c FOR THE PEOPLE j FOR EDVCATION | FORSCIENCE ! LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BRITISH BIRDS BY W. H. HUDSON, C.M.Z.S. c V WITH A CHAPTER ON STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION BY FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S, With 8 Coloured Plates from Original, Dratrings by A. Thorburn and 8 Plates and 100 Figures in black and white from Original Drawings by O. E. lodge and 3 Illustrations from Photographs from Nature by R. B. Lodge NEW IMPRESSION LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON FOURTH AVENUE & 30th STREET. NEW YORK BOMBAY, CALCUTTA. AND MADRAS 1921 All rights reserved CONTENTS. THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD . CLASSIFICATION .... Order PASSERES. Missel-Thrush. Turdus visclvorut . Song-Thrush. Turdus musicus . Redwing. Turdus iliacus FiELDFABE. Turdus "pilaris Black-throated Thrusli. Turdus atrigularis White's Thrush. Turdus varius . Blackbird. Turdus merula . RiNG-OuzEL. Turdus torquatus . Rock-Thrush. Monticola saxaiilis Wheateab. Saxicola oenanthe Black- throated Wheatear. Saxicola sirapazina Desert Wheatear. Saxicola deserti Whinchat. Pratincola ruhetra Stonechat. Pratincola ruhicola . Redstart. Buticilla pJioenicu'i'us Black Redstart. Buticilla titys White-spotted Bluethroat. Cyanecula wolfi . Red-spotted Bluetliroat. Cyanecula suecica Redbreast. Eritliacus rubecula Nightingale. DauUas luscima . Whitethroat. Sylvia cinerea Lesser Whitethroat. Sylvia curriica . Orphean Warbler. Sylvia orphea . » Blackcap. Sylvia atricapilla Garden Warbler. Sylvia hortensis . Barred Warbler. Sj/lvia nisoria . Dartford Warbler. Melizophilus undatus GoLDCREST. Begulus cristatus Firecrest. Begulus ignicapillua Tkar 1 34 89 4i 45 46 52 52 4/ 50 52 o2 54 54 54 56 57 59 59 59 59 62 64 66 70 67 69 70 70 72 74 BBITISH BIBDS Yellow-browed Warbler. Phylloscojpus superciliosus Chiffchaff. Phylloscopus rufus Wzllow-Wken. Phylloscopus trochilua , Wgod-Wben. Phylloscopus sihilatrix Icterine Warbler. Hypolais icterina Eufous Warbler. Aedon galectodes . Reed-Waebler. Acrocephalus streperus Marsh- Warbler. Acroceplialus palustris Great Reed- Warbler. Acrocephalus turdo'ides Aquatic Warbler. Acrocephalus aqttaticus Sedge- Waeblee. Acrocephahis phragmitis Geasshoppeb Warbler. Locustella ncevia Savi's Warbler. Locustella luscinio'ides . Hedge- Sparrow. Accentor modularis Alpine Accentor. Accentor collaris Dipper. Cinclus aquaticus Black-bellied Dipper. Cinclus melanogaster Bearded Titmouse. Panurus biamicus Long-tailed Titmouse. Acredula caudata Long-tailed Titmouse. Acredula rosea Great Titmouse. Parus major . Coal-Titmouse (Continental). Parus aier Coal-Titmouse. Parus hritannicus Marsh-Titmouse. Parus palustris Blue Titmouse. Parus cceruleus . Crested Titmouse. Parus cristaius Nuthatch. Sitta ccesia Wren. Troglodytes parvulus . . White Wagtail. Motacilla alba . Pied Wagtail. Motacilla lugjibris . Grey Wagtail. Motacilla melanope Blue-headed Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail. Motacilla rayii Meadow-Pipit. Anthus pratensis . Tree-Pipit. Anthus trivialis lawny Pipit. Anthus campestris Richard's Pipit. Anthus richardi . Water Pipit. Anthus spipoletta Rock-Pipit. Anthus obscurus Golden Oriole. Oriolus galbulus Great Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor Pallas's Great Grey Shrike. Lanius major Lesser Grey Shrike. Lanius minor Red-backed Shrike. Lanius collurio Woodchat. Lanius pomeranus W axwing. Ampelis garrulus . StoTTED Flycatcher. Muscicapa grisol CONTENTS vii Pied Flycatchek. Muscicapa atricapilla Ked-breasted Flycatcher. Muscicapa parva Swallow. Hirundo rustica . Martin. Chelidon urhica . Sand-Maktin. Cotile riparia . Tbee-Cbeepeb. Certhia familiaris Goldfinch. Carduelis elegans Siskin. Chrysometris spmiis Serin. Serinus hortulanus Greenfinch. Ligurinus chloris . Hawfinch. Coccothraustes vulgaris House-Spaeeow. Passer domesticus Tkee-Spaeeow. Passer montanus Chaffinch. Fringilla coelebs Bkambling. Fringilla montifringilla Linnet. Linota cannahina Mealy Redpoll. Linota linaria Lesser Redpoll. Linota rufescens Greenland Redpoll. Linota horneman7ii Twite. Linota flavirostris Rosy Bullfinch. Carpodacus erythrinus Bullfinch. Pyrrhula europcea . Pine Grossbeak. Pinicola enucleator Parrot Crossbill. Loxia pittyopsittacus Crossbill. Loxia curvirostra White-winged Crossbill. Loxia leucoptera Two-barred Crossbill Loxia hifasciata Black-headed Bunting. Emheriza tnelatiocephala Corn-Bunting. Emheriza miliaria . Yellowhammer. Emheriza citrinella CiRL Bunting. Emheriza cirlus Ortolan Bunting. Eiyiheriza hortulana Rustic Bunting. Emheriza rustica Little Bunting. Emheriza pusilla Reed-Bunting. Emheriza schoeniclus Lapland Bunting. Calcarius Lapponica Snow-Bunting. Phctrophanes nivalis Starling. Sturnus vulgaris Rose-coloured Pastor. Pastor roseus Chough. Pyrrhocorax gracuhis . Nutcracker. Nucifraga caryocatactes Jay. Garrulus glandarius . Magpie. Pica rustica . Jackdaw. Corvus monedula Carrion Crow. Corvus corona Hooded Crow. Corvus comix Rock. Corvus frugilegus fagk lis 118 118 121 122 124 126 127 128 128 130 132 133 184 137 138 140 139 140 141 144 142 144 14.5 144 145 145 154 146 148 150 154 154 154 151 154 152 154 156 157 174 153 160 163 166 167 168 BRITISH BIBBS Raven. Oorvus cotax .... Slylark. Alauda arvensis WooDLABK. Alauda arborea Crested Lark. Alauda cristata Short-toed Lark. Calendrella brachydactyla White-winged Lark. Melanocorypha sibirica Shore Lark. Otocorys alpestris Order PICARIili:. Swift. Cypselus apus .... White-bellied Swift. Cypselus melba Needle-tailed Swift. Acanthyllis caudacuta . NiGHTJAB. Caprimulgus europceus Red-necked Nightjar. Caprimulgus ruficollis Egyptian Nightjar. Caprimulgus agyptius Spotted Woodpeckeb. Dendrocopus major Babeed Woodpecker. Dendrocopus minor Gbfen. Woodpeckeb. Gecinus viridis Wryneck. ly^ix torquilla .... KiNGFiSHEB. Alcedo ispida Belted Kingfisher. Ceryle alcyon . Roller. Coracius garrula Bee-eater. Merops apiaster Hoopoe. TJpupa epops .... Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus .... Great Spotted Cuckoo. Coccystes glandarius Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Coccyzus americanua Black-billed Cuckoo. Coccyzus erythrophthalmus Order STRIGES. Babn-Owl. Strix flammea LONG-EABED OWL. Asio otus . Shobt-eabed Owl. Asio brachyotus Tawny Owl. Syrnium aluco . Snowy Owl. Nyctea scandiaca European Hawk-Owl. Surnia ulula . American Hawk- Owl. Surnia funeria Tengmalm's Owl. Nyctala tengmalmi Scops Owl. Scops giu Eagle Owl. Bubo ignavus I;ittle Owl. Athene noctua Order ACC1PITRK5, Griffon Vulture. Gypa fvlvus . Egyptian Vulture. Neophron perc7iopterus ■ Marsh-Harrier. Circus ceruginosus PAGB 172 174 176 178 178 178 178 178 179 179 179 181 181 181 183 184 186 188 189 190 190 190 190 193 193 198 193 196 197 198 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 216 216 216 CONTENTS Hen Habbier. Circus cyaneus Montagu's Habrieb. Circus cineraceus BuzzABD. Buteo vulgaris . Rough-legged Buzzard. Archibuteo lagopus Spotted Eagle. Aquila clanga Golden Eagle. Aquila chrysaetus . White-tailed Eagle. Haliaetus alhicilla Goshawk. Astur palumharius American Goshawk. Astur atricapilla Sparrow- Hawk. Accipiter nisus Kite. Milvus ictinus Black Kite. Milvus nigrans . Swallow- tailed Kite. Elanoicles furcatus . Honey-Buzzard. Pernis apivorus Gyrfalcon. Hierofalco gyrfalco Greenland Falcon. Hierofalco candicans Iceland Falcon. Hierofalco islandicus Peregbine Falcon. Falco peregrinus Hobby. Falco subbuteo Meblin. Falco cBsalon Red-footed Falcon. Tinnunculus vespertinus Kestbel. Tinnunculus alaudarius . Lesser Kestrel. Tinnunculus cenchria OsPBEY. Fandion haliaetus . Order STEGANOPODE CoBMOBANT. Pkalacrocorax carbo Shag. Pkalacrocorax graculu6 Gannet. Sula hassana . . Order HEROD! Hebon. Ardea cinerea . . . Purple Heron. Ardea purpurea . Great White Heron. Ardea alba Little Egret. Ardea gazetta Buff-backed Heron. Ardea bubulcus . Squacco Heron. Ardea rallo'ides . Little Bi^ttebn. Ardetta minuta . Night Heron. Nycticorax griseus . BiTTEBN. Botaurus stellaris . American Bittern. Botaurus lentiginosus White Stork. Ciconia alba Black Stork. Ciconia nigra . Spoonbill. Platalea leucorodia . Glossy Ibis. Plegadis falcinellus . ONES. PAGE 199 201 202 216 216 204 205 216 216 206 207 216 217 217 217 217 217 208 210 211 217 212 217 215 218 220 221 228 226 226 226 226 226 226 226 224 226 226 226 226 226 BBITISH BIBD8 Order ANSERES. Grey Lag Goose. Anser cinereus . , Bean-Goose. A?iser segetum .... Pink-footed Goose. Anser hrachyrhynchus "White-fbonted Goose. Anser alhifrons . , Cassins Snow Goose. Chen alhatus . , Beent Goose. Bernicla hrenta . o Barnacle Goose. Bernicla leucopsis Red-breasted Goose. Bernicla ruficollis . Mute Swan. Cygnus olor .... Polish Swan. Cygnus iinmutahilis . • . Whoopeb Swan. Cygnus musicus , Bewick's Swan. Cygnus bewickii . . , Common Sheldrake. Tadorna cornuta . , Ruddy Sheldrake. Tadorna casarca . , WiGEON. Marecapenelope. American "Wigeon. Mareca americana . „ Pintail. Dafila acuta Mallard. Anas hoscas . . , , Gadwell. Chaulelasmus streperus k> i Garganey. Querquedula circia . , ^ Blue-winged Teal. Querquedula discors . Common Teal. Querquedula crecca . American Green-winged Teal. Querquedula caroUnensis Shoveler. Spatula clypeata .... Red-Crested Pochard. Fuligula rufina . Tufted Duck. Fuligula cristata . . Scaup. Fuligula marila .... Pochard. Fuligula ferina .... White-eyed Duck. Nyroca ferruginea , . Golden-eye. Clangula glaucion . . , Barrow's Golden-eye. Clangula islandica Buffel-headed Duck. Clangula alheola i Harlequin Duck. Cosmonetta histrionica Long-tailed Duck. Harelda glacialis Steller's Duck. Heniconetta stelleri Eider Duck. Somateria onollissima . . » King Eider. Somateria spectahilis ^ Common Scoter. CEdemia nigra . Velvet Scoter. (E demia fusca . , Surf-Scoter. CEdemia perspicillata . Goosander. Mergus merganser . . , Red-breasted Merganser. Mergus serrator Hooded Merganser. Mergus cucullatus . Smew. Mergus albellus .... pagb 227 228 229 230 227 230 232 227 233 233 234 234 235 236 237 238 238 239 241 243 244 244 244 245 246 246 247 248 246 249 246 246 246 250 246 251 246 253 254 246 255 256 ii46 258 CONTENTS Order COLUMB^. PAGR Wood-Pigeon. Cohimba palumhus . . « . . 258 Stock-Dove. Columba cenas . , . , , , . 261 Rock-Dove. Columha livia ...... 261 TuBTLE-DovE. Ticrtur comtnunis . . . , , , 262 Passenger Pigeon. Ectopistes migratorius .... 264 Order PTEROCLETES. Pallas's Saud-Grouse. Syrrhaptes paradoxus . , , , 264 Order GALLING. Pheasakt. Phasianus colchicus ....,, 264 Red-legged Parteidge. Caccahis rufa , . . . . 265 Barbary Partridge. Caccahis petrosa ..... 266 Pabtkidge. Perdix cinerea . . . . , , . 267 QuATL. Coticrnix communis ...... 269 Ptabmigan. Lagopus 7nutus . . , . . , . 270 Red Gbouse. Lagopus scoticus ...... 272 Black Gbouse. Tetrao tetrix . . . » . . 273 Capebcaillie. Tetrao urogallus ...... 275 Order FULICARLS. Watee-Rail. Ballus aquaticus . . . , . . 277 Spotted Cbake. Porzana maruetta ■ . . , . 277 Baillon's Crake. Porzana hailloni . . . . . . 278 Little Crake. Porzana j^arva ...... 278 CoBNCRAKE. Crex prate >isis . ... . . . . 278 MooBHEN. Gallinula chloropus ...... 279 Coot. Fulica atra ........ 280 Order ALECTORIDES. Crane. Grus communis ....... 281 Great Bustard. Otis tarda . . . . . . . 281 Little Bustard. Otis tetrax ...... 281 Macqueen's Bustard. Otis macqueeni . . • . . 281 Order LIMICOL^. Stone-Cxjrlew. (Edicnemus scolopax . , , . . 282 Collared Pratincole. Glareola pratiyicola .... 284 Cream-coloured Courser. Cursorius gallicus , . . . 284 Golden Ploveb. Charadrius pluvialis .... 284 Eastern Golden Plover. Charadrius fulvua . . • . - 286 Gbey Ploveb. Squatarola helvetica . , • . 286 Kentish Plover, ^gialitis cantiana , . . , 287 xri BBITISH BIBBS Little Ringed Plover. ^giaLitis curonica Ringed Plover. Mgialitis hiaticula Killdeer Plover, ^gialitis vocifera • Dotterel. Endromias morinellus . . Lapwing. Vanellus vulgaris . , , Turnstone. Strepsilus interpres . , Oyster-catcher. Hcematopus ostralegus , Avocet. Becurvirostra avocetta Black-winged Stilt. Himantopus candidus Red-necked Phalarope. Phalaropus hgperboreus Grey Phalarope. Phalaropus fulicarius . Woodcock. Scolopax rusticula . , Great Snipp. GaUinago major . . , Common Snipe GaUinago ccslestis . Jack-Snipe. Lininocryptes gallinula Broad-billed Sandpiper. Limicola platyrhyncha Pectoral Sandpiper. Tringa maculata Bonaparte's Sandpiper. Tringa f us cicoUis . Dunlin. Tringa alpina .... Little Stint. Tringa viinuta . , Temminck's Stint. Tringa temmincJci . ; American Stint. Tringa minutiUa . , Curlew- Sandpiper. Tringa suharquata , Purple Sandpiper. Tringa striata . , Knot. Tringa canutus . . . , Ruff and Reeve. Machetes pugnax. Sanderlino. Calidris arenaria . . , Buff-breasted Sandpiper. Tryngites rufescens Bartram's Sandpiper. Actiturus longicauda Common Sandpiper. Tringoides hypoleucus Green Sandpiper. Helodromus ochropus Wood-Sandpiper. Totanus glareola . Redshank. Totanus calidris . , Spotted Redshank. Totanus fuscua . , Greenshank. Totanus canescens . Red-breasted Snipe. Macroramphus griseus . Bar-tailed Godwit. Limosa lapponica Black-tailed Godwit. Limosa tnelanura Esquimaux Curlew. Numenius borealis . Whimbrel. Numenius phcBopus Curlew. Numenius arquata Order GAVLE. Arctic Tern. Sterna macrura . Common Tern Sterna fluviatilis Roseate Tern Sterna doug alii CONTENTS im Little Tern. Sterna minuta Uaspian Tern. Sterna caspia Gull-billed Tern. Sterna anglica Sandwich Teen. Sterna cantiaca Sooty Tern. Sterna fuliginosa Scopoli's Sooty Tern. Sterna ancBstheta . Whiskered Tern. Hydrochelidon hybrida . Wiiite- winged Black Tern. Hydrochelidon leucojytera Black Tern. Hydrochelidon nigra Noddy. Anoiifi stolidus .... Ivory Gull. Fagophila eburnea KiTTiWAKE. Bissa tridactyla Glaucous Gull. Larus glaucus Iceland Gull. Larus leucopterus . Hekring-Gull. Larus argentatus . Lesseb Black-backed Gull. Larus fuscus Common Gull. Larus canus . Great Black-backed Gull. Larus marinus , Great Black-headed Gull. Larus ichthyaetus Black-headed Gull. Larus ridibundus Little Gull. Larus minutus . Sabine's Gull. Xema sabinii Common Skua. Stercorarius catarrhactes Pomatorhine Skua. Stercorarius pomatorhinus . Eichardson's Skua. Stercorarius crepidatus Buffon's Skua. Stercorarius parasiticus . PACB 820 823 328 322 323 823 823 323 323 823 b2(, 323 829 329 324 325 326 827 830 828 830 330 830 833 833 833 Order TUBINAKES. Stormy Petrel. Procellaria pelagica Leach's Petrel. Procellaria leucorrhoa Wilson's Petrel. Oceanites oceanicus . Manx Shearwater. Fuffinus anglorum . Sooty Shearwater. Puffinus griseus . Greater Shearwater. Puffinus major Dusky Shearwater. Puffinus obscurus Fulmar. Fulmarus glacialis . , Capped Petrel. CEstrelata hcBsitata , Bulwer's Petrel. Bulweria columbina 833 835 836 836 337 837 837 337 839 Order PYGOPODES. Great Northern Diver. Colymbus glacialis Black-throated Diver. Colymbus arcticus Red-throated Diver. Colymbus septentrionalis Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus Red-necked Grebe. Podiceps griseigena 840 841 842 842 846 XIV BRITISH BIBDS Sclavonian Grebe. Podiceps auritus Eared Grebe. Podiceps nigrocollis Little Gbebe. T achy h apt es fluviatilis . Kazorbill. Alca torda Common Guillemot. Lomvia troile Briinnich's Guillemot. Lomvia bruennichi Black Guillemot. Uria grylle . Little Auk. Margulus alle Puffin. Fratercula arctica . . PAGB . 345 . . . 345 . 344 , . . 345 . 347 . . . 351 . 350 , . . 351 . 851 INDEX 853 LIST OP ILLTJSTEATIONS, Golden Eagle . Beakded Titmouse Goldfinch BiTTEBN Common Teal Ptaemigan Dotterel Roseate Teen COLOURED PLATES. By A. Thorburn Frontispiece To face p. 89 „ 126 224 „ 244 „ 270 „ 289 820 PLATES, FiELDFAEES ; Missel-Theush ; Black- , BIED . . . . . / Books ; Jackdaws ; Staelings LONG-EAEED OWL ; CHAFFINCH ; GeEAT, » Blue and, Coal Tits; GoldceestI' Gannets ; Guillemots ; Heeeing- \ Gulls . . . . . ) Mallaeds; Peeegeine Falcon; Heeon; ) Coot . . . . J Jay; Wood-Pigeons; Pheasants Oystee-catchees ; Einged Plovee ; ) Little Stint ; Cuelew . . ' Black- HEADED Gulls ; Pochaeds , ) Shovelee; Watee-Hens . J By G. E. Lodge To face p . 39 » 164 >» 196 • » 221 • » 240 • 5> 264 • ?> 814 J> 828 ILLUSTBATIONS IN THE TEXT. fig. 1. Skeleton of Wing of AEcaEOPTEEYX WITH Remiges attached . 3,8. Steuctuee of a Feathee . 4. POETION OF TWO ADJACENT BaEBS PAGB From ^Natural Science* 4 From * Ihis ' . .5 . . 5 XVI FIG. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 37. 38, 89. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. From ^Natural Science ' f From Owen's 'Anatomy » of Vertebrates * . . By G. E. Lodge From Photograph by B. B. Lodge " J5 n By G. E. Lodge BBITISH BIBDS Foot of Pelican . From Owen's 'Anatomy of Vertebrates ' Foot of Perching Berd „ „ „ Foot of Kingfisher . „ „ „ Sternum of Shrike . „ Wing of Nestling Opisthocomus Wing of Young Fowl of same Age as Fig. 9 (of Wing of Opisthocomus'^. Wing of Adult Opisthocomus Wing of Half-grown Ostrich Pelvis and Hind Limb of Divee Gizzard of Swan . . . . Syrinx op Kaven (Posterior Surface) . Syrinx of Raven (Lateral View) . Syrinx of Eaven cut open longi- tudinally .... Song-Thrush (^ natural size) Throstle's Nest Blackbird's Nest Ring-Ouzel (i natural size) Wheatear (J natural size) . Stonechat (^ natural size) Redstart (^ natural size) Redbreast (^ natural size) Nightingale (^ natural size) Whitethroat (^ natural size) . Blackcap (J natural size) Dartford Warbler (J natural size) Sedge-Warbler (^ natural size) Hedge -Sparrow (J natural size) . Dipper (i natural size) Long-tailed Tit (J natural size) Great Tit (^ natural size) . Crested Tit (^ natural size) Nuthatch (^ natural size) . Wren (^ natural size) Pled Wagtail (^ natural size) Grey Wagtail (^ natural size) . Tree-Pipit (^ natural size) . Rock-Pipit (J natural size) Red-backed Shrike (^ natural size) Spotted Flycatcher (^ natural size) Swallow (J natural size) ... „ Martin (J natural size) ... Teee-Creeper (J natural size) , . „ Hawfinch (J natural size) . . „ Lesser Redpoll (J natural size) . . „ 10 10 10 13 15 16 17 17 19 21 26 26 26 41 44 48 50 52 56 57 59 62 64 67 71 80 84 86 91 93 102 104 106 110 112 114 117 119 121 124 130 140 LIST OF ILLUSTBATI0N8 XV71 FIG- 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 67. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 78. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83 84. 85. 86. 87. BuLT.FiMCH (J natural size) Ceossbill (^ natural size) Yellowhammeb (J natural size) CiRii Bunting (J natural size) Eeed-Bunting (J natural size) Chough (^ natural size) Magpie (^ natural size) . Books and Nest Raven (j^ natural size) . Skylark (J natural size) NiGHTJAB (I natural size) . Spotted Woodpeckeb {\ natural size) Gbeen Woodpeckek (I natural size) Wkyneck (J natural size) Kingfisher (J natural siae) Hoopoe .... Cuckoo (J natural size) . Barn-Owl (i^ natural sizej Montagu's Haeeier (| natural size) Buzzard (y\y natural size) Kite (^^2 natural size) . . Peregrine {-^^ natural size) . Merlin (^ natural size) . Kestrel (^ natural size) HoNEY-BuzzAED (J^ natural size) CoEMOEANT (Jj. natural size) . Geey Lag-Goose (Jj natural size) Beent Goose (Jjj natural size) Barnacle Goose {^^ natural size) Sheldeake {-^ natural size) . WiGEON (I natural size) . . Pintail {^ natural size) . • Gadwell (^ natural size) . Gaeganey (Jj natural size) . . Tufted Duck (Jy natural size) . EiDEE Duck (^ natural size) Common Scoter {^^ natural size) Goosander (^^2 natural size) . Red-eeeasted Meeganser (j^ natural size) .... Rock-Dove (^ natural size) Turtle-Dove (^ natural size) Red-legged Partridge (f natural size" Partridge (J natural size) Quail (i natural size) Blackcock {-^ natural size) Capercaillie (^2 natural size) From Photograph by B. B By G. E. Lodge By G. E. Lodge page . 142 , 144 . 148 . 150 . 151 . 157 . 161 Lodge 169 . 172 . 175 . 180 . 182 . 184 . 186 . 188 . 190 . 191 . 194 . 201 . 202 . 207 . 209 . 211 . 212 . 217 . 218 . 227 . 281 . 232 . 235 . 237 . 239 . 242 . 243 . 246 . 251 253 257 262 263 266 267 269 274 275 X\lll BBITISH BIBDS via. 95. 97. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. Landrail [^ natural size) . Stone-Curlew (| natural size) Golden Plover (summer plumage) (J natural size) ..... Lapwing (| natural size) Turnstone (^ natural size) Grey Phalarope (^ natural size) Woodcock (J natural size) Dunlin (summer plumage) (J natural size) . Knot (^ natural size) Ruff and Reeve (| natural size) Sanderling (winter plumage) (i natural size) Greenshank (J natural size) . Common Tern (| natural size) Lesser Tern {\ natural size) Black Tern (^ natural size) Great Black-backed Gull (Jy natural size) Great Skua {j\ natural size) Stormy Petrel (^ natural size) Manx Shearwater (^ natural size) Fulmar (i natural size) Great Northern Diver (i natural size) Great Crested Grebe (J^ natural size) . Little Grebe (J natural size) . Razorbill (winter plumage) (jL natural size) Little Auk (^ natural size) PoFFiN (^ natural size) PAGH . ByG.E. Lodge 278 » 282 \\ 285 •' n 290 • » 292 • >« 295 o -J 296 801 »» 805 806 « 308 312 319 • » 321 »l 323 I- 327 • K 330 >» 334 336 338 l» 840 i<» 842 . 344 r» 346 ' • '* 350 » 861 INTEODUOTION. The plan followed in the descriptive portion of this work has, I trust, the merit of simplicity. A brief account is given of the appearance, language, and life-habits of all the species that reside permanently, or for a portion of each year, within the limits of the British Islands. The accidental stragglers, with the irregular or occasional visitors, have been included, but not described, in the work. To have omitted all mention of them would, perhaps, have been to carry the process of simplification too far. And as much may be said of the retention in this book of Latin, or ' science ' names. The mass of technical matter with which ornithological works are usually weighted is scarcely wanted in a book intended for the general reader, more especially for the young. Nor was there space sufficient to make the work at the same time a technical and a popular one : the briefest description that could possibly be given of the characters of genera would have occupied thirty to forty pages. The student must, in any case, go to the large standard works on the subject, especially to those of Yarrell (fourth edition), Seebohm, and Howard Saunders, which are repositories of all the most important facts relating to our bird life, gathered from the time of Willughby, the father of British ornithology, down to the present. The order in which I have placed the species, beginning with the thrushes and ending with the auks, is that of B XX BBITISH BIBDS Sclater, based on Huxley's classification, and is the arrange- ment adopted in the official list of the British Ornithologists' Union (1883). The B.O.U. Hst enumerates 376 species ; and of this number 211 species are counted as residents and regular visitants ; the remaining 165 being loosely described as * Occasional Visitants.' About these aliens, which are claimed as citizens, something requires to be said. It has long been the practice of our ornithologists to regard as * Britit.b' aay spc;cies of which one specimen has been found in a wild state within the hmits of the United Kingdom. As a result of this excessive hospitahty we find in the list about forty-three species of which not more than three specimens have been obtained ; in a majority of cases only one. We also find that there are not fewer than forty- five exclusively American species in the list ; but by what means, or by what series of extraordinary accidents, these lost wanderers have been carried thousands of miles from their own region, across the Atlantic, and have succeeded in reaching our shores alive, it is impossible to imagine. It is highly probable that some of the American, Asiatic, and European waifs that have been picked up in these islands were birds that had escaped from confinement ; but whether brought by man or borne on the wings of the tempest to our shores, the fact remains that they are not members of our avifauna, and the young reader should clearly understand that only by a pleasing fiction are they called * British.' I have spoken at some length on this subject, because it is one that appears to interest a great many persons who are not ornithologists. How many British species are there ? is a question that is continually being asked of those who are supposed to know. I should say that, in round numbers, there are 200 ; at the very outside, 210. Seebohm, in the introduction to his great work, gives 222 as the number oi species ' fairly entitled to be considered British birds * ; but he probably counted some that are usually regarded as irre- gular visitors, and perhaps others which have been exter- minated in recent times. Of the 165 species set down in the TNTBODUCTION xxi ' British * list as occasional visitors, about 55 or 60 deserve that description, since they do, as a fact, visit the British Islands at irregular intervals. All the others are accidental stragglers. It only remains to add something on another subject — the little hfe-histories of the two hundred and odd species de- scribed in this volume. Although this is in no sense a con- troversial subject, the apologetic tone must be still used. I wish that these sketches had been better done, but I do not greatly regret that they had to be brief. The longest history of a bird ever written, the most abounding in facts and dehghtful to read, when tested in the only sure way — namely, by close observation of its subject — is found to be scarcely more complete or satisfactory than the briefest, which contains only the main facts. This is because birds are not automata, but intelligent beings. Seebohm has well said, 'The real history of a bird is its life-history. The deepest interest attaches to everything that reveals the little mind, however feebly it may be developed, which lies behind the feathers.' It has been remarked more than once that we do not rightly appreciate birds because we do not see them well. In most cases persecution has made them fearful of the human form ; they fly from us, and distance obscures their delicate harmonious colouring and blurs the exquisite aerial lines on which they are formed. When we look closely at them, we are surprised at their beauty and the indescribable grace of their varied motions. An analogous effect is produced by a close observation of their habits or actions, which, seen from afar, may appear few and mono- tonous. Canon Atkinson, in his * Sketches in Natural History ' (1865), has a chapter about the partridge, prefaced by Yarrell's remark, that of a bird so universally known there was httle that was new to be said. While admitting the general truth of this statement, the author goes on to say - ' Still, I have from time to time observed some shght peculiarity in the habits of the partridge that I have not seen noticed in any professed description of the bird, forming certain passages, as xxii BRITISH BIBD8 it were, of its minute history.' It is precisely this * minute history ' that gives so great and enduring a fascination to the study of birds in a state of nature. But it cannot be written, on account of the infinity of ' passages ' contained in it, or, in other words, of that element of mind which gives it endless variety. Let us imagine the case of a youth or boy who has read and re-read half a dozen long histories of some one species ; and, primed with all this knowledge, who finally goes out to observe it for himself. It will astonish him to find how much he has not been told. He will begin to think that the writers must have been hasty or careless, that they neglected their opportunities, and missed much that they ought not to have missed ; and he may even experience a feehng of resentment towards them, as if they had treated him unfairly. But after more time spent in observation he wiU make the interesting discovery that, so long as they are watched for, fresh things will continue to appear. The reflection will follow that there must be a Hmit to the things that can be recorded ; that the Ufe-history of a bird cannot be contained in any book, however voluminous it may be ; and, finally, that books have a quite different object from the one he had imagined. And in the end he will be more than content that it should be so. W. H. H. Beitish Bieds. THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD. It is very important that every one who studies birds should have some acquaintance with their insides as well as with their outsides. To have a proper appreciation of the mechanism of flight, the most distinctive attribute of a bird, we must explore the air reservoirs and muscles, which combine, with other organs, to form a complicated, but exquisitely adjusted, system. It is true that other animals show a similar adaptation to their several modes of life, but in a bird the necessities of life seem to have produced a more obvious and striking harmony between structure and habit. Furthermore, the young ornithologist should not be content with gaining the ability to recognise the different kinds of birds : he should understand their mutual relations, and the place of a bird in Nature. To form an opinion about these matters needs more than an acquaintance with the colours and outward form, and with the eggs and nest. A great deal can be learnt from these characters, but they are at most only useful in linking together closely related species. All the members of the extensive tribe of parrots, for example, are bound together by their hooked bills, their white eggs, their grasping feet, &c. But we want to go further, and determine what are the relations of the parrots to other birds which differ totally from them in all outward and visible signs. To solve, or rather to attempt to solve, broader questions of this kind we must have recoiu-se to the scalpel, and even to the microscope. Besides, there not only are birds, but there were birds, which have now passed away utterly, leaving behind only a few bones embedded in the rocks. Nothing of an external 2 BRITISH BIRDS nature will avail us in considering what these birds were like in their day, and which of existing kinds they most resembled. We must have a knowledge of bones, of osteology, to grapple with the problems which they present. For these reasons I have dealt in the following pages principally with the organs of flight, and with those internal and external characters which are admitted to be of most use in classificatory questions. I have paid less attention to those organs which are not of Importance from these points of view. Feathers and Feathering. It is only a very few birds that have a complete and continuous covering of feathers. The penguins are in this condition ; and some of the ostrich-like birds are so, more than most others. But in other birds the feathers are arranged in tracts, between which are patches of quite, or nearly, bare skin. The technical name for the feathered districts is • Pterylia ' ; that for the bare patches, ' Ap- teria.' If two birds, belonging to different families, are compared, it will often be discovered that they present considerable unlikeness in the mutual arrangement of the feathered and unfeathered tracts. In fact, it was pointed out not far from the beginning of this century that the dispersal of the feathers over the body was one of the very best characters for classifying birds upon. But when the author of this discovery. Professor Nitzsch, of HaUe, first published his book on the matter, it was received with some ridicule, and the pictures of birds denuded of their feathers in order to show up clearly the feather tracts were ironically compared to a portion of a poulterer's shop. This ridicule, however, did not do away with the fact that the character is often of great use in settling the mutual relation- ships of birds. When a bird is carefuUy skinned, it will be seen that the feather tracts have their own special sUps of muscle inserted into the roots of the feathers. These muscles, when they contract, serve to raise the feathers slightly, and must be of at least sub- sidiary importance in flying. This is, perhaps, why the feather tracts are so well marked in birds that fly, and explains the reason for their unmarked character in birds that do not. We can easily imderstand that the movement of the feathers, if the covering were continuous, would be much more difficult and less pronounced than when there were separate patches far enough away from each other to allow of free and independent movement. In the Penguin, which THE ANATOMY OF A BIBD 8 glides smoothly and rapidly under water in pursuit of its fishy prey, a continuous coating of feathers is not only a source of additional warmth, but offers less resistance to the water ; so, too, with a run- ning bird like the Emu or Ostrich. But in the case of the latter, at any rate, the young nestling has quite distinct tracts and apteria, thus showing that, although nowadays it is incapable of flight, it has descended from an ancestor that could fly — at least, that is the way in which it is customary to interpret such differences in structure between young animals and their parents. The Apteryx also, of New Zealand, is quite analogous. The old bird has a nearly continuous covering of feathers, but the unhatched young show perfectly distinct patches of feathers with bare spaces between. We shall show on another page that there are other arguments which appear to prove that all these flightless birds have been gradually derived in the course of time from birds that could fly perfectly well. They are an instance, so far, of what is termed degenera- tion. The examination of any bird will show that it has several kinds of feathers. They are all constructed upon the same plan, but some are larger than others, and the smallest are soft instead of firm to the touch. The biggest feathers of all are a set which fringe the wing (see fig. 1) and another set at the end of the tail. These are called respectively the ' Kemiges ' and * Eectrices,' or the * rowing ' feathers and the * steering' feathers. Their principal use, as may be imagined, is in flight. The remaining feathers are also to some extent used in flight, but their main use appears to be to keep the body warm. An eider-down quilt, as everybody knows, is the warmest kind of coverlet ; the reason being that the feathers are very bad conductors of heat, and do not, therefore, allow the heat of the body to escape. Birds are the hottest of all animals, which is in part due to their covering of feathers. To understand the structure of a tj^ical feather is perhaps a little difficult ; but possibly the accom. panying figures (figs. 1, 2, 3, 4) will render the explanation easier to follow. The feather consists of a stem which is technically called the rhachis, the word simply signifying stem. From each side of this a row of parallel rodlets arise which are called barbs. These in their turn give rise to another set of processes which are the barbules. This, however, is not all ; the barbules are firmly locked together by other processes, so that the entire feather is quite firm, and can be used as a kind of oar with which to row 4 BBITISH BIBDS through the air. It does not give when the wings are flapped. The barbules are of two sorts, those nearest to the root of the barb being different from those which are nearest to its tip. The former, as is shown in fig. 2, are shaped something hke a knife-blade ; they are thickened above and bent in the middle ; they gradually taper away to a fine point. Just in the middle, where the bend is, are two or three small teeth (2, fig. 2) on the upper margin. By means of these teeth-like processes the successive barbules are attached to one another. At the end of each barb, as already men- tioned, the barbules are of a different structure. A few of them are Fig. 1.- XO 11 Skeleton of Wing of Arch^opteryx with Remiges attached. (Eestoration after Pycraft, • Natural Science,' vol. v.) I, II, III, digits. illustrated in fig. 4. The end is frayed out into a number of deUcate spines, of which those farthest from the actual tip are hooked, while those at the tip are only curved and not hook-like. All these spines are called barbicels. They are upon the lower edge of the barbule ; but upon the upper edge are a few shorter and stouter spinelets. As the barbules come off in an oblique direction, it follows that each one of them overlaps a considerable number, in fact five, barbules of the opposite barb. The attachment is by these booklets, or hamuli, as they are usually termed. The stiff feathers THE ANATOMY OF A BIBD ■ / Fias. 2, 3. (After Wray in ' Ibis ' for 1887.) B, Barbs ; bp, proximal barbules ; 1, flange ; 2, 'dog-tooth,' partol flaage; 8, orerlapping portion. Fio. 4. — Portion of two adjacent Baebs. (After Wray in * Ibis ' for 1887. B, barbs ; bd^ bp, barbules (distal and proximal). 6 BRITISH BIBDS which have this, elaborate structure are not found at all in the ostrich-like birds ; in them there is no need for a firm s\n:face to catch the air ; on the contrary, it would be, if anything, disadvantage- ous to swift runners, as those birds are. The feathers, therefore, are much reduced in complexity, and in some they consist only of the stem and the barbs. Even in flying birds there are plenty of feathers of a simple structure lying between the stronger contour feathers. These are the soft feathers which are generally spoken of as * down.' Some of them are so reduced as to consist of little more than the stem. The same reduction is seen in the wing feathers of the Cassowary. Along the margin of the wing are a few strong black spines, which are really the quills of the wing feathers with no barbs at all ; they consist merely of the stem, which has not dwindled in the least, but is quite as strong as it would be in a feather of use for flying. In a good many birds the contour feathers and the down feathers also have a kind of appendix, known as the aftershaft. This is a sort of supplementary feather arising from the stem just at the point where the barbs begin, and having precisely the structure of a small feather. In the Emu and the Cassowary this aftershaft is fully as large as the main feather ; from each stem in these birds arise as it were two feathers. The most curious modification, however, of the feather is into that structure known as a * powder-down.' These feathers have, as their name denotes, a powdery appearance, which is due to the continual breaking off of the fine ends of the barbs ; the feathers themselves are soft, and belong to the variety of feathers which have been described as down feathers. The dusty matter which they give off has been described as * dry and yet fatty to the touch.' They are found in various birds ; they do not characterise any one particular group, except the Heron tribe ; some Parrots have them, a few Hawks, and certain other genera. It has been said that they are phosphorescent ; and it has been suggested that their presence in the heron is of use to it in its fishing. The light, it is thought, attracts the small fishes within reach of the heron's long bill. But this appears to be one of those exaggerations founded upon actual fact which are so common in natural history. Another important fact about a feather is its colour. There is no purely white bird in this country and not very many that are chiefly white. But there are some, like the Gulls and the Storks. The nearest approach to an absolutely white bird is the beautiful little Egret, whose plumes are, imfortunately, so much used in THE ANATOMY OF A BIBD 7 feminine adornment. As concerns its feathers, this bird is absolutely white, but other parts of the body are black. A bird that is purely white, not only in the feathers but in the legs and beak, is called an albino. This state of affairs is not commonly met with, but it sometimes occurs ; everybody has heard of that contradiction in terms, but actually existent creature, the * white blackbird.' In all these cases there is something wanting in the feather ; for white is not a colour — it is the negation of colour, and is due in nearly every case to the scattering of the rays of light which fall upon the object. This happens when the material that is coloured white is broken up into minute fragments separated by air. The froth of the sea or of a brimming tankard is simply due to the entangling of bubbles of air, which scatter the rays of light. The stems of the feathers contain bubbles of air, which bring about a like effect. But the majority of birds are coloured, and, as a rule, perhaps, brightl;y coloured. We have not in this country many birds which can compare with the gaudy parrots of the East ; but brilliancy of hue is by no means wanting in the birds of this and of other countries which enjoy a temperate climate. It used to be said that brilliancy of colour was a characteristic of the tropics. But it is always pointed out> by way of a refutation of that statement, that the Golden Pheasant of China is as gorgeous a bird as any which exists. There are few smaU birds which are really more brilliant in hue than our YeUow- hammers, Goldfinches, Bullfinches, and some others. We have, it is true, nothing to seriously compete with the Humming-birds; but these birds are found not only in the tropical forests of Brazil, but also in North America and upon the snowy summits of the Andes, and can therefore hardly be used as an instance of the exclusive restriction of brilliant colour to a tropical climate. The hues of the feathers are due to two causes. In every case where there is colour at all the feathers contain a certain amount of dye, or pigment, as it is more usually termed ; this pigment may be alone responsible for the colour of the feather, or it may be only a part of the cause. If the bright blue feather from a Macaw's wing be roughly pressed so as to injure the surface, the blue colour will disappear from the rubbed place, and will be apparently replaced by a brownish black. The reason for this is that the blue colour is the result of the actual structure of the feather, which requires the underlying black pigment for its manifestation. The crushing destroys that structure and leaves only the dark pigment. The brilliant and varying hues of the soap-bubble and of mother-of-pearf 8 BBITI8H BIBD8 are examples of substances which owe their colour to their structure; and the hues of the bird's feather are produced by a similar kind of structure. Finely ruled lines engraved upon the feather just below a clear and transparent outer skin are responsible for the tints of different colours. But there are many birds whose colours are entirely due to the pigments. The most interesting instance of this in many ways is an African bird, the Touraco. This bird is green for the most part, but the feathers of the wing? are of a magnificent crimson. "When the birds take to the wing this gorgeous colour is displayed ; before, it is concealed by the overlying feathers. The colouring matter can be easily extracted from the wing, and it forms a solution of a splendid crimson as bright as the substance called cochineal, which is the product of an insect. It was once said that this colour could be, and was as a matter of fact, washed out from the wings of the bird during heavy storms of rain, and that when a touraco was shot and fell into the water it stained the water red, not with its blood, but with the dye from its feathers. This is, however, an exaggerated way of putting the fact that even very feebly alkaline water will dissolve out the colour. Some of the yellows of the woodpeckers and the browns and reds of other birds are solely brought about by the presence of pigments. In speaking of birds as * feathered songsters ' or as • feathered bipeds,' we are a Httle apt to lose sight of the fact that they are also scaly — an error which is occasionally rectified by the view of an obtrusive pair of legs belonging to the fowl upon the dinner-table. The legs of birds are nearly always scaly ; there are a few excep- tions or nearly exceptions. For instance, there is a special breed of pigeons with feathered legs ; and the sand-grouse, which makes those remarkable and periodical invasions, has legs which are more covered with feathers than with scales. The possession of scales is one of the most striking points of resemblance between birds and reptiles. At first sight it seems to be almost absurd to attempt to draw any parallel between the active, feathered, hot-blooded bird and the scaly, cold-blooded reptile ; yet there are many resemblances, some others of which will be indicated in the following pages. In the meantime we are concerned with the scales. These are flat plates, produced by a horny alteration of the soft underlying skin, which are precisely lil^e those of the lizards and snakes. No other animals possess scales ; those of the armadillo appear to be not unlike the scales of reptUes and birds, THE ANATOMY OF A BIBD 9 but they really are not, nor are those of the scaly mania, which are more comparable to closely matted tufts of hair. The scales of a fish are totally different, since they are not formed by the true skin, the epidermis, at all, but by the underlying dermis. In no bird, however, are there scales upon any part of the body except the legs. But one bird makes a near approach to having scales else- where. This is the Penguin, the feathers of whose wings are flattened and very scale-like. But the characteristic fringing of the feather can be detected on a careful examination. The penguin uses its wings as paddles to fly imder water. A branching and delicate feather would be worse than useless under such circum- stances ; hence the superfluous fringing of the stem of the feather has been got rid of, and the feather ItseK has become flattened and lies close to the skin. Beak. The beak is simply a horny tract of skin which has become hardened for its special uses. It is not even distinctive of the bird ; for turtles, particularly the snapping turtles, have beaks which are not only precisely like those of birds, but are equally effectual when turned to aggressive ends. It is a commonplace of knowledge that the biU or beak presents an almost endless variety of form, which is associated with an equally diversified use. The remarkable shovel- shaped bill of the duck is suitable for dabbling in soft mud, just as is the hooked beak of the hawk or owl for tearing living prey. The most prevalent form of bill is that possessed by most passerine birds, a conical longer or shorter biU. The relatively enormous beak of the toucan is serrated along the free edge, which enables its possessor to obtain a firmer grasp of the fruits upon which it feeds. The ridges upon the inner surface of the beaJs in the ducks serve an analogous purpose ; the same structure is seen in the bill of the Flamingo, though the outline of the biU is unlike that of the duck, and gave rise to the idea, or at any rate had something to do with the former impression, that the flamingo was a long-legged duck. But, as a matter of fact, there is a stork in which there is precisely the same ridging of the beak, and it is more usual now to place the flamingo among the storks, or near to them. The Spoonbill, as its name denotes, has a beak which is at the extreme of the series of beaks which are useful for sifting the mud at the bottom of pools and rivers; the extremity is widened and flattened out. 10 BRITISH BIBDB Most singular is the recurved bill of the Avocet, and equally so the under -jawed Khynchops, the terms used implying the peculiari« ties in each case. There is no living bird which lacks a beak ; but in some of the extinct and toothed birds, which are again referred to later, the beak was absent. Its place was taken in them by the teeth. Feet. Hardly less diversified in form are the feet of birds. The skeleton of this part of the body is dealt with on another page ; here we are concerned only with the external form of the feet and legs. Aquatic Fig. 5. — Foot of Pelican. Fig. 6.— Foot of Perching Bibd. birds often have webbed feet, but not always. The Dipper, for example, is a bird which lives largely on and under the water, but . its feet are not in the least like those of a \i i/iiilJ Duck or Grebe. The webbed foot presents us with at least two varieties. In the Pehcan tribe (fig. 5) the extreme of web-footedness is to be seen. Here all the toes (four) are connected by a webbing. In the Duck only three of the toes are webbed Another kind of webbed foot is termed pahnate. In the Coots, for example, each toe is fringed with a broad membrane, but there is no connection between the fringes of successive toes. The toes of birds are apt to be differently disposed. In most birds (fig. 6) there are three toes which are turned forwards, and one, the great toe (hallux), which is turned backwards. But m the Trogons and others two toes are turned forwards and two backwards, thus pro- ducing a very efficient mechanism for holding on tightly to the bough Fig. 7. — Foot of Kingfisher. THE ANATOMY OF A BIBD 11 of a tree, a mechanism which is shared by that, in some oth^r respects, bii'd-like lizard, the chameleon. A foot of this kind is technically called * zygodactyly' A singular modification of the foot is seen in the Kingfisher (fig. 7) where the two middle toes are enclosed in the same fold of skin ; this is called syngenesious.' Skeleton. A bird's skeleton is wonderfully light and spongy in texture. It is fill of air (see below, p. 27), but deficient in marrow. Its entire structure is pre-eminently suited to a flying creature, not only for the above reasons, but because the heaviest part (the sternum) lies in the middle, in the centre of gravity, and thus assists in preserving the balance, lil^e Blondin's pole. The Skull. The skull of a bird is composed of a large number of separate bones, which are very closely united in the adult bird, so much s6 that it is next to impossible to recognise that they are distinct bones. The bones are also thin and light, for to a flying animal any weight forward would be most disadvantageous. The weight of the bird should be, and is, concentrated in the middle of the body. We can divide the skull into two regions : behind is the smooth, rounded brain-case or cranium ; in front is the face, which is largely en- sheathed by the beak. It is chiefly formed by the maxillary and nasal bones above, and by the palatine and pterygoids below. The length of this part of the skull is subject to great variation in different birds. In the Storks, for instance, the face is extremely long, while in the Parrots it is comparatively short. Professor Huxley, about thirty years ago, proposed to classify birds by the form of the bones of the palate. In the skuU of the Hawk, it will be seen that two bones lying in the front region of the palate are fused with each other in the middle line, and to the type of skuU which is thus characterised the name ' desmognathous ' was given. It is found not only in the Hawks, but in a quantity of other birds ; for instance, in the Stork tribe, and in the HombiUs and Toucans. The second form of skull distinguishes the gallinaceous birds ; in them the two maxiUo -palatines remain unconnected, and the palate is therefore in a way cleft ; this is termed the ' schizognathous ' 12 BBITISH BIBD8 skull. In the finch tribe there is a slight modification of this, called, from the Greek word for a finch, * segithognathous.' In these birds a median bone, called the vomer, from the fact that the bone to which it corresponds in the human skull is shaped somewhat like a plough- share, is truncated in front, instead of tapering, as it does in the schizognathous skull of the common fowl. There is a fourth variety, which marks out the Ostrich tribe and the American Tinamous, in which the two pairs of bones called the pterygoids and palatines do not, as they do in the types of skull that have been hitherto considered, reach the middle line of the skuU, but are kept ofif from it by the vomers, which extend backwards. The term ' dromseognathous,' or emu-like, is applied to this form of skuU. If the back of any bird's skull be examined, it will be noticed that just below the great hole or foramen, through which the medulla passes to join the spinal cord in the canal of the vertebral colmnn, is a rounded, rather kidney- shaped boss. This is the occipital condyle, by means of which the skull articulates with the first vertebra. If you look at the same region in a mammal, you will find that there are two of these, one on each side, though also below the foramen magnum. This is one of the many points of structm-e that distinguish a bird from a mammal and ally it to the reptiles ; but it must be remembered that in some reptiles there is a commencing division of the single condyle into two. The Vertebral Column. Like all other backboned animals, birds have a chain of small bones running along the back, and enclosing a canal in which runs the spinal marrow. In most vertebrates some of the individual vertebras in the region of the hind limb, the sacral region, are some- what intimately fused together, forming a more soUd structure for the support of the pelvis. In birds the strong coupling of the vertebrsB is more marked, and extends to the dorsal region. The mechanical value of this to a flying animal is clear ; it is analogous to the tight coupling of an express train, and prevents the back from bending from side to side under the strain produced by the powerful movements of the muscles in flight. The tail vertebrse show some curious modifications in different birds. In the typical carinate bu'd, the last few vertebrae are fused into a piece which is called the * plough-share bone,' or 'pygostyle.' The name of this bone THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD 13 sufficiently indicates its shape ; the expanded end of the bone serves as a firm base, upon which rest the strong tail feathers. Now, in the ostrich tribe there are no rectrices comparable in size to those of the flying carinates. Here there is no pygostyle, but the individual vertebrae are small and disconnected. They are, however, few in number, whereas in the Archseopteryx they are numerous, though, oddly enough, not so numerous altogether as are the tail vertebrae of some flying birds. Each individual vertebra in the Archaeopteryx supports a pair of rectrices, which are thus arranged in a series, and not in one row. A very distinctive peculiarity of the vertebrae of birds is the saddle-shaped centrum. The centrum of the vertebra is the solid piece which imderlies the canal of the spinal cord, the walls of the latter being formed by the neural arches, which unite above to form a neural spine. In other vertebrates the centra are flat (mammals), orprocoelous (the concavity being forward), or opisthocoelous (the concavity posterior), or amphicoelous (concave on both sides). This latter form of vertebra is frequently met with in archaic forms belonging to various groups. It occurs, for example, in many fishes. Such reptiles as Hypero- dapedon and the Geckos have the same kind of vertebrae. Among birds there is no existing genus or species which is to be thus characterised ; but the extinct Ichthyornis had clearly biconcave ver- tebrae. Shoulder Girdle. This series of bones serves as the inter- mediary between the fore limb and the vertebral colunm. It consists of three dis- tinct elements. There is, first of all, a sword-blade-like bone with sharp edges, which lies along the vertebral column — the scapula. To the end of this is firmly attached a somev/hai shorter bone, which approaches its fellow as it joins the sternum below; this bone is known as the coracoid (52- fig. 8,). The angle Fig. 8.— Sternum of Shrike. h, ribs ; 58, furcula ; 52, cora- coid ; 59, anterior end of sternum. 14 BRITISH BIRDS between these two bones is, in flying birds, a considerable one, but in the ostrich tribe they are almost in the same straight line ; this is really connected with the power of flight, for it has been shown by careful measurements that, in birds which still have wings that bear every appearance of being functional, and yet are not used for their legitimate purpose, the angle tends to approach the obtusity of the scapula and coracoid of the Ostrich. Burds have, besides these two bones, the merry-thought, or clavicle (68, fig. 8), which corresponds to our collar-bone. Its two halves are generally closely united to form one (J-shaped or V-shaped bone; but sometimes they are separate, and then more or less rudimentary. Wing. "We must enter into the matter of wing a little more closely — it is so important a feature of bird organisation. The wing, of course, although it performs so different a roUy is the exact equivalent of the fore limb of mammals. We can easily recognise precisely the same bones, though they are diminished in number, and often of a different form. It wiU be noticed that in each case we can dis- tinguish the three bones forming the arm, and which are known as the humerus, the radius, and ulna. The rest of the limb in the bird is not quite so obviously hke the hand of the mammal ; but a Uttle attention will show that it is constructed upon a perfectly similar plan. The flexible wrist of the mammal is made up of many small bones ; the hand itself is made up of a larger series still, of which those nearest to the wrist are technically termed the meta- carpals, and those which follow, the phalanges. In many mammals there are five fingers ; but there are many which have less, and the extreme is reached in the horse, which has to put up with a single finger and small rudiments of two others. Now the bird is better off in the way of fingers than the horse, as it has tliree fairly weU- developed fingers, or rather two weU developed and one less perfect. The shortest finger corresponds to the thumb of ovoc hand. It is more freely movable than the others. The metacarpal bones of the second and third fingers are firmly welded together, and are long ; each finger (as will be seen from a look at fig. 1, p. 4) has one or two phalanges, as the case may be. Now in mammals the end phalanx of each finger is tipped with a nail, or with a hoof. The powerful claws of the tiger, used for tearing, and the solid hoof THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD 15 of the ox or horse, upon which the creature walks, are one and the same thmg. It might be supposed that the hand of the bird, which is not an organ of offence or meant to walk with, might be shorn of these appendages. But this is not the case : every bird has at least two nails (fig. 9), of a long and rather claw-like form when well developed, and sometimes three nails, that is, one to each of its fingers. It looks, therefore, very much as if the wing of the bird had been formed out of a limb that was once an organ for climbing or walking with. There is a curious bird, found in British Guiana, which is known as the Hoatzin (figs. 9, 11). In the very young nestlings of the hoatzin the claws of the fingers are so conspicuous that they are actually used by the callow chick to climb with, before the feathers of the wings have grown sufficiently to enable them to use their wings in the proper way in which a bird should ; it has been said also, that Fia. 9. — Wing of Nestling Opisthocomus. (After Pycraft in ' Natural Science.') The second digit (II) is free, being prolonged beyond ala membrane (P.m.), and remiges 8-10 are not developed. other birds scramble about and use their claws when they are yoimg. In the case of the hoatzin, it is stated that the thumb and the first finger can be brought together so as to lay hold definitely of an object. A very important thing to notice about the wing bones is that they are capable of but little movement upon each other. There are two hinges, one at the elbow, and the other at the wrist ; but the radius and ulna cannot move round each other, as they can in our arms, and the fingers are fixed and rigid. This would be most un- fortunate if the wing had to be used as a walking or climbing limb ; but it is most useful in relation to the function which the wing has to perform — that of flight. The strength of the downward stroke would be enfeebled if the bones were in a limp condition and moved upon each other. They offer, too, a firm foothold for the thick quills of the big feather? of the wing. It has been mentioned that 16 BBITISH BIRDS all the evidence at our disposal points to the view that the wing has become gradually moulded into an organ of flight, from a con- dition in which it played a different part. The earliest bird of which we have any record had wings which were much less perfect as flying organs than those of modern birds. It seems pretty plain that the bones in that antique bird were much less rigidly fixed together, and it is equally clear that the fingers were very much more loosely attached to one another. They were also more on an equality as regards size ; the great disparity evident in fig. 12 is not to be seen in the Archaeopteryx. All this, of course, shows that the Archaeopteryx could not have possessed the ample pinion of its more vigorous descendants of to-day. The fossil Archseopteryx looks a little like a crow would look after receiving at close quarters a charge of duck shot ; but a closer examination will show that in reality all 5432 P.m. Fia. 10.— Wing of Young Fowl of same Age as Fig. 9 (of Wik3 on Opisthocomus). (After Pycraft in ' Natural Science.') Tlie hand Is shorter, and not fitted to be a grasping organ. the bones are tliere, on one side at least. Out of the disjecta membra of the fossil numerous * restorations ' have been put together, which are as diverse as the minds which imagined them. We cannoi really say viith certainty what were the precise relations of the hand to the feathers. It seems most probable that the hand of this ' mediaeval ' bird stiU retained the ordinary fimctions of a hand ; that it served its possessor to lay hold of convenient branches, from which it fluttered feebly to others. One bold speculator has insisted upon the probability tiiat the Archaeopteryx had the requisite five fingers of tlie presumed ancestral type ; but there are no traces of them, except in so far as the lie of the feathers enables a hint to bo gathered. Boring operations, or at least prospecting in the interior of the stony slab on which the fossil lies, might reveal somo additional fingers ; but the operation would be fraught with too THE ANAT0]\f7 OF A BIRD 17 obvious perils to a nearly unique object. There are a good many birds which do not, and some which cannot, fly. To the lirst cate- gory belong such birds as the domestic ducks and fowls, and some of the rails. These birds, when put to it — when chased by a dog, for example — can often fly ; but as a rule they do not, or at most only P.m. Fio. 11. — WiNO OF Adult Opisthocomus. (After Pyeraft in •Natural Scienco.') The hand is smaller relatively to the forearm ; c, the claw of digit I, much re