ZS 7^

BRITISH BIRDS

With which was Incorporated in January, 1917, " The Zoologist.”

AN ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE DEVOTED
CHIEFLY TO THE BIRDS ON THE BRITISH LIST

EDITED BY

H. F. WITHERBY M.BJE. F.Z.S. M.B.O.U. H.F.A.O.U.

ASSISTED BY

NORMAN F. TICEHURST o.b.e. m.a. f.r.c.s. m.b.o.u.

AND

BERNARD W. TUCKER m.a. f.z.s. m.b.o.u.

Volume XXXVI

JUNE 1942— MAY 1943

H. F. & G. WITHERBY Ltd.

326 HIGH HOLBORN LONDON

.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Plate i. Male Turtle-Dove feeding young ( Photo-
graphed by Eric J. Hosking) facing 3

Map to illustrate the spread of the Redshank as a

BREEDING SPECIES IN THE BRITISH ISLES
(Drawn by W. B. Alexander) ... ... ... 10

Plate 2. Part of the Scar Rocks, Wigtownshire,

SHOWING GaNNETS AND CORMORANTS, JULY
14TH, 1942 (Photographed by J. M. McWilliam)

facing 62

Plate 3. Part of the Scar Rocks, Wigtownshire,

SHOWING GaNNETS WITH SHAGS AND GUILLE-
MOTS, July 14TH, 1942 (Photographed by J.

M. McWilliam) ... ... ... facing 63

Sky-Lark Song : (Diagrams by Noble Rollin) showing :

Fig. 1. Number of songs of various song lengths 147

Fig. 2. Output of songs for various song lengths 148

Fig. 3. Total output of song of a single bird on

one day ... ... ... 14S ^

Fig. ‘4. Output from birds of an area on a day

favourable to song ... ... .... 149

Fig. 5. Output from birds of an area on a day

when there was a very strong wind ... 149

Diagram to show number of Kingfishers on part of

River Thames in 1940, 1941 and 1942 ... 155

Plate 4. Cuckoo at Reed-Warbler’s Nest (From

drawings by Philip Rickman) ... facing 176

Diagrams showing position of feet and cloaca of
Cuckoo when on Reed-Warbler’s nest
(Drawn by N. H. Joy) ... ... ... ... 178

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Plate 5. Meadow-Pipit and Sanitation. Parent
stimulating nestling. A faecal sac deposited by
nestling. Parent removing faecal sac. ( Photo-
graphed by Stuart Smith) ... facing

The Aerodynamics of the Drumming of the Common
Snipe ( Diagrams by R. A. Carr-Lewty) showing:

Effect of air pressure on the outer tail-feather
Angle of the air flow
Magnitude of the vibrations

186

232

233

234

BRITISH

BIRDS

jMSHtUSTPATCD WVGAZirC
DDOTEDOllEnYTOTlIEBIRDS
'^(SNTIlEBKnSnUST^'

MONTHHr ls9d.yEARLY 20-t
326It!GH110I,BOR^ENDOr+

ftr&CWITI lEPwBT LTD

NOW READY

A HANDLIST OF

THE BIRDS OF THE SEVENOAKS

or

WESTERN DISTRICT OF KENT

by

JAMES M. HARRISON, d.s.c. m.r.c.s., l.r.c.p., m.b.o.u., f.z.s.

Size of page, 11x8^

41 Plates in colour and 27 Half-Tones

PRICE 30/- NET.

This book deals primarily with the birds of the
Sevenoaks district, but, it is to be regarded rather as
treating with the ornithology of Western Kent. It is
now considerably over thirty years since Dr. Norman
Ticehurst’s authoritative work “ A History of the Birds
of Kent ” was published. During this period some
important changes in the status of the birds of the district
have taken place and additional forms have occurred,
and these are recorded in the present volume. With the
increased recognition of continental sub-species it is
apparent that regional avifaunas of several decades ago
stand in need of revision in the light of more recent
knowledge. This it will be found, has been achieved for
the topographical area dealt with by Dr. Harrison. The
work goes beyond a stereotyped local list of birds, for,
with the author’s wide experience of birds in the British
Isles as well as on the European Continent, there will be
found in it much both of general and special interest.
The volume is fully illustrated with colour and mono-
chrome sketches by the author, depicting many species
both common and rare.

326, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON, W.C.l.

BRIHSmiNS

With which was Incorporated in January, 1917, “The Zoologist.’’

EDITED BY

H.F.WITHERBY, M.B.E.,F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., H.F. A. O.U.

ASSISTED BY

Norman F Ticehurst, o.b.e., m.a., f.r.c.s., m.b.o.u., and
Bernard W Tucker, m.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Contents of Number i, Vol. XXXVI June 1, 1942.

PAGE

Some Observations on Breeding-Habits ol the Turtle-Dove. Bv

Eric J. Hosking, F.R.P.S., M.B.O.U 2

Report on the Redshank Inquiry 1939-40. Organised by the

British Trust for Ornithology . By J. F. Thomas ... ... ... 5

Obituary: Charles Oldham ... ... ... ... ... ... 15

Notes : —

Aerial Evolutions of the Cormorant (Seton Gordon) ... ... 19

Stock-Dove flocks in the Breeding season (K. B. Rooke) ... 19

Short Notes : —

Chiffchaff in Inverness-shire. Hoopoe in Pembrokeshire.
Ospreysin England. Unusual Ducks at Somerset reservoirs.
Black-tailed Godwit in Surrey. Feeding behaviour of
Green Sandpiper ... ... ... ... ... ... 20

PAPER SHORTAGE.

The Regulations restricting the weight of paper used in periodicals
necessitate either a much thinner paper or so few pages as to involve
quarterly issues of British Birds.

With the thin paper now used and other changes it is hoped to be
able to give a reasonable amount of matter each month.

A

(2)

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON BREEDING-HABITS
OF THE TURTLE-DOVE

BY

ERIC J. HOSKING, f.r.p.s., m.b.o.u.

(Plate i.)

During a sojourn at Hickling, Norfolk, last year (1941) I was
given an opportunity of studying some part of the breeding
biology of the Turtle-Dove ( Streptopelia t. turtur). I reached
my destination on April 29, which was prior to the arrival
of the Turtle-Doves from their winter quarters. At that time
bitter, north-east winds were blowing and this appeared to
retard the movements of all the spring migrants, which were
notably later than in average years, but when they eventually
came, they gave the impression of having arrived in force,
almost overnight.

Display.

It was not until the early morning of May 12 that I first
heard the Turtle-Dove, this date agreeing with that noted
by Mr. J. Vincent and other local residents, and from then
onwards their cooing was almost incessant. Within a day
or two of their arrival it was noticed that the males had selected
special hawthorn trees from which to “ sing ” and they
could usually be observed perched on one of the topmost
branches. By May 16 it became obvious that they were
paired (it is probable that they were paired when they arrived)
as in nearly all cases the females could be observed perched
in the same trees as the males, often on a lower branch, though
frequently sitting near to them. The usual “ song ” was
heard but, at this time, it was much quickened, as though
the males were excited, and it became more like a rapid
purring than the more characteristic cooing — the Handbook
of British Birds describes this as “ throbbing ” and perhaps
this is the better term. Sometimes cock and hen could be
seen sitting side by side, fondling each other’s bill or stroking
each other’s ear-coverts. This would often be followed by a
nuptial flight, when the male would fly upwards, almost
vertically, with fast-beating wings, and after rising perhaps
twenty to twenty-five yards would soar momentarily before
planing spirally downwards with his white-edged tail fully
expanded. He would dip down with still wings, mount again
and circle round the stunted tree on which the female sat
and finally alight by her side. Two or three display flights
would frequently follow one another. No outward response
was made by the female to these flights, though she was
often ready and willing to mate once they terminated. During
the evening the female would generally join in these courtship
flights and the two birds would gambol in the air together.

British Birds, Vol. XXXVI., PI. I.

Male Turtle-Dove feeding young. (Photographed, by Eric J. Hosking.)

vol. xxxvi ] BREEDING OF TURTLE-DOVE.

3

When visiting the surrounding fields for food both male and
female would go together, flying rapidly with the male just
ahead of the female, and while actually feeding the two birds
were rarely separated by more than a few feet.

Nesting.

The hawthorn trees in this vicinity are dwarfed, and this
compels the Turtle-Dove, as well as most other tree-nesting
birds, to build within six or seven feet of ground level. More-
over, the limited number of these trees which were available
necessitates sociability among the doves, and several nests
were found in quite a small area. Apart from the actual
tree which contained the nest, these doves appeared to have
little or no territory of their own. It was noticed that if
a neighbouring or unmated bird perched in the nesting tree
it was immediately chased away by the owners. In passing
it is interesting to note that in one hawthorn a Turtle-Dove
had its nest on one side and a Wood-Pigeon ( Columba p.
palumbus) on the other, yet neither interferred with the other.

All species of our doves are noted for their shyness, and are
probably the most difficult group of birds to photograph, but,
at the same time, they are close sitters and, when brooding,
will often allow a close approach. The nest which I selected
for photography was found on May 23, and the hen was seen
to be brooding in spite of the fact that in our search we had
passed within three feet of her.

“ Injury-Feigning.”

As I neared the photographic hide, which had been erected
within six feet of the nest, on June 4, I could see that the hen
was sitting in her normal position, brooding the two young,
but as I looked round from the side of the hide, she left the
nest. Much to my amazement she gave a superb display
of “ injury-feigning ” ; she almost fell out of the tree down to
the ground, and then flapped about over the tall grass and
tiny gorse bushes, giving a complete illusion of a broken
wing ; then she urged herself along on her breast, trailing
her left wing, depressing and slightly expanding her tail,
crawling through or hopping over the tussocky grass. In this
manner she went from my sight. I had never before witnessed
this “ injury ” display with any of the Columba group, but have
since noticed records published in this journal ( antea Vol.
xxvii, by Messrs. A. W. Boyd, R. M. Garnett, T. G. Powell
and P. Allen. The first mentioned also cites a case with the
Wood-Pigeon).

Feeding.

After I had been left in the hide for a short while I heard a
dove’s cooing in the next tree, and this was answered by the

4

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

two young, who whistled. Then, without hesitation, the
female flew into the tree and made her way along the branches
to the nest. Immediately she began feeding. The young
half sat and half stood in front of the parent, and forced
their bills down her throat, upon which all three went rapidly
up and down in a bowing motion as the female pumped up the
“ pigeon’s milk.” This method of feeding was almost exactly
similar to that of the Wood-Pigeon, which my colleague and
I described in Intimate Sketches from Bird Life (London 1940).
Both young were fed together, but occasionally it happened
that one chick lost its hold and it would then struggle vio-
lently to retrieve its position, which it usually did after a
few moments. This particular meal lasted four minutes and,
at its conclusion, both young buried their heads under the
female’s body and apparently fell asleep. During the next
half-an-hour the female remained in this position and there
was no perceptible movement from either of the young, but
at the end of this period the male alighted in the tree and,
as he did so, the female flew from the nest. The male " cooed ”
and the two chicks whistled excitedly and eagerly flapped
their wings as he made his way along the thick branches to
join them. In their eagerness to be fed the young frantically
jabbed at the male, trying their utmost to push their bills
into his throat, thereby causing him to flap his wings violently
to maintain balance. On this occasion the male fed the young
for six minutes, the procedure being the same as that described
for the hen, but at the conclusion of the meal he left the nest
immediately. Several other feeds were observed, which
averaged five minutes, but in all cases they were similar to
those mentioned above, the female usually remaining with
the young after the meal, even when they were well feathered,
and the male leaving them as soon as it was completed.

By July 1 the Turtle-Doves were heard only intermittently,
and two days later their cooing had ceased altogether. By
this time most of them had departed from this area, and on
July 6 I was unable to find any at all. Some birds were seen
after this date but they were few and far between and appeared
to be on their southern migration. In all the Turtle-Doves
had spent rather less than two months in the vicinity ; whether
this is a shorter stay than normal I am not in a position to
say. Reference to the Handbook of British Birds will show
that their song was concluded at an earlier date than the
average, and that their departure was at least a month sooner
than normal. The reason for this is difficult to explain since
the late arrival would lead one to anticipate a delayed depart-
ure, whereas the reverse was actually the case. It is certain
that not more than a single brood was reared by any of the
pairs which bred in this immediate neighbourhood.

REPORT ON THE REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40

ORGANISED BY THE
BRITISH TRUST FOR ORNITHOLOGY

BY

J. F. THOMAS.

Objects of the Inquiry.

A hundred years ago the Redshank appears to have been a
bird of the seashore, tidal rivers and the neighbouring coastal
districts, breeding only on the eastern side of Great Britain,
but since the beginning of the present century it has been
known to an increasing extent as a breeder in counties far
from the North Sea. Hence it was thought desirable to
place this increase on record and to discover, if possible,
whether the Redshank’s distribution had now become station-
ary or was still in process of expansion by the further colonisa-
tion of fresh areas. In addition it was hoped through subsid-
iary questions to obtain fuller information as to its breeding-
habits and the nature of its food at different periods of the
year.

It is presumed that all the Redshanks breeding in the British
Isles are British Redshanks ( Tringa totanus britannica), so
that all data with regard to the nesting season given in this
report refer to that form. It cannot be asserted, however,
that those birds wintering on the coast are exclusively British
Redshanks, and doubtless many of them belong to other
subspecies, e.g. Tringa t. totanus (typical or continental form)
or Tringa t. robusta (Icelandic).

Helpers in the Inquiry.

This report is based on yi schedules sent in by observers
or societies together with a large amount of material extracted
from ornithological publications and correspondence ; most
of the latter and a few of the schedules refer to years other
than the 1939-40 of the Inquiry. The amount of information
given in the replies to the questions in the schedule varied
from a simple record of distribution in the observer’s area to
a full and detailed answer to all, or almost all, the queries
on the paper, including those on nesting and feeding habits.
The areas undertaken by observers ranged from a few hundred
square yards to the whole of a county.

Of those who have given help for districts not touched by
observers’ schedules the following are especially thanked for
their information W. B. Alexander : extracts from publi-
cations ; P. A. D. Hollom : counts made on the coast, mainly in
S.E. England and some Scottish counties ; G. C. S. Ingram and
H. M. Salmon: distribution in S. Wales and Monmouthshire;

0

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

L. C. Lloyd : a comprehensive account of published

breeding records for Shropshire ; H. F. Witherby : extracts
from his correspondence. In addition R. S. R. Fitter summarises
the 22 schedules of the London Natural History Society
together with a few others which relate to areas within 20
miles of St. Paul’s Cathedral and P. C. Wood gives details
of a Redshank census undertaken during the spring of 1939
in the counties of Oxford, Bucks and Berks, by the members
of the Oxford Ornithological Society.

Owing to the necessity, in the present circumstances, of
economising space it has not been possible to include in this
report all the information received, but the schedules and other
material will be kept at the Edward Grey Institute at Oxford
where they may be consulted by those interested.

The following is a list of those who have forwarded schedules,
arranged according to the Watsonian provinces and vice-
counties in which they have worked.

I. Peninsula. Cornwall : A. A. Dorrien-Smith (Scilly Is.). Devon

S. : H. G. Hurrell, W. W. White, J. H. Candler. Devon N. :
(nil). Somerset S. and N. : H. Tetley.

II. Channel. Wilts N. : Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist. Society per

L. G. Pierson, E. C. Barnes (N.W.), A. F. Smith (Swindon),

G. Brown (S.E.). Wilts S. : (nil). Dorset : Bryanston

School (Blandford), Clayesmore School (R. Stour). I. of Wight
and Hants S. : (nil). Hants N. : H. A. Gilbert, G. Brown
(N.W.). Sussex W. : H. J. Emmet (Chichester). Sussex E. :
S. Smith (Pevensey).

III. Thames. Kent : London Nat. Hist. Soc. per R. S. R. Fitter.

Surrey : London N. H. Soc., G. E. Manser (Croydon), P. A. D.
Hollom (Weybridge). Essex S. : London N. H. Soc., H. J.
Greenaway (Roding Valley), R. B. Warren (Romford), F. J.
Johnson (Waltham). Essex N. : (nil). Herts : London N. H.
Soc., J. N. Hobbs (Watford), J. D. Magee and J. A. Smeed
(Watford). Middlesex: London N. II. Soc. Berks, Oxford
and Bucks : Oxford Orn. Soc., London N.H. Soc. (Colne
Valley).

IV. Anglia. Suffolk E. and W. and Norfolk E. : (nil). Norfolk W. :

F. E. Johnson (Hunstanton). Cambridge : A. Hibbert-Ware
(Girton). Bedford and Northants : (nil). Hunts: E. Peake
(Ouse Valley).

V. Severn. Gloucester E. : A. G. Taylor (Windrush Valley). Glou-

cester W. : H. H. Davis (Severn). Monmouth and Warwick :
(nil). Hereford: H. A. Gilbert. Worcs. and Stafford:

H. G. Alexander. Salop : L. C. Lloyd, A. O. Rolls (Welling-
ton), W. J. Slack (Cressage), Shrewsbury Sch. Orn. Soc.
(Shrewsbury).

VI. S. Wales. Glamorgan and Pembroke : (nil). Brecon and Radnor :

H. A. Gilbert. Carmarthen : J. F. Thomas (Laugharne).
Cardigan : J. H. Salter.

VII. N. Wales. Merioneth : E. H. T. Bible. Rest of Province :

(nil).

VIII. Trent. Lincoln S. : (nil). Lincoln N. : O. S. Nelthorpe

(Lindsey). Leicester and Rutland: E. Dufley. Notts.:

J. Staton (Trent Valley), G. H. Spray, T. A. M. Hill (Soar
Valley). Derby : J. Armitage (Buxton).

vol. xxxvi ] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

7

IX. Mersey. Cheshire : A. W. Boyd (Northwich and Birkenhead),

M. Henderson (Wirral), R. E. Knowles (E. Cheshire), S. Smith
(Gatley). Lancs S. : F. W. Holder (Southport), L. Turner.
(South). Lancs Mid: British Empire Nat. Assoc, per S.
Moorhouse.

X. Humber. S. E. York : P. F. Holmes (Driffield and Hornsea).

N. E. and Mid W. York : (nil). S. W. York : R. Chislett,
J. C. S. Ellis (Wakefield). N. W. York : Sedbergh Sch. Orn
Soc. per R. E. B. Yates.

XI. Tyne. H. Tully. Northumberland S. : E. Miller (Warkworth).

XII. Lakes. Westmorland andN. Lancs : British Emp. Nat. Assoc.,

J. A. G. Barnes (R. Kent), H. J. Moon (Ullswater). Cumber-
land : J. O. Wilson (Eden Valley), E. Blezard. I. of Man :
H. M. Rogers, K. Williamson.

SCOTLAND.

W. Lowlands. Kirkcudbright : J. D. Brown. .

E. Highlands. Easterness : E. M. Nicholson (Spey Valley), S. Smith
(Spey Valley).

N. Highlands. Sutherland E. and W. : E. M. Nicholson.

North Isles. Hebrides : M. H. H. Simon (S. Uist). Orkneys :
E. M. Nicholson (Hoy). Shetlands : J. Fisher.

None from IRELAND.

Arrangement of the Subject Matter.

In the part of the Report which now follows it was
intended originally to start with a very full and comprehensive
account of the distribution and spread of the Redshank as
a breeding species in the British Isles ; this has been compiled
by W. B. Alexander from every published source he has
been able to consult, and it contains a great deal of information
on the subject with dates and references for each of the
Watsonian Provinces. Unfortunately it was found impossible
to publish all of this at the present time, and Mr. Alexander
has condensed it into a summary which is less than one-
sixth of the original.

The rest of the subject matter is treated in the order of
the questions on the schedule, commencing with the non-
breeding distribution ; then come the chief habitats, and
finally the breeding and feeding habits with separate sections
for the subsidiary questions on these two subjects.

Distribution and Spread as a Breeding Species
in the British Isles.

It seems probable that up to about the end of the 18th
Century the Redshank nested in many parts of the British
Isles. Turner (1544), Willughby and Ray (1678), Pennant
(1776) and Latham (1785) all speak of it in general terms as
an inhabitant of marshes, and the name “ Pool Snipe,” by
which it was often known, suggests that it haunted inland
pools. It is noteworthy that in the case of the Ruff Pennant
and Latham are explicit in naming the localities where it
bred, viz. the fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire and

s

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

the East Riding of Yorkshire. The only counties in which
the Redshank seems definitely to have been recorded as
breeding in th£ 17th and 18th Centuries are Norfolk (Sir T.
Browne), Lincolnshire (Pennant) and Orkney (Low). Dicken-
son (1798) recorded its occurrence at Aqualate Mere in Stafford-
shire without stating whether it nested there. It was stated
to be common on the coast in Lancashire and Cheshire (Leigh,
1700), Essex (Dale, 1730) and Cork (Smith, 1750) and a very
scarce bird, only seen in winter, in Cumberland (Heysham,
1794). Its occurrence in Dublin (Rutty, 1772), Kent( Boys,
1792) and Sussex (Markwick, 1798) is recorded without any
note on its status.

In 1802 Montagu ( Orn . Diet.) stated that “ many breed in
our marshes, on the verge of large pools, and in extensive
swampy places. We have seen these birds on Romney Marsh
in the breeding season.” In his Supplement (1813) he added:
“ This species is amongst the few that now continue to be
indigenous and to breed in our fens. In some part of the Fen
of Lincolnshire it is tolerably plentiful in the summer months,
particularly about Spalding.” It is fairly evident that he
did not know the Redshank as a breeding species in Devon,
where he lived.

Hewitson ( British Oology, 1831-8) wrote : “ Like the Snipe,
the Redshank breeds in uncultivated marshy wastes ; it is
most common in the extensive fenny districts of Cambridge-
shire and Lincolnshire ; a few pairs are, however, dispersed
throughout the country, an occasional nest being found on
several of the wet heathy moors of the north of England.”
Yarrell (1841) said that in the spring " they retire to fens and
marshes, near pools or lakes, and to the banks of rivers,
where during the breeding season they are only seen singly
or in pairs.” He mentioned that " they still frequent Romney
Marsh as they did in the days of Montagu, for the purposes
of breeding.”

In the period of 1801 to 1841 we find records of the breeding
of the Redshank in Sutherland (Selby), Angus (Don), North-
umberland (Hancock), Lincolnshire (Montagu), Cambridge-
shire (Hewitson), Norfolk and Suffolk (Sheppard and Whitear),
Essex (Atkinson) and Kent (Montagu & Yarrell). In 1832
Thompson saw flocks on some of the low rocky islets in Strang-
ford Lough, Co. Down, and was informed by boatmen that
they nested on the gravelly or shingly beaches like Ringed
Plovers. This statement has since been regarded as improba-
ble. With this doubtful exception all definite records of
the breeding of the Redshank in the British Isles before
1842 are for counties on or near the east coasts of Scotland
and England from Orkney and Sutherland south to Essex
and Kent.

VOL. XXXVI.] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

9

In the next twenty-three years, 1842-1864, we have
statements of the breeding of the Redshank in the following
counties in which it had not hitherto been recorded. In
England: in Hampshire, in the New Forest (Wise) and in
Yorkshire, in all three Ridings (Allis). In Wales : in
Caernarvon (Williams). In Scotland : in Aberdeen

(MacGillivray), Perth (Harvie-Brown), Kirkcudbright
(Jardine), Ayr and Islay (Inner Hebrides) (Thompson).
In Ireland : in Antrim, Down, Donegal, Mayo, Roscommon,
Meath, Dublin and the Bog of Allen (Thompson) and Wicklow
(Watters).

In 1865 A. G. More published his important paper on the
“ Distribution of Birds in Great Britain during the nesting
season.” The distribution was not given for individual
counties but for sub-provinces of the Watsonian Provinces.
In Scotland the Redshank was recorded as breeding regularly
in all the sub-provinces, including the Outer Hebrides,
Orkneys and Shetlands, except the Western Lowlands, where
it is stated to breed occasionally in the sub-province comprising
Dumfries, Kirkcudbright and Wigtown and not at all in the
sub-province comprising Lanark, Renfrew and Ayr.

In England Norfolk is given as the only county where it
nested regularly. In Kent, Essex, Suffolk, Lincoln and
Yorkshire and the sub-provinces including Leicester, Rutland,
Nottingham, Derby, Durham, Northumberland, Westmorland,
Cumberland and the Isle of Man it is stated to nest occasionally
or in small numbers, whilst in the sub-province comprising
Cambridge, Huntingdon and Northampton it is stated to have
nested formerly but had not been known to do so in late years.

More added : ‘‘A few pairs still breed in Kent and Essex,
but the bird is rapidly decreasing in the south, and has almost
deserted the fens of the eastern counties, being driven out as its
haunts become more and more circumscribed by drainage and
cultivation.”

In the year, 1865, in which More’s paper appeared, Stevenson
noted a marked increase in the numbers breeding in Norfolk
and A. H. Evans found the first nest recorded from northern
Northumberland. In Essex, where More stated that only
a few pairs still nested, Legge said it bred as commonly as the
Lapwing in the marshes near the Thames estuary in 1865 and
1866.

From this time onwards a steady increase in the numbers
breeding and a gradual increase of the breeding range took
place in England and Wales and southern Scotland. In the
subsequent section the evidence of this in each of the
Watsonian Provinces is summarised. No evidence of any
change in status in Ireland, in the western and northern
Highlands of Scotland, or in the Scottish isles is on record. As

B

10

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

far as can be judged the numbers breeding in those regions are
much the same as they were a hundred years ago, though there
is a considerable amount of fluctuation from year to year.

Map to illustrate the spread of the Redshank as a breeding
species in the British Isles. (By W. B. Alexander).

Counties (and island groups) in which breeding was recorded before 1866 shown in black.
Counties in which breeding was first recorded between 1865 and 1896 cross-hatched.
Counties in which breeding has been recorded since 1895 indicated by single-line shading.

In the period 1866-1895 the Redshank was first recorded as
breeding in Caithness, Moray, Banff, Argyll, Dumbarton and
Renfrew in Scotland and in Fermanagh, Leitrim, Cavan,

vol. xxxvi ] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

11

Longford, Westmeath, Tipperary and Cork in Ireland, but it is
highly probable that it had done so in most, if not all, of these
counties for many years previously, though the fact had not
been recorded. In southern Scotland the Redshank was first
recorded as breeding in this period in Berwick, Roxburgh,
Dumfries and Wigtown, in which counties, if it had nested
previously, it was certainly only in small numbers, but now it
spread up the Tweed and up the valleys of Dumfries-shire and
the numbers breeding rapidly increased. South of the border
it increased rapidly in Northumberland and Cumberland
and was first recorded as breeding in Westmorland.

During the same period of 30 years there is evidence of
increase in the numbers breeding in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire
and the species spread up the Trent valley into Notts, Derby
and Staffs, up the Welland into Rutland and up the Nene into
Northants. It was also recorded as breeding in Cheshire and
Warwick and possibly as far west as Brecon. The fens of
Cambridge were reoccupied and up' the Great Ouse the
Redshank reached Bedford and possibly Bucks. On the south
coast breeding was recorded in Sussex, Dorset and S. Devon
and almost certainly began in the Isle of Wight, whilst the
numbers breeding in southern Hampshire steadily increased.

In the succeeding period of 24 years, 1896-1918, the
Redshank was first recorded as breeding in Kincardine, Fife
and Skye in Scotland and in Derry, Tyrone, Armagh,
Monaghan, Louth, Galway, Clare, Limerick and Kilkenny in
Ireland, but it is probable that this is merely a matter of
absence of earlier records. In southern Scotland it spread
farther up the Tweed and colonized Selkirk and Peebles. It
was first recorded in this period as breeding in the Isle of Man,
Lancashire, Shropshire, Merioneth and Anglesey and probably
also occupied the remaining counties of North Wales. In
South Wales it colonized Radnor and Glamorgan and it also
began breeding in Monmouth, Gloucester, Somerset and N.
Devon and probably also in Hereford and Worcester. The
valleys of the Thames and its tributaries were also occupied,
extension evidently being from the north as breeding began
in Herts , Middlesex, Bucks and Oxon earlier than in Surrey,
Berks and N. Wilts. South Wiltshire was also reached by
birds spreading inland from Dorset.

Since 1918 one locality in Carmarthen has been colonized
and the only counties in which the Redshank does not now
breed and is not known ever to have done so are Pembroke,
Cornwall, Wexford, Carlow, Waterford and Kerry, to which
perhaps Cork should be added as the record of breeding in that
county is only vague.

History in the Watsonian Provinces separately.

Note. — In view of shortage of space this section has had to

c

12

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

be drastically curtailed. The evidence, which had been set
out in detail with references, is here merely summarised.

Since the gradual spread of the Redshank as a breeding
species has been in a southerly direction it seems best to deal
with the Provinces by beginning at the north.

1. North Isles. — The evidence suggests that there has been
little change in the status of the Redshank in this province
in historic times. In the Orkneys, where breeding was first
recorded before 1795, it has apparently always nested in
considerable numbers, whilst in the Shetlands and Outer
Hebrides it always appears to have been scarce. Pairs,
apparently breeding, were reported from all three groups of
islands in the summer of 1939.

2. North Highlands. — The Redshank was found breeding
at various localities in Sutherland in 1834 and in the eastern
part of this province it has apparently always been a common
breeding species since that date, but in the west it is scarce
and local and was probably at one time even rarer than it is
now.

3. West Highlands. — In this province the Redshank appears
to be confined to a few localities. In 1871 it was recorded as
breeding on the shores of Loch Lomond and at one locality
in Argyllshire, in 1904 at one locality in Skye and in 1927
commonly in Bute. No additional information was obtained
in the present inquiry.

4. East Highlands. — In 1813 the Redshank was recorded
as breeding in Angus and it has apparently always been
common in this province. Though the numbers in various
localities have fluctuated in different seasons there is no
satisfactory evidence of any considerable change of status
in the Moray and Dee areas. In the Tay area a definite
increase was recorded in 1906 and in 1935 the numbers
breeding in the Forth area were said to be still increasing.

5. East Lowlands. — In 1876 a few pairs of Redshanks were
said to breed in the Lammermuirs From 1889 onwards the
numbers breeding have steadily increased and the species has
established itself all over the province.

6. West Lowlands. — In 1842 a few pairs nested on the
coast of the Solway in Kirkcudbright and by 1869 the Red-
shank nested in many localities in Ayrshire and Wigtown-
shire. Till about 1888 it was apparently confined to the
coast in Kirkcudbright and Dumfries, but about that date
it began to spread inland up the valleys and steadily became
more plentiful up to 1923.

7. Lakes. — Evidence seems to be lacking as to the precise
period when the Redshank began breeding in this province.
It did not nest in Cumberland in 1794, but about 1862 was
common on the Solway coast in summer. The first record

vol. xxxvi ] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

13

inland in Cumberland was in 1885 and in Westmorland in
1890, whilst breeding apparently began in the Isle of Man
in 1915 though no actual nest seems to have been discovered
till some years after that date.

8. Tyne. — It appears that the Redshank has always
nested in a few localities in Durham and Northumberland
and there is some evidence to suggest that it was at one time
more widespread. The numbers appear to have been lowest
between i860 and 1870. The first breeding record for northern
Northumberland was in 1865 and an increase in numbers
began to be noticeable, at any rate in that region, from about
1880 onwards, and continued till at least 1932. In the present
inquiry a few pairs were reported as breeding in Durham,
many pairs in southern Northumberland, but none in Cheviot-
land. If the latter statement is reliable there must have
been a very rapid decrease in the last few years as Bolam
said it bred abundantly throughout the county in 1932.

9. Humber. — The Redshank bred in a few localities in
each of the Ridings of Yorkshire in 1844 and had apparently
been commoner at an earlier period, at any rate in the East
Riding. Before 1882 the numbers breeding had begun to
increase and increase has apparently continued up to the
present time. In the present inquiry it was stated to be
common throughout Yorkshire.

10. Mersey. — Though it appears possible that a few pairs
of Redshanks have always nested in a few localities on the
coasts it is evident that the numbers were small in this province
till about 1900, since which time they have very rapidly
increased and spread inland. In the Cheshire plain they
first nested in 1910. In the present inquiry the Redshank
was reported as numerous along the coast and the Dee and
Mersey estuaries ; more scattered elsewhere, but found on
high ground near Buxton and in mid-Lancashire.

11. Trent. — The changes in status in this province are
specially interesting. Originally a plentiful resident in the
Lincolnshire fens the Redshank had evidently decreased
greatly early in the 19th century and in 1872 Cordeaux
thought it had ceased to breed in the county. In 1899 he
stated that within the last ten years it had again increased
and spread in Lincolnshire. In the inland counties of the
province breeding occurred occasionally prior to 1884 when
nesting began in Notts. By 1893 it was breeding in considera-
ble numbers along the Trent in Derbyshire and up to
Staffordshire. About this time it also began breeding in
Rutland in the Welland valley, where the first nest was
found in 1893. Thus the increase was first noticed in all
the counties of this province (except Leicestershire?) in the
15 years from 1884 to 1899 and appears to have continued

14

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

to the present time. In the present inquiry it was stated
that in Lincolnshire the Redshank breeds on the coast and
at many places inland. In Leicestershire and Rutland it
breeds at about a dozen, spots, including one in Rutland. In
Nottinghamshire considerable numbers breed along the
Trent and they are also found in the north. In Derbyshire
it also breeds mainly along the Trent, but has greatly increased
in the Buxton area, where it is found up to 1,600 ft.

12. North Wales. — In 1861 it was stated that the Redshank
nested in the marshes near Llandudno, but the first definite
records of nests were in 1897 in Anglesey and Merioneth
and in 1899 in Caernarvon. By 1919 the numbers breeding
in Anglesey and Caernarvon had greatly increased. In the
present inquiry it was reported that the Redshank now breeds
in all the counties of this province, perhaps least plentifully
in Montgomery and most plentifully in Merioneth and
Anglesey.

13. South Wales. — Breeding was suspected in Brecon in
1880 and 1890, but the first definite record in this province
was in Glamorgan in 1911. In 1915 a pair bred in Radnor
and in 1929 a nest was found in Carmarthen at a locality
where the Redshank had been suspected of breeding for
several years previously. In 1924 Redshanks were stated
to be breeding in Cardigan though Dr. Salter informs us
there is still no definite record for that county. In the
present inquiry it was reported that Redshanks breed at
from 4 to 6 different sites in Glamorgan and in Radnor and
at one each in Brecon and Carmarthen, but there are no
records as yet from Pembroke.

14. Severn. — By 1893 the Redshank had spread up the
Trent to Staffordshire and was breeding near Burton. In
1895 and 1896 a pair undoubtedly nested in Warwickshire
though the nest was not found. The first breeding record
for Shropshire was in 1910 and before 1929 pairs occasionally
nested in Worcestershire. In the present inquiry it was
stated that the species is now a common nester all over the
low-lying parts of Staffs and Salop, where it is increasing,
though some localities are often deserted for a year or two.
Monmouth, where nesting began in 1910, has four, or perhaps
more, breeding sites. Warwick, Worcester, Hereford and
Gloucester each have two or three breeding sites. In Gloucester
nesting began in 1914, but we have no information as to when
the first nests were found in Worcester and Hereford.

(To be continued).

(15)

OBITUARY.

CHARLES OLDHAM.

(1868-1942).

The death of Charles Oldham at his home in Berkhamsted
on April 13th last at the age of nearly 74, means the loss
of a great naturalist and a well-known, widely informed and
authoritative figure in British ornithological circles.

Born at Lincoln in 1868, his boyhood was passed in
Manchester where he was educated at the Grammar School
together with his lifelong friend and colleague T. A. Coward,
often spending holidays at his uncle’s farm in the Fen country
near Wisbech. Some naturalists are born, not made, and
Oldham certainly belonged to the former category. At the
age of 17 he was already contributing notes to The Naturalist,
the earliest being on the Reed-Warbler in Cheshire. During
the late ‘ eighties he published many notes on land and fresh-
water Mollusca and British bats — two groups in which he
retained a lifelong interest — as well as on the birds of Cheshire.

Entering an Insurance Company, he moved to Darlington
and later to Knutsford, and in 1907, his work taking him to
London, he came to live in Hertfordshire which was his
home county until his death. Before his retirement in 1927,
all his free time and holidays were spent in the country,
either tramping the moors, chalkhills or sea-cliffs, or by the
meres whose bird life he studied so closely. His favourite
Hertfordshore haunt was the then little exploited Tring
Reservoirs, and it was there that I first met him, telescope
in hand, over a quarter of a century ago. Hence came many
of his observations, published in British Birds and elsewhere ;
and here i± was that he recorded the first breeding (1918) in
southern England of the Black-necked Grebe ( B.O.C . Bulletin,
Vol. xxxix). This was the more interesting, as it was he,
who, with S. G. Cummings, had discovered a nesting colony
of this species in Anglesey in 1904. Three papers by Oldham
and Cummings on the birds of Anglesey appeared in The
Zoologist for 1904, 1905 and 1906.

Specializing at first in Cheshire and North Wales, and
working with S. G. Cummings and O. V. Aplin on Anglesey
and the Lleyn peninsula in particular, his range was later
extended to Ireland, St. Kilda and the Shetlands, Cornwall
and the west. Probably no man living possessed a better
knowledge of Wales and the general distribution of fauna
in the principality. In his later years Oldham paid several
visits to the Swiss Alps and to Sweden, chiefly to study their
Mollusca.

In 1900 Oldham published jointly with T. A. Coward an
excellent County avifauna, The Birds of Cheshire, based on

10

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

intensive personal observation and careful research. This
was afterwards revised and incorporated in The Vertebrate
Fauna of Cheshire (2 Vols. 1910) an admirable piece of work
in which all but the section on fishes was by these two authors.
From 1919 to 1924 Oldham contributed the Field Characters
for most species to the Practical Handbook of British Birds.
He also spent much care in checking the proofs of some sections
of The Handbook of British Birds (5 Vols. 1938-41) edited
by his friend H. F. Witherby.

For 18 years (until 1938) he compiled the Annual Report
on Birds in Hertfordshire for the Transactions of the Hert-
fordshire Nat. Hist. Society, which in his hands were perfect
models of the work that a local Natural History Society can
best and most usefully achieve.

From 1885 onwards he had contributed numerous articles
and notes to The Naturalist, The Zoologist, The Journal of
Conchology and various other periodicals ; and from 1908
until 1941, many notes by him appeared in British Birds.

His short papers on mammals, particularly those on bats,
are of great value and will be frequently quoted by writers
on British mammals. His work in connection with our land
and freshwater Mollusca on which he was an authority of
European reputation (particularly on the distribution of the
critical genus Pisidium) was equally important. Being no
collector, he was primarily interested in the distribution and
ecology of the animals he studied. A very interesting series
of experiments on the breeding of snails on Mendelian lines,
was unfortunately left unfinished at his death.

In his later years Oldham also made a special study of the
folk-names and folk-lore of birds, working with a friend who
was interested in the subject. An example inter alia of
his studies in these bye-ways of ornithology is his paper on
the “ Curwillet heresy ” {The North Western Naturalist, 1938)
wherein he traces the error which originally arose from Ray’s
ascription of this local folk-name to the Sanderling “ about
Pensance in Cornwall ” (instead of to the Ringed Plover),
through many variations in many books and dictionaries,
English and foreign. At his death he left a card-index of
the so-called “ Proper Terms ” in venery etc., to the study
of which he had been attracted by the discovery of the age-
long error which had given rise to the crying absurdity of
using attribute-phrases such as “a gaggle of geese,” “ a
charm of goldfinches,” “ a pride of lions ” and so forth, to
denote numbers of the creatures in question.

His last published notes were ornithological — “ Observations
on a late brood of Swallows,” made at his own house (1941)
and a record of duration of life of an Arctic Skua {Brit. Birds,
XXXV, 1941).

VOL. XXXVI.]

OBITUARY.

17

Oldham was greatly addicted to the ‘short note’ and would
often stress its value as a means of recording observations.
Of this form of writing he was a master, his naturally terse
style and dislike of the immaterial, being particularly suited
to it. Good instances of this are e.g. his note on the “ Diving
Powers of the Shoveler ” in Brit. Birds xiii (1919) and his
observations on the rare Risso’s Dolphins watched from the
cliffs of Bardsey (1934).

In 1907 Oldham joined the B.O.U., of which he was a
Committee member, 1926-1929 and a Vice-President, 1936-
1938. He was also a constant attender of the meetings of
the B.O.C. for many years. He was a fellow of the Zoological
Society and of the Linnean Society (of which he was a Council
member), a member of the Committee of the Ray Society,
and a member of the British Ecological, the Malacological
and the Conchological Societies, and for many years Treasurer
of the last-named. A great believer in the value of local
societies for fostering study and advancing knowledge ; on
coming south he at once joined the Hertfordshire Natural
History Society, in which he was a pillar of strength for over
thirty years, being successively its Secretary (for ten years)
President and Treasurer. Many and constant were his
services to the county Society, in which his influence will long
remain potent. To the Society's Transactions he contributed
numerous valuable papers and notes, including two detailed
articles on the Ducks and the Wading Birds respectively of
the Tring Reservoirs (1923). He recorded too, not only
several species of birds new to Hertfordshire, but also three
mammals (Daubenton’s Bat, Barbastelle Bat, and Pygmy
Shrew) and a batrachian (Palmated Newt).

He was. a whole-hearted protectionist with a keen dislike
of shooting or collecting for private gratification and on
several occasions he gave vigorous help in the enforcement
of local Bird Protection Acts.

With such a wide range of interest in natural science as
Oldham possessed, one must hesitate to claim priority for
any one of his chosen studies. Nevertheless it is doubtless
true to say that he was first and foremost an ornithologist
and a bird-lover. He agreed with Hudson in regarding birds
as " the most beautiful beings in creation.” Though entirely
unmusical (he even averred that he did not recognise the
tune of " God save the King ”) he had a wonderfully quick
ear for bird-song and its individual variations. I can recall
numerous instances of this during our tours together ; and
many an hour did we spend in discussing problems of bird-
song and bird-psychology while camped on islands or cooped
in various lighthouses off the Welsh and Irish coasts. In such
circumstances, if ever, one learns to know one’s companion ;

18

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

and it was thus that I came to understand Oldham’s breadth
of mind and generous gift of imparting his stored knowledge
to his fellows. I also learned something of the enormous trouble
which he would normally take in order to verify or correct
some relatively trifling question of distribution or the like.
Since his early days spent in quartering Cheshire, he had
always been keenly interested in the minor as well as the
major problems of the distribution of species. His knowledge
of zoographical distribution in general and of the distribution
of British birds in particular, from Shetland to south-west
Ireland, as of the breeding-stations of many of our rarer
species was remarkably thorough. Even during his last
summer and autumn when unable to walk, he would sit in
his verandah, wistfully noting down the passing birds and
migrants of various species crossing the wide sky before him.

Every living thing interested Oldham however, and as
much as any man he appreciated the thrill of learning to know
an organism new to him. As a true naturalist he was, of
course, always more eager to learn than to teach ; but he had
an admirable talent for both, and this, aided by his wide
reading and amazingly retentive and reliable memory and keen
eyesight placed him in the very front rank of British field-
naturalists. A stalwart cross-country walker, he was indeed
always the best of partners in the field, whether in a storm at
sea in a crazy boat, or pent in a Rock-lighthouse, or tramping
all through a night of heavy Welsh rain.

Though a very busy man his learning and his wise advice
were bountifully bestowed on enquirers and students of those
groups and problems which occupied his own mind. But
always his advice had to be asked for, since he was the last
person to wish or attempt to thrust his views on other people,
or indeed in any way to occupy the limelight.

Oldham was fortunate in the home companionship of a
wife and a sister who shared his zest for bird watching and
often rendered him valuable assistance in his work.

A certain brusqueness of manner and curtness of speech,
which strangers sometimes noticed in Oldham, actually
concealed a very real kindliness and a deep-lying sensibility.
It was this side of his character, together with his keen sense
of humour which specially endeared him to his intimates,
apart from their unqualified respect for his work and for his
uprightness in word and deed.

To his friends his death leaves an irreparable gap ; and by
a wide circle of acquaintances and correspondents, his encour-
agement and advice will be sadly missed.

Bertram Lloyd.

(19)

NOTES.

AERIAL EVOLUTIONS OF THE CORMORANT.

On the afternoon of March 22nd, 1942, a friend and I were
walking beside Broad Water, in the Lake District of
Cumberland. Many Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax c. carbo )
haunt that great sheet of water during the winter and early
spring, and we had that afternoon seen twenty in the air
at one time. Two birds separated from the flock, and for
the best part of half an hour flew backwards and forwards
overhead, keeping so close together that they at times seemed
almost to touch. All the while they gathered altitude until
they were perhaps 3,000 feef above us and scarcely visible
to the unaided eye. They then began to slant earthward at
great speed, as a Peregrine Falcon might' do, but checked
their descent and continued to fly backwards and forwards
and to circle overhead at a great height as before. The sun
had already set behind the hills where we stood, but still
shone upon the Cormorants, and the white thigh-spots on
both the birds were visible. It seemed to us that this was a
courtship flight. Personally I have never seen Cormorants
rise so high, nor remain so long in the air, travelling all the
time at their utmost speed.

The pair at last disappeared, still travelling at this great
height in the direction of Derwentwater. Seton Gordon.

[As Kortlandt’s very full study of the display and behaviour
of the Cormorant (Ardea, 1938, pp. 1-40) makes no reference
to flights of this sort it seems likely that the behaviour
described was a piece of individual exuberance rather than
a definite courtship flight. B.W.T.]

STOCK-DOVE FLOCKS IN THE BREEDING SEASON.
From notes by Messrs. Ringrose, Lloyd and Venables ( antea ,
Vol. xxxiii, pp. 140, 165, 196) it appears that flocks of more
than 20 Stock-Doves ( Columba cenas) in May and June are
regarded as unusual. A flock of 100 in Wiltshire (May
30th, 1939) was recorded as “ very unusual.” Mr. B. Lloyd
suggests that little summer flocks of up to 40 in Hertfordshire
consist of “ nomad non-breeding birds.”

After reading the above notes I feel that the following obser-
vation may be worth recording. On May 3rd and 4th, 1934,
fully 200 Stock-Doves were feeding on a recently sown field near
Abbots Leigh, N. Somerset, with a few Wood-Pigeons. Single
birds and pairs would often fly between the flock and the
adjacent woods in which they were nesting. A nest containing
one egg was found in one of these woods on May 5th, 1934.

It seems therefore that breeding Stock-Doves do some-
times flock in numbers on suitable communal feeding-grounds.

K. B. Rooke.

20

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Chiffchaff in Inverness-shire.— Mrs. Mackenzie informs
us that on April 15th, 1942, near the House of Farr she heard
a Chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus collybita ) singing and shortly
afterwards watched the bird. Later on the same day she
and her husband, Lt. Col. A. Mackenzie, watched two Chiff-
chaffs at the same spot, but the next day they had disappeared.
We are not aware of any previous record of a Chiffchaff for
the county, but as the Scandinavian form is stated to have
a song indistinguishable from the typical the subspecies
cannot be defined.

Hoopoe in Pembrokeshire.- — Mrs. Rees sends us details
of a Hoopoe ( Upupa e. epops) which stayed in her garden and
a neighbouring one at Tenby from April 18th to 24th. “ The

bird made the lawn its feeding place, prodding the soil with
its long curved bill, and was quite unmindful of my presence,
but when startled it instantly erected its remarkable crest.”
The Hoopoe is rarely recorded in Wales.

Ospreys in England. — Mr. K. B. Rooke informs us that
on May 2nd, 1942, he and his wife watched an Osprey ( Pandion
halicetus) flying over the Avon four miles north of Christ-
church Hants. Mr. J. Vincent writes that one appeared at
Hickling (Norfolk) on April 21st. Mr. J. N. Kennedy records
{Field, May 16, 1942, p. 529) one near St. Ives (Cornwall) on
April 1 2 th.

Unusual Ducks at Somerset reservoirs.— Mr. H. H.
Davis informs us of the following scarce visitors to Somerset.
A pair of Gadwall ( Anas strepera ) at Blagdon on January
nth, 1942, and three on April 13th, a female or immature Long-
tailed Duck [Clangula hyemalis) at Cheddar on March 22nd
(still present on Alay 3rd), and a Velvet-Scoter ( Melanitta f.
fusca) at Barrow Gurney from March 29th to April 12th.

Black-tailed Godwit in Surrey. — Mr. B. A. Richards
has given 11s particulars of a Black-tailed Godwit ( Limosa l.
limosa ) which he observed feeding at the edge of a small
pond near Wisley on March 21st, 1942. The species is
seldom recorded in Surrey.

Feeding Behaviour of Green Sandpaper. — Major R. F.
Ruttledge has sent notes on the feeding behaviour of a Green
Sandpiper ( Tringa ochropus) watched over a period of five
days on a small shallow pond in India. Much of the food was
obtained by wading and generally from beneath the surface.
At times the head and neck and over the shoulders were
momentarily submerged, so that sometimes the bird almost
‘‘up-ended.” On several occasions it was seen swimming and
“up-ending,” and it would sometimes swim for about a yard
in order to cross the pool at a narrow part or when pursuits
of quickly moving food (small insects ?) took it out of its
depth.

1 . JUN 194-2

... .or-MASEO

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H. F. & G. WITHERBY LTD., LONDON.

BRITBHDIRDS

With which was Incorporated in January, 1917, “The Zoologist.”

EDITED BY

H.F.WITHERBY,M.B.E.,F.Z.S.,M.B.O.U.,H.F.A.O.U.

ASSISTED BY

Norman F Ticehurst, o.b.e., m.a., f.r.c.s., m.b.o.u., and
Bernard W. Tucker, m.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Contents of Number 2, Vol. XXXVI July i, 1942.

PAGE

Report on the Redshank Inquiry 1939-40. Organised by the

British Trust for Ornithology. By J. F. Thomas ... ... 22

Obituary: Jannion Steele Elliott ... ... ... ... ... 35

Notes : —

Change in status of some species in North Wales (Irvine

Whittaker) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 36

Ring-Ouzel using nest of previous year (J. Armitage) ... 37

“Drumming” by a Green Woodpecker (Rev. E. A. Armstrong) 37

Moorhen moving eggs and its method of taking air when sub-
merged (H. F. Witherby) ... ... ... ... ... 39

Short Notes : —

Blue-headed Wagtail in Cambridgeshire. Bar-tailed Godwit
in Hertfordshire. Ringing Roseate Terns — Correction.
Kittiwake in Derbyshire ... ... ... ... ... 40

Review : —

The Birds of the Liverpool Area. By Eric Hardy ... ... 40

D

(22)

REPORT ON THE REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40

ORGANISED BY THE
BRITISH TRUST FOR ORNITHOLOGY

BY

J. F. THOMAS.

(i Continued from page 14.)

15. Anglia. — The evidence is clear that in this province
up to the beginning of the 19th Century the Redshank bred
commonly along the coast, in the Broads district and in the
fens. By the middle of the century it had disappeared from
the fens and become scarce near the coast. In 1865 an
increase was noted in E. Norfolk and within a short period
it was again breeding in the fens, and had colonized the Nene
Valley by 1895. From 1896 to 1899 Redshanks nested in
the Ouse valley near Bedford and in 1912 a nest was found
in Huntingdonshire. By 1926 there were many by the
Ouse and increase has continued throughout the province
to the present time.

16. Thames. — The Redshank has always nested in the
marshes near the Essex and Kent coasts and on both sides
of the Thames estuary. Its occupation of the inland portions
of the area and the Thames valley began about 1902 when
pairs began to be seen in summer in the Ouse valley near
Olney, Bucks and near Enfield, Middlesex. In 1905 two
pairs undoubtedly bred near Watford, Herts and a nest
was found near Eynsham, Oxon. Up to 1912 only thq
counties north of the Thames had been colonized but in
that year pairs were recorded in the breeding season in
Surrey and Berks. By about 1926 almost all suitable locali-
ties in this province had been occupied and it seems doubtful
whether the numbers have increased since that time. In the
present inquiry the Redshank was reported as still breeding
plentifully on the Essex and Kent coasts as well as inland
in all the counties of the .province. Round London the nests
are usually near sewage farms or reservoirs, but in Bucks,
Berks and Oxon meadows by the Thames and its tributaries
provide sites for about 150 pairs.

17. Channel. — In this province the Redshank was first
recorded as breeding in the New Forest in 1862 but it is
probable that it always bred in small numbers in Sussex.
In 1891 Borrer referred to it as “ still breeding ” in that
county, which implies that it had formerly been more plentiful.
Soon after 1878 it began breeding in the Isle of Wight and
about 1881 near Poole Harbour, Dorset. The numbers
breeding in Hants and Dorset steadily increased and the
species spread up the river valleys and westward along the
Dorset coast. By 1907 birds had spread up the Avon to

VOL. XXXVI.] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40. 23

Downton in S. Wilts and in ign they appeared at
Marlborough in the north of that county, these being almost
certainly part of the vanguard from the north, as the species
was found nesting lower down the Kennet valley in Berkshire
in the following year. In the present inquiry it was stated
that in the east of this province the Redshank still breeds
chiefly on the coast, but since it first bred in Wiltshire it has
continued to increase in that county.

18. Peninsula. — It seems probable that the Redshank
may have nested sporadically in this province throughout
the igth century, but the only definite record is of a pair
with young at Slapton Ley, S. Devon in 1894. Shortly
before 1906 a pair nested in Somerset, and since 1911 it has
bred regularly in that county. In the present inquiry it
was reported that it now nests in about a dozen places inland
or near the coast. A pair nested on Braunton burrows, N.
Devon, in 1908 and they now breed regularly in that locality,
but the Redshank is still not known to breed in S. Devon or
Cornwall, though birds have been seen during the nesting
season in both regions in recent years.

19. Ireland. — It would appear that there is no evidence
that the Redshank has increased the area of its breeding
range in Ireland within the past century. Before 1850 it
was recorded in the breeding-season from Donegal and Down
south to Dublin, the Bog of Allen and Limerick and west to
Galway Bay and Achill. In 1853 a nest was recorded from
Wicklow. In 1900 it was recorded as breeding in all the Irish
counties except Dublin (where it had ceased to do so),
Wexford, Carlow, Waterford, Cork and Kerry and in 1935
it was still stated to breed in most counties except those
along the south coast.

Winter Distribution.

As soon as the young birds can fly, Redshanks leave their
breeding stations and congregate on the coast. During the
late summer the numbers are probably fairly even on both
sides of Great Britain, but by the end of October migration
has to a great extent finished and the largest flocks are then
to be found on the S.W. coasts, say from Chichester round to
the Mersey. Many observers inland report birds in their
areas during the late autumn and winter, but their stay is
not long and the numbers are usually very small. As exceptions
A. W. Boyd records a few apparently resident throughout the
year in mid-Cheshire, and J. Staton states that hundreds
spend the winter on or near Nottingham Sewage Farm. The
return migration starts in February.

The following table gives a record of the counts made at
various places on the coast ; it is unfortunate that there is

24

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

only one for the eastern side of England, and this does not
show figures for the autumn and winter months. When
drawing deductions from the numbers, it is necessary to
remember the abnormal weather of January and February,
1940.

West-

South-

Mersey

Carmar-

Glou-

morland

port

(Brom-

then

cester

Sussex Durham

(estuary

(ooze

borough

(estuary

(Severn

S. Devon

(Thomey

(mud

mud

and sand

Dock

mud

bank

Island)

flat).

Month

1 mile)

8 miles)

1940-41)

2 miles)

4 miles)

1939

March

1-200

180

3°°

April

3-4OO

65

scarce

75

May

O

O

0

1 1

June

0

7

a few

(1936)

July

200

80

fair nos.

300

(1937)

200

August

50

21

4OO

175

8

fair nos.

5-750

300

fluct-

(1935)

September

320

39

5°°

450

3°

uations

900

(1935)

October

200

38

4-5°°

4°° + I25

3-400

normal

(1936)

November

350

32

300

5-600

IOO

winter

700

(1935)

December

90

102

2-300

5-600

175

5°

1940

popu-

January

4

35

2

350

IOO

lation

(1937)

February

200

37

5-600

400

IOO

800

Where more than one count was made for any month, the
largest is given in the table. At Southport observations
were made daily, in Carmarthen two or three a week.

Increase or Decrease ?

There were 31 answers (56%) which said " increase,”
1:8 (33%) “ no change,” and 6 (11%) “ decrease.” Some of the
first group are qualified by “ slight ” or “ very slight ” and
they might perhaps have been included in the “ no change ”
total. When one examines the geographical situations, it is
noticeable that the " no changes ” are predominant within
50 miles of the east coast of England, while the western side,
including Wales, has mainly “ increases.” Reasons are given
in some cases for the decreases, e.g. urbanisation or dry years
(probable future decreases are suggested in two places owing
to drainage and the installation of a bombing range).

For a part of Westmorland there was a steady increase from
1910 to 1934, thereafter a slight decrease ; in Gloucestershire
A. G. Taylor records " 1st breeding, 1914, two pairs ; increased
to 40-50 pairs in 1928 ; decreased to 12 pairs in 1933 ; numbers
stationary since then.” On the other side of the Gloucester-

vol. xxxvi ] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

25

Wiltshire boundary Marlborough College reports " ist nest
1920, 9 pairs in 1931, 21 pairs in 1939.”

Breeding Habitats.

Forty-nine observers stated the habitats in which they had
found Redshanks breeding ; naturally many gave two or
three or even more habitats, and the total of 92 is summarised
in the following table : —

Rushy fields

30

Wet pasture

14

Dry and short pastures ...

13

Marshes ...

12

Salt marsh

...

7

Sewage farms

4

(Cumberland,
Surrey (2) )

Warwick

y

Heather ...

3

(Inverness c.

1,000 ft ;

Isle of Man,

near shore);

E. Cheshire 1,250 ft.

River margins ... ... 2

Sand dunes ... ... 2

(Carmarthen, Lancashire)
Gravel pit ... ... 1

(Hertford)

Peaty mosses ... ... 1

Fell slopes ... ... 1

(Cumberland up to 1,500ft.)
Moorland ... ... 1

(Derby up to 1,600 ft.)

Cornfield... ... ... 1

(Lancashire)

It would seem that some kind of wet land is almost a
necessity for the Redshank’s breeding site ; and the writer
is inclined to think that in the case of dry areas, such as sand
dunes and heather, there must be access (within 200 yards,
usually much less) to the muddy edge of pool, river or lake,
or at any rate marshy ground.

Non-Breeding Habitats.

Replies to this question were sent in by 34 observers, and as
in the previous section most of them gave more than one
habitat. For convenience, in the following table these habitats
are divided into (a) coastal, of which there were 31, and ( b )
inland, with 43. In case there should be any difference between

the north and south of England, a second column shows the
number found south of the Wash.

S. of Wash

(a) Muddy shore or estuary...

13

5

Sandy shore

8

1

Salt marsh

5

—

Rocky shore

4

2

Shingle

1

-

(b) Muddy margins of rivers, lakes and pools

20

8

Sewage farms

8

3

Low-lying fields ...

7

4

Marshes

6

1

Short pasture

2

1

26

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

In the coastal division the figures do not seem to give
sufficient emphasis to muddy estuaries as a habitat ; this
may be due to the fact that, when half a dozen birds occur on,
say, a rocky coast or a sandy shore, that is counted as one,
whereas several hundreds on estuary mud also counts only as
one. Or it may be that the north of England differs from the
south, and that in the former the Redshank can find plenty of
food on a sandy shore.

Breeding Habits.

Date of arrival on breeding territory.

60 per cent, of the 34 replies give one of the first three weeks
of March as the time when the Redshank arrives on its breeding
ground, the dates being fairly evenly divided between the
three. The end of February is mentioned by two observers (in
the Home Counties), and there is one record for early May.
When the dates are plotted on a map, there is not much to
show that the south of England is earlier than the north ;
there is a close group of seven within about 15 miles N.W., W.
or S.W. of London where the average date is the first week of
March, but half of the eight in the six northern counties also
show the same date. Unfortunately there are only two records
for Scotland ; early April for Inverness, and mid-March for
Kirkcudbright.

Nest site.

According to reports sent in, the most usual site for the
Redshank’s nest is a tuft of grass (recorded 12 times),
frequently set a little apart from the rest of the herbage ;
rank grass is mentioned 5 times ; a tuft of rush (4 times) ;
creeping willow and dewberry in conjunction with grass
(3 times) ; a tuft of marram (twice) ; moss with grass (twice) ;
open hollow (twice) ; and heather mentioned once.

Lining.

Dead or dry grass is the material chiefly used to line the
nest, and was mentioned 12 times, twice in conjunction with
moss ; other materials were dead rush, moss only, and
practically nothing (each mentioned once). A handful is the
usual quantity.

Slope of ground.

Ten nests were on the level, and one in a depression. In
two other cases the ground sloped to the west ; two to the
south ; two to the south-east ; and one to the north-east.
Aspect of entrance.

Out of 20 nests, five were entered from the north, one each
from north-east and east, four from south-east, two from
south, three from south-west, and four from north-west. It is
interesting to note that at least 75 per cent, of the nests were
sheltered from the prevailing wind (between south and west).

vol. xxxvi ] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

27

Unusual sites.

P. A. D. Hollom records a nest at the Midrips, Sussex, in a
small tuft of grass right out on the shingle, where the sitting
bird was visible at 200 yards. In Carmarthen a nest was found
in a tuft of grass up against a fence-post on a 6-inch high bank.

Egg laying.

Most observers give April 2ist-May 7th as the period during
which the first Redshank’s eggs are laid, but a few birds at
any rate in early years start laying somewhat sooner ; thus
J. D. Brown and the Oxford Census give the second week in
April for Kirkcudbright and Slough respectively ; F. W.
Holder, while giving the period first mentioned as the usual
date in south Lancashire, notes April 9th as his earliest, and
the writer found a nest with two eggs on April 10th, 1937, in
Carmarthen.

The usual number of eggs is four, but a clutch of five was
found in S.W. Herts on June nth, 1939, and J. A. G. Barnes
records another in Westmorland on May 30th, 1937, and says
that they are not uncommon.

Incubation and fledging periods.

The following data for the incubation period in 1939 comes
from Carmarthen. The period in each case is reckoned from
the laying of the last egg to the hatching of all four eggs.

Nest 1. April 8th, cock-nest ; May 3rd (and time probably
11 a.m.) still empty; May 5th (1 p.m.), 6th and 7th (4 p.m.),
2 eggs; May 8th (noon) and 9th (noon), 3 eggs; May 10th
(11 a.m.), 4 eggs; May 30th (1 p.m.), chipping slightly;
May 31st (10 a.m.), 4 young in nest. Incubation period
21-22 days.

Nest 2. May 23rd (1 p.m.), nest found with 4 eggs ; June
14th (11 a.m.), 4 eggs chipping hard (probably all hatched that
afternoon or evening) ; June 15th (2 p.m.) all gone.
Incubation period 22J days at least.

Nest 3. May 23rd (1 p.m.) and 24th (2 p.m.), 2 eggs ;
May 25th (1 p.m.), 3 eggs ; May 26th (1 p.m.), 4 eggs ; June
16th (1 p.m.), 4 eggs chipping slightly ; June 17th (10 a.m.),
all hatched, one still wet. Incubation period 22-23 days.

The actual times of egg-laying are unknown, but it is
curious that in Nest 1 the first two eggs were laid within a
period of about 50 hours, while in the next 51 hours no egg
at all was laid.

It is interesting to note that incubation in Nest 1 took less
time than in the other two ; the weather in May (1939) was
finer and warmer than in June.

For the I. of Man H. M. Rogers gives the period as 21-25
days, mostly 23.

The Handbook gives the period as 23-24 days.

28

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

The difficult problem of the fledging period remains
unsolved, but F. W. Holder names June 12th as his earliest
date for young on the wing, with a 7-year average of June
20th. Mr. Rogers in I. of Man agrees “ on wing late

J> >

une.

Proportion of eggs addled and hatched.

There is a strong consensus of opinion that Redshanks’
eggs are very fertile ; examples of observers’ notes are : —
‘‘Usually all eggs hatched”; ‘‘Very few addled”; ‘‘Five
nests hatched off 100% ”; ‘‘ Four young out of four eggs ”;
‘‘Never seen an addled egg”; ‘‘One infertile egg, and 28
young hatched, out of 44 eggs in 1939. In 1938 none infertile,
and 26 young hatched out of 32 eggs”; ‘‘Addled 7%”;
“Addled 3^%”.

On the other hand J. D. Brown questions whether the
Redshank rears an average of one chick a season, and E. Duffey
writes “ Low proportion hatched.”

Causes of loss or destruction of eggs.

Birds of prey are suggested as the chief culprits causing
the destruction of eggs, Carrion-Crows ( Corvus c. corone) being
mentioned 4 times, Magpies ( Pica p. pica) 3 times, and
Hooded Crow ( Corvus c. cornix), Rook ( Corvus f. frugilegus) ,
Black-headed Gull ( Lams r. ridibundus ) and Lesser Black-
backed Gull ( Larus f. graellsii) once each. Other causes
given are : — human agency, 5 times mentioned including
two of collectors ; feet of sheep and/or cattle, 4 times ; flooding
by tide or heavy rain, 3 times. There is also a case of one
egg being jerked out by the sitting bird.

Cock-nests.

Few observers seem to have come across any Redshank
cock-nests ; J. D. Brown calls them common in Kirkcud-
bright, though he confesses that he is not sure if he can
distinguish them from those of the Lapwing. The following
from Carmarthen is the only other note : — “ A good many,
in one case 7 or 8 within a radius of 15 yards, but generally
only 2 or 3 (or even less) noticed for one genuine nest. One,
marked as a cock-nest on April 8th, held two eggs on May 5th
(see under Incubation Period). Ordinary cock-nests are not
lined, but otherwise are similar to egg-containing nests in
the early stages of incubation,” that is to say they are in a
tuft of grass, but open to the sky.

Proximity of occupied nests.

Two nests, 4 yards apart, found by E. Duffey in Leicester-
shire are the closest pair mentioned in this inquiry. He also
says that three nests in one field are not uncommon (no
antagonism noticed). Other distances given are Pevensey,

VOL. XXXVI.] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

29

40 ft.; Watford, c.20 yds. ; Carmarthen, (1) 50 yds. (2) 70
yds-. ; Kirkcudbright, 150 yds ; Cumberland, J mile ; I. of
Man, 500 yds.

Feeding Habits.

Nature of food.

(1) From visual evidence.

S. Smith has seen sand-hoppers ( Talitrus locusta) taken on
the Sussex coast ; the method employed was to make little
dashes after them as they hopped. The same observer has
noted the bird pick spiders and beetles from heather in
Scotland.

J. A. G. Barnes saw one bird pick up and swallow a small
hsh in Westmorland, 23/3/38.

(2) Stomach contents.

E. Blezard records the following from Cumberland : —

Nov. 5 and Dec. 26, 1932, Gammarus (freshwater shrimps);
grit. Oct. 24, 1934, Sitona (weevils), 2 Tipula (crane-fly),
2 larvae. Dipteron (?sp.) 12 larvae. Fragments of grass-
blades and rootlets. Aug. 3, 1935, Corophium longicorne,
(Amphipods).

(3) From pellet evidence.

Miss A. Hibbert-Ware found eight pellets at Salthouse,
Norfolk, on April 12th, 1939 ; she analysed their contents and
found that (a) five consisted of Crustacea ; ( b ) three of

Gastropods ; a few Crustacean segments occurred in ( b ) and
a few Gastropods in (a). A small prawn (curled up) and some
decapod appendages occurred in one pellet, otherwise the
Crustacean pellets consisted entirely of crushed remains
(resembling the “ fish-food ” sold by dealers for aquaria).
The Gastropods were almost entirely Bythinia sp. and were
extremely numerous, both entire and crushed. No Isopods
were found, the Crustacean segments being either Decapods
or Amphipods.

D. Riviere collected five pellets near Bradfield, Berkshire,
on June 1st, 1940. Miss Hibbert-Ware reported on them as
follows : —

Pellet 1. — Entirely Amphipod remains, not very crushed ;
Gammarus pulex ? Pellets 2-5. — Very crushed Amphipod
remains, probably the same as in Pellet 1. A few beetle
remains, not more than one in a pellet, chiefly weevil with one
small carabid. Striking feature. — Entire absence of Mollusca
shells and of Isopod remains.

The following note on Redshank food (summer and winter)
is given fully, in the hope that it may lead others to fill in the
gaps with respect to this species, and to extend the method to
other Waders if their pellets can be satisfactorily identified.

30

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Spring and Summer Food — Carmarthen.

The first pellet was found on May 24th, 1939, in a nest from
which the young had gone the day before. Thereafter until
the middle of June about 400 were collected and many more
seen ; most of these were found scattered about on sheltered
banks close to water, where doubtless the birds had been
preening and resting ; a good many, however, were picked up
from more elevated spots used by the males on guard.

Description of pellet : in size the pellets were from 1.8cm.
to 2.5cm. (usually 2cm.) long by 8mm. wide, and nearly twice
as wide as deep ; they were rounded at both ends, with the
upper side humped and the lower nearly flat. Colour : grey-
brown when fresh, almost white when weathered ; occasionally
some were practically black, showing the elytra of numerous
beetles.

Some 200 of these pellets were sent to Miss Hibbert-Ware,
who very kindly agreed to analyse them ; a fair proportion
were examined critically, the rest being broken up to see that
their contents did not materially differ from the others.

The sites from which the pellets were taken may be divided
into two groups (a) in which the habitat consisted of sandhills
surrounding brackish water, and ( b ) of hayfields or marshland
with fresh water ponds, and sandhills to a lesser extent.

As one would expect, Gammarus sp., the small crabs and
Crangon vulgaris, Zostera and the Algae were in group (a) ;
a few of the ( b ) pellets were composed entirely of beetles. The
great majority of the pellets of every gathering consisted,
however, of a matrix made up of the powdered remains and
segments of small Crustacea, e.g. Isopods and Amphipods.
Isopods were more frequent than Amphipods, and one or
other of the three species marked f was undoubtedly the
foundation of most of the pellets, while all were very common.
Of the beetles Elaterids were far the most often met with,
nearly every pellet of group (b) having from 1-3. Many
pellets contained one or two Gastropods, the greatest number
being four.

Miss Hibbert-Ware’s list is as follows

■CRUSTACEA Amphipoda \Gammarus pulex (fresh-water shrimp

,, sp. (marine species of
above).

%Orchestia littorea (shore-hopper).

Talitrus locusta (sand-hopper).

Isopoda ‘[Asellus aquaticus (water slater).

t Oniscus asellus (garden slater),
f Armadiliium vulgare (common wood-
louse).

Sphesroma serration (serrated pill-
ball).

Small crabs

Crangon vulgaris (sea-shrimp).

Decapoda

VOL. XXXVI.] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

31

INSECTA

Coleoptera

Orthoptera

Hemiptera

Odonata

Ephemerop-

tera

Diptera

Hymenoptera

Dytiscus marginalis i larva.
*Lacon murinus.

*Agriotes lineatus.
other Elaterids.

§Silpha tristis.

§Phosphuga atrata.

Aphodius prodromus.

Chrysomela polita.
other beetles.

Forficula auricularia (earwig)
Gerris sp. (pond skater)

Corixa sp.

Notonecta glauca (water boatman).
(Demoiselle dragonfly) i larva.

(Mayfly) .

Tipula sp.

small bee-like species.

MOLLUSCA Gastropoda Bythinia sp.

Succinea sp.

Zonites sp.

Fish (scales and bones), Zostera, moss and Algae ( ?Ulva ) complete

the list.

fvery frequent ; f frequent ; * sparse in number, but very

frequently present ; §not infrequently present.

Winter food in Carmarthen.

It was not until the middle of February that the winter
pellets of Redshank were satisfactorily identified. During the
next fortnight about ioo were picked up and sent to Miss
Hibbert-Ware, who was again kind enough to undertake the
task of analysing them. All of these pellets were found on
grass-covered mud-banks where waders congregate at high-
tide ; besides the Redshanks the only other waders
were Oyster-catchers ( Hcematopus ostralegus), a few Curlew
( Numenius a. arquata) and up to seven Black-tailed Godwits
(. Limosa l. limosa). Curlew pellets are entirely different in
size and shape, and so far the writer has not been able to
discover those of the Godwits or Oyster-catchers. To make
identification absolutely sure, however, it was necessary to
note where a homogeneous flock was resting, and to visit the
spot as soon as the birds had left the bank to follow the
receding tide.

Originally these winter pellets were dark brown, only a shade
lighter than the mud on to which they had been ejected ;
they were very soft, so that a careless touch either altered
their shape or broke them in half. When dried they became a
light grey. While many of them were of the same size as the
May- June pellets, the general average was rather smaller ;
at the same time the shape was somewhat different, the cross-
section of a winter pellet being almost circular.

On examination with a lens, small univalve shells and
pieces of tiny bivalves were visible, together with some

32

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

fragments, and even half or the whole, of a minute shrimp-like
creature, but the main constituent appeared to be mud. Miss
Hibbert-Ware, however, was able to prove by chemical
experiment that this matrix was almost entirely organic ;
it really consisted of the comminuted remains of some crus-
tacean, whose legs, antennae, etc., could be seen under the
microscope.

Miss Hibbert-Ware’s list is as follows : —

CRUSTACEA Decapoda fsome small shrimp-like

creature.

INSECTA Coleoptera Agriotes lineatus (in c. 6

pellets).

MOLLUSCA Gastropoda (univalves) *Bythinia sp.

Lamellibranchs (bivalves) Cardium sp.

*Tellina sp.

Mactra sp.

j very frequent. * sparse in number, but very frequently present.

The presence of A. lineatus (click beetle) in a few pellets
at the end of February is perhaps due to the increasing
propensity of the birds to visit pastures as the breeding
season approaches.

The following brief summary shows the difference between
the pellet-contents at the two periods : —

Summer pellets Winter pellets

Shelly plates of Isopods and
Amphipods formed the bulk of
the pellets.

Decapods rare.

Insects very frequent.

Univalves fairly numerous.
Bivalves scarcely represented.
Bits of moss, alga, etc., fairly
frequent.

No Isopods or Amphipods found.

Decapods, especially a shrimp-
like Crustacean, formed the
bulk of the pellets.

Half a dozen beetles were the
only insects.

Univalves more numerous.

Bivalves very numerous.

No vegetable matter found.

In conclusion, the writer would like to express his grateful
thanks to Miss Hibbert-Ware, whose wide knowledge of small
creatures — of bits of small creatures — has alone enabled him
to make this survey of food.

Method of obtaining food.

The Carmarthen birds, whose winter food is discussed in
the previous section, used to walk along rather rapidly over
the estuary mud, picking up food every second or two — there
was no deep probing ; occasionally a party might be seen
wading at the edge of the tide and darting the bill suddenly
and rather deeply into the water. The summer method was
similar, allowing for the difference in habitats, and in addition
food was obtained from more or less dry ground, where,
judging by the number of pecks given, animal life was not
so abundant.

vol. xxxvl] REDSHANK INQUIRY 1939-40.

33

Other observers report much the same sort of thing with
“ no rushing about,” “ no deep probing.”

More unusual methods recorded are “ marking time ” on
wet sand or in a shallow pool. J. C. S. Ellis in his description
writes “ At the seaside occasionally seen to mark time, step
back two paces and take something off wet sand, or else
probe deeply.”

In June, 1919, the writer watched some Redshanks pull
worms, 2-3 in. long, out of the mud of the River Cuckmere ;
they then ran with them down to the water’s edge where
the worms were washed and eaten.

Feeding — time of the day.

Opinions as to the most usual time for the Redshank to feed
are extremely conflicting, e.g. “ Mostly before 10 a.m.” (for
migrating birds) “ ; Late morning as a rule”; “ Males morning
and evening”; “ All times of the day.” K. Williamson
states that they seem to be active at night, and H. G. Hurrell
definitely records moonlight as well as day feeding.

It is possible that the state of the tide is the main factor
with the birds on the shore, but here again the opinions
expressed are somewhat at variance : — “ Receding tides ”
(two observers) ; “ Low water and on flood”; “ Birds wintering
in Carmarthen seem to feed all the time that the estuary
mud is uncovered, resting only at high tide ; in autumn, how-
ever, they frequently rest for long periods at low tide as well.”

Feeding habitats.

The habitats most favoured for feeding are shown in the
following list : — Sides of reservoirs, or of ponds large and small
(mentioned 8 times) ; estuary mud (5 times) ; sewage farms
and marshy ground (each 4 times) ; muddy banks of streams
(3 times) ; and ^et sand (twice) ; the rest are mentioned once
each : watercress beds ; laundry sludge, pasture (with Lapwing)
( V anellus vanellus), manured fields and dunghills, freshwater
lake when drained, similarly marine lake (but in both cases
the birds left when the mud had dried), pebbly river margin,
lastly and rather strangely a marshy woodland.

Effects of weather and tide on feeding.

(1) Weather.

Very few notes have been received as to how weather affects
the feeding habits of the Redshank. It seems probable that
normal winter weather, even with high wind or continuous
rain or an average amount of frost, has little effect, but a very
severe frost lasting for many days (as in January-February,
1940) makes feeding difficult or almost impossible ; then
some birds are killed, and the rest either move away entirely,
or scatter more widely in the near neighbourhood in their
search for food. The counts given in the table on page 24 show

BRITISH BIRDS.

34

[VOL. XXXVI.

this well, especially for January, 1940, when the numbers
were about half of those for the previous month.

(2) Tides (See also under “ Feeding — time of the day.”)

During the non-breeding season the tides naturally have a
marked effect, for Redshanks as a rule obtain their food from
mud recently covered by water ; consequently at high tide
they are forced from their feeding grounds, and they then
gather sometimes in one flock hundreds strong, at other times
in several smaller flocks. These gatherings are to be found,
generally close to the water’s edge, on grass-covered salt
marsh, where they spend the time sleeping and preening.

Peculiarities noted.

J. O. Wilson records two interesting facts : he has “ known a
bird go a mile from a dried-up swamp to feed,” also " A brood
led by parents in a drought for three miles to another marsh.”

There is no doubt that the Redshank can and does swim at
times. H. Turner gives an instance of “ a bird on a reservoir
20ft from the edge.”

Relation to other species.

Looking through the list of breeding habitats on page 25
one would guess that many other species nest in close
proximity to the Redshank ; of these the Lapwing is the
commonest, at any rate of the larger species, and in the
inquiry it is mentioned by four or five observers (it is also
recorded in the Lapwing Inquiry, Brit. B., xxxii, p. 221).
Dr. Moon, however, says that “ Lapwings rarely allow
Redshanks too near their nests, though Curlews, more peace-
able, often nest near Redshank territory.” The writer had an
instance some years ago of Redshank and Lapwing nesting
10-15 yards apart and easily visible one from the other ; both
nests hatched off successfully.

Of other species that at times have a breeding association
with the Redshank, the following are mentioned in the
inquiry : — Snipe ( Capella g. gallinago ) and Oyster-catcher,
and of smaller birds Sky-Lark ( Alauda a. arvensis) and
Meadow-Pipit ( A nthus pratensis ) .

But the question really referred to feeding relation, and in
this connection several species are mentioned, viz. Oyster-
catcher, Curlew, Dunlin ( Calidris a. schinzii), Sanderling
(■ Crocethia alba) and Ringed Plover ( Charadrius h. hiaticula).

J. A. G. Barnes writes “ A Black-headed Gull sometimes
chases off Redshanks for no apparent reason after feeding
close to them.” H. H. Davis has a note showing its reaction
to a bird of prey : " 20-30 Redshanks were feeding with a
large flock of Dunlin and a few Turnston e(Arenaria i. inter pres).

A Peregrine ( Falco p. peregrinus) passed overhead ; the
Dunlin and Turnstone took to flight; the Redshanks squatted
and remained prone till the Peregrine had gone.”

(35)

OBITUARY.

JANNION STEELE ELLIOTT
(1871-1942).

J. Steele Elliott was born at Bedford on May 25th, 1871 and died
during a visit to his brother at Kerry, Montgomeryshire on March
27th, 1942. Lie was educated at Bedford Modern Grammar School
and in 1896 went to the midlands with his brother William Elliott
to take over the foundry business of Robbins & Co., at Dudley.
He lived for some time at Clent and it was here, where I occasionally
spent week-ends with him, that we first became acquainted. Swifts
nested in the house and we had excellent opportunities of studying
their evening flights about which, as well as the incubation and
fledging periods, Elliott wrote accounts in the Zoologist (1900
and 1901).

In 1902 he purchased the delightful Elizabethan, timber-framed
Manor House of Dowles in Wyre Forest, and lived there until his
death. He gradually bought other lands and woods and eventually
getting control of all the Dowles Valley around the house, formed
a little bird sanctuary, where even so called “ vermin ” were
protected.

In 1897 he began to publish in parts for private circulation
The Vertebrate Fauna of Bedfordshire, but owing to difficulties
connected with his leaving the county he discontinued this work
after completing his account of the birds in Part V published in
June, 1901. He never lost interest in the county however, and
besides making a collection of local birds for the Museum of his old
school, he wrote the “ Aves ” section in the Victoria County History
of Bedfordshire (1902) and published occasional notes on its birds
in the Zoologist, and British Birds, though most of his numerous
contributions to the latter journal were of observations made in
Worcestershire or Shropshire.

Elliott, tall and athletic, was an untiring walker, and our rambles
through the Forest of Wyre were delightfully enlivened by the
somewhat caustic wit of his conversation, and the keenness of
his observation. Charles Oldham was his greatest friend, and
during his last year of helplessness Elliott went often to see him,
the last time only a few weeks before his own death. The two
friends passed on almost together. It was through Elliott that
I came to know Oldham and Coward, all four of us being interested
in vertebrates as a whole. Elliott’s interest in the subject is
manifest by his unbroken series of contributions for forty years
on local vertebrates to the Caradoc Club’s annual Record of Facts.

H. E. Forrest.

(36)

NOTES.

CHANGE IN STATUS OF SOME SPECIES IN NORTH WALES.

The following notes relate to a number of species, several of whose
status now appears to differ from that described in H. E. Forrest’s
Vertebrate Fauna of North Wales (1907) and Handbook to the
Vertebrate Fauna of North Wales (1919). Unless otherwise stated
all the occurrences refer to the coastal belt from Colwyn Bay to
Abergele, and not more than two miles inland. The notes cover the
last four years, during which time I have resided at Old Colwyn.

Hawfinch ( Coccothraustes c. coccothraustes) . — The Hawfinch breeds in the
district in some numbers. The birds build in forest trees in woods and parkland,
usually at considerable heights.

Nuthatch ( Sitta e. affinis).- — Whatever its status might have been two or
three decades ago, the Nuthatch is certainly common in the district at the
present day. The bird nests in woods, large gardens, and public parks in nearly
all parts of the district. I have also found the nest on many occasions at
Gloddaeth Woods, Llandudno. Altogether, close on twenty pairs rear young
every year.

Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapah. hypoleuca). — A few pairs breed every year
in the coastal woods ; the bird nests both at Colwyn Bay and Abergele. A few
miles inland, of course, it occurs in many places and in far larger numbers.

Garden-Warbler ( Sylvia borin). — Although heavily outnumbered by the
Blackcap, the Garden-Warbler nests regularly in several localities.

Lesser Whitethroat ( Sylvia c. curruca). — The Lesser Whitethroat is
common and generally distributed throughout the district.

Black Redstart (Phcenicurus 0. gibraltariensis) . — The Black Redstart
visits the Great Orme in autumn and winter. Unfortunately, I have not been
able to work the place often but single birds which I saw on December 10th,
1938, December 2nd, 1939 and December 31st, 1940 suggest that a small
number winter regularly on the headland.*

Great Spotted Woodpecker ( Dryobates m. anglicus). — This species can
now be described as common — quite a dozen pairs breed, and in this restricted
area at any rate, it almost certainly outnumbers the Green Woodpecker.

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker ( D . m. comminutus) This rather elusive
species is resident in the district and is by no means uncommon. It breeds
regularly in several spots and after the nesting season becomes widely dis-
tributed— even visiting wooded gardens in the town. At least four pairs breed
annually. In addition, it occurs, and almost certainly nests, at Gloddaeth.

White-fronted Goose ( Anser a. albifrons) .; Pink-footed Goose (Anser f.
brachyrhynchus) . — " Grey " Geese which visit us from time to time in winter
appear to be White-fronted and Pink-footed. In most years a few turn up and
in some seasons the influx is considerable ; throughout January and February
1940, a flock of about 200 was present. Of many which were shot, all proved to
be White-fronted or Pink-footed.

Velvet-Scoter* ( Melanitta f. fused). — The Velvet-Scoter is surprisingly
common as a winter resident. On occasions I have counted as many as twenty
swimming close inshore, and in addition, have strongly suspected that amongst
the hundreds of black duck too far out at sea to identify with certainty, there
has been a big percentage of the rarer species.

Red-breasted Merganser ( Mergus serrator). — The Merganser visits us
every winter, and stays until well into May. My latest date is May 10th, but
probably a few linger a little longer. Usually it occurs singly, or in small
parties. Occasionally, however, larger numbers are present ; on January 1 itli,
1942 I saw a party of twelve, including eight old drakes.

Irvine Whittaker.

*We are informed by Mr. H. F. Greenfield that he saw a Black Redstart
at Great Orme’s Head on February 26th, 1942.' — Eds.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

37

RING-OUZEL USING NEST OF PREVIOUS YEAR.

Although aware that on rare occasions, the Ring-Ouzel ( Turdus t.
torquatus) will lay a second clutch of eggs in a nest from which
young had left a few days before, I had no record of a pair utilising
a nest of the previous year, until the present season. On May 2nd,
1942, Mr. R. C. May found an old and grimy nest near Buxton,
Derbyshire, containing fragments of old egg-shells. A pair of
Ring-Ouzels were in the vicinity ; and on May 10th, a female flew
from this nest, which had been relined with light-coloured matgrass
and held two fresh eggs. On May 13th, I was shown the site,
but unfortunately the nest still contained two eggs only and was
deserted. J. Armitage.

“DRUMMING” BY A GREEN WOODPECKER.

Just after 1 p.m. (G.M.T.) on May 8th, 1942, Mr. P. B. Platts and I
began trying to identify a woodpecker which we heard drumming in
Harewood Park. The bird’s drum-roll which lasted about a second
consisted of about eight beats and the sound was like that of a big
cracked branch or tree trunk creaking as the wind screws it. It
resembled the drumming of the Great Spotted Woodpecker and
was quite different from the rattling Mistle-Thrush-like notes with
which this bird sometimes expresses annoyance. The call sounded
with remarkable regularity, being repeated every six-seven seconds
for at least five minutes. It then became intermittent, due, possibly
to the woodpecker being disturbed as we approached slowly and
warily. A loud yaffle and the repetition of the drumming from a tree
further off in the wood was the first indication that we were listening
to a Green. Woodpecker ( Picus v. pluvius). For some fifteen minutes
we followed the bird amongst the trees as it drummed here and
there and occasionally yaffled but we did not succeed in catching a
glimpse of it. Once the drumming was of a timbre rather lower than
usual. The series of drum-rolls and yaffles was sufficiently regular
for us to be able to trace the movements of the Woodpecker and to
be confident that we were concerned with a single bird. We left
the wood, but as we walked along the path outside it we saw the
Woodpecker flying from the part of the wood in which we had heard
it drumming immediately before. It alighted 63 yards away on the
trunk of a somewhat stunted oak about fifteen feet from the top
of the tree. The trunk at this point was sound, living wood and
about ten inches in diameter. The oak was still in bud so that there
was no foliage to obscure the view. It was an isolated tree standing
in a steeply sloping meadow and this contributed to make the
conditions excellent for observation, as the Woodpecker was only
slightly above eye level. Moreover it was silhouetted against the
sky clinging in a vertical position and details such as the wing-tips
projecting beyond the back and the tail pressed against the trunk

38

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

as well as the green coloration of the body were clearly visible
through the eight power monocular with which I was watching the
bird. Sunlight diffused through low cloud made visibility very good.
The bird drummed some eight times in this position and even with
the naked eye Platts was able to note that the head was held out
from the trunk. With the glass I noticed that the bill was held
upwards whenever drumming was heard — on one or two occasions
it was practically vertical. It was quite certainly not in contact
with any part of the tree while the drum-roll sounded, nor, I believe,
all the time the Woodpecker was on this tree. It appeared to be
closed though it might have been slightly open. My glass was not
powerful enough for certainty on this point but I am sure that it was
not opened to any considerable extent. The call was similar to the
creaking note we had first noticed. After about a minute the bird
shuffled sideways a few inches round the tree and then back again
but it did not go out of sight. During the time it was moving no
call was heard. When it had been on the tree for two or three
minutes it flew away, alighting with a yaffle in a distant plantation.

We took precautions to ascertain that the drumming was not
caused by a bird other than that we were watching. During the
three-quarters of an hour when we were studying the Green
Woodpecker there was nothing to indicate that two birds were
involved. While I was watching the Woodpecker through the
glass Platts, at my suggestion, was keeping a look out for any other
bird approaching or leaving the tree, which was eighty yards from
the wood and fifty yards from the only other large tree outside the
wood — sufficiently isolated for us to be confident that the drumming
issued from that tree. When the Woodpecker flew away I asked
Platts still to keep careful watch on the tree while I went up to it,
examined it and clapped my hands. No other bird was seen or heard.
There was no sign of a hole in the tree but only two hours previously
we had listened to a woodpecker working in its hole in a distant part
of the same park and had noted the characteristically different
sound from the drum-roll. We stayed some little time longer and
heard the Green Woodpecker in the distant plantation but no other
woodpecker’s call was audible. While the observations were
being made I took great care to ascertain that the bill of the bird I
was watching did not touch the trunk of the tree during drumming
and that there was not a second unseen bird involved. I should like
to have been able to obtain corroboration before writing this note
but the chances of being able to repeat the observations in such
excellent conditions are so remote that I consider it better to record
the experience now in the hope that other ornithologists who have
carefully watched Green Woodpeckers drumming may comment
upon it. I have not been able to find in the literature a detailed
account of drumming in this species. Edward A. Armstrong.

[There are few available accounts of drumming by Green
Woodpeckers, which is evidently very unusual. The main references

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

39

are : F. Helms, Journ. f. Orn., 1893, p. 169 ; Christoleit, Orn.
Monatsschr., 1900, p. 493 ; C. H. Wilson, Wild Life, vol. ix, 1917,
p. 52 ; P. Purse, Field, 1923, p. 247 ; D. Steinthal, Brit. Birds,
vol. xxx, p. 46. Helms actually observed the bird drumming with
the bill on a branch. Purse describes the head action somewhat
fully. “ The noise appeared to be made entirely with the point of the
beak, but the head was swung from side to side with only a slight
forward movement, and the beak was turned each time, so as to
strike point first.” Miss Steinthal describes drumming with the bill
in a crack of a branch, but no movement of the head is mentioned. —
Eds.]

MOORHEN MOVING EGGS AND ITS METHOD OF TAKING
AIR WHEN SUBMERGED.

Moorhens ( Gallinula ch. chlorofus) nest yearly on a small pond in
my garden in one of three clumps of flags which form islets. This
year (1942) the flags grew late and were only six inches high
on the afternoon of April 21st when there was no sign of a nest
and no cover to hide one. At midday on the 22nd I was much
surprised to see a well built-up nest in the thinnest clump of flags
and to find that it already contained one egg. Not wishing to
disturb the bird I did not, unfortunately, look into the nest again
i that day and so missed, as it turned out, a good chance of watching
an interesting proceeding. On the next day seeing from a distance
that the bird was sitting I decided to investigate and when I looked
into the nest I was astonished to find it full of eggs — there were
seven. This appeared to be the full clutch as two days later
there was the same number, but in the evening of that day my wife
•saw a Carrion-Crow at the nest and before she could get down to
frighten it away it had eaten the whole lot.

Although 'it is evident that the Moorhen must have moved the
eggs from another nest I was unable to find one and can only record
the bare facts given above.

I take this opportunity of mentioning that when a Moorhen is
hiding submerged under surface vegetation it does not always,
when taking air, expose its bill first as seems to be implied in the
Handbook (Vol. v, p.198), though Mr. Tucker informs me that he
did not mean that this was the invariable procedure. I have
watched a Moorhen hiding in shallow water under thick, flat,
^surface weeds push its head up through them very slowly, a slimy
looking, weed covered crown first appearing, then the crimson eye
and then the shield and gape. Sometimes the head would sink
•■slowly down again without showing any more of the bill, but at
others the whole bill appeared horizontally, just above the surface.
Miss E. P. Leach informs me that she has seen a Moorhen do exactly
the same, also in shallow water. At the point I watched the water
was only 7-8 inches deep with weed and mud at the bottom, and
the bird could have crouched there and just stretched up its head,

40

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

but the weed was so thick on the surface that I could see nothing
of the bird under it.

The longest time the head was under water was 80 seconds and
the shortest 70. If I remained perfectly still the bird was content to
keep its head above, but at my slightest movement it withdrew.
By making sudden movements and noises I endeavoured to make
it withdraw quickly, but, although I was only a yard away, nothing
would induce the bird to alter its uncannily slow and deliberate
sinking motion. H. F. Witherby.

Blue-headed Wagtail in Cambridgeshire. — Mr. Jeffery G.
Harrison gives us particulars of a female Blue-headed Wagtail
(. Motacilla f. Jiava), of which he had good views with binoculars at
the New Bedford River, near Sutton on May 10th, 1942. Female
Yellow Wagtails were near and could be compared. There appear
to be only two previous records of the bird for the county.

Bar-tailed Godwit in Hertfordshire. — Mr. W. E. Glegg
informs us that he identified a Bar-tailed Godwit ( Limosa l. lappon-
ica ) at the Little Tring Reservoir on May 6th. 1942 and again on
the 13th. The species has rarely been recorded for the county

Ringing Roseate Terns — Correction. — In the “ Report of the
Bird-Ringing Committee ” ( antea , Vol. xxxv, p. 268) it was stated
in error that Roseate Terns were ringed in the Isle of Man as well
as in Ireland in 1941, whereas all were ringed in Ireland.

Kittiwake in Derbyshire. — Mr. P. Moxon has sent us a
description of a dead adult Kittiwake ( Rissa t. tridactyla), which he
found at Combs Reservoir on April 25th, 1942.

oURCHAaaD

The nirds of the Liverpool Area. By Eric Hardy. (Arbroath : T. Buncle I
& Co., Ltd.). 8s. 6d. net.

This book will no doubt be found very useful to members of the Merseyside I
Naturalists’ Association, at whose request it has been compiled, but as a I
faunal work it is too bewildering for reference as the area includes parts of
Lancashire, Cheshire and N. Wales, there is no map and place-names are I
often given without mention of the county. Moreover there are many I
haphazard references to localities far outside the ill-defined area.

We must leave it to others to check the more local distributional notes, I
but we find statements from which it would appear that the work cannot be I
regarded as reliable. The most glaring example is the inclusion of a Whiskered ]
Tern seen in Cheshire between July 8th and 12th, 1922 under the correct I
species and date as well as under the Gull-billed Tern with a date December I
8th, 1922. There are unlikely statements unsupported by evidence, as for I
instance that the Gadwall has nested in N. Wales and the Garganey in Cheshire, 1
that the Southern Dunlin is an abundant winter resident and the inclusion j
of the Hebridean Song-Thrush. Other records of scarce birds are given I
without details, or with insufficient ones to make the correctness of the j
identifications in any way convincing. Of the introductory matter the I
section on local bird haunts should prove useful.

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of Kent ” was published. During this period some
important changes in the status of the birds of the district
have taken place and additional forms have occurred,
and these are recorded in the present volume. With the
increased recognition of continental sub-species it is
apparent that regional avifaunas of several decades ago
stand in need of revision in the light of more recent
knowledge. This it will be found, has been achieved for
the topographical area dealt with by Dr. Harrison. The
work goes beyond a stereotyped local list of birds, for,
with the author’s wide experience of birds in the British
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Contents of Number 3, Vol. XXXVI, August i, 1942.

page

Sex Ratios in Winter Duck Flocks. By R. C. Homes ... ... 42

The Berkhamsted Grey Shrike. By B. W. Tucker ... ... 51

Obituary : Herbert William Robinson. ... ... ... ... 54

Notes : —

Four Long-tailed Tits feeding young in nest (Miss V. Maxse) 55

Sedge-Warbler and Reed-Bunting laying two eggs in a day

(Major W. M. Congreve) ... ... ... ... ... 55

Reed-Warbler breeding in Radnorshire (A. W. Bolt) ... ... 56

Unusual Nesting-site of Redstart and large clutch of eggs

(C. A. Joll) 56

Curious Nesting-site of Great Crested Grebe (Dr. G. C. Low) ... 56

Two clutches of five eggs laid by same Snipe (Major W. M.

Congreve) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56

Little Ringed Plover in Kent (T. C. Gregory) ... ... ... 57

Water-Rail nesting in Kent (Rev. J. R. Hale) ... ... ... 57

Unusual behaviour of a Moorhen (A. A. Wright) ... ... 57

Short Notes : —

Large clutch of eggs of Tree-Sparrow. Hoopoe in Monmouth-
shire. Spoonbill in Devon. Goosander breeding in
Dumfriesshire. Black-headed Gull plunging into water
and submerging ... ... ... ... ... ... 58

Reviews : —

A Hand-List of the Birds of the Sevenoaks or Western District of
Kent ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Ornithological Report for N orthumberland and Durham for 1941 60

Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union Committee for Ornithology,

Report for 1941 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 60

Natural History Notes for the District with the Proceedings of

The Liverpool N aturalists' Field Club, 1940 & 1941 ... ... 60

Ornithological Record for Derbyshire, 1941 ... ... ... 60

Report on the birds of Warwickshire, Worcestershire and South

Staffordshire, 1941 ... ... ... ... ... ... 60

Ornithological Section for Leicester and Rutland Report and

Status for 1941 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 60

G

(42)

SEX RATIOS IN WINTER DUCK FLOCKS

BY

R. C. HOMES.

In the winter of 1938-39, observers of the London Natural
History Society took a census of ducks, grebes and coot on
one Saturday a month from October to March inclusive on
all the important sheets of water within 20 miles of London.*
The objects of the census were to obtain some guide to the
total winter population of these species within the area and
to collect data on the sex-ratio in winter flocks of ducks.
This paper deals mainly with the latter aspect.

For comparative purposes counts were also made on most
of the dates at Blenheim Lake, Oxfordshire, and at Bartley
Reservoir, Earlswood Lakes and Wootton Wawen Pools,
Warwickshire. In December, February and March counts
were made also on an area of 145 acres comprising pools and
part of the River Clyde in Lanarkshire. Where references
are made to these counties, they refer only to the areas
above-mentioned. Comparison has also been made with
results achieved by Frieling [2] in Germany.

Certain difficulties in such an undertaking are inevitable
and may be summarized as follows : —

1. Bad visibility — affecting especially the larger waters.

2. Possibility of the same birds being counted twice,
confusion being most likely on reservoirs bordering
the Thames.

3. Difficulty of sexing immature diving ducks in the
earlier winter months. In order not to emphasise any
predominance of males, doubtful cases were either classed
as females or omitted where conditions were very bad.
With Goldeneye and the sawbills the two categories
should be taken as males and brown or red-headed
birds instead of males and females.

Care was taken by observers that figures should always
be on the cautious side and it is felt that any difficulties
on individual waters did not seriously invalidate the figures
for the area as a whole.

Weather and Local Conditions.

Oct. 22nd, 1938. Fine and mild. Wind light S.E. in most
localities.

Brent Reservoir. Numbers low owing to boating.

Littleton Reservoir, estimate.

Molesey Reservoir. A decrease in Tufted Duck from 625
the previous week to 449, sex-ratio unchanged.

Osterley Park. Numbers low owing to shooting prior to count.

* Cf the results of a similar census taken in the London area on
December 18th, 1937 fij.

vol. xxxvi ] WINTER DUCK FLOCKS.

43

Staines Reservoir. The totals of females for surface-
feeding ducks probably include some immature males.

Waddon Pools. Birds fed by public.

Wimbledon Park Lake. Numbers approximate as birds
were fed by public and counting difficult.

Nov. igth, 1938. Fine in morning, becoming duller in
late afternoon. Wind moderate south veering south-west in
the afternoon. Rather cold after long mild spell. Tempera-
ture 45°-5o°F.

Barn Elms or Hampton Reservoir. Movement to and from
Thames caused some difficulty but figures believed to be minima .

Walthamstow Reservoir. Shooting caused some difficulty,
hence Banbury not counted and Lockwood count approxi-
mate and unsexed.

Dec. 17th, 1938. Dull and overcast with temperature falling
to a few degrees above freezing-point. Fresh easterly wind
caused birds to shelter where possible. Exact counting
impossible at some waters on account of cold and poor light.
This day was the first of a prolonged cold spell, but the weather
did not appear to have affected numbers greatly by the time
of the count.

Barn Elms. Figures for Tufted Duck liable to some error.

King George Reservoir. Numbers approximate.

Littleton Reservoir. Possible error in surface-feeders.

Staines Reservoir. Some 200-300 birds uncounted owing
to bad visibility, probably mostly Teal and Wigeon.

N.B. — At King George Reservoir and for the doubtful
species at Littleton and Staines sex-ratios were not taken,
hence summarized figures on this question are not invalidated.

Jan. 21st, 1939. Very mild, about 5o°F, and misty with
occasional showers after some days of heavy rain. Flooding
at gravel-pits and open waters caused some difficulty, but
sex-ratios where obtained can be considered fairly reliable,
as visibility, though poor, was just adequate at all but the
largest waters. No figures could be obtained for King George
Reservoir where visibility was exceptionally bad. Effects
of the cold spell over Christmas and the turn of the year were
still appaient in the high numbers for some species, though
in most cases figures were well below maxima attained over
the turn of the year.

Feb. 18th, 1939. A fine sunny day with excellent visibility.
Temperature 4i°F at one station. Wind light north-west.

Littleton Reservoir. Numbers liable to some error,
especially in surface-feeders.

Mar. 8th, 1939. Weather was dull and cold with a tempera-
ture of 37°-38°F., but visibility was quite good. Wind was
mainly light northerly, but was stronger in some places and
at Molesey was easterly.

44

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Barn Elms Reservoir. Some movement to and from
Thames principally affecting Mallard, but any inaccuracy not
considered serious.

Population Problems.

The chief factor governing the population of waterfowl in
the London area during the winter of 1938-9 was the extremely
cold spell which commenced on December 17th and lasted
into early January. It is not considered that the figures for
the census of December 17th were much affected by this
change in weather except perhaps in the case of Teal. The
chief effects of the cold on duck population Mere noticed
from December 26th until the first week of January, but
this has been fully discussed elsewhere [3]. By the date
of the January census the only remaining effect definitely
attributable to the cold was the unusually high figure for
Smew.

It was not the object of this census to investigate- deeply the
question of habitat selection, but rather, as far as population
was concerned, to put on record the facts concerning the
duck population of a given area and to emphasise the fact
of habitat preference even between different artificial sheets
of water. The following remarks are therefore intended only
as indications of preference and no attempt is made to explain
them.

For reasons of space it has been impossible to list the
separate totals for each area of water counted, so the chief
features are discussed separately. The most striking fact
about duck distribution in winter in the London area is the
practically fixed preference shown by certain species for
individual reservoirs. The sawbills provide the most inter-
esting example of this winter habitat selection. Thus except
for a few odd birds Smew are confined to the Walthamstow,
Barn Elms, Lonsdale Road and West Molesey reservoirs, the
latter attracting a high percentage of the total. They are
rarely seen, however, at the larger King George, Littleton or
Staines reservoirs, the superficial reason being that they
prefer the smaller and shallower waters. Goosander, on the
other hand, are found in strength on both Staines and Molesey
reservoirs, despite the difference in external character between
these two groups.

Goldeneye are not found in large numbers, but those that
visit the area make the same choice as Goosander. Tufted
Duck are found on all waters of any size, but the largest
numbers are always on the Barn Elms, Molesey, and
Walthamstow reservoirs, all groups of comparatively small
waters. In early January, 1939 there were 1,400-1,500
at Barn Elms, with at least 1,000 on one of the four
reservoirs. Pochard are more fickle and the largest Hocks

vol. xxxvi ] WINTER DUCK FLOCKS.

45

seldom stay long at any place ; when exceptional numbers
have been seen they have been at Brent, Barn Elms,
Ruislip and Staines.

Sex Ratios.

Discussion of this question may be divided into sections : —

1. The actual percentages recorded in the census at
different times of year with comparative results from other
areas.

2. Variations between different waters irrespective of
date, especially for Tufted Duck under which species it will
be discussed.

3. The statistical value of the results obtained.

In the case of the surface-feeding ducks only Mallard and
Teal are in sufficient numbers in the London area to make the
percentages of any value, and in both species the proportion
of males to females is almost equal with a slight tendency to
an excess of males especially in the Teal. Figures from
Oxfordshire and Warwickshire confirm this result for Mallard,
but were too small to permit any conclusion for Teal. Both
the Lanarkshire figures and those of Frieling, however, show
a much higher proportion of males in the Mallard averaging
about 60 per cent. Frieling’s figures for Teal refer only to
March and April with a percentage of males averaging 54 per
cent., but the Lanarkshire proportion is 62 per cent, in Dec-
ember rising to 71 per cent, in February and 76 per cent, in
March. In all these cases the number of birds counted though
over 100 is insufficient to be a sound guide but the tendency
seems to be for a higher proportion of males to be found
farther north.

The only Wigeon counts large enough to be valuable were
those from Lanarkshire when 1,002 birds gave 52 per cent,
males in December, and flocks of 400 and 600 in February and
March respectively each gave a proportion of 60 per cent,
males. Frieling’s figures were only significant for March when
292 birds had 57 per cent, males.

For the diving ducks Pochard and Tiifted Duck were both
in sufficient number in the London area to provide figures of
some significance. For the five counts October-February there
were never less than 600 Pochard. The results showed a
marked preponderance of malts varying from a peak of 72 per
cent, in December to 58 per cent, in February and March.
On December 18th, 1937 a count in the same area revealed a
very similar percentage of males, namely 70 per cent, in a total
of 601. [1] In Lanarkshire, however, there were 51 percent, of
males in December and in smaller figures from 50-75 in
February and March the percentage was 75-76 per cent.
Frieling obtained 65 per cent, males from 857 birds in March
and 56 per cent, from 466 birds in April. On the cases

46

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

under examination it thus appears that a marked predomin-
ance of males in the nature of 2 : i is general. Past records for
the London area show that flocks consisting almost entirely
of males are of fairly frequent occurrence, but I know of no
similar case of any very large excess of females.

The position for Tufted Duck is rather more complicated
there being considerably more variation in the results. In the
London area in 1938-39 percentages of males for 2,000-3,000
birds ranged only from 52 per cent, to 59 per cent., but on
December 18th, 1937 it was 62 per cent. (1) More data exist
for the London area in the case of this species than for any
other duck, and a series of ten counts for Molesey reservoirs
from October 16th, 1937 to March 26th, 193S is sufficiently
interesting to be reproduced in full : —

Total

m.

f.

% of m

October

16

3ii

250

61

80

,,

30

748

533

215

71

November

6

618

4i3

205

67

t >

13 •••

864

654

210

76

December

4

75 r

564

187

75

> >

18

693

54s

145

79

January

8

556

458

98

82

February

5

496

401

95

81

March

5

261

168

93

64

» »

26

87

49

38

56

It will be seen that except for November 6th, the percentage
of males did not fall below 70 per cent, until March, the number
of males being liable to sudden changes as between 6th and
13th with very little change in the female population. This
movement of large flocks of males is a marked feature for
both Pochard and Tufted Duck, although as already noted
there are no corresponding movements of females in the area.
In the winter of 1938-39 from October 15th to the end of 1938
six counts at Molesey Reservoirs showed a proportion varying
from 80 per cent, to 88 per cent., yet on the census dates
included in this period the total proportion of males for the
area never reached 60 per cent. The very considerable
difference in the sex-ratio of flocks of this species on different
waters is another feature of the population in the London
area. Thus on the six census dates there was always a marked
predominance of males at Molesey and on the Long Water and
Serpentine, yet in counts of 500 and over at Walthamstow there
was usually a small excess of females.

The Lanarkshire figures for this species are small, showing
45 per cent, males in a count of 135 in December and 68-69
per cent, on counts of 60 and 52 in February and March.
Frieling’s figures for November-February are very small and
show only 37 per cent, males, but for March he gives 66 per
cent, males out of 311 birds and for April 55 per cent, in a
count of 199. He suggests for both Pochard and Tufted

VOL. XXXVI.] WINTER DUCK FLOCKS.

47

Duck that the males winter farther south and pass through
quickly on the return migration in March, whereas the females
remain during the winter and on into April when they follow
the males. His figures for November-February are very small,
but possibly general observation on the lack of males during
this period may strengthen his explanation. As far as the
London area is concerned it may be that British breeding
stock in fairly equal proportion of the sexes is joined by large
migratory bands of males from continental breeding-grounds,
while the majority of the females stay behind or migrate
southwards on the continent. Much more extensive observa-
tion on northern continental waters in winter would be
required, however, to prove whether this suggestion is actually
borne out by the facts.

Counts for Goldeneye are too small for much analysis, but
in the London area males appear to be in a definite minority,
whereas in Lanarkshire they were in a majority in February
and March. Frieling found 64 per cent, males in a count
totalling 465 in March, and 68 per cent, in a count of 44 in
April.

The only figures available for Goosander and Smew are from
the London area and give the proportion of adult males to
females and immature birds. The ratio for Goosander was
roughly 1 : 3 in December and January, and 1 : 4 in February
and March, and for Smew varied from an exception of 1 :
i*6 to about 1:4.

It is hoped that the subject of sex-ratio may be studied
more extensively at a later date, and for this reason and lack
of time for. research no attempt has been made to study any
previous publications except those of Frieling.

Statistical Value.

In assessing the value of the results described in this paper
we are faced with the question of their statistical soundness.
If we are to reduce this to a formula we must first make the
following assumptions : —

(1) that all our observers are sufficiently competent to
differentiate between the sexes of ducks ;

(2) that the number of birds sexed is a fair sample.

As regards the first assumption care was taken in all cases
that only good observers were asked to take part in the census,
and where large sheets of water presented exceptional difficul-
ties only the more experienced observers were used. In the
second case, all waters of any appreciable size that are
frequented by ducks were included in the census, and the totals
discussed are therefore practically complete for the area
concerned except in a few cases where weather conditions made
differentiation impossible.

48

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Errors in sex differentiation and in counting may, however,
arise to a small degree and their statistical weight will be
governed by the following factors : —

(1) the greater the total to be counted by any one observer,
the smaller effect any small error in counting or identification
will have on the calculated ratio of the sexes ;

(2) the more disproportionate the ratio between the sexes

the less likely it is that there will be any error, as it is obviously
easier to count ten females in a flock of a hundred than it is to
count fifty. / p q

If these factors are combined, we arrive at a formula V n
which expresses the standard error of a ratio based on a
count of n individuals, where

p = the fraction of the population for one sex,
q (= i-p) = the fraction of the population for the other sex.

n =the total number of birds of which the sex has been
determined.

On this basis it will be seen that the standard error, for
Mallard averages about 1 per cent., for Teal varies from
2.6 per cent, to 4.4 per cent., for Pochard varies from 1.6 per
cent., to 3 per cent., and for Tufted Duck averages about
1 per cent. From this it can be assumed that the results for the
area concerned are sufficiently accurate for our purpose. In
Frieling’s paper the small value of n led to a very much higher
standard error.

References.

[xj. London Bird Report for 1937 pp. 26-28.

[2] . Frieling, H. : Statistische Untersuchungen fiber das

Geschlechtverhaltnis der Enten zur Zugzeit: Vogelzug v. 1934, Heft 3.

[3] Fitter, R.S.R. and Homes, R.C., "Effects of the Severe
Weather, December 1 7th-2 6th,” London Bird Report ior 1938, pp. 30-33.

50

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

(51)

THE BERKHAMSTED GREY SHRIKE

BY

B. W. TUCKER, m.a., m.b.o.u.

In British Birds, Vol. xxxiv, p. 17, the late Mr. Charles
Oldham recorded the presence between March 6th and April
13th, 1940, of a Lesser Grey Shrike ( Lanius minor) on Berk-
hamsted Common, and on p. 178 its presence in the same
locality in November and December of the same year is
mentioned. It is with much regret that I feel obliged to
criticize the conclusion of so excellent an observer as Mr.
Oldham, whose death all ornithologists so greatly deplore
and whose grave illness at the date of the observations now
recorded made it impossible for me to discuss them with him,
but as it is in my opinion quite certain that an error of identi-
fication was made with regard to this bird he would certainly
have agreed that the facts now available should be placed
upon record.

In his original note Mr. Oldham described characters which
appeared to leave no doubt that the bird was identified
correctly. He wrote that “ the broad black bands on the
cheeks met as a frontal band above the base of the bill ; the
chin and upper throat were pure white and in strong contrast
with the rest of the under-parts which seemed to be creamy-
buff (grey in some lights) and only in very favourable circum-
stances was it apparent that in reality they were pink ; there
was no white at all above the black bands on the cheeks.”
The bird not only returned and spent the winter of 1940-41
in the same place, as mentioned above, but came back again
for the winter of 1941-42, and to forestall any possible doubt on
the matter I may add that so far as I know there is complete
unanimity amongst those who have seen it in more than one
season that it is in fact the same individual. Mr. H. V. Gray
of Berkhamsted, who has probably seen the bird more often
than anybody, tells me he has no doubt on this point.

On February 12th, 1942 I visited the locality in company
with Messrs. H. G. and W. B. Alexander, and we were all
three able to examine the bird under good conditions with an
excellent telescope as well as with glasses. Seen thus it had
clearly no broad frontal band such as a Lesser Grey Shrike
should have, though I could not on this occasion have been
completely positive that there was not even a very narrow black
band across the base of the bill. The white superciliary streak
above the black mark was absent, as described, and the throat
was pure white, contrasting with the relatively dark breast,
which appeared greyish or greyish-buff. As a result we all
three felt convinced that the bird was a slightly aberrant
Great Grey Shrike ( Lanius excubitor), a conclusion supported

1

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

52

also by its migratory behaviour and successful weathering of
prolonged and severe cold in at least two successive winters,
which would indeed have been a remarkable achievement for
a bird normally wintering in tropical Africa.

Subsequently I was able to go over correspondence which
Mr. Witherby had received about the bird since the publication
of Mr. Oldham’s first note, and from this several important
points emerged. In a letter dated April 3rd, 1941, ^r- Oldham
made the significant statement that “ the pink colour of the
under-parts always shows up best in thq. afternoon light and
is most likely not due to pigment at all, but to the reflection
of the sun from the satin-like feathers.” This admission
deprives the alleged character of all value as evidence. Again
in the same letter he referred to a " definite black although
narrow band across the forehead.” As this refers to the
original spring observation it is clear that even at that period
on the recorder’s own showing the bird was anything but
typical for a Lesser Grey Shrike as regards the band. Mr.
Oldham did not know the species in the field, and it must be
supposed that he failed to appreciate how very broad and
extremely conspicuous the frontal band is, even in females
where it is somewhat obscured by grey feathers. The fact
that it only appeared narrow should have been recognised as
introducing an element of doubt, and once this appearance was
admitted the possibility of an illusion (inconceivable if the
band had been really broad) could not, in view of the more
recent evidence, be excluded. In addition to this I found that
Mr. R. S. R. Fitter, who watched the bird at close quarters
on January 5th, 1941, had stated expressly in a communication
to Mr. Witherby that ” the black eye-stripcs did not mcci
across the fore-head.” Mr. Fitter also wrote on the subject
to Mr. Oldham, but the latter was then already too ill to make
further observations or to enter into discussion.

Considering it important if possible to place the identification
on a completely unassailable basis before committing myself
to print on the subject I returned to Berkhamsted on March
28th and spent the whole afternoon of the 28th and the morn-
ing of the 29th on the Common, studying the bird. On these
two days I watched the bird repeatedly and most carefully
in all sorts of positions and lights and sometimes at very close
range, up to within 20 yards, with a telescope of 30 magni-
fication as well as glasses. Moreover I took with me skins of
both species, so that I could make an exact comparison of the
length of the tail, which both Mr. W. B. Alexander and 1 had
thought looked too long for a Lesser Grey Shrike. As a result
I am prepared to state positively that : —

(1) There is no trace whatever of a black frontal band-
even a very narrow one — joining the black marks on the

VOL. XXXVI..] BERKHAMSTED GREY SHRIKE.

53

sides of the head. At a moderate distance one might
sometimes have believed that there was a narrow
connexion, but this is a complete illusion. It is possible
that the dark rictal bristles converging to some extent
over the base of the bill have contributed to it.

(2) The breast is greyish, with nothing pink about it.

(3) The scapulars do not show as much white or whitish as
in many Great Grey Shrikes, but more than in a Lesser
Grey. Posteriorly they show a well-defined, rather narrow
white border, but further forward towards the shoulders
the whitish area widens out and merges very gradually
into the grey of the mantle. For some reason this
anterior pale area is not very noticeable and may be
missed in some positions, but the condition is definitely
as described.

(4) The tail is too long for a Lesser Grey Shrike.

It is thus quite clear that the bird is a Great Grey Shrike
which is slightly abnormal in lacking a white superciliary
stripe (this may be extremely slight in some skins I have
examined) and in having a darker breast than usual. It is also,
I think, a rather small individual. I do not insist strongly on
the latter point owing to the difficulty of judging size
accurately, and it is not of primary importance, but my
impression from prolonged observation is confirmed by Mr.
Oldham’s explicit statement that he was able to compare it
with Blackbirds and Linnets in the same tree and that it was
“ larger, but not much larger, than a Red-backed Shrike.”

It only remains to recall that in British Birds, Vol. xxxiv,
p. 178 a Grey Shrike stated to have had a black frontal band
and therefore identified as a Lesser Grey and thought to
have been probably the same bird, is recorded as having been
seen near Potter’s Bar, Herts, on November 2nd, 1940. In
view of the facts now recorded and the way in which
experienced and critical observers were deceived by what has
proved to be a completely illusory appearance I am afraid
this record cannot stand any more than the other.

(54)

OBITUARY.

HERBERT WILLIAM ROBINSON.

(1875-1941)-

Herbert William Robinson, who died at Lancaster on August 4th,
1941 was born in Surrey in January, 1875 and was the eldest son of
the late J. P. Robinson, a civil engineer of Halton near Lancaster.
Educated at the Royal Grammar School, Lancaster and St. John’s
School, Oxford, he matriculated at Edinburgh and was for some
years at the University there as a medical student, but eventually
gave up the idea of becoming a doctor and returning to Lancaster
decided to devote his life to natural history. He was unmarried.

Robinson contributed many notes to this magazine from the first
volume, and he was indeed a prolific writer of notes and letters to
other journals such as the Zoologist, Country Life, Field, The Ibis,
The Naturalist and others. Many of his contributions were derived
from information received from correspondents and others, and he
had the fault of being much too easily satisfied with the correctness
of such reports. The result was that many of the notes he published
lacked just that amount of proof to make them convincing. Even
in important records which he investigated himself on the spot he
often failed to take sufficient care and trouble to make certain of
essential details to prove convincingly the correctness of his as-
sertions. Although this non-critical attitude deprived many of his
notes of real value, he made other useful records and observations
and we may mention especially a long series of yearly records of the
number of young in broods of Swallows and his account of the
song of Bewick’s Swan. He has also contributed useful notes on
birds observed in the Scilly Isles and in the Orkneys.

Some of his best work was done in ringing birds. This he took up
with great zest directly the British Birds Scheme was started in
1909. For the first two years he worked in conjunction with the late
F. W. Smalley and for the first five years he was top of the list in the
number of birds ringed. He continued ringing every year up to
1940 and during these thirty-two years ringed nearly 37,000 birds.
In the first years he ringed large numbers of Black-headed Gulls and
subsequently worked out the results of ringing this species. He also
ringed large numbers- of Lesser Black-backed Gulls, Sandwich and
Common Terns during many years, and it was mainly due to his
efforts that it became possible to trace the movements of our Lesser
Black-backed Gulls .

In his younger days Robinson was a keen wildfowler. He made
a collection of birds, which he lent for some years to the Lancaster
Museum and subsequently sent to the Kendal Museum. He also
built up a collection of birds for his old school and acted as honorary
curator for a number of years. He had been a member of the British
Ornithologists’ Union since 1912 and whatever his failings in
scientific exactness there could be no doubt of his great interest
in the study of birds and the pleasure he derived from it.

NOTES.

FOUR LONG-TAILED TITS FEEDING YOUNG IN NEST.

On April 19th, 1942 in a garden near Lancaster I saw Long-tailed
Tits ( Mgithalos c. rosaceus) taking feathers to a nest in a berberis
bush. About May 4th they were carrying food to young and on a
number of subsequent evenings I was able to watch them. On
one of these occasions I saw three old birds coming to the
nest. On the next evening I again saw three, and on the following,
as only a single bird or a pair arrived, I approached the nest with
the idea of preventing the leading bird from entering and feeding the
young, before the others came within sight. This method was
successful and there were soon three birds scolding at me. I then
moved away from the bush and the leading bird went in and fed the
young, and while it was still inside the nest a fourth bird made its
appearance, joined the others and in due course fed the young.
Adopting the same tactics I was able to see all four birds on several
occasions and to show them to friends.

The birds arrived at the nest sometimes singly, sometimes in
pairs and occasionally three at a time, but on the whole it appeared
that they may have been two pairs. On no occasion did I see any
symptom of hostility amongst them. So far as I could discover the
nest did not contain an abnormally large brood, which might have
indicated two clutches, and I did not discover any other nest in the
vicinity, which might have meant the loss of a brood by one pair.

I had once before watched three old Long-tailed Tits feeding young
in the same nest, but it greatly surprised me to find four.

Violet Maxse.

[Four adults at a nest have seldom been recorded. In the majority
of cases of three or four the number of eggs or young has been not
more than a normal single clutch, but in one case of three adults
fourteen young were counted in the nest and there were thought to
be twenty in all, and in another three adults were in a nest with 15
eggs. In one case four adults were found actually together in a nest,
which contained 10 partly incubated eggs, while in another case
three old birds were in a nest with thirteen eggs and a fourth was
perched in the vicinity. There are old records of seven, and even as
many as nine, adults feeding young at one nest. — Eds.]

SEDGE-WARBLER AND REED-BUNTING
LAYING TWO EGGS IN A DAY.

I have only once known a passerine bird to lay two eggs in a day
previously to the two cases I now record. As the original case was
that of a Redwing ( Turdus m. musicus ) in Finmark during the
midnight sun period, I thought little of it. In a Wiltshire marsh on
the morning of May 18th, 1942 I found a nearly completed nest of
a Sedge-Warbler ( Acrocephalus schcenobanus) by watching the birds.
I also found the nest of a Reed-Bunting ( Emberiza s. sclioeniclus) in

56

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

the same way and apparently nearly complete. On the afternoon oi
May 19th, I found to my amaz.ment that each of these two nests
contained two eggs. Admittedly, I have reason to believe that the
Reed-Bunting may be a “ repeat ” and it is possible that the Sedge-
Warbler lost a previous nest to a Cuckoo (I have no actual evidence
of this), but even then the speed of reproduction is quite abnormal
and that there should have been two cases on the same day is
remarkable. W. M. Congreve.

REED-WARBLER BREEDING IN RADNORSHIRE.

As the Handbook gives the Reed-Warbler ( Acrocephalus s. scirpaceus )
as “ possibly ” breeding in Radnorshire, it is worth while recording
that when I was at Rhos-goch Common on June 27th, 1942 in
company with Mr. O. R. Owen I found a pair of Reed-Warblers-
with young just llown. They were in a reed bed and we heard one
or two others, but had no time to look for other nests. A. W. Bolt.

UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF REDSTART AND LARGE
CLUTCH OF EGGS.

On May 31st, 1942 on a rather steep hillside in central Wales at
about 900 feet, my wife flushed a hen Redstart, (Phcenicurus p.
phcenicurus ) from a nest containing seven eggs placed on the ground
under dead bracken in a position very similar to that sometimes-
adopted by the Whinchat. We together identified the bird as it
returned to the nest. There appeared to be plenty of normal nesting
sites within a short distance, for Pied Flycatchers were nesting in the
holes of trees close by.

Incidently The Handbook of British Birds gives ten as the
maximum clutch for the Redstart, though I found a clutch of 11
near Bristol some years ago. That these were not the product of
two hens was established by the fact that all partook of the same
peculiar shape, the proportion of the breadth to length being un-
usually great. Cecil A. Joll.

CURIOUS NESTING-SITE OF GREAT CRESTED GREBE.

Last year (1941) on the long reservoir, Lonsdale Road, Barnes, a
pair of Great Crested Grebes ( Podiceps c. cristatus ) built their nest
and hatched a pair of young ones, one of these being reared. This
year (1942) another nest has been built (probably by the same pair)
at the same place and the female is now sitting. In addition to
this another pair are nesting on the adjoining reservoir, a much
smaller one. As far as one can see the nests have very little
material round them and are attached to an artificial support only
a few inches above the water, there being no natural cover in
either reservoir. G. Carmichael Low.

TWO CLUTCHES OF FIVE EGGS LAID BY SAME SNIPE.

It is of^ course well known that the Limicolce, which normally lay
four eggs to the clutch, occasionally lay as many as five. However,

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

5 /

[ think what I now record must be quite unique. A friend of mine
:ollected a fresh set of live eggs of the Common Snipe ( Capella g.
g allinago ) in a riverside meadow on the loth April, 1942. On the
26th April, at approximately 30-35 yards from the first site, my
'riend again collected a clutch of live fresh Snipe eggs and the two
;ets are now in my possession. I am quite unable to distinguish
my sufficient difference between the two clutches to state that they
ire the product of two female birds. In fact, I am convinced that
he two sets were laid by one and the same prolific female !

W. M. Congreve.

LITTLE RINGED PLOVER IN KENT.

3n May 6th, 1942 when walking an east Kent marsh I came across
1 Little Ringed Plover ( Charadrius d. curonicus). The light was
;ood and the bird’s yellow orbital ring plainly visible. When flushed
t called “ Tee-u ” several times.

This is, I believe, the second authentic record for Kent and
uriously enough the bird when first seen was standing on the same
■mall mud-spit as the bird recorded in 1938. T. C. Gregory.

WATER-RAIL NESTING IN KENT.

7or many years the Water-Rail ( Rallns a. aquaticus ) has without
loubt nested in suitable places in Kent for young birds have been
een and captured. But I believe that Mr. Tom Gregory and myself
re the first persons to have seen an egg in situ in the nest ? On
Hay gth, 1942 we visited a large reed bed in south-east Kent and I
ound on that day a nest containing one egg. The nest, which was
ike a small Moorhen’s, was situated in the middle of the reed-bed
nth about three inches of water. When I came on the nest the
iails were squealing and grunting close by though I could not see
hem. I left the nest and returned two days later and as there was
till only the one egg, I took it and found it was addled. I imagined
came on the nest when the young were being brooded and the
lotes I heard were from the parents calling the young away from
ae, for my experience is that there is hardly ever any noise made
>y rails or waders when these have fresh eggs or before they have
lid the full clutch. This is especially so in the case of the Lapwing,
'here are at least five pairs of Water-Rails nesting in this locality
>ut it is one of the most difficult places to search that I have in my
mg experience ever hunted in ! ' James R. Hale.

UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF A MOORHEN.

)n May 21st, 1942 at the (artificial) lake at Verulamium (a public
pen space) my attention was attracted to a Moorhen ( Gallinula ch.
hloropus) by the excitement of two children, who were watching
: from the bank. When I came up, the bird was entirely submerged
xcept for its head and part of its neck, and it was swimming along
lose under the bank. The sides of the lake are vertical and of con-
rete, and on this day the level of the water had been lowered so

58

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI

that it was perhaps 18 inches below the verge. The children tolc
me that the bird had been trying to get ont on to the land but coulc
not find a place to do so : whether this was so I do not know, bul
its swimming up and down under the bank suggested that it was. Il
remained in an almost submerged position all the time that 1
watched it (about 15 minutes), except that twice it sank undei
water altogether and swam some yards before returning to the
former position ; after the second dive it assumed a slightly highei
position, so that part of its back was above water. It then went of
across the lake to one of the islands, where it continued as before
to swim up and down under the bank ; this it was still doing when 1
last saw it.

In the largely-submerged position its swimming, as was natural
was slow and laboured, and in crossing to the island it once made twe
or three sweeps with its wings in the water, as if to hasten its
progress. Under water it used its wings as well as its legs, beating
them (roughly) once in a yard.

There was no question of the bird’s holding itself submerged b)
any external object, since it swam about in the position. I have nc
idea how it kept itself down, but it gave an impression of being
unable to come up. What made it submerge in the first place is
equally a mystery : it could hardly have been scared, for the birds
there are used to large numbers of people ; and in any case it die
not at first make any attempt to leave the bank, where the onl}
potential danger was — viz. myself and the children. A. A. Wright

Large Clutch of Eggs of Tree-Sparrow. — Flying Officer
R. A. Carr-Lewty informs us that on June 19th, 1942, Messrs
E. Blezard, T. L. Johnston and he discovered a nest of the Tree
Sparrow ( Passer m. montanus ) containing a clutch of ' seven eggs
at Cummersdale, near Carlisle. Mr. Johnston states that he
had once previously recorded a clutch of seven, also in the
Carlisle district.

Hoopoe in Monmouthshire.— Mr. Colin Matheson writes thai
on May 27th, 1942 he received a Hoopoe ( Upupa e. epops) (whicl
had obviously been dead some time). The sender gave the locality
as an oat-field on a farm at Llanellen, near Abergavenny ; he was.
not aware of the identity of the bird and apparently it did nol
occur to him. until later to send it to the National Museum at Cardif
for identification. Ingram and Salmon in “ The Birds of Mon
mouthshire ” {Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc., Vol. 70) quote an old rec.orc
of “a nest and eight eggs ” from Pontrhydyrhun Wood anc
occurrences of single birds in July and August, 1934.

Spoonbill in Devon.— Mr. E. W. Arnold informs us that he anc
Mrs. Arnold watched a Spoonbill ( Platalea l. leucorodia) feeding or
a mudflat in the Torridge Estuary near Bideford on June 22nd anc
23rd, 1942. He was informed that the bird had been seen a few
days before lower down the Estuary.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

59

Goosander Breeding in Dumfriesshire. — Mr. O. I. Pullen
has sent us down and feathers of a Goosander ( Mergus m. merganser)
from a nest he found in May, 1942 in a hollow ash tree in Scaur Glen,
Nithsdale. A pair of Goosanders have been noticed in this locality
for several years and breeding was proved in 1936 ( antea , Vol. xxx,
p. 87) and probably has occurred regularly.

Black-headed Gull Plunging into Water and Submerging. —
In the Handbook (Vol. v, p. 64) it is noted with reference to this
species that “ plunging after food from the air, with submergence
of whole body or all but tips of primaries, has been recorded
occasionally.” A further case is reported to us from Stirlingshire by
Mr. J. Inglis Cameron, who on May 19th, 1942 observed a Black-
headed Gull repeatedly plunge into the River Endrick at Drymen
in precisely the manner above described. On each occasion it hovered
a few feet above the water at approximately the same spot. Once
it completely submerged and on the other occasions only an inch or
so of wing-feathers remained out of water. It remained under water
a second or two and after each plunge flew to the shingly edge of an
islet a few yards downstream to eat what it had secured.

REVIEWS.

A Hand-List of the Birds of the Sevenoaks or Western District of Kent. By James
M. Harrison. With 41 plates in colour and 27 in half-tone. (Witherby,
1942). 30s.net.

It is now over thirty years since Dr. N. F. Ticehurst’s " Birds of Kent "was
published and the present work, based largely on Dr. Harrison’s personal
experience during some two-thirds of that period, may be said to bring Dr.
Ticehurst’s work up to date for the western part of the county. It is un-
fortunately difficult wholly to approve the form in which the work is produced.
The reviewer has been moved to protest before at the production of local
faunas, which should be readily accessible to as many field workers as possible,
in needlessly voluminous and expensive forms, which now seems on the way to
becoming a speciality of the South-eastern counties. In this case the accounts
are filled out to an inordinate extent with general matter of the sort that can
be found in any good popular field book such as Coward. The large number of
coloured plates by the author must also have added considerably to the cost
of production, and it must be said with regret that these fall far short of the
standard which alone might have given some justification for their inclusion.

While criticism on the grounds mentioned cannot in justice be withheld,
the reviewer hastens to add that the local data, which might have been
conveniently given in so much less bulky and more readily available a form,
bear evidence of much careful work and are both interesting and valuable,
especially with regard to the local occurrence of continental subspecies, to
which the author has given much attention. Some noteworthy original
observations on avian parasites are also included. The author has travelled
widely in Europe and in various places introduces observations made in the
Balkans and elsewhere which, if a little surprising in a book on Kent, are often
interesting. It might be mentioned, however, that the curious appendage to
the Chaffinch’s song like the " chic ’’ of a Great Spotted Wookpecker, noted
as an individual aberration of a Chaffinch in Bulgaria, is a geographical
variant of widespread occurrence in central and Northern Europe and is
mentioned in the Handbook. B.W.T.

60

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

k\

LOCAL REPORTS.

Ornithological Report for Northumberland and Durham for 1941. Compiled by-
George W. Temperlev. (Reprinted from The Naturalist, March. 1942).

In this report it is stated the Hooded Crows, usually casual visitors to the
counties, were numerous in the autumn of 1941 and we note in the Yorkshire
Report that unusual numbers arrived in November, 1941 as well as in the
winter of 1940-41. Details are given of the Waxwing invasion and of un-
recorded colonies of Heron and Black-headed Gull, while there are many
other notes of locally scarce birds such as Lesser Whitethroat, Willow-Tit and
Goosander, some of which have already' been recorded in our pages.

Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union Committee for Ornithology, Report for 1941.

Edited by Ralph Chislett. (Reprinted from The Naturalist, April, 1942).
There are a great many notes of local interest in this report and among
those of more general importance the following may be mentioned : A

Redwing was killed on a road on June 29th and a party of 20 was seen on
August 27th — both unusual dates. The Water-Pipit appeared at Pickering on
December 1st for the fourth winter in succession. A Marsh-Harrier was
satisfactorily identified near Sheffield on November 26th and at least one pair
of Montagu’s Harrier bred successfully and a Wood-Sandpiper was observed
at Swillington on September 28th.

Natural History Notes for the District with the Proceedings of the Liverpool
Naturalists' Field Club, 1940 & 1941.

In the first of these reports there is an account with drawings of a Woodcock
carrying young as observed by Mr. J. A. S. Stendall and there are a number
of classified notes. Similar notes form the chief ornithological feature of the
1941 report.

Ornithological Record for Derbyshire, 1941. By W. K. Marshall.

Besides a number of interesting local notes this report contains a series of
observations made from a hide at a nest of a Sparrow-Hawk byr several
members of the Derbyshire Natural History Society. Of 54 feeds watched 11
were kills brought by the male, but he was never seen actually to feed the
young. The last three eggs at any' rate were laid on consecutive days and
brooding did not begin until the last egg was laid. From its commencement to
the first hatching was 33 days and from the first hatching until all the young
could fly was 32 days.

Report on the Birds of Warwickshire, W or cester shire and South Staffordshire,
I94I •

This report contains notes by C. A. Norris on geese in Warwickshire, from
which it appears that except for passing birds, few are seen and their species
rarely identified. In the classified section we note a Water-Pipit at Bransford
(Worcester) on December 7th, a Firecrest in Lickey Woods (Worcester)
already recorded in November, 1940 was last seen on January 18th, 1941,
three Velvet-Scoters visited Bittell (Worcester) in January, a Grey Phalarope
in December, 1940 at Bellfields (Stafford) and other interesting waders at
reservoirs in 1941, while nine Roseate Terns were identified at Bellfields on
June 4th — a remarkable occurrence.

Ornithological Section for Leicester and Rutland Report and Status for 194T.
(Leicester Museum!, is. 6d.

We welcome this first report -of a newly formed ornithological section of the
Leicester Literary & Philosophical Societv. No complete list of the birds of
these counties has appeared since 1889 and the section’s decision to “con-
centrate upon the more common species, with a view to establishing their
status and studying their breeding, feeding and other activities ” is excellent.
A start has been made in this first report byr listing all the birds recorded
during the year and giving a general idea of their status, and we wish the
Society' every' success in the work before it of filling in details and adding to the
list.

THE

HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS

By H. F. WITHERBY, N. F. TICEHURST, F. C. R. JOURDAIN,

and B. W. TUCKER.

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PRICE 30/- NET.

This book deals primarily with the birds of the
Sevenoaks district, but, it is to be regarded rather as
treating with the ornithology of Western Kent. It is
now considerably over thirty years since Dr. Norman
Ticehurst’s authoritative work “ A History of the Birds
of Kent ” was published. During this period some
important changes in the status of the birds of the district
have taken place and additional forms have occurred,
and these are recorded in the present volume. With the
increased recognition of continental sub-species it is
apparent that regional avifaunas of several decades ago
stand in need of revision in the light of more recent
knowledge. This it will be found, has been achieved for
the topographical area dealt with by Dr. Harrison. The
work goes beyond a stereotyped local list of birds, for,
with the author’s wide experience of birds in the British
Isles as well as on the European Continent, there will be
found in it much both of general and special interest.
The volume is fully illustrated with colour and mono-
chrome sketches by the author, depicting many species
both common and rare.

H. F. & G. WITHERBY LTD., LONDON.

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Bernard W. Tucker, m.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Contents of Number 4, Vol. XXXVI, September i, 1942.

PAGE

The Scar Rocks Gannetry, 1942. By Rev. J. M. McWilliam ... 62

Report on the Bird-Song Inquiry. Organized by the British Trust

for Ornithology . By H. G. Alexander ... ... ... ... 65

Notes : —

Greenland Redpoll in Co. Mayo (G. R. Humphreys) ... ... 73

Wood-Warbler feeding Robins in the Nest instead of its own

young (W. J. Copp) 73

Wheatear hovering (Seton Gordon) ... ... ... ... 73

Black Redstarts in England in Summer (H. F. Witherby,

R. S. R. Fitter) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 74

Black Kite and Reeves in Scilly Islands (Major A. A. Dorrien-

Smith) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 74

Flamingo in Sussex (J. and E. Tatum) ... ... ... ... 74

Breeding-Season of Common Eider (H. Tetley) ... ... ... 75

Unusual Nesting Behaviour of a Black-throated Diver (Seton

Gordon) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 75

Unusual Migrants in Surrey (B. King) ... ... ... ... 76

Migrant Waders in Cambridgeshire (J. G. Harrison and

N. W. Moore) 76

Dotterels in Glamorgan (G. C. S. Ingram) ... ... . .. 77

Short Notes : — ■

Early Yellow Wagtail in Suffolk. Height of nesting of Pied
Flycatcher. High Flight of Cormorants. Gannet ill Mon-
mouthshire. Black-necked Grebes breeding in Cheshire.
Kittiwakes not breeding in Scilly Islands ... ... ... 77

Reviews : —

Cuckoo Problems. By E. C. Stuart Baker ... ... ... 79

The Role of Territory in Bird Life. By Margaret M. Nice ... 80

K

THE SCAR ROCKS GANNETRY, 1942

BY

Rev. J. M. McWILLIAM.

(Plates 2 and 3.)

The Scar Rocks lie at the entrance to Luce Bay in
Wigtownshire, almost due east of the Mull of Galloway.
They include the main rock, known as the Big Scar and
several smaller rocks that lie about half a mile away. These
smaller rocks are only about twenty feet in height and merely
serve as resting places for the birds. The greatest length of
the main rock lies practically due east and west, with the
semi-isolated stack to the west. I have heard this stack called
the “ Castle Rock.”

The past literature of the Scars is very scanty, and indeed
almost non-existent. Gray and Anderson in The Birds of
Ayrshire and Wigtownshire (1869) and Gray in The Birds of
the West of Scotland (1871) have several notes on the sea-birds
nesting there, but give little precise information. The earliest
documentary reference to the Scars that I know of is on an
estate map of Mochrum in the possession of the Marquess of
Bute, at the Old Place of Mochrum. This map is dated 1790,
and has at the foot two views. One of these shows the
Cormorants on the “ Loch of Challochglass ” at Mochrum
and the other is entitled “ View of Bigskars and Mull of
Galloway from Mochrum Fell.” This shows very well the big
and small Scar Rocks. The name is spelt in a pleasing variety
of ways, Scars, Scaurs and Scares. It derives from the Gaelic
“ sgeir,” a rock or cliff. From time to time in the past
naturalists have visited the Scars but have published little
about them. There is a prevailing opinion that they are
extremely difficult to land on, but this will date from the era
of sailing boats, when if there was enough wind to bring a
boat to the rocks there was probably too much to allow a
landing. The day has of course to be chosen carefully, but on
four attempts I have never had real difficulty in landing.

In The Gannet (1913), J. H. Gurney tells that Robert
Service in May, 1883 found two nests of the Gannet (Sula
bassana ) on the Big Scaur, one of them containing a broken
egg, and saw a pair of old birds flying close at hand. It is
to be noted that Service died in 1911, two years before
Gurney’s book was published. I cannot learn of any place
where Service himself published this record, though he may
have done so, as he wrote extensively for local papers as well
as for scientific journals. The only place that I know where
this record appears as published in Service’s lifetime is
Gladstone’s Birds of Dumfriesshire which contains an indirect
reference to it. Sir Hugh Gladstone was a friend of Service and

British Birds, Vol.

VI., Pi. 2.

(. Photographed by J. M. McWilliam).

British Birds, Vol. XXXVI., Pi. 3.

Parts of the Scar Rocks, Wigtownshire, showing Gannets with Shags
and Guillemots, July 14th, 1942.

(■ Photographed by J. M. McWilliam).

VOL. XXXVI.] SCAR ROCKS GANNETRY, 1942.

63

tells me that Service was always convinced that he had in
fact found a Gannet’s nest on the Scars. Probably Service
did not regard the matter as sufficiently proved. The empty
nest was valueless as evidence, as the rock is littered with
nests of Shag and Cormorant, and all nests on the rock are
composed of seaweed and identical in structure. We are left
with the fact of one broken egg, apart from the Gannets
flying round. It was clearly a case of non-proven. It is very
likely indeed that Service’s opinion was right, but it does not
greatly matter, as sporadic attempts at breeding by Gannets
have been known in several other places.

In British Birds (Vol. xxxiii, pp. 105-6) I told how Lord
David Stuart and I found a young Gannet in the nest on the
Scars on August 1st, 1939. The rock is so chaotic in structure
that there may well have been another nest or two that we did
not see. It is difficult to make an adequate search when one
has to be prepared to leave the rock at short notice. The
advent of war six weeks later put such matters as breeding
Gannets out of all our minds for a considerable time. In the
next two nest seasons no naturalist visited the Scars, and no
further news appeared till the Report of the British Trust for
Ornithology , 1942, was published. This contained the good
news that aerial photographs taken by the ever helpful
Royal Air Force showed Gannets present on the rock in 1941
and 1942, so, urged on by James Fisher, I determined that
something must be done immediately. I secured the necessary
permits, the Royal Air Force again being very considerate, and
soon after dawn on July 14th, with the assistance of my friend
George Downie, I landed on the Scars. It is difficult to make
an exact count of the nesting Gannets as one is unwilling to
disturb them unduly, but I would put the number of nests
that I saw at certainly twenty, and probably twenty-five.
They were in three little groups on the edge of the cliffs,
round the highest point of the rock. I secured the necessary
photographs, showing old and young, and left the rock after
about two hours. I have been told that a count of Gannets a
few weeks earlier showed about forty nests, but the discrepancy
may partly be due to the fact that some eggs were taken on
that occasion. The exact number of nests does not of course
matter in the least as it is clear that the colony must have
increased up to the present solely by fresh arrivals from some
other place, most likely Ailsa. We cannot hope to have
Gannets nesting on the Scars that were themselves bred there
till next year at the earliest. The solid fact is that we have
here a new Gannet colony that has made a very successful
beginning and has every chance of being permanent. The
Scars would easily support hundreds of Gannets, and parts
of the rock, especially the stack, are practically inaccessible.

64

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

I saw Gannets sitting, apparently not on nests, on the stack.
I would suggest to everyone, including those who live in the
neighbourhood, that as there are only about twenty Gannet
colonies in the world these birds should be given a fair chance
till they have consolidated their position. I only saw one
immature Gannet near the rock. It is useless to speculate
whether this may be the bird that was first bred on the rock
and was photographed for British Birds in 1939.

Many sea-birds of other species nest on the Scars. The place
is littered with nests of Shag and Cormorant. There are
thousands of Guillemots, and some Razorbills. There are
many Kittiwakes and Herring-Gulls. I saw no Fulmars
beside the rock, but I saw one a few miles away. Manx
Shearwaters, very likely from Rathlin, are usually to be seen
in the neighbourhood. In 1939 Lord David Stuart saw a
Rock-Pipit on the Scars. I have been told that about twenty
years ago a Peregrine nested on the very highest point. There
is no vegetation whatever on the rock, so it has no nesting sites
for Puffin or Manx Shearwaters. But pre-occupation with
photography, and the necessity of keeping an eye on the
weather, have prevented me from making what could be
regarded as a complete survey of the birds of the Scar Rocks.

The three photographs show clearly enough the distribution
of the nesting Gannets. The two close views, one of them
facing towards Drummore, represent different groups. These
photographs show a remarkable mixture of species, and I saw
no trace of antagonism between them. As the rock is not
large it should be possible in some future year to photograph
again the exact sites that are shown here. It is very likely that
the Gannets may drive the other birds from the section that
they now occupy, but prophecy in such matters is futile. At
any rate it is to be hoped that the Big Scar will long continue
to be a “ sulisgeir”, a Gannet rock.

REPORT ON THE BIRD-SONG INQUIRY

ORGANIZED BY THE
BRITISH TRUST FOR ORNITHOLOGY

BY

H. G. ALEXANDER.

Introduction.

The inquiry into the song-periods of common British birds
covered three seasons : August, 1937 to July, 1938, August,
1938 to July, 1939, and August, 1939 to July, 1940. In the first
two years observers were asked to note the songs of Mistle-
Thrush, Song-Thrush, Blackbird, Chaffinch, Yellow Bunting
and Sky-Lark. For the third year the Song-Thrush was
continued, but instead of the other five species the Robin,
Hedge-Sparrow, Wren, Willow-Warbler and Wood-Pigeon
were chosen.

Observers were asked to record song in the following manner:
if they only heard scraps of song or sub-song they were to
enter “S’', if a few of the species were in good song they were
to enter “ F,” if song seemed to be general they were to enter
“ G.“ After the first year, in order to try to get more accurate
estimates of the volume of song, it was suggested that + and —
signs might be used with these letters. Several observers did
this. But it seems that the method of deciding between
S, F and G was very variable among different observers. I
have not found it possible to make any use of the J- and —
signs. They have, however, served as a useful indication of
careful and reliable observation.

A second column was provided for daily notes on the
weather, especially frost and snow. This column was
thoroughly used by some observers, very scantily by others.
They were asked to put a cross for any date on which they
were prevented from making observations. Absences from
home on holiday have been duly indicated in this way, and a
few observers have also put a cross against single days of
absence or preoccupation. Unfortunately a few observers have
admitted that their observations were erratic, but have left
a great many days blank without indicatihg whether this was
due to lack of bird-song or lack of observation. Such charts
are rather worse than useless.

Observers were asked to indicate whether they had one,
few or many birds under observation. It would have been
useful if they had been asked in every case to give as exact a
number as possible of the number of singing birds of a species
under daily observation. A few observers did this, without
having been asked. It has proved to be a great help. They
were also asked to say whether their hours of observation were

66 BRITISH BIRDS. [vol. xxxvi.

limited, and whether they had more time for observation on
some days than on others.

Over eighty observers sent in schedules for the first season,
and a rather smaller number for the second year including
some frcm new localities ; during 1939-40, owing to war
conditions, barely thirty finished the course. Very few
schedules came from Wales, Scotland, or Ireland, though
happily there were still several from Scotland and Ireland in
the last year. Two observers sent in records from high moor-
land localities in Yorkshire, but all the other observers were
living in lowland districts. Not a single schedule came
from the Scottish Highlands or Islands, and there were
none from the mountainous parts of Wales, or from Dart-
moor or Exmoor, or from the Pennines or the Lake District.
(Westmorland, Cumberland and Northumberland localities
were all in coastal or lowland districts.)

I am much indebted to Miss Averil Morley for preparing a
full systematic tabulation of the schedules sent in for the first
two years of the inquiry. In spite of this valuable preliminary
tabulation, it has been very difficult to find any satisfactory
method of co-ordinating the results. Indeed, I have almost
been driven to the conclusion that there is no satisfactory
way of dealing with them. The difficulty arises in this way :
even a cursory survey of the forms shows such variety and
contrast in the incidence of song, as recorded by different
observers, that one is driven to conclude either that the song-
periods of the individuals within a species vary very much,
or that the method of recording suggested on the forms sent
out was unsatisfactory, or that the reliability of the recorders
was extremely variable.

There can be little doubt that all these three factors have
played a part in producing such an unsatisfactory result. Good
evidence of the individual variability of song is shown, for
instance, in a careful supplementary chart sent in by Mr. A. G.
Harthan from Sheriffs Lench, Worcs., of the behaviour of
four Mistle-Thrushes which he had under regular observation
in 1939. The cock bird of the pair that nested first, scarcely
sang at all ; an unmated cock sang persistently throughout
the breeding season from one definite area ; and two other
mated cocks sang before the first clutch was laid, and for a
shorter period before the second clutch. A little song from the
“ silent ” cock was heard at the end of November, when the pair
returned to their breeding territory. But such detailed obser-
vation is exceptional. A good many observers sent in charts
based on what purports to be regular observation, but full of
gaps showing that a species was not heard singing at all, even in
the middle of the song-period, whilst other observers in similar
localities give quite regular general song of the same species day

VOL. XXXVI.] REPORT ON BIRD- SONG INQUIRY. 67

after day; yet only one or two observers have indicated clearly
that this is due to the erratic behaviour of the birds rather than
to defective observation on their own part.

It is certain, however, that observers have also found it
difficult to decide how to indicate the differences in volume
of song. Several have said so. “ S," as indicating subsong or
scraps of song, would seem to me to be scarcely ever applicable
to either Mistle-Thrush or Song-Thrush, except in the " off ”
season, when a bird will sometimes sing for five or ten seconds
and then stop. But some observers have entered “S'’ for
these species for a fortnight or more on end, daily. “ F ” was
evidently intended. In one case, two observers living in the
same part of the same county, both of them stating that they
had “ many ’’ Mistle-Thrushes under daily observation, have
sent in such different results that the one observer noted no
“ general ” song till March nth, whilst the other noted none
after March 2nd ! One observer in north Yorkshire, who only
had a single Mistle-Thrush under observation, records it as in
better song in mid- June than at any other time. No other
observer in the whole country heard a Mistle-Thrush singing
at that time in the summer.

Such facts as these have driven me reluctantly to conclude
that some of the records sent in are rendered valueless by
defective observation. One or two observers who have them-
selves realised the inadequacy of their observations have in
fact sent in much more useful material than some who say
that they have had many birds of a species under observation
daily throughout most of the day. It has to be expected that
records of bird-song are much more dependent on variable
subjective human standards than most of the inquiries that
the British Trust has undertaken. Not every observer is
trained to have an ear that records bird-song heard each day
without a good deal of deliberate concentration. The birds
may be singing, but the recorder, though within earshot, may
not be listening — though he may think he is. Also, some
people are much deafer than they think they are.

Under these circumstances, I have felt forced to exercise a
good deal of discrimination in the value I have placed on the
various records sent in, although at the same time I recognize
how invidious such discrimination is, and how unfair it may be
to certain observers. What follows is, therefore, a tentative
and rather hesitating effort to interpret the material sent in,
rather than a final and definite report on the song periods of
certain common British birds.

I must add, however, to this apparent criticism and de-
preciation of the work done that a large number of observers
have obviously done a great deal of systematic observation,
and if they do not feel that my report is adequate to the

08

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

efforts that have been made, I hope that they will nevertheless
feel that their observations were sufficiently interesting in
themselves to justify the time and effort given to them.

Mistle-Thrush ( T urdns v. viscivorus).

Even when schedules that are either incomplete or seemingly
unreliable have been discarded, no useful average can be given
for the start of the Mistle-Thrush’s song in the autumn or
winter. Scraps of song have been recorded in every month,
though only very occasionally in July and August. A
Cumberland observer is, in fact, the only observer in the whole
country who has recorded song in July ; curiously, he noted
it on July 12th and 13th, 1938, and on July 12th, 1939. It
seems just possible that it was the same bird in both years.
August song was recorded from Bridgwater (Somerset),
Worthing (Sussex), Sheriffs Lench (Worcester). September
song is rather more frequent. Several observers note some
birds in full song in October — including localities in Somerset,
Gloucester, Middlesex and Norfolk. November song (some
birds in full song) was recorded by observers in widely scattered
districts, including as large a proportion in the northern
counties as in the south.

December song is even more widely recorded, and two
observers (one in Devon and one in Lancashire) report general
song before the end of the month. The extent of winter song,
however, seems to vary exceedingly — not according to the
geography of England but according to the birds that were
under observation in various districts — or perhaps owing to
the varying methods of entering the records. A number
of observers record the first general song in late January or
during February ; but some only record it in March. One
Midland observer records the first general song on January
22nd, 1938, but not till March 20th, 1939. Some other observers
give February as a month of very varying song, but most such
observers do not record general song until March. Both
seasons were fairly mild, and most observers have not noted
great differences between the two. So where there is a marked
contrast it would seem to be due to the behaviour of the birds
(or perhaps, more likely, because different birds were under
observation in the two different years) rather than because
of the influence of the weather.

When we come to the end of the song-period, the observa-
tions tally a good deal more closely, though here again some
difficulty arises owing to the variable use of the “ F ” and “ G ”
symbols. However, of 45 last dates given (in the two years)
for general song, the average is May 6th, with extremes of
March 24th and June 1st (omitting a few schedules that seem
unsatisfactory). Of 40 last dates for few birds singing the

VOL. XXXVI.] REPORT ON BIRD-SONG INQUIRY. 69

full song “ F”, the average is May 24th, the extremes being
May 7th and June 15th. ; 23 of these 40 “ last song” dates lie
between May 20th and June 5th. The only records for mid-
June are from Gloucestershire, Cheshire and a high altitude
(Ben Rhydding) in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The dates
in early June are fairly well scattered over the country.

Song-Thrush ( T urdus ericetorum).

Taking the first two seasons (1937-38 and 1938-39) in the
first instance, a general survey of the schedules brings out
some interesting facts about the autumn song of the Thrush.
The fact that, in many districts. Thrushes are often heard in
good song in November is well known, and that this November
song varies from year to year, and that it is apt to die off
towards the end of the month, or early in December, not
necessarily as a result of severe weather. These points are
clearly brought out by the schedules. Song of the categories
of “F” or‘‘G,” sometimes rather sporadic, sometimes continu-
ous, was recorded in November on 44 schedules. Of these the
majority were in 1938, when in many districts there was a
vigorous outburst of song ; in a few districts this was noted as
continuing right on till about December 20th, when a spell of
severe weather almost silenced every Thrush in every district.
But in some localities there were two distinct spells of song,
one in mid- or late November, the other in mid-December,
with a. comparatively songless gap of two or three weeks in
between, and for this gap there is no obvious meteorological
explanation.

It is to be noted, further, that although these autumn song-
periods are most often noted in the south and Midlands,
observers at Aberdeen and Dublin have sent in similar records.
On the other hand, some observers in all parts of the country —
south, midland and north — have noted no Thrush song at all
in the autumn. These observers appear to be mostly living in
country districts, as opposed to those whose Thrushes are
“ garden ” Thrushes. Moreover, in some country districts,
both south and north, a greater volume of song has been
recorded in October than in either November or December.
In the north of England, generally speaking, autumn song,
where noted at all, seems to be earlier than in the south ;
both in Westmorland and Cumberland observers have re-
corded " F ” song in September. •

The Christmas frost of 1938, as already noted, stopped the
song of almost every Thrush ; in some districts they were
heard again as soon as the frost ended, but in other districts
the stoppage continued until well on into January. Another
clear evidence of the effect of weather is shown in February,
1939, when a period of cold winds corresponded to a marked

70

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

decrease in the volume of song. A long drought in March and
April, however, does not seem to have affected the song of
Thrushes.

In view of what has been said, it is not surprising to find that
the period for the first “ F ” song and the first “ G ” vary
greatly. “ F ” is first recorded on 8 schedules in September,
1 7 in October, 31 in November, iS in December, 16 in January,
10 in February : these last ten include 4 from Yorkshire,
1 from Cumberland, 1 from Scotland and 1 from Ireland.
“ G ” is first recorded from 19 localities in November (none
of these in the north of England or Scotland or Ireland), 11 in
December (the only northern locality being Hull), 35 in
January, 27 in February, and 6 in March.

The end of the song-period is much more uniform. The last
“ G ” is recorded for six localities in May, 60 in June and 38
in July. The last “ F ” is recorded in one Irish locality in May,
on 8 schedules in June (4 in Ireland, one in London, one on
Blakeney Point) and on 82 schedules in July; 27 of these 82
were in the first half of the month, but in 9 of these 27 cases
scraps of song “S” was recorded later in the month. It seems
clear then that a proportion of Thrushes sing until middle or
late July throughout England, and in some parts of Scotland,
but apparently not in Ireland.

Only some thirty observers continued the Thrush song
records during the first year of the war (1939-40). But the
results, owing to the great frost and snow of January and
February, 1940, are very interesting. The autumn song-period
was very strongly pronounced ; 21 of the 30 observers record
a definite autumn song ; most of these (15 out of 21) began in
November, but at Marlborough, Arnside and the Isle of Man
it began in late September, and in the two latter localities
(as noted in earlier seasons for some northern localities) it
ended early — in the Isle of Man before the end 6f October. In
most localities the autumn song ended in mid-December, but
three Cheshire observers all recorded it as continuing till
Christmas week. By that time most of the south and east of
England were already in the first grip of frost, and the Thrushes
were silenced. There was a slight thaw between January 4th
and 8th, 1940, and eight observers in England recorded a
little song during those days, five of them on the 7th. Then the
cold returned with much greater severity, and no Thrush
song was heard in England, Scotland or Ireland during the
second half of the month (in the Isle of Man it was heard till
the 13th, in two Irish localities — Dublin and Cavan — till the
nth and the 10th). One solitary Thrush broke this rule.
Mr. A. J. Harthan recorded one near Evesham for a few
minutes each evening (only recorded as " S ”) for the week
January 20th to 27th, although the whole land was then under

VOL. XXXVI.] REPORT OF BIRD-SONG INQUIRY. 71

deep snow and held by frost. Even this one was perhaps
benefitting from artificial feeding ; but that did not evoke song
in other quarters.

The February records are no less striking, as showing the
close correlation of weather conditions and song. In fifteen
localities song was heard &r a day or two during a short thaw
from February 4th to 8th ; then the frost returned, and the
Thrushes were silenced again till the full thaw, which began on
the 19th or 20th. Twenty-three observers recorded a fresh
beginning of song on or soon after February 19th : six on the
19th, nine on the 20th, five on the 21st. These records come
from all parts of England and southern Scotland. In ten cases
the song recorded at this time was the first of the year.

The end of the song-period in 1940 was not apparently
different from the two earlier years.

A Surrey observer, Mr. Peter Michael, sent a copy of a
letter he had written to the press, pointing out that in his
experience Thrushes sing more, not less, in frosty weather
than in milder, damp weather. It is clear from the schedules
sent in that this is not generally true. Indeed, a Hertford-
shire observer records the opposite : more song on misty
frosty mornings than on sunny frosty mornings. It may be
true that in the late winter — say from mid- January to mid-
March — Thrushes will be in better song on a frosty morning
than on a boisterous or stormy one. But severe frost seems
to stop Thrush song within a very few days.

Another Surrey observer, Mr. Geoffrey Paulson, did some
very careful and thorough correlation of song and weather
in the case of this species during the season 1938-9. His
observations really deserve to be analyzed with more care
than I have found time to give to them. It is abundantly
ciear from this that Thrushes dislike wind, which quickly
reduces or stops song ; little obvious correlation is shown
between song and temperature, except during spells of frost
lasting for several days ; nor is it clear that there was more
(or less) song on wet or dull days than on sunny ones ; snow
however, stopped song.

Mr. P. H. T. Hartley has prepared a graph to show the effect
of temperature on the song of Thrushes for the season 1938-9
at Barrington, Cambs.

A schoolboy at Bryanston School, Blandford, Dorset
(F. P. Heron) had the ingenious idea of using the two columns
under each month on the schedule to record morning and
evening song (6.30-8 a.m. and 2.30-5 p.m.). Unfortunately
this interesting experiment only indicates that Thrushes
sing at both periods of the day almost equally. Holiday-
times excluded, F. P. Heron records morning song in 1938-9
on 141 days and evening song on 126 days : 68 of the mornings

M

72

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

provided general song, and 55 of the afternoons. November
was the only month in which afternoon (or evening) song
was noted more often than morning song (11 against 5).
It might have been expected that by May or June, when the
afternoon period is some time before sunset, and covers
the sleepy siesta period, the afternoon song would be a good
deal less than the morning. But throughout these months
general song is recorded on most days during both parts of
the day. His records in 1939-40 are similar.

Blackbird (Turdus m. merula).

There are very few records of Blackbirds singing between
the beginning of August and the beginning of January. A
few observers have noted scraps of song in the early days of
August — birds that are, perhaps, late in their nesting or in
their moulting ; but the great majority of schedules are
completely blank for the last five months of the year. Where
autumn song does occur, it is much earlier in the season than
the autumn song of the Song-Thrush, and much more sporadic.
One observer records “F” (a few birds singing the full song) in
September, two in October, and two in December. But
nearly all the records in autumn are “S” (subsong or scraps of
song). It is interesting to note that two of the very few
observers who have noted a fair amount of autumn singing
of this character were stationed at Aberdeen and Edenderry,
King’s Co. It can hardly be doubted that sporadic autumn
song is characteristic of certain individual birds, rather than
of any special locality. Indeed, none of the differences
noticeable between different schedules seem to have a geo-
graphical significance, except that July song, which is recorded
from many localities in England, has not been noted for
Scotland or Ireland — though it is recorded from north
Cumberland.

The main song begins in the early part of the year. “ F ”
is recorded for the first time in January on 16 schedules,
in February on 53, in March on 33. Blackbirds seem to take
several weeks to work up general song ; “ G ” is recorded
first in February on 19 schedules, in March on 76, in April
on 10 (nearly all in the first week — practically the latest
locality for the beginning of ‘‘general song” is Blakeney
Marshes, Norfolk).

[To be continued.)

(73)

NOTES.

GREENLAND REDPOLL IN Co. MAYO.

On May 30th, 1942, Assistant Light-keeper W. P. Roche sent me a
Greenland Redpoll ( Carduelis f. rostrata), which he had picked up
a few days before on the rocks near the lighthouse on Eagle Island,
off Co. Mayo. The specimen which was in a dried up condition would
appear to have been killed about May 20th. The wing measures
82 mm. and the bird is evidently a male in worn plumage. There is
only one other spring occurrence of this race in the British Isles,
viz. Shetlands, May 14th, 1936 ( Handbook , Vol. i, 69.)

G. R. Humphreys.

WOOD-WARBLER FEEDING ROBINS IN THE NEST
INSTEAD OF ITS OWN YOUNG.

In June 1942, I discovered a nest of a Robin ( Erithacus r. melo-
philus) and one of a Wood-Warbler (. Phylloscopus sibilatrix ) within
four feet of one another in Bickham Wood, Timberscombe, Somerset.
The Warbler’s nest was on the ground, and the Robin’s in a small
crevice practically on ground level.

On June 29th, in the company of a friend, I again visited the
nests. As we approached we heard the Wood-Warbler, and she
seemed much disturbed by our presence. We took up a position
at the foot of a tree, and soon saw her approaching the spot with
a beak full of flies, and then instead of going to her own nest she
made straight for the Robin’s and fed the young Robins. This
happened four times within fifteen minutes, and we could hear the
young Warblers and see them opening their beaks every time she
came near. We examined the nest she had been visiting and found
it to contain five well-feathered young Robins and one addled
egg, while the Warbler’s nest contained six quite young birds, and
one dead one just outside the nest. Each time the Warbler fed
the young Robins she stayed on the edge of the nest for at least
half a minute, frequently turning her head to watch us. We saw
nothing of the parent Robins, although we heard one in the distance.

W. J. Copp.

WHEATEAR HOVERING.

On July 19th, 1942, I was walking below a steep grassy slope in
the north of Skye. There was a moderate breeze and bright
sunshine after rain. I saw a small bird suspended about thirty
feet above the slope and on approaching it saw that it was a Wheatear
(( Enanthe ce. cenanthe). The bird was hovering like a Kestrel,
and kept absolutely motionless, using its tail kestrel-wise to main-
tain its position, and now and again quivering and depressing the
point of one wing. Seeing an insect in the grass it dived to the
ground, but at once was in the air again, hovering this time rather
higher than before. For some time it continued to hover and drop

74

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

down for the food it had sighted, at one time hovering not more
than ten feet above the grass. The delicacy and grace of the small
movements of wing and tail made the hovering of a Kestrel clumsy
comparison. Certainly no Kestrel kept more perfect station than
this Wheatear.

I do not remember seeing a Wheatear behave in this way before
and think the event worth recording. Seton Gordon.

BLACK REDSTARTS IN ENGLAND IN SUMMER.

In 1942 Black Redstarts have been reported in summer in London,
Cambridgeshire, Kent, Devon, Suffolk, Sussex and Yorkshire. The
great increase both in the area from which they have been reported
and in the numbers present — upwards of 20 were observed in
London alone — suggests that they have occurred also in other
places which have not yet come to our notice.

To trace the spreading of this bird year by year is a matter of
great interest and we are anxious to compile as complete a record
as possible. We shall therefore be grateful for information not
hitherto sent to us or published in these pages of Black Redstarts
seen in the British Isles between the months of April and August
in 1942 or previous years, indicating date, nature of locality,
numbers present, sexes where known, and whether breeding
occurred. Breeding localities will of course be treated in strict
confidence if desired. Letters can be addressed to either of us
at 326, High Holborn, London, W.C.i.

H. F. Witherby, R. S. R. Fitter.

BLACK KITE AND REEVES IN SCILLY ISLANDS.

On May 28th, 1942, I saw a Black Kite ( Milvus migrans) and on
the 30th the keeper, who obtained the specimen we have here in
September 1938, saw the bird again. The bird’s forked tail and
dark colour were well seen and we both are sure it was of the
same species of Kite that we had in 1938.

On June 4th, 1942, we had a most unusual visitation of Reeves
(Philomachus pngnax), a flock of about fifty appearing. I have
no previous record of such a visit; only a few come in autumn and
very seldom in spring. Arthur A. Dorrien-Smith.

FLAMINGO IN SUSSEX.

On June 14th, 1942, we saw a Flamingo ( Phcenicopterus r. roseus)
on the mudflats at Pagham Harbour.

We were able to approach to within 180-200 yds. and had an
excellent view through glasses. The plumage conformed to The
Handbook description of an adult, but of the legs only the “ knees ”
and the feet were a deep pink, the main length appearing pale
grey. We again saw the bird on the 17th and 18th, but being on
only a week’s leave could not observe thereafter.

When feeding in shallow water the bird moved very slowly,

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

75

generally backwards and occasionally turning around in small
circles, both the treading movement of the feet and the immersion
of the bill in an inverted position being clearly visible. It was also
seen in water deep enough to cover the legs up to the belly, so that
at times it appeared to be swimming, and on these occasions the
whole length of the neck was often immersed. At other times
it roosted for lengthy periods on one leg undisturbed by flocks of
mixed gulls, Sheld-Ducks and an odd Heron or two in close
proximity.

Unfortunately we did not see it in flight, although before finally
leaving we attempted to make it fly by shouting, etc., but, probably
owing to our being on its leeward side, this only caused it to stalk
slowly away. James and Eileen Tatum.

BREEDING-SEASON OF COMMON EIDER.

On p. 278 of “ Additions and Corrections ” in Vol. v of Handbook
is a note from Dr. B. Campbell suggesting that in Loch Sunart
(N.W. Argyll) the Common Eider ( Somateria m. mollissima) lays
at the end of April. This is fully confirmed by my own observa-
tions in 1937 on Loch Teacuis, which joins Loch Sunart. On
June 1st I saw two female Eiders, one with four, the other with
five very young ducklings. The incubation period being 27-28
days, the clutch must have been completed by May 1st at the latest.

H. Tetley.

UNUSUAL NESTING BEHAVIOUR OF A
BLACK-THROATED DIVER.

In Sutherland on June 22, 1942, I watched for some time a Black-
throated Diver ( Colymbus a. arcticus ) behaving in a curious way
near a small island on a loch. There had been heavy rain earlier
in the day but the weather was then sunny, although the loch was
rising. One of the divers, I presume the female, after a time landed
on the island. The birds had been only a few days at that part
of the loch, and no nest was suspected to be on the island, but the
diver at once began to build up with rushes the water-ward side
of what was evidently her new nest. She plucked the rushes and
laid them with quick movements by her side. Finally, lying awash
in shallow water, she plucked rushes and water-weed from below
the surface. This done, she moved a little farther out, and as
she swam she broke off rushes and threw them over her shoulder.
The on-shore wind drifted the rushes toward the nest and I wondered
whether in her mind there might be a vague idea of forming a
barrier against the rising loch with these floating rushes.

The following day the loch had risen considerably, and the water
had flowed over the diver’s nest. The divers were still near, and
I saw one of the birds climb out on to a small grassy island, about
100 yards from the nesting island, as though testing it for a possible
laying place. I rowed out to the island where she had been nest-
building, and found one egg, lying submerged in about three inches

76

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

of water. I gathered the rushes and weighed them : their weight
was 3 lbs. The green rushes had been cut off by the diver’s bill
as cleanly as though by a knife : the cuts were diagonal and not
horizontal. It is of course most unusual for the diver to make
any nest, and another interesting point in this nesting was its lateness
in the season. It was believed that the divers had lost their young
brood in a storm at the beginning of June. Seton Gordon.

[With regard to the plucking of rushes and throwing them over
the shoulder while swimming away from the nest it should be pointed
out that similar behaviour commonly follows coition in the Red-
throated Diver (cf. Handbook, Vol. iv, p. 126) and doubtless in
all species, i.e. it is an action associated with sexual excitement.
This part of the bird’s behaviour cannot, therefore, be regarded
as relating to any, even vague, intention of protecting the nest.
B.W.T.].

UNUSUAL MIGRANTS IN SURREY.

I was able to visit the Guildford Sewage Farm on a number of
occasions in the spring of 1942 and among other birds, observed
those listed below. Further observations were impossible as I
was moved to another part of the country. For practically all
months of the year certain fields are flooded up to about a foot in
depth at this sewage farm, which does not seem to have received the
attention it deserves from ornithologists.

Sheld-Duck ( Tadorna tadorna). — Three on March 21st and one
on the 22nd.

Sanderling ( Crocethia alba). — One on March 14th and one on
May 6th.

Greenshank ( Tringa nebularia).— One on April 30th and the
next day, May 1st.

Wood-Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola). — One on April 30th and
the next day, May 1st. Distinctive features of the bird were its
white rump and well barred tail and in flight the noticeably white
appearance of the axillaries. Its notes were distinctive and quite
different from those of the Green-Sandpiper. The legs of the bird
appeared quite yellow. B. King.

MIGRANT WADERS IN CAMBRIDGESHIRE.

As a result of the prolonged north-east winds in April and early
May, 1942, an unusual number of migrants appeared in the county.
Apart from large numbers of Dunlin, Ringed Plover and Common
Sandpipers, the following have been seen : —

Black-tailed Godwit ( Limosa l. limosa). — Three in spring
plumage at Cambridge Sewage Farm on April 21st.

Ruff (Philomachus pngnax). — A Ruff in partial spring plumage
was seen near Earith on May 2nd ; a Ruff in full spring plumage,

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

77

escorted by a Reeve, flew over the Cambridge Sewage Farm on
May 8th, whilst twelve Reeves were there on June nth.

Green Sandpiper ( Tringa ochropus) Odd birds seen throughout
the period at the Sewage Farm, and some were seen at Earith in
April.

Spotted Redshank ( Tringa erythropus). — One in full spring
plumage was seen on the Bedford Washes on April 26th ; another
in the same plumage was seen flying west near the Sewage Farm on
May 2nd. There is only one previous spring record for this species.

Greenshank ( Tringa nebularia). — Six came down to the Sewage
Farm on the evening of April 28th.

Little Ringed Plover ( Charadrius d. curonicus). — One was
present on the Sewage Farm on May 24th. It associated with
Ringed Plover, Dunlin and sometimes Redshank. It allowed close
approach and we noticed the yellow legs, and the absence of any
wing-bar in flight. Compared with a Ringed Plover it had less
black on the breast, whilst part of that was brown — suggestive of
a female. It behaved very much like a Common Sandpiper when
sitting. This is the first county record.

Grey Plover ( Squatarola squatarola). — A flock of seventeen was
seen on the Cambridge Sewage Farm on April 21st — the black
axillaries were seen. This is a very unusual occurrence.

Little Tern ( Sterna albifrons). — Two flew down the New Bedford
River near Sutton on May 2nd. This is only the fourth county
record. Jeffery G. Harrison and Norman W. Moore.

DOTTERELS IN GLAMORGAN.

For the purpose of identification, the following excellent descriptions
of the behaviour and plumage of six birds seen by him on the hill-
top above Clydach Vale (approx. 1,700 feet) on the evening of
May 3rd, 1942, were sent to me by Mr. D. Jenkins. “ Light brown
in colour deeper underneath, a curved white stripe across the breast
more distinct in some than in others, a white stripe over the eyes,
one or two white feathers each side of the tail. When running
which they did now and then, they reminded me of Partridges
. . . What struck me most was their almost complete absence

of fear.”

There can be no doubt that these birds were Dotterel ( Eudromias
morindlus ) on passage, a species which has not previously been
recorded in the county.

There are very few records from any of the counties of South
Wales with the exception of Brecknockshire where they have been
seen on the higher hill-tops with fair regularity in early May.

Geoffrey C. S. Ingram.

Early Yellow Wagtail in Suffolk. — Col. and Mrs. R. F.
Mciklejohn inform us that they carefully identified a Yellow Wagtail

78

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

(. Motacilla f. flavissima) near Woodbridge on February 27th, 1942 —
a very early date.

Height of Nesting of Pied Flycatcher. — A nest of the Pied
Flycatcher ( Muscicapa h. hypoleuca) in North Wales at approxi-
mately 50 feet from the ground in one of the highest branches of
a decaying tree has been reported to us by Mr. Henry Ormesher,
who points out that in the Handbook the species is described as
nesting in holes “up to 20 ft.’’ only. We feel that Mr. Jourdain’s
statement needs slight amendment, as although the majority of
nests are certainly comparatively low, this appears to be largely
due to the fact that the species frequently breeds in woods where
little if. any tall timber is present. Where suitable holes exist at
greater heights than 20 ft. there is no evidence that these are
avoided. Mr. Walpole-Bond in his Field Studies of some Rarer
British Birds states that the nest may be at any elevation, and
B.W.T. in a quite limited experience of Pied Flycatchers in the
nesting season has notes of at least two sites at 50-60 feet.

High Flight of Cormorants. — Mr. H. G. Hurrell informs us
that on August 18th, 1936, he saw two Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax
c. carbo) at Torpoint Ferry, Plymouth rise in spirals, flapping
vigorously, until they reached a height estimated to be not less
than 2,000 ft., when they headed S.E. and disappeared in that
direction. There seems little reason to suppose that this behaviour
was comparable to the evolutions recorded by Mr. Seton Gordon
(■ antea , p. 19) and the observer thought it probably preliminary
to a migratory flight, like the circling of homing pigeons at their
starting-point.

Gannet in Monmouthshire. — Mr. Allen Silver informs us that
an adult Gannet ( Sula bassana ) was picked up after a gale on a
mountain road above Llantarnam on May 25th, 1942. The bird
could walk, but appeared to have received some internal injury.
Messrs. Ingram and Salmon give only one occurrence for the county.

Black-necked Grebes breeding in Cheshire. — In 1941 Mr. E.
Hardy recorded the nesting of a pair of Black-necked Grebes
(. Podiceps n. nigricollis) at Oakmere (cf. antea Vol. xxxv, p. 112).
Mr. Hardy now states [Field, July 18, 1942, p. 77) that owing to
low water none nested at Oakmere this year, but that three adults
appeared on the gull ponds at Abbots Moss. Mr. Hardy informs
us that a pair of these had a nest, which contained two eggs^on
June 21st.

Kittiwakes not breeding in Scilly Islands. — Major A. A.
Dorrien-Smith informs us that Kittiwakes (. Rissa t. tridadyla),
which ceased to breed in the Scilly Islands in 1900 and re-established
themselves in 1937, are not breeding this year (1942), though there
are several birds about.

(79)

REVIEWS.

Cuckoo Problems. By E. C. Stuart Baker. (Witherby, 1942). Coloured and
other Plates. 25s. net.

It is probably safe to say that no single type of bird presents so many problems
of outstanding biological interest as the Cuckoo. Much has been elucidated
in recent years with regard to the natural history of this remarkable bird, but
a good deal still remains imperfectly understood. The Cuckoo problems with
which Mr. Stuart Baker is concerned are in the main Cuckoo's egg problems,
for on the many extraordinarily interesting questions relating to the behaviour
of both young and adults of the parasitic Cuckoos he touches for the most
part but lightly or not at all. But the aspects of Cuckoo biology more im-
mediately related to the egg and its evolution afford ample material for one
book and Mr. Baker’s wide experience of Cuckoos in India as well as in Europe
and his unrivalled knowledge of their eggs make him peculiarly well qualified
to write it. In discussing the evolution of Cuckoos’ eggs such a wide knowledge
is of especial importance, for a more parochial point of view led some earlier
students to quite wrong conclusions. Mimetic resemblances to the eggs
of the fosterers are very little developed in this country, possibly, Mr. Baker
suggests, owing to the Cuckoo being a relatively recent colonist of the British
Isles from the east, but on the Continent and still more amongst Asiatic
Cuckoos they often attain an amazing degree of perfection. Mr. Baker devotes
the first three parts of his work to demonstrating at some length, first that
birds do tend to eject or desert eggs differing noticeably from their own, so
that a need for resemblance between the eggs of Cuckoos and their fosterers
undoubtedly exists, secondly that in spite of exceptions or partial exceptions
which are duly discussed, such resemblances are in fact the rule, and finally
that they have been produced through a process of natural selection operating
through the elimination by the fosterers of types least like their own. If anyone
at all qualified to judge has nowadays any doubt that this is the case he could
hardly fail to be convinced by Mr. Baker’s overwhelming array of evidence,
the force of which is considerably enhanced by Miss Edna Bunyard’s accurate
coloured figures of a large range of Cuckoo’s eggs with those of their victims.

Another section deals with the mode of introduction of the egg into the
fosterer’s nest. The studies of Chance, supplemented more recently by those of
Joy, establish with certainty that the Common Cuckoo frequently lays directly
in the nests of its victims, but the observations of Livesay and Jones in
India prove that it can also project its egg directly into nests the openings
of which it is impossible for it to enter. Mr. Baker considers, however, though
the point is still unproved, that there remain a substantial number of cases
where it is very difficult to believe that the egg can be introduced by any other
means than by the bill. On the evidence available this cautious attitude
seems clearly the right and logical one, and the reviewer cordially agrees with
it. There is no theoretical difficulty in supposing that behaviour differs in
different situations, and there has been much unjustified dogmatism on this
point.

Various other subjects, such as the territories of Cuckoos and the normal
number of eggs laid in a season, which the author concludes is about twelve to
eighteen, are critically discussed, and he ends with a summary of the questions
of fact which he regards as definitely settled. In touching on more theoretical
problems Mr. Baker is sometimes less happy. For example, his view that the
parasitic Cuckoos have not been derived from nest-building forms, but have
evolved from primitively non-nest-building, that is quasi-reptilian, ancestors,
seems completely incredible in view of the position of the Cuckoos in the class
Aves. Again, his criticism of Chance’s view that the number of eggs laid by a
Cuckoo in a season is affected by the number of nests available shows a lack
of acquaintance with modern knowledge of the influence of external factors
on the reproductive physiology of birds and other vertebrates, with which
1 Chance’s view is perfectly consistent, whether in fact he is correct or not. But
these are only very subsidiary points in Mr. Baker's work, the importance of

80

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

' ^

which as a major addition to the considerable Cuckoo literature and one,
moreover, of much interest to students of evolution in general, will be apparent
from what has already been said.* B.W.T.

The Role of Territory in Bird Life. By Margaret Morse Nice. (The American
Midland Naturalist, vol. xxvi, pp. 441-487, 1941).

In this paper Mrs. Nice, whose study of the biology of the Song-Sparrow
(Melospiza melodia) is one of the landmarks of field research on birds, gives
a valuable critical review of work on the important subject of Territory.
Previous notable reviews have been those of Meise (1930, 1935), of Mrs. Nice
herself (1933), the Lacks (1933), Mayr (1935), and Tinbergen (1936). That
of the Lacks, well-known to British students of the subject, was mainly a
criticism of Howard’s theory of the food value of territory ; the others were
more general. Various definitions of territory have been given. Mrs. Nice
adopts the extremely simple and comprehensive one of Noble, that "a territory
is any defended area.” Howard was criticized by H. G. Alexander, Jourdain,
Nicholson and others for applying his concept of territory to the individual
nest-sites of birds nesting in close colonies, but Tinbergen has insisted that
“a colonial bird may be just as territorial as a solitary bird,” and Mrs. Nice
now accepts the view that there is no fundamental difference between the
defended nest-sites of such birds and territories of a more extended kind.
If territories are not primarily concerned with food this may well be so.

The classification of territories adopted by the author follows that of Mayr
with minor amendments. The following categories are recognised (British
examples are selected from those given) : a. Mating, nesting and feeding-

ground for young, e.g. buntings and many other small Passerines. B. Mating
and nesting, but not feeding-ground, e.g. various waders. c. Mating station
only, e.g. Ruff. d. Winter territory, e.g. Robin, e. Roosting territory,
e.g. Tree-Creeper. The last type comes within the vide definition adopted,
since Tree-Creepers will defend their roosting places (antea, vol. xxxiv, p. 59),
but is of slight importance. It is the breeding territories which are of chief
interest. Mrs. Nice considers that the chief function of such territory is
defence, enabling the pair to breed in freedom from interference, and in this
the very general psychological characteristic of territorial defence, that
the owner fights with great vigour in his own territory, while intruders have
little inclination to do so, is clearly of great biological significance. The
territory also often serves to bring the pair together and strengthen the bond
between them. It is now clear that many territories are of no food value,
but Mrs. Nice agrees with Tinbergen "that there are many species of Passerines
to which the territory is necessary to provide a certain amount of food” The
Lacks would no doubt consider that even this qualified form of the food
theory has not been substantiated and Mrs. Nice herself stresses that our
knowledge of the subject is still imperfect, but her paper provides a valuable
interim report on work up to date. B.W.T.

* As a footnote to the above it may be permissible to refer to a minor point on which some mis-
understanding seems to have arisen, since it concerns the account of the oviposition of the Cuckoo by
the Rev. Father (now Abbot) Home which was communicated to British Birds some twenty years
ago (Vol. xvii, p. 214) by the reviewer. Father Home observed the act of egg-laying in a Pied Wagtail’s
nest through the glass of a staircase window against which the nest was built. He described how at
the moment of laying the body “ appeared to elongate and to become almost pointed ” and how this
point was bent downwards and “ almost seemed to feel about for the edge of the nest ” preparatory
to extrusion of the egg. The writer pointed out the possible significance of this in connexion with the
introduction of eggs into covered nests, but Mr. Baker in commenting is inclined to consider “ such
extrusion of the egg, covered by the vaginal membrane to be abnormal,” since the very tender
“ vaginal membrane ” (a misnomer in any case, though the meaning is clear) would be liable to
scratching and abrasion every time an egg was laid. But in fact, so far as the writer is aware, no one
has ever suggested that such a thing occurs, nor is there anything in the communication in question
to warrant such a misunderstanding. What Father Home’s observation appeared to indicate was a
peculiar mobility and sensitivity of the region of the body on which the cloaca opens, and if the
description correctly represents the facts, which there is no reason to doubt, it is evident that the
projection of eggs into the restricted openings of covered nests, such as is now known to occur, would
be assisted by this peculiarity, just as the writer suggested. — B. W. T.

Sets of this work are now available for immediate delivery . The Publishers
take this opportunity of expressing regret for delays which have occurred
in supplying copies hitherto.

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CUCKOO PROBLEMS

by

E. C. STUART BAKER, c.i.e., o.b.e., f.l.s., h.f.a.o.u.

An attempt to solve the many problems connected
with the domestic economy of that most fascinating
bird the Common Cuckoo and its relations from all
over the world. The Author has spent many years
both in England and India studying Cuckoos. His
experience is far wider and the evidence he has collected
is very much greater than has been available to any
previous writer on the subject, and this great array
of facts makes his theories and conclusions of
the utmost value and interest.

Though soundly scientific the book is written in a
simple and straightforward style and will appeal
equally to specialists and all nature lovers.

Illustrated by coloured plates from
drawings by Miss Edna Bunyard of
many eggs of Cuckoos and their
fosterers and also by drawings and
photographs in monochrome.

Professor Sir Edward Poulton, F.R.S. contributes a
foreword.

“The Field” says —

“ . . . no book upon the Cuckoo is likely to be written that
will replace this one by Mr. Stuart Baker.”

Demy 8vo. 25/- Net.

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An account of all that has come to be known about bird
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CUCKOO PROBLEMS

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An attempt to solve the many problems connected with the domestic
economy of that most fascinating bird the Common Cuckoo and its
relations from all over the world. The Author has spent many
years both in England and India studying Cuckoos. His experience
is far wider and the evidence he has collected is very much greater
than has been available to any previous writer on the subject, and
this ‘great array of facts makes his theories and conclusions of the
utmost value and interest.

Illustrated by coloured plates from drawings
by Miss Edna Bunyard of many eggs of Cuckoos
and their fosterers and also by drawings and
photographs in monochrome.

Professor Sir Edward Poulton, F.R.S. contributes a foreword.

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ASSISTED by

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Bernard W. Tucker, m.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Contents of Number 5, Vol. XXXVI, October i, 1942.

PAGE

Song Form in the Thrush Family. By M. Brooks-lving ... 82

Report on the Bird-Song Inquiry. Organized by the British

Trust for Ornithology. By H. G. Alexander ... ... ... 86

Notes : —

Lesser Redpoll nesting in Juniper (D. Nethersole-Thompson) 93

Willow-Tits and Wood-Warblers in West Ross-shire ( J. Fisher) 93

Unusual feeding method of Nuthatch (M. Brooks-lving) ... 94

Wheatear Hovering (H. E. Pounds) ... ... ... ... 94

Hedge-Sparrow adapting Blackcap’s Nest (P. A. Adolph) ... 94

Passerines laying twice on same day (D. Nethersole-Thompson) 95

Unusual Birds in N. Lancashire (J. C. S. Ellis) ... ... ... 95

Rare Birds at Hickling, Norfolk (J. Vincent) ... ... ... 96

Coloration of bill and legs of Redshank in Down (K. B. Rooke) 97

Curlew breeding in Warwickshire (H. G. Wagstaff) ... ... 98

Prolonged incubation by a Lapwing (C. &. D. Nethersole-

Thompson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98

Reactions of Lapwings towards damaged eggs (C. & D.

Nethersole-Thompson) ... ... ... ... ... 99

Bigamy in Common Gull (D. Nethersole-Thompson) ... 99

Short Notes :• —

Unusual nesting site of Redstart. Spoonbills in Devon and
Cornwall. Flamingo in Sussex...

100

SONG FORM IN THE THRUSH FAMILY

BY

M. BROOKS-KING.

Some time ago, I read of a German Professor who stated that
the Blackbird ( Turdus m. merula) composes some six hundred
phrases every day. At that time I had not made a definite
study of the song of the bird, but what I had heard did not
seem to be in accordance with the findings of this observer.
I therefore set out to analyse the make-up of the song, and
formed the opinion that either the said Professor had a poor
ear, or that the Teutonic Blackbird has less of “ Kultur ”
than his British relative. Having for three seasons listened
carefully to the songs of many Blackbirds, I have come to
the conclusion that the form of this song is cyclic. This is
not to say that spontaneous composition does not play a part
in the bird’s performance ; but, in general, once the seasonal
song has been perfected, it will consist of repetitions, in
varying order, of a number of definite arrangements of notes,
which do not alter fundamentally, though they may develop
to a certain extent, as the song period advances.

The number of phrases in the songs of different Blackbirds
varies considerably. Many birds have a large number, though
nothing approaching the six hundred suggested by the German.
Others have a remarkably restricted repertoire. I have heard
a bird with a single phrase only, and others with not more
than four or five. With any Blackbird, while all his phrases
are not easily remembered, there will be some that are distinct,
and a recurrence of one of them can be recognised. Particu-
larly is this the case with the true musical bars, of which
many, though not all Blackbirds possess one, and usually
only one. I have made quite a collection of these little
tunes, and very interesting they are, and often very beautiful.

Examples of

-9— - -9 — *— f -f- -f —

Blackbirds' Music.

— " r r^r f f-f

ISL-f

P '1*" » " f M

_ . f- f t ■ —

f. f 1 IT-...
r— W —

— r i i u

if r ff?Tf r

f i u r — —
=£-» . ,

| 1 LJ 1 ^ 1 i

>

1 — * — f f 4fp (* — *-b»

vol. xxxvi ] SONG FORM IN THRUSH FAMILY. 83

They are sung in a major key, and usually end on a note in
the tonic chord.

It was from noticing that repetitions of such phrases occur
that I was led to believe that the Blackbird’s song is not a
mere collection of random inventions, and was urged to make
a special study of the subject. My method is to memorise
about five phrases, give a distinguishing letter to each, and
to record the number of unidentified phrases occurring
between repetitions of the known ones. A bird in full song
may give a series of some two hundred phrases without a
break. Having recorded these, I have been able, not only
to determine the percentage on the whole series of each of
my noted phrases, but also to see how far the order of their
repetition is constant, and the number of phrases occurring
between such repetitions. This has been done on several
occasions with some birds, to test the regularity of the percen-
tages ; and such extended study has shown that the bird
has favourite phrases, which are repeated more often than the
others. In other cases I have recorded a single series taken at
random from a bird heard casually. In all cases it has been
demonstrated that a form of cycle, irregular, but recognisable,
has existed. The percentages found for a typical bird are
shown in Table I. In the Table, Column i for each series
represents the percentage of each phrase on the total number
of phrases sung, Column 2 the average number of phrases
sung between repetitions. For the sake of comparison

TABLE I.

Phrases

Counted

212

58

193

102

155

Selected

Phrases

I

2

I

2

I

2

1

2

I

2

A

7

r4

8

5

I I

l6

T3

6

TO

9

B

8

IO

6

7

7

7

2

—

10

9

C

5

21

3

16

6

16

5

18

8

IO

D

6

12

7

6

8

9

8

I I

7

12

E

4

15

4

9

9

7

2

20

8

13

84

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Table II shows the results obtained from one or more counts
of different birds. It will of course be understood that differ-
ent phrases are indicated by the letters for each bird.

It is admitted that what may be to the human ear the
most easily recognised phrases may not in fact be those most
favoured by the bird ; so that higher percentages might have
been obtained for other phrases than those used. It is also
obvious that the more restricted the repertoire of the bird,
the higher will be the percentage for any one phrase. This
is the case with the bird 41/J, which sang not more than six
different phrases in all.

TABLE II.

Blackbird

41 /F

4I/H

41/1

41/J

4 2 /A

42 C

Phrases

Counted

988

893

1 15

336

93

212

Sleeted

Phrases

I 2

I 2

I

2

I

2

1 2

I

2

A

11 8

4 21

6

14

43*

I

I

30

2

B

7 «

3 26

8

TO

6

IO

2 32

9

IO

C

0 14

3 23

3

I 2

3

15

8 19

30

2

D

8 9

5 16

9

9

33

2

7 n

3

26

E

7 u

3

15

17 4

I

49

* This phrase was often repeated many times in succession.

From studying the songs of Blackbirds on the same terri-
tory from year to year, I have been able to gain some idea of
the persistence of an individual song. Without ringing, it is
impossible to affirm definitely that it is the identical bird
that is singing in each season ; but when one hears a well-
remembered phrase being reproduced season after season in
the same location, there is a reasonable certainty that it is
the same bird that is the singer. True, I have found that
birds in adjoining territories are very apt to copy the notes
of their neighbours ; but from what I have heard, there seems
to be little doubt that to a certain extent the song of the
Blackbird is perm ment. But the degree of permanence is

vol. xxxvi.] SONG FORM IN THRUSH FAMILY. 85

variable. I have heard at least two phrases from one bird
sung in 1939, 1940, 1941 (when it was copied by a neighbour),
and in 1942. Another bird sang at least one phrase in 1940,
1941, and 1942. Blackbird 41/F lost all but one of his
noted phrases in the next season.

From the Blackbird I turned to the Song-Thrush ( T Urdus
e. ericetorum). Here I was confronted with a far more diffi-
cult problem, owing to the rapidity with which these birds
sing. However it was possible to identify a sufficient number
of phrases for an analysis to be made. In this case, when,
as is usual, a phrase is repeated one or more times, I have
counted it once only. Typical results obtained are shown
in Table III, and again there is evidence of a cyclic form of
song.

TABLE III.

Thrush 41 /A 42/A 42 /B

Phrases

Counted 19S 229 205

Selected

Phrases

A 546

B

4

7

I

C

3

3

3

D

I

6

3

E

2

2

8

Note. — Percentages only are given in this Table.

There is little doubt that the song of the Mistle-Thrush
( Turdus v. viscivorus) is also of the same type, though I have
done very little work with this bird.

In conclusion, I may mention an interesting incident that
I once witnessed, which points to a link between the songs
of the Blackbird and the Song-Thrush. Personally I consider
it as evidence that the former bird is developed from the
latter. An old cock Blackbird, enraged at the intrusion
of a young cock into his territory, sang, for five minutes on
end, in sub-song, a perfect Thrush song of short repeated
phrases, after which he resumed his proper song. It appears
that this was a case of “ throw-back,” caused by the bird
‘‘ forgetting himself ” in his fury !

(86)

REPORT ON THE BIRD-SONG INQUIRY

ORGANIZED BY THE
BRITISH TRUST FOR ORNITHOLOGY

BY

H. G. ALEXANDER.

[Continued from page 72.)

Blackbird ( continued ).

A summary of the schedules shows that the eud of the song-
period is as follows: — General song “G”is recorded as ceasing
in May on 3 schedules, in June on 63, in July on 26. The
last “F” occurs in June on 28 schedules, in July on 62, some
of these being at the very end of the month, whilst some half
dozen schedules indicate continuance into August. Although
a few observers record a sudden and summary end to the
song-period, the great majority show a continuance of “ F ”
song for several weeks after the general song is finished.
Some note a few days of “ S ” in late July. It is noteworthy
that in July, 1939 a number of observers noted much more
Blackbird song than in July, 1938. Weather conditions seem
to have been responsible. A Middlesex observer noted that
the first three weeks in July, 1938 were dry; an Oxford observer
notes July, 1938 as very dry and rather cold, and adds “ birds
stopped very early this year,” and in 1939, when a good
deal more July song was noted, she records : “ most of July
wet and chilly.” A Worcestershire observer noted in the
middle of July, 1939 : “ showery weather induced general
song.” A Cumberland observer, recording much more song
than in July, 1938, notes : “ July, 1939 very wet and mild.”
Blackbirds seem to be particularly prone to sing in showery
or damp weather, or immediately after rain has fallen : some
observers have also noted that Song-Thrushes seem to sing
more on damp days (even chilly damp days) in mid-winter
than on mild dry days.

Chaffinch ( Fringilla Calebs).

The autumn song of Chaffinches is a very variable matter,
apparently confined to a few individuals, though the records
seem to suggest that in autumn, as in spring, when one bird
starts it is liable to stimulate its neighbours.

Most schedules record no song at all between the end of
July and the end of December or even January. Some
record “ S ” song on single occasions ; but in the following
localities rather more sustained autumn song has been recorded
— nearly always entered as “ S ” — which means, probably,
as a rule, a jumble of the early notes of the song, without the
concluding flourish : Newton Ferrers, Devon, from 24th
Sept, to 8th Nov., 1937 ; Bridgwater, Somerset, Oct., 1938
(none in 1937) ; Worthing, Sussex, Aug.-Sept., 1937 ; Hasle-

VOL. XXXVI.] REPORT ON BIRD- SONG INQUIRY. 87

mere, Surrey, Oct., 1938 ; Reigate, Surrey, Oct., 1937 —
patchy ; Boars Hill, Oxford, Oct., 1938 ; Frocester, Glos.,
Aug., Sept, and Oct., 1937 (frequent) and Aug., 1938 ; Rad-
burne, Derby, late Sept, and Oct., 1937, Aug., Sept., Oct.
and Nov., 1938 ; two separate observers in Co. Dublin also
noted song in early Oct. and much of Nov., 1938. Apart
from these Dublin records and the astonishing Radburne
records, it will be noted that all are in the south of England ;
but the evidence is perhaps not quite sufficient to justify
the view that Chaffinches sing more in the autumn in the
south of England than in the north.

The regular song-period of the Chaffinch is as sharply
defined at both ends as that of almost any common English
bird. The first “ F ” song 'is recorded on 9 schedules in
January, 88 in February, and 12 in March. “G” begins in
February on 58 schedules, in March on 44, in April on 7.
The last “ G ” record occurs on 9 schedules in May, on 84 in
June, on 7 in July. The last “ F ” is given on 54 schedules
in June, on 33 in July. Some observers make the beginning
and ending of the song-season almost violent in their abrupt-
ness. Chaffinches are made to leap from no song at all to
general song, and to continue for three months or so in full,
general song, and then by common consent all stop on the
same day. Such entries cannot be taken quite seriously.
They represent an exaggerated formulation of what does
certainly seem to be the case, namely that Chaffinches are
specially liable to stimulus by their neighbours. Other
observers will probably have noticed, as the writer has done,
that two or more Chaffinches will sometimes sing in fairly
regular alternation from adjacent trees for some time. After,
perhaps, one or two odd scraps of Chaffinch song on mild
days in late January or early February, three or four seem
suddenly to begin good song on the same morning. But
this can hardly be described immediately as “ general ”
song. An observer at Woking, Surrey, provided a very
useful check on his “ F’s ” and “ G’s ” by indicating the exact
number of Chaffinches heard on his walk to the station each
morning. On Jan. 31st and Feb. 1st he heard one (presuma-
bly in fairly good song, and so rightly entered as F) ; on Feb.
2nd he noted 2 or 3 ; on Feb. 3rd, 5 ; on Feb. 4th and onwards
he entered “ G ” in his schedule, and on the 7th he counted
again and reached 12. Thus, “ G ” was reached only five days
from the first song, which is remarkable enough. Once the
song-period has really begun cold weather does not seem to
affect it much.

A large number of observers record no Chaffinch song after
the end of June — some, indeed, have heard none after the
middle of the month. But several observers record “ F ”
song well on into July ; indeed, at Rottingdean, Sussex, it

88

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

is recorded as going right on till the very end of the month in
both 1938 and 1939. The other localities from which it is
recorded up to the second half of July are Hemsby, Norfolk,
1938 ; Birmingham, 1939 (nearly as late in 1938) ;West Bridg-
ford, Notts., Nov., 1938; Bebington, Cheshire, 1938; Ben
Rhydding, Yorks, 1939 ; South Gosforth, Northumberland,
1939. Oddly enough the writer, who recorded Chaffinches
singing well into July in Birmingham in both seasons, also
heard several singing well at Tring, Herts, on July 18th, 1938,
though none of the four Hertfordshire observers noted any
after the end of June.

Lest it should appear from all this that Chaffinches are
very well-behaved, methodical birds, that sing to rule, the
observations of Mr. S. V. Wild at Timperley, Cheshire, should
be recorded. Mr. Wild had only three birds under
observation, and his time of daily observation was restricted
to before 9 a.m. and after 6 p.m. except on Saturday and on
Sundays ; even so, the treatment accorded him by his three
Chaffinches is surprising. On Feb. 16th and 17th, 1938 he
recorded “ S ” song ; during the remainder of the month he
recorded "F” on two days (consecutive) and “ G ” once ; the
other 8 days were blank. In March he recorded “ S ” once,
“F”six times, “G” eight times ; the other 18 days were blank.
In April he recorded “F” eight times, “G” twice; the
other 20 days blank. May, “F” twelve times, “G” five
times, 14 blank. In June “ F ” on the 1st, and then no more !

Yellow Bunting ( Emberiza c. citrinella).

The Yellow Bunting schedules are disappointing. One
observer has helpfully observed : “ No attention should be
paid to negative evidence on this sheet.” Several others
might apparently have said the same. Few observers seem
to have been living in daily contact with Yellow Buntings.
One feature of the song-period of the Yellow Bunting that
distinguishes it from all other British song-birds is the fact
that, on hot summer days (or wet summer days for that matter)
in July and the first part of August, Yellow Buntings sing
persistently from every alternate bush and telegraph-post
over great stretches of open country, at a time when nearly
all other birds are silent. Yet no more than twenty-one
schedules, out of nearly sixty sent in, record general song in
autumn at all. Eighteen others record some amount of
“ F ” song in August. A good proportion of these schedules
are spoilt at this season by the observer’s absences on holiday ;
but some observers seem to have attended to the form of
the schedule instead of paying attention only to their ears.
Because the schedules ended with July 31st they seem to
have felt that song from any bird in August should be entered
as “ F” or “ S.”

VOL. XXXVI.] REPORT ON BIRD-SONG INQUIRY. 89

General song in early August was recorded from Wilts,
Hants, Surrey, Herts, Berks, the coast of Norfolk (two years),
Worcs., Denbigh, Leics. (two years), Cheshire (two years in
each of two localities, one in two others), Lancs, (two years),
Westmorland and Cumberland.

Analysis of the more complete schedules shows that the
first “ F ” song is recorded on 12 in February, 7 in March, and
1 in April. General song is first recorded 6 times in February,
7 times in March, and 4 times in April. The last general
song is recorded on 13 schedules in August, and on one in
September. “ F ” song is last recorded 18 times in August,
and twice in September.

Eight observers have noted autumn song. In most cases
this is only “ S ” song on a single day in late September or
October ; but a Cheshire observer noted " S ” song ten times
and “ F ” once between Oct. 23rd and Nov. 18th, 1938 ;
and a Cumberland observer recorded “ F ” song ten times
between Oct. 28th and Nov. 24th, 1938. Neither observer
has recorded the weather conditions during that period.

Sky-Lark ( Alauda a. arvensis).

Sky-Larks have a strongly pronounced autumn song, and
this is well shown by the schedules sent in. Thirty-four
record song in September, usually towards the end of the
month, fifty-eight in October, forty-eight in November, and
sixteen in December. General song was rarely recorded in
the autumn, but “ F ” song was very commonly recorded,
especially in October and November. Two observers sent
in schedules from high altitudes in Yorkshire in each of the
two years (1937-8 and 1938-9). One of these was from the
high ground between Wensleydale and Swaledale, 800 to
1,000 ft., the other from Ben Rhydding, Ilkley, 650 ft. The
Wensleydale observer noted no autumn song at all, but in
1939 a Lark sang on Jan. 9th, so it seems clear that some
spend the winter in the area, unless driven off temporarily
by snow. At Ben Rhydding one was heard in song in Novem-
ber, 1937, but otherwise no song was heard till early February
in either season. December and January were comparatively
blank in all schedules. In very mild seasons, in many parts
of England, Sky-Larks may be heard in good song at almost
any time in December or January ; but although neither of
the seasons under consideration was severe, conditions do
not seem to have been favourable enough for anything
approaching continuous song in any part of the country.

Spring song was recorded as beginning (that is to say
“ F ” — one or more birds in good song) in 28 schedules in
January, 33 in February, 4 in March. General song is
recorded on 9 schedules in January, 27 in February, 19 in
March, 1 in April. The April record is from a competent

90

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

observer in Hertfordshire (in 1939) who was able to observe the
whole day, and who reports having “ many ” Larks under
observation. Yet there are only 35 entries of any song at
all ; one on Jan. 23rd, the next on Feb. 22nd, the last July
31st ; song is only recorded on 5 days in March ; there are
twelve songless days (interspersed with “ G’s ”) in April
and twenty-four songless days in May (interspersed with
“ G’s ”) ; also nine songless days in June. On nine days in
April and eighteen in June the observer was absent from the
district. The same observer recorded a good number of
songless days in 1938, especially in April, but in that year
general song had first been heard on March 10th. Chipper-
field Larks seem rather lacking in vitamins. Other Hertford-
shire Larks behave normally.

In good Lark districts, such as the Sussex Downs, full song
continues until late July or even to the very end of the month.
A Rottingdean observer noted it on Aug. 1st and 2nd, 1937,
and also records general song on every day in July, 1939.
In 1938 the song-period ended a little earlier in that locality,
with general song ending on July 24th, and eight days of “ F”
song noted in the days that followed, concluding with August
4th. The observer at Christchurch, Hants, recorded general
song on every day in July, 1938, but did not hear any song,
not even a “ scrap ” in August of the same year, nor in August
1937. Such close observation of the calendar (or of the end
of a schedule) on the part of the Christchurch Larks seems to
require further explanation, but none is offered. In 1939
general song did not extend after July 3rd at Christchurch,
but “ F ” was recorded on a good many subsequent days,
ending on the 23rd. There are a few records of late July
and even early August song from the north of England as
well as the south. One of these is the Wensleydale record,
from 1,000 ft. high. Only two or three schedules came from
either Scotland or Ireland. Only one of these, from Dal-
' beattie, Kirkcudbrightshire, shows any autumn song, and
none show any song after the first week of July ; but they
are too few to be taken as representative.

The records for the following five species refer only to the
year 1939-40.

Robin ( Erithacus rubecula).

In a normal year, Robins are in good song in many parts of
the British islands in every month except July. And in
London they apparently sing also in that month. Mrs. Rait
Kerr has sent in song schedules for all the birds to be heard
at St. John’s Wood. Her record for the three Thrushes and
the Chaffinch are not very different from those sent in from
other localities ; but the Robin charts, based on the song
of seven individual birds, are quite distinct. In the first
place, apart from three days in August (one of them entered

vol. xxxvi ] REPORT OF BIRD -SONG INQUIRY. 01

as general song) and one in October, no autumn song was
noted. None were heard during the severe weather of January
and February when (as will be seen shortly) a good many
localities showed sporadic song. It might have been supposed
that Robins would do better in London in severe weather
than elsewhere. The spring song accordingly began on Feb.
19th, but instead of ending in June, as in nearly every other
recorded district, song (either “ F ” or " S ”) was recorded
on 17 different days in July.

Many schedules record general Robin song throughout
much of the autumn. Seventeen observers enter “ G ” at
least once for August, and three or four give this as the normal
evaluation for the song heard at the end of August, in Septem-
ber and in October ; but by November some observers have
dropped to “ F.” Others continue to record general song
throughout November, whilst one at Oxford records “ F’s ”
and “ S’s " in late October but then reverts to “ G's ” for
November. Weather is recorded on this chart as cold from
Oct. 18th, but milder from Nov. 1st. Seven observers,
however, though recording frequent or regular autumn song,
use the letter “ G ” rarely or never during that season. Five
of these seven records are from the north Midlands :
Birmingham, Leicester, Derby and two in Cheshire ; a
sixth is from the Isle of Man ; from another Cheshire locality,
however, and from Shrewsbury, south Westmorland, north
Cumberland, south Northumberland, Renfrew, Stirling,
Dublin and Mayo autumn " G’s ” are frequent, so it may be
the method of recording rather than the locality that causes
the difference. Some of the schedules with frequent “ G’s ”
have as many gaps — songless days — as those that record
“ F ” or “ S ” throughout the autumn.

The severe winter makes its mark on all schedules, but
not quite as strikingly as on the Thrush charts. At Burnham
(Somerset) Robin song was recorded on no less than 13
January days (compared with only 7 in the less cold month
of December) ; on Jan. 7th — during the one short thaw of
the month — general song was recorded. Evesham recorded
general song on Jan. 7th and 8th. In the Burnham district
general song was noted regularly in February from the 4th
onward, though with a decrease to “ F ” from the 10th to
14th, during another very severe spell. Similarly Eastbourne
gives ten song-days in January, and song is recorded for every
day in February except the 13th (though this recorder seems
to have suffered from the curious aberration that February
has only 26 days, whereas in 1940 it had 29). Barrington,
Cambs., also gives ten song-days in January. In a good
many districts, however, song was very irregular until the
real thaw of Feb. I9th-2ist. From then on general song is
recorded in all districts, the last “ G ” entry from three

92

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

localities being in April, from eight in May, and from eleven
in June. Two of the early records of diminution are specially
interesting. At Evesham the last “ G " record was for
April 30th, then after three days of less song a complete stop-
page is recorded from May 4th to 19th ; after that song is record-
ed as follows : “ F ” on each day from May 20th to June 2nd,
“ F ” or “ S ” on twelve other days in June and " S ” on the
first four days of July. No correlation with special weather or
breeding-conditions is suggested. At Shrewsbury, similarly,
no song was recorded between April 30th and May 16th
except “ S ” on May nth and 12th. Indeed, in this case
all April is recorded as rather spasmodic, with songless days
on the 1st, 3rd, 7th, nth, 17th, 18th, 24th and 25th, and no
general song after the 21st. March had had general song on
every day. A revival of song is noted here too in late May,
“ F ” being recorded from the 17th to the 24th inclusive.
But June has nothing but three “ S ” records in the middle.

Mr. A. J. Harthan, the Evesham recorder, is out and about
all day ; Mr. L. C. Lloyd, of Shrewsbury, has the business
man’s hours of observation. One wonders whether either
of them had taken the “ dawn chorus ” into account. But
however that may be, this evidence of a silent time among
some Robins (Mr. Harthan was observing “ many,” Mr.
Lloyd “ about a dozen ”) seems to require further investiga-
tion. Miss O. S. Wilshere, near Leicester, and Mr. W. S.
Cowin, in the Isle of Man, also note a considerable falling
off in Robin song in early May, and Miss Wilshere records a
revival of song from May 24th to June 2nd.

A number of other observers give particulars indicating
that this tendency is not general. Thus, Mr. F. P. Heron,
at Bryanston School, Dorset, recorded Robins, like Thrushes
and other species, morning and evening. In May he recorded
“ G ” on five mornings and “ F ” on 15, most of the gaps
being in the first half of the month ; in the evenings he recorded
“ G ” on five days (only once the same as a morning “ G ”)
and “ F ” on 13 ; there were three wholly songless days,
the 3rd, 7th and 9th. Mrs. Woodd, at Eastbourne, recorded
“ G ” on every day till May 12th, but noted a songless period
from May 20th to June irth. Mrs. Hall’s records, from
Dublin, are very much the same. Fifteen observers spread
all over the country, recorded “ G ” or “ F ” song (several
gave ” G ” for every day) throughout May. Not only various
observers scattered about England, but also Mr. F. J . Ramsey
at Killarchan, Renfrew, and Major R. F. Ruttledge, at
Ballinrobe, Co. Mayo, found song general till nearly the middle
of June.

(To be continued).

(93)

NOTES.

LESSER REDPOLL NESTING IN JUNIPER.

On May 25th, 1942, Mr. Arthur Whitaker discovered a typical nest of
Lesser Redpoll ( Carduelis f. cabaret) some five feet above the ground in
a juniper bush in Inverness-shire. It was impossible that day to
watch back the parents although the nest contained young at least
a week old. On May 27th, however, we returned at 10.30 p.m.
and watched the hen brooding, so night-covering of the young
evidently continues until a late stage in fledging. There were no
traces of egg-shells in the nest, but faecal-sacs had evidently, in
some cases, been carried only a very short distance from it although
the cup was quite clean. D. Nethersole-Thompson.

WILLOW-TITS AND WOOD-WARBLERS
IN WEST ROSS-SHIRE.

According to the Handbook (Vol. i, page 267) the Willow-Tit
(. Parus a. kleinschmidti) has been recorded as breeding in Moray,
Inverness and East Ross, but not recently, and has been absent
from Sutherland and Caithness. From West Ross breeding has
only been recorded once ( Handbook , Vol. v, page 264), at Loch
Maree in about 1921.

The Handbook further states (Vol. ii, page 16) that the Wood-
Warbler ( Phylloscopus sibilatrix) is unknown as a breeding species
north of Loch Broom on the west side of the highlands. The following
note on the presence of these two species in west Ross-shire may
therefore be of interest.

Around the shores of the many inland lochs just north of Loch
Broom, in Coigach and the Inverpolly Forest, are many patches of
ancient birch woods. In one of these on the south side of Loch
Dome na h’Airbhe, due north of Stac Polly, I found a family party
of Wood-Warblers and a family party of Willow-Tits on August 9th,
1942. The Willow-Tits were evidently a pair of adults with their
brood. My attention was first drawn to them by the “ eez-eez-eez ”
— note No. 1 of the Handbook (Vol. i, page 266). I also heard them
utter “ zit-zit-zit ” — Note 2. I had a very good sight of one adult in
excellent light. The light sides of the neck were more yellowish
than I thought usual, but this may have been due to the effect of
low sunlight. I also got very close to the Wood-Warblers, which
consisted of one adult and three or four young.

Farther west, along the west side of the loch, and in an extension
of the birch woods down the gorge of the Polly river, I met another
family party of Willow-Tits, and heard a third calling to each other
among the trees. Dr. T. G. Longstaff informs me that he has also
seen Willow-Tits in this area.

While there is no absolute proof that these Willow-Tits and Wood-
Warblers had produced their broods in this particular birch wood,

94

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

their presence indicates that they may well be found breeding in this
part of the north-west Highlands ; there is a fair amount of suitable
birch wood habitat, scarcely explored by naturalists, in which the
birds may have remained unnoticed for years. James Fisher.

UNUSUAL FEEDING METHOD OF NUTHATCH.

On August 29th, 1942, I watched a Nuthatch (Sitta e. affinis)
engaged in what seemed to me to be an unusual method of feeding.
Having taken up its position on the top of a fruit cage, right in
the open, the bird proceeded to catch insects (winged ants, I believe),
by darting into the air after them, in exactly the manner of a
flycatcher. After about twenty minutes I had to leave, but when
I returned nearly an hour later, the bird was still hunting in the
same way.

A family of Spotted Flycatchers ( Muscicapa s. striata) had used
the same cage as a hunting station previously, but they were not
present to instruct the Nuthatch on this occasion.

M. Brooks-King.

WHEATEAR HOVERING.

With reference to Mr. Seton Gordon’s note on the hovering of the
Wheatear ( antea , p. 73) on July 2nd, 1941, in central Wales, I had
a similar experience. I was descending a long grassy slope which
on one side dropped steeply to a mountain stream bisecting the
valley when I noticed a Wheatear, some distance ahead, alternately
hovering and dropping to the ground. Each time it picked some-
thing off the grass, and each time varied the elevation at which
it hovered but on no occasion, as far as I could judge, did it do so
higher than twelve to fifteen feet though I watched it, through
glasses, for several minutes. The bird’s wings beat rapidly, its
tail was fanned and closed and used in Kestrel-fashion to maintain
position, and, on detecting food, the bird at once dived to the ground
to rise again almost immediately. There was a fresh north-westerly
breeze at the time, and the performer remained suspended against
it above a point where a small rocky outcrop showed through a
patch of closely-cropped turf on the far side of which was a fairly
steep drop. It appeared to me to be a case of wind-deflection
hovering. I have, moreover, vivid recollections of seeing Wheat-
ears hover for briefer periods at altitudes of fully thirty feet, when
disturbed in the nesting-season as I made my way along the steep
boulder-strewn sides of dingles in remote parts of the Principality
where, as is well-known, this species finds congenial summer-
quarters. Hubert E. Pounds.

HEDGE-SPARROW ADAPTING BLACKCAP’S NEST.

On June 21st, 1942, I saw a male Blackcap ( Sylvia a. atricapilla )
building a nest in a wood near Langton Green, Kent, and
incidentally singing at the same time.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

95

On the 28th the nest was half built and the Blackcap was singing
nearby, while on July 2nd it was completed and was a typical
Blackcap one attached to blackberry stems, but contained no eggs.
The male Blackcap was close to it but not singing.

I visited the nest again on the 5th and to my surprise it contained
an egg of a Hedge-Sparrow ( Prunella m. occidentalis). The nest
had had moss added to the base and also was lined with moss.

On the 8th it contained four Hedge-Sparrow’s eggs and the bird
was sitting. On the last two dates I saw no sign of the Blackcap.

P. A. Adolph.

[Cases of Hedge-Sparrows building inside nests of other birds
have been recorded, but the above instance of the nest itself being
adapted seems unusual. Mr. Adolph kindly sent the nest for our
examination and it is clear that the Hedge-Sparrow not only lined
it but also forced moss through the base, perhaps to get additional
depth. — Eds.]

PASSERINES LAYING TWICE ON SAME DAY.

To Major W. M. Congreve’s notes on this subject ( antea p. 55), the
following records may usefully be added. I have twice known
Long-tailed Tits ( Aegithalos c. rosaceus ) and a Goldcrest (Regulus
r. anglorum), at least once, to lay two eggs within twenty-four
hours, and Mr. D. W. Musselwhite has several records of Blue Tits
(Parus c. obscurus) having done so. In addition it may be recalled
that Miss W. M. Ross ( antea Vol. xxv, p. 102) recorded the laying
of two eggs by a Tree-Creeper ( Certhia f. britannica) between 4 p.m.
and 11 a.m., and Mr. S. Lewis noted that a Blackbird ( Turdus
m. merula) laid twice between morning and 7 p.m. ( antea Vol.
xxxv, p. 82).

The Redwing record cited by Major Congreve is of special interest
to me as I have known a Mistle-Thrush ( Turdus v. viscivorus)
to lay late in the afternoon, and, according to Mr. J. H. Owen
(anteaV ol. xiii, p. 23), both this species and Song-Thrush {Turdus
e. ericetorum) may lay at any time during the day. Further precise
information on the times of laying of passerines would be invaluable
although a considerable amount of data is already available.

D. Nethersole-Thompson.

UNUSUAL BIRDS IN N. LANCASHIRE.

On a wet North Lancashire moss in spring and summer 1942, the
following species have been observed. The moss consists very
largely of dense growth of the great reed ( Anindo phragmites)
but there is a considerable area of open water also, the total acreage
of the whole being in the neighbourhood of 400 aopes.

Reed-Warbler ( Acrocephalus s. scivpaceus). — A male of this
species appeared on May 30th and was frequently heard singing
until the end of July, but as no female was seen and the bird moved
about a good deal it was presumed that breeding did not take place.

96

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Marsh-Harrier ( Circus ce ceruginosus) . — On July 18th a large
brown bird was seen quartering the reed beds, its buff head heavily
streaked with brown contrasting well with the dark chocolate of
the mantle. Some of the wing-coverts were edged more or less
broadly with buff but apart from its great spread of wing far the
most conspicuous character in flight was the long square tail.

From the foregoing description it will be seen that the bird was
an immature one — probably in its first summer. It was still
present on August 12th.

Garganey ( Anas querquedula). — On May 9th a pair of these
birds appeared and were seen on subsequent dates into June, and
it is possible that they have bred, but owing to the denseness of the
vegetation accurate observation has not been possible and no
young have been seen.

Wigeon (Anas penelope). — On May 18th the behaviour of a pair
attracted attention, both birds being seen feeding together in a
small pool, and from then up to June 1st the drake was seen swim-
ming about off a particular reed bed alone. On June 3rd, however,
the duck re-appeared and on subsequent occasions the pair were
seen together. It seems possible that she nested and lost her eggs
to Jays or Magpies which were plentiful.

Pochard ( Aythya ferina). — On May 23rd a female was watched
with a family of nine ducklings, seven of which survived to reach
juvenile plumage. The Pochard also bred in this moss in 1941.

Tufted Duck (A. fuligula). — One was seen with two ducklings
on July 25th. This species seldom breeds in the district.

John C. S. Ellis.

RARE BIRDS AT HICKLING, NORFOLK.

Squacco Heron ( Ardeola ralloides). — At Hickling, in the afternoon
of July 22nd, 1942, Mr. E. Piggin told me he had seen a bird, which
he thought might be a Buff-backed Heron.

On my arriving at the place I found the bird not far from the
edge of a pool with patches of rushes and open water. From one
hundred yards and later on at fifty yards with the help of a good
telescope I could see it was an adult Squacco Heron. The first
thing that struck me was the black tip of its bill. The
black was cut off sharply and well defined, and the base of the bill
looked a bluish-grey. The crest plumes extended well on to the
mantle, and as the bird turned the wind blew them across to one
side. The general colour of the bird was a golden fawn as it stood
or moved slowly amongst the rushes, but when eventually it rose
it looked very white.

It was feeding on insects, which it watched as a Bittern does and
every now and then swiftly thrust out its bill to take them. It
flew off to one of our duck resting places, which is very reedy, and
there we left it in peace. It remained in the area, and was last
^ecn on July 27th.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

!)7

I have only once before seen a Squacco Heron, when I had a
close view of one which visited Hickling and was subsequently
shot on July 5th, 1912, at Horning.

Solitary Sandpiper ( Tringa solitaria). — On August 1st, 1942,
at Rush Hills, which is being fed down by cattle, a Sandpiper rose
and flew a short distance and alighted on an old heap of rushes in
the water. Here it stood bobbing its tail up and down. There
was no white on the rump, and in flight the bird was not so dark
as a Green Sandpiper, but darker than a Wood-Sandpiper.

It also looked rather smaller than a Green Sandpiper. I found
the bird again near the same spot on the following day and with
glasses was able to make a close observation as it was remarkably
tame, and flew only short distances. Its size, appearance and habits
answered to the description of the Solitary Sandpiper as given
in the Handbook.

Little Bittern ( Ixobrychus m. minutus). — On August 2nd,
when going through some short reeds to get a closer view of the
Solitary Sandpiper, my Labrador flushed, and nearly caught a
Little Bittern about ten yards in front of me. The bird flew across
the water to a thick reed clump about sixty yards away. It looked
grey and black as if in adult plumage. I did not molest it further.
I have seen this species on a few occasions previously.

Jim Vincent.

COLORATION OF BILL AND LEGS OF
REDSHANK IN DOWN.

The bill and leg coloration of downy young British Redshanks
( Tringa t. britannica) is incorrectly described and figured in the
Handbook (Vol. iv), as I learned from examining young of various
ages this summer.

Nine nestlings, one day old or less, and one estimated at 7 days
were, with minor variations, the same and had bill — dark slate,
slightly greyer at base ; legs and feet — variegated, with flesh-coloured
background extensively blotched and streaked with black-brown.
The depth of brown wras not uniform and tended to fade off without
leaving a bold contrast ; the nails, joints and outer sides of legs
were darkest and webs palest, the latter with variable tinge of
yellow. At this age the dark markings were more noticeable
than the flesh colour.

One young bird at least a fortnight, and probably three weeks, old
(feather shafts appearing among down and wing-coverts extending
fin. from quills) had bill — as described above but a shade browner ;
legs and feet — dull orange-yellow lightly speckled with brown over
tarsus and joints ; nails blackish. Change in ground colour very
marked compared with younger birds and dark areas much reduced
in extent and depth.

A dead feathered juvenile with remiges not quite fully developed
(? about a month old) had legs and feet of very similar colour, but

98

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

with brown markings even further reduced to a slight brownish
wash over joints and scattered small speckles on lower halves of
some tarsal scutes giving the appearance of faint banding of the
front of the tarsus. K. B. Rooke.

[It would be interesting to have descriptions of the coloration
of the soft parts of other young waders at different ages. — H.F.W.]

CURLEW BREEDING IN WARWICKSHIRE.

For some years I had been getting occasional reports of birds seen
in the Bidforcl-on-Avon area, which could only be Curlew ( Numenius
a. arquata). In 1941 my friend M. G. Turland reported to me that
Curlew were again present, and in the middle of May we visited
West Hillborough Farm, Bidford-on-Avon belonging to Mr. Gale.

Here we saw a pair of Curlews and found a nest which contained
two highly incubated eggs. The nest was situated towards the middle
of a poor crop of mixed corn and beans. These eggs disappeared
several days later and were most probably eaten by one of the
farm dogs.

We also had reports of more birds frequently seen on another farm
approximately two miles farther down the river. We were not able
to verify this but believe it to be true.

This year (1942) Curlews again appeared on the West Hillborough
Farm and on May 24th, a nest was found in the next field and about
150 yards from the 1941 nest. It then contained two eggs highly
incubated, one being chipped , and on the next day one egg and
one chick, while on the 26th two chicks were seen running about
near to the nest.

Curlews probably bred there before 1941 but we have obtained no
satisfactory proof of this. Hugh G. Wagstaff.

[We believe the above to be the first time for many years that the
Curlew has been proved to breed in the county. — Eds.]

PROLONGED INCUBATION BY A LAPWING.

A certain hen Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus ) began incubation on
April 24th, 1942, although the last egg was not laid until the follow-
ing day. She continued to sit all through May losing two eggs,
probably to Rooks, during June. Brooding of the remaining two
rotten eggs was continued until July 20th, when these were also
robbed by Rooks. Incubation thus lasted 88 days, and it is reason-
able to suppose that the drive would have been maintained until
replaced by the flocking-impulse. It is also worth mentioning
that this particular hen was one of the most demonstrative Lapwings
we have ever known and right up to the end, when she looked thin
and ragged, she staged amazing anger, threat, and deflection demon-
strations and displays, and would even attack our children if they
crawled about “ on all fours ” close to the nest.

There is a certain amount of data on this subject scattered
through the literature, but it is clear that considerable individual
and specific variation exists.

/OL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

99

A Lapwing observed by Mr. W. J. Percy Player ( antea Vol. xx,
a. 78) sat for 40 days. A Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter n. nisus), as
-ecorded by Mr. G. H. Harvey ( antea Vol. xviii, p. 220) brooded
iddled eggs for 63 days, and Mr. F. B. Kirkman has described
row a Black-headed Gull ( Lams r. ridibundus) brooded a pot egg
for 75 days {antea, Vol. xxxiv, p. 22). On the other hand another
Sparrow-Hawk ate her infertile eggs on the 38th day of incuba-
ion (J. H. Owen, antea, Vol. xii, p. 75) and a hen Hobby ( Falco
;. subbuteo ) which one of us was watching, deserted a set of addled
;ggs within 40 days.

C. and D. Nethersole-Thompson.

REACTIONS OF LAPWINGS TOWARDS DAMAGED EGGS.

Dn April 13th, 1942, an egg was broken in the nest of a Lapwing
V anelius vanellus) which then contained two eggs. The birds
promptly ate or removed the shell remains, and then deserted.

While watching another Lapwing’s nest on May 18th we saw
roth birds furiously mobbing a ewe and lamb which had wandered
ip to the nest. Time after time the cock swooped down upon
md pecked both beasts, while the hen, with wings upheld and vibra-
ced, or outstretched and flapping, also sought to deflect the animals.
But before moving away the lamb apparently trod upon the nest
is we next saw the cock go down and fly away with something
n his bill, which he dropped in flight and then “ teased ” on the
ground. This was a fragment of egg-shell from one of the two
which we now found had been broken. The birds then rapidly
removed and/or consumed all the remains — including the well-
formed embryos— and resumed incubation within five minutes.
The remaining two eggs eventually hatched after an incubation-
period of 33-34 days.

On May 19th two eggs were accidentally broken in another nest,
and two days later the remaining eggs were found lying sucked
in the nest. This was, we believe, possibly the work of the parents
.as it is usual for eggs to be carried away by gulls or crows which
also damage them more extensively than these were.

C. and D. Nethersole-Thompson.

BIGAMY IN COMMON GULL.

On May 22nd, 1942, Mr. Arthur Whitaker and I found on river
shingle in Inverness-shire the nest of a Common Gull ( Larus c.
canus), which contained three eggs, two of a deep brown type,
and one green, which had obviously been laid by two different
hens. Three Common Gulls were scolding overhead, and a bird
was sitting when we returned an hour later.

The following morning Whitaker found that a fourth egg — of the
.green type — had been laid, and the three birds were again noisy
although only one was seen at the nest. Later in the day, however,
the trio mobbed some animal on the ground, and the nest was

100

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

found to be empty on May 25th. The presence of the three birds
on each occasion, and the laying of the four eggs in the same nest
almost certainly prove that two females were mated to one male,
so it was most unfortunate that the nest was destroyed before the
full story was obtained. It is also worth mentioning that the
Common Gull is a very scarce breeder in the district in which this
nest was found. D. Nethersole-Thompson.

Unusual nesting site of Redstart. — Mr. E. R. Parrinder
informs us that out of six nests of the Redstart ( Phcenicurus ph.
phcenicurus) found in 1941 in Cuffley Great Wood (Herts) two
were on the ground under dead bracken as that described by Mr.
C. A. Joll ( antea p. 56). There were numerous pollarded trees in
the immediate vicinity and the other nests were in holes in trees.
In tunnels under dead bracken is given as occasional site in the
Handbook (Vol. v, p. 269).

Spoonbills in Devon and Cornwall. — Lieut. R. Hewson,
R.M. informs us that he watched a Spoonbill ( Platalea l. leucorodia )
at close range at Dawlish Warren, Exmouth on July 12th, 1942.
On the 19th the bird was still there, but on the 25th, the next
occasion when he was able to visit the place, Mr. Hewson could
not find it.

Mr. K. N. Davis sends us photographs taken with a Leica camera
coupled to a telescope, of a Spoonbill, which he and others watched
near Polzeath, N. Cornwall on August 28th, 1942. The bird was-
on some rocks with Herring-Gulls and flying off on being approached
was seen on another part of the shore later in the day.

Flamingo in Sussex. — Major H. T. Gosnell informs us that the
Flamingo reported at Pagham Harbour {antea, p. 74) was in all
probability a pinioned bird, which has frequented the harbour
for many years.

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Contents of Number 6, Vol. XXXVI, November 2, 1942.

PAGE

Report on the Bird-Song Inquiry. Organized by the British Trust

for Ornithology. By H. G. Alexander ... ... ... ... 102

How a Tree-Creeper built its Nest. By Winifred M. Ross... ... 110

Notes : —

Curious Behaviour of Carrion-Crows (C. H. Cooke) ... ... 112

Incubation of the Jay (E. J. Hosking) ... ... ... ... 112

Varieties of Blue-headed Wagtails Breeding in Kent (T. C.
Gregory and Rev. J. R. Hale) ... ... ... ... ... 112

Blue-headed Wagtails in Staffordshire (H. J. Disney and
R. Stokoe)... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 113

White-tailed Eagle in Kincardineshire (Dr. I. D. Pennie) ... 113

Common Eiders Breeding in East Caithness (Miss E. O.

Armstrong) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 114

Aerial Evolutions and soaring of Cormorants (B. W. Tucker) ... 114

" Injury-Feigning ” of Wood-Pigeon (C. F. Tebbutt) ... ... 115

Dunlin Brooding Nestling Redshanks instead of its own Eggs
(R. G. Thin) 1 16

Green-Sandpiper attacked by Lapwing (R. Harkness) ... ... 117

Short Notes : —

The Handbook of British Birds. Common Buzzard in Middlesex.
Two Wood-Pigeons laying in same Nest. Black-tailed Godwits

in Carnarvonshire and Denbighshire. Black-headed Gulls
Plunging after Food ... ... ... ... ... ... 117

Reviews : —

An Ornithologist’s Field Note Book. By Sir Hugh Gladstone ... 118

Wild Bird Protection in Norfolk, 1941 . ... ... ... ... 118

Annual Report of the Oundle School Natural History Society, 1 942 1 19

Cambridge Bird Club, Report, 1941 ... ... ... ... ... 119

Report on Birds observed in Hertfordshire in 1 940 ... ... ... 119

South-Eastern Bird Report, 1940 ... ... ... ... ... 119

The Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist ... ... ... ... 120

Report of the Oxford Ornithological Society, 1941... ... ... 120

Report on Somerset Birds, 1941 ... ... ... ... ... 120

Fourteenth Report of the Devon Bird-watching and Preservation
Society, 1941 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 120

Yn Shirr aghny Ree ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 120

(102)

REPORT ON THE BIRD-SONG INQUIRY

ORGANIZED BY THE
BRITISH TRUST FOR ORNITHOLOGY

BY

H. G. ALEXANDER.

(i Continued from page 92.)

Hedge-Sparrow ( Prunella modularis).

Of the 28 Hedge-Sparrow schedules, nine record a fair
amount of autumn song, and most others record occasional
song during that season, but four — London, Oxford, Derby
and Shrewsbury — record none at all, and Chipperfield,
Herts., gives only a single date.

There is a good deal of variety in the incidence of the autumn
song recorded by the nine. In my own experience, both in
south-east England and the Midlands, August is the most
nearly silent month, and song tends to revive towards the
end of September. Several records support this, but four
do not. At Barrington, Cambs., the song was recorded on
the first nine days of August and five later days ; September
was the only silent month. This suggests an unusual
prolongation of the usual July song. So, too, the Hunstanton
report which gives song on nine days in August, and then
none whatever till February. But the other two are more
astonishing. At Croxley Green, Herts, there seems to be a
particularly lively kind of Hedge-Sparrow. They were
singing on 17 da}^s in August (10 only “ S ”), 11 in early
September (9 “ S ”), then after a short gap on 16 days in
October (10 “ S ”), 16 in November (10 “ S ”) and 17 in
December (12 “ S ”). At Dalston, Carlisle, song was heard
on 11 days in August, 12 in September, 4 in October, 3 in
November, 1 in December. That this is not typical for the
north is suggested by the record from Kilbarchan, Renfrew,
which gives these figures for the same five months : 3, o, 1,
17, 17 — a much more normal record.

As a rule, Hedge-Sparrow song is uncertain and of only
“ F ” quantity (if that) in the autumn. But at Marlborough,
Wilts, “ G ” was recorded 9 times in October and once in
November ; at Evesham 7 times in October ; and in Wirral,
Cheshire, 8 times in November and 18 times in December.
But as this observer records general song for Hedge-Sparrows
on every day in the cold and snow of February, 1940, her
use of “ G ” seems to be abnormal.

In a normal season, general Hedge-Sparrow song is, of
course, commonly to be heard in mild weather in January and
February. But in 1940 it was only recorded by one observer
in January (in fact, in Wirral, on the last five days of the
month). But fifteen recorded it before the end of February

vol. xxxvi ] REPORT ON BIRD-SONG INQUIRY. 103

(mostly in the mild weather after the 19th), seven not till
March, and one not till April. “ F ” song was first recorded
by five observers in January, eighteen in February, and only
one not till March.

Most observers record the Hedge-Sparrow as a very
persistent and regular songster throughout March, April,
May and June, but a few show periods of decrease, in some
cases followed by increase again, in late May and June.
The last general song is recorded by five observers (mostly
in the north of England) in May, seven in June and five in
July. A number of schedules are unsatisfactory at this
point.

“ F ” song is last recorded by one observer in June,
seventeen in July and four in August (of the previous year).

Wren ( Troglodytes t. troglodytes).

The Wren is more nearly an all-the-year round songster
than any other British species, not excepting Robins and
Starlings. Whether this means that the moulting-period
varies extensively with different individuals is not clear ;
no light is thrown on it by the 27 schedules sent in.

The year chosen for this inquiry (1939-40) was an unfor-
tunate one. In many parts of the country the severe weather
of January and February 1940 decimated the Wrens, and in
some districts practically wiped them out. Several observers
also noted that the survivors did not sing to any extent till
late March or even April.

Judging from Mrs. Hall’s Dublin schedule, Irish Wrens
suffered much less than English Wrens. Mrs. Hall’s schedule
is probably typical of many that might have been received in a
normal season from all over the country. With seven singing
birds under observation, she notes song-days throughout the
year (August to July) as follows : 27, 19, 28, 27, 12, 17, 22, 30,
31, 18 (13 days absent), 30, 31, leaving only about 70 songless
days throughout the year, of which 40 were in December
January and February, when the weather was probably in
large part responsible. The number of days for which
“ general song ” was recorded are no less striking : 23, o, 18,
11, 2, 1, 10, 19, 31, all 18, 30, 17. Possibly the absence of
general song throughout September has some special signi-
ficance, as suggesting the period of least song during the year.
Other schedules, however, many of which record a large
amount of autumn song, do not support this view.

At Frocester, Glos., the song-days in the autumn months
were : 30, 28, 31, 30, 18 ; at Croxley Green, Herts., 27, 29,
30, 30, 22 (17 of these being from December 1st to 17th) ;
at Barrington, Cambs., 31, 30, 31, 30, 15 (absence accounting
for the last 16 days of December) ; at Leicester, 25, 22, 16,

104 BRITISH BIRDS. [vol. xxxvi.

13, 9 ; at Derby, 27, 28, 26, 23, 23 ; at Peover, Cheshire,
16, 24, 26, 29, 17.

Mr. P. H. Trahair Hartley at Barrington, Cambs., recorded
song on a larger number of days than any other observer,
January and February being the only months with many
silent days. But he only recorded full “ G ” song on 17 days
in the whole year, and these 17 days were well scattered across
the months. (He is one of those who fairly frequently use the
signs “G — ”and“F-f” but the proportion of unqualified “G” is
much higher in the other species he has recorded). I take this
to mean, in his district, although he has heard Wrens in good
song almost throughout the year, he has noticed no season
at which all the Wrens of his district were in full song together :
can it be that breeding-season and moulting-season vary very
much with this species ?

The delay in the recovery of song after the cold weather is
illustrated from Derby, where, after a full autumn’s song, no
good song was noted again till March 31st ; from Peover,
Cheshire, where it was not general till March 23rd. At Burnham,
Somerset, general song only began on March 24th, at East-
bourne on March 16th, at Croxley Green, Herts., on March 20th
at Oxford on March 22nd. At Derby regular spring song began
on March 31st, general song not till April 12th. In London
where autumn song was very scanty, general song (from the
four birds under observation) began on February 20th — with
the thaw.

A number of observers refer to the diminution of Wrens
after the frost ; indeed Mrs. Graham, Killearn, Stirlingshire,
writing at the end of the summer, says that she had seen none
after the frost, and her form is consequently a complete
blank after December. The varied results of the severe
weather combined with the Wren’s habit of singing all the
year round (as a species if not as individuals) prevent any
useful result from an attempt to give in statistical form the
beginning or end of any song-period.

Willow-Warbler ( Phylloscopus t. trochilus).

The Willow- War bier was the one summer migrant in the
list for the year 1939-40. Twenty-four observers sent in some
observation on its song. It is probably more widely distributed
than any other singing summer migrant : even in St. John’s
Wood Mrs. Rait Kerr had ten under observation. When a
number are living in close proximity, they seem to sing almost
constantly throughout the day in the height of the season.
It is one of the species which has practically solved the problem
of feeding and singing at the same time : it does not necessarily
sit still to sing, but continues to search for food, and feeds
between songs. It is noteworthy, however, that Mr. A. J.

vol. xxxvi ] REPORT OF BIRD -SONG INQUIRY. 105

Harthan, at Evesham, observes : “ After watching and

listening for five mated cocks on sixteen acres of typical
Willow- War bier territory, I came to the conclusion that un-
mated cocks on the outskirts of the area were making all the
song.” If this is at all commonly true, the number of unmated
males must be astonishingly high.

With such a species the beginning of the song-period in the
spring is of no particular significance ; it merely indicates
the time of arrival. Normally, Willow- Warblers sing well
from the day of arrival, and some observers properly record
‘‘ G ” on the very first day of recorded song in early or mid-
April. It is the summer song that is of interest. For the
months June, July, August and September the evidence is as
follows : 18 observers record 453 song-days, giving an average
of 25 in June ; 9 of the 18 record it on every day of the month,
one on only 6 days, one on only 14 ,two on only 16. In general,
it may be said that Willow-Warblers remain in good song
throughout June. For July, 19 observers record 202 song-days
giving an average of 10J. One observer records song on 26
days, one on 24, one on 23, one on 20, one on 17, two on 16,
one on 15. General song is only rarely recorded in July — by
two or three observers in the early part of the month, and by at
least one near the end. One observer heard no song at all in
July, two record it on only one day each, one on only two days,
and two on only three. For August, 17 observers record 194
song-days, giving an average of ii| — just above the July
average. Two observers record song on 23 days each, two on
21 each, one on 20, one on 18, one on 17, one on 16. Three
observers record no August song at all, and one on only one
day. For. September 20 observers record 51 song-days, giving
an average of 2\. One observer records song on eleven days,
one on ten, one on nine, ten not at ail. Most Willow- Warblers
have left their breeding-grounds by September, and September
song is only recorded in the early part of the month, as an
appendage or tailing-off of August song.

The discrepancies in the records for June, July and August
(especially for July and August) are remarkable. They are
not due to geographical difference. The two Cheshire
schedules show a striking contrast. For the four months,
June to September, they give the following figures : — 30, 23,
23, o and 6, 3, 23, 1. The four localities giving the highest
song-days for the summer months are Barrington, Cambs. ;
Radburne, Derby ; Peover, Cheshire ; and Kilbarchan,
Renfrew. The last gives the highest figures of all : 30, 26,
20, 11. The others are : 30, 15, 8, 1 ; 30, 24, 21, 10 ; 30,
23» 23, o. All these four observers seem to have been out
and about all day and every day ; very few other observers
of this species were similarly placed. But one other who was

106

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

gives song-days of 24, 5, 10 and 9, showing a sharp difference
in the July incidence. The contrasts shown by all these
figures must certainly be due in part to a difference in the
behaviour of birds in different localities, not solely to a differ-
ence in the observational opportunities and capacities of
the observers. No explanation is offered on any of the
schedules for the comparative quiet of mid- July, except
that a Derby observer correlated the re-starting of song
about the 20th of the month with the breaking of a drought.
But there is evidence that this mid-July silence is to be noted
in most seasons in many localities, and does not depend
only on weather conditions.

Wood-Pigeon ( Columba p. palumbus).

The song period or cooing-period of the Wood-Pigeon did
not begin till late February or March (on one or two schedules
not till April) 1940, but it continued right through the summer
till late September or early October (these months on the
schedules are, of course, for 1939).

Even during the months of regular cooing, the incidence
of the song shows great variation. Some observers hardly
use “ G ” at all, and show gaps in nearly all months, April,
May and June being the months of most continuous song,
but others give “ G ” frequently for six or seven months of
the year. Some of those that give plenty of general song
through the summer show a considerable slackening in the
middle, usually in July, but in one or two cases in June,
even in early June. Others do not show this. Once again,
considerable variation seems to be indicated in the song
behaviour of birds from place to place.

The first record of “ F ” song is given by four observers
in February, fifteen in March and two in April. “ G M song
is recorded as early as Jan. 24th at St. John’s Wood ; otherwise
two observers give the first “ G ” in March, seventeen in
April, and two in May. The last “ G ” is recorded by two
observers in May (one of them, an observer at Ilkley, who
comments on its scarcity, also gives the first “ G ” in May,
and only records general song for a week in that month),
by four in June, two in July, two in August and seven in
September : the latest of these is Sept. 24th at Oxford. “ F
is last recorded by three observers in August, by seven in
September, and by eight in October. At Kilbarchan, Renfrew,
it was recorded until October 24th, and again for three days
in December (23rd-25th). Three other observers recorded
song during the winter months, but only give it “ S ” value,
not F ” : at Eastbourne it was recorded four times in Decem-
ber, and three times in early January ; at Radburne, Derby,
once in late November. November and December are

vol. xxxvi ] REPORT ON BIRD- SONG INQUIRY. 107

practically silent months in every year ; but there is no
doubt that in a mild season far more song would have been
recorded in January and February. Apart from this* no
special effect of weather conditions seems to have been noted.

One observer notes that it is the most difficult species to
classify as singing “ G,” “ F ” or “ S,” as in many cases
it coos for a few minutes off and on through the day, rather
than having long bouts of song (say in the early morning)
as most proper song-birds do. This irregularity of daily
song is no doubt partly responsible for the patchy nature
of many of the records. Thus, Mr. P. H. T. Hartley, at
Barrington, Cambs., whose observations cover the whole
day, and most of whose records of song are very full for the
periods pf general song, in the case of the Wood-Pigeon
records eight songless days in April, three in May, and three
in June ; only July has no gap ; August has eight. Similarly
Mr. A. J. Harthan at Evesham, who is out and about all day,
and had “ many ” Wood-Pigeons under observation, only
heard cooing on one day in April, and on two days in May
up to the 20th, when general song began. He has further
gaps from June 17th to 30th with only one day of song (“F ”)
on the 24th, and two gaps in July (7th to nth and
13th to 20th). His whole record is curiously patchy
as if the birds of his district sang daily for a fort-
night at a time, and then took a weekly rest cure. The
Birmingham record shows a gap of two days in mid-
March between days of general song, two gaps of single
days in April, three blank days in May, five in June, and eight
in July. The St. John’s Wood, London, Wood-Pigeons
seem to be rather less liable to these strange silent days, but
even here, Mrs. Rait Kerr noted lapses from “ G ” to “ F ”
or “ S ” in each month of full song, from March to June, and
three silent days in July. Two observers note that in the
early part of the season the song is chiefly heard in the early
morning ; but one of these, Mr. A. J. Harthan, adds that the
late summer song is mostly in the later part of the day.
There is a little support, but not much, for these statements
from Mr. F. P. Heron, who recorded song from 7 to 8 a.m.
and from 2 to 6 p.m. separately. His records only go from
late April to late July. During these months he has seven
silent mornings to eighteen silent afternoons. In May no
morning was without song, but eleven afternoons were.

Summary and Conclusions.

1. There is, on the whole, a great variety in the length
and duration of the song-periods shown in the charts sent in.
This is due in part to the different interpretation put by
observers on the symbols “ S,” “ F,” and “ G in part to

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

IDS

great differences in the opportunities and capabilities of the
observers ; also in part to the undoubted fact that some birds
of a species remain largely or completely silent when others are
in full song. On this last point there is a certain amount of
exact evidence.

2. In spite of this variety, it does not appear that the song-
periods of birds in the British Islands vary greatly in geo-
graphical incidence, at any rate as far as the lowlands are
concerned. Very little evidence came from any upland
locality. The Welsh, Scottish and Irish observations are
also disappointingly meagre.

3. The inquiry does not seriously modify any of the song-
charts published in the Handbook. In the Willow- Warbler
chart the line should perhaps be broken from the beginning of
July, and only dotted for a period in the middle of the month.
Sky-Lark and Blackbird should have rather more song
indicated in early August. Wood-Pigeon should have dots
only from Mid-October to the end of the year.

4. In spite of what has been said under 1, above, it is
noteworthy that the effects of severe weather on song are
strikingly illustrated on every chart that deals with species
that are normally in song in January and February, and whose
song was interrupted by the exceptionally severe weather
of 1940. Certain points are best illustrated by the Thrush-
charts, but they are true in a somewhat less degree of the
Robin and other species.

(a) Severe frost and heavy snow cause complete cessation
of song, and this is not modified even when birds
are artificially fed.

( b ) A thaw at the end of a prolonged winter immediately
evokes song, long before the snow has thawed or
the frost is out of the ground.

(c) The above facts seem to indicate that the main
circumstance influencing the birds is not absence
of food, but the effect of disagreeable meteorological
conditions acting on the bird’s system.

This is supported by the fact that high winds, especially
cold winds, reduce bird-song even in the case of those species
whose food supply cannot be seriously affected by it.
Especially striking is the fact of immediate resumption
of song all over the country in late February the moment
conditions of thaw prevailed. By that time in a normal
year Thrushes and Robins and other species are in full song,
spending several hours per day in song. Presumably their
physiological condition strongly predisposes them to sing,
and nothing but extreme meteorological discomfort stops it.
The moment milder conditions occur they respond witli song,
even though, judging from the high mortality in these species

VOL. XXXVI.’ REPORT ON BIRD-SONG INQUIRY. 109

in 1940, their vitality must have been greatly reduced, so
that it might have been expected that they would have too
little vitality to sing until they had recovered their normal
food supplies.

5. There is some evidence that breeding operations
interrupt song ; in the case of some individuals nesting seems
to stop song altogether ; but in the case of common species
such as those dealt with in this inquiry, either some continue
to sing fairly regularly throughout their nesting-period, or
there are enough non-breeding birds to provide a good volume
of song in all districts where the species in question is common.
Wood-Pigeon song is a good deal more intermittent than the
song of any Passerine species studied.

6. The large volume of song recorded from several species
observed — especially Robin, Wren, Wood-Pigeon, Song-
Thrush, and Hedge-Sparrow — quite outside the breeding-
season, indicates that, whatever the physiological conditions
that induce song, they are not solely associated with conditions
of sexual activity. The fact that Yellow Buntings continue
full song later than other Passerines may well be connected
with the late continuance of their breeding-season, but there
cannot be a similar explanation of the vigorous autumn song
of Robins, Wrens and Hedge-Sparrows, nor yet of the singular
vigour of song often noticed among Thrushes in the late
autumn. This last phenomenon cannot be explained by
generally favourable meteorological, conditions, either, for
in most parts of the country Thrushes sing very little in early
autumn, when meteorological conditions are more favourable.
It may be that the first beginning of the physiological change
that leads to sexual activity three months later is making
itself felt in the bird, and instantly evokes song. But this
is no more than a possible hypothesis to account for a
surprising phenomenon.

7. The observations of an observer at Bryanston, Dorset
on the incidence of song in morning and afternoon do not
indicate any great difference between the two periods of
the day in any of the species studied.

8. In any future study of song-periods it would probably
be well to ask observers to concentrate on the song of individual
birds, rather than whole species, and to limit their observations
to specified hours of the day. Such general observation as
was asked for on this occasion does little more than confirm
what is already known about the general song-periods of
common British species.

R

(110)

HOW A TREE-CREEPER BUILT ITS NEST

BY

WINIFRED M. ROSS.

For several years 1 have watched Tree-Creepers ( Certhia f.
britannica) deciding on a nesting site and often wondered
why one of two eligible sites was ultimately selected. I have
noticed that a few twigs are often placed in both sites and
that the nest takes some time to build even when the birds
are often in the hole finally decided on. On March 19th, 1939
it was obvious a pair intended to build in a woodshed, but
had not settled which corner to use. It was amusing for several
days to watch them fitting themselves into the crevices as if
to decide which was the most comfortable.

The site eventually chosen was against a roughcast wall,
between two wooden upright posts, which had bark on them.
The posts were 3 inches apart and formed a recess 2\ inches
deep with the wall as a back. The front was open so that the
whole operation of building was in full view. The nest was
6 ft. 3 inches from the ground.

Building began on the 26th with the female (?) bringing in
beakfuls of fine white material and weaving it from one bit
of bark to another or to the roughcast. The weaving was not
taken across the space but formed a fine, almost invisible
matting on each post and on the roughcast. At first we were
puzzled about the nature of this white material, but
D. Stubbert traced the bird to a dead pine tree where a mould
with long threads of mycelium was growing. The bird gathered
the threads up very cleverly with her bill, winding them round
it, and each time brought in a bunch about the size of a small
pea. On the 28th and 29th there was no work done, but the
birds were seen chasing each other round tree-trunks. On
March 30th she was very active and the male was singing
frequently. She brought in twigs of birch, mountain ash and
larch. The first twig brought in was laid horizontally from
one post to the other, one end was forked like a small catapault.
The next two were straight and were laid from the ends of the
first to the wall, overlapping each other at the wall end.
They were bound with mycelium to each other, to the wall,
to the first stick and to the posts, and formed a triangle. This
was the whole foundation on which the nest rested. The
remaining twigs were placed at every angle, some being nearly
perpendicular. At this stage in building the bird clung to the
posts or wall often with tail supporting her ; sometimes
working head down, sometimes sideways. She always seemed
to know exactly where the next twig was to be placed and
did not alter the position when she had laid it down. At no
time was she seen to settle on the sticks until she began to

vol. xxxvi.] TREE-CREEPER BUILDS ITS NEST. J ] 1

make the cup and after that she worked from inside the cup
sitting first in one position and then in another.

The two birds were never seen at the nest together but once
or twice one ( (?) male) followed very quickly with a twig,
which was placed on the nest and not fixed. The bird I took
for the female fixed it later. It is difficult to give a true idea
of the amount of labour and care which was put into the
construction of the nest. Previous to watching the building of
this nest, I had thought from the inspection of others that the
foundation was a haphazard collection of sticks.

The birds did not appear to pay any attention to me till
late on the 31st when I was sitting in the corner opposite the
nest, just beside the alternative site, which had been rejected.
The female had been working and the male singing at intervals
when I heard scratching and tapping noises near my head.
This was the male, obviously angry, witfy feathers fluffed out
on his neck and head. He tapped with his bill like a wood-
pecker within a foot of my head, then picked up twigs and
cobwebs and pushed them into the false nesting site making
considerable noise and fuss. Every now and then he returned
to peck the wood near me, uttering a harsh little rattle on
two notes. Meanwhile the female was approaching the real
nest by a circuitous route, creeping along a rafter and down
the wall instead of flying straight in.

The hen worked daily after this, usually in the afternoon
when the sun shone into the shed. On April 12th she began to
form the cup, using pieces of coarse fibre from doormatting
and the wool of some rugs. She also gathered some material
from withered honeysuckle branches. I could not make out
what this was but she picked there constantly and flew straight
to the nest. There was a sticky exudation on the branch which
might have been the attraction. The final lining was com-
posed of the breast feathers of a Bullfinch. The nest appeared
finished and ready for eggs on April 18th, but she brought in
a few extra pieces on the 19th and 20th. The first egg was
laid on the 23rd and the second and third at daily intervals.
As I had to leave home then, I was unable to follow up the
case. She was reported sitting on the 26th, hatched on May
13th and the young left the nest on the 26th.

(112)

NOTES.

CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF CARRION-CROWS.

Sometime ago my attention was attracted by the curious behaviour
of a pair of Carrion-Crows ( Corvus c. corone). They were on a house
in one of the new housing estates near London, and were engaged in
walking or half-running up and down the sloping roof with wings
flapping. Each time they descended they inserted their beaks
underneath the eaves. I watched them for some time through my
binoculars and came to the conclusion that they were taking newly
hatched House-Sparrows. Each time, they ascended the roof and
remained for a minute or so at the top eating their victims. These
birds had evidently found easily obtainable food provided for them
by the urbanisation of their old haunts. C. H. Cooke.

INCUBATION OF THE JAY.

It is mentioned in the Handbook (Vol. i, p. 35) on the authority of
E. Dunlop, under “ incubation ” in the “ breeding ” section, that
the British Jay [Gar mins g. rufitergum) commences incubation
with the laying of the first egg. That this is not always the case is
shown by the following record of a nest under regular observation at
Hickling, Norfolk, during May and June, 1942.

12.5.42. Nest found by Malcolm Nudd, ready for eggs.

14.5.42. I visited nest and found that one egg had been laid.

17.5.42. Three eggs in the nest and all cold.

19.5.42. Nest again visited and found to contain five eggs.
These were all stone cold, and no trace was seen of either
adult bird. Nest again visited during evening, still five eggs
and all quite cold. Adults not seen.

20.5.42. Visited nest at 10 a.m. (D.S.T.) and when only a few
yards away an adult Jay flew out from the tree. There were
six eggs and all were very warm.

4.6.42. Nest visited during afternoon and five eggs were found
to be chipped — adult sitting very closely.

5.6.42. At 10 a.m. (D.S.T.) five eggs were hatched, the re-
maining egg well chipped. At 8 p.m. the last egg was hatched.

The incubation period was therefore 16 days and confirms that
given in the Handbook. Owing to the similarity of the sexes it was
not possible to determine whether incubation was performed by
both cock and hen. Eric J. Hosking.

VARIETIES OF BLUE-HEADED WAGTAILS
BREEDING IN KENT.

On May 25th, 1942 one of us (T. C. G.) came across in south-west
Kent not far from the sea, a small colony of at least five pairs of
Blue-headed Wagtails ( Motacilla flava), the males of which, as will
be seen from the descriptions following, varied in type. There were
no typical Yellow Wagtails (M . f. flavissima) amongst them though
there were several pairs in adjoining meadows.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

113

Late in June we both visited the place and found the nest with
six eggs of the bird described below as (i) with a very pale crown
like a Sykes’s Wagtail. The eggs compared with a series of those of
the Yellow Wagtail are slightly larger and more mottled. The
nest was similar both in materials and position to a Yellow Wagtail’s.

The following is a description of three of the males, which T. C. G.
saw together at close range several times and so had good
opportunity of comparing.

(1) Head, : very light lavender-grey with white eye-stripe, very broad

behind the eye, and white cheeks, which joined the eye-stripe, giving the
impression that the bird had a white collar on the upper portion of the neck.
Under-parts : very pale yellow in the centre of the breast, shading to white on
the flanks and giving the bird a very “ white-sided ” appearance.

N.B. — At thirty yards to the naked eye the lavender-grey crown merged
with the white eye-stripe and collar and the bird looked to have a completely
white head.

(2) This appeared to be like a typical Blue-headed Wagtail (M. f. flava).
The head was darker and the eye-stripe smaller than in (x) and the under-parts
were definitely more yellow than in (1) or (3).

(3) This was an intermediate type with the head paler blue than in (2) but
not so pale as in (1) but with a broad white eye-stripe as in (1). The under-
parts were less white than in (1), but much less yellow than in (2).

T. C. Gregory and James R. Hale.

BLUE-HEADED WAGTAILS IN STAFFORDSHIRE.

On May 9th, 1942, we saw a pair of Blue-headed Wagtails ( Motacilla
f. flava ) at Bellfields Reservoir. They were feeding on the grass and
owing to a strong wind were reluctant to rise and allowed us to
approach quite close. The bluish-grey crown, white eye-stripe and
white chin of the male were very clear as were the similar, but
duller characteristics of the female. On May 2nd R. S. saw a male
among Yellow Wagtails with a grey crown and white eye-stripe,
but the light was poor and he was unable to get close enough to
identify it definitely. H. J. Disney and R. Stokoe.

[There appears to be no previous acceptable record of the
occurrence of the Blue-headed Wagtail in Staffordshire. — Eds.]

WHITE-TAILED EAGLE IN KINCARDINESHIRE.

I have recently had the opportunity of examining the mounted head
of a White-tailed Eagle ( Haliceetus albicilla), obtained in Kincardine-
shire this year (1942). The bird was found about the middle of
June, alive, but injured and very emaciated. The most noticeable
feature is the comparatively large size and great depth of the beak,
which measures 55mm. from tip to cere. The beak is dark horn
coloured, and the cere a very artificial bright yellow. Unfortunately
the head only had been preserved, but I was assured that there had
been no feathers on the tarsus, and that the tail was not white,
showing that the bird is an immature White-tailed Eagle.

Ian D. Pennie.

114

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

COMMON EIDERS BREEDING IN EAST CAITHNESS.

As it is stated in the Handbook that the Common Eider ( Somateria
m. mollissima) does not breed on the east side in Ross, Sutherland
and Caithness, it should be recorded that in June, 1931 I found in
Berriedale, east Caithness, a nest of a Common Eider, which Dr.
Kennedy, Dunbeath, identified for me. It was the first Renown in
our district. It was an isolated nest on an easily accessible ledge.
No Eider has bred again on that particular site but a small colony
has established itself slightly to the north of Berriedale, and I have
watched Eiders with ducklings every summer from 1931-42. For
the first few years I seldom saw more than three ducks, and as I
watched attacks by predatory gulls result in a steady decrease in the
numbers of ducklings, I feared the Eiders would not increase in our
district. This summer, however, I saw the largest number yet — a
group of 16, composed of old birds with ducklings and six with no
broods. I saw too, one group of ten drakes.

In spite of inquiries I have been unable to locate any more
colonies of Eiders between Berriedale and Wick but a friend told
me he had seen this summer several Eiders with ducklings off Loth,
East Sutherland.

In 1938 I found another isolated nest, this time about 300 feet
above sea-level. It was about 200 yards up a heathery slope above
precipitous cliffs some 150 feet high. There is no easy route available
to the sea — a steep runnel which might have been used ends in a
sheer drop of approximately 20 feet.

Eleanor O. Armstrong.

[Proof of the breeding of the Eider on this coast is interesting.
Pilot Officer T. R. Garnett informed us that at Wick from January
until March 25th, 1942, when he left the neighbourhood, he saw
small parties (up to 20 birds) of Eiders, regularly at this place. —
Eds.]

AERIAL EVOLUTIONS AND SOARING OF CORMORANTS.

In commenting on Mr. Seton Gordon’s note on the aerial evolutions
of two Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax c. carbo) in the Lake District
( antea , p. 19) I overlooked an observation by G. F. Mathew in the
Zoologist, 1875, P- 4327> which is so remarkably similar that it is
worth quoting. single bird was seen to rise in wide spirals to a
considerable elevation, when it was joined by another bird and the
two “ continued to wheel upwards round and round each other
until they were nearly out of sight and looked mere specks in the
clear sky. They must have amused themselves in this manner for
nearly half-an-hour . . . when suddenly one of them closed its
wings and fell at a tremendous pace through the air for some
distance, performing, apparently, a somersault in its descent, and
this manoeuvre was immediately followed by its companion, and
repeated several times in succession until both birds were only a
few feet above the surface of the sea . . .”

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

1 15

The conjunction in these two cases of a co-ordinated soaring
flight by two birds with a headlong downward plunge or plunges, the
latter antic being, so far as I know, in no way a part of the normal
behaviour of Cormorants, is striking. The fact that it has been so
extremely seldom observed still seems to justify the view which I
expressed in connexion with Mr. Gordon’s note that it is not a regular
feature of display. Nevertheless the similarity of the two recorded
cases does seem to imply that the association of soaring and stooping
is not purely fortuitous and that the behaviour described is one to
which Cormorants have some predisposition under the influence of a
sexual stimulus. The presumption that the situation evoking this
behaviour is a sexual one (in the wide sense) rather than primarily
social, as is the case with the somewhat analogous aerial gambols
of Rooks or Jackdaws, is justified by the participation of two birds
in both the recorded cases, since it is reasonable to infer that the two
individuals in each instance were male and female, although this
is not actually certain. It may be observed that Gordon’s observa-
tion was made on March 22nd, but that of Mathew on November 12th.
However, the regular display behaviour may begin at least as
early as December (Haverschmidt : in P. c. sinensis), and an early
recrudescence of sexual behaviour is no unusual occurrence amongst
resident birds.

As one or two correspondents appear to have missed the point it
should perhaps be emphasized that the behaviour under discussion
must be distinguished from simple soaring by (usually single)
Cormorants to a high elevation, which, though itself decidedly rare,
has been recorded by several observers. Such soaring, which is
mentioned in the Handbook, has been discussed by the late Donald
Gunn ( antea , Vol. xxi, p. 82). There is some reason to think that it is
generally preparatory to a migratory, or at least more or less
extended flight, when it would serve a definite object by increasing
the bird’s range of vision. The case lately recorded by Mr. H. G.
Hurrell [antea, p. 78) was evidently of this type, and another instance
of high soaring by a single bird has been reported to us by Dr. G.
Carmichael Low, who in company with Mr. A. Holte Macpherson
saw a single Cormorant circling about at some 2,000 feet or so in
Harris, Outer Hebrides, in 1934. B. W. Tucker.

“INJURY-FEIGNING” OF WOOD-PIGEON.
“Injury-feigning” by the Wood-Pigeon (Columbaft. palnmbus) is
stated in the Handbook to be infrequent, and the following record
may throw some light on the cause.

On July 24th, 1942 I flushed a Wood-Pigeon from a nest about
ten feet high in a solitary elm tree standing in a park and some
sixty yards from any other tree. The bird flew down to the grass
about thirty yards from the tree and fluttered along the ground
with tail-feathers spread out in the manner of a slightly wounded
bird. After travelling thus for about thirty yards it flew low away.

BRITISH BIRDS.

I 16

[VOL. XXXVI.

The nest contained two young just starting to feather, and ready for
ringing.

The situation and growth of the tree selected for the nest made it
impossible for the parent to fly off with the usual clatter and flutter-
ing among the branches that distracts the eye from the nest to the
bird when the former is in denser and more normal surroundings.

C. F. Tebbutt.

[In two of the recorded cases ( antea , Vol. xiii, p. 165, and xxvii,
p. 166) the nests are described as in a hawthorn in a garden and in a
copper-beech overhanging a high road respectively. Both descrip-
tions seem to indicate rather open sites and so to afford some
support to Mr. Tebbutt’s suggestion, but in the third case {antea,
Vol. xxvii, p. 233) the nest was in a spruce plantation. — Eds.]

DUNLIN BROODING NESTLING
REDSHANKS INSTEAD OF ITS OWN EGGS.

With reference to the note by Mr. W. J. Copp on a Wood- Warbler
feeding young Robins in the nest instead of its own young {antea,
p. 73), we must presumably regard behaviour of this type as evidence
of the profound mental disturbance produced by the presence of
human beings. Such mental disturbance is apparently induced
even in the most confiding individual birds. Many years ago I had
a somewhat similar experience, when I was endeavouring to photo-
graph a Dunlin ( Calidris a. schinzii ) at the nest on May 26th, 1914.
I may seem to be harking back a long way, but the behaviour of
this bird was so extraordinary that I made very careful notes of
its actions at the time.

The nest of this'Dunlin was in a patch of tussocky grass near the
shore at Aberlady, East Lothian, and contained four eggs. About
ten yards distant from the Dunlin’s nest there was a nest of a
Redshank {Tringa t. britannica ) concealed in a large tussock. The
latter contained three newly-hatched young birds and the empty
egg-shell from which one of them had emerged.

I found the Dunlin exceedingly confiding ; so much so that she
came on to the nest when I was sitting on the ground only a few
yards away. Presently she took fright and left the nest, but re-
turned almost immediately. On this occasion, however, she did
not go back on to her own nest. Instead she disappeared in the long
grass in the vicinity of the Redshank’s nest. When I approached
the spot she flew off. I lay down again and watched. Again the
Dunlin disappeared from view at the Redshank’s nest. In a few
minutes she emerged carrying some object in her bill. She dropped
this a short distance away, and I found on investigation that it
was the empty egg-shell from the Redshank’s nest. I allowed the
bird to settle again and then quietly approached the Redshank’s
nest, where I could hear the Dunlin keeping up a constant twittering.
I found her trying to cover the young Redshanks. She flew off at
my approach but kept very close to me. I then sat down only about

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

117

four feet from the Redshank’s nest. In less than one minute the
Dunlin came on to the nest and tried to cover the young Redshanks,
all the time keeping up a continuous low twittering. I succeeded in
obtaining several photographs of the bird while so engaged.

Meanwhile the Redshank was flying round not far off, now and
then stopping and calling some distance away, but she would not
actually approach the nest while I was in the vicinity. I therefore
did not get the opportunity of observing what happened when she
returned and found a Dunlin in possession. When I paid a return
visit to the same spot later in the day each bird rose from her own
nest. The Dunlin’s eggs were now just on the point of chipping.

The fact that her own eggs were so nearly hatching would account
for the bird’s anxiety, but not for her extraordinary mistake, which
I put down to the excitement resulting from the near presence of a
human being. Such incidents as this seem to me to be a warning
that one must be very careful in drawing conclusions as to behaviour
from the actions of birds when the latter are under close observation.

Russell G. Thin.

GREEN SANDPIPER ATTACKED BY LAPWING.

During August, 1942, I saw a remarkable attack on a Green
Sandpiper ( Tvinga ochropus). The bird had been feeding on the mud
at Marsworth Reservoir (Herts.), when a Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus )
suddenly dived on it, and forced it to take to flight. This was
repeated again and again so that the unfortunate Green Sandpiper
had no chance to settle down. Once, when flying over the water,
the attack was pressed home with such vigour, that the Green
Sandpiper was forced on to the water with a great splash and
largely submerged.

I have often noticed a propensity to pester other unfamiliar birds
— Ruffs, Greensbanks, Black Terns, etc., in the Lapwing, but I have
never seen such a prolonged and ferocious assault. R. Harkness.

The Handbook of British Birds. — As a reprint of this work has
become necessary we desire to take the opportunity of bringing up
to date the section devoted to “ Additions and Corrections ” (Vol. v,
pp. 255-282) and shall be grateful if readers would let us have
details of any items either by way of corrections of errors or addi-
tional information. It is proposed to limit additions to those
considered to be of importance. The new list of “ Additions and
Corrections ” will be a separate one and it is proposed to print extra
copies of it for those who have the present edition of the work and
desire to bring it up to date. Notes for the new list should be
sent to us at 326 High Holborn, London, W.C.i, not later than the
beginning of December. The Authors.

Common Buzzard in Middlesex. — Mr. R. H. Ryall writes that
on August 4th, 1942 he saw a Buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) near Sudbury.
The bird was flying leisurely over towards the east and being at a

BRITISH BIRDS.

118

[VOL. XXXVI.

moderate height its characteristics were clearly observed. The bird
is seldom recorded from the county.

Two Wood-Pigeons laying in same nest. — Mr. Arthur
Whitaker informs us that on August nth, 1942 he found near
Sheffield a nest of a Wood-Pigeon ( Columba p. palumbus ) containing
four eggs. The eggs were all perfectly fresh, but from distinct
differences in size and shape they were clearly the product of two
females, but whether mated to the same male it was not possible to
substantiate as there were many pairs in the vicinity. The nest was
25 feet up a Scots pine and Mr. Whitaker states that it had
certainly not been climbed before. He visited the nest three times
and on each occasion only a single bird was on the eggs. One of the
eggs proved to be infertile.

Black-tailed Godwits in Carnarvonshire and Denbigh-
shire.— Pilot Officer A. J. B. Thompson informs us that on August
5th, 1942 he saw a Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) in Pwllheli
harbour, and two were seen by B. W. Tucker on the Denbighshire
side of the Conway Estuary on August 19th. The bird is infrequently
recorded from N. Wales.

Black-headed Gulls Plunging after Food.— Mr. Irvine B.
Smith informs us that on February 25th, 1942, at Abbot’s Langley
Sewage Farm he watched ten to twelve Black-headed Gulls (Lams r.
ridibundus ) hovering close together over a small area near the outlet
of a shallow tank, at a height of 10-18 inches or more, and repeatedly
plunging head first into the water. Each bird dived four to five times a
minute, leaving only the wing-tips and tail above water, the wings
being partially closed. Submergence only lasted one to two seconds
at most. They were probably feeding on small earthworms, of which
the recorder found great numbers lower down the outlet stream.
The interest of this case is that a number of birds together were
systematically employing this method of obtaining food.

REVIEWS.

An Ornithologist's Field Note Book. By Sir Hugh Gladstone. 6th Edition
revised. (Truslove & Hanson). 6d.

This booklet (5 x 3 ins.) contains a list of the English names of all the regular
breeding British birds, winter visitors and passage-migrants. The birds are
treated as species, but those which have peculiar British forms are marked
with an asterisk. The status of each bird is indicated by letters denoting
whether it is in the main a resident, summer-visitor, winter-visitor or passage
migrant. The list is printed on one side of the paper giving space for short
notes, is carefully compiled and will prove useful as a handy pocket reference
book in which to make local or daily lists of birds seen. This revised edition is
founded on the Handbook.

LOCAL REPORTS.

Wild Bird Protection in Norfolk, 1941.

There are many interesting observations in this report. Bitterns were in
good numbers in the Hicltling-Horsey area and at Cley. While no Bearded
Tits bred at Horsey, Mr. Vincent reported a fine recovery of numbers at

VOL. XXXVI.]

REVIEWS.

119

Hickling and he records an extraordinary early nest with tw o eggs on March
24th. There were three pairs of Marsh-Harriers at Hickling and one at Horsey,
but only one brood was reared. Among the scarce migrants noted were three
cocks and a pair of Golden Orioles in May and June at Horsey Hall wdiere
the bird is an almost annual passing visitor ; single Ospreys were seen at
Horsey in June, September and November and at Hickling in May and June ;
a White-tailed Eagle was at Hickling in February and March and what was
proved to be another individual at King’s Lynn at intervals between December
1940 and March, 1941. Other birds at Hickling were a Ferruginous Duck in
January, Temminck’s Stint in May, a Gull-billed Tern (no date) and a
•Spotted Crake heard calling between May 25th and 30th as were several at
Horsey in October.

Annual Report of the Oundle School Natural History Society, 1942
This includes a few notes on birds. Willow-Tits were identified in winter
1940-41, local Heronries were counted, Tree-Creepers were several times seen
■limbing up houses in January- February, 1942 and two pairs of Corn-Crakes
were considered to be nesting in 1941.

Cambridge Bird Club, Report 1941. (R. I. Severs, Ltd., Cambridge), is. 6d.
Bounty recorders should note that several items in this Report refer to
:ounties adjoining Cambridgeshire. The following notes may be mentioned :
1 Yellow Wagtail was identified at close range on November 1st at the Sewage
7arni, a Tufted Duck with a brood was seen at Arrington, where it has been
oted previously as breeding though apparently not regularlv and a Black-
leaded Gull’s nest was found at Fulbourn Fen, which may have been the
esult of draining Burwell Fen. A Bewick Swan obtained at Earith Washes on
November 29th, 1941 was thought possibly to be an example of the eastern
orm Cygnus b. jankowskii as its measurements were large. This, however,
eems to be doubtful as Hartert gives measurements of typical bewickii about
qual to the Earith bird and considerably in excess of those quoted from
Buturlin in the Ibis, 1907, p. 652. The Report also includes a separate,
laborate table of observations made at various dates by N. Moore and J.
larrison in the Earith-Sutton Washes. The birds seen include large numbers
f duck, considerable numbers of Whooper and Bewick’s Swans, several
llaucous Gulls (February) and, near Boston (Lines), a Snow-Goose (perhaps
n escape) at the end of January.

leport on Birds observed in Hertfordshire in 1940. By Bertram Lloyd.

From Transactions of the Herts Nat. Hist. Soc. (Hertford : G. Austin
& Sons, Ltd.)

his report has a number of interesting notes. Among these may be noted the
Dllowing birds seen at the Tring reservoirs : Sheld-Duck, December; Long-
ailed Duck November-December ; Little Stints, October 27th and November
;nd ; Sanderling, August, and a Lesser Black-backed Gull identified as of the
candinavian race on December 7th.

'outh-Eastern Bird Report being an account of Bird-Life in Hampshire, Kent,
Surrey and Sussex during 1940. Edited by Ralph Whitlock. (Webb’s
Farm, Pitton, Salisbury). 5s.

Besides the classified notes under each county this Report contains a descrip-
on and coloured plate of a hybrid Goldeneye x Smew bv Dr. J. M.
larrison. The Hampshire report incorporated here we have already noticed
mtea, Vol. xxxv, p. 1 36) . The Surrey notes are few and extra to those included
1 the London Bird Report.

In Sussex it is recorded that a pair of Ravens bred again on the coast using
; le same nest as in 1940. An Iceland Redwing was shot at Stonegate in
'ecember ; four Ruddy Sheld-Ducks (probably of captive derivation) were
lot in Rye Harbour on September 7th and a Great Skua was found dead in
ovember near Steyning.

Among Kent records we note Mealy Redpolls at Sevenoaks in April and
om the same district Continental Song-Thrushes in Januarv and a statement

120

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

by Dr. J. M. Harrison, founded on specimens, that Continental Hedge-
Sparrows are regular passage and winter migrants. From the east of the
county are recorded a Temminck’s Stint on May 2ist and a Gull-billed Tern
on April 25th.

The Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist, lidited by N. F. Ticehurst. (St J
Leonards : Butler, Ltd., Western Road). 2s.

This contains some useful notes on birds, including a Tawny Pipit seen near
Eastbourne on August 23rd, 1939, which we understand was well identified;
some Sykes’s-like Wagtails seen in April and May, 1939 at Pevensey and
Exceat ; some special notes on the movements of Hirundines and a case of a
Stock-Dove’s nest with four eggs all in the same advanced state of
incubation.

Report of the Oxford Ornithological Society on the Birds of Oxfordshire, Berkshire
and Buckinghamshire, 1941. Edited by B. W. Tucker (Univ. Museum,
Oxford). 2s . 6d.

Among many interesting notes in this Report attention may be drawn to
the following :■ — A male Wagtail with a silvery-grey head seen at Slough
(Bucks) between April 24th and May 10th was apparently an example of
the "beema" like variant, a Firecrest was identified at Gerrard’s Cross,
(Bucks) on March 22nd, a Marsh-Warbler bred in a new locality near Oxford,
several Buzzards were reported in autumn and winter in Oxfordshire and
Berkshire and one recovered at Freeland (Oxon) in August had been ringed
in Somerset in June of the same year ; in May an Osprey was seen fishing in
the lake at Blenheim, where one appeared in 1938, three Ruddy Sheld-Drakes
were present at Slough in March and one in April and May and these were
probably strayed birds as one appeared there in 1940.

Report on Somerset Birds, 1941 . (Taunton Castle).

The outstanding event in this year’s report is the occurrence of the Cream-
coloured Courser at Minehead already reported in our pages ( antea , Vol. xxxv,
p. 131). Among other useful notes there is a record of a Quail shot on December
1 ith.

Fourteenth Report of the Devon Bird-watching and Preservation Society, 1941.
This is a very full report for war time and contains many interesting notes.
A pair of Crossbills were seen feeding young at Woodbury Common. The very
unusual number of fifty or more Chiffchaffs were frequently under observation
at Falmouth from December 20th, 1940 to February 25th, 1941, when they
were in full song. A Thrush, which was thought to have been a Dusky Thrush
(T urdus eunomus), was watched at Chagford on December 29th. The descrip-
tion of the bird is assisted by sketches. An Eagle, most probably a young
White-tailed, was seen at Wrangaton on December 27th. Gadwall, Long-tailed
Ducks and Eiders occurred ; a Flamingo (apparently an escaped bird) was
reported, the Curlew was proved to breed on Lundy and other notes of
interest are included.

Yn Shirragh ny Ree. A publication of the Manx Field Club, Christmas, 1941.
Edited by K. Williamson and W. S. Cowin. (Douglas : Victoria Press,
Ltd.) is.

This publication contains some interesting details of a census taken in 1941
of Ravens’ nests. Thirty-three occupied nests were located, over half being on
coastal cliffs. In 1905 P. G. Ralfe estimated that there were fifteen pairs on
the island. Besides the breeding birds there are a number of unmated birds
and over thirty have been observed in the Curragh during the nesting season. J
Among other notes we may mention that the Lesser Whitethroat bred in
1941 and fresh evidence of the occurrence in 1834 of a Roller is brought forward.

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F. Ticehurst, O.B.E., M.A., F.R.C.S., M.B.O.U.. C.F.A.O.U. ; and
Bernard W. Tucker, M.A., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

133 Coloured and 24 Monochrome Plates figuring all the species,
300 Text Figures and 37 Maps.

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HABITAT, FIELD-CHARACTERS AND GENERAL HABITS,
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Contents of Number 7, Vol. XXXVI, December i, 1942.

PAGE

Comparative Prices of Game and Wildfowl in 1512, 1757, 1807,

1922, 1941 and 1942. By Sir Hugh Gladstone ... ... 122

Black Redstarts in England in the summer of 1942. By H. F.
Witherby & R. S. R. Fitter ... ... ... ... ... 132

Notes : —

Scarce Birds at Lundy (W. B. Alexander and M. C. Radford) 140
Birds feeding on berries of Service tree and Guelder-rose

(Clifford Oakes) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 140

Convulsions in male House-Sparrows (P. A. Adolph) ... ... 140

Marsh-Tits and Wood-Pigeons feeding upon Plum blossom

(A. J. Harthan) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 141

Reed-Warblers in N. Lancashire (J. A. G. Barnes) ... ... 141

Hobbies catching Mayflies (W. B. Alexander) ... ... ... 141

Unusual behaviour of Heron (Dr. G. Carmichael Low) ... 142

Redshanks swimming (P. A. D. Hollom) ... ... ... 142

Gulls plunging when bathing (Dr. Stuart G. Smith) ... ... 142

Scandinavian Lesser Black-backed Gull in Co. Mayo (Major

R. F. Ruttledge) ... ... ... ... ... ... 143

Short Notes : —

Interbreeding of Hooded and Carrion-Crow for fourth time in
Co. Dublin. Ospreys in Gloucestershire and Yorkshire.
Mallards perching on a wall. Migratory movement of
Gannets off Co. Clare. Black-tailed Godwits in Co. Clare.

Curlew breeding in Warwickshire. Little Stints in West-
morland. Black Terns in Westmorland and Mersey Mouth 143

Letter : —

Unusual behaviour of Moorhen (Dr. Stuart G. Smith) ... ... 144

T

(122)

COMPARATIVE PRICES OF GAME AND WILDFOWL
IN 1512, 1757, 1807, 1922, 1941 and 1942

BY

HUGH GLADSTONE.

The six comparative price-lists printed at the end of this
article are mainly of ornithological interest in so far as they
show the decline in numbers of certain species of British
Birds : at the same time it must be pointed out that the
terminology employed is that of the poulterer which, since
this is not always that of the ornithologist, may have —
unwittingly — led to confusion.

The prices given under 1512 have been taken from “ The
Regulations and Establishment of the Household ... of the
fifth Earl of Northumberland . . . begun anno domini MDXII,”
edited by T[homas] P[ercy], 1770 : those for 1807 from Rev.
W. B. Daniel’s “ Supplement to the Rural Sports ” : 1813 :
pp. 421/2 : those for 1757 from a manuscript “ Account book
of Contracts ” — signed by the Tradespeople to H.R.H. the
Prince of Wales — for that year : and those for 1922 and 1941
were kindly supplied to me by Messrs. Jeffryes of Leadenhall
Market, and Messrs. Bellamy Bros., of London.

Notes on the 1512 Price-List.

The value of a penny in 1512 was reckoned, in 1770, to
be worth about one seventh, or one eighth, of the currency
of the period.

The Earl of Northumberland was not always resident in
the county from which he took his title and it does not follow
that all the game and wildfowl was obtained from his North-
umberland estates : much of it certainly came from elsewhere.

Most of the spellings are antiquated and some seem worthy
of repetition here : —

Birds, Great ; are entered as Great Byrdes, or Grate Birds,
and probably included Fieldfares, Thrushes and the like.

Birds, Small ; may have included birds such as Sparrows,
Finches, etc., and are termed Smale Byrdes or Smalle Birds.

Bitterns ; appear as Bitters.

Bustards ; are mentioned as Bustardes but are not priced.

Curlews ; are called Kyrlewes or Kyrlewis.

Herons ; are included as Hearonsewes and may therefore
mean young Herons (Fr. heronceau ), but it may be n'dted
that — as sewe is the Old English for a dish — it has been
conjectured that the last syllable may indicate that the bird
was regarded as a table dainty.

Lapwings ; figure as Wypes or Wypis : a Swedish name
for the bird is Vipa, and in Norwegian it is Vibe.

Oyster-catchers ; are mentioned as See-pyes, or Seapies
but are not priced.

vol. xxxvl] PRICES OF GAME AND WILDFOWL. 123

Peacock ; appear as Pacokes with the injunction : — “ Noo
Payhennes to be bowght.”

Pheasants ; are entered as Fesauntes, or Fessauntis. This
reference to the Pheasant — in the Northumberland Household
Book of 1512 — has often been quoted as evidence of the early
existence of this species in Great Britain. As explained
above it does not necessarily follow that these birds were
obtained locally and it has now been ascertained that
Pheasants were introduced in England possibly by the
Romans, although there is no direct evidence, but certainly
before 1059.

Plover, Golden ; I have presumed that this is the bird
intended under the entries Pluvers, or Plovers, since I take
it that Lapwings are indicated by the names Wypes or Wypis.

Ruff and Reeve ; If it is correct to interpret the entries
Reis, or Reys, as denoting Ruffs and Reeves this is one of
the earliest known references to the species as a British bird.
At the public feast (when Neville, the Chancellor of England,
was made Archbishop of Canterbury) on 22nd and 23rd
September, 1465, “ The Foules called Rees ” are mentioned
in the list of provisions. Mr. W. H. Mullens has claimed that
the first record of the Ruff in the British Isles is in a black-
letter pamphlet of 1586 ( British Birds : vol. xiii, pp. 13-20 :
see also vol. xiv, pp. 68, 259-260: and vol. xxvi, pp. 310-311).

Spoonbills ; are termed Shorlardes, or Sholardis.

Stints ; occur as Styntes, or Stints. The term is applied
locally, on our coasts, to the Dunlin as well as to the Little
Stint, Sanderling and other small shore-birds.

Swan ; although Swannes, or Swannys, or Swannis, are
mentioned they are not priced.

Teal ; it is expressly ordained that “ noo Teylles [or
Teallis] be bought bot if so be that other Wyldefowll
cannot be gottyn.”

Notes on the 1757 Price-List.

Birds, Small ; Black Birds and Felfers are mentioned
but their price has been omitted.

Blackgame ; are described as Heath Cocks and Hens ;
and Heath Polts are priced at 3/- each.

Curlew ; are called Curlieus.

Lapwing ; I have presumed the entry Plover refers to this
bird since Plover’s eggs are priced at 3/- per doz.

Pea-cocks ; and Hens are priced at 6/- regardless of sex.

Pheasants ; these are priced at 6/- each from 1st October
to April, and at 4/6 from April to October : Pheasant Polts
[sic] at 3/- each, and Pheasants’ eggs at 6d. each : all
which would seem to indicate that these birds, at that period,
were maintained in domesticity.

124

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Wigeon ; are termed Easterlings.

Ortolan ; this is a perplexing entry as the Ortolan Bunting
was first described as a visitor to England, from a bird taken
alive in Marylebone Fields, a little before 1776. It has also
been stated that live Ortolans were first brought to London
Market in the Spring of 1857 •' yet they are priced here —
as Ortalons — in 1757 at 3/- each.

Mr. H. F. Witherby has suggested that “ Ortalon ” was
perhaps a generic term rather than applied to the real Ortolan
(. Emberiza hortulana) of which Alfred Newton (. Dictionary of
Birds, 1893-6, p. 659) writes : “ a bird so celebrated for the
delicate flavour of its flesh as to have become proverbial,
and to have given its name to others, not all of them nearly
related, which are supposed to be as well-tasted.”

Notes on the 1807 Price-List.

The Rev. W. B. Daniel — from whose Supplement to the
Rural Sports this price list is taken — quotes the 1512 price
list in comparison but often inaccurately. For example he
identifies Sholardes, or Sholardis, as Shoveler and so too
does Thomas Pennant ( British Zoology : 1776, Vol. ii, p. 619),
but — as has been pointed out by Prof. Alfred Newton ( Diction-
ary of Birds : 1893/6, pp. 840/1 and 900) — the bird now called
Spoonbill was formerly known in England as the Popeler,
Shovelard or Shovelar, while that which used to bear the name
of Spoonbill is the Shoveler of modern days : the exchange
of names having been effected about two hundred and fifty
years ago when the Spoonbill ( Platalea leucorodia) was doubt-
less more common than it is now.

Peacock ; he adds a note : “ Aelian [170-230 A.D.] says,
Peacocks were brought into Greece, from some barbarous
Country, and were held in such Esteem, that a Male and
Female were valued at Athens, at One Thousand Drachmae, or
Thirty-two pounds, five shillings, and ten pence, Sterling.”

Ruff and Reeve ; Daniel identifies Rey as Landrail and
states “ Old Drayton highly values the Rayle, ‘ which seldom
comes but upon Rich Mens Spits.’ ” Thomas Pennant ( British
Zoology : 1776, Vol. ii, p. 619) writes : — “ I imagine the Reys
to be the Land Rail, not the Reeve the female of the Ruff,
for that bird seems not to be in vogue in those days. Old
Drayton does not even mention it in his long catalogue of
birds ” and he refers to Canto xxv in Michael Drayton’s
Poly-olbion (Pt. ii, 1622) where some twenty-seven species
are mentioned as abundant in the Lincolnshire Fens. Rey,
however, is given authoritatively as a name of the Reeve in
H. Kirke Swann’s Dictionary of English and Folk-Names of
British Birds.

Thomas Pennant writes ( British Zoology : 1776, Vol. ii,
pp. 386-7) " These birds are found in Lincolnshire, The Isle

vol. xxxvi ] PRICES OF GAME AND WILDFOWL. 125

of Ely, and in the east riding of Yorkshire; where they are taken
in nets, and fattened for the table, with bread and milk,
hempseed, and sometimes boiled wheat ; but if expedition is
required, sugar is added, which will make them in a fortnight’s
time a lump of fat : they then sell for two shillings or half-a-
crown a piece. Judgment is required in taking the proper
time for killing them, when they are at the highest pitch of
fatness, for if that is neglected, the birds are apt to fall away.
The method of killing them is by cutting off their head with
a pair of scissars, the quantity of blood that issues is very
great, considering the size of the bird. They are dressed like
the Woodcock, with their intestines ; and, when killed at the
critical time, say the Epicures, are reckoned the most delicious
of all morsels.”

To his price for Ruffs and Reeves the Rev. W. B. Daniel
has added a note : — “ The price seems to have diminished, for
Mr. Allan of the Grange, near Darlington, says that in August,
1794, during the race Week, at York, Four Ruffs were charged
in the Bill, at Sixteen shillings each bird.”

It is of ornithological interest to note here that — in my
mother’s " Confession Album ” Admiral the Hon. Henry
John Rous (Public handicapper to the Jockey Club) should
have “ confessed ” so late as 5th November, 1864 that his
favourite dainty was “ Ruffs and Rees.”

Stints ; the Rev. W. B. Daniel identifies these as Purrs, an
old name for the Dunlin, but probably applied indiscriminately
by poulterers to the host of small shore-birds.

Notes on the 1922 Price-List.

There is a considerable hiatus between 1807 and 1922 and
it must be remembered that until the invention of the per-
cussion principle (the first successful patent for the application
of fulminate for igniting the charge of powder in a gun was
obtained in 1807, by a Scottish minister, the Rev. J. A.
Forsyth) most of the wild birds required for food were netted,
not shot. Some of the captives were killed for immediate
consumption but others were taken alive and kept in mews to
fatten. I have already described how Ruffs and Reeves were
treated and it is known that Knots — and probably Godwits —
were dealt with similarly. Partridges were often mewed and the
fattening of Quails has continued till recent times. The ancient
Romans are believed to have kept Fieldfares and Redwings,
by the thousand, in aviaries where they were fattened for the
table and it is quite likely that other species were utilized
in the same manner. It may be noted that, in the seventeenth
century, young Black-headed Gulls— termed “ Puets ” — were
held in high repute as a delicacy after being fed on bullock’s
liver or with corn or curds from the dairy which may have
imparted a more pleasant flavour. Autres temps, autres

126

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

mceurs and the same attention is not paid to the fattening of
wildfowl nowadays as in the days of our ancestors.

The actual price-list for 1922 calls for little comment
except that it was noted at the time that the prices could
hardly be regarded as stable since they would probably prove
to have been enhanced abnormally during a period which
might very properly be described as the aftermath of the
Great War. This prophesy was fulfilled and in subsequent
years prices fall to a considerably lower level.

Knot ; this bird, priced at 3d. seems so cheap as to indicate
some error.

Ruff and Reeve ; the poulterers added a note that these
birds were to be had “ only occasionally from Holland.”

Stint ; I presume includes many varieties of small shore-
birds and perhaps the term Knot is used to include some of the
larger species.

Notes on the 1941 Price-List.

The price-list for this year and of that for 1922 have been
compiled from information supplied from the same two firms
of London poulterers.

It has already been stated that the prices in 1922 were
abnormally high but they are in most cases exceeded by those
in 1941, this is due to the fact that game and wildfowl were
not rationed and could therefore be purchased (by those who
could afford to buy them) without food coupons.

Capercaillie ; very few came on the market and these were
not of prime quality.

Corn-Crake ; the decrease in this species is well known to
ornithologists and it is therefore not surprising that one of my
informants should write : ‘‘ I do not think I have seen more than
two dozen Landrails on the market during the last five years.”

Gull, Sea ; these came on the market when game had
finished and advantage of this was taken by the shopkeepers.

Quail ; when war was declared there were thousands of
Quail in cold-stores and buyers thought they would be sold
at a very high price. They forgot the food value of so small a
bird but the public realized this with the result that Quail had
to be sold at any price they could fetch.

At the end of the shooting season — when game had become
unobtainable — the price of other birds soared. I am surprised
that the Heron should have been entered as “ not marketable ”
since, in February 1942, a Liverpool dealer was anxious to
purchase anything and was actually paying iod. each for
Rooks and 8d. apiece for Jackdaws. A correspondent to
The Times, of 14th April, 1942, wrote that in one of the great
London stores the shelves were lined with Coots and Moorhens,
Curlews were on sale at 3s. 6d., Lapwings at 2s. 9d. and rows
of Starlings at 9d. each. Amongst other birds he saw a Wild

vol. xxxvi ] PRICES OF GAME AND WILDFOWL. 127

Goose and two Red-necked Grebes. He enquired of the assis-
tant what were the latter and the assistant pointed to the
Goose and said, “ That’s the male Goose and those (pointing to
the Grebes) are the females.” The Starlings he said were “ Grey
Log [szc] not Starlings but very like them.” At another famous
store Scaup were offered for sale as “ Wigeon ” and an inquirer
was informed by the salesman, that all ducks of that size
were so classed. Goosanders, Red-breasted Mergansers and
Great Crested Grebes (the last-named labelled as “ Shuffle-
ducks ”) were among some of the unusual species to be seen
in poulterers’ shops. Doubtless some of the prices quoted
could be exceeded (for example, in The Field of 25th April,
1942, Wood-Pigeons were priced at 4/- and Brent Geese at
12/6 a piece) but no attempt has been made here to make a
complete collection of the exorbitant prices which were
exacted under conditions which were extra ordinary. It is
highly probable that — owing to food restrictions — birds of
more sorts than ever before were on the market, many of
which, in the “ weak piping time of peace,” would have been
regarded as unsaleable.

Notes on the 1942 Price-List.

An Order (No. 1497 of 1942 : dated 29th July, 1942)
was made (under Regulation 55 of the Defence (General)
Regulations, 1939) by the Minister of Food prescribing
maximum first-hand, wholesale and retail prices for certain
varieties of game birds and wildfowl.

Mallard are not specifically mentioned ; this species would
however, be included in the comprehensive term “ Wild
Duck ” but — since Pintail, Wigeon and Teal are separately
priced — it would seem that all other Wild Duck (including
such as Shoveler, Goldeneye, Scaup, Scoter and many other
species which are not usually welcome as table birds) could
be offered for sale at a higher price that those which are
separately priced in the Order.

It may be observed that “Capercailzie” [sic] and “Widgeon”
[szc] are spelt in accordance with The Oxford Dictionary but
not as by ornithologists.

This is hardly the place to quote all the provisions of the
Order in detail but it may, perhaps, be noted that the sale of
game birds otherwise than in the feather is prohibited : that —
on a sale by retail the seller must — at the request of the buyer,
pluck, clean and truss any bird, but no charge in addition to
the maximum price may be made for this service and that
the Order does not apply to live, or cooked, game birds.

In a subsequent Order (No. 1732 of 1942: dated 28th August,
1942), the Minister of Food prescribed the maximum prices
for Partridges and Pheasants but it is curious that the prices
of many birds commonly sold as food — notably Wood-Pigeons
— do not appear to be controlled.

128

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

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vol. xxxvi.] PRICES OF GAME AND WILDFOWL. 131

I

(132)

BLACK REDSTARTS IN ENGLAND
IN THE SUMMER OF 1942

BY

H. F. WITHERBY and R. S. R. FITTER.

In England a hundred years ago the Black Redstart
(Phcenicurus o. gibr altar iensis) was only a rare and occasional
visitor, but by 1871 Newton in Yarrell was able to give it as a
regular winter visitor to south-west England and the Isle of
Wight, less regular eastwards along the coast to Norfolk,
and a straggler inland as far north as Liverpool. In 1889 and
again in 1899 in his Manual Howard Saunders gave much the
same status in brief, but he added that it was sometimes
numerous as a passage-migrant in north Lincolnshire and
Yorkshire. In the Practical Handbook in 1920 it was shown
to be a regular passage-migrant in autumn and spring in
small numbers along the south and east coasts of England as
far as Yorkshire as well as at the Isle of May and Northern
Isles and a winterer in south England.

Since then it has become a local breeding bird and summer
visitor, and has been observed more frequently than heretofore
in Wales, chiefly as a passage-migrant.

The first definite proof of breeding in this country was
obtained by the late T. A. Coward and referred to the year
1923. The locality given was the “ south coast.” This has
already been publicly referred to as being in Sussex. The bird
has also been recorded as breeding in ” S.W. England ”
since 1929, and Mr. J. Walpole-Bond has revealed ( History
of Birds of Sussex) that this is in Cornwall. During the next
ten years the bird was found breeding in two localities in Kent
and in Cambridge, while in the last two years it has commenced
to spread so rapidly that there seems every likelihood of its
becoming widely established in southern England.

It may be briefly mentioned here that according to
Niethammer (Handbuch der deutschen Vogelkunde,Vo\. i, 1937)
the Black Redstart has during the last 150 years gradually
occupied the whole of north Germany as a breeding bird.
In Holland, however, it still very seldom breeds. In Belgium
it is described as local but common as a breeding bird in
rocky places. In France Mayaud ( Inventaire des Oiseaux de
France, 1936) describes it as spreading more and more to the
west, but he gives no details. Olivier writing of Haute-
Normandie in 1938 ( L’Oiseau et la Revue Frangaise d’Orni-
thologie) states that it is much more common than it was
thirty years ago, that it now breeds in many places but is
irregularly distributed. He states that it arrives at the end of
March and leaves in October or even November.

vol. xxxvi.] BLACK REDSTARTS IN ENGLAND. 133

It is reasonable to suppose that the Black Redstart’s
appearance as a summer bird in England is a further extension
of its spread to the west and north already recorded on the
Continent. Its increase as a passage-migrant suggests that it is
rather from these birds that our pioneers are derived than
from those which spend the winter with us. Further evidence
for this is afforded by the fact that so far as we know at present
the birds which stay the summer arrive at and leave their
summer haunts at passage times, though it must be noted
that the greater proportion of the London visitors were not
observed until June and further it is unknown whether they
migrate overseas or not.

Although the song usually first attracts attention to the
bird and the female may in some instances have been missed,
there are so many cases in which males have been watched
over a period without any female being seen that it seems clear
that the males are the first to push out and settle in new
country. The return of these birds in following years, the
arrival of females and the establishment of regular breeding
and increase in the locality are, however, evidently uncertain
matters. Another point of interest is that the forerunners
would appear to be year-old males. The evidence for this is
fairly conclusive though in some cases it has not been definitely
ascertained whether the bird was in adult plumage of a jet
black with a whitish wing-patch, or a bird of the year before
of a dark brown colour rather than black and without a definite
wing-patch. We hope that observers in future will take special
note of this point.

It has been suggested that the destruction of buildings by
bombing has been the cause of the increased number of Black
Redstarts inhabiting London and other places. It is to be
remarked, however, that the bird has appeared in a good many
localities unaffected by bombing, and that the increase
at Cambridge is more striking for the size of the area than
that in London. Broken down buildings and more open sites
in closely built up areas may have provided more inducements
for the bird to settle in such spots, but this cannot be laid
down as one of the main reasons for its increase and spread in
this country. It should also be pointed out that the birds
are more likely to be noticed where there is space round a
building than where it is closely built up, and, perhaps more
important still, it is more likely to be heard singing in towns
now than before the war owing to the great reduction of traffic
noises.

As will be seen in the following detailed accounts, while the
bird has been present this summer in a number of localities
over a very wide area, breeding has been definitely proved in a
few instances only, those being one each in Devon, Kent and

134

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Cambridge and three in London. We are much indebted to
many correspondents for sending us observations and we shall
be grateful for any further information. It is important to
keep a careful record of the progress of this interesting
extension of the Black Redstart and we hope that our readers
will keep a look out for the bird in the future and report to us.

Devon.

We have several reports of birds seen in this county,
but only one of breeding.

E. Devon. — Mr. Arnold Darlington has given details of
a pair which he watched feeding young on July 2nd, 1942
in a nest in a hole under the arch of a stone bridge at Burles-
combe, E. Devon. Mr. Darlington subsequently got up
to the nest containing five half-feathered young, which
he ringed on July 5th. He describes the male as very black,
but he did not see any white on its wing.

Plymouth. — Captain C. H. W. Blunt, R.M. informs us
that in June, 1942 he watched a male Black Redstart in the
Stonehouse district. The bird frequented a wall and rocks
dropping to the sea. Mrs. Blunt thought that she saw a
hen bird, but this or any other evidence of breeding is inde-
finite. In the Devon Bird Watchers’ Report for 1941 it is
stated that a Black Redstart was present during that summer
in a ruined part of the town.

Other reports of Black Redstarts seen in June by Mr.
and Mrs. Clay on Exmoor and in the summer near Torquay
by Miss M. Simons are less definite.

Hampshire.

Southampton. — A Black Redstart was seen and heard
singing on a ruined church in the main street on May 17th
and 20th and again on June 1st, 1942, by the editor of the
Field (see issue of Aug. 22nd, 1942).

Sussex.

St. Leonards-on-Sea. — On June 12th, 1942 Dr. N. F. Tice-
hurst had reported to him that a pair of Black Redstarts
were haunting a timber yard in the town and that the male
was heard singing on May 26th. On June 13th Dr. Ticehurst
found and watched the male, which was an adult, for an
hour and heard it singing several times from the gutter of
a shed. No female was seen on this day, but on the 14th
the female was present, but the male did not appear. Further
visits on the 19th and a search of neighbouring streets failed
to find the birds. There was nothing in their actions to
suggest that they were actively feeding young so that if
they had a brood, the young must have become independent
and gone elsewhere.

vol. xxxvi.] BLACK REDSTARTS IN ENGLAND. 135

Kent.

IVhitstable. — Mr. B. H. Beck has given us particulars of a
pair of Black Redstarts, which he found frequenting some
buildings by the seashore during June, 1942. After seeing
and hearing the male on several occasions he found on June
10th a female with a young one just out of the nest among
some old boats on a piece of waste land near the buildings.
He did not see the female or young again, but on the 15th
the male was at the same spot flying round a cat and uttering
agitated notes. After June 18th no birds were seen again
until July 23rd when the male re-appeared and was heard
again on the 24th for the last time. Mr. Beck had some
very close views of the male and describes the plumage as
jet black. He did not notice any white patch on the wing,
but this may have been much worn by the middle of June
and its very black appearance points to its being in adult
plumage.

Medway area. — Mr. P. A. Rayfield, who reported two pairs
breeding here in 1940 and one breeding pair and another male
in 1941 ( antea Vol. xxxiv, p. 186, xxxv, p. 232), informs us that
in 1942 although unable to make any special attempt to find
or watch them he heard what he considered to be eight
different birds singing. The territories of all these bordered on
the river where there were many buildings and timber stores
suitable for nesting. He was unable to prove breeding and did
not positively identify any females. One adult male frequented
approximately the same territory as pair “ A ” which bred
in 1940. This bird, which was first heard on April 18th, sang
until July 9th, and was last seen on the 25th. The others,
whose songs varied but were mostly inferior to this bird’s,
were heard at various dates from April 22nd to July 1st.

Maidstone— On May 4th, 1942 while passing through the
town Mr. Collingwood Ingram heard a Black Redstart, with
whose song in France and elsewhere he has long been familiar,
and saw the bird perched on a lightning conductor at the top
of a brewery. Reporting this to us we asked the Rev. J. R.
Hale to investigate the case. This he has kindly done with the
help of Mr. R. B. Haynes and they report that the bird was
an immature and that there was no female. The bird
frequented the brewery and an adjoining derelict timber
building and was watched and heard singing on many
occasions, usually on the roofs, during June and up to July
1 2th, after which it was neither seen nor heard.

London.

Non-breeding Black Redstarts were present in London in
1927, and in most years since 1936 ; in both 1940 and 1941 a
pair reared two broods in the precincts of Westminster Abbey.

136

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

In 1942 the reports of singing males were three or four times
more numerous than in any previous year, one nest was located
and two pairs were seen accompanied by young in the autumn.
The following summary is based on the observations of 31
observers, viz. : Lord Amulree, Rosa Anderson, Messrs. C. S.
Bayne, H. Bentham, P. A. Briggs, Brig. H. H. V. Christie,
Miss M. Curtis, Messrs. C. Dolley, R. Preston Donaldson,
J. Fisher, R. S. R. Fitter, H. G. Gould, I. Green, R. W. Hale,
D. Hawgood, Sir C. Hurcomb, Messrs. B. H. Hurd, N. B.
Kinnear, Dr. G. Carmichael Low, Sir P. Manson-Bahr, Col.
R. Meinertzhagen, Messrs. D. Nethersole-Thompson, E. M.
Nicholson, H. E. Pounds, W. K. Richmond, A. L. N. Russell,
Col. R. Sparrow, Messrs. J. Steele, R. N. Ticehurst, G. C. W.
Travers-Smith and G. Warburg. Special thanks are due
to Dr. Low, who placed his numerous notes at our
disposal.

Altogether, there were more than twenty singing males in
London between April and September. It is impossible to
compute the exact number, because the unmated males shift
their territories frequently and have been observed to fly
quite long distances from one song-post to another ( cf . antea,
Vol. xxx, p. 321, where E. M. Nicholson recorded hearing a
bird singing on an office block near St. James’s Park Station,
five minutes after having left it singing in Marsham St.,
600 yards away). Of these males, at least four were
accompanied on one or more occasions by a female.

Brigadier Christie saw a nest with young in a fireplace in
a bombed house in Wandsworth for the second year in succes-
sion. Col. Meinertzhagen saw a pair with three young
feeding on ants* on waste ground in Notting Hill on Sep-
tember 6th, and Mr. H. G. Gould saw the hen of the Cripple-
gate pair with three young on September 7th. It is interesting
to note that the second brood of the Westminster pair
in 1941 also consisted of three birds. Mr. D. Nethersole-
Thompson observed closely the bird that sang regularly in
Mincing Lane, and was of the opinion that it had a nest nearby,
but no hen bird was ever seen in this area, nor was any evidence
of breeding obtained. Unsubstantiated records of two other
nests are to be found in an article by Mr. W. K. Richmond in
The Field for August 1st, 1942.

The known records of Black Redstarts in London in the
summer of 1942 are summarised below. The first and last
dates of appearances are given in each case, to indicate where
there was overlapping.

♦These have since been identified by Mr. H. Donisthorpe as Acantho-
myops ( Donisthorpia ) niger L.

vol. xxxvi.] BLACK REDSTARTS IN ENGLAND. 137

City of London : 2 pairs (1 bred) ; 10-n other singing males.

Fenchurch Street area: four singing males, June 8- July 12.

Guildhall-Cripplegate area : one pair present ; on June 20
they were accompanied by a third bird similar to the hen,
which may have been either another hen, a first-year
cock, or possibly even a young bird of the first brood ;
on Sept. 7 the hen was seen with three young birds :
June 19-Sept. 7.

Finsbury Pavement : one in June.

Farringdon Street Station : one in June.

Old Bailey : one singing, May 1.

Cannon Street Station area : two singing males, June 1 i-July 12.

Cheapside-Mansion House Station area : one singing male,

June 1-23.

Blackfriars : one singing male. May 2-25.

Fetter Lane-Law Courts area : two, possibly three singing

males, one accompanied by a female : May 18- July 20

Westminster: 3 singing males, one female.

Little Dean’s Yard : one singing male ; a female was also seen
on May 14, but did not stay : May 14- July 8.

St. James’s Square area : one singing male, May 28-July 9.

Hanover Square area : one singing male, beginning of May to
end of June.

Bloomsbury and Marylebone : 3 singing males.

Red Lion Square : one singing male, June 6.

Tottenham Court Road area : one singing male ; on June 25
two hens, first year cocks or young birds were seen on
waste ground in Malet Street : June 10-29.

Baker Street area : one singing male, April to June 28.

Kensington : one pair bred, one other singing male.

British Museum (Natural History), one singing male, April
10-May 10 ; one singing in Cromwell Road at the corner of
Lexham Gardens on June 8 was probably the same bird.

Campden Hill : one pair stayed a week in late April.

Earls Court : one pair, throughout May.

Notting Hill : one pair with three young, Sept. 6th.

It seems probable that the pair seen on Campden Hill in April,
in Earls Court in May, where it was thought to be attempting
to nest, and in Notting Hill in September, were the same
'birds.

Wandsworth : one pair bred in same site as in 1941 ( cf . Westminster
pair, whose second brood was in same nest in 1940 and 1941).

Two other birds should also be mentioned, a young male
that sang for two days, April 9th and 10th, in the north-west
corner of Highgate Cemetery, and one that was reported from
Brockley Hill on April 12th in The Times of July gth, 1942.
These would appear to have been normal passage birds that
did not stay, though it may be mentioned that the bird
which turned up at the Natural History Museum at the same
time stayed for a month. It is interesting to note that only
two-fifths of the birds were first observed in April or May, and
as many as three-fifths were either not noticed or did not turn
up until June.

Geographically, all these birds, except the Highgate, Wands-
worth and Brockley ones, were recorded from a comparatively

v

138

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

small area in Inner London, bounded on the south by the
Thames and northwards by a line connecting Lots Road
Power Station, Ladbroke Grove Station, Euston Station,
Shoreditch Parish Church and the Tower. The great majority
were in the very heart of London, in the City, Holborn and
Westminster.

Suffolk.

Lowestoft. — The Black Redstart has been well known for
many years as a passage migrant here usually near the sea,
but in 1942 at least two, and probably three, males in im-
mature plumage were singing during the summer in various
parts of the town. Mr. F. C. Cook and Mr. E. W. C. Jenner
have kindly given us particulars of these. No hen bird was
seen and there was no evidence of nesting. The birds were
observed in bombed areas from May 16th to August 5th, but
Mr. Cook writing on November 15th informed us that since
the early part of that month he had notes of about ten Black
Redstarts being seen in widely separated parts of
the Town and its outskirts. It seems probable that these
November birds were newly-arrived autumn passage migrants
lingering here.

Ipswich— We have been unable to learn more of the birds
reported here in 1939 and would be glad to have further
news of these.

Cambridgeshire.

Cambridge. — The bird was known to breed in Cambridge
in 1937, 1938 and 1940 and probably bred in 1936. Mr. J. G.
Harrison informs us that it also nested in 1941 in Christ’s
College. .

For 1942 we have had a number of reports of males singing,
but evidence of only one pair breeding. The following have
kindly sent us notes : Professor J. S. Boys Smith, Messrs.
E. F. Ladds, N. W. Moore, R. P. F. Roberts, R. N. Ticeluirst,
Dr. J. A. Venn and Mr. J. Wolstencroft. These reports and
numerous observations by himself and others have be9n
summarised by Mr. J. G. Harrison as follows

“ In the summer of 1942 three actual pairs and three single
birds were present in Cambridge.

One pair nested in a hole in the wall of the Chemistry
Laboratories in Downing Street. I watched these birds at the
nest, but the young flew in the latter half of June, when I was
away. This is the only breeding record this year. The male of
this pair was in perfect adult plumage.

The second pair had their headquarters in the St. John’s-
Trinity College area and the third pair in the Queen’s College-
Mill Lane area. These birds were watched constantly from their
arrival until half way through June and they never showed

vol. xxxvi.] BLACK REDSTARTS IN ENGLAND. 139

any signs of nesting. The males of these two pairs appeared to
be one year old birds.

A single male lived around Corpus Christi College and was
only once seen with a female. Another male sang in the Caius-
Clare-Rose Crescent area, whilst the last bird, also a male,
sang on Magdalene College. From what I saw of these three
birds none was in fully adult plumage. Song became much
less frequent in the latter part of June, while in July one was
heard singing on the 8th and 13th. From then the birds
disappeared until August 26th when Mr. R. P. F. Roberts
saw a pair in Corpus Christi, which would appear to have
been the same birds that nested is the nearby Chemistry
Laboratories. He saw this pair thirteen times between August
26th and September 13th. The male sang in a subdued way
on August 28th and fairly loudly on September 6th, 7th, 8th
and 12th. The Trinity male was also heard singing on Sep-
tember 12th.

Mr. Roberts thought he heard the Corpus male singing
distantly on October 4th, which is the last record that there
is for this autumn.”

Ely. — Professor J. S. Boys Smith informs us that a Black
Redstart has sung regularly in 1942 on and near Ely Cathedral.
He heard it first on May 6th and clear views of it showed it
to be an immature male. Professor Boys Smith has not with
certainty seen a female, nor any evidence of breeding. He also
says that the bird sang on numerous occasions inside the
Cathedral “ sometimes moving from place to place, but usually
high up in the nave. It did not seem to be much disturbed by
the singing of the choir, and the song sounded strangely loud
in the building.”

Yorkshire.

Sheffield. — From June 15th to July 8th, 1942 Mr. Arthur
Whitaker had a solitary male Black Redstart under
observation in the centre of the town. The bird frequented the
tops of damaged buildings and very rarely went down to
street level. It was a brownish immature male and was in
constant song, but close observation provided no evidence
of the presence of a mate or of nesting. Mr. Whitaker learnt
from correspondents that the bird was probably present
as early as May 16th. Mr. H. L. Barnfather has also informed
us of this bird and its presence during the summer so far to
the north is interesting.

(140)

NOTES.

SCARCE BIRDS AT LUNDY, DEVON.

During a short visit to Lundy in September, 1942, we identified
a Lapland Bunting ( Calcarius lapponicus) on the high barren area
at the north end of the island on September 10th. The species
has not previously been met with on Lundy, nor in the county of
Devon. A Dotterel ( Eudromias morinellus) was present on this
same area on September 9th and 10th. Mr. F. W. Gade informs
us that he has twice seen single Dotterels on Lundy in spring but
the species has not previously been met with in autumn. On the
same two days single Pied Flycatchers (Muscicapa hypoleuca)
were seen in Mill Combe, the sheltered valley at the south end of
the island. On our return voyage to the mainland on the afternoon
of September nth an adult Long-tailed Skua ( Stercorarius longi-
caudus) flew past the boat, travelling south, a mile or two east of
the island. W. B. Alexander and M. C. Radford.

BIRDS FEEDING ON BERRIES OF SERVICE TREE
AND GUELDER-ROSE.

The fruit of the true service (Sorb us domestica) figures largely in
the autumn dietary of many birds but is not specifically mentioned
in the Handbook.

Greenfinches ( Chloris c. chloris ) in many districts appear to
subsist for weeks at a time on the berries and I have counted up to
as many as 60 birds of both sexes in a single tree splitting up the
ripe fruits and devouring the seeds. Chaffinches (Fringilla c.
gengleri), Mistle-Thrushes ( Turdus v. viscivorus), Song-Thrushes
( T . e. ericetorum ) and Blackbirds (T. m. merula ) also feed regularly on
the fruit and I have many notes of Great Tits (P ar us m. newton i) and
Blue Tits ( P . c. obscurus) attacking the berries and extracting the seeds.

The exceeding fondness of the Marsh-Tit ( Parus p. dresseri) for the
fruit of the guelder-rose (Viburnum opulus ) is also not mentioned
in the Handbook. Clifford Oakes.

CONVULSIONS IN MALE HOUSE-SPARROWS.

On October 23rd, 1942, just before dusk, I was passing an ivy
covered house where House-Sparrows (Passer d. domesticus) roost
every night, when suddenly a male bird fell silently out of the ivy
on to the ground beside me. He appeared to be dying and was
convulsing strongly ; after a minute the convulsions ^gradually
ceased, the wing beats being the last to subside until the bird was
quite still. I carried him in my hand to my home, five minutes
away, and was about to place the bird in a box, when he revived.

I immediately put my hand out of a window, and the House-
Sparrow flew away.

This is the second time I have found a male House-Sparrow in
convulsions, as a similar instance occurred from the same roosting
place last January, during snowy weather. The period of inertness
being approximately the same in both cases.

In A Hand- List of the Birds of the Sevenoaks District, Dr. J. M.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

141

Harrison records convulsions and subsequent recovery in a male
House-Sparrow during a hot day in June. Weather conditions
appear to have no bearing in these fits, as the above three
observations include hot, moderate and cold temperatures.

P. A. Adolph.

MARSH-TITS AND WOOD-PIGEONS FEEDING UPON

PLUM BLOSSOM.

During the last week of April, 1942, I noted on frequent occasions
a pair of Marsh-Tits ( Parus p. dresseri) feeding upon the blossom
of plum trees. Their method was to detach a single flower, transfer
it to the right perching foot and then nip out the flower’s ovary
with one peck. This was done so neatly that the flower stalk,
petals and stamens were left intact. The ground beneath those
fruit trees in which the birds fed, was well strewn with these damaged
blossoms. Whilst watching the Marsh-Tits I also saw several
Blue and Great Tits, hammering at mummified plums from last
year’s crop, and eating the kernels. I did not see any of the latter
species feeding on the flowers. The flower ovary and fruit kernel
of the plum is rich in protein ; perhaps the Marsh-Tits, by feeding
upon the flowers, not only saved themselves the trouble of cracking
plum stones, but also obtained a little fresh vitamin ? A 4 per
cent, set of plum blossom results in a full crop of fruit, so the damage
done by the tits was negligible. I may add that I have also noted
Wood-Pigeons ( Columba p. palumbus) feeding upon the blossom
and young leaves of plum trees in spring. However, since they
tend to strip individual boughs of both blossom and leaves, their
method of feeding is harmful. A. J. Harthan.

REED-WARBLERS IN N. LANCASHIRE.

In his note on “ Unusual Birds in N. Lancashire ” ( antea p. 95),
Mr. J. C. S. Ellis mentions the presence of a Reed-Warbler ( Aero -
cephalus s. .scirpaceus) on a North Lancashire moss. I believe there
is a probability, though admittedly no certainty, of the bird having
nested at the place. On August 12th, I found the male was singing
well and the last burst of song was followed by a soft churring which
was answered by a second, and possibly a third, bird. This suggests
the presence of a mate and perhaps young. On August 6th, I had
seen a Reed-Warbler at the same place with such soft colouring
that it seemed to me at the time to be an immature bird.

J. A. G. Barnes.

[Major A. W. Boyd informs us that he found a Reed-Warbler
singing in the same Moss in 1923 and this seems to make it more
probable that it is a breeding-place — one of the most northerly
in England. Eds.]

HOBBIES CATCHING MAYFLIES.

On May 23rd, 1942, Mr. A. B. Gillett and I watched a pair of Hobbies
(Falco subbuteo) flying low over the water-meadows by the Isis, a
few miles above Oxford, catching mayflies. They frequently flew
close past us, like giant Swifts, so that we could see that they caught

142

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

each insect in one foot and immediately conveyed it forward to the
beak without checking their flight. Sometimes they flew low over
the water, over which, and over the waterside herbage, great
numbers of insects were dancing. We collected specimens of these
insects from the herbage and Dr. B. M. Hobby, of the Hope Depart-
ment of Entomology, has kindly identified them. They are all
adults or subimagos of the mayfly, Ephemera vulgata L. with the
exception of one specimen of the alderfly, Sialis lutaria L. We
naturally cannot be sure that any alderflies were actually taken
by the Hobbies, though it seems unlikely that they would differen-
tiate between the species. Mayflies ( Ephemeroptera ) are not
included in Mr. Jourdain’s list of insects eaten by the Hobby
published in the Handbook. W. B. Alexander.

UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF HERON.

On Jan. 4th, 1940, at Isleworth, Middlesex, two Goosanders ( Mergus
m. merganser) were diving in the river, and a Heron ( Ardea c.
cinerea ) was seen hovering in an extraordinary way over the water.
On careful observation it was found to be doing this over one of
the Goosanders, which had to dive to escape it ; it did the same over
the other bird, which also dived, and then, not liking this, they
disappeared. I could not see whether the Goosanders had a fish
in their bills or not, but I presume that they must have had and
that the Heron was trying to rob them. The weather was very
hard and cold at the time. G. Carmichael Low.

[In his Essays on Natural History (1871 edition, edited by Norman
Moore, p. 385), Charles Waterton describes a number of Herons,
during hot weather when shoals of bream were swimming at the
surface of his lake, hovering over the water and attempting, un-
successfully, to strike the fish while on the wing. — B.W.T.]

REDSHANKS SWIMMING.

On Sept. 30th, 1942, I was watching a flock of about 130 Redshanks
(Tringa totanus ) gathered at high water on some small islands of
salt marsh in Poole Harbour, Dorset. Groups of birds shifted
position from time to time, and once fully twenty of them settled
on the water between two islands where others had landed, and
swam around for about a minute before flying up from the water
again. Later two swam from one of these islands to the other, a
distance of about 30 feet. The island’s bank was perpendicular and
the birds had to fly up a few inches off the water to come ashore.

It will be remembered that Mr. W. Wilson recorded ( antea Vol.
xxv, p. 230) that he had seen small flocks of Redshanks alighting
on the water in the Dee estuary. P. A. D. Hollom.

GULLS PLUNGING WHEN BATHING.

The plunging of gulls into water for food ( antea Vol. xxxvi, p. 59)
with more or less complete submergence of the body is an occasional
habit with both the Black-headed Gull (Lams r. ridibundus) and
the Herring-Gull (Lams a. argentatus), but the related and not
infrequent plunging connected with bathing does not seem to have

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

143

been noticed so much. Gulls, and especially the two species noted
above, appear to prefer fresh water for bathing, and often use
rivers, sluices, or small lakes in the vicinity of the sea for that
purpose. Normal bathing takes the form of dipping the head
and neck into the water, which is then thrown over the back, and
also of ruffling the body feathers and shaking the wings to work
water into the plumage. Every now and then, however, a single
bird from a group engaged in bathing will rise about 5 feet into the
air, and hurl itself headlong into the water. Submergence is usually
up to the tips of the primaries ; the birds bob at once to the surface,
and the normal fluffing and shaking of feathers continues.

Stuart G. Smith.

SCANDINAVIAN LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL

IN CO. MAYO.

On September 30th, 1942, I identified beyond all doubt a Scandina-
vian Lesser Black-backed Gull ( Larus f. fuscus ) on Lough Carra.
I watched the bird at close range through glasses for half an hour.
The light was excellent and the very dark colour from the shoulder
to the tip of the primaries was uniform.

This forms the sixth satisfactory record for Ireland, and the
first identified inland or so early in autumn.

Robert F. Ruttledge.

Interbreeding of Hooded and Carrion-Crow for fourth
time in Co. Dublin. — The Rev. P. G. Kennedy informs us that the
Hooded Crow ( Corvus c. cornix) and Carrion-Crow (C. c. corone)
which he has already recorded breeding together in Co. Dublin
for three years (cf. Vol. xxxv, p. 58), bred for the fourth time in 1942.
This year the tree containing the nest was felled before the young
flew, but one escaped and this was like a Hooded Crow in plumage.

Ospreys in Gloucestershire and Yorkshire. — Mr. W. E.
Glegg informs us that an Osprey ( Pandion h. halicetus) has been sent
by Mr. H. C. Playne to Tring for the national collection. The bird
was unfortunately shot by a man who did not know its identity,
at Minchinhampton on October 1st, 1942. It was perched in a
tree near some chickens, which the man thought it was about to
attack. It was a female bird of the year.

The Rev. K. Ilderton sends us an account of an Osprey, which
he saw on October 3rd, 1942, near Harrogate, first as it rose close
to him from a log by the River Nidd and later when he was able to
watch the bird through binoculars as it flew up the river and then
turned back and came over him.

Mallards perching on a wall. — Sir Hugh Gladstone writes
us that on August 22nd, 1942 his gamekeeper saw at a loch in
Dumfries-shire, nineteen Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha) of which nine
or ten were sitting on the top of a stone dyke five feet high at one
side of the loch.

Migratory movement of Gannets off Co. Clare. — As there is
little information regarding autumn movements of the Gannet

144

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

(, Sula bassana) along the coasts of Ireland Major R. F. Ruttledge
sends us the following details of a movement he observed off the
coast of Co. Clare in September, 1942. On the 3rd some Gannets
were seen flying south-west and on the 4th there was a similar
noticeable movement, while on the 5th there was an almost continu-
ous string of these birds flying, as the others, just above the surface
of the sea, about 150 yards out and all heading south-west. Between
9.25 and 9.55 a.m. 147 were counted, all adults save eight. The Gan-
nets were still streaming along at noon, but at 3 p.m. there was a falling
off and at 5 p.m. none were noticed.

Black-tailed Godwits in Co. Clare. — Major R. F. Ruttledge
informs us that at Poulnasherry Bay, Co. Clare on September 6th,
1942 he saw four Black-tailed Godwits ( Limosa limosa) and on the
following day thirty-four. They were all in summer plumage.

Curlew Breeding in Warwickshire. — With reference to the
note on the breeding of the Curlew ( Numenius a. arquata) at Bidford-
on-Avon in 1941 ( antea p. 98) Mr. A. Darlington informs us that a
pair of Curlews nested on fallow land at Welford-on-Avon in the
summer of 1939 and that he ringed the young on June 19th. He is
unaware as to whether the birds have nested in the same locality
on subsequent occasions or not.

Little Stints in Westmorland. — Mr. J. A. G. Barnes sends us a
description of three Little Stints ( Calidris minuta) which he watched
on the Kent estuary at Arnside on October 13th, 1942. The bird
is seldom recorded from the county.

Black Terns in Westmorland and Mersey Mouth. — Mr. J.
A. G. Barnes informs us that he saw two adult Black Terns ( Chli -
donias n. niger) over the Kent estuary at Arnside on August 20th,
1942. Some were present each day until the 25th, the greatest
number being eleven (four adults and the rest young) on the 22nd.
He also saw an immature bird on September 18th. The species is
infrequently reported from Westmorland.

Mr. E. Hardy writes that Mr. J. A. Hartley saw a Black Tern
on September 9th at Mersey mouth, where it is seldom seen though
frequent in mid-Lancashire and mid-Cheshire.

LETTER.

UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF MOORHEN.

i * /\ O Y- i J

To the Editors of British Birds.

Sirs, — The interesting and unusual behaviour of a Moorhen ( Gall-inula
ch. chloropus) continually remaining in a semi-submerged position {antea,
Vol. xxxvi, p. 57) whilst swimming about, and giving the impression of “ not
being able to come up ” is almost certainly to be explained by the fact that the
bird’s plumage had for some reason or other become " wetted-out.” If a duck
is placed in a bath of soap solution it sinks after a time until only its neck and
head remain above the surface. This is because the surface tension of the
water is greatly lowered by the presence of the soap, the bird’s plumage
becomes “ wetted out,” and the duck will swim along in this position quite
unable to bring itself to the surface.

In the case of the Moorhen cited above, its repeated efforts to leave the
water point to something unusual being wrong with the bird.

Gatley. Stuart G. Smith.

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133 Coloured and 24 Monochrome Plates figuring all the species,
300 Text Figures and 37 Maps.

Each of the 520 birds is fully treated in the following
sections : —

HABITAT, FIELD-CHARACTERS AND GENERAL HABITS,
VOICE, DISPLAY AND POSTURING, BREEDING, FOOD,
BRITISH DISTRIBUTION, MIGRATIONS, DISTRIBUTION
ABROAD, DESCRIPTION (all plumages), CHARACTERS &

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than has been available to any previous writer on the subject', and
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Illustrated by coloured plates from drawings
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Bernard W. Tucker, m.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Contents of Number 8, Vol. XXXVI, January i, 1943.

PAGE

Sky-Lark Song. By Noble Rollin ... ... ... ... 146

Reactions of Birds to Aircraft. By Flying-Officer R. A.

Carr-Lewty, R.A.F. ... ... ... ... ... ... 151

An Index to the Thames Kingfisher Recovery. By L. S. V.

Venables and U. M. Wykes ... ... ... ... ... 153

Obituary: Rear-Admiral Hubert Lynes, R.N., C.B., C.M.G. ... 156

Notes : —

A North Yorkshire Magpie Roost (Capt. J. P. Utley) ... ... 159

Aggressive Display of birds before a looking-glass (G. Brown) 160

Sexual behaviour of Chaffinches while feeding Fledglings

(E. W. Hendy) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 161

White-tailed Eagle in Yorkshire (W. J. Clarke) ... ... 161

“Injury-feigning” of Wood-Pigeon (H. A. Course, K. R.

Chandler, M. W. Ridley) ... ... ... ... ... 162

Turtle-Dove using same nest for two years in succession

(H. Bentham) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 163

Continental Redshank in Kent (Dr. J. M. Harrison) ... ... 163

Status of the Black-backed Gulls in the London Area (R. S. R.

Fitter] ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 163

Short Notes : —

Snow-Buntings in Leicestershire and Gloucestershire.
Common Buzzards in Surrey and Middlesex. Ospreys in
Suffolk and Hampshire. A Cambridgeshire Great Bustard 164

(146)

SKY-LARK SONG

BY

NOBLE ROLLIN.

The following notes on the length of Sky-Lark ( Alauda a.
arvensis ) song may be of interest in connexion with Mr. W. B.
Alexander’s interesting record of an 18 minute song (antea,
Vol. xxxv, p. 160). The point was made in relation to this
song that it was absolutely unbroken, with the comment that
this is very unusual for so long a song.

The following figures, collected at different times over a
period of upwards of fifteen years, were taken from a slightly
different angle, under the definition “ the timing is started
when the bird rises, singing, from the ground, and the timing is
finished either when the bird ceases singing, preparatory
to an earthward dive or — if the dive is dispensed with — when
the singing bird reaches the ground ” (Scot. Nat., 1931, p. 4 7).
This constitutes a timing of the song ritual as it were, which is
probably the factor of most biological interest, and includes
as such any breaks natural to the song of the Sky-Lark.
In order, however, not to exaggerate this difference in
definition of song, it might be mentioned that in Sky-Larks
in full song, in the more normal lengths of song at any rate, it
is much more unusual to hear a song with a break in it than to
hear one without.

Length of Song.

Averages for some 500 songs from an area near the coast
at South Shields, in the County of Durham, have already
been analysed (Scot. Nat., 1931, pp. 47-54). In these songs,
timed from half a minute upwards and half minute by half
minute, the average length of song for this area worked out at
only 2.2 minutes. About 1,000 songs from this area are now
available and these have been plotted, at Mr. B. W. Tucker’s
suggestion, half minute by half minute with the result shown
in Figure 1. In order not to make the graph unduly extensive
the half minute plotting is extended only up to 12 minutes.
Such few songs as there were over 12 minutes are shown
equally spaced with their respective song lengths marked
below. The graph gives a good idea of the proportions of
songs of varying lengths and the relative rarity of long songs.
From all these songs no indication of a predominating song
length emerges, the net result being that the longer the song,
the fewer times it is given.

By the kind co-operation of different observers in various
parts of the British Isles, on various dates during spring and
summer a further series of songs has been collected. From
about 400 of these a similar curve to that shown in Figure 1
was obtained from the 2 minute group onwards, but there

VOL. XXXVI.]

SKY-LARK SONG.

147

were proportionately less songs in the \ to i| minute groups.
It remains to be seen whether this difference is maintained
over this wider area when a longer series of timings has
been collected.

Figure i. — -Number of Songs of Various Song Lengths.
Plotted half minute by half minute.

In recording the songs for Figure i songs of less than \ a
minute were not timed, consequently the minute group
really represents | minute to § minute, whereas to conform
to the rest of the graph they should be from J to § minutes.
To bring them into line the \ minute songs have therefore
been doubled and the result is shown in the shaded part of the
graph.

Upper Limit of Song Length.

As to the general lengths of the relatively scarce longer
songs, there seems little conformity, due presumably to the
lack of a sufficiently long series. In addition to those shown
in the graph from the South Shields area, I have also received
from observers in different parts of the British Isles records
of songs of i8|, 20, 27 (two) and 29 minutes, and though
about half an hour seems indicated as somewhere near a
normal maximum it would be difficult to say what is the
absolute upper limit of song. I have myself timed songs more
in terms of thousands than hundreds, and the longest so far
is one of 68 minutes. This was recorded on June 12th, 1933
singing over a territory on the slope of Glanton Hill behind the
Station. If a guess is permissible I would suggest that the
upper limit of song will be found between 1^ hours and 2 hours.

148

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Output of Song.

A useful factor in working out song is the output of song, i.e.,
the total amount of time occupied in actual song. It is not
only useful for comparing songs within the species, but it also
makes it possible to compare directly one species with

200r

i / l 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12. \ 11,15 M !(, H 19 iftlti Si ft
SO/VC LENGTHS HALF MINUTE by half minute lonq soncs

Figure 2. — Output of Songs for Various Song Lengths.
Plotted half minute by half minute.

another.* The output for songs of different lengths in the
South Shields area is shown in Figure 2. This puts the longer
songs in something approaching their correct perspective,
and also shows the greatest output as contributed by songs of
up to about 3 or 3I minutes.

^/5r

4 5 & 7 8 9 ID II II I 12) USC 78

A. n. P. n

Figure 3. — Total Output of Song of a Single Bird on One Day
(April 12th). Plotted hour by hour.

*e.g. A Willow -Warbler ( Phylloscopus t. trochilus ) in full song gave a
mid-day output of 7 minutes per hour. This can be compared directly
with the output of say the Sky-Lark in Figure 3 at a similar time of day.

VOL. XXXVI.]

SKY -LARK SONG.

149

An interesting factor in this connexion is how the output
varies during the day. In Figures 3, 4 and 5 are shown some
examples.

Figure 3 was made on April 12th at a point about four
miles inland from the South Shields area, from observations
on a single bird. It represents the total output of this bird
for one day — a matter of 68J minutes. By coincidence the

ttf(,789/0///Z/23{,S672

A. M. P. M.

Figure 4. — Output from Birds of an Area on a Day Favourable

to Song. (June 1st).

Plotted hour by hour. Initial dawn singing not shown

total output of this singer for one day in April is barely longer
than the single effort of my longest singer at Glanton in June.
The graph represents minutes of song per hour uttered by the
bird, e.g. from 4.30 a.m. — 5.30 a.m. G.M.T. (marked 5 on the
graph) this Sky-Lark sang n-|- minutes. This was its morning
peak, but the song was well maintained until noon. The

A. M. P. M.

Figure 5. — Output from Birds of an Area on a Day when there
was a very Strong Wind. (June 16th).

Plotted hour by hour. Initial dawn singing not shown

150

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

afternoon song was scarce by comparison, with its peak
relatively early at 3 p.m. The day was favourable to song
throughout.

In Figures 4 and 5 are somewhat similar data, not from a
single bird this time but the total of song from all the birds
occupying a restricted area. The result is given as total song
in minutes of song per hour. These June records, which do not
cover the initial dawn outburst, were made in the South
Shields area, Figure 4 being over rather a larger area than
Figure 5. They are interesting in showing a controlling effect
of weather on output of aerial song. June 1st was favourable
to song and shows more or less normal peaks of output. On
June 16th a wind which became extremely strong in the
afternoon began to make itself felt at about 10 a.m. and
reached its greatest force at about 5 p.m. The effect on the
output of aerial song was that it died away almost entirely
and was never resumed in any strength. Whilst the wind was
thus inhibiting song on the wing it was noticeable that there
was a strong undercurrent of ground song to be heard. In this
way the Sky-Larks seemed to be making up for some part of
the aerial song which was denied them.

(151)

REACTIONS OF BIRDS TO AIRCRAFT

BY

Flying Officer R. A. CARR-LEWTY, R.A.F.

There is no doubt that the considerable increase in aviation
in recent years has given rise to some speculation by ornitho-
logists as to the reactions of birds to aircraft, and therefore
some of my experiences in seven years of flying may be of
interest.

On aerodromes, birds appear to be little affected by aircraft
and they pay but scant attention to aircraft standing or
moving on the ground. It is well known that birds disregard
motor cars, and the same can be said of their reactions to
grounded aircraft.

In the breeding season many species nest on busy aero-
dromes, especially Lapwings (Vanellus vanellus) and the sitting
birds ignore aeroplanes taxying on the ground, even down to
distances of three or four yards. An aircraft taxying with a
man walking alongside is not tolerated within ioo yards.
A Ringed Plover ( Charadrius h. hiaticula) nesting on one
aerodrome would permit close scrutiny from five yards from
an open cockpit, but the same bird would quit the nest when
I approached within 50 yards on foot. When seated in my
machine at a distance of five yards, even the waving of an
arm would not convince her that I was a potential source
of danger. Many parallel experiences could be quoted.

The wary Rook ( Covvus f. frugilegus ) is quite happy to allow
an aeroplane to taxy quite close whilst he is feeding, but moves
quickly out of the way of one landing or “ taking off.” He
is very rarely the victim of a collision, but Lapwings are
frequently killed.

From observations made, birds are little disturbed when
both they, and the aircraft are in flight. On close approach
of a machine they usually wheel leisurely out of the way.
At one aerodrome on which the most usual line of approach
was over the tops of some tall elms in which there was a large
heronry, machines passed all day within 50-100 feet of the
nests. Herons (Ardea c. cinerea) flying above the nests
would turn gently away from'^the path of an approaching
aircraft, and over three years no collision between aircraft
and Heron occurred ; the heronry increased in size annually
during this period.

I have observed on many occasions that flocks of birds are
greatly disturbed when pilots take harassing action against
them due to high spirits and lack of understanding, and this
would undoubtedly cause the desertion of localities where
this occurred with regularity. Continuous low flying has
also a disturbing effect. Usually, special low-flying areas

152

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

are selected for practice and where possible these are areas
uninhabited or very sparsely habited. At one aerodrome,
the low-flying area was, unfortunately, a salt-marsh greatly
favoured by many species of geese and ducks as a resting and
feeding ground on migration. Countless thousands were to be
seen at the appropriate seasons, and were in a constant state
of movement when low flying was in progress. There is
little doubt that this interruption of feeding would have some
effect on mortality. It is worthy of notice that Sheld-Ducks
(' Tadorna tadorna) nesting on this extensive marsh amounted
to no more than one or two pairs annually, although a marsh
similar in size about seven miles away where low flying was
prohibited, held many pairs. About four pairs of Dunlin
(■ Calidris a. schinzii) nested on the low-flying area but were
much more numerous on the other marsh. Redshanks ( Tringa
t. britannica), however, appeared to be present in roughly
equal numbers on each.

Ocular demonstration of the effect of low flying on birds
can be had by flying across stretches of water and observing
the reactions of the waterfowl thereon. At heights down to
500 feet they pay no attention to aircraft. At 400 feet one
observes an unhurried movement towards the nearest bank,
at 300 feet a more vigorous movement, and at lower heights
the alarm increases in proportion, an aeroplane at 100 feet
putting all waterfowl to precipitous flight. In the case of
stretches of water near the boundaries of aerodromes a
desertion, or at least a diminution of numbers may be expected.

One does not usually see a bird above 300 feet or 400 feet
above ground level except flocks on migration, but I have
occasionally noted various species at surprising altitudes,
amongst these, Pink-footed Geese ( Anser f. brachyrhynchus )
at 7,000 feet ; Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha) , 6,300 feet ; Curlew
(. Numenius arquata), 4,600 feet ; Swan, 3,850 feet ; Swift,
(Apus apus), 3,400 feet; Wood-Pigeon (Columba palumbus),
3,100 feet ; Golden Plover ( Pluvialis apricaria), 3,000 feet ;
Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris), Rook and Swallow ( Hirundo
rustica ), above 2,000 feet. I have never seen birds above
cloud even when it has consisted of a thin layer about 100 feet
thick and only 300-400 feet above ground level. They
appear to prefer, in daylight at least, to remain within sight
of the ground.

(153)

AN INDEX TO THE THAMES KINGFISHER

RECOVERY

BY

L. S. V. VENABLES and U. M. WYKES.

The winter of 1939-40 was an abnormally severe one in the
British Isles. The weather and its effect qn bird life have
been summarised by Ticehurst and Witherby (antea Vol. xxxiv,
pp. 118 and 142) who describe the devastating “ bottle frost ”
- — i.e. the thick coating of ice over everything following the
ice storm in late January. This phenomenon, fortunately
rare in this country, causes many birds to be frozen to their
roosting perches or else to have their plumage sheathed in
ice. In either case starvation would be their probable end.
Much of the Upper Thames was frozen over thick enough for
skating which happens very uncommonly.

In 1934 C. W. S. Ellis with the Oxford Ornithological
Society (see Tucker and Alexander, Report of the Oxford
Ornithological Society on the birds of Oxon, Berks and Bucks
for 1934, p. 45) took a count of the Kingfishers ( Alcedo ispida)
in the breeding season along much of the Thames between
Tadpole Bridge* and Maidenhead, finding an average of one
pair per 1.8 miles. Quite possibly this was an underestimate
because a more detailed search of a few sections in 1935
revealed more pairs than were found in 1934. After the hard
winter of 1939-40 Ticehurst and Witherby ( loc . cit.) say
that the 30 (approx.) pairs on the Thames between New Bridge
and Wallingford had been reduced to only one or two pairs.

The following observations on the Thames Kingfisher
population are not claimed to be a complete census, but merely
an index to the recovery. The counts were taken by walking
along the bank or by travelling on deck in the bows of one
of Salter’s steamers and in neither case was any strenuous
effort made to find the nests or to flush birds which might
have been sitting in bushes on the opposite bank. In the
breeding season counts (61 miles) the towpath was walked
from Rushy Weir, near Bampton, to Oxford and a steamer
taken from Oxford to Caversham Bridge (Reading). These
counts were mostly from April to June, but one section was
not covered in 1940 until September 3 (see below). Nesting,
however, extends into August and has been recorded up to
October. In the winter counts (40 miles) the towpath was
walked from Rushy Weir to Day’s Lock, Little Wittenham.

It will be seen on a map that in some places the Thames
splits into two streams which rejoin in a mile or so. With
some of these islands only one (the main) stream was followed,
but in the localities given below both sides were covered on
all six counts.

*A11 place names used in this communication can be found on the
one-inch road maps.

x

154

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

The bifurcation between Shifford, Chimney and Duxford.

,, ,, at Skinner’s Bridge near Eynsham.

,, ,, at Fiddler’s Island near Oxford.

,, ,, at Culham Cut and Sutton Courtenay.

,, ,, at Clifton Cut and Long Wittenham.

The dates of the counts were as follows : —

1940. Breeding season. Rushy Weir to Day’s Lock.

May-June.

Day’s Lock to Caversham

Bridge. September 3.

Winter. Rushy Weir to Day’s Lock.

December 8-28.

1941. Breeding season. Rushy Weir to Caversham

Bridge. April 20- June 12.
Winter. Rushy Weir to Day’s Lock.

October 19-November 16.

1942. Breeding season. Rushy Weir to Caversham

Bridge. May 3-21.

Winter. Rushy Weir to Day’s Lock.

October 17-November 13.

The numbers of Kingfishers seen on these counts are given
below and are expressed diagrammatically in the figure.

1940.

Breeding season.

61 miles.

2

Kingfishers in 2

localities.

Winter.

40

3

3

) t

1941.

Breeding season.

61

9

» 7

t t

Winter.

40

11

„ 11

) f

1942.

Breeding season.

61

15

13

> )

Winter.

40

24

» 23

t t

The number of localities is recorded because in the breeding
season counts one might see only the non-incubating bird of
a pair or, possibly, a family party. A copy of the details of
the counts and the localities has been deposited with the
Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Museum Road,
Oxford.

It will be seen that these index counts show a good rate of
recovery in the Kingfisher population. The winters of 1940-
41 and 1941-42 both had cold spells, but there were no bottle
frosts and no serious freezing of the Thames — i.e. no setback
to the Kingfisher recovery.

One of the writers (L.S.V.V.) lives near the Seacourt Stream,
a small branch of the Thames about four miles long above
Oxford, and a similar sort of recovery, in miniature, took
place there. After the cold winter no Kingfishers were seen
until September 1940, when a single bird appeared. On
April 15, 1941, it found a mate and they later had one brood.

vol. xxxvi ] INDEX TO THAMES KINGFISHER. 155

In 1942 they (apparently the same pair) reared two families,
using the same nest-hole for both. During the rearing of the
second brood, the first brood young worked down the ditches
connecting the Seacourt to the Thames and were to be seen
sometimes fishing in these ditches and sometimes on the
Thames itself.

THAMES KINaRSHEPs INDEX

19*0 1941

1940 1^41 1942.

BREEDING* SEASON, fei milES
NUMBER OF BIRDS SEEN.

BREEDING SEASON. 6l MILES
NUMBER OF LOCALITIES.

WINTER. 40 MILES
NUMBER OF BIRDS SEEN.

Summary.

1. In 1934 a Kingfisher count taken along 68 miles of t he
Thames in the breeding season gave an average of one pair
per 1.8 miles — i.e. a locality per 1.8 miles.

2. 1939-40 had a very hard winter with a bad bottle frost
and much of the Thames was seriously frozen. The Kingfisher
population was very much reduced.

3. Breeding season counts in 1940, 1941 and 1942 along
61 miles of the Thames in the region included in the 1934
count gave : —

1940 — a locality per 30.5 miles.

1941— „ 8.7

1942— „ 4.7

4. In all cases winter counts gave higher numbers of birds
than in the previous breeding season, although only 40 miles
of the Thames were included. On the third winter there was
an average of one bird per 1.7 miles.

(150)

OBITUARY.

REAR-ADMIRAL HUBERT LYNES, R.N., C.B., C.M.G.

(1874-1942)

Ornithologists all over the world and a host of friends will greatly
deplore the loss of Rear-Admiral Lynes, whose death took place
after a short illness on November 10th, 1942, at a Naval Hospital.

Hubert Lynes was born on November 27th, 1874, and in 1887
entered the Navy, where he had a distinguished career. In the
last war he commanded H.M.S. Penelope (1914-1917) and was
Commodore Dunkerque in command of the Allied Naval and Royal
Marine forces (1917-1918). He commanded the Ostend forces in
Admiral Keyes’s great operation for the blocking of the canal at
Zeebrugge in April, 1918, and organized and commanded the second
operation for blocking Ostend a month later. Subsequently he
commanded H.M.S. Warspite and was present at the surrender of
the High Sea Fleet on November 21st, 1918.

He was created C.M.G. (1917), C.B. (1918), awarded the Croix
de Guerre and made Commander of the Legion of Honour and of
the Order of Leopold (1918).

In 1919 he retired from the Navy at his own request and was
promoted Rear-Admiral retired in 1922.

Lynes was a very fine field naturalist and his interest in birds
was developed at an early age. Like many others he was first
attracted by eggs, but he was always a very moderate and careful
collector and had a much greater interest in finding a nest, and
getting to it if it was in a difficult place, than in the actual acquisition
of the eggs. While he never lost this sort of sporting urge to “ bowl
out the little bird ”, as he termed it, by finding the nest, his interest
in Nature soon became very wide and this made his studies of
birds of exceptional interest and value.

During his years in the Navy he was able to do much valuable
bird work in various parts of the world, but it was after his
retirement in 1919, that his chief ornithological work was done.
He was then able to devote himself to the subject and began a
series of expeditions, mainly to Africa, almost bewildering in their
scope and frequency.

It is not the place here to give more than the briefest summary
of these journeys and the great results achieved. He made twelve
expeditions to Africa, some of them lasting a year or more and
covering most parts of the Continent. His chief aim in these
expeditions always was to learn more of the life histories of the
birds he met with, but he also made large and valuable collections,
not only of birds, but of mammals, plants, insects and minerals,
which he presented for the most part to the British Museum,
though most of the bird-skins which he brought back from his
journeys in Morocco went to augment the splendid series of North
African birds brought together by Hartert at Tring, and parts of
other collections were presented to various museums abroad.

VOL. XXXVI.]

OBITUARY.

157

It was while working out the results of his Darfur expeditions
(1920 and 1920-22) that he was struck by the great confusion which
existed in the classification of the Fan-tailed Warblers ( Cisticola ),
a very large genus of birds most of which inhabit Africa. After
further investigation he began to make an exhaustive study of
these birds and carried this out in a most scientific way by a com-
bination of keen and clever observation in the field and most
painstaking museum work. The result was his “ Review of the
Genus Cisticola ” published as a special volume of The Ibis in
I93° — a magnificent piece of work which made him internationally
famous as an ornithologist and brought him the award of the
Godman-Salvin gold medal by the British Ornithologists’ Union.

After the publication of his great monograph, Lynes made four
more expeditions to Africa with the chief object of clearing up
various points connected with the Cisticola and the results of these
journeys were to form an “ Appendix ” to the work. Unfortunately
on his last expedition (1938) he contracted shingles, which very
seriously affected the sight of one eye, and he arrived home early
in 1939 in a poor state of health. By the time he had recovered
sufficiently to work again the present war supervened. He con-
stantly offered his services for war work in any capacity and after
many refusals he had the satisfaction in June, 1940 of being
appointed R.N. Officer in North Wales. This appointment was
coming to an end and he was arranging to complete his Cisticola
“ Appendix ” at the time of his death.

Lynes probably knew more about the birds of Africa in the field
than anyone else, but he also had a wide and often detailed know-
ledge of a great many Palaearctic birds.

, To our first volume he contributed an article on an extraordinary
“ banking up ” of European Swallows while on migration which
he witnessed on November 1st, 1907 at Mombasa.

When Commander in H.M.S. Venus on the Mediterranean
station from August, 1905 to February, 1908, he was able to make
many interesting observations on the birds of that region, the
general results being published in the Ibis (1912), while he wrote
for British Birds (Vol. iii), a valuable paper on Migration, chiefly
as seen at Malta, Crete and Port Said, and including a vivid account
of a remarkable visitation (ascribed to rain) of tired migrants to
his ship on April 29th, 1906.

He made other short contributions to this magazine, such as
notes on the nesting of Hobbies and Little Owls in Hampshire
and Crossbills in Surrey in Volume iii, while in Volume ii, in a
short note on a Ringed Plover’s nest in a hoof mark in sun-baked
mud near Portsmouth, his characteristic attention to detail was
shown by the concise statement that it contained 2,000 small
pebbles weighing 7 ozs. and that these must have been collected
from a distance of 20 yards.

In 1910 he accompanied his great friend Abel Chapman with
Walter Buck, the well-known authors of Wild Spain, to two Anda-

158

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

lucian Sierras, on which he wrote an interesting paper in the Ibis
(1912). In other trips to Spain, Algeria, Syd Varanger (twice),
Switzerland, etc., he became acquainted with many species.

A useful paper on the distribution of the Chiffchaff and Willow-
Warbler (Ibis, 1914) was the outcome of studying the Chiffchaff
with a Willow-Warbler-like song found in the Iberian peninsula.
Three expeditions to French Morocco (1919, 1924, 1925) and one
to Spanish Morocco (1923) not only yielded valuable results, embo-
died in a number of papers, but furthered his knowledge of Palae-
arctic birds. Going eastwards in 1935 with F. C. R. Jourdain he
renewed acquaintance with Egyptian birds (Ibis, 1936) and saw
something of those of Palestine.

In the Far East, when in command of H.M.S. Cadmus on the
China Station (1910-12), Lynes had many opportunities of studying
birds especially in the region of the lower Yangtze Kiang. An
outstanding piece of work here was his study of the life history of
that curious Crow-Tit, Paradoxornis heudei, the breeding habits
and range of which were previously unknown. The results of this
study will be found in The Ibis (1914), but most unfortunately
his other field notes as well as systematic notes on the large collection
of birds (now in the British Museum) he made in China were lost
during the Great War, when his cabin in Penelope was blown away
by a U-boat torpedo.

A far worse loss at this time was his wonderful “ bird log,”
a huge volume, in which he had always written up all his notes,
so often illustrated with charming little sketches and those detailed
and supremely neat maps for which he was famous.

In the Practical Handbook will be found a number of contributions
by him to the sections on “ Field-characters,” especially among
the buntings and warblers, and many notes on items of food. These
were mostly from observations made in the Mediterranean and
China.

Lynes was an outstanding character who had ideas of his own
and carried them through. Devotion to duty was a ruling influence
in his life. His great generosity was well known, but the extent
of it was little realized. Besides private benefactions of every
kind, there were many orinithological projects which could never
have been carried out but for his aid. He was the best of compan-
ions. In the field he was tireless, and although handicapped by
“ gun-deafness ” his extremely quick eye made up for it. He was
a very fine climber whether in a tree or on a cliff. His quickness in
action was remarkable and he was often impetuous, yet no one
could prepare for an action or journey in a more detailed, methodical
and thoughtful way than he did, and the same thoroughness,
painstaking accuracy and extreme neatness characterized all his
work.

He was unmarried, but when at home he was always under the
care of his devoted sister, Miss Lynes, to whom we extend all our
sympathy. H.FAV.

(159)

NOTES.

A NORTH YORKSHIRE MAGPIE ROOST.

The Handbook of British Birds states that on the continent Magpies
■may roost in hundreds, but I have not heard of a roost of any
: magnitude in this country.

On March 30th, 1942 near Northallerton the chattering of
Magpies ( Pica p. pica ) drew my attention to an extremely dense
:oppice composed almost entirely of hawthorn, and covering an
irea of about 1,000 square yards. The thicket was sited on the steep
Aide of a dough with a tiny rivulet at the bottom, on the opposite
dde hawthorn bushes were scattered thinly, mixed with elder.
Flanking the dough was pasture land, with a little coniferous
plantation further above, and at the head was a small hardwood
t mclosure.

So far as military duties would allow observations have been
taken at the roost at intervals throughout the year, and are given
below with relevant remarks.

Date

Observation

Period.

Number
of birds
in Roost.

REMARKS.

I942

Mar. 30

i hour

42

+

Apl. 2

i£ hours

162

+

Almost all birds flew to a dead ash

May 2 r

2 hours

9i

tree before entering the roost, up
to 20 birds could be counted on
the tree at one time.

The birds congregated on the

July 29

3J hours

56

+

bushes at the outskirts before
entering the actual rocst.

Few birds entered the roost proper,

Sept. 2

H hours

“ outside ”
groups

123 +

but large numbers, in small
parties of 4-6 birds, probably
family groups, were concen-
trated in the bushes on the
opposite side of the dough, and
in the adjacent hedgerows.

The birds came in flying very high

Sept. 26

7.\ hours

183

+

until about 100 yards from the
roost, when they would swoop
down to ground level and so
enter the thicket. Under these
circumstances counting was very
difficult. Remarkably silent,

scarcely a bird uttered a note.

A night of much coming and going

Nov. 15

1 £ hours

161

+

and a very noisy occasion with
countless little fracas occurring.
Entry was very late and then up to

25 birds would all come in
together, probably feeding

parties.

1(50

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

The counting was done on a plus-minus system ; “ plus ” covering
birds seen to enter the roost, birds leaving the roost being deducted.
The result therefore was the number of birds definitely within the
selected area. The + sign coming after the recorded number below
denotes that birds were still entering the roost when I left, or that
the light had become too bad for further counting to be done.

Scarcely any birds entered the roost before sunset, prior to which
an hour could pass without a Magpie being seen or heard.

During the breeding season, there was no unusual number of
nests within a radius of two miles from the roost.

On the evening of October 17th, at five miles from the roost,
parties of Magpies were seen, flying high, and heading straight for
the roost.

After entering the actual roost birds became silent. There was
often continuous chattering when the outside bushes were used,
preliminary to the occupation of the roost.

During the summer counts the numbers given are of birds using
the definite roost. Many others would be in nearby bushes or high
hedgerows within a quarter of a mile from the roost. It is not known
if all these birds ultimately entered, but I am confident that a large
number did.

If it had been possible to take a full count it is estimated that the
strength of the roost would be 200-250 birds. In some cases I had
to leave early, but even when a late stay was made — in one case
till after midnight (D.S.T.) birds would still be coming in, although
they could not be distinguished beyond a distance of 20 yards.
They had probably spent the early part of the night in the nearby
bushes.

About 200 Starlings also use the roost in the winter months, but
none were seen to enter during the summer.

Blackbirds appear to use the roost all the year round. As many as
50 have been seen to enter in one evening. They were always late.

It will be interesting to hear if observations have been taken at
any other similar roost in the country. J. P. Utley.

AGGRESSIVE DISPLAY OF BIRDS BEFORE
A LOOKING-GLASS.

In British Birds, Vol. xxxi, I wrote out a few notes on the above
subject. This year I placed the looking-glass in the same position
as in 1937, to watch the result. Since that date there have been
several very hard winters, and resident birds here have dwindled
in numbers. No Pied Wagtails nest here now ; tits are much
scarcer than they were and this year I think there were only two
pairs of Blackbirds nesting in this garden.

The looking-glass was placed in position on April 13th, and almost
immediately a male Chaffinch ( Fringilla c. gengleri ) visited the glass.
This monopolized the glass pretty well the whole time off and on
until May 18th, when I never saw it again. Its mate nested the

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

161

ffiher side of a wall, about 40 yards away, but I never saw her
visit the glass. The male Chaffinch came to the glass every morning
and challenged itself intermittently for four or five hours, but did
aot appear so frequently in the afternoons or evenings. When
ffiallenging itself it displayed its breast and then crouched low,
drying to get at itself in the glass, and would remain crouched in
ane position for quite a long time without moving. I never saw it
lop round to the other side of the glass to see if there was another
bird there, as did the Blackbird and the Pied Wagtail in the former
1 jxperiment.

There was a Robin ( Erithacus r. melophilus ) nesting fairly close
it hand, but it never seemed to take any notice of the mirror ;
lor did a Song-Thrush which was often on the lawn. But on
\pril 28th a male and female Starling ( Sturnus v. vulgaris) were
m the lawn, and in due course the male carried out coition with the
'emale, and then saw himself in the glass. After a few moments
if challenging himself, he deliberately hopped round to see if there
r vas a bird the other side (a performance the Chaffinch never seemed
i;o do) ; then he came back, crouched low, flattened out his wings,
t-iang loudly and pecked both hard and viciously at his image in
he mirror several times, but apparently concluded the whole
hing was a hoax, and flew off with the female and did not return
, igain. George Brown.

SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR OF CHAFFINCHES
WHILE FEEDING FLEDGLINGS.

7rom June nth to 24th, 1942, alien Chaffinch (Fringilla c. gengleri) ,
'which was feeding young from my bird-table, frequently postured
'Sexually to her mate, which was also feeding young, and sometimes
1 waved her head and body from side to side as a fledgling does when
1 leing fed. Her mate made no response to her posturing except
ince, on June 23rd, when he also waved his head and body from side
.0 side. During the breeding season courtship, posturing, coition,
i lest-building, egg-laying, brooding and feeding young form together
me cycle of behaviour ; actions appropriate to one phase of that
:ycle may sometimes appear in connection with another.

E. W. Hendy.

WHITE-TAILED EAGLE IN YORKSHIRE.

[On March 12th, 1942, I received information that a large bird had
leen picked up dead at Cloughton Bank about 4 miles north of
Scarborough, by a Mr. Green of the Forestry Commission. On
moceeding to view the specimen I found it to be a nearly adult
'White-tailed Eagle (. Haliceetus albicilla ) still bearing slight traces
>f immaturity in the form of ash grey blotches upon the otherwise
ill white tail-feathers. The bill, eyes and legs were yellow. It
i lore recent gun shot wounds on its body, and at some remote
; jeriod had been in a trap, three toes of the left foot being missing
ind the injury completely healed up. The bird was not preserved
-,o far as I know. W. J. Clarke.

102

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

“INJURY-FEIGNING” OF WOOD-PIGEON.

The following records of “ injury-feigning ” by the Wood-Pigeon
( Columba p. palumbus) supplement the note on the same subject
(antea, p. 1 15) . During the recent Wood- Pigeon nest census, I
must have disturbed Pigeons from the nest on well over 200 oc-
casions from late May to early October, 1942 ; definite “ injury-
feigning ” was observed three times.

1. August 20th. — At dusk. Nest 19 feet up in ivy in an ash tree.
The bird sat tight until I startled it by accidently breaking a
dead ivy branch. It flew down to about 15 feet away, tumbled
along for about 30 feet and then flew off. One young bird in nest.

2. August 26th. — Evening. Nest 10 feet up in a 15 foot hawthorn
hedge which had the lower branches cut away. The bird crashed
out of the other side of the hedge and “ feigned ” for about 30 feet
before flying away out of sight. Two young birds in nest.

3. August 28th. — Evening. Nest 11 feet up in ivy in a similar
thorn hedge to the previous one. Owing to ivy, the hedge formed
more of a screen and I could see the actions of the bird through a
hole. It left on the other side and in this case the “ feigning ” was
very prolonged. The bird passed out of sight behind a low ridge,
then appeared again further away and then finally disappeared
from sight at a hundred yards, behind another ridge. When last
seen it was still tumbling. It could not have seen me after leaving
the nest ; this contained two young.

Apart from the above, there were a few examples of “ semi-
injury-feigning ” when the bird flew away near to the ground with
a somewhat sluggish rowing motion of the wings. In one case (on
the evening of September 24th), the nest was an inaccessible one,
45 feet up in a beech tree. I was looking up at the bird with field
glasses, when it glided down at 45 0 and then flew low across a
meadow with the hesitant flight and after “ hedge-hopping ” a
paling fence, continued low until it reached a belt of trees over which
it disappeared. H. A. Course.

I have several times seen a Wood-Pigeon act somewhat in the
manner described when suddenly startled from its nest. Sometimes
the bird has dropped almost to the ground and then flown away
without actually touching it. But on a few occasions it fluttered
about on the ground for a short time before flying away. A most
remarkable instance occured on June 9th, 1934 when a bird flopped
off a nest about ten feet from the ground. It fluttered about
on the ground for about a minute and then flew up, clearing a hedge
with difficulty and flew away. K. R. Chandler.

In September, 1942 I flushed a Wood-Pigeon from a nest and it
dropped straight to the ground and crawled off for about 20 yards
as if injured before flying away. The nest was about 10 feet up in a
very thick spruce and the wood was a very thick one. The nest
contained two chipped eggs. M. W. Ridley.

[The stone-like drop to the ground from the nest which Messrs.
Chandler and Ridley describe seems to be a very usual accompani-
ment of the behaviour under discussion. — B. W T.]

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

163

TURTLE-DOVE USING SAME NEST FOR TWO YEARS

IN SUCCESSION.

A nest of a Turtle-Dove ( Streptopelia t. turtur) in my garden in
Surrey in which two young had been successfully reared was used
again the following year, presumably by the same pair of birds,
but after two eggs had been deposited was unfortunately forsaken
owing to a disturbance beyond my control.

The nest was in the centre of a very thick maythorn and had
remained in good condition throughout the winter. So far as I
could ascertain, no renovation took place in the second year of
occupation. Howard Bentham.

[A case of a Turtle-Dove using a nest of the previous year in Kent
was reported in 1915 ( anted , Vol. ix, p. 187), while its use of old
nests of Blackbird and Rook, a squirrel’s drey and an accumulation
of rubbish have also been recorded ( antea , Vol. xxvi, p. 259). — Eds.]

CONTINENTAL REDSHANK IN KENT.

In May, 1941 I received from Mr. T. C. Gregory a male Redshank
which had been shot on an east Kent marsh on May 14th. This bird,
recorded in the 1941 South Eastern Bird Report, p. 13, is an un-
doubted example of Tringa totanus totanus, and as only one certain
record for this subspecies is admitted in The Handbook of British
Birds (Tring, Herts, April 10th, 1934), and this is the first specimen
for Kent, it has been thought desirable to record it here. Mr. H. F.
Witherby has kindly examined the skin and has confirmed the
determination. The wing measures 149 mm., the bird was fat and
the gonads were but slightly enlarged. James M. Harrison.

STATUS OF THE BLACK-BACKED GULLS
IN THE LONDON AREA.

In the Handbook the status of the British Lesser Black-backed
Gull ( Larus f. graellsii ) is given as “ Summer resident and passage-
migrant ; a few stay winter in most years,” and that of the Great
Black-backed Gull ( Larus marinus ) as “ Resident and winter-
visitor, infrequent inland.” In the London area, more particularly
along the Thames as far upstream as Kew, both these birds can now
be recorded as regular winter visitors in small numbers.

The British Lesser Black-backed Gull is now an all-the-year-
round visitor to the Thames in London and its adjacent reservoirs,
notably Barn Elms ; there is a large influx in August, when flocks
of over 200 have been counted, but these have mostly gone by the
end of November ; a few stay the winter, and are reinforced by a
smaller influx in March and April, after which a few non-breeding
birds stay the summer. Careful analysis of the records of the
London Natural History Society shows that from one to six British
Lesser Black-backs have wintered each year since 1929-30, before
which there were only three records between December and
February. The Scandinavian Lesser Black-backed Gull (L. /.
fuscus) has also been recorded every year since 1929, in every

164

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

month except May (not between April 20 and June 30). The June
record, which appears to be only the second for the British Isles,
was of two seen by Dr. G. Carmichael Low on the Thames at
Hammersmith on June 30th, 1941 ( London Bird Report, 1941, p. 18).
The Scandinavian bird can now also be considered a regular winter
visitor to the Thames in very small numbers ; it has been recorded
in January every year since 1935, except 1937.

The Great Black-backed Gull is a regular winter-visitor to the
Thames in numbers up to a dozen. Its visits began irregularly
about 1925-26, and seem to have become regular about the same
time as the Lesser Black-back in 1929-30. The Great Black-
backed Gull has also been recorded from the Thames above Green-
wich in every month of the year, but not between June 2 and July
25, so that it cannot yet be classed as an all-the-year-round visitor.

R. S. R. Fitter.

Snow-Buntings in Leicestershire and Gloucestershire. —
As there seem few records of the occurrence of the Snow-Bunting
{Plectrophenax n. nivalis) in these counties it should be noted that
Captain T. A. M. Hill sends us particulars of one he saw at
Lockington on November 4th, 1942, and Pilot-Officer A. J. B.
Thompson informs us of one he observed at Frampton on
November 14th.

Common Buzzards in Surrey and Middlesex. — Mr. B. A.
Richards informs us that he saw a Buzzard ( Buteo buteo) soaring in
large circles over the Thames at about 500 feet between Kingston
and Hampton Court on June 6th, 1942 and on September 10th, 1940
he saw another over Putney.

Ospreys in Suffolk and Hampshire. — We are informed by Mr.
F. C. Cook that an Osprey (Pandion h. halicetns), unfortunately shot
by a keeper near Lowestoft on October 19th, 1942, bore a ring
inscribed “ Museum Goteborg, Sweden, E.5754.” The bird was
a female in immature plumage. Miss E. P. Leach has made enquir-
ies and is informed by the Goteborg authorities that this bird was
ringed as a nestling on July 30th, 1942, at Lake Rusken, near
Nydala, Province Smaland, S. Sweden.

Commander C. E. Hammond, R.N. reports {Field, 28.11. 1942,
p. 569) that on September 13th, 1942, he watched an Osprey in
Portsmouth Harbour. The bird was perched on a notice board
and was eating what appeared to be a Lapwing.

A Cambridgeshire Great Bustard. — Dr. J. M. Harrison
informs us that a female specimen of the Great Bustard {Otis t.
tarda) killed at West Wickham on February 6th, 1880 has come
into his hands. No 1880 occurrence is mentioned in The Birds of
Cambridgeshire, but we find that Cambridgeshire is mentioned in
Yarrell (4th edition, Vol. iii, p. 208) as one of the counties in which
the bird appeared during the migration noted in the winter of
1879-1880, and this particular specimen was recorded in the
Zoologist for 1880, p. no by T. Travis.

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H.F.WITHERBY, M.B.E.,F.Z.S.,M.B.O.U.,H.F.A.O.U.

ASSISTED BY

Norman F. Ticehurst, o.b.e., m.a., f.r.c.s., m.b.o.u., and
Bernard W. Tucker, m.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Contents of Number 9, Vol. XXXVI, February 1, 1943.

PAGE

The Age of the Blackbird. By David Lack ... ... ... 166

How a Cuckoo laid into a Reed-Warbler’s Nest. By N. H. Joy 176
Notes : —

Pied Flycatchers breeding in Gloucestershire (J. M. B. Brown) 179

Hoopoe in Aberdeenshire (K. A. Wood) ... ... ... ... 179

Green Woodpecker in Lanarkshire (R. Y. Ferguson) ... ... 179

Eagle-Owls in Kirkcudbrightshire (Duke of Bedford) ... 180

Goshawk in Norfolk (J. Vincent, H. Wormald) ... ... 181

Spoonbill in Orkney (E. Linklater) ... ... ... ... 181

Ruddy Sheld-Duck in Cornwall (E. R. Parrinder) ... ... 181

Remarkable Behaviour of Green Sandpipers (T. C. Gregory) ••• 181

Greenshank wintering in same spot for eleven seasons (E. H.

T. Bible)... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 182

Short Notes : — •

Birds feeding on Berries of Service Tree — Correction. Pied

Flycatcher nesting underground. Late Blackcap and Swifts
in Renfrewshire. Late Redstart and Common Sandpiper in
Lincolnshire. Dipper breeding in Hampshire. Peregrine
Falcon coming to Dead Bird. Little Ringed Plover in
Kent. Plunging of Black-headed Gulls. Iceland Gulls
at Aberdeen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 182

Letter : —

Recollections about the Ospreys at Achnacarry (D. W.

Cameron of Lochiel) ... ... ... ... ... ... 184

A

(166)

THE AGE OF THE BLACKBIRD*

BY

DAVID LACK
Introduction.

The potential age, the age to which birds can live, has been
the subject of several papers, the earlier ones based on records
in captivity, e.g. Gurney (1899), Mitchell (1911), Flower
(1925), and the later ones on ringing returns, e.g. Witherby
(1926), Nice (1934). A number of small Passerine birds
can live ten to fifteen years, in some cases twenty years,
some of the larger species of birds can live for twenty to fifty
years, and a very few have been credited with living up to
eighty years or more.

The average age attained by birds in a wild state is clearly
very different from their potential age and has rarely been
discussed. Burkitt (1926, 1936) estimated the average age
of wild Robins [Erithacus rubecula melophilus) to be 2.8 years
and of the Rook ( Corvus f. frugilegus ) to be 7-10 years.
These estimates were based on assumptions as to the number
of surviving young, and, as will be mentioned in a later
paper, Burkitt’s estimate for the age of the Robin is probably
more than double what it should be. Nice (1937) showed
that under favourable conditions the average age attained
by wild male Song Sparrows ( Melospiza melodia ) was 2\ years
and that about 40 per cent, of the adult males died each year.
This was based on the returns of all the banded Song Sparrows
in an area in Ohio. As Nice points out, a few of the males
may have shifted and not died, so her figure for the average
age is, if anything, slightly too low. Nice also provides a
valuable discussion of the other data on the age of birds.

While the only way in which the average age of wild birds
can be fully investigated is by ringing all the individuals
in one area over a period of years, as Nice did, the ringing
returns of the British Birds Marking Scheme provide valuable,
if incomplete, information on the same subject. Only a very
small percentage of the ringed birds are recovered, so that
strictly all that the returns show is the average age of those
birds found dead by human beings. But there is no particular
reason to think that those adult birds found dead by human
beings are on the average either older or younger than the
adults in the population as a whole, hence the figures are
probably close to those for the population as a whole, though
this cannot be considered certain.

While the adults found dead are probably a fair sample

♦Publication of “ The British Trust for Ornithology.”

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF THE BLACKBIRD.

167

of the whole population, this does not apply to those found
dead in the first two months after leaving the nest. First,
an excessively large proportion of such birds probably fall
victims to predators, and so die without trace. Secondly,
such birds often die close to where ringed, and hence the
number found partly depends on whether the ringer revisits
the places where he ringed the birds. The returns suggest
that some individual ringers revisit ringing localities much
more often than do others. Owing to these considerations,
the main figures in this paper are calculated not from the
day on which the fledgling leaves the nest, but from the first
August ist of life. However, for the sake of completeness,
the figures are also calculated from the day of leaving the
nest, though these must be regarded as less reliable.

Material selected.

The present investigation of Blackbirds ( T urdus m. merula )
was restricted to the returns of all those ringed as nestlings
up to and including the year 1934.* Birds ringed after 1934
were omitted, as some of them are still alive. Indeed a few
of those ringed before 1935 may still be alive, but the error
from this source is extremely small. Birds dying before they
left the nest are omitted. All those ringed on the mainland
of England, Wales and Scotland are included, but the very
few ringed in the Isle of Man, Ireland and the islands off
Scotland are omitted.

In Tables I and II the birds are arranged in year-groups
between August ist and July 31st and the recoveries up to
the first August ist are treated separately. The mean date
of ringing was the end of the third week in May, hence on
August ist the birds were on the average nine or ten weeks
out of the nest.

- Proportion of dead birds found.

From 1931 onwards the summaries in British Birds record
separately the number of birds ringed as nestlings and the
number trapped. In the four years 1931 to 1934 a total of
10,539 nestling Blackbirds were ringed, of which 192 have
later been found dead, or 1.8 per cent. Of those trapped
during the same period some 3J per cent, have been recovered.
That the latter figure is higher than the former is probably
due partly to the relatively large number of fledgling Black-
birds which die without trace and partly to the fact that a
trapper usually keeps special look-out for dead birds in his
district.

*In addition to those ringed under the British Birds Marking Scheme,
Dr. Landsborough Thomson kindly put at my disposal the records of
the Aberdeen University scheme.

1(58

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

TABLE I.

Age at death of Blackbirds.
Number found dead in

i.

2.

3-

Scotland

Northern

Southern

& Borders*

England*

England*

Total.

Before first

Aug. 1st.

71

44

125

240

Between A ug.

1st

and July 31 st.

1st year

94

29

69

192

2nd ,,

... 28

12

20

60

3r(t ..

26

7

17

50

4th „

7

4

9

20

5th ,,

7

1

4

12

6th „

4

—

3

7

7th „

2

3

1

6

8th ,,

1

2

3

9th „

—

—

—

10th ,,

... 1

—

1

2

Total

... 241

100

251

592

*Note. — Region i includes Scottish mainland, Northumb, Durham,
Cumb, Westmor.

Region 2 includes Yorks, Lancs, Lines, Notts, Derby,
Cheshire and N. Wales.

Region 3 includes the remaining counties of England and
Wales (roughly those south of a line through the Wash).

TABLE II.

Survival of Blackbirds after first August 1st ( all Britain).

% of those Expectation

No. alive

% alive

alive at

of further

at start

at start

start of

life on

of year

of year

year dying

Aug. 1st

during the

(in years).

year.

1st

year

352

100

55

1.6

2nd

j >

160

46

38

1.9

3rd

f >

... 100

28

50

r-7

4th

i t

50

14

40

1-9

5th

»>

30

9

40

1.8

6th

» 1

18

5

—

—

7th

» »

11

3

—

—

8th

» »

5

—

—

—

9th

» t

... 2

—

—

—

10th

1 *

2

—

—

—

Proportion in each Age-group.

Table I shows that out of 592 recoveries as many as 240,
or 41 per cent., occurred before August 1st of the first year
of life. As already noted, there is some doubt as to whether
this figure represents the true mortality during this period.

The second column of Table II shows that of every 100
juvenile Blackbirds alive on August 1st only about 46 will
still be alive in one year’s time, 28 after two years, 14 after

vol. xxxvi] AGE OF THE BLACKBIRD.

169

three years and so on, until only three survive after six years.
This also means that in a stable population the proportion
of each age-group alive on August ist is ioo juveniles to
every 46 second-year birds, 28 third-year birds, 14 fourth-
year birds and so on. The proportion of juveniles to adults
of all ages alive on August ist is 100 to 107.

The last is a figure which can be checked by direct field
observation, by counting every wild Blackbird seen on August
ist. Unfortunately it is difficult to distinguish adult females
from juveniles, but adult males are readily distinguishable.

I did not think of doing such a check until September ist,
when counts round Richmond, Surrey, gave 36 adult males
and 92 “ others.” One sees an occasional unmated male
Blackbird in spring, suggesting that, as in many Passerines,
there is a small excess of males over females. Suppose the
sex ratio to be six males to every five females (which seems
not unreasonable), then the 92 “ other ” Blackbirds seen at
Richmond probably included some 30 adult females, leaving
62 juveniles. Hence the juvenile to adult ratio at Richmond
on September ist was 62 to 66, or 100 juveniles to 106 adults.
If the sex ratio is assumed to be equal, this ratio works out
at 100 juveniles to 129 adults. A calculation from the
ringing returns, similar to that made for August ist in Table

II shows that on September ist the expected proportion of
juvenile to adult Blackbirds in the population is 100 to 117.
Hence the figures check fairly well, suggesting that the average
age as estimated from ringing returns is near to that for the
whole population.*

Proportion dying each Year.

The third column of Table II shows that the older Black-
birds survive rather better than do those in their first year,
even when the period up to the first August ist is omitted
from consideration. 55 per cent, of the first-year birds die
during the year, as compared with only 38 per cent, of the
second-year birds. The proportion dying appears to rise
again in the third year, but this is not significant and the
figure remains around 40 per cent, for each of the three
following years, after which too few individuals remain for
the figure to be of any value.

*The data needed to make the calculation from Sept, ist were not
given in the tables. Of the 192 Blackbirds found dead in their
first year 36 died during their first August. Two died in the second
August, two in the third August and one in each of the fourth, fifth
and eighth Augusts.

Mr. P. H. Leslie informs me that, until more is known about bird
populations, it is not certain that the proportion of each age-group
in the population can be derived from Table II in this way. Plence
for the present the conclusions of this section should be considered
somewhat doubtful.

170

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

A similar difference in the mortality of the first-year as
compared with older birds is found in other species whose
age is being investigated. Two reasons probably account
for it. The first-year birds are less experienced, and acquire
experience only at a price. Secondly the first-year birds are
likely to include a greater proportion of hereditarily less fit
individuals, as these will tend to be, weeded out early rather
than late in life. The first reason probably accounts for most
of the difference.

This difference in survival would have been considerably
accentuated had the period up to the first August ist been
included. Seventy per cent, of the Blackbirds found dead
were reported within one year of leaving the nest. As
already noted, the figures for the period up to the first August
ist are open to suspicion.

Expectation of Life.

The fourth column of Table II shows that the expectation
of further life for a juvenile Blackbird on August ist is 1.6
years. For a second year bird on the same date, the expecta-
tion of further life is 1.9 years, and it is approximately the
same for a third, fourth or fifth-year bird. After this age,
too few individuals are available for the figure to have any
value. (The expectation of further life on the day of leaving
the nest works out at 1.08 years).

Potential age of the Blackbird.

Gurney (1899) gives two records of captive Blackbirds
living for twenty ye^rs. There is no reason to think that,
given luck, a wild bird could not live as long, though the
oldest wild Blackbirds recovered were ten years old, and
there have been only two of these in the 568 recoveries. It
is clear that hardly any wild Blackbirds ever attain to “ old
age ” i.e. to an age approaching that to which they can live
under favourable circumstances.

Mitchell (1911) gives the average further life of seven
Blackbirds kept in captivity as just under five years, which
is two and a half times as long as the average in the wild.

Comparison of Northern with Southern Britain.

In Table I the data from Scotland (almost exclusively the
lowlands of Scotland) together with the English border
counties are given separately from the data for England
south of the Wash. These data can be treated in the same
way as were the total data in preparing Table II. Omitting
the individuals dying before their first August ist, there
proves to be no significant difference in the survival of the birds
in northern as compared with southern Britain. The expecta-

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF THE BLACKBIRD.

171

tion of further life on the first August ist of life works out
at 1.6 years for southern England and 1.5 years for Scotland
and the Borders, and the figures for the second August ist
of life at 2.0 and 1.8 years respectively. In both regions
a similar proportion of the first-year birds die during the
year, the same applying to second year birds.

However there is a marked difference in the two regions
as regards the proportion of those found dead before their
first August ist of life ; 50 per cent, of those in southern
England but only 29 per cent, of those in Scotland and the
Borders were found dead during this period. About 90 per
cent, of the nestlings in southern England were ringed between
April 15 and June 23, and the mean date of ringing may be
taken as May 19. About 90 per cent, of the nestlings in
Scotland and the Borders were ringed between April 25 and
June 29, and the mean date of ringing may be taken as May
26, a week later than in southern England. Hence to be
strictly comparable, one should have reckoned the juvenile
mortality of the Scottish birds up to August 7th. But,
even if this is done, the number dying in Scotland and the
Borders during this period is raised only to 32 per cent.,
which is still a long way below the figure of 50 per cent, for
southern England.

Almost certainly this difference is due largely to the fact
that ringers in southern England have revisited the ringing
localities more frequently than have ringers in Scotland and
the Borders. Hence a relatively greater proportion of the
fledglings which die close to the nest have been reported in
southern England than in Scotland and the Borders. On
the other hand, though there is a similar difference as regards
the finding of dead fledgling Song-Thrushes ( Turdus e. erice-
torum ) in the two regions, it is not so great. Hence
there may.be a real difference in the mortality among juvenile
Blackbirds in the two regions concerned. The latter is also
suggested by another consideration. On the average Black-
birds are stated to raise more broods in the year in southern
England than they do in Scotland and the Borders. This
means that, if the populations of both regions are stable,
there must at some period of life be a correspondingly greater
mortality among the Blackbirds of southern England. The
ringing records indicate that there is no such difference in
mortality after the first August ist of life, and hence the whole
of the increased mortality must fall in the period before the
first August ist of life.

Reproductive Rate.

If the Blackbird population is approximately stable, it
follows that the adults dying each year must be replaced by

172

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

an approximately equal number of young which survive to
breed. About 40 per cent, of the adult Blackbirds die each
year, hence every 100 Blackbirds must each year produce
40 young which survive to breed.

The ringing returns suggest that of every 100
fledgling Blackbirds which leave the nest, only 30 survive
to the following June 1st. Hence 40 first-year breeding
birds correspond to about 133 fledglings. Probably every
100 adult Blackbirds will include a few males which fail to
get mates. Assuming that there are 6 males to every 5
females, 100 adult Blackbirds correspond to 45 breeding
pairs. Therefore if the Blackbird population is stable, every
45 breeding pairs must produce 133 fledglings per year, or
just less than three fledglings per pair. The Blackbird
normally lays four or five eggs, often three, and normally
has two or three broods in a year. Nice (1937) summarises
data showing that, in many Passerine species which build
open nests, 40-46 per cent, of the nests are successful. Of
course any nests destroyed early in the season will be quickly
replaced. Hence it seems not unreasonable that the
Blackbird should on the average raise just under three
fledglings per pair per year ; and that this reproductive
rate works out at a reasonable figure suggests that the
information on age supplied by the ringing returns is of
the right order.

Of the 241 Blackbirds ringed as nestlings in Scotland and
the Borders, 158, or 66 per cent, were found dead before
the following June 1st. Of the 251 individuals ringed as
nestlings in southern England, 188, or 75 per cent, were found
dead before the following June 1st. Making calculations
similar to those given above for the birds of Britain as a
whole, this means that Blackbirds must raise on the average
3.6 young per pair per year in southern England and
2.5 young per pair per year in Scotland and the Borders.
As the Blackbird is supposed to raise more broods in
southern than northern Britain, this difference seems not
unreasonable.

Sex Differences.

The sex of fledgling Blackbirds is not known, and in very
few of those recovered was the sex recorded. Information
on age and sex is obtainable from those Blackbirds trapped
as adults but it is not satisfactory, first because rather
few individuals have yet been recovered, and secondly because
nearly all were trapped in winter, when the Blackbirds in
Britain include quite a number which nest abroad, whose
mortality may be different. Also, the birds are of unknown
age when ringed.

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF THE BLACKBIRD.

173

TABLE III.

Returns of Blackbirds trapped as adults.

No. found dead

Found between Aug. 1st and July 3is< of:

Males

Females

1st year after ringing

34

24

2nd /

17

14

3rd

13

12

4th

7

5

5th

7

1

Total

78

56

Notes : {i) All those ringed up to spring 1936 are included ; (those
ringed only up to 1934 provide too few data).

(ii) The trapping year is reckoned up to Aug. 1st and those
found dead before the first Aug. 1st after trapping are
omitted.

(Hi) Females trapped between July and October are omitted
as inexperienced observers can confuse juvenile males with
females at this period.

(tv) An unknown proportion of Continental Blackbirds are
included ; those actually recovered on the Continent are
omitted.

(a) The birds were of unknown age when ringed.

From Table III the expectation of further life on August
1st for male Blackbirds of all ages works out at 1.7 years
and for females at 1.5 years, while 43 per cent, of the males
and 43 per cent, of the females die during one year after
August 1st. The differences are not significant.

Seasonal Mortality.

As might be expected, more Blackbirds were found dead
in winter than in summer, but the seasonal variations are
not published as it is very possible that the chances of finding
a dead Blackbird are greater when the ground is mostly
bare than when it is covered with vegetation.

Causes of Death.

Out of 898 returns examined (including birds ringed after
1934), 70 per cent, of the Blackbirds were “ found dead.”
6.3 per cent, were killed by cats, 6 per cent, were caught in
netting (usually fruit nets), 5.2 per cent, were found dead
on roads and railway lines, either having hit telephone lines
or been knocked over, 4.4 per cent, were shot, 3.3 per cent,
were caught in traps for rats, rabbits or other animals. Hawks,
owls, dogs, hitting windows, drowning and fights with other
Blackbirds accounted for other deaths. One of those “ found
dead ” died of coccidiosis.

Comparison of the Blackbird’s with Human survival.

In 1930 the expectation of further life for a four-year old
male member of the United States of America was another

B

174

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

sixty years, as compared with a possible human life-span of
about one hundred years ; Dublin and Lotka (1936). In
the Blackbird the expectation of further life for a bird two
months old is another 1.6 years as compared with a possible
life-span of some twenty years. Hence the human juvenile
can expect to live for about 60 per cent, but the juvenile
Blackbird for only about 8 per cent, of the potential life-span
of the species. Among human beings elderly individuals,
i.e. those near the end of the potential life-span, are relatively
common, among Blackbirds they are exceedingly rare. Also,
omitting the first three years of life, the expectation of further
life for a man decreases markedly and steadily with increasing
age, whereas in the Blackbird it does not appreciably decrease
with increasing age up to an age by which nearly all indivi-
duals have died. (Among very old Blackbirds the expectation
of further life probably does decrease with increasing age,
but in the wild state there are very few old Blackbirds).

The survival of some of the populations of rats and
Drosophila raised in laboratories follows a course very similar
to that of a modern human population. Their expectation
of life is a high percentage of their potential life-span, elderly
individuals are or would be relatively common in a stable
population, and their expectation of further life decreases
markedly with increasing age ; Pearl (1920). On the other
hand burial records indicate that the survival of people living
in ancient Rome was of a type more similar to that of wild
Blackbirds. As compared with a modern human population
their expectation of life was a relatively low percentage of
the potential life-span, elderly individuals were relatively
much less common, and the expectation of further life de-
creased little with increasing age during a long period between
adolescence and late middle age ; Macdonell (1913). It
would seem that only protected species such as modern man
and certain animals raised under laboratory conditions have
the type of life-curve with which insurance statistics have
made us familiar.

Acknowledgements.

Particular thanks are due to the Bird-Ringing Committee
of the British Trust for Ornithology and to Miss E. P. Leach,
the Hon. Secretary, for placing the ringing returns at my
disposal, and to Mr. P. H. Leslie for much helpful advice on
the statistical side ; also to all those ringers who by their activi-
ties have helped to make such studies possible.

Summary.

(i) Except for the Song Sparrow, which lives 2\ years in
favourable conditions, little previous data are available on
the average length of life attained by wild birds.

vol. xxxvi.] AGE OF THE BLACKBIRD.

175

(it) Ringing returns reveal the age attained by the small
percentage of birds found dead by human beings, but the
few checks available suggest that the figures apply approxi-
mately to the population as a whole except for juveniles in
their first two months.

(in) About 50 per cent, of fledgling Blackbirds in
southern England and about 30 per cent, of those in
Scotland and the Borders are found dead between leaving
the nest and their first August 1st. It is doubtful whether
this represents a difference in mortality between the two
regions.

(iv) The expectation of further life for an adult Blackbird
on August 1st is about 1.9 years, and it is about the same
for a second-, third-, fourth- or fifth-year bird. About 40 per
cent, of the adults die each year. For a first-year bird on
August 1st the corresponding figures are 1.6 years and 54 per
cent. These figures are similar in southern England and
Scotland. In general first-year birds survive less well than
older birds.

(• v ) The average life of the Blackbird is about 8 per cent,
of its potential age of twenty years.

(vi) The figures require that Blackbirds should on the
average raise about three young per pair per year to the
fledging stage.

(vii) There is no evidence for a difference in mortality
between the two sexes, but the figures are inadequate.

(viii) The life-curve of wild Blackbirds is of a very different
type from that of a modern human population or of a labora-
tory animal.

REFERENCES.

Burkitt, J. P. (1926). “ A study of the Robin by means of

marked birds.” Brit. Birds, 20 : 91-101.

Burkitt, J. P. (1936). “ Young Rooks. Their survival and habits.”
Brit. Birds, 29 : 334-338.

Dublin, L. I. and Lotka, A. J. (1936). " Length of Life ; a study
of the life-table.” pp. 14-17.

Flower, S. S. (1925). “ Contributions to our knowledge of the

duration of life in Vertebrate animals, IV Birds. ” Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond. : 1366-1422.

Gurney, J. H. (1899). "On the comparative ages to which birds live.”
Ibis, 19-42.

Macdonell, W. R. (1913). " On the expectation of life in ancient
Rome, and in the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania in Africa.”
Biometrika, 9 : 366-380.

Mitchell, P. C. (1911). " On longevity and relative viability in

mammals and birds ; with a note on the theory of longevity.” Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond., 425-528.

Nice, M. M. (1934). " Ten year old Passerines.” Condor, 36 : 443.

Nice, M. M. (1937). " Studies in the life-history of the Song Sparrow

I.” Trans. Linn. Soc. New York 4, 39, 166-208.

Pearl, R. (1920). The Biology of Death.

Witherby, H. F. (1926). " The duration of life in birds.” Brit.

Birds, 20 : 71-73.

(176)

HOW A CUCKOO LAID INTO A REED-WARBLER’S

NEST

BY

N. H. JOY.

(Plate 4.)

For long I wondered how the Cuckoo ( Cuculus c. canorus)
placed her feet when she was “ sitting on a nest ” and laying
her egg, so I determined to try filming one when she was
victimising Reed- War biers ( Acrocephalus s. scirpaceus) close
to New Romney, Kent, in 1938. For several reasons I failed
to see her laying an egg, so again tried in 1939 for seven weeks,
with the help of a farm hand, Charles Flisher, a born field-
naturalist. I had two hides made, which could be moved to
about six feet away from a nest which we suspected would be
used by the Cuckoo we were watching. Although I was up at
6 a.m. every morning and about until nearly dark I only saw
one Cuckoo at the nest and failed to film it because the camera
refused to work ! I do not think, however, I could have got a
good enough picture, because it was raining and the nest was
much in the shade.

The following is what happened on June 18th, 1939. I was
in a hide just six feet away from the nest, which was itself
about the same distance from the margin of a side road
leading to the main Folkestone-Hastings road. Being a
Sunday, cars were constantly going by. The reeds had been
cut down close to the nest on the side where the hide was, so
that I could get a full view of the bird when she got to the nest.

At 5.25 p.m. the Cuckoo arrived. She had her head well
up and appeared to be looking suspiciously at the hide (Plate 4,
fig. 1). Then she bent over quickly to pick up one of the eggs
from the nest (fig. 2) and immediately began to try to swallow
it, a job over which she had some difficulty, getting her bill
almost vertical as she was gulping it down (fig. 3).

After this she lowered herself down on to the nest, and I
got a complete side view of her. For about two seconds she
kept quite still. I thought she was going to lay her egg,
although her feet were evidently on the side of the nest on
which she had settled, I could not see them, because of course,
they were hidden by feathers (fig. 4). I remember, during that
moment, wondering how the egg could get into the nest.
Then she gave a slight upward movement, not exposing her
feet and altered her position, so that she was facing indirectly
away from me. Next she got quite low into the nest, spreading
her wings somewhat (fig. 5) quivering them for a few
seconds. There was no doubt she was laying her egg. Still
facing in the same direction she rose up somewhat, and
doubled her head into the nest (fig. 6). She was evidently

British Birds, Vol. XXXVI., PI. 4.

Cuckoo at Reed-Warbler’s Nest.

r. Arrival. 2. Taking a Reed-Warbler’s egg. 3. Swallowing egg.
4. Sitting on nest. 5. Position when laying. 6. Taking another

egg from the nest.

(. From drawings by Philip Rickman) .

vol. xxxvi ] CUCKOO AT REED -WARBLERS NEST 177

picking np another egg, and was having some difficulty in
getting to it. Then she flew away. On being examined the
nest was found to have a Cuckoo’s and one Reed-W arbler’s egg.

I wrote out every detail of what I had seen the same evening,
and they have been firmly impressed on my mind ever since.
I explained these to Mr. Philip Rickman who made the
drawings reproduced in Plate 4.

I could not decide exactly how the Cuckoo had got her egg
into the nest. What puzzled me was how she had changed her
position half way round so quickly and smoothly, and why
she had done it. It was quite obvious that she had not got
across to the other side of the nest, because she could not have
picked up the second egg without moving back again, which
she certainly had not done. She could not have slipped her
feet into the nest ; she certainly had not got up backwards
on to the side of the nest, as there was not any sudden move-
ment of that kind, just before she picked up the second egg.
I could not think out a satisfactory answer to this problem.
In relating it to many friends, only two have suggested the
right answer.

I talked over with Flisher the next day what he had seen
the Cuckoo doing on an ash tree, while I was in the hide. He
said that she kept quite still, watching the nest for some time
before she glided down to it. He also told me what he had
seen her do when he had been watching her in a tree on other
occasions—" When she moves about on a branch, she moves
her legs like a parrot does i.e. she side-steps. He did not
know she is zygodactyle, like a parrot is, each foot having two
toes in front and two behind.

That observation at once gave me the clue to the point of
one of the Cuckoo’s secrets. I feel convinced now that she
side-stepped with her left foot, grasping the edge of the nest
farther round, but not altering the position of her right foot.
This motion, straddling the nest, accounts for her being able
to turn her back half way round to me so smoothly, being
able to get so low down in the nest, and to pick up the second
egg without moving her feet. I was of course very anxious,
as soon as possible, to get a Cuckoo to experiment with, and
fortunately found a dead female three days later.

What is the position of the Cuckoo’s feet, when it first
arrives at the nest ? I have no doubt now that the front toes
point inwards somewhat (Plate 4, figs. 1 & 3), so as to fit in
exactly with the shape of the nest. When the dead bird was
placed on its back its feet naturally fell into this position, and
they remained so. When a Passerine is examined in this way,
the middle toes of each foot are found to be parallel with one
another. The Cuckoo’s legs are farther apart than is the case
with the Passerines. There is another advantage gained by the

178

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Cuckoo being able to grasp the edge of the nest in this way, it
is held together, the weight of the bird not tending to bulge
it out.

The chief reason why the Cuckoo behaves as she does when
laying her egg, is now explained. It is evidently to get the
cloaca directly over the nest when the egg is laid, without
having to put the feet among the fosterers’ delicate eggs.

The following calculations were made with the help of the
dead Cuckoo. Of course I cannot pretend that they are
necessarily absolutely correct ; they will possibly have to be
modified when they have been worked out with other dead
birds, which will show the exact position of the cloaca compared
with that of the legs.

Fig. 7. Position of feet and
cloaca of Cuckoo on the rim of
the nest when she arrived.

Fig. 8. Position of feet and
cioaca when she had moved
her left foot and squatted low
to lay.

Fig. 7 represents the position of the feet and cloaca, in
relation to the rim of the nest, when she arrived on the nest,
and as they were when she first got low. It will be noticed
that the cloaca is well outside the rim of the nest. Fig. 8 re-
presents the position of the feet and cloaca when she had
moved her left foot along the rim of the nest. In this position,
with the bird squatting low in the nest, the egg would be
deposited inside the edge of it, so that it would roll into it. It
will be noticed that her back is facing in the direction in which
it is shown to be doing in Plate 4, fig. 5.

Another point which Fig. 8 demonstrates is that there is
room for her to get her head down to pick up the second egg.
There is more room when the feet are in the position they were
when she picked up the first egg, which it is recorded she did
more quickly than in the case of the second.

I must thank Mr. Stuart Baker for accepting in his book,
Cuckoo Problems, this explanation of how a Cuckoo lays her
egg when “ sitting on ” a nest.

(179)

NOTES.

PIED FLYCATCHERS BREEDING IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

In February, 1942, seventy-five nesting boxes were put up in one
of the oak woods of the Forest of Dean, with the object of encourag-
ing the breeding of insectivorous birds (tits, in particular) and thus
alleviating, if possible, the recurrent outbreaks of oak Tortrix
and winter moths, which cause more or less considerable defoliation
nearly every year. In May and June, it was confirmed that twenty-
eight of these boxes were tenanted, a result which, in view of several,
adverse circumstances attending the experiment, was regarded as^
very encouraging. The most remarkable feature of the records
was the occurrence of twelve nests of the Pied Flycatcher ( Muscicapa
h. hypolenca ) in the boxes : there is reason to believe that one or
two further pairs bred in the area, which comprised 37 acres of
about 120 years old oak, with mostly sparse undergrowth of holly,
beech, chestnut, larch, etc. The other sixteen boxes were occupied
mostly by tits (chiefly Great Tit). The Pied Flycatcher was not
one of the birds which it was intended specially to foster, but
observations proved it a wholly desirable immigrant. Collections
of insects (entire and fragmentary) from the nests, sent to the
British Museum for identification, consisted largely of pupae and
adults of Tortrix viridana, together with various Diptera, Hemiptera
and Coleoptera (including several injurious species) : there was no
itime for detailed observation in the field, but the hen was twice seen
conveying a large green caterpillar from an oak to one of the nests.

The boxes were installed on a hillside (400 ft. elevation) above
Parkend. Gloucestershire. Elsewhere in the Forest of Dean, Pied
Flycatchers seemed to be not uncommon during the 1942 breeding
season. J. M. B. Brown.

[The Pied Flycatcher has only very occasionally been reported
as nesting in Gloucestershire and we know of no recent records.
The fact that so many pairs bred in 1942 points to the probability
that the bird had bred in previous years and had escaped notice. —
Eds.]

HOOPOE IN ABERDEENSHIRE.

I have to record that on November 2nd, 1942, a male Hoopoe
( Upupa e. epops) was found in a state of exhaustion on the farm
of Wards of Boyndlie, near New Aberdour, Aberdeenshire — only
a few miles from the coast. Mr Wallace, the farmer, cared for it
until it died, when it was forwarded to Aberdeen Regional Museum.
Mr. J. G. Roger, the curator, could find nothing definite in its
stomach. The Hoopoe has been only rarely recorded in the
Aberdeen area. Kenneth A. Wood.

GREEN WOODPECKER IN LANARKSHIRE.

On December 13th, 1942 from a patch of wasteland dotted with
hawthorns near Motherwell, Lanarkshire, a Green Woodpecker
[Pious v. pluvius) rose in front of me. As the bird flew from me

180

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

the bright yellow rump was distinct. This is the first time I have
seen the bird in this area, though I sent a note to the Scottish
Naturalist in 1938 of one seen on November 23rd of that year by
Lord Hamilton’s gamekeeper.

The Greater Spotted Woodpecker is resident in the woodland
here, but I have no evidence yet of its nesting. R. Y. Ferguson.

EAGLE-OWLS IN KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE.

A pair of Eagle-Owls ( Bubo b. bubo) was kept under observation
in Kirkcudbrightshire during the late spring and early summer of
1941. The territory occupied by the birds consisted of rough moor-
land including a ridge of low hills.

The first bird observed — the male, easily recognizable by his
smaller size and greyer colour — was seen late in the afternoon of
April 21st. On the evening of the same day the pair were seen
together flying at a great height, the male occasionally displaying
by falling head downwards in the air. During this performance
the wings were extended below the body and given a kind of
shivering flip and the tips appeared almost to touch. On this
occasion a rather heron-like cry was heard from the pair. The usual
call of the male when flying at a great height above his territory
was a deep, soft “ hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo ” repeated eight or more times
in succession with pauses of fairly short duration. The sound had
great carrying power and was very ventriloquial and could be
heard when the bird himself was a mere speck in the sky. In the
late afternoon the male owl would fly over his territory calling and
occasionally indulging in the display “ tumble ” for a considerable
period at a stretch. When high in the air he looked rather like a
Buzzard but his tail was shorter and he flapped his wings slowly and
continuously and rarely sailed.

A common call note in captivity — a deep, gruff “ Boo-hoo ” was,
strange to say, never heard.

The owls appeared quite diurnal in their habits, beginning to
fly or hunt many hours before sunset.

One evening I was able to stalk one of the birds and got close
enough to see quite clearly its orange eyes and its ear-tufts.

Many castings were examined and the prey appeared to consist
entirely of voles and shrews and when the male owl was seen
capturing prey or carrying it in his foot it was' always of the same
nature. Although many were present on the territory, no birds,
or large prey such as rabbits appeared to be taken.

The female owl was less often seen than her mate and although
no nest was ever discovered it seems reasonably certain that an
attempt at nesting must have been made.

The birds appeared to leave their territory about the middle of
July. One of them, or a bird of the same species, was seen by me
and others about ten miles away the following November.

Bedford.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

181

GOSHAWK IN NORFOLK.

On November 25th, 1942 when I was walking to a marsh at Hickling
for a duck-flight a large hawk, which I recognised as a Goshawk
(. Accipiter gentilis ) passed over my head within thirty yards. The
short, broad wings and long tail were very striking. It resembled a
huge Sparrow-Hawk and in flight, as in that bird, it alternated
quick wing-beats with glides. J. Vincent.

On December 7th I saw a Goshawk sitting on a post in an open
field near Dereham. I was within 25 yards of the bird and then it
.got off the post and flew past me at about 40 yards. It looked like
an adult male and I thought it might have been an escaped bird,
but I could see no jesses on its feet. I am well acquainted with
trained Goshawks and the identification was clear. Mr. Vincent
had told me of the bird he saw at Hickling, which is about thirty
miles from Dereham and I thought it might have been the same
bird. Hugh Wormald.

SPOONBILL IN ORKNEY.

As there are few records of Spoonbills ( Platalea l. leucorodia) in
Orkney, it should be put on record that in November, 1939, after
a stiff gale from the south-east, a bird of this species was found
dying at Evie on the Mainland. It was brought to me at Stromness
less than 24 hours after it had died by Mr. Thomas Towers.

Eric Linklater.

RUDDY SHELD-DUCK IN CORNWALL.

As Cornwall is not specifically mentioned in The Handbook in the
list of counties from which the Ruddy Sheld-Duck ( Casarca ferru-
.ginea) has been recorded it may be of interest to report that I
saw one on the Camel estuary near Wadebridge on November 15th,
1942. The bird was feeding close to large flocks of Wigeon, and
twice flew up with them when they were disturbed.

Mr. T. J. Willcocks saw the bird again on November 17th but
it was not present on November 21st or 22nd.

E. R. Parrinder.

[This bird'may well have escaped from captivity.- — Eds.]

REMARKABLE BEHAVIOUR OF GREEN SANDPIPERS.
For many years I have watched a marsh which is a favourite
halting-place of the Green Sandpiper on migration. On autumn
passage the various family parties of Green Sandpiper ( Tringa
ochropus ) frequenting this marsh often unite in small flocks and
gather around the shallow pools dotted about the marsh. Oc-
casionally these flocks indulge in a curious ceremony and at such
times the birds comprising the flocks appear to be almost bereft of
their senses. The ceremony commences with the birds gathered
around a pool uttering in unison klee-klee-klee, following this
loud and discordant chorus, which may last for a considerable time,
the birds then (1) dive into the pool, from a low altitude, with
closed or partially open wings ; (2) flap across the surface of the pool
in an erratic manner ; (3) stand in the pool and beat the water with
half open wings ; (4) rush viciously into the pool with closed or out-
stretched wings ; (5) swim and dive alternatively.

182

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI

This amazing performance recalls the seemingly spontaneous
outbursts of excitement which sometimes occur in flocks of birds
of various other species, but close observation from a hide showed
that it also serves a more utilitarian purpose. The marsh pools
contain thousands of little red mud worms and these antics have the
effect of stirring up the mud and the worms and thus providing the
birds with an easy meal. If the pool is stirred up to such an extent
that they apparently cannot see the worms they will stand about
quietly and wait until the pool partially clears before beginning to
feed, or if the mud is only stirred up in places they invariably begin
feeding along the edges of the muddy water.

I would add that the Wood-Sandpiper also feeds on the little
red mud worm, but I have never seen these birds attempt to stir
up the pools, though they will “ wait on ” and join in the feasts
provided by their more energetic relations. T. C. Gregory.

GREENSHANK WINTERING IN SAME SPOT
FOR ELEVEN SEASONS.

The case of a Greenshank ( Tringa nebular ia) which I first noted on
the Dovey estuary in February, 1932 and which frequented the
same small private beach every season subsequently seems worthy
of record. I am convinced that it is the same individual on account
of its behaviour, its attachment to the same spot and its association
with a solitary Redshank each winter for ten years. The Greenshank
usually appeared about the third week in October and left in April.
It was last seen in April, 1942, but unfortunately did not return
in the past autumn. Only in one year has a second Greenshank
stayed the winter on the same side of the estuary, and then the first
bird obviously preferred the company of the Redshank. Messrs1
H. E. Forrest, B. W. Tucker and W. B. Alexander all knew this
bird and I believe agree that I have good reason for considering it
the same individual. E. H. T. Bible.

Birds Feeding on Berries of Service Tree — Correction. —
With reference to the note on this subject ( antea , p. 140) Mr. E.
Blezard has pointed out that the true service ( Sorbus domestica)
being very rare a mistake in identification had probably been made.
Mr. Oakes kindly submitted a leaf and fruit of the tree and Mr.
Blezard states that they are from the white beam ( Sorbus aria),
sometimes locally called the service tree.

Pied Flycatcher nesting underground. — A recent note
(1 antea p. 78) showed that the Pied Flycatcher ( Muscicapa h. hypo-
leuca ) sometimes nested at very considerable heights and a1 record
of a nest underground may be of interest. Mr. R. Stringer writes
that in Merionethshire in 1942 he watched a pair building in a
hole under the roots of a tree. The nest was fully three inches
below ground and young were safely reared.

Late Blackcap and Swifts in Renfrewshire. — Mr. F. J.
Ramsay informs us that he had excellent views of a female Blackcap

/OL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

183

'Sylvia atricapilla ) in his garden at Kilbarchan on December 2oth,
[942. Also that on November 9th he watched two Swifts ( Apus
ipus) circling over the same place for more than half an hour.

Late Redstart and Common Sandpiper in Lincolnshire —
Mr. B. E. Moore informs us that he saw a Redstart (. Phcenicurus ph.
bhcenicurus) at Sutton-on-Sea on November 10th, 1942, and that
ut stayed until the 13th. He also tells us that he observed a Common
^Sandpiper on November 29th. Both are late dates.

Dipper breeding in Hampshire. — Mr. C. Baker states (Field
n9.xii.42, p. 653) that a pair of Dippers ( Cinclus c. gularis ) bred
successfully on the River Test at Compton Manor in 1942. In the
same issue Mr. T. T. Phelps records that just prior to the present
.var a pair nested for three years in succession at Brambridge near
Eastleigh. Mr. B. Pentland also writes that he saw a Dipper at
Iestwood Mill in August, 1942. In a previous issue of the Field
'21.xi.42, p. 543) Sir Francis O. Lindley states that a Dipper was
Dresent on the River Itchen near Alresford in August and October,
1942.

There have been one or two records of Dippers seen on the Itchen
and Test in recent years and the bird has been spreading in Wiltshire,
out we are not aware of a previous definite record of breeding in
Hampshire.

Peregrine Falcon coming to Dead Bird. — Mr. W. Walmesley
AVhite informs us of a case in which a female Peregrine (Falco p.
beregrinus) was taken in Devonshire during bitterly cold weather
n November, 1942, in a trap set for cats and baited with a partly
saten Pheasant. The tiercel was meanwhile sitting on a bank not
tfar away. The trap was 4ft. long, baited in the middle, with a drop
door at each end. Such an occurrence is extremely unusual.

Little Ringed Plover in Kent.— Mr. T. C. Gregory, who
recorded a Little Ringed Plover ( Charadrius d. curonicus) on an
sast Kent marsh on May 6th, 1942 (antea p. 57) informs us that
there was a second bird present on the same marsh on May 12th.

Plunging of Black-headed Gulls. — Evidence supplied by
. :orrespondents shows that the practice of “plunging after food
from the air, with submergence of whole body or all but tips of
1 primaries," of which only two or three records were available at
the time Vol. v of the Handbook was written, is in fact not uncom-
mon. In addition to notes already published (antea pp. 58, 118
and 142), Mr. H. N. Money-Coutts informs us that he has recently
seen Black-headed Gulls many times plunging in the manner
described at a spot on the Thames, near Windsor, and Mr.
W. Griffiths, of West Kirby, Cheshire, writes that during many
years’ experience on the neighbouring coast he has found the habit
frequent. There seems, however, to be a possibility that such
behaviour has become commoner in some districts or in particular
localities, where the conditions are favourable, than in others, and
we should welcome any evidence bearing on this point. The data
mow accumulated render the recording of further isolated or casual
cases unnecessary.

184

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Iceland Gulls at Aberdeen. — Mr. K. A. Wood informs us
that on March 23rd, 1942, he saw two Iceland Gulls ( Lams leucop-
terus) at the mouth of the River Don at Aberdeen. The birds
were not fully adult.

LETTER.

RECOLLECTIONS ABOUT THE OSPREYS AT ACHNACARRY.

To the Editors of British Birds.

Sirs, — As the statement in The Handbook of British Birds (Vol. III. p. 109)
that the Osprey ( Pandion li. halicetus) last brecj at Loch Arkaig in 1902 is
incorrect this should be corrected.

A pair nested regularly ever since I can remember up to 1908 and thereafter
a single bird returned annually up to 1913.

They nested on a small island adjacent to the Chapel Island at the east end
of the Loch on the top of an old oak tree which is still existent. As a rule they
hatched two or three young birds, more usually two. They used to arrive
about the beginning of April and all left towards the end of September. One
year there were two pairs. I think that would be about 1899 or 1900. The
second pair nested on a tree on a small point on the south side of the Loch
near the foot of Glen Camagarry about four miles east from the head of the
Loch. The eggs were stolen from this second nest as my father sent a boy up the
tree to look into the nest and all he found was a stone shaped like an egg. That
year there were no fewer than seven Ospreys flying about the Loch, the two pairs
already referred to, two young birds and an old single solitary bird. I have
no recollection of this second pair returning but it may have done so for
possibly one more year.

The nest on the island was occupied continuously up to 1908, but un-
fortunately the eggs were stolen nearly every year and it was only occasionally
that any young birds were hatched. I cannot remember what was the last
year that any young were hatched, but as my wife remembers seeing the young
birds and as she was not there before 1907 this must have been either in that
year or in 1908. The nest was placed under police protection, the tree was
encircled with barbed wire, and a sunk barbed wire fence was put round the
island, but all to little avail. After 1908 only one bird returned, whether it was
a cock or hen I do not know. This bird used to build up the nest and fly about
looking for its mate, which never appeared and then of course made off. This
bird came back by itself for five years in succession. Its last appearance was
in 1913. It never came back in 1914, which I have always remembered as a
sort of omen of the Great War. Curiously enough, during the last year of the last
war I was in Ireland and happened to see a stuffed Osprey which was shot there in
1913. I jumped at once to the conclusion, rightly or wrongly, that this was
our last Osprey but, of course, it might have come from anywhere. It was
shot in September I think, hence my conclusion it might have been on its
journey to its winter quarters.

The Ospreys seldom fished in Loch Arkaig itself and never near their own
nest, with the result that the fishing round the islands used then to be about
the best in the Loch. They did their fishing further north — most likely in
Loch Quoich — -as they were often seen coming across by Loch Bhlair, a small
Loch half way between Loch Quoich and Loch Arkaig.

I have seen an Osprey on two or three occasions since 1913, but just a
passing bird fishing, and I took it to be one of the birds that I understood were
nesting on Loch Loyne on the Glen Garry Estate where the late Captain Ellice
told me a pair of Ospreys continued to nest for some time after our pair had
left me.

My fisherman at Achnacarry has seen an Osprey fishing in Bunarkaigbay in
Loch Lochy on two occasions since he came there 7 years ago. The last occasion
was in 1941. That would be about the end of May or the beginning of June. He
knows the Osprey well, as he used to see them fishing frequently on Loch
Fannich near his father’s house when he was a boy. That was the pair that used
to nest on Loch Luichart years ago, though, there again, the nest was
regularly robbed every year. D. W. Cameron of Lochiel.

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CUCKOO PROBLEMS

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An attempt to solve the many problems connected with the domestic
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Illustrated by coloured plates from drawings
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With which was Incorporated in January, 1917, "The Zoologist.”

EDITED BY

H.F.WITHERBY,M.B.E.,F.Z.S.,M.B.O.U.,H.F.A.O.U.

ASSISTED BY

Norman F. Ticehurst, o.b.e., m.a., f.r.c.s., m.b.o.u., and
Bernard W. Tucker, m.a., f.z.s., m.b.o.u.

Contents of Number 10, Vol. XXXVI, March i, 1943.

PAGE

The Instinctive Nature of Nest Sanitation — Part II. By Stuart

Smith, B.Sc., Ph.D. ... ... ... ... ... ... 186

Birds of Inner London. By G. Carmichael Low ... ... ... 189

The Age of Some More British Birds. By David Lack ... ... 193

Notes on some Monmouthshire Birds. By Bruce Campbell and

I.. Hugh Doncaster ... ... ... ... ... ... 198

Notes : —

A Cumberland Magpie Roost (E. Blezard) ... ... ... 200

Pied Flycatchers breeding in Gloucestershire (J. A. Sweetlove) 201
Diving Behaviour of a Pintail (R. H. Rvall) ... ... ... 201

Avocet Ringed in Denmark, found in Hampshire (E. P. Leach) 201

1

Remarkable Behaviour of Coots (R. J. Raines) ... ... ... 201

Report on the Redshank Inquiry, 1939-40, Addenda et Corri-
genda (J. F . Thomas) '. .. ••• ••• 202

Short Notes

Sky-Lark Song — Correction. Firecrests in Surrey and Essex.
Blackcaps in Winter in Isle of Man and Gloucestershire.
Whinchat in Winter in Cornwall. Black Redstarts in
Middlesex in Summer. White-fronted Geese in Surrey.
Barnacle-Goose inland in Cheshire. Ruddy Sheld-Duck in'
Gloucestershire. Ruff in Kent in Winter. Glaucous Gull in
Hertfordshire ... ••• ••• ••• 2°3

D

(186)

THE INSTINCTIVE NATURE OF NEST SANITATION

PART II

BY

STUART SMITH, b.sc., ph.d.

(Plate 5.)

In a previous article ( antea , Vol. xxxv, pp. 120-4), attention
was drawn to the fact that nest-sanitation manifests itself
as an instinctive action on the part of the parent birds.
The instinct to remove faeces from the area of the nest was
shown to be capable of stimulation by artificial means, and
in addition, opening up of the nest-site enlarged its sphere
of influence so that the birds under observation removed
any white objects resembling the genuine faeces from a com-
paratively wide area around the exposed nest. These observa-
tions did not however, enable any decision to be made about
the nature of the controlling stimulus, which might be the
nest alone, or the young, or these two acting together as a
unit. During the past breeding season, elucidation of the
problem has been carried a stage further by experimental
observations made during an extensive study of the Meadow-
Pipit ( Anthus pratensis) and the Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla f.
flavissima ) .

A Meadow-Pipits’ nest was found in a small grass bank,
the clutch of four eggs being completed on May 20th. In-
cubation started with the last egg, and the clutch hatched on
June 3rd (period — 14 days). During the first 24 hours, no
defecation by the young was observed and the hen bird
brooded them most of the time. When the young were two
days’ old, defecation commenced and the faeces were removed
by both adult birds direct from the cloaca and carried away
to be dropped at a distance. On the third day, one of the young
which appeared to be the strongest in the brood, began to
make attempts to deposit the faecal sac on a small flat area
at the back of the nest. Such attempts at first proved abortive,
due no doubt to lack of the necessary physical strength, but
finally towards the end of the day this young bird succeeded
in depositing on the “ latrine.” During the fourth day after
the hatch, all four young were using the latrine. Stimulation
of the young by the adult birds was, as is usual, by prodding
and by tugging of the down. Fig. 1 shows one of the adult
pair stimulating the young, five days’ old ; Fig. 2 shows a
faecal sac deposited on the latrine, and Fig. 3 shows the
removal of the sac by the adult bird.

When the young were six days’ old, experiments were
commenced using artificial faeces made from white plasticene
moulded to the shape and size of a faecal sac. The adult birds
readily removed any of these that were placed on the latrine

British Birds, Vol.

VI., PI.

.v

Meadow-Pipit and Nest Sanitation.

Upper. — Parent stimulating nestling five days old.

Middle. — A fecal sac deposited by nestling on latrine.
Lower. — Parent removing fecal sac.

[Photographed by Stuart Smith.)

VOL. XXXVI.]

NEST SANITATION.

187

but — and this is the first important point — they never did so
if one of the young commenced to make any of the movements
associated with defecation ; movements which involve a shuffling
backwards towards the rim of the nest, with raising of the
cloaca. Under these circumstances, the faeces in the latrine
were ignored by the adults, who “ froze,” tense and rigid, as
soon as the young commenced the typical movements. If
the young did not attempt these movements however, the
adult bird removed the faeces from the latrine. Prodding and
tugging stimulation only took place when the latrine was
empty. Hence it appears that the main factor controlling the
instinct of nest sanitation is the series of stereotyped pre-
defecation movements of the young, but a secondary factor
might be the young themselves with or without the nest-site
incorporated as a visual unit. Associated with the nest-site
as an integral part might be added the latrine with its deposited
faecal sac. That the nest-site per se, plays no part in the
stimulation of the instinct was shown by the following experi-
ment. When the young were io days’ old, and the adult
birds well trained in removing artificial faeces from the
latrine, the young were taken from the nest while the adults
were away, and several artificial faeces were placed prominently
on the latrine. An adult pipit returned with food and alighted
at the edge of the nest. Finding it empty, the bird swallowed
the food in its beak and stood in a puzzled sort of attitude
for a while before flying to the top of the bank in which the
nest was situated, where it called for a few moments. The
fasces in the latrine were completely ignored. The second adult
now arrived and behaved in a somewhat similar manner,
although it returned to the nest-site several times and walked
around in an aimless way before swallowing the food in its
beak. Once again the faeces were ignored. When both birds
had left, a single young one was replaced in the nest, and
immediately the adult pair recommenced removal of the
artificial faeces from the latrine. It was found possible to
invoke this sequence of behaviour at will, simply by removal
and subsequent replacement of a single young bird in the nest.
It appears therefore, that the nest-site, together with the
latrine and faeces, have no power as a visual unit to invoke the
response which we call nest sanitation. The young bird and
its movements make up the unit.

On the twelfth day, the young left the nest and were found
huddled together at a distance of about a yard from the nest.
The adult Pipits were feeding them regularly and still removing
faces from the area near the young. Here again we find striking
confirmation of the fact that the instinct is strictly governed
by the presence and actions of the young, and not in any way
by the nest-site. Adopting the “ lock and key ” simile of

I

188

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Lorenz*, we may say that for nest-sanitation, the dormant
inlet or innate ferceptory pattern, called by him the “ lock ”
has as its releaser, or “ key " a highly specific visual stimulus
associated primarily with the very definite pre-defecation
movements of the young and to a secondary extent with the
presence of the young themselves.

In the case of the Yellow Wagtail, similar, though not
identical behaviour was observed. No definite “ latrine "
could be identified, deposition being on the rim of the nest
at one side. Such deposition did not commence until the
sixth day after hatching, attempts by the young after four
and five days failing to achieve their purpose. Once again it
was possible to train the adults to remove artificial fasces of
plasticene, although the hen Wagtail showed no great in-
clination to accept them, and only removed them on rare
occasions. The cock however accepted them most readily,
and this difference between the sexes agreed with that noted
in a previous year for the Yellow Wagtail. Once again it was
possible to demonstrate, by removal and replacement of the
young that they, and they alone, are the releasers. One
incident however, was instructive in showing how closely the
instinctive actions involved in nest sanitation approximate
to those of conditioned reflex action. It so happened that on
one occasion, both the cock and hen Wagtails arrived
simultaneously with food, and perched on opposite sides of the
nest. Both fed the young and both did a little stimulating.
One of the young then commenced the pre-defecation move-
ments and both adults became tense at once and waited. The
young one raised its cloaca towards the cock, and he proceeded
to take the faecal sac as it emerged. The effect on the hen bird
was immediate ; it was as though a coiled spring had been
suddenly released. She flew violently at the cock, showing all
the actions associated with threat display, and attempted to
seize the faecal sac from his beak. Few actions could have
been more strikingly illustrative of the wholly instinctive
nature of nest sanitation.

i

* " Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vdgels. ” J. f. Orn., vol. 83.
pts. 2-3, 1935.

(189)

BIRDS OF INNER LONDON

BY

G. CARMICHAEL LOW.

During the period under review (1942) there have been two
new records for Inner London, viz. the Iceland Gull ( Lams
glaucoides ) and the Waxwing (Bomby cilia g. , gar r ulus). Of
other interesting occurrences the invasion of the City by Black
Redstarts ( Phcenicurus 0. gibraltariensis) is specially note-
worthy. Apart from these there is little to report. Miss van
Oostveen was called up for service at the end of March and
so has not been able to help after that date. Very few observers
have sent in notes due to the fact that so many are still away
on war service. Some of these are now given.

Additional Notes in 1942.

Carrion-Crow ( Corvus c. cor one). — One paid almost daily
visits to the roof of the County Hall between January and
February. After a long absence the bird returned on September
29th and is continuing its visits (T. L. Bartlett).

Jackdaw ( Corvus m. spermologus) . — A least three pairs
nested in the S.W. corner of Kensington Gardens, but few
young were reared and by winter the total number (some
fourteen odd) had not increased.

Jay ( Garrulus g. ruf iter gum) — The pair reported last year
(1941) have remained in Kensington Gardens and again bred,
a young one being seen on November 10th. One seen in St.
James's Park, July 26th (G.C.L.).

Goldfinch ( Carduelis c. britannica). — Three young birds
in the trees behind 35 Philbeach Gardens, S.W. 5, August 17th
(Miss M. Curtis). One Upper Cheyne Row, July 3rd (E. M.
Nicholson).

Linnet ( Carduelis c. cannabina). — A flock of thirty feeding
on the site of a bombed house, Tor Gardens, Campden Hill,
March 1st (Miss M.S.v.O.).

Brambling ( Fringilla montifringilla) . — One Kensington
Gardens, ' by Peter Pan, December 27th (R. Preston
Donaldson).

Sky-Lark (Alauda a. arvensis). — Three flying over Campden
Hill going north, February nth (Miss M.S.v.O.).

Grey Wagtail ( Motacilla c. cinerea). — One seen by E.W.S.
reservoir in Harley Street, October 18th (Cecil A. Joll). .One
by Long Water, Kensington Gardens, November 16th and
20th (B. A. Richards). One in the Dell, Hyde Park, and on
several mornings one visited the water tanks (static) in
Berkeley Square, early November (Sid Cyril Hurcomb).

Pied Wagtail ( Motacilla a. yarrellii). — A single bird on the
gravel floor of one of the empty basins, head of Long Water,
April 18th (B. A. Richards).

190 BRITISH BIRDS. [vol. xxxvi.

Tree-Creeper (Certhia f. britannica). — One Kensington
Gardens, December 4th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

Waxwing (Bomby cilia g. garndus). — Five seen with a flock
of twenty Fieldfares in Kensington Park Gardens, January
22nd (Colonel R. Meinertzhagen). [First record for Inner
London],

Spotted Flycatcher ( Muscicapa s. striata). — A pair at the
entrance to framing ground enclosure, Hyde Park, May 28th.
Several young ones Kensington Gardens, August 17th (G.C.L.).
One Hyde Park, Kensington end of Row, July 15th (Sir Cyril
Hurcomb).

Chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus c. collybita). — Heard in

Kensington Gardens, September 2nd, 5th and 25th (G.C.L.).

Willow-Warbler ( Phylloscopus t. trochilus). — Several
Kensington Gardens from April 16th onwards.

Wood-Warbler ( Phylloscopus sibilatrix). — Two Kensington
Gardens, April 22nd (G.C.L.).

Garden-Warbler ( Sylvia bortn).— One singing in grounds
of Natural History Museum, South Kensington, May 14th
(Miss E. P. Leach). One singing in Flower Walk, Kensington
Gardens, May 12th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

Blackcap ( Sylvia a. atricapilla) . — One singing in shrubbery
by Serpentine Bridge, May 19th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

Whitethroat ( Sylvia c. communis). — Two at Three Island
Pond, Zoo, May 20th (J. Bailey). Green Park, May 14th
(E. M. Nicholson).

Lesser Whitethroat ( Sylvia c. curruca). — One in bushes
by Office of Zoological Society, May 16th (Julian Huxley).
One Kensington Gardens, May 9th (G.C.L.). One near Peter
Pan, May 18th (Miss M.S.v.O.), probably the same bird.
One sang all summer by the Serpentine Bridge and may have
bred in the Sanctuary opposite (G.C.L.). (E. M. Nicholson).

Fieldfare {T urdus pilaris). — About twenty in Kensington
Park Gardens, January 22nd (Colonel Meinertzhagen).

Mistle-Thrush (T urdus v. viscivorus). — Three young ones
in St. James’s Park, July 2nd (T. L. Bartlett). One on the
pavement, Hyde Park Corner, June nth (C. Lacey).

Redwing ( T urdus musicus). — Small flock Kensington
Gardens, January 14th (Miss E. P. Leach) ; another, February
16th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

Black Redstart ( Phcenicurus 0. gibraltariensis) . — A very
large invasion into Inner London. For full details, vide
antea, pp. 132-139.

Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dryobates m. anglicus). —
Seen frequently in Kensington Gardens, especially in early
part of year. No nest located, but may have bred in Sanctuary,
where entrance is now prohibited. One in Hyde Park, March
7th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

vol. xxxvi ] BIRDS OF INNER LONDON.

191

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker ( Dryobates m. comminutus).
— A pair seen in Kensington Gardens, June 19th (G.C.L.).
One by Temple Lodge, April 12th (Miss E. R. Glover).

Cuckoo ( Cumlus c. canorus). — One seen Kensington
Gardens, June 26th by Guthrie (one of the keepers). One
calling in Hyde Park, April 30th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

Tawny Owl ( Strix a. sylvatica). — A pair bred in Kensington
Gardens.

Little Owl ( Athene n. vidallii). — One in Museum grounds,
South Kensington, February 13th. Stayed for some time
(G. V. Carvell) .

Kestrel ( Falco t. tinnunculus) . — A pair in trees by Long
Water, Kensington Gardens, May 22nd (G.C.L.). One above
County Hall, October 28th (T. L. Bartlett). Two by Speke’s
Monument in Kensington Gardens, April 7th (Sir Cyril
Hurcomb). One Houses of Parliament, January 20th (E. R.
Parrinder) .

Common Heron ( Ardea c. cinerea). — One frequented the
Long Water, Kensington Gardens throughout year (B. A.
Richards, G.C.L.). One flying over Camden Town, May 27th
(R. S. R. Fitter).

Mallard (Anas p . platyrhyncha) . — A young brood in A.F.S.
tank, Victoria Street, S.W.i, August 20th (T. L. Bartlett).

Gadwall ( Anas strepera) .— Pair near Waterloo Bridge,
May 18th (T. L. Bartlett). ,

Pintail (Anas a. acuta).— One Chelsea Reach of River
fighting with Mallard drakes, March 16th (Miss M. G. Best).

Siioveler (Spatula clypeata). — A pair Round Pond, March
13th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

Smew (Mergus albellus). — A red-headed bird, St. James’s
Park, March 7th (R. W. Hale).

Great -Crested Grebe (Podiceps c. cristatus). — One lower
end of Serpentine, March 17th, December 24th (Sir Cyril
Hurcomb) .

Little Grebe (Podiceps r. ruficollis). — One Round Pond,
July 2 1st (G.C.L.). One November 19th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).
Three, two young ones, St. James’s Park, September 24th
(G.C.L.).

Stock-Dove (Columba cenas). — Heard once or twice in
Kensington Gardens, but I am afraid some of them were
shot when Wood-Pigeons were being destroyed to protect
allotments. .

Turtle-Dove (Streptopelia t. turtur). — Pair in St. James’s
Park, July 20th (T. L. Bartlett).

Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos). — One seen in
St. James’s Park, mornings of August 31st and Septemberi4th
(T. L. Bartlett). One Long Water, Kensington Gardens,

BRITISH BIRDS.

192

[VOL. XXXVI.

May 15th (Miss E. R. Glover). One Battersea Park, August
17th and 31st (C. B. Ashby).

Common Snipe ( Capella g. gallinago). — One in Hyde Park,
November 19th (Sir Cyril Hurcomb).

Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus). — A single bird feeding under
a hawthorn tree on the frozen ground by the Queen Victoria
Memorial in Kensington Gardens, January 18th. Very cold
at the time and the bird took no notice of people passing or
standing by (G.C.L.). Flock of eight flying over Notting Hill
Gate, June 13th (R. Preston Donaldson).

Scandinavian Lesser Black-backed Gull (Lams f.
fuscus ). — One on the Lake, Regents Park, December 8th
(G.C.L.).

British Lesser Black-backed Gull (Lams f. graellsii). —
One on Long Water from time to time. One Thames, West-
minster, July nth (A. V. Tucker).

Iceland Gull (Lams glaticoides). — First seen by Miss
M. S. v. Oostveen on the Round Pond, February 20th, then
by G.C.L. next day. The bird, an adult (3rd or 4th year)
stayed for 16 days and could be seen standing on the ice (pond
frozen at time) generally aloof from the other gulls, who were
afraid of it. Very savage and killed two of the common
pigeons frequenting the sides of the pond. Another bird, a
juvenile, seen also on the Round Pond, March 8th by Miss
E. P. Leach and Miss M. S. v. Oostveen, stayed only a day and
was gone next morning. [First records for Inner London].

(193)

THE AGE OF SOME MORE BRITISH BIRDS*

BY

DAVID LACK.

Introduction.

This paper is a sequel to that on the Blackbird ( Turdus m.
merula) (Lack, 1943a), and the latter should be read first
as the remarks on treatment of material and general principles
apply equally to the present paper, but are not repeated.
It should be stressed again that all that the ringing returns
certainly show is the average age of that small percentage
of birds found dead by human beings. In small Passerine
birds, in which most of the recoveries are “ found dead,”
there is no reason to think the sample atypical so far as
adult birds are concerned, and a few checks that can be made
corroborate this. But considerable doubt attaches to the
sample in regard to individuals found dead in the first month
after leaving the nest, especially as the number found depends
greatly on whether or not the ringer re-visits the nesting
localities. This objection also applies, more obviously, to
the returns of the young of colonial-nesting sea-birds found
dead before they leave the colonies. For this reason, the
tables in this paper are calculated from the first August 1st
of life, and not from the date on which the young bird was
ringed. A further doubt attaches to the sample in species
in which most of the recoveries are due to birds which have
been shot. If the individuals of such species gradually
learn to avoid mankind, then the number of younger indivi-
duals in the sample shot will be too high. This point is
discussed under the limicoline birds and gulls.

TABLE I.

Propovtion of Recoveries.

No. recovered

Species.

No.

(after leaving

%

Years.

ringed.

nest or nest-

recovered

Starling (nestlings) ...

ing colony).

1931-34

4.789

87

1.8

Starling (trapped) ...
Song-Thrush

I93I-33

4.854

151

3-i

(nestlings)

I93I-34

13.589

215

1.6

Robin (nestlings)

1931-38

5,H5

50

1 .0

Robin (trapped)

1931-38

5,528

191

3-5

Lapwing (young)

1909-30

15,924

435

2.7

Woodcock (young) ...
Black-headed Gull

1909-30

2,299

186

8.1

(young)

1909-14

H.933

5ii

4-3

Lesser-Black-backed

Gull (young)

1909-30

5,854

195

3-3

Cormorant (young)...

1909-30

8S5

163

18.4

*Publication of “ The British Trust for Ornithology.”

E

194

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

In the present investigations, all those birds were used
which were ringed between the initiation of the British Birds
Marking Scheme and the latter year shown in the second
column of Table I. To these have been added those recovered
under the Aberdeen University Marking Scheme.

I. Starling [Sturnus v. vulgaris).

Tables II and III show the survival after their first August
1st of life of those Starlings ringed as nestlings and later
recovered, together with a few trapped as juveniles before
their first August ist. The mean date of ringing of the nest-
lings was the third week in May, so that on the average the
birds were some ten weeks old on August ist.

Table IV shows the survival of those Starlings trapped in
Britain as adults of unknown age. This table is reckoned
from the first August 1st after ringing, which means that all
the individuals were at least one year old at the date when
the table starts. Individuals dying between the time of
trapping and the next August ist were omitted altogether.
These trapped Starlings include a proportion which bred on
the Continent of Europe; ii.V% of them were recovered
abroad, while some of those recovered in later winters in
Britain would also have been Continental birds.

TABLE II.

Age at Death of British Starlings ringed as Young.

Year.
(Aug. ist
to July 31st)

Number

1.

Scotland
& Borders

found dead in :

2- 3-

Northern Southern
England England

Total

1

... 31

22

46

99

2

... 25

10

18

53

3

9

3

1 1

23

4

9

3

6

18

5

2

2

1

5

6

... 1

—

3

4

7

... —

• —

—

—

8

1

—

—

I

Note. — Region i includes Scottish mainland, Nortliumb, Durham,
Cumb, Westmor.

Region 2 includes Yorks, Lancs, Lines, Notts, Derby,
Cheshire, N. Wales.

Region 3 includes remainder of England and Wales.

Tables III and IV show that about half the Starlings
alive at the start of a year die during the year, and that the
expectation of further life on August ist is about another
i| years. These figures apply, whatever the age of the bird.
That old adults have an expectation of further life similar
to that of young adults is shown extremely well by Table IV,
particularly when it is remembered that these trapped adults
are of all ages when ringed. That the mortality in the first

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF MORE BRITISH BIRDS. 195

year is the same as that in later years is shown by Table III.
The older adults have an expectation of further life greater
than that of first-year birds in all the other species investi-
gated, but the Starling is exceptional in that the first-year
birds survive as well as the adults.

TABLE III.

Survival of Starlings after first August ist ( all Britain).

No. alive at

% alive at

% of those
alive at start

Expectation
of further

Year

start of year.

start of year

of year dying

life on Aug.

1

203

100

during year
49

ist (in yrs.).
i-5

2

104

5i

5 1

i-4

3

51

25

45

i-4

4

28

14

—

—

5

10

5

—

—

6

5

2.5

—

—

7

X

—

—

—

8

... 1

—

—

—

TABLE IV.

Survival of Starlings trapped as adults of unknown age.
(Year reckoned Aug. ist-July 31st ; all birds at least x year old).

% of those

Expectation of

No. dying

No. alive at

alive at start

fui'ther life

Year

during year

start of year

of year dying

on Aug. ist

during year

(in yrs.).

1

163

353

46

1.6

2

99

190

52

i-5

3

46

9i

5i

i-5

4

23

45

5i

i-5

5

11

22

50

1.6

6

5

1 1

—

— ■

7

2

6

—

— •

8

2

4

—

- —

9

2

2

—

—

Calculating the data in Table II separately for Scotland
and the Borders on the one hand and southern England
on the other, 40 per cent, of the juvenile Starlings in the
former region and 54 per cent, of those in the latter region
die during their first year, and the expectation of further
life on the first August ist works out at 1.7 years in Scotland
and the Borders and 1.4 years in southern England. The
number of recoveries is too small for this possible difference
in survival in the two regions to be considered established,
and this problem should be re-investigated at some future
date when more returns are available.

Out of a total of 270 recoveries of Starlings ringed as
nestlings, 88, or 33 per cent., occurred before the first August
ist. For Scotland and the Borders the corresponding per-
centage was 21, for southern England 33. These figures

19(5

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

do not necessarily represent the true mortality in this period,
and the local variations are almost certainly due largely to
the fact that ringers in England have tended to re-visit the
ringing localities more often than have ringers in Scotland
and the Borders.

Kluijver (1935) found that of the adult Starlings ringed
at a nesting colony in Holland, 49.6 per cent, returned in
the following year. This agrees extremely well with the
survival as estimated from adult Starlings trapped in
England, and corroborates the value of the ringing returns
in estimating the age of wild birds. Kluijver states that
only 17 per cent, of the fledgling Starlings survive to breed.
He also calculates how the population is replaced, which
is complicated as female Starlings breed in their first year
but males not till their second year.

2. Song-Thrush ( Turdus e. eri'cetorum).

TABLE V.

Age at Death of British Song-Thrushes ringed as Young.

Number

found dead

in :

Year

1.

2.

3-

(Aug. 1st

Scotland

Northern

Southern

Total.

to July 31st).

& Borders

England

England

1

79

54

75

208

2

32

17

20

Gy

3

26

JO

15

51

4

12

7

8

27

5

••• 5

—

3

8

6

3

—

2

5

7

2

—

2

4

8

1

—

—

1

9

1

—

—

1

TABLE VI.

Survival of Song-Thrushes after first August 1st ( all Britain).

No. alive at

% alive at

% of those
alive at start

Expectation
of further

Year

start of year

start of year

of year dying

life on Aug. 1 si

1

374

100

during year
56

(in yrs.).
1.4

2

166

44

42

1.6

3

97

26

53

14

4

46

12

59

i-3

5

19

5

—

—

6

11

3

—

—

7

6

—

—

—

8

2

—

—

—

9

1

—

—

—

Flower (1925) states that in captivity the Song-Thrush can
live 12 or 13 years, and probably 17 years, hence the average
age in the wild of i| years is a very small proportion of the
potential age. Mitchell (1911) records the average further
life of four captive Song-Thrushes as six years and two months.

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF MORE BRITISH BIRDS. 197

The data in Table VI suggest that the first-year Song-
Thrush has a heavier mortality and a smaller expectation of
further life than has the second-year bird, but the difference
is not so marked as in the Blackbird.

Calculations from the data in Table V show that the first-
year mortality for Song-Thrushes is 49 per cent, in Scotland
and the Borders as compared with 60 per cent, in southern
England, and that the expectation of further life on the first
August 1st of life is 1.6 years in Scotland and the Borders
and 1.4 years in southern England. The number of recoveries
is too small for this possible difference in survival in the two
regions to be considered established, and this point should be
re-investigated when a larger number of returns have accumu-
lated. If on the average the Song-Thrush raises fewer
broods per year in Scotland and the Borders than it does in
southern England, then one must expect a greater mortality
in the latter region than in the former.

Out of 618 recoveries of Song-Thrushes ringed as nestlings,
244, or 39 per cent., occurred before the first August 1st of
life. For Scotland and the Borders this percentage was 33,
for southern England 43. It is very doubtful whether these
figures represent the true mortality.

Sixty-nine per cent, of ringed Song-Thrushes are found dead
between leaving the nest and Juneistof their second summer.
This figure includes the recoveries of birds in their first month
and hence does not necessarily represent the true mortality, but
it is the only figure at present available for the mortality in
the whole of this period. Table VI shows that about half
the adult Song-Thrushes die each year, hence if the population
is stationary ever}/- 100 adults must each year produce 50
young which survive to breed. If of every 100 fledglings
69 die before breeding, then 50 first-year breeding birds
correspond to 161 fledglings, which means that every 100
adults must each year produce 161 fledglings, or about 3.2
fledglings per pair per year. This seems not unreasonable.

(To be continued).

(198)

NOTES ON SOME MONMOUTHSHIRE BIRDS

BY

BRUCE CAMPBELL and L. HUGH DONCASTER.

These notes have been compiled over the period March, 1941
to November, 1942, and refer principally to two districts :
the Vale of Ewyas, or Llanthony Valley, with the surrounding
parts of the Black Mountains which fall within the county,
which forms the “ northern part of the upland area ” as
described b}' G. C. S. Ingram and Col. H. M. Salmon in their
paper “The Birds of Monmouthshire” [Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soc., Vol. lxx, 1937) ; and the valley of the Soar, a west bank
tributary of the Usk, which it enters just north of Caerleon.
Observations in the Vale of Ewyas were made by L. H. D.
during the period April-September, 1942, with some scattered
notes by both of us during the previous year ; observations
in the Soar Valley district by B. C. are intensive for the period
July, 1941 to September, 1942. The reference “ I. & S,” is to
the paper, the most recently published on the birds of the
county, mentioned above.

Golden Oriole ( Oriolus 0. oriolus). — A pair was observed
by E. Noel Screech from the garden of his house near Caerleon
for several hours intermittently on June 21st, 1942. He was
able to compare the birds on the spot with the illustration in
Kirkman and Jourdain’s British Birds, and is certain of the
identification. B. C. examined the locality on the 23rd of June,
when there was no sign of the birds ; it was an open copse,
mainly of oak, with a small stream running through it. I. &
S. give only two previous records for the county, both within
the last ten years.

Greenfinch ( Clitoris ch. chloris). — “ A common resident
breeding species except in the hill districts ” (I. & S.) , but
L. H. D. observed it repeatedly all up the Vale of Ewyas.

British Nuthatch ( Sitta e. affinis). — An extremely
common bird throughout the V ale of Ewyas ; at the top end,
which is in Breconshire, it nests at an altitude of 1,200 feet.

British Willow-Tit [Pams a. kleinsclimidti) .— Since this
species was identified in the Soar Valley [antea, Vol. xxxv,
page 251), two nests have been found in the area. The first
was found on April 26th, and eventually contained eight eggs,
it was in a rotten ash stump, about three feet high and covered
with ivy. The circular entrance hole was made in the side
about two feet up and led into a chamber, oval in section.
The nest had a basis of bud-scales from a neighbouring larch
wood, and consisted of a pad of rabbit fur, wood fibres and
bits of dry grass, with a fair number of feathers and one or two
fronds of moss. The second nest-chamber was found on May
9th, probably a second attempt, as a hedge-row with several

vol. xxxvi ] MONMOUTHSHIRE BIRDS.

199

suitable stumps had just been burnt out in the vicinity. This
nest was much smaller than the other. Chips were left under
both stumps. The sitting bird in each case gave the
characteristic “ tchay-tchay-tchay ” note continuously when
induced to leave the nest ; the first was examined in the hand,
when the short outer tail feathers, as well as the dull crown
and light secondary patch, could be seen. Willow-Tits appear
to be as numerous in the Soar Valley as Marsh-Tits, but have
not yet been identified in the Vale of Ewyas, where the
Marsh-Tit has been observed occasionally.

Spotted 'Flycatcher (. Muscicapa s. striata).— ' Absent
from the higher and wilder country in the north (I. & S.),
but in 1942 a pair successfully reared a brood at an altitude
of 1,200 feet in the Vale of Ewyas, just on the Breconshire
side of the boundary.

Chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus c. collybita). — The note under
Spotted Flycatcher can be exactly repeated for this species.

Whitethroat ( Sylvia c. communis). — Since the Handbook
describes a clutch of six as exceptional, it may be worth
recording that three clutches of this number were found
in the Soar Valley in May, 1942.

Lesser Whitethroat (S. c. curruca). — I. & S. call this
species an uncommon and very local summer visitor, but in the
Soar Valley it appears to be as numerous as the Blackcap and
Garden- Warbler : birds were singing throughout May, three
nests with eggs were found, and several were seen at the
beginning of September, 1942.

Redstart ( Phcenicurus ph. phcenicwus) . — In addition to the
nest found in 1941 and recorded ( antea , Vol. xxxv, page 183)
from the Soar Valley, two nests were found in pollard willows
at Llangibby, in the Usk Valley, on May 24th, 1942. This
species is very common in the Vale of Ewyas, nesting up to an
altitude of 1,200 feet.

Common Buzzard ( Buteo b. buteo).- — The nest found in 1941
in the Vale of Ewyas and recorded [antea, Vol. xxxv, page 251)
had one egg on April 16th, 1942, when the bird was flushed
from it. During the late summer L. H. D. saw four birds
some 2| miles further inside the county on several occasions.

Common Sandpiper ( Actitis hypoleucos).—!. & S. record this
species as breeding along the Honddu, the river of the Vale
of Ewyas, but it was not observed by L. H. D. throughout
the summer of 1942, and an angler, who has been fishing the
lower part of the river for the past five years, and is familiar
with the bird, has not seen it during this time.

British Black Grouse [Lyrurus t. britannicus). — I. & S.
record this species as still breeding sparingly in the Llanthony
Valley, but none have been observed during the period
covered by these notes.

(200)

NOTES.

A CUMBERLAND MAGPIE ROOST.

During one winter, at least, a Cumberland roost of the Magpie
[Pica p. pica ) was similar in size to the North Yorkshire roost
described by Capt. J. P. Utley ( antea p. 159.)

The place used is a very steep bank, a mile long and sixty feet
high, where the River Eden cuts against a glacial ridge on which
stands the village of Beaumont, four miles north-west of Carlisle.
It is thickly clothed with tall deciduous trees, mainly ash, sycamore,
beech and alder with a few pines. Thorns grow sparsely beneath
them, and at the northern end where the bank merges into a narrow
strip of salt marsh leading to one of the extensive Solway marshes,
there is a thicket of old, dense thorns.

The Magpies favoured the northern half, the one farthest from
the village, and rough counts gave well over 200 of them seen to
come in on December 27th, 1926, and again on January 1st, 1927.
On both dates the flight began while it was still quite light and
ended at dark. It was all from the other side of the river, that is
from the east, no birds being seen to enter by the top of the bank
from the west. From as far as they could be seen over the flat fields,
single birds to small parties came in a straggling procession across
the water to crowd into both tall trees and thorn bushes. They
crossed and entered well below the topmost tree line. It is not
known how far and wide they came from beyond the flat land where,
in daytime, no more than say up to half-a-dozen Magpies were to
be seen. Even the whole countryside to the eastern limits of the
county is sparsely populated by comparison with the land to the
west, where the Magpie is really common. By December 2nd, 192S,
the roost had fallen off somewhat, but it was still a strong one.

In November 1931 the roost was again occupied by some numbers
of Magpies. In one shot at 4.0 a.m. the stomach had by that time
become completely empty.

Before daylight on February 2nd, 1935 a lot of Magpies were heard
chattering in the roost, and this is the last date on which numbers
were noted.

Up till darkness on the afternoon of January 3rd, 1943 no Magpies
came in to roost. Two or three were chattering at 5.15 as they
settled in a hedge beyond the river.

In an appendix to “ Lakeland Ornithology 1892-1913 ” by
E. B. Dunlop [Trans. Carlisle Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 3, 1923)
L. E. Hope says that in the winter of 1912 he and Dunlop visited a
roosting place of Magpies near Ivirkbride where at least one hundred
birds habitually gathered in a tall hedgerow. Kirkbride is situated
in the previously mentioned quarter where Magpies are numerous.

Ernest Blezard.

J

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

201

PIED FLYCATCHERS BREEDING IN GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

With reference to Mr. J. M. B. Brown’s remarks on the breeding
of the Pied Flycatcher in the Forest of Dean ( antea , p. 179), it may
be of interest to note that in 1935 I was informed by Mr. R. Hendrie,
a student at the School of Forestry, Parkend, that he had seen
Pied Flycatchers in the district.

I visited him there on May 27th of that year with very little
time at my disposal, and without walking very far into the forest
we were able to find two cock birds. Although we did not locate
a nest, there was no doubt in my mind that the hens were incubating.

J. A. Sweetlove.

DIVING BEHAVIOUR OF A PINTAIL.

While watching a male Pintail ( Anas a. acuta) on the Thames
near Isleworth on January 24th, 1943, I was very surprised to see
it frequently dive and watching it found it did so in the four following
ways.

Generally it arched the neck and with a slight spring completely
submerged, apparently doing a quick turn under water as it re-
appeared almost at once facing in the opposite direction. Less
often it appeared to turn a complete somersault coming up in the
same spot. Three times it submerged and with what seemed to
be several convulsive strokes under water caused a swirl and
commotion on the surface at equal spacings along its line of progress
and then reappeared some distance away. On two occasions it
jumped up with strong wing-beats, at the end of which the wings
would strike the water and with simultaneous paddling it would
cover a short distance and plunge right under to emerge again
some yards away. On rising from the last two types of dive the
bird would swim a little way with body partly submerged as a
grebe or diver might do. That it was uninjured \yas proved when
it flew upstream on being disturbed by a launch. R. H. Ryall.

AVOCET RINGED IN DENMARK FOUND IN HAMPSHIRE.

In February, 1942, I received a letter from Mr. B. Vesey-FitzGerald,
saying that he had found the remains of an Avocet ( Recurvirostra
avosetta ) on his property at Otterbourne, Hampshire, on January
28th, 1942. The leg bore the ring Z.35334 of the Zoological Museum
at Copenhagen, and after many vicissitudes, information concerning
the origin of the bird has at last come in. It was ringed as a young
one on June 15th, 1941, at Nyborg, Fj^en, Denmark.

E. P. Leach.

REMARKABLE BEHAVIOUR OF COOTS.

On January 25th, 1943, I witnessed the most extraordinary and
as far as I know unrecorded behaviour of the Common Coot (Fulica
a. atra). About 150 of these birds frequent a large lake near
Nottingham, the banks of which are, in most places, almost sheer,

202

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

about eight feet high and composed of fairly loose sand and boulders.
Fourteen Coot were seen to climb this bank two or three at a time,
not always with success but with great persistence ; when they
succeeded, they dived into the water, which was just below, often
with complete submergence and then repeated this procedure.
This continued for about 20 minutes, each bird having made about
three dives. There was no apparent purpose in this other than
enjoyment.

The feat of climbing the bank is quite common, but I have never
seen this species dive from a height before. R. J. Raines.

[The observation recalls B. B. Roberts’s account (Ibis, 1934,
p. 252) of Eiders in Iceland “ shooting the rapids ” and returning
overland again and again to repeat the performance. — B.W.T.].

REPORT ON THE REDSHANK INQUIRY, 1939-40

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

Since the publication of the Redshank Report ( antea , pp. 5-14,
22-34) a certain amount of information has come to hand which
corrects some of the statements made therein and gives additional
data to others. The most important correction concerns the breeding
distribution of the Redshank ( Tringa t. britannica) in N
Northumberland (otherwise Cheviotland) and it is now clear that
the Redshank does breed quite commonly in that part of the county.

Breeding Distribution.

Cheviotland (p. 13). — Mr. G. W. Temperley is in touch with many orni-
thologists living all over Northumberland ; regular reports were sent in to him
up till 1939 and none of them indicate a falling off in breeding Redshanks
anywhere in the county since George Bolam wrote his Catalogue of the Birds
of Northumberland (1932). Mr. H. Fully corroborates and specifically mentions
6-8 pairs breeding at Ingram, which comes within the Cheviotland boundaries.

Pembrokeshire (p. 14). — Mr. A. Bonner stayed near St. David's from June
nth to 25th, 1932 and is of the opinion that there was a pair of Redshanks
nesting near the Lifeboat Station. Unfortunately he was unaware that the
species had not been recorded as breeding in the county or he would have
made sure of the exact state of affairs.

Food (pp. 29-32).

Pellets found by Mr. J. G. Warner at Breydon in 1942 : —

May pellets— very homogeneous, just a collection of broken plates and
appendages which Miss Hibbert-Ware considers to be small prawns. Not a
trace of Isopods nor of Mollusca.

September pellets — light coloured ones chiefly composed of Amphipods ;
and black ones composed mainly of one species of aquatic beetle ; these latter
pellets were sent by Miss Hibbert-Ware to Mr. Claude Morley who identified
the beetle as Ccelambus parallelogrammas Ahr., and also noted Corixa as being
present.

Mr. Warner also records the following from Mr. F. C. Cook : — " A Redshank
feeding at Lowestoft on February 6th, 1938 was seen to disgorge a pellet
1 J inches long and £ inch wide. Mr. Morley to whom the pellet was submitted
reported as follows : — Fully 100 Gastropods of few species ; the sole three
examples retaining distinctive features were Littorina saxatilis O.L. and
Pernigia ulvae Penn.”

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

203

Enemies (p. 34).

Mr. J. W. Matthew records that on June 23rd, 1941, while he was watching
a Kestrels' nest on Winchester Cathedral, one of the parent birds brought a
downy Redshank as food for the young.

Correction. — P. 34 under “ Peculiarities noted ” H. Turner should be

H- Tullv- J. F. Thomas.

Sky-Lark Song — Correction. — In the second line of the article
under this title by Mr. Noble Rollin ( antea , p. 146) Mr. W. B.
Alexander should be Mr. H. G. Alexander.

Firecrests in Surrey and Essex. — Mr. C. B. Ashby sends us
particulars of a Firecrest ( Regulus i. ignicapillus) , which he watched
on Epsom Common on December 5th, 1942. The same observer
saw a Firecrest at the same place in December 1941 {antea, Vol. xxxv,
P- 231-) „

Mr. T. Bispham informs us that he and others watched a Firecrest
by Ramsey Marsh, River Blackwater on January 10th, 1943. Satis-
factory particulars of identification are given.

Blackcaps in winter in Isle of Man and Gloucestershire.—
Mr. H. M. Rogers writes that a male Blackcap ( Sylvia a. atricapilla)
visited his bird-table at Douglas and fed greedily on suet and bread-
crumbs from January 10th to 13th (1943), when it was found dead.
It was in fairly good condition, but apparently severe weather
conditions for several weeks were too much for it.

Mr. R. H. Casson informs us that a male Blackcap visited his
bird table at Stonehouse from January 16th to 19th, 1943 and that
he had views of it within six feet. Mr. Casson did not see the bird
again in his garden, but a short distance away by a canal he heard
a Blackcap singing on several days between February 13th and 18th
and was able to confirm the identification by seeing the bird.

Whinchat in Winter in Cornwall. — Miss J. M. Ferrier writes
that she had a good view for several minutes of a Whinchat [Sari cola
rubetra) on January 14th, 1943 near Porth, N. Cornwall.

Black Redstarts in Middlesex in Summer.— We have received
the following information, which is additional to the records
published in the article on the Black Redstart [antea, pp. 132-139).

Mr. J. C. Walker observed a male (a year-old bird with the white
wing patch almost absent) at Hayes on May 17th and 18th, 1941
and in the same year from September 20th to 25th a male in full
plumage at Hillingdon.

The same observer saw a male in full plumage and a female on
June 14th, 15th, 17th and 23rd, 1942 at Hayes and heard one
singing and had a distant view of it at Southall on July 5th, 1942.
There was no definite evidence of breeding in these cases.

White-fronted Geese in Surrey. — Mr. C. B. Ashby sends us
details of two immature White-fronted Geese [Anser albifrons),

204

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

which he observed with a telescope at 50 yards at Beddington
Sewage Farm on January 16th, 1943. There would seem to be
no recent records of the occurrence of this species in the county.

Barnacle-Goose inland in Cheshire. — Dr. R. B. Waters
informs us that he and a friend saw a Barnacle-Goose (Branta
leucopsis) by a small lake near Over Alderley on December 26th,
1942. Three Grey Lag-Geese (Anser anser) were present at the
same time and the weather was mild. Mr. W. Wilson also informs
us that he saw a Barnacle-Goose on December 6th in the Dee
estuary, where it appears rarely, but of course more frequently
than anywhere inland.

Ruddy Sheld-Duck in Gloucestershire. — Mr. H. H. Davis
informs us that a Ruddy Sheld-Duck ( Casarca ferruginea ) was
seen at Aust on the Severn from April 18th to 25th (or later), 1942.
It was noticed again on June 2nd at Severn Beach. This bird was
wild in behaviour, but as Mr. Davis remarks this does not preclude
the probability of its having escaped from captivity as the species
is so commonly kept on private waters.

Ruff in Kent in Winter. — Mr. Collingwood Ingram informs
us that a Reeve ( Philomachus pugnax ) was shot at Rolvenden on
January 31st, 1943.

Glaucous Gull in Hertfordshire. — Mr. G. Iv. McCulloch
sends us an account of an immature Glaucous Gull ( Larus hyper-
boreus ) which he watched in flight and on the ground at Watford
Sewage Farm on January 23rd, 1943. Theie was no black or brown
in the wing-feathers and the bird “ completely dwarfed Heriing-
Gulls standing near it.” The bird is rarely seen inland.

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Contents of Number it, Vol. XXXVI, April i, 1943.

PAGE

The Index of Heron Population, 1942. By W. B. Alexander ... 206

Report of the Bird-Ringing Committee : Progress for 1942. By

A. Landsborough Thomson, C.B., D. Sc. ... ... ... ... 209

\

The Age of Some More British Birds. By David Lack ... ... 214

Bird Notes from Lincolnshire, 1934-1942. By James M. Harrison,

D.S.C., M.R.C.S 222

Notes : —

Two-barred Crossbills in County Durham (G. W. Temperley) 225

Female Chaffinch in Song (D. Lack) ... ... ... ... 225

«

Yellow Bunting, Sparrow-Hawk and Knots in Outer Hebrides
(R. Perry) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 226

An unrecorded Yorkshire Herony (F/O. R. A. Carr-Lewty) ... 226

Display oJ Mute Swans on Land (A. A. Wright)... .... ... 227

Short Notes : —

Blackcaps in winter in Yorkshire, Northumberland, Gloucester
and Monmouth. Exceptional Fledging Period in Mistle-
Thrush. Black Redstarts in Suffolk. Osprey in Yorkshire.
Gadwall in Kirkcudbrightshire. Plunging of Black-headed
and Common Gulls. Barnacle-Goose inland in Cheshire- —
Correction. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 227

G

(206)

PUBLICATION OF THE BRITISH TRUST
FOR ORNITHOLOGY.

THE INDEX OF HERON POPULATION, 1942

BY

W. B. ALEXANDER.

The number of heronries concerning which reports for 1942
have been received at the Edward Grey Institute was only
90, of which only 2 were in Scotland, only 4 in Wales and none
in south-east England. Major A. W. Boyd again collected
statistics for nearly all known heronries in Cheshire and south
Lancashire, Mr. R. Chislett for most of those in Yorkshire *
and the Rev. P. G. Kennedy for 16 sites in Ireland. This
year’s sample is thus unequally distributed geographically,
as well as small, and the index based on it cannot be regarded
as so reliable as in several recent years.

Of the 90 heronries reported this year only 52 were included
in the census of 1928 when they contained 1,204 nests. In
1942 they only contained 862, giving an index of 72. In
1941 the index based on 1928 was 77 so that a further decline
of about 5 per cent, is indicated.

As explained in last year’s report ( antea , Vol. xxxv, pp.
210-13), ^ has been decided that in order to utilise the figures
more fully they should be compared with the average figures
for as many as possible of the years when the population was
normal (1928, 1936, 1937, 1938 and 1939). On this basis
we can use the figures for 79 heronries whose total average
population in those years was 1,654 pairs, whilst in 1942 they
contained 1,123 nesting pairs. This gives an index of 68
compared with 73 in 1941 and 78 in 1940 calculated on the
same basis, showing a decrease of a further 5 per cent.

In 76 heronries counted in 1941 and again in 1942, there
were 1,143 nests in the former year and 1,087 in the latter,
which is also a decrease of 5 per cent.

The percentages for individual regions calculated on the
new basis (omitting those regions where this year’s figures
are clearly inadequate) are as follows : —

1941

1942

Change

South-west England

76

55

— 21

Thames Drainage Area . . .

81

79

— 2

Eastern England...

69

44

—25

Midlands ...

79

74

— 5

North-west England

S3

68

—15

North-east England

87

9i

+4

Ireland

68

71

+3

England and Wales

73

68

— 5

British Isles

73

68

— 5

vol. xxxvi ] INDEX OF HERON POPULATION. 207

It will be seen that in 4 of these 7 areas the changes are
insignificant, but that considerable decreases appear to have
occurred in the south-western, north-western and eastern
counties of England.

For the third season in succession the weather was
exceptionally severe during the early months. East Anglia
had very hard frosts, there was a long cold spell in south
Wales and in the south-west of Scotland the snowfall was the
deepest within living memory. A Heron, apparently frozen
to death, was picked up in east Suffolk, whilst 4 dead and one
dying bird were found along one mile of stream in the Lake
District in early February, apparently due to an epidemic.
In various parts of the country decreases are attributed to
disturbance due to felling of trees, though only 3 or 4 cases
of actual desertion of site have been reported and all of these
were quite small heronries.

The heronry at Eaton Socon, Bedfordshire, which has been
declining for several years was finally deserted in 1942, but
it seems clear that most of the birds have moved to a new
site a few miles away on the Huntingdonshire side of the
Ouse. The figures are as follows : —

I939 •

Eaton Socon, Beds.
... 12

St. Neots, Hunts.
2

1940 .

4

I

1941

2

4

1942 .

0

8

On a small scale this instance provides a parallel with the

shifting of the

Wanstead heronry to

Walthamstow, which

began in 1914 and is still not complete, 8 pairs having bred
at Wanstead in 1942, and 49 pairs at Walthamstow.

Two previously unrecorded heronries have been reported
this year, both in Yorkshire, one of 6 nests in Nidderdale and
one of 15 nests in Swaledale. This is especially noteworthy
since no heronries were previously known in that county
north of Wharfedale and the Vale of Pickering and this was
much the largest area in England in which no heronry was
known. (In the map illustrating the 1928 census the heronry
at Gilling was wrongly placed at Gilling in Swaledale instead
of at Gilling near Ampleforth in the Vale of Pickering).

In only two considerable areas were all, or almost all, the
known heronries counted in 1942. In Cambridgeshire
members of the Cambridge Bird Club found 29 nests at
4 sites. No heronries were known to exist in the county
at the time of the 1928 census, but in 1932 there were 44
nests in 3 heronies, in 1937, 56 nests in 3 heronries and in 1938,
71 nests in 2 heronries. In each of these years one of the
four sites was not visited, so the total was probably really

208 BRITISH BIRDS. [vol. xxxvi.

larger, but it is clear that there has been a decrease in the
county of more than 50 per cent, since 1938.

In Cheshire and south Lancashire Major A. W. Boyd again
obtained figures for all the known heronries except one
small one in Cheshire. In 1942 the nests reported numbered
176 in 7 heronries, compared with 173 in 8 heronries in
1928 and 210 in 7 heronries in 1941. It will be seen that
the population is still higher than in 1928 but the sudden
rise in 1941, which was due almost entirely to an increase
of 24 nests at Eaton Hall, has not been maintained, the
number of nests reported at Eaton Hall having decreased
by 27.

In conclusion, we must express our sincere thanks to all
those who have helped to obtain information and thus keep
this record going. Particulars of the number of nests occupied
in any heronry in 1943 (if possible between April 15 and May
10) will be gratefully received by the writer at the Edward
Grey Institute, 39, Museum Road, Oxford. It will be of
special interest to see whether a mild winter is followed by
an increase in the breeding population of Herons.

(209)

A PUBLICATION OF THE BRITISH TRUST FOR

ORNITHOLOGY.

REPORT OF THE BIRD-RINGING COMMITTEE.

PROGRESS FOR I 942.

A. LANDSBOROUGH THOMSON, c.b., d.sc.

Chairman of {he Committee.

This is the sixth report* issued on behalf of the Bird-Ringing
Committee of the British Trust for Ornithology, continuing
the earlier sequence of reports by H. F. Witherby published
from 1910 onwards under the title “ The British Birds Marking
Scheme." Activities have been still further restricted by war
conditions.

Management.

The headquarters of the scheme remain in the British
Museum (Natural History), by permission of the Trustees, and
rings are inscribed “ British Museum Nat. Hist. London."

The membership of the Committee remains unchanged. The
whole of the headquarters work has again been done by the
Honorary Secretary, Miss E. P. Leach, to whom the most
grateful acknowledgments of the Committee are due.

Finance.

The financial position continues to be satisfactory. A
subvention has again been received from British Birds, and
it was not necessary to draw on the grant made by the trustees
of the late Viscount Leverhulme. Accounts for 1941 and 1942
are being published in the report of the Trust.

Progress of Ringing.

There has been a further drop in the numbers of birds
ringed, affecting especially those caught by trapping. Trans-
port difficulties and petrol restrictions have hampered many
ringers who might otherwise have done more. Eleven new
ringers have been enrolled.

As a special arrangement, rings have been issued to Mr. K.
Williamson for use in the Faroes, where he is stationed on
military service. He has been able to ring 378 birds belonging
to 17 species.

Sedbergh School always provides an interesting list, and on
this occasion shows a total of 136 Swallows. The list from the
London Natural History Society, the members of which are
scattered in many districts owing to exigencies of war, shows a
good variety of species and includes 26 Red-backed Shrikes.
Major A. W. Boyd has ringed 101 Tree-Sparrows. Messrs.
M. and D. Rankin ringed a Turnstone — the second under the
scheme — in Northern Ireland. Mr. Darlington was responsible
for ringing a brood of Black Redstarts in Devonshire.

♦The previous report was published in British Birds, 1942, Vol.

• xxv, p. 267.

210

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Recoveries.

Mr. Williamson’s ringing in the Faroes during 1942 has
already yielded three records — a Kittiwake from New-
foundland in November, an Arctic Skua from Lincolnshire,
and a Lesser Black-backed Gull from a trawler in Carmarthen
Bay.

Other individual recoveries of interest include a Rook aged
13 years — the oldest yet recorded ; a Peregrine ringed as a
young bird in West Yorkshire and found nesting in Kintyre ;
and two Sparrow-Hawks from the same brood recovered
respectively 14 miles W.S.W. and 16 miles N. of their native
locality. A Mallard from Flint may have been a victim of
enemy action, its ring having been picked up near Doncaster
after a bombing attack though there was no sign of the bird.

Thanks are due to Miss Roche of the National Museum
of Ireland, and to the staffs of the Natural History Museums
at Stockholm and Gothenburg, for assistance in obtaining
details of birds recovered in Great Britain which had been
ringed in countries occupied by the enemy.

Publication of Results.

The following publications have been made under the
auspices of the Committee since the last report : —

D. Lack (1943) : “ The Age of the Blackbird.” British
Birds, Vol. xxxvi, p. 166.

D. Lack (1943) : “ The Age of some more British birds.”
British Birds, Vol. xxxvi, p. 193.

Some use of data provided by the Committee is also made in
the following paper : —

W. S. Bullough (1942) : “ The Reproductive Cycles of the
British and Continental races of the Starling.” Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Vol.
ccxxxi, p. 165.

Number of Birds Ringed.

Trapped.

Nestlings.

Total.

In 1942

1,301

3,266

4,567

„ I94i

3,109

3,990

7,099

„ 1940

14,974

6,208

21,182

.. 1939

27,983

27,834

55,817

„ 1938

24,162

26,162

50,324

1937

21,900

23,281

45,i8i

„ 1936

19.235

29,428

48,663

» J935

16,066

30,364

46,430

.» I934

17.835

31,816

49,651

» J933

10,466

27,975

38,441

From 1909 to 1932

...

...

347,548

Grand Total (including arrears) 715,314

vol. xxxvi ] BIRD-RINGING COMMITTEE.

211

Individual Totals for 1942.

Nest-

Nest-

Trapped,

lings. Total.

Trapped.

lings.

Total.

Cowin, Ladds &

A. F. Airey

—

23

23

Williamson ...

49

478 •

527

Mmes. Anscombe

Bootham Sch....

376

15

39i

& Read

—

21

21

Sedbergh Sch....

3°

257

287

C. J. Duffin ...

1

-19

20

R. H. Brown ...

4

237

241

L. P. Samuels...

13

6

19

London N.H.S.

71

166

237

A. G. Mason ...

8

10

18

A. E. Billett ...

H

160

174

Winchester Coll.

18

—

18

J. Ash

39

120

159

Miss Ruth Baillie

17

—

17

R. Martinson ...

2

142

144

St. Edmund’s Sch.

17

17

A. W. Boyd ...

6

135

141

P. A. Rayfield...

—

*4

I4

Sand ford, Stephen

Bryanston Sch.

6

6

12

& Pollok-Morris

27

89

116

F. J. Ramsay ...

12

—

12

Mrs. Hodgkin...

4

106

1 10

C. Q. Butler ...

—

10

10

A. Darlington...

9

99

108

J. Fraser

7

3

10

Oxford Orn. Soc.

89

13

102

P. Morshead ...

9

—

9

“ Wippletree "

9

85

94

L. D. Thomas...

8

—

8

Gresham’s Sch.

28

62

90

A. D. Bateman

6

—

6

A. J. Harthan...

49

30

79

C. B. Wainwright

—

6

6

J. W. Matthew

68

1

69

M. S. Brett

5

—

5

H. M. Rogers ...

10

52

62

M. Hardy

5

5

R. F. Ruttledge

—

60

60

Woodcock Inq.

—

5

5

C. Oakes

—

58

58

T. H. Bell

1

3

4

D. Garnett

1

54

55

R. Chislett

—

4

4

Miss Garden ...

—

54

54

P. Hirst &

H. C. Trimnell

21

32

53

Mrs. Hirst ...

—

4

4

E. Cohen

2

47

49

J.M. B. King ...

1

3

4

F. J. Brown ...

—

46

46

H. Lance

—

4

4

W. B. Malt by...

24

21

45

C. Phillipson ...

—

4

4

L. G. Weller .

4i

—

4i

C. F. Tebbutt ...

—

4

4

B. Campbell ...

2

35

37

H. Tully

2

2

4

R. M. Band

6

27

33

J. G. Warner ...

—

4

4

J. Bartholomew

6

27

33

H. Disney

1

2

3

Cheltenham Coll.

—

3i

3i

D. Joicey

—

3

3

M. & D. Rankin

14

17

3i

R. E. Knowles

2

—

2

R. Carrick

26

26

E. Hosking ...

—

T

1

Sir S. Bilsland...

—

25

25

Lord D. Stuart

X

—

1

A. H. Bishop ...

4

20

24

The following include also

totals

for previous years

—

M. C. Wainwright

88

—

88

Rugby Sch. ...

I

28

29

A. G. Haworth

14

69

83

J. Barnes

3

20

23

K. B. Rooke ...

1

75

76

E. Jeffrey

l6

16

Christ’s Hospital

45

4

49

R. G. Williams

2

13

15

Mrs. J. Buxton

12

26

38

212

BRITISH BIRDS

•

[VOL. XXXVI.

NUMBERS OF

EACH SPECIES

RINGED

RECOVERED

1909

of those

-I942

to

Trapped Nest-

Total

Grand

ringed

Per-

1941

lings

Total

1909-41

centago

Raven ...

229

—

7

7

236

17

7-4

Crow, Carrion...

1631

* 77

79

1710

76

4-7

Rook ...

5022

IO

—

10

5032

244

4-9

Jackdaw

4025

24

2

26

4051

199

4-9

Magpie...

1134

5

35

40

II74

43

3-8

Jay

526

5

14

19

545

31

5-9

Chough

49

—

—

—

49

3

6.1

Starling

6943s

414

30

444

69882

3106

4-5

Greenfinch

29921

129

68

197

30118

2433

8.1

Goldfinch

492

5

20

25

5W

8

1.6

Redpoll, Lesser

593

X

3

4

597

6

1.0

Linnet...

10215

3

49

52

10267

69

0.7

Bullfinch

1583

—

14

14

1597

59

3-7

Chatfinch

33528

114

7

121

33649

1472

4-4

Brambling

1007

2

—

2

1009

41

4-i

Sparrow, Tree...

2335

5

IOO

105

2440

88

3-8

Bunting, Yellow

5758

3

38

4i

5799

407

7-i

Bunting, Reed

1876

—

30

30

1906

95

5-i

Lark, Sky

3687

—

4

4

3691

47

i-3

Pipit, Tree

1793

—

20

20

1813

5

o-3

Pipit, Meadow

5456

I

37

38

5494

116

2.1

Pipit, Rock ...

671

—

1

1

672

30

4-5

Wagtail, Yellow

1059

—

17

17

1076

4

0.4

Wagtail, Grey...

856

I

19

20

876

1

0.1

Wagtail, Pied...

6708

3

49

52

6760

90

1-3

Wagtail, White

79

—

—

—

79

—

—

Flycatcher, S....

3446

—

13

13

3459

12

0-3

Flycatcher, Pied

1419

X

19

20

1439

9

0.6

Chiffchaff

970

1

—

I

971

6

0.6

Warbler, Willow

10441

6

18

24

10465

52

o-5

Warbler, Wood

1058

—

4

4

1062

*>

0.2

Warbler, Sedge

1299

—

3

3

1302

7

0-5

Warbler, Garden

1298

2

6

8

1306

5

0.4

Blackcap

937

—

12

12

949

2

0.2

Whitethroat . . .

4864

1

—

I

4865

33

°-7

Thrush, Mistle

4798

2

25

27

4825

105

2.2

Thrush, Song ...

68117

66

283

349

68466

1373

2.0

Redwing

962

—

—

—

962

7

0.7

Ouzel, Ring ...

535

—

7

7

542

5

0.9

Blackbird

60828

155

36

191

61019

2933

4-9

Wheatear

1881

2

23

25

1906

39

2.1

Whinchat

1654

—

18

18

1672

12

0.7

Stonechat

842

—

6

6

848

5

0.6

Redstart

21x3

—

13

13

2126

15

0.7

Robin ...

23448

27

2

29

23477

2268

9.7

Sparrow, Hedge

15282

6

4

10

15292

1419

9.3

Wren ...

3787

5

—

5

3792

25

0.7

Dipper...

1498

6

41

47

1545

17

1. 1

Swallow

44387

30

45°

480

44867

411

0.9

Martin...

12140

25

148

173

12313

So

0.7

Martin, Sand . . .

4623

7

—

7

4630

12

0-3

Swift ...

978

6

16

22

1000

61

6.2

Kingfisher

707

—

12

12

719

32

4-5

Cuckoo...

75i

—

9

9

760

21

2.8

vol. xxxvi ] BIRD-RINGING COMMITTEE.

213

NUMBERS OF EACH SPECIES RINGED RECOVERED

1909

1942

of those

to

1941

Trapped

Nest-

lings

Total

Grand

Total

ringed

1909-41

Per-

centage

Owl, Little

036

3

1 4

7

643

58

9-1

Owl, Long-eared

218

—

IO

IO

228

7

3-2

Owl, Barn

617

—

IO

IO

627

62

10.0

Owl, Tawny ...

1021

4

39

43

1064

62

6.1

Falcon, Peregrine

90

3

3

93

8

8.9

Merlin ...

256

—

4

4

260

5i

19.9

Kestrel

953

I

6

7

960

96

IO.I

Buzzard

376

—

22

22

398

14

3-7

Hawk, Sparrow

594

1

l6

17

61 1

83

14.0

Heron, Common

2212

I

—

1

2213

272

12.3

Duck, Sheld- ...

473

I

i —

I

474

22

4-7

Mallard

6971

I

.

1

6972

1118

16.0

Teal

3321

4

3

7

3328

400

12.0

Wigeon

424

— •

—

424

61

14.4

Duck, Tufted ...

177

23

—

23

200

38

21.5

Goosander

52

—

52

IO

19.2

Cormorant

2456

I

—

I

2457

510

20.8

Shag ...

W33

—

25

25

1958

196

IO.I

Gannet

10214

—

40

40

10254

345

3-4

Petrel, Storm ...

57i

5

—

5

576

41

7.2

Shearwater, Mx

20005

I

I

2

20007

1 01 1

5-i

Petrel, Fulmar

369

—

16

16

385

1

0-3

Pigeon, Wood-

2862

— -

54

54

2916

hi

3-9

Dove, Stock ...

655

—

IO

IO

665

56

8-5

Dove, Turtle ...

663

—

II

11

674

75

11 -3

Curlew, Stone-

253

—

—

—

253

10

4.0

Oyster-catcher

1593

—

49

49

1642

66

4.1

Plover, Ringed

1515

I

15

16

1531

20

i-3

Plover, Golden

325

- —

4

4

329

8

2.5

Lapwing

39673

7

455

462

4OI35

855

2.2

Dunlin...

114

—

4

4

118

I

0.9

Sandpiper, C....

901

—

11

11

912

3

0.3

Redshank

2324

—

38

38

2362

80

3-4

Curlew, Common

3145

—

42

42

31S7

125

4.0

Snipe, Common

1646

—

42

42

1688

86

5-2

Woodcock

5326

I

31

32

5358

408

7-7

Tern, Sandwich

17987

—

—

— -

17987

318

1.8

Tern, Roseate...

393

—

—

—

393

1

°-3

Tern, Common

19670

- —

- —

—

19670

47i

2.4

Tern, Arctic ...

2795

7

189

196

2991

13

°-5

Tern, Little

812

—

—

812

8

1.0

Gull, B-headed

14102

IO

—

IO

14112

663

4-7

Gull, Common

1824

6

60

66

1890

63

3-5

Gull, Herring ...

8698

3

4

7

8705

235

2.7

Gull, L. Bl.-bkd.

10717

I

9

IO

10727

414

3-9

Gull. G. Bl.-bkd.

612

—

1

I

613

22

3-6

Kittiwake

1952

13

54

67

2019

26

i-3

Skua, Great ...

518

—

3

3

52i

17

3-3

Razorbill

4552

— '

—

—

4552

96

2.1

Guillemot

2460

3

—

3

2463

53

2.2

Puffin ...

5407

2

2

4

5411

90

i-7

Crake, Corn ...

532

8

2

IO

542

8

i-5

Moorhen

1711

9

7

16

1727

5°

2.9

(214)

I

THE AGE OF SOME MORE BRITISH BIRDS*

BY

DAVID LACK.

{Continued from page 197).

3. Robin ( Erithacus rubecula melophilus).

The returns for this species are analysed elsewhere (Lack ;
1943b), but may be briefly summarised here for comparison
with other species. Burkitt (1926) estimated the age of the
Robin as 2.8 years and many people at that time considered
even this figure to be far too low. Actually the Robin has
a lower average age than any other species investigated.
The returns of trapped Robins indicate that 62 per cent, of
the adults die each year and that their expectation of further
life on August 1st is another 1.1 years. The returns of ringed
nestlings indicate that the mortality during the year after
the first August 1st of life is 72 per cent., and that the expecta-
tion of further life for a juvenile on August 1st is 1.0 years.
26 per cent, of the recoveries of ringed nestlings occurred
before the first August 1st, but, as in other species, this
figure does not necessarily reflect the true mortality in this
period. The oldest known Robin was one recorded by
Burkitt (1938) which was in its twelfth year. Hence the
average age in the wild is less than one tenth of the potential
age of the bird.

4. Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus).

Analysis showed no significant difference as regards age
between the recoveries of 269 individuals ringed .in Scotland
and 15 1 individuals ringed in northern England. 40 indivi-
duals ringed in southern England have also been recovered.
The birds of all these regions have been grouped together.
A few cases in which only a skeleton or a leg was found are
excluded, as the bird might have died a long time before the
remains were found. The mean date of ringing was June 9th,
and hence the birds were on the average some eleven weeks
old on August 1st, when Table VII starts.

The expectation of further life for an adult Lapwing is
2\ years and some 33 per cent, of the adults die each year.
Possibly the first-year birds survive rather less well, but the
difference is at most small. 248 out of the 460 recoveries
were of birds shot, and the age distribution of these individuals
is given in the third column of Table VII. The expectation
of further life for those shot works out at 2.3 years on
the first August 1st and 2.5 years on the second August 1st,
while for all the Lapwings recovered in other ways this
figure is 2.4 years on the first August 1st and 2.5 years

* Publication of "The British Trust for Ornithology.”

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF MORE BRITISH BIRDS. 215

on the second August ist. This difference is not significant,
and hence it is justifiable to group those shot with the
rest in calculating the results in Table VII.

TABLE VII.

Survival of Lapwings ringed as Young ( all Britain).

Year

No.

(No.

No.

alive

%

alive

% of
those
alive
at

Expecta-
tion of
further

(Aug. ist

dying

shot

at

at

start

life on

to July

during

during

start

start

of year

Aug. ist

31st).

year

year)

of year

of year

dying

in

1

175

(102)

460

100

during

year

38

years)

2.4

2

98

(47)

285

62

34

2.5

3

59

(35)

187

4i

32

2.5

4

36

(17)

128

28

28

2.5

5

31

(13)

92

20

34

2.2

6

26

(14)

61

13

43

2.1

7

11

(9)

35

8

—

—

8

9

(4)

24

5

—

—

9

3

(2)

15

3

—

—

10

4

(1)

12

—

—

—

11

3

(1)

S

—

—

—

12

5

(3)

5

—

—

—

Nice (1941) quotes a Dutch paper by Kraak, Rinkel and
Hoogerheide, which I have been unable to consult, based on
1,333 returns of Lapwings ringed on the Continent of Europe.
Of these birds 40 per cent, died each year, hence survival is
apparently rather better among English than Continental
Lapwings.

If the British Lapwing population is stationary every 100
adults must each year produce on the average 33 young
which survive to breed. Of every 100 juvenile Lapwings
alive on August ist about 62 survive to breed. Therefore
33 young surviving to breed correspond with 53 juveniles
alive on August ist. This means that Lapwings must
produce on the average 1.06 young per pair which survive to
the first August ist of life. This seems not unreasonable.
Each pair lay four, sometimes three, eggs, and though the
bird is apparently single brooded, if the first set of eggs is
destroyed another is often laid. According to Kraak, Rinkel
and Hoogerheide, not all Lapwings breed in their first year,
in which case the average number of young per pair must
be raised.

In the Lapwing hardly any young birds are found dead
before they are full-grown, and the ringing returns shed no
light on the mortality between hatching and the time that
the young can fly.

21G

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

5. Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola).

Nearly all the recoveries of Woodcock were birds which had
been shot. Therefore if the older individuals are less easily
shot than the younger birds. Table VIII gives too low a
figure for the average age of the Woodcock. However, from
the bird’s habits and the way in which it is shot, it seems
very possible that old birds are shot as easily as young, in
which case the table gives a true picture of the Woodcock’s
survival. But there is no means of checking this.

TABLE VIII.

Survival of Woodcock ringed as Young
{Scotland and northern England).

Year No. dying No. alive at
(Aug. 1st during year start of year
to

July 31st)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

IO

XI

12

13

114

32

22

15

7

6

2

1

1

2
1

203

89

57

35

20

13

7

5

5

4

4

3

% of those
alive at start
of year dying
during year

56

36

39

43

Expectation of
further life
on Aug. 1st
(in yrs.)

i-7

2.2

2.2

2.3

Table VIII suggests that Woodcock in their first year survive
less well than older individuals, the first-year birds having
an expectation of further life of 1.7 years as compared with
2.2 years in an older bird. About 37 per cent, of the adults
die each year, and must be replaced by first-year birds. Of
every 100 juveniles alive on August 1st about 44 survive to
breed the next year, hence 37 first-year breeding birds corres-
pond with 84 alive on August 1st. This means that every
100 adults must each year produce 84 young which survive
up to their first August 1st, or 1.7 per pair.

6. Black-headed Gull ( Larus r. ridibundus).

Very few Black-headed Gulls have been ringed in southern
England, and Table IX is based on those ringed as young in
northern England and in Scotland. Four-fifths of these
birds were ringed at one colony, Ravenglass in Cumberland,
but since those from neighbouring counties showed no signi-
ficant differences in survival they are all grouped together.
Those shot proved to be much younger on the average than

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF MORE BRITISH BIRDS. 217

those not reported as shot, hence the two groups are treated
separately. Those “ found dead ” may well have included
a number which were really shot.

TABLE IX.

Survival o f Black-headed, Gulls ringed as Young
in Scotland and northern England.

Year

No. dying

No. alive

% alive

% of those Expectation

Aug. 1st

during

at start

at start

alive at

of further

:° July

year

of year

of year

start of

life on

31st)

year dying

Aug. 1st

during

(in yrs.)

year

A.

Excluding

those Reported Shot.

1

130

252

100

52

1.8*

2

40

122

48

33

2.4

3 •••

26

82

33

32

2.4

4 ...

28

56

22

50

2.2

5 •••

8

28

1 1

29

2.9

6 ...

6

20

8

—

—

7 •••

8

14

5-5

—

—

8 ...

1

6

—

—

—

10

1

5

—

—

—

11

1

4

— ■

—

—

13 ...

1

3

—

—

—

14 ...

1

2

—

—

—

20

1

I

—

—

—

B. Those Shot.

1

159

203

100

78

0.7*

2

22

44

22

50

1.6

3 •••

10

22

11

45

2.7

4 ...

4

12

6

—

—

5 •••

6

8

4

—

—

7 •••

1

2

1

—

—

10

1

1

—

—

—

* In all the other species investigated, the recoveries of ringed birds
were spread fairly evenly throughout the year, and the expectation of
further life was calculated on the assumption that those individuals
dying during the year lived on the average for half that year. But in the
Black-headed Gull most of the first-year mortality occurred in the first
two months, hence, for estimating the survival, the numbers dying in
each month were assessed separately.

Part B of Table IX shows that the average age of all those
Black -headed Gulls which were shot works out at 0.7 years,
while Part A shows that for all the rest the average age works
out at 1.8 years. Clearly the birds become warier and harder
to shoot as they get older. This shows how misleading it
would be to reckon the survival of Black -headed Gulls from
the age of those shot.

Part A of Table IX shows that 52 per cent, of the first-year
birds as compared with 33 per cent, of the second-year birds

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

218

die during one year, and that the expectation of further life
for the former is 1.8 years and of the latter 2.4 years. The
expectation of further life is not significantly different for
a two, three, four or five-year-old bird.

Mitchell (1911) states that for 57 Black-headed Gulls in
captivity the average further life was 3.3 years. Probably
conditions were unfavourable, since eleven individuals at
the Giza zoological gardens all lived for at least another eleven
years (Flower, 1925), which is in marked contrast to the
average expectation of further life in the wild. The oldest
Black-headed Gull on record is one of twenty-five years,
ringed in northern Bohemia (Cerny, 1939).

Excluding birds shot, out of 319 ringed young which were
later found dead after leaving the gulleries, 67 were found
during their first July of life, i.e., before the start of Table IX.
Actually of these 319 ringed young, as many as 135, or 42 per
cent., were found dead during their first July, August and
September; 197, or 62 per cent., were found dead between
the time of leaving the gulleries and their second summer.
The expectation of further life at the time of leaving the
gulleries works out at 1.5 years.

Of every 100 adult Black-headed Gulls about 33 die each
year and must be replaced (Table IX, Part A). Of every
100 juveniles which leave the gullery, 38 survive to the
following summer (preceding paragraph). Hence 33 birds
in their second summer correspond to 87 juveniles leaving
the gullery. Therefore if the population is stationary, every
100 adults must each year produce on the average 87 juveniles
which leave the gullery, or 1.7 juveniles per pair. The Black-
headed Gull usually lays three eggs, sometimes two. It is
single-brooded but replaces the clutch if it is destroyed early.
It seems rather unlikely that each pair could produce as
high an average as 1.7 juveniles per year, especially if the
mortality among the young is as heavy as is reported. This
suggests that Part A of Table IX gives an inaccurate picture
of the survival of Black-headed Gulls, particularly in the
first year of life. The most likely source of error is that
many of those not reported as shot but as “ found dead ”
were really shot.

7. Lesser Black-backed Gull {Lams fuscus graellsii )

Too few ringed Lesser Black-backed Gulls have been
recovered without being shot for Part A to be considered a
reliable estimate of the bird’s survival. Table X is included
primarily because it demonstrates the same point as in the
Black-headed Gull, that those shot are on the average con-
siderably younger than those not shot.

vol. xxxvi ] AGE OF MORE BRITISH BIRDS. 219

TABLE X.

Survival of Lesser Black-backed Gulls ringed as Young ( all Britain).

Year

No. dying

No. alive at

% of those

Expectation of

(Aug. 1st

during

start of year

alive at start

further life

to July

year

of year dying

on Aug. 1st

31st)

during year

(in yrs.)

A.

Recovered

[N Britain and not Reported Shot.

1

28

49

57

1.8

2

5

21

24

2.5

3

6

16

38

2.2

4

3

xo

—

—

5

2

1

—

—

6

3

5

—

—

7

—

2

—

—

8

1

2

—

—

9

1

1

—

—

B. Those

Shot (in Britain and Abroad).

r

78'

95

82

0.8

2

9

17

5.3

1.2

3

6

8

—

—

4

1

2

—

—

5

—

1

—

—

6

1

1

—

—

Note. — 51 Lesser Black-backed Gulls were recovered abroad and
not reported shot: 43 of these died in their first year and two in each of
the next four years. This distribution suggests that at least most of
these individuals were shot only the fact was not recorded. (Few details
are usually given for birds recovered abroad).

8. Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax c. carbo).

Of 163 ringed Cormorants which have been recovered,
almost all were shot, 129 in their first year, 10 in each of the
second and third years, the rest older, and including one bird
in its nineteenth year. The expectation of further life for a
first year bird worked out at 1.6 years and for a second year
bird at 3.0 years. Of the first year birds 79 per cent, died
during one year, of the second year birds 29 per cent.

On the assumption that the above figures represent the
mortality in the Cormorant population as a whole, a calcula-
tion shows that to replace the yearly losses each pair would
each year have to produce 6.5 young which left the nesting
colony. This is more than the average number of eggs laid,
so is clearly impossible. These results therefore show again
that, in those species in which the older individuals are harder
to shoot than the younger, one cannot estimate the average
age of a bird from the age of those shot.

Conclusions.

These investigations on the age and survival of wild birds by
means of the ringing returns suggest the following conclusions: —

1. The ringing returns probably give an approximately
correct estimate for the survival of adult birds in those species

220

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

in which most individuals are “ found dead.” An independent
check in the Starling confirmed this, and the required re-
placement and reproduction figures seem reasonable. The
returns give a misleading figure for the survival of passerine
birds during the first month after leaving the nest and of
colonial nesting species before the young leave the colonies.
For species in which most recoveries are of shot birds, the
returns give too low a figure for the average age in those
cases in which the birds become warier with increasing age.
The latter applies to gulls, but not to the Lapwing.

2. The average age attained by a wild bird is far less,
probably less than one-tenth, of its potential age (cf. Blackbird,
Song-Thrush, Robin, Black-headed Gull).

3. Juveniles in their first year survive less well than older
birds, even when the first ten weeks after leaving the nest are
omitted from consideration. This is true of Blackbird, Song-
Thrush, Robin, Woodcock, Black-headed and Lesser Black-
backed Gulls and Cormorant, the difference being marked in
some cases, slight in others. Emlen (1940) reports a similar
difference in the survival of juvenile as compared with adult
California Quail ( Lophortyx calif or nica). But in the Starling,
and perhaps in the Lapwing, there appeared to be no difference
in the survival of first year as compared with older individuals.

The less good survival of first year birds is probably
attributable to their comparative lack of experience. This was
demonstrated for Black-headed and Lesser Black-backed
Gulls, and probably for the Cormorant, in regard to those
shot.* Probably first year birds also include a greater proportion
of hereditarily less fit individuals than are found among the
older age groups, but this factor would probably account
for only a very little of their increased mortality.

4. After the first year of life, the expectation of further
life remains approximately the same whatever the age of the
bird, up to an age by which an exceedingly small proportion
of individuals remain alive. This was best shown with the
trapped Starlings, and was also clear in Blackbird, Lapwing
and Black-headed Gull, while in no species were the results
inconsistent with this view.

Presumably the expectation of further life does decrease
with increasing age in very old individuals, but the latter are
extremely rare in wild birds, as shown by conclusion 2 above.

5. The expectation of further life for an adult bird is just
over one year in the Robin, about years in Starling and
Song-Thrush, nearly 2 years in the Blackbird, about 2\ years
in the Woodcock, 2f years in the Black-headed Gull, years

* Possibly the juvenile Starling and Lapwing acquire experience
comparatively quickly through associating in flocks with experienced
birds.

VOL. XXXVI.] AGE OF MORE BRITISH BIRDS.

221

in the Lapwing and perhaps 3 years (or more) in the Cormorant.
The percentage of adults dying each year varies from about
60 in the Robin to 33 in the Lapwing.

6. The type of survival shown by wild birds is very different
from that shown by modern man. In the latter, the average
age is a relatively high proportion of the potential age, elderly
individuals are relatively common, and the expectation of
further life decreases markedly and steadily with increasing
age. For birds kept in captivity it seems likely that the life-
curve would be of the same type as that of modern man.

Acknowledgements.

As in the previous paper, acknowledgements are due to the
Bird Ringing Committee of the British Trust for Ornithology,
and also to Mr. P. H. Leslie for very helpful criticisms.

.References.

Burkitt, J. P. (1926). " A study of the Robin by means of marked
birds.” Brit. Birds, 20 : 91-101.

Burkitt, J. P. (1938). “ Eleven-year-old-Robin.” Irish Nat. Journ.,
7 : 85.

Cerny, W. (1939). “ Wie alt werden Lachmowen ( Larus ridibun-

dus )?” Vogelzug, 10 : 170 (Abstr. Bird Banding, 1940, 11 : 65).

Emlen, J. T. (1940). “ Sex and age ratios in survival of the California
Quail.” foam. Wildlife Management, 4 : 92-99.

Flower, S. S. (1925). “ Contributions to our knowledge of the

duration of life in Vertebrate animals. IV Birds.” Proc. Zool. Soc.
Land. : 1366-1422.

Kluijver, H. N. (1935). “ Waarnemingen over de Levenswijze van
den Spreeuw (Sturnus v. vulgaris L.) met Behulp van Geringde In-
dividuen.” Ardea, 24: 133-166. (As quoted by Nice (1937).) Nice, M. M.
(r937) - “ Studies in the life-history of the Song Sparrow.

— I.” Trans. Linn. Soc., New York, 4 : 187, 191, 193.

Lack, D. (1943a). “ The age of the Blackbird.” Brit. Birds : 36 :
166-175.

Lack, D. (1943b). The Life of the Robin. Ch. XI (in press).

Mitchell, P. C. (1911). “ On longevity and relative viability in

mammals and birds ; with a note on the theory of longevity.” Ptoc.
Zool. Soc. Lond., 425-528.

Kraak, W. K., Rinkel, G. L. and Hoogerheide, J. (1Q40).
“ Oecoiogische bewerkung van de Europese ringgegevens van de Kievit
( Vanellus vanellus [X.]).” Ardea, 29: 151-574. (Abstr. Bird Banding,
1941, 12 : 75).

h

(2l>2)

BIRD NOTES FROM LINCOLNSHIRE, 1934-1942

BY

JAMES M. HARRISON, d.s.c. m.r.c.s.

The following records from Lincolnshire over the past nine years
it is hoped may provide some interest in that as the period concerned
is of some length, some idea of the frequency of the occurrences
of some of the species mentioned may be furnished. There are
included also a few occurrences of particular interest. Mr. Foster
Stubbs, who has such a wide experience of the wildfowl and
shore-birds of coastal Lincolnshire has sent me many notes, a
kindness which I gladly acknowledge here, and of these I have
used such as are sufficiently authenticated to merit inclusion. Since
the present communication amplifies previous notes on the Spotted
and Icelandic Redshanks it has been thought useful to include those
already recorded again as they refer to' regular passage migrants.
On the other hand the single occurrences of a Temminck’s Stint
( antea Vol. xxviii, p. 149), and of a Great Snipe ( antea Vol. xxxiii,
p. 166) have been omitted from the present paper as of more casual
incidence.

Mealy Redpoll ( Carduelis /.flammed). — One at Tetney, October
30th, 1941. The bird is a probable male and has a wing measure-
ment of 77 mm.

Iceland Redwing ( Turdus m. coburni). — Three examples of
this race have come to my notice during this period ; a male shot
at Northcotes on October 16th, 1935, a female shot at the same
place on December 9th, 1936, and a male killed at Northcotes on
December 15th, 1937.

Great Grey Shrike ( Lanius e. excubitor). — A first winter female
was shot at Tetney on October 30th, 1942. This bird was one of
a small party which when disturbed flew off across the Humber in
the direction of the Yorkshire coast. An observer describes the
birds as looking like small Magpies in flight.

Waxwing (Bomby cilia g. garrulus). — The following records
including one for 1932 are given in order to supplement reports
of this 'species from other sources and from neighbouring districts :
Northcotes, December 17th, 1932, March 4th and 6th, 1937, and
Marshchapel, January 3rd, 1941.

Gadwall (Anas strepera). — This duck is regarded as of unusual
occurrence in coastal Lincolnshire by Mr. Foster Stubbs ; a female
was shot at Grainthorpe on December 20th, 1933.

Gadwall x Wigeon ( Anas strepera x Anas pcnelope). — An
immature drake example of this hybrid was shot from a party of
five duck as it flighted to a small pond on September 21st, 1937,
at Tetney. This bird closely resembles a Wigeon duck in general
appearance, there are, however, some rather anomalous features

vol. xxxvi ] BIRD NOTES FROM LINCOLNSHIRE. 223

making its identification as Anas penelope impossible. The head,
particularly the crown which is dark, and the coarser striations
of the face are much more like those of the Gadwall. The back is
rather intermediate in type, but the wing and speculum are almost
typically Wigeon. The bird is still somewhat in moult and the
breast and belly are freely flecked with small dusky feathers. The
colour of the soft parts was carefully noted whilst the bird was still
fresh. These again emphasise a Gadwall strain, for the beak was
brownish with dull yellowish side patches, while the tarsi and toes
were ochreous with dusky webs. Both the beak and feet, even
without measuring obviously exceeded in size those of the Wigeon,
and the following measurements (in millimetres) confirm this.

Wigeon

Wigeon

Gadwall

Gadwall

Hybrid

13 males

5 females

2 males

5 females

male

Tarsus

35-5-4°

32-36

37-40

35-37

38

Mid.Tof. with Nail

45-55

• 47-52

54-63

50-54

58

Bill :

Length ....

31-36

31-36

4i-43

39-42

40

Height behind

nares

1 6-1 7

15-16

I8-I8

16-18

19

Wing

243-272

232-252

260-270

250-257

253

These measurements taken together with other intermediate
characters in the external morphology clearly support the hybrid
constitution of this specimen. On dissection a normal arrangement
of the genito-urinary tract was found, small testes were identified,
while no abnormality of the vasa efferentia was noted. I think it
probable that this individual would have been fertile in due season.

Garganey [Anas qnerquedula) . — One of three was shot on August
19th, 1935, at Tetney. This species also is regarded as of unusual
occurrence on the Lincolnshire coast by Mr. Foster Stubbs.

Sooty Shearwater ( Puffinus griseus) . — On January 2nd, 1941,
a female Sooty Shearwater was taken in a field about one mile
inland from the sea-wall at Northcotes after a succession of easterly
gales of forty-eight hours duration, with a wind force of approxi-
mately 50 nt.p.h., powdery snow and sleet rendering visibility very
low. The . bird was found by Mr. G. Tuplin and was in an exhausted
condition.

Grey Phalarope ( Phalaropus fulicarius). — A first winter female
was taken at Pulover on September 17th, 1935.

Red-necked Phalarope ( Phalaropus lobatus).— An immature
female was obtained at Tetney on September 27th, 1934.

Wood-Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola). — I have a single record only
of this Sandpiper, a female obtained at Tetney, on October 3rd,
1938. This is another species which is regarded as uncommon in
this part of Lincolnshire by Mr. Foster Stubbs.

Iceland Redshank ( Tringa t. robusta). — In 1935 I gave a list
of some of the occurrences of this race in the British Isles ( antea ,
Vol. xxviii, p. 370). A number of these records were from Lincoln-
shire, and these earlier records are included here and marked (*).
It will be seen that all these occurrences refer to the winter and

224

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

autumn — the open season — and it is regretted that no data are
available as to its frequency on the spring passage.

$ 14.9.37 Tetney.

* $ 18.1.34 Northcotes.
*$?&? I9-IO-34 Tetney.

* SS 4-I-35 Tetney.

4.1.35 Grainthorpe
$13.11.35 Thoresby.

0 23.12.35 Tetney.
19.2.36 Tetney.

6 23-10.37

S 18.2.38
(J 12.8.42

$ 13-8.42

$ 29.1.43
cJ? 30.1.43

Northcotes.

Northcotes.

Boston.

Boston.

Boston.

Boston.

The wing measurements range from 162 to 174 mm., with the
following number of examples of each measurement : 162(1),
163(3), 164(1), 165(1), 166(3), 167(4), 168(1), 170(2), 171(2), 174(2).
Over the same period seven Redshanks with wing measurements
below 162 mm. were received, and it should be noted that two or
three birds unmeasured were not preserved. The high percentage of
Iceland birds obtained would indicate that this is a very prevalent
form on the Lincolnshire coast.

Spotted Redshank ( Tringa erythropus). — Of the following
occurrences of this species, the first and last have already been
recorded ( antea , Vol. xxviii, p. 149) and are repeated here for the
sake of completeness. Here too it will be observed that all are
autumn or winter occurrences, data relative to the spring migration
are unfortunately lacking. Single birds from Tetney, August 16th
and September 7th, 1934, September 3rd, 1936, September 6th,
1938 and from Northcotes, November 25th, 1941.

Arctic Ringed Plover ( Charadrius h. tundra). — A female of
this race was collected by Jeffery G. Harrison at Boston on August
13th, 1942. It had a wing measurement of 125 mm.

Scandinavian Lesser Black-backed Gull ( Lams f.fuscus). —
A number of this subspecies was seen along the Boston Channel
between December 7th and 9th, 1942. The birds were observed
under excellent conditions both for determining size and the inten-
sity of mantle colour, and all those seen appeared to be of the
Scandinavian race.

Glaucous Gull ( Larus hyperboreus). — On December 16th, 1942
a female was shot at Thoresby Fen. Mr. Foster Stubbs can recall
only about three instances of this gull over his long experience on
the Lincolnshire coast.

Iceland Gull ( Larus glaucoides) . — On December 9th, 1942, a
creamy-white gull of the size of a Herring-Gull, which was clearly
an Iceland was seen near Boston by myself, Jeffery G. Harrison
and D. C. H. McLean.

(225)

NOTES.

TWO-BARRED CROSSBILLS IN COUNTY DURHAM.

Mr. R. Martinson of Foresters Lodge, Wolsingham, in the Wear
valley, reports that from January ioth to 28th, 1943, he had under
observation five Two-barred Crossbills ( Loxia l. bifasciata). Flocks
of the Common Crossbill ( Loxia c. curvirostra) have been present
all through the winter in the coniferous woodlands on the Foresters
Lodge estate ; but it was not until January ioth that Mr. Martinson
noticed the Two-barred species. Two of them were in one flock of
the Common species and three were in another, always mingled in
flocks of more than fifty of the Common species. As the birds showed
no shyness he was able to observe them at close quarters with field
glasses and had therefore no difficulty in identifying them with
certainty.

He writes : “ Two of the birds were adult males and showed a
lot of crimson ; this crimson in a good light appeared to be more of
a pink colour and was much lighter than the crimson on the Common
species. The other three showed no crimson at all and were a darkish
green colour, the breast feathers being a little lighter, and showed
pale yellow on their rumps. I did not notice any of the birds being
streaked. The bills of all five were crossed and all five had two
distinct white wing bars. The birds appeared to be of the same size
as the Common species ; the only difference I noticed, as far as size
goes, being the bill, which did not appear to be so strong.”

He saw them many times from January ioth to 28th, but not
later, and since that date, flocks of the Common species have
dwindled in size though there are still a few left. As these remaining
birds are now paired it seems likely that a few may breed locally,
as they have done occasionally in previous years.

This is the first recorded occurrence of the Two-barred Crossbill
in County Durham. George W. Temperley.

[The above are the only Two-barred Crossbills that have been
reported, but since the end of August, 1942 we have been receiving
information regarding the presence of Common Crossbills in various
districts. Although in some northern counties parties up to one
hundred have been noticed, the number of birds has usually been
small and cannot be said to amount to what is usually termed an
irruption. The birds are, however, clearly more widespread and
numerous than usual and they have been reported from Cumberland,
Westmorland, Durham, Yorkshire, Derby, Cheshire, Denbigh,
Carnarvon, Stafford, Worcester, Gloucester, Somerset, Devon,
Oxford, Berkshire, Surrey and Sussex.

Reports of nesting have reached us and we shall be glad to have
details of all definite breeding records from any locality. — Eds.]

FEMALE CHAFFINCH IN SONG.

I have once before ( antea , Vol. xxxiv, p. 218) recorded song from a
Chaffinch ( Fringilla c. gengleri ) in female plumage, but in this case
was doubtful whether the bird might not be a male which had failed

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

220

to moult into the red plumage. On February 28th, 1943, in Ivew
Gai'dens, Surrey, I heard the same song again. It is quite un-
mistakable, and is like an unusually harsh beginning of a male
Chaffinch’s song, with the final quick “ pretty dear ” phrase greatly
curtailed or omitted. The Kew bird was in typical female plumage.
Further it was associating the whole time with a male Chaffinch in
full plumage and the two gave every indication of being paired
together. The male did not sing at all, but gave the “ spink ” call
at intervals. The female, on the other hand, sang repeatedly from
the branches of a group of thorn trees.

The significance of the song cannot be determined. It seems
possible that the pair had newly formed and it may be noted that
female song sometimes occurs in the Robin ( Erithacus r. melophilus) ,
at pair-formation, but in this species the female also sings regularly
in the autumn. David Lack.

[Song by female Chaffinch has also been recorded by G. D.
Warburg early in March ( antea , Vol. xxxiv, p. 261), by E. W.
Hendy at the end of April (Vol. xxxv, p. 37) and by the late Lord
Grey in May or June ( The Charm of Birds, p. 30). — Eds.].

YELLOW BUNTING, SPARROW-HAWK AND KNOTS
IN OUTER HEBRIDES.

As these species are considered to be only occasional visitors to the
Outer Hebrides it seems advisable to put the following occurrences
on record.

A Yellow Bunting (Emberiza c. citrinella ) was in song in the
machair of a steading on the north-west coast of North Uist on
July 31st, 1940, but was not subsequently observed there.

A Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter nisus) visited Vallay, an island off
North Uist on August 17th, 1940 during a westerly gale.

Knots ( Calidris c. canutus) were frequently observed on Vallay
between August 8th and September 1st, 1940. I counted seventeen
on the latter date, all being immature birds. Richard Perry.

AN UNRECORDED YORKSHIRE HERONRY.

Whilst flying over Swaledale in North Yorkshire, in April, 1938,
I discovered a heronry which has not previously been recorded. I
was able to visit it a few days later and also in 1939 and 1940, and
in these three years the number of occupied nests varied between
21 and 25. The heronry is close to the River Swale, and a large
rookery adjoins. It was visited in 1942, when there were 15 occu-
pied nests ; the reduction in numbers may be due to felling of
trees, or to the presence of troops in the later part of the 1940
nesting season.

Mr. T. J. Lowes, the water-bailiff for the Swale, has very kindly
made many local enquiries at my request, and informs me that
the heronry started about 40 years ago with one nest. The Herons
have been in continuous occupation ever since ; no special
protection is extended to them, and they are not shot or otherwise

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

227

disturbed. Mr. Lowes is not aware of any other heronry or odd
nest anywhere in the surrounding countryside. R. A. Carr-Lewty.

DISPLAY OF MUTE SWANS ON LAND.

At St. Albans, shortly before sunset on October 2nd, 1942, I saw a
pair of Mute Swans ( Cygnus olor) performing on land what I suppose
was a kind of display. They were standing on grass close to the edge
of the lake on which they live, a few feet apart and more or less
facing each other. Both birds curled their heads down almost to
their breasts and then stretched them up vertically into the air ;
this was repeated a number of times, and accompanied by subdued
snorting noises ; during part of the performance the male had his
wings slightly raised. The female seemed the more enthusiastic,
and went through the actions more times than the male. Presently
the birds seemed to lose interest and turned away from one another ;
this may have been due to the proximity of passing people.

The birds concerned are newcomers to the lake, having taken up
residence at the beginning of August. A. A. Wright.

Blackcaps in Winter in Yorkshire, Northumberland,
Gloucester and Monmouth. — Mr. G. W. Temperley informs us
that on 23rd January, 1943, an adult male Blackcap ( Sylvia a.
atricapilla) was picked up dead in the garden of Sleights Hall,
Sleights, near Whitby, Yorkshire. It was sent to the Hancock
Museum, Newcastle-on-Tyne. On February 5th, a hen Blackcap was
noticed in a garden on the outskirts of Hexham, Northumberland.
Mr. Temperley visited the garden on the following day and had a
good view of the bird with binoculars. It returned on several
occasions and was in the garden again on February 25th. It paid
visits to a bird-table from which it took bread-crumbs and on one
occasion a small scrap of meat. Mr. R. Archer Houblon also reports
one on March 1st, at Tetbury and Mr. W. J. Edmonds one singing
at Newport on the 2nd.

Exceptional Fledging Period in Mistle-Tlirush. — Mr. A. F.
Airey sends us particulars of the nest of a Mistle-Thrush ( Turdus
v. viscivorus) containing a brood of three nestlings which had a
fledging period of 19 days (April 11 to April 30). The nest was in
a tree and about 5 ft. above the ground. The tree is on the exposed
westerly extremity of a wood and exposed to the prevailing wind,
across the level moss lands from the sea two miles away. Mr.
Airey is of the opinion that this was the reason for the long fledging
period, which is clearly exceptional.. The fledging period of 14-16
days for the Mistle-Thrush given by Mr. Jourdain in The Handbook
is based on many records.

Black Redstarts in Suffolk. — Capt. Hamilton Scott, who
recorded the presence of a family party of Black Redstarts ( Phceni -
curus 0. gibr altar iensis) in Ipswich in 1939 and a single male in 1940
(antea Vol. xxxiv, p.201) informs us that in 1941 he again saw and
heard a single male, which was probably a one year old bird, while
in 1942 on April 27th, he heard the familiar song again and had a

228 PURCHASE British birds. [vol. xxxvl

very good view of the bird, which was a fine black adult. There
was a female near and once later Capt. Scott saw the two birds,
but was unable to obtain any evidence of breeding. He did not
hear singing after the middle of June.

[We take this opportunity of reminding readers that we are
anxious to collect all information about Black Redstarts again this
year and it would be a convenience if observations from the London
area were sent to Mr. R. S. R. hitter, at 39 South Grove House, N.6.
and from elsewhere to H. F. Witherby at Gracious Rond Farm,
Chobham, Woking. Details should include dates, localities and
nature of habitat, sex and in the case of males whether the plumage
is jet black or brownish and details of the extent of the wing-
patches if present, and especially full details of any pairs and all
possible evidence of breeding.]

Osprey in Yorkshire. — Mr. M. P. Winser informs us that an
Osprey ( Pandion halit&tus) was seen near Sedbergh on September
20th, 1942. After four unsuccessful dives the bird secured a fish
at the fifth.

Gadwall in Kirkcudbrightshire— Major A. J. Henryson-
Caird has sent us a duck Gadwall ( Anas strepera) shot on February
6th, 1943 at Cassencarie, Kirkcudbrightshire, a county from which
the species is seldom recorded.

Plunging of Black-headed and Common Gulls. — With
further reference to plunging under water by Black-headed Gulls
( Lams ridibundus) to obtain food ( cf . antea, p. 183) Mr. W. Griffiths
writes to us that he has observed this behaviour more frequently
at the Marine Lake at West Kirby than anywhere else? on that
coast. The lake is an artificial one varying from six or nine inches to
about four feet in depth. Much the same experience is reported by
Mr. A. F. Airey, of St. Annes-on-Sea, Lancs., who states that he has
several times noticed the habit in recent years at a sheltered and
shallow artificial sea-water lake near that place. It appears, there-
fore, that the habit is particularly likely to be employed on areas of
smooth, shallow water where the birds can easily see the bottom,
but that it is also regularly used in calm weather at sea is shown by
the experience of Mr. J. E. Flynn. Mr. Flynn writes : I had ample

opportunities of studying this method of feeding during the fine
weather of October and November, 1942, when I was ori the sea
nearly every day and I found all Black-headed and Common Gulls
diving freely (sometimes from quite a height) and just as deftly as
Kittiwakes." It is probable that this behaviour is at least as frequent
in the Common Gull ( Lams canus ) as in the Herring-Gull ( Handbook ,
Vol. v, p. 86), though only a single definite record could be traced
when the Handbook was written.

Barnacle-Goose inland in Cheshire— Correction.— We under-
stand that the Barnacle-Goose reported {antea, p. 204) near Over
Alderley by Dr. R. B. Waters is a semi-tame bird. The record of
Grey Lag-Geese at the same place should also be expunged.

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Contents of Number 12. Vol. XXXVI, May 1, 1943.

page

The Aerodynamics of the Drumming of the Common Snipe. By 230
Flying-Officer R. A. Carr-Lewty, R. A. F.

Recovery of Marked Birds. Communicated by E. P. Leach ... 235

Notes : —

Scarce Birds in Ay^rshire (Lt.-Com. G. Hughes Onslow, R.N.) ... 241

Some Birds at Nottingham Sewage Farm (J. Staton) ... ... 242

Ornithological Notes from Galway and Mayo (Major R. I-'.

Ruttledge) ... ... ... ••• ••• 243

Some Breeding Habits of the Pied Flycatcher (O. R. Owen) ... 245

Kestrel following Plough (J. Staton) ... ... ... ... 245

Heron plunging into water from the air (R. Milnes Walker) ... 246

Moorhen “ feigning death ” (J. W. Matthew) ... ... ... 246

Short Note : —

Nest Material used by Willow-Tit- — Correction... ... ... 246

Index ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 247

I

(230)

THE AERODYNAMICS OF THE DRUMMING
OF THE COMMON SNIPE

BY

Flying-Officer R. A. CARR-LEWTY, R.A.F.

Much has been written concerning the drumming of the
Common Snipe ( Capella g. gallinago), and the fact that it is
caused by the vibration of the outer pair of tail-feathers,
accompanied by the quivering of the wings, has long been
well known ; the aerodynamics of the phenomenon do not,
however, appear to have been described. The Handbook
of British Birds, Vol. iv, p. 199 gives an account of an experi-
ment conducted by Rohweder which clearly demonstrated
that these feathers were responsible and that the tremulous
quality was communicated to the sound by the quivering of
the wings. A specimen was set up in the attitude assumed
in drumming, a strong stream of air was directed against
the underside of the wings which deflected it on to the tail-
feathers ; this caused them to vibrate with a humming noise.
The humming was transformed into a faithful reproduction
of drumming by tapping rapidly on the upper surfaces of the
wings with the finger-tips to make them quiver.

When drumming, the Snipe descends with the two outer
tail-feathers widely extended, and in this position they are
free to vibrate without interference from the other rectrices.
Once the requisite speed has been attained, these feathers,
by reason of this extension and their peculiar shape and
structure, commence to vibrate and continue to do so as
long as the speed is maintained ; the Snipe attains this speed
by diving. In normal flight, the outer tail-feathers, being
supported by contact with the other rectrices, have no
tendency to vibrate.

For each speed of airflow there is a particular rate of
vibration, higher speeds giving faster rates of vibration and
notes of higher pitch. It will be noted that the Snipe’s
speed increases during the dive and the “ bleat ” rises in
pitch towards the bottom of the dive. By experiment with
outer tail-feathers, I found that an airspeed of 37.5 miles
per hour gave a good representation of the drum at its average
pitch. This experiment was carried further and it was found
that 24.2 miles per hour was the slowest average speed to
produce an audible vibration resembling drumming. The
airspeed was then increased until the noise rose in pitch to
the maximum heard in drumming ; this airspeed was 52.3
miles per hour. Strangely enough, the average of these
maximum and minimum speeds is 38.25 miles per hour —
almost exactly that of the earlier experiment.

vol. xxxvi.] DRUMMING OF COMMON SNIPE. 231

It would appear that drumming commences when the Snipe
attains a speed of about 25 miles per hour and is continued
until the diving-speed reaches about 50 miles per hour. I
found that at speeds exceeding 60 miles per hour, the inner web
of the feathers commenced to break down. The inner and
outer webs of other rectrices from the same bird broke down
at very low airspeeds when held in the drumming attitude ;
without support, their structure was not strong enough to
withstand the strain of vibration and the pressure of the air.
The following description of the structure of the outer tail-
feathers was given in this magazine in Vol. i, p. 92 : —
“ In structure these feathers differ from the rest of the tail-
feathers. The shaft is firm, the outer web narrow with
easily separable rami, the inner web extremely broad with

long stiff rami held firmly together the radii, branching

from the rami, being firmly interlocked by means of the
hamuli and cilia, which are exceptionally well developed ....
In the other tail-feathers, the hamuli are fewer and not so
well curved nor so thick.” The outer web is stiff and admirably
suited to stand the pressure of cutting through the air edge-on.

The duration of the drum is usually two to three seconds
and assuming that the speed increases in this latter time from
24 to 52 miles per hour, the average rate of acceleration in
the dive would be about 14 feet per second per second, a
rate which seems to be compatible with a diving angle of
45 degrees as suggested in the Handbook. At this angle a
drum of two seconds’ duration would involve a loss in height
of roughly 80 feet, and one of three seconds a loss of about
133 feet. To this loss in altitude must be added that in-
curred in attaining the initial velocity of c.24 miles per hour ;
this is about 40-50 feet. It seems unlikely that a drum at
an angle of 45 degrees- would be continued beyond three
seconds ; a dive at this angle of four seconds duration would
take the airspeed almost to 60 miles per hour, with danger
of excessive wear or even damage to the feathers. A dive
at a more moderate angle would, however, permit of a longer
drum before the danger limit was reached ; an angle of dive
which gave an average rate of acceleration of 10 feet per
second per second would allow of a four-seconds drum : 8 feet
per second per second would permit of a five-seconds drum.
I have several notes of drums of four seconds, but none of
longer duration. A drum of ib seconds which rose to the
maximum pitch would entail an average rate of acceleration
of about 19 feet per second per second, and the angle of
descent in this case would certainly be steeper than 45 degrees,
possibly in the region of 55 to 60 degrees. I have noted
that drums of 1 second or less, do not rise to the
maximum pitch ; this can readily be understood, as such a

232

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

short duration would call for an acceleration of at least 40
feet per second per second. The losses in altitude quoted
are relative to still air ; a Snipe drumming in a rising air
current would lose less altitude with the same airspeeds.

The Cycle of Vibration.

The feather has elasticity and can therefore bend about
its shaft under air pressure. Bending causes vibration, but
unless it is coupled with some other form of vibration, it
will soon die down. Bending of the shaft is not in itself
sufficient to set up an automatic motion, but there is provision
in the feather for a second type of vibration which, coupled
with the first, will assure a continuous movement providing
that the requisite airspeed is maintained. This second type
of vibration is “ twisting ” of the feather, brought about
by the inertia effect of the inner web. Figure T illustrates

Fig. 1. Simple bending. Fig. 2. Bending coupled with

twisting.

simple bending, and Figure 2 shows the same bending coupled
with twisting. Owing to the large size of the inner web, the
centre of gravity of the feather “ G ”, is not coincidental with
the shaft but at some distance from it towards the inner
edge. When the feather reaches the lower limit of the bend,
the inertia effect “ F ” causes the inner web to “ follow
through,” or continue in the downward direction after the
shaft has stopped, giving rise to twisting of the whole feather.
In a similar manner at the upper limit of bending, the inertia
effect causes the inner web to twist upwards. Once the
feather has twisted, another form of coupling is introduced —
aerodynamic coupling — which tends to change the twisting
back to bending once again. At the upper limit of the bend,
the feather, having twisted upwards (Fig. 3), is presented
at a larger angle to the airflow and thus obtains a greater
reaction from it, which bends the feather downwards again.
At the lower limit of the bend, the feather is again presented

vol. xxxvi.] DRUMMING OF COMMON SNIPE. 233

at a larger angle to the airflow, but this time in the opposite
direction, bending the feather upwards.

This completes the cycle of vibration which may be sum-
marised as follows : the feather bends downwards, inertia then
causes it to twist downwards ; increased reaction due to
this twisting causes the feather to bend upwards again. The
same events occur at the top of the bend and thus the move-
ments continue and increase in extent until the speed is
reduced below that which is necessary to give a strong enough
aerodynamic coupling.

The feathers responsible for drumming are much stronger
than the other tail-feathers and are thus able to withstand
the large strain of vibration, but even this added strength
of structure would be insufficient to ensure long life of the
feathers, if they were allowed to vibrate freely in the dive.
During the dive, the wings are used as controls to the vibrat-
ion to keep it within safe limits. By quivering the wings, the
airflow to the tail-feathers is periodically interrupted and the
vibrations “ damped down.” It is this which causes the
tremulous quality of the note, which would therefore appear
to be incidental and not directly intentional. Figure 4
shows the increasing vibration of a feather with unrestricted
airflow, producing a humming sound devoid of tremulous
quality, which increases in pitch until damage to the feather
results and the vibratory cycle breaks down. Figure 5
represents the vibration of a feather during drumming,
showing the damping effect of the wing at x...x...x., which
keeps the magnitude of the vibrations within the safety limits.
That there is an appreciable amount of wear on the feathers

234 BRITISH BIRDS. [vol. xxxvi.

concerned is evidenced by the fact th&t as the breeding
season advances, the cilia become worn away.

Fig. 4.

The theory has been advanced that the wings themselves
contribute something to the noise, but this seems to be a
physical impossibility ; by muscular action alone, they could
not be quivered with sufficient rapidity to produce sound,
and none of the wing-feathers are so completely separable
as to be entirely free from interference, a condition which is
essential to the production of audible vibrations.

Readers who wish to pursue the problem of vibration
further, should consult Wings in Motion, by E. T. Jagger,
(Pitman), but it should be mentioned that this book only
deals with the subject in connection with aeroplanes.

Hon. Sec.

No.

AG. 628

RR.5295

XM.576

XR.947

XR.992

XR.72I

WJ.65

TL.542

GR480

WM983

WP.707

WN.515

TW.809

YD. 88

DT.479

HM.558

EN.278

RECOVERY OF MARKED BIRDS

COMMUNICATED BY

E. P. LEACH.

Bird-Ringing Committee, British Trust for Ornithology.

Ringed. Recovered.

Rook ( Corvus f. frugilegus).

Gt. Budv/orth (Ches), Mollington (Ches), - — .4.42.
8.8.38, juv. by A. W.

Boyd.

Wells (Som), 1929, young Where ringed, — .4.42.
by C. R. Stonor.

Starling ( Sturnus v. vulgaris).

RINGED AS FULL-GROWN

York, 14.2.39, by Bootham
School.

Malvern (Worcs), 22.12.38
by P. Morshead.

Ditto 22.12.38.

Ditto 20.12.38.

Ditto 22.12.38.

Charlbury (Oxon), 29.1.40.
by O.O. S.

Oxford, 30.10.35, by 0.0. S.

Bristol, 15.1.40, by A. A.
Adams.

Brent Knoll (Som),
22.12.38 by E. G. Holt.

Branscombe (Devon)

29.12.39, by. P. Morshead.

Greenfinch ( Clitoris

Southall (Middx), 4. 8. 40,
ad. by L.N.H.S.

Longridge (Lancs), 21.3.42.

Hartshorne (Derby) 25.4.42.

Old Buckenham (Norfolk),
5-I-42.

Meare (Som), 25.1.42.
Oskarstrom (Halland),

Sweden, 28.3.42.

Ely (Cambs), 13. 11.42.

St. Blazey (Cornwall), 11.1,42.
Farnborough (Hants), 23.3.42.

Netheravon (Wilts) 11.2.42.

Romsey (Hants) 23.1.43.

ch. chi oris).

Oxford, 14.2.42.

Chaffinch ( Fringilla ccelebs).

Malvern (Worcs), 21. 11.37, Burton-on-Trent (Staffs),
ad. by P. Morshead. 1.2.42.

Tree-Sparrow ( Passer m. montanus).

Gt. Budworth (Ches), Greasby, Wirral (Ches)
31.5.40, young, by A. W. n.4.42.

Boyd.

Meadow-Pipit ( Anthus pratensis).

Malvern (Worcs), 26.10.37, Drogheda E. and W. Light
ad. by P. Morshead. (Meath), 14. 1.42.

Blue Tit ( Parus c. obscurus).

Stockslield (Northumb), Ulgham (Northumb), 1.2.42.
18.6.41, young by Mrs.

Hodgkin.

236

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

No.

CJ.20

TT.802

SC.253

XH.420

iiK.955

EA.102

EH. 210

DS.286

404244

1053x1

324034

324036

322506

322447

322451

322428

322304

Ringed. Recovered.

Spotted Flycatcher ( Muscicapa s. striata ).

Hereford, 9.7.41, young, Where ringed, 9.6.42.
by L.N.H.S.

Song-Thrush ( Turdus e. ericetonim).

Crewe (Ches), 13.2.40, ad. Bonsall (Derby), 21. 1.42.
by F. J. Brown.

Missenden (Bucks), 25.4.41, Holbeach (Lines), 26.1.42.
young by Kingswood
School.

Blackbird ( Turdus m. merula).

Skokholm Bird Obs. St. Ishmael’s (Pem), 17.8.42.
20.4.39, migrant.

Swallow ( Hirundo r. rustica).

Cumdivock (Cumb), 7.7.41, Where ringed 21.5.42.
young by R. H. Brown.

Stapleford (Wilts), 25.6.39, Where ringed, 14.4.42.
young, by " Wippletree."

Sand-Martin ( Riparia r. riparia)

Sedbergh (Yorks), 9.7.38, Where ringed 15.6.42 (differ-
ad. by Sedbergh School. ent colony), 4.7.42 (original

colony).

Swift ( Apus a. apus ).

Williton (Som), 7-7-39 Where ringed, 9.6.42.

ad., by F. Hibberd.

Peregrine Falcon ( Falco p. peregrinus).

Dent (Yorks), 9.6.38, Machrihanish (Argyll),

young, by Sedbeigh 20.4.42 fat nest].

School.

Buzzard ( Buteo b. buteo).

Thursley (Surrey), — .6.42, Preston Candover (Hants),
young, for O.O. S. (intro- 14. 11.42.
duced).

Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter n. nisus).

RINGED AS NESTLINGS.

Sedbergh (Yorks) 12.7.42,
by Sedbergh School.

Ditto (same brood). 12.7.42,

Keighley (Yorks), 20.7.41,
by R. Carrick.

Ticknall (Derby), 13. 7. 41,
by Repton School.

Ditto 13. 7. 41.

Ditto 6.7.41.

Belfast, 25.6.41, by M. and
D. Rankin.

Lyth (West Westmor),

26.12.42.

Appleby (Westmor), 14. 1.43.
Ripon (Yorks), 14.2.42.

Brailsford (Derby), 16.3.42.

Snarestone (Leics), 20.5.42.
Burton-on-Trent (Staffs),

13.12.42.

Doagh (Antrim), — .2.42.

vol. xxxvi ] RECOVERY OF MARKED BIRDS. 237

No. Ringed. Recovered.

Heron ( Ardea c. cinerea).

113076 Dalston (Cumb), 20.6.34. Glassonby (Cumb), — .9.40.
young, by R. H. Brown.

Mallard ( Anas p. platyrhyncha) .

AC. 9520 Mold (Flint), — .7.41, Doncaster (Yorks), — .9.42.

young, by W. A. Cadman.

925583 Loch Spynie (Moray), Mariager Fjord, Jylland,

3.3.39, for Wildfowl Inq. Denmark, — .10.40.

Ctee.

Teal ( Anas c. crecca).

321731 Llangadfan (Mont), 21.6.41,
young, by W. A. Cadman.
31 1309 Leswalt (Wigtown), 5.3.41,
ad., by J. Law.

Canterbury (Kent), 11.1.42.

Jattendal (Helsingland),
Sweden, 23.8.42.

RINGS ISSUED TO WILDFOWL INQUIRY COMMITTEE.

RINGED AS FULL-GROWN.

901603

Pembroke,

10.12.38.

Valley, Anglesey, 16. 12. 41.

900943

Ditto

13.2.40.

Tirley (Glos), 1 1.2. 42.

901887

1

Ditto

20. 12. 38.

East Wretham (Norfolk),
27-I-43-

900715

Ditto

29.i2.39.

Cowbridge (Glam), - — .2.42.

900732

Ditto

3O.i2.39.

Netheravon (Wilts), 16.1.42.

902179

Ditto

9-I-39.

Piltown (Kilkenny), 19.2.42.

901087

Ditto

8.11.39.

Wexford, 28.10.41.

901370

Ditto

19.11.38.

Tallow (Waterford), 1.11.41.

901904

Ditto

21.12.38.

Arvidsjaur, Swedish Lapland,
— .8.41.

900501

Ditto

9-H-39-

Karlstad (Varmland),

Sweden, 17.8.42.

900886

Ditto

12. 1. 40.

Stromstad (Bohus), Sweden,
6.8.41.

900781

Ditto

2.X. 40.

Randers, Jylland, Denmark,
21.8.40.

901413

Ditto

29.11.38.

Piaam (Friesland), Holland,
4. 10.41.

900741

Ditto.

1.1.40.

Ditto 4. 10. 41.

RINGS OF

THE ORIELTON

DECOY, PEMBROKE.

3154

9.1.38.

Odense, Fyen, Denmark,
2.9.40.

2979

26.12.37.

Hoogeveen (Drente), Holland,
22. 9. 41.

Wigeon (Anas

Penelope ) .

Or 3552 Pembroke, 3.11.38. Midleton (Cork), — .2.42.

900236 Dereham (Norfolk), 8.2.38, Korsor, Sjaelland, Denmark,
for Wildfowl Inq. Ctee. 1.10.40.

238

No.

3684
32 79

313990
AC. 690 x

126907

126928

1214x9

126314

126515

126377

126551

125990

125477

123121

500428

502427

TM.940

BRITISH BIRDS. [vol. xxxvi.

Ringed. Recovered.

Shoveler ( Spatula clypeata).

Rings of the Orielton Decoy.

10.12.38. Maribo, Laaland, Denmark,

1. 10. 40.

18.1.3S. Harderwyk (Gelderland),

Holland, Autumn, 1939.

Tufted Duck (Aylhva fuligula).

St. James’s Park, London, Besthorpe (Notts), 26.10,42.

22.2.42, ad., by London
N.H.S.

Ditto 14.2.39, by T. Hinton. Ronnskar (Vasterbotten),

Sweden, 23.9.42.

Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax c. carbo).

RINGED AS NESTLINGS.

Big Scar (Wigtown), 1.8.39,
by Lord D. Stuart.

Mochrum (Wigtown),

5.8.39, by Lord D. Stuart.

South Pembs, 16.6.38, by
Skokholm Bird Obs.

Lambay (Dublin), 14.6.39,
by Skokholm Bird Obs.

Ditto 14.6.39.

Ditto 13.6.39

Peterhead (Aberdeen), 9.2.42.

Aviles (Asturias), Spain,

25.1.42.

Lough Neagh, N. Ireland,
—.4.42.

Toomebridge (Antrim),

21.4.42.

Treffgarne (Pembs), 20.1.42.
Polkerris (Cornwall), 29.11. 41.

Shag ( Phalacrocorax a. aristotelis) .

RINGED AS NESTLINGS.

Calf of Man, 18.5.41, by Isle of Whithorn (Wigtown),
Cowin, Ladds, & 19. 11.41.

Williamson.

Ditto 4.6.42. Habberley (Salop), 12.12.42.

Sheep I. (Antrim), 10.7.4T, Kingstown (Dublin), 2.4.42.
bv M. & D. Rankin.

Gannet (Sula bassana).

RINGED AS NESTLINGS.

Hermaness, Shetland,

20.7.38, by M. Stewart.
Ditto 12.7.39.

Grassholm (Pern), 15.8.39,
by Skokholm Bird Obs.

Heatherdale, Yell, Shetland,

14.8.42.

Myggenes, Faeroes, 6.6.41.
Vigo (Galicia), Spain,
—■3-42.

Ringed Plover ( Cliaradrius h. hiaticula).

Rye (Sussex), 6.5.40, ad.. Cosham (Hants), 3.3.42.
by P. Hollom.

\

vol. xxxvi ] RECOVERY OF MARKED BIRDS. 239

No.

AS. 189
230695
AN.117

U.I35T

222674

224231

AS. 9898
217157

205929

206468

AS. 2423

226475

232241

212777

211173

223292

208832

XT.392

ZK.255

U.7705

201365

Ringed. Recovered.

Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus).

RINGED AS YOUNG.

Almondbank (Perth) 7.6.34,
by Lord Mansfield.

Isle of Bute, 10.5.40, by
Lord D. Stuart.
Glenorchard (Stirling),
3I-5-3L by J. Bar-
tholomew.

Lincluden (Kirkcudbr),
2.6.28,byLordMansfield.
Dalston (Cumb), 20.5.39,
by R. H. Brown.

High Hesket (Cumb),

12.6.39, by Moon and
Cooper.

Penrith (Cumb), 21.5.36,
by Moon and Cooper.
Pooley Bridge (Westmor),
9.6.38, by Moon and
Cooper.

Cowan Bridge (Westmor),
23-5-36, by Moon and
Cooper.

Hawkshead (Lancs),

4.6.36, by R- H. Brown.
Ingleton (Yorks), 25.5.35,
by Moon and Cooper.
Ditto 26.6.39.

Malham (Yorks), 30.5.41,
by “ Wippletree."

Chelford (Ches), 28.5.38,
by E. Cohen.

Charlbury (Oxon), 26.6.38,
by Oxford Orn. Soc.
Lakenheath (Suffolk),

25.5.39, by P. Maclaren.
Harting (Sussex), 10.6.39,

by M. Hutchinson.

Redshank ( Tringa t.

Burgh Marsh (Cumb),
30.5.42, young, by R. H.
Brown.

Falkirk (Stirling), 14.10.42.
Ballymote (Sligo), 31. 12. 41.
Where ringed, 1. 11.42.

Bruff (Limerick), 10. 1.42.
Oldcastle (Meath), — .3.42.
Mungret (Limerick), — .2.42.

St. Agnes (Cornwall), — .2.42.

Cabezon de la Sal (Santander),
Spain, 15. 1. 42.

Mageney (Kildare), 3.2.42.

s

Ballybrood (Limerick),

— .11.41.

Abram (Lancs), 9.12.42.

Valley, Anglesey, — .2.42.
Maghull (Lancs), — .8.42.

Llanelly (Carms), 10. 1.42.

Bude (Cornwall), 15.4.42.

Bruff (Limerick), 20.2.42.

Jerez de la Frontera (Cadiz),
Spain, 25.1.42.

britannica ) .

Brightlingsea (Essex), 28.7.42.

Snipe ( Capella g. gallinago).

Rye (Sussex), 23.5.35, Lastres (Asturias), Spain,

young, by P. Allen. 31. 12. 41.

Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticold).

Cark-in-Cartmel (Lancs), Little Langdale (Westmor),

15.4.34, young, by Col. 20.12.41.

Porritt.

Ballindalloch (Banff), Carnlough (Antrim), 28.1.42.

31.5.39, for Woodcock
Inquiry.

240

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXV l.

No.

228312

229000

213582

YH.524

XS.80

RW.9083

324173

Private

Ring

AC9851

AC.7785

AC.9468

405385

405725

314740

314261

AV.896

Ringed. Recovered.

Sandwich Tern ( Sterna s. sandvicensis) .

RINGED AS NESTLINGS.

Leuchars (Fife), 21.6.39, Keta, Gold Coast, 2.3.42.
by W. J. Eggeling.

Ditto 3.7.39. Loanda, Angola, 8.5.41.

Norfolk, 1937', by J. M. Lobito, Angola, 31.3.42.
Ferrier.

Common Tern ( Sterna h. hirundo).

Rockliffe (Cumb), 5.7.37, Burgh Marsh (Cumb), 19.9.42
young, by R. H. Brown.

Arctic Tern ( Sterna macrura).

Northern Ireland, 13.6.41, Lobito, Angola, — .2.42.
young, by W. E. Macve.

Black-headed Gull ( Lams r. ridibundus).

Molesey (Surrey), 7.12.36, Kalundborg, Sjaelland, Den-
immature, by P. Hollom. mark, 18.9.42.

Common Gull ( Larus c. canus).

Lough Carra (Mayo), Portrane (Dublin), 7.8.42.

14.6.42, young, by R. F.

Ruttledge.

Bealings (Suffolk), 16.1.40, Vastervik, S.E. Sweden,

ad., by A. Mayall. 12.6.421.

Herring-Gull {Lams a. argentatus).

RINGED AS YOUNG.

Calf of Man, 20.7.41, by Eccleston (Ches), 5. 12. 41.
Cowin, Ladds and
Williamson.

Peel, I. of Man, 9.7.39, by Cleveleys (Lancs), 16.11.41.
Manx F.C.

Skomer (Pem), 13.7.39, by Torpoint (Cornwall), 3.3.42.
W. A. Cadman.

Great Black-backed Gull {Larus marinus).

RINGED AS YOUNG.

Skomer (Pem), 14.7.39, by
W. A. Cadman.

Portrush (Antrim), 2.7.40,
by M. and D. Rankin.

Kittiwake {Rissa t.

Fair Isle, 4.8.39, young, by
J. Wilson.

Fame Is. (Northumb),
26.6.38, ad., by Mrs.
Hodgkin.

Razorbill {Alca t.

Skokholm Bird Obs., 2.7.38,
ad.

Cardigan, 16.11.41.

Tyrella (Down), — .3.41.

tridactyla).

Notre Dame Bay, Newfound-
land, 19.9. 41.

Where ringed, 26.6.39, Peter-
head, Aberdeen, 5.4.42.

britannica ).

Where ringed 6.7.40 ;
Wexford, 16.5.42.

(241)

NOTES.

SCARCE BIRDS IN AYRSHIRE.

During 1942 I had excellent opportunities of observing the birds
which frequent the southern shores of Ayr Bay, between the mouth
of the river Doon and the Heads of Ayr. As a result I have been able
to add three new birds to the Ayrshire list, and I include one or two
other records which are of interest.

Black-tailed Godwit ( Limosa l. limosa).— A single bird was
seen by me on April 9th, nth and 14th and possibly the same bird
again on May 6th. Five were present on August 10th and one on
September 18th. There are two previous records of this species in
Ayrshire, both on autumn passage.

Curlew-Sandpiper ( Calidris testacea). — One on September 7th,
'was the only one I saw.

Spotted Redshank ( Tringa erythropus). — I identified a bird
of this species in company with three Common Redshanks on the
afternoon of May 2nd, and had it under observation again in the
evening of the same day. It was in change plumage, but unmistak-
able. A new record for Ayrshire.

Dotterel ( Eudromias morinellus). — A single bird was on waste
ground near the shore on September 27th. A juvenile in winter
plumage it looked very like a miniature Grey Plover. The white
tips of the tail-feathers showed plainly as it flew away from me. This
bird was characteristically confiding. No previous record from
Ayrshire.

Roseate Tern ( Sterna d. dougallii). — Many terns frequented the
Doon estuary during July and August, presumably on their way
south after breeding. I found a pair of Roseates amongst them on
July 10th, and from that date until August 10th, one or two were
always present. Five was the largest number I could be sure of on
any one day, but as they were always mixed with many Arctics and
Commons counting was extremely difficult. I saw one juvenile bird
of this species on August 1st.

On July 30th I managed to get to a ternery in the Clyde area.
Though so late in the season a thousand or more terns were still about.
Arctic and Common were in the great majority, with perhaps five per
cent, of Sandwich. I saw one Roseate at one spot and nine together
at another. By the time I got over to this place the three or four half
grown young which I had seen near the nine Roseates had all
succeeded in hiding themselves in the coarse grass which covers the
rock, but I found an egg (the only one seen during the afternoon)
near by and am sending it for possible identification. There is no
previous record of this species from Ayrshire.

Iceland Gull ( Larus glaucoides). — A bird of this species was at
the mouth of the river on July 2nd. This is the only one I can record
and the date is remarkable. It appeared to be a bird in its second

242

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

summer, cream coloured all over, a shade darker on breast and
belly, and dark of bill. G. Hughes Onslow.

[The egg sent by Lieut. -Commander Onslow has kindly been
examined and compared by Mr. Gerald Tomkinson, who has made
a special study of terns’ eggs, and he states that it is a very typical
egg of the Roseate Tern and differs from all the specimens in a large
series of eggs of Common and Arctic Terns. — Eds.].

SOME BIRDS AT NOTTINGHAM SEWAGE FARM IN 1942.

During casual visits to the Nottingham Corporation Sewage Farm
over a period of years, it has become apparent to me that not only
has the status of several birds altered considerably, but also that
certain birds occur in greater numbers than is usual inland. Accord-
ingly, the following summary for 1942 may be of interest.

The farms stretch along the north bank of the Trent for five or
six miles and no attempt at a census was made, but in several
species the numbers below are known to be near the maximum
present on the day specified. Where duplication has been
considered possible, the figure given is that of the largest number
seen together at one, time during the visit.

Whooper Swan ( Cygnus cygnus). — Four immature birds came
in during the last week of October, 1941, and were present until
April 26th, 1942, during which time the bill panel changed from
dirty flesh colour to clear yellow, and much of the grey plumage was
replaced by white. Two fully adult birds and one juvenile were pres-
ent on November 22nd, and were still present at the close of the year.

Grey Lag-Goose {Anser a. anser). — A skein of 24 passed over
on December 27th.

Sheld-Duck ( Tadorna tadorna ). — One immature bird on Septem-
ber 20th, three adults on the 27th. Ten were present during October.

Pintail ( Anas a. acuta). — Birds were shot during October, and
a large pool outside the farm, to which duck flight for the day
yielded a male on the 17th, and three on December 18th.

Shoveler ( Spatula clypeata). — Four pairs present April 12th, five
on 19th, ten on 26th, and through May to August; 13 birds seen Sep-
tember 6th , and 35 on October 25th. Breeding strongly suspected.

Black-tailed Godwit ( Limosa l. limosa ). — Three seen August
23rd, and two September 13th.

Curlew ( Numenius a. arquata). — Analysis of records shows
70-80 present January and February. Numbers then fell until the
last spring occurrence on April 19th, when 30 were seen. Thirty
were noted on August 2nd, from which date numbers were augmen-
ted, a maximum of 70 odd being seen November and December.

Ruff (Philomachus pugnax). — Two on January 25th. Six, March
8th. One, April 5th. One male in almost complete nuptial plumage
on the 26th. One on August 2nd. Three on the 30th. Twenty-four
on September 6th. Fifteen on the 13th. Five on the 20th. Three
on the 27th. Fifteen on November 22nd. Two on December 7th.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

24.‘J

Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos). — Common spring and
autumn. Greatest number on single day was 20 on August 30th.

Green Sandpiper ( Tringa ochropus). — Nine seen August 16th.
Twelve on the 23rd. Sixteen to eighteen on the 30th. Fourteen
on September 6th. Two on the 13th. Two on the 20th. One
on the 27th, and one on October 4th.

Redshank ( Tringa totanus subsp.?). — Thirty seen on January
4th, and about this number remained to breed (nests and eggs
found). Numbers rose to a peak of 120 on August 23rd, falling
again to 7) on October nth, after which month forty were
present until the close of the year.

Greenshank ( Tringa nebularia). — First noted on August 16th
when three were present. A peak of 20 odd birds was reached
by mid-September, after which scattered birds were seen until
November 1st.

Black Tern ( Chlidonias n. niger). — Two seen mid-August.
Three on the 30th and seven on September 6th.

Common Tern ( Sterna h. hirundo). — Four noted mid-May and
three July and August.

British Lesser Black-backed Gull ( Larus f. graellsii). — Up to
60 birds noted in July and August and single ones until the end
of the year.

I am indebted to Mr. A. Mason and Mr. R. J. Raines for some of
the notes, while Mr. R. O’Brien and Mr. A. E. Clark have given
>me valuable assistance in making the counts. Jack Staton.

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM GALWAY AND MAYO.

The following observations are for the year 1942 except where
otherwise mentioned.

Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla f. flavissima). — None traced on
islands or shores of Lough Corrib, or elsewhere.

Whooper Swan ( Cygnus cygnus). — Herds of 13 and 5 respectively
which I saw near Headford on November 18 seem to be the first
recorded instance of the bird in Co. Galway ( c.f . Birds of Ireland,
p.184) though I feel sure it must have passed unnoticed previously.*
In Co. Mayo an unusual number have been present inland. Seen
feeding on Zoster a.

Sheld-Duck ( Tadorna tadorna). — I am informed of Sheld-Duck
breeding on Galway Bay this summer. Previous proof of nesting
in this county was lacking.

Pintail ( Anas a. acuta). — On November 9th, c.ioo, and on the
28th, c.290 on the same water inland 15 miles from the sea in Co.
Galway, are unusually large numbers, but on March 24th and 26th,
1943, I saw them at a place 10 miles inland in still larger numbers
amounting to as many as 500 near together.

* Since this was in type I have been informed by Mrs. Gough that she saw

seven on Kylemore Lake on March nth, 1939.

244

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

Storm-Petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus). — A bird was found incuba-
ting on a considerable nest, consisting of small dried stalks of
grass matted into sheep’s wool to form a pad 3J" diameter,
thick. A second nest with similar materials more loosely put
together was also found.

Leach’s Fork-tailed Petrel ( Oceanodroma l. leucorrhoa). —
Nights spent on the following un-inhabited islands in the breeding
season did not disclose the presence of any birds : — Co. Mayo —
Duvillaun More, Duvillaun Beg, Gaughta (Mr. M. O’Kane), Inish-
glora. Co. Galway — Eagle Rock.

Mr. Trant, Eagle Lighthouse (Mayo) reports that it is not present
on the rock. Mr. Coupe has not found it on Blackrock (Mayo).

Bar-tatled Godwit ( Limosa l. lapponica). — Flocks of up to 200
on June 4th and 106 on June 6th in Galway Bay are unusually
large for that time of year here. None were in nuptial plumage.

Black-tailed Godwit (. Limosa l. limosa ). — A flock of twenty,
almost certainly first winter birds, observed near Headford
(Galway) forms the first inland record. On February 16th and 19th,
1943, I watched flocks of 46 and 69 respectively in Galway Bay.
These are by far the largest numbers recorded as seen together
in either county.

Whimbrel ( Numenius phceopas). — On January 20th, 1943, a
dark windy night, I heard distinctly, at quite close quarters, the
note of a Whimbrel, near Belmullet (Mayo). I know of no other
definitely recorded occurrence of the bird in Ireland in January.

Grey Plover ( Squatarola squatarola). — Three Galway Bay,
May 18th, one August 7th and c. 20 December 16th. This bird
is an irregular visitor even in winter to Galway Bay ( Birds of
Ireland, p.256).

Sandwich Tern ( Sterna s. sandvicensis). — The Connemara
colony {cf. antea. Vol. xxxiv, p.199) has been deserted. A number
nested (probably since 1939), in a new locality in N.W. Mayo.
Arrivals were noted on March 22nd, 1943 in Co. Galway — an
early date.

Common Gull ( Larus c. canus).— The great increase and spread
in the breeding season continues. Birds returned to Lough Carra
nesting site on February 7th. A juvenile marked at above site on
June 14th was recovered on the Dublin coast on August 7th.

Herring-Gull ( Larus a. argentatus) .—A remarkable number
appeared inland in south Mayo, some 25 miles from the sea, during
March and April. Three pairs almost certainly nested on an island
in Lough Mash (cf. Irish Nat. Journal, Vol. viii, pp. 42-43). Herring-
Gulls are unusual any distance inland in Ireland. This is my first
record for the counties.

Glaucous Gull {Larus hyperboreus) . — On January 7th and 8th,
1943, a first winter bird was present in the vicinity of the Galway
Quays.

Robert F. Ruttledge.

VOL. XXXVI.]

NOTES.

245

SOME BREEDING HABITS OF THE PIED FLYCATCHER.

As I lived in a part of central Wales for over forty years where the
Pied Flycatcher ( Muscicapa h. hypoleuca) is common and have
watched a great many pairs the following observations may be of
interest.

With reference to recent notes ( antea pp. 78 and 182) on the height
of the nesting-site, I have found a very considerable number of
nests below ground, either in what looked like old mole holes or
under roots of rotted tree stumps, and I have found many as high
as fifty feet from the ground.

In my experience the Pied Flycatcher is a very pugnacious bird
and I have known many instances where it has ousted Nuthatches
and Great and Blue Tits from sites chosen for themselves. I have
personally watched fights between these birds from close quarters,
and have never seen the Flycatcher beaten. I have found both
Great and Blue Tit trying to lay in the nest along with the Fly-
catcher, but after laying one or two eggs, they gave up trying.
The Flycatcher is particularly severe with the Nuthatch, and I have
seen four Nuthatches deprived of their chosen sites in a single
nesting season.

Of the hundreds of nests I have examined, I have never seen a
feather used as nesting material, though occasionally one or two of
the bird’s own feathers may be found in a nest ; the chief materials
being dead oak leaves, a little moss, grasses, thin fibrous roots and
a thin lining of black hair. The rim of the nest is closely woven
together with the various materials used and holds firmly together
whilst the body of the nest appears much looser and easily falls to
pieces on examination.

The cock takes a very keen interest in the nest and is extremely
fond of entering the nesting hole and I have frequently watched him
follow the hen into the hole when she has been incubating and stay
there. On looking into the hole with my mirror I have found him
sitting alongside the hen, both being huddled up against each other.
I have, however, no note of ever having seen the cock alone on the
nest. O. R. Owen.

KESTREL FOLLOWING PLOUGH.

An interesting habit of the Kestrel ( Falco t. tinnunculus) as described
to me, may be worth recording.

My informant was engaged in ploughing during October 1942,
near East Bridgford, Notts, and on occasions was closely attended
by a Kestrel during the greater part of the day. From time to
time the spherical nests of “ fieldmice ” were turned up by the
plough, and the bird, being only a few feet behind, was on many
occasions successful in capturing the disturbed rodent.

The prey was taken to a nearby post and eaten, after which the
Kestrel resumed it’s methodical following of the plough.

Jack Staton.

246

BRITISH BIRDS.

[VOL. XXXVI.

HERON PLUNGING INTO WATER FROM THE AIR.

On March 6th, 1943 while my wife and I were observing a Common
Heron (Ardea cinerea ) flying in characteristic Heron fashion slowly
along a wide dyke between Peterborough and Crowland, a few feet
above the water, the bird suddenly dived into the water, becoming for
a moment completely submerged. On coming to the surface it
immediately took to wing, flying a few yards to the bank, where it
alighted ; the movements of its neck then suggested that it was
swallowing something, but we did not observe anything in its bill.
Following that it made a number of further flights up and down the
dyke, but we did not see it “ dive " again.

The Handbook makes no reference to the Common Heron taking
food in this way, but there was no doubt that in this instance it was
a deliberate action on the Heron’s part. R. Milnes Walker.

MOORHEN “FEIGNING DEATH.”

The following incident took place on July 31st, 1942, on the shore
of Loch Leven. I saw a Moorhen ( Gallinula ch. chloropus ) in
some reeds, walked towards it as it crouched, grabbed it and gently
picked it up. It “ feigned death ” immediately. Its long neck hung
freely, its eyes closed, its body was limp and its legs dangled.
I gave it support for its left foot with my finger which it gripped
slowly. I carried it for more than fifty yards, during which its
only sign of life was to cough because I was choking it. I showed
it to friends who thought it was dead till I put it on the sand, where
it lay with its beak digging into the sand as I placed it. After
an interval of perhaps 15 seconds it slowly moved and ran head
down into some long grass. John W. Matthew.

Nest material used by Willow-Tit. — Correction. — A nest of
a Willow-Tit ( Parus a. kleinschmidti ) in Monmouthshire was des-
cribed ( antea p. 198) as having a basis of bud-scales from a larch,
but Mr. B. Campbell now informs us that on submitting the nest to
the Botanical Department of the National Museum of Wales this
material has been definitely identified as the scales from the stem
of a fern, almost certainly the male fern.

(247)

INDEX

Note. — The nomenclature followed in this volume is in accordance with the
" Systematic List ” printed at the end of Volume V of The Handbook
of British Birds and reprinted in the revised edition of A Check-List
of British Birds.

acuta, Anas a., see Pintail.

Adolph, P. A., Notes on Hedge-
Sparrow adapting Blackcap’s
nest, 94 ; Convulsions in male
House-Sparrows, 140.
ceruginosus, Circus ce., see Harrier,
Marsh-.

affnis, Sitta e., see Nuthatch.

Age, The, of some British birds,
166, 193, 214.

Aircraft, Reactions of Birds to, 151.
alba, Crocethia, see Sanderling.
albicilla, Haliceelus, see Eagle,
White-tailed.

albifrons, Anser a., see Goose,
White-fronted.

, Sterna, see Tern, Little.

Alexander, H. G., Report on the
Bird-Song Inquiry, 65, 86, 102.
Alexander, W. B., Note on
Hobbies catching Mayflies, 141;
Index of Heron Population,
1942, 206.

, and Radford, M. C., Note on

Scarce Birds at Lundy, Devon,
140.

anglicus, Dryobates m., see Wood-
pecker, Great Spotted.
apus, Apus, see Swift.
aquaticus, Rallus a., see Rail, Water-.
arcticus, Colymbus a., see Diver,
B! ack-throated .

argentatus, Larus a., see Gull,
Herring-.

aristotelis, Phalacrocorax a., see
Shag.

Armitage, J., Note on Ring-Ouzel
using nest of previous year, 37.
Armstrong, Rev. Edward A.,
Note on “ drumming ” by a
Green Woodpecker, 37.
Armstrong, Miss Eleanor A.,
Note on Common Eiders
breeding in East Caithness, 1 1 4 .
arquata, Numenius a., see Curlew.
arvensis, Alauda a., see Lark, Sky-.
atra, Fulica a., see Coot.
atricapilla, Sylvia a., see Blackcap.
Avocet ringed in Denmark found in
Hampshire, 201.

avosetta, Recurvirostra, see Avocet.
Avrshire, Scarce birds in, 241.

Barnes, J. A. G., Note on Reed-
Warblers in N. Lancashire, 141.

bassana, Sula, see Gannet.

Bedford, Duke of, Note on Eagle-
Owls in Kirkcudbrightshire,
180.

Bentham, Howard, Note on
Turtle-Dove using same nest
for two years in succession, 163.

Bible, E. H. T., Note on Green-
shank wintering in same spot
for eleven seasons, 182.

bifasciata, Loxia l., see Crossbill,
Two-barred.

Bird-Song Inquiry, Report on,
65, 86, 102.

Birds feeding on berries of White
Beam and Guelder-Rose, 140,
182.

Bittern, Little, in Norfolk, 97.

Blackbird, Report on the Song of,
72, 86 ; Song of, 82 ; feeding
on White Beam berries, 140,
182 ; Age of, 166 ; Recovery of
Marked, 236.

Blackcap, Late, in Renfrewshire,
182 ; in winter in Isle of Man
and Gloucestershire, 203 ; in
winter in Yorkshire,
Northumberland. Gloucester
and Monmouth, 227.

Blezard, Ernest, Note on a
Cumberland Magpie roost, 200.

Bolt, A. W. Note on Reed-Warbler
breeding in Radnorshire 56.

borin, Sylvia, see Warbler, Garden-.

brachyrhynchus, Anser f., see Goose,
Pink-footed.

britannica, Alca t., see Razorbill.

, Certhia f., see Creeper.

Tringa t., see Redshank.

Brooks-King, M., Song Form in the
Thrush Family, 82 ; Note on
unusual feeding method of
Nuthatch, 94.

Brown, George, Note on
Aggressive Display of Birds
before a looking-glass, 160.

Brown J. M. B., Note on Pied
Flycatchers breeding in
Gloucestershire, 179.

248

BRITISH BIRDS.

bubo. Bubo b., see Owl, Eagle-.

Bunting, Lapland, at Lundy, 140.

, Reed-, laying two eggs in a

day, 55-

, Snow-, in Leicestershire and

Gloucestershire 164.

, Yellow, Report on the Song

of, 88 ; in Outer Hebrides, 226.

Bustard, Great, in Cambridgeshire,
164.

buteo, Buteo, see Buzzard, Common.

Buzzard, Common, in Middlesex,
1 1 7, 164 ; in Surrey, 164 ;
breeding in Monmouthshire.
199; Recovery of Marked,
236.

cabaret, Carduelis /., see Redpoll,
Lesser.

Cambridgeshire, Migrant waders in,
76.

Cameron of Lochiel, • D. W.,
Letter on Recollections about
the Ospreys at Achnacarry,
184.

Campbell, Bruce and Doncaster,
L. Hugh, Notes on some
Monmouthshire birds, 198.
canorus, Cuculus c., see Cuckoo.
canus, Larus c., see Gull, Common.
canutus, Calidris c., see Knot.
carbo, Phalacrocorax c., see Cor-
morant.

Carr-Lewty, Flying Officer
R.A., Reactions of Birds to
Aircraft, 151 ; Note on an un-
recorded Yorkshire Heronry,
226 ; The Aerodynamics of the
Drumming of the Common
Snipe, 230.

Chaffinch, Report on the Song of,
86 ; Feeding on White Beam
berries, 140, 182 ; Sexual

behaviour while feeding
fledglings, 161 ; Female, in
song, 225 ; Recover}' of
Marked, 235.

Chandler, K. R., Note on
“ Injury-feigning ” of Wood-
Pigeon, 162.

ChiffchafE in Inverness-shire, 20.
clitoris, Chloris c., see Greenfinch.
chloropus, Gallinula ch., see
Moorhen.

cinerea, Ardea c., see Heron.
citrinella, Emberiza c., see Bunting,
Yellow.

Clarke, W. J., Note on White-
tailed Eagle in YorKshire, 161.

clypeata, Spatula, see Shoveler.

coburni, Turdus m., see Redwing,
Iceland.

coccothraustes, Coccothraustes c., see
Hawfinch.

ccelebs, Fringilla, see Chaffinch.

collybita, Phylloscopus, see
Chiffchaff.

comminutus, Dryobates m., see
Woodpecker, Lesser Spotted.

communis, Sylvia c., see White-
throat.

Congreve, Major W. M., Notes
on Sedge-Warbler and Reed-
Bunting laying two eggs in a
day, 55 ; Two clutches of five
eggs laid by same Snipe, 56.

Cooke, C. H., Note on curious
behaviour of Carrion-Crows,
112.

Coots, Remarkable behaviour of,
201.

Copp, W. J., Note on Wood-
Warbler feeding Robins in the
nest instead of its own young,
73-

Cormorant, Aerial Evolutions of,
19 ; High flight of, 78 ; Average
age of, 219 ; Recovery of
Marked, 238.

cornix, Corvus c., see Crow, Hooded.

cor one, Corvus c., see Crow, Carrion-.

Course, H. A., Note on “ Injury-
feigning " of Wood-Pigeon,
162.

crecca. Anas c., see Teal.

Creeper, Tree-, How a, built its nest,
1 10.

cristatus, Podiceps c., see Grebe,
Great Crested.

Crossbill, Common, Unusual num-
bers in England and Wales,
225.

, Two-barred, in Co. Durham,

225.

Crow, Carrion-, Curious behaviour
of, 1 12 ; interbreeding with
Hooded Crow for fourth time
in Co. Dublin, 143.

, Hooded, interbreeding with

Carrion-Crow for fourth time
in Co. Dublin, 143.

Cudkoo, How a, laid into a Reed-
Warbler’s nest, 176.

Curlew breeding in Warwickshire,
98, 144.

INDEX.

249

curonicus, Charadrius d., see Plover,
Little Ringed.

curruca, Sylvia c., see Whitethroat,
Lesser.

curvirostra, Loxia c., see Crossbill,
Common.

cygnus, Cygnus, see Swan, Whooper.

Dipper breeding in Hampshire, 183.

Disney, H. J. and Stokoe, R.,
Note on Blue-headed Wagtails
in Staffordshire, 113.

Display of Birds before looking-
glass, 160.

Diver, Black-throated, Unusual
nesting behaviour of, 75.

domesticus. Passer d., see Sparrow,
House-.

Doncaster, L. Hugh, see
Campbell, Bruce.

Dorrien-Smith, Major Arthur
A., Note on Black Kite and
Reeves in Scilly Islands, 74.

Dotterels in Glamorgan, 77 ; at
Lundy, 140 ; in Ayrshire, 241.

dougallii, Sterna d., see Tern,
Roseate.

Dove, Stock-, Flocks in the breeding
season, 19.

, Turtle-, Some Observations

on Breeding-Habits of the,
2 ; using same nest for two
years in succession, 163.

dresseri, Parus p., see Tit, Marsh-.

Duck Flocks, Sex Ratios in Winter,
42.

, Long-tailed, at Somerset

reservoir, 20.

, Ruddy Sheld-, in Cornwall,

1 81 ; -in Gloucestershire, 204.

, Sheld-, in Surrey, 76 ; Breed-
ing in Galway, 243.

— , Tufted, breeding in N.

Lancashire, 96 ; Recovery of
Marked, 238.

Dunlin brooding nestling Red-
shanks instead of its own
eggs, 1 16.

Eagle, White-tailed, in Kincardine-
shire, 113 ; in Yorkshire, 161.

Eider, Common, Breeding-season
of, 75 ; breeding in Caithness,
”4-

Elliott, Jannion Steele,
Obituary notice of, 35.

Ellis, John C. S., Note on Unusual
Birds in N. Lancashire, 95.
epops, JJpupa e., see Hoopoe.
ericetorum, T Urdus, see Thrush,
Song-.

erythropus, Tringa, see Redshank,
Spotted.

excubitor, Lanius, see Shrike, Great
Grey.

Falcon, Peregrine, coming to dead
bird, 183 ; Recovery of Marked,
236.

Ferguson, R. Y., Note on Green
Woodpecker in Lanarkshire,
179.

ferina. Ay thy a, see Pochard.

ferruginea, Casarca, see Duck,
Ruddy Sheld-.

Firecrests in Surrey and Essex, 203.

Fisher, James, Note on Willow-
Tits and Wood-Warblers in
West Ross-shire, 93.

Fitter, R. S. R., Note on Status
of Black-backed Gulls in the
London area, 163.

, see Witherby, H.F.

Flamingo in Sussex, 74, 100.

flammea, Carduelis /., see Redpoll,
Mealy.

flava, Motacilla /.,' see Wagtail,
Blue-headed.

flavissima, Motacilla /., see Wagtail,
Yellow.

Flycatcher, Pied, Breeding status
of, in North Wales, 36 ; Height
of nesting, 78 ; at Lundy, 140 ;
breeding in Gloucestershire,
179, 201 ; nesting underground,
182 ; Some breeding habits of,
245-

-, Spotted, Recovery of Marked,

236.

Forrest, H. E., Obituary notice of
J. Steele Elliott, 35.

frugilegus, Corvus /., see Rook.

fuligula, Aythya, see Duck, Tufted.

fusca, Melanitta /., see Scoter,
Velvet-.

fuscus, Larus /., see Gull, Scandi-
navian Lesser Black-backed.

Gadwall at Somerset reservoirs,
20; Hybrid with Wigeon in Lin-
colnshire, 222 ; in Kircud-
brightshire, 228.

250

BRITISH BIRDS.

gallinago, Capella g., see Snipe,
Common.

Galway & Mayo, Ornithological
Notes from, 243.

Game, Comparative Prices of, in
1512, 1757, 1807, 1922, 1941
and 1942, 122.

Gannet, breeding at Scar Rocks,
62 ; in Monmouthshire, 78 ;
Movement of, off Co. Clare,
143 ; Recovery of Marked,
238.

Garganey in N. Lancashire, 96.

garrulus, Bomby cilia g., see Wax-
wing.

gengleri, Fringilla c., see Chaffinch.

gentilis, Accipiter, see Goshawk.

gibraltariensis, Phcenicurus 0., see
Redstart, Black.

Gladstone, Sir Hugh, Compara-
tive prices of Game and Wild-
fowl in 1512, 1757, 1807,

1922, 1941 and 1942, 122.

glareola, Tringa, see Sandpiper,
Wood-.

glaucoides, Larus, see Gull, Iceland.

Godwit, Bar-tailed, in Hertford-
shire, 40.

, Black-tailed, in Surrey, 20 ;

in Cambridgeshire, 76 ; in
Carnarvonshire and Denbigh-
shire, 1 18 ; in Co. Clare, 144 ;
in Ayrshire, 241 ; inland in
Galway, 244.

Goosander breeding in Dumfries-
shire, 59.

Goose, Barnacle-, inland in
Cheshire, 204, 228.

, Pink-footed, Status of, in

North Wales, 36.

, White-fronted, Status of, in

North Wales, 36 ; in Surrey,
203.

Gordon, Seton, Notes on Aerial
evolutions of the Cormorant,
19 ; Wheatear hovering, 73 ;
Unusual Nesting behaviour of
a Black-throated Diver, 75.

Goshawk in Norfolk, 181.

graellsii, Lams /., see Gull, Lesser
Black-backed, British.

Grebe, Black-necked, breeding in
Cheshire, 78.

, Great Crested, Curious nest-
ing site of, 56.

Greenfinch feeding on White Beam
berries, 140, 182 ; Recovery of
Marked, 235.

Greenshank in Surrey, 76 ; in
Cambridgeshire, 77 ; wintering
in same spot for eleven seasons,
182 ; numbers at Nottingham
Sewage Farm, 243.

Gregory, T. C., Notes on Little
Ringed Plover in Kent, 57 ;
Remarkable behaviour of
Green Sandpipers, 181.

, , and Hale, Rev. James

R., Note on varieties of Blue-
headed Wagtails breeding in
Kent, 1 12.

griseus, Pujfiniis, see Shearwater,
Sooty.

gularis, Cinclus c., see Dipper.

Gull, Black-headed, plunging into
water and submerging, 59 ;
plunging after food, 118;
plunging when bathing, 142 ;
plunging of, 183, 228 ; Average
age of, 216; Recover}- of
Marked, 240.

, Common, Bigamy in, 99 ;

Plunging of, 228 ; Recovery of
Marked, 240 ; Great increase in
Galway, 244.

, Glaucous, in Hertfordshire,

204 ; in Galway, 244.

, Great Black-backed, Status

of, in the London Area, 163;
Recovery of Marked, 240.

, Herring-, plunging when

bathing, 142 ; Recovery of
Marked, 240.

, Iceland, at Aberdeen, 184 ;

in Inner London, 189 ; in
Lincolnshire, 224 ; in Ayrshire,
241.

Lesser Black-backed, British,

Status of, in the London area,
163 ; Average age of, 218.

, , Scandinavian, in

Co. Mayo, 143 ; Status of, in
the London area, 163 ; in
Lincolnshire, 224.

Hale, Rev. James R., Note on
Water-Rail nesting in Kent,

57-

, , see Gregory, T. C.

halcBitus, Pandion, see Osprey.
Harkness, R., Note on Green
Sandpiper attacked by Lap-
wing, 1 17.

Harrier, Marsh-, in N. Lancashire,

96.

INDEX.

251

Harrison, Dr. James M„ Note on
Continental Redshank in Kent,
163 ; Bird Notes from Lincoln-
shire, 1934-1942, , 222.

Harrison, Jeffery G. and Moore,
Norman W., Note on Migrant
Waders in Cambridgeshire, 76.

Harthan, A. J., Note on Marsh-
Tits and Wood-Pigeons feeding
upon Plum blossom, 141.

Hawfinch, Breeding status of, in
North Wales, 36.

Hawk, Sparrow-, in Outer Hebrides,
226 ; Recovery of Marked,
236.

Hendy, E. W., Note on Sexual
behaviour of Chaffinches while
feeding fledglings, 161.

Heron, Unusual behaviour of, 142 ;
Index of Heron Population,
1942, 206 ; An unrecorded

Yorkshire Heronry, 226 ;
Recovery of Marked, 2377
Plunging into water from the
air, 246.

, Squacco, in Norfolk, 96.

hiaticula, Charadrius h., see Plover,
Ringed.

Hickling, Norfolk, Rare Birds at,
96.

hirundo. Sterna h., see Tern,
• Common.

Hobbies catching Mayflies, 141.

Homes, R. C., Sex Ratios in Winter
Duck Flocks, 42.

Hoopoe in Pembrokeshire, 20 ; in
Monmouthshire, 58 ; in Aber-
deenshire, 179.

Hosking, Eric J., Some Observa-
tions on Breeding-Habits of
the Turtle-Dove, 2 ; Note on
Incubation of the Jay, 112.

Humphreys, G. R., Note on
Greenland Redpoll in Co. Mayo,
73-

hy emails, Clangula, see Duck, Long-
tailed.

hyperboreus, Larus, see Gull,
Glaucous.

hypoleuca, Muscicapa h., see Fly-
catcher, Pied.

ignicapillus, Regulus i., see
Firecrest.

Ingram, Geoffrey C. S., Note on
Dotterels in Glamorgan, 77.
ispida, Alcedo, see Kingfisher.

Jay, Incubation of the, 112.

Joll, Cecil A., Note on Unusual
nesting site of Redstart and
large clutch of eggs, 56.

Joy, Dr. N. H., How a Cuckoo laid
into a Reed-Warbler’s nest,
170.

Kestrel following plough, 245.

King, B., Note on Unusual
migrants in Surrey, 76.

Kingfisher, An Index to the
Thames, Recovery, 153.

Kite, Black, in Scilly Islands, 74.

Kittiwake in Derbyshire, 40 ; not
breeding in Scilly Islands, 78 ;
Recovery of Marked, 240.

kleinschmidti, Parus a., see Tit,
Willow-.

Knot in Outer Hebrides, 226.

Lack, David, The Age of the
Blackbird, 166 ; The Age of
some more British birds, 193,
214 ; Note on female Chaffinch
in song, 225.

Lancashire, North, Unusual birds
in, 95-

lapponica, Limosa l., see Godwit,
Bar-tailed.

lapponicus, Calcarius, see Bunting,
Lapland.

Lapwing, Prolonged incubation by
a, 98 ; Reaction of, towards
damaged eggs, 99 ; Average
age of, 214 ; Recovery of
Marked, 239.

Lark, Sky-, Report on the Song of,
89 ; Song of, 146, 203.

Laying twice in same day,
Passerines, 95.

Leach, Miss E. P., Note on Avocet
ringed in Denmark found in
Hampshire, 201 ; Recovery of
Marked Birds, 235.

leucopsis, Branta, see Goose,
Barnacle-.

leucorodia, Platalea l., see Spoonbill.

limosa, Limosa /., see Godwit,
Black-tailed.

Lincolnshire, Bird Notes from,
I934'I942> 222-

Linklater, Eric, Note on
Spoonbill in Orkney, 181.

252

BRITISH BIRDS.

Lloyd, Bertram, Obituary notice
of Charles Oldham, 15.

lobatus, Phalaropus, see Phalarope,
Red-necked.

London, Birds of Inner, 189.

longicaudus, Stercorarius, see Skua,
Long-tailed.

Low, Dr. G. Carmichael, Notes on
Curious nesting-site of Great
Crested Grebe, 56 ; Unusual
behaviour of Heron, 142 ; Birds
of Inner London, 189.

Lundy, Scarce birds at, 140.

Lynes, Rear-Admiral Hubert,
Obituary notice of, 156.

McWilliam, Rev. J. M., The Scar
Rocks Gannetry, 1942, 62.

macrura. Sterna, see Tern, Arctic.

Magpie, North Yorkshire roost, 1 59 ;
Cumberland roost, 200.

Mallards perching on a Wall, 143 ;
Recovery of Marked, 237.

Marked Birds, Recovery of, 235.

Martin, Sand-, Recovery of marked,
236.

Mathew, John W., Note on
Moorhen feigning death, 246.

Maxse, Miss Violet, Note on
Four Long-tailed Tits feeding
young in nest, 55.

melophilus, Erithacus r., see Robin.

Merganser, Red-breasted, Status of,
in North Wales, 36.

merganser, Mergus m., see
Goosander.

merula, Turdus m., see Blackbird.

migrans, Milvus, see Kite, Black.

minor, Lanius, see Shrike, Lesser
Grey.

minuta, Calidris, see Stint, Little.

minutus, Ixobrychus m., see Bittern,
Little.

mollissima, Somateria m., see Eider,
Common.

Monmouthshire Birds, Notes on
some, 198.

monlanus. Passer m., see Sparrow,
Tree-.

Moore, Norman W., see Harrison,
Jeffery G.

Moorhen moving eggs and its
method of taking air when
submerged, 39 ; unusual be-
haviour of, 57, 144 ; feigning
death, 246.

morinellus, Eudromias, see Dotterel.

nebularia, Tringa, see Greenshank.
Nest-Sanitation, The Instinctive
Nature of, Pt. II, 186.
Nethersole-Thompson, D., Notes
on Lesser Redpoll nesting in
Juniper, 93; Passerineslaying
twice on same day, 95 ; Bigamy
in Common Gull, 99.

, and Nethersole-

Thompson, C., Notes on Pro-
longed Incubation by a
Lapwing, 98 ; Reactions of
Lapwings towards damaged
eggs, 99-

newtoni, Parus m., see Tit, Great.
niger, Chlidonias n., see Tern, Black.
nigricollis, Podiceps n., see Grebe,
Black-necked, 78.
nisus, Accipiter, see Hawk, Sparrow-.
nivalis, Plectrophenax n., see
Bunting, Snow-.

Nottingham Sewage Farm, Some
birds at, in 1942, 242.
Nuthatch, Breeding status of, in
North Wales, 36 ; Unusual
feeding method of, 94.

Oakes, Clifford, Note on Birds
feeding on berries of “ Service
Tree ” and Guelder-Rose, 140,
182.

obscurus, Parus c., see Tit, Blue.
occidentalis. Prunella m., see
Sparrow, Hedge-.
ochropus, Tringa, see Sandpiper,
Green.

oenanthe, (Enanthe ae., see Wheatear.
renas, Columba, see Dove, Stock-.
Oldham, Charles, Obituary notice
of, 15.

olor, Cygnus, see Swan, Mute.
Onslow, Lt.-Com. G. Hughes, r.n.,
Note on Scarce birds in Ayr-
shire, 241.

Oriole, Golden, in Monmouthshire,
198.

oriolus, Oriolus 0., see Oriole,
Golden.

Ospreys in England, 20 ; in
Gloucestershire and Yorkshire,
143 ; in Suffolk and Hamp-
shire, 164 ; at Achnacarry,
184 ; in Yorkshire, 228.

Ouzel, Ring-, using nest of previous
year, 37.

Owen, O. R., Note on some breed-
ing habits of the Pied Fly-
catcher, 245.

Owl, Eagle-, in Kirkcudbrightshire,
180.

INDEX.

253

palumbus, Columba p., see Pigeon,
Wood-.

Parrinder, E. R., Note on Ruddy
Sheld-Duckin Cornwall, 181.

pelagicus, Hydrobates, see Petrel,
Storm-.

penelope, Anas, see Wigeon.

Pennie, Dr. Ian D., Note on
White-tailed Eagle in Kin-
cardineshire, 1 1 3.

peregrinus, Falco p., see Falcon,
Peregrine.

Perry, Richard, Note on Yellow
Bunting, Sparrow-Hawk and
Knots in Outer Hebrides, 226.

Petrel, Storm-, Considerable nest of,
244.

Phalarope, Red-necked, in Lincoln-
shire, 223.

phesopus, Numenius, seeWhimbrel.

phoenicnrus, Phcenicurus p., see
Redstart.

pica. Pica p., see Magpie.

Pigeon, Wood-, Song of, 106 ;
" Injury-feigning ” of, 1 15, 162;
Two laying in same nest, 118 ;
feeding upon Plum blossom,
141.

Pintail, Diving behaviour of, 201 ;
Unusual numbers inland in
Galway, 243.

Pipit, Meadow-, Recovery ' of
Marked, 235.

platyrhyncha. Anas, see Mallard.

Plover, Grey, in Cambridgeshire, 77;
in Galway, 244.

— — •, Little Ringed, in Kent, 57,
183 ; in Cambridgeshire, 77.

•, Ringed, Recovery of Marked.

238.

pluvius, Picus v., see Woodpecker,
Green.

Pochard breeding in N. Lancashire,
96.

Pounds, Hubert E., Note on
Wheatear hovering, 94.

pratensis, Anthus, see Pipit,
Meadow-,

pugnax, Philomachus, see Ruff.

q-uevquedula, Anas, see Garganey.

Rail, Water-, nesting in Kent, 57.
Radford, M. C., see Alexander,
W. B.

Raines, R. J., Note on Remarkable
behaviour of Coots, 202.
ralloides, Ardeola, see Heron,
Squacco.

Razorbill, Recovery of Marked,
240.

Redpoll, Greenland, in Co. Mayo,
73-

, Lesser, nesting in Juniper, 93.

, Mealy, in Lincolnshire, 222.

Redshank, Coloration of bill and
legs of, in down, 97 ;
swimming, 142 ; Recovery of
Marked, 239.

, Continental, in Kent, 163.

, Iceland, in Lincolnshire, 223.

, Inquiry, 1939-40, Report on,

5, 22, 202.

, Spotted, in Cambridgeshire,

77 ; in Lincolnshire, 224 ; in
Ayrshire, 241.

Redstart, Unusual nesting site of,
and large clutch of eggs, 56,
100 ; Late in Renfrewshire,
183 ; breeding in Monmouth-
shire, 199.

, Black, in North Wales, 36 ;

in England in summer, 74 ;
in England in the summer of
1942, 132 ; in Middlesex in
summer, 203 ; in Suffolk, 227 ;
Appeal for information in 1943,
228.

Redwing, Iceland, in Lincolnshire,
222.

Reeve, see Ruff.

Reviews : —

The Birds of the Liverpool
Area, 40.

A Hand-List of the Birds of the
Sevenoaks or Western District
of Kent, 59.

Ornithological Report for
Northumberland and

Durham for 1941, 60.
Yorkshire Naturalists' Union
Committee for Ornithology,
60.

Natural History Notes for the
District with the Proceedings
of the Liverpool Naturalists’
Field Club, 1940 and 1941,
60.

Ornithological Record for
Derbyshire, 1941, 60.

Report on the Birds of
Warwickshire, Worcester-
shire and South Stafford-
shire, 194, 160.

*

254

BRITISH BIRDS

Reviews — ( continued ) : —

Ornithological Section for
Leicester and Rutland
Report and Status for 1941,
60.

Cuckoo Problems, 79.

The Role of Territory in Bird
Life, 80.

An Ornithologist’s Field Note
Book, 1 18.

Wild Bird Protection in
Norfolk, 1 18.

Annual Report of the Oundle
School Natural History
Society, 1942, 119.

Report of the Cambridge Bird
Club, 1941, 119.

Report on Birds observed in
Hertfordshire in 1940, 119.
South-Eastern Bird Report
being an account of Bird-
Life in Hampshire, Kent,
Surrey and Sussex during

1940, 119.

Hastings and East Sussex
Naturalist, 120.

Report of the Oxford Orni-
thological Society on the
Birds of Oxfordshire, Berk-
shire and Buckinghamshire,

1941, 120.

Report on Somerset Birds,
1941, 120.

Fourteenth Report of the
Devon Bird-watching and
Preservation Society, 1941,
120.

Yn Shirragh ny Ree, 1941, 120.

ridibundus, Larus r., see Gull,
Black-headed.

Ridley, M. W., Note on “ Injury-
feigning ” of Wood-Pigeon,
162.

Ringed Birds, see Marked Birds.

Ringing. Bird-, Report of the
Committee, for 1942, 209.

riparia, Riparia r., see Martin,
Sand-.

Robin, Report on the Song of, 90 ;
Average age of, 214.

Robinson, Herbert William,
Obituary notice of, 54.

robusta, Tringa t., see Redshank,
Iceland.

Rollin, Noble, Sky-Lark song,
146, 203.

Rook, Recovery of Marked, 235.

Rooke, K. B., Notes on Stock-
Dove flocks in the breeding
season, 19 ; Coloration of bill
and legs of Redshank in Down,
97-

rosaceus, Egithalos c., see Tit, Long-
tailed.

roseus, Phcenicopterus r., see
Flamingo.

Ross, Miss Winifred M., How a
Tree-Creeper built its Nest,
no.

rostrata, Carduelis /., see Redpoll,
Greenland.

rubecula, Erithacus, see Robin.

rubetra, Saxicola, see Whinchat.

Ruff in Scilly Islands, 74 ; in
Cambridgeshire, 76 ; in Kent in
winter, 204 ; at Nottingham
Sewage Farm, 242.

rufitergum, Garrulus g., see Jay.

rustica, Hirundo r., see Swallow.

rusticola , Scolopax, see Woodcock.

Ruttledge, Major Robert F.,
Note on Scandinavian Lesser
Black-backed Gull in Co. Mayo,
143 ; Ornithological Notes from
Galway and Mayo, 243.

Ryall, R. H., Note on diving
behaviour of a Pintail, 201.

Sanderling in Surrey, 76.

Sandpiper, Common, Late in
Lincolnshire, 183.

, Green, Feeding behaviour of,

20 ; in Cambridgeshire, 77 ;
attacked by Lapwing, 117;
Remarkable behaviour of, 181.

, S°litary> in Norfolk, 97.

, Wood-, in Surrey, 76.

sandvicensis. Sterna s., see Tern,
Sandwich.

Scar Rocks Gannetry, 1942, 62.

schinzii, Calidris a., see Dunlin.

schaeniclus, Emberiza s., see Bunting,
Reed-.

schcenobcenus, Acrocephalus, see
Warbler, Sedge-.

scirpaceus, Acrocephalus s., see
Warbler, Reed-.

Scoter, Velvet-, at Somerset
reservoirs, 20 ; Status of, in
North Wales, 36.

serrator, Mergus, see Merganser,
Red-breasted.

Shag, Recovery of Marked, 238.

Shearwater, Sooty, in Lincolnshire,
223.

INDEX.

255

Shoveler, Recovery of Marked, 238.

Shrike, Grey, The Berkhamsted, 51.

sibilatrix, Phylloscopus, see Warbler,
Wood-.

Skua, Long-tailed, at Lundy, 140.

Smith, Dr. Stuart G., Note on
Gulls plunging when bathing.
142 ; Letter on Unusual be-
haviour of Moorhen, 144 ; The
Instinctive Nature of Nest
Sanitation, 186.

Snipe, Common, Two clutches of
five eggs laid by same, 56 ;
The Aerodynamics of the
drumming of the, 230 ;
Recovery of Marked, 239.

solitaria, Tringa, see Sandpiper,
Solitary.

Song, Bird-, Report on Inquiry, 65,
86, 102.

Sparrow, Hedge-, adapting Black-
cap's nest, 94 ; Song of, 102.

, House-, Convulsions in male,

140.

, Tree-, Large clutch of eggs of.

58 ; Recovery of Marked, 235.

Spoonbill in Devon, 58 ; in Devon
and Cornwall, 100 ; in Orkney,
181.

squatarola. Squalor ola, see Plover,
Grey.

Starling, Average age of, 194 ;
Recovery of Marked, 235.

Staton. Jack, Notes on some birds
at Nottingham Sewage Farm
in 1942, 242 ; Kestrel following
plough, 245.

Stint, Little, in Westmorland, 144.

Stokoe, R., see Disney, H. J.

strepera. Anas, see Gadwall.

striata, Muscicapa s., see Fly-
catcher, Spotted.

subbuteo, Falco, see Hobby.

Surrey, Unusual Migrants in, 76.

Swallow, Recovery of Marked, 236.

Swan, Mute, Display of, on land.
227.

, Whooper, in Galway, 243.

Sweetlove, J. A., Note on Pied
Flycatchers breeding in
Gloucestershire, 201.

Swift, Late in Renfrewshire, 182 ;
Recovery of Marked, 236.

tadorna, Tadorna, see Duck, SheJd-.
tarda, Otis t., see Bustard, Great.
Tatum, James and Eileen, Note
on Flamingo in Sussex, 74.

Teal, Recovery of Marked, 237.

Tebbutt, C. F., Note on “ Injury-
feigning ” of Wood-Pigeon,
115-

Tern, Arctic, Recovery of Marked,
240.

— — , Black in Westmorland and
Mersey Mouth, 1 44 ; at
Nottingham Sewage Farm, 243.

, Common, Recovery of

Marked, 240 ; at Nottingham
Sewage Farm, 243.

— — -, Little, in Cambridgeshire, 77.

, Roseate, Ringing of, 40 ;

in Ayrshire, 241.

, Sandwich, Recovery of

Marked, 240 ; new colony in
Mayo, 244.

•Tetley, H., Note on Breeding
season of Common Eider, 75.

Thin, Russell G., Note on Dunlin
brooding nestling Redshanks
instead of its own eggs, 116.

Thomas, J. F., Report on the
Redshank Inquiry, 1939-40,
5, 22, 202.

Thrush Family, Song Form in the,
82.

, Mistle-, Report on the Song of,

68 ; Song of, 85 ; feeding on
White Beam berries, 140, 182 ;
Exceptional fledging period in,
227.

, Song-, Report on the Song of,

69 ; Song of, 85 ; feeding on
White Beam berries, 140, 182 ;
Average age of, 196 ; Recovery
of Marked, 236.

Tit, Blue, feeding on White Beam
berries, 140, 182 ; Recovery of
Marked, 235.

, Great, feeding on White

Beam berries, 140, 182.

, Long-tailed, Four, feeding

young in nest, 55.

, Marsh-, feeding on Guelder-

Rose fruit, 140 ; feeding upon
Plum blossom, 141.

, Willow-, in West Ross-

shire, 93 ; breeding in Mon-
mouthshire, 198, 246.

torquatus, T Urdus t., see Ouzel,
Ring-.

totanus, Tringa t., see Redshank,
Continental.

tridactyla, Rissa t., see Kittiwake.

trochilus, Phylloscopus t., see
Warbler, Willow-.

troglodytes, Troglodytes t., see Wren.

256

BRITISH BIRDS

Tucker, B. W., The Berkhamsted
Grey Shrike, 51 ; Note on
aerial Evolutions and Soaring
of Cormorants, 114.
turtur, Streptopelia t.. See Dove,
Turtle-.

Utley, Capt. J. P., Note on a
North Yorkshire Magpie
roost, 159.

vcmellus, Vanellus, see Lapwing.

Venables, L. S. V. and Wykes,
U. M., An Index to the Thames
Kingfisher recovery, 153.

Vincent, Jim, Notes on Rare Birds
at Hickling, Norfolk, 96 ;
Goshawk in Norfolk, 181.

viscivorus, Turdus v., see Thrush,
Mistle-.

vulgaris, Sturnus v., see Starling.

Wagstaff, Hugh G., Note on
Curlew breeding in Warwick-
shire, 98.

Wagtail, Blue-headed, in Cam-
bridgeshire, 40 ; Varieties of,
breeding in Kent, 112 ; in
Staffordshire, 113.

, Yellow, Early, in Suffolk, 77.

Wales, North, Change in status of
some species in, 36.

Walker, R. Milnes, Note on
Heron plunging into water
from the air, 246.

Warbler, Garden-, Breeding status
of, in North Wales, 36.

, Reed-, breeding in Radnor-
shire, 56 ; in N. Lancashire,
95. 141-

, Sedge-, laying two eggs in a

day, 55.

, Willow-, Song of, 104.

, Wood-, feeding Robins in the

nest instead of its own young,
73 ; in West Ross-shire, 93.

Waxwing in Inner London, 189 ;
in Lincolnshire, 222.

Wheatear hovering, 73, 94.

Whimbrel in Mayo in January, 244.

Whinchat in winter in Cornwall,
203.

Whitethroat, Clutches of six eggs of,

199-

, Lesser, Breeding status of, in

North Wales, 36 ; Status in
Monmouthshire, 199.

Whittaker, Irvine, Note on
Change in Status of some
species in North Wales, 36.

Wigeon in N. Lancashire in summer,
96 ; Recovery of Marked, 237.

Wildfowl, Comparative Prices of,
in 1512, 1757, 1807, 1922,

1941 and 1942, 122.

Witherby, H. F., Note on Moorhen
moving eggs and its method of
taking air when submerged,
39 ; Obituary notice of Rear-
Admiral Hubert Lynes, 156.

and Fitter, R. S. R., Note on

Black Redstarts in England in
summer, 74 ; Black Redstarts
in England in the summer of
1942, 132.

Wood, Kenneth A., Note on
Hoopoe in Aberdeenshire, 179.

Woodcock, Average age of, 216 ;
Recovery of Marked, 239.

Woodpecker, Great Spotted,
Breeding status of, in North
Wales, 36.

, Green, “ Drumming " by,

37 ; in Lanarkshire, 179.

, Lesser Spotted, Breeding

status of, in North Wales, 36.

Wormald, Hugh, Note on
Goshawk in Norfolk, 181.

Wren, Song of, 103.

Wright, A. A., Notes on Unusual
behaviour of a Moorhen, 57 ;
Display of Mute Swans on
land, 227.

Wykes, U. M., see Venables,
L. S. V.

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