ZS.7Z BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Volume LI 1958 H. F. & G. WITHERBY LTD 5 Warwick Court * London * W.C.l LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES IN BLACK AND WHITE Plates 1-12 Plates 13-16 Plate 17 Plates 18-20 Plates 21-24 Plates 25-28 Plates 29-32 Plate 33 Plates 34-35 Plate 36 Plates 37-40 Plates 41-44 Plates 45-48 Habitats and birds in the Coto Donana, Spain, including Black-winged Stilt ( Himantopus himanlopus), Fan- tailed Warbler (Cisticola juncidis), Short-toed Eagle ( CircuStus gallicus). White Storks ( Ciconia ciconia), Little Egrets ( Egrelta garzetta), Night Herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), Imperial Eagle ( Aquila heliaca), Black Kite ( Milvus migrans), Egyptian Vulture ( Neophron percnopterus), Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) , Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor), Azure-winged Magpie (Cyanopica cyanus) and Short- toed Lark ( Calandrella cinerea), as well as nesting areas of other species (Eric Hosldng, E. M. Nicholson and B. W. Tucker) ... ... ... ... facing Pygmy Owls ( Glaucidium passerinum), adults with prey and at nest, and juveniles, Sweden (Kurt Ellstrom, Sigvar Rosen and Enar Sjoberg) ... ... facing Black-headed Gulls ( Larus ridibundus) and Black- necked Grebe ( Podiceps nigricollis) , nesting associa- tion, Germany (Ilse Makatsch) Aerial views of Coll and Tiree, Inner Hebrides, to show habitats of birds (R.A.F. Official) ... ... facing Choughs ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ) and Alpine Choughs (P. graculus), adults at nest, and habitats, Wales and Italy (Harold Platt and Richard Vaughan) facing Scops Owls ( Otus scops), adults and young at nest, adult in the hand, Hungary (K. Koffan) ... ... facing Capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus), male displaying, and habitat, Sweden (Kurt Ellstrom, Enar Sjoberg and Jonas Svensk) ... ... ... ... ... facing Black-throated Thrush (Turdus ruficollis atrogularis), male in the hand, Fair Isle (Angela Davis) ... Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo), to illustrate develop- ment of white head plumage, Kirkcudbright, Nor- thumberland and Cheshire (Austin Barton and J. Edelsten) Pallas’s Warbler ( Pliylloscopus proregulus) , bird in the hand, Norfolk (J. L. Cutbill) ... ... ... facing Goshawks ( Accipiter gentilis) adults and young with prey and at nest, Sweden (Kurt Ellstrom and Jonas Svensk) facing Frigate Petrels ( Pelagodroma marina), adults at burrow and in flight at night, W. Australia (John Warham) facing Bridled Terns (Sterna anaethetus), adults at nest, dis- playing and fishing, W. Australia (John Warham) facing PAGE 20 62 63 108 148 186 187 230 268 302 Plates 49-60 Plates 61-63 Plates 64-67 Plate 68 Plates 69-74 Plates 75-76 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Habitats and birds in the Camargue, France, including Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica), Avocets (Re- cur vivo sir a avosetta), Flamingos ( Phoenicopterus ruber), Little Egret ( Egretta garzetta ), Penduline Tit ( Remiz pendulinus) , Spectacled Warbler ( Sylvia conspicillala) , Great Reed Warbler (A crocephalus arundinaceus) , Pratincole ( Glareola pratincola) , Black-winged Stilts ( Himantopus himantopus), Whiskered Tern ( Chli - donias hybrida), Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea ) and Black-eared Wheatear ( Oenanthe hispanica), as well as nesting areas of other species (L. Hoffmann and G. K. Yeates) ... ... ... ... ... facing Views of Hirta, St. Kilda, to show habitats of St. Kilda Wrens ( Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis) (J. Morton Boyd and R.A.F. Official) ... ... ... facing Little Shearwaters ( Procellaria baroli), adults and young in burrow, and adult flying at night, W. Australia (John War ham) Factory roof at Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan, to show nesting site of Lesser Black-backed and Herring Gulls (Larus fuscus and argentatus ) (H. Morrey Salmon) facing Sound spectographs of song or sub-song of Blackbird (Turdus merula ), Song Thrush (T. philomelos), Mistle Thrush (T. viscivorus) , Redwing (T. musicus), Canary (Serinus c. canarius), American Goldfinch ( Spinus tristis), Corn Bunting ( F.mberiza calandra ), Crossbill (Loxia c. curvirostra) , Scottish Crossbill ( L . pytyop- sittacus scotica) and Dunnock ( Prunella modularis) facing Blue and Coal Tits (Parus caeruleus and ater ) at “perspex” apparatus used in intelligence tests (Peter Blomfield and Brian Pratt) ... ... ... facing PAGE 344 388 389 514 515 BRITISH BIRDS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. VV. Boyd I. j. Eerguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollow N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) Contents oe Volume LI, Number i, January 1958 Page An ecological sketch of the Coto Donana. By J. A. Yalverde. Photographs by Eric Hosking, E. M. Nicholson and the late B. W. Tucker (plates 1-12) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 Broken eggs in Peregrine eyries. By D. A. Ratcliffe ... ... ... 23 Uncommon migrants at Portland Bill during the autumn of 195b. By K. D. Smith and Dr. J. S. Ash ... ... ... ... ... 27 Notes on the Wren in the Aran Islands, Ireland. By Rev. Edward A. Armstrong ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 29 Notes : — American Snipe in Lancashire (Alfred Hazelwood) ... ... ... 35 Collared Flycatcher on Bardsey (Reginald W. Arthur) ... ... ... 3b Alpine Swift in Norfolk (R. A. F. Cox) ... ... ... ... ... 30 Red-flanked Bluetail in Kent (Dennis F. Harle) ... ... ... ... 37 Reviews : — Tales of a Wild fowler. By Arthur Cadman. Illustrated by Peter Scott 37 Birds on the Wing and Birds and Nests (sets of colour slides). From photographs by Eric Hosking 38 Requests for Information: — Field investigations of the B.T.0 30 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lccs 39 Cover photograph by Harold R. Lowes: Short eared Owl (Asio flammeus) . CUH(JHA6££) ~3tZ3l958 JANUARY x958 BRITISH BIRDS AN ECOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE COTO DONANA By J. A. Valverde ( Institute > de Aclimatacion Almerici, Spain) (Plates 1-12) The River Guadalquivir flows a distance of some 360 miles in Andalusia in southern Spain, before entering the Atlantic Ocean below Sanlucar, about 70 miles north-west of Tarifa and the narrowest part of the Straits of Gibraltar. For the last 50 miles of its course, from below Coria (near Seville), it traverses the marismas or marshes of its delta — the greatest area of swamp in the Iberian Peninsula, covering some 620 square miles. Except where the actual river itself, by then half-a-mile broad, flows out into the sea near Sanlucar, the marismas have become cut off from the Atlantic by a remarkable sand-bar that extends the 40- odd miles from the mouth of the Guadalquivir west to the Rio Tinto — a tongue of land which incorporates some of the highest sand-dunes in Europe (see Nicholson, Ferguson-Lees and Hollom, 1957). This tongue of land varies in width from about 2\ miles to 7^ miles (approximately 4-12 kilometres), and it runs more or less from south-east to north-west. The south-eastern half of this strip forms the Coto Dohana proper (though part of it is now under separate ownership and is known as Las Marismillas) and this paper is concerned solely with that area — i.e. the land and neigh- bouring marismas between the Guadalquivir mouth and the north- western boundaries of the Coto Dohana; these boundaries run from near the Torre de la Higuera to the vicinity of El Rocio (see op. cit., map on pages 508-509). The soil on the Coto Dohana proper is sandy on the dry land, and muddy over the whole extent of the marismas. If one takes a section across this tongue of land, from the sea to the marismas, running more or less north-eastwards from near Matalascanas and passing close to the Palacio de Dohana (thus cutting Latitude 370), 1 o BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI one has the following main habitats (see Fig. i): (1) Beach. (2) Zone of dunes and coastal slacks, with a poor vegetation of marram grass ( Ammophila arenaria) on the seaward side and of rough growth in the hollows (see plates 4 centre and bottom, and 10 upper; also antea plate £9 upper*). (3) Woods of pine ( Pinus pinea) and juniper ( Juniperus oxycedrus and phoenicea ) occupying parts of the dunes and the intervening hollows, and the fringes of these hollows, with isolated fragments on the Halimium plain (plates 4 top, 5 centre and bottom, 6 upper; also antea 69 lower and 72 right; Halimium is illustrated on 10 upper). (4) Halimium thicket, covering the flat ground between the pines and the marismas ; cork oaks ( Quercus suber) are scattered over this zone (plate 5 top ; also antea 76 lower). (5) Fresh-water lagoons scattered between the pinewoods and the Halimium/ Quercus plain (plate 9 centre and bottom; also antea 77 lower). (6) Grasslands along the fringe of the marismas, with a belt of Juncus (rushes) forming a juncigr amine turn (plate 1 right; also antea 77 upper and 78 bottom). (7) Zone of Carex-Scirpus (sedges and bulrushes), flushed most of the year by fresh water from the Madre de las Marismas, a channel running parallel to the Coto Donana sand-bar and bearing fresh water to the marismas ( antea plates 70 lower and 78 top). (8) Zone of cracked clay covered with Salicornia (glasswort) shrubs, dry most of the year and covering the greater part of the marismas (plates 8 and 12 left; also antea 70 upper and 72 left). The irregular distribution of the woods in the tongue of land, where the pines are massed towards the south-east and the Halimium/ Quercus thicket towards the north-west, results in transects from the sea to the marismas at either end of the marisma showing only one of these main vegetation types. The dunes themselves reach the edge of the marisma along a good part of the Coto, leaving behind them an area occupied by pines. The moist hollows in the extreme south-east and a patch adjoining the marisma in the centre of the Coto, near the little lake Sopcton, are occupied by bushes of pistachio ( Pistacea lentiscus), which deserve separate mention as a habitat. Buildings are dotted here and there in the region and will also be considered separately, as well as cultivated gardens. *In view of the number of relevant photographs that appeared in our last issue (December 1057) as illustrations to the introductory paper referred to in the first paragraph, it has been decided to include references to them in the present text. — Eos. COTO DON AN A ECOLOGY 3 VOL. Li] The beach. The whole coast between Huelva and the mouth of the Guadalquivir is formed by a long and almost straight beach, relieved only by stone towers built in the Middle Ages to guard the shore against Barbary pirates. The beach is of bare sand, with some stony tracts of foreshore, passing imperceptibly into foredunes and coastal slacks. Shore vegetation is sparse. Only one bird, the Kentish Plover ( Charadrius alexandrinus ), is known certainly to nest on the beach, and that rather thinly, but it is more than possible that one or two single pairs of Caspian Terns ( Hydroprogne caspia ) also breed there. A pair of Peregrines ( Falco peregrinus) breeds on at least one of the towers. The dunes and coastal slacks. Parallel lines of dunes between the coast and the interior are separated by little valleys and more or less flat hollows. A very far advanced line of dunes meets the marismas between Bctalengua and Sopeton, sloping steeply down to the water. The dunes nearest the sea are partly covered with thin marram grass ( Ammophila arenaria), which soon disappears as one goes inland. The mobile dunes advance naked right across to the marisma. The stabilized dunes are covered with scattered rough growth, predominantly Corema album (a heather-like shrub), which blends imperceptibly into the Halimium thicket as the soil grows firmer, but this is already far from the sea. The hollows between the dunes, and the coastal slacks, carry a low and tussocky vegetation, mingled occasionally with stunted pines (plate 4 bottom). It is here that many migratory birds just arrived from Africa over the sea make a halt. The fauna of the Ammophila and Corema dunes is poor. Only two species of birds breed there, neither of them commonly: Stone Curlew ( Burhinus oedicnemus) Thekla Lark ( Galerida theklae) In addition the following reptiles are found in these areas: Spine-foot Lizard ( Acanthodactylus erythrurus) — common Algerian Sand Lizard ( Psammodromus algirus) — less common Lataste’s Viper ( Vipera latastei) — common in Ammophila and Corema Montpellier Snake ( Malpolon monspcssulana)— fairly common Greek Tortoise ( Testudo graeca) This population is thus predominantly composed of insectivorous animals and their predators ( Vipera , Malpolon). In comparison with the rest of the Coto the most important characteristic of this zone is the poverty and thinness of the vegetation. The wide open spaces where snakes or hares can easily be surprised make this habitat the favourite hunting ground *See plate 10 upper for illustration of some of the dune flora. The biotope descriptions in this paper mention only the most significant plants — those which give each area its characteristic appearance — and the animal lists are confined to the birds, mammals, reptiles, batrachians and fish which breed regularly in any biotope (though some with very small numbers are included). 4 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Fief 2 Fig 3 Se<3 Dunes P/newoOc/s Ha/imiam Fig. i — Key section of Goto Donana from Atlantic through ; This shows the relative positions of the more detailed sketches of each main zone that (Reproduced from Portrait of a Wilderness (to be published in March), b Fig. 2 — Sketch of sand-dunes and woods of stone pines This shows how in the eastern section ol the area the pinewoods reach to the marismas and are separated from the water only by a narrow belt of juncigraminetum, while in the western part juniper woods occur near the coast and the pines are divorced from the marismas by the open Hahmium plain (see pages 6-8 and plates 4 and 10; also antea plates 69, 72 right and 77 upper). The moist hollows in the eastern zone hold clumps of pistachio (Pistacea), while bramble (Rnbus) is dominant in the west. The burial ot the pines by the mobile dunes is illustrated on the left of the sketch. of the Short-toed Eagle ( Circactus gallicus) (plate 3), which is attached to this sandy zone, and one of the places preferred by the Imperial Eagle ( Aquila heliaca) (plate 7 upper) for hunting hares. VOL. Ll] GOTO DON AN A ECOLOGY F,jf Fy 5 Jk. Ate -S^ ^ .W* ^ ^ ^ .VYO iifr. dfcjgdte • • • O /- X- • • -1 ! l_ ' — ytii imiilllHHt — ".'WM Mu ket(jaj uarza/) cork oak savannah Jt/ncijramin&m nwc/c/y so/ / mansmas PINEWOODS AND OTHER SANDY SOIL ZONES TO MUDDY MARISMAS N in Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5 (see also pages 1-2). The vertical scale is somewhat exaggerated. I of Guy Mountfort and Messrs. Hutchinson & Co. (Publishers) Ltd.) Fig. 3 — Sketch ok surroundings of a fresh-water lagoon The lagoons are considered to be vestiges of an old arm of the Guadalquivir and they lie in a series along the line separating the pinewoods from the Halimium plain, so that each lagoon has pines on one side, thicket on the other. Note the juncigr amine turn which is often extensive by the lakes, and the stands of reed-mace ( Typha ) and water-reed ( Phragmites ) which are found in three of the lagoons and provide nesting-places for Coot and Crested Coot, White-headed Duck and Purple Heron (see pages 19-21 and plates 9 centre and bottom; also antea plate 77 lower). The pinewoods. Pines — stone pines ( Pinus pinea) — were probably introduced to the Goto during- the 18th or the 19th century. They form, 6 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Fig. 4 — Sketch of “park-land” and marisma edge The “park-land” effect (see page 9 and plate 5 top; also antea plate 76 lower) is formed by the greater abundance of the cork oaks ( Quercus ) in that part of the Halimium plain that borders the marismas — the result of the more humid soil there. This sketch illustrates the way in which moist depressions encourage bramble ( Rubus ), bracken ( Pteridium ) and tree-heath ( Erica arborea) (plate 12 right). This zone is divided from the sedge ( Carex ) of the marismas by a strip of bracken and a juncigraminetum (see page 11 and plate 1 right). accordingly, a relatively new habitat, which has doubtless partially replaced the Halimium thicket and the park-like sprinkling of cork oaks. The present avifauna probably colonized this habitat from the pinewoods to the north of the marismas . The pine-woods ( pinares in Spanish) in the extreme south-east begin at the edge of the marisma and extend north-westwards strung out between the dunes and the plains of Halimium, narrow- ing gradually until they fade out not far from Torre de la Hig'uera. Among the dunes such woods are clustered in series of hollows, often entirely ringed around by ridges of bare sand, and are called corrales (see plate 4 bottom). At the front of the mobile dunes the advancing sands overwhelm many trees whose crowns remain visible on the slopes or above the ridges ( antea plate 72 right). In the direction of the Halimium plains, sandy zones with little vegetation, or lagoons, separate the main pine- woods from the jaguarzal or thicket, but there are also some scattered stands of stunted pines here and there on the plain (Pinar de San Agustin, del Martinazo, de la Algaidilla, de la Pez, etc.) (plates 5 centre and 6 upper). Junipers ( Juniperus oxycedrus and /. phoenicea ) are dispersed among the pinewoods near the sea and sometimes cover the fixed VOL. LI] COTO DON AN A ECOLOGY 7 Fig. 5 — Sketch of inner zones of the marismas Down the centre the course of the fresh-water stream called La Madre de las Marismas (see page 15) is marked by a stand of reed-mace ( Typha ) and water-reed (Phragmites). This is flanked by zones of bulrush (Scirpus), and then by sedge ( Carex ) ( antca plate 70 lower) dotted with islands ( vetas ) of mud, Suaeda and thistles (Silybum). The greater part of the marismas is a zone of cracked clay covered with Salicornia to varying extents; the Salicornia parts are much drier than the other marisma zones (see pages 15-16 and plates 8 and 12 left; also antea plates 70 upper and 72 left). dunes. Towards the north-west the line of the pinewoods is continued by little juniper woods, parallel with the coast. The shrub layer of the pinewood on the seaward side is formed by Corema, broom (Genista), rosemary ( Rosmarinus ), lavender (Lavandula), etc., which are soon replaced by Halimium thicket throughout the middle zone and the areas fringing the marismas. This Halimium, thin and stunted compared with that of the deforested plains, also maintains many lizards (Acanthodactylus , Psammodromus). Charcoal-burners have an effect on the shrub layer and on the pines themselves (plate 5 bottom). In the Marismillas, in the southern part of the tongue of land forming the Coto, the better soil carries a denser pinewood with larger trees. The Halimium zone is almost absent there and the pinewood reaches to the marismas leaving room between it and the water only for a narrow belt of juncigraminetum with some pistachio (eastern section of Fig. 2 ; also plates 10 lower and antea 77 upper). In the moist hollows, occupied by meadows of grass and Juncus, thickets of pistachio also grow in the middle of the pinar. In the western part (western section of Fig. 2) the pinewoods are always separated from the marismas by the Halimium plain or by dunes. In the hollows of the pinar in this zone grasses predominate with a few bushes of bramble (Rubus). 8 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li The breeding avifauna of the pinewoods consists of the following species : (i) Breeding in the pines A — On the branches Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca ) (plate 7 upper) Booted Eagle ( Hieraetus pcnnatus) Buzzard ( Buteo buteo) Kite (Milvus milvus ) Black Kite ( Milvus migrans) Short-toed Eagle ( Circaetus gallicus) (plate 3) Hobby ( Falco subbuteo) Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus) Woodpigeon ( Columba palumbus) Raven ( Corvus corax) Magpie ( Pica pica) — at the edges Azure-winged Magpie ( Cyanopica cyanus ) (plate 11 upper) Great Grey Shrike ( Lanius excubitor) Woodchat Shrike ( Lanius senator) Goldfinch ( Carduelis carduelis) — near houses Serin ( Serinus canarius) — rare B~In holes Green Woodpecker ( Picus viridis) (2) Breeding under the pines C — In bushes of Rubus, Pistacea, etc. Woodpigeon ( Columba palumbus) Turtle Dove ( Streptopelia turtur) Great Spotted Cuckoo ( Clamator glandarius) Magpie (Pica pica) Blackbird ( T urdus merula) Nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) Orphean Warbler ( Sylvia hortensis) Sardinian Warbler ( Sylvia melanocephala) Hartford Warbler ( Sylvia undata) Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor) (plate 9 top) D — On the ground Red-legged Partridge ( Alectoris rufa) Stone Curlew ( Burhinus oedicnemus) Red-necked Nightjar ( Caprimulgus ruficollis) Woodlark ( Lullula arborea) Lizards and snakes (especially Malpolon, the Montpellier Snake) are very common (the list is exactly the same as that given for the Halimium thicket on page 9). Among mammals, the Garden Dormouse ( Eliomys quercinus ) is abundant and the Mediterranean Black Rat ( Rattus rattus frugivorus ) is also found. Both profit by the heavy seed crops of the pine. The Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) here attains a density much higher than in the cork oaks and Halimium : this is above all due to the abundance of food provided for it by the pine cones. The areas of pistachio bushes are favourite habitats of the Mongoose ( Herpestes ichneumon ) which finds in the moist patches an abundance of its preferred prey, the Rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus). The Mongoose, Wild Boar and Fallow Deer ( Dama damn) are the three species of mammals which are more abundant in the eastern than in the western section, but in the case of the last-named that is not due to the pinewoods but to the greater importance of the meadows and moist patches as a habitat for it. The Halimium thicket and the cork oak savannah. The Halimium thicket ( jaguarzal or monte bianco in Spanish) occupies the plains of the interior of the Coto, notably in the extreme north-west. In area it forms the most extensive of the Coto habitats. 1 he cork oaks, scattered over the plain, isolated or in little groups, give it a park-like appearance. This is especially conspicuous in the zone fringing the marismas where the trees are much more abundant on account of the greater humidity of the VOL. Li] GOTO DONANA ECOLOGY 9 soil (see plate 5 top ; also antea 76 lower). This zone is depicted in Fig. 4, which shows the Halimium thicket or heath and the moist depressions favoured by the cork oaks and brambles ( Rubus ). The Halimium or jaguarzo is a very pale-coloured shrub of about 1 to 1.5 metres (40-60 inches) in height (see plate 10 upper; cf. height of horses in plate 5 centre). It spreads over the ground more or less densely and with a uniform canopy, forming a thick cover which, however, allows easy passage through it. Some other thorny shrubs mingle among the Halimium , notably various species of broom ( Genista ) and gorse ( Ulex ) which form dense and impenetrable thickets in the hollows of the ground, where the fauna can find quiet refuges. Passage through these thorn thickets is impossible and they are the favourite haunt of Lynxes ( Lynx pardina), small warblers (Sylvia), etc. Deeper depressions carry a belt of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum), mingled with brambles (Rubus). It is there that the cork oaks grow best. Lower still grow dense stands of tree- heath (Erica arborca), perhaps 3 metres (10 feet) high and mixed with brambles (plate 12 right), which form the preferred nesting site for herons in the colony at Algaida ( antea plate 73). In the flat bottoms of such depressions occur little patches of grassland that have been rooted up by Wild Boars searching for the palatable young shoots of herbs. Sometimes there is a little pool also. The cork oaks arc imposing trees, old and gnarled, thrusting their lightly leaved crowns to a height of 10-15 metres (33-50 feet). Many of them have in their trunks and branches large holes where Jackdaws (Corvus moncdula), Barn Owls (Tyto alba) and Little Owls (Athene noctua) breed. Young Lynxes can also occasionally be found in them. This group of habitats has the following settled fauna: (1) Reptiles and mammals ( In thickets of Halimium, Ulex and Genista) Greek Tortoise ( Testudo graeca) — in moist places near juncigraminetum where they feed Grey Burrowing Lizard (Blanus cinereus) (plate 0 top) Ocellated Lizard (Lacerta lepida) Algerian Sand Lizard ( Psammodromus algirus) Spine-foot Lizard ( Acanthodactylus erythrurus) Sand Skink ( Chalcides bedriagae) Ladder Snake ( Elaphe scalaris) Southern Bordeaux Snake ( Coronella girondica) Montpellier Snake ( Malpolon monspessulana) Lataste’s Viper ( Vipera latastei) Hedgehog ( Erinaceus europaeus) Polecat ( Mustela putorius ) — rare Weasel ( Mustela nivalis) — rare Fox ( Vulpes vulpes) Genet ( Genetta genetta) Mongoose ( Herpestcs ichneumon) Wild Cat ( Felis sylvestris) Lynx ( Lynx pardina) Garden Dormouse ( Eliomys quercinus) Black Rat ( Rattus rattus frugivorus) Mouse (Mus musculus) — ? Long-tailed Field Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) Hare ( Lepus europaeus granatensis) — very rare Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Red Deer ( Cervus elaphus) Wild Boar ( Sus scrofa) 10 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI (2) Birds (In Halimium-Ulex dense thicket) Red-legged Partridge ( Alectoris rufa) Great Spotted Cuckoo ( Clamator glandarius) — ? Red-necked Nightjar ( Caprimulgus ruficollis) Magpie ( Pica pica) Sardinian Warbler ( Sylvia melanocephala) — rare Dartford Warbler ( Sylvia undata) (In Halimium thicket, less dense or open) Red-legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa) Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus) (In the cleared strips resembling forest “fire-breaks”, where the shrubs have been cut down for sporting purposes, the Stone Curlew and also the Thekla Lark ( Galerida theklae) find suitable habitats. Of the Halimium birds mentioned, the Red-legged Partridge, Magpie and Great Spotted Cuckoo, and Sardinian Warbler are practically absent from the interior Halimium zone.) (In Rubus-Erica thickets) Red-necked Nightjar (Caprimulgus ruficollis) Stonechat (Saxicola torquata) Nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) Melodious Warbler (Hippolais polyglotta) Sardinian Warbler (Sylvia melanocephala) Dartford Warbler (Sylvia undata) — rare, as they prefer the Halimium Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor) (In some moist places in the dense thicket, the Spectacled Warbler (Sylvia conspicillata) also nests in this habitat, though at the moment it is known only at two localities.) (3) Reptiles, mammals and birds of the cork oaks (Cork oaks are the only trees of this zone and are sufficiently few to ensure that almost all trees carry nests, reptiles or mammals.) Wall Lizard (Lacerta bocagei) Garden Dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) Lynx (Lynx pardina) Bats (Pipistrellus, etc.) — probably Heron (Ardea cinerea) Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) Cattle Egret (Ardeola ibis) Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) Booted Eagle (Hieraetus pennatus) Buzzard (Buteo buteo) Kite (Milvus milvus) Black Kite (Milvus migrans) Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) Woodpigeon ( Columba palumbus) Great Spotted Cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) Barn Owl (Tyto alba) Little Owl (Athene noctua) Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis) Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus) Jackdaw ( Corvus monedula) Magpie (Pica pica) Great Tit (Parus major) Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor) Woodchat Shrike (Lanius senator) (Of these species, the egrets and herons are found breeding only at Algaida, where in any case only a small percentage of the nests are in the cork oaks, the majority being in the tree-heath and bramble.) From this review it can be seen that the avifauna of the Halimium zone is very poor. But where the trees appear and the moist hollows give rise to thickets of bramble, tree-heath and so forth the fauna is considerably enriched, especially on the fringes of the marismas. There is, in fact, a long belt parallel with the marismas edge which is much richer than the rest of the Halimium zone and it is there that the greater part of the winged and terrestrial predators live. VOL. Li] 11 COTO DOftANA ECOLOGY Grasslands and juncigraminetum along the marisma edge. The transition from the Halimium to the marisma is marked by a variable narrow belt of grasslands, as indicated in Fig. 4 (and in plate 1 right ; also antea 77 upper and 78 bottom). It is possible to distinguish the following : (a) A strip of bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum) along the ridge and upper slopes. (b) An arid grassland dominated by asphodel ( Asphodelus ) and camomile ( Anthemis fuscata ); in some parts of the Coto, especially by the lagoons in the interior, this zone is replaced by belts of sand, either naked or covered with various grasses and dotted with xerophile rushes ( ] uncus ). (c) A very green and moist low-lying belt of grasses (mostly Bermuda grass, Cynodon dactylon, and wild barley, Hordeum murinum ) and Juncus — together forming a juncigraminetum — which passes much of the year under water. Each of these zones has a different fauna : (1) Fauna of the bracken strip This includes some brambles and cork oaks, and its fauna is almost identical with that of the Rubus-Erica thickets already described. The most significant birds of the bracken area are, however, the following : Stonechat ( Saxicola torquata) Melodious Warbler ( Hippolais Nightingale ( Luscinia megarhynchos) polyglotta) (2) Fauna of the arid prairie with Asphodelus and Anthemis Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus ) Short-toed Lark ( Calandrella cinerea) Bee-eater (Merops apiaster) (3) Fauna of the juncigraminetum Quail ( Coturnix coturnix) Fan-tailed Warbler ( Cisticola Savi’s Warbler ( Locustella luscinioides) juncidis) (plate 2) Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla flava) The importance of this zone as a hunting area for the birds of prey calls for more extended notice. It is here also that the Fallow Deer live and the Wild Boars come every night to search for herbs and worms. The “ edge effect ” on the birds of prey. From an ecological standpoint it is interesting to study the factors which make the Coto one of the richest areas for birds of prey, and to see how these birds of prey, with few exceptions, concentrate in the zone fringing the marismas. The birds of prey occurring there in relatively high densities are: Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca ) — every pair seems to include an area of juncigraminetum in its hunting territory Kite ( Milvus milvus) — tied to this zone Black Kite (Milvus migrans) — also tied to the juncigraminetum Buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) — the majority have territories on the juncigraminetum Booted Eagle ( Hieraetus pennatus) — generally hunts over the juncigraminetum (but see footnote on page 14) 12 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI The only species which generally never hunts along the fringe of (he marisma is the Short-toed Eagle. The Kestrel hunts a little everywhere at a low density, but is not much interested in the j uncigraminetum as a hunting area. The fact that the abundant trees all along the marisma fringe provide nesting sites has undoubtedly a great influence on the concentration of birds of prey in that zone. But the principal reason for that concentration is unquestionably the abundance of prey in the jancigraminetum and Anthemis and Asphodelus grass- lands together with the bracken on the banks and the neighbouring Halimium. Fig. 6 represents the fringe of the marisma, with a little island ( veta in Spanish), the Carex-Scirpus zone (sedges and bulrushes) and the adjoining dry-land habitats. Symbols indicate the animals most important in the diet of the birds of prey. It may be noted that : (a) In the interior, amid the dry Halimium, the biocenosis is simple. At lower levels it is characterized by the abundance of the small lizards ( Acanthodactyhis and Psammodromus) and of their reptilian predators, the Ocellated Lizards (Lacerta lepida) and certain snakes — Malpolon, Elaphe, Coronella girondica (Southern Bordeaux Snake) and some Vipera. The density of birds of prey is low here: only the Short-toed Eagle occupies a clear place in the biocenosis. (b) On the marisma fringe the population of potential prey species goes up vertically. These include: (i) Southern Mud-Frog ( Pelobates culiripes ) — hatched by thousands in the marismas they pass on to the Coto across the fringing grasslands, which are also the favourite foraging area for the young. They flee across the sands on dry land, or live in crevices of the clay in the dried-up marisma. On the occasion of a plague (due possibly to parasitism by some species of green- bottle fly, Lucilia), I have been able to count the corpses of 54 individuals on 16 sq. metres (19 sq. yards), equivalent to a density of some 342 frogs in a square with sides of 10 metres (11 yards) each. This frog is the dietary base for the Water Snakes ( Natrix maura), Brown Rats ( Rattus norvegicus) and certain of the herons, and, in addition, Black Kites, Barn Owls, etc. Frogs and their minor predators, snakes and rats, form the dietary base of the kites and probably of other birds of prey. Pleurodele Newts ( Pleurodeles waltli) arc also very common in normal (not dry) years. (ii) Water Vole ( Arvicola terrestris) — infrequent or rare; tied to this zone. (iii) Mediterranean Pine Vole ( Pitymys duodecimcostaius) 14 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li — common, in places, on dry ground fringing the marisma ; well known as a prey of raptors. (iv) Rabbit ( Oryctolagus cuniculus) — the greatest concentra- tions of Rabbits on the Coto always correspond to a juncigraminetum. They are extremely abundant the whole length of the marisma. Reproducing themselves up among the bracken in dry conditions the young haunt the grasslands where they are easily captured by such birds of prey as the Imperial and Booted Eagles, the two Kites and doubtless the Marsh Harrier ( Circus aeruginosas ). This fact makes the fringe a favourite hunting ground. (v) Long-tailed Field Mouse ( Apodemus sylvaticus) and Garden Dormouse ( Eliomys quercinus) — are generally distributed through the Halimium, but are perhaps more abundant in the marginal zone among the cork oaks. (c) Water birds are extremely common on the marismas and the vetas. The birds of prey of the fringe (except the Buzzard, which is replaced here by the more competitively fitted Marsh Harrier) hunt the whole length of the marisma to an average of 3-4 km. (about 2-2J miles) in from the margin. The most devoted to this type of hunting are the two Kites and the Imperial Eagle who take a number of young, but (in the first two instances) do particular damage in gorging themselves on eggs. Ravens ( Corvus corax ) readily join in, being formidable predators of other birds. A few pairs of Barn Owls seem to specialize in taking birds on the marismas . Nearly all the above applies also on the shores of the large or small lagoons of the interior. It is on these lagoons as well as the edge of the marismas that the birds of prey concentrate. It must also be remembered that several birds — the Magpie, Great Spotted Cuckoo, Jackdaw, Spotless Starling ( Sturnus unicolor), Green Woodpecker, small Passerines, etc., are missing from the Halimium of the interior and the rare cork oaks of that arid zone (see pages 9-10). They accordingly contribute with a fairly strong concentration along the fringe to the diet of the birds of prey there. Unquestionably the bird of prey most favoured by this abundant food supply is the Black Kite (shown in plate 7 lower, where one is at a carcase with Griffon, Gyps fulvus , and Egyptian Vultures, Neophron percnopterus). During the past few years of absolute protection this species has multiplied, while the others maintain a more stable population*. The great concentration of *One bird of prey does seem to have become steadily much scarcer on the Coto during the last 50 years, and that is the Booted Eagle. This is possibly a lesult of the almost total disappearance of the white poplar ( Populus alba), the tree in which it used most frequently to nest. VOL. Li] COTO DOR AN A ECOLOGY 15 Black Kites along the edge of the marisrna used to make this the chosen area for the massacres of young which formerly took place, and as soon as these massacres ceased their population increased at a substantial rate. Perhaps the greatest concentrations of Black Kites on the Coto are those to be found at the mouth of the Guadalquivir. Though they are not protected by the owners of that part of the Coto Dohana sand-bar (Las Marismillas), some 30-50 Black Kites can normally be seen over the river. The reason for this is the great number of dead fish ( Carassius carassius) that lie along the edges of the river. These fresh-water fish live abundantly in the cahos (fresh-water channels) of the marismas and many that approach too close to the river are killed by the salt water every day when the tide rises. Multitudes of corpses lie on the muddy banks and kites, gulls and Wild Boars come to feed on them. According to the fishermen, 5 or 6 tons of dead fish are received each day in Sanlucar, to be used as fertilisers. No doubt this attractive food supply is responsible for the incessantly replenished population of Black Kites in that area, for many nests are destroyed every year there and their breeding-success in that part must be very low. The marismas. Two of the habitats listed earlier in this paper (see page 2), the Carex-Scirpus and the Salicornia zones, are those which form the marismas . All along the edge of the Coto Dohana proper, and some 500- 1,000 metres (550-1,100 yards) from it, inside the marisrna, there flows from north-west to south-east a caho , or fresh-water stream. When the marisrna is flooded, this channel is discernable only through the denser vegetation growing along it. This higher and thicker growth is made up of stands of Typha (reed mace) and Phragmites (water-reed) along the actual bed of the stream. This caho is called, in Spanish, “La Madre de las Marismas” (“The Mother of the Marismas”) because it brings the greater part of the fresh water for them — or, alternatively, “La Madre del Rocio” (see map antea pp. 508-509). In Fig. 5 the Madre is represented by a ribbon of Typha and Phragmites. The lowest zone on both sides of the Madre, which is flooded most of the year, is covered by a tall Scirpus (bulrush ; bcdlunco in Spanish). And the shallower waters on each side are covered by a Carex (sedge; castahuela in Spanish), which occupies immense areas (see antea plates 70 lower and 78 top and centre). The glasswort ( Salicornia fruticosa and Arthrocnemum macro stachyum, with lesser amounts of S. herbacea) occupies the larger part of the marisrna (plate 8 upper). It grows at a higher level, and accordingly in drier conditions (compare antea plate 70 upper with lower), than the Carex-Scirpus , and on ground possibly more saline, at a distance from the fresh water of the Madre. On 16 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI the banks of the Guadalquivir (see antea plate 71 left) it entirely replaces the Carex-Scirpus, but in the corner of the marisma near El Rocio it is not abundant. It grows on flat, dry, cracked, clay soil, and is very pale in colour. Dotted over the whole extent of the marisma are little eminences which, when the marisma is flooded, form the little islands called vetas by the people of the region. They are in general of small area: the largest do not even reach a length of, say, 500 by 250 metres (550 by 275 yards), and the smallest are only a few tens of metres across. Each veta is surrounded by a band of bare clay, followed by another covered with Suaeda (seablite ; sapina in Spanish). The plateau of each island itself is covered with grasses, camomile ( Anthemis fuscata) and thistles ( Silybum marianum and Cirsium arvense), and here breed most of the ground-nesting birds (plate 8 lower) : many of the vetas have large colonies of waders and terns. The variations in water level over the marismas have a decisive importance for their population of breeding birds. In a normal year there are the following changes in the water level : The water covers the lower flats up to the height of the Salicornia. The water surface is nearly unbroken by plants, except for a few shoots of Carex piercing through. These, with the debris of the previous year’s vegetation provide sites that permit the first Coots to nest (exceptionally in December). The Carex begins to emerge from the water in the shallowest parts. Coots build and lay in the growing clumps and in the Salicornia. Carex and Scirpus still do not cover all the surface of the marisma, but Coots can now nest almost everywhere. The marisma is covered with vegetation and many birds nest all over. The water begins to recede. On the vetas the herbage begins to dry up, permitting certain other birds to nest, e.g. Pratincoles. The water is still lower and the herbage of the vetas has shrivelled. The Carex and Scirpus begin in places to suffer from lack of moisture. Further fall of water level. The Carex starts to wilt, and dries out over large areas. There is no longer standing water except in certain spots, called in Spanish lucios. The Carex continues to collapse. In the course of this month the marisma is almost everywhere completely dry. The Carex is flat on the ground, except in places where it is dense enough to stand up in tufts. The earth is cracked. In the hollows the Scirpus keeps a little moisture, and the remaining birds concentrate there ; the majority have departed. The first rains give rise to marshes. The debris of the summer vegetation is heaped up along the edges by the wind. There is more water. The surface of the marshes is unbroken, except by debris and except by some Carex and Scirpus which has avoided being flattened during the summer. The marisma is full of water. The wind has piled up the debris of vegetation on the shores. A few new shoots of Carex pierce the water surface, mingling with the dead material. The vetas are clear of water even in January. January: February : March : April : May : June : July: August : September : October : November : December : VOL. Li] COTO DOR AN A ECOLOGY 17 The impressive area of the marismas holds an equally impressive breeding- population of countless thousands of birds of many species. The following- are the main groups known to nest: (i) Breeding- in the Carex-Scirpus Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus) Black-necked Grebe ( Podiceps nigricollis) Little Grebe (Podiceps ruficollis) Bittern (Botaurus stellaris) Red-crested Pochard ( Netta ruflna)* Ferruginous Duck ( Aythya nyroca)* White-headed Duck ( Oxyura leucocephala)* Marsh Harrier ( Circus aeruginosus) Baillon’s Crake (Porzana pusilla) Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) Coot ( Fulica atra) Crested Coot ( Fulica cristata) Black Tern ( Chlidonias niger) Whiskered Tern ( Chlidonias hybrida) *nests reported by the keepers ( guardas ), but not yet independently verified. (2) Breeding in the Madre, in Typha-Phragmites Purple Heron ( Ardea purpurea) Purple Gallinule ( Porphyrio porphyrio) Night Heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax)* Great Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus Spoonbill ( Platalea leucorodia)* arundinaceus) Veported by the keepers, but nesting only in some years. (3) Breeding on the vetas Mallard (Amis platyrhynchos ) Teal ( Anas crecca) Marbled Duck (Anas angustirostris) Garganey (Anas querquedula) Gadwall (.Dias strepera) Pintail (/bias acuta) Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus) Kentish Plover ( C-haradrius alexandrinus) Redshank ( Tringa totanus) Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta ) Black- winged Stilt ( Himantopus himantopus) (plate 1 left) Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus) Pratincole (Glareola pratincola ) Slender-billed Gull ( Larus genei) Gull-billed Tern ( Gelochelidon nilotica) Little Tern ( Sterna albifrons ) Pin-tailed Sandgrouse ( Pterodes alchata ) Bee-eater ( Merops apiaster) Short-toed Lark (Calandrella cinerea ) (plate 1 1 lower) Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla flava) (of the Spanish blue-headed form, iberiae) (4) Breeding on dry ground among the Salicornia Montagu’s Harrier (Circus pygargus ) Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus) Pin-tailed Sandgrouse (Pterocles alchata) Calandra Lark (Melanocoryplia calatidra) Short-toed Lark (Calandrella cinerea) Lesser Short-toed Lark (Calandrella rufescens) Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava) A dry year, like 1957, means the disappearance of the water bird population (a typically desolate dry marisma scene is shown in plate 12 left). Most of the birds of the vetas do not nest. The breeding population is reduced to little more than the Pratincoles, Lapwings and Black-winged Stilts, and the Typha-Phragmites species; the birds of the dry Salicornia colonize zones where they are not seen in normal years. Mammals and reptiles join the birds of prey already mentioned in their depredations on the marisma fauna. Montpellier Snakes can be seen on the vetas , gorged with eggs and chicks. Foxes and rats establish themselves in the vetas in Rabbit holes near the BRITISH BIRDS 18 [VOL. LI edge of the marisma. Wild Boars penetrate annually to the vetas and eat practically nothing but eggs and young birds. Here is a census of the bird population of a veta, Los Paciles Cortados, on 14th June 1956, made with binoculars shortly before sunset, counting birds on the ground, brooding or beside their chicks. This veta is about 500 metres long by 100 metres wide (550 yards by no yards). Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus) ... ... ... 6 pairs Kentish Plover ( Charadrius alexandrinus) ... 20 ,, Redshank (Tringa totanus) ... ... ... 6 ,, Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta ) ... ... 15 ,, Black-winged Stilt ( Himantopus himantopus) 30 ,, Pratincole (Glareola pratincola) ... ... 300 ,, Gull-billed Tern ( Gelochelidon nilotica ) ... 6 ,, Little Tern (Sterna albifrons) ... ... ... 10 ,, Short-toed Lark ( Calandrella cinerea ) ... 6 ,, Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla 1 lava ) ... ... 6 ,, A census made in March would show only a few Mallard, a few pairs of Lapwings and Black-winged Stilts, and by the end of the month some Avocets and Redshanks. The latest to lay are the terns. It seems that the high ground temperatures of the vetas, lack- ing in vegetation cover to give protection against the strong sun, oblige the birds to adopt special nesting sites. Pats of cowdung, which provide good insulation, are a favourite site of the Pratincole. The Kentish Plover’s eggs are slightly shaded between lumps of dry mud. The Short-toed Lark usually builds beside a plant which shades the eggs during part of the day, and often places a ramp of particles of mud along the open side of the nest. These adaptations are similar to those observed in the desert. The enemies of birds breeding on the vetas are so numerous that many clutches are lost, and repeat clutches are laid in replacement. When the greater part of the breeding population has left and the vetas used as nesting colonies are becoming deserted, a number of pairs still without nests gather to these places, and pairs which have lost their clutches lay a second, third or fourth. Close to habitations, eggs are collected systematically on some of the vetas. Adult populations are maintained during the laying of repeat clutches, and these populations act as a magnet for late breeders who come and join them. The veta covered by the census given above is one of those which suffer most from such exploitation, and consequently breeding on it continues when it is more or less finished elsewhere on the marisma. The herons of the Goto Donana. The heron colony of the Goto Donana, one of the largest in Europe, reaches at its strongest a population of about 30,000 birds, including both adults and young, about the end of June or the beginning of July. 1 his surprising heron concentration is of great ecological interest. VOL. Li] COTO DONANA ECOLOGY 19 Despite several shifts during- the past 25 years the heronry seems to be preferably located in the thickets of tree-heath and bramble and in the adjoining cork oaks in moist hollows at least 1 kilometre (1,100 yards) from the marisma edge (see plate 6 lower; also antea plates 73-76). This widespread colony is composed of Little Egrets ( Egretta garzetta), Cattle Egrets ( Ardeola ibis), Night Herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax), Squacco Herons ( Ardeola ralloides), Common Herons (Ardea cinerea ) and White Storks ( Ciconia ciconia). Each species has a favourite nest site : the White Storks and Common Herons nest in the higher cork oaks; Little Egrets and Night Herons can nest high in the trees but the great majority nest in the thickets ; the Cattle Egret sometimes nests in the trees but much prefers the thicket, and the Squacco Heron nests only in the thicket. This concentration of birds would be difficult to explain if there were active food competition between the different species of herons composing the colony. However, study of the diets of the different species shows that the competition is slight between them. Also, the colonial foraging range is enormous. The Little Egret, Cattle Egret and Night Heron can cover a radius of about 25 kilometres (15 miles) between the nest and the feeding area. The Squacco Heron goes less far, but covers more than 10 kilometres (6 miles) afield. Thus, the Squacco Herons from the Algaida colony have their main feeding territory near El Rocio, while the other small herons hunt all over the marisma and even along the banks of the Guadalquivir, as is proved by the discovery, in the stomachs of nestlings, of fishes — grey mullet ( Mugil ) and silver- sides ( Atherina ) — which do not live in the marisma. The following basic diets are consumed by the different species of herons : Cattle Egret : Eats grasshoppers, bettles, spiders and larvae of Neuroptera (lace-wings, etc.) and other insects; also vertebrates such as the Marsh Frog (Rana ridibunda), the Tree Frog ( Hyla arborea) and the Spine-foot Lizard, but very few fishes. Little Egret: The plump Carassius, a very abundant fish of the marismas, and the little Gambusia form the mainstay ( Gambusia has been introduced to Spain only recently to control mosquito larvae). Many aquatic insects are also taken. Night Heron: Eats mainly the fish Carassius, Mud Frogs ( Pelobates ), the Pleurodele Newt (Pleurodeles waltli) and eels ( Anguiila anguilla). Squacco Heron: Eats fish and aquatic insects. The fresh-water lagoons. Across the Coto Donana a series of fresh-water lagoons stretch roughly from east to west. They are considered to be vestiges of an old arm of the Guadalquivir which flowed out into the Atlantic across the Coto. These lagoons are called (from east to west) Sopeton, Las Pajas, Santa Olalla, Laguna Dulce, El Taraje, El Saillo and El Charco del Toro. Beginning with Santa Olalla they 20 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI lie along- the line separating the pinewoods from the Halimium plain, so that each lagoon has on one side pines and on the other thicket or heath. They are bordered with a band of j unrig ramine turn of varying width (plate 9 bottom). The largest lagoon is Santa Olalla. About fifty years ago it was probably more saline than now, since Atherina (silversides fish) and crustaceans have died out in its waters since that time. The other lagoons, overwhelmed by sand transported by the wind from the beach, are in process of disappearing. They seem to have shrunk appreciably during the last fifty years. Sopeton and Santa Olalla do not dry up in summer, or at least do so only exceptionally. The others undergo great fluctuations in water level in the course of the year, and are often dry in August- September. The surface vegetation is poor. In Sopeton (plate 9 centre) there are only sparse Scirpus (bulrush) plants. Laguna Dulce has three large clumps of Typha (reed-mace) and Phragmites, whose situation is shown in Fig. 3. Similar clumps exist also in El Saillo and El Charco del Toro ( antea plate 77 lower). Santa Olalla and El Taraje are bare. The following is the fauna of the fresh-water lagoons : (1) Batrachians, reptiles and fish Pleurodele Newt ( Pleurodeles waltli) Southern Mud-Frog ( Pelobates cultripes) Tree Frog ( Hyla arborea) Marsh Frog (Rana ridibunda) Natterjack Toad ( Bufo calamita) Spanish Terrapin ( Clemmys leprosa) European Pond Tortoise ( Emys orbicularis) Water Snake ( Natrix maura) Common Eel ( Anguilla anguilla) Fish — Carassius carassius Gambusia holbrocki — in Sopeton only (2) Birds Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus) Black-necked Grebe ( Podiceps nigricollis) Little Grebe ( Podiceps ruficollis) Purple Heron ( Ardea purpurea) Mallard (i4nas platyrhynchos) Marbled Duck ( Anas angustirostris) — in the lagoons of las Marismillas, and perhaps Sopeton Red-crested Pochard ( Netta rufina) Ferruginous Duck ( Aythya nyroca) White-headed Duck ( Oxyura leucocephala) Moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus) Coot ( Fulica atra) Crested Coot ( Fulica cristata) Probably the Pochard ( Aythya ferina) should be added to the above list, but we have no proof of its nesting. The lagoon of Sopeton, which is in communication with the marisma, is a past breeding site of Whiskered and Black Terns ( Chlidonias hybrida and niger). At the lagoon of El Taraje a big colony of egrets and herons (• Egretta , Ardeola and Nycticorax) was established towards the end of the 19th century, but it ceased to exist about 1920. The Plate Plate 2 Eric Hosking Fan-tailed Warbler at nest: Goto Donana, May 1957 This, the smallest European warbler, is found in low-lying country from dry cornfield and rough grass to marshland. On the Coto, however, it is essentially a bird of the marisma edges and a typical species of the juncigraminctum (see page 11) sharing the Juncus clumps as nest-sites with far fewer Savi’s Warblers. Its high, penetrating song-note seep . . . seep . . . seep is a characteristic sound of these areas. This slender nest of gossamer and seed-heads was in some strands of Carex sedge in the midst of Juncus, and was 85 inches from top to bottom, with the entrance nearly 5J inches up. Plate 3 Eric Hosking Male Short-toed Eagle at nest: Coto Donana, May 1957 This handsome grey-brown and white eagle with remarkably penetrating orange eyes is not common on the Coto, but its ecology is interesting. It feeds exclusively on the snakes of the region (Elaphc, Malpolon, Coronelia, Natrix) and on the big Ocellated Lizards (see Fig. 6 on page 13), so that it does not need the massive flesh-tearing bill of the mammal-eating eagles (cf. (date 7 upper); its head indeed is more like that of the harriers, to which it is more closely related. This youngster was only about 20 days old, but it could swallow a 2^-31't. snake (diam. ijins.) in 37 minutes, almost whole. Plate 4 Eric Hosking Habitat ok Siiort-toed Eagle: Coto Donana, May 1957 The nest on plate 3 was 24! feet up in the foreground pine. In this area behind the coastal dunes small birds are few — Goldfinch, Serin, Orphean Warbler. Eric Masking Partially stabilized coastal dunes: Goto Donana, May 1957 A view taken from the Short-toed Eagle’s nest, showing junipers, stunted pines, Halimium, marram grass and sea behind; snakes and lizards are common. Eric Masking Oasis among the coastal dunks; Goto Donana, May k)S7 Only two species, Stone Curlew and Thekla Lark, nest in these' hollows between the dunes (see page 3), but in spring they form a resting-place for tiled migrants from Africa and the tiny pines become alive with birds. B. II . Tucker “Park-land” with cork oaks and Halimium: Goto Donana, April 1935 Concentration of raptors near marisma edge (pages 1 1 - 1 4 ) — the trees in this picture held nests of Booted Eagle, Kite, Black Kite and Buzzard. Eric Hosking Isolated stand of pines on Halimium plain: Coto Donana, May 1956 Such clumps are a feature of the plain (see page 6). The Halimium scrub, up to 5 feet high, almost conceals the two horses on the right. Eric Hosking Charcoal-burning, the finished product: Coto Donana, May 1957 Charcoal-burners affect the pinewood habitats in two ways, bv stripping the trees of all but the topmost branches, and by temporarily destroying the ground vegetation — better for Red-necked Nightjars, but less good for warblers. Plate 6 Eric Hosking 'Palacio de Donana from Pinar de San Agustin: Coro Donana, May 1957 Note the bare tree-trunks (see plate 5 bottom). This pinewood is the haunt of several Red-necked. Nightjars, and characteristic of the scrub beyond are Dartford Warbler, Magpie and Great Spotted Cuckoo. Around the Palacio is a eucalyptus grove with Golden Orioles, many Goldfinches and little else (see page 22). Eric Hosking A tree-nesting part of the great heronry: Goto Donana, May 1956 The Common Herons and White Storks, and a very few of the Little Egrets and Night Herons, breed in the cork oaks (see page 19). Here there are three Storks, seven Little Egrets and three brooding Night Herons (two just visible below the upper Storks, and the third to the right of the lower one). Plate 7 Eric Ho.sk ing Imperial Eagle bringing food to young: Goto Donana, May 1957 Note the massive flesh-tearing bill ( cf . plate 3): Hares and Rabbits are among its main prey, but it also feeds on birds and other mammals, including any tound ireshly dead. 1 he size of a Golden Eagle, dark brown with white “shoulders”, it nests in the crowns of pines, as here, or the tops of cork oaks. Eric Hosking Three carrion-feeders at a deer carcase: Coto Donana, May 19157 Left to right: Black Kite, Egyptian Vulture, Griffon. The last two, though numerous, do not nest on the Coto, but the Black Kite is the commonest breeding raptor there, both in the pines and the cork oaks. Its greatest concentrations are along the marisma-fringe where nest-sites and food are plentiful (see pages 14-15). Plate 8 Eric Hosking The Salicornia zone and shallow flooding: Goto Donana, May 1956 Salicornia covers much of the marismas. It grows at a higher level than the Carex-Scirpus and is dry for mosty of the year, forming a breeding-ground for Montagu’s Harrier, Stone Curlew, three species of lark, and Yellow W agtail (see page 17). A Yellow Wagtail’s nest was being examined here. Eric Hosking I'he edge of a vfta : Goto Donana, May 1956 I lie velas (or islands) are always dry, and so have a distinct flora of grasses, camomile and thistles (where the white mule is, on the right). The change Irom the Salicornia zone to a strip of Suacda is usually marked by a band of bare clay (see pages 16-17). The hide was by a Pratincole’s nest. Plate 9 Eric 1 1 asking Great Grey Shrike bringing rood to yocng: Goto Donana, May 1957 The nest is in a pistachio (see pages 7-8) and the bird has a Grey Burrowing Lizard ( Blanus cinercus), a legless creature. Eric II asking SoPETON, ONE OF THE SMALLER LAGOONS: CoTO DoNANA, May 1957 Sparse bulrush (Scirpus) forms the only emergent vegetation, but Little Grebe, Coot, Ferruginous Duck and Red-crested Pochard breed here. Eric II asking JUNCIGRAMINETLM AT EDGE OK S.ANTA Oi.AI.LA : CoTO DONANA, M.AY 195(3 This is by far the largest of the Coto’s line of seven lagoons, but it has no surface vegetation (see page 20). It is the haunt of White-headed Duck and many migrant waders and terns. Plate to Eric Hosking Flora of partially stabilized sand-dunes: Goto Donana, May 1957 This illustrates the Coto’s dominant shrub, the pale-coloured Hdlimium with its striking yellow flowers, and also the grass Ammophila australis. Thekla Larks, Stone Curlews, snakes, lizards and tortoises make up the vertebrate fauna of this zone (see page 3). Eric Hosking Look of marismas near Lucio del Membrii.lo: Goto Donana, May 1957 In the south the lialimium plain is absent, and this illustrates (apart from the inevitable horse and mules transport) a typical meeting of the pine-woods, marismas and naked dunes, with a ] unctis zone in the middle distance. These pines hold Azure-winged Magpies (see plate 11 upper). 1’late i i Eric Hashing Azure-winged Magpie at nest: Goto Donana, May 1957 This beautiful black-capped, brownish-grey bird with blue wings and long blue tail has colonized the Goto within the last 50 years, with the development of the pinewoods, its preferred habitat. Only two-thirds the size of our Magpie, it builds an undomed nest of pine twigs, lined with mammal hair. Eric II osking Short-toed Lark at nest: Goto Donana, May 1957 This and the Lesser Short-toed are the predominant larks of the marismas. The Short-toed, distinguished by rufous colouring, dark neck-patches and unstreaked breast from its greyer-brown relative, was found chiefly where the Salicornia was sparse, the Lesser Short-toed where it was more plentiful. Most nests are by Salicornia with a ramp of mud particles on the open side (see page 18). Plate i VOL. Li] GOTO DQ5JANA ECOLOGY 21 Glossy Ibis [PLegadis falcinellus ) — of which only a few non- breeding- birds are now to be seen in the marismas — used to nest there. The importance of these lagoons as a refuge for the birds of the marismas during the summer, when their habitats are dried up, must not be exaggerated. It is true that young Coots displaced from the desiccated marisma concentrate on the lagoons, but the number of birds finding refuge in this way is insignificant compared with the great masses hatched on the marismas. Only for the White-headed Duck, Marbled Duck and Purple Heron have the lagoons a certain importance as refuges. For the first, which breeds at Las Nuevas in the extreme east of the marismas and a little elsewhere throughout the delta, the lagoons represent an occasional nesting place, but probably none bred in 1957 and very few in preceding years. The status of the Marbled Duck is similar, but even less definite. Laguna Dulce forms the only remaining nesting stronghold of Purple Herons in the marisma region, except for a few isolated pairs breeding in clumps of Typha and Phragmites in the Madre and in a few canos very remote from the Coto, near the Guadalquivir, which we have not visited. The human environment. The influence of man on the environment is manifest above all in the reforestation by pines — and now by eucalyptus which bring about a rapid loss of fauna. Compared with the great faunistic richness of the old habitats of Halimium and cork oak, and the pinewoods, the eucalyptus plantations are noteworthy for their extreme poverty of fauna. About the only species which maintain or adapt themselves within the eucalyptus plantations are Stone Curlews, Kestrels, Bee-eaters, Thekla Larks, Golden Orioles and Goldfinches. A few Red-legged Partridges are also seen. Only the Red Deer and some reptiles such as the lizard Acanthodactylus (a species replaced in the thickets by Psammodromus) seem to prefer the new habitat. The disappearance from the new plantations of the Imperial Eagle, Lynx, etc., has been conspicuous. Agriculture has little importance on the Coto. At the western end an appreciable area is occupied by cereals and guayules * (these last being quite new in the region). In the first occur the obvious species such as Red-legged Partridge, Thekla Lark and Stone Curlew. However, cultivation certainly plays an important part as the foraging area for Woodpigeons ( Columba palumbus) who are divided in their preference between these crops and the juncigraminetum at the edge of the marisma and the lagoons. Some Quail ( Coturnix coturnix ) seem to nest here as well. Buildings are few and of little importance. The largest are the *This is the Russian dandelion (Taraxacum kok-saghyz), from which a type of rubber is produced. 22 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li Palacio de Donana and Las Marismillas. At the Palacio we have found the following fauna: (i) Reptiles and mammals Moorish Gecko ( Tarantola mauretanica) Mouse-eared Bat ( Myotis myotis) Pipistrelle Bat ( Pipistrellus sp.) Serotine Bat (Eptesicus serotinus) .Schreiber’s Bat ( Miniopterus schreibersii ) Garden Dormouse ( Eliomys quercinus) Rat (Rattus sp.) House Mouse (Mus musculus) (The Mouse-eared and Schreiber’s Bats have both been found when about to give birth.) (2) Birds Barn Owl (Tyto alba) Spotless Starling ( Sturnus unicolor) Swallow ( Hirundo rustica) House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus) Some isolated buildings near the beach, including one of the medieval watch-towers (Torre Carbonero), an old ruined barracks, some ruined houses and a few inhabited houses, carry a fauna poor in species and individuals. We have seen there the following: Reptiles and birds Wall Lizard ( Lacerta bocagei) — common in the tower Peregrine ( Falco peregrinus) — one pair breeding on the tower Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) — one pair nesting on the barracks Barn Owl ( Tyto alba) — one pair in the same tower as the Peregrines Little Owl ( Athene noctua) — nesting not proved in this habitat Jackdaw (Corvus monedula) — several pairs in the ruined buildings, including one pair down an old well, 8 metres deep (26 feet) The nesting-season of the Peregrines is so timed that the young are growing up during the period of bird-migration (April-May), so that a variety of passage species are available for food. We have recorded the remains of Turtle Dove, Hoopoe ( Upupa epops), Roller ( Coracias garndus), Red-necked Nightjar and many smaller migrants. In the list of Coto birds associated with man the Hoopoe should perhaps also be included. In 1956 a pair took up residence in an old beehive at La Algaida. In 1957 they nested in a thatched roof at the same locality. La Algaida may be taken as an example of the fauna of the little houses of the gamekeepers. Apart from the Hoopoe we have found there : Moorish Gecko ( Tarantola mauretanica) Pipistrelle Bat ( Pipistrellus sp.) Swallow ( Hirundo rustica) Spotless Starling ( Sturnus unicolor) In the few kitchen gardens with some trees which exist on the Coto, the bird population is that already noted for the Rubus (bramble) thickets, plus a few pairs of Goldfinches. A pair of Golden Orioles nest in the Palacio eucalyptus grove (which is shown in the distance on plate 6 upper). In the past the Imperial Eagle has once made an eyrie in eucalyptus (El Puntal). Black Kites also nest in these trees. In 1952 near Marismillas we saw a fair number of nests of Azure-winged Magpie in these trees. VOL. LI] COTO DON AN A ECOLOGY 23 The riverside broad-leaved trees. In the extreme north-west of the Coto are two little streams, generally waterless, which support a dense vegetation of broad- leaved trees — ash ( Fraxinus ), willow ( Salix ), elm ( Ulmus ), poplar ( Popidus ) and dense bramble thickets (Rubus). These are the places called Soto Grande and Soto Chico. The bird population of these places is very like that of the bramble thickets on the Coto. Only one species can be added with certainty — Cetti’s Warbler ( Cettia cetti). Other birds may nest there, but this has not yet been proved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincerest thanks are due to Mr. E. M. Nicholson for his collaboration in /he preparation of this paper, and for translating it into English; to Mrs. Pedro Weickert and Mr. R. D. Meikle for much help over the determination of the plants; and to Mr. I. J. Ferguson-Lees for checking through the typescript and making many useful suggestions, also for selecting and preparing captions for the photographic illustrations from the large series kindly put at his disposal by Mr. Eric Hosking, to whom I am also most grateful. For making the work possible I am indebted to Aranzadi (Museo de San Telmo, San Sebastian), to all the members of the 1957 Coto Donana Expedition, particularly Mr. Guy Mountfort, the leader, and especially to the owers of the Coto Donana and of Las Marismillis — above all, Don Mauricio Gonzalez Dfez. All deserve much more than this simple expression of my gratitude. REFERENCES (Although, as mentioned last month, the publication of the full list of sources will be delayed until the end of this series on the Camargue and the Coto Donana, the following two references must be given here — Eds.) Mountfort, G. (in press): Portrait of a Wilderness. To be published by Hutchinson, London. Nicholson, E. M., Ferguson-Lees, I. J., and Hollom, P. A. D. (1957): “The Camargue and the Coto Donana”. Brit. Birds, l: 497-519. BROKEN EGGS IN PEREGRINE EYRIES Bv D. A. Ratcliffe During the eight years from 1949 to 1956, among a considerable number of eyries of the Peregrine ( Falco peregrinus ) that I examined, there were fourteen in which one or more eggs were either broken or disappeared, with no evidence of human or other outside interference. This would seem a larger number than could be explained by chance accidents alone. Nor was this a local occurrence, as the records, which are listed below, refer to fourteen different inland haunts in widely separated regions. In no case was an evric deserted when first seen. All the observa- tions are my own, except in the three cases where the name of another observer indicates that he was responsible for the later visit or visits. (1) Scotland 1 8th April 1949: c/2 and one egg broken below the nest. (2) England 10th April 1951: c/3. 12th April: c/i and broken remains of the other two eggs. (3) Scotland 18th April 1951 : c/2 and broken remains of at least one more egg in nest. (4) Wales 29th April 1951: c/2. 3rd May: c/i and broken remains of the other egg in the nest. 24 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li (6) Scotland (5) Scotland (7) Wales (8) Scotland (9) Wales (10) England (it) Scotland 8th April 1952: c/3 and broken remains of at least one more egg in the nest. 4th June 1951: c/2 and broken remains of at least one more egg in the nest (repeat laying of a pair seen with c/2 on 16th April 1951). nth May 1952: c/i and broken remains of other eggs in the nest. 30th May: last egg broken but bird sitting on the eyrie. 6th April 1953: c/3 and broken remains of another egg below the nest. 24th April 1953: c/2 and broken remains of at least one more egg in the nest. 8th April 1955: c/4. Reported later with c/2 and these disappeared one by one. 17th April 1955: c/2. Reported later with c/i, but this proved infertile, and the nest was finally deserted (W. Murdoch). (12) Scotland 20th April 1955: c/2. 25th May: c/i and broken remains of the other egg in the nest (W. J. Eggeling) ; eyrie deserted but both Peregrines still about. (13) Scotland 12th April 1956: c/4. 27th May: 1 young and 1 infertile egg (E. Blezard). (14) IFales 1 8th April 1956: c/i and broken remains of other eggs in the eyrie. Nest later reported empty. In ( 1 1 ) and (12), the single remaining eggs were finally deserted after being incubated beyond the normal period. Besides these definite records of broken and disappearing eggs, there has been circumstantial evidence pointing to other similar occurrences. On 19th April 1955, three eyries with 1, 1 and 2 eggs respectively were found in the same region as nest (12) above. Although I reached only one eyrie, incubation was evidently advanced in all three, indicating that the birds had finished laying. Such abnormally small clutches could be most readily explained by the disappearance of eggs. Thirteen of the definite cases of breakages or disappearance were during the period 1951-56 and represent over a fifth of a total of 59 eyries with eggs seen in that time; four out of nine eyries found in 1951 had broken eggs. By contrast, only one instance of breakage — record (1) — was noted in a total of 35 eyries with eggs examined during the preceding years 1945-50. Probably more breakages would have been found had I been able to re-visit all the discovered eyries later in the season ; usually only a single visit was possible. At least two more such instances were reported from the North of England in 1955 and it would be surprising if no other cases have occurred. These incidents do not seem to have been frequent enough to have attracted comment in earlier years, though in 1924 E. Blezard saw a Lakeland eyrie with 4 eggs and a fifth freshly broken on a ledge below. Ryves (1948) noted two cases of disappearing eggs (in 1932 and 1937) among the Peregrines of the Cornish Coast, though he does not mention broken eggs. It is well known that Peregrine broods often number only one or VOL. Li] BROKEN PEREGRINE EGGS 25 two young out of a set of 3-4 eggs, but my own records indicate that single youngsters were particularly common during the years 1951-1956. Nestling mortality and the rather high proportion of infertile eggs would normally account for small broods, but more recently the breakage of eggs has probably been an additional cause in some cases. In only one instance is there direct evidence as to the cause of breakage but I believe that it could explain the majority of these occurrences. On 12th April 1951 I re-visited an eyrie — no. (2) on the list — which had held 3 eggs on 10th April. My approach was undetected by the Peregrines and from a point about 15 yards distant and level with the eyrie, I saw the female standing on the edge of the scrape, pecking at its contents. It became obvious that the falcon was eating her own eggs and when she was flushed, the nest was found to contain only one intact egg, together with the freshly broken remains of the other two. One egg had been smashed long enough for the residual traces of yolk and albumen to have congealed. At eyrie no. (8), the broken egg beneath the nest had been eaten and not accidentally kicked off the ledge. It was sucked dry, with a gaping hole in the shell — but not made in the manner of a Carrion Crow ( Corvus corone ) which also usually carries away its spoil. Two years previously, at this same haunt, the remains of a Peregrine egg were found on a slope some way from the nearest nesting ledge. The broken egg in eyrie no. (1) could have been eaten, for it was unlikely to have rolled into the deep crevice where it reposed several yards below the nest. This instance had other peculiar features, as the broken egg was pure white (with a shell of normal thickness) contrasting with the brick-red pair in the eyrie, and two hen Peregrines besides the tiercel were in evidence about the nesting crags. The eyries with broken eggs all had the same appearance as the one at which the bird was seen to eat its eggs — with numerous small fragments of shell lying in the scrape. It seems unlikely that breakage of only part of a clutch could be due to direct human interference. On the other hand, there is the possibility that egg-eating might result from the Peregrines’ reactions to human intrusion — but two lines of evidence weigh against this idea. First, in most cases when the damage or loss had occurred before my first visit, I had good reason to believe that no one else had previously been to the eyrie that season. Secondly, the data show that this phenomenon has become prevalent only during the last few years, indicating that the real cause has only recently become operative. It is highly improbable that Ravens (Corvus corax) or Carrion/ Hooded Crows would steal eggs from any but a deserted Peregrine eyrie. Accidental breakages may sometimes occur, but hardly in such a high proportion of eyries, and though infertile eggs are frequent, they are usually left in the nest and may remain even after the young have flown. Small clutches could be explained 26 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI by the taking- of one or two eggs, though those bent on acquiring Peregrines’ eggs can seldom resist the whole clutch. Peregrines do not usually continue to lay if an incomplete set of eggs is taken, nor do they “make up’’ a clutch to the full strength if odd eggs are removed. Having considered the evidence and the alternative explanations, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the majority of these broken eggs were eaten by one or other of the owners. Should this be the correct explanation, the reason for this peculiar behaviour is even more obscure. If a shortage of food were possible, such actions would certainly have significance in reducing the brood size. However, a catholic choice of prey in an efficient hunter such as the Peregrine would make a general food scarcity seem an unlikely event. On the other hand, Dr. J. D. Lockie suggests to me that any bird with asynchronous hatching — and the evidence indicates that the Peregrine is one of these — must at times go short of food, and that in this phenomenon the species already has a device for adjusting brood size to food supply ( cf . Lockie, 1955). Vesey (1938) recorded two cases of smashed and disappearing eggs and two small clutches (1 and 2 eggs) in a series of eight Iceland Falcon ( Falco rusticolus islandicus ) eyries. Goodwin (1956) has put forward strong evidence to show that parental egg- eating is common in Jays ( Garrulus glandarius) and suggests that the practice may be more prevalent among birds than is suspected. From the work of Brown and Davies (1949), he quotes the Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus ) as another possible example. E. Blezard tells me that he has often found Dunnock ( Prunella modularis ) nests with clutches of broken eggs, which appeared more likely to be the work of the birds themselves rather than predators. Finally, I am informed that among certain native birds in captivity, such as the Goldfinch ( Carduelis carduelis), egg-eating is a common incident, but usually by the male when caged with his mate. However, the artificial conditions under which these birds live might occasion such abnormal behaviour in this case. Perhaps this note will draw records of similar experiences from other observers. In any event, it would be interesting to know how widespread and numerous these peculiar incidents have been during recent years. REFERENCES Brown, P. E. and Davies, M. G. (1949): Reed-Warblers — An Introduction to their Breeding Biology and Behaviour. East Molesey. Goodwin, D. (1956): “Further observations on the behaviour of the Jay Garndus glandarius”. Ibis, 98: 186-219. Lewis, E. (E. Vesey) (1938): In Search of the Gyr-Falcon. London. Lockie, J. D. (1955): “The breeding and feeding of Jackdaws and Rooks, with notes on Carrion Crows and other Corvidae”. Ibis, 97: 341-369. Ryves, B. H. (1948): Bird Life in Cornwall. London. UNCOMMON MIGRANTS AT PORTLAND BILL DURING THE AUTUMN OF 1956 By K. D. Smith and J. S. Ash The following notes on birds seen in the immediate vicinity (approximately one square mile) of Portland Bill, Dorset, during the autumn of 1956, have been taken from the daily journals maintained at Portland Bird Observatory. Full details of the birds seen have been submitted to the Editors of British Birds. For the sake of brevity only those observers who actually contributed field or laboratory notes are mentioned here (see below) ; others will be named in the regional reports. All the birds included in the Systematic List, with the exception of some shearwaters, skuas, the Coal Tit and the Blue-headed Wagtail, were seen by one or the other, or both, of the writers. Local wind directions and strength were as follows: uth-2ist August, S.W., often gales, up to force 9; 22nd-23rd August, E. to S.E., mild breeze; 24th-30th August, S.W. to N.W., often strong; 31st August-25th September, variable but mainly E. to N.E. ; 26th September-8th October, S.W. to N.W., frequently strong or gales; 9th-i5th October, variable, mainly E. to N.E. ; i6th-29th October, S.W. to N.W. ; 30th October onwards, very variable. No attempt is made here to analyse the meteorological conditions which may have accounted for the occurrence of some of the migrants. The arrival of most, although not all, of the more uncommon Passerines can be correlated with periods when winds were mainly from an easterly direction ; notable exceptions are the Olivaceous Warbler and Red-breasted Flycatcher. Lapland Buntings appeared to arrive at Portland with easterly or westerly winds, and it seems feasible that they came from widely separated breed- ing areas. South Dorset came well within the area of the British Isles affected by the “rush” of drift migrants during the first two weeks of September. It is worth mentioning that, in addition to the more uncommon visitors, a Quail ( Coturnix coturnix ), 7 Corncrakes ( Crex crex ), ca. 250 Turtle Doves ( Streptopelia turtur ), ca. 100 Whinchats ( Saxicola rubetra), ca. 40 Pied Flycatchers (Muscicapa hypoleuca) and 10+ Grasshopper Warblers ( Locustella naevia ) were recorded in the great “drift” from the south-east on 9th September. At least 4, possibly more, Wrynecks ( Jynx torquilla) were seen, two being trapped, between 9th and 23rd September. SYSTEMATIC LIST Balearic Shearwater ( Procellaria ptijjinus mauretcmicus). — Recorded on four days in August, the first of the autumn on the 16th, maximum 3 on the 26th. Noted on six days in September, mainly during the last week, maximum g on the 10th. Noted on fifteen days in October, but not after the 24th, maximum 11 on the 24th. 78 birds observed in all; of these where flight direction was recorded 31 flew east and 7 west. In early October several were seen within fifty yards of the shore feeding with other sea-birds on inshore shoals of sprats or pilchards. An injured bird watched at very close 27 28 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI quarters had yellowish-brown legs; the upper-parts were variously described as “medium-brown”, “colour of Swift”, “greyish-black”, “dusty or sooty brown”; it frequently dived from the surface of the sea, and used its wings underwater. In contrast, only a few Manx Shearwaters (Procellaria p. puffinus) were recorded during the same period, with only 2 in October, both on 2nd. (Birds have been seen at quite close quarters which do not correspond with either of the above races. It is suspected that the race yelkouan may be present in the Channel. The prospects of obtaining a specimen are remote.) Sooty Shearwater ( Procellaria grisea). — One flying east on 24th October. Dotterel ( Charadrius morinellus). — Singly on nth and 13th September. Flight note a quiet, hard “phew” or “chew”, difficult to express in words. The same, or another bird, was seen daily on short-grass saltings at Ferry- bridge, 4! miles north of Portland Bill, from nth to 17th September. Great Skua ( Stercorarius skua). — 2 on 17th and 26th August, single birds on 13th September, 8th and nth October. Little Gull ( Lams minutus). — 1 flying west on 24th August, 1 coasting east on 6th October. Great Tit (Par us major). — 1 trapped on 15th October which, from the slender and shallow bill, appeared to be of the Continental race (P. m. major). Coal Tit ( Partis ater). — 1 seen on 14th October which, from the slate-grey upper-parts, agreed with the Continental race (P. a. ater). The species is quite absent as a breeding bird from the “island” of Portland. Bluetiiroat ( Cyanosylvia svecica). — A $ trapped on 2nd September, wing 70 mm. 266 on 9th September, two of. which were trapped and measured: weight 24.7 gms., wing 80 mm.; and weight 21.0 gms., wing 76 mm. Racial determination could not be made with certainty. Marsh Warbler ( Acrocephalus palustris). — Singly on 4th, 8th (retrapped on nth) and 14th September. All trapped and none watched in the field. Leg colour variable : in one the legs were described as palish brown with no fleshy tint; in another, pale brown with a tinge of lead-blue; and in the last, pale brown with a less obvious lead-blue tinge. In contrast only one Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus) was recorded (trapped) during the autumn, on 22nd August. Aquatic Warbler ( Acrocephalus paludicola). — 1 caught in a trap sited in a ditch overgrown with willow-herb and rushes, 2nd September. Weight 13.2 gms., wing 61 mm. Olivaceous Warbler (Hippolais pallida). — 1 self-trapped on 16th August (full details of this record will be appearing in British Birds in a separate note). Barred Warbler (Sylvia nisoria). — Single birds on 9th/ioth September, 12th and 2 1 st October. Two caught and found to be first-winter birds. Inhabiting bramble, blackthorn thickets and Euonymus bushes. The first bird weighed 30.1 gms., and wing 89 mm.; the second 23.2 gms., and 85 mm. Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita). — 1 on 2nd September and another on 7th / 8th November appeared to be of the Siberian form (Ph. c. tristis); neither was caught. In brief, they had olive-brown upper-parts, buffish-white super- ciliary stripes, dirty white under-parts; no trace of yellow in the plumage except on the primaries; the legs looked black; unfortunately both were silent when under observation. Also, 1 on 2nd, 1 on 8th and 3 on 9th September were thought to be very pale birds by various observers, but no detailed descriptions were made at the time. Firecrest (Regulus ignicapillus). — A (5 on 23rd September, a B (trapped) on nth/ 12th October, a and 9 on nth November. Red-breasted Flycatcher (Muscicapa parva). — A 9 or young $ on ist/2nd October. It fed at times on the ground, more regularly than the Handbook suggests. Tawny Pipit ( An thus campestris). — 3 on qth September, one being trapped; weight 25.5 gms., wing 89 mm. 1 remained throughout ioth/nth September. One of those on the qth frequently uttered a rather hard, somewhat Linnet- like twittering (D.D.H.); that on the 10th used the more typical "chir-up” or “chew-up”. vol. li ] MIGRANTS AT PORTLAND: 1956 29 A large pipit seen flying south high over the fields on 23rd September was, from the call, a disyllabic “chew-up”, considered to be this species by K.D.S. who was very familiar with the bird in Eritrea. Blue-headed Wagtail ( Motacilla /. flava). — A d with a flock of flavissima on nth September. Woodciiat Shrike ( Lanins senator). — A juvenile trapped on 2 2nd August. Weight 33.9 gms., wing 98.5 mm. Bullfinch ( Pyrrhula pyrrhula). — A 9 011 10th September and a $ on 8th October. Ortolan Bunting ( Emberiza hortulana). — 5 or more on 9th September, 2 on the 10th, 1 on the 15th; another small influx on 22nd/23rd September when 3 were seen, 1 on the 24th. Frequently seen perching in an isolated sycamore tree in a garden, or feeding in stubbles. Described as rather dull greyish-green birds with dark brown upper-parts streaked blackish-brown, yellow orbital rings and dull yellow-green moustachial stripes, yellow-brown rumps, white- outer tail-feathers and pink bills. Call a liquid “quip quip”. Lapland Bunting ( Calcarius lapponicus). — Recorded for the first time at the observatory in most unusual numbers for southern England from 22nd September onwards. The first influx, a flock of 5 + , occurred on this date, and there were 8 on 23rd and 1 on 24th. 2+ appeared on 6th October, 2 on the 14th and 6+ on the 16th; at least one on the 24th, 2 on the 26th. The latter (presumably) were seen on many days until 18th November when 4 were present. After that there were 3 until 24th November when 5, possibly 9, were seen. At least 4 until 22nd December, The early arrivals were extremely wild and difficult to approach, but November birds were less so. They could be identified by their characteristic call-note, which was more frequently rendered “teu — tr-r-r-r-t” rather than the opposite (the “ticky-tick-teu” of the Handbook). The “teu” and the “tr-r-r-r-t” were also used separately, the sharp and abrupt “teu” carrying far. Other flight notes heard were a “chup”, very like one of the flight notes of a Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs), a rather hard “tu-tu-tu” and a plaintive “tee-00”. Early arrivals fed mainly in stubbles, and later in ploughland and occasionally on turf near the cliff-edge. They crouched low in the stubbles, prefering to run fast rather than to fly. They were pugnacious to Meadow Pipits (Anthus pratensis) and a Swallow (FI ir undo rustica ) which came too close. More often than not they associated with flocks of Skylarks ( Alauda arvensis), but those on 18th November were accompanied by a Snow Bunting ( Plectrophenax nivalis). A first-winter was trapped on 24th October; weight 29.0 gms., wing 92 mm. At 0722 hours on 26th October 2 birds, and 1 at 0750 on 27th October, were seen arriving from the Channel. They came in low over the sea from the south, calling “teu — tr-r-r-r-t” several times as they flew past the observer (K.D.S.). LIST OF OBSERVERS H. G. Alexander, D. G. Barnes, Jacques Blondel, Bryanston School N.H.S., A. J. Bull, H. J. Clase, G. B. D. Chidwick, F. R. Clafton, Miss M. D. Crosby, E. G. Darton, K. V. Edwards, D. D. Harber, R. J. Jackson, E. L. Jones, Bernard King, G. Kinsey, A. R. Mead-Briggs, G. W. H. Moule, C. Perrins, Dr. K. B. Rooke, A. B. Sheldon, J. Shepperd, J. J. Swift, W. H. Tucker, G. E. C. Waterhouse, J. A. Wigzell and Miss D. Yorke. NOTES ON THE WREN IN THE ARAN ISLANDS, IRELAND Bv Edward A. Armstrong What may be described as the integrative pattern of the breeding behaviour of the Wren ( Troglodytes troglodytes ) varies in different types of environment (Armstrong, 1950-57). Differences in behaviour patterns are so integrated in this species, and no doubt 30 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI in others, that variation in one tends to be associated with correlated variations in others. In theory, if a given population of an organism evolved a sufficiently distinctive group of behavioural adaptations, related to the environment and all correlated with one another in a biologically advantageous way, a barrier would be established to the inter-breeding of this popula- tion with other related populations, and divergence towards the formation of a separate species would occur. The Wren is an outstanding example of a species able to vary a group of such adaptations according to the environment. Its adaptability lies, not merely in the extent to which a number of behaviour-patterns may be modified to suit circumstances, but in the nicety with which these adaptations are related to, and integrated with, each other. Wren adaptations vary according to the degree to which the habitat may be classified, for our purpose, as “bleak” or “fertile”. The distinction is essentially ecological rather than geographical, but in geographical terms the extreme types may be roughly divided into “northern insular” and “mainland” or “continental”. The St. Kilda Wren (T\ t. hirtensis) represents one extreme, the Wren in average garden-woodland areas in England and on the Continent the other. The adaptations of the latter include a strong tendency to be polygamous, the building of a considerable number of auxiliary nests, a prolonged period of song reaching two maxima of output in April and June, and second broods as a normal procedure. This type is characteristic of habitats containing a readily available food-supply. The tendencies of the Wrens of bleak habitats are towards monogamy, less nest-build- ing, a shorter period of vigorous song, fewer second broods and greater activity by the male in tending the brood in and out of the nest. The fundamental environmental factor determining the type of behaviour is, in my view, the availability of food. Where food „ for the young is relatively scarce and brood-size remains the same as where it is abundant, the male’s aid in feeding the young is indispensable. In bleak habitats the broods of polygamous males would be in jeopardy from malnutrition, as, even if the male were to devote himself to helping his females, he would have to distribute his efforts over two or more broods. Selection has operated in such areas in favour of monogamy. Thus a species may adapt itself to different habitats by modifying behaviour rather than altering brood-size. Comparison of the behaviour of bleak area and fertile area Wrens shows that in bleak areas the male is more attentive to the young than in fertile areas, but observation indicates that in fertile areas, where the female relaxes her efforts, the male may act to supplement them. If the female disappears when the chicks are a few days old, he may devote his energies almost wholly to tending them and behave to all intents and purposes like a female. The stimulus which triggers such behaviour is evidently the VOL. Li] ARAN ISLAND WRENS 31 begging behaviour of the young. This behaviour-mechanism, operating in bleak areas, would tend to attach the male more definitely to domestic duties and thereby reduce polygamous tendencies, but as it would not have any effect until the eggs had hatched it would not be sufficient to account for the difference between bleak area and fertile area behaviour. We may assume that latent in both types of Wren is the capacity to behave in some measure according to the pattern of the other extreme. But, theoretically, adaptation to one or the other type might advance beyond the possibility of reverting to the other behaviour-type even on return to an environment which strongly favoured it. The elucidation of the genetic bases of such a group of correlated adaptations would be of great interest. The Aran Islands, Inishmore, Inishmaan and Inisheer, at the entrance to Galway Bay in Ireland, provide Wren habitats which are intermediate between the two extremes, though of “fertile” rather than “bleak” type, and therefore an enquiry into the behaviour of the birds there was made to try to discover to which pattern their activities most closely conformed. My stay on Inishmore was from 18th to 22nd May 1957. In spite of its brevity and the inadequacy of the investigation, some clues useful for the solution of the problem were obtained. Only six miles separates the smallest of the three islands, Inisheer, from the Clare coast. In default of meteorological records, accurate comparison between the climates of the Aran Islands, St. Kilda and Shetland is impossible and the difficulties of comparison are further accentuated owing to the differences in geological formation and vegetation. Aran is of carboniferous limestone clothed with calcicole plants whereas the Shetland Isles are mainly composed of schist. The general impression is of a milder climate and richer flora and fauna than is found on St. Kilda or islands of comparable size in Shetland. Arum lilies grow out of doors in Aran and dracaenas ( Cordyline australis ) reach a height of twenty feet. Frost is rare. There is little cultivated land, but on Inishmore a good deal of pasture land intersected by innumerable dry stone walls — as along the Connemara coast. The “undeveloped” areas are mainly limestone pavement with a rich and interesting flora growing in the interstices sheltered from the wind. HABITAT Although Inishmore is bare and windswept there are a few small groves of trees and, near the houses, much scrubby vegeta- tion. There are, of course, no woods or heather moors such as shelter some Wrens in the Hebrides and Shetland. Brambles, ivy and thick herbage grow along the walls and on rocky declivities. High winds are mainly responsible for preventing the growth of more luxurious vegetation. The Wrens are found mainly near the 32 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI cottages, where rocky banks occur and in the bramble tangles bordering the walls. Territories sometimes extend some way into the stony areas, but not to any extent into the limestone pave- ment nor at all on the short flower-spangled turf sloping up to the cliffs. It is not surprising that there are no Wrens on the cliffs themselves for they are without vegetation and exposed to the impact of waves which are sometimes strong enough to destroy the stone- work of ancient dwellings on the tops of cliffs ioo feet high. In contrast, Wrens on St. Kilda and the Shetland Isles establish territories on the vegetated cliffs. Thus, on Aran, as contrasted with St. Kilda and Shetland, wren habitats are mainly due to the influence of man, for human labour has created not only the dwellings and walls but also the pasture land, built up from the sand and seaweed carried up from the shore by generations of islanders. Robin [Erithacus rubecula ) habitats always hold Wrens, but Wren territories extend into rougher, more open ground. This is in keeping with the greater adaptability of the Wren. The greater the distance of islands from the British mainland the poorer the avifauna (Lack, 1942 ; Darling, 1947) and the Robin drops out of island bird lists much sooner than the Wren. Judging by the appearance of the vegeta- tion and the greater concentration of insectivorous Passerines as compared with St. Kilda or Shetland, food suitable for Wrens would be more readily available than in these island groups. Wrens are more abundant than on the Burren, the corresponding' limestone formation on the mainland, and this seems to be related to the meagreness of human population and activity there. TERRITORY A road runs longitudinally across Inishmore. The main human and Wren population is concentrated along it. Wren territories were located at distances apart of 200-300 yards — somewhat closer, it seemed, than Wren territories on low cliffs in Shetland. Territorial aggressiveness was apparent. Song by a male elicited song from neighbours, and in at least two instances the menace of encroachment by a singing rival caused the territory owner to advance and sing against him with great vehemence. Such behaviour at the stage of the breeding cycle which these birds had reached is more typical of fertile, mainland regions than of bleak, insular areas. This is because polygamous males, neglectful of nestlings and ardent to secure mates, have a greater song output than males preoccupied with feeding young. I was unable to estimate the area of territories, but I formed the impression that they were comparable with those in southern England. SONG Now that objective methods of analysing bird song are available, subjective estimates have limited value, but it seemed to me that the song differed in some respects from that of the Wrens 1 had VOL. Ll] ARAN ISLAND WRENS 33 been hearing near Cambridge. (I also thought that Wrens at Clew Bay and Galway sang differently from Cambridge birds.) Aran songs were remarkably variable. I listened to one bird at 05.00 G.M.T. for 15 minutes before I could be certain it was a Wren. Its song had no trace of a trill. Another bird repeated a long, elaborate song in which the first of three trills seemed to alter its pitch half-way. One bird sang five songs to the minute, another ten. Making allowance for the extent to which any Wren can alter its song according to circumstances, and also for variability being accentuated towards the end of a breeding cycle, there appeared to be more variability between individuals than I had noted elsewhere. There was a considerable amount of song, not only early in the morning but at all hours of the day. A male, assiduously feeding nestlings, and no doubt stimulated by the presence of his mate, also feeding the chicks, sang very brief, soft songs consisting of a trill on a single note, with a slurred end note. Sometimes he made slight fluttering move- ments with his wings — reminiscent of the more active courtship wing-quivering of Wrens earlier in the season. Such behaviour is most typical of northern insular Wrens, for the males are more frequently close to their mates at the nest. NESTING Finding nests on Aran was more difficult than in the Hebrides, Shetland or St. Hilda. On these northern islands a bird feeding young can be readily followed up and the nest discovered, usually without much trouble. On Inishmore the birds disappeared into the dense briar thickets bordering the dry-stone walls and I was unable, in the time at my disposal, to locate the nests. I was near enough to one nest to hear the chicks calling. Some nests are probably situated quite out of sight in crevices of the overgrown stonework. No doubt other nests are placed in more conspicuous and vulnerable niches, for the Wrens of all habitats do not keep to any sterotyped type of site. Irish boys have never indulged in birdnesting to the extent that boys in England have, and the only time the Wren is persecuted is in the midwinter ritual of the Wren H unt ( Armstrong , 1957b, and in press). Such effective conceal- ment of the nest appears to be due to the ample number of well- hidden cavities rather than the selective pressure of local predators. NESTING-SEASON A group of newly-fledged young was noted on 19th May, a female carrying prey the next day, and a pair feeding nestlings on 22nd May. As the period of the nesting cycle of Wrens from the end of egg-laying to fledging takes approximately just over a month, egg-laying on Aran evidently occurs about mid-April or a little later. Allowing for seasonal variations, breeding seems to begin no later than in southern England and Holland. In contrast the nestlings of Wrens in the Hebrides, Shetland and St. Kilda are commonly still unfledged during the first week or two of 34 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI June and the chances of the parents raising second broods are correspondingly reduced. This is a crucial consideration, so far as the relationship of the Aran birds’ behaviour to one or other of the types is concerned, for the inference is that in the matter of second broods the Aran Wrens approximate to the breeding pattern of fertile area birds. DISPLAY AND PAIR-BOND During periods of observation on two days a male was constantly “ticking” and replying vigorously with song to a neighbouring male who was trying to encroach. Sometimes he sang on the wing — an indication of an excitable sexual condition. He flew towards his rival and compelled him to retreat. This bird was preoccupied with a female who behaved as if she had no family responsibilities. From time to time he pursued her in sexual chase and once or twice performed the fluttery courtship flight with rapidly beating wings and comparatively slow progress. These activities suggest that in mid-season a male is ready to start a second brood and pair-up with a roving female. Such behaviour would be consistent with polygamy. A female was seen carrying food for young which, judging by her behaviour, were in a nest close by. About 150 yards along the road I noted a female feeding a fledged brood with the male singing near at hand. No other male was noted in this area. This suggests, though it does not prove, bigamy. DISCUSSION Meagre as these data are, and much in need of supplementation by observers able to spend long periods observing the Wrens of other islands, they indicate, in my opinion, that the breeding behaviour of Aran Wrens is more like that of the mainland, fertile area type than that of the bleak, northern island type. This confirms that the distinction is ecological rather than geographical. The relatively early inception of breeding, the vigorous defence of territory and sexual ardour at mid-season, the indications that second broods occur and the suggestions of polygamy are all consistent with the fertile area pattern of behaviour. On the other hand, the behaviour of the male ardently feeding chicks and performing wing-flutters near the nest is rare among fertile area Wrens, but, so far as my observations and those of others go, is frequent among northern insular Wrens. I conclude that while the behaviour of Aran Wrens conforms mainly to the fertile area type there are indications that, in response to the more rigorous conditions, there is a tendency towards the bleak area type. A study of Wrens in mountainous marginal habitats would be of interest. One would expect them to conform to the latter type. SUMMARY The breeding behaviour of Wrens on the Aran Islands, Ireland, conforms more to the fertile area type than the bleak insular area VOL. Li] ARAN ISLAND WRENS 35 type. Bleakness, with relative inavailability of food, is the factor governing- the modification of the integrated behaviour patterns. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Mr. Sedn Sweeney, Mr. Ciaran Barrett, and to Professor Sedn Delargy and other members of the Irish Folk- lore Commission, for making arrangements for my visit to the Aran Islands and coastal areas of the west of Ireland. REFERENCES Armstrong, E. A. (195a): “The behaviour and breeding biology of the Iceland Wren”. Ibis, 92: 384-401. (1952): “The behaviour and breeding biology of the Shetland Wren”. Ibis, 94: 220-242. ; (!953a): “The behaviour and breeding biology of the Hebridean Wren”. Brit. Birds, xlvi : 37-50. (1953b): “The history, behavior and breeding biology of the St. Kilda Wren”. Auk, 70: 127-150. (1953c): “Island Wrens”. Brit. Birds, xlvi: 418-420. (1955): The Wren. London. 0956): “Territory in the Wren”. Ibis, 98: 430-437. (1957a): Birds of the Aran Islands”. Irish Nat. fourn., xii, 207-208. — (1957b): “The wren-boys’ ritual”. Country Life, 122: 1417-1418. (in press): The Folklore of Birds. London. Darling, F. F. (1947): Natural History of the Highlands and Islands. London. Lack, D. (1942): “Ecological features of the bird faunas of British small islands”. ]. Anitn. Ecol., 10: 9-36. NOTES American Snipe in Lancashire. — On 30th September 1957, Mr. Stephen Brady brought into the Bolton Museum a Snipe { Capella gallinago ) which he had picked up dead near Rumworth Reservoir, Bolton, Lancashire. The bird was very stale, but I managed to preserve it since at first glance it was extremely dark. Subsequent examination showed that in every characteristic it resembles the North American race delicata (which is generally known as Wilson’s Snipe in the United States). Through the kind- ness of Colonel R. Meinertzhagen I was able to compare it with a wide range of skin material and with a series of preparations of axillaries and outer tail-feathers from British and American birds. Apart from the darker tone throughout, the Rumworth bird is quite strongly barred on the upper breast and has the flanks closely and heavily barred, while the axillaries have more black than the normal European type. The most critical factor, however, is the width of the outer tail-feather which is only 5 mm. measured at 20 mm. from the tip. Several of the tail-feathers are un- fortunately missing and it is not therefore possible to be certain as to their original number. Although the Snipe is a variable bird, it is extremely unlikely that a chance variant would embrace all the characters of the 36 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI North American form and added credence may be given to the record by the number of other Nearactic waders which occurred about the same time. Although there is only one other acceptable record for the British Isles, it is hardly likely that the race could ever satisfactorily be determined in the field or that many of the large number shot annually are critically examined, although the width of the outer tail-feathers is a ready and reliable guide. It may be pertinent to remark that I can find no observation as to the comparative sounds made by either race in drumming, although the difference in the width of the outer tail-feathers can hardly fail to produce vibrations of different timbre. Alfred Hazelwood Collared Flycatcher on Bardsey. — In late afternoon on ioth May 1957 a routine visit was made to Nant withy bed, Bardsey Island, Caernarvonshire, by workers at Bardsey Bird and Field Observatory. Their attention was drawn by a strikingly white and black bird , which was identified as a male Collared Flycatcher (Musicapa albicollis). The only familiar British bird with which it was reasonable to compare it was a male Pied Flycatcher (M. hypoleuca), although none was present. It was of similar size, although in certain lights the white areas made it appear larger. A broad white collar, long broad white wing-bar and whitish rump were clearly seen at various ranges, with and without binoculars, often at distances of only a few feet. These were good characters, even at long distances, and the whiteness in general was remarkable, as was the pureness of the black. During the two-hour period for which the bird was under observation it frequented the withy bed, stone walls and gardens near-by. When flying from one area to another, it normally flew at a few feet above the ground, although apparently quite strongly. An unsuccessful attempt was made to take it in a nylon net. The bird was seen by R. W. Arthur, K. Billings, E. R. Corte, G. A. Dangerfield, B. Griffiths, G. F. Griffiths and T. Griffiths. This is the first record for Wales. During the early hours of ioth May there had been a strong fall of Sedge Warblers ( Acrocephalus schoenobaenus), White- throats (Sylvia communis ) and Willow Warblers ( Pljylloscopus trochilus). A Sedge Warbler taken in the morning had been ringed at Jersey Bird Observatory on 1 6th May 1956. Reginald W. Arthur Alpine Swift in Norfolk. — At 10.00 hours G.M.T. on 13th July 19^7, at Cromer, Norfolk, I was watching a large number of Swifts (A pus at>us ) hawking along the cliffs, when I noticed among them a bird which I had no hesitation in identifying as an Aloine Swift (A. melba). This bird was larger and paler than the other Swifts, its head, back and wings being light brown in VOL. Li] NOTES 37 colour. The under-parts were pure white except for a brown band across the chest, as in a Sand Martin ( Riparia riparia). The under tail-coverts were very dark brown, almost black. The very large size of the bird was, perhaps, its most noticeable feature, but its flight was more powerful and interspersed with more frequent periods of gliding. The bird was also watched by A. C. Church who saw it again on 15th July, but a search by numerous observers on 16th July failed to reveal it. It is interesting to note that there was a very large influx of Swifts at Cromer on 13th July. These birds gradually disappeared during the 16th and 17th. R. A. F. Cox Red-flanked Bluetail in Kent.— On 28th October 1956, at Sandwich Bay Kent, G. Dunkling, U. Benecke and D. M. Batchelor found a dead bird which they brought to me. It had been freshly killed, and a Weasel ( Mustela nivalis) which left the scene as they appeared was thought to be responsible. The bird was a Red-flanked Bluetail ( Tarsiger cyanurus) and we provisionally identified it as a first-winter male — a conclusion that was subsequently confirmed by the British Museum (Natural History), where the skin is now deposited. This is only the second or third British record of this Asiatic and E. European species, one having been shot in Shetland in 1947 (Scot. Nat., vol. 60, pp. 6-7), some 44 years after one was thought to have been seen in Lincolnshire in September 1903 ( antea , vol. xlvii, pp. 28-30). At the time we measured the bird and took a full description, as well as making coloured drawings. A copy of the full details has been supplied to the Editors of British Birds. As the skin can be examined in London, it seems sufficient to give only a short description here. The crown, nape, mantle and sides of neck were olivaceous-brown and the back was grey (indistinct as a result of the mauling the bird had received), shading to “Blue Tit blue” on the rump; the outer webs of the tail feathers were also blue, the outer pair obscurely so, the central feathers darker than the rest; wing-feathers were predominantly grev-brown, with pale chestnut outer webs and with black shafts that in the case of the secondaries exceeded the tips of the feathers ; the chin was reddish-buff and the breast and belly white, the latter tinged lemon-yellow ; the sides of the breast were brownish-buff where they joined bright orange flanks. The tail was markedly forked, the “centre” being 4 mm. shorter than the longest feathers. Dennis F. Harlf. REVIEWS TALES OF A WILDFOWLER. By Arthur Cadman. Illustrated by Peter Scott. ( Collins , London, 1957). 192 pages; many black-and-white drawings. 21s. 38 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI This is a delightful book; its author is both an expert wildfowler and a keen ornithologist, and his writings prove that it is possible to combine these two interests, as indeed they should be combined by every wildfowler. The book deals mainly with geese and goose shooting in various parts of the British Isles and there are many vivid descriptions of the wildfowler’s world and some amusing and well told stories to enliven the text, which is full of accurate and careful observa- tions. In this respect, the account of the feeding habits of the Greenland White-fronted Goose is of particular interest, as are the author’s encounters with Red-breasted and Lesser White- fronted Geese in Wales, and with a Scottish Grey Lag Goose with symmetrical albinism in its primaries. My one disappointment about this book was that the author has not considered duck to the same extent as geese and they find very little mention. The author is obviously a dog-lover and his two chapters on dogs are among the best. Like many wildfowlers of today he also keeps some wildfowl in his garden, many of which have been inadvertently pinioned by a shot. There are some useful hints on how such birds should be treated, to make them settle down successfully. His collection is obviously a source of great pleasure to him. The book is enriched by scraperboard and line illustrations by Peter Scott— a great asset for any book, but more than this, I like to think that it is a happy omen for the future co-operation between the wildfowler and the ornithologist. This is a book which should be read by both, for it will do much to make the one appreciate the other’s point of view. J.G.H. COLOUR SLIDES BIRDS ON THE WING and BIRDS AND NESTS. Colour slides from photographs by Eric Hosking. ( Diana Wyllie, Ltd., London, 1957). 20s. per set of six, from Diana Wyllie, Ltd., 18, Pont Street, S.W.i. The need for visual aids in lecturing and education has encouraged Diana Wyllie, Ltd., to produce a series of colour slides of natural history subjects, of which the above are the first examples. The two sets each consist of six ain. by 2in. transparencies. The species illustrated in “Birds on the Wing (Slide nos. DW-Ai to DW-A6) are Song Thrush, Greenfinch, Lesser Spotted Wood- pecker, Kingfisher, Wheatear, Swallow; and in “Birds and Nests” (Slide nos. DW-A7 to DW-A10) are Song Thrush (two), Black-headed Gull, Long-tailed Tit, Robin, Chaffinch. Each is accompanied by a booklet of short notes. The colour reproduction of Mr. Hosking’s photographs is good, and at 3s. -|.d. a slide the cost must be considered reasonable. G.K.Y. REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION FIELD INVESTIGATIONS OF THE B.T.O. The Scientific Advisory Committee of the British Trust for Ornithology recently decided that publicity should be given in Bird Study, the quarterly journal of the B.T.O., to analyses which will be the subject of future papers in British Birds. We are pleased to give reciprocal facilities to the B.T.O. New Trust investigations will always be announced first in Bird Study, but subsequently it may be useful to make additional announcements about them at shorter intervals than three months and, since a very large number of B.T.O. members are subscribers to British Birds, it should be possible in this way to reach most of those who are contributing to the Trust’s field studies. Announcements will not normally be made about the permanent enquiries run by the B.T.O. — the Bird-Ringing Scheme, the Nest Record Scheme and the Sample Census of Heronies. Of the “Trust-aided Investigations”, which run for shorter periods, the enquiry into Autumn and winter flocks of Coots organized by S. McClelland, 62, Torland Road, Hartley, Plymouth, is now in its last season, and Mr. McClelland hopes that more information will be forthcoming on the behaviour of the birds, as well as on actual counts. If we have a prolonged spell of hard weather in early 1958, it will be very interesting to compare behaviour and movements with the mild winter of 1956-57. The B.T.O. also announces “Requests for Information” from time to time. These requests are not full investigations and contributors need not be members of the Trust; on the other hand, the Scientific Advisory Committee takes no responsibility for the subsequent publication of a report. Those recently announced are : Status of the rarer grebes (F. D. Hamilton, 4, Bruntsfield Terrace, Edinburgh, 10). Observations required for British east and south coasts up to 30th April, 1958. Treecreepers’ roosting sites (J- M. D. Mackenzie, Greyfriars, St. Andrews, Fife). A study of the distribution of roosting sites in Wellingtonias. Information from all parts of the British Isles, if possible with dates when the habit was first noticed is required. Birds with deformed bills (D. E. Pomeroy, Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge). Field observations on the behaviour of birds handicapped in this way are most valuable. Albinism and melanism (B. L. Sage, ri, Deepdene, Potters Bar, Middlesex). Records for all species (except Mallard) and of any date, including past published references, are required. Marked Sand Martins. Any information on the origins of birds seen last summer with white feathers apparently imped to their plumage would be welcomed by R. A. O. Hickling, 223, Swithland Lane, Rothley, Leicestershire. RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees In order to give our readers as up-to-date as possible a picture of recent reports of rare birds, of interesting movements and “invasions”, and of other news of general interest, it has been decided to try, as an experiment, a monthly section at the end of each issue of British Birds which will have as its aim the dissemination of such information. It must be emphasized straight away, however, that material which appears here is of necessity being published prematurely. In other words, reports will be included here before they have gone the whole gamut of examination and checking that must take place before acceptance and full publication. These items must therefore be regarded as unproven reports and not necessarily as authenticated records; 39 40 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI they will, in fact, be included on the present writer’s judgment alone and he will assume full responsibility. The names of observers will not normally be included, partly for reasons of space and partly in case a record is subsequently- rejected, and there will be no reference to this section in our annual index. Finally, if it is to succeed, this scheme needs the cooperation of as many as possible of our readers and so it is hoped that anything of interest will be reported quickly. We felt that, as the last few weeks of the year are usually an unspectacular time for birds, this would be the best point at which to introduce this section, in the hope that the scheme would be working smoothly by the time the spring migration was upon us. The most interesting recent report concerns what seems to be an immature male Lesser Scaup (Ay thy a afjinis) that was first seen at some Berkshire gravel- pits on 15th December, and the almost simultaneous appearance of another drake scaup at Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, which is believed to bq of the same species. The Lesser Scaup, which breeds in Canada and winters in southern North America, is not at present on the European list. “Escapes” are unlikely because it is fortunately kept in captivity in only a few known places. The male is distinguished from the drake Common Scaup ( Aythya marila) by its high- peaked head, smaller size, and darker back and flanks; in addition, many individuals may be distinguished by the fact that they have a pronounced purple sheen to the head (though others have a green sheen, like the common species, and this is one of the reasons for the present uncertainty about the identity of the Slimbridge bird). Both were still present in the middle of January and had by then been seen by some dozens of observers. This may be the climax to what was a remarkable autumn for American birds in the British Isles. Three months earlier (nth-25th September) a young male Summer Tanager ( Piranga rubra) — another American species not previously reported in Europe — was trapped and ringed on Bardsey Island in circumstances which suggest that it may be a good candidate for admission to the British list. Pectoral Sandpipers ( Calidris melanotos) seem probably to have been more numerous during 1957 than ever before and we hope shortly to publish a summary of the records. Other American birds included an American Snipe (Capclla gallinago delicata) (see pp. 35-36), a White-rumped Sandpiper ( Calidris fuscicollis), Dowitcher (Limnodromus griseus), etc., and, more recently, a Killdeer ( Charadrius vociferus) was shot at Newquay, Cornwall, on 26th December, a few days after we understand one (perhaps the same bird) had been seen in the Scilly Isles. There have been no records of Killdeers in the British Isles for some years. Other recent reports of rarities have included a Pallas’s Warbler ( Phylloscopus proregulus) trapped at Holme, Norfolk, on 17th November, there being only two previous British records; a very late Yellow-browed (Ph. inornatus) almost a month later at Monk’s House, Northumberland; a Black- throated Thrush ( Turdus ruficollis) on Fair Isle from 8th to 16th December; and an immature White-tailed Eagle (Haliaetus albicilla) at Cley, Norfolk, on 29th December. The invasion of Waxwings (Bombycilla garrulus) (see an tea, vol. 1., p. 543) seemed to peter out in early December, probably as a result of the general shortage of berries in the British Isles, as in Scandinavia; this shortage has also affected the apparently larger than usual flocks of Fieldfares (Turdus pilaris) and Redwings (T. tnusicus) which were likewise driven out of Scandinavia by lack of food this winter. Lastly it is perhaps worth mentioning that both Eiders (Somateria mollissima) and Long-tailed Ducks ( Clangula hyemalis) have been in unusual numbers further south than usual, and several of each have been reported far inland — Long-tailed Ducks in Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Leicestershire, Middlesex, and Staffordshire, and Eiders in Huntingdonshire and Middlesex. There have been no recent further signs of a spread of Collared Doves (Streptopelia decaocto) and the situation remains that in 1957 the species bred in four counties — Norfolk, Kent, Lincolnshire and Moravshire — and occurred in several more. A full report on the Collared Doves will be appearing in one of our forthcoming issues. v-V'. ‘ otrJM j NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and Western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, Papers and Notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of Papers are sent free to authors ; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations: 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one Note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of Papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e.g. Siberian Thrush, Yellow-headed Wagtail), but group terms should not (e.g. thrushes, wagtails). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds, with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1953 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “ 1st January 1955 ” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “ 1st Jan.”, “ Jan. 1st ”, or even “ Jan. 1 ”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form : Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit. Birds, xlii: 129-134. WiTiiERBY, H. F. (1894): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the Table should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult for the Editor to indicate the type to be used. It is most important that the lay- out of each Table should be carefully planned with an eye to its final appearance; above all, it should be borne in mind that Tables must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All Tables should be self-explanatory. 5. Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, and the captions tvped on a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality drawing paper (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on graph paper, but this must be light blue or very pale grey. It is best if maps, graphs, etc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for the normal 4" width the original should be 8" wide) ; sketches of birds, however, should be only slightly larger than the size at which it is intended they should appear. It is always most important to consider how each drawing will fit into the page. The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted. Types C.F.18 and C.F.24 (8 x 30-5 mm.) are highly favoured by Bird-watchers, C.F. 24 having an extra wide field of view which is particularly valuable for observing birds in flight. With those who prefer a higher magnification, type C.F. 43 (10 x 42 mm.) is a firm favourite. barm mown ANNIESLAND, GLASGOW, W.3 — London Office: 15 Victoria St., S.W.l Printed in Gt. Britain by Witherby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H. F. & G. WITHERBY, LTD., 5. Warwick Court, W.C.i. BRITISH BIRDS FEBRUARY 1958 THREE SHILLINGS BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor: G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) Contents of Volume LI, Number 2, February 1958 Page The birds of Tiree and Coll. By Dr. J. Morton Boyd (plates 18-20). (To be concluded) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 British recoveries of birds ringed abroad. Communicated by Miss E. P. Leach 57 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. LXXXV— Pygmy Owl. Photographed by Kurt Ellstrom, Sigvard Ros6n and Enar Sjoberg (plates 13-16). Text by Dr. Kai Curry-Lindahl 72 Reports from Britain of Black-headed Gulls ringed in the Oberlausitz, East Germany. By Dr. Wolfgang Makatsch. Accompanying photograph by Mrs. Use Makatsch (plate 17) ... ... ... ... 74 Notes : — Leach’s Petrels in Shetland (D. R. Wilson) 77 Honey Buzzard in Lancashire (David Redhead) 78 Spotted Crake in Oxfordshire in July (D. F. Owen) ... ... ... 78 Spotted Crake in Cheshire in July (A. W. Boyd) 78 Mating display of Snipe (A. W. Boyd and E. M. Nicholson) ... ... 79 White-rumped Sandpiper in Yorkshire (J. R. Mather and R. F. Dickens) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 80 The field-identification of Baird’s and Semi-palmated Sandpipers (P. W. P. Browne) 81 Ruffs displaying in a wintering area (D. I. M. Wallace) ... ... 81 Rooks taking sand (Mrs. J. B. Cowdy) 82 Willow Warbler’s unusual song and display-flight (Bernard King) ... 83 Review : — Ornamental Waterfowl. By Lt.-Col. A. A. Johnson and W. II. Payn 83 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees ... ... ••• 84 Cover photograph by Sigvard Ros6n : Pygmy Owl ( Glaucidium passerinum) on mouse in snow THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL By J. Morton Boyd ( Department of Zoology, Glasgow University*) (Plates 18-20) The islands of Tiree and Coll, Inner Hebrides, lie totally within the vice-county Mid Ebudes (103). Situated between Mull and the Barra Isles, they stretch some 45 miles S.W. into the ocean from Ardnamurchan, the most westerly headland of the Scottish main- land. Their geographical position, and separate scale maps of each, are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. This work is concerned with records of all species of bird observed, from the earliest literature to the present day, not only on Tiree and Coll, but also on all islands and rocks between and including Eilein Mor, N.E. of Coll, and Skerryvore, S.W. of Tiree. The islands are a low undulating platform of Lewisian gneiss masked extensively by raised beach material and wind-blown sand. The sand deposits are particularly widespread in Tiree and S.W. Coll, but in N.W. Coll there are considerable tracts of bare rock. The terrain rises to its highest point (460 feet) in Ben Hynish, Tiree. The principal ecological divisions of the islands are: (i) an intertidal zone, including extensive beaches of shell-sand inter- spaced with rocky shores trenched by eroded dykes, and fringed with skerries; (ii) grazed sand-dune systems landward to the shore sand, and moorland altered by salt-spray landward to the rocky shores (the only substantial sea-cliffs are at Ceann a’Mhara, Tiree) ; (iii) machair or sea-meadow, and cultivated calcareous grassland covering wide tracts of Tiree and S.W. Coll; (iv) grazed moorland of mixed grasses, sedges and heather, covering central areas of both islands; (v) lightly grazed heather moorland, covering parts of the interior of Coll ; (vi) fresh-water lochs, streams, ditches and marshes form a web over all other ecological zones from the alkaline to the acid ground, and give rise to small brackish estuaries. The beaches, dunes, machair and cultivation, moorland, *Now Nature Conservancy, Edinburgh. 41 42 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI lochs and ditches are all well brought out in the aerial photographs on plates 18-20. With the exception of a few small plantations of deciduous trees in Coll, and a few trees growing in the lee of croft-houses in Tiree, the islands are almost treeless. Whin and bramble thickets grow locally and provide good cover for birds. The islands are dominated by a S.W. air stream, moist, warm, and with high winds. Gusts of 108 m.p.h. have been recorded. The Fig. i — Map to show positions of Coll and Tiree in relation to Barra, Mull, and Ardnamurchan on the Scottish mainland temperature range is some 3 degrees Fahrenheit less than the Scottish West Highlands, and 6 degrees Fahrenheit less than the Scottish mainland generally. Snow seldom lies more than a few days in the year, and the soil remains open practically all winter. Hours of sunshine are somewhat similar to those of southern England ; in May 1948 Tiree had an average of 10.6 hours of sunshine daily. Outstanding features of the fauna (particularly related to the ecology of the avifauna) are: (i) the abundance of snails, bivalves vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 43 and slug's in the calcareous fresh waters and grasslands ; (ii) the aggregation of fly larvae, ants, beetles and earthworms in cow- pats on all grasslands and moorlands ; (iii) the presence of Rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Coll, and their absence in Tiree (see notes on the Buzzard and compare plates 18 and 19) ; (iv) the presence of the Hare (Lepus europaeus ), the Long-tailed Field Mouse ( Apodemus sylvaticus), the Brown Rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) Fig. 2 — Map of the isle of Coll to show principal place-names and the POSITIONS OF ElLEIN MoR AND GUNNA ( cf . Fig. 3) and the Pygmy Shrew ( Sorex minutus ); (v) the presence of the Brown Trout ( Salmo trutta) and the Three-spined Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus ) in fresh waters, and the absence of amphibians and reptiles. The agricultural system in Coll is farming (the major farms are named in Fig. 2), while in Tiree it is crofting (the crofting town- ships are named in Fig. 3). According to the West Highland Survey (Darling et al., 1955), in 1951 the human population in Coll was 200, and that of Tiree 1,200. Casual mention of the avifauna of these islands is made in the Statistical Account of Scotland (1791-1799), but the first comprehensive record appears in A Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the Inner Hebrides (1892), by J. A. Harvie-Brown and T. E. Buckley. This volume stimulated interest, and in 1898 44 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI P. Anderson, the game-keeper of Tiree at that time, published the first separate list of the birds of Tiree, to be followed in 1899 by a supplementary list for both Tiree and Coll, by Lieut. -Col. L. H. Irby. Reports of movements and occurrences of birds in Scotland in 1897 and 1898 (Laidlaw, 1898 and 1899) include information from Tiree and the Skerry vore, and a separate list later appeared for Skerryvore (Tomison, 1907). In 1913 Fio 3- -Map of the isle of Tiree to show principal place-names and the position of Gunna (c/. Fig. 2) Anderson published his second list for Tiree summarizing over 25 years’ observations on that island. Thereafter no lists were published for Tiree, and none for the area till Miss MacDougall’s list for Coll in 1938. Miss Baxter and Miss Rintoul, in The Birds of Scotland (1953), brought together much information on Tiree and Coll based mostly on the out-dated literature, and a great deal of this is now supplemented by information acquired mainly in the last 10 years from numerous reliable observers. From time to time since 1892, short notes on the birds of the area have appeared in the Annals of Scottish Natural History and the Scottish Naturalist. The author desires to make the following acknowledgements with thanks. His Grace the Duke of Argyll kindly gave access to the game-record of the Tiree Estate. Lists for Tiree were supplied by H. A. Course, James Fisher, D. Gardner-Medwin, J. Graham, N. Hopkins, N. McIntyre, J. Murray (Edinburgh 3 MILES vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 45 Academy Party, 1954), C. F. Priestley, W. C. Taunton, Iolo Williams, and J. T. D. Wilson. Lists for Coll were supplied by A. G. S. Bryson, W. P. Colyer-Fergusson, J. R. Furse, Miss M. Henderson, C. K. M. Stewart, and A. A. K. Whitehouse. Short notes were supplied by W. K. Richmond and L. A. Urquhart. R. Roddam assisted in recent sea-bird counts. Mrs. W. I. Boyd assisted both in the field and in sifting the literature. Dr. J. W. Campbell kindly sent information originally lodged with the Editors of the Scottish Naturalist. Requests for information, all of which brought response, were published in Bird Study, the Edinburgh Bird Bulletin, and the Glasgow and West of Scotland Bird Bulletin. The notes of the author have been made from some 25 visits to Tiree at all seasons, 1 to Coll in summer, 1 to Skerryvore in summer, and 3 to Gunna, summer, autumn and winter, in the period from June 1952 to June 1957. Many of those visits were made in connection with ecological research in Hebridean soils assisted by a grant from the Nature Conservancy, which made possible countless casual observations on birds. SPECIFIC LIST In this list frequent reference is made to the published works on the birds of Tiree and Coll, particularly those which appeared in 1892, 1898, 1899 and 1913 (see pages 43-44). Since many of the remarks in these publications refer not only to those particular years, but also to the ones preceding them, these dates are placed in brackets in such cases. For each species the treatment follows the same plan: a short phrase summing up the seasons when it is present ; a review of the breeding records, from Tiree, Coll and the other islands separately ; and, lastly, a similar review of the status during the rest of the year, again with separate treatment where this is needed. Black-throated Diver (Gavia arctica ). — Present all year. Bred in Coll 1899, hut n° breeding record from Tiree. Mature birds seen regularly April to July off both islands 1954-55, but no recent breeding record or report from fresh waters. Great Northern Diver ( Gavia immer). — August to May. No breeding record. Seen off-shore since September 1888 ; November to April 1903-06 at Skerryvore ; similarly 1952-55 off Tiree and Coll. No report from fresh waters. Red-throated Diver ( Gavia stellata). — Present all year. Bred in Coll before 1899 ; bred there 1937-38 ; 8 pairs with young July 1939 ; present August 1945 ; June 1946, 1949 ; May 1954 ; April, June 1955 ; increasing 1956 (W.P.C.-F.). No breeding record from Tiree, and has only twice been reported from fresh waters. Seen off Tiree, September 1956. Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus). — January to June. No breeding record. Seen in Tiree January 1891 ; 2 pairs in breeding plumage 22nd May 1900 ; 1 pair May-June 1952. No record from Coll. Red-necked Grebe ( Podiceps griseigena). — Spring. Reported from Tiree as common and not breeding (J.T.D.W.). No record from Coll. 46 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Slavonian Grebe ( Podiceps auritus). — October to April. No breeding record. One shot in Tiree 7th November 1888 ; seen there 29th October 1898 ; common there (1913) ; seen Soa Sound 7th April 1954. No record from Coll. Little Grebe ( Podiceps ruficollis). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree 1865 (Gray, 1871), 1913, 1950, but reported as common in winter and spring on fresh waters and the sea. Breeding not proved in Coll, but 1 pair was seen twice in June 1938, and at Loch Ballyhogh and Loch Callum in July 1939. Leach’s Petrel ( Oceanodroma leucorrhoa). — Autumn. Reported from Tiree October 1891 and 1953, after gales. Storm Petrel ( Hydrobates pelagicus). — Summer and autumn. A visitor to the sea area since before 1892, but no conclusive evidence of breeding. Fairly common off Ceann a’ Mhara in daylight ; 1 dead in Tiree September 1889 ; another January 1901; at Skerryvore August /September 1903-06, and again July 1955. The presence of Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) in Gunna, Coll, and at Ceann a’ Mhara is probably a deterrent to breeding. Manx Shearwater ( Procellaria puffinus). — April to September. A visitor to the sea area since before 1892 when they were said to be decreasing. No conclusive evidence of breeding, though some suitable burrows have been found at Ceann a’ Mhara. Numerous in spring and summer at Skerryvore 1903-06, and have been particularly so in recent years off the east coasts of both islands. Great Shearwater (Procellaria gravis). — Autumn. One dead in Tiree October 1891 ; 2 off-shore there August 1919 ; and another found dead October 1951. None reported from Coll. Sooty Shearwater ( Procellaria grisea). — Only record is of two off-shore Tiree May 1948 (C.F.P.). Fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis). — April to September. Breeding at Ceann a’ Mhara. None 1912 or 1913 ; about 6 present 1925, but left during the breed- ing-season ; 6 nests 1929 ; 30 nests 1933 ; 74 pairs July 1942 ; 185 occupied nests May-July 1944 ; no nests with another 20 pairs present mid-June 1946 ; 171 pairs and 160 eggs in late June 1947 (J-F. and others) ; 200-300 pairs early June 1949 ; 300 birds May-June 1952 ; 650 birds early April 1954 ; 250 birds late April and mid-June, 193 pairs in early July, and 160 young with no brooding adults in late July 1955 (J.M.B. and others). No record from Coll. Gannet ( Sula bassana). — Present all year. Not breeding. More common in sea area in summer than in winter. Magnificent Frigate-bird (Fregata magnificens). — A bird of the Caribbean race ( F . m. rothschildi) found exhaused in Tiree 9th July 1953 (J.G. ; antea, vol. xlvii, pp. 58-59 ; and Stephen, 1953). Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo). — Present all year. Baxter and Rintoul (1953) say that it breeds in small numbers in Tiree, but although pairs of birds have been seen off-shore from June to August breeding has not been proved. At Skerryvore 1903-06 August till February, but not in breeding-season. In Coll, 20 roosted in May 1937 ; one or two off-shore July and August 1939, and late April 1955 ; 1 in June 1955. In Tiree, present June 1949 ; a few pairs June and July 1952; single birds April 1954; single birds March, April and June 1955. Shag ( Phalacrocorax aristotelis). — Present all year. Has bred at Ceann a' Mhara since before 1898 ; bred 1912 and 1913 ; 30 birds there late July 1942 ; at least 25 nesting May 1952 ; eggs seen April 1954 ; at least 12 birds with eggs and young June and July 1955. It is reported to have nested near the Sound of Gunna (N. McL). No breeding record is available for Coll. Irby (1899) fails to mention its presence in the area, but all observers since have reported it as numerous around the coast, being seen ashore on the steeper S.E. side. Flies through the Sound of Gunna in winter in large numbers to and from roosts in the Treshnish Isles. At least 415 entered the sound flying east in 15 minutes before sunset in mid-December 1955. vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 47 Heron ( Ardea cinerea). — Present all year. Bred Arinagour, Coll, before 1899 ; 2 pairs bred there in 1929 ; seen and said to have bred July 1939 ; similarly August 1945 ; present June 1946, and 1949 ; courtship reported late April 1955 with possible nesting-site at Blackhill Lochs ; 2 seen June 1955- No breeding record from Tiree, but seen there May 1952, and April 1954 ; 1 seen 9th-i2th July 1955. Common autumn to spring, usually as single birds, both inland and on rocky shores. Seen on passage at Skerryvore August 1903-06. Glossy Ibis ( Plegadis jalcinellus).— One reported 21st February 1901 (Robinson, 1914). Mallard ( Anas plcityrhynchos). — Present all year. Recorded as breeding plentifully, beginning usually in late March, in both islands before 1899. Reported as abundant in Tiree (1913), nesting all over the island ; spring' and summer observers there 1949-55 report small numbers, common, and fair numbers. In Coll 1937-55 breeding-season reports have been “plentiful”, “common”, and “fairly evenly distributed”. Distinctly more numerous in winter, being mainly marine and flighting to fresh waters at high tide, flocks usually up to 20. Scarce in both islands 1956. Teal (Anas crecca ). — Present all year. Bred in both islands before 1899. Bred all over Tiree (1913), beginning in late April ; a few breeding pairs, single birds and nests May to August 1952-55, though Baxter and Rintoul record it as nesting numerously all over Tiree in 1950. In Coll, 2 pairs were reported May 1937 ; only 3 seen July and August 1939 ; seen occasionally August 1945; a few May 1954; flocks and a pair late April 1955, and one June 1955. Flocks usually up to 50 strong are present in the rocky weedy bays and on the major lochs of Tiree, September to April. Gadwall (Anas strepera). — Present all year. Only evidence of breeding is 2 adults with 10 fledged young, late August 1913, and a duck with 3 unfledged young in late July 1955 (J.M.B., W.I.B.). Between 1870 and 1900 Gadwalls were numerous in Tiree in winter, flocking on the sea, probably in the fashion of Teal and Wigeon at the present day. The species used to arrive (Anderson, 1913) at the end of harvest time and stay till late spring ; in 1913 it was still common winter and spring ; subsequently it has become scarce and is not included in the list of common wildfowl (J.G.). The only other recent records are “numerous” on Loch a’ Phuill, January 1949, and odd birds seen at 5 different sites on 4 different days, early April 1954. No record from Coll. Wigeon (Anas penelope). — September to April. Bred in Coll 1892; 2 drakes seen there May 1937 ; 1 duck June 1938. In 1913 an odd bird was known to remain over the summer in Tiree, thought to be wounded, but none has been reported subsequently in summer. Has always been numerous in winter, more so in some than in others, since before 1892. Flocks, which seldom exceed 50 birds, at present frequent the rocky shore inlets and fresh waters in Tiree. Pintail (Anas acuta). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree 1951 (Bennett, 1952), and may have bred 1938, a female in down feathers having been sent to the British Museum ; ducks reported there June 1952 and July 1955. Has occurred in winter and spring in small numbers since 1879 ; occurred sparingly on migration in Tiree, 1898 ; in small parties during the winter there, 1913 ; 1 pair seen February 1953 ; small flocks, largest numbers together 7, early April 1954 ; 1 pair seen mid-January 1956. No record from Coll. Shoveler ( Spatula clypcata). — Present all year. Young shot in Tiree 1887 ; a few pairs bred (1898) ; increasing as a breeding species (1913) ; a pair in Tiree and another in Gunna, June 1949 ; several seen May-June 1952 ; small flocks, largest number together 6, and pairs, April 1954 ; at least 20 young birds seen July 1055; nesting proved in recent years beside Loch Garradh a’ Chapuill, Tiree. The only record from Coll is 2 drakes 10th May 1937. Occurs in small flocks, usually less than 6 strong, September to April. Anderson (1913) says that in about 25 years of observation in Tiree he has not noticed 48 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li this species on the shore, but it is reported from the weedy shore inlets, April 1954, November 1954, February 1955. Scaup ( Aythya marila). — September to spring. No breeding record, but a newly fledged duckling was seen in Tiree in August (Anderson, 1913). A large flock was seen in Tiree, June 1891, and before 1887 the species wintered in considerable numbers there ; common in winter (1898 and 1913), with migration from September to November ; no recent definite records are available, and in the course of numerous visits to Tiree, autumn to spring, the author has seen none. No record from Coll. Tufted Duck ( Aythya fuligula). — September to June, perhaps all year. A few pairs bred in Tiree (1892 and 1898); then breeding discontinued (1913) ; 1 pair and a drake with 2 ducks seen in west Tiree on different occasions, June 1946-52 (N.Mc.I., H.A.C.); a duck with 2 ducklings Loch a’Chlair June 1957 (J.M.B., Donald Watson). A regular winter visitor since before 1892 to both Tiree and Coll ; common (1898 and 1913) ; common 1953-55, flocks not usually exceeding 70 birds, frequenting both sea and fresh waters. Pochard ( Aythya ferina). — Winter. Harvie-Brown and Buckley (1892) report 2 drakes seen in Tiree 12th June 1891 ; a few pairs bred up to 1898, but probably discontinued by 1913; one drake Loch Bhasapoll June 1957. A small flock was reported 12th November 1887 ; numerous in winter, 1898 ; fairly numerous 1913 ; only recent records are 1 drake December 1953, and another early April 1954. No record from Coll. Goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula). — October to April. No breeding record. Common in winter (1892, 1898, and 1913) ; small flocks usually less than 20 strong November to April 1952-56. Anderson (1913) reports only single birds on both sea and fresh waters, most numerous January and February. Long-tailed Duck ( Clangula hyemalis).— October to April. No breeding record. Reported as common or very common 1892-1913 ; common, more so off the N.W. coasts than the S.E., October-April 1952-56. Seen on fresh waters (1913), but not recently. The usual flock size in 1913 was about 6, while during 1952-56 as many as 30 have been seen together, the usual flock size being about 12 birds. Anderson (1913) also says that the birds disappear about the end of March ; common in N.W. bays Tiree, 9th April 1954 ; 2 flocks, about 30 birds in each, were seen in separate bays in Coll, 21st April 1955- Common Scoter ( Melanitta nigra). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree fn 1897, and probably before then, a duck in down plumage having been reported 22nd August 1889. One seen in Sound of Gunna August 1945 ; present Tiree, August 1954. Common off Tiree 1857 ; seen there May 1889 ; fairly common but never numerous (1898) ; not at all numerous (1913). Baxter and Rintoul (1953) record the species as common, having increased and become abundant, flocks lingering far into the summer. Only 3 of the 11 available lists for the period 1945-55, April to August, mention its presence. Off Tiree 3 birds were seen February 1954, and groups of up to 10 in September 1956. No recent winter record from Coll. Eider (Somateria mollissima). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree and Coll before 1871 ; common breeding (1892) ; abundant (1898 and 1913) ; common breeding 1937-39, and again 1945-55. During the breeding-season large flocks mainly composed of drakes occur off-shore. Bred in Gunna, 1949, when 5 nests were found. Numerous in winter especially off the N.W. coasts and in the Sound of Gunna, flocks of up to 50 birds being common. Has not been reported from fresh waters in Tiree, but was found at lochs in Coll 1937-38. Red-breasted Merganser ( Mergus serrator). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree before 1871, and in Coll before 1899 ; abundant (1913) ; reported as plentiful from both islands 1937-55, May to August, pairs and young having been seen. Breeds inland sometimes well away from water, and flocks of probably up to 200 occur on the sea during late summer. A flock about 150 strong was present in Gott Bay, Tiree, July 1955, composed mostly of immature vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 49 birds. Small flocks occur off-shore, September to March, and groups of. 1-3 birds on fresh waters. Goosander ( Mergus merganser). — No recent record, but Anderson reported it as seen at all seasons (Harvie-Brown and Buckley, 1892). By 1898 and 1913 the species had become scarce. There is no breeding record, nor any record since 1913. No record from Coll. Smew ( Mergus albellus). — Anderson (1898) reported it as common autumn to spring in the sea but never in fresh waters. They were especially common in Gott Bay. Reported 7th September 1897, 30th July and 14th November 1898 and t6th January 1901. No recent record, Tiree; no record from Coll. Siielduck ( Tadorna tadorna). — Present all year. Numerous in Tiree and Coll before 1871 ; bred in both islands (1899) ; common but not abundant in Tiree (1913). Fair numbers bred in Tiree 1949-55, nests, pairs and families seen April to August. In Coll it was a common breeding species 1937-38 ; 1 family only, July and August 1939 ; 2 pairs almost certainly with nests June 1946 ; pairs in every bay late April 1955 ; 1 pair off shore, and 1 bird in sand-dunes, June 1955. One pair was seen in Gunna, early June 1949. Nests have been found about 1 mile from the shore. Pairs and groups of 3-6 winter on the shore, and are especially numerous at Clachan Bay, Tiree, where at least a dozen were present in several small parties, winter 1954-55. Grey Lag Goose (Anser anser). — Has been reported at all seasons, but mainly in winter. In 1932 H. W. Robinson wrote that he was informed of breeding both in Tiree and Coll many years before that date, and in 1954 N. McIntyre stated that it once nested unsuccessfully in Tiree “a number of years ago”. In Tiree single birds were seen at 2 different sites May to July 1952, and it was present August 1954; 17 present in mid-summer and in September 1956. In Coll a pair bred 1937-38 (Macdougall, 1938); 2 or 3 pairs said to have bred since 1935, but not seen 1939 (A.G.S.B.) ; 2 seen August 1945 ; flocks of 25 and 5, 1 pair, and a single bird, late April 1955 ; 17 in August 1956, with probably 2 breeding pairs (W.P.C.-F.). A rare passage migrant in Tiree (1892) ; “occurs occasionally in winter, but does not stay long” (1898); reported sparingly on migration with a few in winter (1913); 2 flocks of 10 and 12 seen January 1949 ; 32 seen February 1951 ; two flocks of 12 (possibly the same flock seen twice) present late December 1952 ; 31 early March 1953 ; 7 in January 1954 ; 11 on 25th February 1955. A recent winter increase has occurred in Coll ; 40 have appeared regularly, and as many as 90 have been seen, 1955-56. White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons). — October to May. Not breeding. It was the exception to see this species in Tiree (1892) ; reported there 8th- 11th May and 15th October 1897; common (1898); 400-500 wintered regularly about 1913; probably not more than 250 were present October to April 1952-56, flocks usually over 50 and less than 150 strong. Irby (1899) said the species was more common in Tiree than Coll, but the only recent winter record available from Coll for comparison is of 13 seen on the south end on 7th February 1953. All the birds are probably of the Greenland race (A. a. flavirostris), arriving from and departing to the N.W. Brent Goose ( Branta bernicla). — Winter. Rare in Tiree (1892); occurred sparingly during hard frost (1898); seen late October 1909 ; a flock of 14 seen during frost in early February 1912 ; 1 seen autumn 1949 ; a pair, thought to be of the Dark-breasted race (B. b. bernicla), November 1955 in mild weather. No record from Coll. Barnacle Goose ( Branta leucopsis). — November to May. Baxter and Rintoul (1953) say that it has been the dominant species of goose in Coll for the past 50 years, outnumbering the grey species by 5 to 1 ; though abundant in Coll, not so in Tiree in 1892 and 1899 I small flocks of about 12 birds in Tiree (1898) ; small flocks there 1913 ; flocks of 350-400 seen in Tiree January 1948 and March 1950 ; 250-350 February 1951 ; 250-300 December 1952, 50 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI February 1953, October-March 1954-55 > 12 were seen on 19th May 1956. In Coll, 120 were seen February 1953 ; 200-300 in late April 1954. In Gunna, 35 were seen February 1953 ; 150 mid-November 1955. In recent years probably less than 350 have wintered regularly in Tiree and Coll. These are concentrated in Gunna, roosting there and ranging the N.W. shores usually as far as Balephetrish, Tiree, and Arnabost, Coll. Flocks also frequent Breachacha and Soa. In spring the resident flock is sometimes augmented by migrants, probably raising numbers to over 400 occasionally. Canada Goose ( Branta canadensis). — One shot in Tiree (Anderson, 1913). Mute Swan ( Cygnus olor). — Present all year. First bred in Tiree 1909 ; at least 1 or 2 pairs bred there 1949, 1950, 1952, 1954-56 and probably in intervening years. Bred in Coll (Baxter and Rintoul, 1953); 2 pairs present there 1937 ; 1 pair 1938 ; 1 pair July and August 1939 ; “numbers” August 1945. June j946 and 1949 ; none May 1954, April 1955, June 1955. A single straggler was reported from Tiree 1898, but none from Coll before 1899 ; 17 seen Tiree 1908 ; 75 there 1911 ; during 1952-56, 50-100 birds probably summered in the islands, with 10-20 wintering. Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus). — Present all year. No breeding record, but a few mature birds have been reported summering in Tiree, June 1947-50, June and July 1952, mid-May 1954, June and July 1955. “Wild swans” recorded from Tiree and Coll 1794; increased in Tiree from 12, 1886, to about 200, 1898, in winter ; considerable but varying numbers there about 1913, arriving usually in late October with numbers increasing till late November ; about 40 present early April 1954 ; common in winter 1952-55, usually more than 100 frequenting the fresh waters and marshy meadows. Five birds reported from Coll late April 1955, and the species probably winters there in small numbers. Bewick’s Swan ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii). — Winter and spring. No breeding record. Tiree was perhaps this bird’s principal settling ground in Argyll and the Inner Hebrides (1892); increasing (1898); arriving usually in November, as many as 200 were recorded at Loch an Eilein, Tiree, in 1897 ; “crowds” November 1908 ; numerous (1913) ; seems to have remained fairly numerous in Tiree in winter till the 1939-45 war; only recent record is of 3 in Tiree, April 1954. Buzzard ( Buteo buteo). — Present all year. Bred in Coll 1938 (Macdougall, 1938); young seen there 1945-49. Bred in Tiree 1950 (Baxter and Rintoul, 1953). All recent summer observers in both islands mention the presence of the species there and also in Gunna and Soa off Tiree. No mention in lists for 1898, 1899, and 1913, but increased as a breeding and wintering species 1 938-54. No rabbits have been present in Tiree for the last 100 years and perhaps not at all, but in Coll the advent of myxomatosis has killed off most of the rabbits there since 1954, though in November 1956 they were again on the increase. In Coll in 1956 the Buzzard population was approximately half of what it was in 1954, and they were seen to prey on young duck and small birds. There is a record of an attack on domesticated puppies and Buzzards were also seen in pursuit of Teal, like falcons (W.P.C.-F.). Probably less than 10 pairs now breed in the area, most of them unsuccessfully due to human interference. Breeding proved in Tiree, May 1956. Common in winter, usually singly, 1952-56 ; 6 seen together in Tiree, April 1954 ; 3 seen together there, January 1955 ; found feeding there on a Lapwing (killed by car), a hare (probably shot) and an immature Herring Gull in mid-winter 1955-56. Hen Harrier ( Circus cyaneus). — Winter. Was observed in Coll before 1899, and in Tiree November 1955. Peregrine ( Falco peregrinus). — Present all year. In 1343, falcons’ eyries were present in Coll and Tiree (Baxter and Rintoul, 1953), and the bird bred in both islands (1899). It bred annually at Ceann a’ Mhara, Tiree, 1900-13, and it has bred there occasionally since (N.McI., J.T.D.W.); one seen in Tiree vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 51 late May 1952 and mid-July 1955. None seen in Coll summer 1937-38 ; seen there twice in July and August 1939 ; 1 reported 18th April 1955. One at Skerryvore 26th September 1903 ; and odd birds seen from September to February 1948-56, in Tiree. Greenland Falcon ( Falco rusticolus candicans). — One seen 6th February 1901 (H. W. Robinson, 1914). Merlin ( Falco columbarius). — Present all year. Bred in both islands before 1899. Bred in Tiree (1913), 1930 and probably 1954. Bred in Coll 1937, and probably 1954-55. Very numerous following immigration of thrushes in autumn 1898 ; common except in summer, but never entirely absent from Tiree, 1913 ; common September to April, 1952-56. Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus). — April to February, possibly all year. Bred in both islands before 1899; not at all common in Tiree (1913); but seen there June 1952 and July 1955. Reported from Coll in July 1939, August 1945 and June 1946. Seen in both islands April 1954-55, and *n Tiree from November to February 1948-55, and September 1956. Red Grouse ( Lagopus lagopus scoticus). — Present all year. Bred Coll before 1899 and during 1937-39; nearly wiped out by heath fires 1939-45; heard 1945-46, but not 1949. Not reported from Coll by 3 different observers at different times, April to June, 1954-55. About 20, mostly old birds, remained in 1956 (W.P.C.-F.). No record from Tiree. Partridge ( Perdix perdix). — Both Engish and Hungarian Partridges were introduced into Tiree, and bred there as early as 1891, but were extinct by 1912. Reintroduced into Tiree in 1935, the species was again extinct by 1939. Bred in Coll before 1899 ; bred there, and bags of 200-300 obtained, 1937-39 > a covey seen August 1945 ; not reported 1954-55 ; none 1956 (W.P.C.-F.). Quail ( Coturnix coturnix). — One seen in Tiree before 1898, and another there early July 1955 (W.K.R., R.R., J.M.B., W.I.B.). No breeding record. No record from Coll. Pheasant ( Phasianus colchicus). — Present all year. Introduced in 1935 into Tiree, where nests have been reported. Heavily shot during 1939-45 war> but still survives. The game-record of the Tiree Estate records 58 shot between August 1946 and February 1955, and 8 were killed in a shoot in November 1955. Introduced into Coll 1937-38, but not recorded by subsequent observers. Perhaps 1 left, November 1956 (W.P.C.-F.). Water Rail (R alius aquaticus). — Winter. Recorded in 1898 as fairly numerous in winter in Tiree ; and a few used to remain there to breed (1913). One recorded November 1897 ; and another November 1954. Sora Rail ( Porzana Carolina). — On 25th October 1901 a young male was shot in west Tiree. No other record. Corncrake ( Crex crex). — May to September. Has been numerous in Tiree since 1794. Observers in Tiree in 1892, 1898, 1912, 1913 and 1949-55 report it as an abundant, common, or fairly common breeding species. Bred in Coll before 1899 ; 12 pairs estimated 1937 ; one found dead 1939 ; bred 1945, 1946, 1949 ; present 1954-55. Seen on passage at Skerryvore on 21st May 1898, 14th September 1904 and 12th September 1906. Moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree and Coll before 1899. Bred in Tiree (1913) i 2 seen skulking June 1952 ; 6 seen early April 1954. In Coll a few were seen in summer during 1937-39, but none have been reported in 3 lists, April to June, 1954-55- Winters in small numbers, 1 or 2 being seen in Tiree on 4 occasions, December to February, 1948-55. Coot (Fulica atra). — Present all year. Bred abundantly in Tiree (1898) ; common (1913) ; 4 adults and 7 young seen June 1949 ; 3 seen 28th May 1952 ; seen July 1952, at same site ; 9 seen early April 1954 ; at least 2 pairs 52 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI seen July 1955. Bred in Coll before 1899 ; 3 pairs present 1937-39 ; bred J945-49 I 1 seen late APr>l 1955 ; and 2 in June 1955. Present usually singly or up to 3 birds together, October to March, 1954-56, in Tiree. Oystercatcher ( Haematopus ostralegus). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree and Coll before 1899. In Tiree it nested all round the coast (1913); very common, breeding on coast, machair and moor in June 1949 and 1952, May 1954, June and July 1955. In Coll the species was plentiful May and June 1937-38 ; present there July and August 1939 ; bred 1945-49 ; several pairs seen mid- May 1954 ; widespread on coasts and inland late April 1955 ; about 20 seen early June 1955. Bred in Gunna in 1949 and 1954. It was resident in Tiree (1898) ; resident there (19x3), but more numerous in winter ; Baxter and Rintoul (1953) say “almost entirely summer visitors to the Western and Northern Isles”; common on shore, 20 seen together, early April 1954 ; small flocks, usually not more than 8 birds together, seen in Tiree, October to March, 1 953- 56, increasing rapidly in numbers March to May. Seen on shore and machair in winter, but not usually on moorland. Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree in 1794 and 1843 ; bred abundantly there 1889 ; numerous breeding species (1898) ; scarce, only one tenth of usual strength, 1908 ; abundant, but scarcer in recent years (1913) ; abundant or numerous, May to July, 1949-52 ; becoming more common 1954 ; abundant, May to July, 1954-55. Bred in Coll in 1843 and 1899 ; plentiful there 1937-38 ; very common summer 1939 ; bred 1945-49 ; numerous mid-May 1954; common, breeding on grassland, late April 1955; abundant on machair June 1955. Bred in Gunna 1954. In Tiree (1898) few remained in winter ; “the bulk of them are gone by October” (1913) ; plentiful December 1953 ; Pocks of usually less than 100 birds in mild weather, September to March, 1954-56. Sizable flocks in December 1954 were reduced to a few single birds on the shore by severe frost January and February 1955. Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula). — Present all year. Bred in both islands before 1892. In Tiree it was numerous and bred (1898) ; bred abundantly (1913) ; bred plentifully on shore and machair 1949-55. In Coll, 10 to 15 pairs were estimated 1937 ; fair numbers there July 1939 ; bred 1945-49 ; bred 1954 ; a few seen on shore, but none inland, late April 1955 ; only 1 seen in 2 days’ observation June 1955. Numerous, September to April, 1954- 56, especially on passage. An albino was seen in Tiree in September 1946 (J.G.). Grey Plover ( Charadrius squatarola). — Autumn to spring. An uncommon migrant seen regularly before 1898 ; mostly single birds on the shore, but not inland, 1913 ; but a flock of 17 were seen that year in Tiree on 22nd September. Only recent records are of 2 and odd birds, January and February 1949-54, in Tiree (I.W.). No record from Coll. Golden Plover ( Charadrius apricarius). — August to May. Bred in Tiree 1865, and in Coll 1899. In Coll 2 of the southern form Ch. a. apricarius were seen in July and August 1939, but there is no more recent evidence of breeding in either island. Numerous, autumn to spring (1899); only entirely absent in June and July (1913), but “enormous crowds” in October and from March to May ; in the period 1929-55 a small trickle of migrants usually passed August to late October, when very large flocks arrived, numbers then falling till February, when only a few remained, and rising again March and April, with a few still passing in May. At peak passage during 1953-56, flocks seldom exceeded 350 birds. Annual and monthly fluctuations, 1929-55, are described in detail elsewhere (Boyd, 1956). The majority of the birds seen in spring resembled the northern type Ch. a. altijrons. Usually seen on grasslands, but a few also on the shore in hard frost. Turnstone (Arenaria interpres). — Present all year. No breeding record. Some remained in summer in Tiree (1898) ; a good many remained there in summer in full breeding plumage (1913) ; 20 birds seen June 1949 ; several seen late May 1952 ; 6 seen July 1952 ; about 12 present mid-May 1954 ; a vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 53 few present June and July 1955. In Coll 2 or 3 were seen July 1939 ; 1 and 10 in late April 1955. A few were seen in Gunna 10th May 1954. Abundant, autumn to spring (1898) ; common in small flocks autumn and winter (1913) ; abundant September to April, 1953-56, flocks not usually exceeding 70 birds. Passage reported at Skerryvore 13th August 1898 ; a regular winter resident there 1903-06. Frequents both meadows and shore in Tiree. Systematically searches cow-pats for earthworms and beetles. Snipe ( Capclla gallinago). — Present all year. Bred in both islands before 1843 ; bred plentifully in Tiree (1898 and 1913) ; numerous there, May to July, 1949-55, eggs an(I young seen. In Coll, common 1937-39, and nest seen 1939 ; bred 1945-49 ; common May 1954 ; thought to breed all over Coll, late April 1955; 3 seen 3rd June 1955. Abundant on passage autumn to spring since before 1892; 641 shot by 7 guns in 1 day in November 1890; 249 shot by 2 guns on 29th October 1906 ; 1,293 shot by 2 guns in 11 days in November 1908 ; 151 and 1 18 shot by 1 gun in two consecutive days in November 1914 ; a total of 37,247 Common Snipe are recorded as shot in the period 1929-55 (excluding erratic shooting during 1939-45 war), an average of 1,552 per annum. In the period 1929-55 passage occurred from late August, built up to peak in late October and early November, declined thereafter till the return passage in March and April. Annual and monthly fluctuations, 1929-55, are described in detail elsewhere (Boyd, 1956). A specimen of “Sabine’s Snipe” — classified by Harvie-Brown and Buckley (1892) under the species Great Snipe ( Gallinago major Gm.) — was obtained from Tiree in January 1887; a white snipe, January 1919. No information for autumn-spring is available from Coll. Jack Snipe ( Lymnocryptes minimus ). — September to April. No breeding or summer record. Common in Tiree (1892), the average percentage of Jacks in the total snipe bag being 25%; regular, autumn and winter (1898); arrived late September, number usually erratic, percentage of the total snipe bag 10-12% (I9I3) > “scarcer in recent years” (1913) ; a total of 2,355 were shot in the period 1929-55 (excluding erratic shooting during 1939-45 war), an average of 98 per annum, comprising 5.2% of the total snipe bag ; peak passage late October-early November during 1929-55. Annual and monthly fluctuations, 1929-55, are described elsewhere in detail (Boyd, 1956). Seen in Tiree early April 1954, in Coll late April 1955, and at Skerryvore 22nd October 1898. Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola). — October to February. No breeding record. Abundant on passage in Tiree before 1892; regular winter visitor (1898); passage late October and early November, a few appearing February, and movement from the mainland in hard frost (1913) ; though Baxter and Rintoul ( 1953) say that it is abundant on passage, only 388 are recorded as shot in Tiree 1929-54. An extraordinary rush appears to have taken place in January 1939, 164 birds being shot in a fortnight. None has been reported by spring observers, and no recent record is available from Coll. At Skerryvore, 2 seen 5th November 1897, and many 20th November 1898. Curlew ( Numenius arquata). — Present all year. Bred in Coll before 1899 ; a few pairs seen there June 1929 ; 8 pairs seen, believed breeding, June 1938 ; large flocks late July 1939 ; bred 1945-49 ! several seen mid-May 1954 ; odd birds on shore, flighting inland at dusk, late April 1955 ; less than 10 seen 2nd-3rd June 1955. Bred in Tiree in 1953 (J.G.), but no other positive breeding record for that island. Did not breed in Tiree (1892) ; not present in summer (1898); Anderson (1913) says it is absent May to July, but in June 1912 a small flock was reported (N.H.) ; 1 and 2 seen June 1947 ; small parties of up to 20 birds June 1949 ; several on shore 28th May 1952, and also on heath in July ; small flocks yth-ioth May 1954 ; a pair seen in west Tiree, 18th June 1955 ; a flock of about 100 there early July 1955, and the species was common all over Tiree in late July. Single bird seen in Gunna, 10th May 1954. On passage at Skerryvore 7th-24th August 1897. Numerous in winter since before 1892, flocks September to April, 1953-56, usually less than 100 strong. Wiiimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus). — April to June; August and September. No breeding record. Heard several times in Coll in early August 1939 54 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI (A.G.S.B.), and at the Sound of Gunna in August 1945 (M.H.). A pair was seen in Tiree June 1949, and a single bird on five days at same site there June 1952. In Tiree the species passed in large flocks in May before 1898, with comparatively few in autumn ; passed late April to late May, and a few scattered birds from late August to mid-September, before 1913 ; seen in Coll and Tiree, April and May, 1954-55, only in small flocks. Seen at Skerryvore in August 1903-06, and reported as a winter straggler to Tiree, January 1901-02, and December 1953. Black-tailed Godwit ( Limosa lirnosa). — Spring and autumn. Seen rarely in spring in Tiree (1898) ; seen both spring and autumn, “in late years more frequently in autumn”, never more than 3 together (1913) ; 1 pair seen mid- April 1955 ; 3 seen i9th-22nd May 1956. No record from Coll. Bar-tailed Godwit ( Limosa lapponica). — September to April. Only summer record is of a pair reported by Anderson (Baxter and Rintoul, 1953). Seen in Tiree, 29th August 1897 ; common autumn, winter and spring (1898 and 1913) ; fairly common, September and April, 1954-56, flocks not usually exceeding 12 birds ; small numbers, October to March, 1951-56, flocks not usually exceeding 8 birds. Wood Sandpiper ( Tringa glareola). — One seen at Vaul, Tiree, June 1950 (J.T.D.W.). Common Sandpiper ( Tringa hypoleucos). — May to September. Bred in Tiree before 1871, and in Coll before 1899. Present in Tiree 1912 ; bred sparingly there 1913 ; 1 pair bred at Vaul 1947 ; odd birds on shore and 2-5 pairs at fresh waters in June 1952 ; 1 pair at fresh waters July 1952 ; birds, some paired, were reported from 5 different sites in Tiree in June and July 1955. Thought to breed more plentifully in Coll than Tiree. A pair seen at fresh waters mid-May 1954, in Coll, and “tens” seen 3rd June 1955. At Skerryvore, 2 seen August 1906. Have been reported as late as 13th September 1897, but no winter records. Redshank ( Tringa totamis). — Present all year. Bred in Coll before 1899, but first recorded breeding in Tiree in 1945 (N.McI.). In Tiree it was present in summer 1912, 1913, 1942 ; bred 1945 ; 2 heard and one seen June 1952 ; I seen July 1952 ; at least 3 breeding pairs June and July 1955. Present in Coll in June 1929, July 1939, August 1945, June 1946 and 1949 ; none seen I I th- 1 4th May 1954, nor 2nd-3rd June 1955. Plentiful September to April since before 1892 ; flocks small but numerous on the shore, usually not more than 20 birds in each, and 1-6 seen frequently on the grassland, winter 1952-56. Greenshank ( Tringa nebularia). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree 1891, but no breeding record from Coll. Seen in Tiree, August 1897-98, June 1912, August 1954; birds seen at 3 different sites there in June and July ig55> one pair regularly. Known on passage in Tiree since 1887 ; common autumn^ to spring (1898) ; sparsely distributed, usually singly or paired, autumn to spring (1913) ; 2-4 on 4 occasions, January and February, 1949-54 ; odd birds seen ioth-nth April 1954, 25th February 1955. In Coll, 5 or 6 seen on passage in August 1939. Seen both on the shore and at fresh waters. Knot ( Calidris canutus). — August to April. One shot in Tiree September 1887 ; seen in small parties late August, and larger parties late September, with a few occurring in spring (1889 and 1913) ; i-n seen January and February 1954 ; seen in mixed wader flocks August and September i954"55 > 80-110 seen in Tiree early April 1954. No record from Coll. Purple Sandpiper ( Calidris maritima). — October to April. Plentiful in Tiree, November to April, since before 1892. Flocks, usually less than 30 strong, common on shore October-April 1954-55. A regular winter resident at Skerryvore 1903-06. Little Stint ( Calidris minuta). — Autumn. Reported on passage in Tiree since 1892 ; as many as 20 seen together (1898) ; seen on passage, but not vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 55 every year (1913) ; small party seen 10th September 1954. Not reported from Coll before 1899, but many reported there late February 1902. No recent report from Coll. Dunlin ( Calidris alpina). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree in “hundreds” before 1898; common breeder (1913); a few bred 1950; common, breeding on grasslands and moor, 1952-55. In Coll a few were breeding before 1899; a pair was thought to nest there 1937-38 ; common in summer 1945-49 ; present mid-May 1954 ; 15 seen 22nd April 1955. None seen in Coll in 2 days’ observation in June 1955, and probably less common there than in Tiree where in 2 days’ observation in the same month it was reported as numerous. Breeding birds are of the sub-species C. a. schinzii. More common in summer in Tiree than in winter (1898 and 1913). Common both summer and winter 1952-55, with flocks of usually not more than 30 in mid-winter. Seen feeding on machair. Many of the wintering birds are of the larger sub-species C. a. alpina. Curlew Sandpiper ( Calidris testacea). — Seen Tiree on 23rd September 1898. Sanderling ( Crocethia alba). — Present all year. No breeding record. One shot in Tiree in June 1891 ; frequent autumn to spring (1898) ; abundant, only absent in breeding season (1913) ; 42 seen 21st July 1942 ; seen on passage, flocks varying in size 2-29 on two strands, 27th May-6th June 1952 ; seen August 1954. In Coll, 9 were seen on 12th June 1902 and 17 on 15th June 1938 ; 3 seen late July 1939 ; odd birds present late April 1955. Common on passage in Tiree since before 1898, and plentiful spring and autumn 1952-55 in flocks not usually exceeding 200 birds. Common in winter, in mixed wader flocks on strands, 1954-56. Ruff ( Philomaclius pugnax). — Occasional single birds in Tiree in autumn, (1898 and 1913) ; 1 seen August 1918 ; 3 males and 2 females nth September 1956 (J.M.B., W.I.B.). In Coll, 1 seen on 16th September 1905. Grey Piialarope ( Phalaropus fulicarius). — One shot in Tiree, September 1886, and another seen on the sea, November 1890. No other record. Red-necked Phalarope ( Phalaropus lobatus). — Summer. First bred in Tiree in 1902 ; a few pairs bred regularly (1913); Tiree quoted as a breeding- station by Fisher (1947) and Witherby et al. (1938) ; a few pairs have bred in recent years. Arctic Skua ( Stercorarius parasiticus). — May to August. Bred in Coll before 1898 ; 2 colonies there, with about 5 pairs in each, 1937-38 ; about 15 pairs with young in August 1939 ; 12 pairs August 1945 ; 4 pairs June 1949 ; 30-40 present in early June 1955 (A.A.K.W.); recent increase, 1956 (W.P.C.-F.). A pair bred in Tiree in 1891, and it has been seen there in summer without a breeding record (1898), 1912, 1913, on moor 1948, 1952, 1954, 1955. Sometimes seen in winter off Tiree. Great Skua ( Stercorarius skua). — Reported off Tiree mid-January 1902, mid- April 1937, August 1951, July 1952. No sign of breeding. Great Black-backed Gull ( Larus marinus). — Present all year. Not thought to breed in Tiree (1898) ; not breeding in Tiree, but breeding proved in Gunna (1913) ; 1 nest on an off-shore islet, and 2 nests in Gunna, June 1949 ; odd birds, and present in mixed gull flock, June 1952 ; 1 pair seen on off-shore islet July 1952 ; a nest has been found in recent )-ears at Ceann a’ Mhara (N.McI.) ; present in Gunna 10th May 1954, but no nest found ; present in mixed gull flocks June and July 1954-55. In Coll, bred in fair numbers 1939 (A.G.S.B.) ; frequently seen summer 1945-46, and 1949 ; present May 1954 ; present, scattered all over, late April 1955 ; less than 10 seen June 1955. Present in Tiree from September to March, both on shore and inland, but usually no more than 4 seen together. Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus). — April to October. Bred in both islands before 1899 ; bred sparingly in Tiree (1913) ; nesting Ceann a’ Mhara, 56 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI and a slightly smaller colony in Gunna, June 1949 ; several pairs among Herring Gulls, Ceann a’ Mhara, July 1952; present in Gunna, but no eggs seen, May 1954 ; several pairs seen, but no eggs or young, June 1955. Present in mixed gull flocks on machair and strands in Tiree July 1952 and 1955. Bred in Coll, Gunna and Soa, 1937-39 ; during 1945-49 a colony present south of Arinagour (about 30 birds, including 13 young, August 1945) ; several hundred gulls, including some of this species, in flight over the Eilein Mor rocks while native egg-collectors were ashore, and present also south of Arinagour, mid-May 1954 ; scarce in late April 1955 ; breeding colony of several hundred pairs on level moor north of Arinagour in June 1955. Anderson (1898 and 1913) said this species was “resident”, but no winter record is available, and doubt is cast on this statement (Editors, Scot. Nat., 1913). Herring Gull ( Larus argentatus). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree and Coll before 1899. Nesting Ceann a’ Mhara 1912, 1913; “Order 3” colony (100-1,000 pairs), with a large number of young, July 1942 ; breeding Ceann a’ Mhara and Gunna 1949 and mid-May 1954 ; breeding in fair numbers 1952 ; 100-150 nests (including Lesser Black-backed Gull) at Ceann a’ Mhara in June 1955. Bred in Coll 1937-39, 1945-49 ; colony of several hundred birds (see Lesser Black-backed Gull) over Eilein Mor rocks mid-May 1954 ; commonest gull on Coll late April 1955 ; 10-100 seen 2nd-3rd June 1955. Predominant in mixed gull flocks in Tiree in July 1952 and 1955. Present (always more than 6) all year at Skerryvore, 1906. Common, September- April. Common Gull ( Larus canus). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree before 1892, and summer observers in 1898, 1912, 1913, 1949, 1952, 1954-55 report it as a common breeder both on the upper shore and inland. Bred in Coll before 1899 and during 1937-39 I a colony south of Loch an Duin with 16 nests June 1946, and 8 nests June 1949 ; present mid-May 1954 ; surprisingly few seen, only 1 or 2 parties of 20-30 birds on cultivated ground, late April 1955 ; none seen 2nd-3rd June 1955. None seen in Gunna June 1949, but present on shore rocks 10th May 1954. Flocks at fresh water lochs March and April, and again on machair and shore July and August. Common on shore September to February, usually less than 10 birds together. Glaucous Gull ( Larus hypcrboreus). — Winter. Single birds seen regularly in winter about 1913 and at Skerryvore, where 1 was seen as late as 3rd April 1904, and where birds were also seen January and February 1889, and March 1897. Seen in Tiree mid-winter 1949-50. Iceland Gull ( Larus glaucoides). — 1 seen mid-winter 1949-50 (J.T.D.W.). Little Gull ( Larus minutus). — Seen at Skerryvore 24th September 1903. Black-headed Gull ( Larus ridibundus). — Present all year. First breeding record from Tiree was of 1 pair in 1889 ; another pair 1891 ; a few pairs 1898 ; increased, breeding at several places, by 1913 ; many seen, but only 1 nest, June 1949 ; 1 or 2 small breeding colonies June 1952 ; colony of about 12 pairs sharing islet in Loch Bhasapol with Common Terns in June and July 1952 ; 3 sites, with usually less than 30 pairs at each, June and July 1954-55. Bred in Coll occasionally before 1899 ; 2 colonies of 6 and 7 pairs in 1937-38 ; young seen 1939; not noted breeding since, but present in small numbers April to June 1954-55. Common in winter, not usually more than 10 birds together. Sabine’s Gull ( Xenia sabini). — Seen at Skerryvore in January 1905 and November 1907. Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla ). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree at Ceann a’ Mhara before 1891, when about 300 pairs nested; bred there (1898 and 1913); 258 pairs present July 1942 (J.F.) ; 200 pairs nesting, but about 300 pairs present, June 1949 (W.C.T.) ; 425 birds present June 1952 (H.A.C.) ; 438 birds counted July 1955 (J.M.B.). No breeding record from Coll. Present all year at Skerryvore ; most numerous August 1903-06. (To be concluded) BRITISH RECOVERIES OF BIRDS RINGED ABROAD Communicated by E. P. Leach This list continues from that published in 1956 (anlea, vol. xlix, pp 438-452). Among :ords of special interest included in it are a number relating to wildfowl which help to )W the lelation of breeding areas to winter quarters. Camargue-nnged Mallard and al have begun to be noted here, previous recoveries having mostly been on a line running m S.W. to N.E. through the Camargue. It is still not clear whether any birds native the British Isles are concerned. One Russian-ringed Mallard was aged 7-plus years, iti a Scaup from Iceland apparently 8-plus. 'A Goosander from Finland in Norfolk, two Pink-footed Geese from N.E. Greenland in Erth two Brent Geese from Spitzbergen in Northumberland, two Barnacles from the me area on the Solway, five Barnacles from N.E. Greenland in the northern Outer .:brides and another in northern Ireland suggest some probable links between summer .i!d winter quarters. 'Swedish Ospreys on passage through Scotland, a Moorhen and a Coot from across the ■irth Sea a Woodcock from Finland in Kent, widespread occurrences here of Knot and nnlin ringed in Scandinavia, Great Black-backed Gulls wintering from Iceland and ’>rwav Herring Gulls from Norway and an Iceland Gull from Greenland are also mterest- r some of the Knots and a Dunlin are aged between 5 and 7-plus years ; and these Aether with a Snipe from Iceland aged 7 i and a Curlew from Finland aged 18 J show w long-lived waders can be in Europe. There is evidence of Common Terns from Finland and the Low Countries passing through ee English Channel on migration, and a sad and curious record of an Arctic I ei n from > Itonia behaving suicidally on passage inland through Wiltshire. A first-winter Stock Dove from Finland, shot in Norfolk, is of special interest in view of re obscurities of pigeon migration. A Swedish Long-eared Owl ^in \orkshire had been leed H years earlier. Recoveries of Heligoland-ringed Blackbirds at Spurn and Dunge- ■ sS 0f an Iceland Wheatear at Bardsey and of an Iceland White Wagtail at Lundy ustrate the good work of the Bird Observatories as centres for recovery as well as for irking. — Eds.]. ey to Symbols and Terms O : Indicates bird breeding, or bred, at place of ringing. Age • pull, (pullus)— nestling or chick, not yet flying ; juv. young, able to fly freely (but in some cases this may mean a nestling or chick, owing to lack of unanimity in the various Ringing Schemes) ; * — full-grown (age uncertain), trapped; ad. — adult. Sex : cJ— male ; ?— female. v : Caught or trapped and released with ring. + : Shot or killed by man. X : Found dead or dying. ( ) ; Caught or trapped alive and not released, or released but with ring removed. /? / ; Manner of recovery unknown. Note ■ The format of the report, and the symbols and terms employed are those put ward for international adoption at the Xlth International Ornithological Congress. In le list the ringing details are given on the first or first and second lines and the recovery ata on a new line below. 58 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Abbreviations used for Ringing Stations B. Brussels O. C. Copenhagen P. G. Gothenburg Pe. H. Heligoland P-V. Hki. Helsinki Rk. Hki.R.S. Helsinki Riista Saatio (Game Stav. Research Institute) St. L. Leiden St. Orn La. Lithuania M. Moscow S.J.F. Oslo Paris Prague Polonia Varsovia (Warsaw) Reykjavik Stavanger Stockholm Stockholm “Ornis” (Sveriges Ornitologiska Forening) Svenska Jagare Forbundet Heron (Ardea cinerea) Stav. O pull. n-5-52 Stangvik : 62° 53'N. 8° 32' E. (Nordmore) Norway 23704 X 0-4-55 River Don : 570 15'N. 2° 4o'W. (Aberdeenshire) Stav. O pull. 1.6.52 as above (Norway) Macduff : 570 40'N. 2° 30AV. (Banffshire) 23727 X I9-I-55 Stav. O pull. 25-5-53 Sund : 60° 17'N. 50 io'E. (Hordaland) Norway 23509 X 18.12.54 Belfast Lough (Northern Ireland) Stav. 0 pull. 7-6-54 as above (Norway) 23593 X 30-3-55 Benmore, Dunoon : 56° 02'N. 50 00AV. (Argyll) 0. 0 pull. 7.6.52 Egersund : 58° 28'N. 6° oo'E. (Rogaland) Norway 026394 X 26.4.53 Galashiels : 550 37'N. 2° 49'W. (Selkirk) 0. 0 pull. 10.6.53 as above (Norway) 024807 X ca.13.xo.53 Isle of Lewis (Outer Hebrides) 0. 0 pull. 10.6.53 as above (Norway) 024801 X ca.30.3.54 Newtonhill : 570 02'N. 20 08AV. (Kincardine) 0. 0 pull. 10.6.53 as above (Norway) 026387 X 0.2.54 Carlisle : 54° 53'N. 2° 56 AV. (Cumberland) 0. 0 pull. 6.6.54 as above (Norway) 026521 v 7-12.54 Isle of Barra (Outer Hebrides) 0. 0 pull. 11.6.54 as above (Norway) 024777 x 1.12.56 Meavaig : 570 52'N. 6° 49'W. Isle of Harris (Outer Hebrides) St. 0 pull. 21-5-56 Forshalla : 58° 16'N. ii° 56'E. (Bohus) Sweden SI287I X 27.10.56 Plaxtol : 510 16'N. o° 19'E. (Kent) G. 0 pull. 31-5-54 H<a : 570 52'N. n° 45'E. (Bohus) Sweden E7153 X 2-2-55 Mallard Burley : 50° 49'N. i° 42 AV. (Hampshire) ( Anas platyrhynchos) M. p 20.7.47 Novgorod : 58° 32' N. 310 18'E. Russia D2.4496 + ca.10.1.55 Wigtown : 540 52'N. 40 27 AV. Hki. 0 juv. 19-7-53 Nkrpes : 62° 20'N. 210 20'E. Finland H16883 + o-3-54 Southwell : 530 04'N. 0° 52AV. (Nottinghamshire) Hki. 0 juv. 23-7-55 Pori: 6i° 30' N. 210 45' E, Finland H. 18684 + 0.1.56 Happisburgh: 520 50' N. i° 33' E. (Norfolk) Hki. R.S. 0 juv. 26.7.56 Tervola : 66° 05'N. 240 50'E. Finland 6253 + 24.12.56 Rosebery Reservoir : 550 48'N. 30 07'W. (Midloth- ian) S.J.F. 0 pull. 24-6.53 Overlulei : 65° 49'N. 210 32'E. Sweden 7652 X 12-4-55 Leswalt : 540 55 'N. 50 06 AV. (Wigtown) Stav. 0 pull. 6-7-55 Varhaug : 58° 38'N. 50 38'E. (Rogaland) Norway 412037 + 22.12.55 Pocldington : 530 56'N. o° 46AV. (Yorkshire) >L. Li] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 59 It.v. O juv. 2.7.52 5»o 1 + I5-I-53 ad. 55 1 5 0 15-5-55 Stokke : 590 n'N. io° 19'E. (Vestfold) Norway Felton : 550 i8'N. i° 40'W. (Northumberland) Le Sambuc : 430 31'N. 40 42'E. (B. d. Rh.) France Humber : ca. 530 39'N. o° o6'E. (Yorkshire) Meetkerke : 510 14'N. 30 09 'E. (West Flanders) Belgium Needham Market : 520 09'N. i° 03'E. (Suffolk) 1 1U5 last DUU W do r» "OO ovides an unusual recovery for a Mallard. TThe Mallard ringed in the Camargue is noteworthy and there are also Teal >m this comparatively new Station in the south of France. A great many ii Hard, as usual, have been ringed in decoys in Holland and Belgium and covered in the British Isles in widely-spread areas. . . O pull. V X co + O $ 5)12 + O pull. J33 1 + !, . 0 pull. 3135 + $ 0 pull. 8302 X 0 pull. 8I24 + ad. (moult) 739 + i. O pull. 11511 + ad. $ 10275 + juv. cJ J285 v juv. c? W7856 + ad. -species [A. a. flavirostris), bearing the rings of the Copenhagen Museum, 1 are all from Ireland with the exception of one killed by collision with >les near Kirkwall, Orkney. The counties of Ireland where twenty geese re recovered are Wexford (11), Roscommon (3), Mayo (2), and Antrim, negal, Longford and Westmeath (1 each). Pink-footed Goose {Anser arvensis brachyrhynchus) O Summer 1955 Antarctic Dal : 72°N. 23°W. Greenland 795 + 8.10.55 Longforgan : 56° 27' N. 30 06'W. (Perthshire) rhese two birds ringed in north-east Greenland are the first foreign-ringed ik-footed Goose recoveries in Britain other than ones marked in Iceland, but reral have been ringed in the British Isles as winter-visitors and recovered the breeding-area on the east coast of Greenland at latitudes between 3 and 74°N. 62 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. u Many of the Pink-footed Geese ringed in central Iceland during the Wildfowl Trust expeditions of 1951 and 1953 were recovered in the British Isles in 1955 and 1956, but there is nothing to which attention need specially be drawn, as the localities were all the usual ones quoted in former years. During the period under review only one record was received from Ireland, namely from Wexford. Brent Goose ( Branta bernicla) Stay. O ad. 16.7.54 Reindalen : 770 so'N. 150 3o'E. Spitzbergen 4096x9 x 24.2.55 Alnmouth : 550 24'N. i° 37'W. (Northumberland) Stay. O ad. 16.7.54 as above (Spitzbergen) 409080 x 27-3-55 Hauxley : 550 20'N. i° 34'W. (Northumberland) There is one other record of a ringed Brent Goose being recovered in Great Britain and this also was marked in Spitzbergen (with a Moscow ring, in 1933, and shot in Nigg Bay, Easter Ross, in January, 1934). The Brents and Barnacles carrying Stavanger rings were marked during the British Cambridge-Sherbome Expedition to Spitzbergen, and the Barnacle- Goose is a species which now appears for the first time in our lists. Barnacle Goose ( Branta Leucopsis ) Stay. O ad. 16.7.54 Reindalen : 7 70 so'N. 150 3o'E. Spitzbergen 307015 + 0.1-55 Solway : ca. 540 55'N. 30 35'W. (Dumfriesshire) Stay. O ad. 16.7.54 as above (Spitzbergen) 307023 X 1-5-55 Solway (Dumfriesshire) C. O pull. 6.8.55 Flemingdalen : 71 0 3o'N. 230 20'W. Greenland 275365 /?/ ca.10.3.56 Loch Eiisort : ea.580 07'N. 6° 25'W. Isle of Lewis (Outer Hebrides) Four other Barnacle Geese ringed at the same time were recovered (either shot or found dead) on Ensay, 570 46'N. 70 05'W., in the sound of Harris (Outer Hebrides) during the autumn and winter of 1955. C. O pull 31.7.55 Flemingfjorden : (N.E. Greenland) 275428 x 26.11.55 The Skerries : 550 i4'N. 6° 37'W. Portrush (Antrim) Bewick’s Swan ( Cygnus columbianus bewickii) P. ad. 0.2.56 Paimboeuf : 470 17'N. 20 02'W. (Loire Inf.) France BA1252 4- 0.12.56 Killeagh : 51° 56'N. 70 59'W. (Cork) The authorities at the Paris Museum of Natural History tell us that Bewick’s Swans are exceedingly rare on the Loire, and that this is the only one ever ringed under their Scheme. We have also heard from the ringing station at Nantes, which was directly responsible for the capture of this swan, and we are told that it was found injured on an ice-floe in the Estuary of the Loire, during a spell of very hard weather in February 1956 when several parties of swans were observed. The injured bird was cared for and after about ten days was released on le Lac de Grandlieu, 12 km. S.W. of Nantes. The party found in Co. Cork the following winter consisted of five birds, of which three others were shot besides the ringed one. Plate 13 "Sigvard Rosdn Adl'I.t Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium passerinum): Sweden, winter As its name suggests, the Pygmy is the smallest European owl, little bigger than a Bullfinch ( Pyrrhtila pyrrhula), and the huge-looking rodent which this one has just caught is only a wood mouse (.1 podemus sp. ). Voles, mice and shrews, small birds, lizards and insects form the prey of this species (sec pages 72-74). This plate shows well the conspicuous white “eye-brows” which, however, seem to be a rather variable feature (cf. plate 16 and see page 73). Plate 14 Kurt Ellstrom and Enar Si chert! 'r^:^'zidr; >rerinum): — j«« *** the brown tail is barred whh ‘STiitt Vm?'''']’ ^ t 'V,"1 ^yish-ludT, and OwPs characteristics h-ildt „r •' ! hls photograph illustrates the Pvgmv also cock it up like a Wren (Trnrf"}^ "S ta'i to ,,nc side or ,he other; it wil'l (« p»8= 7./ 011 al'8ll,in8 mi“‘> - .-ta-wis iCjrus s:;r" lerous or Plate 15 Kurt Ellstrihn and Knar Sjiiberg Juvenile Pvgmy Out ( Glaucidium passerinum) : Sweden, 24x11 June 1055 This youngster has just left the nest and is therefore about 28 days old. At this age the upper-parts tint! hreast tire largely dark-brownish (see page 73). Kurt Ell strom and Knar S job erg Juvenile Pyo.my Owls (Glaucidium passerinum) : Sweden, 24x11 June 1955 Note tlie white “eye-brows” already conspicuous, particularly in the bird on the left (hut <•/. plate i(>). 1'he female, who alone incubates, normally lays 3-7 eggs and starts sitting with the third (see page 73), so that in a large brood there may be some age difference. Pr.ATF. if) Plate 17 Plate iS R.A.V. Official, Crown Copyright Reserved Vertical view ok Arinac.oi'k, Isle ok Coll, Inner Hebrides: April 1048 For location see right-centre of Fig. 2 on page 45. Apart from the township (on the left of the estuary), this illustrates cultivated areas, moorland, saltings and fresh-water lochs (see list ol ecological divisions on page 41). The last-named provide breeding-sites for a few pairs of Red-throated Divers {Gavia stellala) (see page 45). Plate 19 R.A.F. Official, Crown Copyright Reserved Vertical view ok Brkacilvciia, Isle ok Coll, Inner Hebrides: April 1946 -For location see lower part of Fig. 2 on page 43. Here one can see beaches, dunes peppered with white spots), moorland and lochs. The white spots on the dunes are 'alibit warrens and the Buzzards ( Buteo htiteo) hunt here (see page 50). Note the maze if ditches which provide a haven for great numbers of Snipe (Capclla gallinago) (see page 53). Plate 20 R.A.F. Official, Crown Copyright Reserved Vertical view ok Scakinisii and Gott, Tirke, Inner Hebrides: April 1948 For location see right of Fig. 3 on page 44. This shows shell-sand beaches, machair or sea-meadow, cultivation and crofts, and moorland with fresh waters; the white patches are cultivated machair soil unlimed. Note that there are no rabbit warrens ( cf . plate 19) ; rabbits have not been present on Tiree for at least too years (see page 50). 3L. Li] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 63 ? >9015 + juv. $ •8995 + Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) x. 1 1.54 Loosduinen : 520 03'N. 4° 12'E. (Zuid Holland) 23.2.55 Brook: 510 09'N. o° 58'E. (Kent) 28.10.53 as above (Holland) 12.12.55 Tenterden: 510 04' N. o°42' E. (Kent) J.F. 0012 3366 Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus) O pull. 0.6.56 Glosbo : 6i° 20'N. 160 42'E. (Halsingland) Sweden X 9-9-56 Stobs : 550 23'N. 2° 47'W. (Roxburgh) O pull. 25.6.53 Halleberg : 58° 20'N. 120 25'E. (Vastergotland) Sweden X 15. ix. 55 Glen Kyllachy : 570 17'N. 40 04'W. (Inverness-shire) * 1.47092 v Water Rail ( Rallus aquations) 22.8.53 Island of Mellum : 53° 44'N. 8° 14'E. Germany n.x.55 Blackwood : 510 40'N. 30 12'W. (Monmouthshire) After capture, this bird was taken to Cardiff (510 28'N. 30 io'W.) and released »ere. Moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus) * 22. xi. 54 Piaam : 530 02'N. 50 24'E. (Friesland) Holland (13980 X (cat) 0.12.54 Holme : 520 58'N. o° 33'E. (Norfolk) Coot ( Fulica atra) * 4.8.53 Zwarte Meer : 520 38'N. 6° oo'E. (Overijssel) Holland 9312 + 14.1.56 Hickling Broad : 520 45'N. i° 35'E. (Norfolk) Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) O pull. 8.7.51 Mikladali : 62° 21'N. 6° 46'W. Faeroes >15807 X 12.4.52 Birsay : 590 07'N. 30 19'W. (Orkney) O pull. 8.7.51 as above (Faeroes) >15814 V ca.26.10. 51 Belfast : 54° 35'N. 50 56^. (Antrim) O. ad. 20.6.49 Svinc : 62° i7'N. 6° 18'W. Faeroes >15753 X 14. 1. 51 Luce Bay : ca.540 50'N. 40 40'W. (Wigtownshire) Uav. 1st W. 15. 10.51 Revtangen : 58° 45'N. 50 3o'E. (Rogaland) Norway (.205 /?/ 4.1.53 Hunstanton : 520 57'N. 0° 30'E. (Norfolk) Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus ) r. 0 pull. 5-6.55 Hapsalu : 58° 57'N. 23° 32'E. Estonia Chatteris : 520 27'N. o° 03 'E. (Cambridgeshire) .282160 X 25-3-56 O pull. 20.6.55 F&ro : ca. 57° 56'N. 19° 09'E. Gotland, Sweden H9943 X 4.1.56 Cookstown : 540 39'N. 6° 45'W. (Tyrone) 1. . 0 pull. H-5-55 Kristianstad : 56° 02'N. 14° io'E. Sweden E8380 X ( long time) 3.8.56 Polzeath : 50° 35'N. 40 56^. (Cornwall) 0 pull. 21.6.55 Laholm : 56° 31'N. 130 05'E. Sweden 20915 X 23.1.56 Warham : 520 57'N. o° 54'E. (Norfolk) Uav. O pull. 17.6.42 Klepp : 58° 44'N. 50 32'E. (Rogaland) Norway 607 + 20.12.53 Baltinglass : 520 56'N. 6° 44'W. (Wicklow) av. O pull. 13-5-50 Sola : 58° 53'N. 50 37'E. (Rogaland) Norway 1231 + 18.10.54 Castlebar : 530 51'N. 90 18'W. (Mayo) ■av. O pull. 24-5-55 as above (Norway) 7964 X (wires) 0.2.56 Boulmer : 550 26'N. i° 34'W. (Northumberland) ' ‘av. 0 pull. 20.5.51 Hoyland : 58° 53'N. 50 45'E. (Rogaland) Norway :i66 X 1-4-52 Malmesbury : 510 35'N. 2° os'W. (Wiltshire) 64 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Stav. O pull. 22.5.54 as above (Norway) 603598 0 7.12.54 Chester-le-Stieet : 540 50'N. i° 35'W. (Durham) Stav. 0 pull. 17.6.52 Tonsberg : 590 17'N. io° 22'E. (Vestfold) Norway 604638 + 0.12.52 River Suir : 52° 16'N. 70 06'W. (Waterford) Stav. 0 pull. 22.5.54 Hognestad : 58° 43'N. 50 42'E. (Rogaland) Norway 61x766 X ea.15.1.55 Thurso : 58° 35'N. 30 33'W. (Caithness) Stav. 0 pull. 27.5.55 Varhaug : 58° 34'N. 50 39'E. (Rogaland) Norway 614568 X 31. 12. 55 Smarden : 510 09'N. o° 41'E. (Kent) C. O pull. 5.6.49 Samso : 550 55'N. io° 37'E. Denmark 595512 + 0.1.52 Welney : 520 31'N. o° 15'E. (Norfolk) C. O pull. 9.6.51 Praesto : 550 08'N. 120 04'E. (Zealand) Denmark 594°94 + 9.1.52 Ardee : 530 51'N. 6° 32'W. (Louth) H. O pull. 11.5.53 Wangeroog : 530 48'N. 70 52'E. (East Frisian Is.) 5020479 Germany X 19. 11. 55 Cuerdley : 530 23'N. 2° 41'W. (Lancashire) L. 0 pull. 4.6.53 Valkenburg : 520 io'N. 4° 30'E. (Zuid Holland) 246812 X 14. 11. 54 South Luffenham : 520 37'N. o° 36'W. (Rutland) L. ? I9-3-54 Reeuwijk : 520 03'N. 40 42'E. (Zuid Holland) 241613 X 4.1.55 Lound : 530 22'N. o° 57'W. (Nottinghamshire) Pe. 0 pull. 1.5.54 Dolin Mecholupy : 50° 03'N. 14° 3o'E. Czechoslovakia H18342 X 6.3.55 Exmouth : 50° 37'N. 30 24'W. (Devon) Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula ) H. 0 pull. 13.6.56 Heligoland : 540 n'N. 7° 55'E. Germany 8871198 + 7.10.56 Courtmacsherry : 510 38'N. 8° 43'W. (Cork) Golden Plover ( Charadrius apricarius) Rk. ad. 28.4.51 Midnes : 64° 04'N. 220 43'W. Iceland 5/3478 + 13.2.55 Waterford : 52° 15'N. 70 07'W. Rk. ad. 29-4-53 as above (Iceland) 5/3588 V 9.10.55 ibid. + 0.2.56 Athy : 520 59'N. 6° 59'W. (Kildare) Rk. ad. 24.8.55 as above (Iceland) 76353 + 15.10.55 Cashel : 520 32'N. 70 53'W. (Tipperary) Rk. ad. 8.10.55 as above (Iceland) 75801 _j_ 12.2.56 Dunany : 530 52'N. 6° 16'W. (Louth) Rk. ad. 29.10.55 as above (Iceland) 75839 + 15.1.56 Banteer : 520 07'N. 8° 54'W. (Cork) Turnstone ( Arenaria inter pres) Rk. ad. 24.8.55 Midnes : 64° 04'N. 220 43'W. Iceland 76354 X 16.5.56 Maidens Lighthouse : 540 56'N. 50 45'W. (Antrim) Stav. * 28.8.55 Revtangen : 58° 45'N. 5° 30'W. (Rogaland) Norway 730125 + 23-9-55 West Mersea : 51° 46'N. o° 55'E. (Essex) Snipe ( Capella gallinago) Rk. 0 pull. 13.7.48 Myvatn : 65° 39'N. 160 58'W. Iceland 30.10.55 Tarbert : 520 34'N. 90 23'W. (Kerry) 6/4835 + Rk. O pull. 24.6.54 Fnjoskadalur : 65° 46'N. 17° 53'W. Iceland 85285 + 9.12.55 Tralee : 520 16' N. 90 43'W. (Kerry) Rk. O pull. 3.7.54 as above (Iceland) 85256 X (wires) 17.2.55 Tresco : 490 58'N. 6° 20'W. (Isles of Scilly) VOL. Ll] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 65 Rk. O ad. 136.55 Hornafjordur : 64° 17'N. 150 12'W. Iceland 77902 + 0.10.55 South Uist or Benbecula (Outer Hebrides) 'St. O pull. M-6-55 Frhndefors : 58° 29'N. 120 18'E. Sweden YK6967 + 28.1.56 Ballygar : 53“ 32'N. 8° 19'W. (Galway) c. ad. 29.9.50 Copenhagen : 550 41'N. 120 35'E. Denmark 694346 + 27.1. 51 Sandford-on-Thames : 51 0 43 'N. 1° 13'W. (Oxfordshire) c. ad. 7-8-51 Amager : 550 40'N. 120 38'E. Denmark 781048 X 1. 12. 52 Maybole : 55° 21'N. 40 41'W. (Ayrshire) c. * 10.9.51 as above (Denmark) Stafford : 520 49'N. 2° 06'W. 781292 + 2.1.52 c. * 24-8-54 as above (Denmark) 697098 + 0.2.55 Bampton : 50° 59'N. 30 29'W. (Devon) H. * 18.8.51 Wilhelmshaven : 530 32'N. 8° 08'E. Germany 7177667 + I-I-55 Sidlesham : 50° 47'N. 0° 48'W. (Sussex) IB. * 8.8.50 Le Zoute : 510 2o'N. 30 i7'E. (West Flanders) Belgium 3D1057 + 5-2.55 Clata : 530 2i'N. 70 36'W. (Offaly) Woodcock [Scolopax rusticola) Hfti.R.S. 1954 or/ 55 Oulu : 65° oo'N. 250 30'E. Finland 11803 + 19. 1 1.55 Knockholt : 510 19'N. o° 07'E. (Kent) Curlew ( Numenius arquata) Hki. O pull. 30.537 Muolaa : 6o° 37'N. 290 25'E. Finland C27223 + 30.11.55 Lough Gur : 520 32'N. 8° 32'W. (Limerick) Hki. O pull. 6.6.52 Sumiainen : 62° 39'N. 26° 03'E. Finland C36056 + 0.12.53 Hesketh Bank : 530 42'N. 20 si'W. (Lancashire) 'Stay. O pull. 14-6.53 Heroy : 65° 54'N. 120 oo'E. (Nordland) Norway 44°77 X 1.2.55 Loch Snizort : ca.570 35'N. 6° 25'W. (Isle of Skye) 'Stay. O pull. 20.5.50 Fosse : 58° 42'N. 50 42'E. (Rogaland) Norway Strangfoid Lough : ca.540 30'N. 50 33'W. (Down) 44398 + 26.12.55 SS.J.F. O pull. 10.7.54 Lau Myr : 570 I5'N. 18° 33'E. (Gotland) Sweden 42287 X [wires) III-54 Backford : 53 0 15'N. 2° 55 'W. (Cheshire) G. O pull. 27-6-54 Hultsjo : 570 18'N. 14° 43'E. (Smiland) Sweden) Breydon Water : ca. 520 37'N. i° 42'E. (Norfolk) D.41527 + I5-I-55 Note the age of 18 years attained by the first bird on the fist. Stavanger 44399. from the same clutch as 44398 above, was recovered in September 1950, also at Strangford Lough ( antea , vol. xlv, p. 464). Bar-tailed Godwit ( Limosa lapponica) 'Stay. 605462 + juv. 19.8.55 0.2.56 Revtangen : 58° 45'N. 50 30'E. (Rogaland) Norway Breydon Water : ca. 520 37'N. 1° 42'E. (Norfolk) Redshank ( Tringa totanus) Rk. 76190 X juv. 1.8.55 6.7.56 Midnes : 64° 04'N. 220 43^. Iceland Blackwater Foot : 550 30'N. 50 20'W., Isle of Arran (Bute) C. 780961 4- juv. 31.7.51 9.2.52 Amager : 550 40'N. 120 38'E. Denmark Mersea Island : 51° 47'N. 0° 58'E. (Essex) * + Knot ( Calidris canutus ) Rk. 76160 30.5.55 I4-I2.55 Midnes : 64° 04'N. 220 43^. Iceland Rosslare : 520 21'N. 6° 24'W. (Wexford) 66 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. Rk. ad. 238. 55 as above (Iceland) 76324 V 4.11.56 Flookburgh : 540 n'N. 2° 59'W. (Lancashire) Stav. * 18.8.48 Revtangen : 58° 45'N. 50 30'E. (Rogaland) Norway Blakeney : 520 58'N. i° oi'E. (Norfolk) 88854 + 24-1-55 Stav. * 23.8.49 as above (Norway) 11586 + 9-1-55 Wentloog : 510 31'N. 30 02'W. (Monmouthshire) Stav. ad. 2.9.49 as above (Norway) 12615 + 3-1-52 Gedney Drove End : 520 51'N. 0° n'E. (Lincolnshire) Stav. ad. 21.9.52 as above (Norway) 723327 X 26.12.52 Monifieth : 56° 29'N. 20 49'W. (Angus) Stav. ad. 24-9-52 as above (Norway) Maldon : 510 44'N. o° 40'E. (Essex) 723421 + ca.10.12.52 Dunlin ( Calidris alpina) Stav. * ad. 21.9.50 Revtangen : 58° 45'N. 50 30'E. (Rogaland) Norway 8391 X (nets) 22.1.52 Morecambe Bay : ca. 54 0 oo'N. 3°oo'W. (Lancashire) Stav. * 21.9.50 as above (Norway) Z231 + 5-12.52 Stoke Marshes : 510 27'N. o° 38'E. (Kent) Stav. * 20.8.51 as above (Norway) 9383 + 20.2.52 River Clwyd : 530 18'N. 3° 28'W. (Flintshire) Stav. * 14.9.51 as above (Norway) 814626 + 4-1-53 Maldon : 510 44'N. o° 40'E. (Essex) Stav. * 27-9-5I as above (Norway) 815267 X 8.1.52 Skegness : 530 io'N. 0° 20'E. (Lincolnshire) Stav. * 27-9-5I as above (Norway) 8x5209 X 11-2.52 Aldeburgh : 520 09'N. i° 36'E. (Suffolk) Stav. * 26.9.52 as above (Norway) 822269 X 9.2.56 Port Carlisle : 540 57'N. 30 11'W. (Cumberland) Stav. * 27.9.52 as above (Norway) 822554 + 16.10.52 Malltraeth : ca. 530 io'N. 4° 25'W. (Anglesey) Stav. * 4.10.52 as above (Norway) 723639 X 15-11-52 Langstone Harbour : 50° 46'N. i° 03 'W. (Hampshire) Stav. * 25-8.54 as above (Norway) 833459 X 7.10.56 Bromborough : 530 20'N. 2° 58'W. (Cheshire) Stav. * 26.9.55 as above (Norway) 840818 X 0.2.56 Oulton Broad : 520 28'N. i° 43 'E. (Suffolk) Stav. * 29.8.56 as above (Norway) Warsash : 50° 51'N. i° 18'W. (Hampshire) 832890 + 7-H-56 Stav. * 23-9-56 as above (Norway) 835531 + 21. IO.56 Snettisham : 520 53' N. 0° 30'E. (Norfolk) Stav. * 24.9.56 as above (Norway) 834660 + 5.10.56 Breydon Water : ca.520 37'N. 1° 42'E. (Norfolk) Stav. * 18-9-55 Lista : 58° c6'N. 6° 37'E. (Vest-Agder) Norway 846180 X 20.9.55 Winterton : 520 43'N. 1° 42'E. (Norfolk) St. Orn. ad. 7-7-53 Ottenby : 56° 13'N. 160 25'E. Oland, Sweden 10x006 + 6.2.55 Ballysodare Bay : 540 13'N. 8° 31'W. (Sligo) St. Orn. ad. 15-8.53 as above (Sweden) 503900 X ca.29.12.55 Morecambe Bay : ca. 540 oo'N. 30 oo'W. (Lancashire) St. Orn. juv. 28.8.53 as above (Sweden) 5°43M X M-2-54 River Aire : (Yorkshire) St. Orn. ad. 27-7-54 as above (Sweden) Bradwell : 510 44'N. o° 54'E. (Essex) 506966 + 9-i2. 55 FOR E I G N - R I N G E D R ECOV E R I ES 67 VOL. Li] it. Orn. * 28.7.54 as above (Sweden) ,07264 X *5-ii-56 Chichester : 50° 50'N. o° 47 'W. (Sussex) • it. Orn. juv. 13-9-54 as above (Sweden) )I4240 + 5-1-56 Winteringham : 530 42'N. o° 34'W. (Lincolnshire) ■ it. ad. 15.8.49 as above (Sweden) '0 A 8399 {leg -bone) 17.8.55 Rock : 50° 34'N. 40 56'W. (Cornwall) St. ad. 22.7.52 as above (Sweden) *’07558 X 0.2.54 Bridlington : 54° 06'N. o° n'W. (Yorkshire) - ad. 1.8.51 Amager : 550 4o'N. 120 38'E. Denmark 581653 + 14. 1. 52 Bosham : 50° 50'N. o° 52'W. (Sussex) J • ad. 4.8.51 as above (Denmark) <81693 X autumn 1953 Camel Estuary : ca. 50° 32'N. 40 52'W. (Cornwall) 1 J. * 18.8.52 as above (Denmark) 483129 + 8.1.56 Bradfield 151° 56'N. i° 07 'E. (Essex) * 6.10.53 as above (Denmark) Abbotsbury : 50° 40'N. 20 36'W. (Dorset) 487839 X (wires) 0-2.55 Sanderling ( Crocethia alba) itav. * 26.8.51 Revtangen : 58° 45'N. 50 30'E. (Rogaland) Norway Great Yarmouth : 520 36'N. i° 45 'E. (Norfolk) 13857 X (oiled) 14.2.56 itav. * 23-9 55 as above (Norway) 129483'! <33315/ + 14.10.55 Walton-on-the-Naze : 510 5i'N. i° i8'E. (Essex) Great Black-backed Gull ( Larus marinus) Ik. O pull. 30-5.54 Horg&rdalur : 65° 47'N. 180 i2'W. Iceland 5838 + 412.55 Tuam : 530 31'N. 8° 51 rW. (Galway) Ik. O pull. 12.7.55 as above (Iceland) 6i55 X 10.10.55 Workington : 540 39'N. 30 34'W. (Cumberland) '•tav. 0 pull. 16.6.52 Kinn : 6i° 35'N. 40 44'E. Norway 8439 X 12.4.54 Isle of Sheppey : 510 22'N. o° 55 'E. (Kent) '"tei/. 0 pull. 22.6.53 as above (Norway) 6222 + 20.2.54 Grimsby : 530 34'N. 0° 05AV. (Lincolnshire) •tav. 0 pull. 6-7-54 Hovden : 61 0 43'N. 40 53'E. Norway Filey : 540 15'N. o° 20'W. (Yorkshire) 08959 X 3-8-55 •tav. 0 pull. 6-7-54 as above (Norway) 0890S X 5-9-54 Anstruther : 56° 13'N. 2° 43'W. (Fife) tav. 0 pull. 5-7-55 Bremanger : 6i°44' N. 40 57'E. Norway 5848 X *9-11-55 Ribble Estuary : ca. 530 45'N. 2° 55'W. (Lancashire) tav. 0 pull. *4-6.53 Rott : 58° 55'N. 50 30'E. (Rogaland) Norway 6075 X 16.5.54 Redcar : 540 36'N. i° 05'W. (Yorkshire) tav. 0 pull. 26.6.55 as above (Norway) 15310 X 25.2.56 Walton Reservoir : 510 25 'N. o° 24'W. (Surrey) tav. 0 pull. 18.6.52 Klepp : 58° 44'N. 50 33'E. (Rogaland) Norway 5777 X 13.12.52 Hevingham : 520 44'N. i° 16'E. (Norfolk) Lesser Black-backed Gull [Larus fuscus) tav. 0 pull. 4-7-55 Naer6y : 6i° 38'N. 40 58'E. Norway 599i X 7-9-55 Southrepps : 520 55'N. i° 21 'E. (Norfolk) tav. 0 pull. 306.54 Rott : 58° 55'N. 50 30'E. (Rogaland) Norway 10467 X 304-55 Winteringham : 530 40'N. o° 30'W. (Lincolnshire) 68 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. I Stav. O pull. 508317 X ca G. O pull. D. 41727 X Stav. O pull. 308304 x- Stav. 0 pull. 413742 X Stav. 0 pull. 45746 X Stav. 0 pull. 36403 X (long tin 9.6.54 Heroy : 58° 04'N. 7° 52'E. (Vest-Agder) Norway .10.7.55 Stainforth : 530 36^. i° o^'W. (Yorkshire) 13.7.53 Fjallbacka: 58°36' N. ii°i8' E. (Bohus) Sweden 16.8.56 Hemsby: 52°42' N. i°4i' E. (Norfolk) Herring Gull ( Larus argentatus ) 7.7.52 Vester&len : 69° i7'N. 160 00' E. Norway ca.5. 12.55 Kyle of Lochalsh : 570 17'N. 5° 43'W. (Ross) 10.7.55 as above (Norway) 13.3.56 Whitby : 540 29'N. o° 36'W. (Yorkshire) 28.6.51 Hovden : 6i° 43'N. 40 53'E. Norway 24.8.52 Birchington : 510 23'N. i° 20'E. (Kent) 5.6.52 Naeroy : 6i° 38'N. 40 58'E. Norway te) 9.7.53 Thorntonloch : 550 56'N. 2° 25 'W. (E. Lothian) Common Gull ( Larus canus ) and Black-headed Gull ( Larus ridibundus ) Numbers of ringed birds of these two species, from Norway and from th i countries surrounding the Baltic Sea, are recovered annually in winter. Ii addition, Black-headed Gulls from breeding-quarters in Central Europ-i winter regularly in the British Isles, and two Iceland-bred birds of this species were recovered in November 1956 in Shetland and at Inverness. Reports ok; either species as winter-visitors to Ireland from the Continent are still rathejij rare. Iceland Gull (Larus glaucoides) C. O pull. 2.8.54 Stromfjord : 67° 50'N. 50° 30'W. Greenland 378816 V 15. 1. 55 Fraserburgh : 570 41 'N. 2° 00 'W. (Aberdeenshire) Common Tern (Sterna hirundo) Hki. O pull. 11. 7-53 Valsoarna : 63° 25'N. 210 io'E. Finland A43533 /?/ 19-9-53 English Channel : ca. 490 oo'N. 6° oo'W. H. O pull. 24.6.49 Ploner See : 540 io'N. io° 27'E. (Schleswig-Holstein 6130679 Germany X ( longtime ) 17. 9.55 Canvey Point : 51 0 32'N. 0° 4o'E. (Essex) H. O pull. 2-7-56 Wangeroog : 530 48'N. 70 52'E. (East Frisian Is. 7257688 Germany X 12.9.56 Rye Harbour : 50° 56'N. o° 46'E. (Sussex) L. 0 pull. 14.6.56 Reeuwijk : 520 03'N. 40 42'E. (Zuid Holland) Penzance : 50° 07'N. 50 33'W. (Cornwall) K49285 X 22.8.56 Arctic Tern (Sterna ma crura) M. O pull. 20.6.56 Puhtu : 58° 34'N. 230 34'E. Estonia F301 152 X 4-9-56 Little Somerford : 510 34'N. 20 03'W. (Wiltshire) H. 0 ad. 8.6.53 Oldeoog : 530 48'N. 70 Benacre : 520 24'N. i° 52'E. (East Frisian Is.) Germany 7I3I9M X 20.8.55 43 'E. (Suffolk) The tern with the Moscow ring was from the most easterly locality of origii so far recorded, southern Sweden having up to now been the limit in tha' direction . The manner of its recovery was unusual, as was the place in whicl it was found, for it made repeated dives at a fisherman’s bait while he wasf fishing for pike in a mill-pond, until at last it struck the top of the rod anc broke its wing. VOL. Li] FOREIGN-RINGED RECOVERIES 69 Sandwich Tern (, Sterna sandvicensis) L. O pull. 28.6.47 Hook of Holland: 510 58' N. 4° 06' E. (Zuid Holland) 214532 V 12.6.56 Solent, Isle of Wight (Hampshire) Stock Dove ( Columba oenas) Hki. O pull. 23-7-54 Tyrvanto : 6i° 14'N. 240 20'E. Finland C4630S + 0-3-55 Ormesby : 520 41'N. i° 43'E. (Norfolk) With the exception of one ringed in Holland and recovered in Buckingham- shire in 1940, this is the only Stock Dove from a foreign country. Long-eared Owl ( Asio otus ) St. * 19.10.52 Falsterbo : 550 23'N. 120 50'E. Sweden - S9020 X 16.3.56 Selby : 530 47'N. i° 04'W. (Yorkshire) Rook ( Corvus frugilegus) C. O ad. 4.6.50 Tollose : 550 37'N. n° 47'E. (Zealand) Denmark 493356 X 25.10.52 Binbrook : 530 26'N. o° ii'W. (Lincolnshire) Fieldfare ( Turdus pilaris) 0. O pull. 4-6-53 Egge : 64° 05'N. ii° 25'E. (Nord Trondelag) Norway 064988 X ca.10.5.54 Danby : 540 27'N. 0° 54^. (Yorkshire) 0. O pull. 21.6.55 Egersund : 58° 28'N. 6° oo'E. (Rogaland) Norway 086605 X 24-3-56 Goff’s Oak : 510 43'N. o° 05'W. (Hertfordshire) 0. 0 pull. 9.6.51 Laerdal : 6i° 02'N. 7° 34'E. Norway 30336 /?/ 6.1.52 Preston : 530 46'N. 20 43^. (Lancashire) - 0. 0 pull. 3-6.51 Skoyen : 590 54'N. io° 46'E. (Oslo) Norway 31917 X 21-3-54 Belfast : 540 35'N. 50 56'W. (Antrim) Star. 0 pull. 1.6.52 Al : 6o° 37'N. 8° 3o'E. (Hallingdal) Norway 718647 X 20.3.54 Grassington : 540 04'N. 2° oo'W. (Yorkshire) Star. 0 pull. 19-5-52 Hoyland : 58° 5o'N. 50 45'E. (Rogaland) Norway 715712 X 0.12.52 Hatfield : 530 35'N. i° oo'W. (Yorkshire) Stav. 0 pull. 21.6.54 Egersund : (Rogaland) Norway [ 337310 X 6-3-55 Bellshill : 55° 49'N. 40 02'W. (Lanarkshire) Stav. 0 pull. 24-5-52 Evje : 58° 39'N. 70 47'E. (Aust-Agder) Norway f rf3409 X 16.4.53 Holbeach : 520 48'N. o° 03'E. (Lincolnshire) r Stav. 0 pull. 3-6-53 Stokke : 590 14'N. 10° 20'E. (Vestfold) Norw;ay t 7I77I7 X 17-4-55 Whitley Bay : 550 03 'N. i° 26AV. (Northumberland) Song Thrush ( Turdus philomelos ) H. * 30.4.55 Island of Mellum : 530 44'N. 8° 14'E. Germany 3823903 X 0.2.56 Stanford -le-H ope : 510 31'N. o° 26'E. (Essex) Redwing ( Turdus musicus ) Hki. 0 pull. 23.6.52 Tyrvanto : 6i° 12'N. 240 15'E. Finland ^41703 X 30.456 Torquay : 50° 27'N. 30 30'W. (Devon) Hki. ad. D-4-53 Signilskar : 6o° 12'N. 190 22'E. (Aland Is.) Finland ^41215 X 6.356 Mylor Bridge : 50° ii'N. 50 04'W. (Cornwall) Hki. 0 pull. 22.6.55 Korsholm : 63° 08'N. 210 42'E. Finland ^56582 X 23.2.56 Laugharne ‘.51° 46'N. 4° 28'W. (Carmarthenshire) Hki. 0 pull. 22.6.55 Tampere : 6i° 33'N. 230 35'E. Finland ^58086 X 1312.55 Thurnham : 510 18'N. o° 37'E. (Kent) 70 St. O pull. BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li Blackbird (T urdus merula ) 17.5.53 Ankarsrum : 570 41'N. 16° 20'E. (Kalmar) Sweden YB1769 X I4-2-55 Smarden : 510 09'N. o° 41'E. (Kent) St. O pull. 1-8.55 Nysund : 590 06'N. 140 22'E. (Orebro) Sweden YK8828 + 0.2.56 Hassocks : 50° 55'N. o° io'W. (Sussex) Stav. O pull. 10.5. 51 Sandnes : 58° 51'N. 50 43'E. (Rogaland) Norway 11896 X 17.2.52 Kibblesworth : 540 54'N. i° 38'W. (Durham) Stav. $ 17-3-54 Ranvik : 590 07'N. io° 14'E. (Vestfold) Norway 722283 X 12. 11. 55 Fawdon : 550 oi'N. i° 39'W. (Northumberland) Stav. $ 31-3-54 as above (Norway) 823999 X I7-I-55 Dersingham : 52° 51'N. o° 31'E. (Norfolk) Stav. t.53605 X 0.2.56 Martin: 530 08'N. o° 21'W. (Lincolnshire) Iki. O pull. 7-6-55 Kemio : 6o° o8'N. 220 45'E. Finland 323052 X winter 1955/56 Worthing : 50° 49'N. o° 23AV. (Sussex) .a. 0 pull. 1.6.54 Kaunas : 540 54'N. 230 54'E. Lithuania •28978 X ca.1.3.56 Marazion : 50° 06'N. 50 2g'W. (Cornwall) 5- V. 0 pull. 23-5-54 Nowogard : 530 4o'N. 15° o8'E. Poland •'142247 X 12.2.56 Steventon : 510 37'N. i° ig'W. (Berkshire) V. 0 pull. 27-5-54 Olsztyn : 530 4.6'N. 20° 29'E. Poland '173389 + 25-2-55 Kingswinford : 520 2g'N. 2° io'W. (Staffordshire) 3-V. 0 pull. 30-5-54 Pisz : 530 35'N. 210 3i'E. Poland '173602 X ( ca t) 6.12.55 Pewsey : 510 2o'N. i° 46'W. (Wiltshire) >-v. 0 pull. 30-5-55 Dziubiele : 530 48'N. 210 4o'E. Poland '18627s X 18.3.56 Birmingham : 520 28'N. i° 55 'W. (Warwickshire) i. 0 pull. 24-5-54 Stenkyrka : 570 48'N. x8° 3i'E. (Gotland) Sweden Stalham : 520 47'N. x° 32'E. (Norfolk) 'H620S X 25-2-55 7. 0 pull. 29-5-54 as above (Sweden) rH62io + 0.2.56 Billingham : 540 36'N. i° 17'W. (Durham) The above selections are made from an annual long list of Starlings ringed 1 northern Europe and recovered as winter-visitors to the British Isles, 'he greater number have been ringed on migration, but the records quoted bove are all of birds ringed in their native countries. Below are given two more examples of birds that were taken away from heir migration-route and yet orientated themselves successfully. I20894 + -I2318S x juv. ? 27.10.53 Loosduinen : 520 04'N. 40 is'E. Holland ; transported Zurich : 470 22'N. 8° 33'E. Switzerland 0.2.56 Pampisford : 520 07'N. o° ii'E. (Cambridgeshire) 1. 11.54 as above (Holland and Switzerland) 24.2.56 Newbridge : 50° 08'N. 50 37'W. (Cornwall) Linnet ( Carduelis cannabina ) 1. ad. 26.4.53 Brasschaat : 510 17'N. 40 29'E. (Antwerp) Belgium A1023 X 16.6.55 Thetford : 520 25'N. 0° 45'E. (Norfolk) Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs) Iki. * T 3-4-56 Heligoland, Germany juv. 9 6.9.51 » 1 late 8.52 Lincolnshire (440 miles S.S.E,) ad. 9 8-9-55 Spurn Point, Yorks (3-10-55) Essex ( 1 1 5 miles S.S.E.) ad. 9 6.11.50 Gibraltar Point, Lines. 30.6.52 Valdres, S. Norway juv. 9 16.9.49 I4-7-5I Valdres, S. Norway juv. 9 29.10.52 1 t autumn 55 nr. Antwerp, Belgium juv. 9 24.9.51 Belmullet, Co. Mayo, Eire 28.10.51 Shannon Airport, Co. Clare, Eire (70 miles S.S.E.) ad. d 10-3-45 Oban, Argyll 2-5-45 Kingussie, Inverness-shire (72 miles N.E.) juv. d 10.4.51 Gibraltar Point, Lines. 1.4.52 Holstebro, Jutland, Denmark ad. d 7-5-56 Dungeness, Kent 14-4-57 Sherborne, Dorset (155 miles vol. u] MIGRATIONS OF BRITISH HAWKS 89 The chief points of interest in the foregoing list are as follows. Of birds ringed on Fair Isle during autumn migration, one was recovered in Holland and two in France later in the same season, while three others were apparently wintering on the mainland of N.E. Scotland; another was recorded from Heligoland in the following spring. Of birds ringed on the Lincolnshire coast during autumn migration, two were probably native to Norway as suggested by subsequent summer recoveries in Valdres : another, ringed on spring migration, was recovered in Jutland approximately a year later. British recoveries of birds ringed abroad. There is only one record of a bird ringed as a nestling — in Aust Agder, in the extreme south of Norway; recovered in Hampshire on 23rd September of the same year. Of birds ringed on autumn migration on Heligoland, 2 were recovered later in the same winter (Kent in January, Flintshire in March) and 3 in subsequent winters (Essex, Kent, Somerset). The oldest bird had carried its ring for nine years. Of birds ringed in autumn in different parts of Holland, 4 were recovered later in the same winter (Co. Monaghan and Yorkshire in January; Kent and Staffordshire in February), and one in winter two years later (Kent in December). Marsh Harrier ( Circus aeruginosas) Recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings. Two records must be rejected — one bird may never have flown, and for the other there are no recovery data beyond the fact that its skin was “seen in a collector’s cabinet”. There remain 8 valid recoveries, all except the last one below being of birds ringed in Norfolk. One was recovered in Somme, France, in August of its second year. The leg of another, with ring, was found in April two years later 75 miles east of Casablanca, Morocco. Four were recovered later in the season of ringing in Norfolk (2), in Suffolk (56 miles S.) and in Berkshire (ca. 150 miles S.W.); and a fifth in Lincolnshire ( ca . 70 miles W.) in June a year later. One ringed in a southern English county was found newly dead on 29th December of the same year, within a few miles. British recovery of bird ringed abroad. One ringed as a nestling in Jvlland, Denmark, was recovered in Orkney in April nearly three years later. Hen Harrier ( Circus cyaneus ) Recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings. Of the 43 recoveries, 39 are of birds ringed in Orkney. Of these, 24 are local recoveries, although not always from the same island of the group; the other 15 are from the mainland of Scot- 90 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI land, as follows: — Caithness (4), Sutherland (2), Moray, Banff- shire, Aberdeenshire (2), Angus (2), Bute, Roxburghshire and Dumfriesshire — see Map 1. In the last three instances the distance is well over 200 miles, and in five others well over 100 miles. The earliest record away from Orkney in the first season is for October, and that only from Caithness. In the period November- Map i — Mainland recoveries ok Hen Harriers (Circus cyaneus) Of 39 recoveries of birds ringed in the Orkney Islands (marked with a circle), 15 — mostly in their first winter — were from the mainland localities shown (note the one on the Isle of Bute) and the rest were local, including some in their first winter. The sixteenth recovery on this map — indicated by a connecting line — was of a bird ringed as a nestling in Perthshire (the three other Perthshire-ringed recoveries were local) (see page 91). vol. li] MIGRATIONS OF BRITISH HAWKS 91 February, away records outnumber local records by 8 to 4. The record from Roxburghshire was in November of the first year. As most of the records relate to the period July-April in the first year of life, no conclusions can be drawn about later years. The remaining 4 records are of birds ringed on the mainland of Scotland : 3 are of local recoveries, and the other is of a Perth- shire bird in Northumberland in January of its first winter. There are no records relating to the Hebridean population. Montagu’s Harrier ( Circus pygargus) Excluding two birds which may never have flown, there are 24 records. One bird was trapped as an adult, released after a short interval in the next county and found dead (remains) in the latter a year later. The rest were all ringed as nestlings in different parts of England and Wales; 13 were recovered in their first autumn and 10 in subsequent summers. First autumn recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings. 3 were recorded locally (same or neighbouring county, up to 35 miles) in, respectively, August, September (1st) and October — but the last had been dead for some time. One was recovered in August (12th) about 180 miles E.N.E., having travelled from N. Wales to E. Yorkshire. The remaining 9 were recovered abroad as follows : — Recovery date First year: 8th September ca. 10th ,, 15* 21st ,, 22nd ,, 27 th 1 st October 4 th Displacement Devon — Corr&ze, France Co. Durham — Marne, France Anglesey — Deux-S&vres, France Norfolk — Cantal, France Hampshire — Vendee, France Anglesey — Basses-Pyr^nees, France Norfolk — Somme, France Devon — Vendee, France Yorkshire — Minho, N. Portugal The records from the departments of Marne, Corr£ze and Cantal indicate overland flight : the others are from near the Channel and Atlantic seaboard. Recoveries in subsequent summers of birds ringed as nestlings. 6 birds were recovered locally in subsequent summers (May- September), 2 in the second year, 3 in the third and one (ringing data imperfect) in the sixth or seventh. The other 4 were recovered (one perhaps long dead) at a distance from place of birth as follows: — Recovery date Second year: August Third year: May (“remains”) ... » I • • • • •• June Displacement ( approx . in miles) Devon — N. Wales (170 N.) Hampshire — Scilly Isles (225 S.W.) Dorset — Pas-de-Calais, France (160 N. Wales — S. Scotland (130 N.) The last was found dead near a nest with eggs. E.) 92 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI British recovery of bird ringed abroad. One ringed as a nestling on Texel, Holland, was recovered in Suffolk in June a year later. Osprey ( Paruiion haliaetus ) British recoveries of birds ringed abroad. There are 5 records of birds ringed as nestlings in different parts of Sweden, as follows: — Recovery date First year : September October Second year (ending 31st March): “Spring” Third year: May (22nd) November Displacement Halsingland — Roxburghshire Smaland— Suffolk S tockh olm — -Norfolk Vastergotland — Moray Vastergotland — Inverness-shire SUMMARY Golden Eagle. — The sole record is of little significance. Buzzard. — Birds native to Great Britain are shown to be largely sedentary, with limited random wandering (at least some of it in the first autumn) on the part of a minority; the recorded displacements are all less than 100 miles. Rough-legged Buzzard. — A bird native to Sweden (Jamtland) has been recovered in N. Scotland in its first winter. Sparrowhawk. — Birds native to the British Isles are shown to be sedentary: only 5 out of 158 recoveries cannot be described as local, and even among these the greatest recorded displacement was under 100 miles. The oldest bird was nearly eight years of age. There is a heavy recorded mortality in the summer months, which can be related to game-preserving. Birds ringed as full-grown and recovered at a distance may therefore be presumed to be migrants of foreign origin. Some of these apparently winter in Great Britain, while others pass on to Holland and France. In two instances the recoveries indicate S. Norway (Valdres) as the summer area of the particular individuals. Birds ringed as full-grown and recovered locally are of unknown origin and the records cannot be interpreted. A bird native to S. Norway has been recovered in S. England in its first autumn. Birds ringed on autumn migration on Heligo- land and in Holland have been recovered in England, Wales and Ireland in winter. Marsh Harrier. — One bird native to Norfolk was found in N. France in its second August, and another reached Morocco in its second winter; four others were recorded either locally or else- where in southern England before they had migrated, and a fifth a year later. One native to a southern English county was still there in its first December. A bird native to Denmark was recovered in Orkney in a subsequent spring. vol. li] MIGRATIONS OF' BRITISH HAWKS 93 Hen Harrier. — Of birds native to Orkney, some are shown to remain there during- the winter while others (probably a majority, at least in their first year) move south throughout the mainland of Scotland. One born in a mainland locality (Perthshire) reached the north of England (Northumberland). Montagu’s Harrier. — Birds native to England and Wales are recorded, in their first autumn, from both coastal and inland localities in France and, in one instance, from N. Portugal. One young bird showed a pre-migratory movement in a north-easterly direction. In subsequent summers some birds return to their native localities, but there are exceptions: there is an indication that a bird from N. Wales may have bred in S. Scotland in its third year, and one from Dorset was recovered in N.E. France at like age. A bird native to Holland (Texel) has been recovered in Suffolk in June of the following year. Osprey. — Five birds native to Sweden have been recovered in Great Britain — one in Moray as late as 22nd May (when about two years old). A NORTH ATLANTIC TRANSECT IN SEPTEMBER By P. W. P. Browne This paper is a record of birds seen during a voyage on S.S. “Empress of France” from Liverpool to Montreal via Inishtrahull and Belle Isle, from 21st to 28th September 1956. It covers only the Offshore and Pelagic Zones, i.e. excludes the Mersey and the River St. Lawrence. Details of daily position are given in Table I. The only positions mentioned in this paper which are accurate are the noon positions shown in this Table. All others have been obtained by interpolation from these and may be up to half a degree out. Table I — Positions and times of observation during a crossing of the North Atlantic, September 1956 (The ship did not leave Liverpool until 2142 hours G.M.T., and therefore no relevant observations were made on that day; similarly, birds seen on 27th and 28th September, when the ship was in the River St. Lawrence, have also been excluded from this paper.) Date Noon position Longitude traversed during daylight Duration of observations Hours Minutes Sept. 22 55°46'N, o904i'W 6° — 130 8 00 23 56°32'N, 22°37'W 190— 26° Q 05 24 56°o5'N, 35052'W 33° — 39° 6 37 25 54°oi'N, 47°4i'W 45° — 5°° 7 15 26 5o°43'N, 58°24/W 55° — 61 0 7 20 94 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI At various places in the text, I have compared my finding's with those contained in the two “classic” North Atlantic papers: Wynne-Edwards (1935) and Rankin and Duffey (1948). Hereafter, these papers are referred to by the authors’ names only. None of the routes they traversed lies as far north as mine throughout its length, but Wynne-Edwards covered part of the western half in mid-September i933> and Rankin and Duffey the eastern in September and October 1943. I used three methods of watching for birds : (1) looking at the sea and ship from some vantage point with the naked eye, inspecting anything of interest with binoculars or telescope ; (2) counting at intervals birds present in the wake (which might include birds up to a mile or so astern) ; (3) scanning with binoculars approximately one square mile of ocean. The third method did not occur to me till we were one day out, but on 23rd, 24th and 25th September, I made 43 scans. On the assumption that I could spot most sea-birds at a range of up to half a mile (using 6 X 30 binoculars), I watched steadily at right angles to the ship’s course for the time (3^ minutes) it took the ship to travel 2 miles. Observations by these three methods were made for continuous periods of up to 3J hours, separated by intervals not exceeding if hours, throughout the day. SEA-BIRDS Petrels (Hydrobatidae). — Up to 3 probable Storm Petrels (. Hydrobates pelagicus) were in the wake between 90 and 24°W. They never approached near enough for me to see details of their feet. Actual counts were : Longitude W. 9° io° n° 12° 130 190 20° 210 22° 23° 240 Number 3000 01200 counted in 110 o 101 wake 31 3 201 11 1 o These figures are in agreement with Wynne-Edwards’s observa- tions a little further south in September 1933, but Rankin and Duffey saw none at all in the area of my observations at the same time of year. A few miles N.W. of Inishtrahull, I noticed a party of ca. 10 apparent Leach’s Petrels ( Oceanodroma leucorrlioa ) circling over the water. Other probable Leach’s were three single birds as follows: south at 55°4o'N., o9°3o'W., west at 56°oo'N., n°5o'W. and in Belle Isle Strait. Thus I saw none in the belt between 40° and 5o°W., where they have been reported as common in VOL. Ll] A NORTH ATLANTIC TRANSECT 95 September by Wynne-Edwards and by Rankin and Duffey. Perhaps they pass south earlier in some years than in others. Sooty Shearwater ( Procellaria grisea). — 3 seen : one Hying S. or S.E. at 55°4o'N., o8°4o'W. ; one south at 55°46'N., og°45/W. ; one among flock of Kittiwakes at S3°5o,N., 48°4o'W. These observations are in accord with previous records. Great Shearwater ( Procellaria gravis). — 2 seen : one north at 54°3o'N., 45°io'W. ; one west at 54°3o'N., 45°3o'W. Also 2, too distant for certain identification but probably this species, north at 5503o'N., o7°2o'W. and S.W. at 56°oo,N., ii°5o'W. It is surprising that so few were seen, though it is likely that some were missed since we passed through 40°-45°W. in darkness and the only two seen for sure occurred at dawn the next day. Fulmar ( Fulmarus glacialis). — Seen daily in open ocean. For comparison with the figures of Wynne-Edwards, I give the average and maximum numbers counted in the wake for every five degrees of longitude : Longitude W. 50 io° 15° 20° 25° 30° 350 40° 450 50° 550 No. counted Av. 277 48 0.4 1 no 25 10 in wake Max. 3 22 8 13 15 2 3 counts 150 16 The largest concentration was at dawn on 25th September (54°3o'N., 45°io'W.) when there were about 150 in the wake. Sailors on deck told me they had been noticed in the ship’s lights for about three hours previously, so there must have been many between about 43 "30' and 45 °W. Records of the density of Fulmars per square mile have not often been published, so I give my actual counts for each degree of longitude : Longitude W. 20° 21° 22° 23° , - 0 O 24 23 26° 34° 35° 36° Number counted 1 1 4 3 1 1 I 0 in one square I O 4 I I I I mile O I I I Longitude W. 36° 37° 38° 39° 45° 46° 47 0 48° 49 ° 50 ° 5i° Number counted 2 I O 15 12 14 4 9 14 in one square 1 3 24 22 1 1 15 4 IO mile 18 19 IO 2 4 9 6 The direction of flight of Fulmars not in the wake was noted on 22nd September. Wind was approximately S.E. force 3- Direction of flight N NE E SE S SW W NW Number of Fulmars counted 4 I «9 75 8 1 I 0 96 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI 1 he only dark-phase Fulmars were three single birds between 48° and 49 °W. All these observations agree with those of previous ornithol- ogists, except that I found no sign of the concentration noted by Wynne-Edwards and by Rankin and Duffey, between 30° and 40°W., from mid-summer into September. I here seems to be difference of opinion among the experts as to the effect a ship has on Fulmars. Wynne-Edwards believes that the ship attracts these birds, and considers it necessary to count Fulmars in the wake, as they habitually follow ships. How- ever, from aerial observation, Rankin and Duffey found that, on some occasions, Fulmars were more numerous beyond the outer screen of ships in a convoy, which indicates that they avoided the ships. My own observation was that, though a few Fulmars counted in square mile scans went into the wake, most were un- affected by the presence of the ship and continued on their way. Consequently I believe that the figures given above for square mile counts are valid samples of the true density in the areas concerned. Gannet ( Sula bassana). — Many seen in the eastern Atlantic;' one adult in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The following table is designed to show the change in abundance of the species and the change in proportion of immature to adult birds west from the Irish coast on 22nd September. Longitude W. 6° 7 0 8 0 9 0 10 0 11° 12 0 13“ Total Adult I I 58 24 19 I 0 0 IJ3 Third summer 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I First summer 0 2 0 4 0 0 0 6 Juvenile 0 0 0 I 0 0 3 4 Immature (age uncertain) 0 0 I I 0 0 0 2 Total 1 1 60 25 25 I 0 4 126 On this day the wind was S.E. force 3, and the direction of flight as follows : Direction of flight N NE E SE S SW W NW Not noted Number of Gannets counted o o 60 39 14 3 o 1 9 The 3 flying S.W. were the juveniles (1 + 2) between 12 0 and i3°W. Another juvenile was seen on 23rd September at 56°3o'N., 24°io'W., flying S.E. (wind W. force 3). None of the five juveniles seen was with an adult. Plumage details summarized by Kay (1950) were used to determine the age-group of each bird. These observations are in close accord with others already published. It is noticeable that immature birds occur further from VOL. Ll] A NORTH ATLANTIC TRANSECT 97 the coast than do adults. The directions of flight on 22nd September for both the Gannet and the Fulmar emphasize the tendency of sea-birds to fly into the wind, as remarked by Thom (!956). Skuas (Stercorariidae).— Small numbers daily in the ocean and Belle Isle Strait. Adults, identified for certain, were as follows: Arctic Skua ( Stercorarius parasiticus) : one over wake at 56°oo/N., i2°2o'\V.; one in Belle Isle Strait. Great Skua (S. skua): one from N.W. to wake at 55°40/N., o804o'W. Long-tailed Skua (S. longicaudus) : one east at 53°5o'N., 48°2o'W. ; two in Belle Isle Strait (21 and 25 miles west of Belle Isle). Others, not identified specifically, were seen as follows: singly at 55°5o'N., io°40/W. ; 56°2o'N.,' iq^o'W. ; 56°io'N., 35°2o'W. ; 55°4g/N., 38°4o'W. ; three at 53°4o'N., 48°5o'W. ; six in Belle Isle Strait (up to 25 miles west of Belle Isle). The records of Long-tailed Skuas in Belle Isle Strait are surprising in view of the emphasis by both Wynne-Edwards and Rankin and Duffey on mid-ocean movements. The largest number of skuas occurred where there were concentrations of Kittiwakes. Gulls (Laridae).— Except for Kittiwake, seen only near Inishtrahull and from Belle Isle through Gulf of St. Lawrence. When we were passing Inishtrahull, the first (3 Great Black- backed, Lams marinus) appeared about 8 miles N.E. of the island, and there was a maximum of 18 (13 Great Black-backed, 4 Herring Gulls, L. argentatus , 1 Lesser Black-backed Gull, L. fuscus) about 6 miles to the N.W. ; all had left when the ship was 13 miles W.N.W. of Inishtrahull. In Belle Isle Strait, Great Black-backed and Herring Gulls were common, and the latter followed the ship through most of the Gulf (up to 100 counted in wake). Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla). — Most numerous in western Atlantic. None seen from Inishtrahull to io°W., but between io° and 26°W. single immature birds occurred in the wake. There were none between 33 0 and 39 °W. From 45 0 to 48 °W., I counted 4 individuals (2 adult, 2 immature) and then we ran into a heavy concentration. Counts per square mile between 48° and 49°W. gave 12, 15, 33 (including a flock of 20), 3, 6. This was followed by a reduction to 0-3 per square mile between 490 and 51 °W. In this area, the proportion of adults to immature birds was 13:6. In Belle Isle Strait, Kittiwakes (both adult and immature) were numerous and small numbers occurred up to 6o°W. in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. These observations confirm previous reports of great scarcity of Kittiwakes in pelagic waters 98 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li in September (Rankin and Duffey), though with a concentration about 50° W. (Wynne-Edwards). Terns (Sternidae). — One flying N.E. at 54°3o'N., 45°5o'W., and two pairs flying east through Belle Isle Strait. All were too far distant for specific identification. Auks (Alcidae). — Very small numbers near Inishtrahull (from 10 miles N.E. to 10 miles N.W. of the island) ; one was a Razorbill (Alca torda). No more seen till a total of 9 (up to 3 together) probable Briinnich’s Guillemots (Uriel lomvia) between 45 0 and 47°W. In Belle Isle Strait there were 6 Little Auks (Alle aUe) (about 15 miles W.S.W. of Belle Isle) and about 10 auks un- identified. LAND-BIRDS Waders (Scolopacidae and Charadriidae). — At 55°5o'N., n0oo'W., an immature Sanderling ( Crocethia alba) approached from the east and disappeared from my view beneath the ship’s stern. Another small wader, probably a Dunlin ( Calidris alpina ), flew low over the wake and towards the S.W. at 56°3o'N., 2i°2o'W. A few hours later, at 56°3o'N., 23°5o/W., two waders were seen approaching the ship high from the N.W. They descended to about 200 feet and were identified as Ringed Plovers ( Charadrius hiaticida). They continued on their course S.E., presumably flying direct from Greenland to Europe. Turtle Dove ( Streptopelia turtur).— One joined the ship at 5603o'N., 2i°2o'W. (i.e. about 450 miles W.N.W. of Ireland) on 23rd September. It was seen several times during the day, flying from one part of the ship to another. The last occasion was at 56°4o'N., 25°4o'W., which must be one of the most westerly records for this species. [Budgerigar ( Melopsittacus undulatus). — On 22nd September at 0615 hours G.M.T., at a point (55°3o'N., o6°45'W.) roughly half-way between Islay, Scotland, and the north coast of Co. Donegal, Ireland, one appeared on board for a few minutes.] Wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe). — One seen on the ship at 55°4o,N., o9°2o'W. and one at 55°5o'N., n°oo/W. Rock Pipit ( Anthus spinoletta). — One flying around ship at the same time as the Budgerigar. Redpoll ( Carduelis flammea). — One on board at dawn, Belle Isle Strait. Lapland Bunting ( Calcarius lapponicus). — One appeared from the stern at 56°3o'N., 2i°3o'W. and stayed on the ship all day vol. li] A NORTH ATLANTIC TRANSECT 99 (last seen at 56°4o'N., 26°oo'W.). Several times it took flight, and once went about a £-mile to the E.N.E., but it always returned. Snow Bunting ( Plectrophenax nivalis). — Two overtook the ship at 53°5o/N., 48°4o,W.) and continued west. REFERENCES Kay, G. T. (1950): “Migratory movements of Gannets”. Brit. Birds, xliii : 230-232. Rankin, M. N. and Duffey, E. A. G. (1948): “A study of the bird-life of the North Atlantic”. Brit. Birds, xli : supplement. Thom, A. M. (1956): “Birds of a trans-Atlantic voyage in late spring 1954”. Brit. Birds, xlix : 80-84. YVynne-Edwards, V. C. (1935): “On the habits and distribution of birds on the North Atlantic”. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 40: 283-346. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS LXXXVI. CHOUGH AND ALPINE CHOUGH Photographed by Richard Vaughan and Harold Platt (Plates 21-24) Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees Choughs ( Pyrrhocorax spp.) are medium-sized crows with almost completely uniform blue-black plumage, striking red legs and a brightly-coloured beak. There are only two species — the common Chough ( P . pyrrhocorax), with a slender, decurved, red bill about two inches long, and the so-called Alpine Chough (P. graculus ), which has a shorter, stouter and straighter yellow beak. Our photo- graphs of these two birds come respectively from Wales and from Monte Maiella in the Central Apennines of Italy. A comparison of plates 22 and 23 will give some indication of the differences in the bill-shapes, though it is from directly beneath, as the bird flies over, that one is particularly struck by the slenderness of the beak of the common species. Both birds have a very similar body-size and are a little larger but more delicate (and actually lighter in weight) than a Jackdaw (Corvus monedula), the only species with which either is likely to be confused in Europe (apart from each other). Both are, how- ever, readily distinguished from the Jackdaw at shorter ranges by their coloured bills and legs, their lack of a grey nape and their generally more slender forms; while at longer ranges, in flight, their more graceful builds and seemingly more flexible wings — with primaries invariably separated and often curving upwards — make them easily picked out, even when they are not uttering their characteristic calls (see below). (The form of a Chough’s spread BRITISH BIRDS 100 [VOL. LI wing" is to some extent illustrated in plate 23, though a bird that is just taking flight is perhaps hardly a fair example.) Thus it is with each other that the two choughs are only really likely to be confused and in some areas this is a definite possibility because the ranges and habitats of the two species overlap, some- times to quite an extent. Earlier I referred to the “so-called” Alpine Chough because this name perhaps conveys an impression that this species is confined to the high mountains and at the same time suggests that the other is absent from such places. Neither of these suggestions is true, as we shall see, and so for the rest of this discussion the names of “Red-billed Chough” and “Yellow- billed Chough” will be used. In Europe the Red-billed Chough is confined to western Ireland and the west of Britain, to the very north-west corner of France, to Spain, Portugal and the Pyrenees, the Alpine area, southern Italy, Sardinia and Sicily, and parts of the Balkan peninsula; while the Yellow-billed is found in northern and (locally) south- eastern Spain, the Pyrenees, the Alpine area, northern and central Italy, Corsica, and a rather larger area of the Balkans. Both are found in Morocco and Algeria, and the Red-billed Chough in the Canary Islands (but only on Palma). Eastwards both species extend to Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Persia, the Himalayas and Sinkiang, while the Red-billed bird also breeds further east still, in Mongolia and China. Thus it can be seen that there is a certain similarity between the two ranges, and in fact almost all the countries which hold Yellow-billed Choughs fall within the range of the Red-billed bird. The distribution of both species is, of course, limited by their need for mountainous country, though the Red-billed Chough is also found on sea-cliffs in some parts of its range (particularly the British Isles). Two typical views of Yellow- billed Chough habitats are shown in plate 21, but these photo- graphs equally well illustrate what would in many areas be occupied by the Red-billed species, and the oft-repeated statement that the Alpine Chough nests at much higher altitudes than the Red-billed needs a certain amount of qualification. The two species frequently nest at almost exactly the same altitudes, sometimes together ,and — though the Red-billed does certainly descend much lower to breed — at least in some parts of Europe the Alpine does not go any higher: Dr. Vaughan tells me that in the Central Apennines, where his photographs were taken, the Red-billed nests just as high as the Alpine, and in the Sierra Nevada in Spain he has found the Red-billed at 11,000 feet. On the other hand, I have seen Alpine Choughs in Spain at 2,000 feet. In The Birds of the British Isles (1953, vol. I, p. 57) D. A. Bannerman writes: “That altitude is no barrier to the red-billed chough was proved by the members of the 1921 Everest expedition, A. F. R. Wollaston recording that several choughs (P. pyrrhocorax himalayensis was the race in point) visited the camp on Mount Everest at 20,000 feet. Col. Meinertzhagen, referring to the same race, wrote that vol. li] CHOUGHS AND ALPINE CHOUGHS 101 he found the chough equally at home on deep snow or in grassy meadows or on almost barren plains”. Both species descend from the mountains to the valley bottoms in winter, but neither is migratory — and, in fact, the Yellow- billed Chough in particular is extremely sedentary, which is why, very rightly, the one shot in Oxfordshire in 1881 was not accepted as an addition to the British list since it had almost certainly escaped from captivity (see The Handbook, vol. I, p. 39). A similar origin seems probable for the single Heligoland record of this species. Even allowing for this sedentariness, however, it is surprising how slow both choughs are to spread and colonize new areas, particularly when one thinks of the way in which the opportunist Jackdaw is always ready to break new ground. It is sometimes suggested that the Jackdaw is responsible for the Red- billed Chough habitats are shown in plate 21, but these photo- jackdaws evicting Choughs from their nest-holes, but as far as Cornwall is concerned B. H. Ryves (Bird Life in Cornwall , 1948) dismisses this as a factor, probably quite rightly. Certainly the problem is not as simple as that, for there are many areas where the presence of Jackdaws has no effect on the Red-billed Choughs and there are other places where the Choughs decline, or at least fail to spread, even though there are no Jackdaws. An interesting case, which is not understood at the moment, is the status of the Red-billed Chough in the Jackdaw-free Canary Islands. Here — see Bannerman (op. cit.) and also J. M. Cullen et al. (Ibis, vol. 94, pp. 72-73 and 78) — Red-billed Choughs are abundant on the island of Palma, where they may be seen in various habitats in ‘‘flocks of up to 300” (Cullen); yet there are none on any of the other apparently equally suitable islands of the group. As this last observation suggests, choughs — both species — are extremely gregarious and often nest colonially ; pairs are, how- ever, not infrequently found breeding singly and this is almost the rule with Red-billed Choughs in Britain. On the Continent the Yellow-billed Chough probably seldom gathers in such big colonies as the Red-billed — in the Central Apennines Dr. Vaughan found them in colonies of 3-6 pairs — but both flock in big parties. The Iberian peninsula is one of the strongholds of the Red-billed species and in the sierras of Spain one can see flocks of two hundred or more in the air together. Similarly, P. A. D. Hollom tells me that he has seen a flock of some 300 Yellow-billed Choughs in the Pyrenees. Just as the two species will sometimes nest together, so may they be found mixing in the same winter flock. It is at such times that one is particularly faced with the difficulty of separating the two species at a distance and in flight. The bill-colours cannot clearly be seen except at quite close range, even in excellent light, though at moderate distances the beak of the common species appears dark, while the Alpine Chough’s short bill looks whitish. So that it is upon the calls that one frequently has to rely. Choughs and Jackdaws, like most gregarious species, 102 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI are fortunately very noisy birds and their cries are distinctive. The Red-billed Chough has one note, often repeated twice, from which the English name of the two species was originally derived, but its commonest cry is one that is like a Jackdaw’s in general form, but much more musical and higher-pitched, and drawn out at the end so that it seems to become 2-3 syllables instead of one; there is a certain resemblance to the more drawn-out calls of young Jackdaws, though the Chough’s cry is much stronger; other notes remind one of the calls of gulls and even of domestic chickens. The Yellow-billed bird, though at times uttering a note that is something like the Jackdaw call of the Red-billed, has more particularly a rippling chirrish of variable pitch, and a very shrill and explosive tsee-up. Both species will call on the ground and, when they do so, have a rather pleasing characteristic of dipping their heads and slightly raising their wings and tails. Diving flights and compact aerial evolutions are a feature of both choughs, and this is an added help for distinguishing distant flocks from Jackdaws. The normal flight of the choughs is much stronger and more purposeful than any Jackdaw’s — a mixture of slow but powerful flaps and buoyant glides, at times interspersed with deep dives on closed wings. But it is the complicated aerial evolutions, wheeling and soaring, rolling over and diving, which make a flock of choughs such a characteristic sight. Such a flock forms a much tighter unit than one of Jackdaws does, the birds often keeping in a sort of ball, with little straggling ; yet within the flock, though it moves along together, many individuals seem to be milling around in circles ; and the whole unit will sweep and drift from mountain top to valley bottom and back again. Even in large parties, however, it is noticeable that the pairs seem to keep together; apparently this is the case throughout the year and it is thought that choughs mate for life. It is certainly noticeable that the same nesting-sites may be used year after year. Both species typically nest deep in holes and crevices, though some nests of the Red-billed bird may be quite open (plate 23). In the Central Apennines Dr. Vaughan found that the Yellow- billed Chough usually bred in a cavern or hole in the limestone crags which jut out at 7,000-8,000 feet in the Monte Maiella massif. The bird in plates 22 and 24 was photographed at the entrance to a nest which was almost exactly in the centre of the crag face shown in plate 21 lower. This nest was some 10 feet down a hole that was about 3 feet across at the top but larger inside. There were 5 eggs on 17th June 1953 (a late year when There was still much snow): two of these had hatched by the 22nd, and the photo- graphs were taken on the 23rd and the 26th. In both species the female alone seems to build the nest and' to incubate the eggs: when she is sitting the male calls her off to feed every 20 minutes or half an hour. At the nest where he obtained his photographs Dr. Vaughan found that the male always arrived with a group of other Yellow-billed Choughs, and there was much calling, to^ vol. li] CHOUGHS AND ALPINE CHOUGHS 103 which the female would reply from inside the nest. She would then leave to join the party for a few minutes; feeding was thus always communal. Choughs feed on insects and their larvae, spiders, crustaceans, molluscs, lizards and in some areas on various seeds and fruit. Cullen et al. ( loc . cit .) found that on Palma in the Canary Islands oranges and figs were taken from trees by the numerous Red- billed Choughs there. In lower mountainous country one finds that choughs frequently repair to certain particular areas of rough grass to feed communally. The separate ecology of the two species remains to be worked out, but there is probably little food competition with the Jackdaws. The long bill of the Red-billed Chough is presumably of considerable advantage in probing for insect larvae and worms. Dr. Vaughan found that the returning female Yellow-billed Chough would always fly straight into the nest-hole and he suggests that they may like a cavity large enough to do this ; on the way out, however, she would always perch and this is when the photographs were taken (plates 22 and 24). As shown in the case of the Red-billed Chough on plate 23, the nests are usually rather bulky structures, built of sticks, heather and other plant stems, and lined, crow-like, with a thick pad of wool and other mammal hair. The Red-billed bird usually lays 4-6 eggs, while there is some evidence that the Yellow-billed ’s clutch tends to be slightly smaller (3-5). Incubation for the Red-billed is given in The Handbook as 17-18 days and fledging as 38, while J. B. Szczepski (1953, Pomocnicze Tabele Ornitologiczne, p. 2) gives the periods of the Yellow-billed bird as 21 and 31-32 days respectively. Both are single-brooded. In conclusion, a look at the nearly fledged young Red-billed Chough on plate 23 does illustrate a small warning that should perhaps be given. When first fledged, young Red-billed Choughs have bills that vary from pinkish-red to pinkish-yellow, rather shorter and straighter than that of the adult (but still quite fine), and there is therefore the possibilty of the newly-fledged youngster being mistaken for a Yellow-billed Chough by the unwary. Incidentally, in certain lights the legs of adults of both species may look quite pink (rather than red), and Cullen et al. say that on Palma “adults and juveniles examined in the field at the end of July had legs pink, not coral-red, and bill sometimes more reddish-pink”. THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL By J. Morton Boyd ( Concluded from page 56) Common Tern ( Sterna hirundo). — May to September. Bred numerously in Tiree before 1892 ; numerous (1898) ; more common than the Arctic Tern 104 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI (1913); 18 pairs at Loch a’ Phuill 1949; small colonies 1952; about 20 pairs with Black-headed Gulls at Loch Bhasapol June and July 1952 ; about 25 nests at Loch a’ Phuill July 1955. Less common than the Arctic Tern 1949-55. Bred in Coll before 1899, but has never been recorded as numerous ; not seen 1 92 3 ! seen nesting on small off-shore islands 1937-38 ; present July 1939, August 1945, June 1946 and 1949, mid-May 1954 ; 4 seen June 1955. Arctic Tern ( Sterna macrnra).— May to September. Abundant breeder in Firee 1892-98 p scarcer by 1913 ; several small colonies in June 1948 and 1 95 2 ! numerous small colonies (usually less than 30 pairs in each) on shore, machair and moor in July' 1 952 ar*d 1 955 » ar>d much more numerous than the Common Tern. Bred in Coll before 1899 I bred 1937-39, 1945-49 seen May I954> June 1955- 3° Pa'rs nesting in Gunna in June 1949. Present at Skerryvore June and July 1903-06. Roseate Tern ( Sterna dougallii). — 1 seen on the wing in Tiree July 19s? (W.K.R.). 3 Little Tern (Sterna albif rons). —May to October. Bred in Tiree before 1892 ; several small colonies (1898 and 1913) ; 12 pairs at Traigh a’ Bheidhe July 1942 ; small colonies of 4-6 pairs early June 1949 and 1952 ; about 30 pairs at Traigh a’ Bheidhe July 1952, but none there July 1955 ; colony of at least 50 pairs at old airfield runways, and about 10 pairs at the estuary of An Fhaodhail, July 1955. Several birds seen in Gunna in June 1949 and May 1954. No breeding record yet available for Coll, though the species probably breeds at the western end of that island. 1 seen at Tiree 24th October 1953. Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicensis). — Reported occasionally on migration about 1913, usually in August, one having been shot and identified. Reported from Gunna by F. Fraser Darling in recent years, and 1 was recently seen in Tiree (J.T.D.W.). No breeding record from the area. Razorbill (Alca torda ). — Present all year in the sea area. Bred in Tiree before 1898 ; nesting 1912, 1913 ; 3 pairs with young July 1942 ; several pairs June 1949 ; 80 birds estimated June 1952 ; 34 birds with young July 1955 (all records from Ceann a’ Mhara, Tiree). Present at Skerryvore on migration and in summer 1903-06, and seen there July 1955. Little Auk (Alle alle ). — Winter. Small Pocks seen in the sea area with a few coming ashore dead (1898). In recent years they have come ashore usually in February and March (J.T.D.W.) ; 1 dead 2nd February 1954 (J.G.). Guillemot (Uria aalge). — Present all year in the sea area. Probably the most common breeding bird on cliffs at Ceann a’ Mhara, Tiree, in 1891, about 400 pairs recorded ; still breeding there, but out-numbered by Razorbills, in 1898, 1912, 1913; bred 1920 (Seton Gordon); not breeding 1942, 1949, 1952, 1954 or 1955. 2 birds seen under the cliffs June 1952, but none July 1952 ; 5 seen under the cliffs June 1955, but none July 1955 (all records from Ceann a’ Mhara). Passed Skerryvore in vast flocks in August 1903-06, and numerous there July 1955. No breeding record from Coll, but seen off-shore on many occasions July-August 1937-55. Black Guillemot ( Uria grylle). — Spring to autumn. Bred in both islands before 1871 (Gray, 1871) ; bred in Tiree in small numbers in 1898, 1912, 1913 ; at Ceann a’ Mhara 2 pairs were noted in recent years (J.T.D.W.) ; 1 bird seen flying into a cliff fissure June 1952 ; 1 seen on sea under the cliffs June 1955. Odd birds have been recorded at a few points around the coast of Tiree in recent years in summer. In Coll a few pairs bred 1938 ; 4 seen off-shore there July 1939 ; 1 seen August 1945 ; 2 and 3 seen late April 1955 ; 1 seen June 1955. A few spent the winter at Skerryvore in 1906. Puffin ( Fratercula arctica). — Present all year in the sea area, but much scarcer in winter. Very rarely seen at Skerryvore 1903-06. No sign of breeding in the area at any time. vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 105 Pallas’s Sandgrouse ( Syrrhaptes paradoxus). — An extraordinary passage of many small flocks took place in Tiree from May to October 1888 (the year of one of the two greatest invasions of Britain by this species). No further record from the area. Rock Dove (Columba livia). — Present all year. Bred in Tiree before 1794, in Coll before 1843, and was breeding in both islands in 1899. Bred abundantly, especially at Ceann a’ Mhara, Tiree, 1912, 1913; fairly plentiful there 1949-55. Breeding reported also from other places on the coast of Tiree, and at ruins, during 1949-55. A pair seen leaving a crevice in Gunna in June 1949. In Coll it was common in summer 1929, 1938-39, 1945-49; common and widespread 1954-55. Abundant in Tiree in winter, native birds probably augmented by migrants from the mainland. Flocks of up to 100 feed in the croftlands and roost at Ceann a’ Mhara caves and ruined buildings. Woodpigeon ( Columba palumbus). — 2 killed at Skerryvore 21st December 1897 ; 1 seen at Arinagour, Coll, 26th April 1955. No record from Tiree. Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur). — 1 seen at Balinoe, Tiree, September 1951 (J.G.); 1 shot early November 1953 (J.T.D.W.). Recorded in Coll (Baxter and Rintoul, 1953). Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus }. — May to September. Occurred sparingly in Tiree in 1898 and 1913 ; a pair seen regularly in west Tiree 1951 ; a young bird seen there 6th September 1954 (N.McI.). Common in Coll 1899, young birds seen in August ; 7 breeding females present there June 1938 ; heard and seen frequently June to August, 1945-49 ; at least 3 present mid-May 1954 ; 2 seen June 1955. One seen, being mobbed by pipits, in Gunna in June 1949. Barn Owl ( Tyto alba). — A single bird recorded in Tiree (Harvie-Brown and Buckley, 1892). Snowy Owl ( Nyctea scandiaca). — Young male seen in Tiree in November 1873; 1 seen in Coll during winter 1891-92. Long-eared Owl (Asio otus). — Seen at Skerryvore 12th November 1906 ; seen in Tiree recently (J.T.D.W.). Short-eared Owl ( Asio flammeus). — Seen in Tiree December 1897, November 1888 and 1897 ; a regular migrant, sometimes numerous, October- November and January-Februarv, 1898-1913 ; seen early April 1954 ; an owl seen in twilight in June 1952 (J.M.B.) was probably of this species. Seen at Skerryvore November 1897. No record available for Coll. Nightjar ( Capritnulgus europaeus). — A single bird seen in Coll (Irby, 1899). Swift (Apus apus). — Summer. No breeding record. Seen in Tiree before 1899, but not in Coll. Occasional summer-visitor, always singly, 1898-1913 ; 15 together over Ceann a’ Mhara 7th July 1955 ; flock of 20 over the Reef 20th July 1955. One seen in Coll June 1946 (M.H.). Seen on passage at Skerryvore during August 1903-06. Kingfisher ( Alcedo attliis). — 1 shot in Coll 22nd July 1903 (Irbv, 1903). Skylark ( Alauda arvensis). — Present all year. Bred abundantly before 1899 in both islands, and is reported still to breed, in abundance in Tiree 1912-55, and in Coll 1937-55. A few pairs were seen in Gunna in June 1949 and May 1954. Abundant in the stubbles and stackyards September to March, flocks usually less than 100 birds. Migrants from the mainland probably over- winter in Tiree. Passage noticed at Skerryvore, August to March, 1897-1906. Swallow ( Hirundo rustica). — April to September. Did not breed in Tiree (1892, 1898, 1913), though odd birds reported April to September then ; also June 1912, May 1948, and June 1949 and 1952. Breeding proved in Tiree J9S°i 5 nests being seen at Caoles (L.A.U.) ; 3 occupied nests seen there July 1955. Seen in Tiree April to September 1954-55, maximum number together 8. A pair seen at a ruin, Arnabost, Coll, June 1949, but breeding not proved. Seen in Gunna May 1954. Observed at Skerryvore May and June 1897-98. 106 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI House Martin ( Delichon urbica). — Bred at Arinagour, Coll, 1898, but no further nesting record for the area. Birds seen, usually singly or in pairs, in Tiree 31st May 1949, 29th May 1952 and 9th July 1955. No recent record from Coll. Sand Martin ( Riparia riparia). — Summer. Nested in Tiree 1794, and bred till at least 1886 at Gott ; rare visitor (1888) ; not breeding 1898-1913 ; seen at the same site by 2 independent observers May and June 1952, and elsewhere 1954 ; breeding re-established at Crossapoll, Tiree, 5 pairs being found with burrows and young, in July 1955 (J.M.B.). Seen at Skerryvore early August 1897. No record from Coll. Golden Oriole ( Oriolus oriolus). — In Coll 1 seen September 1938. Raven ( Corvus corax). — Present all year. A pair seen at Ceann a’ Mhara 1891 ; bred every year in Tiree (1898 and 1913), usually beginning March ; fledged family seen June 1949 ; present July 1952 ; nesting Ceann a’ Mhara April 1954-55. In Coll it bred before 1899 ; at least 2 pairs 1938 ; parties of up to 6 birds seen July 1939 ; nesting 1945-49 ; several seen together and singly mid-May 1954 ! widespread, 20-30 birds seen, late April 1955 ; 3 seen 2nd-3rd June 1955. Present throughout the winter, singly or up to 3 together. Carrion Crow (Corvus c. corone).— Anderson (1913) reports the occasional occurrence of this bird. No breeding record. In Tiree 3 seen January 1948; 17 in February 1953; 2 in July 1955. Hooded Crow ( Corvus corone cornix). — Present all year. Common breeder in both islands before 1899. Common in Tiree 1912, 1913, 1949-55. Probably less than 12 pairs attempt to breed in Tiree, sometimes on flat ground, and about half that number in Coll. Bred in Coll 1938; 3 or 4 pairs said to have bred 1939; present 1945-49 > fairly common May 1954 ; evenly distributed April 1955 ; 5 seen June 1955. Present in Gunna in May and June 1949 and 1954. More numerous in winter than at other times, due possibly to migration from the mainland. Usually not more than 3 seen together in winter. Rook ( Corvus frugilegus). — Seen in Tiree 14th August 1897 ; occasional visitor in Tiree March and November (1913) ; 6 seen there 13th November 1955. Large numbers at Skerryvore 1st November 1893, i4th-i6th November 1897, 26th November 1898; 1 seen 6th April 1906. In Coll 1 seen May 1937. It is thought that small numbers arrive in winter from Mull. Jackdaw ( Corvus monedula). — Seen at Skerryvore November 1893. Anderson (1913) reports it as an occasional visitor usually in November ; 1 seen 4th February 1951 (I.W.). Chough ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax). — No breeding record in Tiree and Coll since before 1871. Seen rarely at Ceann a’ Mhara about 1913, but none recorded since. Great Tit ( Partis major). — Only record, 1 seen in whins at Gott, Tiree, March 1950 (J.G.). Wren ( Troglodytes troglodytes). — Present all year. Not thought to breed in Tiree (1898, 1899, 1913), though odd birds were seen in summer ; seen June 1912 ; 2 singing males at Ceann a’ Mhara June 1952 ; breeding proved at Hynish July 1952, newly fledged young seen being fed by adult (J.M.B.). Bred in Coll before 1899 ; bred 1938 ; present July 1939, August 1946, June 1946 and 1949, and May 1954 ; 1 seen June 1955. Common September to April, 1898-1955. Fieldfare ( Turdus pilaris). — October to April. Common migrant before 1892 ; large flocks in late autumn and a few in spring (1898) ; odd birds remained all winter (1913) ; large numbers October and November, and small numbers December to March (with occasional rushes in February), 1952-56. Seen at Skerryvore in a great rush 23rd October 1897 ; scarce in spring there, but abundant during October and November 1903-06. vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 107 Mistle Thrush ( Turdus viscivorus). — November to May. No breeding record from the area, although i was seen in Coll in mid-May 1954. Occasional autumn and spring visitor to Tiree since before 1898 ; frequent straggler November to March (1913); 1 seen there early April 1954. Usually seen singly or up to 3 together, and on open ground. Song Thrush ( Turdus philomelos). — Present all year. Numerous breeder in Coll before 1899, but not reported breeding in Tiree till 1903 and 1906. Nesting, and fledged young seen, in Tiree in 1945, 1952, 1955 ; single birds seen in June 1952, mid-May 1954, June and July 1955. In Coll, nesting in 1929 and 1938 ; present July 1939 ; nests 1945-49 i present May 1954 ; 15 possible pairs early April 1955 ; 1 seen June 1955. Birds observed in Coll June 1929 (Miss E. V. Baxter), and in Tiree June 1945, showed characteristics of the sub-species T. p. hebridensis, and a buff-coloured thrush was seen in Coll on 9th November 1926. Plentiful October to April, 1898-1956, being most numerous in November, both in Tiree and at Skerryvore. Redwing ( Turdus musicus). — September to May. No breeding record, but 1 seen in whins at Arinagour, Coll, 12th May 1954. Common or abundant in Tiree and at Skerryvore October 1897, autumn 1908, i5th-25th October 1914, 29th October-ist November 1954, I2th-i5th November 1955. Seen at Skerry- vore as early as 27th September. A few over-winter in Tiree, 1913-55, usually disappearing during hard frost. The main autumn movement takes place after that of the Song Thrush, and before that of the Fieldfare. Anderson (1913) relates abundance of this species directly with that of Snipe. Ring Ouzel ( Turdus torquatus). — 1 killed September 15th 1898 at Skerry- vore and the species was seen occasionally there in spring and autumn 1903-06. Blackbird (Turdus merula). — Present all year. Bred in Coll before 1899, but had not bred in Tiree by 1913. Pairs and singing males seen in Tiree, by several observers, at 6 widely scattered sites in June and July 1952-55 ; 1 empty nest found June 1952; nest with 4 young, in whins, June 1957 (J.M.B.). Bred in Coll 1937-39; a few seen there in summer 1945-49; several seen May 1954; 11 possible breeding pairs late April 1955; 2 seen 2nd-3rd June 1955. The main autumn movement is almost coincidental with that of the Redwing; rushes at Skerryvore early November 1897, 19th October 1898; and in Tiree, mid-November 1955. Less common on passage than the Song Thrush or Redwing. Odd birds present December to February 1954-55. Wkeatear ( Oenanthe oeuanihe). — March to October. Bred in both islands before 1899. Bred in Tiree (1913), all over the island ; fledged family seen there July 1942; a few birds seen June 1949; several pairs breeding there, but not common, June 1952; numerous and breeding June and July 1955. In Coll, bred 1938 ; fairly common July 1939 ; common and breeding 1945- 49 ; common May 1954 ; widespread April 1955 ; 6 seen June 1955. Seen in Gunna May 1954. Plentiful on migration, especially late March to early April, and occasionally numerous as late as October, 1898-1913. At Skerryvore, seen as early as 5th February 1898 and, on the return passage, i5th-20th August, onward into October, 1903-06. Distinct movement seen in Tiree 2nd- 5th April 1954, and 25th-30th April 1955. A proportion of the autumn migrants are of the sub-species Oe. oe. leucorrhoa : 1 such bird was shot 8th October 1910 ; seen regularly in September in recent years. Stonechat (Saxicola torquata). — Present all year. Bred in Coll before 1899, and first reported breeding in Tiree that year. In Tiree newly fledged young seen, 1899-1913 ; pairs and single cocks seen there by 5 independent observers from 7 different sites, between April and June, during 1950-55. In Coll, 12 pairs estimated June 1938 ; common July 1939 ; several pairs nesting 1945- 49 ; several pairs seen May 1954 ; 1 pair seen early April 1955. Regular winter visitor in small numbers November to April, 1898-1913; odd birds seen October to December, 1953-55. Whinchat ( Saxicola rubetra). — Seen in Tiree twice, April and May, about 1890 ; no recent record there. In Coll, bred before 1899 ; 1 pair seen there 108 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI May 1937 ; several pairs said to nest 1945-49 ; none seen April to June 1954-55. Seen at Skerryvore 22nd August 1897 and 22nd April 1898. Redstart ( Phoenicurus phoenicurus). — Seen at Skerryvore 27th March and 1st October 1897, 6th October 1903, 21st September 1906. No recent record. Black Redstart ( Phoenicurus ochruros). — Occasionally seen on migration in Tiree, and at Skerryvore (Baxter and Rintoul, 1953). Robin ( Erithacus rubccula). — September to April. No record of breeding in Tiree, but “breeds occasionally” in Coll (Macdougall, 1938) ; 1 male singing in Coll 23rd April 1954, but not reported by 5 observers in 7 different summers, 1939-55. Seen on passage in Tiree 26th October 1897, 3rd October 1898 ; and at Skerryvore 10th April 1906. Single birds have over-wintered in Tiree stackyards since before 1898 ; 1 seen there on 5 occasions January to February 1948-55 ; 1 seen mid-September 1956. Baxter and Rintoul (1953) suggest that some of the birds are of the sub-species E. r. rubecula. Grasshopper Warbler ( Locustella naevia). — -1 killed at Skerryvore 8th May 1907- Sedge Warbler ( Acrocephalus schoenobaenus ). — May to September. No breeding record from either Tiree or Coll before 1937 and 1938, when 2 possible pairs seen in Coll. Observed regularly in Tiree in recent years: seen July 1951 i 3 singing cocks June 1952 ; at least 6 singing cocks July 1955 ; present September 1956. In Coll, 3 singing cocks were seen 2nd-3rd June 1955. Seen at Skerryvore 13th May 1898. Barred Warbler ( Sylvia nisoria).—i seen in Tiree 9th September 1913. Garden Warbler ( Sylvia borin). — Seen at Skerryvore 8th September and 20th October 1897. Whitethroat ( Sylvia communis). — May to September. Nested in Coll in 1891, and 1 pair seen there 1903. First summer record in Tiree was of a displaying pair June 1939 (N.McI.) ; seen July 1951 ; 4 singing males at scattered sites, and fledged young at Hynish, June and July 1955 (J.M.B.) ; present late September 1956. In Coll, no mention for summers 1937-39; 1 pair nested 1945 ; several birds seen June-August 1945-49 I 3 singing males seen mid-May 1954 ; 5 singing males 2nd June 1955. Seen on migration in Tiree 5th-i6th September 1913. Willow Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus). — April to September. No definite breeding record. None reported from Tiree June and July, but 3 possible breeding pairs in Coll in June 1938 ; 4 seen in Coll July 1939 ; 1 seen June 1946 ; 1 pair at Arinagour mid-May 1954 ; 7 singing males in Coll late April 1955. Regular migrant in Tiree and at Skerryvore since 1889, April-May and August-September. Several seen in Tiree in April and May 1954-55, and in mid-September 1956. Ciiiffchaff ( Phylloscopus collybita). — April-May and September-November. Anderson (1913) mentions two records in Tiree in 25 years’ observation ; single birds seen there mid-May 1954, mid-November 1955, and mid-September 1956. In Coll, 1 seen in song 19th April 1955 (J.R.F.). Wood Warbler ( Phylloscopus sibilatrix). — 1 seen in Tiree on 12th May 1954, and another at Arinagour, Coll (perhaps the same bird) on 15th May 1954 (J.M.B.). Yellow-browed Warbler ( Phylloscopus inornatus). — 1 killed at Skerryvore 2 1st September 1906. Goldcrest ( Regulus regulus). — March, April, September and October. Seen in Tiree (1898) ; 1 seen there mid-October 1909 ; a few in spring in late years (1913) ; 5 seen at different places 3rd-9th April 1954 ; 1 present 8th-i2th September 1956. Rushes at Skerryvore 22nd March, 22nd April and 19th November 1898 ; and 60 there 24th March 1906. Richard Vaughan Habitat or Alpine Choughs (Pyrrhocorax graculus ): Italy, Junk 1953 These limestone cliffs of the Maiella massif in the Central Apennines form a typical habitat which, incidentally, is shared by Wallcreepers (Tichodroma muraria); here, at a height of 7,000-8,000 feet, the Alpine Choughs breed in small colonies of 3-6 pairs (see page 101). Richard Vaughan Nest-site ok Alpine Choughs (Pyrrhocorax graculus): Italy, June 1953 Plates 22 and 24 were obtained at a site in the centre of this picture. The nest itself was some 10 feet down a hole, for both species of chough usually breed deep in crevices and caverns (but see plate 23). Mountain cliffs and rocky outcrops of this kind are equally typical habitats of the common species and sometimes the two nest near each other (see page 100). Plate 22 1*1. ATK 23 x ts. /. •- o ss .« ^ a u C3 ^ -r in C3 ^ -3 C3 O ^ - w 0) XX) r. r~ rj zc ~0 rz -“£sr 0 c '^.00- . a in X.' ~ w 2^ JL c- o o 'j ,-> L* C3 (I) • — X. CL > S => Q X C/> 5 L£ ^ ° C/) ^ c a> 3 . C3 C w o 2 c Sr- ^ in 'o . o - rt j: jz -l: - C r C ^ C j . C3 _ s'9* "3 ‘ d C rt ; Sf> g_3 CL >• ~ o ~ * u rt o c r- O • — o 2 -! ,- CL 5 seen> including pairs, 23rd April 1955 ; 1 seen 2nd June 1955. Known on passage and in winter since 1888 ; arrived in Tiree in considerable flocks usually in early November (1913) ; seen October to April, but most numerous October to December in flocks of up to 30 birds ; over-wintered in Tiree usually in flocks of up to 6 during 1 954-56- Seen at Skerryvore 25th October-i5th November 1897, and 3rd November 1906. Linnet ( Carduelis cannabina). — Present all year. Bred occasionally in Tiree (1892), and many were said to breed in Coll (1899). None reported from Coll since, but in Tiree several pairs and odd birds, June 1952 ; 1 seen August 1954; a flock of 6 on 22nd October 1953; 10 birds together April 1954. Anderson (1913) mentions over-wintering in mild weather. The birds are of the sub- species C. c. autochthona (Baxter and Rintoul, 1953). Twite ( Carduelis flavirostris). — Present all year. Bred in both islands before 1899, and has been reported breeding by all subsequent summer observers in both islands, and probably also in Gunna, where seen May 1954. Breeding plentifully, or present, August to May 1952-56, in flocks not usually exceeding 100, often much less. No distinct migratory movement, and none recorded at Skerryvore. Redpoll ( Carduelis flammed). — Single birds, male and female, of the sub- species C. f. rostrata, seen in Tiree 12th and 27th September 1914; 1 of the sub-species C. f. cabaret (or disruptis) seen there 6th March 1903. Bullfinch ( Pyrrhula pyrrhula). — Seen in Coll, but not in Tiree (Irby, 1899). Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs). — October to January. Seen at Skerryvore and in Tiree, October, November and January, 1897-1913. Anderson (1913) says that a few over-wintered ; 2 males seen in Tiree in January 1949, and 3 solitary females in February 1952 and 1953 (I.W). Brambling ( Fringilla montifringilla). — A large flock was seen in Tiree on 12th December 1898 ; 1 caught at Skerryvore October 1905 ; Anderson (1913) reports a few from Tiree. No recent record. No record from Coll. Yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella). — April to November. Bred in Coll 1902-03 ; none noted there by observers between May and August 1937-49 ; 2 pairs seen late April 1955. No breeding record from Tiree, but seen there June 1912 (N.H.). Winter visitor in small numbers in Tiree (1898), 1 having been shot there 19th November 1888; 1 or 2 every autumn on passage (1913). No recent winter records from the area. Corn Bunting ( Emberiza calandra). — Present all year. Numerous and breeding in both islands before 1899, and has been reported as plentiful by all subsequent summer observers. At least 30 males were singing in Tiree in June 1952, and probably more than 50 in June and July 1955. In Coll, at least 8 singing males June 1938 ; 4 there late April 1955 ; 2 seen June 1955. Migration is not evident, though Tomison (1907) mentions the “Common Bunting E. miliaria" at Skerryvore in spring and autumn, and this presumably applies to the Corn Bunting. Flocks of usually not more than 30 birds winter in Tiree. Reed Bunting ( Emberiza schoeniclus). — Present all year. Bred in Coll (1889), but not mentioned as breeding in Tiree (1898 or 1913). In Coll, 12 pairs estimated June 1938; several pairs July 1939; seen frequently summers 1945- 46 and 1949 ; several pairs mid-May 1954 ; common late April 1955 ; 5 seen 2nd June 1955. In Tiree, first reported June 1912 (N.II.) ; present in suitable breeding habitat there June and july 1952, April and May 1954, May to July 1955. Fledged young seen being fed June 1957 (J.M.B., Donald Watson) and, though no actual nests have been reported, now thought to breed in fair vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 111 numbers in Tiree. Seen in small flocks of up to 20 birds in Tiree between October and December 1953-54, and in March and April 1945-55. Snow Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis). — September to March. A regular migrant in Tiree before 1898 ; seen there and at Skerryvore ioth-28th October and ist-5th November 1897 • 18th August 1898. Often seen in flocks of up to 30 at Skerryvore in September and October 1905. Main movements usually late October to early November, and early April (Anderson, 1913) ; 6 seen in Tiree November 1949. A pair seen in Gunna 13th November 1955. An extraordinary record (Anderson, 1913) is of a pair at Ceann a’ Mhara in July. House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus). — Present all year. In 1888 there were none in Tiree ; reported nesting there (1892) ; common (1898) ; very abundant (1913); reported as abundant, plentiful or common there since. Bred in Coll 1899, and has been recorded as abundant or common there since. Present in winter in flocks of usually less than 50, around croft-houses. No migration evident, with only a solitary record from Skerryvore in summer (Tomison, 1907)- Tree Sparrow ( Passer montanus). — No recent records. Before 1889 (the date of arrival of the House Sparrow) it was an abundant or numerous breed- ing species ; numerous (1898) ; scarce “ousted by the House Sparrow” (1913). Though several observers have subsequently searched the last breeding-areas of this species at Kirkapoll and Middleton in Tiree, none has been reported since, at any time of the year. Bred in Coll before 1899, but not recorded since. In the 25 years before 1913 P. montanus had been almost completely replaced by P. domesticus. SUMMARY The information is summarized in a table. It is designed to show as accurately as possible in a single line a maximum of information for each of the 176 species recorded in Tiree and Coll between 1892 and 1956. Both islands are separately represented ; all records from the Skerryvore are included in Tiree, and all records from Gunna in Coll. There is an unfortunate lack of winter observations from Coll, but in cases where there is no reasonable doubt of its being otherwise, winter status there is judged to be similar to that in Tiree. Attention is drawn to the following features which may illustrate regional and national trends: (i) the increase or establishment as breeding species of Fulmar, Gadwall, Pintail, Tufted Duck, Buzzard, Curlew, Redshank (Tiree), Black-headed Gull, Razorbill, Swallow, Wren (Tiree), Blackbird (Tiree), Sedge Warbler, Whitethroat (Tiree), Greenfinch, and Reed Bunting (Tiree); (ii) the decline or disappearance as breeding species of Mallard and Teal (both still fairly common), Common Tern (replaced partly by the Arctic Tern), Guillemot (replaced almost completely by the Razor- bill), and Tree Sparrow (replaced completely by the House Sparrow) ; (iii) the decline in numbers in winter of Mallard, Gadwall, Scaup, Pochard, Goldeneye, Grey Lag Goose, Bewick’s Swan, and Tree Sparrow; (iv) the increase in numbers in winter of Long-tailed Duck, Barnacle Goose, Whooper Swan, and Oyster- catcher; (v) the increase in numbers in summer of the Mute Swan. 112 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Summary Table — The complete list for Tiree and Coll showing status CHANGES DURING THE PERIOD 1892-1956 c = very scarce to fairly common in Coll ; C = common to abundant in Coll ; t = very scarce to fairly common in Tiree ; T = common to abundant in Tiree ; * = one record only ; t = breeding recently established in Tiree or Coll or both ; Inc = apparent increase in numbers ; Dec = apparent decrease in numbers ; N/C = no apparent change in numbers ; ? = doubtful and requires corroboration. Species Breeding Spring Summer (Non-breeding) Autumn Winter Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Black-throated Diver (Gavia arctica) c CT CT ct ct Great Northern Diver (Gavia unmet) CT CT Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata) c Ct ct ct Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps cristatus) t t t Red-necked Grebe ( Podiceps griseigena ) T Slavonian Grebe ( Podiceps auritus) T T Little Grebe ( Podiceps ruficollis) t T c T Leach’s Petrel (Oceanodroma leu- corrhoa ) t Storm Petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus) T T Manx Shearwater ( Proctllaria puffinus) CT CT Great Shearwater (Procellaria gravis) t t Sooty Shearwater ( Procellaria grisea) t* Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) T CT C Ct Gannet ( Sula bassana) CT CT ct ct Magnificent Frigate- bird ( Fregata magnificens) t* Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo) t (?) ct ct ct ct Shag ( Phalacrocorax aristotelis) t CT CT CT CT Heron [A rdea cinema) c Ct ct ct ct Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) t* Mallard (A nas platyrhyvchos) CT CT CT CT Teal (A nas crecca) cT CT CT CT Gadwall (A nas strepera) t t t t Wigeon (A nas pcnclope) c CT t CT CT Pintail ( A nas acuta) f t t t t Shoveler ( Spatula clypeata) t ct t t Scaup (Ay thy a marila) t t t Tufted Duck (Aylhya fuligula) t T T CT vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 113 Breeding Species Spring Summer (Non-breeding) Autumn Winter Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N /C Dec Inc N/C Dec Pochard ( Aythya fcrina) t t t t Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) t l l Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) CT Cl Common Scoter (Mclanitta nigra) t T T Eider (Somateria mullissima) CT CT CT CT CT Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus scrralor) CT CT CT Ct ct Goosander (Mergut merganser) t t t t Smew (Mergut albellus) t t t Shelduck (Tudor net ladorna ) Ct ct Ct ct Grey Lag Goose ( A nser anser) Ct t t t White-fronted Goose (A nser albifrons) CT CT Brent Goose (Branta bernicla) t Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) T C T c Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) t* Mute Swan (Cyg'iMS olor) ct ct cT t t Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus) cT t cT T c Bewick’s Swan (C. columbianus bewickii) t t Buixard ct (Buteo buteo) f Ct Ct ct Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) ct Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) t c t t t Greenland Falcon (F. rusticolus candicans) l* Merlin (Falco columbarius) ct ct CT ct Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) ct ct Ct ct Red Grouse (Lagopus scoticus) c c c Partridge (Pcrdix perdix) ct ct ct Quail (Coturnix coturnix) t Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) ct t t t Water Rail ( Rallus aquations) t t Sora Rail (Porsana Carolina) t* Corncrake (Crex crex) cT ct ct Moorhen (Galhnula chloropus) t c t c t t Coot (Fulica atra) ct ct ct t Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) CT CT CT ct 114 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Species Breeding Spring Summer (Non-breeding) Autumn Winter Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Lapwing ( Vanellus vanellus) CT CT CT CT Ringed Plover (Charadarius hiaticula) CT CT CT CT Grey Plover [Charadrius squatarola) t Golden Plover ( Charadrius apricarius ) c t CT CT CT Turnstone Arenaria interpres) CT Ct CT CT Snipe ( Capella gallinago) CT CT CT CT Jack Snipe (Lymnocryptes minimus) t T T Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) T T Curlew [Numenius arquata )f t c CT CT CT CT Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa) t t Bar-tailed Godwit [Limosa lapponica) t t t Wood Sandpiper [Tringa g lareola) t* Common Sandpiper [Tringa hypoleucos) ct t Redshank ( Tringa totanus)^ t c CT CT CT Greenshank [Tringa nebular ia) t t Ct Knot [Calidris canutus) t t Purple Sandpiper [Calidris maritima) CT CT Little Stint [Calidris minuta ) t c Dunlin [Calidris alpina) cT CT CT CT Curlew Sandpiper [Calidris testacea) t* Sanderling [Crocethia alba) CT Ct CT CT Rug [Philomachus pugnax) Ct Grey Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicarius) t t Red-necked Phalarope [Phalaropus lobatus) t Arctic Skua [Stercorarius parasiticus) c t ct t ct ct Great Skua [Stercorarius skua) t t t t Great Black- backed Gull [Larus marinus) ct CT CT CT CT Lesser Black-backed Gull ( Larus fuscus) CT Ct Ct ct Herring Gull [Larus argentatus) CT CT CT CT CT Common Gull (Larus canus) CT CT CT CT vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 115 Species Breeding Spring Summer (Non-breeding) Autumn Winter Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Glaucous Gull , ( Larus hyperboreus) t Iceland Gull ( Larus glaucoides) t* Little Gull (Larus minutus) t* Black-headed Gull ( Larus ridibundus) T c CT CT CT Sabine s Gull (Xenia sabini) t* Kittiwake (Rissa tridaclvla ) T cT Ct Ct Common Tern (Sterna hiruiulo) C r ct CT Arctic Tern (Sterna macrura) T C ct CT Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) t*(?) t» Little Tern ( Sterna albifrons) T t T ■ Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicensis ) t(?) Razorbill (A lea torda) T cT cT Ct Little Auk (A lie alle) t t Guillemot ( Uria aalge) t Ct Ct Ct ct Black Guillemot (Uria grylle) Ct Ct ct ct Puffin (Fratercula arctica ) ct ct ct ct Pallas’s Sandgrouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus) t t t Rock Dove (Columba livia) CT CT CT CT Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) c t Turtle Dove (Streptopelia turtur) Ct t > Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) ct(?) ct C Barn Owl (Tyto alba) t* Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca) c*t* Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) t Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus) t t(?) t t Nightjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) c* Swift (A pus apus) t c Kingfisher (Alcedo aithis) c* Skylark (Alauda arvensis) CT CT CT CT Swallow (Hirundo rustica) f t t c t House Martin (Delichon urbica) c t t Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) t t Golden Oriole ( Oriolus oriolus) c* 116 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Species Breeding Spring Summer (Non-breeding) Autumn Winter Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C D< Raven ( Corvus corax) ct Ct ct ct Carrion Crow (C. corone corone) t Hooded Crow (C. corone cornix) CT CT CT CT Rook {Corvus frugilegus) Ct t Jackdaw {Corvus monedula) t Chough {Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) t Great Tit (Parus major) t* Wren (T roglodytes troglodvtes)f t c t t t Fieldfare (X urdus pilaris) Ct CT Ct Mistle Thrush (T urdus viscivorus) t c t Song Thrush ( Tardus philomelos) ct Ct CT CT Redwing ( Turdus musicus) Ct c CT CT Blackbird {Turdus merula) f ct ct CT CT Wheatear {Oenanthe oenanthi) CT CT CT Stonechat (Saxicola torquata) Ct Ct ct Ct Whinchat {Saxicola rubetra) c t t Redstart {Phoenicurus phoenicurus) t t Black Redstart ( Phoenicurus ochruros) t t Robin {Erithacus rubecula) C C ct ct ct Grasshopper Warbler (LocusUlla naevia) t* Sedge Warbler ( A crocephalus schoenobaenus)t C?t ct Barred Warbler ( Sylvia nisoria) t* Garden Warbler {Sylvia borin) t* Whitethroat {Sylvia cotnmunis)f t c t Willow Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus) c(?) ct t Chifichafi {Phylloscopus collybita) ct t Wood Warbler {Phylloscopus sibilatrix) c*t* Yellow-browed W arbler {Phylloscopus inornatus) t* Goldcrest ( Rcgulus regulus) t t Spotted Flycatcher {Muscicapa striata) c* t* vol. li] THE BIRDS OF TIREE AND COLL 117 Breeding Spring Summer Autumn Winter Species (Non-breeding) Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec Inc N/C Dec l Pied Flycatcher t* (Muscicapa hvpoleuca) Dunnock ( Prunella mndularis) (Meadow Pipit CT CT CT CT (Anthvs pratensis) fsTree Pipit t* {A nthus trivialis) ■ Sock Pipit CT CT CT [A nthus spinoletta) i Pied/Wbite Wagtails c CT t CT (Motacilla alba) G rey Wagtail t* [Motacilla cincrca) ' Yellow Wagtail [Motacilla flava) t 'Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) CT CT CT CT . Hawfinch (C. coccothraustcs) t* ^Greenfinch c(? )t ( Chloris chloris)t T T T 1 Linnet [Carduelis cannabina) t c t t Twite [Carduelis flavirostris) CT CT CT CT Redpoll (Carduelis flammea) t t t Bullfinch [Pyrrhula pyrrhula) t* • Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) t t : Brambling (Fringilla nwntitringilla) t '• Yellow Hammer (Emberiza citrinella) c t t t ItCom Bunting cT cT cT cT (Emberiza calandra) ct A 1 House Sparrow CT CT CT CT [Passer domcsticus) Tree Sparrow ct ct ct cT [Passer monlanus ) _ - — ■ - ' - - REFERENCES Anderson, P. (1898): “On birds observed in the island of Tiree”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 27: 153-161. (1913): “The birds of the island of Tiree’’. Scot. Nat., 16: 73-78; 20: 170-172; 21: 193-200; 22: 217-224; 23: 241-245. (1892-1919): “Bird notes from Tiree”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. (1892), 4: 269; (1893), 5: 43; (1893), 6: 1 14; (1894). 10: (1895), 16: 251; (1897), 24: 252; (1899), 29: 46; (1905), 56: 246; (1906), 60: 237; (1908), 66: 1 17; (1909), 69: 51; ( 19 1 1 ), 78: 1 16; ( 19 1 1 ), 80: 246; Scot. Nat. (1919, 94: 156. Baxter, E. V., and Rintoul, L. J. (1953): The Birds of Scotland. Edinburgh. Bennet, A. E. (1952): “Pintail (/Inas acuta) nesting in Tiree”. Scot. Nat., 64: 117. Boyd, J. Morton (1956): “Fluctuations of Common Snipe, Jack Snipe, and Golden Plover in Tiree, Argyllshire”. Bird Study, 3: 105-118. • Reed Bunting t(?) [Emberiza schoeniclus) r Snow Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis) ct ct 118 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Darling, F. Fraser, et al. (1955): West Highland Survey. Oxford. Fisher, James (1947): Bird Recognition, Vol. 1. London. Gray, R. (1871): The Birds of the West of Scotland. Glasgow. Harvie-Brown, J. A., and Buckley, T. E. (1892): A Vertebrate Fauna of Argyll and the Inner Hebrides. Edinburgh. Harvie-Brown, J. A. (1911): “Bird notes from Tiree”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 77: 52. Hunter, D. G. (1927): “Buff-coloured thrush in Coll’’. Scot. Nat., 163: 14. Irby, L. H. (1899): “Observations on the birds of Tiree and Coll”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 32: 206-210. (1902-1903): “Bird notes from Coll”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. (1902), 41: 251-252; (1903), 45: 50; (1903), 48: 243-244. Jackson, Annie C. (1914): “Birds of Tiree — additional records”. Scot. Nat., 25 : 44- Laidlaw, T. G. (1898): “Report on the movements and occurrence of birds in Scotland during 1897”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 28: 200-217. (1899): “Report on the movements and occurrence of birds in Scotland during 1898”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 31: 140-158. Macdougall, H. (1938): “Notes on the birds of Coll”. Scot. Nat., 233: J39-I44- McIntyre, N. (1953): “House Martins on Tiree”. Glasgow W. Scot. B. Bull., 3: 76. Meinertzhagen, R. and A. C. (1923): “On the occurrence of Faroe Snipe in the British Isles”. Scot. Nat., 139: 123. Robinson, H. W. (1914): “Birds of Tiree — additional records”. Scot. Nat., . 25.: Statistical Account of Scotland (1791-1799). Edinburgh. Stephen, A. C. (1953): “Magnificent Frigate-bird in Scotland”. Scot. Nat., 65: 193- Tomison, J. (1907): “Bird-life as observed at Skerryvore Lighthouse”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 61 : 20-31. (1904): “Hawfinch at Skerryvore”. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., 51: 189. Wilson, R. (1914): “Enormous rush of Redwings at Skerryvore lantern”. Scot. Nat., 37 : 21. Witherby, H. F., et al. (1938): The Handbook of British Birds. London. NOTES Glossy Ibis in Dorset. — On 3rd December 1956, an adult male Glossy Ibis ( Plegadis falcinelhis) was shot in the water meadows of the River Frome at Stratton, near Dorchester, Dorset, by C. J. R. Pope. The bird was examined in the flesh by R. F. Dalton at the County Museum, Dorchester, but finally presented to Charterhouse School Museum, where the skin has been set up. Full details of the plumage and measurements have been supplied by J- J- Swift, who has examined the specimen critically, and these have been submitted to the Editors of British Birds. Mr. Pope has confirmed that as far as he can remember the date of the occurrence was 3rd December, and not 6th December as stated' in his letter published in Country Life of 7th March 1957. In fairness to Mr. Pope, who has given me permission to quote his name in this note, it should be said that he shot the bird in mistake for a Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax carbo) and it was with much regret that he realised his error. The last previously recorded occurrence of this species in Dorset was of four shot in Poole Harbour in 1877. Arthur Bull VOL. Li] NOTES 119 Pratincole in Hampshire. — On 14th September 1957, at Stanpit Marsh, Christchurch Harbour, Hampshire, we observed a Pratincole ( Glareola pratincola). We first saw it, with the sun behind us, at about twenty yards’ range, when it was some fifteen feet above the ground. The bird flew in a 400-yard arc across the Marsh, before speeding low, south-west, across the Harbour. Shortly afterwards it appeared again and was watched fluttering up several times before finally settling on the water, where it was visible only as an elongated dark shape. From here it left to the north-west, up the Harbour. The following points were noted: primaries and deeply-forked tail black, base of tail conspicuously though not extensively white, narrow white diagonal line from base of wing to carpal joint along edge of coverts, rest of upper-parts uniformly very dark brown; under-wing smoky with noticeably russet "lining” (i.e. axillaries and under-wing coverts), body beneath buff-white, darker in the upper breast and facial regions; shape and flight recalling Hirundines (an impression heightened by head-shape and short bill) and terns, although very broad base to rapidly-narrowing wing gave quite different proportions; fast, twisting flight with rapid, shallow wing-beats comparable only to that of a bat; size a little greater than Black Tern ( Chlidonias niger), this species being present. Although the bird was generally moving away from us and our gaze was directed mainly at the critical colour of the under-wing, we feel that, had a clear-cut throat shield been present, this would have been noticed. The bird was probably an immature changing into adult plumage. J. K. Bowers and E. L. Jones Black-winged Pratincole in Somerset. — On 15th June 1957, at Steart, Bridgwater Bay, Somerset, I was searching for young Lapwings ( V anellus vanellus) when I glanced up at the adult, and was surprised to see near it an entirely unfamiliar bird which at first sight I took to be a very small species of skua that was un- known to me. Through binoculars I saw a forked tail with white base, dark uniform olive-brown upper-parts and light, rather creamy, under-parts. The under-surfaces of the wings appeared uniformly dark, but I could not make certain of this as the bird flew away into the sun, in a leisurely rather tern-like fashion. In size it had appeared slightly smaller than the Lapwing, but more streamlined. About two hours later, while driving through the common that runs to the shore at Steart, I spotted the bird again and obtained good views, with the sun behind me, as it stood on the grass about thirty yards from the car. The bird was clearly a pratincole (Glareola sp.) — the sandy brown head, distinctly lighter than the back (which was a dark olive-brown), the creamy black-bordered throat-patch, huffish under-parts and white belly could all be clearly seen. The legs were short, and the short slightly decurved bill had a red base. After ten minutes it started flying — apparently 120 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI hawking’ for insects — and on several occasions I had good views of the under-surfaces of the wings which were entirely black with no trace of rufous. Several times it flew near flying Redshanks ( T ring a totanus) and it appeared to be approximately the same size. It eventually flew right away in the general direction of Burnham. I concluded that the bird could only be a Black-winged Pratincole (G. nordmanni). John Reynolds Pratincole or Black-winged Pratincole in Sussex. — On 21st August 1955, a pratincole ( Glareola sp.) was seen at the Midrips, near Camber, Sussex, by K. Linford, W. S. Nevin, B. P. Pickess, H. J. C. Seymour and the writer. The bird was first noticed flying overhead at a height of 40-50 feet, calling in a rather harsh, urgent manner. It appeared as a grey-brown plover with a long tapering body. Although the tail could be seen to be forked it did not open widely until the bird turned in flight. The chin, belly and under tail-coverts appeared to be pale, but the under wing-coverts seemed to be black with the remainder of the under- wing’ dark grey. Noticeable flight features were the short neck, small bill and long, pointed wings. Some of the observers likened the bird to a huge Hirundine. As it flew overhead it gave us good views in excellent light, but it did not stop and could not afterwards be located. The observers all considered the bird to be a Black-winged Pratincole (G. nordmanni), but it is appreciated that on such a view it is not always easy to differentiate between this and the Pratincole (G. pratincola). J. W. Donovan [We regret the delay in the publication of this note which originally prompted the preparation of P. J. Hayman’s short paper entitled “A note on field-identification of pratincoles” which appeared in 1956 ( ante a , vol. xlix, pp. 312-313, plate 44), and readers are asked to turn to that to see why we do not consider that this record can be assigned with certainty to either bird. The observers say that the under wing-coverts ‘‘seemed to be black”, but in flight overhead the undersides of the wings of G. pratincola look extremely dark, much more so than one might expect; and other points in the description fail to suggest the contrasting black- and-white appearance of G. nordmanni. The record of a Black- winged Pratincole in Somerset, however, which appears above, is entirely consistent with typical nordmanni. It should be added that intermediates do occur (see R. Meinertzhagen’s Birds of Arabia, p. 474) and, in fact, the Taxonomic Sub-Committee of the British Ornithologists’ Union now recommends (Ibis, vol. 98, p. 161) that “G. nordmanni be treated as a colour phase of G. pratincola, being more or less dominant in south-east Europe and south-west Asia. G. nordmanni has been found breeding in Iraq alongside G. pratincola, from which it differs nowise in either habit or migration”. — Ens.] VOL. Li] NOTES 121 Great Skua harrying Shelduck. — At 11.40 a.m. on 28th September 1957, in the estuary of the River Parrett, off Steart Point, Somerset, I had a Great Skua ( Stercorarius skua) under observation. The bird was recognized by its large size — almost as big as a Great Black-backed Gull {Lams marinus) — general dark brown plumage, white patch on wings at base of primaries, heavy thickset body and neck, and short tail. When first seen, it was chasing a party of Shelduck ( Tadorna tadorna ) over the water. These joined other Shelduck resting on the surface, at which the skua then flew towards one of the duck and dropped bodily on to it. The Shelduck immediately dived in a shower of spray and the skua alighted on the spot, keeping its wings half-extended for a few seconds before closing them. After remaining on the water for a short time, the skua then rose and flew towards the nearest Shelduck to repeat the process. In all, in about five minutes, this was done approximately ten times, in each case the duck promptly diving before actually being struck. After the last occasion the skua sat on the water and was watched for a further fifteen minutes as it drifted out with the tide and the river, beyond the end of Steart Point. R. Angles Black Terns feeding on mud-worms. — On 26th September 1957, and again on the 28th, at the estuary of the River Parrett, Somerset, Black Terns ( Chlidonias niger) were taking worms about inches long from the surfaces of mud-banks. There were 68 Black Terns present on the 26th (when I watched for two and a half hours) and 6 on the 28th : on each day most of them were actively engaged in feeding in this way. The method of flight was like the normal skimming action over water, the birds hover- ing above the mud and snatching up the worms without alighting. Sometimes a worm was dropped, but usually they were swallowed immediately. It should be added that the mud was very soft, having been covered during the morning by high spring tides, so much so that the various waders present were wading deep in it. Trevor Silcocks Apparent coition between House Martin and Sand Martin. — On 13th May 1955, at Chew Valley reservoir, Somerset, I had a party of approximately thirty Sand Martins ( Riparia riparia ) under observation for well over an hour. For the whole of this time, whether they were in flight or resting on the ground, they were accompanied by a single House Martin ( Delichon urbica). Other House Martins were flying up and down some distance away, but on no occasion was this bird seen to join them. After I had been watching for some little while, it became apparent that the House Martin was attempting coition with some of the Sand Martins feeding on the ground. When in flight it was trying to settle on their backs, or, if it was itself on the ground, it was making sudden lunges on birds near-by and then attempting to mount. 122 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Then once, after hovering just above a resting Sand Martin, it succeeded in settling on this bird’s back. Immediately the Sand Martin began quivering its wings and at the same time turned its head sideways and upwards during the few seconds when coition seemed to take place, while the House Martin retained its balance by a considerable amount of wing-flapping. Unfortunately, soon after this highly interesting performance, the whole flock flew off. Bernard King Hoarding of food by Willow Tit. — On 14th February 1957, a Willow Tit ( Parus atricapillus) arrived at a feeding bowl which is set up about 10 feet from our house at West Wickham, Kent. It was one of a pair which frequented a strip of woodland at the rear of the house. The feeding bowl is filled every morning with shelled peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) split into halves. That day 1 was surprised to see that after taking a peanut the Willow Tit was returning within a few seconds for another. Instead of eating them, it was hiding them in various parts of the garden and also of the neighbouring garden. All were hidden within 20 yards of the feeder and no attempt was made to eat any until the bowl was empty. Then the tit started to search out and feed on the hidden nuts. This became a daily occurrence in the six weeks that followed. Out of approximately 40-50 half-peanuts placed in the bowl each day, I estimated that some 15-20 were being removed and hidden by the Willow Tit. The other tits — Great Tit (P. major ) and Blue Tit (P. caeruleus), of which there were about 10 altogether — seldom used to obtain more than two half-peanuts each — House Sparrows ( Passer domesticus ) accounting for the remainder. On two occasions, however, a Blue Tit was seen to remove peanuts hidden by the Willow Tit, while the latter was still emptying the feeding bowl. The most common hiding-place was in the wire twists securing the chestnut palings of the garden fence, but other places were in crevices in the trunk of an oak tree and in the joints of some rustic trelliswork. The bird always seemed to experience some difficulty in locating the hidden peanuts, the paling fence being searched systematically each time it set out to recover them. On one occasion I found a peanut still wedged in the fence after the bird had left the garden and returned to the woodland. During the last few days of March, just before the bird ceased to visit the feeding bowl, the habit of hiding food appeared to lessen, until finally the tit was feeding normally from the bowl. It was also about this time that I came to the conclusion that two different Willow Tits were now taking food from the feeder, as at a range of 10 feet slight differences in plumage could be seen. 'Phis second bird was never seen to hide food. David Hart Hoarding of food by Coal Tit. — In the early part of October 1957, a Coal Tit ( Parus ater ) occasionally visited the feeding bowl VOL. Li] NOTES 123 in our garden at West Wickham, Kent, to eat peanuts ( Arachis hypogaea) (shelled and split into halves). Then on 22nd October it started to remove the peanuts and that day it hid 15 of them as follows : 1 in a clump of pinks 1 in a grass tuft 4 in various trees 5 in the soil 4 at ground level but precise place not seen I inspected the ground in which one had been concealed, expect- ing to find the peanut under a stone or lump of soil, but the earth was level and free of stones. A close examination of the top surface failed to reveal the peanut, and I eventually found it by scraping away about one-eighth of an inch of earth. The peanut had been pushed into the fairly loose soil with the bill. When the feeder was empty the bird started to search for the peanut which I had disturbed, but gave up and found one which it had hidden in a tuft of grass. Unfortunately I had to cease watching at this point. The following day it continued to hoard food, one peanut being- inserted between the incurving petals of a chrysanthemum flower (which was in full bloom) and “hammered” into position with the bill. This peanut and one which had been hidden in the soil were found to be missing the morning after that. On 5th November I refilled the feeding bowl as it became empty and a total of 64 peanuts were hidden in about half an hour, all within 30-40 yards of the feeder. After this, hoarding of food continued almost daily. On 19th January 1958, the Coal Tit spent 2 hours 55 minutes (with three rests of between 5 and 15 minutes) taking 109 peanuts from the feeder. Of these, 7 were eaten straight away and 102 were hidden, 10 of the latter being partly eaten. These 102 were concealed as follows : 9 in brussel tops 1 in grass tuft 4 in plants 1 in the soil 87 in hawthorn hedges or trees The bird then appeared to leave the area for that day and was not seen during the two hours remaining before nightfall. Occasionally, when the Coal Tit tried to hide food at ground level, the House Sparrows ( Passer domcsticus) followed it around until the bird was forced to take to the trees. Blue Tits (P. caenileus), Great Tits (P. major) and a Willow Tit (P. atricapillus ) were also seen to follow the Coal Tit when it was looking for a hiding-place. A Great Tit and a Blue Tit were both seen to find peanuts hidden by the Coal Tit. David Hart 124 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Abnormal Dipper breeding in North Wales. — A pair of Dippers ( Cinclus cinclus) nesting in the wooded valley of a Flintshire stream in 1957 consisted of a normal “chestnut belly” female and an abnormal “black belly” male. The black-brown and slaty plumage on the heads, backs and under-parts of these two birds was similar, thus ruling out the possibility of the male’s being a wander- ing C. c. hibernicus from Ireland or the Isle of Man, but his chestnut belly was reduced to a narrow, irregular, broken belt which we found extremely difficult to see even under quite favour- able conditions. With a frontal view, only slightly above horizontal, A. W. Boyd and W. Mulligan were unable to see it at all when they visited the nesting waterfall on 13th May. We examined skins at the British Museum in November. Judging only from memory of our male, the degenerate chestnut belt below his white breast roughly resembled two winter males of C. c. cinclus from Scandinavia (Nos. 98.10.2.270 and 98.10.2 273) and an undated female from Ayr, Scotland, labelled C. c. britannicus (No. 1925.5.14.16). Only about one mile of the stream concerned is accessible to us and this we have visited only irregularly, but as far back as 1953- 54 a “black belly” and a “chestnut belly” wintered there together. Neither was in first-winter plumage, so it seems possible that our “black belly” male is a resident and at least six years old (unless, of course, he passes on the abnormality to his progeny). We publish this note to point out the care needed in identifying a genuine Black-bellied Dipper ( C . c. cinclus). It is possible that further observations may show that this variant occurs elsewhere. L. S. V. and U. M. Venables Reed Warbler in Co. Down. — On 21st June 1956, we heard a Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus) singing in the reed beds of Ballyherly Lough, near Portaferry, Co. Down. C. D. Deane (Birds of Northern Ireland, 1954) gives only two reliable records of this species: one killed at Maidens Lighthouse off Co. Antrim on 26th May 1944 and a nest with eggs at Monlough, Co. Down, on 25th May 1935. L. S. V. and U. M. Venables [This and the following note together possibly suggest a slight tendency to an increase in range. — Eds.] Reed Warblers in Anglesey. — Vol. II (1938) of The Handbook does not include Anglesey in the range of Reed Warblers (Acroce- phalus scirpaceiis), but during recent years several have been heard singing there. On 12th July 1950 W.M. heard one in shore-marsh reed-beds on the north side of Trearddwr Bay and on 19th May 1957 L.S.V.V. heard two (possibly three) in the north-east reed-beds of Llyn Maelog, Rhosneigr. In this latter locality, too, Peter Wolstenholme heard one singing regularly during his visit from 5th to 10th June 1953. W. Mulligan and L. S. V. Venables VOL. LI J NOTES 125 [In his “List of birds seen in Anglesey and Caernarvonshire’’ ( North Western Naturalist, new series, vol. 2, pp. 604-618), which covers observations during the eight years up to 1954, P. E. S. Whalley says of the Reed Warbler: “Rare on passage in Anglesey, breeding is not proven. One bird seen in May at Malldraeth in 1951, but subsequent searching failed to find even the bird which must be regarded as a passage-migrant’’. — Eds.] Greenish Warbler in Kent. — On 17th September 1957, a first- winter Greenish Warbler ( Phylloscopus trochiloides) was trapped at Dungeness Bird Observatory, Kent, by Mr. and Mrs. N. Westwood, and brought to me. As they persuaded the bird across brambles into one of the Heligoland traps in the Moat, they were impressed by the paleness of the under-parts, contrasting with olive-green upper-parts, and by a long, whitish eye-stripe ; a short bar on the closed wing was seen through binoculars as the bird paused momentarily. In shape, there was no perceptible difference from a Chiffchaff ( lJh . collybita). No note was heard. A contrastingly lighter and brighter lower mandible was noticed when the warbler was in the catching-box. In the hand, a detailed examination was made and the bird was weighed and measured. The full description has been sent to the Editors of British Birds with this note and it seems necessary to give here only the most significant features. The upper-parts were olive-green, brighter than those of a freshly-moulted Willow Warbler ( Ph . trochilus). The short wing-bar was formed by yellowish-white tips to the outer webs of the first five greater coverts, the largest (central) tip being just over 2 mm.' deep. There was no suggestion of any pale tips to the median coverts, and it should be added here that I could find no trace of abrasion on any of the wing or tail feathers (see discussion in next paragraph). The generally very pale under-parts and the long stripe (actually yellowish-white) from the base of the upper mandible above and well beyond the eye have already been mentioned. The wing (flat) measured 58.5 mm. ; the 1st primary was 6 mm. longer than the primary coverts; the 4th primary was longest, with the 2nd 9 mm. shorter and falling between the 8th and 9th (this and .the small wing suggest that the bird was a female); the 3rd was 1 mm. shorter than the longest, and the 5th and 6th were 0.5 mm. and 2.0 mm. shorter respectively; the 3rd to 6th primaries were emarginated on the outer webs. Other measurements: bill (from skull), 12.5 mm. ; tail, 43.5 mm. ; tarsus, 18.5 mm. ; weight (when trapped at 16.00 G.M.T.), 7.4 gm. The upper mandible was dark brown and the lower a pale orange- brown, rather bright; iris very dark brown; tarsus grey-brown and soles of feet dirty greenish-yellow; inside mouth mainly yellow. In the field, when released, the bird lost much of the rather bright olive-green appearance it had had in the hand, but was still greener than a Chiffchaff or a Willow Warbler. It did not 126 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI appear grey, as K. Williamson has described some birds of the European and W. Asian form, Ph. t. viridanus (the only race so far recorded in the British Isles), e.g. antea, vol. xliv, pp. 120-12 1 (first-winter bird), and vol. xlix, pp. 42-43 (adult). C. B. Ticehurst, in his A Systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus (London, 1938), describes one of the E. Asian races, Ph. t. plumbeitarsus , as greener than viridanus and as having a nearly similar wing- formula, but it seemed that races other than viridanus must be ruled out on the combination of wing formula with the lack of any trace of a (second) wing-bar on the tips of the unabraded median coverts. H. G. Alexander (antea, vol. xlviii, pp. 294-295) refers to individuals of viridanus “with olive-brown or even almost olive-green mantle’’ and directs attention to “the great variety of this species’’. This is a first record for Kent. H. E. Axell Observations on a Com Bunting roost in reeds. — The roosting of Corn Buntings ( Emberiza calandra) in reed-beds in the North Kent marshes has been described by E. H. Gillham (antea, vol. xlii, p. 328). The following observations were made at another Corn Bunting roost in reeds, at Winnall, Hampshire, in the Itchen Valley. The roost was first noticed on 13th October 1956, and the same bed of reeds was used until the end of November; after that, the buntings roosted in another part of the valley. During the mornings and early afternoons of the period concerned small parties of Corn Buntings could be seen in the area, but not as many as appeared at the roost in the evening. This seemed to suggest that the birds were spending the day in the surrounding chalk-lands (mostly stubble and plough) and returning in the evenings to roost at Winnall. In the evenings, in fact, small parties of Corn Buntings could be seen flying in from the direction of the chalk-hills. The birds would start to arrive at the roost up to 45 minutes before sunset and small parties would continue to trickle in until just before sunset ; the typical flight- note was constantly uttered as they came. On arrival, they would perch in hawthorn and willow bushes around the reed-beds, some- times also on the branches of a dead oak. There most of them would remain, quite still, until the time came for them to enter the reeds, which was usually just before sunset; some, however, would perhaps make half-hearted attempts to preen themselves and small parties would occasionally take short flights over the surrounding marshes. Only occasionally would a bird go straight into the reeds without first stopping in the surrounding bushes. At times the numbers at the roost would rise up to about 80, but there were great fluctuations from day to day. I have three other records of a Corn Bunting roost in reeds: perhaps the habit is commoner than reports suggest. J. H. Taverner REVIEW THE MUTE SWAN IN ENGLAND. By N. F. Ticehurst. ( Clea-ver-Hume , London, 1957). 13 1 pages; 32 plates in black- and-white and two-colour line. 35s. The little we know of the past history of birds in Britain is derived from archaelogical research during prehistoric excavations, from mediaeval household accounts in which birds used for food are mentioned, from occasional references in early literature, many of which refer to falconry, and, in the 17th and 18th centuries, from the payments for “vermin” by churchwardens and petty constables. There is, however, one bird, the Mute Swan, with a long and detailed history, and to the study of this Dr. Ticehurst has devoted 30 years of intensive research. To begin with, he examines and successfully disproves the long- accepted belief that the Mute Swan is not an English indigenous bird. That all our swans are derived from introduced birds must indeed have been held in doubt for some time by anyone who has considered their abundance as a wild species in southern Sweden and other parts of Europe. As Dr. Ticehurst points out, the Grey Lag Goose — whose bones, with those of the Mute Swan, have been found in peat deposits in East Anglia — bred in England until the 18th century and has now been absorbed in our farmyard stock ; this provides an obviously parallel case. The fact that the Mute Swan occupied a unique position as a Royal bird, a dignity it attained at some time before 1186, makes it possible to follow its career through the centuries in a way impossible with any other species. We learn that the King exercised a right to grant permits to keep swans and to mark them so that ownership could be proved. One of the principal reasons for their semi-domestication and protection was their value for food, especially on great occasions and an indication of their number is shown by the quantity supplied at feasts — for example, 400 at the installation of the Archbishop of York in 1466. The laws for their protection, and the Courts of Swanmote to deal with these laws, are here given in detail. The Master of the Swans, a royal official, or his deputy, was evidently a man of some importance and his many duties were actively performed. A list of these worthies for many of the years between 1276 and 1799 has been compiled from various sources. Swan-rolls, 61 of which have been examined, contained the swan-marks used in each area; a “game” of swans was the group of swans in a given area, and their owner was rather delightfully known as a “gamester”. A discussion of these rolls leads to the examination of the actual swan-marks. Older readers of British Birds will remember Dr. Ticehurst’s interesting papers on this subject ( antea , vols. xvii, xix and xxii) and will be glad to have these and his other researches in permanent form. These swan-marks were made on the mandibles of the bill or on the leg and foot ; they were the absolute property of the owner and could be bequeathed, left by 127 128 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI will or sold; a history of a number of them is given. “Swan- upping”, when the birds are marked, is now practised only on the Thames, by the Royal Swanherd and those of two of the City Livery Companies, and, near Norwich, on the Rivers Yare and Wensum. Those with a regard for tradition and ancient custom must hope that it will long continue. This is not the place to write of all the details of marking so carefully recorded and portrayed, which form an important part of the book, but enough has been said to call attention to points of interest in a volume of genuine scholarship. Enquiry into the past history of others of our birds might well be the subject of research by some of our younger ornithologists with the prospect of 30 years before them. A.W.B. LETTERS INFORMATION WANTED ON LAPWING CHICKS Sirs, — From observations made over a number of years on the growth and development of young Lapwings ( Vanellus vanellus), it would appear that early hatching chicks develop more rapidly than later ones. This is not only a matter of general interest but of more particular interest in the case of the Lapwing since taking of its eggs is permitted until 15th April under the Bird Protection Act. If it can be shown that this is acting unfavourably on the species (the longer the fledging period the more likely the chick is to be taken by a predator), then weight is added to the case for amending the law concerning the Lapwing. To prove this point would require several more seasons’ observation, but with a little effort ringers could provide the necessary information in the course of one or two seasons. I should be grateful if you w'ould allow me to ask through your columns for ringers to obtain the following information on as many Lapwing chicks as possible in the 1958 breeding season: (1) Hatching date. (2) One measurement of the wing (longest primary) in millimetres together with the date of measurement. It is important that the hatching date is based on observation, not on guesswork. If the actual day is not determined, the last date on which eggs were seen and the first day on which young were seen should both be given, care being taken that these refer to the same birds. The wing should not be measured until the primaries are well clear (10 mm.) of the sheath. The age at which this occurs depends on the rate of development, varying from the 18th day in the case of a quick grower to the 34th day for a slow grower. The quick grower will probably not be catchable after the 32nd day ; the slowest grower may still be catchable up to the 48th day. This should allow two or three week-ends on which any particular bird can be measured, though in the case of a very slow developer found when too young it may ho necessary to catch it a second time a week or so later. It is necessary, of course, for VOL. Li] LETTERS 129 the chicks to be ringed in order that there is no doubt about the individual’s identity. From the data I already possess on the growth rates it will be possible to determine the development of these birds and see if a correlation exists between development rate and time of year. If anyone wishes more information or would like some hints on finding Lapwing chicks, would they please get in touch with me at 134, Thorntree Road, Thornaby-on-Tees, Yorkshire. P. A. Rayfield “SCIENCE AND THE BIRD-WATCHER’’ Sirs, — May I draw attention to one suggestion made by G. L. Scott and D. K. Ballance ( nntea , vol. l, pp. 398-399): that of a “British Bird Report’’ summarizing interesting occurrences in each county. Now that so many counties publish their own annual reports, many unusual records never reach the general bird-watch- ing public, because they are not rare enough for inclusion in British Birds as a separate notice, and because of the impractic- ability of buying all the reports issued. However, it is usual for the editor of a county report to print a summary of the year’s more interesting occurrences as part of his editorial. Surely these summaries could be reproduced, virtually verbatim, in British Birds; if small print were used, there would be a saving in space but no loss in legibility. The county reports themselves are published at any time of the year, so that two or three summaries each month as and when they were available would probably do the trick. A. M. Macfarlane Sirs, — Is there just a hint of sour grapes in the letter from G. L. Scott and D. K. Ballance on the above subject? Whether a paper is on parasites, sub-species, migration or what have you, provided the subject matter is appertaining to birds, either directly or indirectly, then without a doubt it has a place in British Birds. It does seem, however, a pity that three or more pages are sometimes taken up with references (e.g. at the end of “The ‘invasion’ type of bird migration”, antea, vol. L, pp. 340-343) when space is of primary importance. Would it not be possible to supply the references, to those interested, upon application? I must confess that a paper on the number of times the young of a species are fed by the parent bird in one particular nest, impresses me little, because it proves nothing beyond the available food supply in that specific district. Furthermore, for some time I have been of the opinion that many bird-watchers, particularly those who take up the hobby because it is now fashionable, become so bogged down with their graphs and statistics that they are blinded to the actual birds themselves. The mania for counting is an example. On several occasions I have been with other “watchers” who, when a flock of birds is sighted, have immediately commenced furious counting and 130 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI re-counting-, down to the very last bird, even when the numbers have run into several hundred. Interest in the behaviour of the birds has seemed of secondary importance. Surely this is a pity. Heaven forbid that British Birds should start publishing- articles of the “travelogue” type; these can be left to the popular press. G. L. Boyle REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION The 1957 irruptions of tits and other species. — The organisers report a good response to the earlier appeals ( antea , vol. l, pp. 495 and 542) for informa- tion about the movements of tits ( Parus spp). and other birds in the autumn of 1957. For England and Wales this has provided a reasonably full picture of the influx around the coasts, but a rather less complete one of movements and numbers inland. Much less information has been received for Scotland and Ireland, however, and reports (even if negative) of movements, numbers and behaviour from these two countries would be particularly welcome. In addition, details of any movements or changes in numbers during the winter, and of the periods during which paper-tearing, putty-pecking and similar activities were observed (giving first and last dates where possible) are required for the whole of the British Isles. Observations should be sent to Messrs. A. Pettet and J. T. R. Sharrock, Botany Department, University of Southampton. Gulls feeding on grain. — In the very dry harvest of 1955, gulls ( Larus spp.) made grain their staple diet in one locality in Pembrokeshire, and the tentative conclusion was reached that birds which normally foraged on agricultural land took grain because earthworms and insects were not available to them (antea, vol. xlix, pp. 400-404). This conclusion had some support from observations in 1956, a wet season, since gulls were only occasionally seen feeding in corn- fields, but in 1957, also a wet season, they continued to frequent some stubbles until they were ploughed in November. The conditions during harvest were such that much corn was over-ripe when cut and the grain shelled badly. It seems likely that the quantity available may influence the gulls’ choice of it as a food. According to Dr. F. Fraser Darling (1938, Bird Flocks and the Breeding Cycle), corn is also eaten by gulls when fields are sown, but no other reference to this in the literature comes to mind. We should be glad, therefore, if reports of gulls feeding in fields of ripe corn or stubbles and in newly sown fields could be sent to Mr. T. A. W. Davis, South Mullock, Haverfordwest, Pembs. Observations covering several years would be particularly welcome. Records should include information on the following points: (1) numbers and species involved; (2) whether distribution was widespread or confined to particular fields; (3) kind of grain; (4) whether or not there was proof that grain was being eaten; (5) harvest conditions; (6) when pellets are found at daytime or night roosts, an indication of the number or area involved, an estimate of the proportion of grain pellets, and the nature of other identifiable matter; (7) whether pellets are of whole undigested grain or of husks. The place of birds in English folklore.— An English Folklore Survey has been undertaken in the Department of English, University College, London, under the direction of Professor A. H. Smith, with the assistance of Mr. J. McN. Dodgson. A topic upon which the Survey is now planning to concentrate its attention is that of birds and their place in local livelihood and tradition. Specific points which are to be dealt with are the local, popular names of birds; proverbs, rhymes, etc., in which birds appear; the use of the bird or its egg for clothing, ornaments, cures, foods, etc.; birds figuring in popular belief about good and bad luck, omens, etc.; local beliefs about migration and the weather, and so forth. The Survey asks interested readers to write to J. McN. Dodgson, M.A., English Folklore Survey, Department of English, University College, Gower Street, London, W.C.r, for fuller details of the scheme. RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writer’s judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. Last month I suggested that there might be unusual numbers of Shags (Phalacrocorax aristotelis) inland. This conclusion seems to have been borne out in the period since then. The occurrence of 20-30 ‘‘Shags or Cormorants” — at least two of which, and probably all, were Shags — at Shillington in Bedford- shire, already described, was followed in the next three weeks by reports of 3 single birds, 3 together, 2, 6-7, 6 and 1 in Huntingdonshire; 6 or 7 single ones in Cambridgeshire; and 2-3, 1 and 1 in Buckinghamshire. Then, on 16th February, four Shags were found inside the huge cooling towers of Goldington Power Station, Bedford, and three days later, there were two in the similar towers at Little Barford Power Station, Huntingdonshire: like most, if not all, of the other Shags seen, these were immature birds; enquiries suggested that the four at Goldington had fallen into the towers from a large flock, between 30 and 40 strong, which had perched there. Soon afterwards, there were reports of 2 and 1 elsewhere in Bedfordshire and then, on 22nd February, a total of 24 Shags was reported flying north at Southill, Bedfordshire, towards the county town; by this time there were 3 at Cambridge. In addition to this remarkable concentration in Bedfordshire and the neighbouring counties, about 6 were reported in Essex, a total of 9 in Surrey, 7 dead together in Kent and a scattering in other counties from Wiltshire (apparently the first record for some 30 years) round to Norfolk and Lincolnshire; more than usual were also seen on the south-east coasts. Ringed Shags were recovered in Essex, Kent, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Norfolk and Lincolnshire, and these were all first-winter birds from the Fame Islands, the Bass Rock and the Isle of May. One or two ringed immatures from these areas are recovered inland each winter, but this year’s numbers seem quite abnormal and we should be grateful for any further reports which might help to throw light on the general picture. At the moment the evidence suggests that an unprecedented quantity of mainly immature Shags, from N.E. England and S.E. Scotland, have turned inland, probably at the Wash, and become disorientated. I am very grateful to Mrs. J. B. Cowdy and Messrs. D. K. Ballance, H. A. S. Key, Robert Spencer and C. F. Tebbutt, who between them have provided most of the information on which this paragraph is based. Another remarkable occurrence was the appearance near Waldringfield in Suffolk, probably on 9th or 10th January, of 5 Cranes ( Grus grus). It was not until three weeks later that they were seen by ornithologists and by that time there were only 4 (2 adults and 2 first-winter) which, however, remained in Suffolk until the end of February. It seems possible that these were the remnants of a party of 6 which spent from 17th November to 7th December at North Deighton, near Wetherby, Yorkshire — particularly as a sixth Crane was found in East Anglia on 20th February. Injured by wires at Earls Colne, Essex, this was handed to the R.S.P.C.A. and released on the 28th. If the assumption of one wintering group is correct, it is to be wondered where they were for the six weeks between their departure from the Yorkshire locality and their arrival in Suffolk. It should perhaps be remembered that the Crane was a regular winter-visitor to England for 100 years or more after it ceased to breed about 1600. The bulk of the rest of the interesting reports, as one might expect at this time of year, concern wildfowl and gulls. An adult male Lesser Scaup ( Aythya affinis) was reported from Barn Elms reservoir, Surrey, from 8th to 12th February and later (one assumes the same bird) from Richmond Park, Surrey, on the 16th. At this time the other reported Lesser Scaup was still present in Berkshire, as was the even more problematical bird in Gloucestershire (see antea , p. 40). It must be stressed that the identification of all these Lesser Scaups is still somewhat hypothetical and it is even possible that they may be hybrids between Scaup (A. marila ) and Tufted Duck (A. fuligtila). A Red-breasted Goose ( Branta ruftcollis) was identified near Amberly in Sussex, on 8th February, with a flock of 112 White-fronted Geese (Anser albifrons), and it remained there until the 15th. The first Lesser Whitefront (/I. crythopus) to be seen at Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, this year ( cj . autea, p. 84) — an adult — was reported on nth February, and the Kirkcudbrightshire one was seen again on 8th and 25th February. Also, a third — a first-winter bird — was identified in Norfolk on 19th January. This last was with 72 Bean Geese (/l. arvensis) and 5 Whitei'ronts at the locality where one was seen in 1956 (autea, vol. xlix, p. 228), a regular wintering area of Bean Geese. Bean Geese are not regular in Somerset, however, and so a report of two at Chew Valley reservoir, from 2nd February until at least the 9th, is noteworthy. There is one more goose report which should be mentioned here, as a continuation of a story which began a year ago : in February 1957 one bird among a flock of Dark-bellied Brent Geese (B. b. bernicla ) in Essex was identified as being of the distinctive western North American and east Siberian race (B. b. nigricans) — known as the Pacific Black Brant. This is an even darker-breasted, darker- backed form than bernicla, with an almost complete white collar. On 8th February this year what was presumably the same bird was reported again from the same place, again with Dark-bellied Brents. Enquiries have suggested little likelihood of escape from captivity. The subject of Long-tailed Ducks ( Clangula hyemalis) inland continues to crop up (cf. antea, p. 40 and 84) and to the instances already reported must be added the single birds seen in Kent and Buckinghamshire from 17th November in each case (the Kent bird staying until 1st December) and, most remarkable of all, a party of no less than 6 near Nottingham on 10th November; in addition, there were 3 on Lake Windermere, Westmorland, from 1 8th February until at least 1st March, where there had been 2 previously (see antea, p. 84). Thus we have a total of nine counties that have reported inland Long-tailed Ducks this winter: a proper summary will be’ published in a forthcoming issue. With reference to the enquiry into the status of the Red- crested Pochard (Netta rufina) (antea, vol. L, p. 543), it might be added that single ones have been reported from Lincolnshire (November), two localities in Sussex (December-February), Roxburgh (December) and Co. Meath (January); the last report from Abberton, Essex, this winter was of one on 22nd December. Ferruginous Ducks ( Aythya nyroca) are, it seems, less commonly kept in captivity at the present time than they were formerly, and so it is possible that a drake near Grantham, Lincolnshire, during 25th-27th December was a wild bird. Before leaving the subject of wildfowl, this is perhaps an opportune moment to give a warning concerning the North American Ruddy Duck ( Oxyura jamaicensis). This species has, so Mr. Peter Scott tells us, “Keen breeding extremely successfully at Slimbridge and it is often impossible to capture and pinion the young birds. As a result, a number have escaped and have been reported from various parts of the country. The adult male is very distinctive, but the females and juvenile males are very similar in general pattern to the corresponding plumages of the White-headed Duck (O. leucocephala) of southern Europe, which is, however, larger and has a swollen base to the bill: on at least three occasions this winter this similarity has caused users of the Field Guide to mistake Ruddy Ducks for White-headed Ducks. Adult Mediterranean Black-headed Gulls (Larus melanocephalus) have been reported from near Lowestoft, Suffolk, since 17th October, and from the Hove/Shoreham area, Sussex, since 5th February. Both were still present in mid-February. A second-winter Iceland Gull (L. glaucoides) has been seen regularly in the latter area since 24th January, the first winter record of this species in Sussex since 1931. The immature White-tailed Eagle ( Haliaetus albicilla), already referred to in this series (antea, pp. 40 and 84), was reported on several dates in February from various localities in Norfolk, most recently from Cley on 4th March. There were also reports of what may prove to be a White-tailed Eagle (? the same) from three places in Suffolk in January and February. Passerines have been little in the news, though small parties of Waxwings (Bnmby cilia garrulus) continue to be reported from various parts of the country and quite a number seem to have reached Ireland, where Mr. G. R. Humphreys tells us that he has had reports from Cos. Dublin, Down, Kilkenny, Sligo, Tyrone and Wexford. A Firecrest (Regulus ignicapillus) was identified near Aymestrey, Herefordshire, on 16th February, in which part of the country this species is very seldom recorded. Finally, three reports from the Kent and Norfolk coasts, and possibly also from Hno4p.shir/e« suggest that there was an interesting influx of Stonechats ( Saxitola ? t dr qua l a), particularly cocks, in S.E. England on 16th February: further information would be useful. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and Western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, Papers and Notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing jgood contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted . are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of Papers jare sent free to authors ; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which 5 saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations: 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the ■ sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and vwith similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. .2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one Note is submitted, teach should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of Papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the i ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e.g. Siberian Thrush, Yellow-headed Wagtail), but group terms should not (e.g. thrushes, wagtails). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds, with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1953 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “ xst January 1955 ” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “ 1st Jan.”, “ Jan. 1st ”, or even “ Jan. 1 ”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form : Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 129-134. Witherby, H. F. (1894): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. The title and any headings within the Table should not be underlined, because this sometimes makes it difficult for the Editor to indicate the type to be used. It is most important that the lay- out of each Table should be carefully planned with an eye to its final appearance; above all, it should be borne in mind that Tables must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All Tables should be self-explanatory. 5. Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality drawing paper (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on graph paper, but this must be light blue or very pale grey. It is best if maps, graphs, etc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for the normal 4" width the original should be 8" wide) ; sketches of birds, however, should be only slightly larger than the size at which it is intended they should appear. It is always most important to consider how each drawing will fit into the page. The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted. Captured German LEITZ (of Leica fame) 1 0 X 50 Eyepiece Focusing BINOCULARS Stores EX-ADMIRALTY ROSS 16 X 40 SINGLE DRAW TELESCOPE (Micrometer Focusing) The Ross telescope is famous throughout the world and this model, produced to exacting Admiralty standards, combines an extremely high light transmission with a wide field of view. Length closed 11", fully extended 17i". Focusing is achieved by specially quick micrometer system. Of all the Admiralty scopes this is the lightest, being only 28 ozs. in weight. These telescopes are rr iq z offered at well under half cost price. Almost mint •10.0 condition. * postage 2/6 The ideal glass for the BIRDWATCHER An extremely well made instrument combining high mag- nification with good light transmission. Weight 2 lbs. Current cost approx. £60. Excellent condition, with leather case £26 We have specialised in fine quality binoculars and optical equipment for half a century and carry Europe's greatest stocks of ex-Govt. binoculars. Every purchase is covered by our money -back guarantee, and if requested, will be sent on 7 days free approval, Credit terms available if desired. GERMAN ARMY BINOCULARS 6X30 Best makes. Eyepiece focus- ing. Weight only 14 ozs. Shock- and water-proofed. With all-weather case. Fraction of cost £7 15s. Od. to £10 15s. Od. CHARLES 67-73 SALTMARKET, Telephone : BELL 2106-7 FRANK GLASGOW, C.l. Established 1907 Printed in Gt. Britain by W itiierby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H. F. & G. W1THERBY, LTD., 5, VVarwick Court, W.C. i. BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents ok Volume LI, Number 4, April 1958 Page Telescopes and binoculars: some recent improvements in design and their value for bird-watching. By E. M. Nicholson. Sketches by Robert Gillmor ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 133 Observations on the feeding of the Oystercatcher in captivity. By R. E. Drinnan ... 139 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. LXXXV1I — Scops Owl. Photographed by K. Koffdn (plates 25-28). Text by I. J. Ferguson-Lees 149 Waders at ocean weather-ships in 1956. By Ivor McLean and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15- Notes: — Fish-hook in Heron’s pellet (Eric Hosking) ... ... ... ... 156 Merlins at sea (Ivor McLean and Kenneth Williamson) ... ... ... 157 Variant leg and bill colour of the Moorhen (Bryan L. Sage) 158 White-winged Black Tern in Lincolnshire (D. G. II. West and P. B. Haywood) 159 Wing-winged Black Tern in Kent (Rev. A. C. Cawston) ... ... 160 White-winged Black Tern in Sussex (Gerald A. Sutton) 160 The song-period of the Woodpigeon in Flintshire (L. S. V. Venables and U. M. Venables) ... ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 160 Letters : — Flatflies wanted (D. S. Hill) ... ... ... ... ... ... 161 “Information wanted on Lapwing chicks” ... ... ... ... 161 Requests for Information: — The 1957 irruptions of tits and other species: interim report (S. Cramp, A. Pettet and J. T. R. Sharrock) ... ... ... ... ... ... 162 Field investigations of the B.T.O. 163 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees 164 Cover photograph by G. K. Yeates: male Snow Bunting ( Plectrophenax nivalis) Vol. LI No. 4 APRIL *958 BRITISH BIRDS TELESCOPES AND BINOCULARS : SOME RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN DESIGN AND THEIR VALUE FOR BIRD- WATCHING By E. M. Nicholson Field-ornithology owes much to modern optical aids, but until very lately the improvement has been concentrated almost entirely on binoculars. Telescope-makers appeared to cling to the belief that what was good enough for Nelson was quite good enough for them. As recently as 1950, in writing the original edition of the British Trust for Ornithology’s Field Guide “How to Choose and Use Field-Glasses’’, the present writer felt compelled to observe : “It is evident to anyone who glances at a party of ornithologists trying to use telescopes on a mud-flat that sooner or later either the telescope or the bird-watcher will have to be entirely redesigned. The former would be more convenient”. With a single partial exception, these words have so far fallen on deaf ears in Great Britain. Optical manufacturers in Switzer- land, Germany, the United States and elsewhere are, however, now producing instruments of really modern design and performance which are, in some cases, obtainable in this country. I have used one of these telescopes for nearly a year and have tried four other makes. These tentative notes are offered as a stimulus to further discussion and experiment about the best optical equipment for modern field observation. Bird-wa tellers seek a strong and light instrument to show them the distant bird as if it were close and the dim feature as if it were clear. They want to be able to watch birds far enough away to identify and study them without disturbing them ; also to save time and mileage by examining them at a distance across open country or water, especially where access is difficult. 133 134 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Modern general-purpose binoculars, magnifying 6 to 9 times are unmatched as basic equipment. They normally weigh only about 14-21 oz., and can be carried and used all day without fatigue or eyestrain. They can be quickly aimed and focussed and steadily held on fast-moving targets by a reasonably practised observer. Their fields of view at 1,000 yards are normally from about 120 to 160 yards across, permitting simultaneous watching of scattered flocks in the air or on the water. At closer range they allow tits and warblers to be spotted as they move about in foliage. Their exit pupils of some 3.8-5 mm. transmit most of the light which the average bird-watcher can use. The better instruments give remarkably qlear definition and resolution of detail, although colours are naturally not well distinguished in the poorer lights. The stereoscopic image is also helpful. With all these merits a good general-purpose binocular costs much the same initially as a good camera, but, unlike a camera, costs nothing to use almost indefinitely. Yet the exacting requirements of many observers are not fully met by such binoculars. This is proved by the numbers of higher- powered and heavier instruments in use. The binocular-makers have shown much enterprise in designing glasses giving xo x , 12 x , and even 15 x , 16 x , and 18 x . Yet these relatively modest increases in magnification have been achieved at a heavy cost, not only in additional price but in reduced performance and convenience in almost every other respect. Weights are normally increased to between 30 and 50 oz., which makes them equivalent to carrying a hen Pheasant slung from the neck. Fields of view shrink to maxima of around 120 and minima of less than 70 yards at 1,000. Exit pupils are maintained at around 4 mm. only by massive increase in bulk, not only of the instrument but of its carrying case, which alone may add as much weight as a light general- purpose glass complete with case. Though fit and strong-armed observers may find such cumber- some and specialized binoculars worth while, they have two draw- backs which are beyond argument. Almost all of them have magnifications below 20 x , yet it is in the range between 20 x and 30 x , rather than between 10 x and 20 x , that the field observer’s requirements for higher power begin to be fully satisfied. The second drawback is the difficulty, for all but the most exceptional user, of avoiding the sacrifice, through wobble, of most of the advantage of powers above 9 x , in instruments which do not lend themselves to convenient use with a stand. This can be mitigated, in some circumstances only, by lying flat or resting the elbows on a wall or post. It is here that the new redesigned telescopes score. Their magnifications are similar to those of traditional models, ranging from a fixed 20 x to variable ranges of 20-40 x or 25-50 x . They are, however, much lighter and more compact. Whereas weights of 50-90 oz. and extended lengths of about 30-42 inches presented vol. li] TELESCOPES AND BINOCULARS 135 the user of the more powerful traditional telescopes with the problem of looking through something roughly the length and weight of a Cormorant, modern designs achieve powers of 20- 50 x at weights of 10-24 oz. and with fully extended lengths from as little as 8^ to no more than 24 inches. This is roughly the same weight range as that of the light-weight general-purpose binoculars, which means that both carried together are still lighter than most binoculars of 10 x or over. Built-in bushes are provided for use with a stand if desired. Coated lenses, and in some cases prismatic construction, give a much brighter image and better definition than the old-fashioned telescope. Object-glass diameters are normally between 40 mm. and 60 mm. The exit pupils are thus inevitably in the low range 1-3 mm., according to design and power used, but it is only in really poor lights that lack of illumination is a serious handicap, and recourse to lower-powered binoculars becomes preferable. The other main and inherent draw- back of the modern telescope is, of course, the narrow field of view, ranging from about 50 yards at 1,000 yards (or more often 20-35 yards) at lower powers to as little as 1 1 yards for a magnifi- cation of 50 x . The prices of these telescopes are no more than, and usually well below, those of new general-purpose binoculars by first-class makers, three at least being under £28, and there- fore roughly comparable with conventional telescopes of similar magnification ranges and exit pupils. In most outdoor activities, from motoring to photography, a choice has to be faced between all-round and specialized equip- ment. The urge to try and combine both is universal, but, how- ever ingenious the designs, there comes a point where satisfaction of the basic simple requirement is endangered by the effort to meet more advanced or specialized needs. In binoculars it seems that this dilemma arises when the magnification is raised above gx and the object-glass above 40 mm., or thereabouts. From then on, bulk and weight and price rise more steeply, while handiness, light transmission and field of view dwindle. Faced with the discouraging alternative of conventional telescopes it seemed worth endeavouring to extract even a little more power from binoculars. Given the new alternative of the redesigned telescope the balance has tipped over. Where differing require- ments and personal idiosyncracies count for so much it is unsafe to say more than that those who are contemplating the purchase of expensive binoculars of 10 x or above would be well advised to look first at the alternatives. The new telescopes have largely triumphed over the old dis- advantages of excessive weight and length, indistinctness of image, difficulty of focussing and unduly poor illumination. They still suffer from narrowness of field and lack of stereoscopic power. Some of them have the unexpected advantage of allowing focus down to ranges of as little as five or ten yards, which can be useful for such purposes as reading ring numbers at bird-tables 136 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI or inspecting" nests on cliff-ledges, the magnification at such distances giving an image larger than life-size. It is not, therefore, for distant work only that such powerful instruments can be invaluable. Much natural and spontaneous bird behaviour is lost to the normal observer who has to move up in full view close enough to see details through binoculars. Use of a hide or careful stalking can, of course, overcome this inhibiting effect on the birds, but only at the cost of losing much that goes on at a distance. Detailed behaviour, such as feeding and display, and finer points of plumage or soft parts can often be studied with ease by telescope but with difficulty, if at all, by other means. For longer ranges the telescope has not only the well-known advantages of permitting distant identification and counting, but the less obvious one of quickly eliminating a number of doubtful or problem objects which would otherwise take time that could be spent on more interesting observations. As already stated, the new telescopes are either of fixed power, usually 20 x , or variable with a range from 20 x or 25 x to 40 x or 50 x . In British conditions the most useful powers are 20 x , 25 x and 30 x . Occasions when there is real advantage in going above 35 x are in most places so rare as to be negligible. Above that power not only is even slight vibration troublesome, but any shimmer in the air can make it almost opaque, especially when the sight-line passes low over water or marshy ground. Looking from mountain-top to mountain-top in clear air downsun, or examining prey in an inaccessible eyrie at fairly close range are examples of the rather rare conditions when 40 x or 50 x are of unquestionable value. The depth of focus, however, becomes extremely shallow at such powers, and the angle of view restricted. Normal practice should be to keep the instrument at its lowest magnification unless and until a subject calling for higher magnification is in view. While low-powered binoculars are nearly fool-proof, telescopes, being specialized and powerful instruments, cannot be satisfactorily used without first taking trouble to learn how. Although in fair conditions the modern light telescopes can be used in the hand at 20 x or 25 x , a stand or support is strongly to be recommended for better resolution of detail. Even with binoculars most observers lose much more than they imagine through shake, as can easily be proved by looking at the same object first without using a support and then with the binoculars resting on some fixed base, such as a post. Some observers favour a short bipod or tripod to hold the instrument at a height of about 16 inches for use in lying position, suitable for long-range stalking. Others, especially in America where spotting telescopes are in widespread use, favour an ultra- light tripod with collapsible or non-collapsible legs up to some 60 inches long, and a ball-and-socket to adjust the angle of view in any plane or direction. It is impracticable to discuss here all the pros and cons of different types of tripod, but the reader should VOL. Ll] TELESCOPES AND BINOCULARS 137 be warned that careful selection is necessary since many of those on sale are either uncomfortably heavy to carry or, if light, are insufficiently rigid ; others are very vulnerable to rust damage after wetting unless immediately greased. Here again it is regrettable to have to record that both American and Continental designers seem to have met the need better. The problem may arise of fitting an English to a Continental thread ; adapters for this are easily obtainable. For those who find a tripod too cumbersome, an ingenious alternative now available is the NS Unipod, a telescopic tubular stand. This weighs only 14 oz. and when closed makes a good light walking-stick adjustable to any length ; when fully opened it gives a remarkably firm and rigid 64-inch-high stand with a 2-inch platform on which either a telescope or camera can quickly be screwed in place of the round handle. If correctly held (see Fig. 1), with one hand above the middle of the telescope and the other as far as is convenient down the stand, it is practically as steady as a normal tripod ; Fig. 2 illustrates a more obvious but more shaky hold, with one hand unnecessarily gripping the eyepiece, which is already sufficiently steadied against the brow. It is most important to learn the most comfortable and steadiest hold for a telescope. When closed (see Fig. 3) the Unipod enables the telescope to be held more steadily with the two hands well apart in an easy position, and in this way birds such as crows and gulls can be followed in flight, although faster and more erratic fliers such as ducks are difficult. Some telescopes are calibrated on the barrel to show correct positions for infinity focus at each magnification. Where there are two draws, the first should always be fully opened, the second (bearing the eyepiece) being adjusted with a spiral motion — towards the eye for nearer subjects and away from it for more distant ones— until sharp focus is reached. A straight pull often overshoots the correct position. Approximately correct fbcus must precede target-finding, and unless the target is large or readily distinguishable it saves time to focus first on a shore-line, building, flock of birds or other larger object at about the same distance. Although seeing things through one eye at least twenty times larger than the other may look odd, it can be helpful to keep the spare eye open at first, to check that direction is correct. It perhaps needs to be added that some people see nothing at all as a result of jamming the telescope right into the eve; the correct distance is about that of spectacles, which indeed need not be removed unless they are admitting too much unwanted light from the side. These notes are simply pointers to help those who have to familiarize themselves with ways of getting from modern telescopes the excellent results which they can yield onlv if nroperlv handled. Ciood as they are for many purposes, they are of course quite un- C3 -O ~ O O - a j C C3 ' O ^ > O' c/j — ? c A r : ~ oo « M _ si: = J W ° rt E cj 'U r-> ^ p C c/: 5 z ego; ttfc: — o ^ a. x r. : x: ^ «} . ■a sx.h: ;r jq — S 5 2 '*- O T3 Ofl tuo 0/ ‘u vol. li] TELESCOPES AND BINOCULARS 139 suitable for such uses as watching small restless birds in dense cover, or keeping a look-out for something flying over. They do, however, enable a really light handy binocular to be used as the everyday first-line instrument with the confidence that when much higher powers are needed they can quickly be substituted if one is carrying a light modern telescope as supplementary equipment; and the total weight, of binoculars, telescope and stand can be kept to below 5 lbs. No doubt a number of new designs will be produced, and it is to be hoped that British manufacturers of telescopes and stands will soon be offering a satisfactory range, able to compete with those now being imported here and with others not at present obtainable in this country. In present circumstances it would be difficult and invidious to give a list of models on the market, with their specifications and prices, but all the necessary data for making a personal selection have been given above. There is not room to name here the many whom I have to thank for suggestions and advice about the preparation of this brief review, but I cannot refrain from acknowledging specially the expert help of Mr. J. R. Hebditch, who was good enough to take over from me the responsibility for the revised edition of the British Trust for Ornithology’s Field Guide “How to Choose and Use Field-Glasses”. Any comments, criticisms and suggestions received will be passed on to him and I hope that they may in due course be embodied, for the general benefit of bird-watchers, in a further revised edition of that Field Guide which, I understand, is likely to be produced within about a year. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FEEDING OF THE OYSTERCATCHER IN CAPTIVITY By R. E. Dr inn an ( Fisheries Experiment Station, Conway) Estimates of the food intake of the Oystercatcher ( Haematopus ostralegus) have been made in the field in the past three years (Drinnan, 1956, 1957). These have yielded results consistently higher than food intakes reported in the literature from both field and laboratory studies. A possible source of error in our calcula- tions was the assumption that feeding continued at night at the same rate as observed in daylight. For this reason a study of the food intake of captive birds was initiated at the Fisheries Experiment Station at Conway, Caernarvonshire. METHODS The birds used were selected from a wild stock netted for ringing. Immediately after capture they were closely examined for any damage and put into cages of stout wire mesh, 40 x 20 x 140 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI 2oin. These cages were housed in a naturally illuminated laboratory cellar. Mussels ( My til its edulis) were provided on a tray of sand or gravel on the floor of the cage. The bottom of the cage was of the same material, stout wire of iin. mesh, as the sides and top. Periodically the cages were inspected, and any opened and cleaned mussels were removed, measured and counted. Every day the cages were scrubbed with disinfectant and fresh absorptive material was placed beneath them. All the mussels fed to the birds in the experiments described were from the same population. A sample of 200 of these mussels, in groups of ten at one millimetre length intervals, was used to obtain a relation between length of shell and volume of contained meat. The meat of these was removed, dried on a cloth and measured by displacement of water. From the resulting graph mean values of meat for each millimetre length-group were obtained, and these were used to calculate the meat volume of the mussels eaten by the birds. In the measurement of eaten mussels any which had been so damaged by the birds that measurement was impossible were added to the mean size-group. Additional observations were made on an Oystercatcher at Sea- houses, Northumberland. The food of this bird was limpets (Patella): it had been picked up with a damaged wing a year earlier, and was allowed the freedom of a small walled garden, predominantly of grass. Limpets and trays of freshwater were always available. At the beginning of the period of observation all the open limpet shells were removed from the enclosure and all shells cleaned subsequently were removed at 24-hour intervals. The individual meat volume of limpets was related to shell length for a sample of the limpets fed to the bird. RESULTS (a) Conway Food intake. The feeding experiments at Conway were designed to serve a dual purpose. Together with the measurement of the food intake of the birds a preliminary investigation was made of food preferences. The weight of the birds often showed marked fluctuations with different foods. For this reason the data used here in the estimation of food intake are those obtained from two birds which were under observation for a period of six days in December 1956, during which their weights were approximately constant on a diet of mussels from a standard population. The observations on these birds, coded B and W/B, were started one week after they were brought into the laboratory. In this period they had regained an initial loss in weight (which was normal for birds brought into the laboratory) and were feeding well, though still very sensitive to human interference. In Table I and Fig. 1 the food intakes and weights of the two birds for vol. li] FOOD INTAKE OF OYSTERCATCHERS 141 Fig. i — Daily food intake, and corresponding weights, of two captive Oystercatchers ( Hacmatopus ostralegus) : 18TII-23RD December 1956 The two birds were coded B and VV/B (see page 000 and Table I); and here B is indicated by the cross, W/B by the dot and circle. The food was mussel meat ( Mytilus ), and the intake is expressed in millilitres (= cubic centimetres) per 24 hours. the period i8th-23rd December 1956 are shown. Large fluctua- tions occurred in the daily food intakes of both birds and these cannot be explained. Attempts were made to standardize the period of human interference necessary when weighing or feeding as the effect of any intrusion was marked. It is unlikely that this interference had any importance as the most marked varia- tions occurred on days when the laboratory was empty. It is interesting to note that the birds showed very similar fluctuations ; 142 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI W/B ate more than B on every day except the first day of observation. Other consistent differences will be noted later. Table I— Feeding rates of two Oystercatcheks (Haemntopus ostralegus) in the Fisheries Experiment Station Laboratory at Conway, Caernarvonshire The two birds were coded B and W/B. In each case the total daily intake of 'food is expressed in millilitres (= cubic centimetres) per 24 hours; and, in addition, the average intake per hour, in millilitres, is given for the two periods dawn to dusk and dusk to dawn. The birds were weighed (in the afternoon) on several days during the experimental periods and these figures are included in the last column. Date Day Night 1T1I./24 hr. ml. /hr. ml. /hr. Wt. of bird (gm.) B 18 Dec. 1956 254 22.0 6.7 440 19 .. 259 I4.O 9.8 20 ,, 244 12.6 9.4 21 ,, ,, 190 17.1 5-i 468 2 2 ,, 289 23 .. 190 448 Mean 237.6 16.5 7.7 (46.6% day) W/B 18 Dec. 1956 217 >9-5 5-6 468 * 9 > » i > 284 15.6 10.6 20 ,, 285 15.0 10.8 21 ,, >95 13.0 6-5 492 22 ,, 3r7 23 »> >> 246 457 Mean 257-3 ,5.8 8-4 (53-i% day) 27 Dec. 1956 398 28 „ 394 22-9 13.8 (60.3% day) 443 29 >. .. 293 3° .. .. 327 421 31 .. 439 495 1 Jan. 1957 342 465 The birds were weighed three times during the experimental period. The variations in weight are believed to have resulted largely from differences in the gut contents of the birds when weighed. Though the weighings were standardized in so far as they were made when the birds were fed in the afternoon, there was no guarantee that the birds showed consistency in their feed- ing habits before weighing. (Other Oystercatchers weighed after being deprived of food for two hours showed a drop in weight of 20-30 gm., equivalent to the variation in the weights of the experimental birds.) W/B was consistently heavier than B. If the mean food intake per 24 hours is divided by the mean weight the results show good agreement. B £37 45 1 0.525 ml./gm./24 hr. W/B 257 472 0.544 ml./gm./24 hr. vol. li] FOOD INTAKE OF OYSTERCATCHERS 143 Effect of loss of weight on food intake. After the experimental period of six days the birds were given other foods. This resulted in a big weight loss. On 27th December W/B weighed only 298 gm. and was returned to its former mussel diet. In the next five days (Fig. 2), the bird regained its former weight; food intake showed a great increase over the period i8th-23rd December, reaching a maximum of 439 millilitres (= cubic centimetres) per 24 hours on the 31st December. Comparison of day and night feeding. For the first four days of the period i8th-23rd December, the food intake was measured (Table I) for the two periods dawn to dusk and dusk to dawn. In the dark both birds ate at approxi- mately half the rate of daylight hours. On 28th December the food intake of W/B was again split into the two periods (Table I) and showed the same relationship between day and night feed- ing. However, though the rate of feeding in darkness on 28th December was still only 60% of that by day, it was almost equal to the rate of feeding by day in the period i8th-22nd December. During the period i8th-23rd December the moon was waning from a full moon on the 17th, but the cellar where the birds were housed was in almost total darkness. On the 28th, four days after the last quarter, the moon rose at 05.30 hours so the birds were in complete darkness. Food and feeding behaviour. The mussel population on which the birds fed ranged from 30 to 50 mm. in length. The size-distribution of the opened shells showed no selection within this size range. The method of opening the shells was difficult to observe directly owing to the extreme sensitivity of the birds. Mussels opened on the trays were attacked ventrally, the typical approach in the field (Drinnan, 1958). Orientation in this position, with the ventral edge of the shell uppermost, was difficult on the cage floor, especially with the larger mussels. The most stable position, which allowed access to the valve edges, was with the anterior of the shell wedged in the mesh of the cage floor. Most of the shells opened on the cage floor were opened in this position, access being gained through the posterior border. (b) Seahouses Food intake. Three collections of emptied limpet shells were made at 24-hour intervals on 3rd, 4th and 5th April 1957, and a final collection soon after dawn on the 6th. The three 24-hour periods gave results of 321, 271 and 180 millilitres (= cubic centimetres) of meat eaten with a mean of 10.7 millilitres per hour. The feeding rate in darkness on 5th/6th April, when the moon was approaching the first quarter, gave an average of 5.1 millilitres per hour, i.e. about one third of the daytime rate. 144 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI DEC. 1956 Fig. 2 — Daily food intake, and corresponding weight, of a captive Oystercatciier (Haematopus ostralegus) : 28tii December 1956-iST January 1057 The food was mussel meat (Mytilus), and the intake is expressed in millilitres ( — cubic centimetres) per 24 hours. This is the bird coded W/B (see Fig. 1), and this figure illustrates the bird’s greatly increased food intake, with its return to its former weight, after an experimental period on other foods (see page 143). VOL. li] FOOD intake of oystercatchers 145 The weight of the bird is unknown ; it is assumed that, as it had been in captivity in the same conditions for a year, its weight was constant during the observations. Food and feeding behaviour. The limpets offered were collected at random by chipping from rocks and were offered whole to the bird. They ranged in size from 20 to 50 mm. (greatest diameter of shell opening). The samples of shells cleared by the bird showed no selection within this size range. Dewar (1913) describes the feeding of the Oystercatcher on the limpet. The birds were observed by him to feed on limpets of lengths between 13 and 45 mm. The animals were detached from the rock by a sharp blow laterally, and carried to a crevice in the rock or to sand, where the attachments of the animal to the shell were severed and the meat swallowed. At Seahouses the bird was well accustomed to observation and a close approach was easily accomplished. It took shells either from the heap provided or from the hand and carried them to a patch of soil or grass or a pan of fresh water. Each shell was placed in position by the bill, ventral side uppermost, and the muscle attachments of the animal to the shell were severed by a series of bill thrusts round the edge of the shell. The meat was removed and frequently washed before swallowing. DISCUSSION Table II shows a summary of food intakes from field and laboratory studies. In all cases the estimates made in the field exceed those made in the laboratory. Colquhoun (1951), discuss- ing the food intake of captive Woodpigeons ( Columba palumbns ), says that “the food requirements can hardly be similar to those of a bird which has been seen (from a following car) to fly at least forty miles to roost at night”. No data are available on the effect of activity on the food requirements of such a bird, but the importance of this factor is, of course, well documented in Man. Certainly the difference in activity between captive and wild birds is marked. In the wild, in general, birds spend the major part of the day feeding, after a vigorous activity, and the distances covered in flight are often great. In the cages at Conway and at Seahouses, when an observer was not visible, the birds spent a great deal of time standing still, though they occasionally showed bursts of activity, running up and down their enclosure. The importance of activity is still unmeasured. The analysis of gut contents allows an assessment of food intake if certain conditions are fulfilled. Colquhoun (1951), for the Woodpigeon, concluded that little insight into food intake can be gained from gut contents as the birds feed irregularly and gut contents are very variable. In most of the field studies on the Ovstercatcher the birds showed a steady feeding rate through- out their tidal feeding period and, assuming that food has a BRITISH BIRDS 146 [VOL. LI Table II — Estimated daily food intake of Oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegus) in the field and in the laboratory The foods studied include mussels ( Mytilus ), cockles ( Cardium ) and limpets (Patella). In each study the estimated average volume of meat eaten is expressed in millilitres ( = cubic centimetres) per 24 hours. Area Food Meat vol. mL/24 hr. Source Field Morfa, Conway Mytilus 389 Drinnan (1958) Pensarn, Conway Oct.-March 1955-56 J * 450 1 » Morecambe Bay,} Jan. 1954 Cardium 292 Drinnan (1957) ♦ * Lancashire j Oct. 1954 > ♦ 375 Brancaster, March Norfolk 1954 » » 389 1 » Hoylake, March Cheshire 1956 » » 389-485 Drinnan Mean 395 (unpublished) Laboratory Conway W/B l see B \ Table I Seahouses, Northumberland Mytilus 275 237 Patella 257 Mean 250 constant time of passage through the oesophagus and gizzard, an estimate of feeding rate may be obtained. An estimate of this time can be made from the gut contents of birds examined feeding on cockles (Cardium). Oystercatchers coming up to the high water roost in Morecambe Bay (Drinnan, 1957) contained from 47 to 65 (mean 50) millilitres of cockle meats in their oesophagi and gizzards, whereas two hours later they were empty. So we obtain a maximum of two hours for the passage through the oesophagus and crop of 50 millilitres of food. In Table III are shown the estimated food intakes in millilitres Table III — Estimated hourly food intake of Oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegus) in the field These estimates are from birds showing a steady feeding rate through the tidal feeding period. The intake is expressed in millilitres (= cubic centimetres) per hour. Area Food intake ml. /h It*. Comments Brancaster, Norfolk 58.8 2x2 hr. feeding periods per tide. Morecambe Bay, Lancs. ) Jan. 1954 20-9 ) Oct. 1954 25-9 ) Conwav, Caerns. ) Average of whole of Morfa 28.7 ) tidal feeding period. Pensarn 25-9 ) Hoylake, Cheshire 25-26 ) vol. li] FOOD INTAKE OF OYSTERCATCHERS 147 per hour from Oystercatchers showing a steady feeding rate through the tidal feeding period. They range from 20-28 ml. /hr. with a mean of 25.5 ml. /hr. On the basis of a two-hour period to empty the oesophagus and gizzard, we should expect to find the result of two hours feeding in the gut contents of birds. In October 1954 when the birds whose gut contents are described above were shot, the average feeding rate was 26 ml. /hr. The average content of oesophagus and gizzard was 50 ml. The greatest volume of food found in the oesophagus and gizzard of an Oystercatcher in October 1954 was 65 ml. In this bird the oesophagus and gizzard seemed to be completely full, though Colquhoun (1951) mentions a pigeon, with a highly developed crop for storage, containing 280 ml. of food. If we assume 65 ml. to represent a full oesophagus and gizzard in an Oystercatcher, then the observed alternation of feeding and rest periods (Drinnan, 1957, 1958), with a consistent average food intake of approximately half the volume of crop and gizzard per hour, suggest that the birds were eating to capacity. In December 1956 eight birds were netted in Morecambe Bay, on a night with no moon, three hours after darkness, at a time when cockles were still uncovered and feeding- was possible. The contents of their oesophagi and gizzards were 19, 18, 21, 22, 21.5, 31.5, 24.5, 22 ml. respectively, with a mean of 22.4 ml. If we assume that the birds had been feeding immediately before being caught, then, if the contents of oesophagus and gizzard represent two hours feeding, the birds had been feeding in the dark at a rate of 11.2 ml. /hr., approximately half the rate normal in day- light. This would agree with the value obtained from laboratory feeding on mussels at night. The birds may not have been feeding for an hour before their capture, but the presence of cockles in the oesophagus of the birds caught tends to discount this possibility. It was estimated (Drinnan, 1957) that the birds in Morecambe Bay ate 18% of their own live weight per day (dry weight of food). This was based on a specific gravity of 1.00 for the flesh of the food. Later estimations have shown 1.07 to be a truer figure. In Table II the average estimated food intake per 24 hours is 395 ml. This gives 395 x 1.07 = 423 grn. of wet meat (or 106 gm. dry weight). The average live weight of eleven Oyster- catchers with empty guts in December 1956 was 460 gm. So we obtain a figure of 23% of live weight eaten per day. Since the night feeding rate is about half that in daylight, this necessitates a drop in the estimated dry food intake per day from 25% to 17.3% of the bird’s live body weight. Comparable observations on wild birds are few. Any comparison of feeding rates must be made with caution when such variables as calorific value of food and digestive efficiency are unknown. Lack (1934) reviews the literature and cites the follow- ing. Pvnnbnen (1939) found the Great Spotted Woodpecker 148 BRITISH BIRDS L VOL. LI ( Dendrocopos major ) to take 8-10% of its own weight daily in conifer seeds. The Red-tailed Hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis) (Fitch et al., 1946) ate 12% of its body weight per day in snakes and mammals ; the same species in captivity eating 18% of its body weight per day. Southern (1954) found the incubating Tawny Owl ( Strix aluco) to take 18% of its body weight per day in rodents. Gibb (1956) made observations in the field on the feeding of the Rock Pipit ( Anthiis spinoletta) and found the bird to be eating 18-25% of its own live weight daily (organic dry weight of food). Lack summarizes the extensive literature on food intake in captivity thus: “land-birds weighing between 100 and 1,000 grammes tend to eat about 5 to 9 per cent, of their body weight of food each day, whereas song-birds weighing 10 to 90 grammes tend to eat 10 to 30 per cent, of their own weight each day, but these figures are very approximate, as there is much variation, with the conditions and with the type of food”. Certainly the observed feeding rates of large birds in the field, with the exception of those of Pynnonen, exceed Lack’s 5 to 9 per cent. Gibb (1956) comments on Pynnonen’s observation: “It is (also) difficult to understand how Pynnonen’s (1939) woodpecker, weighing 4-5 times as much as the other species, apparently existed in December in Finland with fewer calories than the pipit or sparrow; and took less than twice as much pine seed as the captive Great Tit ( Parus major ) in Britain”. SUMMARY 1. The food intake and feeding behaviour of captive Oyster- catchers is described. The birds ate 230-260 millilitres (= cubic centimetres) of food (mollusc flesh) per day, while maintaining constant weight. After a loss of weight the food intake rose to an average value of 359 ml. per day. 2. Comparison of the feeding rates in dark and light showed a constant difference, the rate in the dark being approximately half that in the light. 3. Estimates of food intake in the field (mean 395 ml. per 24 hours) give a consistently higher figure than those obtained in the laboratory. This difference is discussed with special reference to the differing activities of the two groups of birds. 4. An analysis of the gut contents of birds shot in the field, supports, with some assumptions, the field estimates of food intake during the daylight. The gut contents of birds feeding in the dark suggest a feeding rate half that in daylight. It is suggested that the Ovstercatchers observed in the field were feeding to capacity. 5. If the night feeding rate is assumed to be half that of the day, the birds in the field are estimated to be eating an amount of dry food equal to 17.5% of their own live body weight per day. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Dr. E. A. R. Ennion for hospitality \ Plate 25 K. K off tin Scops Owl (Otus scops) at nest-uole: Taiii, Hungary, June 1953 This very small starling-sized owl of the S. Palaearctic is predominantly greyish- brown, delicately marked with blackish streaks, wavy barring and fine vermiculations (see page 150). Its tarsi are feathered (as is typical of owls), but the grey toes are quite bare. K. Koffdn Scops Owl (Otus scops) and young: Taiii, Hungary, June 1953 The under-parts are paler, with the vermiculations not so close, but the shaft- streaks more pronounced. One particularly associates this species with the proximity of houses, and this nest was in an artificially-erected hollow stump in an orchard walnut-tree (see page 151). Plate 26 fc: o a. 0 . c3 -c: g’s- o S E o g Z c 'ol ■ 0 two C3 C- 0 0 .2 fe 3 §5 H 0 « .. a * ■ H — ! ' cG 0 Z C3 • ” h — 3 < P J3 g*°.« |l 2 C r OJ 3 s: ■£ C3 0 O- 7) | ec T- 1 j=: £ ^ O 1 ->-> < JZ 7D J T o .! ^jZ c to -*-* 0 s'S? ^ ~P 7) 5 c .« O JQ ~ , 0 T3 £ « a O a> - '— in ^ 0 c 5 £ ' o , ZD 0 “ — u V 3 c c c 8 o A C3 0 ■*-> JZ 2 4) H « ^ C3 3 E 2 v> Here one gets a particularly good impression of the intricate pattern of the upper-parts, including the line of creamy marks on the scapulars (see also plate 25 upper). Largely insectivorous, this species feeds mostly on beetles, grasshoppers and moths, but small birds, rodents and lizards are occasionally taken. Scops Owls are mainly nocturnal and most of the feeding at this nest took place between sunset and total darkness; one of the adults stayed at the nest during the daytime (see page 1 5 1 ) . Plate 28 149 VOL. Li] FOOD INTAKE OF OYSTERCATCHERS and co-operation in the observations on the Oystercatcher at Seahouses. REFERENCES Colquhoun, M. K. (1951): “The Wood Pigeon in Britain”. Agric. Res. Council Rep. Ser. 10, 1-69. Dewar, J. M. (1913): “Further observations on the feeding habits of the Oyster-catcher (Hacmatopus ostralegus)” . Zoologist, 17: 41-56. Drinnan, R. E. (1956): “An investigation of Oystercatcher feeding in Morecambe Bay”. Merseyside Naturalists’ Assoc. Bird Report, 1954-55: 30-32. (1957): “The winter feeding of the Oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) on the cockle ( Cardium edule). ]. Anim. Ecol., 26: 439-467. (1958): “The winter feeding of the Oystercatcher ( Haematopus ostralegus) on the edible mussel ( Mytilus edulis) in the Conway Estuary”. Fish. Invest. Ser. II. (in press). Fitch, H. S., Swensen, F., and Tillotson, D. R. (1946): “Behaviour and food habits of the Red-tailed Hawk”. Condor, 48: 205-237. Gibb, J. (1956): “Food, feeding habits and territory of the Rock Pipit Anthus spinoletta". Ibis, 98: 506-530. Lack, D. (1954): The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers. Oxford. Pynnonen, A. (1939): “Beitrage zur kenntnis der Biologie finniseher spechte”. Ann. Soc. Zool.-Bot.-Fenn. Vanatno, 7 (2): 1-166. Southern, H. N. (1954): “Tawny Owls and their prey”. Ibis, 96: 384-410. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS LXXXVII. SCOPS OWL Photographed by K. Koffan (Plates 25-28) Text by I. J. Fergusox-Lees One of the characteristic spring and summer sounds of parts of southern Europe is the musical, yet monotonous, low single whistle which forms the song of the Scops Owl ( Otus scops). On a warm evening in the south of France one can often hear, at one time, several of these delightful little birds uttering their whistling kyeu over and over again, at intervals of about 2-4 seconds, for tens of minutes or even hours on end. It is a melancholy sound of which one can quickly tire, but it is an essential part of the hot southern nights and one welcomes it at first, just as one does the spring call of the Cuckoo ( Cuculns canorus ). Probably one of the easiest of animal noises to imitate, it can give one endless entertainment, for no bird plays up better and one can join in a continuous duet. This is primarily a nocturnal species — far less likely than the larger Little Owl ( Athene noctua) to be seen or heard by day — and the sound is one of dusk and night-time. The Scops Owl has already appeared once in our series, some years ago ( antea , vol. xlv, plate 81, p. 401), but as on that occasion we had only a single photograph for publication — an excellent study of Walter E. Higham’s, taken in the Camargue — 150 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI we feel more than justified in using the fine, varied series that Mr. Koffan has kindly sent us from Hungary. Plate 28 right, showing one of these owls perched on a human hand, gives a good indication of the very small size of this species which comes about half way between the familiar Little Owl and the tiny Pygmy Owl ( Glaucidiicm passervnum) which we recently illustrated ( antea , plates 13-16). In the field, indeed, it appears much smaller than the Little Owl, for not only is it an inch shorter, but it is altogether a slimmer bird with, as can be seen in these photographs, a rather smaller head. An important point, which is often not emphasized enough, is the fact that its flight has the silent wavering action of the typical owls, and lacks the characteristic “bounding” undulations of the Little Owl. If one is lucky enough to get a close view of a Scops Owl, one can see that its face, too, has quite a different cast about it (as P. A. D. Hollom commented in writing about Mr. Higham’s photograph), due to the different shape of the facial discs: in the Scops these discs are a little longer than they are broad, giving the bird a questioning look in contrast to the flat-browed, frown- ing effect produced by the Little Owl’s facial discs which are distinctly broader than long. This is particularly brought out in plates 25 upper and 26, as is the fact that the “ear-tufts” which this species possesses, and which are so often given prominence in illustrations, do not show at all when the bird is at ease (in this connection note particularly the side view on plate 27). However, when aware of being seen, a Scops Owl draws itself up with body attenuated and ear-tufts fully erected, rather like a very small Long-eared Owl ( Asio otus), and if the observer does not move too quickly may remain in that posture for several minutes. Like Long-eared Owls, Scops roost by day close up against the trunks of trees, or the stems of bushes, and are very hard to see. The upper-parts (plates 25 upper and 27) are greyish-brown, more reddish-brown at the sides of the mantle and at the edges of the facial discs, the whole beautifully and delicately patterned by blackish-brown shaft-streaks and wavy barring and by fine vermiculations. The reddish feathers surrounding the lower part of the discs are tipped with black and form a distinct “ruff”. Along the scapulars there is a conspicuous line of creamy-white oval patches (plates 25 and 27). The under-parts are paler, with the shaft-streaks more pronounced (plates 25 lower, 26 and 28 right) and the vermiculations sparser on the belly and flanks. The tail and flight-feathers are barred to varying degrees with whitish, buff and grey (plate 26). The tarsi are covered with buff feather- ing streaked with dark brown, but (unlike some other members of this genus) the grey toes are quite bare. The irides are lemon- vellow and it is interesting to compare the size of the pupils in the day-time photograph (plate 28 right) with the dilated circles of the birds at dusk in the rest of these plates. The species is a partial migrant, wintering in tropical Africa and VOL. Li] SCOPS OWL STUDIES 151 breeding; in N.W. Africa, southern Europe, Turkey, Syria, Jordan and N. Iraq, and in the western half of the U.S.S.R. from central Russia and the Caspian Sea area across to Altai and nearly to Lake Baikal, extending- down into N. Mong-olia. It is thus absent from eastern, south-eastern and southern Asia, where it is replaced by three other related species of small “eared” owls (O. bokkamoena, brucei and sunia ); further members of the g-enus breed in America (notably the Screech Owl, O. asio) and Africa. The Scops Owl is a curiously patchy bird in its distribution: it is, for example, very much scarcer in southern Spain than it is in southern France. To Britain it is a rare vagrant, chiefly in the spring and early summer and mainly in southern and eastern England (though it has occurred no less than six times as far north as Shetland). One particularly associates this owl with the proximity of human habitation and, though it is frequently found in open woodland and parkland well away from houses, it is as a bird of gardens and roadside trees that it will usually be remembered — but more often as a voice than as a shape! In southern Europe the breed- ing-season of the Scops Owl lasts for some seven weeks from the very end of April to the middle of June, and Mr. Koffdn’s photo- graphs were obtained on ioth and nth June 1953, in an orchard in a garden at Tahi, about 20 miles from Budapest. This species, like many other owls, breeds chiefly in holes in trees, sometimes in old buildings and occasionally in the nests of other birds, especially crows (Corvidae). Like the other small owls, however, it will also use nest-boxes and the site in this case was an artificially-erected hollow stump placed about xo metres ( ca . 33 feet) above the ground, in a walnut-tree. For the purpose of the photography the box was gradually lowered, during the preceding days, until it was only about 3 feet above the ground (and it was afterwards replaced). A single flash-lamp was used and a small green light was hung on a branch about a yard from the box ; the latter was sufficient to illuminate the scene without frightening the birds. Usually between three and six white eggs are laid, and authorities differ as to whether incubation starts with the first or on completion of the clutch : the period is about 3^ weeks. The Handbook states that during the fledging-period all food is “brought bv male, distributed by female”, but it seems likely that this applies only when the young are small, as is the case with a number of other owls and with many of the diurnal birds of prey. Mr. Koffan found, for example, at the nest shown in these photographs, where the three young were quite large (see plate 25 lower), that one of the adults, presumably the female, remained in the hole all the day and on the evening he was watch- ing left at 19,43 hours, after which, for a period of an hour, the parents arrived with food at intervals of approximately five minutes. Then there was an interval between 20.50 and 21.20, and 152 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI “afterwards they fed the young very seldom at night, if they did feed them then at all, and they only started again at dusk’’. The young are said to leave the nest on the 21st day before they are fully fledged, but once they are in full juvenile plumage they look much more like the adults than do most young owls: vhe feathers are more compact and chiefly not down-like, though the markings are paler and less distinct. Plate 27 shows one of the adults carrying a grasshopper, and a moth is just visible in the beak of the flying bird on plate 28 left: these insects, and beetles, form the main food of the Scops Owl, but also occasionally taken are mice, lizards and small birds. Gold- finch ( Carduelis carduelis ), Coal Tit ( Pams ater ), Ortolan Bunting [Emberiza hortulana ) and Yellowhammer ( E . citrinella) are among the bird-species recorded. WADERS AT OCEAN WEATHER SHIPS IN 1956 By Ivor McLean and Kenneth Williamson During 1956 the first-named author was at sea for long periods as a member of the scientific staff of the Marine Section of the Meteorological Office (Air Ministry). Many observations were made on the occurrence of migratory birds in the vicinity of the stations occupied by the Weather Ships, and a full record of these has been lodged with the Editor of the Marine Observer. There were two outstanding periods of Passerine movement, one at station “India’’ in late September, the other at station ‘ ‘ Juliett ’ ’ in early November, and a short paper discussing these in relation to weather and the migrational drift theory has already appeared (McLean and Williamson, 1957). There remain a few isolated records, chiefly of waders, which we feel have unusual ornitholo- gical interest, and these are brought together in the present contribution. (For a note on Merlins ( Falco columbarius) observed at sea, see pp. 157-158.) The stations concerned are as follows: “Alpha”, latitude 62°oo/N., longitude 33°oo'W. ; “India”, latitude 59°oo'N., longitude J9°oo'W. ; and “Juliett”, latitude 52°3o'N., longitude 20° W . Nicholson (1951) has divided the North Atlantic into regions; “Alpha” lies close to the southern edge of Greenland Approaches, whilst “India” and “Juliett” are at the north-western and south-western limits respectively of Rockall Seas. Our thanks are due to the Editor of the Marine Observer for permission to repeat some of the information contained in the above-mentioned paper; to Mr. R. G. Findlay for supplying certain observations; and to the Controller of HAT. Stationery Office for permission to reproduce weather-charts from the Daily Weather Report of the Meteorological Office (Air Ministry). Oystercatcher ( Haematopus ostralegus). — A party of four vol. li] WADERS AT OCEAN WEATHER SHIPS 153 passed in the early afternoon of 15th April at 6i°52/N., i8°28/W., probably returning to Iceland. See also under the next species. Golden Plover ( Charadrius apricarius). — Two birds showing characteristics of the Northern form (Ch. a. altifrons ) passed “Alpha”, flying north-east into a 28-knot wind, on the evening of 4th May. The previous day there had been a single Oystercatcher and Dunlin ( Calidris alpina ), following a north-east gale with low cloud and rain overnight. R. G. Findlay reported that a Whimbrel ( Numenius phaeopus) came aboard at “India” the same day (3rd May). It is possible that all these birds, travelling from the south, missed Iceland in the thick weather of successive occlusions which overtook them from the west (Figs. 1 and 2). Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Figs, i and 2 — Synoptic situation in north-east Atlantic at 1000 hours on 3rd May 1956 and 1800 hours on 4th May 1956, showing occluded fronts MOVING ACROSS BrITAIN-IceLAND MIGRATION ROUTE Turnstone ( Arenaria interpres). — A Turnstone at “India” on 20th September stayed for seven hours from 07.30 hours and flew off down-wind on leaving : there was a complex low to the west and the wind was south-east at 20 knots ; this may have brought it from the misty col weather along the inter-islands route farther east (Fig. 3). Three others circled the vessel in mid-morning, and there was one on the 24th. Curlew ( Numenius arquata). — At “Juliett” on the afternoon of 15th August three Curlews appeared from the north, flying fairly high and calling frequently. After circling high overhead for a quarter-of-an-hour they made off south-eastwards. There had been an adult Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula) about the ship just after mid-day and it is possible these birds had been caught 154 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI in off-shore winds ahead of a warm front crossing- Northern Ire- land. Visibility had been very poor with low cloud and drizzle, but a passing- cold front at 16.00 hours had improved it to about five miles. Purple Sandpiper ( Calidris maritima).- — One came aboard at “Juliett” at 10.00 hours on 2nd November, two others at 14.00 hours, a fourth at 16.40 hours, and a fifth some time after dark. They were still present on the 3rd, when another arrived, but one was drowned in mid-morning" when it settled on the sea and was unable to rise ag-ain. One died late on the 3rd, and there were still four aboard at daybreak on the 4th, but only one could be found at 10.00 hours and this was still there at dusk. It is probable that all succumbed, for they appeared to be absolutely exhausted and once aboard were very reluctant to fly, preferring to run along the deck if disturbed. A bird caught late on the 2nd weighed only if oz. ( ca . 50 grn.) and of three caught later one weighed 2 oz. ( ca . 57 gm.) and the others 1^ oz. each (ca. 42 gm.). Weigold (1926) gives an average of 72 gm. for three migrants at Heligo- land, and quotes Hantzsch for Icelandic birds, presumably breeders, as follows — 4 cfcf> 74-80 gm., 5 $ ?, 80-95 g"m- Thus the loss sustained by the birds at “Juliett” during their migration seems likely to have been of the order of 40%. North of the ship’s position at this time was a high pressure centre influencing the whole north-east Atlantic, and considering the vastness of the anticyclone and their extremely weak condition an origin as far distant as east Greenland does not seem unreasonable. It may be mentioned that on 3rd November at least six Snow Buntings ( Plectrophenax nivalis), also in poor shape, joined the ship: two were subsequently drowned in the same way as the sandpiper, and one had the incredibly low weight of half-an-ounce (ca. 15 gm.), which must represent a 60% drop from “normal” body-weight. Another was rather better at one ounce (ca. 28 gm.). Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Tryngites subruficollis). — This North American vagrant was first seen at 10.00 hours on 21st September at “India” and was slain by the ship’s cat in the after- noon. It was a rather long-legged wader and seemed plump as it stood with head “hunched” on shoulders, and the carriage and pose were very plover-like. The following description was made from the body, which was not preserved : Upper-parts : Crown feathers dark brown edged buff; nape buff spotted dark brown; mantle and back blackish-brown edged white; upper tail- coverts dark brown edged buff; ear-coverts, cheeks and sides of neck buff. Wings: Primaries blackish-brown narrowly edged white, inner webs white with dark brown speckling; secondaries similar; greater coverts dark brown speckled black and tipped buff; median coverts grey brown edged buff and tipped white, with “Y”-shaped dark markings; lesser coverts blackish-brown edged buff; primary coverts dark brown tipped white. Under- parts: Chin, throat, breast and upper belly buff shading to white tinged with buff on lower belly and under tail-coverts; chin paler than throat; sides of breast with dark brown spots; axillaries and under wing-coverts vol. li] WADERS AT OCEAN' WEATHER SHIPS 155 white, the underside of the wing-coverts banded and speckled with black; coverts along the leading-edge buff spotted dark brown. Tail : Blackish- brown, narrowly edged white; outer feathers banded and speckled dark brown and tipped white. Bill: Dark brown, fairly short and plover-like. Legs: Greenish-yellow. The measurements were: wing 138 mm., tail 56.5 mm., tarsus 31.5 mm., bill (from feathers) 20 mm. The wing-formula gave first primary minute and second longest, with the third to the sixth shorter by 2.5, 9.5, 19 and 28 mm. respectively. The body was not sexed, but there is a size difference between the sexes and the wing-length is at the upper limit of the range given for males by Witherby et al. (1940). The mantle and other plumage characters suggest a first-year bird. A vast low-pressure system covered the North Atlantic at this time, one centre of which had swept down from Labrador (with fronts crossing the Gulf of St. Lawrence) during the i8th-i9th and had moved to the south of Cape Farewell by the 20th, so that there was a generally westerly airstream across the ocean to the vicinity of station “India” (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 — Synoptic situation in north Atlantic at mid-day on 20th September 1956, BEFORE THE ARRIVAL, ON THE 2ISt, OF A BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER (Tryngites subruficollis) at station “India” (59°n., ig°w.) Ruff [PhUomachus pugnax). — At “Juliett” at 1610 hours on 7th August a wader was seen in the ship’s wake about fifty yards astern. It flew round for about ten minutes, coming very close at times, and was identified as a juvenile Ruff. On one occasion it settled on the sea for a few seconds, and twice hovered with dangling legs as though about to repeat the performance. It appeared from the north-east, and finally flew away to the south. The ship was in a warm sector on the north-east edge of the Azores anticyclone and the weather was overcast with a fine drizzle and poor visibility, cloud-base at 400 feet and wind south-west at 19 knots. 156 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Grey Phalarope ( Phalaropus fulicarius). — A first-winter bird came aboard at “Jiiliett”, late on 8th November. Viewed from above, the bill was flattened and widened slightly towards the tip : it had two grooves along each side and was black with a yellowish base. The short legs were dark horn and there were flesh-pink patches on the lobes. Measurements were: wing 126 mm., tail 61 mm., tarsus 20 mm., bill (from feathers) 21 mm. When released the bird showed no inclination to fly, and it spent the night in the balloon shed. It was seen to fly away at 05.30 hours next day. An intense depression situated near Ice- land covered the eastern Atlantic, and there can be little doubt that the bird was a cyclonic migrant from the Greenland area in the strong north-west winds of this low. SUMMARY 1. Observations are given of migrant waders appearing at Weather Ships stationed at “Alpha” in Greenland Approaches, and at “India” and “Juliett” at the north-west and south-west extremities respectively of Rockall Seas. 2. Several records concern birds apparently displaced from the inter-islands route, connecting Britain and Iceland, by south- easterly winds associated with bad visibility in this region (Oyster- catchers, Golden Plover, Turnstone). 3. Two clear cases of cyclonic overseas migration are provided by a Buff-breasted Sandpiper at “India” on 20th September 1956 (from eastern North America), and a Grey Phalarope at “Juliett” on 8th November (from Greenland). 4. Exhausted Purple Sandpipers at “Juliett” in anticyclonic weather on 2nd and 3rd November seem likely to have travelled from east Greenland round the eastern periphery of the high, losing approximately 40% of their body-weight during the journey. REFERENCES McLean, I., and Williamson, K. (1957): “Migrants at North Atlantic Weather Ships in 1956”. Marine Obs., 27: 152-156. Nicholson, E. M. (1951): “Birds of the North Atlantic”. Proc. Xth Int. Orn. Cong., 600-602. Weigold, H. (1926): “Masse, Gewichte und Zug nach Alter und Geschlecht bei Helgolander Zugvogeln”. Biol. Anstalt auf Helgoland, no. 17. Witherby, H. F. ct al. (1940): The Handbook of British Birds. Yol. IV. London. NOTES Fish-hook in Heron’s pellet. — In March 1956 Tom Schutte brought me the pellet of a Heron (Ardea cinerea) that he had found on the 4th of that month, by the River Beane at Waterford, Hert- fordshire. It was composed almost entirely of fur (? Water Vole, Arvicola amphibius ), but embedded in it was a complete fishing- hook, three-quarters of and inch long, and some 11^ inches of gut. Eric Hosking [We showed this record to Mr. Frank A. Lowe, author of The VOL. LI j NOTES 157 Heron (1954), and to Mr. D. F. Owen, who has made a special study of the food of Herons. Mr. Lowe commented: “I have no record of a fish-hook having been found in a bird’s pellet, but I understand that metal objects are sometimes found — such as pigeon rings in the pellets of Peregrines ( Falco peregrinus). A Heron’s digestive juices are capable of dealing with every part of a fish, and most of a mammal except for its hair and sometimes tooth enamel. One would not expect these digestive juices to remove steel, and apparently the attached length of gut was unaffected. The fact of the barb’s being embedded in the fish would carry it safely to the stomach where it would be encased in the mammal hair and disposed of without much danger. Herons will on occasion even ‘eat’ part of their nests to get pellet material, so necessary to rid themselves of indigestible matter”. Mr. Owen wrote: ‘‘I have a similar record, of a fish-hook in a meal regurgitated by a nestling Heron at Wytham, Berkshire, on 1 6th May 1952. The fish hook seemed to come from a crayfish ( Astacus ) in this instance; crayfish are a minor curse to some waters in that they take lines and often snap away with the hook. I have examined very large numbers of Heron pellets, besides the work I have been doing for five years on the food of nestlings, and this is the only record I have”. — Eds.] Merlins at sea. — Chance observations of Merlins ( Falco columbnrius ) at sea are not rare, but the following record of a bird remaining “off-passage” at a weather-ship is probablv unique. The observation was made on board Weather Ohsen97 Thrush Nightingale at Fair Isle (Peter Davis) 198 Serin at Fair Isle (Peter Davis) 199 Rustic Bunting at Fair Isle (Peter Davis) 199 Review : — Portrait of a Wilderness. By Guy Mountl'ort. Illustrated by Eric Hosking 200 Requests for Information: — ■ Field investigations of the British Trust for Ornithology ... ... 202 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees ... ... ... ••• 203 Capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus) displaying HUnCMAf" * it tiAY i9‘ Vol. LI No. 5 BRITISH BIRDS THE SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT The appearance in various parts of the British Isles every year, especially in March and April, of a few white-headed birds in flocks of Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo ) has inevitably raised the question of the identification of the Southern race ( Ph . c. sinensis) and whether it can be distinguished in the field, or at all, from our native bird [Ph. c. carbo). My own interest in the problem was first aroused on nth March 1951 when two “white-heads” were seen at Bassenthwaite, Cumberland, in a flock of 48 birds. Further observations were made of this and other flocks, until eventually all the wintering and breeding stations on both the Cumberland and the Scottish sides of the Solway Firth, as well as the Fame Islands in Northumberland and haunts further afield, had been visited. In addition to many other detailed counts and comparisons a series of weekly observations, from 30th January to 27th March 1955, was made on a wintering flock near Silloth, Cumberland, to study the development of the spring plumage. In all, over 1,500 birds were examined. Records of observations made in other parts of the country have been sought and collected and have provided a valuable source of information. The British Museum (Natural History) and the local Carlisle Museum could not produce any skins of British white-heads. It was unlikely that any, or many, had been collected as there are no descriptions of this extreme form of plumage in standard works. Accordingly, four birds were shot at a colony in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright in April 1956 by Ernest Blezard and myself. These By Ralph Stokoe (Plates 34-35) INTRODUCTION 165 BRITISH BIRDS 166 [VOL. LI skins have proved invaluable. They are now in the Carlisle Museum collection. In what follows, no consideration has been given to birds in any of the various plumages other than that regarded as the adult, of which the glossy black breast and some degree of nuptial adornment in spring are the most obvious features in the held. In describing the appearance of the head and neck I have avoided the rather ambiguous term “hoary”. RACIAL CHARACTERS AND DISTRIBUTION Carbo-type Cormorants are described in the literature as having the feathers glossed blue. In “summer” (i.e. nuptial) plumage there is a line of elongated, pointed feathers down the centre of the back of the crown and nape (crest) ; the crown, neck and throat show, as a transitory feature, a variable number of long, narrow, small, whitish feathers ; and at the base of the thigh is a large patch of white feathers of loose structure. In this plumage the sides of the face and the chin (cheek patch) are white instead of brownish-white. Sinensis-type birds are distinguished by being glossed metallic green instead of blue and by a much greater development, in both number and size, of the white feathers on the head, neck, and throat — these “often almost covering throat and sides of neck and making them white” (Witherby et al. 1940). The illustrations in The Handbook (vol. IV, plate 93) carry these distinctions further by showing sinensis with a wholly white head and neck, while carbo is flecked only on the crown and sides of the neck. Also (a point not mentioned in the text) the thigh patch on sinensis is shown as being much larger than that of carbo. Apart from size, which can only be studied with the aid of a large number of skins, the only other distinction made is that of habitat. Carbo is regarded as being a bird of coastal waters, visiting fresh waters in winter, but breeding inland only rather sparingly and rarely in trees, which are little used for roosting. On the other hand, sinensis is in general, and especially in the breeding season, a bird of inland waters, habitually breeding in trees, even away from water. It was pointed out by Tucker (1949) that Cormorants with un- usually white heads do occur in Britain, but he concluded that, except for occasional visitors to eastern and south-eastern England from the Continent, these are probably only exceptional individuals which approach the average of the more strongly marked race. Dementiev and Gladkov (1951), on the other hand, found the breeding plumages of carbo and sinensis identical, except for the violet-blue gloss of the former. Harber (1955) commented that the breeding range of carbo is very restricted in the Soviet Union, perhaps limiting the comparative material available. The breeding ranges of the two forms are adjacent; the winter ranges overlap. Carbo breeds from the White Sea west and south along the coast of Norway, through Britain, the Faeroes, 167 VOL. li] SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT Iceland and Greenland to the east coast of North America as far south as Nova Scotia. Sinensis breeds in western Europe from the Baltic and Holland to northern Spain and east across mid and southern Europe and Asia to China, New Guinea and possibly Japan. Dementiev and Gladkov (1951) were unable to assign the birds in Brittany to either race. In winter both races occur on the Atlantic coasts of France, Spain, and Portugal. WHITE HEAD PLUMAGE (1) Description (see plate 34 upper). The white feathers develop on the head and neck of the adult British Cormorant in the early part of spring, and they are variable in size and apparent density. They are smaller and sparser at the edges of the area of growth and on young birds, when they are often reduced to hair-like filoplumes. When developed to the maximum extent they cover the whole head and neck except the white cheek patch and the black feathers border- ing this. Thus a black line curves round the cheek patch from behind the eye over the ear-coverts and under the chin. There is no black line in front of the eye. The line is broadest on the ear- coverts and narrowest under the chin. Its shape varies in detail from one individual to another, and on the same bird with the growth of the white feathers. The parts of the head and neck most densely covered are : (a) the sides of the neck, and (b) the crown, in two patches on either side of the dorsal line, in front of the crest. The least dense parts are: (a) the forehead, (b) the sides of the head between the ear coverts and nuchal crest, and (c) the throat. The crest always appears black as the long black feathers obscure the white ones growing among them. The white feathers appear first on those parts where they develop most strongly ; the side of the neck being the first part to show any white and the forehead the last. These strap-like white feathers are typically restricted to the head and neck. Perhaps exceptionally, one of the birds shot in Kirkcudbright (no. 4 in Table I) also had a few similar tiny feathers scattered along the fore-edge and in the angle of the elbow of each wing. (2) Age and sex. On each of the four specimens obtained the visible feathers (some remain concealed) in a square inch on each side of the neck were counted. The average visible length and approximate width of feathers in the same area were determined. From these results a “whiteness factor’’ was calculated, being the approximate area of the white feathers. It is in each case greater than one square inch because it does not allow for the overlapping of the feathers. These results are shown in Table I. A specimen from Sikkim seen at the British Museum had white feathers up to 20 mm. long andf 2 mm. wide. 168 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI Table I — Comparison of four white-headed Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) OBTAINED IN THE STEVVARTRY OF KIRKCUDBRIGHT, S.W. SCOTLAND, IN APRIL 1956 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Date shot 3-iv 3-‘v 3-iv I5-iv Sex 6 6 9 6 Wing-length (mm.) No. of white feathers in 1 square inch on 367 35i 346 360 side of neck (average of both sides) 167 178 195 215 Average visible length of white feathers (mm.) 10.3 9.1 7-7 10.5 Average width of white feathers (mm.) >1 I < 1 > i Whiteness factor... 2.9 2-5 2. I 3-8 Note: The “whiteness factor” was calculated as follows: number of feathers X average length (mm.) x average width (mm.) divided by 645 (to convert to square inches). In the calculation the width < 1 was taken as equivalent to 0.9 mm. and > 1 as equivalent to 1.1 mm. On specimen no. 3 only the sides of the neck were all white ; most of the white feathers on the rest of the head and neck were not long enough to show. Presumably any bird, having regard to sex, is potentially capable of developing a maximum growth of white feathers, as the number of such feathers is not the most important factor in producing the final effect. What mainly determines the degree of whiteness is the size of the feathers. Cormorants begin to show a few filoplumes in their second spring and a year later some white feathers, though fewer than an adult (Witherby et al., 1940). It is not unreasonable to expect this process to continue into later life. Stuart (1948) considered that older and more experienced Cormorants were more successful in avoiding danger and it is of interest in this connection that, when collecting our specimens, we failed to shoot any of the whitest-headed birds. Other details from that same paper on the Mochrum colony show that 16% of ringed birds recovered in their fourth or later year (i.e. adults) were in their eighth or later year — an approximate indication of the age composition of the colony which may, however, be distorted by loss of rings through wear and in any case is based on very few returns. In counts there and elsewhere white-heads have made up about 15% of the total adults present on each occasion. It would seem that such birds are the elders of a colony and may be seven or more years old. The darkest bird in Table I (no. 3) was a female and was not, even at the time, thought to be particularly white-headed. Each of the three whiter birds shot was found to be a male. When comparing the appearance of paired birds the male (the larger bird) was almost always the whiter. In one case where the reverse was true I decided that a young male was mated with an older female, neither being very white. (3) Duration. Field observations are greatly affected by the distance of the vol. li] SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT 169 bird, visibility, and the relative directions of wind and sun. The effect of whiteness is to some extent illusory, as is the image in a newspaper picture. The better the view the more noticeable becomes the black background behind the lacing of white. Also the crown, for example, viewed at a more acute angle, can look whiter than the side of the neck. I tried to satisfy myself that birds counted as white-heads had white on the forehead and throat, which develop latest, as well as elsewhere. The increasing white- ness is a gradual process and there is some individual variation in the pattern and relative degree of development. In making observations of the stage of development and counts, I used the terms “black”, “flecked”, “grey”, and “white”. Of these the middle two are arbitrary, though not unsatisfactory in practice, while the definition of a white-head has already been given. The development of the nuptial plumage must be correlated with the start of the nesting season and one would expect that popula- tions which nest earlier become white earlier. Nesting has started as early as February in Holland. In Britain, Scottish birds may be one month later than those in southern England (Witherby et al., 1940); in Galloway in 1956, however, nesting had started well before “the latter half of May to early June” stated for Scotland. Then several nests had incubated eggs on 15th April (Blezard, 1956). On 25th May fledged young and second clutches were seen at a large Ayrshire colony. A similar early start was likely in 1955, all adults having left their winter haunt at Silloth by 10th April. Nevertheless one would expect south coast birds to be in advance of those so much further north. In the Solway region, on 17th January 1953, one bird had a few white feathers on the side of the neck. By early February some had the whole head and neck flecked. It can be assumed that the most advanced birds at any stage retain their lead, though it has not been possible to follow any one individual through to full plumag'e. White-heads were first seen on 6th March in 1955 and they formed 14-15% of the adult population during the short period of maximum whiteness. The decline starts early in April on the Solway and, in my experience, no birds are really white by early in May. Records supplied by editors of regional reports and by correspondents, those on the files of British Birds and my own incidental ones have been summarized in Table II. They extend over the years 1944 to 1957. The numbers of observations of white-headed birds are given in weekly totals from 1st February to 23rd May, by counties from Fife clockwise round the coast to Ayrshire, then Dublin. The few sightings outside this period are also included; in all, 127 observations of 190 birds. The most seen on any occasion was “about 6” on 30th March 1956 at Bempton, Yorkshire. There are two records of 5, five of 4, and five of 3 birds. Table II — Summary of observations of white-headed Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo ) in the British Isles These are gathered from various sources, published and unpublished (see page 169), and illustrate the seasonal nature of the white feathering (though the rapid fall after 4th April is due to the departure of wintering birds for their more remote breeding stations). The letters in parentheses after the names of certain counties refer to the foot-notes. £ > > co s Q* < 2 •8 *0 a v r* 8 £ H (ON^ HONOi NNHtJ-HNiOm N N CO N *H. N N > Sr-* CC OC « b* b» H CO H H H H M .9 o : J 3 3 d u <5 X) o> a.S 3 -3 3 £ tS* ^ .. O O >>4) ^aa&SJS«SSeS3«£ co rt •d "S' a a bo 3 « « .5 >.0- 0) .-•.a ° Sh? «o ° 2 3 o 2 8-8 ■*-3 s-ag •a a s D O O 73 (U 3 fci w 3 . to g>g « D. i«s £ > X d CO 0) SX =3 CO . a to 2*3 3 0“ t-i -*-» <1 .2 >> T> 83 d -a co a o CO U 3 ' 2 £ ,3 r. « cO w-'O o ^ jf.382 | s >> j2 3 cO o o ■- el w tfl (/I a I li ;; . d i' >- •fl "> , ji’Hit £ sh t> 6 •• §s 15 o to U* d _. 0> 3 o -*-> u '*■ CuO M a* ^ §*S H 3 .2 * JS 1 S'" ■sa-" H “o<-~ 5J 5?-°" t/i X 3 -m o to’a 3 J2 n rt-o < •■ TJ c0 .2 . ^ rt w s|»3 •it a SO C/l “S’ O »o_ N O t/i bo c «0 Of 3 3-3 -r (A> *J 5 • - t f) '5 0) M Uh 3 C.) '> 0 > 3 rrt O al cO a) 0 3 £ vO 3 <0 to 3 a^> 0) X a s O .ii 4> 3 0 3 H M 1 ci cc o 'Z vol. li] SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT 171 These totals are shown in histogram form in Fig. i(a). Using the numbers of birds seen instead of the numbers of observations gives a similar result, but with the peaks higher. As the records are made by many different observers working independently a broader definition of a white-head than that which I came to adopt is inevitable: the effect of this is to extend the apparent period of occurrence. The most striking feature of the histogram is the rapid fall after 4th April. This is due to the departure of wintering birds for their more remote breeding stations. Fig. I — The incidence of white-headed Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo) IN BRITAIN The top histogram (a) shows in weekly totals the number of observations of white-headed Cormorants in Britain, as detailed in Table II. The lower histograms show the number of observations in the areas north (b) and south (c) of the Humber (or Wash) and Severn estuaries; thus the bottom figure includes the records for the coastline from Lincolnshire round to N. Devon, with the Channel Islands, and the middle figure the remainder. Since the preparation of Table II and Fig. 1 the following additional records have been received: Aberdeenshire 1 (18.iii.46) Essex ... 1 (i.iv.45) Sussex ... 1 (23.ii.47 & 2.iii.47) Pembrokeshire 1 (26.iii.49) Caernarvonshire Wigtownshire Co. Dublin Co. Cork 1 (29.iii.47) 1 (19.iv.46) 1 (30.iii.48 & 8UV.48) 1 (10.iii.46) 172 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI In sections (b) and (c) of Fig-, i the weekly totals have been split into two nearly equal parts : respectively north (62) and south (65) of the Humber (or Wash, as there are no observations from Lincolnshire) and Severn estuaries. Fig-. i(b) shows the rapid build-up and the period of maximum whiteness, 22nd March-qth April, before the departure to breeding stations. All the observa- tions during- the week ended 18th April were made at, or near, breeding- colonies. Fig. i(c) shows a much wider spread, two or more populations being involved, with a build-up to the higher peak of ist-iqth March and then the lower peak, corresponding to the northern one, of 22nd March-qth April. Dutch birds may be in full plumage in January (C. M. Korteweg, personal communica- tion) which one would expect if they were nesting in February; though so early a start may not be usual they have normally returned by then. The peak of ist-iqth March is presumably of south-country birds. The statements that the white head-feathers (and thigh patch) are acquired with the spring moult in February-March and that they are lost in the extended post-nesting moult in July-November (Witherby et al., 1940; Tucker, 1949) require amendment. They take about two months to develop fully and must be starting to show in late December in the south, as they are in mid-January on the Solway. The exceptionally early white-head seen in Essex on 3rd January 1953 would be showing traces of white early in November; it was almost certainly a Continental bird. More remarkable is the rapid disappearance of these plumes. Towards the end of May 1952 at the Fame Islands, Northumber- land, in a colony of 300 birds, very few had any white showing. The specimens obtained in Kirkcudbright in April 1956 showed no signs of wear and it seems extremely unlikely that wear, even allowing for the rigours of the nesting period, could have so quick and uniform an action. The appearance of the cheek patch of specimens 3 and 4 (see plate 34 upper) suggests the answer. Both show the start of a moult on a small area of the cheek patch nearest to the eye where brownish feathers have appeared. This moult was almost complete on many of the Fame Islands birds referred to (see plate 34 lower) on which the white head-feathers had also been shed. The female from Kirkcudbright (specimen no. 3) had not started to lay, though it was nearly ready to do so. The nuptial adornments are therefore lost in a moult which begins at the start of the nesting season and which can be complete before nesting is over. The thigh patch remains visible longer, though reduced in size. Other examples of British nesting species in which something similar takes place are the Shag ( Ph . aristotelis ), whose crest loses its first grotesque magnificence very early in the nesting season, and the Sandwich Tern ( Sterna sand- vicensis ) which may be white-crowned before incubation is complete. vol. li] SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT 173 Occasional birds showing a good deal of white have been seen in July, August, September and October. They must be individuals which for some reason have failed to moult, thus demonstrating the durability of the nuptial plumage. THIGH PATCH The white feathers of the thigh patch, though larger and broader, resemble those of the head in several respects : they have a similar loose texture; they lie over and hide the black feathers among which they grow from three distinct tracts; and they are afFected by the same processes of growth and moult. Being composed of larger feathers and forming a bolder mark, the patch is in evidence for a longer period, but by May it is greatly reduced in size. The first few thigh feathers may be noticed about the same time as the head feathers begin to appear. A number of observers have noticed that white-headed birds have a larger thigh patch and from a detailed study in 1955 I satisfied myself that this was so. At each visit, the whitest birds had the largest patches, up to the grey-headed stage. Thereafter white- and grey-heads had equally large patches. GLOSS This is the most critical of the characters and is regarded as the main plumage distinction between carbo and sinensis. It is also the most difficult to observe and assess. In the field the most favourable conditions of light and distance are necessary; even in the hand the colour of the gloss is not always easy to describe. The quality and direction of the light source are of importance. A greenish gloss, with a light behind the observer, can look bluer when viewed into the light. So as to be sure of the reliability of my observations I had the colour sensitivity of my eyes checked. Of all the birds seen in the field for which I was able to record the gloss colour, including 42 for which all characters were studied in great detail, only 4 had a satisfactory blue gloss. These four were seen among greenish-glossed birds under identical conditions. Some of these birds were seen at distances as close as twelve feet, in full sunlight. The four specimens shot were checked at the time by Ernest Blezard and myself, and later, when skinned, by several people to whom the significance of the colour was not known. They are all greenish, as, in my experience, are the great majority of our Cormorants. The colour of the gloss is not brilliant, as with the Shag, and I can only describe it as a dull steel green. There is a varying suggestion of blueness in some birds, which could be described as dull blue-green. I have occasionally caught a vivid flash of green as a bird turned in the sunlight. The colour of the specimens and of those seen in the field is similar to some of the British Museum specimens of sinensis (e.g. Punjab, India, 9.0.1935, 9) though others were greener (e.g. Bengal, India, 7.xii.i922, q f). 174 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Too few blue-glossed birds have been seen to decide whether there is any relationship with the degree of development of other characters. Of the four 1 saw, one was grey-headed, two flecked, and one black. Other observers have mentioned gloss colour: twelve green and four blue. Although blue and green glosses are stated to be characteristic of carbo and sinensis respectively (Witherby et al., 1940; Dementiev and Gladkov, 1951) some authors are less definite and also mention blue and purple for sinensis (Wardlaw Ramsay, 1923 ; Baker, 1929). A number of British Museum skins were examined. Those from Britain were purplish or bluish, except the Christ- church sinensis skin (February 1873, 9) which was bluish-green; the Indian ones were green, bluish-green or purplish-green. How- ever most skins were old and all those more than fifty years old, except the Christchurch one, had a purple cast never seen in life. Wagstaffe and Williamson (1947) and Blezard (personal communi- cation) have found that corvine skins undergo a decided colour change with age ; the metallic greens and blues becoming more or less purple. I have no doubt that the same process affects Cormorant skins. One doubts the utility of any but the most recent skins in this respect. My own limited experience leads me to the view not only that most of our own Cormorants have a greenish gloss, but also that they are indistinguishable in this respect from sinensis. Had the material used by Dementiev and Gladkov (see page 166) not been old, as seems highly probable with the violet-blue gloss described, they might have found the two races identical in all respects, instead of differing only in gloss. SIZE Briefly, as a discussion of this aspect is not possible on the basis of my limited examination of skins and from published measurements, British Cormorants (wing 325-370 mm. ; Witherby et al., 1940) are only slightly larger than those from Belgium (312-367 mm. ; Lippens, 1954), but Indian birds are appreciably smaller (315-336 mm.; Baker, 1929). Birds from intervening regions are intermediate in size (e.g. Continental Europe and W. Asia: 322-335 mm. ; Ticehurst, 1923). As mentioned above, it is often possible to distinguish the male from the female in the field by the larger size and more robust build of the former. HABITS AND HABITAT “Thence up he flew, and on the Tree of Life, The middle tree and highest there that grew, Sat like a cormorant” [ Milton : "Paradise Lost”] In Britain, the Cormorant, like the Raven ( Corvus corax), has virtually deserted as breeding areas those parts of the country where trees provide the only nesting sites. The great Norfolk colonies survived until 1825. Subsequent attempts at tree-nesting have vol. li] SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT 175 been recorded in Norfolk, Ireland not infrequently, and Kent (Gurney, 1914-15; Upcher, 1916-17; Patterson, 1930; Coward, 1936; YVitherby et al., 1940; Gregory, 1944). A colony I saw in Galloway was on an earthy coastal cliff, the upper part of which still retained some of its original vegetation, including bushes, mainly Elder ( Sambucus nigra) and Willow ( Salix spp.), up to eight feet high. These held nests, some several, as well as the cliff ledges, both types of nest site thus being in use at the same place. Cormorants are greatly addicted to the use of elevated perches and will travel considerable distances to satisfy this need. In 1766 one took to using Carlisle Castle, Cumberland, later trans- ferring to the Cathedral from which, after having been fired at upwards of twenty times, it was eventually killed by a person who climbed onto the roof (Heysham, 1794). Persecution continues to be the lot of the Cormorant. Tree roosts are known or have been recorded from Castle Douglas, Kirkcudbrightshire; Dumfriesshire; Windermere, Westmorland; Coniston Water, Lancashire, where a fifty foot spruce has been in use for at least a decade despite intermittent shooting; Aqualate Mere, Stafford- shire; Flatford Mill and Holbrook on the Stour estuary, Suffolk; Holkham lake, Norfolk, only two miles from sandbanks ; Tal-y- bont, Breconshire; and Syon House, Middlesex (Carruthers, 1939-40; Garnett, 1946; A. F. Airey, in litt . ; L. A. Cowcill, personal communication; Birmingham and West Midland Bird Report no. 22, 1956; E. A. R. Ennion, personal communication; A. J. Bruce, personal communication). Birds habitually leave the coast for preferred inland haunts. Distance from the sea is immaterial, e.g. the Staffordshire reservoirs. There are regular winter flocks on several of the lakes in Lakeland. Thus, Cormorants are far from being committed to a marine habitat. This was indicated by the fact that the largest numbers at a fresh-water pond near the Cumber- land coast were found during windy weather (Stokoe, 1954). When these facts are coupled with the known occurrence of sinensis in marine habitats and at rock ledge nest sites (e.g. Baker, 1929) it seems clear that there is nothing more in the habitat differences of the two subspecies than that of fluid adaptation to conditions prevailing in the regions where they are able to survive. MOVEMENTS Many British Cormorants are sedentary and make only local movements in the post-nesting dispersal. Of those which do migrate, most are first-winter birds; perhaps half of these migrate, as well as some older birds. The movement is to the Channel, Biscay and Iberian Atlantic coasts (Witherbv et al., 1940). Most ringing recoveries are from Brittany. Out of 170 foreign recoveries up to 30th April 1956, only 6 birds over 12 months old 176 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI were found abroad between ist March and 31st August, as shown in Table 111(a). None of these birds was adult and so they are not likely to have been breeding, though immature plumaged birds do occur in nesting colonies. Table III — Recoveries of ringed Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo) to indicate ANY EXCHANGE OF INDIVIDUALS BETWEEN BRITISH AND CONTINENTAL POPULATIONS (a) British-ringed Cormorants over 12 months old recovered abroad between ist March and 31st August (over 160 others were all under a year old, or recovered during the non-breeding months). Ringed. Recovered Age in months 3-vii.35 Wigtownshire ... 15.viii.36 Gulf of Morbihan, France 13 7. vii.35 Northumberland 18.viii.36 Nr. Lorient, Morbihan, France 13 16.vi.38 Pembrokeshire — .vii.40 Finistfere, France 25 i.viii.38 Caernarvonshire 13.iv.40 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain 20 9-vii.5o Anglesey i.vi.53 St. Vaast-la-Hougue, Manche, 7- vii.5 1 Anglesey France 4-iv-53 Vivero, Lugo, Spain 35 21 (b) Foreign-ringed Cormorants recovered in Britain. Age in Ringed Recovered months 27. vi. 32 Lekkerkerk, nr. Rotterdam, Holland 11.xii.35 Oulton Broad, Suffolk 90 + 28.V.33 Isle of Riigen, Germany 11.ii.36 Newhaven, Sussex 33 30.V.34 Ditto (Germany) 5.U.35 Faversham, Kent 8 26.V.35 Lekkerkerk, nr. Rotterdam. Holland 8.L36 Studland, Dorset 7 4-vi.35 Ditto (Holland) 19.iv.36 St. Ouen, Jersey 10 26.V.37 Meetkerke, nr. Bruges, Belgium 25.vii.38 Faversham, Kent 14 19.vi.39 Ditto (Belgium) — .vi.45 Hengistbury Head, Hampshire 72 16.vi.46 Horsens Fjord, Jutland, Denmark i.iii.47 Carlisle, Cumberland ... 8 Note: All the above were ringed as nestlings, except that on 27.vi.32 at Lekkerkerk, Holland, which was a breeding adult. Belgian birds, and presumably those from some adjacent parts of western Europe, follow one of two alternative courses. They leave in August and September, returning in February from two distinct winter quarters. One of these is the Channel and the Atlantic coast, as with our British birds, and the other the Rhone estuary/Sardinia/Tunis area of the western Mediterranean (Lippens, 1954). Birds wintering in the former region can be expected to occur on the adjacent shores of Britain on their way down the Channel. A flock moving inland from St. Jean de Luz, Basses Pyrenees, were seen in October (Lack, 1953), so that Mediterranean-bound birds may also use the Channel. Eight foreign-ringed Cormorants had been found in Britain up to 30th April 1956, as shown in Table 1 1 1(b). One, shot in June 1945 at vol. li] SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT 177 Hengistbury Head when six years old, may have been breeding. None is likely to have shown a great deal of white on the head. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. The two European races of the Cormorant are Phalacro- corax c. carbo and Ph. c. sinensis. The latter is normally separated in the literature on the grounds that it has, in nuptial plumage, a greater amount of white on the head and a larger white thigh patch than carbo; that the gloss on its plumage is green, while that of carbo is blue; and that it is a tree-nesting form of more inland habitats. In the British Isles carbo is the breeding form and sinensis-^- the “Southern Cormorant’’ — is usually regarded as being probably a regular visitor to the south and east coasts of England. This paper, based on field observations and a small number of specimens collected, discusses the validity of the races and the question of the field identification of “ sinensis ” in the British Isles. 2. In the Solway Firth region (Cumberland and S.W. Scot- land), and elsewhere in Britain, there occur Cormorants with extremely white heads; these form up to 14-15% of the adult population. The degree of whiteness increases with age, the whitest birds being the oldest in the colony. The period of maximum whiteness is short and is reached about four weeks before the start of incubation. The white plumes take about two months to develop, and, with the white cheek patch, are lost by a moult which begins about the time the eggs are laid. 3. The thigh patch is larger on white- and grey-headed birds. Being more conspicuous it is visible for a longer period, but the development and loss of the patch coincide with the head plumes. 4. Birds with a blue gloss do occur in the British Isles and they may be commoner in parts of the range of carbo from which examples have not been seen, e.g. Iceland and northern Scandinavia (the restricted typical locality), but almost all the birds seen and all the specimens obtained had a greenish gloss similar to some sinensis specimens examined. 5. British Cormorants are slightly larger than those from the adjacent coasts of western Europe; Indian birds are appreciably smaller. 6. Any differences in habits and habitat between British and Continental birds are considered to be imposed by local conditions rather than being due to racial differentiation. 7. Many British and Continental Cormorants winter in the same area, but, as yet, the few ringing recoveries do not give much indication of an exchange of individuals between the two populations. 8. Clearlv sinensis is not separable from carbo in the field, if at all. I would suggest that there is a dine of decreasing size and increasing greenness of gloss and whiteness of head from west to east, without a break at the Straits of Dover and Skaggerak. 178 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Invaluable advice, encouragement and assistance have been given by Ernest Blezard (whose offer to skin the Cormorants shot, to give one example, can be appreciated only by those who have done so), Austin Barton, Dr. Bruce Campbell, L. A. Cowcill, Dr. E. A. R. Ennion, S. N. Heal, Dr. J. G. Harrison, D. D. Harber, C. M. Korteweg, Robert Spencer and George Traft'ord, to all of whom I am most grateful. The Bird-Ringing Committee of the British Trust for Ornithology kindly permitted use of the ringing information and the Director of the British Museum (Natural History) examination of the skins. The observations summarised in Table II were made or made available to me by : C. M. Acland, L. P. Alder, R. H. Allen, D. G. Andrew, J. W. Andrews, R. W. Arthur, J. C. Backhurst, P. Baird, G. R. Bennett, T. Bispham, E. Blezard, A. W. Boyd, G. L. Boyle, T. E. Brice, G. J. Brown, P. YV. P. Browne, A. J. Bruce, H. O. Bunce, J. S. Carter, R. Chislett, P. R. Clarke, F. R. Clafton, F. K. Cobb, E. Cohen, W. M. Condry, W. S. Cowin, F. E. Crackles, J. H. Crooke, T. A. W. Davis, H. H. Davis, D. N. Dunn, J. Edelsten, G. Edwards, T. H. Ellis, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, J. W. Gill, E. H. Gillham, M. C. Glasman, J. Goater, J. A. Gulland, F. D. Hamilton, D. D. Harber, E. Hardy, D. F. Harle, S. Plopkins, G. R. Humphreys, H. Hunt, O. D. Hunt, F. E. Kennington, P. D. Kirby, J. Lord, W. G. Luton, M. Macfarlane, K. S. Macgregor, A T. Macmillan, S. G. Madge, R. V. A. Marshall, S. Martin, M. F. M. Meiklejohn, J. H. B. Munro, I. C. T. Nisbet, P. W. Nolan, D. B. Peakall, R. G. Pettitt, E. E. Preece, C. Popham, G. A. Pyman, R. J. Raines, G. F. B. Robinson, R. F. Ruttledge, H. M. Salmon, A. C. Sawle, J. D. Scott, M. J. Seago, F. R. Smith, K. Smith, J. H. Sparkes, R. Spencer, C. M. Swaine, M. K. Taylor, G. W. Temperley, G. A. Thomason, L. S. V. Venables, J. C. Voysey, H. Walker, G. Waterston, W. B. Watson, N. A. Wesley, I. Whittaker, K. A. Wood and V. C. Wynne-Edwards. REFERENCES Baker, E. C. S. (1929): Fauna of British India (Birds). 2nd ed., Vol. VI. London. Blezard, E. (1956): “Early Cormorant nesting in Kirkcudbright”. Scot. Nat., 68: 178. Carruthers, O. (1939): “Cormorants roosting in trees in Dumfriesshire”. Brit. Birds, xxxiii : 26-27. Coward, T. A. (1936): The Birds of the British Isles and their Eggs. 5th ed. London. Dementiev, G. P. and Gladkov, N. A. (1951): The Birds of the Soviet Union. Vol. 1. Moscow. Garnett, M. (1946): “Water-birds on Windermere — a retrospect”. Trans. Carlisle N.H.S., viii: 54. Gillham, E. H. and Homes, R. C. (1950): Birds of the North Kent Marshes. London. Gregory, T. C. (1944): “Colony of tree-nesting Cormorants in Kent”. Brit. Birds, xli: 185-186. Gurney, J. H. (1914): “Cormorants nesting in Norfolk". Brit. Birds, viii: 52, 130-142. Harber, D. D. (1955): Special review of “The Birds of the Soviet Union”. Brit. Birds, xlviii: 222. Harrison, J. M. (1947): “Southern Cormorants in Kent and Sussex”. Brit. Birds, xl : 220-221. (Ir>53): The Birds of Kent. Vol. I. London. Hartert, E. (1017): “On the European forms of the Cormorant and Little Bustard”. Brit. Birds, x: 210-214. vol. li] SPRING PLUMAGE OF THE CORMORANT 179 Heysham, J. (1794): “A catalogue of Cumberland animals”. In The History of the County of Cumberland, by W. Hutchinson. Vol. I. Hooke, W. D. (1953): “Jersey Bird Observatory, 1952”. Brit. Birds, xlvi: 439- Lack, D. and E. (1953): “Visible migration through the Pyrenees: an autumn reconnaissance”. Ibis: 276, 303. Lippens, L. (1954): “Les Oiseaux d'Eau de Belgique”. Bruges. Patterson, A. A. (1930): A Norfolk Naturalist. London. Popiiam, C. H. (1944): “Southern Cormorant in Hampshire”. Brit. Birds, xxxviii : 39 . Ridgway, R. (1912): Color Standards. 2nd ed. Washington D.C. Stokoe, R. (1954): “Siddick Pond and its birds”. Trans. Carlisle N.H.S., viii: 61-62. Stuart, Lord David (1948): “Vital statistics of the Mochrum Cormorant colony”. Brit. Birds, xli : 194-199. Ticehurst, C. B. (1923): “Birds of Sind”. Ibis, 65: 459. Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornithologists”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 203-204. Upcher, H. M. (1916): “Cormorants nesting in Norfolk”. Brit. Birds, x: 120-12 1. Wagstaffe, R., and Williamson, K. (1947): “Cabinet colour changes in bird- skins and their bearing on racial segregation”. Brit. Birds, xl : 322-325. Wardlaw-Ramsay, R. G. (1923): Guide to the Birds of Europe and North Africa. London. Witherby, H. F. (1936)): “Southern Cormorants in Dorset, Suffolk, Sussex and Kent”. Brit. Birds, xxix: 358-359. et al. (1940): The Handbook of British Birds. Vol. IV. London. THE MIGRATIONS OF BRITISH FALCONS (Falconidae) AS SHOWN BY RINGING RESULTS* By A. Landsborough Thomson The purpose of this paper is to analyse the recovery of species of the Falconidae ringed in the British Isles under the scheme now managed by the Bird-Ringing Committee of the British Trust for Ornithology and earlier by the late H. F. Witherby, then Editor of British Birds. There were no recoveries for any of these species under the former Aberdeen University scheme. Another paper (Thomson, 1958) has already dealt with the hawks (Accipitridae). The numbers of each of the species concerned that have been ringed and recovered under the scheme are: — Hobby Peregrine ... Merlin Red-footed Falcon Kestrel Ringed to 31.r2.56 48 155 532 1 1,982 Recovered to 31.12.57 (22) 18 (83) 80 (2S5) 247 Percentage recovered 8-3 11. 6 15.0 (The recovery figures shown in brackets are those counted before excluding certain records as non-viable, for reasons given later; the reduced totals are used in calculating the percentages.) *A publication of the British Trust for Ornithology, the Bird-Ringing Committee of which is indebted to the British Museum (Natural History) for accommodation and ring address and to the Nature Conservancy for financial support. 180 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI Recoveries in the British Isles of birds ringed abroad are mentioned. Details have been published in the periodical lists in British Birds compiled at first by H. F. Witherby and E. P. Leach and latterly by E. P. Leach alone. Hobby ( Falco subbuteo) Recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings. There are four records. Of 3 birds ringed in Wiltshire, one was recovered on 16th October of its first year, in Landes, France; one on 13th September of its first year, at Espinho, N. Portugal; and one in August of its second year, in Herefordshire, about 100 miles to the north. The fourth bird, ringed in Surrey, was recovered locally within a few weeks. British recovery of bird ringed abroad. One native to Uppsala, Sweden, was recovered in Norfolk in September of its first year. Peregrine ( Falco peregrinus ) Recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings. Excluding 4 birds found dead in the nest, there are 18 records. All these are of birds ringed as nestlings (counting one trapped as young on 5th July) in Great Britain (including one in the Isle of Man). The recovery localities can be grouped as follows: — (a) Local: — 6. (b) Distances of about 50 miles: — 4, the directions being northerly in 3 cases and south-westerly in the other (Cumberland to Isle of Man). (c) Distances of the order of 100 miles (actually 85-110) : — 5, the directions being northerly in 4 cases (Banffshire to Ross- shire, Cumberland to Ayrshire, Selkirkshire to Kincardineshire, and Westmorland to Perthshire) and south-easterly in the other (Sutherland to Banffshire). (d) Distances of about 150 miles: — 2, the directions being N.W. and N. (Yorkshire to, respectively, Argyll and Fife). (e) A distance of over 400 miles: — 1, from Cape Wrath, Sutherland, to Co. Wexford, Eire, in January of its first year — about 420 miles in a direction slightly west of south. Only the last record, under (e), is suggestive of a real migration. The other distances are small for a bird with such great powers of flight; and northerly directions predominate in this series. No seasonal pattern is discernible, as both the local and distant records relate to all times of year: the Yorkshire bird recovered in Argyll, 152 miles N.W., was described as “shot at the nest’’ — in April of its fifth year. Nor is there an age pattern ; some of the youngest and also the two oldest birds were recovered locally. vol. li] MIGRATIONS OF BRITISH FALCONS 181 6 of the recoveries were in April or May, 3 in August, 4 in October and the rest singly in other months. It is not possible to relate the distribution to reported causes of death, although two records resulted from shooting at the beginning of the breeding season. The age distribution, in years of life reckoned from 1st April, is: — 5, 5, 2, 1, 3, o, o, 1, 1. The last two birds were, respectively, more than seven and (although in the ninth year by the conven- tional reckoning) actually not quite eight years old. British recoveries of birds ringed abroad. There are 8 recovery records of birds ringed in the breeding season, mostly as young, in Scandinavia. Of those recovered in the first winter, 2 from the Lofoten Islands, N. Norway, had reached Berkshire and Lincolnshire respectively, one from Swedish Lapland had reached Gloucestershire, and one from Halland, S. Sweden, had reached Devon. The other displacements, recorded in subsequent winters, were from Vastergotland, S. Sweden, to Kent; from Vastmanland, Sweden, to Kent and to Yorkshire; and from Lulei, N. Sweden, to Shropshire (in its fifth year). Merlin ( Falco columbarius ) One local record is excluded for lack of a recovery date (in the first summer) and two others because of unnatural circumstances: one bird had been used for falconry subsequent to ringing and the other was ringed after a period of captivity. This leaves 80 recoveries, 69 of birds ringed as nestlings and 11 of birds ringed otherwise; all the ringing localities were in Great Britain. Recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings. The incidence of the 69 recoveries by season and age, years of life being reckoned from 1st April, is shown in the following table : — Month Year of life Total First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth and over April 3 May June 1 2 July 3 1 August 9 September 4 2 October 6 1 November 1 1 December 3 2 January 1 February 1 2 March 1 Uncertain 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 5 5 6 5 1 (7th) 7 to 3 5 1 3 2 (6th; 8th) 4 4 Total 32 16 11 S 23 69 182 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Only 3 were recovered abroad : — Month of recovery First year: October November Native locality Yorkshire Devon Sixth year: March Yorkshire (A member of the same brood as the first of Lancashire in its first December.) Recovery locality Landes, France Charente Maritime, France Charente Maritime, France the above was recovered in Of the 66 recoveries within Great Britain, 46 may be classed as local, being either from the ringing locality or from within a short distance (probably never as much as 40 miles, but in many instances exact ringing localities were suppressed for reasons of discretion). Of the remaining 20, only 8 were from distances of over 80 miles, as follows : — Recovery date First year: August August September ... October October December ... Third year: May Fifth year: June Displacement (approx., in miles) Within Yorkshire (88 S.E.) Caithness — Aberdeenshire (100 S.E.) S. Yorkshire — Berwick-upon-Tweed (165 N.N.W.) Perthshire — Kirkcudbrightshire (go S.) Co. Durham — Dorset (270 S.) Yorkshire — Shropshire (125 S.) Yorkshire — Shropshire (112 S.) Yorkshire — Kirkcudbrightshire (96 N.W.) It will be seen that all but one of the first-year birds had taken southerly directions. The two records for subsequent summers may possibly indicate breeding displacement. Of the 7 first-year recoveries and 5 later recoveries from distances of between 40 and 80 miles, some are from northerly directions — including two rather over 40 miles from their nests in the first July and first August respectively. Recoveries of birds ringed when full-grown. There are 2 records of birds ringed otherwise than on migration and recovered locally; and the following 9 records of birds ringed while on migration off the Scottish coast and recovered later in the same season or, in one case, next spring. Ringing data Recovery data 9 12.8.56 Fair Isle 30.8.56 Fair Isle 9 16.9.52 » » 3.10.52 Caithness (100 miles S.W.) d 15-9-54 » » 8.10.54 Landes, France juv. 9 18.8.54 » » 9.10.54 Kincardineshire (170 S.S.W.) juv. 3-9-57 » I 11. 10.57 Bremerhaven, Germany juv. d 18.8.53 > » 18.10.53 Lifege, Belgium juv. d 28.8.56 I * (20.10.56) Limburg, Belgium d 19.8.52 1 * 17.12.52 Perthshire (220 S.S.W.) juv. 19.10.50 Isle of May 10.3.51 Kirkcudbrightshire (95 S.W.) vol. li] MIGRATIONS OF BRITISH FALCONS 183 British recoveries of birds ringed abroad. Three birds native to Iceland have been recovered in October- December of their first year, in Stirlingshire, Lancashire and Offaly, Eire; and another in April of its fourth year, in Dunbarton- shire. (There is also a record of a bird native to Jamtland, Sweden, in its third winter, in Jersey, Channel Islands.) Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) After excluding 8 records — in which four birds had never flown, two others were recovered locally at early but uncertain dates, one had been transported and was recovered on the day of release, and one (treated separately below) was ringed in the Channel Islands — there are 247 recoveries. Of these, 213 are of birds ringed as nestlings in the British Isles (mainly Great Britain) and 34 of birds ringed as full-grown. Recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings. The incidence of the recoveries by season and age, years of life being reckoned from 1st April, is shown in the following table: — Month Year of life Total First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh and over April 6 I I 1 (7th) 9 May 6 2 5 1 (Sth) M June 3 2 2 I 2 (9th; 12th) 10 July 12 4 I I 18 August 25 4 I 30 September 21 3 I I 26 October l6 I 1 (9th) 18 November 14 I I I 17 December I I 4 15 January 17 4 T I 2 25 February 12 2 I I 2 iS March 6 2 8 Uncertain I 3 I 5 Total 135 42 I I 14 3 3 5 213 Of the above total, 146 birds were recovered locally or within distances of 50 miles ; 49 were recovered at greater distances within the British Isles; and 18 were recovered abroad. One of the birds recovered, locally, in February of its fifth year had also been reported in June of its third (not in table for the earlier date). The oldest bird, 11 years of age, was recovered in June at a locality 76 miles N.N.E. The next three oldest birds (8J, 8 and 7 years) were recovered near their places of birth — the eight-year-old bird was breeding within 200 yards. The relatively large number of recoveries in April, May and June of the second and later years of life is noteworthy — as in the case of the Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) (Thomson, 1958). Of the birds recovered in their first year at distances of 51-100 184 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Map i — First-winter recoveries ok Kestrels ( Falco tinnunculus) within the British Isles This shows the first-winter displacements (including one record in April of second year) exceeding ioo miles, but within the British Isles, of birds ringed as nestlings (details on page 185). Each spot indicates a recovery locality and the other end of the connecting line the corresponding ringing locality. For recoveries abroad, including those in later years, see Map 2 (page 186). vol. li] MIGRATIONS OF BRITISH FALCONS 185 miles, ii had travelled in southerly directions, io in northerly directions and i eastwards; but of birds recovered in their first year (including the next spring) at greater distances within the British Isles — as listed below — 15 had travelled in southerly directions and only 1 in a northerly direction (150 miles). This indicates a random dispersal within a radius of up to 100 miles, but a definite migratory tendency in longer flights— of which the recoveries abroad give further evidence. The following list (see also Map 1) of 21 recoveries within the British Isles is limited to those showing movement (not necessarily complete at the earlier dates) of more than 100 miles: — Recovery date First year: July August September ... October December ... January February ... Second year : April December ... March Fourth year: June Sixth year: April Uncertain Displacement (approx., in miles) Anglesey — Dorset (185 S.S.E.) Derbyshire — Sussex (140 S.S.E.) Lincolnshire — Shropshire (140 S.W.) Orkney — Sussex (560 S.S.E.) Norfolk — Herefordshire (135 W.S.W.) Northumberland — Bedfordshire (250 S.S.E.) Cambridgeshire — Hampshire (130 S.W.) Orkney — Co. Durham (300 S.S.E.) Dumfriesshire — Sussex (330 S.S.E.) Dumfriesshire — Huntingdonshire (250 S.E.) Derbyshire — Sussex (140 S.S.E.) Northumberland — Inverness-shire (150 N.W.) Yorkshire — Sussex (220 S.S.E.) Yorkshire — Warwickshire (150 S.) Dumfriesshire — Lancashire (115 S.S.E.) Cumberland — Co. Wexford, Eire (205 S.W.) Yorkshire — Surrey (285 S.S.E.) Northumberland — East Lothian (140 N.N.W.) Lancashire — Norfolk (150 S.E.) Northumberland — Aberdeenshire (150 N.) Derbyshire — Norfolk (130 E.) In the case of birds recovered after their first year it is obviously impossible to know what movements had taken place in the interval. The June record suggests displacement of breeding locality. The following is a complete list (see also Map 2) of recoveries abroad : — Month of recovery First year: September (25th) October ... November December I V February March Native locality Isle of Man Yorkshire Yorkshire Lincolnshire Isle of Man Wiltshire ... Lancashire Dumfriesshire Surrey Buckinghamshire Berkshire Essex Buckinghamshire Recovery locality Basses-Pvren£es, France Sarthe, France Eure-et-Loir. France Ostende. Belgium E. Flanders, Belgium Loiret, France Vendee, France Loir-et-Cher, France Cortes, Navarra, Spain Indre, France Nord, France Oise, France Calvados, France 186 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Second year : May June January ... March Sixth year: January ... Bedfordshire Yorkshire Lancashire Northumberland ... Liege, Belgium Pas-de-Calais, France Vastergotland, Sweden Nord, France Lincolnshire ... Eure, France 'Miles Map 2— Recoveries abroad of British-ringed Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) The seventeen crosses mark the recovery localities abroad, mostly in the first winter, of birds ringed as nestlings in Great Britain and the Isle of Man. There is also an eighteenth record, not shown, of a bird ringed in Lancashire and recovered in its second winter in Vastergotland, Sweden (see top of page). Plate 29 Kurt Ellstrom, Enar Sjbbcrg and Jonas Svcnsk Male Capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus): Sweden, 7T11 April 1956 ote the vermiculations on the slate-grey upper-parts, the semi-circle of white markings on ie black tail, the large whitish bill, the greenish-black “beard”, the brown-feathered tarsus nd the white patch on the inner leading edge of the wing. This bird is “singing”: a double ipping note, slow at first but accelerating rapidly, followed by a single popping sound (the nly loud note in the sequence) and then by a hissing and grinding phrase (see page 191). Kurt Ellstrom, Emir Sjoberg and Jonas Svensk Male Capercaillik (Tetrao urogallus): Sweden, 7x1 1 April 1956 This is the full song-display posture, with tail fanned and almost vertical, wings drooped, and up-stretched neck “swollen” by the erection of the ruff and the throat-feathers. This “singing” takes places chiefly in the very earlv morn- ing, starting well before dawn but continuing at intervals up to the middle of the day, in April and May (see page 192). The bare skin over and behind the eye, visible here, is blight red; warm brown wing-coverts contrast with the greys and blacks of the rest of the plumage. Plate 31 Kurt Ellstrom, Knar Sjoberg and Jonas Svensk Male Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus): Sweden, 2ist April 1956 This striking outline against the sky illustrates how the song is often uttered from some eminence — a tree, rock or just a small knoll. Note the long, still throat-feathers, and the contrast between the grey neck and the glossy band (of green) across the breast. Kurt Ellstrom, Enar Sjoberg and Jonas Svensk Male Capercaillie [Tetrao urogallus): Sweden, 7TH April 1056 A curious view from the front, the bird’s upraised whitish bill and “swollen” neck outlined against the background of the spread tail. Here the place is a snow-covered mound. The band of whitish markings across the distal half of the tail varies enormously among individuals. Plate 32 C n •*-» CD •E ^ ~ & S 0 C3 a C/) c w o r- & li E c a « C/) « vo : LO O' < *0 j 3 *3 ;o 1—1 c Cm 3 / -> u :o £ w 0 *E 0 "0/3 ,_ o ‘I « aT c 7) Q .J" _/ 53 o c t? w a; C3 , £ -£ 75 ; ^ i '■— (D . . O o 4 O ^ : ^ 5^| 5* u > »•' < O CZ -do rP.M d ± 0 w H 8 ^ >i 0 O .2 1 r " -0 - 3-ii ✓ ^ o p23 ■ -= -H “! • f- u rt- 3 a; d’ ~ p 0 0 d ™ — o S3 U g II i .’- 0 ^ S. O' •- d u « - Sffi j #0 si is Cj *5 *" 3 ^ — ^ c 3 +-' C u- 3 C g * $ Slo a; ’r C d*3 r- C3 r C 5 ^ E 3 Plate 33 Plate 34 Austin Barton Cormorant (Plialacrocora: c carbo ): shot Kirkcudbright, 15T11 April 1956 This adult male (No. 4 of Table 1 on page 168) was by no means the whitest- headed in the colony, but it gives some indication of the extent to which British- breeding birds assume this character. The distribution of the white, the nuchal crest (flatter than in life), the cheek patch and the black feathers bordering it are clearly shown. Note that part of the cheek-patch by the eye has been moulted and is browner. Austin Barton Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo): Northumberland, 24TI! May 1952 By this date most nesting Cormorants have lost all their white head-feathers and the cheek-patches have been almost completely moulted (see “The spring plumage of the Cormorant”, pages 165-179). Plate 35 J. Edelsten Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo ): Dee, Cheshire, 17T11 March 1953 From these two photographs it can be seen that in this individual the white head-plumes were not fully developed and the thigh patch was rather small. On a really white-headed bird not only do the plumes more effectively hide the black feathers, but they cover the forehead down to the base of the bill and are as densp on the sides of the head below the crest as elsewhere (see page 167). ]. Ed eh ten Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo): Dee, Cheshire, 17TH March 1953 This bird was taken to be a female because it was smaller than its mate which it later joined; the latter was very much whiter on the head and neck. Note the raised nuchal crest. Plate 36 /. L. Cutbill Pallas's Warbler ( Phylloscopus proregulus ): Norfolk, November 1957 This is the third British record (see page 197). The olive-green crown is divided by a pale yellow stripe (barely visible here), while a yellow superciliary and yellow cheeks contrast with a very dark eye-stripe. Note the two yellowish wing-bars, one here partly obscured by ruffled feathers. ]. L. Cutbill Pallas’s Warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus): Norfolk, November 1957 Note the conspicuous bright yellow rump and uniformly dark tail. Three other Phylloscopus species, not on the British list, have yellow rumps and double wing-bars, but two have white in the tail and the third has a different head- pattern and pure white under-parts (see antra, vol. xlviii, pp. 296-298). vol. li] MIGRATIONS OF BRITISH FALCONS 187 The Swedish record seems abnormal : one may suppose that the bird migrated in its first autumn, made an aberrant return in spring and remained in its new summer area in its second winter. Recoveries of birds ringed when full-grown. Of the 34 birds in this category, 24 were recovered at or quite near the place of ringing in circumstances of no particular interest; the intervals ranged from days to 4^ years. There are 4 other local records: one bird ringed as a juvenile on Skokholm, off Pembrokeshire, on nth April 1936 was recovered there on 17th August 1936 and again on 5th July 1937 — probably a sedentary local bird; one ringed as a young bird in Middlesex on 13th July was recovered in Kent, 23 miles S.E., 13 days later; one ringed as an adult at Spurn Point, Yorkshire, on 14th September was recovered in the same county, 27 miles N.W., 19 days later; and one ringed in Essex in January was recovered in Norfolk, 40 miles N.N.E., in April of the following year. In 2 other British recoveries there was greater movement: a bird ringed at Spurn Point, Yorkshire, on 28th August was recovered in Cambridgeshire, 65 miles S., on 15th October of the same year; one ringed in Worcestershire in March was recovered on Caldey Island, off Pembrokeshire, in July of the second year following. The remaining 4, ringed on (inferentially) autumn migration, were recovered abroad as follows: — Ringing data Recovery data ad. 9 27-9-53 Smith’s Knoll Lightship (245 miles E. of Gt. Yarmouth) J3-IO-53 Nord, France nd. 21-8.55 Dungeness, Kent 4-12-55 Charente, France juv. 27-IO-53 Lundv Island, Bristol Channel •3-12.53 Finist^re, France juv. 9 26.7.50 Fair Isle, Scotland 29. 12.50 Loiret, France Recovery of a bird ringed outside the area. A bird ringed as “young” in July on Jersey, Channel Islands, was recovered in Maine-et-Loire, France, in November of the same year ; this case is excluded from total figures. British recoveries of birds ringed abroad. There are four records of birds ringed on the Continent as nestlings — one from Schouwen, Holland, in East Lothian on 31st August of its first year; one from Yaldres, S. Norway, in Co. Kerry, Eire, in October of its first year; one from Silesia in York- shire in November of its second year; and one from Friesland, Holland, in Gloucestershire in January of its second year. One ringed on 30th September in S. Norway when full-grown was recovered on 19th December of the same year in Bedfordshire. One ringed as an adult in October at Antwerp, Belgium, was recovered in June of the third subsequent summer in Yorkshire (conceivably its native area). SUMMARY Hobby. — Birds native to the south of England (Wiltshire) were 188 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI recorded in their first autumn, from western France (Landes) and northern Portugal (Espinho), the latter as early as 13th September. A third was recorded in August of its second year, 100 miles north of its birthplace. A Swedish native bird has been recovered in Norfolk in its first autumn. Peregrine. — Birds native to Great Britain show a marked tendency to wander, up to distances of about 150 miles, and may breed in the localities thus reached. The directions are probably random, northerly ones in fact predominating in this small series. There is only one record of a longer movement — from N.W. Scot- land to S.E. Ireland, about 420 miles, in its first winter. The oldest bird recovered had attained an age of nearly eight years. Scandinavian birds have been recorded in various parts of England in their first and subsequent winters. Merlin. — Birds ringed as nestlings were recovered in the British Isles in all months of the year, the majority of them locally ; of the few showing significant movement (up to 270 miles), the direction taken was southerly in most cases, but not in all; possible breeding displacement of the order of 100 miles was indicated in two cases. The only two foreign recoveries were from France in winter. The oldest bird was in its eighth year. Birds ringed on migration at Fair Isle in August and September were recovered, later in the same season, on the mainland of Scotland (one in mid-winter), in Belgium (2) and in France (1). Birds native to Iceland have been recovered in the British Isles in their first winter and in a later spring. Kestrel. — Many of the British birds are sedentary, as shown by local recoveries throughout the year and at all ages. At least in the first autumn there is random dispersal, within a radius of up to 100 miles, on the part of some. Others show a more definite tendency to southerly migration, but — as shown by mid- winter recoveries at distances of some hundreds of miles — not necessarily beyond the limits of Great Britain. There are, how- ever, records of emigration to the Continent — Belgium (3), France (13), and N. Spain (1) — and one of a bird recovered in Sweden in its second winter. The oldest bird was eleven years of age. In addition, there are a few records of birds of unknown origin ringed on migration, both as juveniles and as adults, and recovered in France within the next few months. Birds native to Norway, Holland and' Silesia have been recovered in the British Isles in their first or second winters. One ringed in Belgium in autumn has been recovered in Yorkshire in a subsequent summer. REFERENCE Thomson, A. Landsborough (1958): “The migrations of British hawks (Accipitridae) as shown by ringing results”. Brit. Birds, li : 85-93. PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS LXXXYIII. CAPERCAILLIE Photographed by Kurt Ellstrom, Enar Sjoberg and Jonas Svensk (Plates 29-32) Text by D. G. Andrew The Capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus) is the largest and most spectacular of the Palaearctic game birds. A fully-grown male may weigh around 12 pounds (even up to 14) and is unlikely to be confused with anything else on size alone. The general colour- ing is dark slate-grey, with browner wings. A red wattle over the eye and a bristling beard combine to give the bird a very aggressive appearance when seen at close quarters. The female is much smaller and weighs only around 6 pounds. In her plumage of rufous and grey, which merges perfectly with the undergrowth of the pine forests where she nests, the female Capercaillie can be easily confused with the female Black Grouse ( Lyrurus tetrix), but the latter always shows a fairly conspicuous white wing-bar, and in both sexes of the Black Grouse the tail is more or less deeply forked, whereas in the Capercaillie it is full and rounded. When seen on the ground, the female Caper- caillie also has appreciably whiter under-parts and there is a large chestnut patch on the upper breast. The distribution of the Capercaillie is closely governed by its exacting habitat requirements. It is at its most abundant in areas of mature coniferous woodland where the trees are well spaced out and where there is a good undergrowth of heather and berry-bear- ing plants such as blaeberry and cowberry. Plantations have little attraction until they are 20 or 30 years old. The diet varies considerably according to the season. During the winter months the Scottish birds feed almost exclusively on the shoots, buds and needles of the Scots pine and larch ; later in the season the menu is expanded to cover a wide variety of vegetable matter and almost any seeds, berries and shoots seem to be taken, with bracken shoots forming a very popular item in some areas. In autumn much of the feeding is done in stubble fields. The young birds appear to be largely insectivorous. In some areas the bird’s feeding habits have unfortunately brought it into conflict with those responsible for forest conservation, but the evidence available suggests that it is only where Capercaillie are present in some numbers and are feeding on young plantations that any real damage is caused. The Capercaillie is exclusively a Palaearctic species with a range that stretches from Spain in the west to the Lake Baikal area of Siberia in the east. Within this area its distribution is 189 190 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI governed, as already stated, by the availability of suitable forests. The typical race is found in Scotland ; in Scandinavia eastwards through the taiga regions of Russia ; in the Baltic States ; over a large area in Central Europe; and through the Carpathians into the Balkan States. Two other races are now recognised in Russia - — T.u. uralensis in the forest steppe, the southern Urals and the southern forest regions of western and central Siberia, and T. u. major in the south-west of European Russia. A fourth race — T. u. aquitanicus — inhabits the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains in North Spain although it is now considerably reduced in numbers. It is only within comparatively recent times that this last population has become discrete, as Capercaillie were found in the Auvergne Mountains in central France until the end of the 18th century. The only other representative of the genus is the Siberian Caper- caillie (T. urogalloides = parvirostris), a blacker bird with much white on the wing and a long, graduated tail, which inhabits the eastern half of Siberia (except the extreme north), N. Mongolia, Manchuria, the island of Sakhalin and (a separate race— T. u. kamtschaticus) Kamchatka. The Capercallie has had a chequered history in Britain. It was at one time to be found in England, Ireland and Scotland, but it disappeared from England in the middle of the 17th century and from Ireland and Scotland in the latter half of the 18th century. Its extermination was principally due to the wholesale destruction of forests that took place in the middle ages. In Scotland the old Caledonian forest had almost completely vanished by the 17th century, and although a considerable amount of replanting was carried out by enlightened land-owners in the 18th century, this change of policy came too late to save the Capercaillie. The date for the extinction of this species in Scotland is usually given as 1760, but there is evidence to suggest that the last two birds were shot in Deeside as late as 1785. Readers with a taste for ornitho- logical detection may be referred to a fascinating article by Sir Hugh Gladstone (Scot. Nat., 1921, pp. 169-177) in which he traces the history of a specimen in the Hancock Museum and concludes that this was probably one of the last birds shot in Scotland. If so, it seems to be the only extant specimen of what mav well have been a distinct race. The first successful reintroduction in Scotland took place in 1837-38, when Lord Breadalbane released 44 birds imported from Sweden, at Taymouth Castle in Perthshire. There were a number of subsequent introductions, with the result that the bird has spread and is now widely distributed over most suitable areas between the Dornoch Firth in the north and the Forth-Clyde valley in the south. A detailed summary of the present status of the Capercaillie has recently been compiled by Dr. Ian Pennie (Scot. Nat.., 1950, pp. 65-87 and 157-178; 195T, PP- 4-17). The name is derived directly from the Gaelic (capull = horse, VOL. Li] CAPERCAILLIE STUDIES 191 coille = of the wood). The horse element may seem out of place, but it is probably used in a figurative sense meaning “big” (c/. horse-radish and horse-lark, the latter a local name for the Corn Bunting, Emberiza calandra). Curiously enough, a similar figurative use appears in the scientific name urogallus ( urus = bull, gallus = cock), a parallel in English being found in the name “Bullfinch”. Older writers, especially, often spelt the name “Capercailzie”. This has all the appeal of the bizarre, but it is entirely spurious. In the old Scottish script the second “1” was represented by a special symbol which indicated the stressed quantity of the double consonant. This symbol resembled the letters “z” and “y” in the modern style of handwriting and came to be misread as such (“Capercailye” is a spelling one also finds in the older books). In fact neither of these letters exists in Gaelic. Hybrids resulting from cf Black Grouse x 9 Capercaillie matings are relatively common and there are over 200 published references in the literature. These hybrids appear to be particularly common in areas where the species is expanding, probably due to the fact that the females usually arrive a year or two before the males. Hybrids are, however, not uncommon even in districts where the species is well-established and they were well-known to the old ornithologists who for some time treated them as a separate species — Tetrao medius. Back-crosses between the cf hybrid and the 9 Capercaillie are at least sometimes fertile. Such promiscuity between birds of two different genera is most unusual. It is no doubt facilitated by the difference in size between the sexes in both species and also by the fact that both species are naturally promiscuous amongst themselves, in the sense that there is none of the regular pair formation that is normal in most other species — even in such a closely related species as the Red Grouse and Willow Grouse ( Lagopus lagopus). There appear to be two phases in the Capercaillie’s display. In the early part of the season the males gather at communal display grounds where they parade to and fro but without paying much attention to each other. Later in the season each male takes up its own territory where the display is carried on individually. The song consists of a succession of clicking noises, followed by a sound like a cork being drawn from a bottle and ending (appropriately enough) with a noise like an unevenly operated soda-water syphon. At the same time the wings are clapped loudly. The accompanying photographs, taken in Central Sweden by Kurt Ellstrom, Enar Sjoberg and Jonas Svensk, show the attitudes taken up by the male Capercaillie during the display. The head and neck are stretched to their limit with the bill almost vertical, the wings are slightly drooped and the tail is fanned stiffly out and supported by the under tail-coverts (plate 29). During the preliminary notes before the bottle is opened, the throat feathers 192 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI are erected to form a thick ruff round the neck, and this is clearly shown in plates 30 and 31 lower. When the climax of the song is reached, the bird closes its eyes and is completely absorbed in its own performance, and the classical method of hunting these birds is to play the old game of “Grandmother’s Footsteps” during these brief periods of blindness and deafness. The unusual rear view in plate 32 shows clearly how the very square-tipped tail- feathers fit together to form a perfect semi-circle when fanned out. The normal display season lasts from early April until late May, but it is very much dependent on the earliness or lateness of the season. As can be seen from these photographs, however, the mere presence of snow on the ground does not inhibit the performance. The main activity takes place in the early morning, starting at or before dawn and not infrequently continuing until midday, with a renewal of activity around sunset. Display has also been recorded in the autumn in the months of September and October. NOTES Red-breasted Goose in Sussex.— While watching a flock of 112 White-fronted Geese (Anser albifrons ) on flood water at Amberley, Sussex, on 8th February 1958, one of us (P.R.M.) had a brief view of a Red-breasted Goose ( Branta ruficollis) amongst them. The next day we saw it again under excellent conditions, in bright sunlight, at about 300 yards’ range. It was a dark goose, smaller than the White-fronts and with a smaller head and neck in propor- tion to the body. In flight the wings appeared narrower. The head, hind neck, back and lower breast were black, and there was a dark red patch extending down the front of the neck on to the upper breast. The belly and the under tail-coverts were white, and there were white lines between the red and the black areas, the white between the back and the lower breast forming a broad conspicuous band. There were also white markings on the face. The bird was not present among 52 White-fronts seen in the same area by A.B.W. on 5th February, so very probably arrived with the remainder of the White-fronts between 5th and 8th February. In common with other observers — among them Mr. D. D. Harber — we saw it on several occasions up to and including 15th February 1958. This is the first record for Sussex. P. R. Mills and A. B. Watson [Enquiries from the Wildfowl Trust and elsewhere show that there is little likelihood that this bird had escaped from captivity in the British Isles, but it is impossible to be certain that it had not come from a wildfowl collection on the Continent. However, past records indicate that wild Red-breasted Geese do occasionally visit this country and, as there is nothing in the description to suggest that this was anything but a wild bird, we consider that it should be treated as such. It therefore constitutes the fifteenth VOL. Li] NOTES 193 authenticated record for the British Isles. The twelfth and thirteenth occurrences were published in British Birds in 1955 (antea, vol. xlviii, pp. 136-137), but the fourteenth record has not previously been referred to in our pages: this was a single Red- breasted Goose seen by Mr. D. Fraser on 20th January 1957, feeding amongst about 100 Grey Lag Geese (Anser anser ) in a field of winter wheat on the shores of Beauly Firth, Inverness-shire (Scot. Nat., vol. 69, p. 1 18); it was probable that it had been in or near that area since September 1956. — Eds.] Buff-breasted Sandpiper in Lanarkshire.— On 27th October 1957, near Hamilton, Lanarkshire, I saw a small wader consorting with Dunlin (Calidris alpina ) and Snipe (Capella gallinago), which I subsequently identified as a Buff-breasted Sandpiper (Tryngites subnijicollis). It was at the muddy verge of a pool where the ground had been trampled by cattle, and I watched it for half-an- hour, first from 80 yards and eventually down to about 40 yards’ range. About the size of a Snipe, it was hunched and plump-looking, uniform pinkish-buff on face, throat, breast and belly. Its head was small and rounded, and the bill slender, black and tapered. (With the head in certain positions I found this taper gave the bill a distinct, if erroneous, appearance of being decurved.) The eye was dark and there was no eve-stripe. Mantle and back had a “scaly” pattern very like that of a Reeve ( Philomachus pugnax), with dark-centred feathers edged pinkish-buff. The crown was dark ; I did not see the leg colour. When feeding, the bird maintained its crouching, hunched position, with legs bent. It was obliging enough once to stretch its wings up, showing much white on the underwing, broken by darker markings towards the tip. Mainly, however, it was not inclined to activity, and stood for a long period practically immobile. Eventually it squatted on the ground beside two Snipe. I then went forward and put it up to check on the wing pattern — but, beyond confirming that it lacked the white tail-patches of a Reeve, I failed to note anything distinctive before the bird swung away in strong flight, gaining height and presenting only an end-on view, rapidly receding. It uttered no sound during the period I had it under observation ; and it was not seen in particularly good light, the dav being dull and stormy. On 28th October Prof. M. F. M. Meiklejohn saw the bird and confirmed the identification. In addition to the main diagnostic points given above, he was able to see the legs in good light, and they were yellow. He made out the paler elliptical mark on the upper surface of the wing, but it was “not at all a noticeable feature”, and he only discerned it on flushing the bird for the third time, when he was especially looking for it. The rump he noted as black. When the bird was feeding, he described it as progress- ing “with a sort of stealthy walk”. 194 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI On 29th October Mr. W. Kenneth Richmond observed the bird “in poorish light and only briefly, but well enough to be satisfied with the correctness of the identification”. He found it in the company of a Dunlin, compared with which it was slightly bigger, “noticeably upright in carriage, round-headed” and, to his eye, “rather dotterel-like”. In flight he marked the rump as “non- descript, and all of a piece with the rest of the upper-parts”. One or two other observers had glimpses of the bird, but it was not seen again after 30th October (31st October and 1st November were stormy). Most of those who saw it were surprised at the bird’s shyness, since it is described in The Handbook as being “usually extremely tame”. This is the first record of the Buff- breasted Sandpiper for Scotland. L. A. Urquhart Broad-billed Sandpiper in Hampshire. — On 12th October 1957, by the lagoon at Farlington Marshes, Hampshire, we found a small wader which we later identified as an adult Broad-billed Sandpiper ( Limicola falcinellus ) in transitional plumage. The following day, 13th October, the bird was seen by Messrs. A. Allen, R. H. Dennis, G. Kinsey, B. W. Renyard, G. H. Rees, A. Searle and S. White. The following detailed description was made. Head: crown densely streaked dark brown or blackish; a conspicuous creamy stripe over the eye and, in addition, an inconspicuous, short, pale stripe passed backwards from the base of the bill, above the supercilium and separated from it by dark feathering (this secondary pair of- crown stripes was difficult to see from the side, but clear enough from a head-on view); back of head and nape lighter and slightly greyer than mantle or crown; ear-coverts dark. Back and wings: boldy patterned, similar to Jack Snipe ( Lymnocryptes minimus) or Pectoral Sandpiper ( Calidris melanotos), both of which species were present that week-end; centre of back very dark, with a pair of conspicuous cream stripes from shoulders to upper- parts of rump; another lower and broader “V” was formed by pale edgings to scapulars; feathers of folded wing edged buff-brown, secondaries with bright chestnut (in sunlight this was a predominant feature of the bird); carpal joint showed as a dark patch; centre of rump and tail blackish, lateral tail-coverts white, outer tail-feathers pale greyish. Under- parts: chin and upper breast pale buff (chin paler, but not pure white); streaking on sides of breast, which just met in a narrow band across the centre; belly and vent silvery white. Bill: relatively long and heavy, stout at base and decurved at tip rather like that of a Ruff ( Philomachus pugnax)\ colour of bill dark brown, base paler. Legs: colour varied with light, but was generally agreed to be olive. It was in general squat and short-necked, appearing about the size of a Little Stint ( Calidris minuta) but relatively longer-bodied (possib'y an illusion due to the low carriage). It showed a preference for reed and spartina stubble, where it moved with a crouching gait and was difficult to find or flush, having a strong tendency to walk away and hide out of sight. In flight the bird appeared very dark-backed and occasionally uttered a quiet “ chree ” or "chree-chree” . D. F. Billf.tt and C. J. Henty [We showed this record to Mr. P. W. P. Browne, in view of VOL. Li] NOTES 195 his particular experience of Broad-billed Sandpipers out of breed- ing plumage ( antea , vol. xlviii, pp. 375-376), and he commented as follows: “I presume the bird was thought to be an adult because the chin was not white. However, this is not a feature which could be relied upon (from the point of view of field-observa- tion) and I should be surprised if an adult still had a bright chest- nut patch on the secondaries by 12th October; a juvenile would be less likely to have the chestnut edges worn off”. — Eds.] Broad-billed Sandpiper in Berkshire. — On the evening of 19th September 1956, at Ham Island sewage-farm, Old Windsor, Berk- shire, we found a small wader having the general conformation of a Dunlin ( Calidris alpina ) but with markedly different plumage. It was feeding on wet mud, picking from the surface, and allowed very close approach. No other waders were present for direct comparison, but its size appeared to be between that of a Little Stint (C. minuta) and a Dunlin. The following details were noted : The crown was dark, with faint light streaking. The side of the head was a warm brown with a dark line extending from just behind the bill through the eye, and a broad whitish superciliary stripe; this stripe was not very clearly defined, but widened behind the eye where an indistinct wedge of rufous-brown divided it into two. The stout, dark bill was longer than the head and slightly, but quite noticeably, decurved towards the tip. The upper-parts were deep rufous-brown, with conspicuous light edges to the feathers. A feature which at once attracted attention was a double, pale, creamy-buff line on either side of the back; these formed two incomplete “V”s, the inner one being well defined. The sides of the breast were streaked with brown, but the rest of the under-parts were white. The legs were black and short. When flushed, it flew low to another irrigation bed and showed, on rising, a dark centre to the tail, the outer feathers appearing white. Only a faint suggestion of a light wing-bar was seen and against a dark back-ground the bird was very inconspicuous in flight. Its call was noted as "st, st. st’’ (D.C.) or a thin “trii, trii, trii’’ (C.M.V.), unequally spaced and repeated some five to seven times. From the features observed we identified the bird as a Broad- billed Sandpiper ( Limicola falcinellus) and this was confirmed by subsequent examination of a number of skins at the British Museum (Natural History). This is the first record for Berkshire. Douglas Carr and C. M. Veysey Black-throated Thrush at Fair Isle. — An adult male Black- throated Thrush (Turdus ruficollis atrogularis) was persuaded to enter the Double Dyke trap at Vatstrass, Fair Isle, at 13.25 hours G.M.T. on 8th December 1957. It was later released at the observatory, and was usually to be found in the vicinity of the buildings until the 16th. It was photographed in the hand by my wife (see plate 33), and was watched at various times by G. Stout of Field, J. Stout of Midway, and Alan Till. My wife and I left Fair Isle on 20th December, and we later learnt that the bird reappeared in the area of the observatory buildings soon after that date. It was seen there regularly, by the Stouts and BRITISH BIRDS 196 [VOL. LI others, until about 22nd January 1958 (the middle of a week of severe weather with much snow). The male of this species is one of the easiest of birds to identify, and it is probably unnecesary to reproduce the detailed laboratory description, which is virtually a paraphrase of that given in The Handbook. In the field, the enormous black bib, contrasting sharply with the whitish lower breast and belly, can be clearly seen at a distance of a hundred yards or more in moderate light. The dark area extends to the lores, supercilium and sides of the neck, the ear-coverts being a similar grey-brown to the rest of the upper- parts, the crown rather darker and with black markings in the centre of most feathers. The tail has grey-brown central feathers, and dark, almost black, outer ones. In the Fair Isle bird the black feathers of the head and bib were mostly tipped narrowly with grey, but these tips were hardly noticeable in the field, except that they gave a slightly ragged effect to the edges of the bib. The bill was dark brown except for the basal two-thirds of the lower mandible, a striking orange-yellow. In size and shape this thrush is very like a Fieldfare (T. pilaris) appearing to have a proportionately longer tail than some of the other thrushes. Most of the time it was under observation, our bird was engaged in exploring the short turf of the sheep-grazings, in exactly the manner of a Blackbird (T. merula). Worms are scarce in the Fair Isle pasture, and none of the food located was large enough to be seen by an observer, but during complete snow- cover on 9th and 10th December the thrush was glad enough to visit piles of meaty and fatty scraps we had placed around the area. When approached, this bird would stop, raise its head, and stare intently, often for some minutes if the watcher did not come nearer than fifteen yards. Occasionally it would fly on to a wall, if one were close, to take a better view. The usual method of retreat was by running, and it would only flv when hard pressed or too restricted by obstacles. The tail was often cocked on land- ing. No call was heard at any time. Although thrushes of four other species were present, the Black- throat never consorted with them, except at the time of first capture when it was closely accompanied by two Redwings ( T . musicus ). The measurements of the Fair Isle bird were all at the upper limit of the range given in The Handbook: wing (straight) 143 nim., (chord) 140 mm., tail 105 mm., bill 22 mm., tarsus 36 mm. The weight at first capture (13.23 hours on 8th December) was 89.6 gm., which is light for a bird of Fieldfare size,, but this had improved to 95.0 at recapture at 14.13 G.M.T. on the 14th. The flight-feathers were little abraded. There were none of the pale tips to the greater coverts which are said to characterize the first-winter bird. The record is the first for Fair Isle and The Handbook gives VOL. Li] NOTES 197 four others for Britain. Rather curiously, all the occurrences have been in mid-winter. The key to possible explanation of this is given in The Handbook’s statement that some individuals remain in the breeding area in central Russia when the majority move south to winter in India. It may be that such individuals would be particularly prone to long-distance hard-weather move- ments, and this 1957 record is known to have been preceded by hard weather over much of Europe. It may also be that adult males would be more sedentary than females or young, and four of the British birds are known to have been males ; but this should not be overstressed, since the female is a far less conspicuous bird. Peter Davis Pallas's Warbler in Norfolk. — On a field expedition of the Cambridge Bird Club on 17th November 1957, a small Passerine was flushed from an elder bush in the dunes at Gore Point, near Holme, Norfolk, by J. S. Clark. The bird resembled a Goldcrest (Regulus regains), but was seen to have a yellow rump. It flew into a patch of sea buckthorn, where J.S.C. drew the attention of others to it. The bird was then watched for half-an-hour by J.S.C., G. M. S. Easy, D. Farren, R. Genochio and C. H. Hagger, at a range of about five yards, and the following field-characters were particularly noted: (1) very small size, about that of Gold- crest; (2) primrose yellow rump; (3) pale yellow crown stripe; (4) yellow superciliary stripe above a very dark stripe running through the eye; and (5) two pale wing-bars. The bird was extremely active and spent most of its time low in the bushes, searching for insects. It sometimes hovered while feeding, like a Goldcrest, and the yellow rump was then very conspicuous. Occasionally it would make a short vertical flight from the bushes to snap up an insect, rather like a flycatcher ( Muscicapa sp.). It seemed clear that it was a Pallas’s Warbler ( Phylloscopus proregulus). The bird was then caught in a mist net, and ringed by P. R. Evans. Whilst in the hand it was photographed by J. L. Cutbill (see plate 36), and the following description and measurements were taken : Head : crown dark olive-green, with central stripe of pale yellow; prominent pale yellow superciliary, and very dark stripe through eye; cheek and throat pale yellow, merging to greyish-white under-parts. Mantle : bright olive-green. Rump-, bright primrose yellow, very conspicuous. Tail: dark olive-green, square-ended; under tail-coverts pale yellow. TFings : olive-green with two pale yellow wing-bars; the anterior bar (formed by the tips of the median coverts) was narrower and less conspicuous than the posterior one (formed bv the tips of the greater coverts); the edges of both primaries and secondaries were tinged yellow. Bill: rather heavy for the size of the bird; brown, with lower mandible paler at the base. Legs: dark sepia brown. Measurements: wing 50 mm., bill (from skull) 10.5 mm., tail 40 mm. The bird was seen by about 30 members of the Club between 3.15 and 4 p.m., just before the party left to return to Cambridge. This is the second record for Norfolk and the third for the British Isles. Cambridge Bird Club 198 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Thrush Nightingale at Fair Isle. — A Thrush Nightingale (Luscinia luscinia) was trapped in the gully at Fair Isle on the afternoon of ioth May 1957. It was examined in the laboratory by Peter Hope Jones and myself, and was later shown to George Stout of Field and James Stout of Midway, who chanced to be working near-by. From The Handbook’s description, it seemed that the most certain way of distinguishing this bird from the very similar Nightingale (L. megarhynchos ) lay in the short first and long second primaries of the present species. In the captive bird the first was 8 mm. shorter than the primary-coverts and the second only 4.5 mm. shorter than the third or longest primary; only the third primary was emarginate. The measurements taken included : wing (straight) 86 mm., (chord) 83.5 mm., tail 63 mm., bill 13.5 mm., tarsus 27 mm. At a weight of 21.6 gm. our bird seemed light for its size, and this suggests a protracted North Sea cross- ing in the gentle south-east breeze prevailing at the time. The plumage of the upper-parts and wings was a uniform earth- brown, rather rufous on the upper tail-coverts and at the outer edges of the primaries. The tail was a rich warm rufous-brown. The chin and throat were whitish in the centre, with a dark earth- brown wash at the sides. The breast and flanks were greyish earth-brown, paler than the mantle, and most feathers had darker centres, with a few warm buff webs about halfway down: this gave a general effect of indistinct vertical striations. The centre of the belly was whitish, the under tail-coverts were warm buff with slight dark barring. The upper mandible of the bill was dark horn, the lower mandible paler with a pinkish tinge. The legs and feet were pinkish-brown, with a purple tinge on the lead- ing edge of the tarsus. The tail was heavily abraded, the primaries not noticeably so. It was decided, from the presence of small paler tips on the outer greater coverts and two or three inner secondaries, that the bird was in its first summer. This is the third British record for the species, and the second from Fair Isle. Since it breeds as close to Britain as Denmark and southern Scandinavia, it is perhaps surprising that the records are so few, and a very careful examination of any Nightingales caught at the Bird Observatories might well be rewarding. The 1957 bird gave us no opportunities for field observation, but under normal conditions it must be very seldom that the striated breast can be seen, for the members of the genus are notable skulkers. It is perhaps worthwhile, however, to quote that very careful observer, the late Duchess of Bedford, who was present at the shooting of the first Fair Isle specimen in May 1911. She wrote in her diary: “Wilson shot what Mr. Eagle Clarke says is a Nightingale. It does not seem to me nearly russet enough for our common one”. The greyer shade of the mantle may therefore be of some value to observers with adequate experience of the commoner bird. Petkr Davis VOL. Li] NOTES 199 Serin at Fair Isle. — A period of easterly winds in the fourth week of May 1957 brought a wide variety of Continental species to Fair Isle. The movement was heralded by the appearance of a very handsome adult male Rustic Bunting ( Emberiza rustica) on the 22nd (see below), and confirmed by the arrival of an old male Woodchat Shrike ( Lanins senator ) and a sprinkling of small night-migrants, as the wind moved south of east on the 23rd. The peak day was the 24th, with fair numbers of the commoner chats, warblers and flycatchers, also two Bluethroats ( Cyanosylvia svecica) and three Red-backed Shrikes ( Lanins cristatus collurio). The outstanding bird of the movement was a male Serin (Serinus canarius), seen on the 25th, when many of the previous day’s migrants had moved on. I was cycling along the road fronting South Harbour, in the late morning of this calm and sunny day, when a rapid jingling and trilling song drew my attention to a small bird on the tele- phone wires a hundred yards ahead. The yellow breast, visible through binoculars, made me suspect at first that it was a Siskin ( Carduelis spinus). Concealment was impossible, and the bird was rather uncooperative, moving along the line of wires about fifty yards before me as I advanced, but eventually I had a clear view from about thirty yards’ distance. I noted at once two rather indistinct yellowish wing-bars, instead of the one prominent one which is a feature of the Siskin, and also a yellowish forehead, distinct yellow supercilium, and dark green crown and ear-coverts. The bird then flew down from the wires to disappear behind a stone wall, and as it did so I could see that there were no yellow patches at the sides of the tail, the rump alone being bright yellow. Apart from this and the wing-bars, the entire upper- parts, wings and tail were dark green at this distance. I failed to find the bird again, although a prolonged search was made later in the day. There is one previous record of the Serin at Fair Isle (a female shot in May 1914) and one other from the mainland of Scotland. Peter Davis Rustic Bunting at Fair Isle. — A very fine adult male Rustic Bunting ( Emberiza rustica) was captured by Peter Hope Jones in the gully trap at Fair Isle in the late afternoon of 22nd May 1957, and brought to me. It was examined and ringed in the laboratory, and photographed in colour. The spring moult of the head and throat was almost complete, the black areas having only a few old feathers with pale tips, and the white parts being pure. Very few of the chestnut feathers of the nape, breast-band and rump retained the buff-white tips of the winter plumage. Apart from these, the bird was in perfect “picture-book” plumage. The flight-feathers were all in good condition, showing wear only in the central tail-feathers. The bill had a grey-horn upper mandible ; the tip of the lower mandible BRITISH BIRDS 200 [VOL. LI was of the same shade, but its base was pinkish-horn. The legs were pale pinkish-brown, the eye very dark brown. Measurements taken included: wing (straight) 79.5mm., bill 12.5 mm., tarsus 18 mm., tail 58.5 mm. The weight was 20.45 §"m- at 17.00 hours G.M.T. Two fleas were removed, and these have been determined by F. G. A. M. Smit as male Dasypsyllus g. gallinulae. There are nine previous records of Rustic Buntings at Fair Isle, the last being in 1946. Peter Davis REVIEW PORTRAIT OF A WILDERNESS. By Guy Mountfort. Illustrated by Eric Hosking. ( Hutchinson , London, 1958). 240 pages; 60 plates incorporating 130 photographs in monochrome and colour ; line-drawings. 30s. One of the symptoms of the modern “ornithomania” to which Mr. Mountfort refers in his preface has been the tendency of British bird-watchers to pursue birds abroad. Overcrowded in our own island, we are not far from being overcrowded at home as ornithologists. Consequently, the British list is being interpreted more and more as European, which in fact it is. Thus, foreign fields are more and more visited as readily as our own bird resorts. With this development it is remarkable how little, comparatively, anyone has visited the bird-paradise of Andalusia, despite the fact that with it are associated such famous old names as Lord Lilford, Howard Saunders, Irby, Jourdain and Witherby. It is the more remarkable because of all Europe no region has had for so long such exciting, early accounts of the wealth of its wild life. Abel Chapman’s Wild Spain and Verner’s My Life among the Wild Birds in Spain ought long ago to have inspired a close study of so rich an area. Perhaps today, when all the emphasis is on detailed study in the back garden, such books for the young are put under an interdict. It is true that they are the works of a hunter and of an egg-collector respectively, but with modern enlightenment they are not difficult to interpret in their correct historical and ethical perspective. Aatres temps, autres moeurs. Those who have been privileged to visit the Coto Donana, and those who never had Abel Chapman served up to them in youth, will be alike delighted to read Mr. Mountfort’s book, especially as the recent papers in British Birds will have prepared them for what to expect. If there was any spot in Europe which obviously would repay close study, it was this corner of Spain. How well rewarded Mr. Mountfort has been, even the most cursory look through these pages will immediately reveal. First glances could well leave the reader to think that he was reading the Field Guide in narrative form! In these days, when the rarity is rather under a cloud and its pursuit frowned upon by the high table of VOL. Ll] REVIEW 201 ornithology, it is good to find one who so unashamedly as the author sets forth with joy in pursuit. How good, too, to see that half of the distinguished editorial board of this journal find them- selves caught in Mr. Mountfort’s attractive snare! The wealth of the Coto, described and illustrated in this book, is too great for a brief review to do more than indicate. The author gives a short historical background, ornithological and social; in three chapters outlines the journeys and personnel of his three expeditions ; and then proceeds to deal with the abundant wild life, not forgetting the mammals, insects and flowers, by habitats or groups of species. There are chapters devoted more specifically to such star performers as the Imperial Eagle and the kites. In the midst of this almost embarrassing wealth of material the sheer beauty and peace of the Coto are not forgotten, and the chapter entitled “A Day at Martinazo” will bring both joy and nostalgia to all who have known such wildernesses. Finally, Mr. E. M. Nicholson contributes an excellent chapter on the ecology of the Coto. With so many great names in ornithology present on the expeditions, factual errors are not to be expected. However, the oft-cited mistake of quoting Abel Chapman as the original describer of the incubating posture of the Flamingo is here again repeated. (It was, in fact, Sir Harry Johnston — on the Lake of Tunis.) And if Mr. Mountfort is correct in claiming it to be unique in Europe to see four species of eagle in one day in the Coto, then his own Field Guide would appear to need revision, for it should be possible to see at least five in Roumania — always supposing one could get there ! With so much ground to cover it is inevitable that there should be some omissions. Despite all the scientific purpose of his expeditions, the author decided in his planning that the glories of the Coto could best be brought home to the British ornithologist not merely by esoteric papers in learned journals but also with the aid of photography. In view of the big part this aspect plays in his book he could well have improved the historical perspective in his introduction (or in his bibliography) by the mention of the Coto’s pioneer photographers — of the work of W. Farren, published in the long-defunct Wild Life , of Bentley Beetham’s Amongst Our Banished Birds, and of R. B. Lodge’s Bird Hunting through Wild Europe. Mr. Mountfort also seems very preoccupied with “firsts”, i.e. the first time a species has been photographed. Quite apart from the fact that such a point is of small consequence (for what really matters is the technical excellence and interest of a series), the claims in some cases are hasty or at least require qualification. He implies (p. 132) that the expedition’s photographs of the Short-toed Eagle were the first. This entirely overlooks the work (still and film) done in the Cevennes on this species bv Y. Boudoint. He is so keen on these “firsts” that he is prepared to claim them just for colour work alone. If his expedition was 202 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI the first to photograph Squacco Heron in colour (p. ioo), it could only have been by hours or days before Helmut Drechsler in the Camargue in 1956. Even in the case of the Imperial Eagle, the qualification that a photograph, however poor by modern standards, had been taken by R. B. Lodge as long ago as 1907, albeit of the Roumanian race, would have been a courteous gesture to an enterprising pioneer of bird photography, working under very difficult conditions of equipment. The illustrations are superb. It is only necessary to say that even Mr. Eric Hosking has never exceeded this standard. It is true that the constant light of the Coto helps colour photography, but all who have used a camera in the south know how devastat- ing the effect of blazing sun can be on monochrome. Mr. Hosking has handled this technical problem with great skill. To select any out of such a galaxy for special merit would be invidious, but particular mention must be made of those of the Short-toed Eagle. This, however, is merely a personal choice, for from the humble Savi’s Warbler to the great Imperial Eagle all are in that class of perfection in which British bird photographers lead the world. The final picture which emerges from this book is that here in the Coto Donana is a bird paradise, an unspoilt sanctuary which has so far miraculously escaped man’s all-devouring advance into the wilderness, partly because of the physical problems it sets, but largely thanks to the enlightened family who administer it. At all costs it must be preserved. This review, therefore, like the book, must end on a note of warning. Because today so many want to see birds, strict control of precious sanctuaries is essential. It is all too easy for an author, with such a subject to describe, to play the Pied Piper. The Coto is one such place, and Mr. Mountfort rightly emphasises that it is private property, and points out that most of its birds, if not so concentrated, can be seen in other parts of Andalusia (some actual localities were given in British Birds for December 1957, antea, vol. l, pp. 502-504). It is to be hoped that his wishes and the privacy of the Gonzdlez family will be respected. It would be small reward to Mr. Mountfort for giving us this absorbing book if it proved otherwise. G.K.Y. REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION FIELD INVESTIGATIONS OF THE BRITISH TRUST FOR ORNITHOLOGY Status of the Wryneck. — Readers are reminded that all records of this species are of value (see antea, p. 163) and should be sent to editors of county bird reports or, in cases of doubt, to the organizer: Dr. J. F. Monk, Little Stow, Goring, near Reading. Survey of Black-headed Gulls. — Helpers are still required to visit and estimate the size of breeding colonies, especially in Scotland and Wales (see vol. li] REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION 203 antea, p. 164). Please write for record cards to: F. C. Gribble, 42, The Grove, Bedford (England and Wales); F. D. Hamilton, 4, Bruntsfield Terrace, Edinburgh 10 (Scotland). Status of the Nightjar. — For the second year a survey is being organized by Dr. J. Stafford, Stone House, Shoreham-by-Sea, Sussex. Anyone able to provide information on the Nightjar this summer (including negative reports from previously frequented habitats) is invited to get in touch with him. Habitats of the Oystercatcher.— An enquiry is being organized by E. J. M. Buxton, New College, Oxford, into the spread of the Oystercatcher inland in England and Scotland. Since the 18th century these birds have bred up the river valleys of eastern Scotland, but they do not seem to have spread inland in England until the present century and they are now also to be found nesting on farmland and moorland away from the rivers. The purpose of the enquiry is to trace the history and extent of this spread. RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson-Lees The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not be regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writer’s judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted in case a report is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. This summary is chiefly concerned with the period 22nd March-ist May, a time which normally sees the arrival of the majority of the summer visitors and the departure of all but the last of the winter ones. This year the cold spell — which began in early March and, with only one short break at the end of that month, continued until 18th April — delayed things to such an extent that the main rush of summer migrants did not take place until the night of 19th/ 20th April and the two successive ones, and there were still many Fieldfares (Turdus pilaris) and Redwings (T. musicus) in large flocks in the middle of the month. The prolonged easterly and south-easterly winds that were an unusual feature of so much of March and April contributed enormously to the interesting pattern that has emerged. A south-easterly gale, with bitterly cold conditions, brought a rush of migrants, especially Turdidae, to Great Saltee (Co. Wexford) in the fourth week of March : Blackbirds (T. mcrula) and Bramblings ( Fringilla montifringilla) were in large numbers, but very weak and much below normal weight; some Wheatears ( Oertanthe oenanthe) died in the hand, though Chiffchaffs ( Phyllo - scopus collybita) were lively enough; more Song Thrushes (T. philomelos) appeared there than in any previous spring. Chiffchaffs reached Skokholm on 25th March; subsequently more were trapped there than in the whole of any previous year. (Northwards dispersal was slow, however, and Chiffchaffs did not reach Rhum, in the Inner Hebrides, until the last week of April.) These were part of the otherwise moderate arrival of summer visitors which, as mentioned last month (antea, p. 164), occurred during the short spell of milder weather at the end of March; at the same time there was a much more spectacular movement of certain other species. In the south, from Kent to Dorset and even to the Scilly Isles (St. Agnes Bird Observatory) and Skokholm in the west, the Robin (Erithacus rubecula) was widely reported as the most notable bird of this end-March movement. At Dungeness, Kent, 3 were ringed on 25th March and in the early hours of the following morning there were large numbers round the lighthouse, after \iffiich an estimated 500 were to be seen in the Observatory area and 120 were ringed on that day; the next morning, 27th March, there were fewer at the light and only about 350 afterwards in the Observatory area, but the fact that 10 1 204 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI were ringed then and that these included no retraps from the 26th suggests that they were almost entirely new arrivals; in all, during the six days 25th- 30th March, no less than 262 Robins were ringed at Dungeness. The majority of those handled were of the pale Continental form (E. r. rubecula) and many observers along the south coast reported the presence of unusual numbers of “greyish and pale orange’’ Robins at this time. The Robin movement was also reflected up the east coast in many areas, and at Monks’ House in Northumberland about 30 Continental Robins were trapped in two periods, 28th-3ist March and nth-i2th April. On the east coast, however, Blackbirds and Song Thrushes, and also Goldcrests ( Regulus regulus), were equally or more conspicuous species, and at Monks’ House the spring passage of these birds was the heaviest on record. At Fair Isle and S. Shetland, during 29th March-ist April, this movement took the form of what is described as “the biggest spring rush ever seen”, with Blackbirds “in thousands” and Lapwings ( Vanellus vanellus), Song Thrushes, Robins again, Skylarks ( Alauda arvensis). Chaffinches ( Fringilla coelebs) and Starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris) “in hundreds”: over 500 birds were ringed there in five days, including 253 (197 Blackbirds) on 31st March. A severe south-east gale occurred at this time, and Mistle Thrushes (T. viscivorus ) — rare on Fair Isle — and Dunnocks ( Prunella modularis ) were also involved; the Chaffinches were all thought to be the Central European hortensis. Just as the Robin movement was reflected in the east and north, so were the Blackbirds in the south, and at Dungeness the numbers were described as “high”, with a peak of 150 on 25th and 26th March, dropping to 50 by the end of the month. As always, this movement of common species included abnormal numbers of one or two regular but less common birds, and a few rarities. Firecrests ( Regulus ignicapillus), which are regular in spring in very small numbers in south-east England, were both more numerous and more widespread than usual. Dungeness had a maximum of 10, on 27th and 28th March, and in the period 26th March-23rd April no less than 23 were ringed there. At this time, too, there were observations of 1-5 Firecrests in various places in Sussex and and Hampshire, and there were 12 or more at Portland, Dorset, on 27th March (with smaller numbers on the days that followed). In addition one was reported from Brent Reservoir, Middlesex, on pth April, and by the week-end of the i9th-20th single birds were caught at Spurn, Yorkshire, and Bardsey Island, off Caernarvonshire (where there was also a movement of Goldcrests at the time). One was seen at High Halstow, Kent, on 22nd April, and soon afterwards one at Havergate, Suffolk; a total of 13 reports came from Essex during the 6-week period from end-March to 4th May. The Herefordshire Firecrest ( antea , pp. 132 and 164) was last seen on 5th April. Another more numerous migrant in late March and early April was the Black Redstart ( Phoenicurus ochruros) : reports of single birds in unusual places, or of greater numbers, came from Aberdeen, Fife, East Lothian, Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Dorset, Scilly Isles, Surrey, Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Cheshire, Skokholm and Bardsey. A female ringed on St. Agnes, Scilly Isles, on 26th March was trapped at Dungeness on 19th April. Hoopoes (Upupa epops) were reported, as in every late March and April, from south coast counties from Kent to the Scillies (St. Agnes), but the numbers may have been higher than usual: Portland had a total of about 16 on some 10 days in mid-April, most of them moving quickly inland. One was seen in Essex on 3rd May, and one in Cheshire during 25th-28th April; one of two seen at Skokholm stayed for six days. Among the more unexpected of the not uncommon species on the move at this time were Woodlarks ( Lullula arborea ) and Cirl Buntings (Emberiza cirlus ): up to 5 of the former were seen at Dungeness at the end of March, and up to 7 at Portland, Dorset (the first spring records at the Observatory there), while one appeared at Fair Isle on 31st March. It was Portland also that had the Cirl Buntings, a total of 6 (two single females, a pair, and two males). Incidentally, the two commonest buntings, Reed Bunting (E. schoeniclus ) and Yellowhammer ( E . citrinella), were both involved in significant VOL. LI j RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 205 inland movements throughout March, as were Meadow Pipits ( Anthus pratensis) : details are not sufficient for it to be possible to draw any conclusions, but the passage of Reed Buntings in particular was remarked upon in several counties from Middlesex and Essex to Staffordshire and up to Midlothian in Scotland. At Hayes, Middlesex, where the movement took place in two periods, 2nd- 12th and iyth-25th March, it was estimated that at least 250 Reed Buntings and 100 Yellowhammers passed through one small area; all actually seen travelling were moving N. or N.N.E. Of rarer birds reported in the end-March rush, the most interesting were undoubtedly the Bluethroats ( Cyanosylvia svecica). As one would expect from the geographical distribution of the two west European forms it is the Red- spotted Bluethroat (C. s. svecica) which is the regular autumn drift-migrant, while the more southerly White-spotted (C. s. cyanecula) is perhaps most likely in spring as a result of over-shooting its range. This year Bluethroats have been reported from seven counties and the following were identified as White- spotted: St. Agnes, Scilly Isles (male, 22nd-24th March); Colne Point, Essex (male, 2Sth March); Bamburgh, Northumberland (male, 30th March); Pett, Sussex (two males, with an “immature”, ist-i3th April); and Spurn, Yorkshire (male, 6th April); those at Spurn and Bamburgh were trapped. In addition, a male Bluethroat in not quite full plumage was seen at Southsea, Hampshire, on 26th March; and there were two at Dungeness, Kent, on 1st April; one of the latter trapped was a male in moult, but the race could not be determined. Other rarities during this period included single Little Buntings ( Emberiza pusilla) on St. Agnes, Scilly Isles, on 27th March and on Fair Isle on 4th April, while a Short-toed Lark ( Calandrella cinerea) was reported from Hilbre, Cheshire. To turn to the summer visitors, this late March/earlv April movement produced small numbers of Garganey (Anas querquedula), Little Ringed Plovers ( Charadrius dubius), Common Sandpipers ( Tringa hypoleucos), various terns ( Sterna spp.), Wrynecks ( ]ynx torquilla), Hirundines, Ring Ouzels ( Turdus torquatus), Wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe ), Willow Warblers ( Phylloscopus trochilus), Chiffchaffs (Ph. collybita) and Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava). Sandwich Terns (Sterna sandvicensis) began to arrive on 26th-2yth March (so that, for example, the number at Havergate, Suffolk, had already built up to 20 by the good date of 29th March. Ring Ouzels first appeared at Bardsey Island, Caernarvonshire, on 25th March (with a peak on 1st April) and at Fair Isle, with the first Wheatears, on the 30th, by which time Garganey were reported as far north as Warwickshire. Several House Martins (Deliclion urbica) — for example, one at Salisbury, Wiltshire, on 26th March, and one at Godstow, Oxford, on the 27th — were surprising arrivals with the other two species of Hirundines (2 or more weeks early). Other early reports at this time included a Hobby ( Falco subbuteo) at Chew, Somerset, on 7th April, and what was almost certainly another near Salhouse, Norfolk, on the same day (2 weeks early); a Sedge Warbler (Acrocephalus schoenobaenus) at Chichester, Sussex, on 30th March (1-2 weeks early), a Reed Warbler ( Acrocephalus scirpaceus ) at Fleet Pond, Hampshire, on 10th April (1-2 weeks early); single Tree Pipits (Anthus trivialis) near Millbrook, Southampton, and Portland, Dorset, on 30th March (1 week early) and as far north as Warwickshire on 1st April. The first Blackcaps (Sylvia atricapilla ) were reported from Bardsey and Portland on 25th and 29th March respectively (the former the only record there up to the middle of April); Redstarts (Phoenicurus phoenicurus ) appeared at Portland on 30th March, in the City of London on ist-2nd April, at Durlston Head, Dorset, on 2nd April, as far north as Bartley Green, near Birmingham, by 6th April, and at Chew, Somerset, on 7th April; all except the one at Durlston Head were single males. Whimbrels (Numenius phaeopus ) arrived in Hamp- shire at the very beginning of April, the first near Southampton on 30th March. (Incidentally, while on the subject of early summer-visitors, I made an error in the locality of the early ChifFchafT in song, referred to in our April number ( ante a , p. 164I: this was not in Surrey at all, but at Hayes, Middlesex. Other much earlier reports of this kind, that have been received since then, include a Chiffchaflf picked up dying in Essex on 25th January; a Wheatear at Rainham, 206 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Kent, on 15th February; a Swallow ( Hirundo rustled) and a House Martin at Marazion Marsh, Cornwall, on 25th February (there have been five other February records of House Martins in Cornwall in the last ten years, and two early March ones); and two Common Sandpipers ( Tringa hypoleucos) at Cley, Norfolk, on gth March.) This then was the situation brought about by the warm spell at the end of March, but then the cold returned, to an abnormal extent, and the not very large numbers of summer-visitors that had arrived seemed to disappear: about 14th April the report from nearly everywhere was “Very few migrants”. Instead, winter visitors like Redwings and Fieldfares, and also Bramblings, were still numerous. Although the two winter thrushes often do not leave this country until well into April and the Fieldfare often into May, it is not usual to see flocks of 200-500 of these two species in the middle of April, particularly in southern England — yet such gatherings were evidently widespread this year and even in Cornwall small parties of Redwings were being recorded up to 16th and 18th April. On the night of iyth/xSth a big movement of Redwings and Starlings occurred at Dungeness and a total of 268 of these two species were ringed at the lighthouse. A big passage of Iceland Redwings (T. m. coburni) went on through St. Kilda during the last ten days of April, and also of Snipe ( Capella gallinago) and Redshank (Tringa totanus) on the 29th. Throughout the first fortnight of April, numbers of Water Rails ( Rallus aqualicus) were reported as unusually high in Kent where, for example, at Dungeness 20 were ringed between 31st March and 16th April, and on one day 10 were flushed together. Isolated reports from elsewhere in Britain also tend to suggest an influx of this species. At Dungeness the numbers dropped away after the 16th, with one only on most days to the 29th and then no more. An adult male Dartford Warbler ( Sylvia undata) was ringed at St. Catherine’s lighthouse, Isle of Wight, at 03.45 hours on 14th April. This species does not often figure as a passage bird and so it is of interest to add that, last autumn, two separate individuals were recorded at Dungeness: one on 17th October and another on the 26th and 27th. On 18th April the cold weather let up and the main “release” rush of summer migrants — Redstarts, Whitethroats ( Sylvia communis), Pied Flycatchers (Muscicapa hypoleucos), Blackcaps, Garden Warblers ( Sylvia borin), Nightingales ( Luscinia megarhynchos) and so on — followed almost immediately. The peak nights for arrival on the south coast seem to have been those of I9th/20th, 20th/2ist, 2ist/22nd and 24th/25th. Swifts ( Apus apus), which do not normally appear until the very last days of April, were surprisingly then reported from several places on the 21st and there had been a considerable influx by the 26th; they reached Cheshire in force by 30th April, which is some 7-10 days earlv. There was a small influx of Blue-headed Wagtails ( Motacilla f. flava) at Cley, Norfolk, on 25th April; and on 30th April, for the second year in succession, a number (5 on that day) of beeina-tvpe wagtails appeared at Beddington, Surrey; in 1957 a group of these nested there. Then the first three days of May saw a considerable movement of Black Terns ( Chlidonias niger): reports on the xst included 120 at Pitsford reservoir, Northamptonshire, 160 at Rockland Broad, Norfolk, and 36 at Stewartbv, Bedfordshire; on the 2nd there were 104 at Tring, Hertfordshire, 100 at Abberton reservoir, Essex, and over 400 at Hanningfield near-by; and on the 3rd 160 arrived at Hanning- field in the evening. Reports of Black Terns at this time have come from counties as far apart as Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Oxfordshire, Kent and Hampshire, but 23 is the largest number so far reported outside the area bounded by the counties already mentioned. There have been a number of rarer birds in recent weeks, apart from those already mentioned, and the following reports are worth noting. One apparent Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) was still present at Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire, on 15th April (see antea, pp. 40 and 131), and on 27th and 28th April yet another was found at Hanningfield Reservoir, Essex: the exact identity of these birds is still being examined. On Islay, in the Inner Hebrides, a very small, short-necked and dark Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) was located on 5th April among a flock of 1,000 Barnacle Geese (B. leucopsis ): from the VOL. Li] RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 207 description it seems very likely that this was of the tiny Alaskan race ( B . c. minima), known as the Cackling Goose, in which case it appears that it cannot have escaped from captivity. A Great Snipe ( CapeLla media ) was reported from Cley, Norfolk, on 9th April, and two Black-winged Stilts (Himantopus himantopus) — apparently a pair — on the Hayle estuary, Cornwall, on 19th April, and probably 20th; during 2ist-24th another mainly south European bird, an immature Purple Heron ( Ardea purpurea), was seen on St. Agnes, Scilly Isles; and perhaps this is an opportune moment to mention that a juvenile Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), which may have come from S. Europe or from Edinburgh Zoo (see antea, vol. xlvii, pp. 353-354; Scot. Nat., vol. 69, pp. 32-36), was picked up dead near Mersham, Kent, on 2nd February. An immature Crane (Grus grus) was identified at Saltwood, Kent, on 5th April, and an adult near Chevington Drift, Northumberland, on 29th and 30th (c/. antea, pp. 13 1 and 164). Single Spoonbills (Platalea leucorodia) appeared at Cley, Norfolk, on 25th April; on the Welland estuary, Lincolnshire, on the 29th (immature); and at Hanningfield reservoir, Essex, on 3rd May (immature). On 29th March a Spotted Crake (Porzana porzana) was heard calling at Leeds Castle, Kent, and on 7th April another was flushed at Stodmarsh in the same county. A female Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus) — only the third record of this species in Middlesex this century — was reported from Staines on 1st April, and there was a male at Aberthaw, Glamorgan, on 7th April — the first in the latter county since a doubtful occurrence in 1888. Single adult Mediterranean Black-headed Gulls ( Larus melanocephalus) were seen at South- sea, Hampshire, during 6th-2ist February and at Brighton, Sussex, on 25th and 26th March (see antea, pp. 132 and 164), while one that was first seen at Hartlepool, Co. Durham, on 1st August 1957 was still there on 9th April. The 2nd-year Iceland Gull (L. glaucoides) at South wick, Sussex (antea, p. 132), was last seen there on nth April; what may or may not have been the same bird was noted at Shoreham, near-by, on 30th March and on several occasions to 1st May. An Iceland Gull was also seen at St. Mary’s Bay, Thames, Kent, on 29th March, and it is interesting to note that there was a 2nd-year bird on St. Kilda during the last fortnight of April. Single Glaucous Gulls (L. hyper- boreus) were reported from Bardsey Island on 24th March and 6th April — the first records for the Observatory. A party of 5 Lesser Short-toed Larks (Calandrella rufescens ) was identified on Great Saltee, Co. Wexford, during 22nd-25th March: this is the fifth occasion (and the fourth in Ireland) that small parties of this species have been reported in the last four years and it is hoped to publish a full statement in due course. Single Richard’s Pipits ( Anthus richardi) were identified at Staines reservoir, Middlesex, on 12th April and again (King George VI reservoir) on the 30th; and at Beddington, Surrey, on the 17th and 18th April. Incidentally, rather unusual inland, single Lapland Buntings ( Calcarius lapponicus), a male and a female respectively, were reported at Beddington (5th April) and Staines, Middlesex (13th April). A party of, to judge from the description, Mealy Redpolls ( Carduelis f. flammea) was present near Walberswick, Suffolk, during yth-iSth April, the greatest number being 21 or 22 on the 8th. Avocets ( Recurvirostra avosetta) and Kites ( Milvus milvus), neither of which are much recorded away from their habitual areas, have both been more in evidence in recent weeks. Apart from the first-summer Avocet at Budle Bay, Northumberland — mentioned last month (antea, p. 164) — which I now understand was first seen on 15th February and still present on 14th April, Avocets have been reported in Herefordshire (2 during 27th March-ist April at Parton, near Eardisley), in Norfolk (2-14 during 4th-nth April at Cley, and subsequently 5 at Burnham Overv), in Kent (one on 6th April at Littlebrook, and one on the 7th at Sheppey), in Yorkshire (2 on 6th April at Spurn, then 3 on the 7th and one during the 8th-qth), in East Lothian (5 on 6th April at Aberlady Bay, then 3 during the 9th-ioth and 2 on the nth), and in Hamp- shire (2 at Farlington Marshes on 19th April): it will be noticed from these dates that there was evidently an immigration about 4th-6th April, and it was in fact at just this period that the main population returned to Suffolk. Kites were reported from North Walsham, Norfolk, on 3rd March; from Launeells, 208 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Cornwall, on ioth March; from Dungeness, Kent, on 5th April; and from Long Dean, Wiltshire, on 13th April — apart from those mentioned last month ( antea , p. 164) — as well as incomplete or uncertain cases in Middlesex, Lincoln- shire, Cheshire and Yorkshire. A Rough-legged Buzzard (Buteo lagopus) at Sandringham, Norfolk, on 12th March and an Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) near Ingatestone, Essex, on 21st April were the only other interesting birds of prey reported. Several previous references have been made to inland Long-tailed Ducks ( Clangula hyemalis ) and Eiders ( Somateria mollissima ) during this past winter (antea, pp. 40, 84, 132 and 164), and reports of the former continue to come in, with the total of counties raised to seventeen by the inclusion of Glamorgan, Gloucester, Somerset, Lancashire and Lanarkshire, apart from another in Perthshire; several southern counties, including both Kent and Cornwall, report that Long-tailed Ducks have been seen off the coast more frequently than ever before. Another inland Eider occurred near Pymore, Cambridgeshire, on 8th March. More recently, however, it has been the Common Scoter ( Melanitta nigra) that has been the sea-duck of lakes and reservoirs, and during April there were reports from Bedfordshire (pair at Wyboston on 5th April, and a female at Bedford on the 22nd), Warwickshire (male at Alvecote on 5th April and female there on the 8th), Worcestershire (female at Kidder- minster on the 13th), London (female at Dulwich on the 17th), Cambridgeshire (two females at Waterbeach on the 17th) and Hertfordshire (one at Tring reservoirs on the 20th) — quite apart from rather unusual numbers a few miles inland at Abberton, Essex, and at Chew, Somerset, where there were 9 and 15 respectively on 5th and 6th April: thus suggesting that the influx inland took place in the first week of the month. On 6th April there was a pair of Velvet Scoters (M. fusca) inland on Portmore Loch, Peebleshire. A Black- throated Diver (Gavia arctica) at Cannock Chase reservoir, Staffordshire, on 30th March and ioth-i2th April, was another unusual inland report. To bring up to date the picture shown by several other species in recent months. First of all, a correction : the two drake Red-crested Pochards ( Netta rufina) at Stanford Reservoir were seen on 15th March (not 4th — cf. antea, p. 164) and this sheet of water, though near Rugby, is actually on the Leicester- shire/Northamptonshire border; what were almost certainly the same two birds were seen the next day, 16th March, at Napton Reservoir which lies about 12 miles to the south-west, between Leamington and Daventry. A number of March and April Shags ( Phalacrocorax aristotelis) suggested that the survivors of the January/February “wreck” (antea, p. 131) were making their way back: these did not include more than one or two far inland reports, but 11 (1 dead) at Abberton, Essex, on 27th March, for example, and arrivals on the Sussex, Kent and Essex coasts, and on the Ouse Washes in Cambridge- shire, between mid-March and 13th April, indicated a northward movement round the south-east corner of England. Several reports during late March and the first half of April support the suggestion of a return movement of tits ( Parus spp.) (see antea, pp. 162-163). Bardsev, Portland and Dungeness have all reported movements of Blue Tits (P. caeruleus ) and smaller numbers of Great (P. major), and reed-beds in East Anglia have again been full of Blue Tits; there have now been several recoveries from the Continent of tits ringed in this country since last autumn’s immigration. Coal Tits (P. ater), how- ever, have not been much in evidence and only Bardsey (single birds on 7th and 20th March) has reported any movement of this species. There have been still further reports confirming an influx of Stonechats (Saxicola torquata ) in mid-February and early March (see antea, pp. 132 and 164), and Fair Isle had about 6 different individuals during this period — more than for many years; in February and again at the end of March they appeared at Skokholm and there were more at Great Saltee during 22nd-25th March than have ever been recorded there before. Finally, data are still coming forward concerning an apparent influx of Water Pipits (Anthus s. spinoletta) and other Continental populations of the Rock Pipit: the picture is not yet complete. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. 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Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LI, Number 6, June 1958 Page Bergmann’s Rule and obligatory overseas migration. By Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 209 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. LXXXIX — Goshawk. Photographed by Kurt Ellstrom and Jonas Svensk (plates 37-40). Text by I. C. T. Nisbet ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 233 Obituary: John Arthington Walpole-Bond (1878-1958) 237 Notes : — The identification of White-headed and Ruddy Ducks (I. J. Ferguson- Lees) 239 Red Grouse swimming (C. H. Fry) 241 Partridges apparently affected by industrial contamination (Dr. J. S. Ash) ... ' 24. Exceptional passage of Black Terns through Somerset in September 1957 (M. W. Pickering) 242 Lanceolated Warbler at Fair Isle (Peter Davis) 243 Reviews : — Audubon Bird Guide, Audubon Water Bird Guide and Audubon Western Bird Guide. By Richard H. Pough. Illustrated by Don Eckelberry, Earl L. Poole and Terry M. Shortt 244 Letter : — Social flying by Ravens (Sir Landsborough Thomson) 246 Recent reports and news. By I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Kenneth Williamson ... ... ... ... ••• ••• 247 Cover photograph by Kurt Ellstrom and Jonas Svensk: female Goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis) at nest .„rvaSCO 2 /v Vol. LI No. 6 BRITISH BIRDS BERGMANN’S RULE AND OBLIGATORY OVERSEAS MIGRATION By Kenneth Williamson [Migration Research Officer, British Trust for Ornithology) INTRODUCTION In the study of natural history there are well-known ecogeographical (sometimes called “climatic” or “ecological”) rules relating certain characteristics of warm-blooded animals to the conditions of their environment. One of the best-known in its application to birds is Bergmann’s Rule, which states that in a polytypic species the body-size of a subspecies tends to increase with the decreasing mean temperature of its habitat. Thus body-size, as indicated by an average lengthen- ing of the wing, shows a tendency to increase with latitude ; and the wings of populations which live at high altitudes tend to be longer than those of the same species residing in lowland areas. As Huxley (1942) pointed out, this is really a part of the more general principle that in warm-blooded animals body-surface relative to bulk tends to diminish with decreasing mean temperature of the environment; it is an adjustment compensat- ing the organism, since the smaller the body the more heat it radiates to the colder outer air. This correlation has been criticised by Scholander (1955) on the grounds that there are more efficient adaptations for conserving body-heat, but their existence does not necessarily invalidate the hypothesis as a partial interpretation of Bergmann’s Rule. There are some striking exceptions (Rensch estimates 16 per cent in Palaearctic birds) to the general rule, and the reasons for such exceptions are not always clear. There are many aspects to the problem, and the selection pressures which have combined to produce (or, in some cases, suppress) this “latitude effect” are manifold. Mayr (1956) insists that it must be regarded as “a purely empirical finding which 209 210 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI can be proven or disproven no matter to what physiological theory one might ascribe this size trend”, and he warns strongly against the search for an all-or-none solution to this complicated biological problem. The scope of the present discussion is a limited one, aiming to show that one of the contributory factors which must be taken into account in considering this ‘‘latitude effect” in certain species is the selection pressure exerted during the comparatively brief periods of the biennial migration. For, as Mayr has emphasized, the working of natural selection is particularly efficient during catastrophes and other periods of great environmental stress, so that even the short-term influence of a long migratory flight may be expected to play its part. Some consideration has already been devoted to the nature of this ‘‘latitude effect” in migratory species, though much of this has been concerned with the bird in its winter quarters and little of it with the actual journey which takes it there, and which returns it to the breeding-ground in spring. Rensch (1939) showed that a size-correlation could often be found with the minimum winter temperature of the environment, selection being exerted by the most rigorous life-conditions. This suggests that in migratory species the body-size of a northern population is likely to be a function of selection due to the off-season environment rather than the high latitude of the breeding-area. Thus Hemmingsen (1951) proposed that if we are to test the validity of Bergmann’s Rule in migratory species, it is to the winter rather than the summer range that we must look for an answer. He further pointed out that the timing of migration might also be involved since some subspecies, and also members of closely-allied species, return earlier in the season, under colder weather conditions, than others — as, for example, the Curlew ( Numenius arquata) and Whimbrel ( N . phaeopus), the Slender- billed Knot ( Calidris tenuirostris ) and Common Knot ( C . canutus). In these couples an association is apparent, on the one hand, between early spring movement, greater® body-size and relatively northern winter quarters, and, on the other hand, a later migration in milder weather, smaller body-size and relatively warmer and more southerly wintering grounds. Salomonsen (1955) has also discussed at some length the effects due to selection pressure in the winter range, and has shown convincingly that there arc cases in which a marked correlation exists between Bergmann’s Rule and the rigour of conditions in the winter environment. This is especially so with those races of a species which practise allohiemy, or which (in other words) are segregated in different regions outside the breeding-season. Once such allohiemy has been established, differences in the selective factors operating in the two regions will tend to encourage sub- specific differentiation. The Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticula) affords an excellent example, for here we find a reversal of the vol. li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 211 normal “latitude effect” in that the smallest race tundrae nests farthest north in the total range; however, its migration “leap- frogs” the range of the typical race, and its smaller size is really a response to the warmth of a tropical wintering-area. Salomonsen sees a similar state of affairs in the races of the Redshank ( Tringa tetanus), but there is a difficulty, which we shall refer to again below, in the case of the Icelandic form. Salomonsen’s contribution is of great importance to the study of evolution and subspeciation in birds; but there remain certain populations, notably among the land-birds of Greenland and Ice- land, whose divergence from their Continental relatives cannot be satisfactorily accounted for on his, Hemmingsen’s, or any other hypothesis so far advanced. There are striking cases among these migratory land-birds in which it seems probable that selection operates most powerfully during the brief migratory periods; for, in comparison with their Continental relatives, they are called upon to perform twice yearly an obligatory overseas flight, with all its attendant hazards of migrational drift away from the most direct route. The rigours of these long flights are such that survival favours the more robust individuals possessing the greatest resources of energy (stored glycogen and fats) ; so that in the course of many generations the stock has developed a greater body-size by comparison with populations following coastal or overland migration-routes. This increased size is primarily apparent in a greater weight, and secondarily in an allometric increase in the length of wing and tail. It is worth while looking more closely into this situation in respect of certain breeding-birds of Iceland and Greenland, whose brief arctic summer is passed under conditions not as a rule more rigorous than those obtaining at similar latitudes in continental Europe. The fullest discussion will be given to the most striking, example, the Wheatear, and a number of other species will be discussed at shorter length, with a view to determining to what extent they fall into line with the above hypothesis. Wheatear ( Oenanthe oenanthe) The typical race of the Wheatear breeds over the whole of Europe, extending north of the Arctic Circle, while a large form Oenanthe oe. leucorrlwa is a common breeder in the low Arctic region of Greenland, and also nests, though more locally, in the southern part of the high Arctic region. Salomonsen (1950-51) says “The Wheatear is much more common in the interior fjord country with a dryer and warmer climate and a rich insect-life than in the coastal areas, where it is rather scarce. It has its greatest population density in the south (Julianehaab District) and becomes less numerous towards the north”. The interior fjord country of the Julianehaab District is actually sub-Arctic in climate, and at about 61 °N. is considerably south of the Arctic Circle and indeed at much the same latitude as Shetland. Wynne- 212 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Edwards (1952) found this form abundant at the head of Clyde Inlet, Baffin Island, about 7o°N., and it nests sparingly in other parts of the east Canadian Arctic. The Wheatear is common in Iceland and the F aeroe Islands : in the south of Iceland and Faeroe the birds are intermediate between oenanthe and leucorrhoa and ha\ e been named Oenanthe os. schiolen . Table I gives wing- measurements of these populations and is taken from Salomonsen Table I Wing-measurements of different populations of Wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe) (after Salomonsen, 1950-51) Origin No. Males Range (mm.) Average No. Females Range (mm.) Average Greenland 36 I 02- I I O 105.00 37 1 00- 1 08 103-37 Iceland 49 99-107 102.55 23 96-103 98.81 Faeroe Is. 22 97- *03 99.61 13 95-i°! 97-54 Scandinavia 56 92-99 96.38 36 89-97 93.22 A group of Wheatears, of medium wing-length and decidedly heavier than the local stock (and presumably the so-called schioleri of south Iceland and Faeroe origin) migrates through Fair Isle regularly each autumn during the last ten days of August. Fair Isle and Shetland birds are smaller and are referable to oenanthe. The Greenland Wheatear (including the Canadian Arctic stock) migrates through western Europe and winters mainly in tropical west Africa, along with birds of the typical race. The majority of the Greenland birds arrive on their breeding-grounds in middle and late May, but many do not reach the northern limits till early June (Salomonsen, 1950-51). This agrees well with the passage- dates at Fair Isle, movement being evident in early and mid-May, and occasionally as early as the last week of April — though Ticehurst (1909) gives this as the normal time of arrival in southern England. This means that the bigger race is subject to “warmer” climatic conditions during its spring journey than the typical form, which reaches Britain late in March and continues to pass through- out April; and thus the Wheatear provides an exception to Hemmingsen’s rule that in related forms the smaller one moves later and under more congenial weather conditions. In autumn there is a difference of up to a fortnight, local and Shetland birds leaving in bulk from mid-August, the intermediate type passing during the last week or so of the month, and the big leucorrhoa from the beginning of September. It is interesting to consider the migration in relation to the greater body-weight of the Greenland race. Spring passage at Fair Isle is steady and protracted, with birds much less numerous than in autumn, when of course the majority are young of the year. (1956 showed a reversal of this situation, the spring migration being quite exceptionally heavy, and the fall migration unusually slight.) At both seasons, specimens of leucorrhoa show a wide vol. li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 213 variation in weight (Table II), though in general the heaviest birds pass in the spring and the lightest occur (often in fairly homo- geneous groups) in the fall (note the low weights in Table IV). It is possible that the light spring birds reach Fair Isle as the result of wind-drift when attempting to cross the Atlantic from an Irish or west-coast starting-point, while others apparently come in with Continental migrants displaced from the North Sea coast and Skagerrak by easterly winds. Table II — Weights of Greenland Wiieatf.ars ( Oenanthe oe. leucorrhoa) TRAPPED ON SPRING PASSAGE AT FAIR ISLE, TO SHOW THE GREAT VARIATION Year Heavy Birds Light Birds No. Range (gm.) Average No. Range (gm.) Average 1949 4 29.20-37.40 33-63 5 21.45-24.71 23.07 >950 5 29- '1-33-33 30.67 I 26.13 1 95 1 3 30.13-35.65 32-38 2 23.19-26.65 24.94 1952 8 28.00-38.08 32-52 I 24.50 1953 5 33.62-43.19 37-75 3 21.48-26.07 24.18 1954 6 27.21-38.81 32.01 2 2 1.2 1-26.70 23-95 1955 7 27-43-37-39 32.82 2 24.41-25.35 24.88 For the most part, however, these spring birds are pursuing a northwards course under optimum conditions, for much of their migration takes place when there is anticyclonic weather over the British Isles. Since they reach Fair Isle from the north of Scot- land and Orkney they have made only a negligible sea-crossing, and may be presumed to have expended very little of the reserves of energy built up by an adequate food-supply whilst travelling through Britain. The opposite situation occurs in autumn when col or anticyclonic weather provides calms or light airs to the north, and in some seasons a vast Wheatear movement is released by such weather in the Faeroe-Shetland region in the last week of August. As is to be expected, the best weights are recorded in spring, with individuals occasionally exceeding 40 gm. — viz. cfdL 30th April 1953, 43.2 gm. (wing 109 mm.), 5th May 1956, 41.2 gm. (wing 107 mm.); 9 9 4th June 1953, 42.7 gm. (wing 98 mm), 5th May 1955, 41. 1 gm. (wing 97 mm.). A detailed analysis of the weights of Wheatears captured in the spring at Fair Isle has been undertaken bv Alec Butterfield, and this reveals a striking difference between leucorrhoa on passage and locallv-resident oenanthe (Table III). Table III — Comparison between the weights of all Greenland Wheatears ( Oenanthe oe. leucorrhoa) trapped on spring passage at Fair Isle and those of the localla'-resident stock (Oe. oe. oenanthe) Males Females leucorrhoa oenanthe leucorrhoa oenanthe Numbers of specimens 30 45 24 35 Mean Weight in gm. 30.98 24. I I 30-25 23.80 Standard Deviation 5.62 2.38 4.41 2.08 Ratio of Mean Weight to Standard Deviation 5-5i 10. 13 6.86 11.44 214 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI We should expect the weight of leucorrhoa, before setting forth in autumn, to be at least as much as that of spring migrants trapped under ideal anticyclonic conditions. In the absence of a series of weights collected on the breeding -grounds between the finish of moult and the birds’ departure, our discussion must be limited to the samples available from passage migrants at Fair Isle. There is an even wider variation than in the spring, and the maximum records do not go quite so high, the majority of those passing through in comparable anticyclonic weather register- ing around 35 gm. As these birds have had fairly long stretches of the sea to cross on the “inter-islands” route via Faeroe and Shetland, somewhat lower weights are to be expected. Sometimes, however, there are incursions of long-winged birds at exceptionally low weights, around 20 gm. only; and the fact that groups of these lightweight birds appear quite suddenly on the island suggests that an explanation for their condition should be sought in their recent migrational history. The events of early September 1953 present an excellent case for analysis. An interesting dual arrival of Wheatears took place between the 1st and 3rd, at a time when the picture was unlikely to be confused by the presence in the catch of local birds, since the majority of these had already departed. Trappings were about equally divided between long-winged, long-tailed leucorrhoa and small oenanthe with measurements less than the means for the local population. The meteorological setting showed an Atlantic low moving north-eastwards between Greenland and Britain, with a warm front extending across the North Sea from northern Scot- land to the Skagerrak (Fig. 1). With strong anticyclonic develop- ments over both Greenland and Norway conditions were ideal for departure from both countries, and the situation of this low resulted in a cyclonic westerly airstream over the Atlantic and an easterly one ahead of the warm front in the North Sea. With the passing of a low to Norway on 4th September, and the advance of another towards southern Greenland, conditions inhibiting further migration reached both countries, and a long cigar-shaped ridge of a central European high extending northwards beyond Shetland and Faeroe brought ideal migration weather, with calms and light- to-moderate northerly breezes, to the “inter-island's” route (Fig. 2). These changes effectively sealed off further influxes of Green- land and Continental Wheatears, and resulted instead in the passage through Fair Isle on 5th September of intermediate schwlkri- type Wheatears from the islands to the north. This was, in effect, a resumption of the normal late August passage of such birds, which had been effectively blocked by the passing depression of ist-3rd. The birds of medium wing-length on 5th September showed the best weights, averaging close on 28 gm. (Table IV C). Although the leucorrhoa. of ist-3rd must have been substantially heavier than this, and the small oenanthe lighter, at the start of their respective vol. li j BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 215 Figs, i and 2 — Autumn migration of Wiieatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe ) Weather-charts for mid-day on 1st and 4th September 1953, to illustrate (Fig. 1) the cyclonic arrival at Fair Isle, on 2nd September, of oenanthe from the east and leucorrhoa from the west; and (Fig. 2) the resumption of passage at Fair Isle, on the 5th, of schipleri intermediate birds in an anticyclonic ridge (see page 214). journeys, both forms were extremely light and in fact about equal in weight on arrival at Fair Isle (Tables IV A and B). The small birds had made a fortuitous sea-crossing of 300-400 miles in the easterly airstream ahead of a warm front ; the large ones, whose loss was proportionately very much greater, had made a trans- Atlantic crossing in the cyclonic wind-stream on the other side of the depression, covering a distance which seems likely to have been of the order of 1,600 miles. To complete this picture of the correlation between body-weight and the synoptic pattern of the migration, it might be added that some intermediate (“ schioleri”) birds were trapped on 8th September in circumstances suggesting a similar cyclonic passage round the western half of a small low centred about 6o°N. 4o0W. with a warm front and west wind reaching eastwards to Fair Isle. The drift-track for these birds, on a down-wind reckoning, would be of the order of 1,200 miles or about twice the airline distance via the “inter-islands” route, and it is interesting to compare their low arrival weights (Table IV D) both with the records of the better-favoured “ schioleri ” of the 5th, and the leucorrhoa of the ist-3rd. Wheatears of the Greenland race are frequently encountered out in the Atlantic in spring and autumn, and the large form is known as an accidental visitor or passage migrant in the Azores and Canary Islands, its occurrence in the latter archipelago show- ing a September peak (Bannerman, 1919). The spring and autumn distribution of records at sea has been plotted by Snow (1953), who concluded that crossings are made regularly in autumn from south- east Greenland direct to western Europe, while in spring “the shortest possible sea-crossing is normally made, the birds travelling northwards, largely overland, up through western Europe and the British Isles”. Such records as I have examined in juxtaposition 216 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI Table IV — Analysis of Wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe) trapped at Fair Isle in earl1 September 1953, to show correlation between the meteorological conditions (see Figs 1-2 and pages 2 14-2 15), the populations involved and the body-weights on arrival (A) — Greenland birds ( Oe . Age/Sex Wing (mm.) oe. leucorrhoa) Tail Weight (mm.) (gm.) (B)- -Continental Age /Sex birds (0 Wing (mm.) e. oe. oenanthe Tail Weigh (mm.) (gm.) i.ix I St w. 102 59 18.98 2.ix 1st w. 95 55 23-75 2.ix Ad. $ 103 59 25-59 y y y y 96 55 23-43 Ad. d IOO 59 22.40 y y y y 93 53 24.67 y 1 103 59 27. 18 y y » y 88 50 19.29 Ad. $ 102 59 23-7i y y y 1 9i 52 26.06 ,, y y 106 63 22.60 y » y y 9‘ 53 24-95 3. IX Ad. d 107 62 23.80 » » Ad. d 96 5i 21.21 1 st. w. 105 63 21.96 3-ix 1st w. 93 50 17.19 » y Ad. d 102 60 21-34 y y 1 » 93 55 20.02 Ad. 9 98 ss 20.32 Ad. d 102 62 20.88 Average : 93 22.28 4. IX y y IO7 65 23-55 y y 1 st w. 102 62 22.74 Average : 103 60 22.69 (C) — Iceland-Faeroe birds (D) — Iceland-Faeroe birds (Oe. oe. “schi0leri") (Oe. oe. “schi0leri”) Age /Sex Wing Tail Weight Age/Sex Wing Tail Weight (mm.) (mm.) (gm-) (mm.) (mm.) (gm.) S-ix Ad. d 95 55 30-50 8.ix 9 97 56 22.25 » » ,, 95 55 25-44 y y 1st \v. 95 55 23.19 » l 1st w. 97 57 26.70 ,, y y 94 55 22.22 1 1 y y 98 56 29.83 9-ix Ad. 9 99 57 23.20 y y y y 96 55 27- 1 5 Average : 96 55? 22.7I Average : 96 55s 27.92 to the appropriate weather charts substantially confirm Snow’s conclusions. There is a crop of interesting" records, from two sources, of spring birds in the Atlantic between 8th and nth May 1952. A. P. Ryan, on board the weather-ship Weather Observer at 52°3o'N., 2o°W., saw 6 birds on 8th May, of which 4 came on board “in poor condition — very tired”, and 2 flew past, separately, heading north-east. Single Wheatears were also seen on the 7th and the 9th, and there had been a Greenland 9 > wing 100 mm., on the 5th. The wind was N.N.W. on the 5th-6th, veering northerly on the 7th and further to the N.E. on the 8th as a depression moved eastwards (Fig. 3): its force decreased from gale on the 6th-7th to force 4 on the 8th, a fair but cloudy day. A number of birds were also seen by E. F. Aikman, westward- bound in Empress of France on 9th and 10th May between 53°N. 3o°W. and 49°N.47°W. The weather was overcast and rather misty and the ship was just clearing the region influenced by this depression (Fig. 4). When Weather Observer was returning to base on nth May 3 Wheatears came on board at 54°N.i4°W. (Fig- 5)- vol. li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 217 Figs. 3, 4 and 5 — Occurrences of Wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe) at sea Weather-charts for mid-day on 8th, 9th and nth May 1952, to illustrate the conditions that resulted in the arrival (Fig. 3) of six Wheatears at a weather- ship on 8th May; (Fig. 4) of several at R.M.S. “Empress of France’’ on the 9th; and (Fig. 5) of three at a weather-ship on the nth (see page 216). In each case the position is marked “X”. It seems clear from these records that a large number of Wheat- ears, attempting a migratory flight from the Hebrides or Northern Ireland to either Greenland or Iceland, were deflected from their course by the approach of this depression, and were carried down- wind in the easterly airstream of its northern perimeter, some being blown very far west. It is worth noting that wind and sky conditions were excellent all over Scotland, the Hebrides and Northern Ireland on the night of the 7th / 8th , but that during the whole period fronts active in the Shetland-Faeroe region brought fog and drizzle to this section of the route. The 3 birds noted by A. P. Ryan on nth May in the westerly airstream south of the now northwards-moving low may well have travelled all round this depression until brought within striking-distance of western Ireland. Of the large number of autumn migrants recorded at ships many appear to have been making a cyclonic approach to western Britain, and could be traced back to southern Greenland on a down-wind' track. In some instances Snow Buntings ( Plectro - 218 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI phencuK nivalis) were observed at the same time. Watchers in various weather-ships (F. R. Allison, M. A. Barras-Smith, A. Darlington and M. L. R. Romer) during September 1950 supplied records to British Birds (Anon., 1951), all of which fall into this category. There were 2 Wheatears at 59°N.i9°W. on 12th September and 9 at 52°N.20°W. next day (Figs. 6 and 7). Birds moving down-wind through this depression could have reached the west and north of Scotland, and it is interesting to note that 8 long-winged birds trapped at Fair Isle between the 12th and the 14th showed a weight-range of 22.3 gm. to 26.7 gm. (average, 25.1 gm.), or about 10 gm. below the expected weight for leucorrhoa at this season. Figs. 6 and 7— Occurrences of Wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe) at sea Weather-charts for mid-day on 12th and 13th September 1950, to illustrate the conditions that resulted in the arrival (Fig. 6) of two Wheatears at a weather-ship on 12th September; and (Fig. 7) of nine at a weather-ship on the 13th (see this page). In each case the position is marked “X”. Two Wheatears spent 20 minutes aboard at the same station on 22nd September, and of 9 Snow Buntings seen that day 6 passed the ship flying south singly or in pairs. These appear to have travelled south through a col after leaving Greenland and entered a westerly airstream in the complementary wind-system between a trough in the Iceland-Faeroe seas and an Azores high farther south (8 Snow Buntings were also seen on 29th under similar cyclonic conditions). Two very late Wheatears seen by A. P. Ryan at 52°30/N. i7°2o'W. on 21st October, with rain falling and a fresh S.W. wind (Fig. 8), and 3 recorded at 49°22'N. 34°i5'W. by Goodwin (1954) on 16th September 1949 (Fig. 9), are other cases of cyclonic migration. When H.M.S. Vidal was returning from the annexation of Rockall on 20th /21st September 1955, and was about half-way between south-west Ireland and Cornwall, a flock of about 24 Wheat- ears came aboard soon after midnight, very tired (Fisher, 1956). Those handled were leucorrhoa , and Fisher suggests they were cyclonic migrants from Greenland. Before 0800 hours the previous vol. li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 219 Fig. 8 Fig 9 Figs. 8 and 9 — Occurrences ok Wheatears ( Oenanthe oenanthe) at sea Weather-charts for mid-day on 21st October 195° an(^ 16th September i949> to illustrate the conditions that resulted in the arrival (Fig. 8) of two Wheatears at a weather-ship on 21st October 1950; and (Fig. 9) of three at a ship on 16th September 1949 (Goodwin, 1954) see Pal>e 2I^)- 1° each case the position is marked “X”. day 3 leucorrhoa at very low weights had been trapped at Fair Isle — 2 adult 9 $ at 21. 1 gm. and 20.4 gm. (wings 101 and 103 mm.), and a ist-winter cf at 23.2 gm. (wing 100 mm.). It is apparent from the synoptic situation that these birds were finishing a long approach to Britain round the southern periphery of an eastwards-moving low situated a good way west of the Hebrides, and the distance flown may well have been of the order of 1,800 to 2.000 miles (Fig. 10). Fig. 10 — Occurrence of Wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe) at sea Weather-chart for mid-day on 20th September 1 955 » to illustrate the conditions on the day before the arrival of two dozen Wheatears on board H.M.S. “Vidal”, south of Ireland, on 21st September 1955 (Fisher, 1956) (see page 218). There is thus abundant evidence in the meteorological correla- tion of Wheatear records at sea in the North Atlantic, and of movements passing through Fair Isle, of extended cyclonic 220 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI journeys, and of the need for a greatly increased capacity in the Greenland and Iceland stocks for the storage of glycogen and fats to withstand the severe drain on their resources caused by long overseas flights. These flights may well be in excess of 1,000 miles in most cases — and much nearer 2,000 miles in some — and may reduce the Greenland Wheatear to a weight which is even less than the normal for the much smaller oenanthe. It will be seen from Table III that the range of possible weights for leucorrhoa is almost twice as great in comparison with the mean as that of the typical race — implying that the northern population is able to sacrifice a greater proportion of its total body-weight during this hazardous migration without falling below the threshold (the “lebensminimum”) beyond which recovery is impossible. Redwing ( Turdus musicus ) The Iceland Redwing ( Turdus m. coburni) breeds at approximately the same latitudes as the bulk of the Scandinavian population of typical musicus. The Icelandic race is bigger, the difference being most pronounced in body-weight, and reflected in length of wing and tail: viz., mean wing-length 12 1.3 mm. and tail-length 85.2 mm. in coburni, against 1 16. 6 mm. and 79.9 mm. in musicus (Williamson, in press). A substantial difference in body-weight can be demonstrated from the laboratory records of samples trapped when on migration through Fair Isle. In autumn 1956 over 300 birds were weighed and the average difference was 5^ gm. in favour of coburni. In previous seasons, with fewer coburni trapped, a difference of up to 10 gm. (1954) was noted. The mean weight of a sample taken on any one day varies accord- ing to the type of weather and the length of the journey involved, as with the Wheatear, and in 1956 we were dealing largely with musicus which had made a short sea-crossing in ridge or col weather from western Norway, and coburni which may well have travelled three times that distance as cyclonic migrants. There are only a few weight records for spring migrants, and these suggest a norm for musicus of around 70 gm. and for coburni of up to 90 gm. — viz., 10th March 1950, 89.2 gm. ; 25th April 1950, 91.7 gm. ; 6th April 1952, 86.6 gm. Scandinavian Redwings winter over most of western and southern Europe, including the whole of Britain. The migration of Scandinavian birds is rather “fanned out”, as Holgerson (1953) puts it, so that many reach Italy and the central Mediterranean countries. Recoveries of birds ringed as young in Iceland have been made in winter in Ireland and the Outer Hebrides, and a coburni ringed on passage at Fair Isle in October 1955 was found in November 1956 in Co. Kerry. Another autumn migrant, wing 122 mm., ringed during an influx of Iceland Redwings and Merlins on 14th October 1953, was found dead in November near Antwerp, Belgium; and although Molyneux (1930) includes Holland and France in the wintering-range these Continental occurrences may vol. li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 221 be merely a slight overspill from the main headquarters in the British Isles. It could be claimed that since the influence of a warm Mediterranean climate is enjoyed by a large number of Continental Redwings, there is partial allohiemy with the Icelandic race ; but it seems hardly likely that selection-pressure due to this spatial separation can be very great, since equally a vast number of musicus share with coburni a mild Atlantic climate. Furthermore, the Continental race is either peculiarly prone to the vagaries of drift or has an unusually nomadic instinct, since many individuals (perhaps the majority) seem to change their wintering-area from year to year. Thus, birds marked in winter in Gloucestershire (1934), Worcestershire (1937) and Cornwall (1939) were all recovered in the following winters in northern Italy (Leach, 1941); and a bird ringed at Gibraltar Point Bird Observatory, Lincoln- shire, on 1st November 1952 was recovered at Kyrenia in Cyprus on 13th February 1955 (Spencer, 1955). I can find only one record of a bird returning to the same winter-quarters in Britain in successive years, at Shrewsbury on 10th February 1947, and 22nd January 1948. If such wide dispersal over the winter range, with frequent alteration between the Atlantic and Mediterranean types of climate, is in any way usual, then the “winter-influence” in the adaptive variation must be reduced to a minimum and should tend to diminish any gap in size between musicus and coburni. A study of the meteorological environment of the autumn influxes of Ice- landic birds (Williamson, 1953a and in press), shows that the situation in this subspecies is very similar to that in the Green- land Wheatear. “Island-hopping” migration takes place when col and anticyclonic weather affect the direct route via Faeroe and Shetland, but there are frequently longer cyclonic journeys, and since the Redwing is a late autumn migrant the majority of the arrivals belong to this kind because of the rapidly deteriorating weather in the north-east Atlantic in October. There is good cause for believing that at least some movements of coburni take place in two stages, culminating in an overseas flight from southern Greenland. This would appear quite clearly to be another case of the north-western population having developed greater body-size as the result of strong selection-pressure due to a mandatory overseas migration. Redpoll ( Carduelis flammed ) The redpolls have a holarctic distribution, forming an emergent interspecies which most taxonomists treat as two distinct species and split up into several recognizable forms. They comprise an Arctic group (hornemanni and exilipes) a sub-Arctic group ( rostrata and islandica , and perhaps also paUescens), and a boreal group ( flammea , and the Lesser Redpolls disruptis and cabaret). The two Lesser Redpolls arc isolated in the wooded country of the 222 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI British Isles and the mountain system of south-central Europe respectively, and present no problem. The pale, white-rumped Coues’s Redpoll, exilipes, inhabits the Arctic scrub of Europe, Asia and North America, and Hornemann’s is a larger edition of it in the high Arctic regions of Greenland and Baffin Island. The typical race, the Mealy Redpoll, extends across Europe, Asia and North America as a forest bird south of the range of exilipes ; the American population, pushing eastwards, has colonized parts of Baffin Island and low Arctic Greenland and become the larger, darker, thick-billed rostrata. In years of late spring many exilipes breed south of their normal limit and within the range of the Mealy Redpoll, and the white-rumped pallescens recorded from Arctic Norway is probably a hybrid form. The Iceland bird appears to be an intermediate population in which extreme types are hardly separable from the very pale hornemanni on one hand and the dark rostrata of southern Greenland on the other. Salomonsen (1951) has shown that, with the amelioration of the climate in southern Greenland, rostrata is pushing its range farther north into the breeding zone of Hornemann’s Redpoll, and interbreeding occurs where they meet, so that the trend which produces pallescens in northern Europe is here reversed. Iceland, being within the migratory orbit of both hornemanni and rostrata, seems to have captured both and welded them into a hybrid population, islandica; and with an intermediate form occupying so great an area the recognition of two “species” of redpolls, very similar morphologically and in habits, does violence to taxonomic principles, as Salomonsen has shown (1928, 1951). The largest race, hornemanni, and the isolated forms inhabiting Britain and the alpine region of southern Europe are only partially migratory and do not move far: they are not considered further in this discussion, except to say that Hornemann’s Red- poll returns to the breeding-area from its low Arctic wintering- grounds some 10 days to a fortnight ahead of the slightly smaller rostrata (Salomonsen, 1951; Wynne-Edwards, 1952) — so that, in this instance Hemmingsen’s rule applies. The extent to which the Icelandic bird migrates is not known : certainly a number stay in Iceland throughout the year, but it is possible that others are numbered amrrng the rostrata which reach Britain from southern Greenland in the fall. This bird and the Mealy Redpoll of northern Europe are the only forms which are in any sense strongly migratory, and they breed at much the same latitudes. The Greenland Redpoll is the bigger bird, Salomonsen (1951) giving these wing-measurements: rostrata, cf c? 77-83 mm., 9 9 75-82 mm .; flammea, cfcf 71' 78 mm., 9 9 69-75 mm- The great majority of rostrata depart from west Greenland during September to winter in the eastern provinces of Canada, whilst the east-coast population winters for the greater part in Iceland, Scotland and western Ireland. I he Mealy Redpoll has only a short overland migration, wintering for vol. li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 223 the most part in middle Europe and in some years in fair numbers in the British Isles. For practical purposes the two forms can be regarded as allohiemic; there is little difference in the latitude of the wintering range but it should be emphasized that the larger form enjoys the milder, Atlantic climate, and the smaller Mealy Redpoll is exposed to the colder, Continental one — so that in this case there is an apparent reversal of the expected size-trend. With 4 exceptions, the 41 weight-records of redpolls obtained at Fair Isle between 1948 and 1955 are of birds identified with rostrata on plumage characteristics and their strong, bulging bills. The 4 Mealy Redpolls give from 13.8 to 15 gm., average 14.4 gm. ; and Weigold (1926) gives a longer series, 19 examples ranging from 12 to 17.5 gm., average 14.4 gm. He adds a “lebens- minimum” of 9.5 gm. for an exhausted bird. These were migrants at Heligoland, so had not travelled far. The 37 records (including recaptures) of rostrata at Fair Isle give a range of 10.7 to 21.2 gm., average 16.3 gm. Birds retrapped whilst “off passage” show gains of between 20 and 40 per cent, of their initial arrival weight over periods of from 9 to 17 days, and suggest that the normal weight of this subspecies must be close on 20 gm. (see Table in Williamson, 1956). Birds have been seen occasionally at sea: 3 rostrata flew aboard a ship at 6o°N. 23°3o'W. on the afternoon of 29th August 1955 in cyclonic weather (R. Meinertzhagen, pers. comm.), and small flocks were noted about 100 miles west of Faeroe in June 1929 (Saemundsson, 1934). The synoptic picture in the north-east Atlantic at the time of their immigration at Fair Isle is frequently indicative of down-wind drift from south-east Greenland in cyclonic airstreams, and several movements of this type were a feature of an unusually large and protracted irruption which took place in 1955 (Williamson, 1953b, 1956). In these respects the migration into Europe affords a close parallel with the other cases considered in this paper, and this is apparently a further instance of selection working through the medium of the migration-flight to produce a greater body-size and longer wing. That the effect is less strongly marked than in the case of the Wheatear and Red- wing may be due to the fact that a part of the Greenland community winters in the New World and has only the comparatively narrow Davis Straits to cross. OTHER PASSERINES The Lapland Bunting ( Calcarius lapponicus) is predominantly a low Arctic breeder in Greenland. The Snow Bunting is a common summer visitor to the high Arctic as well as low Arctic regions and is the only one to nest in Iceland, where it is differentiated bv the name insulae on plumage characters. In Greenland, according to Salomonsen (1950-51), both species seek the warmer and drier anticvclonic climate of the interior fjord country and are relatively scarce in the less benign coastal regions. 224 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Greenland Snow Buntings cannot be separated from the popula- tions of Canada and Europe: birds from north-west Greenland are slightly longer in the wing (cfcf , 107-118 mm.) than European (cf cf , 105-115 mm.) but are no bigger than pallidior from Siberia. Greenland “Lap” Buntings have been distinguished from the typical race as subcalcaratus on account of slight plumage differences coupled with a more robust bill. The wing is a little longer on average, Horring (1937) giving for 52 Greenland cf cf 91-101 mm., and for 20 European cf 90-96 mm. At best, how- ever, subcalcaratus is a poorly defined form. In these two buntings, therefore, there is but little tendency towards a greater size as compared with the corresponding Continental populations, despite the fact that a minor part of the Greenland population (probably from the east coast only) crosses the Atlantic to Europe under weather conditions similar to those already described for the Wheatear, Redwing and Greenland Red- poll. The synoptic background of a phenomenal Lapland Bunting invasion of northern and western Britain in September 1953 was studied by Williamson and Davis (1956), and it was shown that this must have originated in southern Greenland and that several of the movements in that and previous years took place under cyclonic conditions. Ten Snow Bunting recoveries show move- ment from west Greenland to the eastern provinces of Canada (one to Minnesota, U.S.A.), and a recent record concerns a spring' migrant ringed in north-east Greenland in May 1955 and recovered in Archangelsk District of Russia in April 1956. The most recent list also notes the only recorded movement of a ringed Lapland Bunting, from Egedesminde District in the west to the interior of southern Canada. It is highly probable that the bulk of both populations winter in the New World and show little increase in robustness since they have only the short sea-crossing of the Davis Strait to make. Two other species which are common breeding-birds in Iceland and northern Europe, and which are strongly migratory, are the Meadow Pipit ( Anthus pratensis ) and White Wagtail ( Motacilla a. alba). The former winters largely in the Mediterranean basin, the latter crossing it to winter in tropical Africa. It is not known if the Icelandic populations are svnhiemic with the Continental, but this seems very probable in the case of the wagtail at any rate. These Icelandic populations must make an obligatory over- seas flight, and passage at Fair Isle under the same weather conditions as reported for the previous species is probably derived from this source. In neither species does the Icelandic bird differ from the Continental in size, so far as is known. It is worth while noting that the White Wagtail does not fit into Salomonsen’s theory, since it has a “leap-frog” migration over the winter range of the Pied Wagtail (Motacilla a. yarrellii) — the British race, some of which cross the Channel to winter in France — to Africa, and ought therefore to be smaller if the vol. li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 225 “winter influence” of a tropical environment is strong-. It may be that the tropical “winter-influence” is countered in this sub- species by the potential for greater size due to the need to survive a long overseas hop from Iceland to Britain, so that one effect balances the other. However, it should also be borne in mind that the recent spread of both Meadow Pipit and White Wagtail to eastern Greenland suggests that their presence in the north-west may be the result of a comparatively new, and continuing, expansion of range, and that the time-lapse since their arrival has been too brief for subspecific differences to develop. Merlin ( Falco columbariiis) The Icelandic Merlin ( Falco c. subaesalon) breeds between the same latitudes as many Falco c. aesalon of Scandinavia and north- west Russia: it is considerably more robust than the Continental race, the mean wing-length of cfcf being 209 mm., and of 9 $ 227 mm., against 197 mm. and 215 mm. respectively for the European bird. The joint non-overlap between the two races is 96 per cent, in c f cf and 94 per cent, in 9 9 (see Table and discussion in Butterfield, 1954). A series of measurements is also given by Salomonsen (1935). There are some limitations in the use of weight-records for a comparison of the Icelandic and Continental races, since the weight of any individual bird-of-prey may be expected to vary within a fairly wide range. Obviously, a newly-arrived migrant at Fair Isle would register much less than an “off passage” bird which had made a recent kill, especially as the prey is sometimes as big as a Redwing. When all the available weights are averaged, sex for sex, including records of the same individuals if recaptured, it is probable that these inequalities are to some extent reduced. If the figures are comparable, then it would appear that subaesalon is considerably heavier than aesalon — viz., 21 cfcf, 182 gm. and 21 9 9, 255 gm., against 9 cfcf, 175 gm. and 11 9 9> 210 gm. Kluz (1943) gives for an un- specified number of aesalon a range of: cfcf, 150-180 gm., 9 9 188-210 gm., the upper limit in each case being less than the average for subaesalon at Fair Isle. The sedentary British population shows a cf wing-length close to the mean for Continental birds, but a 9 wing-length nearer that of Icelandic 9 9 • The Continental race winters over much of Europe south to the Mediterranean, while the Icelandic popula- tion spends the off-season mostly in western Britain with (in all likelihood) some slight overspill on the Continent between southern Norway and France. Four recoveries of birds ringed as young in Iceland are known from Eire (Offaly), central and south-west Scotland (Stirlingshire, Dumbartonshire) and north-west England (Lancashire), and there are specimens of this race in museum collections from most Scottish and many English and Irish counties. Icelandic birds ringed on passage at Fair Isle have been recovered 226 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI in Caithness and Perthshire, and a cf subaesalon ringed on 18th August 1953 was found at Hannut, Liege, Belgium, two months later. An interesting capture of an Icelandic Merlin (cf, wing 213 mm.) was made in the North Sea 26 miles east of Spurn Point, Yorkshire, on 12th October 1910 (specimen in the British Museum). Recently Holgersen (1954) has recorded autumn and winter specimens from south-west Norway, and has since added a further record (pers. comm.). The Icelandic Merlin is therefore synhiemic with the British population, and although it is clear that there is partial allohiemy with the Continental race both forms winter largely in the mild maritime climate of western Europe. It seems doubtful if selection due to factors of either the breeding or the wintering environment can be so markedly different as to have produced the remarkable size discrepancy which we find between these two races, and this would appear to be a clear case in which selection pressure is strongest during the actual migration period ; for whereas the southwards movement of aesalon is largely overland, that of subaesalon must necessarily encompass a sea-crossing of several hundred miles, as a recent synoptic study of the autumn migration has shown (Williamson, 1954b; Williamson and Butterfield, 1955). Little is known of the spring migration of subaesalon : the Merlin is a very scarce bird at Fair Isle in April and May, and perhaps the return is made direct from northern Scotland and the western isles (the species was of daily occurrence at St. Kilda in April and early May of 1957). There are in the Universitetets Zoologiske Museum, Copenhagen, 3 spring specimens taken on board ships in the Atlantic — a on 22nd May 1949 at 58°45'N., 4O0X5/W., and a pair on 6th May 1952 at 5g°5TN., 36° W. The last are of interest inasmuch as the whole of Britain and southern Norway were under the influence of an active depression during 4th-6th May, and it is possible the birds had tried to reach Iceland from northern Norway and had overshot in the N.E. gale winds blowing in that area. To have reached the position in which they were captured from any part of the British Isles or southern Norway they would have had to combat force 6 northerly winds and rain, an impossible feat. Recent records of autumn migrants at sea have been discussed by McLean and Williamson (1957), and a bird was seen by Wilkinson (1956) some 400 miles west of Ireland on 2nd October 1955, in the southern segment of a depression giving a cyclonic down-wind track between Iceland and the British Isles. These cases substantially confirm the earlier work on the migration of this species. Redshank (T ring a totanus) The Icelandic Redshank ( Tringa t. robusta ) is not only longer in the wing than the typical race, whose range extends to northern Norway, but also has a bigger sternum (Norrevang, 1954) and vol. Li] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 227 stouter tarsi (Harrison, 1944), indicating a greater body-weight. Salomonsen (1935) gives a maximum wing-length of: cf cf , 160 mm., $ $, 163 mm., for Danish birds, and cfcf 171 mm., 9 9 J72 mm. for Icelandic. Witherby et al. (1938-41) give similar maxima for robusta but mention British-taken specimens with wings up to 175 mm.: for britannicus they give: cf dS 163 mm., 9 9 , 165 mm. Harrison (1944) gives for robusta , 7 cfcf , 165-172 mm., 3 9 9 164-177 mm., and for Norwegian birds, 10 cfcT, 148-158 mm. There is little data on weights: presumed Norwegian birds with a wing-length of 154-156 mm., trapped at Fair Isle in early autumn, weighed 102 gm., 120 gm. and 134 gm. ; and birds referred to robusta on a wing-length of 163- 173 mm. weighed 127 gm., 128 gm., 130 gm. and 148 gm. (an average of 133 gm. against 119 gm. in the first group). Redshanks ringed in Iceland have been recovered in winter in localities as far apart as Orkney in the north, Flintshire in the west and the Wash in the south-east, so we may take it that the whole of Britain lies within the winter area. According to Witherby et al. (1938-41) some robusta are recorded in winter along the west coast of Europe, and there is one recovery as far south as Morocco. The same authority says that only a small part of the British stock crosses the Channel, but that some birds from northern localities go to Ireland. The winter ranges of the European populations have been worked out bv Salomonsen (1954), who gives maps based on ringing returns. Danish birds make an overland migration to the central Mediterranean countries, whilst those from the Low Countries and west Germany winter in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. British and west European Redshanks, though wintering in widely separated areas in the Mediterranean and Atlantic maritime regions, do not differ materially in size, whereas the synhiemic British and Icelandic populations show a difference of 10 mm. in the mean of the wing- measurement. The lowest mean wing-length belongs to Norwegian and Swedish birds, which migrate coastwise through Europe to tropical Africa, and thus enioy the warmest winter environment. Although the pattern of allohiemy which dominates the winter distribution of the Continental populations firmly supports Salomonsen’s conclusion that there is a correlation between Bergmann’s Rule and selection in the winter quarters, it would appear that the more robust proportions of the Icelandic bird are better explained as an adaptation to a mandatory overseas migration. OTHER WADERS There is a small average difference in wing-length between Continental and Icelandic Whimbrels ( Numenius phaeopus), and the Iceland bird has been separated despite the existence of a large overlap in this character. Salomonsen (1935) gives for 39 Scandinavian specimens, cf cf , 231-250 mm., 9 9> 241-25401111., 228 BRITISH BIRDS VOL. LI and for 77 islatidicus, cfd*, 240-2600101., 9 9> 251-272 mm. Faeroe birds are intermediate, giving for cf cf, 238-252 mm., and for 9 9 » 245-264 (23 measured). (See also the Table in Salomonsen, 1947.) Both forms breed at roughly the same latitudes and, so far as is known, winter in tropical Africa. There would appear to be little influence towards differentiation in either the breeding or winter climates, and the somewhat longer wing of the Iceland birds probably reflects the need for greater staying- powers during the obligatory overseas journey to and from the breeding-grounds. Oystercatchers ( Haematopus ostralegus ) of Iceland and the Faeroe Islands are also somewhat longer in the wing than Scandinavian birds, but there is a wide overlap and many taxonomists cannot accept the north-western birds as a distinct race, mcilacophaga. Measurements given by Salomonsen (1935) indicate a maximum wing-length of : cfcf, 272 mm., 9 9> 276 mm., for Icelandic birds ; cf 9 > 270 mm. for Faeroe breeders ; and cfcf, 263 mm., 9 9> 265 mm. for Continental. British examples are intermediate. Many Continental Oystercatchers breed at much the same latitudes as the Faeroese and Icelandic stocks, and winter over most of south-west Europe and the Mediterranean region, some on the coast of west Africa ; while all recoveries of Iceland and Faeroe (and also Fair Isle) birds are from Scotland, the west of England, Ireland and (a few only) France. A different “winter-influence” may well be involved, derived from Mediterranean and Atlantic climates, and the case for attributing the greater size of the Iceland and Faeroe populations to the overseas migratory flights is less strong in this species. The wing-length data given by Salomonsen (1950-51) for the Purple Sandpiper ( Calidris maritima ), and reproduced in Table V, show a peculiar distribution, Icelandic birds being distinctly larger than either Greenland or Scandinavian. Lovenskiqld (1950) has also made a detailed examination of this species and presents the measurements of the various populations in histograms. In all probability Icelandic birds are also heavier: Weigold (1926) gives 60-84.5 gm- f°r 3 migrants at Heligoland, and quotes Hantzsch for Icelandic birds (presumably breeders), 4 cfcf> 74-80 gm., 5 9 9> 80-95 gm- This northern species has a Holarctic range and practically nothing is known about the winter distribution of the various populations. The only recovery of a bird marked in Ice- land is a curious one — an adult ringed in May 1942, recovered at Cape Dorset, Baffin Island, in late April 1943. It may be that Iceland and Faeroe Islands have been colonized from the Palae- arctic region, the increase in size being a subsequent adaptation to a mandatory overseas migration to Old World wintering quarters ; and that the Greenland stock is derived from the North American continent, to which it has access by the short sea- crossing of Davis Strait. vol. n] BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 229 Table V — Wing measurements of different populations of Purple Sandpipers ( Calidris maritima) (after Salomonsen, 1950-51) Origin No. Males Range (mm .) Average No. Females Range (mm.) Average Iceland 5i 123-137 129. I 36 127-141 !34-6 Faeroe Islands IO 124-132 127.2 15 1 25- 1 33 130. 1 Scandinavia 30 118-131 124.6 26 125-135 129.8 Greenland 72 117-131 I23-7 68 120-137 123-7 The Black-tailed Godwit ( Limosa limosa ) of Iceland is separable from the typical race of Europe on account of its redder plumage in the breeding season and its shorter bill, sex for sex (Salomonsen, 1935). The wing-length range appears to be much the same in the two races, except that $ 9 islandica are perhaps a trifle bigger than Continental. Hachisuka (1927) gives 217-230 mm., and Salomonsen 210-228 mm. for 9 9 islandica, the latter adding 209- 225 mm. for Danish limosa. Except for a small group in S. Sweden (and isolated instances in Norway), the Black-tailed Godwit does not nest on the Continent north of the Kattegat and Skagerrak, so there is a considerable latitude difference in the breeding-ranges of the two forms. It is now known that a large part of the winter population of Black-tailed Godwits in Ireland consists of islandica (Williamson and Ruttledge, 1957), so that, since many limosa winter southwards to tropical Africa, islandica ought to reflect Bergmann’s Rule on both counts. Since it obeys Allen’s Rule of decreasing bill-size with increasing latitude, it has presumably been 'established in Iceland for a very long time, and its lack of greater robustness despite more northerly breeding and wintering areas, and an obligatory overseas migration, makes it a puzzling case. As with the Merlin, little is known about the spring migration: its rarity in the Outer Hebrides and northern Scotland suggests that the main movement avoids these areas, though the sporadic breeding of pairs possibly belonging to this form in Caithness (Pilkington, 1947), Shetland (Venables and Venables, 1955) and Faeroe (Williamson, 1954a) should be noted. Holgersen and Willgohs (1956) have recorded the interesting and perhaps signifi- cant fact that Black-tailed Godwits are more frequent in Norway in spring than in autumn, and that all Norwegian specimens so far examined have the short bill-length of islandica. It is possible therefore that a proportion may return to Iceland bv way of the Norwegian coast. Finally, the White-fronted Goose [A)iser albifrons) may be mentioned. The Greenland form flavirostris winters exclusively in Ireland and south-west Scotland, as the numerous recoveries of ringed birds show. The flocks reach these areas in middle and late October largely by a cyclonic migration across the eastern Atlantic (Ruttledge and Williamson, 1952). Salomonsen (1950-51) gives wing-measurements of 368-440 mm. for typical albifrons of 230 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Europe, which has a largely overland migration to winter quarters at much the same latitude in western Europe, and 420-455 mm. for flavirostris. This follows the pattern demonstrated for the majority of these trans-oceanic migrants from Greenland and Iceland to winter quarters in western Europe and beyond. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Dr. D. W. Snow and Messrs. E. F. Aikman and A. P. Ryan for making available information concerning Wheatears at sea; and to Mr. Alec Butterfield for undertaking a statistical examination of Wheatear weights. Recoveries of birds ringed in Iceland have been taken from the reports issued by Gudmundsson (1933 et secl-)> an<^ those of Greenland birds from the reports of Salomonsen (1949 et seq.). Weather-maps are reproduced from the Daily Weather Report of the Meteorological Office (Air Ministry) by kind permission of H.M. Stationery Office. SUMMARY 1. The selective influences which contribute to the effect known as Bergmann’s Rule are briefly discussed in so far as they concern migratory birds. A correlation between wing-length and the minimum temperature of the winter environment has been demonstrated for some migratory species with allohiemic popula- tions, but there are cases of agreement with this ecogeographical rule which neither this nor any other reason so far advanced can satisfactorily explain. 2. The proposition is made that among certain land-birds whose migration demands an obligatory overseas flight, selection operates most powerfully during the actual period of migration, since survival favours those individuals with the greatest reserves of strength. In the case of a number of migratory birds nesting in Greenland and Iceland the resulting adaptation has been one of greater body-weight, coupled with an allometric increase in length of wing and tail, as compared with the appropriate Continental populations, whose migration is largely coastwise or overland. 3. Among Greenland birds the evolutionary consequence is most strikingly manifested in the Wheatear, which migrates through W. Europe to Africa. The migration-pattern at Fair Isle, and occurrences in the North Atlantic, show that trans-oceanic flights of 1,500-2,000 miles may be undertaken in cyclonic weather, resulting in a weight-loss considerably greater than the typical race could endure. The Greenland Redpoll shows this “migration- influence” less strongly, the Lapland Bunting slightly, and the Snow Bunting hardly at all. In these cases the bulk of the population crosses the comparatively narrow Davis Strait to wintering-grounds in North America, and the need to evolve greater body-size has been less urgent. 4. Among Icelandic birds the effect is most strongly marked in the Redwing, Merlin and Redshank, whose migratory flights Plate 37 Plate 38 Kurt Ellstrom and Jonas Svensk Male Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) at nest: Sweden, 29T11 June 1953 The eye-stripe is over-emphasized here by the dark shadow on the face ( cf . below), but one can see that the banding on the tail is less conspicuous than in the juvenile (plate 39 lower). Here the young had left the nest, but the adults continued to bring food for them there for some time. Kurt Ellstrom and Jonas Svensk Female Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) at nest: Sweden, 25111 May 1953 The pure white under tail-coverts, which are spread very prominently in the spring display-flights, are particularly well shown here, as is the eye-stripe. Typical clutches consist of three or four eggs, which in Denmark and Sweden are laid in late March and April. Plate 39 Kurt Ellstrom and Jonas Svensk Young Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) in nest: Sweden, jist June 1 <>5 ; At first the male brings all the food and the female divides it up, but later both sexes hunt. Incubation and fledging last about five and six weeks respectively. In this brood the bird on the left, a male, is older (note the feathering of the “trousers”) than the other two, both females. Kurt Ellstrdm and Jonas Svensk Juvenile female Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis): Sweden, September 1955 Note the broad bands on the juvenile’s tail (cf. plate 38 upper). Goshawks hunt mainly in woodland and, in addition to a wide varietv of birds, kill many mammals, particularly Red Squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris), one of which is shown here on the “chopping-block” (see page 235). Plate 40 vol. Li j BERGMANN’S RULE AND MIGRATION 231 into the British area may exceed 1,000 miles under cyclonic condi- tions. The Meadow Pipit and White Wagtail give a negative result, but may be comparatively recent and still expanding colonists in the north-west. The Whimbrel and Purple Sandpiper show some response to the selective influence of a mandatory overseas migration, and the Ovstercatcher perhaps does so, but the Black-tailed Godwit does not and indeed provides a puzzling exception to Bergmann’s Rule. REFERENCES Anon. (1951): “Migrants observed from ocean weather-ships, July-October 1950”. Brit. Birds, xliv: 219-222. Bannerman, D. A. (1919): “List of the birds of the Canary Islands, with detailed reference to migratory species and accidental visitors”. Ibis (1919): 84- 131, 291-321. Butterfield, A. (1954): “ Falco columbarius subaesalon Brehm: a valid race”. Brit. Birds, xlvii: 342-347. Fisher. J. (1956): Rockall. London. Goodwin, C. E. (1954): “Wheatears in mid-Atlantic”. Brit. Birds, xlvii: 85- 86. Gudmundsson, F. (1933 — ): Skyrsla urn Fuglamerkinger Natturugripasafnsins. Reykjavik. Haciiisuka, M. U. (1927): A Handbook of the Birds of Iceland. London. Harrison, J. M. (1944): “Some remarks upon the western Palaearctic races of Tringa totanus (Linnaeus)”. Ibis (1944): 493-503. Hemmingsen, A. M. (1951): “Observations on birds in north-eastern China, especially the migration at Pei-tai-Ho Beach: 1, General part”. Spolia Zool. Mus. Hauniensis, 11, pp. 1-227. Holgersen, H. (1953): “Trostetrekk”. Stavanger Mus. Arbok, 1953: 91-102. (1954): “ Islandsdvergfalk”. Stavanger Mus. Arbok, 1954: 47-50. and Willgohs, J. F. (1956): “First breeding of the Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa (L.) in Norway”. Astarte, 13: 1-8. FIorring, R. (1937): Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition. 2 (6), 122. Huxley, J. (1942): Evolution: the Modern Synthesis. London. Kluz, Z. (1943 ) : “Ornithologicke Tabulky”. Ochrana Rostlin, 18: 1-72. Leach, E. P. (1941): “Redwings wintering in widely separated areas in successive years”. Brit. Birds, xxxiv : 243. Lovenski0ld, H. L. (1950): “Den geografiske variasjon hos Fjaereplytten ( Calidris maritima (Brunn.))”. Dansk. Orn. Foren. Tidss., 44: 161-167. McLean, I., and Williamson, K. (1957): Migrants at North Atlantic weather- ships in 1956”. Marine Observer, 27: 152-156. Mayr, E. (1956): “Geographical character gradients and climatic adaptation”. Evolution, 10: 105-108. Molyneux, H. G. K. (1930): A catalogue of birds, giving their distribution in the western portion of the Palaearctic region. Eastbourne. Norrevang, A. (1954): “Brystebensmal som hjaelp ved bestemmelse af Islandsk Rodben ( Tringa totanus robusta (Schioler))”. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidss., 48: 235-236. Pilkington, A. D. (1947): “Black-tailed Godwit breeding in Caithness”. Brit. Birds, xl : 57-58 (plate 9). Rensch, B. (1939): “Klimatische Auslese von Grossenvariaten”. Arch. f. Naturgesch. 8: 89-129. Ruttledge, R. F. and Williamson, K. (1952): “Early arrival of White- fronted Geese in Ireland”. Irish Nat. four., 10: 263-264. 232 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li Saemundsson, B. (1934): “Zoologiske meddelelser fra Island, XVI”. Videnskab. Medd. fra Dansk Naturhist. Forening, 97: 35-37. Salomonsen, F. (1928): ‘‘Bemerkungen iiber die Verbreitung der Carduelis linaria Gruppe und ihre Variationen”. Videnskab. Medd. fra Dansk Naturhist. Forening, 86: 123-202. (1935): “Aves”. Part LXIV, Zoology of the Faeroes. Copenhagen. — (1947): ‘‘Den geografiske Variation hos Lille Regnspove ( Numenius phaeopus (L)) i Europa”. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidss., 41 : 143-145. ( i949) : “Preliminary lists of recoveries of birds ringed in Greenland”. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidss., 43: 251-255; 44; 168-170; 46; 110-117; 49; 130-135; 5I: 33-39- (1950-51): Gronlands Fugle ( The Birds of Greenland). Copenhagen. (1954): “The migration of the European Redshanks (Tringa totanus (L.))”. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidss., 48: 94-122. (1955): “The evolutionary significance of bird-migration”. Dan. Biol. Medd., 22 (6): 1-62. Scholander, P. F. ( 1 955) : “Evolution of climatic adaptations in homeotherms”. Evolution, 9: 15-26. Snow, D. W. (1953): “The migration of the Greenland Wheatear”. Ibis, 95: 376-378- Spencer, R. (1955): “Report on bird-ringing for 1954”. Brit. Birds, xlviii : 461-498. Ticeiiurst, C. B. (1909): “The Greenland Wheatear”. Brit. Birds, ii: 271-273. Venables, L. S. V. and Venables, U. M. (1955): Birds and mammals of Shetland. Edinburgh. Weigold, H. (1926): “Masse, Gewichte und Zug nach Alter und Geschlecht bei Helgolander Zugvogeln”. Biol. Anstalt auf Helgoland, 17: 1-74. Wilkinson, D. H. (1956): “Merlin in the North Atlantic”. Brit. Birds, xlix : 501-502. Williamson, K. (1953a): “Redwing immigration in autumn at Fair Isle”. Bull. B.O.C., 73: 18-23. ( 1 953^) : “Migration into Britain from the north-west, autumn 1952”. Scot. Nat., 65: 65-94. • (1954a): “Beretning om nogle faerpske ynglefugle”. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidss., 48: 139- 149. (1954b): “The migration of the Iceland Merlin”. Brit. Birds, 47: 434-44 J- (1956): “The autumn immigration of the Greenland Redpoll ( Carduelis flammea rostrata (Coues)) into Scotland”. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidss., 50: 125-133. (in press): “Autumn immigration of Continental and Icelandic Redwings”. and Buttereield, A. (1955): “Merlin migration at Fair Isle in 1954”. Bull. F.I.B.O., 2: 264-268. and Davis, P. (1956): “The autumn 1953 invasion of Lapland Buntings and its source”. Brit. Birds, xlix: 6-25. and Ruttledge, R. F. (1957): “Icelandic Black-tailed Godwits wintering in Ireland”. Brit. Birds, 1.: 524-526. Witherby, H. F. ct al. (1938-41): The Handbook of British Birds. Vols. I, IV. London. Wynne-Edwards, V. C. (1952): “Zoology of the Baird Expedition (1950). 1, The birds observed in central and south-east Baffin Island”. Auk, 69: 353-30 '■ PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF SOME LESS FAMILIAR BIRDS LXXXIX. GOSHAWK Photographed by Kurt Ellstrom and Jonas Svensk (Plates 37-40) Text by I. C. T. Nisbet The Goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis) is of special interest as one of the very few birds of prey which occur on both sides of the Atlantic. It belongs to an extensive group of species of “gos- hawks” (formerly placed in a separate genus Astur, but now merged with the sparrowhawks in Accipiter), which has an almost ubiquitous distribution in the Old World, with many species in Africa, southern Asia, the East Indies and Australia. The European Goshawk is the most northerly and the most widespread of all, and is the only member of the group which is found in North America — in this resembling the northernmost species of other genera of birds of prey, such as the Golden Eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) and the Hen Harrier ( Circus cyaneus). It breeds from coast to coast in both continents, extending north of the Arctic Circle wherever there are suitable woodlands, and south to the Mediterranean, southern Russia, Japan and the northern United States, with other populations in the mountains south to Morocco, Tibet and New Mexico. Despite its wide distribution in Europe, however, it is little more than a vagrant to Britain, its recent attempts to establish itself in southern England having met with very limited success (Meinertzhagen, 1950; Hollom, 1957). Like that of many other birds of prey, its past status here is confused and badly documented. It is now best known as a scarce visitor outside the breeding season, and as such has become much more frequent in recent vears, especially in south-east England, where in some counties a few are now seen almost everv year. Largely a resident species, the Goshawk has split into a number of subspecies, which differ rather widely in colour. The two races most likely to occur in Britain, A. g. gallinarum of west and central Europe and A. g. gentilis of Scandinavia, are both brown above, like female Sparrowhawks (.4. nisus), but adults from south Europe are more slate-grey on the upper-parts, and those from Asia vary from brown through a number of shades of grev. There is also much variation in the colour of the under-parts, and the race .4. g. albidus of N. E. Siberia is pure white, resembling the celebrated" white goshawks of Australia (A. novaehollandiae). The American race, ,4. g. atricapillus , is particularly well-marked, the adult having blue-grev upper-parts, an almost black crown contrasting- with a wide white eve-stripe, and under-parts with greatly reduced barring, but although this plumage is unlike that 233 234 BRITISH BIRDS [vol. li of any west European race, field-identification of vagrants here may not be reliable ( cf . antea, vol. l, pp. 164-166). The European races are rather strictly resident — at Falsterbo, the famous hawk migration station in south Sweden, for example, this is one of the rarest of all birds of prey (Rudebeck, 1950) — but other races wander a good deal in autumn and winter, and the northern birds undertake fairly extensive southward migrations. The American race, indeed, is an irruption bird, occasionally invading the United States in large numbers in late autumn, and this tendency to wander is reflected in the occasional appearance of vagrants in Europe: in Ireland this race has occurred more often than the European races. It is interesting to note in this connection that each of the three twentieth-century records of the American race in Europe, mentioned in The Handbook, took place in one of the winters listed as invasion years by Bent (1937) and Broun (1945). The photographs give an excellent impression of the appearance of the species, the closely barred under-parts (plates 37 and 38), the banded tail (plate 38 upper) and the uniform dark brown upper- parts of the adults of both sexes forming a pattern closely similar to that of the female Sparrowhawk, a resemblance which is heightened in flight by the similar long tail and short, rounded wings. The Sparrowhawk is in fact the only species likely to be mistaken for a Goshawk in Great Britain, but the latter is a much larger bird — as illustrated by plate 37, which shows a male with a dead Hooded Crow ( Corvus corone cornix) — and can often be identified by size alone. However the females of both species are considerably larger than the males, and some female Sparrow- hawks look sufficiently similar to male Goshawks to call for much care in identification, especially if no other species is present to give a reliable comparative estimate of size. In these circumstances the only conclusive plumage feature of the adults is the white eve- stripe (plates 37 and 38), which is very hard to see in flight except at close range, but the immatures are very different from anv plumage of the Sparrowhawk in their unbarred under-parts with large drop-like streaks, a feature which is admirably shown on plate 40 and which can often be seen in a good view in the field. However, despite the dearth of positive field-marks, the beginner faced with his first Goshawk rarelv has any doubt in recognizing it as an unfamiliar species, for in flight it reallv appears verv different from the Sparrowhawk. The wing seems broader-based' and heavier, and except when the bird is soaring or in rapid turns the primaries are rarelv spread, so that it normally looks more or less pointed — a distinction illustrated bv Tinbergen in The Hand- book. but shown more c.learlv bv the sketches of Holstein (1042) and Hagen (10^2). Even more striking, the flight is much more active and manoeuvrable than a Sparrowhawk’s, with a characteristically flexible winsr-action, so that, as Tucker pointed out in The Handbook , the bird often looks more like a gigantic falcon than an Accipiter. VOL. LlJ GOSHAWK STUDIES 235 The Goshawk is a woodland species and, although a few wander into open country outside the breeding season, it is very easy to overlook. It hunts in the same manner as a Sparrowhawk, pursuing its prey in ilight and threading its way through the trees with great dexterity, while in places where the undergrowth is too thick to follow mammals in Ilight it has even been known to pursue and catch them on foot (Bent, 1937). The prey is usually carried to a clearing or to an open space at the edge of the wood where the bird has a clear all-round view while eating, and plates 39 lower and 40 illustrate a characteristic habit of the species in choosing a tree-stump or similar elevation as a “chopping-block” on which to dismember the prey. Much interesting information on the feeding habits of the species has been given by Tinbergen (1937, 1955). Plates 38 and 39 upper show a typical site for the nest, usually at least thirty feet up in a tree, and normally built by the birds themselves, although nests of buzzards ( Buteo spp.) and other species are occasionally adopted. The breeding of the Goshawk has been studied and described in great detail by Holstein (1942), and no-one interested in the species should fail to read this tine monograph, nor the more recent book by Kramer (1955)> based on observations in Germany. The Goshawk has long been used for hawking, and accounts in the falconry literature of its training and prowess possess a very respectable antiquity — see, for example, The Boke of St. Albans (Berners, i486). Indeed it shares with the Sparrow- hawk the distinction of being the subject of the first ornithological monograph ever written (Anon, 1575), while more than three centuries earlier the Emperor Frederick II had at least planned a similar book on the short-winged hawks, as a complement to his famous text-book of falconry (Wood and Fyfe, 1943). In the Middle Ages, when the more exciting sport of hunting with falcons was reserved to the nobility, the Goshawk was the bird of the yeoman, and in England it has always been used primarily for hunting Partridges ( Perdix perdix), Pheasants ( Phasianus colchicus) and Rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus), while good birds regularly kill hares ( Lepus spp.). As illustration of the abilities of well-trained Goshawks, Bert (1619) describes a bird that killed eight to ten Partridges each day on the Sussex Downs (“to the great woonder of the worthy Knights and Gentlemen in those parts”), and Harting (1898) mentions a French bird which caught 600 Rabbits in two seasons, while one of Lord Lilford’s Goshawks killed 300 Rabbits in three months (Trevor-Battye, 1903). However, the reputation of the species as a mere “kitchen-hawk” (Schlegel and Wulverhorst, 1844-1853) is not entirely deserved, for it can be trained to yield most exciting sport. According to the Baz- nama-yi Nasiri, a Persian treatise translated by Philpott (1908), and to Burton (1852), for example, Goshawks were regularly used in Persia and India for hunting such large game as cranes ( Gras sp.), Great and Houbara Bustards ( O . tarda and Chlamy- 236 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI dotis undulata ) and Gazelles ( Gazella sub gutter os a). The killing of the latter, which Burton describes in graphic fashion, was a feat unexcelled in eastern falconry. The Goshawk has often been regarded as one of the game- preserver’s wjorst enemies, and its food has been extensively studied. Of 407 prey-items analysed by Hagen (1952) in Norway, 101 were mammals, including 35 Red Squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris ) and 25 Hares ( Lepus timidus), and the remainder birds, including 21 Corvidae of various species, 64 thrushes ( Turdus spp.j, no grouse (. Lyrurus , Tetrao and Lagopus), 35 Pheasants and 13 chickens. The prey shown in plates 37, 39 lower and 40, respectively a Hooded Crow, a Red Squirrel and a Jay ( Garrulus glandarius), are thus typical of the food of the species in Scandinavia, but widely different preferences have been recorded in other parts of the world. Holstein (1942) mentions birds which specialized in domestic pigeons ( Columba livia) or Black-headed Gulls [Laras ridibundus) ; the birds in southern England (Meinertzhagen, 1950) lived mainly on Woodpigeons (C. palumbus) ; those in Siberia and Alaska feed extensively on lemmings ( Lemmus sp.). and Ptarmigan ( Lagopus mutus ), while the American authorities quoted by Bent variously record preferences for duck, chickens, rabbits, Red Squirrels and (formerly) Passenger Pigeons ( Ectopistes migratorius). In the breeding season birds as small as Chaffinches ( Frmgilla coelebs) and sparrows ( Melospisa ) are sometimes eaten, but in winter, when the females hunt for themselves, the food taken is generally larger, and birds up to the size of Capercaillie ( Tetrao urogaUus) are regularly killed. It often hunts smaller birds of prey; indeed in Holland — where, with relaxation of persecution, the Goshawk has recently increased, even spreading into town parks — Tinbergen (I955) has attributed the corresponding decrease of the Sparrow- hawk to the depradations of its larger cousin. On the other side of the scale, a Goshawk has once been found in a Golden Eagle’s nest (Bent, 1937), and Jays sometimes steal the eggs, but the species has only one serious enemy — Man, in his roles of falconer, game-preserver, chicken farmer and “sportsman”. The Goshawk is a wily bird, and there are several cases on record where campaigns to exterminate it have resulted merely in the destruc- tion of harmless species such as Common or Red-tailed Buzzards (. Buteo buteo or B. jamaicensis ) or Ospreys ( Pandion haliaetus), but it is unlikely that this fine bird will ever become established in Great Britain while present methods of game-preservation are practised. REFERENCES Anon. (ca. 1575): A perfect booke for kepinge of Sparhawkes or Goshawkes. Edited J. E. Harting, London, 1886. Bent, A. C. (1937): Life-Histories of North American Birds of Prey, Order F ale oni formes ( Part I). Washington. VOL. Li] GOSHAWK STUDIES 237 Berners, J. (i486): The Treatyses pertyninge to Hawkynge, Huntynge and Fysshynge with an Angle. St. Albans. Bert, E. (1619): An Approved Treatise of Hawkes and Hawking. London. Broun, M. (1945): Hawks Aloft: the Story of Hawk Mountain. New York. Burton, R. F. (1852): Falconry in the Valley of the Indus. London. Hagen, Y. (1952): Rovfuglene og Viltpleien. Oslo. Harting, J. E. (1898): Hints on the Management of Hawks. London. Hollom, P. A. D. (1957): “Goshawk”, in “The rarer birds of prey: their present status in the British Isles”. Brit. Birds, l: 135-136. Holstein, V. (1942): Duehggen. Biol. Studier over Danske Rovfugle I. Copenhagen. Kramer, V. (1955): Habicht und Sperber. Wittenberg Lutherstadt. Meinertzhagen, R. (1950): “The Goshawk in Great Britain”. Bull. B.O.C., 70: 46-49. Piiilpott, D. C. (1908): The Baz-nama-yi Nasiri: a Persian Treatise on Falconry. London. Rudebeck, G. (1950): “Studies on bird migration, based on field studies in southern Sweden”. Vdr F&gelvdrld, Suppl. I. Lund, Sweden. Schlegel, H., and Wulverhorst, A. H. Verster de (1844-1853): Trait 6 de Fauconnerie. Leiden & Diisseldorf. Tinbergen, L. (1955): Levende Natuur, 58: 211-216. , and Tinbergen, N. (1932): “ Waarnemingen aan roofvogels en uilen”. Levende Natuur, 36: 69-80, 98-104, 131-137. Trevor-Battye, A. (1903): Lord Lilford on Birds. London. Wituerby, H. F. et al. (1938-1941): The Handbook of British Birds. Yol. III. London. Wood, C. A. and Fyfe, F. M. (1943): The Art of Falconry, being the De arte venandi cum avibus of the Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. Stanford, California. OBITUARY John Arthington Walpole-Bond (1878-1958) On 13TH January 1958, John Walpole-Bond died at his home in Hove, Sussex, in his 80th year. Educated at Winchester and St. John’s College, Oxford, Jock Bond, as he was known to his many friends, was a descendant of Prime Minister Walpole and was the son of a former Vicar of Horsham. Birds, and particularly their breeding habits, were throughout his long life his one abiding passion. In his later years scarcely a day passed but someone would write to him or ring him up to draw from his vast fund of knowledge, acquired bv a life-time of close and intimate study of birds in the field. He claimed to have seen in situ the eggs of every regular breeding bird on the British list and, as an oologist, he had at one time a very comprehensive collection. The earlier years of his life were spent in Kent, and he wrote a book on The Birds of Bromley (Kent) and its Neighbourhood (1901). Later he moved to Wales where he spent what he considered the happiest years of his life. Bird Life in Wild Wales (1904) was the result of his sojourn in the Principality, and Field- Studies of Some Rarer British Birds (1914) was also mainlv a product of this period. 238 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI But the greater part of his life was spent in Sussex ; and it was from his home in Hove that he would emerge every single day in spring and summer to travel immense distances, mostly on his bicycle and on foot until he knew intimately every inch of the county and, it seemed, exactly where every regular breeding species was to be found. I knew him only for the last io years of his life, but I learnt more about birds from him in that time than in the whole of my life previously. It was an education to go out with him : which- ever species one wanted to see breeding he would know the precise date on which to look for it and exactly the place to go. He rarely had to refer to a map, but would direct one with un- erring accuracy and by the shortest route. He had an encyclopaedic memory and throughout the journey would be continually point- ing out sites where different species were to be found. It was in 1938, after 30 years’ work on it, that he at last produced his magnum opus, A History of Sussex Birds, in three volumes. Besides being blessed with immense strength and with exceptional eyesight and hearing, Bond was an amazingly fit man. He always, till he was nearly 80, took a cold bath and did his morning exercises. He carried not an ounce of superflous flesh and, to within a year or so of his death, would walk immense distances without apparent effort, losing no opportunity of going over a cliff or climbing a tree, however difficult. A friend of mine, himself a very fine tree-climber, once confessed to Jock that he had been beaten in his efforts to get to a nest perched on the end of an overhanging branch. “The Master’’ demanded to be shown the spot and, having sized up the situation, he proceeded, though over 70 years old at the time, to walk straight up and out on to the branch without rope, climbing irons or any- thing. He was an exceptional cragsman, quite fearless and with a wonderful head for heights. I have vivid memories of him strid- ing along on the very brink of the Sussex cliffs and, in a high wind, stopping every now and again to perch himself on the tip of a promontory in order to lean right over and clap his hands in an effort to put out a Peregrine. (I need hardly say that he knew every ledge and hole between Brighton and Hastings which had ever in living memory been occupied by a Peregrine.) In his younger days he was a very handsome man, with a magnificent figure. But when I knew him he was, to my mind, the very embodiment of an Old Testament prophet, with his long mane, flashing eyes and magnificent rufous moustache; and the similarity was heightened if, as often happened, he had cut him- self while shaving and had staunched the flow of blood with the help of several long wisps of cotton wool. Ornithologists in the field are not, as a race, noted for sartorial perfection ; but Jock’s get-up had to be seen to be believed. He never (except in mixed company) sported a tie or collar, but he OBITUARY 239 VOL. Li] would start the day wearing anything from three to six extremely dilapidated pullovers. These would be peeled off one by one as the day progressed, but never was the disreputable old mackintosh which surmounted them discarded. He took a fiendish delight in accosting all and sundry (preferably a rather prim-looking lady) on the flimsiest of pretexts. Watched from a respectable distance by the rest of the company, he would boldly approach his victim and, with a courtly bow, would sweep the ground with his ancient cap. The look of amazement and relief on the face of the lady when there emanated from the lips of this ghastly old “tramp” a flow of impeccable English, beautifully enunciated, was a source of unending amusement to his entourage. He boasted that on two occasions he had been offered his fare on a bus by a kind-hearted old lady ; and on one notable occasion he was tipped a florin by a dear old girl and told to buy himself a square meal. Jock was an extremely generous man: callers were always made welcome and, whenever his means allowed it, lavishly entertained. He was particularly fond of children and, whenever he called at a house where they were present, he invariably presented each one with a piece of money before leaving. He will always be remembered with gratitude by those who were privileged to know him and profit from his great wisdom, which he was ever most willing to share. A.G.W. NOTES The identification of White-headed and Ruddy Ducks.— In the “Recent reports and news” section in our March number ( antea , p. 132), brief mention was made of the fact that a number of North American Ruddy Ducks ( Oxyura jamaicensis ) had escaped from the Wildfowl Trust collection at Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, in the last year or two; several of these had been reported from various parts of the British Isles, and the possibility of confusing the females and juveniles with the corresponding plumages of the European “stiff-tail”, the White-headed Duck ( O . leucocephala), was pointed out. Since there have been still further reports of these birds and since, as already mentioned, female Ruddy Ducks have been mistaken for female White-headed Ducks on at least three occasions in recent months, as a result of the fact that the latter species is the only member of this genus to be illustrated in books on European birds, we feel that the subject deserves ampli- fication. To illustrate the distinctions between the two females, Mr. Peter Scott has kindly drawn the sketches that are reproduced on the next page. Both species are quite small ducks and, like the other members of this genus, are characterized by their stiff, pointed tails which are often cocked right up and give their owners such a distinctive shape. The two males are, of course, easily separated: the drake 240 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI 9 White-headed Duck ( Oxyura leucocephala ) 9 Ruddy Duck ( Oxyura jatnaicensis) Heads of the females of the two “stiff-tails” ( Oxyura spp.) likely to be seen in Europe (Drawn by Peter Scott) Note the heavier head and swollen bill of the White-headed Duck, which is native to southern Europe, compared with the smaller but otherwise very similar North American Ruddy Duck, of which escaped individuals are at large in the British Isles. Ruddy has a black cap and nape, white sides to the lower half of the head, and a brown body that becomes rich chestnut in the breeding-season; the drake White-headed has the whole head white except for a narrow black strip along the crown, its neck is black and its body greyish-brown ; the Ruddy usually has a larger area of purer white beneath the tail (but see below) and in the breeding-season both have bright blue bills. In addition, the White-headed is a bigger, stockier bird that gives the impression of having a disproportionately large head. This heavier build is a feature of the females and young birds also, but, until one is familiar with both species, size and build can be misleading and the only really reliable character left is the swollen base to the upper mandible of the White-headed Duck, well illustrated in Mr. Scott’s sketch. Both females are brown birds with a dark cap and a dark line splitting into two the otherwise pale cheeks. A somewhat uncertain secondary point of distinction is the presence or absence of white under the tail : the Ruddy Duck usually has the base of the tail constantly white in all plumages ; the White-headed is normally not pure white there, but sometimes whitish and in females and young males occasionally as white as in the Ruddy (though even NOTES 241 VOL. Li] then the area of white is usually more restricted). We are grateful to Mr. R. Wagstaffe of the Liverpool Museum for checking this last feature for us. Rudely Ducks are highly successful breeders at Slimbridge, and Mr. S. T. Johnstone, Curator of the Wildfowl Trust collection, tells us that, as a result of the difficulty in capturing and pinioning the young birds, at least twenty flew away from there in 1957; it is quite likely that the same thing will happen this year. At the moment the White-headed Duck is not kept in captivity at all. I. J. Ferguson-Lees Red Grouse swimming. — A Red Grouse ( Lagopus scoticus) which I flushed near Skeggles Waters, Westmorland, on 7th July 1957, glided low over the tarn, but apparently misjudged its height from the surface, and crashed into the water after flapping violently in an effort to regain height. It appeared to be not unduly distressed and swam quite well to the shelving bank some 10 feet away, where it disappeared among the ling. C. H. Fry Partridges apparently affected by industrial contamination. — Through the kindness of Mr. M. C. Martyn I have been able to examine one of two Partridges ( Perdix perdix) shot by him near Wentworth, Yorkshire, on 16th November 1957. Both these birds had badly deformed upper mandibles. The one examined had an upper mandible three or four times normal size, was considerably mis-shapen and had marked thickening of the roof of the mouth. This had the effect of permanently parting the mandibles so that the bird should have experienced difficulty in feeding adequately. In spite of this it appeared to be in good condition. The plumage was very dirty, and the bird had obviously endured a high degree of industrial contamination. Mr. Martyn states that he has shot several birds similar to this one over a number of years, and some even more deformed, with their mandibles forced wide open and curved apart. They are always in good condition bodily, and always occur in the vicinitv of collieries. It does seem as if this condition may be due to some irritant resulting from the activity of collieries near-by, and may possibly be caused by a carcinogen. Dr. J. M. Harrison, who also examined the head, pointed out that the warty excrescences in the left loral region, more or less like verruca, suggest a condition near the margin of chronic irritation and malignant transformation. He has kindly loaned me, from his collection, an adult male House Sparrow ( Passer domcsticus), which he thinks may be of the same etiology. This bird was found dying of starvation on 18th December 1925, at Gravesend, Kent, and also has a gross deformity of the upper mandible. In this case it is considerably 242 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI thickened, and projects and decurves for about f-inch beyond the lower mandible. Its plumage also showed marked industrial contamination. It will be interesting to know whether this sort of thing has occurred in other species, and to learn more about the causal mechanism. J. S. Ash Exceptional passage of Black Terns through Somerset in September 1957 . — Between 21st and 25th September 1957, remark- able numbers of Black Terns ( Chlidonias niger) appeared in Somerset. The most striking concentration was at Chew Valley Reservoir, where at least 480 Black Terns were seen feeding on the 2 1st. It seems that only one larger concentration of Black Terns has ever been recorded in the British Isles and that was at Studland Bay, Dorset, on 18th August 1952 when “well over 500, and probably c. 1,000 or more” were seen ( Pr’oc . Dorset Nat. Hist. & Arch. Soc., vol. 74, p. 1 41 ) . In the passage through Somerset in September 1957, however, large parties were also noted at other inland localities and on the coast, so that the total number of birds involved was probably not less than in Dorset in 1952. The following is a summary of the records and I am grateful to the observers concerned: — 21st September : counts of at least 300 and possibly 450 (S. G. Madge) and at least 480 (M.W.P.) at Chew Valley Reservoir; counts of none (J. Reynolds) and 18 (S.G.M.) at Durleigh Reservoir; 87 on River Parrett at Combwich, and 192 in Bridgwater Bay (J.R.). 22nd September : counts of at least 90 (M.W.P.) and 180-200 (P. J. Chadwick, H. H. Davis, M. A. Wright) at Chew Valley Reservoir; 62 at Blagdon, 18 at Cheddar and 12 at Barrow Gurney Reservoirs (P.J.C., H.H.D., M.A.W.); counts of none (J.R.), 33 (T. B. Silcocks), 39 (Miss E. M. Palmer) and 49 (Bernard King) at Durleigh Reservoir; at least 70 in Bridgwater Bay (J.R.); 16 at Steart Point (B.K.). 23rd September : no records received. 24th September: 4 at Sand Bay, Weston-super-Mare (T.B.S.); none at Durleigh Reservoir (J.R.). 25th September : 26 in estuary of River Parrett (T.B.S.); at least 50 in Bridgwater Bay (J.R.); 97, in two parties, at Steart Point (E.M.P.). It will be seen that the majority of the records were, as one might expect, for the week-end dates of 21st and 22nd September. However, although more records are available for the 22nd (the Sunday) than for the 21st, the total number of birds seen was considerably less, which suggests that the 21st was the genuine peak day. While fluctuations in the numbers at the reservoirs on the 21st and 22nd are apparent, little information is available on directions of flight. The 18 birds at Durleigh on 21st September, however, circled round the reservoir and then flew off in a south-westerly direction. At Chew, no birds were seen to arrive or depart, although observations were continued from mid-morning to dusk on both the 21st and 22nd. The first indication of their presence on the 2 1 st was of a party of 100 birds resting on a grassy spit at 1 1. 00 hours These birds soon rose, a few at a time, and drifted VOL. Li] NOTES 243 leisurely to another section to begin feeding. They may well have just arrived, as only odd birds were seen resting after that. Call-notes were reported from the large parties at Chew, the “feife-kifc” notes being heard fairly frequently on the 21st and occasionally on the 22nd. M. W. Pickering [Quite large numbers (parties of up to 50) of Black Terns were also reported at this time from other counties in the west and it is clear that the movement affected an area from Devon to Cheshire, though Somerset seems certainly to have had the greatest concentrations. In view of the analysis of “The passage of Black Terns through Britain in autumn 1954” that was made by Alec Butterfield and Kenneth Williamson ( an tea , vol. xlviii, pp. 304-307), we asked the latter if he would comment on the origin of these birds in September 1957. He writes: “I would interpret this as a movement across the Biscay- Finistere sea-areas, originating in France and forced north-east- wards ahead of the active occluded front of an Atlantic low which advanced towards N.W. France and S.W. Britain on 20th September. This front reached both areas about midnight and then passed on across the Midlands. “Visibility ahead of this front was bad: fog is recorded in S.E. Ireland and at Penzance, so presumably affected St. George’s Channel, and similar conditions existed along the French coast from Finist^re to Dieppe at midnight on the 20th/2ist. Drizzle set in as the front crossed the country, and fog is indicated in seaward areas behind the front at midday. A cold front passed quickly across the same regions in the early hours of the 22nd, clearing the fog and drizzle, and during the day conditions greatly improved to moderate S.W. winds, permitting the terns to disperse. “At the outset the weather over France was anticyclonic and generally clear with light, mostly S.E., wind. There was a distinct fall in temperature in the west Channel and Biscay regions as the occluded front passed by, the fall continuing on the Sunday. “The same arguments apply in the present case, as did in our discussion of the effects of frontal weather on the migratory movements of Black Terns in the autumn of 1954’’. — Eds.] Lanceolated Warbler at Fair Isle. — -A remarkable “rush” of Continental birds affected Fair Isle between 16th and 22nd September 1957, and three species from central and southern areas of the U.S.S.R. appeared in the last two of these days. These were a Lanceolated Warbler [Locustellalanceolai a) and a Richard’s Pipit ( Anthus richnrdi ) on the 21st, and two very grey Short-toed Larks ( Calandrella cinereci ) on the 22nd. These last were considered to be of the Eastern race, longipennis , of which several previous individuals have been identified on Fair Isle in recent years (e.g. atitea, vol. xlvi, p. 210; vol. xlviii, pp. 457-458). 244 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI The Lanceolated Warbler was found when Peter Hope Jones, Geoffrey Trimingham and I examined an overgrown ditch on the croft of S. Leogh late in the afternoon. It was obvious that we were dealing with a locustelline, for in shape and skulking behaviour the bird was a miniature Grasshopper Warbler (L. naevia). It soon left the ditch and dived into a stook of oat- sheaves near-by, then emerged to creep through the bare stubble and the longer grasses at the verge of the field, looking more like a small mammal than a bird. It was quite indifferent to our presence, often coming within a yard of our feet, so that binoculars were superfluous. Apart from the smaller size, the most obvious points of difference from L. naevia in the field were the well-defined gorget of close, parallel, vertical striations on the breast, the whitish chin and throat, an indistinct buff-white stripe through the eye, and broad dark striations on the mantle. The tail, of the same drab brown colour as the rest of the upper-parts, was very faintly barred with darker brown. The whitish belly had very few striations, but the flanks were washed darker and well streaked. The bill had a dark brown upper mandible and a pale flesh lower one ; the legs were pink. The warbler was easily caught with the aid of a piece of string netting and a portable “Craw” aluminium catching-box, and was taken to the laboratory for ringing and examination. The measurements were: wing (straight) 61 mm., (chord) 59mm., tail 42 mm., bill 11 mm., tarsus 18 mm. Wing-formula: 1st primary 1 mm. longer than primary-coverts, 3rd longest, 2nd and 4th shorter by 2 mm., 5th by 4 mm., 6th by 5.5 mm., 7th by 6.5 mm., 8th by 7 mm. ; 3rd emarginate. The weight was 7.6 gm. at 17.15 hours G.M.T. The rectrices were rather abraded, the remiges less so, and the rest of the plumage appeared new. This is apparently the eighth British record of the species, and the sixth from Fair Isle. Peter Davis REVIEWS AUDUBON BIRD GUIDE (Small land birds of eastern and central North America from southern Texas to central Greenland). Bv Richard H. Pough. Illustrated by Don Eckelberry. (Douhle- day & Co., New York, 1949 — first edition 1946— sponsored by the National Audubon Society). $3.95. AUDUBON WATER BIRD GUIDE (Water, game and large land birds of eastern and central North America from southern Texas to central Greenland). By Richard H. Pough. Illustrated by Don Eckelberry and Earl L. Poole. (Published as above, I951)- $3-95- AUDUBON WESTERN BIRD GUIDE (Land, water and game birds of western North America, including Alaska, from Mexico to VOL. Li] REVIEWS 245 Bering Strait and the Arctic Ocean). By Richard H. Pough. Illustrated by Don Eckelberry and Terry M. Shortt. (Published as above, 1957). $4-95- The bird-watching visitor to the United States or Canada is now as well-served with field-books as any visitor to any continent, as a consequence of the planning wisdom of the designers of the Pough series, reviewed here, and the equally famous Peterson series, published by Houghton Mifflin of Boston. If he can afford the dollar outlay he should buy both series. If his visit keeps him east of the ioo° meridian he will be adequately served by Peter- son’s Field Guide to the Birds and by the first two books reviewed here. West of ioo° he will need the Peterson Field Guide to Western Birds and all three Pough books. Neither Peterson book covers Alaska and the Canadian North-West; used together, the three Pough books do. The third and most recent Pough Guide, published last year, is a “mop-up” manual, dealing in extenso only with those western species not covered by its two predecessors : this has its disadvantages, as the user has to thumb his way through at least two Guides before he can find his bird. But he can get there soon enough, aided by beautifully printed and well laid-out text and pictures, and guided by a skilful and up-to-date account and description of the birds, and by the excellent Eckelberry plates which maintain a fine standard of accuracy throughout. Pough’s text, in all his Guides (part of it, particularly in the Western Guide, is contributed by H. C. Cogswell, J. T. Marshall and other experts), is more extensive than that in the handier Peterson Guides, which confine themselves largely to the essentials of recognition and do not deal widely, as Pough does, with habits. Further comparisons between the two series are almost un- necessary, so complementary are they ; but it would have been better had the Eckelberry colour plates been distributed through the Pough Guides in the Peterson style, rather than lumped together, so that many birds are figured far away from their text. In every way the Pough Guides show a fine judgment of relevant fact. The text flows well, yet remains concise and valuably informative. Vernacular names have been brought in line with the most recent American trend, which is much closer to that of Europe than the fancy was formerly and which concentrates upon species rather than races. Indeed, Pough has included notes on races only when they are of value to the field-man ; he confines his remarks on subspecies to the few which are well-marked enough to be reliably recognizable in the field. From end-paper to end-paper (which carry most useful maps) the Audubon Bird Guides of Pough reflect credit on him, his talented artists, and the National Audubon Society that has sponsored them. So well-arranged and valuable is the information in them that no European ornithologist who follows American 246 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI work can afford to be without them — even if he cannot manage a trip to America. Those of us who read The Auk, The Condor, The Wilson Bulletin, Bird-Banding, or any other fine American ornithological journal often wonder what the birds are like: a coloured picture and a summary of distribution and habits form no part of a normal scientific paper. These Guides give, in truly portable form, the most complete description of the bird fauna of North America, north of the Mexican border, that can be obtained. They have had a well-deserved success throughout their continent, and deserve to be widely read and enjoyed in others. James Fisher LETTER SOCIAL FLYING OF RAVENS Sirs, — Under the above title ( antea , vol. l, pp. 432-434), R. Hewson has usefully drawn attention to the aerobatics — familiar in individuals — that are sometimes performed by flocks of Ravens ( Corvus corax) and has discussed questions suggested by this form of behaviour. His citations of literature, however, go no further back than 1948, and I should think it a pity if the record of the subject in your pages did not also include the follow- ing much older reference; as the source is not a very accessible one, I may be permitted to quote the most relevant passages. J. C. Adam (1909), under the title “The Raven Wys” [Trans. Edinburgh N aturalists’ and Microscopical Soc., vol. 6, pp. 152- 163), described an incident observed by himself and his brother somewhere in Scotland late in the afternoon of nth March 1906. Upwards of a dozen birds “were disporting themselves just as we had seen odd pairs doing before and long after the nesting- season. They were even carrying the play further: we could see, in spite of the distance and the poor light, birds bearing sticks or heather-bents in their bills ; we could see a bird drop one and then dive after it, make a movement as if it had caught it in the air, and then swing upwards pursued by two or three of its fellows who a moment before had made wild dashes to intercept it. There was also a great deal of other circling and tumbling and sudden dives, for which we could not perceive the reason — the birds probably played with smaller articles than sticks, which were invisible at our distance. The whole business left the impression of birds gathered for play and for nothing else”. He goes on to tell how two ornithological friends had a similar experience twenty miles from the same spot a fortnight later, on 23rd' March, under more favourable conditions; and, after watch- ing the performance for an hour, had the good fortune to witness the dispersal. “And this is the interesting point: they had dispersed in twos — first one pair left the convivial crowd, and then at a short interval a second, and then a third, each heading awav in a different direction, until the last farewell had been croaked across the hills”. Adam concluded that this must be a LETTER 247 VOL. Li] gathering of resident birds (mentioning that on the second date most Ravens would be incubating — but it has since been pointed out that non-breeding birds may be paired), and that the assembly was not attributable to any food attraction. The article is in the main a somewhat whimsical account of personal experience; but J. C. Adam was a fine observer — one of the many ornithologists of my own generation who did not survive the first world war. The brother who was with him is R. M. Adam, well-known as a photographer of Scottish scenery. One of the second pair of witnesses was evidently another member of the group — we called ourselves the Macgillivray Society — as I have still in my possession a typescript account of the incident by William Binnie, with sketches made in the field. Binnie also lost his life in the war, but from his record one learns that the locality was in Perthshire, the time again late in the day, and the number of birds nine. Further, he describes and depicts the birds as playing in the air not only with pieces of stick but also with small white stones. Moreover, the four sketches show a piece of stick being carried in both feet, and either dropped from or caught by them; and, for another bird, a small stone being carried in and about to be caught with the bill. The following further observation perhaps bears on the pair composition of performing flocks. D. A. Bannerman ( Birds of the British Isles, Vol. r, 1953) quotes a description by B. H. Ryves of two pairs of Ravens on the Cornish coast performing aerial dances simultaneously a hundred yards apart. The account continues: — “Soon the two pairs converged rapidly inwards until they met. Then followed precisely the same aerobatics as before, onlv by four birds instead of two, lasting about a minute, after which, as if by some subtle prearrangement, the pairs separated to continue their dance in distinct couples”. It may be remarked that William Macgillivray himself ( History of British Birds, Vol. 1, 1837), who knew the species intimately in the Hebrides, described both large assemblages and individual acrobatic flight but had apparently never witnessed social flying of the kind with which we are here concerned. A. Landsborough Thomson RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS By I. J. Ferguson- Lees and Kenneth Willtamson The items here are largely unchecked reports, and must not he regarded as authenticated records. They are selected, on the present writers’ judgment alone, from sources generally found to be reliable. Observers’ names are usually omitted for reasons of space and in case a renort is subsequently rejected, and none of the items will be mentioned in our annual Index. Readers are asked to submit anything of interest as quickly as possible. This summary deals with the second phase of the spring passage, the period ist-goth May. At the beginning of the month an anti- 248 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI cylone covered much of Europe and Britain, and, at the centre of this high, fog developed in the early morning of the ist all along the Dutch coast: this and easterly winds in the North Sea were probably the causes of the large but brief and fairly local invasion of Black Terns ( Chlidonias niger ) during ist-3rd May ( antea , p. 206). Apart from the six flocks of 100-400 detailed last month, there were several parties of 40-go birds, but these concentrations were only in the area bounded by Norfolk and Northamptonshire in the north (peak on the ist) and Essex and Hertfordshire in the south (peak on the 2nd). Numbers elsewhere were small, with parties of 23 (Lincolnshire and Hampshire) the largest reported, though Black Terns were scattered over most of England from Yorkshire to Lancashire and Kent to Dorset. The centre of the high contracted to southern England and the Channel region between the 2nd and the 5th, and in this period a big eastwards movement of sea-terns ( Sterna spp.) was observed at various places along the Channel coast from Dorset to Kent. These were mainly Sandwich (S. sandvicensis) and Common/ Arctic Terns ( S . hirundo / macrura) , with fewer Little (S. albifrons ) ; at the same time there were some Arctic Skuas (Stercorarius parasiticus), as well as one or two Pomarines (S. pomarinus ) of which 6 adults (4 pale and 2 dark) were seen at Dungeness on the 2nd and single birds at Dungeness and Portland on the 4th. Common Scoters ( Melanitta nigra) were also reported as part of this movement and several Black-throated Divers ( Gavia arctica) in summer plumage were noted at Portland. At this time south European birds were coming to the east and south coasts, as far west as the southern Irish Sea, in the light easterly airflow over France and the Biscay-Finist&re approaches (Fig. 1). A Tawny Pipit ( Anthus campestris ) appeared at Dungeness on the 2nd, and another was seen in Cheshire, on the Dee marshes near the Flintshire border, on the 4th. Also at Dungeness on the 2nd there was a Gull-billed Tern ( Gelochelidon nilotica ), and that same day a Hoopoe ( Upupa epops) circled over Monks’ House, Northumberland, just as the week’s guests were leaving ! Apart from this rather northerly bird and one at Bardsey, Caernarvonshire, on the 4th, there were a number of reports of Hoopoes in southern counties (Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Devon), during the first eleven days of the month. A Woodchat Shrike ( Lanins senator) arrived at Great Saltee, Co. Wexford, on the 3rd', and there was another at Salthouse, Norfolk, on the 4th (and also one at Hilbre, Cheshire, on the 10th). The Salthouse Woodchat, a male, could be watched at the same time as a Great Grey Shrike (L. excubit or ); both remained several days, the Woodchat to the gth, the Great Grey to the 8th. Another latish Great Grey Shrike was seen at Hecklingham, Norfolk, on 14th May. The movement which brought the Woodchat to Saltee resulted in a male Subalpine Warbler ( Sylvia ■ cantillans ) visiting St. Agnes vol. li J RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 249 in the Scilly Isles on the 3rd (it stayed until the 7th), and on the next day there was a female Bluethroat ( Cyanosylvia svecica) there, as well as an Ortolan Bunting- ( Emberiza hortulana) which remained until the 6th. A female Ortolan was also reported from Epsom, Surrey, on the 3rd, while on the 7th and 8th a male in song was found at the same place. On 4th May there was a female Grey-headed Wagtail ( Motacilla flava thunbergi) at Fair Isle, while at Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire, a male Golden Oriole ( Oriolus oriolus) and a Long-eared Owl (Asio otus ) (rare on the east coasj: in spring) were noted. On the south coast during 3rd- 4th May there was a fall of Whitethroats ( Sylvia communis) and Willow Warblers ( Phylloscopus trochilus), with a sprinkling of such birds as Whinchats ( Saxicola rubetra), Redstarts ( Phoenicurus phoenicurus) and Turtle Doves ( Streptopelia turtur). On the 5th there was a movement of Sedge Warblers ( Acrocephalus schoenobaeris) to Bardsey. Sedge Warblers had also been common on passage at Monks’ House at the beginning of the month, together with Willow Warblers (including several acredula), chats and Goldcrests ( Regulus regulus). Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 1 shows the situation of the early May anticyclone at 18.00 hours on the 3rd: S. European rarities arrived on the east and south coasts, round to the Scilly Isles and Great Saltee, from the 2nd to the 4th, and Greenland Wheatear passage was very heavy at St. Kilda on the 3rd (see text). Fig. 2 illustrates the cyclonic drift of eastern rarities to Fair Isle overnight on 14th/ 15th May from the southern Baltic Sea and Skagerrak in pre-frontal easterly winds (see text). The centre of the anticyclone had moved briefly to the Hebrides and northern Scotland late on the 2nd, before returning to the south-east, and a great rush of Greenland Wheatears (< Oenanthe oe. leucorrhon) developed at St. Kilda on the 3rd, the 250 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI birds continuing abundant until the 6th. A flock of Barnacle Geese ( tiranta leucopsis) had passed on the 2nd, and a second Iceland Gull ( Larus glaucoides) joined the one mentioned last month (1 antea , p. 207). A good Greenland Wheatear passage was also reported from Monk’s House, and from Fair Isle where the peak day was the 6th. The anticyclone moved away to southern Europe, and Britain was troubled by low pressure disturbances, though col and ridge conditions gave a brief respite in the south on the 6th and 7th before more depressions, with active fronts and strong westerly winds, came in from the Atlantic. A gale on the night of the 8th/ gth, with pre-frontal east wind, brought a second wave of Wheat- ear and Barnacle Goose passage to St. Kilda. A possible Nightingale ( Luscinia megarhynchos) was seen at Fair Isle on the 7th and 8th (there is only one record for the island, but see below), with an Ortolan on the latter date. At the other end of Britain on the 7th there was a male Little Bittern ( Ixobryclius minutus) in the Yare Valley, Norfolk, and we have received preliminary and incomplete details of a Lesser Grey Shrike (L. minor) at Dartford, Kent. A Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisns) trapped at Fair Isle on 7th May had been ringed as a migrant at the Isle of May, in the Forth, on 23rd September 1957. At Bradwell, Essex, the largest movement of the spring took place on about 8th May : chiefly Whitethroats and Willow Warblers (including some acredula ), but including a few Spotted Flycatchers ( Muscicapa striata). A heavy passage of Spotted Flycatchers occurred at Monk’s House from the 6th to the 8th, and on the 9th a Spotted Crake ( Porzana porzana) was found dead at Holy Island, Northumberland. Between that date and the nth there was more strong passage in Durham and Northumber- land, this time of northern Wheatears, Willow Warblers (again with acredula) and unusual numbers of Common Sandpipers ( Tringa hypoleucos ). In the second week of May, too, there was a small movement of summer migrants at Fair Isle, mainly Pied Flycatchers ( Muscicapa hypoleuca), Redstarts and Willow Warblers. About this time there was an influx of Spoonbills ( Platalea leucorodia) to Norfolk, 1 being seen at Breydon on the 10th, 2 at Hickling Broad during the ioth-iyth (and then 2 at Breydon from the 18th) and 2 at Cley from the 13th onwards. The Spoon- bill at Hanningfield, Essex (antea, p. 207), incidentally, was still present there on 18th May. A Little Egret (Egretta garzetta ) stayed on the Hayle estuary, Cornwall, from 8th to 10th May ; then 1 was found near Rye, Sussex, on the 16th arid on several days subsequently. A female Red-footed Falcon (Falco vespertinus) remained at Southwold, Suffolk, from the 9th to the 14th. Two Short-toed Larks (Calandrella cinerea ) were watched at St. Agnes on the 10th, and from Gwithian in Cornwall came a report of a Golden Oriole on that day. In view of the trenerallv westerly vol. li J RECENT REPORTS AND NEWS 251 weather then, it is possible that some of these were “left over’’ from the earlier anticyclonic influx of south European birds. To date, only two other Golden Orioles have been reported, apart from the ones at Gwithian and Gibraltar Pqint, and these were single birds at Beckley on 30th April and in the Epping Forest, Essex, on 18th May — but there have probably been others. A Madeiran Little Shearwater ( Procellaria caroli caroli) was picked up moribund at Stockport, Cheshire, on the 10th and is now in the Bolton Museum. Also on 10th May a near-adult Sabine’s Gull [Xenia, sabini ) was seen at Portland. The most surprising bird of the month was a female Wilson’s Phalarope [Phalaropus tricolor ) in summer plumage near Shefford, Bedfordshire, from the 10th to the 13th; there is only one previous authenticated record of this species in Europe [antea, vol. xlviii, pp. 15-17). It may well, however, have been newly- arrived when discovered, for during the 8th and 9th winds were westerly across the Atlantic with low pressure near both coasts and an anticyclone to the south between. From the nth to the 13th, with the low pressure centres filling to the west and northern Scotland enjoying calms or light easterly airs, four new species were added to the St. Kilda list: a drake Tufted Duck ( Ay thy a fuligula), a Dunnock [Prunella modularis), a House Sparrow [Passer domesticus ) and a Nightingale! Willow Warbler, ChifFchaff, Sedge Warbler, Whinchat and Chaffinch [Fringilla coelebs) were other species seen. Some ringed Turn- stones [Arenaria interpres ) feeding on the shore of Village Bay were doubtless a few of those caught there in September 1957. Incidentally, it now seems clear that Dunnocks were quite a significant, if overlooked, bird in the March and April movements discussed last month [antea, pp. 203-206) and their presence has been commented on from Havergate, Suffolk, to Fair Isle: at the latter place nearly 40 Continental Dunnocks (P. m. modularis ) were trapped in the six weeks following 30th March, twice as many as in any previous entire year. The Iceland Gull at Shoreham, Sussex, was still present on 16th May (see antea, p. 207) and another southerly individual was located at St. Ives Bay, Cornwall, on the 13th. Waders were prominent on the Durham and Northumberland coasts from the nth and 12th: up to 1,000 black-bellied Dunlins [Calidris alpina ) were reported at Teesmouth and Fenham Flats on these dates respectively, and there was a party of Reeves [Philomachus pugnax) at the latter locality. Ruffs and Reeves, incidentally, had been numerous at Cley, Norfolk, at the beginning of the month when a total of 40-50 were seen on the marsh there. During the mid-Mav period Turnstones and Purple Sandpipers (Calidris maritima ) were continually passing at Monks’ House (and a late Black Redstart ( Phoenicurus ochruros) appeared there on the 13th). The middle of the month also saw a trickle of Turnstones and Sanderlings ( Crocethia alba) inland where neither of these 252 Him* BRITISH BIRDS JUN 1958 [ VOL. LI species is at all commonly recorded : for the first and third days of its stay (ioth and 12th May) the Wilson’s Phalarope in Bed- fordshire was accompanied by a Sanderling, and others of this species were reported from Cannock reservoir, Staffordshire, on the nth and Little Paxton, Huntingdonshire, on the 12th. Turn- stones also appeared at these two localities : 3 at Cannock on the 1 1 th and 2 on the 12th, and 1 at Little Paxton on the 16th. At this period there was high pressure over Scandinavia and eastern Europe, but rain developed in the Skagerrak and southern Baltic Sea in the warm front of a low which pressed north-east- wards across the British Isles (Fig. 2). Passage of the normal summer-visitors was renewed at Fair Isle on the 14th and 15th, with more Ortolan Buntings, a male Yellow Wagtail (M. /. flavissima) and a party of 15 Tree Sparrows ( Passer montanus ) among the more unusual birds there. A Thrush Nightingale (Luscinia luscinia ), of which there are only three previous British records, was trapped and another “probable” ’ seen ; this is the second year in succession that a Thrush Nightingale has been caught at Fair Isle (see antea, p. 198) and this time the date was 15th May, the 47th anniversary of the first British record, secured at Fair Isle by Dr. Eagle Clarke! On this same day there were 2 Little Buntings ( Emberiza pusilla) ( cf . antea, p. 205) ; and a Red- throated Pipit ( Anthus cervinus ) from the 18th to the 20th completed this galaxy of eastern rarities as far as Fair Isle was concerned. But other parts of the country were also receiving Continental vagrants. A Roller ( Coracias garrulus ) on St. Mary’s, Scilly Isles, in the middle of the month was subsequently found dead. A Purple Heron ( Ardea purpurea ) was found at Chichester gravel-pits, Sussex, on the 18th, and that same day what was considered to be a Purple Heron was seen in flight at Dunstable, Bedfordshire. Also on the 18th a Gull-billed Tern appeared at Hayling Island, Hampshire. And another female Red-footed Falcon was located on 21st May, this time at Wareham, Dorset; it was still present to at least the 24th. Finally, a word about Jays ( Garrulus glandarius). Several reports have come from Sussex, Hampshire and Dorset, which suggest a movement of these birds. Most observations, chiefly in the last ten days of April and the first half of May, concern ones and twos in coastal places where there are normally no Jays, but there is also a report of more significant numbers from the Durlston Head area in Dorset, on ioth, 12th and 15th May. On each of these days a group of about 20 (once 23) was seen in the early morning, twice flying S.S.E. and once west; possibly the same birds were involved, but the actual observations suggested otherwise and, in addition, 7 on the headland in mid-morning on the ioth were not to be found that afternoon.. It should be remembered that the Jay was one of the “associated species” connected with the big movements of tits ( Paras spp.) and other birds in the autumn of 1937 (cf. antea, p. 208), and further information of this kind would be useful. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of Britain and western Europe, or, where appropriate, on birds of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered to any other journal. Photographs (glossy prints showing good contrast) and sketches are welcomed. Proofs of all contributions accepted are sent to authors before publication. After publication 20 separates of papers are sent free to authors ; additional copies, for which a charge is made, can be provided if ordered when the proofs are returned. Contributors are asked to observe the following points, attention to which saves the waste of much editorial time on trivial alterations: 1. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and with similar spacing. Failure to help in this way may result in delays to publication. 2. Notes should be worded as concisely as possible, and drawn up in the form in which they will be printed, with signature in block capitals and the writer’s address clearly written on the same sheet. If more than one note is submitted, each should be on a separate sheet, with signature and address repeated. In the case of rarity records, any supporting description which is too detailed for publication should be attached separately. 3. Certain conventions of style and lay-out are essential to preserve the uni- formity of any publication. Authors of papers in particular, especially of those containing Systematic Lists, Reference Lists, Tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of species should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen (e g. Siberian Thrush, Yellow-headed Wagtail), but group terms should not (e.g. thrushes, wagtails). English names are those used in The Handbook of British Birds, with the exception of the changes listed in British Birds in 1953 (vol. xlvi, pp. 2-3). The scientific name of each species should be given (in brackets and underlined) immediately after the first mention of the English name. Sub- specific names should not be used except where they are relevant to the discuss- ion. It is sometimes more convenient to list scientific names in an appendix. Dates should take the form “ 1st January 1955 ” and no other, except in Tables where they may be abbreviated to “ 1st Jan.”, “ Jan. 1st ”, or even “ Jan. 1 ”, whichever most suits the lay-out of the Table concerned. It is particularly requested that authors should pay attention to Reference Lists, which otherwise cause much unnecessary work. These should take the following form : Tucker, B. W. (1949): “Species and subspecies: a review for general ornitho- logists”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 129-134. Witherby, H. F. (1894): Forest Birds: Their Haunts and Habits. London, p. 34. Various other conventions concerning references, including their use in the text, should be noted by consulting previous examples. 4. Tables should be numbered with Roman numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. 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It is best if maps, graphs, etc., are drawn twice the size of the final reproduction (ideally, therefore, for the normal 4" width the original should be 8" wide) ; sketches of birds, however, should be only slightly larger than the size at which it is intended they should appear. It is always most important to consider how each drawing will fit into the page. The neat insertion of lettering, numbers, arrows, etc., is perhaps the most difficult part of Indian ink drawing and, unless he has had consider- able experience of this kind of work, an author should seek the aid of a skilled draughtsman. The publishers regret that, owing to rising costs, it will in future be only in exceptional cases that they can undertake to have lettering inserted. Captured German Stores LEITZ (of Leica fame) 1 0 X 50 Eyepiece Focusing BINOCULARS The ideal glass for the BIRDWATCHER An extremely well made instrument combining high mag- nification with good light transmission. Weight 2 lbs. Current cost approx. £60. Excellent condition, with leather case £26 We have specialised in fine quality binoculars and optical equipment for half a century and carry Europe's greatest stocks of ex-Govt. binoculars. Every purchase is covered by our money-back guarantee and, if requested , will be sent on 7 days' free approval, Credit terms available if desired. GERMAN ARMY BINOCULARS 6X30 Best makes. Eyepiece focus- ing. Weight only 14ozs. Shock- and water-proofed. With all-weather case. Fraction of cost £7 15s. Od. to £10 15s. Od. EX-ADMIRALTY ROSS 16 X 40 SINGLE DRAW TELESCOPE (Mi crometer Focusing) The Ross telescope is famous throughout the world and this model, produced to exacting Admiralty standards, combines an extremely high light transmission with a wide field of view. Length closed 11", fully extended \1\". Focusing is achieved by specially quick micrometer system. Of all the Admiralty scopes this is the lightest, being only 28 ozs. in weight. These telescopes are ajj jl offered at well under half cost price. Almost mint *10.0 condition. postage 2/6 CHARLES FRANK 67-75 SALTMARKET, GLASGOW, C.l. Telephone : BELL 2106-7 Established 1907 Printed in Gt. Britain by Witiierby & Co., Ltd., Watford, Herts. Published by H. F. & G. WITHERBY, LTD., 5, Warwick Court, W.C.i. BRITISH BIRDS t SH1LI BRITISH BIRDS AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY MAGAZINE Edited by E. M. Nicholson W. B. Alexander A. W. Boyd I. J. Ferguson-Lees P. A. D. Hollom N. F. Ticehurst Editorial Address : 30, St. Leonard’s Avenue, Bedford. Photographic Editor : G. K. Yeates Annual Subscription £ 2 (including postage and despatch) payable to H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., 5, Warwick Court, London, W.C.i Contents of Volume LI, Number 7, July 1958 Pac.h The wreck of Kittiwakes in early 1957. By Miss Leontia McCartan 253 Mortality of Kittiwakes during the breeding season. By Miss Leontia McCartan ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 267 Photographic studies of some less familiar birds. XC— Frigate Petrel. Photographs and text by John Warham (plates 41-44) 269 The moult migration of the Shelduck from Cheshire in 1957- By R. H. Allen and G. Rutter 272 Notes : — Magpie burying and recovering food (R. W. Hayman) 275 Unusual nest of Song Thrush (E. L. Roberts) ... ... ... ... 275 Desert Wheatear in Essex (B. A. B. Barton) 275 Goldcrest caught on hooks of burdock (Miss W. U. Flower) ... ... 276 Corn Buntings roosting in reeds (K. G. Spencer) 276 Review : — Bird Study in a Garden. By E. A. R. Ennion ... ... ... ... 276 Recent reports and news. By Kenneth Williamson and I. J. Ferguson-Lees ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 277 Cover photograph by C. Pearson Douglas: Buzzard (Butco huteo ) in flight ,u,'HA8ED ^ > NJtIt958 Vol. LI No. 7 BRITISH BIRDS THE WRECK OF KITTIWAKES IN EARLY 1957 By Leontia McCartan ( Department of Zoology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth) The Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla ) is an oceanic bird which breeds along- the North Atlantic shores, down to about 40°N. At the end of the breeding- season the birds move out to the open Atlantic and during the winter months they are found chiefly between 4o0N. and 55 °N. (Wynne-Edwards, 1935). Rankin and Duffey (1948) have shown that in January and February the main concentration of wintering birds occurs between 20°W. and 40° W. Many Kittiwakes also winter in British waters, though they do not normally occur close inshore at that time of the year and they are then rarely seen either on the coasts or inland. During the early months of 1957, however, Kittiwakes were reported from various parts of the British Isles and it became apparent that some abnormal movement of the birds was in progress. This present survey of the extent of the irruption was made possible by the co-operation of all those who sent in reports and observations in response to the notices in various journals. The names of all contributors are listed at the end of the paper ; I should like to thank them for their assistance and to apologise for any inadvertent omissions. The wreck of Kittiwakes was confined mainly to the south and west. Flocks of varying size were stranded at different parts of the coast during January and February, and the distribution of these flocks is shown in Fig. 1. For convenience, all the records from Somerset have been included with the coastal flocks. Altogether over 900 birds were counted in the coastal flocks (excluding over 500 birds which were reported alive in Northern Ireland in December 1956). In addition, about 90 birds were found in England and Wales, 253 254 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Fig. i — Distribution of coastal flocks of Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla } in the British Isles in early 1957 Any group of more than five birds was treated as a “flock” and the details are given in Appendix I on pages 261-263. This map illustrates the fact that the large numbers were mainly confined to the south and west. Most of the birds died. and of these over 80% occurred south-west of a line drawn from Liverpool to London; 17 birds were found inland in Scotland and vol. li] WRECK OF KITTIWAKES IN 1957 255 8 in Ireland. Full details of the size and distribution of the coastal flocks and a list of the inland records are given in Appendix I. The first reports (again excluding the December flock in Northern Ireland) were a few isolated records for January. During February there was a steady increase in the numbers of both living birds and corpses, and peak numbers were reached about i5th-20th February. After this date there was a drop in numbers, presumably due to deaths. Some Kittiwakes were still seen flying as late as March, but most of the March records were of corpses in varying stages of decay. By the middle of March all signs of the wreck had disappeared and a normal spring return to the breeding grounds followed. Many of the birds were dead when found. A few of the living birds appeared to be healthy and in good condition, but the vast majority drew attention to themselves by their unusual tameness and disinclination to fly away when approached. At Brighton and Newhaven in Sussex and Southend-on-Sea in Essex they roosted fearlessly on the piers and on the life-boat station roof. Observers’ comments on the birds included such adjectives as “tame”, “tired”, “lethargic”, “dopey” and “unafraid”. Often the weakened birds were cared for and fed for a few days, but none recovered. For the purpose of this survey there seems to be no point in separating the birds into arbitrary categories of “alive” and “dead”, as the evidence strongly suggests that all the birds eventually died. In some cases the Kittiwakes were too weak to stand and lay forwards on their breasts; others could just manage to walk slowly and stiffly, and others still (at Portaferry, Northern Ireland) flew for a short distance when disturbed by a dog, but, on alighting again, fell over sideways as though their legs were too weak to support them. One bird, in Cornwall, could not rise to its feet without levering itself up by the tip of its beak; others were found dead in this position, as though they had nose-dived into the soft soil. Despite their weakness the birds soon located and used alternative food supplies. At Brighton and Newhaven a small flock fed regularly at a sewer outfall and took scraps from the floor of the fish market and bait dropped by anglers on the pier. At Wembury, Devon, a flock of 60-70 Kittiwakes was seen in a ploughed field, apparently feeding on earthworms. Reports from other areas also mention the birds picking at grass and wet turf; one bird was seen picking at a dead Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) and another, opened at Aberystwyth, had pieces of silver paper and rubber bands in its stomach. Most of the birds which were hand-fed took fish offal, pieces of herring or liver (this was the food most commonly offered to them), and at first none of them refused food; before death, however, many birds did refuse to eat and had to be fed forcibly. 256 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI As a general rule these Kittiwakes died after three or four days of hand-feeding, although in a few instances they had apparently made an initial recovery. Death seemed to follow a standard pattern : the bird became even weaker, lay forward on its breast, dipped its head, spread its wings to full span and died. The wing spreading seems to have been a general feature, and many of the reports of birds found dead show that the corpses were found with outstretched wings and “appeared to have died in that position’’. With the exception of the birds on the Hampshire coast very few of the Kittiwakes were heavily oiled. A small number, less than a dozen in all, showed slight traces of oil which might have been acquired on the beaches either immediately before or just after death, but over 98% were clean birds showing no sign of oil contamination ; nor was there any indication of fuel oil pneumonia in the post-mortem reports. On the Hampshire coast, however, a considerable quantity of oil was washed ashore during the December and January gales and several species of sea birds suffered heavy oiling. In one day 19 oiled Kittiwakes were destroyed. Flocks of over 100 living Kittiwakes were reported during the wreck; most of these birds showed slight traces of oil, but the evidence suggests that they were quite clean on arrival in the vicinity and were picking up oil during their stay. One observer watched these birds hovering over patches of oily sea water, thus getting the oil on their plumage and legs. The mortality did not appear to be confined to one age group. In Jersey, Channel Islands, there was a high proportion of first- year birds among the casualties, but this tendency was not apparent in reports from other parts of the British Isles. Only a few reports gave details of the ages of the birds involved and, of a total of 122 birds of known age, 102 were adults, but it would be unwise to attach much significance to these figures. RESULTS OF POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS The full significance of the wreck was not appreciated until after the main peak of mortality had passed and, as a result, very few corpses were examined critically or sent in for pathological investigation. Some of the birds were badly decayed when found and many were destroyed or buried. Many observers reported that the birds which they had handled were very thin and under- weight. Two observers in Somerset, P. J. Chadwick and M. A. Wright, checked the weights of the corpses in their area and found that the maximum weight was 360.8 gm., the minimum 225.1 gm. and the mean (for 17 corpses) was 277.06 gm. Seilkopf (1955) gives 420 gm. as the mean weight of healthy birds; White (personal communication) gives 354 gm. as the mean weight of 57 adult Kittiwakes, weighed during the breeding season. Wrecked birds from Somerset showed severe starvation, and internal examination revealed complete absence of the fat deposits vol. li] WRECK OF KITTIWAKES IN 1957 257 as well as atrophy of the pectoral muscles and liver. Samples of various tissues were taken from these birds and preserved and sectioned for histological examination by R. H. Poulding. 14 livers were weighed and had a weight range of 4.00 gm. to 14.18 gm., with an average weight of 7.84 gm. Histological examination of these livers revealed shrinkage of the cells and complete absence of glycogen, a food reserve of the body which is normally present in very large quantities in the liver. Fat, which does not normally occur in appreciable amounts in the liver, was present in large quantities. This accumulation of fat in the liver indicates the first stages in its breakdown, when the body is deriving energy from fat sources rather than from carbohydrate sources. The pectoral muscles also showed fatty degeneration, which again indicates a derailment of the metabolism, and the thyroid glands showed abnormal conditions which were sympto- matic of the changes in the metabolism due to starvation. Details of the histological examinations are given in Appendix II. Even without microscopic examination there was no difficulty in diagnosing that many of the birds were starving. One observer attempted to skin one of the corpses and reported as follows: “The body was terribly emaciated and the flesh had a strange mealy texture as though the muscle fibres were separating out and tending to adhere to the skin”. Six corpses were examined for parasites and pathological condi- tions, and the results are listed in Table I. A new species of Coccidium was isolated and identified from this material (Soulsby and Jennings, 1957). Unfortunately none of these birds was weighed. Table I — Results of examinations of dead Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla) Date 9th Feb. Locality Swansea (2 corpses) Examined by Dept, of Animal Pathology, Cambridge Result of Examination Acute pulmonary oedema. General venous congestion, probably due to some toxins. 17th Feb. Yealm Estuary, Devonshire Public Health Laboratory, Plymouth Severe wasting of the muscles and subcutaneous tissue. Both lungs fibrotic with long-stand- ing adhesions. Extensive Aspergillosis in the lungs. 20th Feb. Aberystwyth Cambridge Acute coccidiosis. Infections of Suratia shepleyi and Acanthocephela spp. 2 1 st Feb. Aberystwyth (2 corpses) Veterinary Investigation Congestion of the lungs and liver. Office, Aberystwyth WEATHER CONDITIONS BEFORE THE WRECK From 4th January to nth February a succession of depressions moved eastwards across the North Atlantic, bringing inter- 258 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI mittent gales with a strong westerly component to the whole of the North Atlantic area. In particular between 25th and 26th January strong north-westerly gales were reported to extend from Greenland, becoming south-westerly as they approached the British Isles. Simultaneously, west to south-westerly gales were reported in the western Atlantic. During this entire period, then, the whole Atlantic was swept by persistent strong gales from westerly points (see British Daily Weather Reports for the period). THE 1957 WRECK IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES During the early months of 1957 unusual occurrences of Kittiwakes were reported from various countries of Western Europe. Solitary birds were seen in France, in the vicinity of Paris, between 16th and 28th February (L&veque and Mayaud, 1957), and after these dates there were other reports. The wreck in France has been surveyed by the Societe ornithologique de France (Jouanin, 1957). A bird which had been ringed in Green- land in July 1955 was found inland in Landes, France, on 12th February, and another bird, ringed in Greenland in July 1947, was found in Holland, near Scheveningen, on 28th February ( per Dr. Finn Salomonsen). Four Kittiwakes were found in Luxemburg on 14th and 15th February and on 15th March, one in Germany on 2nd February and small numbers in Switzerland between 17th February and 22nd February (Hulten, 1957). A slight increase in the normal number of Kittiwake corpses was reported from Norway, but no figures are available (per Dr. H. Holgersen). R. Leveque reports that, while crossing the North Sea from Harwich to the Hook of Holland on 2nd February, he saw flocks of several hundred Kittiwakes which were mostly adults. PREVIOUS WRECKS IN THE BRITISH ISLES AND IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Although there are no reports of large-scale wrecks in the British Isles before 1957 there are a number of records of storm- driven birds which have been picked up at various times in inland counties. The examples which follow are selected chiefly from the south and west. On 2 1st November 1922 there were 3 birds at a Staffordshire reservoir (Alexander, 1923). There was 1 bird in Staffordshire on 29th March 1930 and single birds in Cheshire on 18th March 1926, on 22nd, 24th and 27th February 1927 and on 13th March 1937 (Boyd, 1937). There were 3 at Cheddar Reservoir, Somerset, on 14th February 1950, one of which was seen quartering a ploughed field for food and returning to the reservoir to drink ; all were dead by 26th February (King, 1950). There was 1 dead at Hurst Castle, Hampshire, on 21st February 1951 ; this bird was very thin and when it was opened five pieces of rubber band were found in the stomach (Crook and Goater, 1950). In January and vol. li] WRECK OF KITTIWAKES IN 1957 259 February 1956 there was a small-scale wreck on part of the Caernarvonshire coast (Archbold, private communication). In November 1956 2 adults were recorded from an inland loch in Berwickshire (Patterson, private communication). Between 1928 and 1956 wrecked Kittiwakes have been recorded in 17 different years in Somerset. Generally only small numbers occur, but larger numbers were recorded in March 1954 and February/March 1955. On the latter occasion 36 birds were seen alive or subsequently found dead (R. H. Poulding, private communication). R. H. Poulding' has carried out post-mortem examinations on 11 Kittiwakes which were wrecked between 1950 and 1957. One of these birds was found in Somerset in December, all the others during February, March or April, in Somerset, Gloucestershire or Lincolnshire. All showed signs of starvation. There are also well-documented accounts of small-scale wrecks of Kittiwakes on the continent of Europe and it is rather surprising that the British Isles were not affected on these occasions. In Switzerland single birds occur most winters; exceptionally large flocks were recorded in February 1806, March 1818, February i860 and, more recently, in November/ December 1954 and February/ March 1955. The 1954-55 wreck followed on a period of westerly gales in the Atlantic (Sutter, 1956) and it also affected Northern Germany (Seilkopf, 1955). Seven birds from this wreck were weighed and it was found that the birds had lost an average of 42% of the normal body weight; even the earliest arrivals were underweight and starving. A large wreck of Kittiwakes occurred in Sweden and Finland in March 1927 (Valikangas, 1930; Lonnberg, 1927). Small wrecks, generally only of single birds or very small parties, were reported from Luxemburg during the winters of 1870, 1896, 1937 and 1957 (Hulten, 1957). DISCUSSION The wreck of February/March 1957 appears to have been the first of its kind in the British Isles, although, as has been noted above, similar wrecks, on a smaller scale, have been reported from other countries of Europe. Seilkopf ( loc . cit.) and Sutter ( loc . cit.) have shown how wrecks in Germany and Switzerland can be correlated with Atlantic weather conditions and in this present case there can be little doubt that the wreck was caused by the persistent westerly gales which swept the Atlantic during the preceding weeks. It is possible that the north-westerly and south-westerly gales in the west Atlantic helped to concentrate the birds in the mid-Atlantic area, from which they were carried across to the British Isles. Boyd (1953) has pointed out, in connection with the wreck of Leach’s Petrels ( Oceanodroma leucorrhoa) in the autumn of 1952, that it is not the severe gales of short duration that cause the greatest damage to oceanic birds, but “a persistence of winds” of sufficient strength to carry the birds away from their normal feed- 260 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI ing grounds and on to a lee shore. All airborne Kittiwakes during the period under discussion must have been steadily carried west- wards by the gales and there were insufficient periods of calm to enable them to return to their normal wintering area. During such gales birds cannot gain protection or maintain their position by resting on the surface of the water. In high winds at sea, spray is blown off the crests of the waves continually and, according to Wynne-Edwards (1953), small birds are also whipped off and carried steadily downwind. Presumably Kittiwakes can also be affected in this way, especially if they have already been storm-driven and are underweight or exhausted. All the large flocks of Kittiwakes appeared on the south, west and south-west coasts of the British Isles and they appear to have reached the different parts of the coast at approximately the same time. This would indicate that the birds were in fact storm- driven and were not taking part in a normal passage migration parallel to the coast. Birds recovered on the Irish coast and on the Isle of Man may have been carried up the Irish Sea on a south-west wind or they may have moved down through the North Channel. The former seems the more probable and it is supported by the occurrence of corpses at Waterford and Dublin and all along the Welsh coast and by the absence of corpses from the shores of Wigtown and Ayr. The only flocks found on the east coast of England were the 12 birds at Spurn Point, Yorkshire, and the 6 at Southend-on-Sea. These birds may have made their way across England or they may have been carried up the English Channel. The inland records presumably represent the final dispersal of the birds over the British Isles. There is a steady decrease in numbers towards the east of the country ; evidently many of the birds made their way inland in search of food but died before they got very far. The evidence suggests that many, if not all, of the birds were starved and underweight when they reached the British Isles. It is difficult to decide whether the birds were starving because they had been storm-driven, or whether they had been unable to main- tain their normal position in mid-Atlantic because an interruption in their normal food supply had left them weakened and at the mercy of the gales. When the birds had reached this country few were in a condition to attempt the journey back ; many died immediately, others managed to survive for a few days or weeks, picking up food along the shore, or at inland reservoirs or in the fields. Kittiwakes do not normally feed on the shore in this country, but, according to Bent (1921), they feed to some extent on beaches and sand-flats at low tide in America and it is possible that some of the wrecked birds did manage to find enough food in this way to enable them to survive. Many of the birds, however, fed on poisonous substances, or picked up infestations of parasitic worms or other pathogenic organisms and soon died. There can be little doubt that the vast majority of the birds died of starvation. vol. li] WRECK OF KITTIWAKES IN 1957 261 The loss of liver weight and body weight, the absence of sub- cutaneous fat, the muscle wasting and the evidence of the histo- logical examination all indicate that the birds had been drawing heavily on their bodily reserves of fat and glycogen. Birds which found alternative food supplies also died ; presumably they were unable to cope with a diet to which they were not adapted or else their bodily reserves were already depleted to below a level from which recovery could be made. Once the carbohydrate reserves of the body have been used and fat is mobilized as the energy source there is likelihood of death occurring as the utilisation of fat by the body liberates toxic waste products such as ketone bodies. The various pathological conditions described in the post- mortem reports are of interest but do little to throw light on the cause or the widespread nature of the wreck. In view of the large number of parasites normally carried by healthy birds it would be unwise to assume, without very definite evidence, that any of the organisms listed were primarily responsible for death, although there can be little doubt that they were a contributory factor, especially as the birds were already weakened by starvation. Although there is sufficient evidence to suggest that these wrecks are caused by gales in the Atlantic, we still do not know why a wreck is more likely to occur in one year than another. The 1957 Kittiwake wreck appears to have been the first of its kind in this country; the 1952 Leach’s Petrel wreck was the second one to have occurred in 60 years (Boyd, loc. cit.) and in both instances only the one species was involved in the wreck. Why were there no Kittiwakes wrecked in 1952, why no Leach’s Petrels in 1957, and in both cases why no other sea birds? It would appear, however, from the evidence of the isolated records of storm-driven Kittiwakes and the early Continental wrecks, that small-scale wrecks do in fact occur more frequently than has been suspected, but it is very probable that most of the birds killed or weakened by prolonged gales are used as food by the larger carrion-feeding gulls and do not reach the western shores of the Atlantic. Duffey (private communication) gives the information that Kittiwakes have a very patchy distribution in the North Atlantic and it is probable that it is only when a fairly large flock, in this particular case a minimum of 1,000 birds, occurs in the direct path of a storm centre that a noticeable wreck occurs on our shores. Appendix I — Details of the distribution of Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla ) in the British Isles in early 1957 (The reports are arranged under counties in vice-county sequence.) A — Coastal flocks This list includes all the flocks and all the instances of a large number of corpses ; such records were almost entirely confined to coastal areas. Any group of more than 5 birds has been considered as a flock. The distribution of the flocks is shown in Fig. 1. 262 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI Channel Islands Jersey: The main influx occurred between i6th-27th February. Weak birds started appearing on 16th February and the first corpses were found on the 1 8th; by the 24th, 21 corpses had been found and after this date the numbers dropped rapidly. It is probable that in fact a great many more corpses were present; many people reported having , gathered and buried or burned numbers of dead birds. England and Wales Cornwall: Kittiwakes first appeared on 4th February, when 2 corpses were found on a beach in south Cornwall; on 5th February 10 birds were present, and on the 6th one was a few miles inland. Between 14th and 26th February Kittiwakes were present in Fowey Harbour, where they were quite tame and accepted food with the Herring Gulls ( Larus argentatus). 3 were present on 14th February and 20 on the 15th. Numbers then fell off until the 26th when only 2 remained. Several of the birds were later found dead; one was hand- fed for several days until it died. Devon: On 18th January one bird was found dead, and another exhausted bird was picked up on 7th February. On 9th February 35 living birds and 4 corpses were seen near Exmouth. On the same date a flock of 60-70 Kittiwakes was seen at Wembury, resting in a ploughed field and feeding on earthworms. 5 birds were present at Plymouth on 2nd February and these had increased to ca. 100 by the nth. From 10th to 25th February a flock of 15 was seen around the Yealm estuary; all were in a weak condition and many of them died. On 24th February 15 living birds and 6 corpses were seen near Wembury. During this period solitary birds were seen at various parts of the south coast until 9th March. At Morte Point on the north coast 17 living birds were seen on 10th February. All told, 271 birds were reported from this county. Somerset: The first Kittiwake recorded arrived at Minehead on 28th January; others were seen alive there on 10th February,, and a total of 85 between that date and 24th February. One bird was still alive on 10th March. 3 corpses were found on 10th February and corpses continued to appear until nth March; in all, 85 corpses were recorded. Most of these records are for the coast. A few single birds were found inland and flocks were seen at Tealham Moor floods and in the vicinity of Cheddar Reservoir on 24th February; 56 corpses were found in this inland area between 16th February and nth March. Dorset: On 13th February 15-20 birds were seen close inshore; some were slightly oiled, but none was badly affected; they were still there on 25th February. Single birds were also present in Swanage Bay during January and February. Hampshire : The greatest concentration of Kittiwakes occurred in this county. Single birds or small groups of 2-3 birds were present at Hayling Island. Portsmouth Harbour, Langstone Harbour and Southampton Water and the Solent during the whole period of. the wreck, from early February until mid-March. Very large flocks, totalling about 150 birds, were seen along the shore between Southbourne and Bournemouth on 10th February and a flock of 40 at Hurst Castle on the same date. Local observers thought that a slight westerly movement was taking place along the coast. By 17th February the numbers had dropped to about half of those present in the previous week, though the birds were still very plentiful and the number of corpses had increased. Many of these birds showed traces of oil on the plumage. There was a considerable amount of overlapping and duplication of reports from this area, but even the most conservative estimate shows that a minimum of 320 birds was present*. In the equivalent weeks of 1956 no Kittiwakes, dead or alive, were seen in this area. *Records from the Isle of Wight were received too late for inclusion here or in Fig. 1: between 3rd February and 2nd March 31 birds were reported from various parts of the island and 12 of these were oiled; most were definitely identified as adults ( per J. Stafford). vol. li] WRECK OF KITTIWAKES IN 1957 263 Sussex : In early February about 30 Kittiwakes, which were very tame, appeared at Brighton and Newhaven. They remained for some weeks feeding on the roads and piers and roosting at night on a building near one of the piers. Scattered corpses were also found along the shore between 4th February and 6th March. Essex : On 2nd February 6 Kittiwakes were reported circling at the end of the pier at Southend-on-Sea; they remained in the area for some time, feed- ing and resting on the life-boat station roof and on the launching ramp. Between 3rd February and 24th March 5 corpses were found. Glamorganshire : On 3rd February 11 dead birds were found on the Gower coast and from then until 6th March corpses turned up regularly. 91 dead birds were found, and there were additional reports of 15 oiled birds. Cardiganshire : Flocks appeared first in the harbour at Aberystwyth in the beginning of February. The first corpse was found on 12th February and corpses were then found in increasing numbers until 16th February when 10 were found. The numbers then dropped off again, and the last corpse was found on 1 8th February. A few corpses were also picked up on the beaches a few miles from Aberystwyth and the indications were that they too had died during the period I2th-i8th February, but it was difficult to date them more accurately than this. Altogether about 40 corpses were found. Caernarvonshire: In early February 30 dead birds were found near Pwllheli. On 14th March many weak birds were still present in the area, lying forwards on their breasts and showing signs of weakness. Cheshire: Between mid-January and 1 6th February 5 corpses were found on the coast. Lancashire: Many corpses were found on the shore, all in an emaciated condition. The first records were for 2nd February, and large numbers were found each week until 14th March, when the numbers had dropped to 7. A few living birds were reported about 17th February. Yorkshire: 12 corpses were found at Spurn Point Observatory between the middle of February and early March. 2 corpses were found at Doncaster in earlv February and 6 corpses at Fairburn Marshes between 12th January and 23rd February. Cumberland: No records are available for the critical period in February, but many decayed corpses were lying on the beaches in March. Isle of Man : No weak or dead birds were seen on the island. A small flock of 6 juvenile Kittiwakes (apparently in good health) was seen in Peel Bay on 10th February. Scotland No large flocks ol Kittiwakes were reported during January, February or March 1957. Ireland Co. Dublin: 13 corpses and 6 dying birds were found on the North Bull on 25th February. Co. Down: Numbers of birds were seen at different parts of. the coast in early February. On 12th February many dying birds were reported from Strangford Lough; corpses were found in this area until 22nd February, but after that date only healthy birds were noted. A flock of 30 was seen at New- castle on 25th February. On another part of the coast 9 corpses were found on 17th February and 3 on 10th March. On 1 6th December 1956, about four weeks before the wreck had affected any other part of the British Isles, a flock of 500 Kittiwakes was recorded at Ballyferis Point on the east coast of Ireland. These birds were “very skinny about the breast” and gradually all died. B — Records of solitary birds or small groups, mostly inland The records of solitary birds cover a much greater area of the 264 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI British Isles than the foregoing- records for flocks. Kittiwakes were reported from 26 counties in England and Wales, 6 in Scotland and 3 in Ireland. England and Wales Wiltshire: 1 dead Westbury, 3061 March; 1 dead VVootton Bassett, 1st May. Sussex: x dead Pagharn, 3rd February; 1 dead Camber, 4th February; 1 alive Seaford, 17th February, died 20th February; 2 dead Chichester, 28th February; 2 dead Chichester, 6th March. Kent: 1 dead East Mailing Research Station, 16th February; 1 dead Deal, 25th February. Surrey: 1 alive South Norwood Lake, 15th February, still there 20th February. Essex: 1 dead Hanningfield reservoir, 24th February. Middlesex: 1 dead Queen Mary reservoir, 17th February. Oxfordshire : 2 dead Port Meadow, 2nd February; 3 dead Port Meadow, 3rd February; 2 dead Port Meadow, 4th February; 2 dead Port Meadow, 9th February; 1 alive River Thames near Nuneham Courtenay, 10th February; 1 alive Dorchester, 10th February; 1 alive Shotover Hill, 10th February; 2 alive Port Meadow, 16th February; 2 alive Port Meadow, 17th February; 2 alive Port Meadow, 23rd February; 1 alive and 5 dead Port Meadow, 24th February; 1 alive Port Meadow, 28th February. Suffolk: 1 dead Orwell Haven, 10th February. Bedfordshire: 1 alive Arlesey gravel pit, 24th January; 1 dead Bedford sewage farm, 24th February. Northamptonshire: 1 dead Pitsford reservoir, 14th February. Gloucestershire : 1 dead Rendcomb, 10th February; 1 dead Slimbridge, 16th February; 1 dead South Cerney gravel pits, 10th March; 1 dead (slightly decayed) Frampton-on-Severn, 31st March; 1 dead (very decayed) Frampton-on- Severn, 12th May. Herefordshire: 1 dead Mathon, 19th February; 1 dead Mathon, 20th February. Worcestershire: 4/5 alive Upper Bittell reservoir, 13th February; 1 weak near Dudley, 14th February, died 15th February. Warwickshire: 1 dead (oiled) Castle Bromwich, 6th February. Shropshire : 1 alive Ellsmere, 30th January; 1 dead Ellsmere, nth February. Breconshire : 1 alive Llandovery, 14th February, found dead 15th February. Montgomeryshire: x dead Llanbrynmair, 16th February. Caernarvonshire: 1 dead Bethel, 8th March. Flintshire : 3 dead Prestatyn, 27th and 28th February. Anglesey: 2 dead (very decayed) Llanddwynn, 28th April. Nottinghamshire : 3 dead Long Eaton, 25th February. Derbyshire : 1 weak Ashbourne, 29th January, died 5th February; 1 dead River Trent, xoth February; 1 dead Sawlev, 16th February. Lancashire: 1 dead Blackburn, 10th February; 1 dead (oiled) Heysham harbour, 27th January; 5 dead Heysham harbour, 10th February; 1 dead Heysham harbour, 16th February. Yorkshire: 1 dead Blackmoor Foot reservoir, 20th January. Westmorland: 1 dead Kendal, 3rd March. Scotland Berwickshire: 2 alive St. Abb’s Head, 20th November 1956; 1 dead Primrose. Hill Pond, 3rd February. East Lothian: 2 dead on shore, 22nd February. Midlothian: 2 dead Inchkeith Island, 28th February; 1 dead Inchkeith Island, 2nd March; 1 dead Inchkeith Island, 716 March; 2 dead Inchkeith Island, 10th March; 1 dead (slightly oiled) Figgate Pond, Edinburgh, 10th March. Fife: 1 alive (died immediately) Crail, 2nd February. vol. n] WRECK OF KITTI WAKES IN 1957 265 Perthshire: i dead Strathtay, ioth February; i dead Strathtay, 3rd March. Inverness-shire: 1 alive Aviemore, 2nd February; 1 dead (same bird?), Kingussie, 12 February. Ireland Co. Down : 1 (shot) Banbridge, 9th February; 1 dead Corbet Lake, 15th February. Co. Antrim: 1 (shot) Stoneyford, 9th February; 1 alive Massareene Park, 16th February; 1 dead Lough Neagh, 17th March; 1 dead Shane’s Castle, 24th March. Co. Derry: 2 alive Derry harbour, 14th January. Appendix II — Report of the histological examination of TISSUES TAKEN FROM KlTTIWAKES ( RisSCl tridoctyla) COLLECTED IN the Bristol area (largely prepared by R. H. Poulding) Thyroids (from 14 birds): Seven pairs showed colloid storage with predominance of colloid-filled vesicles. Five were active with little or no colloid storage and of these two showed marked proliferation of the follicular cells almost eliminating the follicular spaces. The remaining two were too autolysed for interpretation. Kidneys: Four examined but no abnormalities found. Liver (from 17 birds): The predominant feature was the disturbance of the normal liver pattern caused by shrinkage of the cells. Large amounts of intra- and intercellular pigment were present; most of it appeared to be haemosiderin, being strongly positive to the usual “Prussian blue” test for ferric iron. This iron positive pigment was in association with another pigment which, histo- chemically, was a lipofuscin. Lipids were also present in large quantities, so much so that the livers, on cutting, were greasy and the sections (frozen) floated on water. This lipid material stained bright red with Sudan IV in iso-propyl alcohol. Pectoral muscle (from 15 birds): Loss of striation and patchy staining were the noticeable features. Frozen sections stained in Sudan IV showed fatty degeneration with each muscle fibre filled with minute globules of lipid. No evidence o£ disease was found in any of the birds in the gross and from the material sectioned there were no microscopical pathological lesions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am particularly indebted to Mr. E. I. S. Rees and Mr. A. R. Angell who first drew my attention to the wreck and who assisted in the collection of information, especially in the South Wales area. The Department of Animal Pathology at Cambridge, the Ministry of Agriculture Veterinary Laboratories at Lasswade and Aberystwyth and the Public Health Laboratory at Plymouth carried out post-mortem examinations of corpses and sent in use- ful reports. R. H. Poulding made histological examinations of tissues from a number of corpses which had been collected and weighed by members of the Steep Holm Gull Research Station. J. A. Taylor helped with the interpretation of the meteorological data. All the following sent in reports, answered my queries or helped tb collect further information, ahd without their willing co- operation this survey could not have been made: H. Ci. Alexander, A. Anderson, A. R. Angell, R. Angles, H. Archbold, J. D. Atkinson, R. H. Baillie, E. Balfour, Mrs. E. Barnes, T. H. Bell, 266 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI J. K. Bowers, J. V. Boys, T. E. Brice, K. Brown, R. Brown, A. Bull, Miss S. Bull, E. J. M. Buxton, J. Buxton, W. A. Cameron, Dr. J. W. Campbell, P. J. Chadwick, J. F. Chancellor, F. R. Clafton, G. E. Clothier, R. V. Collier, Rev. W. P. Corbishley, Mrs. J. B. Cowdy, J. M. Culjen, A. Cumber, G. C. D. Curtis, P. W. Davies, C. D. Deane, R. H. Dennis, D. F. Dorward, E. Duffey, F. J. Dyer, L. Eccles, G. S. T. Elliot, Miss P. Y. Fortune, P. J. Fullager, P. B. Gibbs, E. Giles, A. A. Goodheart, R. F. J. Greer, F. C. Gribble, H. J. Hambury, G. Harrington, D. A. Hawkins, A. W. Hennis, C. J. Henty, J. A. Hicks, Miss C. Hodgson, H. Holgersen, Miss K. Hollick, O. D. Hunt, Mrs. S. Hurd, R. J. Jackson, C. M. James, E. D. H. Johnson, P. Hope Jones, G. Kay, A. C. Kinchner, B. King, J. G. Leary, R. Lfeveque, D. R. Lees, Miss j. Mcnair, J. A. McGeoch, B. Murray, Mrs. J. R. Naish, J. F. Naylor, Miss E. M. Palmer, Mrs. M. Palmer-Smith, I. Patterson, D. B. Peart, R. Perry, N. Picozzi, R. A. Pitman, R. H Poulding, G. A. Pyman, E. I. S. Rees, G. H. Rees, P. Roberts, W. L. Roseveare, R. F. Ruttledge, F. Salomonsen, T. B. Silcocks, D. Slay, D. J. Slinn, B. R. Smith, F. R. Smith, R. W. J. Smith, H. N. Southern, C. J. Stevens, B. Stonehouse, W. P. B. Stonehouse, C. Suffern, C. M. Swaine, Miss S. Sweet, Mrs. R. E. Teagle, W. G. Teagle, C. F. Unsworth, R. B. Warren, A. Watson, N. Webb, D. A. White, S. White, A. Williams, R. D. Wilson, C. Winn, J. Wright, M. A. Wright, Professor V. C. Wynne-Edwards, Miss H. Zutt. REFERENCES Alexander, H. G. (1924): “Birds on a North Worcestershire reservoir 1922 and 1923”. Brit. Birds, xvii: 292. Bent, A. C. (1921): Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns. Washington, p. 40. Boyd, A. W. (1926): “Kittiwakes inland in Cheshire”. Brit. Birds, xx: 56. ■ (1931): “Notes from Staffordshire reservoirs”. Brit. Birds, xxvii: 271. ( 1 937) : “Kittiwakes inland in Cheshire”. Brit. Birds, xxxi: 63. Boyd, Hugh (1953): “The ‘wreck’ of Leach’s Petrels in the autumn of 1952”. Brit. Birds, xlvii: 137. Crook, J. H. and Goater, B. (1950): “Rubber in the gizzard of a Kittiwake”. Brit. Birds, xlii : 382. Hulten, M. (1957): “Zum Erscheinen der Dreizehenmowe ( Rissa tridactyla) in Luxemburg im Februar und Marz 1957”. Regulus , 37 (4): 75. Jouanin, C. (1957): “L’irruption en France de Mouettes Tridactyles en Fevrier 1957 (1)”. L’Oiseau, xxvii: 363. King, B. (1952): “Storm driven Kittiwakes quartering the ground in search of food”. Brit. Birds, xlv : 38. LGveque, R. (1957): Rissa tridactyle h Paris”. Alauda, xxv: 71. Lonnberg, E. (1927): “En katastrof for stormdrivna tret&iga miser, Rissa tridactyla, i norna Sverige. Fauna och Flora. 1927: 155. Moxon, P. (1942): “Kittiwake in Derbyshire”. Brit. Birds, xxxvi : 40. Rankin, M. N. and Duffey, E. A. G. (1948): “A study of the bird life of the North Atlantic”. Brit. Birds, Special Suppl. to xli : 1. Seilkopf, H. (1955): “Zu den Einflugen der Dreizehenmowe (Rissa tridactyla) im Winter 1954/55 im europaischen Festland”. Die Vogcluiarte, 18: 34. Soulsby, E. J. L. and Jennings, A. R. (1957): “A new species of coccidium ( Eimeria rissae n. sp. Eimeriidae, Sforozoa) from the Kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla tridactyla (L.)”. Nature, 180: 1057. Sutter, E. (1956): “Uber das gehaufte Auftreten der Dreizehenmowe in der Schweiz im Winter 1954/55”- Orn. Beoh., 53: 81. Wynne-Edwards, V. C. (1935): “On the habits and distribution of birds in the North Atlantic”. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 40: 233. (1953) : “Leach’s Petrels stranded in Scotland in October-November, 1952”. Scot. Nat., 64: 167. Valikangas, Ilmari (1930): “Fine Rissa t. tridactyla (L.) invasion nach Finnland im Marz 1927 nebst einigen Bemerkungen iiber das fruhere Auftreten dieser Art und ihre Zugverhaltnisse". Ann. Soc. cool. -hot. Fenti. Vanama. Helsinki, 10: 227. MORTALITY OF KITTIWAKES DURING THE BREEDING SEASON By Leontia McCartan ( Department of Zoology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth) In connection with the survey of winter wrecks of Kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla) (see pp. 253-266) it is of interest to Qote that several instances of mass mortality have occurred in recent years during the weeks when the Kittiwakes are on the breeding cliffs. In May and June 1955 there was a heavy mortality in a breeding colony near Pennan Bay, north Aberdeenshire. The birds were watched for some time turning over and over in the water and floating on their backs, and eventually some were washed up dead on the shore (Mrs. J. B. Cowdy, private communication). None of these corpses was examined, and the cause of death is a matter of conjecture. At about the same time 120 dead Kittiwakes were picked up on the shore at Stonehaven, south of Aberdeen, and investigation showed that those examined had died from a heavy infestation of Aspergillus fumigatus (A. Anderson, private communication). All the birds in both cases were adults. In mid-May 1957 70-80 corpses of adult Kittiwakes were found on the East Lothian shore between Aberlady and Dunbar (R. W. J. Smith, private communication). 2 corpses were sent for examina- tion at Lasswade Veterinary Laboratory, and it was reported that both birds were slightly underweight but that it was “impossible to give the cause of death’’. Evidence as to the cause of death is lacking in two of the instances, but at a time when the birds are crowded together on the breeding cliffs an epidemic could sweep through the colony in a way that would not be possible when the birds are widely dispersed over the winter feeding area. H. N. Southern (private communication) suggests that the habit of communal bathing in fresh-water lochs near the breeding cliffs may assist in the spread of disease. All the birds concerned in the mass mortalities discussed so far were adults. The circumstances in the recorded cases of mass mortality of juveniles appear to be somewhat different. Many juvenile Kittiwakes were found dead in August 1956 at Evnhallow in the Orkneys (A. Anderson). E. Balfour (private communication) counted 250 corpses, “all juveniles and the majority fully fledged”, in the vicinity of Marwick Head at this time. A similar mortality occurred in August T957. One report stated that “thousands of corpses were found on the sandy shores of Westray and West Orkney”. E. Balfour visited Marwick Head on 7th August and found 280 corpses, all juveniles. In both 267 268 BRITISH BIRDS [VOL. LI years the freshly dead bodies were “nothing but skin, bone and feathers”. A third instance has been reported by G. T. Kay, who has written to say that there was a heavy mortality in Shetland about 25 years ago: many juveniles were found, on the shore of the loch of Clickimin ; all, apparently, were in perfect condition, but none could fly, and when they were picked up they were found to be “literally skin and bones”. In each of these instances of juvenile mortality starvation appears to have been the cause of death. 11 corpses were examined at Lasswade in 1957 and it was found that in every case the crop and gizzard were empty and the intestinal contents practically nil. All the internal organs had atrophied. One bird had aspergillosis affecting the right abdominal air sac, but none of the others showed any signs of specific diseases ; the bacterial examination was negative and internal parasites were not present in significant numbers. The heaviest of these birds weighed 249 gm., the lightest 177 gm., and the average yveight was 216 gm. The results of this examination strongly suggest that the birds died of starvation, and this idea is supported by the fact that the juveniles which were rescued at the time of the Shetland wreck recovered after a few days’ feeding. The suggestion has been made by the Lasswade Laboratory that as all the other sea birds in the area remained healthy, and as there was no evidence of disease in the older Kittiwakes, the only possible reason for death would be starvation brought about by a larger than usual hatch of Kittiwakes or bv a failure in the normal food supply. There are no records of mortalities on a similar scale at the Kittiwake colonies on the Durham coast and on the Fame Islands, which have been intensively studied by J. C. Coulson and E. White and by E. Cullen respectively. Cullen (1957) has shown that food may, to a certain extent, limit the number of young raised : there is asynchronous hatching and a definite peck-order is quickly established among the chicks. But food shortage as a (controlling factor would presumably only operate during the period prior to fledging, when the parents are still feeding the young, and not after the juvenile plumage has been acquired and the young are able to feed themselves. In the present state of our knowledge it is difficult to say more about the cause, meaning or possible effect of these breeding season mortalities, whether affecting adults or juveniles, but it will be interesting to watch for similar occurrences during future breeding seasons, and to see whether they can be correlated with any factors which control the population of Kittiwakes and their food' supply. REFERENCE Culi.en, Esther (1957): “Adaptations in the Kittiwake to clifT-nesting’’. Ibis. 99: 2. Plate 41 Plate 4 P 3 - — co ^ ~3 ~ — 0) ,1 C/3 c ' ^ _ 3 — ! ^ j *>-» a _ u -3 z .tJ < > • • o X w ° 0 - u £ 63 ■ 0 C/) £ *0 o c 3 3 • - -O 0 c/3 . o cs- 5T N -C tuo .2 a ^ CL .5 0 c C/3 > ttf) "3 43 ; 0 — 0 V CU c3 P *w WJ tfl C ■ - 0 — c/3 ■i-c O 'Tj ^ 0 0 3 c3 «. - C/3 5T 5) CO >> c3 3 5) 3- 3 0 oh 0D 0 a, • - .2 0 1 o o -a •? 0 t CO 3 ^ C - 0 £ *C • ,r 0 . U< o 0 3 •: c g£ 2 S g