands area of New Me.xico it is almost white; from southern Arizona, (juite yellow; and from the red sands of southern Utah it takes on a red appearance. From the Nevada Test Site it has a tendency to intermediate colors, the yellows, grays, and light brownish-reds. The mauve- colored macuiations blend in rather well with the mau\e-colored rocks of the desert pavement upon which it may be found. The specimens show a definite tendency to the light "X" mark- ings of the pronotum, so common with many of the desert acridids. This marking definitel)' blends in with the background. Tlie wings are pale bluish-green; the Ciiudal tibiae delicate blue with a white basal annulus. Nymphs mav be recognized by the contrast- ing colors and the definite tendency of the "X" on the pronotum. Distribution. This species is a true faunal in- dicator of the Ixnver Sonoran life zone, its distri- bution extending through the southwestern des- erts from southwestern Texas and northern Chi- huahua, Me.xico, to southern California and north to southern Nevada and Utah. At the Nevada Test Site it is as widely dis- tributed as Trimcrotropus jxiUidipcnnis pallidi- pcnnls, but has not been collected throughout the vear as has that species. This may be a case of concealment in the habitat (jxillidipcnnis be- ing a showv insect) rather than not actually be- ing absent from the environment. Habitats. This species is exceedingly difficult to collect, though often numerous in the environ- ment. Their ability to blend in with their en- vironment is most remarkable of any other geopliilous acridid at the test site. Thev are always found on desert pavement, except during extremely high temperatures when they can be found resting on the vegetation off the ground. Tliey are rarely seen until they move. When pursued they always alight in the open, flving onlv a short distance, but always are well c-oncealed upon alighting. Tliey apparently have the abilitv to detect the spot in the area where they will be remarkablv well camou- flaged. Tliese statements can be made after watching and pursuing actually hundreds of specimens, male, female and nymphs, in all stages of development. Hebard ( 19.37) commented on the habitat of this group: "From the series before me it is evi- dent that this insect prefers pebbly or coarse gravelly areas in washes particularly near or at the bases of the desert hills and mountains of the southwestern United States, but is able to reach considerable elevations (as high as 6950 feet) in such environment. It is ven,' often en- countered, but is seldom numerous and almost disappears in the dr)' and hot valleys. Adults are present almost throughout the year as well as small immatures. I am inclined to believe, how- ever, that the largest number of adults are pre- sent from May to early July over most of its range." Contrary to what Hebard remarked about this insect not being found commonly in the val- leys, at the Nevada Test Site it is most common in those areas of low shrubs immediately sur- rounding the playa lakes, wherever small peb- bles iire scattered on the ground. It is never found in the alkali outwashes, but is always as- sociatcnJ with the desert pavement. It is also found at higher elevations (but not on Rainier Mesa nor at the highest elevations on the test site) on rocky terrain. It is definitely attracted to lights at night. Seasonal Occurrence. Nvmphs were collect- ed from March 11 to the middle of June. Adults were found from .\pril 1 to October 14. The group is most numerous from .\pril through July. ( See Tal)le 44 for comparative distribution. ) Localities Represented. Sjiecimens examin- ed ( nymphs and adults ) : 287. Salsola studies (IF), 13 specimens June 19 to August 16. Graijia-Lijcium studies (IB, IG, 4A, 5E), 101 specimens, April 8 to August 16. Larrea-Franseria studies (3CD, 5A, 58, 5CQ, 5M), 149 specimens, March 11 to October 2. Atriplcx-KcH-hia studies, no specimens col- lected. This is one of the two major associations where the species was not found. Coleogijne studies (lOD), 5 specimens, June 16 to August 14. Artemisia studies (TA), 1 specimen, June 16. Pinvon-Juniper studies, no specimens col- lected. The group was not found at this high elevation on the test site. Mixed vegetation studies (ECA and JA), 12 specimens, April 28 to October 14. Biological Series, Vol. 4. No. 3, September, 1964 81 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ARTEMISIA X CANE SPRINGS X X COLEOGYNE ^ ^ "^ GRAYIA-LYCIUM ■ ■ ■ ^ LARREA- FRANSERIA H H m ^ — - MIXED PLANTS ^ " ^ ■— SALSOLA m - - Table 44. Seasonal distribution of Ciholacris parviceps aridus. Study 3CF, Tetradijmia-Yucca association, 4 specimens, June 27. Study CM, Cane Springs, 2 specimens, April 8 and July 6. Study ACC, 1 specimen, October 2. Superfamily Tridactyloidea Family TiUDAcrYLiDAE (Figures 8, 9) The pygmy mole crickets, or sand crickets, are small burrowing orthopterans found along sandy margins of streams or other bodies of water. They can be distinguished from other orthopterans by the characters given in tlie key. Until recent times they were considered to be closely related to the true crickets, but internal morphology placed them in their true position, more nearly related to the acridids. They are definitely adapted for fossorial habitat. These minute orthopterans are very agile creatures and very powerful jumpers. They are exceedingly difficult to collect because they are difficult to spot. If known to be present in the area, they can best be captured by sweeping along the edges of the water and by sweeping the vegetation along the margins. Representatives of this group have not been collected from the Nevada Test Site, but they are widely distributed over the United States, and two species approach the area in their known distribution. They could only be found around margins of perennial water sources, es- peciallv in sandy areas, and the Nevada Test Site may not actually have an environment con- ducive to their survival. Only two species are foimd in continental United States. Trichictylus (ipicalis Say, the larger of the two has one-segmented caudal tarsi; T. minutiis Scudder has the hind tibia equipped with a pair of short plates used in swimming, but the hind tarsi are absent. Suborder Ensifeba Superfamily TtriTiGONioiDEA To the suborder Ensifera belong the major sound-producing orthopterans, the so-called long-horned grasshoppers, the camel or cave crickets, and the true crickets. It consists of an assemblage of many different superficial types of insects, all related in that their antennae are very long, usually, sometimes several times the length of the body, very gradually tapering and with many segments. The tegmina, when present, are generally somewhat membranous, Key to the Families of Ensifera 1. Tarsi 4-segmented (Fig. 60); tegmina and wings, when developed, sloping at sides of body, may be reduced to small lobes, barely projecting beyond the pronotum, or apparently non- existent 2 Tarsi 3-segmented, the middle segment minute ( Fig. 61 ) ; tegmina and wings, when present, horizontal in greater part (Fig. 62) Family Gryllidae, page 112 2. Wings generally present; front tibiae with an auditory organ (Fig. 63) Family Tettigoniidae, page 82 Wings absent; no auditory organ on front tibiae Family Gryllacrididae, page 91 82 BiiiciiAM YouNC University Science Bulletin *^ * FIG 60 FIG. 61 r FIG 63 Figs. 60-63. 60, Anoplodusa arizonensis, female, caudal taiMLs, lateral view. 61, Acheta assimilis, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view. 62, A. asHmilis, female, head, pronotum, tegmina, dorso-lateral view. 63, A. arizon- eiuiis, male, cephalic tibia showing auditor^' apparatus, lateral view. but in .some groiip.s arc clcnsf and opa(jue. Stridulation is accoinplislicd by the sound- producers by the modified anal or dorsal field of the tegmina. One tegmen is rubbed over the other. Auditory organs, if present, are on the cephalic tibiae. The female ovipositor is usually long and well de\el()ped, sometimes spear-like or sword- shaped, often sharply upturned and greatly curved, and composed of four or six valves. Family Tetiigoniidae Many different and distinct forms can be found among the long-horned grasshoppers. They can be distinguished, however, by the characters given in the key: the extremely long, finelv tapering antennae, the four-segmented tarsi, without arolia between the claws, a com- pressed, blade-like ovipositor in the female, or- gans of hearing situated on the front tibiae, and tegmina, if fully developed, with the larger part of their surfaces sloping at the sides of the body. The tegmina of the males are modified to form a sounding-board for the stridulating apparatus. This is located near the base of the tegmina and consists of a trans\erse ridge bearing a series of teeth which act upon a stiffened edge on the outer tegmen, causing both to vibrate and pro- duce a scraping sound. Winter is usually passed in the egg stage and hatching takes place in the spring. Growth is rapid and maturity reached in midsummer. The oviposition of the females in early autumn ends the cycle. These insects are most attractive in appear- ance and many of them have a distinctive song. Most species can be identified by their songs and may often be caught by following the sound at night. They are commonly noc-turnal insects. Key to Subfamilies of TFrrricoMiDAE First two tarsal segments lacking a lateral groove; posterior margin of hind tibiae with its two series of spines continued to tibial apex. Long, slender-winged species Subfamily Phaneropterinae, page 82 First two tarsal segments with lateral groove ( figs, 60, 64 ) ; spine series not continued to tibial apex; wings long or greatly reduced. If wings long, the insects are large and hea\y-bodied. Subfamily Tettigoniinae ( = Decticinae), page 86 FIG 64 Fig. 64. Capnohotcs fuligino.siis, female, caudal tarsus, lateral view. Subfamily Phanemopterinae Key to the Genera of Ph.\neropterinae Comparatively robust species; tegmina broad, barred with white or maculate; hind wings not over 7 mm. longer than tegmina (Fig. 65). Usually found in trees and on higher shrubs Insara Walker Extremely slender, long-legged species; tegmina, if present, uniformly colored, hind wings more than 7 mm. longer than tegmina (Fig. (i6); male with first abdominal tergite special- ized as in Figure 67. Usually found in grass and on low plants Arcthaca Stal Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. .3, September, 1964 83 FIG. 66 Figs. 65-67. 65, Insara elegans maculata, female allotype, tegmen and wing. 66, Arethaea brevicauda, male, tegmen and wing. 67, A. brevicauda, male, modification of first abdominal tergite, cephalo-lateral view. Genus Insara Walker 1869. Insara Walker, Cat. Derm. Salt. British Museum, II, p. 267. Key to the Species of Insara Dorsum of pronotum deplanate (Fig. 68); tcgmina marked with a slight herringbone pattern of light green, conspicuously maculate with dark dots. (Fig. 65) I. elegans maculata Barnum, new subspecies Dorsum of pronotum extremely sellate (figs. 69, 70); tegmina conspicuously marked with a series of large white or pale greenish spots /. covilleae Rehn and Hebard FIG. 69 FIG. 68 FIG. 70 Figs. 68-70. 68, Itisara elegans maculata, female allotype, pronotum, dorso-lateral view. 69, /. covilleae, male, pronotum, lateral view. 70, / covilleae, male, pronotum and proximal tegmina showing stridulating mechan.- ism, dorsal view. Insara elegans maculata Barnimi, new subspecies" (Figures 65, 68, 71-73; Map 22) Holotype Male, NEVADA, Nye Co., Nevada Test Site, one-half mile south of Tippipah Springs (Study TCB), July 16, 1961 (A. H. Barnum, collector). Allotype Female. Same locality as Holoty[>e male, October 14, 1961 (A. H. Barnum, col- lector ) . Both Holotype and Allotype are deposited in the U. S. National Museum. Comparative Features. Tliis insect shows few structural differences when compared to I. ele- gans elegans. It is somewhat smaller. The distal portion of the tegmina and wings are narrow, the marginal field of the tegmina narrowing abruptly distad from the proximal third as in elegans. The ovipositor is bent more decidedly upward than in elegans. Compared to /. elegans consuetipes the tegmina are very maculate. Description. General body markings as in elegans, the head greenish, more pronounced than the rest of the body except the tegmina. Tegmina with a distinct herringbone pattern of Ught and dark green, about as in elegans, but conspicuously punctate with dark purplish dots, these diu-k areas often completely filling cells, generally less extensive. Pronotum and stridu- lating mechanism of male as shown in Figure 72. Ovipositor of female (Fig. 71) with distal half of ventral valve brilliant green, basal half and dorsal valves dull yellowish green, all valves terminated by dark tips. The male cercus and terminal abdominal appendages as shown in Fig- ure 73. Tibiae, distal palpi and basal antennae brilliant green, the distal half of antennae an- ' 'Named after the maculate appearance of the tegmina. IliiK^iiAM VouNc Univeiisity Science Bulletin Male Fi'inak' 14.1 17.8 3.0 3.0 2.1 2.1 2.6 2.6 21.8 24.1 16.0 15.8 1.7 1.8 .3.1 3.0 1.1 5.0 milate with dark. Caudal fnnora markid with dark s]>()ls on both vt-utral luargin.s. Veins dii anal field of female tegiiieii marked with purplish brown as in /. tesiel/ita. Abdomen of nymphs punctate with purple dots. Size Variation. (Measurements in millimeters) ilolot\pc .\li(it\pe Male Fv: Length of bod\ Length of pronotum Greatest width of dorsal pronotum Depth of pronotum Length of tegmen Length of caudal lemur Breadth of caudal femur Wings projettiiig beyond tegmina Length of male cercus Length of female o\'ipositor Distribution. This subspecies was found only in the t\pi- locality at the Ne\ada Test Site. The area consisted of a small wash near Tippipah Springs. The vegetation where tlie unimpro\cd road crosses the wash consisted of a rather dense stand of Pttrsliiii '^UintUdosn. C.hri/.sotluivimis viscidiflorws. Artcniisui truli'utata, other shrubs, and numerous smaller perennials and annuals. Nearby is a thicket of oak, (^)ncrrus <^(iinhcHi. Habitats. This insect was first discosered as nymphs from sweeping bitterbrush, /' f,'//ni(/i/- losa. On Julv 16, 1961, the one male holoty|)o was collected, and on October 14, 1961, the one female holotvpe was obtained. .Mthough the area was visited a number of times thereafter and extensively collected, no other adults were found, and no specimens were found on anything fiut Purshia, where they were remarkably c-oncealed. They characteristically posed at the tips of the branches, nearly always in the tops of the brush rather than on the lower limbs. Seasonal Occurrence. The sketcli\' data show that nvmphs were tirst lollecteil on June 22 and uere lound as late as July 16. The adult male was collected on July 16, the female on October 14. The insect is present as adults throughout the summer. Lotaiifies Represented. Specimens examin- etl ( inniphs and adults): 18. Sti'idv TCH, 16 nymphs, June 22 to July 16; 1 male, JuK' 16; 1 female, October 14; all on /' (/ r.v/i ia glandu low . Additional Remarks, liiis form was at tirst lonsidered to be In.sara clc<^an.s coiistictipes. the western form of clegam, but if conduct ipcs is so completely immaculate throughout its range then the present form would ha\e to be considered as the third subspecies. Insara coviUeue Rehn and Hebard (Kig.ircs 69, 70, 74, 75; Table 45; Map 22.) 1914. hisara covilleae Rehn and Hebiird, Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, XL, p. 85. Distinctive Features. Pronotum extremely sellate for the group, differing from the previous species in that respect. Otherwise generally re- sembling the previous species except for the color pattern and markings which are extremely different. The fi'male o\ipositor is shown in Figuri> 74; the male terminal abdomin.il ap- pendages are shown in Figure 75. Coloration. Tegmina green, conspicuously marked with a series of fi\e large spots, white or pale greenish in color, on the dorso-lateral margin, h)llowed distally b) a narrow line, less distinct than other markings and proximally with ,1 long line of the same color; otherwise beauti- iiilK ni, irked with brown; jironotinn bordered Willi white dorsalh and on lateral lobes, brown markings on metazona, and lateral lobes (less distinct). Fourth abdominal tergite with brown FIG. 71 FIG. 72 FIG. 73 Figs. 71-73. Imam clvjitms mactdnta. 71, fcinalt- ailotypr, apex of ;ih(lomcii and ONiposilor, lati-ral view. 72, male- holotvpe, pronotum and pro.vim.d tcjjinina showing stridulating mctkuiism, dorsal view. 73, male h<)lot\pf, ;ipcx of al)dom<'n, dorso-iatcral view. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 85 FIG. 74 FIG. 75 Figs. 74-75. Insara coviUeae. 74, female, apex of abdo- men and ovipositor, lateral view. 75, male, apex of abdomen, dorso-lateral view. and white markings, abdomen otherwise spotted with minute purplish dots. Tibiae presenting an annulate appearance with a subdistal hght spot, slightly narrower than the proximal dark spK)t; caudal femora with subdistal light area around entire appendage. The species is marked with the same con- trasting colors as Bootettix pitnctatus (Scudder), but is more easily seen in its habitat. Distribution. The species is absolutely and completely limited to the creosote bush, Larrea divaricata, although, according to the original description the distribution of Larrea is greater than that of Insara coviUeae. This species, described from Tumamoc Hill, Tucson Mountains, Pima Co., Arizona, extends from "Lordsburg, New Mexico, westward through the desert portions of Southern Arizona, northward to Lincoln Co., Nevada near Lyons, California and in California as far north as Lyons and the Inyo Mountains and as far west as Cottonwod Station in the Mojave Desert and Palm Springs on the Western edge of the Colo- rado Desert. Southward distribution in Mexico unknown." (Rehn and Hebard, 1914). At the Nevada Test Site it was found wherever Larrea was present. Table 45. Size variation of Insara coviUeae. In addition to the above distribution, the species is now definitely known from Washing- ton Count)', Utah, the northeastern distribu- tional limit. Habitats. The insect can best be collected by sweeping the tenninal clusters of leaflets of Larrea. Differing from Bootettix, the other com- pletely creosote bush restricted orthopteran, 7n- sara coviUcac will frequentlv fly when disturb- ed. Although their alar ability is remarkable they generally fly only onto an adjacent Larrea, flying seldom more than forty or fifty feet, but on occasion farther. They can be spotted visual- ly, but are difficult to collect without a net. Seasonal Occurrence. Nymphs were collect- ed from June 15 to mid-.'\ugust; adults were found from early July to October 1. Most of the adults were collected in July. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed ( nymphs and adults ) : 47. Study lOD, 3 specimens, July 19. Studies 5A and 5CQ, 41 specimens, June 15 to October 1. Study JA, 3 specimens, June 24 to August 21. Genus Arethaea Stal 1876. Arethaea Stal, Bihang Svenska Akad., IV (5), p. 55. Arethaea brevicauda (Scudder) (Figures 66, 67, 76; Table 46; Map 23) 1900. Dichopetala brevicauda Scudder, Canad. Entomologist, XXXII, p. 331. Distinctive Features. A small, Hght green species, with very long slender legs. The males are fully winged, the females with reduced alar g g t 1 a 3 S a> pq g e2 £ ^^ •3t3 3 t ^1 t •a -a hC-O •5 -a fi^ a 0 g a C 3 S 3 ■3 o^ j^ li a J hJ Oh 5 ,3c3 m u > cum cf. 5CQ, July 13, 1961 15.6 3.7 21.9 15.5 2.2 3.1 c^. 5CQ, July 13, 1961 15.0 3.4 20.4 13.6 3.3 cT. 5CQ, July 13, 1961 15.0 3.3 22.1 15.3 4.1 rf. type (Rehn & Hebard) 15.4 3.7 24.0 16.8 9 , .5CQ, Julv 13, 1961 18.2 3.8 25.7 17.5 2.2 4.3 5.0 $. 5CQ, July 13, 1961 15.3 3.2 24.8 17.3 2.2 2.9 9. 5A, July 14, 1961 19.1 3.8 23.1 17.1 1.9 4.0 5.1 9, 5A, July 14, 1961 16.8 3.3 22.8 15.1 2.0 3.7 9. allotype (Rehn & Hebard) 17.4 4.0 25.7 18.1 5.4 Bmiciiam Vounc Univehsity Science Bulletin appt'iidages, much shorter than pronotiim. The malt- tc'gmina has the stridnlating field very strongly and narrowly produced at apex of stridulating \ein, as in Figure 76, with the pro- chiction at apex not equal to the width of the remaining portion of the field. The marginal field of the tegmina is normal. The eauda! mar- gin of the pronotal disk is never sharply acute; the lateral lobes with the area of convex callosity sometimes inflati'd. Fig. 76. Arethaca brevicauda, male, pronotum and pr().\imal tegmina .showing stridulating mechaiiLsm, dorsal view. Coloration. This insect is unicolorous, light green, and resembles the vegetation upon which it is found. Distribution. The type locality is Cahon Pass, California. The species is found only in south- ern California through southern Nevada to Crestline, near the Utah state line. At the Ne- vada Test Site it was found in onl\- two widely separated localities. Habitats. These insects are difficult to ob- serve in their habitats of grasses or other low plants. The onl\' male record from the Nevada Test Site was found on Lycium pallidum. The \'egetation from which tJie female was taken was not recorded. This area, however, is all iMrrca-FranserUi. LaRivcrs (1948) reported these insects "associated with Insara covilleae and more abundant, being attracted to lights at night in large numbers .... During the daw speci- mens were found hiding in the cooler depths of such plants as the omnipresent Larreo clivaricata, KramerUi cancscen.';. Frosopus jiiJiflora and Acacia Seasonal Occurrence. There is no definite seasonal occurrence from the scant data. The two adults were collec-ted on June 2 and July 15. No nymphs were collected. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 2. Study 5.\, 1 male, June 20, on Lijcium jxillidtim. Forty Mile Canyon, 1 female, July 15, no record of the vegetation upon which the speci- men was taken. Table 46. Size variation of Arethaea brevicauda. t s ■U: s ■3-= T3 ~i .3 p-^ (f , 5A, June 20, 1961 9 , 40 Mile Canyon, July 15, 1960 15.2 14.3" 3.0 4.0 18.8 3.1 20.5 21.7 1.4 1.7 9.5 0.0 Subfamily Tettigoniin.\e Key to the Genera of Tettigoniinae^° 1. Wings non-functional, much shorter than pronotum (Fig. 77), not visible beyond the pro- notum in females Atelaplus Scudder Wings functional, longer than abdomen 2 2. Prosternum armed with a pair of spines (Fig. 78); hind femora armed below on apical half with several distinct spines (Fig. 79) Capnobotes Scudder Prosternum unarmed; hind femora unarmed below Auoploclusa Caudell "Female abdomen obviously shninkcn. ^'•AgUiothorax anniger Rehn and Mcbard was licstribtd from tlu- tree yucca {yucca l)rccifolm), the t\jx- locality being Lee Canyon, Nevada, not f;ir from the Nevada Test Site. Thi.s species was not collected at the test site, however. This shield-back katydid Ciui be distinguished from the other members of the subfamily by its very large pronotum, its wingless condition, and the corci of the male, which are without internal hook.s. iiOLOciCAL Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, Septembek, 1964 FIG. 77 FIG. 78 FIG. 79 Figs. 77-79. 77, Ateloplus lutetts, male, pronotum and tegmina, dorsal view. 78, Capnobotes fuUginosus, male, prostemum showing spines, cephalo-ventral view. 79, C. fultginosus, female, caudal femur, lateral view. Key to the Species of Capnobotes Larger, at least 60 mm. total length; last dorsal segment of abdomen deeply divided apically, the angles forming attenuated prolongations e.xtending over the epiproct, almost or quite reaching the tip (Fig. 80); wings rather uniformly and deeply fuUginous C. fuUginosus (Thomas) Smaller, under 50 mm. total length; last dorsal segment of abdomen less deeply divided api- cally, the angles forming prolongations scarely exceeding the middle of the epiproct; wings less fuliginous, at least in the posterior field C. occidentalis (Thomas) Genus Capnobotes Scudder 1897 Capnobotes Scudder, Canad. Entomolo- gist, XXIX, p. 73. FIG. 80 Fig. 80. C. fuUginosus, male, apex of abdomen, dorso- lateral view. Capnobotes fuUginosus (Thomas) (Figures 64, 78-80; Table 47; Map 23) 1872. Locusta fuUginosa Thomas, Ann. Rept. U. S. Geo]. Surv. Terr., V, p. 443. Distinctive Features. A very large species, the total length, including the tegmina and wings, at least 60 mm. The pronotum is large, produced over the base of the abdomen. The tegmina and wings are fully developed, extend- ing far beyond the tip of the abdomen in both se.xes. The long, narrow cerci of the male have two apical internal hooks. The terminal abdo- men appendages of the male are shown in Figure 80. The ovipositor of the female is distinctly shorter than the hind femora. Coloration. The basic body color is mottled gray, brown, or occasionally greenish, or brown- ish mottled with gray. The tegmina have the same general bodv color and the wings are uni- formly and deeply fuliginous, darker on the major veins. Distribution. This species ranges from Calif- ornia, through Nevada and Utah, into Arizona and Mexico. At the Nevada Test Site it was found widely distributed throughout many of the study areas. Habitats. This thamnophilous species appears to be more nocturnal than diurnal in habit and is often attracted to lights. At the Nevada Test Table 47. Size variation of Capnobotes fuUginosus. 1 e2 3 t1 5 J C OS J J J 26 Jl 33.6 7.8 54.1 30.0 3.6 33.6 7.2 54.0 32.7 3.5 52.5"' 6.5 54.1 30.4 3.4 29.4 58. 1"' 7.4 62.6 31.8 3.5 27.4 c^, MD, July 13, 1961 (j", 5E, June 17, 1961 9 , MD, June 14, 1961 9 , 5E, June 17, 1961 '"The length of the body includes the very long, sword-shaped ovipositor. Siti- fhcv were qtiite rej^iilarlv found around tlie lights and often found inside the buildings that had been lighted and left open at night. They frecpientlv flv for extended periods around the higher lights. They are wary insects during the day and can be found hiding in some of the dense shrubl)er\'. The host plant varies accord- ing to the desert habitat. A number of observa- tions were made of this insect, during the day, sitting near the top of a large shrub, such as Larrea or Atriplex. with the head downward. When disturbed thev jump into the center of the bush .:id frc(|uently escape. When annoyed the insect often raises its teg- mina and wings o\er its back in a defiant atti- tude, and if not handled properly will inflict a severe bite on the handler. Tliis is one of the few species of Orthoptera found at the Nevada Test Site that will attempt to bite. They are at least partialh- predacious on other insects. Seasonal Occurrence. Nymphs were collect- ed as earh' as March 23 and well into the month of June. The adults first appeared on May 27 and were present until, at least, July 27. They were most numerous during the month of June. Localities Represented. Specimens e.xamin- ed (nymphs and adults): 30. Study TA, 3 nymphs and adults, March 23 to June 23, probably on ArtemisUi tridentata. Study lOD, 3 adults, July 12, on Coleix^ifuc riimosissima. Area 1 (studies IB, IG), 3 adults, June 16 to June 26, on Atriplex canesccns. Study 5A, 1 adult, July IS, on lAirrea divari- cata. Study 5E, 2 adults, Jvuie 17, on Lyciuiii pallidum. Mixed plant communities (studies JA, CR.\), 5 nymphs and adults, June 14 to July 27, on Atriplex eanescens and Larrea divaricata. Area MD, Mercury campsite, 3 adults, June 14 to July 13, attracted to lights. This is a small percentage of the total specimens observed fly- Table 48. Mea.surement.s of Capnohotes occidentalis. Biu(;iiA.\i VouNc; Univeksitv Science Bulleti.n ing about the lights during this period of time. Study CM, Cane Springs, 7 adults, June 15 to June 20, on Atriplex canesceiis. Miscellaneous collecting in rocky areas, studies not identified, 3 adults, vegetation not recorded. ('apnolwtes oecideutalis ( Thomas ) ( Table 18; Map 2.3) 1872. Locttsta oecideutalis Thomas, Ann. Rept. U. S. Ck'ol. Surv. Terr., V, p. 444. Established Synonomy. Capnohotes occi- dentalis viridis Cockerell. Comparative Features. The species is similar to fidiginosus, but differs from that species by lacking the dark hind wings, the much smaller size, and the longer o\ipositor in the female. The male cercus is apicailv armed with a short internal spine with a large subapical internal prong proximally. Coloration. The species occurs as two dis- tinct phases, brown or green, described in the literature as different subspecies. They should not be recognized as distinct races, however, and the green phase (viridis) is synonomized. Tlie brown phase is mottled with flecks of white, es- pecially on the tegmina; the green phase less maculate but with distinct pronotal markings of tan and green. The only specimen collected at the Nevada Test Site is representative of the green phase. Distribution. This is a Great Basin sjx-cies found in the desert and jimiper-pinvon areas of Utah, northern Arizona, Nevada, California, New Mexico, and southern Idaho. It is represented from the Nevada Test Site by one subadult fe- male, with undeveloped tegmina and wings. Habitats. Tinkham (1944) listed juniper as the only host of the species. LaRi\ers (1948) reported it as common to sagebrush in Nevada, with one specimen being taken on pin\'on pine. He also reported the green phase on "two species of introduced weed, Salsoki hdi tcnuifoUa and t B u. -[»- o tl ■5-13 1-S J3 5 c o S 3 1= '5^ J£ ^0 m o :i6 $ , 12A, June 26, subadult 48.1" 22.5 3.0 "Tlu- Ifiigth of the body inchKles the very long, .sworcl-shapcd ovipositor. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 an unidentified chenopodiac, whose vivid greens the insect matched well." The one specimen from the Nevada Test Site was swept from Oryzopsis hymenoides. Seasonal Occurrence. The only specimen, a subadult female, was collected on June 26. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (subadult): 1. Study 12A, Rainier Mesa disturbed area, 1 subadult female, June 26. This is a pinyon- juniper area, but most of the trees have been destroyed as a result of an atomic explosion. Genus Anaplodusa Caudell 1907. Anoplodusa Caudell, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXXII, p. 319, fig. 25. Anoplodusa arizonensis (Rehn) (Figures 60, 63; Table 49; Map 24) 1904. Dnjmadtisa arizonensis Rehn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, LVI, p. 573. Distinctive Features. The wings are very long as in the genus Capnobotes. The most dis- tinctive features, however, are given under "Coloration." Coloration. Greenish, occasionally slightly buff especially in dried condition, with ivory- white markings on the entire body; pronotum, especially the margins of the lateral lobes and the margins of metazona marked with white, yellowish in pinned specimens; pronotum also marked with brown. Tegmina of botli sexes green, with three distinct, or sometimes some- what indistinct, rows of large circular nacreous spots, the stridulation field of the male tegmen reddish brown. Hind wings transparent. Distribution. A member of the Lower Sonor- an life zone, this species is found from the Mohave Desert in California to Arizona. At the Tiible 49. Size variation of Anoplodusa arizonensis. Nevada Test Site it is limited in distribution to the Lower Sonoran life zone, the marginal areas of Frenchman and Yucca playas. Habitats. Anoplodusa arizonensis is adaptive- ly colored to the creosote bush, Larrea divari- cata, but it is not restricted to that shrub. It has been observed on Dalea polijadenia, Franseria diimosu and Graijia spinosa. The insect is apparently limited to Larrea as a source of food and is probably not carnivorous in nature, as are its relatives, Capnobotes. It will, however, attempt to bite when handled and can produce a rather severe bite. Although Tinkham's specimens (Tinkham 1942) were collected at night, at the Nevada Test Site the species was found only during the day, and searches at night failed to reveal its presence. This is perhaps due to its scarcity and the large expanses of Larrea, making it difficult to encounter. Its very large size makes it readily discerni- ble in a shrub upon which it rests. All the specimens were taken as a result of this visual study. It is a remarkable flier and after dis- turbance has flown for nearly 200 yards. It ap- parently does not rely upon concealment for es- cape, but upon the powers of flight. When dis- turbed it immediately flies at about 15 feet alti- tude in a straight line, sometimes until nearly out of sight, and immediately drops into another shrub. A second and third fhght is often en- countered in an attempt to capture specimens. Accordingly, it is one of the most difficult orthopterans to collect. One specimen was first observed flying in small circles about one hundred feet from the ground. As soon as the author got out of the car it immediately flew in a straight line at that approximate altitude until it had completely disappeared from sight. Seasonal Occurrence. Tinkham's report states that this is an early spring form, persisting until late summer. He reported specimens having 1 1 e2 B a S t tt t M-a ti s ^1 g C 3 ^<3 U rf. 5A, July 14, 1961 30.6 6.8 42.8 25.8 3.1 ?. 5CQ, July 10, 1961 51.2 6.6 45.8 25.5 2.9 27.1 9- 1BD20, July 12, 1961 50.2 6.5 44.9 25.5 2.9 24.9 2. lOD, Julv 13, 1961 47.6 5.7 41.5 23.7 2.7 23.6 9, 5A, July 11, 1961 54.9 5.1 46.6 25.5 3.2 26.2 9. IG, June 19, 1961 41.9 5.5 40.6 21.7 2.5 22.8 BuiGiiAM Voi'Nc Univej\ 33.3 7.2 31.0 6.8 30.6 6.1 33.7 6.3 35.4 6.9 3 5 a a b ^^ bb-O ■5 -a a s S g JO PQO 13.1 4.7 11.5 4.3 10.2 3.9 10.7 4.1 12.7 4.4 94 Bhicham Vounc University Science Buixetin Localities Hi-prfsciited. Spccimons pxamin- t-d (nymplis and adidts): 12n. Studies IH. Ki, and 4A {all in C.raijui-Lijcium communities), 74 si)ecimcns March 10 to No- \cmlxT 2 1 . Study IK, 2 spedmciis, August 2 and Novem- ber 1. Study lOD. 1 spociiiun, July 13. Study lOS, 36 specimens, June 19 to July 5. (Tliis study area was opened lati- in tiie re- search, and a complete evaluation nl the area has not been made.) Area 10, miscellaneous collections, 1 speci- men, September Ifi. Studies 12A and 12E, Rainier Mesa, 12 speci- mens, Jime 15 to October 27. More specimens were collected in the undisturbed area than the disturbed area. Additional Hemarks. Some variation exists within the coniines of the Nevada Test Site. Those specimens taken at higher elevations. Area 12 on Rainier Mesa, differ somewhat in the sub- genital plate, in the ovipositors, and by the pile on the body, which latter difference could be a result of activity and nonnal wear. In these specimens the dorsal valves of the female ovi- positor are slightly less than twice the length of the ventral valves and the subgenital plate is rounded. In the specimens taken at lower ele- vations the dorsal valves are only one-fifth long- er than the dorsal valves and the subgenital plate is acute. Those specimens from the lower elevations ar(! \ery hairy compared to the practically glabrous appearance of die otliers. If genitalic characters could be relied upon it miglit mean a separation of these two popu- lations. In (he absence of such characters it might be possible to carry out breeding c.\peri- ments to see w hether or not they are distinct or the same. SurcK' lesser differences exist in the genus CculUopliilus, which group has highly developed genitalic structures and species can be separated on this basis. A complete revision of the genus Stenopelmatits may warrant separation of tiiese forms. Subfamily Ridvphidophorinae The members of this group are commonly known as the cave or camel crickets. They are tan to brown, wingless, with curved or humped body, rather than flattened as in the true crickets. Although very common they are not often noticed, since they are nocturnal in habit or live in caves or other cavities in the ground. The system of special can traps used in the studies at the Nevada Test Site resulted in a far larger collection of these crickets than any other orthopteran group. After extensive obser- vations throughout this area during all seasons of the year it has been determined that this group is the most common of all the Orthoptera. The subfamily is represented by two genera, the PrisioceutJiophilus being found only at high- er elevations. Key to the Genera of RHAPumopnoRiN.vE .Male with styles (Fig. S4); ventral ovipositor valves of female armed distad with crenulations or low serrations (Fig. 85); tarsal claw witli a distinct ventro-proximal sensory seta (Fig. ggv PrkioccuthitpJiilii.s Rehn Male without styles; vcnlral (i\ i|i()silor vaKes of Irinale armed distad with four (in Nevada Test Site specimens) Iriaiigulai or atieular terlli in addition to the tenninal decurved hook- like apex (Fig. 87); tarsal claws without sen.sorv setae Cculliophilus Scudder FIG. 84 Figs. 84-87. Prisloci-uthophilus piicijkiis. 84, m.\V, ;ipo\ valves of ovipositor, hitcnil view. 86, male, (list;)! si 87, Ccuthophilus UwuUipis. fiiiialc, distal v:ilv< iii.n, iloiso-lalcral view. 85, female, distal meiit ot eaiidal tarsus showing claws and sen.sory setae, of ovipositor, lateral view. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 95 Genus Ceuthophilus Scudder 1862. Ceuthophilus Scudder, Ciuiadian Nat. & Geol., VII, p. 284. Key to the Species of Ceuthophilus (Adapted from Hubbell, 1936) 1. Subgenital plate of male divided into lateral halves by a percurrent median fold or sulcus (Fig. 88); ovipositor of female very long, the ovipositor/pronotum ratio 2.0 or more. Form less compact; legs longer and more slender, caudal femur rhaphidophoroid, spines of ventro- cephalic carina fewer and separated bv distinct inter\als . .- C. nevadcims Barnum, new species Subgenital plate of male with proximal portion undivided by a median sulcus, but dis- tolateral portions often prolonged and separated by a cleft or notch extending in from FIG. 95 FIG. 93 FIG. 97 FIG. 99 89, C. fossor, m-Ac, subgenital FIG. 98 FIG. 96 Figs. 88-99. 88, C. nevadensis, male holotype, subgenital plate, caudal plate, caudal view. 90, C. fossor, male, cephalic margin of cephalic femur, lateral view. 91, C. hehurdi, male, cephalic margin of cephalic femur, latcr;J view. 92, liimellipes, male, cephalic margin of caudal femur, lateral view. 93, C. lamcllipcs, female, distal end of cephalic margin of caudal femur, lateral view. 94, C. deserticolti, male holotype, caudal tarsus, laeral view. 95, C. descrticoUi, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal vew. 96, C. deserticohi, male holotype, subgenital plate, caudal view. 97, C. hehurdi, male, caudal tarsus, lateral view. 98, C. hebardi, male, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view. 99, C. hebardi, male, sub- genital plate, caudal view. 96 Bhigiiam Young Univehsity Science Bulletin apex of free margin (Fig. 89); ovipositor of female short, the ovipositor/pronotiim ratio less than 2.0. Fonii compact, robust, with sliort, stout legs; caudal femur grylloid, its ventrocephaUc carina usually with numerous, closely-spaced denticulations; often uni- colorous or nearly so 2 2. Ventrocephalic carina of cephalic femur ornamented with a row of numerous nodules or denticulations in addition to the movable di.stal spurs (Fig. 90) C. fossur Hubbell Ventroci'phalic c;iriiia of cephalic lemur not nodulose, either unarmed or bearing one or more movable spurs (Fig. 91) 3 3. Ventral carinae of caudal femur strongly laminate-explaiiatc, breadth of carinae increasing distad, each terminated just pro.ximad of base of genicular lobes by deep excision of margin, end of lamella forming an acute trigonal process; margins of carinae closely denticulate (figs. 92, 93) C/lamellipes Rehn Ventral carinae of caudal femur not as in alternative 4 4. Ventral carina of caudal metatarsus armed with a row of short, bristle-like setae extending ail the way to apex (Fig. 94); 8th abdominal tergite of male not produced aiudad, the 9th tergite being much the wider (Fig. 95); subgenital plate of male suborbicular, separated for most of its distance (but never proximally) by a median sulcus (Fig. 96) C. deserticola Bamum, new species Ventral carina of caudal metatarsus glabrous except for a proximal group of setae (Fig. 97); Sth abdominal tergite of male greatly produced caudad, concealing most of the 9th ter- gite (Fig. 98); subgenital plate of male elongate, terminating in a pair of large, widely separated rounded protuberances (Fig. 99) C. hebardi Hubbell The descriptions of the species of Cetithophi- lus, as indicated by indices and measurements, are the same as those employed by Hubbell (1936) in his monographic revision of the genus. All measurements were made with a micrometer in one ocular of a binocular microscope. In cases of doubt as to the identification of the species the male internal genital structures and/or subgenital plate should be compared with the indicated drawings. The worker may find it diflicult to separate the adults from the larger nymphs or subadults. The females of the species can be told by the fully developed teeth on the ventral valves of the ovipositor, these being very acicular or at least sharp-tipped in the adult, mere rounded protuberances in the subadult and larger nymphs. The adult males can be told by the scleroti/afion of the epiphallus ( pseudosternite of llubbcll) and associated structures. In the iiN'mpIis and subadults these structures are in no way sclerotizcd. Cculliopliihis ncvadcn.fui Rarnum, New Species (Ki^piris 8S. 110-120; Table 52; Map 26) nolot\'])e Male, Nevada, Nye Co., Nevada Test Site, Studs TK (Tippipah Springs), Aug- ust 2-1, 1961. Allotype Female, same localitv', July 16, 1961. Both specimens are deposited in the U. S. Na- tional Museum. This species belongs to the subgenus Ceu- thopfiilus, {■Uiherisis series, and Pditcisjniiosus group of Hubbell. Within the group it shows a greater id^finity to C. t/avajxii Hubbell, but dif- fers from this and all otlier species by the form of the terminal abdominal appendages of the male, particularK'. In thi- distribution the species is closely allied to utahaisis but differs remark- ably in the terminal abdominal appendanges of both male and female. Superficially it is per- haps indistinguishable from the closely related species. As is indicated by Hubbell, it is more difficult to distinguish the females. The general body form is elongate with moderately long, slender legs and short spurs, calcars, and claws. Description of Ilololvpe Male. Body very elongate and slender, length 16.8 mm. Dorsum, including abdomen, weakly polished, sub- glabrous with very scattered minute setae. lllvVD. F,ves moderate in size, length 0.7 mm., width 0.55 mm.; interocular distance 1.3 mm.; infraocular distance 1.45 mm.; clypeal sutiu-e 1.9 mm.; iuitennae long, iipproxiniati'ly two and one-half times bocK' length; distal segment of ma\illar\- palpi 2.2 mm.; fastigiinn more prom- inent than expanded mesal margins of an- Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Septemueh, 1964 tennal fossae, apex noticeably projected, very bluntly rounded, subconical, sparsely setose. THORAX. Pronotal length 3.3 mm.,' greatest breadth 3.8 mm., depth, in side view 2.4 mm., in dorsal aspect subquadrate, cephalic margin broadly emarginate, caudal margin truncate, ventrolateral margins rather strongly arcuate, slightly projected outward, broadest point just caudad of midlength; mesonotal length 1.7 mm., greatest width 3.8 mm., caudal margin in dorsal aspect broadly conve.x; metanotal length 1.55 mm., greatest width 3.5 mm., caudal margin in dorsal aspect slightly emarginate. LEGS. Ceph- alic femur (Figure 117), length 5.5 mm., width 0.8 mm., equal in length and breadth to middle femur, ventrocephalic carina with 1-1 spurs, spur short 0.35 mm. long; middle coxa with dorsocephalic carina not e.xplanate, dorso- cephalic angle obtuse, distal angle forming a very blunt projection directed cephalad; middle femur, ventrocephahc carina with 3-3 spurs, ven- trocaudal with 2-2 very small spurs. Caudal femur (Fig- 119) moderately elongate and slender, length 11.5 mm., greatest breadth 2.6 mm. occurring at the proximal one-sixth, then gently tapering distad to base of genicular lobes, ventrocephalic carina with 23 somewhat irregu- larly spaced subequal minute spinulose denticu- lations on the distal two-thirds of carina, the largest of these being restricted to the distal one-half, ventrocaudal carina with 45 similar but somewhat smaller denticulations, these ap- pearing in one series on caudal side of carina, ex- cept for eight minute denticulations on cephalic side of carina in proximal one-half, dorsal denti- culations about 40, scattered on distal half of fe- mur, but more restricted to cephalic surface, caudal genicular lobe distinctly spinulose. Caudal tibia straight, 11.6 mm. in length, dorsal spurs (Fig. 120) moderately slender and elon- gate, subdistal spur of cephalic carina 0.75 mm. long, spurs gently curved, apex minutely hooked, dorsal face bicarinate, outer face sparse- ly setose, the setae varying on different spurs, spines of carinae variously arranged according to distance between spurs, averaging 13 between proximal tibia and first spur, then averaging 8 between other spurs; subdistal ventral spurs 1-1; calcars short, dorsocephalic calcar 0.75 mm. in length, the other calcars being 1.45 mm., 0.6 mm., 0.4 mm. respectively. Metatarsus 2.1 mm. long, 2nd segment of tarsus 0.9 mm. long, 0.5 mm. wide, 4th segment 1.3 mm. long, claws 0.6 mm. long, ventral carina of tarsal segments with- out setae except a small group at proximal end. Terminal Abdominal Structures. (Figures 113- 116). Dorsocaudal margin of first abdominal ter- gite slightly concave, of tergite two to six trrm- cate or subtruncate, of se\en rounded-angulate, of eight rather stronglv produced, the dorso- caudal margin tumid; dorsal surface of ninth ter- gite greatly produced caudad, abruptly emargin- ate mesially, verv tumid. Epiproct exposed dor- sally, the tenth tergite projecting beyond caudal margins of ninth dorso-laterally; epiproct direct- ed ventrad, triangular, margins slightly elevated, straight and convergent to apex. Paraprocts membranous, enlarged, produced beyond epi- proct. Supraanal plate a small triangidar lobe compressed between paraprocts, apex rounded. Cerci 3.1 mm., originating as a heavy appendage proximally, abruptly expanded to approximately twice the proximal diaineter, then gradually tapering to end. Epiphallus (Fig. 110) ex- posed, projecting dorsad of subgenital plate, heavily sclerotized, rami divergent to dorsum of lu-ch, a straight horizontal bar, cephalic margin turned under arch, junctions of rami and dor- sum bearing large conspicuous, erect, laminate auriculae, projected mesially as continuous with dorsum and sub-horizontal to rami, projected ventrad one-half the distance of the sclerotized rami, the auriculae rounded protuberances both \entrad and dorsad. Mesa! margins of mem- branous areas within arch forming two bro\\'nish, heavily sclerotized tumid folds with laminate surfaces. Subgenital plate similar to C. pima, rather heavilv corneous, including distal margin, except a small proximal area on either side of mesal groove, completely divided into lateral halves by a small groove, terminating distally as two rounded lobes. Description of Allotype Female. General characteristics as given for male holotype. Body length 17.8 mm., including ovipositor, 27.6 mm. HEAD. Eyes, length 0.85 mm., width 0.65 min., interocular distance 1.4 mm., infraocular dis- tance 1.5 mm., clypeal suture 2.1 mm., distal segment of maxillary palpi 2.3 mm. THORAX. Pronotal length 3.8 mm., greatest breadth 4.6 mm., depth in side view 2.85 mm.; mesonotal length 2.75 mm., greatest breadth 4.8 mm. in dorsal aspect; metanotal length 2.3 mm., greatest breadth 4.4 mm. LEGS. Cephalic femur, length 5.9 mm., breadth 1.1 mm., ventrocephalic carina with 2-3 spurs, the distal spur 0.4 mm. long; mid- dle femur, ventrocephalic carina with 4-3 spurs, ventrocaudal with 1-2 spurs. Caudal femur length 11.9 mm., greatest breadth 3.2 mm., ven- trocephalic carina with 29 spinulose denticula- tions, \entrocaudal carina with .30 denticulations, dorsal denticulations 55. Caudal tibia 12.3 mm. in length, subdistal spur of cephalic carina 0.95 mm. long, spines of carinae averaging as in male; Bhiciiam Young Univkhsity Science Bulletin stibdistul ventral spurs 1-1; dorsoceplialic calcar 0.4 mm. in length, tiie other caicars being 0.6 mm., 1.45 mm., 0.75 mm. respectively. .Metatar- sus 2.1 mni. long, 2nd segment of tarsus 1.05 mm. long, 0..5.5 mm. uide, 4tli segment 1.5 mm. long, claws O.S mm. long. Temiinal Abdominal Structures. Cerci 2.3 mm. long, slender, not expanded and modified as in male. Subgenital plate simple. Ovipositor (Figure 111 ) 10. S mm. long, gradually tapering througliout, \erv sliglith' upturned, dorsal valves terminating in a slender point, sub-aciculati', longer than ventral \'al\es, five aciculate teeth of ventral valves short, separated etjuidistantlv, restricted to the distal one-fifth of valve. Coloration. Similar to utahen.^Ls and its re- lated species, the following color description is modified from Hubbeil for that species. General impression of dorsum \ell()wish brown, with weakly contrasted pattern on pronotum and transverse banding on abdomen. Pronotum mar- gineil with brown along ventrolateral as well as cephalic and caudal margins, the disk with a pair of admesal brown bands separated bv a narrow Ncllouish line and b\' a pair of caudal admesal triangles t'lnbracing the caudal end of till- pair of admesal bands and separated from them b\- a U-shaped light area connecting the rcniform areas of each side, these mottled with brownish spots and lines. Meso- and iiietanotum largely brownish, with extensive yellowish spots near cephalic margin, leaving the caudal and ventrolateral margins solid brownish, .■\bdominal tergites margined broadlv with brownish, ce- plialic portions light, giving a trans\erse-band- ('(! ap]U'araiicc which disappears caudad due to crowding of tergites and concealment of paler areas. Caudal femur with usual scalariform pat- tern indicated bv darker brown, the remainder of legs iargelv without maculations or markings, being unicolorous. All spines, caicars, spurs, and tubercles tipped with darker brown. FIG. 112 FIG. 115 FIG. 114 FIG. 117 FIG. 118 FIG 116 FIG. 119 Figs. 110-120. Ceitlhotthilus neiiidt-nxvi. 110. male par;ilypc opipluilliis. Ill, femali- allotype, distal ViJvcs of ovipositor, lateral view. 112. ft-malc partaypc. distar \alvcs of o\i|5<>sitor, l.itiral viow. 11.3, male holotype, apex of alidomin. Literal view. 114, male holotype, subjjenital plate, eaudal \ie\v. 11.5, male holotype, epi- proef. 116, male holotype, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view. 117, m.ile holotype, eephalic margin of oephalie fimiir, later.i! view. 118, male paratype, eephalic margin of c<^phalic femur, lateral view. 119, male holotype, (aiid.d femur, lateral view. 120, male holotype, eaud.il t.usus, latenil \iew. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 Variation. Sizes of the minimum, maximum and average of the se.xes, as well as the holo- type male and allotype female are indicated in the following table. The general remarks of C. nevadcnsis hold true for this species, as well as for all specie^ of Ceuthopliilus, seemingly. Vari- ations in the spurs of the ventrocephalic carina of the cephalic femur, which count was taken as an indication for the variation of the spinulose con- dition of the insect, are as follows: the general condition is with two spurs, one larger distal spur and a smaller more pro.ximal spur, this occurring in 70 per cent of the individuals. Twenty per cent of the specimens had only one larger distal spur, and three spurs were least common. One speci- men was .observed with a series of five spurs, the two distal spurs being large, the three proxi- mal ones minute. Habitat. This insect is known only from t\\'0 areas on the Nevada Test Site, in an abandoned tunnel known as Tippipah Springs and in the disturbed area on Rainier Mesa. The tunnel, dug in clay and shale, has many cracks and fissures so that the ceiling frequently sloughs off. It has a perennial water supply, keeping the en\iron- ment humid and cool, a typical habitat for a cave- dwelling camel cricket. The insects are found on the ceiling of the tumiel, never on the sides, as is typical with other such cavernicolous species, and they escape readily into the cracks and fissures when tlie beam of hght is shined on them. They are never found near the en- trance and are not subjected to light from the opening, as they ;vre back in a darkened area of the tunnel. This characteristic has been ob- served with other species of this group in sim- ilar habitats. This species was not found in any of the abandoned mine tunnels in the area and has not been located in any of the caves, per- haps due to the aridity of those areas. On Rainier Mesa, Study 12A had many large cracks and fissures as a result of an atomic explosion nearby. The insects were collected onlv in the can traps, probably as a result of their nocturnal movement from the fissures. At this higher altitude the fissures are undoubtedly quite humid, similar to the environment of Tippipah Springs. Tippipah Springs was visited on only three occasions during the course of this study, one trip in June, July and August. The insects were very numerous at each visit, and no correlation was made according to the appearance of nymphs, adults, or sex. Collections were made as follows at Tippipah Springs: June 23, 1961 July 16, 1961 August 24, 1961 cf Nymphs 9 Nymphs d" Subadults 7 8 13 7 5 9 1 2 3 9 Subadults 11 17 4 d" Adults 7 8 9 9 Adults 7 4 4 During the August trip the nymphs were equally as numerous as the adults but were not collected. A concentrated effort was made to collect adults. Because of the conditions of the interior of the tunnel with respect to humidity and tem- perature, the adults, and perhaps the nymphs, could likely be found at any time during the year. This condition has been observed in a similar situation with another species. Their occurrence on Rainier Mesa has not been completely evaluated. Adults were col- lected from July 25 to August 24. Distribution. The present known distribution of this insect is limited to the two areas at the Table .52. Size variation of Ceuthophilus nevadensis. t ^ ^ a •a .„ -« ^ ^ _c _■§ &0J3 uro bCTS fert '&)H B "rt H 6 "^ S »o'5 ^ I ao, as eg c-KR EoS toCnSoaS c- hJU jo ju cT.Holotypc 0.7 0.55 1.3 2.2 3.3 cf.Paratype, Minimum 0.7 0.5 1.2 1.9 2.9 cf.ParalNpc, Avxrafjr 0.8 0.57 1.355 2.1 3.34 cr,Paratype, Minimum 0.9 0.65 1.5 2.3 3.7 9 , Allots pc 0.85 0.65 1.4 2.3 3.8 9 , Paratype, Minimum 0.8 0.6 1.3 2.1 3.5 9 , Paratype, Average 0.9 0.68 1.48 2.27 3.87 9 , Paratype, Maximum 1.0 0.75 1.6 2.5 4.4 5.5 11.5 11.6 2.1 0.9 0.5 1.3 0.6 4.4 9.6 10.5 1.9 0.8 0.4 1.2 0.6 5.38 11.12 11.88 2.12 0.97 0.495 1.39 0.665 6.1 12.2 13.0 2.3 1.2 0.6 1.6 0.8 5.9 11.9 12.3 2.1 1.05 0..55 1.5 0.8 10.8 5.1 10.7 11.4 2.0 0.9 0.5 1.3 0.7 8.7 5.66 11.75 12.55 2.15 1.015 0.57 1.44 0.765 9.78 6.0 13.2 13.5 2.3 1.1 0.7 1.6 0.85 10.8 100 Bricham Young University Science Bulletin Nevada Test Site. It could conceivably be found in other areas similar to tlie type locality and Rainier Mesa, but siidi favorable areas are not common throughout the arid Great Basin. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 119. Tippipah Springs (Study TC), 113 speci- mens: 24 male adults, 15 female adults; 16 male subadults, 28 h-niale suliadults; 15 male n\niphs, 15 female nymphs, ai cording to the al)o\e ilatcs. Rainier Mesa (Study 12A), 6 adults: 12.\C6, 2 females, August II and August 24, 1961; 12AC8, 1 male, August 11, 1961; 12AC9, 1 fe- male, August 14, 1961; 12AC1(), 2 males, July 25 and August 12, 1961. Additional Remarks. The holotype male and allotype female, as noted previously, are de- positeid in the U. S. National Museum. Para- types are deposited at tlie Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; the California .\cademy of Sciences; the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan; Brigham Young Universit)'; and the author's collection. Ceiithophilus deserticola Barnum New Species (Figures 94-96, 121-129; Tables 53, 54; Map 26) Holotype Male, Nevada, Nye Co., Nevada Test Site, Study ECB (foothills west of Yucca Flat), August 11, 1961. Allotype Female, Nevada, Nye Co., Nevada Test Site, Study IBDll (Yucca' Flat), October 13, 1960. Both specimens are deposited in tlie U. S. National Museum. This species belongs to the subgenus Geo- tettix, Fiisifoiiiii.s series, of Ilubbell, but its re- lationship within that series is (juestionable. In his monograph Hubbell emphasized the import- ance of the setose/non-setose natm"e of tlie ven- tral carinae of the tarsi. These setae, though present in nymphal instars, may be completely absent in adult specimens, the setae apparently decreasing in number with succeeding instars. The Ftmformi.'i group, principally of the northern Great Plains area but extending as far west as northern Utah (C. fu.siformis Scudder) is typi- fied bv having the tarsal segments setose. The Cmukili group, on the other hand, more western in distribution, has non-setose tarsal segments. The present species is setose and would belong to the Fusijortitis group. .According to the characters given in llnbheirs keys to species, (lescrtk'oJa is more closely relate P5 ^Q j:<(i: j£ JO JO mo JO jS jh can jh jh jo 0.7 0..5 1.3 1.8 3.5 4.5 3.8 3.1 10.4 2.0 0.6 0.5 1.3 0.8 0.65 0.4 1.1 1.7 3.2 4.3 9.0 2.75 9.8 2.0 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.8 0728 0.496 1.283 1.846 3.417 4.742 9.95 1.988 10.492 2.108 0.675 0.508 1.317 0.967 0.8 0.5 1.4 2.1 3.8 6.2 11.0 3.2 11.4 2.4 0.8 0.55 1.4 1.1 0.7 0.6 1.3 1.9 3.5 4.6 9.8 3.1 10.0 2.3 0.7 0.6 1.3 1.1 6.2 0.65 0.45 1.1 1.5 3.1 3.9 8.3 2.45 8.7 1.8 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.9 5.1 0.7.37 0.53 1.267 1.81 3.467 4.553 J)..58 2.897 10.12 2.08 0.66 0.547 1.327 1.106 6.167 0.9 0.6 1.5 2.1 4.1 5.3 11.6 3.3 12.0 2.3 0.7 0.6 1.5 1.2 7.1 JioLOCiCAL Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 with the exception of the holotype male which was captured from one of the lower foothills in the vicinity of Yucca Flat. The area is composed of coarse sand from the weathered granitic rocks, and the one specimen was captured by the author from underneath one of the large rocks on the west slope of a hill, while specifically looking for fossorial Orthoptera. The conceal- ment of the insect by the sand was remarkable. Seasonal Occurrence. Late instar nymphs have been collected only in June, July and Aug- ust. This does not correlate with the appearance of subadults and adults, however, and it is like- ly that the early instars cannot be distinguished from those of C. fossor. Subadults were collected in April, May, and June. Adults have been taken during all months of the year except January. The wide overlap in appearance of this insect is undoubtedly due to the environment in which it is found, the winters being sufficiently mild that the insect can make periodic appearances dur- ing the winter months. See Table 54 for the appearance of these insects. Distribution. The present known distribution of this insect is limited to the Nevada Test Site, Nye County, Nevada. Insufficient collecting has been done in surrounding areas to arrive at any definite conclusions as to its total distribution. It should be found through the more arid regions of the Great Basin, undoubtedly extending into southeastern California. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs, subadults, and adults): 55, as fol- lows: 7 male nymphs, 5 female nymphs, 4 sub- adult females, 20 adult males, 19 adult females. Salsola (studies IF, 5HQ), 6 specimens, June 16 to December 4. Graijia-Lijcium (studies IB, IG, 4A), 34 specimens, February 2 to December 5. AfripJex-Kochia (study 6A), 5 specimens, July 17 to October 13. Coleogijnc (study lOD), 2 specimens, March 3 and June 12. Mi.xed (studies ECA, NCB), 5 specimens, August 21 to November 27. Study EM, 1 specimen, August 11. Study 5HL, 2 specimens, October 30 and November 3. Cetithaphilus hehardi Hubbell (Figure.s 91, 97-99, 1.30-137; Table 55; Map 26) 1936. Ceuthophilus hehardi Hubbell, U. Florida Biological Series, Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 457-460. Distinctive Features. Superficially, all the Ceuthophilus species at the Nevada Test Site resemble each other. They can best be told by the conditions of the terminal abdominal ap- pendages. These differences can be recognized by the illustrations and the key to the species. At the test site, hehardi most resembles deserti- cola, but the differences are obvious as illus- trated by the figures. Coloration. At the Nevada Test Site the species is somewhat darker than species found at lower elevations. There is a correlation with en- vironment in this respect. The soil on Rainier Mesa is considerably darker than the soil around the playa lakes. The specimens are quite uni- formly colored, any infuscations and barring are indistinct. Distribution. The type locality of this species is at a high elevation ( 10,000 feet ) in Iron Coun- ty, Utah. It is known only from western Utah and southern Nevada, not necessarily at high elevations because of specimens taken at St. George, Washington Co., Utah (Hubbell, 1936). JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ATRIPLEX-KOCHIA COLEOGYNE X - X < GRAYIA-LYCIUM MIXED PLANTS SALSOLA X X y : X X X Table 54. Seasonal distribution of Ceuthophilus deserticoUi. BiiK.iiAM Vot'NC Univeiisity Science Bulletin c;:^^ FIG. 135 FIG. 137 FIG. 134 FIG. 136 Figs. 130-137. Ceuthophilus hehardi. 130, miile, epiphallu.s. 131, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view. 132, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view. 133, male, subgenital plate, caudal view. 134, male, distal ab- dominal tergltes, dorsal view. 135, male, cephalic margin of cephalic femur, laterjil view. 136, male, caudal femur, lateral view. 137, male, caudal tarus, lateral view. Table 55. Size variation of Ceuthophilus hchurdi. SO J '-• Ph jo, a -a W)-C tloTJ '&'2 tc a c?r =5 c2 S-a I sl ^1 i ■^ — ~— -^— -S-. ^3 ?-5 an toa JU JO JU jS JH caH r; o - i2 cf , Minimum size, 12AC9, July 25, 1961 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.7 3.1 7.2 7.6 1.3 0.6 0.55 1.0 0.6 cf , Average 0.661 0.516 1.106 1.578 2.922 3.533 7.789 8.156 1.422 0.689 0.483 1.094 0.628 cf , Maximum size, 12EC3, July 25, 1961 0.7 0.55 1.15 1.8 3.2 4.2 9.3 9.5 1.8 0.8 0.5 1.3 0.7 9 , Minimum size, 12AC1, October 27, 1961 0.65 0.5 1.0 1.45 2.85 3.3 7.2 7.5 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.95 0.6 4.2 9, Average 0.7 0.571 1.107 1.65 3.236 3.9 8.243 8.343 1.493 0.693 0.479 1.114 0.729 4.971 9 , Maximum size, 12EC2, Augu.st 24, 1961 0.8 0.65 1.2 1.9 3.9 6.0 10.3 10.5 '2.3 0.8 0.55 1.5 1.1 6.4 At the Nevada Test Site it was found only in two studies on Rainier Mesa. Habitats. Nothing is known of tlie habitats of this species, inasmuch as tlie specimens were captured in can traps established in the studies. It can be suggested, however, that the species Uves under rocks or in other holes in the ground. Of the total series, 72.2% were taken in the dis- turbed area, where it was found with C. iw- vadciisis and Prist ocetitJwphihis pacifims, ap- parently living in the fissures and under the loosened rocks caused by the nuclear explosion. Seasonal Occurrence. Thriee male adults were collected on April 10. The area was not visited until July, when both nymphs and adults were found. Both nvmphs and adults were present until October 28. They were most numerous during the month of .\ugust. This species is ap- parently most active during summer and early autumn. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 115. Study 12A, 83 specimens, April 10 to Oc- tober 28. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 105 Study 12E, 32 specimens, April 10 to Oc- tober 28. Additional Remarks. In his description of the species, Hubbell described only the male, and gave measurements only on that sex. Measurements and drawings of the females of this species are here given for the first time. Cetithophiliis fossor Hubbell (Figures 82, 83, 89, 90, 138-147; Tables 56, 57; Map 27) 1936. Ceuthophilus fossor Hubbell, U. Florida Biological Series, Vol. H, No. 1, pp. 484-488. Distinctive Features. This species can best be recognized by the row of numerous nodules or denticulations on the ventrocephalic carina of the cephalic femur. These denticulations are even present on the nymphs, although they are less conspicuous. The males can definitely be distinguished by the two finger-like lobes of the subgenital plate. These lobes are present on the male nymphs, more distinguishable, of course, with later instars. Morphological Variation. As with any large series of orthopterans, there is considerable vari- ation in the structures of this insect. A more noticeable variation is the nature of the sub- distal spurs of the cephahc femur. The usual condition is with one spur. A very few speci- mens have two spines, and one female has one spine on one cephalic femur, two on the other. These differences have no appearance as being the result of an injury where the spines might have been broken off. Coloration. This species is very nearly uni- form light colored, with the tendency to darken- ed tibiae in the subadults of both sexes. This darkened character is carried over in some adults. The genicular area of the caudal femora and the caudal tibiae are generally darkened. C. fossor can be distinguished from C. la- melUpes, the other very common gryllacridid at the Nevada Test Site, by the light maculations on that species. The nymphs of lamellipes are very maculate, while the nymphs of fossor are nearly unicolorous. Distribution. The type locality of this species is near Tucson, Pima Co., Arizona. It ranges over the desert regions of Arizona, Nevada and California. At the Nevada Test Site it was col- lected in all studies where can traps were main- tained, except at high elevations. Habitats. The distribution of this species points to the fact that it is an inhabitant of rodent burrows, primarily. Like the other gryllacridids it is nocturnal and omnivorous. Seasonal Occurrence. Nymphs and adults have been collected throughout the year in all months. It is primarily a spring insect, the adults being most common from April to June. Adults were present in very few numbers from August to February. Nymphs began to appear more abundantly in October and declined in June. See Table 57 for the occurence and distri- bution of the species. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 1,415. Salsola area (Study IF), 245 specimens, November to July. Graijia-Lijcium area (studies IB, IG, 4A), 872 specimens, collected in all months. Larrea'Franseria area (studies 5A, 5CQ), 16 specimens, April 3 to November 7 (no specimens collected in July, August, or October). Table 56. Size variation of Ceuthophilus fossor. t n log 50 -C JPL, yjU I 3 a fe V te IS H B -3 Go sfe 1 ft fnl ^J ■B — ■s ^ ■So" fnl fop, has S? si S » C i2 t; a S h S-? J JU JO j^ JH mn JH JH J O (^ , Minimum size, 1 FA3, June 19, 1961 0.8 0.65 1.3 1.7 3.5 4.2 9.3 9.5 1.7 0.5 0.6 1.3 0.9 cf , Average 1.006 0.75 1.713 1.893 4.138 5.15 11.25 11.713 1.913 0.594 0.713 1.469 1.043 (f , Maximum size, 4AL4, May 10, 1961 1.25 0.9 2.5 2.15 5.1 6.2 13.7 14.4 2.2 0.7 0.9 1.7 1.2 $ , Minimum size, 1FL2, June 19, 1961 0.8 0.6 1.4 1.7 3.8 4.5 10.0 10.0 1.7 0.5 0.65 1.3 0.9 4.7 9 , Average 0.92 0.705 1.44 1.775 4.0 4.64 10.36 10.41 1.74 0.555 0.63 1.34 0.965 5.07 $ , Maximum size, 1BD25, May 23, 1961 1.0 0.75 1.7 2.2 4.6 5.6 12.0 11.7 1.9 0.6 0.8 1.4 1.1 5.7 106 BiUGiiAM YouNc University Science Bulletin FIG. 146 Figs. 138-147. Ceutlwphilus fossor. 138, male, cpiphallus. 139, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral \iew. 140, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view. 141, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view. 142, male, suhnenita! plate, eaudal view. 143, male, epiproct. 144, male, distal alidominal tergites. dorsal view. 145, male, cephalie margin of cephalie femur, lateral view. 146, male, eaudal femur, lateral view. 147, male, c.iudal tarsus, lateral view. JAN FEB MAR APR MAY [ JUN 1 JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ATRIPLEX-KOCHIA COLEOGYNE GRAYIA-LYCIUM ___ I " ^ ^^ LAHREA-FRANSERIA MIXED PLANTS SALSOLA — 4 ^^ r . Table 57. Seasonal distribution of CcuOwphilus fossor. Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 107 Atriplex-Kochia area (Study 6A), 29 speci- mens, February 2-3 to September 18. Coleogijne area (Study lOD), 73 specimens, October to July (no specimens collected in Jan- uary or February). Artemisia area (Study TA), 2 specimens, April 15 and June 20 . Lycium area (Study 5E), 33 specimens, No- vember 28 to June (no specimens collected in December or January). Mixed areas (stvidies CBA, J A, 12CJ), 134 specimens, September to June. Study lOS, 11 specimens, January 19 and June and July. Ceuthophilus lamellipes Rehn (Figures 87, 92, 93, 148-154; Tables 58, 59; Map 28) 1907. Ceuthophilus lamellipes Rehn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, LIX, pp. 78-80, figs. 19, 20. Distinctive Features. This species can be distinguished from the other ceuthophili found at the Nevada Test Site by the very large tooth ( ventrocephalic carina strongly lamellate-e,x- planate) of the caudal femur of the male, the smaller tooth of the female, and by the numer- ous small denticulations on the dorsal and ce- phalic surface of the caudal femur in both sexes, more numerous and stronger in the male. It can also be told by the purplish markings (es- pecially in the nymphs and subadults) on the caudal femur and the dorsum of the thorax and abdomen. The terminal abdominal structures of the male, of course, are the most reliable criteria. The female nymphs have a slight indentation on the caudal femur, the male nymphs more noticeably dentate. Morphological Variation. The comments un- der "Morphological Variation" of C fossor can also be applied to this species. A considerable degree of variation was found with respect to the appendages, especially their spines and den- ticulations. Coloration. Color markings of this species have previously been discussed. This is the most maculate member of the genus Ceuthophilus on the test site, resembling Pristoceuthophilus, found only at higher elevations, in that respect. These two insects may be confused by super- ficial study, but are quite different morpho- logically. Distribution. The type locality of this species is Phoenix, Maricopa Co., Arizona. It has pre- viously been reported only from Arizona and northwestern Utah in Tooele County. Its distri- bution is shown now to extend into western Nevada, and it should be found in eastern Cal- ifornia. At the Nevada Test Site it was found in all areas except at higher altitudes. It is un- doubtedly limited to a desert environment. Habitats. The species is found in rodent bur- rows, under rocks and debris, and, although not proven, undoubtedly burrows in the loose sand according to the nigose nature of the append- ages. Seasonal Occurrence. In contrast to the earlier occurrence of C. fossor, this species ap- pears later in the season. Nymphs were collect- ed in all months of the year, although they were Table 58. Size variation of Ceuthophilus lamellipes. QJ pendage, lateral view. not abundant from NovcmlxT to May. The adults made flicir fir.st appearance in August and were present from then into May. They were most numerous from October to March. (See Table 59 for occurrence. ) Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 2,344. Salsohi area (Study IF), 223 specimens, from July to April (no specimens collected in May or June). Grai/ui-l.iiciiiin area (studies IB, IG, 4A), 1,167 specimens, collected tliroughout the entire year, in all months. I .arrca-Franscria area (studies 5A. 5CQ), 67 specimens, from July to .May (no specimens collected in June). Atriplex-Kochia area (Study 6A), 188 speci- mens, collected throughout the year, in all months exc-ept January. Colcootjne area (Study lOD), 25S specimens, from July to May (no specimens c-ollccted in June). Biological Slhies, \'ol. 4, No. 3, Sepiember, 1964 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ARTEMISIA ATRIPLEX-KOCHIA COLEOGYNE X — ■^ X XX X ^ ^ ^^^■^^ " ^^ grayia-lycium larrea-franseria mixed plants salsola ^1 ■* - -^ — B __ ^^ — == ► 1 1 1 Table 59. Seasonal distribution of Ceuthophilus lamellipes Eriogonum area (Study 5HL), 24 specimens, October 1 to November 8. Lijcium area (Study 5E), 147 specimens, from July to May (no specimens collected in June). Mi.\ed areas (studies 6FL, CBA, JA), 217 specimens, collected throughout the year, in all months except May and July. Artemisia area (Study TA), 6 specimens, January 8 (2 specimens) and July 19 to October 11. Study lOS, 47 specimens, June 19 to July 11. ( These studies were not maintained for an en- tire year, and the occurrence of the species does not correlate with the known occurrence for the test site. Genus Pristocetithophilus Rehn 1902. Pristoceuthophilus Rehn, Trans. Amer. En- tom. Soc., XXIX, p. 17. Pristoceuth oph iltis pacificits ( Thomas ) (Figures 84-86, 155-160; Table 60; Map 29) 1872. Ceuthophilus pacifica Thomas, Rep. Geol. Surv. Territ. Montana, p. 436. Distinctive Features. This species, even in the early nymphal stages, can be easily dis- tinguished from Ceuthophilus, although the superficial resemblance is striking, especially to C. lamellipes. The adults are smaller than any known species of Ceuthophilus at the Nevada Test Site. More striking differences, however, are presented by the conical development of the vertex of the head, especially pronounced in the nymphs, in the possession of only three pairs of spurs on the posterior tibiae, in the non- spinous median co.\ae, and die very long first hind tarsal segment, much longer than the re- maining portion. The anterior femora are with- out spines, the middle femora smooth e.xcept for the spine on the external carina, the posterior femora are bullate, suggestive of C. lamellipes. Tiie tibiae bear many small spines between the larger ones. Additional criteria are the styles of the male and the broadly emarginate subgenital plate. The ventral ovipositor valves of the female are armed distad with crenulations or numerous low serrations rather than the acicular teeth of the preceding genus. The dorsal surface of the abdomen of the adult male is covered by small tubercles on all the segments and they are generally distributed over these segments. The nymphs, even early instars, can be told from the species of Ceuthophilus by the exceed- ingly bullate clvpeus, which is less noticeable in the adult. Otherwise they are similar to the nymphs of C lamellipes. Coloration. This species most nearly re- sembles Ceuthophilus hmellipes in color and markings. Tlie nymphs are very suggestive of that species. The adults, however, are much more maculate than the adults of lam.elUpes. The ground color of the species is opaque yel- lowish brown with the numerous brownish- purple maculations. Disti-ibution. The species has been recorded from various places throughout California and from Nevada. At the Nevada Test Site it was collected only at higher elevations, especially on Rainier Mesa. Habitats. This species is very common in the disturbed area (Study 12A) of Rainier Mesa, Hkicmam V(junc Univehsity Science Bulletin Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 111 FIG. 160 FIG. 157 Figs. 155-160. Pristoceuthopilus pacificus. 155, male, epiphallas. 156, female, distal valves of ovipositor, lateral view. 157, male, apex of abdomen, lateral view. 158, male, subgenital plate, caudal view. 159, male, distal abdominal tergites, dorsal view. 160, male, caudal femur, lateral view. Table 60. Size variation of Pristoceuthophilus pacificus. t 1 iltlitj 3q ^s2 S& e 5 ^ 2 « 8 fa i a ■si i -0 Go (M ecies has a considerable altitudinal range from southern California east to Colorado, New Mexico and Texas. At the Ne- vada Test Site it was found at Cane Springs, near Midvalley, and on Yucca Flat. Habitats. This walking-stick is occasionally found feeding on grass, but more often is found on shrubs and perennial plants. It is generally quite common when found, but only three speci- mens were collected at the test site. Seasonal Occurrence. Complete data are un- available on the occurrence of the species. It was collected as adults from June 13 to July 17. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adults): 3. Study IGDl, 1 male, July 17. Study CM, 1 female, June 13. Study TCB, 1 male, June 22. Suborder DiCTiOPXERA Superfamily Mantodea Family Manteidae The praying mantids are strikingly peculiar in appearance. The body is elongate with a free and transverse head and a vertical face. The cephalic appendages are raptorial with free, elongate co.xae; the femora and tibiae are en- larged and spined for seizing insect prey. The middle and caudal appendages are slender. The tegmina and wings are often shorter than the abdomen in the females. The abdomen of the female is often much broader than that of the male and is without a visible ovipositor. Both se.xes have a pair of short jointed cerci attached to the sides of the epiproct, while the males also have a pair of much shorter styles near the apex of the subgenital plate. Sound producing organs are absent. The Manteidae differ from all other Ortho- ptera in being exclusively carnivorous upon liv- ing insects. They are esteemed as highly useful and beneficial. A praying mantid often takes two grasshoppers at a time, grabbing one in each appendage. It eats the prey alive, usually starting at the base of the head. The females are cannibalistic and often devour their mates after copulation. The eggs are laid in conspicuous ootheca attached to twigs of trees or stems of grasses. The winter is spent in the egg stage, the young hatch in the spring and seek plant lice and other soft-bodied insects for their first food. Subfamily Amelinae Genus Litanctitria Saussure 1892. Litaneutria Saussure, Soc. Ent. VII, p. 123. Key to the Superfamilies of EhcTYOPTERA Anterior legs highly specialized for grasping prey; body very elongate and narrow Superfamily Mantodea, page 121 Anterior legs not specialized for grasping; body ovate or subovate -. Superfamily Blattodea, page 124 Key to the Subfamihes of Manteidae Size small, less than 32 mm. long; pronotum subequal in length to anterior coxa; posterior fe- mora armed with an apical spine Subfamily Amelinae, page 121 Size large, more than 50 mm. long; pronotum much longer than anterior coxa; posterior femora with no apical spine Subfamily Manteinae, page 122 122 Bkiciiam Yoi'NC Univkksitv Scienck Bvi.lktin Lilancutria minor (Seuddcr) (T.il.K- m. Map 34) 1872. Htd'^mdloplcra minor Sciiddcr, U. S. Ct-ol. Surv. Nebraska, Final Heporf, Part 3, p. 251. Established Synonoiny. Lilancutria ocularis Saiissiire; Lilancutria ohscura Scudder; Lilaneu- tria pacifica Scuddor; Litanculria nkinncri Rehn; Lilanculria lon1 ), 5 mm. long, has the eyes distinct- 1\' pointcil abo\e, suggestive of Yermniops. No other nymphs show this condition and no adults of that genus were collected at the Nevada Test Site. The insect referred to is therefore con- sidered an abberant form of Lilancutria. SubfamiK M \n ri:iNAK Genus Sta^j^niouuiiifis Saussure 1869. Sla<^momantis Saussure, Mitth. Schweiz. Ent. Ges. Ill, pp. .56, (i5. Table 66. Size variation of LiUineutria mhtor. 1 -ICQ 3d Length CephaL 23.7 4.5 16.3 6.3 4.2 24.7 4.6 17.3 6.2 4.2 25.0 5.5 6.1 7.0 5.3 27.4 5.1 19.2 8.2 5.4 27.8 6.0 6.2 6.6 5.8 cf, MD, Jiinu 7, 1961 cT, 5M, Sc'ptimbcr 26, 1961 cf , 5M, (XfolxT 3, 1961 (^.5A. August .U, 1959 9,5A. August 31, 1959 Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 123 Stagmonuinfis californicus Rehn and Hebard (Table 67; .Map .34) 1909. ^tagmomantis californicus Rehn and He- bard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pliila., LXI. pp. 409- 483. Distinctive Features. This insect can be readily recognized and distinguished from Li- taiiciitiia by its large size, its coloration, and its tliamnophilous habits. Coloration. Tlie bodv of this insect is usual- !)• green, but occasional yellowish or brown specimens are found. The brown specimens are most frequently with light maculations. The hind wings are usually brown, often marked with ashy blotches, or frequently purple, red, or even orange-yellow. The wings of the specimens col- lected at the test site were red, but in observed specimens they changed to brown within four hours after death. The first four dorsal ab- dominal segments of the male are broadly edged with darker brown. Distribution This species is common throughout the Larrea-Franseria deserts of the southwest. It distribution extends from Calif- ornia east to Colorado and Texas. This mantid is not common at the Ne\'ada Test Site even though it was found in a nimiber of different areas. Habitats. Cenerallv (|uite common through- out its distribution, this insect is found on shrubs and low vegetation, and is frequently attracted to lights at night. Its most common occurrence at the test site was on Larreci divaricata. Seasonal Occurrence. Nymphs were collected from July 10 to September 30. The only adult occurrence was in September. Tlie adults im- doubtedly are found into October, at least, al- though no specimens were collected. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 15. Study 5A, 4 specimens, July 10 to IS, on Lanca divaricata. Studies CBA and JA, 3 specimens, July 15 to September 2, vegetation not recorded from which the specimens were taken. Study CM, Cane Springs, 3 specimens, July 15 to September 30, no vegetation records. Study TCB, 2 specimens, July 16, no vege- tation records. Area 6, miscellaneous collecting, 2 speci- mens, August 28, no vegetation records. Camp iMercurv area, 1 specimen, Septem- ber 10. .Additional Remarks. Thomas (1875) report- ed three specimens belonging to the family Manteidae that were collected by members of the \Mieeler Survey, one of which was new and was described at that time as follows: "Mantis wlicclcrii, sp. nov. "The specimen is dry, and is so badly dam- aged that it is impossible to determine positively the genus to which it belongs, or to do more than indicate some of its leading specific char- acters. "Female. — Head flat, transverse, triangular in front. Occiput short, reduced to a transverse ridge. Vertex transverse, directed downward and backward toward the face, with four slight longitudinal depressions. Ocelli distinct and prominent. The face transversely quadrilateral; the upper carinate margin bent upward be- tween the antennae. The antennae wanting. Prothorax about twice the length of the rest of the thorax; the margins minutely serrate, slight- ly emarginate, scarcely expanding posteriorly near the transverse incision. Anterior femora denticulate on the exterior carina. Abdomen en- larged, fusiform. Middle and posterior legs wanting, and but a remnant of the wings re- maining. "Color. — Yellow, probably faded from a pale green. The abdominal segments with a piceous black fascia or ring on the posterior margin of each. The remnants of the wings carneous-red. "The specimen is too much injured to give any very acurate measurements; but the follow- Tablc 67. Mea.surements of Stagmomantis californicus. ■3 bO >^ C 13 3 A ■5 S J' , CM, September 30, 1961 14.8 12.6 10.9 124 Briciiam Young University Science Bulletin Key to the Genera of Polyphagidae Middle and caiidal ti-iiiora with dorsal genicular spine at apex (Fig. 107) Arenivaga Rehn Middle and caudal femora without dorsal genicular spine at apex Eremoblatta Rehn ing approximations will indicate the size: — Length, 2.2 inches; prothorax, 1.0 inch; anterior femora, 0.5 incli; anterior tibiae, 0.6 inch." Tliis species was subsequently placed into synonomy with ^tagmoniantis carolitm (Johann- son), but the c-olor markings arc as in S. californ- icus. Eidier S. calijornicus of Rehn and Hebard is a color variation of S. Carolina and should be placed into synonomy, or, if it is a good species, it should be relegated to a synonomic position of Stagmomantis wheelerii (Thomas), and tlie latter reestablished as tlie scientific name of this insect. Superfamily Bl.\ttode.\ Family Polyphagidae The orthopterans with strongly depressed, more or less oval, bodies are readily referred to the superfamily Blattodea. Other distinguishing characteristics separate them from the other Orthoptera. The head is concealed beneath the pronotum, tlie face is ventral, the mouth poster- ior, and tlie antennae long and filiform. The legs are slender, similar, and compressed, with the coxae long and free. When fully developed, the tegmina are parchment-like and overlapping, and the wings membranous, with a large anal area. Both tegmina and wings are often rudi- mentary or wanting in the female and some- times in both sexes. The Nevada Test Site fe- males are all apterous. The sexes may be distinguished without diffi- culty, although there is no visible ovipositor. The males are characterized, in addition to tlie conspicuous cerci, by the presence of a pair of styles at the sides of the caudal margin of the last ventral segment of the abdomen. These insects are commonly known as roach- es. They are nocturnal and remain in darkened places during the day. At night they run about seeking food, and attack everything edible. c::^ FIG. 107 I'^ig. 107. Arenivaga erratica, female, caudal femur slxowiug distal spine, lateral view. The number of generations of these insects per year appears to differ with the species. The native species produce apparently a single brood per year, but those ad\entive species, commonly found in houses, may produce several broods per year. Tlie eggs are laid enclosed in ootheca, which shows their true relationships to the mantids, which are carried about for several days protruding from the body of the female before being finaliv dropped, appareiitlN' at random. The native roaches live under or within ob- jects and are commonly found in rodent nests, especially of the rat Neotanui. No attempt has been made to include in this discussion those roaches which might have become established as adventives, and which are found only in tlie residences and buildings. The males of the native species are long- winged, buff with brown markings, and are often seen because they are attracted to lights in large numbers. The females are round and wingless. Most of the specimens taken at the Nevada Test Site were collected in can traps as a result of their foraging at night. Genus Arenivaga Rehn 1903. Arenivaga Rehn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sd. Phila., 1903, p. 181. In his revisionan,' studies of the genus. He- bard (1920c) stated: "So much indi\idual \ari- ation occurs in tlie species of tliis genus, in the Key to the Species of Arenivaga (Modified from Hebard) Right, ventral genital plate of male without projections, the right dorsal genital plate vertically broad, with margins rounded and surface smooth (Fig. 108). Limbs of female more elongate and slender; dorsal surface of abdomen normally maculate A. erratica Rehn Right ventral genital plate of male with projections; right dorsal genital plate large and lobi- fomi, proiluced inward from its left distal portion in an elongate heavy spike, the internal margin beyond the base of this spike armi'd with two small teeth (Fig. 109). Limbs of fe- male shorter and stouter; segments of abdomen nonnally immaculate A. apacha (Saussure) Biological Series, \"ol. 4, Xo. 3. Septemulh. 1964 125 FIG. 108 FIG. 109 Figs. 108-109. 108, Arenivaga erratica, male, con- cealed genital structure. 109, A. apacha, male, concealed genital structures. features normally used for specific separation, that we feel it is imperative for the student to examine the concealed genitalia of all males to be recorded. The other features which we con- sider of some diagnostic value, and the degree of variation known, are discussed under the species." Arenivaga erratica Rehn (Figures 107, 108; Table 68; .Map 35) 1903. Homoeogamia {Arenivaga) erratica Rehn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1903, p. 187. Distinctive Features. Several different spe- cies of Arenivaga are found in the southwestern desert areas. The two species found at the Ne- vada Test Site are difficult to differentiate, but may be recognized by an examination of the external genital characters of the male. The fe- males are more problematical in their differ- entiation, as no reliance can be placed on the dorsal markings. Coloration. The males of the species ar€ light buff in coloration with tegmina and wings of approximately the same color. The females typically have some darker maculations on the dorsal surface. The ground color of the females is usually darker than the males. Distribution. This species is more numerous and has a wider distribution than the other Arenivaga found at the test site. It is western in distribution, being found from California to western Texas and from southern Utah and southern California to Mexico. It has a wide distribution over most of the Nevada Test Site. Habitats. Like other roaches, the species is nocturnal, the males being attracted to lights at night. They were most commonh' collected in the can traps as a result of tlieir nocturnal wanderings. Tliey are frequently found in rodent nests, or in the tunnels associated witli the nests. They are especially common in sandy areas. Seasonal Occurrence. This roach has been collected from April 4 to October 23. Botli nymphs and adults were present from April through October. They are most common dur- ing the month of August. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (nymphs and adults): 99. Salsola area (Study IF), 1 specimen, Aug- ust 4. Graijia-Ltjcium areas (studies IB, IG, 4A), 47 specimens, April 6 to October 12. Larrea-Franseria areas (studies 5A, 5CQ), 3 specimens. May 22 to September 2. Atriplex-Kochia area (Study 6A), 4 speci- mens, June 26 to September 15. Coleogijne area (Study lOD), 8 specimens, June 2 to September 15. Lycium area (Study 5E), 8 specimens, May 4 to August 26. Mixed vegetation areas (studies CBA, JA), 52 specimens, April 4 to October 23. Study lOS, 13 specimens, June 19 to 29. Additional Remarks. The concealed genital characters of the entire series of male specimens of Arenivaga collected at the Nevada Test Site were checked. In addition, measurements were made on sufficient female adults to show no statistical differences in the population, so the Table 68. Size variation of Arenivagu erratica. 3 s B E 3 S 3 5 6 - b b c Ed 11. bil >> C -0 J3 St3 ? o T3 O a c 1> o 9 9:* If 11 C 3 ^1 S 3 iH Cj Oj o I-. O 4J fc. £ t; d) OJ I- ecimens had the abdomen broken off and were referred to crratica only on the basis of numbers of specimens. A tinv spine is present on the right ventral genital plate of some males. This condition is slightb' atvpicai to comparative specimens to the east, and the Nevada Test Site specimens may be an undescribed group, intermediate bet\veen apacha and crratica, and may indicate that these two species are the same with the presence of subspeciation over their ranges. .\ complete re- vision of the genus will have to be made. Arenivaga apacha (Saussure) (Figure 109; Table 69; Map 35) 1893. (Homoeogamia) apacha Saussure, Rew Suisse Zool., I, Fasc. 2. p. 296. Established Synonomy. (Homoeogamia) apacha infuscafa Caudell. Distinctive Features. This species am be distingnislu'd from crratica with any assurance onlv bv the external genital structures of the male, and even these structures are subject to variation througliout its range. Coloration. Both sexes are so similar to crratica that little distinction can be based on coloration. Generally the males are slightly darker, although light individuals are also found, and the females are reddish brown, as are the females of crratica. In apacha, liowever, the females have no dorsal maculations. Distribution. This species occurs o\'er i)art of the range of crratica, in that it is found from southern (California, through extreme soutiiern Nevada, into Arizona, and south into Mexico, the t\'pe locaiitv being in the state of Chihuaiiua. Onh' one specimen from the Nevada Test Site, collected near Frenchman Playa, was assigned to the species. Table 69. Measurement.s of Arenimga apacha. Habitats. The information given for crratica also applies to apaclia. The latter species, how- ever, is freijuentK' found on sand dunes through- out its range, and can be recognized and col- lected, particniarh' at night, by tlie small mole- like burrows they make immediately under the surface of the ground. The males, too are at- tracted to lights at night. Seasonal Occurrence. The imlv specimen as- signed to this species was collected in .\Iav. There is no reason to belie\e, howe\'er, that it occurs aii\ earlier than crratica. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed (adult): 1. Study 5E, 1 adult. May 4. .\dditional Remarks. This specimen was compared to a series of males from Riverside County, California, and more nearly resembles this species than it does a large series of crratica from a number of localities through- out that species range. For further comments see "Additional Remarks" of that species. Genus Ercmoblatta Rehn 190.3. F.rcmohlalla Helm, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pliila., 1903, p. 181. Ercmoblatta suhdiaphomi (Scudder) I r.il)l,. 7(1: Map 36) 1902. Homoeogamia suhdiaphana Scudder, Proc. Da\enport Acad. Sci., L\. p. 19. Distinctive Features. This species, although superficiallv resembling Arenivaga, is quite dis- tinct morphologically. The body is moderately ccnered with \ellowish hairs, with the middle and caudal femora very hairy, and lacking the tlistal spine of Arenivaga. Seven spines are IouikI at tlu> distal end of the cephalic tibiae. rhc males arc tulK winged, the females wing- less. Coloration. I'liis is a light tan colored species, ranging to a medium brown in some specimens. (^, 5EA7, May 4, 1961 X 5 2 5 -Sl j=^ -S^-gji ;5ji JH mt^ -j£ o5£ •J" CO'-' -^"^ M*^ 14.5 4.7 5.0 3.5 2.4 0.55 3.0 0.7 ■§)? lr% c 2 JO nu 3.1 0.8 Biological Series, \'ol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 Table 70. Size variation of Eremohlatta suhdiaphana. 127 m 5, -3 ■3 g ^5 •55 ^ 5> g 1 i ?f CQ H J CL, « ft. S c ■£- a'a 3 1 3 H 3 3 5 3 B ?. fl b b b fl^ fa- t. H H -^3 ti:i"5 "5 Tj tea 1^ J3 ~ %-a J3 _ ^4 £ a. C 3 oj 3 C 3 JU CQU J^ eai; JO pa o hJ d CQU 2.1 0.5 2.6 0.6 2.7 0.85 3.2 0.5 2.1 0.6 2.5 0.6 1.75 0.5 2.4 0.8 2.7 1.0 2.8 1.0 1.7 0.5 2.1 0.6 2.1 0.8 2.2 0.65 cf . JAL2, Aug. 3, 1961 C^.JAAll, Sept. 19, 1961 9 , 6AA6, Aug. 21, 1961 $ , CBA4, May 6, 1961 10.9 6.3 10.7 6.3 13.7 5.5 3.0 4.3 1.45 0.5 14.1 5.8 2.9 4.4 1.25 0.4 4.0 5.0 0.5 1.6 3.0 4.6 0.65 1.2 The males are lighter in color on the cephalic margin of the pronotiim. Tlie wings, as in the species of Arenivaga at the test site, are semi- transparent. Distribution. A member of the Lower Sonor- an faunal zone, this species is found on the deserts from California to New Me.xico and e,\- treme southwestern Te.xas. At the Nevada Test Site it was commonly distributed about French- man and Yucca playas. Habitats. Specimens from the test site were collected in can traps and no data were collect- ed Hi to their habits or habitats. They are un- doubtedly nocturnal in that the males are at- tracted to lights at night. Their spined ap- pendages suggest a burrowing habit and they may be associated with rodent burrows. Seasonal Occurrence. Nvinphs were collect- ed as earh- as April 2.5 and were present into September. The adults appeared in May and were collected to 'September 19. They were most common during August and September and undoubtedly can be found into October at least. Localities Represented. Specimens examin- ed ( nymphs and adults ) : 57. Study IB. 6 specimens, July 4 to August 28. Studies 5A and 5CQ, 17 specimens, June 29 to September 19. Study 6A, 2 specimens, July 3 and August 21. Area 6, miscellaneous collecting, 4 specimens, August 28. Study lOD, .3 specimens, July 11 to Septem- ber 13. Studies CBA and JA, 25 specimens, April 2.5 to September 19. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS It is exceedingly difficult to present a clear analysis of any major group in a limited area, especially one defined by political boundaries. Certainly a complete reyision of a group is need- ed to clarify any special relationships. This study is not an attempt at revision of any group, al- though some synonomy is suggested. From an evaluation of data derived from such studies, others can more correctly bring about the major revisions, and any ecologic or taxonomic study can only be used as an aid to major revisions. The present study is the result of the com- bined efforts of many individuals. Approximately 8,000 specimens of Orthoptera were collected and studied during the course of the research. Ta.xonomically, this represents four of the five recognized suborders, the only suborder not pre- sent being the Notoptera, the grylloblattids. Eighteen families are found in North America; nine at the Nevada Test Site. A total of 41 genera and 60 species and subspecies were col- lected. Many of these are uncommon, however. Two new species and one new subspecies are described, the distribution of some species is extended, and a few species are presented as feeing hypothetical to the test site in that they were not actually collected but may occur in limited distribution. With each species is discussed the synonomy which has been previously established; the dis- tinctive or comparative featiires, morphological and size variations, and notes on coloration. The Rkiciiam VoiNc Univeksity Science Bulletin distribution of each species is given, overall and for tile Nevada Test Site, botii geogra]>hical and ecological, and the habits and habitats are pre- sented where known. The seasonal occmrence given is not necessarily the earliest or latest for the species at the test site, but the dates when the insects were collected in nymph or adult form. Tile distribution of each species is pre- sented for all localities, including the total num- ber of specimens examined. .\ map plots tlie collection sites for each group. An apparent scarcity of specimens for most species was apparent at the test site as com- pared to other desert and semi-desert areas. The reasons for this scarcity can only be speculated. It might be due to the normal fluctuation of numbers due to natural parasites, predators, or en\ironmental conditions (i.e., wet seasons as compared to dr\' seasons). On the other hand, it could be due to radiation effects on the animals. With reference to possible radiation effects, no statistical data were maintained to determine whether or not there is a high incidence of aberrant forms. There is a great deal of di\ersit\' in all orthopteran groups and the aberrant in- dividuals may not occur with any greater de- gree at the test site than elsewhere. Radiation effects on a smaller [wpulation could concei\ablv produce the same results of normal speciation or subspeciation as over a complete range of dis- tribution and in time. An obvious environmental difference has been noted at the test site. In areas of com- plete destruction due to nuclear explosions few orfhopti-rans are found, perhaps due to the scarcity of vegetation, particularly in tJie areas of short grasses and their associated \egctation. To the other extreme, an obvious benefit was noted as a result of an explosion on Rainier Mesa. In the disturbed area, v\liere the rocks had been loosened and fissures of \'arious sizes occurred in the ground, and the soil had general- 1\' been loosened, there were large numbers of most orthopterans, even though the dominant xegetatiou had been killed b\- the force. Few numbers were found in the comparative area wiiere no nuclear effects could be noted. The Orthoptera, as a group, are ideal indi- cator animals for radiation studies as lia\e been and ma\- be conducted at the Xe\ada Test Site. In addition to adecjuate numbers being present, both uvmphs and adults arc present at any sea- .son of the vear. Most importantlv, perhaps, the tossorial types, such as the species of Ceu- thophiliis. PiLstoceuthophihts. or Stcnopehnatus. max be protected in their underground environ- ments, wliile species of Tiimerofropis, Cibohicris. and Litanciitria may be more exposed in their terrestrial environment. In addition the winged species might actually migrate from one place to another. Finally, the thamnophilous forms, such as Rootettix. are never found on the ground and ma\' react (juite differently to or be ex{X>sed to different intensities of radiation. Before any cximplete evaluation can be made with reference to numbers or radiation effects on the Orthoptera, a follow-up study should be made after a lapse of time. LITERATURE CITED Albrecht, F. O. 1953. 'Ilir Anatomy of the Migratory Locust. University of I.dikIom, Tlu- Athlone Press, 118 pp. Alexander, R. D. 1957. The 'ra.vonomy of tlie Field Crickets of tlie Eastern United States (Orthoptera; C'.rvllidae; Aclictu). Annals Enfom. Soe. Americ.i, Vol. ,50 (6), pp. .584-602. Allred, D. M., D E. Beck, and C. D. Jorgensen. 1963. Biotic Communities of the Nevada Test Site. Brig- ham Young Univ. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser., Vol. II, No. 2, .52 pp. Ball, E. D., E. R. Tinkham, R. Flock, and C. T. Vor- hies. 1942. The C.rasshoppers and Other Or- thoptera of Arizona. Arizona Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 93, pp. 2.5.5-373. Banium, A. H. 1952. The Ta.xononiy of Utah Or- thoptera with Notes on Distril)uti(>n. Uiipuhlished Master's Thesis deposited at the Brigham Young University, 236 pp. Barnum, A. H. 1959. Th- Phallic Complex in the OEdipodinae (Orthoptera. .\crididae). Unpuh- hshed Ph. D. Thesis deposited at Iowa State Uni- versity, 220 pp. Cantrall, I. j. 1943. The Ecology of the Orthoptera and Oermaptera of the George Reserve, Michigan. Misc. Puhl., Museum Zoology, U. Michigan, No. .54, pp. 1-182. Caudell, A. N. 1908. Notes on some Western Or- tiioptera; with the Description of One New Species. Proc. U. S. N;.t. Mus., Vol. 34, pp. 71-81. Dirsh. \'. M. 19.55. Tanaoceridae and .Xyronotidae: two new families of Acridoidea (Orthoptera). ■■Viin. Mag. \at. Hist., (12) 8, pp. 285-288. Oirsli. \'. M, 19.56. The Ph.dlic Complex in Acriil- oide.i (Orthoptera) in Relation to Taxouonn Tr.uis. Royal Ent. Soc. London. \ol. 108 (7). pp. 2J3-3.56. Essig, E. O. 1926. Iiiscits of Western North Ameiic.i. Ihc \l,ic\lill,ni Company, New York. 1035 pp. Biological Series, \'ol. 4, \o. 3, September, 1964 Hebard, M. 1916. A Study of the Species of the Genus Stcnopclmcitus found in the United States. Journ. \. V. Entom. Soc., Vol. 24, pp. 70-86. Hebard, M. 1920a. New Genera and Species of Melanopli found within the United States (Part III). Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 46, pp. .3.55- 403. Hebard, M. 192(lb. A Revision of the North Ameri- can Species of the Genus Mi/rmecophila (Or- thoptera; GryUidae; MyrmecophiHnae ) . Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 46, pp. 91-111. Hebard, M. 1920c. Revisionarv Studies in the Genus Areinvaga (Orthoptera, Blattidae, Polyphaginae ) . Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, \'ol. 46, pp. 197-217. Hebard, M. 1929. The Orthoptera of Colorado. Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. 81, pp. 30.3-425. Hebard. M. 1931. Th- Magoplistinae of the United State^. Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 57, pp. 135-160. Hebard, M. 1934. Studies in Orthoptera which occur in North America North of the Mexican Boundary. V. The Pachymorphinae of the United States ( Phismidae). Trails. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 60, pp. 284-294. Hebard, M. 1937. Studies in Orthoptera which occur in North America North of the Me.\ican Boundary. IX. On Arphia conspersa, notes and a new species of Sphamgemon, a new Genus and its Races of the group Heliasti and a new generic name for the group Anconiae (OEdipodinae, Acrididae). Trans. Amer. Entom, Soc, Vol. 63, pp. 361-379. Heifer, J. R. 1963. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cockroaches and Their Allies. W'm. C. Brown Com- pany Publishers, 353 pp. Hubbell, T. H. 1922. The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Berrien County, Michigan. Mus. Zool., Univ. Mich. Occas. Papers. No. 116, pp. 1-77. Hubbell, T. H. 1936. A Monographic Revision of tlie Genus CcuthophUus ( Orthoptera, Gryllacrididae, Rhaphidophorinae). Univ. Fla. Publ. Biol. Sci. 2 (1), 551 pp. Isely, F. B. 1937. Seasonal Succession, Soil Relations, Numbers, and Regional Distribution of North- eastern Te.xas Acridians. Ecol. Monog., Vol. 7, pp. 317-344. Isely, F. B. 1938. The Relations of Texas Acrididae to Plants and Soils. Ecol. Monog., Vol. 8, pp. 551- 604. LaRivers, I. 1948. A Synopsis of Nevada Orthoptera. Amer. Midland Nat., Vol. 39, pp. 652-720. McNeill, J. 1901. Revision of the Orthopteran Genus Trimerotropis. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 23, pp. 393-449. Rehn, J. A. G. 1919. Descriptions of New and Critical Notes upon Previously Known Forms of North American OEdipodinae (Orthoptera; Acrid- idae). First Paper. Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 45, pp. 229-255. Rehn, J. A. G. 1923. North American Acrididae. A Study of the Ligurotettigi. Trans. Amer. Entom.. Soc, Vol. 49, pp. 43-92. Rehn, J. A. G. 1940. The South American Species of the OEdipodinc Genus Trimerotropis (Ortho- ptera: Acrididae). Trans Amer. Entom. Soc, \'ol. 65, pp. 395-414. Rehn, J. A. G. 1942. On the Locust Genus Psoloessa (Orthoptera; Acrididae; Acridinae). Trans. Amc. Entom. Soc, Vol. 68, pp. 167-237. Rehn, J. A. G. 1944. On the significance of localized coloration in the Creosote Bush Locust (Bootettix) (Orthoptera; Acrididae; Acridinae). Entom. News, \'ol. .55, pp. 1.58-164. Rehn, J. A. G. and H. J. Grant, Jr. 1957. The Genus Pcirtitettix as found in North America (Orthoptera; Acridoidea; Tetrigidae). Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. 109, pp. 247-319. Rehn, J. A. G. and H. J. Grant, Jr. 1958. A Revision of the Genus Morsca ( Orthoptera; Acridoidca; Eumastacidae ) . Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 84, pp. 217-259. Rehn, J. A. G. and H. J. Grant, Jr. 1959a. A Review of the Genera Fsijchomastax and Eumorsea (Or- thoptera; Acridoidea; Eumastacidae). Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 84, pp. 273-302. Relin, J. A. G. and H. J. Grant, Jr. 1959b. A Review of the Romalcinae (Oithoptera; Acrididae) Found in America North of Me.\ico. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. 109, pp. 109-271. Rehn, J. A. G. and H.J. Grant, Jr., 1960. A New Con- cept Involving the Subfamily Acridinae (Ortho- ptera: Acridoidea). Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, Vol. 86, pp. 173-185. Rehn, J. A. G. and H. J. Grant, Jr. 1961. A Mono- graph of the Orthoptera of North America (North of Mexico), X'olume I. Monographs Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., No. 12, 2.57 pp. Rehn, J. A. G. and M. Hebard. 1908. An Ortho- pterological Reconnoissance of the Southwestern United States. Part I: Arizona. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.L, Vol. 60, pp. 365-402. Rehn, J. A. G. and M. Hebard. 1909. An Ortho- pterological Reconnoissance of the Soutliwcstern United States. Part III: California and Nevada. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. 61, pp. 490-483. Rehn, J. A. G. and M. Hebard. 1914. A Revision of the Orlhoptcrous Genus Insiira. Trans. Amer. En- tom. Soc, Vol. 40, pp. 37-184. Rehn, J. A. G. and M. Hebard. 1915. The Genus Gnjllus (Orthoptera) as Found in America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Vol. 67, pp. 293-322. Ridgway, R. 1912. Color Standards and Color Nomen- clature. Washington, D. C, 43 pp. 53 pis. Strohecker, H. F. 1937. An Ecological Study of Some Orthoptera of the Chicago Area. Ecology, Vol. 18 (2), pp. 231-250. Thomas, C. 1875. Report upon the Collections of Or- thoptera made in portions of Nevada, Utah, Cahf- ornia, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona, during the Years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. Chapter XIII (in) Report upon Geog. & Geol. E,xpl. Surv. West One Hundredth Mer., G. M. Wheeler. Vol. V., Zoology, pp. 843-908. Tinkhim, E. R. 1938. Western Orthoptera Attracted to Lights. Journ. N. Y. Entom. Soc, Vol. 46, pp. 339-353. Tinkham, E. R. 1942. The Rediscovery of Anoplodusa urizonensis (Orthoptera). Bull. Chicago Acad Sci., Vol. 6 (12), pp. 221-227. Tinkham, E. R. 1944. Biological, Taxonomic and Faunistic Studies on the Shieldback Katydids of the North American Deserts. Amer. Midland Nat., Vol. 31, pp. 257-328. Tinkh;im, E. R. 1948. Faunistic and Ecological Stu- dies on the Orthoptera of the Big Bend Region of Trans-Pecos Texas, with Especial Reference to the 130 BiiiciiAM ^■<)l'^•c Univkksity Science Bulletin Orthopteran Zones and Kaunac of Midwestern North America. Amer. Midland Nat., Vol. 40 (.3), pp. .521-663. Unpihard, K. A. 1941. An Kcological Study of the Sahatoria of Point I'elee, Ontario. Univ. Toronto Studies, Biol. Scr., No. 50. pp. 1-91. Vestal, A. G. 1913. Local Distrihnlion of (;r,issliop- pers in UrI.ition to Plant Association.s. Biol. Bull., Vol. 25, pp. 141-180. Wallace, H. S. 19.5.5. Revision of the Cenu-s Aeolo- plitk'n (Oilhoptera, Acrididae). Ann. Entom. Soc'. Anur., \ol. 48 (6), pp. 4.5.3-480. Wheler, W. M. 1900. The Habits of Mtjrmccophila nrhru.icin.si.\ Bniner. Psyche, Vol. 9, pp. 111-115. APPENDIX I l)i:i'osiToiui;.s ok Spkc.imkns Collecikd in This Study American Museum oi Natural ili.ston'. New York City, New ^ork. Brigliain Young University, Provo, Utali. California Acadeinv of Sciences, San Francisco, California. Chicago Natural llist()r\' .Museum, Chicago, Illinois. Di.xie College, St. George, Utah. Musuem of Comparative Zoology (Hanard), Cambridge, Massachusetts. Nevada Soutiicni University, Las Vegas, Ne- \'ada. Philaclclpiiia .\caclemv of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. University of Michigan, Ann .\rhor, Michigan. Uni\'ersitv of Ne\ada, Reno, Ne\ada. University of Utah, Salt Lake Cit)' Utah. United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. Utah State Unixersit)-, l^ogan, Utah. APPKXDI.X II Notes on Collecting .\nu Pheserving Orthoptfr.v Most Orthoptera are large and conspicuous and may be collected with a minimum of equip- ment, but iit times with a great deal of eflorf. Some fossorial and terrestrial forms can best he found by the use of special can pit-traps or by searching through rodent nests and tunnels, in caves, or under rocks. At least one species is found associated with ants and re(|uires special collecting. The thamnophilous ortho- pterans are best collected b\' the use of a hea\y sweeping net, \\hile the rapid fliers may be cap- tured 1)\ dropping an aerial net ()\er them alter tlie\ lia\e alighted on the ground. Nocturnal specimens may be collected at night, by looking for them with a light, oi' by locating them by their calls. All winged specimens should be killed in a standard cvanide killing bottle, or b\- subjection to another gas, as fluids have a tendency to change body colors and make the wings un- suitable for ade(|uate study. Fossorial specimens, such as the species of CeuthopJiilus. Prlstoceu- thopliiliis, Miiiniccopliild. and SlcnofM'hiuiliis. as well as the females of roac-hes (not the winged males), ma\' be killed in TO'J ethyl alcohol, in which solution they can be permanently stored providing sufficient fluid is present. A safe licjuid \oluine for adequate preservation would be ten times the volume of the insects. No specimen killed in the cyanide bottle should be retained in the bottle for more than lour to six hours, as the cvanide gas discolors the specimens, turning them (juite reddish. .After death, but still relaxed, they should be piimed bv forcing a No. 3 insect pin through the [pos- terior part of the pronotum immediatelv to the right of the mcxlian carina. .\s most orthopterans are heavy-bodied, the legs and abdomen tend to sag. To correct this unsightlv condition they should be allowed to drv for several davs, ac- cording to environmental conditions (i.e., humid- itv), by inserting the pin in a sheet of st\rofoam plastic covered with paper (to prevent their tarsi from breaking off when they are removed). The legs and antennae should be arranged in the desired position before drving. The left wing of acridids, especially the so- called band-winged grasshoppers, those with bright Iv colonel wings, should be spread on a s|)reading board to show the color and pattern of till- wings, as these are important taxonomic characters. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, Septemuer, 1964 Large specimens have a tendency to discolor due to body fluids, especially fats. These speci- mens siiould be eviscerated and the internal or- gans replaced with cotton; otherwise the speci- mens will turn dark and may decay. An incision should be made at the base of the ventral ab- domen, the length of three segments and the internal organs removed with forceps. A small roll of cotton, the size of the internal abdomen, should be inserted to replace these organs. The natural size and color of the specimen is thus retained. All specimens must be completely labelled with exact locality, date of capture, and en\iron- mental conditions. Specimens without complete data are of little scientific value. Dried specimens must be kept free from dust and so-called museum pests. Fumigation may be accomplished by keeping a supply of para- dichlorobenzene and/or naphthaline flakes in the box or case at all times. Specimens properly pre- served and fumigated may be retained in- definitely. APPENDIX III Glossary (Modified fiom Torre-Bueno, J. R. de la, A Glossary of Entomology, The Science Press Printing Co., Lancaster, Pennsyhania, 1937) acicular, needle-shaped; with a long slender point. acute, pointed; terminating in or forming less than a right angle. adventive, accidental; applied to exotics or in- troduced species. aedeagus, in male insects, the intromittent organ, a part of the phallic complex and situated beneath the pallium of the subgenital plate. alate, winged; as opposed to apterous. ambulatorial, fitted for walking. annulus, a ring encircling a joint or segment. apical, at, near, or pertaining to the apex of any structure. apterous, without wings, wingless; see alate. arcuate, arched; bow-like. arolium, the terminal cushion-like pad between the claws of the tarsi. articulate, to connect bv a joint; jointed or seg- mented. auditory, relating to the sense of hearing. auricula (pi. auriculae), an appendage resem- bling a little ear. brachypterous, with short or abbreviated wings. bullate, blistered; a slightly swollen structure. calcar (pi. calcaria), a moveable .spur or spine- like process; specificallv the spines at the apex of the tibia. callosity, a thick swollen lump, harder than its surroundings; callus; also a rather flattened elevation not necessarily harder tlian the surrounding tissue. campestrian, inhabiting open areas (fields). carina (pi. carinae), an elevated ridge or keel, not necessarily high or acute. carinate, keeled; having keels or carinae; with a, or several, longitudinal narrow raised lines. carnivorous, feeding upon flesh food; an insect preying on other insects or feeding on their flesh. caudal, of or pertaining to the anal end of the insect body. cephalic, belonging to or attached to the head; directed toward the head. cercus (pi. cerci), an appendage (generally pair- ed) of the tenth abdominal segment, usually slender, filamentous and segmented. cinereous, ash-colored; gray tinged with blackish. clavate, clubbed; thickening gradually toward the tip. clypeus, that part of the head of the insect be- low the frons (front), to which labrum is at- tached anteriorly. coriaceous, leather-like; thick, tough, and some- what rigid. corneous, of a horny or chitinous substance; re- sembling horn in texture. costa, any elevated ridge that is rounded at its crest; the thickened anterior margin of any wing, but usually of the forewings. coxa (pi, coxae), the basal segment of the leg, by means of which it is articulated to the body. crenulate (crenulation), with small scallops, even- ly rounded and rather deeply curved. cristate, with a prominent carina or crest on the upper surface; crested. cuneifonn, wedge-shaped; elongate triangular. cursorial, adapted for running. Bhicham Vounc University Science Bulletin clecli\ant, slnping gracliiallv downward. dc|)lanate, comprt-sst'd; flattened above and Ije- low. dimorphism, a difference in form, color, etc., be- tween individuals of the same species, char- acterizing two distinct types; may be sea- sonal, se.\ual, or geographic. discoidal, relating to the disk, or middle; shaped like a round plate. distal, near or toward the free end of any ap- pendage; that part of a segment farthest from the body. diurnal, active or habitually fl>ing by day only. dorsal, of or pertaining to the upper surface. ecdysis, the process of casting the skin; moulting. ensiform, sword-shaped; two-edged, large at base and tapering to the point, epiphallus, a sclerite in the floor of the genital chamber proximal to the base of the phallus; pseudosternite. epiproct, the dorsal part of the eleventh segment of the abdomen; the supra-anal plate, explanate, spread out and flattened; applied to a margin. falcate, sickle-shaped; convexly curved. fascia (fasciation), a transverse band or broad line, especially when it crosses both tegmina or femora. fastigium, the extreme point or front of vertex. femur (pi. femora), the thigh; usually the stout- est segment of the leg, articulated to the bod\- through trochanter and coxa and bear- ing the tibia at this distal end. filiform, thread-like; slender and of equal diameter. flavous, pure, clear yellow. fossa, a pit or deep sulcus. fossorial, formed for or with the habit of digging or burrowing. foveola, (pi. foveolac), a deep depression with well-marked sides; a pit. frons, the unpaired sclerite of the head lying be- tween the arms of the epicranial suture and bearing the median ocellus. furcula, a pair of backwardly directed append- ages which o\erlie in a more or less forked position the base of the epiproct. fuscous, dark brown, approaching black; a plain mixture of black and red. gena (pi. gcnac), the cheek; the part of the hi-ad on each side below the eyes, extending to the gular suture. genicular, pertaining to the curved dark mark- ings on the posterior knee-joint. genitalia, all the genital structures collectively. geophilous, living on the ground; of S[x;cies, li\'- iiig on the surface or coming freely into con- tact with it. glabrous, smooth, hairless and with(jut punctures or structures. glaucous, sea-green; pale bluish-green. herbivorous, feeding upon plant tissue; leaf fi'cder. hyaline, transparent or partK' so; waterlike in color; glassy. immaculate, destitute of spots or marks. instar, the period or stage between molts in the larva, numbered to designate the various periods; e.g., the first instar is the stage be- tween the egg and the first moult. interocular, between the eyes. labium, the second maxilla; the lower lip; a com- pound structure which forms the floor of the mouth in mandibulate insects, behind the first maxilla and opposed to the labrum. labrum, the upper lip, which covers the base of the mandible and forms the roof of the mouth. lamellate, sheet- or leaf-like; composed of or covered with laminae or thin sheets. laminate, formed of thin, flat hiyers or leaves. lateral, relating, pertaininng, or attached, to the side. linguiform, tongue-shaped; linear, with the ex- tremities obtuseh' rounded. lobulate, divided into, or with many small holes or lobules. maculate, spotted or marked with figures of any shape, of a color differing from the ground color. mandibles, the first pair of jaws, stout and tootli- hke. mandibulate, having biting jaws. maxilla, (pi. maxillae), the second pair of jaws in a mandibulate insect. medial, referring to, or at the middle. mesad, toward or in the direction of the median plate of the insect body. mesially, at or to the middle. mesonotum, the primiti\ely upper surface of the second or middle thoracic ring. mesosternum, the underside or breast of the mesothorax. incsothorax, the second or middle thoracic ring which bears the middle legs and the an- terior wings, metamorphosis, the series of changes through which an insect passes in its growth from the egg tlirough the adult. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 3, September, 1964 133 metanotum, the primitively upper surface of the third or posterior thoracic ring. metasternum, the underside or breast of the metathorax. metathorax, the third thoracic ring or segment, which bears the hind legs and second pair of wings. metazona, the dorsal surface of the prothtjrax behind the principal sulcus. nacreous, pearly; resembling mother of pearl. nocturnal, of the night; applied to insects that fly or are active at night. notum, the dorsal or upper part of a segment; tergum. nymph, a young insect which quits ihe egg in a relatively advanced stage or morphological development, differing from the adult in having the wings and the genitalia present only in an incompletely developed condi- tion. obtuse, not pointed; at an angle greater than a right angle; opposed to acute. occiput, the hinder part of the epicranium be- tween the vertex and the neck. ocellus, (pi. ocelli), tlie simple eye in adult in- sects, consisting of a single bead-like lens, occurring singly or in srriall groups. omnivorous, feeding generally on animal or vegetable food, or on both. ootheca, the covering or case over an egg mass. ovate, egg-shaped in outline. ovipositor, the tubular or valved structure by means of which the eggs are placed; usually somewhat concealed, but sometimes extend- ed far beyond the end of the body. palpus, (pi. Palpi), a mouth feeler; a palp. paraproct, one of the two lobes formed by tlie ventrolateral parts of tlie epiproct. penultimate, next to the last. phallic complex, the genital structures of the male, especially the concealed structures. phallus, the intromittent genital organ of the male. plantula, a lobe of the divided tarsal puhillus; one of the soles or climbing cushions of the foot. pleuron (pi. pleura), the lateral region of any segment of the insect body, commonly of the thoracic segments. pronotum, the upper or dorsal surface of the prothorax. prostemum, the fore-breast; the sclerite between the fore-legs. prothorax, the first thoracic ring or segment; it bears the anterior legs but no wings. proximal, that part of an appendage nearest the body. prozona, the anterior part of the pronotum. punctate, set with impressed points or punctures. raptorial, adapted for seizing prey; predacious. reniform, kidnev-shaped. rostrum, in general, a snout-like prolongation of the head. rugose, wrinkled. saltatorial, adapted for leaping; having the power of leaping. saxicolous, frequenting rocky or stony areas. scalariform, ladder-like; applied to venation when the veinlets between two longitudinal \'eins are regularly arranged like the rungs of a ladder. sclerotized, of the insect integument, hardened in definite areas by deposition or formation of other substances tlian chitin in the cuticula. sellate, saddle-shaped. serrations, a tooth, as of a saw; a series of iuch teeth. serrulate, finely serrated; with minute teeth or notches. seta, a slender hair-like appendage. setaceous, bristle-shaped; slender, gradually tapering to a tip. setose, furnished or covered with setae or stiff hairs. spatulate, rounded and broad at the top; slender or drawn out at base. spine, a multicellular more or less thorn-like process or outgrowth of the cuticula not separated from it by a joint; a large seta provided with a calyx or cup by wliich it is articulated to the cuticula. spinifomi, in the form or shape of a spine. spinule, a small spine. spiracle, a breathing pore; in the plural the later- al openings on the segments of the insect body through which air enters the tracheae. spur, a spine-like appendage of the cuticula, connected to the bodyAvall by a joint. stemite, the ventral piece in a ring or segment; a subdivision of a sternal plate, or any one of the sclerotic components of a definitive sternum. sternum (pi. sterna), the entire vential division of any segment; the underside of the insect thorax, between the coxal cavities. stria (pi. striae), any fine longitudinal impressed line. stridulate, to make a creaking, grating or hissing sound or noise, by rubbing two ridged or roughened surfaces against each other. BHiGHAAf Young University Science Bulletin style, stylus (pi. styli), small, usually pointed, ex- articulate appendages, most freijiiently found on the tenninal segments of (lie ;d)doluen. subgciiital plate, the piati" or process underijing the genital organs; the tenninal or distal abdominal scleritc. subocular, beneath or below the e\i's. suborbicular, slightlv less than round and ll.it. subterranean, underground, beneath the surtacc of the soil or ground. sulcate, deepK' furrowed or grooved; .vith deep grooves. sulcus, (pi. sulci), a furrow or groove; a groove- like excavation. supra-anal, abo\e the anus; suranal; the epiproct. suture, a scam or impressed line indicating the division of the distinct parts of ihe body wall. tarsus (pi. tarsi), the foot; the jointed appendage attached at the apc.x of the tibia, bearing the claws and pnlvilli; the distal part of the in- sect leg, consisting of from one to five seg- ments or joints. tectate, covered; concealed; tectiform. tectiform, roof-like; sloping from a median ridge. tegmen (pi. tegmina), a covering; the hardened leathery or homy forewing. teneral, the condition of the adult insect after the last moult when it is not entirely hard- ened or fullv of the mature color. tergite, a dorsal sclerite or part of a segment, es- pecially when such part consists of a single sclerite. testaceous, bearing a test or hard covering; brow nisli-\ellow. thaninuphiluus, living in thickets or dense shrub- bery. thorax, the second or intermediate region of the insect body bearing the tnie legs and wings, made up of three rings, named in order, pro-, meso-, and metathorax. tibia (pi. tibiae), the fourth division of tlie leg, articulated at the proximal end to the femur and bearing on the distal end the tarsi. trapezoidal, in the form of a four-sided figure of which two sides are parallel and two arc not. trigonal, triangular; an area boimded b\ a tri- angle. trochanter, a sclerite of the insect leg, sometimes di\ided, between the coxa and femur. truncate, cut off squarely at tip. tubercle, a little solid pimple or small button. tympanum, any membrane stretched like the head of a drum, specificallv applied to the membrane covering the auditory organs. ultimate, last. undulate, wavy; obtusely wa\'cd in segments of circles. ventral, pertaining to the under surface of the abdomen. vertex, the top of the head between the eyes, frons and tx.'ciput. / u S- NA' '?^..oj Y\' '^-j Vf?6 Cj^ ' "•'^S. COM p. ZOOL. BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN LIBRARY UNI\'z,03|yY; PRESEHLEMENT VEGETATION AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGE IN THREE VALLEYS IN CENTRAL UTAH by Earl M. Christensen and Hyrum B. Johnson Biological Series — Vol. IV, No. 4 August 1964 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY SCIENCE BULLETIN PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGE IN THREE VALLEYS IN CENTRAL UTAH by Earl M. Christensen and Hyrum B. Johnson Biological Series — Vol. IV, No. 4 August 1964 S- NA GHEAT \ \) >^ SALT \ C LAKE I V^ ^ UTAH LAKE ^'^S. Cn;„p, zc. LlURARY JUAB VALLEY-. OAK CITY SEVIER LAKE MONA NEPHI LEV AN MA^^4 i366 UNIVERSITY ^.SCIPIO — HOUND VALLEY --HOLDEN 'PAVANT VALLEY 'FILLMORE SEVIER RIVER Kic. 1.— Map of Utali illustrating the general loca- tions of the valleysi anil towns ilisiussed in the text. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION 5 PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION 5 Records and Journals of Explorers and Early Residents 5 Pavant and Round Valleys 5 Juab Valley 9 Recollections of Early Residents 10 Analysis of 1869-70 Survey Data 11 Relic-t and Protected Areas 11 DISCUSSION - ORIGINAL VEGETATION 12 VEGETATION CHANGE 13 Grass - Sagebnish Communities 13 Invasion by Juniper 14 Sand Dune Migration 14 REFERENCES 15 ABSTRACT Historical information, survey records, and relict vegetation were used as sources of data for determining tlu- nature of tfie presettlement vegetation of Pa\ant. Round, and Juab Valle\s in central L'tali. Tlie f(K)tliills were covered witli hundi grasses { principallv Ai^ropijron apicatum and Poa secunda), scattered junipers (Juniperns utdhcnsis ) , and sagebrush (Artemi.sUi tridenta- ta). Western wheatgrass {AJ, pp. 72-7.3); . . . The hare,s are so plentifnl here [.Siipio] that the gronml wonld well eompare with a sheep pasture. ... As tlie valley was eovered with grass exeept the farther side, there was plenty of sage hnisli and when we entered the hares eommeiieed in esery direction. . . . VVe then had a mountain to ascend and dese<>nd. We camped on Cedar Creek [Holden]. Here was plenty of nce through a valley [near Scipio] rich in grass and soil. Beautiful and extensive and abundanlly supplyed with fewel on its borders. . . . . . . encamped at a beautiful spring brook [Holden] among grassy hills interspersed with cedar like an orchard. Our road today led through a pass in the mountains l)y a gradual assent of 3 m.s. and then down verry gradu- ally for 10 miles. Among hills, plains and little vales, more rich in bunch grass and cedar fewel and more varied and beautiful than anv other country I ever beheld in the State or in these mountain countries. Every high hill, every dell, every vale or knook seemed thiC p. 340). Remy described Round Valley as "a desert and barren plain, where our cattle liad notliing to eat but the bread and corn we gave tliem." However, the northern part of Pavant Valley was described as being "a valley of much less dreary aspect than those through whidi we had been for some time passing." Remv noted tliaf in the mountain brush zone, "Oaks, wild rose-trees, CowanUi, Jtiniperus. c-overed the edges" of Pavant Valley, and observed "numbers of hares and grouse were to be seen skimming awav from us under these stunted trees." It is evident from the following statement tliat the treeless areas of the \allev benchlands and liot- toms were considered "barren" of vegetation l)y Remy : . . . On leaving the valley we found our- selves upon an open piece of ground, from which we could see on ,dl siilcs ucll uooded nioiuilaiiis cnnlrastiiig stroiii^K willi l!ir bare- ness we had of late been used to. Tlie sight before us was certainl) not worthy of being sung by a poet, but for I'tah it was a land- .scape extraordinarily picUirescpie and even fertile. ... Remy listi-d scientific names for woody species of the region, but liis descriptions of the vegeta- tion in general are not as detailed as many of the otlier descriptions made of the area. Tiiis is particularly true ot the treeless parts of the \alk'vs. In late December, 1e much more barren than it was five years aj;o, prior to the introduction of sheep. West of the town there are barren, treeless hills, with scanty growth of the alxive-mentioneil grass, together with Onjzo])si\ nispiiltila.' \Vlut<- sage' (Atrip- Irx) is the main reliance for winter range. . . . Considerable Hedlop is foiuul on the lower lands and Agro^ii/rii;?! t/it crfjen.v and Eroiliuni cirutdriiivi are found to some extent. [Redtop and Erodium ckutarium are introduced species.] Rec:oi.lkctions ok E.mu.y Ri;sn)KMS In addition to tlu- on-tlic-spot obser\ations recorded in journals, reports, and diaries, infor- mation was obtained tlirougb personal inter- views and from recorded recollections of old- time residents. The following is an unpublished statement which was gi\'en to James Jacobs, Forest Service, in 1947 In' Myrnm Bevan John- son, an earlv pioneer of Ilolden: My parents, Mr. and Mrs. Richard John- .son, were sent down here to Holden {then Cedar .Springs) in February, 18.5fi, and started building the rock fort (Buttermilk). I was bom in the comer of the fort where my home now stands on June 5, 18.56. I lia\e lived on that same spot all my life. I have been around livestock all niv life, and worked with lli( m most of it. I r<-member how the range looked. When I w.is a lK)y the flats were co\ered with bluegrass in a good sod. There was a little sagebrush in them, but scarcelv enough to stake a horse to. (We would often stake a horse which we would use for a wrangle horse.) The foothills were c<>\ered with bunchgrass. It was not what we called wheatgrass, but was shorter and much finer. There was also a lot of sand grass [Onjzcjpsis]. The foothill bunchgrass grew about t\vo feet high in places. When I rode my pony through it, it was tall enough to tickle my bare feet. There was a httle sagebnish, but not much. They used to cut liav on the meadows at Clear Lake 20 miles west of llolden, sc\,ilKr.><.< "In.luin ii,o Ki,>« 'l'r..l,.il.ly Mripirt r:ml,rl,lali„. vh.i,l>. iilu Xi'.u till sc sand dunes w .is pioneer Hay (irouiul. Here rainbow grass and various water gr.isses grew in abundance and ni.ide most beautiful meadows. Water holes filled with tins minnows dolled the meadows. . . . This was the valley where the Church in these early days brought vast herds of c.itllc. Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 4, August 1964 Armina S. Nixon, an old resident, recorded the following in her history of Holden (Day and Ekins 19.51, pp. 290-291 ) : The hills and valleys in this section were covered with grass which served as feed for their cattle, horses and oxen. It was cut and stacked in the summer and fall for winter feed- ing. ... All west of that [present Highway 91] was grass and sage brush. What is now the meeting house grounds was covered with cedar trees, sage brush and grass. Day and Ekins (1951, p. 6) record that herd- ers were hired the "first summer to herd the stock on the wild grass seven miles west of Fillmore." The following conditions of the vegetation and range in 1867 were reported in the Histon/ of Oak City (Day and Ekins 1951, p. 475): At that time the flat where the town was later built was covered with grass so thick that it waved like a field of grain. . . . The brethren there [Deseret City] have adopted a wise pohcy in related to keeping stock. They have all their animals not in use herded some twenty miles northeast on a good herd ground [Oak City area]. . . . Analysis of 1869-70 Survey Dat.\ Government surveys ( Bureau of Land Man- agement) were made in portions of this area in 1869 and 1870. The field records of ten town- ships located in the Holden-Fillmore area of Pavant Valley were studied and were found to contain some interesting vegetational informa- tion. The description of almost every section line ended with a comment on the soil and the veg- etation occurring along the line. Designations such as "soil second rate, rolling grassland" and "soil second rate, level, sagebrush greasewood " were used. Tlie information from these records was copied and then transferred in color code to a map for analysis. It is interesting to note that of the 363 sec- tion lines analyzed, 102 (28%) had grass listed as being the most conspicuous plant. Two him- dred and fifty-eight (71%) had sagebrush grow- ing either abundantly or scattered along tlicm. Eighty-nine (25%) had greasewood. Cedar (jun- iper) occurred in 12 (3.3%>). A small number, 10.5 (2.7%), were under cultivation. The lines surveyed where vegetation was not mentioned numbered fourteen. The surveys did not extend far into the foothills or more grassland would surely have been recorded. Almost two-thirds of the grasslands surveyed were of the wet mea- dow type occurring in the valley bottom. Tlie following is a generalized description of the distribution of the plant communities of northern Pa\ant Valley based on the survey data. Near the base of the Pavant Range, just below the juniper-covered foothills, a zone of grassy plains occurred. The grass was sometimes in pure stands but more often had occasional or scattered sagebrush. Farther into the valley away from the mountains there occurred a zone dominated by sagebrush. In some places sage- brush was conspicuously the leading dominant. In other places considerable grass was present even though the sagebrush was the most con- spicuous species. This is concluded because in the general description of some brush-covered townships the statement is made that the area had high grazing value, even though no mention is made of grass in the section line descriptions. Greasewood and sagebrush often occurred in the same general area. Wet meadow vegeta- tion was located in the lowest parts of the valley. Relict and Protected Areas Christensen (1963a) studied 71 small foot- hill grass stands in the central Utah region (in- Table 1 QUANTITATIVE DATA FROM A PROTECTED AREA AT MONA CEMETERY, JUAB VALLEY, UTAH. Percent composition based on foliage cover determined by the line intercept method. Percent frequency and den- sity were determined from quarter milacre quadrats. Species' Agropyron spicatum ( bluebunch whe;itgrass ) Poa secunda ( Sandberg bluegrass ) Sphaeralcea coccinea ( globe mallow ) Phlo.x longifolia ( phlo.x ) Artemisia tridentata ( sagebrush ) Gutierrezia sarothrae ( snakeweed ) Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus ( rabbitbrush ) Bromus tectorum ( cheatgrass ) Other species Foliage cover ( all species ) Density per quad. ( all species ) 1.0 0.3 1.2 44.6 36 2 0.08 nienclature follinvs Holmgren, A. H. 1948. Handbook of the plants of tlie nortiiem Wasatch. Lithotype Process Co., San 0, Calif, 202 pp. Bielu), bitterbrush and serviceberry { Amettinchier alnifolia), occupy 13, 12, and 11 percent of the plant cover, respectively. The eastern part of Mona Cemeterv' has been protected to a considerable degree from disturbance, although some woody plants may have been removed from the stand. In 19.56 this relict stand was studied bv means of line inter- cept and quadrat methods. The composition data are presented in Table 1. DISCUSSION — ORIGINAL VEGETATION A generalized description of the presettle- ment vegetation of Pa\'ant, Round, and Juab Valleys can be made based on the historical descriptions, recollections of early residents, land survevs, and observations of relict undis- turbed plant communities presented. .Although there is variation among the var- ious descriptions made by the explorers and early residents of Pavant, Round, and Juab Val- leys, one is impressed more by the similarities than by the variations. There are some excep- tions such as the observations of Remv (1861), who viewed the Utah landscape as generally barren, particularly the areas lacking trees. Var- iations in the descriptions b\' the early observ- ers were due, in some cases, to the fact that the routes taken by the observers were in different parts of the valleys. The seasons of the year also accounted for some variation in description of the areas. It is apparent that personal factors would also account for some differences in ob- servation. A study of the historical sources and field observations indicates that the plant coinmim- ities occurred more or less in belts along the contours of the valley slopes. It is apparent that the foothills were covered with grasses, scatter- ed junipers (Juuipcrut,- utalieusL'i), and sagebrush {Artcmisui trident at a). Tlie grass of this region has been called "bunchgrass" and, doubtless, it refers principally to Afiropi/nm .vfucattini and PcHi secumUi. In level areas among the foothills western wheatgrass (Agroptpon smithii) was common. This grass species (locally called "blue- grass") forms a heavy sod and is one species that was sometimes cut for hay. Tlie former abundance of grasses in the juniper woodland of foothills of the mountain ranges in western Millard Countv was pointed out bv Stewart, Cot- tani, and Hutchings (1940, p. 3i3), and a Hst of characteristic grass species of the community was presented, the most important being blue- bunch wheatgrass. Western wheatgrass was not included in the list from western Millard Co. Stewart, Cottam, and Hutchings obser\ed (p. 312) that species of sagebrush "are the principal understory shrubs, with big sagebrush occupy- ing the alhnial deeper soils and black sage- brush dominating shallow rocky ones." Seven other shrubs were listed as frctjuentlv encoun- tered species. Below the foothill region and on the more gentle slopes leading into tlie \alle\' bottoms there were extensive areas of grass. This grassy zone appears to ha\e \aried from one to sev- eral miles in width. Sagebrush was common and in some places probablv was the most conspic- uous species present. Tlie grass community growing in this region was composed of the same species as those on the foothills. This grassv area graded into a zone where sagebrush was definitely the most conspicuous plant. It should be emphasized that "sage" and "sage- brush" as used by early explorers and pioneers does not always mean Artemisia tridcntaia. It seems app.irent that such plants as white sage, Biological Series, Vol. 4, No. 4, August 1964 13 Eurotia hnata, and shadscale, Atriplex conferti- folia, were often lumped with the true Artemisia under the designation "sage" or "sagebrush." The upper parts of this brush area must have contained considerable grass since in the old survey reports of some townships in which onl\' sagebrush was listed, the general statement was made that the areas were excellent for grazing. Stewart, Cottam and Hutchings (1940, p. 300) have determined that in the valleys of western Millard County grasses "were originally impor- tant members of practically all" of the desert- shrub communities and that "big sagebrush and black sagebrush (black sage), with abundant grasses interspersed, dominated the foothills." This is certainly similar to the situation in val- leys of eastern Millard and Juab Counties con- sidered in this paper. Stands of white sage and bud sage, Artemisia spinescens, grew in this zone. An area just north of Holden is currently called "\\'hitebush" because of the white sage that formerly grew in the area. ( In 1962 the authors could find only one white sage plant in this area. ) Lower in the valleys, below the sagebrush zone, wet meadow lands occurred. Greasewood stands, sagebrush communities, and other north- ern desert shrub types also occurred in the lower portions of the valleys. Sand dunes with very sparse vegetation occurred in the western part of Pavant Valley. The historical information of these communities is limited. Most of the routes of travel were through the grass and grass- sagebrush communities near the eastern parts of the valleys, and consequently little was writ- ten about northern desert shrub types. The larger streams were apparently well wooded, at least in the vicinity of the foothills. VEGETATIONAL CHANGE Grass-Sagebrush Conununities. The vegeta- tion of the valleys has changed considerably in the last 100 years. Great change has occurred in the grassy zone at the base of the foothills. Much of this area is under cultivation today. Cultivation of these areas was begun in most of the region between 40 and 50 years ago. It is used largely for raising dry land wheat. The change from native perennial vegetation to cul- tivated wheat is drastic, but it is interesting to note that other significant changes occurred be- fore cultivation was begun. Manv of the people now living in the small town of East Millard remember the time when dry land farming in- creased greatly in acreage in the Pavant Valley. They remember that most of the land was plow- ed out of sagebrush. Men that are 70 years old remember this region as being a sagebrush zone and not one of grass. Similarly, Cardon (1913) recorded the change from grass to sagebrush from 1863 to 1903 in Juab Valley. In 1911, Meinzer described the "large and lu.xuriant sage- brush" on the alluvial slopes of the area (p. 24). The transition from a predominance of peren- nial grass and increase of sagebrush prior to cul- tivation is well documented. The major decline of grass and increase of sagebrush probably occurred between 1870 and 1900. In this cen- tury, several e.xotic species have become impor- tant components of the vegetation (Pickford 1932, Christensen 1962, 1963a, b). In the 1870's the pasturage of Pavant Valley must have been abundant since during this time large herds of livestock were brought from as far as Salt Lake City to graze the good grass of the valley according to the recollection of Hyrum Bevan Johnson ( 1947 ) . After this time references are made to the diminishing quantity of forage. Livestock census reports indicate that there was a great increase in grazing pressure during this period ( Richan, 1957 ) . In 1887 Samual Pitchforth writing to the Deseret News related that there were "hundreds of thousands of sheep roaming the hills and finding pasturage in the rich mountains" of the southern counties and that "year after year their number increases." He stated that "Juab County is a natural winter range for sheep, and within the immediate vicinity of Nephi there are 200,- 000 sheep wintered" (Worthington 1958, pp. 60-61). After the arrival of the railroad in 1879, Nephi became the shipping point for wool, cat- tle, and sheep, the latter being driven from southern Utah ranges. Changing range conditions in Pavant Valley were indicated by two articles appearing in the Deseret News, January 18, 1871, and August 11, 1875 (Richan, 1957): January 18. AU ihe sheep are taken from the settlements in the summer season on to high mountain ranges heretofore not pastured, thus leaving the grass in the vicinity of our settlements for cows and work animals. August 11. The long-eared denizens of the sagebrush have taken about one half of the wheat crop of this country, they, the rabbits being unreasonably fond of the "staff of life" Bku.iiam V<)iN<. I'mvkhmty Science Bulletin and owiiiK to tht- tiroiith, all kinds of grain rrops will I).- light. Taking tl..- al>c)vi- .lark .)ii(l<«ik in conncition with tin- fact that imr utile rangr lias ilriod up ami blown away, i.e., the small amount left by the imported root pullers of Texas, with a ligfit crop of hay, .iiul nothing to e.vport. . . . Our fruit crop is among the things not to be reeorded as a failure .is it has never been surpa-ised in this place. Bracken (1940) stated that in 18.51 wlu-ii Juab Valley was settled the \alley floor was covered with western wheatgrass, but following 1881, "the grass was so severely over-grazed that it was largely replaced by sagebrush." Jack rabbits may have aided greatly in the deterioration of the grasslands, it seems that their population must ha\e reached a peak during this same period (1880-81). Ashby (19.5.5-56, p. 89) relates: Habbits were very thick everywhere, and there was nothing for them to cat. They gnawed the sage brush down to stumps. They came into town, into the yards of the people, and ate almost everything in sight. Cedar posts had the bark eaten off in a circle where the rabbits could reach. Trees were barked and hay stacks, where not protected, were undermined. Invasion l)y Juniper. An invasion of juniper into the original grass and sagebrush zones has occurred. Tliis invasion was particularly well documented in Pavant Valley. Juniper was com- mon in Pavant Valley in the days of the early pioneers. Written records indicate an adetjuate supply of "cedar" fuel along the valley's eastern border. The descriptions of P. P. Pratt (.Stanle\- and Camp 19.35, Hichan 19.57) and Jules Remv (1861) indicate that the juniper stands must have been mostly rather open and of mature age. Although some small patches of the old junipers mav ha\e been located in lower parts of the vallev, most of the junipers wi-re restricted to the hills, l)ut not in dense stands as the\' are today. The extent of the invasion bv juniper was determined bv comparing the vegetation de- scriptions of 1870 survev lines with the \-egeta- tion currently growing along those lines wliicli have not been culti\ated. In T20.S, H4\\' the line between sections 30 and 31 was described as being covertnl with grass with sagebrush. Now voung juni[H'rs and oaks are \erv promini'ut along this line. Between sections 16 and 21 of T21S, H4\V, sagebrush was listed as the vege- tation tvpe in the survev records. This line is now c-o\iTed with juniper. Cieneral obser\ations indicate that juni|K'rs are reproducing rapidh' in both the areas of invasion and in the old stands of juniper. \ similar iin'asion of junipiT has occurred in the Pine \'alle\ .Mountains of southwestern Utah (Cottam and Stewart, 1940), in Pine N'allev and Wah Wall Vallev in western Utah (Stewart cl at. 1940. Cottain 1947), and in the \ alleys of Tooele Countv (Cottain 1961b ). The grass cover of the foothills has been greativ ri'duced, and the sagebrush and juniper ha\e become more abundant in the tcwthill zone. Sand Dune Migration. Sand movement in the lower portions of Pavant Valle\' has changed antl modified the local plant communities. The sand dunes west of iloldi'ii in T19S, H5W were studied to determine migration rates. Several groups of dunes are located within the town- ship. The dimes consideri-d in this discussion are located in sections 2.5, 26, and 27. Methods of calculating the extent of move- ment are rough, but different measurements give results of the same magnitude. The sand in this region drifts in a northeast direction due to the prevailing winds from the southwest. Maps of the 1944 soil survey of East Millard and the vegetation and soil map constructed from the 1869-70 land survev were used to determine the rates of movement. The migration from 19.57 to 1962 was obser\cd bv the authors. The sur\ev ot 1870 shows that the forward dunes of the group now in section 27 were then at the south- west corner of section 27, and the ones now in section 25 were at the southwest corner of sec- tion 25. The migration rates vary between .50 and 66 feet j>er year, with the long term rates being .53.5 and 60.9 feet per year (Table 2). This rate of migration is over twice as great as that reported for disturbed dunes in Pine \'alley in western Utah by Stewart et al. (1940). The invasion of tamarix ( Tamarix pentandra ) into the lowland areas of the vallevs since 1925 is a conspicuous feature of the \egetatioiiaI change ot the \allevs (Christensen 1962). The naturalization of tamarix has occurred in a striking manner on the sand dunes of Pavant Valley. This species has helped to reduce the movement ol the sand in recent vears. MU.H.VIION OF SAND DUNES IN l'.\V.\NT VALLEV, 1870-1962 Dunes in Section 27 Years Elapsed Total Yearly Time Movement Average 1870-1944 1870-1962 1944-1962 1957-1962 Puuc.s III Sccfidiw 26 ami 2.5 1870-1944 74 74 4,290 58.0 ft 92 5,610 60.9 ft. 18 1,190 66.0 ft. .5 2.50 50.0 ft. 3,960 53,5 ft. Biological Sekies, Vol. 4, No. 4, August 1964 15 REFERENCES ASHBY, Robert L. 1944. Family history of William Hardin Ashby and Nancy Maria Badger Ashby. Privately printed, American Fork, Utah. 225 pp. . 1955-56. History of Holden, Utah. Privatel)' printed, American Fork, Utah. 152 pp. AuERBACH, Herbert S. 1943. Father Escalante's journal with related documents and maps. Utah Hist. Quart., 11:1-142. Bailey, Reeo W., C. L. Forsling, and R. J. Becraft. 19.34. Floods and accelerated erosion in northern Utah. U.S.D. Agr. Misc. Publ. 196. 21 pp. Beckwith, Lieut. E. G. 1855. Report of explorations for a route for the Pacific Railroad . . . near the 38th and 39th parallels of north latitude. 128 pp. In Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean. Vol. II. House Rep. Ex. Doc. No. 91, 33d Congress, 2d Session. Bracken, A. V. 1940. Dry farming as developed in the sagebrush zone. Proc. Utah Acad Sci., Arts and Letters, 17:25-32. Bureau of Land Management. Government survey records and field notes of 1869-1870 survey. Book No. A8. Bureau of Land Management Land Office, Salt Lake City, Utah. Call, Duane D. 1956. Anson Call and his contri- butions toward Latter-day Saint colonization. Mas- ter's thesis. Brigham Young Univ., Provo, Utah. Camp, Charles L. 1923. The chronicles of George C. Yount. Calif. Hist. Soc. Quart., 2:3-66. Cardon, p. V. 1913. Cereal investigations at the Nephi substation. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 30. 50 pp. Christensen, Earl M. 1950. Distributional obser\a- tions of oak bru.sh (quercus gamhelii Nutt.) in Utah. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 27:22-25. . 1962. The rate of naturalization of tamarix in Ut;ih. Amer. Midland Nat., 68:51-57. . 1963a. The foothill bunchgrass vegetation of central Utah. Ecology, 44:156-158. . 1963b. Naturalization of Russian olive ( EUie- agnus angustijolia L. ) in Utah. Amer. Midland Nat., 70:133-137. AND Stanley L. Welsh. 1963. Presettlemcnt vegetation of the valleys of western Summit and Wasatch Counties, Utah. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 40:163-174. Clampitt, John W. 1890. Echoes from the Rocky Mountains. American Library Ass'n., Chicago, Illi- nois. 671 pp. CooLEY, Everett L. 1955. Report on an expedition to locate Utah's first capital. Utah Hist. Quart., 23:329-338. Cottam, Walter P. 1926. An ecological study of the flora of Utah Lake, Utah. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. . 1929. Man as a biotic factor in ecology as illustrated by recent floristic and physiograpliic changes at Mountain Meadows, Washington County, Utah. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci., 6:18-19. . 1945. Resource problems of Utah. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 22:53-64. . 1947. Is Utah Sahara Bound? Bull. Univ. Utah, .37(11 ):l-40. . 1961a. Our renewable wild lands — a chal- . 1961b. The impact of man on tlie flora of the Bonneville Basin. Univ. Utah, Salt Lake City. 11 pp. AND F. R. Evans. 1945. A comparative study of the vegetation of grazed and imgrazed canyons of the Wasatch Range, Utah. Ecology, 26:171-181. AND George Stewart. 1940. Plant succes- sion as a result of grazing and of meadow desicca- tion by erosion since settlement in 1862. Jour. For- estry, 38:613-626. Day, Stella H. and Sebrina Ekins, Editors. 1951. Milestones of Milhird. Art City Publ. Co., Spring- ville, Utah. 808 pp. Hafen, LeRoy R., Editor. 1959. Letters of Lewis Granger. Glen Dawson, Los Angeles, Calif. 50 pp. AND Ann W. Hafen, Editors. 1954. Joumids of fortv-niners. Salt Lake to Los Angeles. The Arthur H. Clark Co., Glendale, Calif. 333 pp. (The Far West and the Rockies Historical Series, Vol. 2). AND , Editors. 1959. The diaries of William H. Jackson, frontier photographer. The Arthur H. Clark Co., Glendale, Calif. 345 pp. (The Far West and the Rockies Historical Series, Vol. 10). -, Editors. 1961. The far west and lenge. Univ. Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 182 pp. rockiei general analytical index to the fifteen-volume ;>eries and supplement to the jounuUs of forty- niners. Salt Lake to Los Angeles. The Arthur H. Clark Co., Glendale, Calif. 360 pp. (The Far West and the Rockies Historical Series, Vol. 15). Jones, .Marcus E. 1888. Grasses of Utah. The Utah Agriculturist, 1:208-209, 228-229. Linforth, James, Editor. 1855. Route from Liver- pool to Great Salt Lake Valley. Publ. by Franklin S. Richards, Liverpool. 120 pp. Mason, Lamar R. 1963. Value of historical data for determining potential or climax vegetation in de- veloping range site descriptions. Abstracts of Papers, Ann. Meeting Amer. Soc. Range Mgt., 16:34. Meinzer, Oscar E. 1911. Ground water in Juab, Millard, and Iron Counties, Utah. U.S D. Int., U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper 277. 162 pp. Nevins, Allan, Editor. 1956. Narratives of explora- tion and adventure by John Charles Fremont. Long- mans, Green & Co., New York. 532 pp. PicKFORD, G. D. 1932. The influence of continued heavy grazing and of promiscuous burning on spring-fall ranges in Utah. Ecology, 13:159-171. Powell, J. W. 1879. Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah. 2nd Ed. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 195 pp. Remy, Jules. 1861. A journey to Great-Salt-Lake City. Vol. 2. W. Jeffs, London. 605 pp. Richan, F. Partridge. 1957. The geography of Pa- vant Valley, Utah. Master's thesis. Univ. Utah, Salt Lake City. Smith, George Albert. 1956. Journal of George Al- bert Smith (1817-1875). Typewritten copy in Brig- ham Young Univ. Library, Provo, Utah, Stanley, Reva Holdaway and Charles L. Gamp, Ed- itors. 1935. A Mormon mission to California in 1851: From the diary of Parley Parker Pratt. Calif. Hi.st. Soc. Quart., 14:59-73. Siewart, George. 1941. Historic records bearing on agriculture and grazing ecology in Utah. Jour. Forestry, 39:362-375. Bmicham YorNc Univehsiti' Science Bulletin , W. P. COTTAM, AND SiCI.AK S. HUTCHINGS. 1940. Influfiicf of iinrfstricted grazing on northern salt tlfsert plant associations in western Utah. Jour. Agr. Res., 60:289-316. Stoouaht, L. a. 1941. The palousc grassland associa- tion in northern Utah. Ecology, 22:1.58-ia3. . 1945. Range lands of UtiJi County, Utah and their utilization. Utah Agr. E.vpt. Sta. Bui. 317. 32 pp. Tanneb, Vasco M. 1940. A chapter on the natural history of the Great Basin, 1800-1855. Great Basin Natl., 1:33-61. Tracv, S. M. 1888. Report of an investigation of the grasses of the arid districts of New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah. U. S. Agr. Dept., Botany Div., Bui., 6:.5-29. Wakefield, Ho.meh. 1933. A study of the plant etol- og\' of Salt Lake and Utah V'alle\s before the Mor- mon immigration. M.S. thesis, Brigham Young Uni- versity, I'rovo, Utah. 54 pp. . 19.36. A study of the native vegetation of Salt Lake and Utah Valleys as determined by his- torical evidence. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 13:11-16. WoHTHiNCTON, Keith Neldon. 1958. A century of life in Nephi and Juab Valley, 1851-1951. Master's thesis. Brigham Young Univ., Prove, Utah. Research wiis supported by the Research Division, Brigham Young University. Earl M. Chrislensen is a professor of botany at Brigham Young University. H)rum B. Johnson was formerly a graduate assistant at Brigham Young University. c^cmc BookbindmR Co.. Inc. 100 Camhrltlge St. Charlestown. M.A 02129 3 2044 072 224 678