^ S -7^ 6 Editors Stanley Cramp I J Ferguson-Lees M A Ogilvie DIM Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking Volume 68 1 975 Macmillan List of photographs BLACK-AND-WHITE PLATES 1-7 British bird-photographers 17 J. F. Reynolds: Spotted Redshank Tnnga erythropus, Finland; Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis, Kenya; Black-winged Stilts Himantopus himantopus, Kenya; Dunlin Calidris alpina, Merseyside; Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava, Kenya; Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis with African Buffalo Syncerus coffer, Kenya; male Kestrel Falco tinnunculus, Kenya; two Tawny Eagles Aquila rapax feeding on carcass of young Wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus, Kenya; juvenile Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus, Tanzania; Black Stoik Ciconia nigra, Kenya; Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria, Finland ; Redshank Tringa totanus at nest, West Sussex facing 8-10 Studies of Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris: at nest in Ussuri- land (Irene Neufeldt); compared with Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva (D. I. M. Wallace); first-autumn plumage, Malaysia (Ian C. T. Nisbet) ; Spotted Flycatchers Ad. striata to show com- parison (Eric Hosking) jacing Storm Petrels Hydrobates pelagicus in flight showing upperwing, underwing, rump and tail patterns (Jeffery Boswall) facing I2_I5 Studies of Barred Warbler Sylvia nisoria: at nest, breeding habitats, feeding young, Finland and Austria (J. B. and S. Bottomley, and A. N. H. Peach) facing 16-23 Studies of breeding Sandwich Terns Sterna sandvicensis : male attracting attention of females, male eliciting courtship display from female; display following acceptance of fish by female, pre- copulatory and copulatory behaviour, stretch posture, empty egg shells, fish being stolen by Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus, pair feeding young, leading away young, young exercising wings, chick adopting food-begging posture, and adult feeding juvenile in exaggerated food-begging posture (Jan van de Kam) facing PLATES PAGE •24.35 More examples of the best recent work by British bird-photo- graphers: YVheatear Oenanthe oenanthe bringing food to young, High- land (Harold E. Grenfell); Brambling Fringilla montifnngilla at drinking pool, Hertfordshire (E. A. Janes); Snow Bunting Plectro- phenax nivalis, Cornwall (J. B. and S. Botlomley) ; Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria calling, Clwyd (Dennis Green) ; Dotterel Eudromias morinellus, Kent (Pamela Harrison); Coots Fulica atra fighting. Surrey (Michael W. Richards); Water Rail Rallus aquaticus, Here- ford & Worcester (R. J. C. Blewitt); Dipper Cinclus cinclus, Dyfed (Graham F. Date); Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis in bathing pool, Nottinghamshire (J. Russell); Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendro- copos major carrying faecal sac away from nest hole, East Sussex (Stephen Dalton); Starling Sturnus vulgaris leaving nest, Surrey (Stephen Dalton) ; Barn Owl Tyto alba returning to nest with Short- tailed Vole Microtus agrestis, Strathclyde (Donald A. Smith) ; Rock Dove Columba livia at night roost, Strathclyde (Rodney Dawson); Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus passing food-ball to chick, Surrey (Frank V. Blackburn); Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca, Powys (Arthur Gilpin); Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos singing, Here- ford & Worcester (P. D. V. Weaving) ; Moustached Warbler Acro- cephalus melanopogon, Austria (K. J. Carlson); Raven Corvus corax at nest, Powys (G. H. E. Young) ; Roller Coracias garrulus bringing up pellet, Kenya (J. F. Reynolds); Rook Conus frugilegvs. Humberside (M. Holliday) ‘ >98 36-37 Short-toed and Lesser Short-toed Larks Calandrella cinerea and C. rufescens: field marks and at nests, Shetland and Jordan (Roy H. Dennis and Eric Hosking) focing 240 38-39 Chronological sequence of Greenshank I ringa nebularia captut mg young Eel Anguilla anguilla. South Glamorgan Keri \\ illiams facing 241 40-43 Studies of Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima: habitat, standing beside nest, ‘rodent-run’, incubating, winter plumage, flock in winter, Spitsbergen, Norway, Glamorgan and Cornwall (C. R. Knights, M. A. Ogilvie, R. G. Carlson, Keri Williams, and J. B. and S. Bottomley) foring *82 44-47 Rare birds in 1974: Sharp-tailed Sandpiper and Pectoral Sand- pipers Calidris acuminata and C. melanotos . Scilly (D. B. Hunt) ; Dusky Warbler Phvlloscopus fuscatus with ChiffchafT P. collybita. East Sussex (R. H. Charlwood); female Black-throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis, Shetland (D. Coutts); Radde’s Warbler Phylloscopus schivarzi , Kent, 1962 (G. R. Shannon); juvenile White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus, Lincolnshire (K. Atkin) ; Black- browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris with Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis, Shetland (D. Coutts) facinS 326 48-51 Study of Cuckoos Cuculus canorus parasitising Reed Warblers Acro- cephalus scirpaceus : Reed Warbler clutch with one Cuckoo egg. young Cuckoo ejecting egg, adult Cuckoo approaching nest and picking out egg, Cuckoo holding egg and laying own. 16-day old Cuckoo in nest and Reed Warbler approaching (Ian Wyllie) facing 370 6 PLATES 52-55 % PAGE Birds in action : Hobby Falco subbuteo in flight, Devon (D. C. Tucker) • Vhite Wagtail Motacilla alba alba on pig, Germany (Fritz Polking) • Swallow Hirundo rustica collecting horse hairs from barbed wire’ Netherlands (Frits van Daalen) ; Red-necked Phalaropes Phalarobus lobatus mating on water, Shetland (Hans Schouten) ; male Blackcap Sylvia atncapilla eating ivy berries Hedera helix , Cornwall (J. B. and S. Bottomley) ; Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus picking seeds off mud Lancashire (Dennis Green) ; Gannets Sula bassana fighting in flight’ Ailsa Craig (Michael W. Richards); dark-phase Arctic Skua otercoranus parasiticus chasing Lesser Black-backed Gull Lams fuscus Orkney (Piet Munsterman) facing 56-63 British bird-photographers 18 R. J. C. Blewitt: female Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major feeding on suet, Wyre Forest • VNoodfngeon Columba palumbus drinking, Wyre Forest; Green Woodpecker Picus viridis at water tank, Wyre Forest; Ruff Philo- machus pugnax, Lincoln/Norfolk; Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus Merseyside; Tawny Owl Strix aluco, Wyre Forest; female Pheasant rhasianus colchicus with young, Staffordshire; Water Rail Rallus aquaticus, Hereford & Worcester; Robin Erithacus rubecula feeding nestling Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus, Staffordshire- Woodcock Scolofiax rusticola, Hereford & Worcester; Dotterel Eudromias morinellus, Staffordshire; Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa at bait, Staffordshire; female Buzzard Buteo buteo at nest, owys; male Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus at plucking post with prey, Staffordshire facing 64-66a Studies of Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cyanus: at nest, carrying bread in throat, male bringing food to incubating female, female with egg-shell in bill, Spain and Portugal (A. N. H. Peach Eric Hosking, and P. F. Bonham) facing 66b 67 Unusual nest site of Raven Corvus corax , West Glamorgan (R. A. Hume) Cuckoos Cuculus canorus feeding on ground on larvae of Magpie Moth Abraxas grossulariata, Cornwall (J. B. and S. Bottomley) facing 4 1 4 458 502 503 List of vignettes PAGE 338 Pallas’s Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus (D. I. M. Wallace) 358 Wren Troglodytes troglodytes (Hilary Burn) 368 Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius (Hilary Burn) 408 Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti (Hilary Burn) 419 Hooded Crows Corvus corone cornix (Hilary Burn) 428 Woodcock Scolopax rusticola (Hilary Burn) 462 Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus (P. J. Grant) 488 Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cyanus (D. I. M. Wallace) 513 Guillemots Uria aalge (D. I. M. Wallace) Volume 68 Number 1 January 1975 EDITORIAL RARE BREEDING BIRDS IN 1973 GLAUCOUS AND ICELAND GULLS VIEWPOINT BIRD-PHOTOGRAPHERS: J. F. REYNOLDS EdU°rial Address n Rope Walk, Rye, Sussex TN31 7NA (telephone: 07973 2343) S I • F- B°nham’ L J* Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosklng News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5nr C’ Rarities Committee F. R. Smith, 117 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3pp fS The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Mieet, London WC2R 3LF. ( telephone : 01-836 6633) Annua!. Subscription ^7.00 U.K. and Eire (£8.00 Overseas) including index. (1 ayment may be made in any currency at the current exchange rate. Orders must e accompanied by remittance. Prices applicable only to orders received before 31st December 1975). Cheques should be made payable to Macmillan Journals Limited- Subscription Department, Brunei Road. Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2xs, England. Enquiries concerning advertising space and rates should be addressed to: Advertisement Department, Macmillian Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex London WC2R 3LF. ( telephone : 01-836 6633. Street, SWANS BIG GAME Jg> & BIROS SAFARIS VISITING THESE NATIONAL PARKS & GAME RESERVES Nairobi, Lake Naivasha, Lake Nakuru, Samburu, Islolo, Tsavo, Amboseli, Lake Manyara, Ngoron- goro, Serengeti, Mara and Aberdare in Kenya and Tanzania. GUEST LECTURERS accompany each Safari. Their expert and personal knowledge of East Africa — its animals, birds, history, peoples and customs — provides an unrivalled opportunity, not only to view the ever decreasing wildlife in Its natural habitat, but also to gain an Insight into the problems of its preservation and the conservation of land needed by Africa's developing nations. A holiday that can open up new vistas of Interest. 21 DAYS— £515 DEPARTURES Jan 30; Feb 6, 20; Mar 6; June 26; July 17; Aug 7, 28; Sept 18; Oct 9, 30; Dec 18. 12-page full colour brochure available from: SWANS SPECIALISED SAFARIS 237 (P 1 2), Tottenham Court Road, London, W1P OAL. Tel.: 01-636 8070 C.A.A. Licence — ATOL189B *■3 '2 Volume 68 Number i January 1975 i JAN 1975 Editorial The new counties and regions On 1st April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the counties, county boroughs, boroughs and urban and rural districts o( England and Wales were superseded, for administrative purposes, by a new network of counties and districts. On the county level, which concerns us here, the effects of this change were less marked in England. Westmorland was combined with Cumberland and north Lancashire, Rutland with Leicestershire, Herefordshire with Worcestershire, and Huntingdon and Peterborough with Cam- bridgeshire. I he Isle of Wight became a new administrative county, separate from Hampshire. Sussex was split into two new counties and Yorkshire into five, two of the latter also taking in parts of Lincolnshire and Co. Durham to become the new counties of Hum- berside (based on Hull) and Cleveland (on Teesside), respectively. Several other new counties came into being, also centred on large conurbations: Avon (around Bristol), West Midlands (Birmingham), Merseyside (Liverpool-Birkenhead), Greater Manchester, and Tyne and Wear (Newcastle). Many other boundary adjustments were made, mostly minor. In Wales the main effects of the change were the splitting of 1 Glamorgan into three, and the combining of all the other counties (except Monmouthshire, which was renamed Gwent) into four large administrative areas with Welsh names. The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 similarly re-organises local administration in Scotland from 1 6th May 1975. The main difference here is that nine large regions and three ‘islands areas’ replace all the old counties. As in England and Wales, these regions are divided into districts, and thus in Scotland the concept of I 2 Editorial counties becomes obsolete. The biggest region by far is Highland, which is divided into eight large districts corresponding to some extent with the constituent old counties. A close network of ornithological and natural history societies has gradually evolved in England, based largely on the old counties (see Brit. Birds, 67: 253-256 for the most recent list of county bii'd recorders). This tradition, as well as the many local avifaunas published during the last hundred years, reflect a long-established ‘county loyalty’. The same applies in much of Wales, but in other more thinly populated areas no county society has come into being and records from several old counties are combined in a single report; in addition, a bird report covering the whole country is published annually in Nature in Wales. In Scotland there is even less of a ‘county tradition’ in bird recording, which is based partly on the old counties and partly on ‘faunal areas’ defined in The Birds of Scotland (1953); a national annual bird report is published by the Scottish Ornithologists’ Club in Scottish Birds. Many of the old counties of Britain, which have existed since the Middle Ages, are already part of history. We believe that to continue to refer to them for an indefinite future period is flying in the face of progress. Naturalists, like everyone else, must come to terms with the new system. There will be many problems of continuity, but none is insoluble, and no purpose will be served by holding back the clock simply because it is the easy way out: in a few years the old boundaries will seem as outdated as shillings and pence and it will be impossible to buy a map which shows them. We have therefore decided, as a general rule, to adopt the names of the new counties and regions forthwith. The exceptions will be largely in comprehensive papers and reports dealing with records made before 1st January 1975, where it will be made clear that the old counties are being used throughout. The monthly reports feature will switch to the new system immediately and we ask all contributors to bear this in mind when sending records. In the Highland region of Scotland we will usually refer also to the district name, since the region covers such a vast area. The new names and boundaries are shown in figs 1 and 2 on pages 3-4. For detailed information, readers are referred to the two sheets (north and south) of the 1 : 625,000 Administrative Areas Map, published by the Ordnance Survey at 4op per sheet, which shows both the old and new divisions down to district level. Finally, it should be noted that Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Isles of Scilly and the Channel Islands are unaffected by the Acts. ENGLAND Counties 1 Cornwall 2 Devon 3 Dorset 4 Hampshire 5 Isle of Wight 6 West Sussex 7 East Sussex 8 Somerset 9 Avon 10 Wiltshire 1 1 Berkshire 12 Surrey 13 Greater London 14 Kent 15 Gloucestershire 16 Oxfordshire 17 Buckinghamshire 18 Hertfordshire 19 Essex 20 Hereford & Worcester 21 Warwickshire 22 Northamptonshire 23 Bedfordshire 24 Cambridgeshire 25 Suffolk 26 Norfolk 27 Shropshire 28 West Midlands 29 Staffordshire 30 Leicestershire 3 1 Cheshire 32 Derbyshire 33 Nottinghamshire 34 Lincolnshire 35 Merseyside 36 Greater Manchester 37 West Yorkshire 38 South Yorkshire 39 Humberside 40 Lancashire 41 North Yorkshire 42 Cleveland 43 Cumbria 44 Durham 45 Tyne & Wear 46 Northumberland Fig. t. New counties of England and Wales from 1st April 1974 Regions 1 Dumfries and Galloway 2 Borders 3 Strathclyde 4 Central 5 Lothian 6 Fife 7 Tayside 8 Grampian g Highland Islands Areas 10 Western Isles 1 1 Orkney 12 Shetland Districts of Highland region a Lochaber b Badenoch and Strathspey c Skye and Lochalsh d Inverness e Nairn f Ross and Cromarty g Sutherland h Caithness Fig. 2. Regions, islands areas and (in Highland) districts of Scotland from i6th May 1975 Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 1973 J. T. R. Shamrock , I. J. Ferguson-Lees and the Rare Breeding Birds Panel Although first formed in 1968, as a sub-committee of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, 1973 was the Rare Breeding Birds Panel’s first year as an autonomous body. The panel is supported and funded jointly by British Birds, the British Trust for Ornithology and the RSPB, and includes members from each of these bodies, and from the Nature Conservancy Council. David Lea, secretary of the panel since its formation, retired in December 1972. With the necessary approval of the councils of the BIO and RSPB and the editors of British Birds, his place on the panel was taken by R. H. Dennis; and Dr J. T. R. Sharrock, previously an ordinary member of the panel, became secretary. The panel now consists of A. W. Colling, Peter Conder, R. H. Dennis, I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Dr J. T. R. Sharrock. The aims and methods of operation of the panel have been set out in Bird Study, 20: 147-148; Brit. Birds, 66: 172-174; Ibis, 115: 481-482; Irish Nat. J., 17 (no. 12): iii-iv; Nature in Wales, 14:44-46; and Scot. Birds, 7: 226-227. Briefly, the aims are to collect in one place all information on rare breeding birds in the United King- dom so that changes in status — both increases and decreases — can be monitored and so that essential information is not lost (as has happened in the past) through the deaths of individuals keeping such records secret. The panel recognises that it may take some years before complete trust is established and before the benefits of submitting all records become apparent. This first report is known to be incomplete. The counties which have submitted data are shown in fig. 1. Individual members of the panel have personal knowledge of records which are not included here because details have not been officially submitted by the county authorities. We hope that the publication of our annual reports will soon show that undue secrecy is unnecessarv, and that a complete knowledge of each species’ changing status is essential for conservation plans. The panel guarantees not to divulge data submitted to it to any other person without the permission of the person supplying the information (during his or her lifetime). We will never mention localities (or even counties) in this report unless permission has been specifically granted to us to do so. 5 6 Rare breeding birds in igj3 Fig. i. Areas covered by this report. Records (or a negative return) were sup- plied to the panel by all the county or regional report editors of the areas shown black. In some cases indivi- dual observers supplied data for the counties left white, but records were not received from the local editor, so the picture is incomplete for these areas. The panel does not collect records from the Republic of Ireland The majority of records have reached us via county report editors. In the few cases where records have been submitted by individual observers, we have sought permission to pass the infor- mation to the county recorder concerned. Records in this report are listed under county headings. County names are those in existence before the boundary and name changes were implemented on ist April 1974, since these are still in use by the recorders who supplied data to us. Future policy will be dictated by whatever recommendation is made by the Report Editors’ Committee and the policy adopted by the report editors. In instances where we cannot name the county for security reasons, we have adopted a system of lettering (‘County A’, ‘County B’, etc) under each species. A species’ records for one such county will be desig- nated in this way in subsequent reports (until it is safe to name the county), so that the history of colonisation (or extinction) can be followed, even if the exact location cannot be revealed. We are most grateful to all those who have supplied data. In some cases, the naming of the person concerned could be a clue to the birds’ location. Therefore, rather than give an incomplete list Rare breeding birds in igj3 7 of contributors, we hope that all those who have co-operated with us will accept this acknowledgement of their help. The general comments following the actual records have this year been written by IJF-L. They are based primarily on Parslow ( 1 973) and British Ornithologists’ Union (1971); the references to recent range changes will mostly be found in the former. In future years the species comments will be largely concerned with com- paring the current year’s data with those in the panel’s previous reports, but in this first report (and perhaps to be repeated at five- yearly intervals) a more comprehensive background picture is provided. The system adopted is to give the zoogeographical regions in which each species breeds and then to amplify the Pale- arctic range with particular reference to Europe. A summary of the status changes in Britain (and, where appropriate, Ireland) is then followed by an outline of the distribution up to 1972. Finally, reference is made to any relevant status changes in continental Europe. Records for the panel’s files should be submitted as soon as possible after the breeding season (we hope that future reports will be published much earlier than this first one) on the special forms, obtainable from Dr J. T. R. Sharrock, 59 Curlew Crescent, Bedford MK41 7HY. Unless there are special reasons for not doing so, we ask that individual observers send their records to the relevant county report editor, who will then pass on a summary of his county’s records to us. Systematic list of 1973 records Great Northern Diver Gavin immer No records received. Northern Nearctic and marginally Palearctic (Iceland, ?Bear Island, ?Jan Mayen, summering north Norway). Single birds and pairs have long summered in Scotland and breeding suspected on various occasions back to 1868, but not proved until 1970 when pair and two young seen in Wester Ross; in 1971 hybrid Great Northern X Black-throated G. arctica and normal Black-throated present with young on same loch; none in 1972. Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus 22 sites: over 50 pairs. Caithness: two pairs probably bred at one site: one young ist July and two birds that were possibly juveniles 29th July. Inverness: 43 pairs located at 18 lochs; in one area 19 pairs reared 27 young. Numbers and breeding success higher than 1971 or 1972. Moray: five or six pairs at one site: two or three young reared. 8 Rare breeding birds in igyj Perth: one pair hatched four young, three of which were probably eaten by Pike Esox lucius and the fourth was killed by a Coot Fulica atra. An adult with one young at a second site on 7th August. These are the first county records. Northern Nearctic and Palearctic (Iceland, south Fenno-Scandia, Baltic States and Russia eastwards). Breeding first proved 1908 in Inverness, where subsequently slowly increased and spread more or less regularly to Sutherland and Caithness and, more recently, to Moray, Aberdeen and now Perth; for some years estimated at 50 pairs or less. Corresponding increase has taken place in Sweden and southward range extension in Norway. Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis Four sites: 19 or fewer pairs; breeding proved at three sites. County A: three pairs had moderate success at one site (maximum of four young seen on any one visit) and one pair reared two young at a second site. County B: up to 14 pairs and five young at one site. An adult on 13th May at a second site. Ethiopian, Nearctic and Palearctic (locally and erratically over much of central and south Europe from Sweden to Spain east across Russia to central Asia). First colonised England and Ireland around 1915, and Scotland around 1929 when colony of up to 250 pairs also established in Ireland, but marked decline in recent decades, partly due to drainage, so that now extinct in Ireland and nowhere firmly established in Britain except at about three sites in central Scotland, occupied since at least early 1950’s, where prob- ably less than 20 pairs; other recent nestings in widely separated counties of Scotland, England and Wales have been temporary. Colonisations coincided with striking spread west from Caspian region around 1915-20 and 1929-32. Pintail Anas acuta Records received from only one site; we suspect that there must have been others which have not been submitted. Cambridge: two or three pairs bred on Ouse Washes. Mainly Nearctic and Palearctic (Iceland and north Europe eastwards, erratically farther south). Colonised Scotland towards end of 19th century and England about 1910, but only at scattered sites and few of those persistently occupied; in recent years has nested regularly in about four counties in Scotland (Caithness, Inverness, Aberdeen and Kinross) and two in England (Cambridge/ Norfolk and Kent). Scaup Aythya marila No records received. Northern Nearctic and Palearctic (Iceland, Fenno-Scandia and north Russia eastwards). Has bred sporadically north Scotland Rare breeding birds in igyg 9 since 1897; since 1945 has nested Orkney (in about eight years), Outer Hebrides, Wester Ross, Perth and perhaps elsewhere; female and brood seen Lincoln 1944 and infertile clutches laid Suffolk 1967-71. During 20th century southern edge of breeding range has been receding northwards in Fenno-Scandia. Goldeneye Bucephala clangula One site: three pairs hatched at least 22 young. Inverness: females with broods of eight, six and eight were seen on 12th, 24th and 28th May; on 4th June two of these females had broods of six and four or more. Two laid in nest boxes, but the nest-site of the third is not known. Northern Nearctic and Palearctic (Fenno-Scandia, Baltic States and north Russia eastwards). Said to have bred Cheshire 1931-32 and nesting suspected Scotland in igGo’s, but not proved until 1970-72 when one pair bred in each year. Common Scoter Melanitta nigra Ten sites, with a maximum of 133 pairs but Caithness not surveyed. Argyll: females with two young and four young at two separate sites on 8th July and 1 8th August. Caithness: present on several lochs in summer but no survey carried out. Fermanagh: 122 pairs on Lower Lough Erne; breeding success apparently poor. Perth: one pair: eight eggs on 1 ith June, female with seven small young on 26th July and two well-grown young on 18th August. Shetland: a pair bred at one site, three pairs located at a second site and sum- mering pairs at four further sites, but breeding success not known. North-west Nearctic and northern Palearctic (Iceland, Faeroes, Ireland, Fenno-Scandia and north Russia eastwards). Has long bred in Scotland, since at least latter part of 19th century, and Ireland, since 1905, but only at small number of sites and irregularly at some of those; in recent years has nested in several Scottish counties from Perth north to Shetland and, in Ireland, in Fermanagh and Mayo. Goshawk Accipiter gentilus Ten or eleven sites: four pairs proved breeding. Many others are known to us individually, but were not officially reported to the panel. Northumberland: one pair laid eggs but did not rear any young. County A: female found dead in May was on point of laying. County B: pair seen repeatedly in May and June in area where rumoured to have attempted breeding in this and previous years. County C: one pair bred successfully. County’ D: pairs successfully reared young (three and number not known) at two sites and birds present at three or four other sites. 10 Rare breeding birds in 1973 Nearctic and Palearctic (throughout much of continental Europe and Mediterranean islands eastwards). Bred sporadically in 19th century and apparently regularly in earlier times; nested Sussex from 1 938 ( ? 1 92 1 ) to 1951, and in 1 960’s bred in at least six widely separated areas of Scotland, England and Wales, probably regu- larly in at least two. Not known how many of these, or of still more recent ones (see above), are truly wild or birds liberated by or escaped from falconers. It is perhaps significant, however, that this trend conflicts with one of decrease in adjacent areas of Continent (e.g. France, Netherlands). Red Kite Milvus milvus 26 pairs nested, one pair repeating at a second site after early failure. Only ten pairs successful, rearing 14 young. County A: two pairs, both unsuccessful. One clutch of two incubated beyond normal period; second failed soon after laying, from unknown cause. County B: one pair, unsuccessful. Two eggs incubated beyond normal period. County C: 18 pairs, nine successful. Five pairs reared one young and three pairs reared two young; two pairs failed quickly, b it one repeated at a second site and reared two young; five pairs laid clutches which failed to hatch; one pair failed when collector took one egg of clutch of two; one pair failed when tree climbed by unknown person; and one pair failed about hatching date. County D: two pairs, both unsuccessful, with no hatching. County E: three pairs, one successful. Two pairs failed about hatching date; one pair reared one young after one egg had been removed by collector. Western Palearctic (France, south Sweden and Baltic States south to south Europe, Asia Minor, north-west Africa and Canary and Gape Verde islands). Formerly widespread in Britain, but apparently reduced to about four pairs in central Wales in early 20th century; fluctuated between four and ten pairs up to 1940, about 15 pairs in 1950’s and about 20 pairs in later 1960’s; also nested Devon 1913 and Cornwall 1920. Much decreased on Con- tinent over last 1 5 years. Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus No records received, though known to be present at more than one site. We hope to be able to summarise records in future reports. Western Palearctic (much of Europe and west Asia except extreme north). Long a regular breeder in very small numbers, north to Ross and Aberdeen in 19th century. For last 30-40 years has maintained population of several pairs in Hampshire and, more recently, has bred sporadically in several counties north to Welsh border and central England (almost certainly also once in Fife) and regularly at one other site. Rare breeding birds in igy3 1 1 Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus Three sites: three males and five females present, four of the females rearing a total of 14 young. Suffolk: at one site a male and two females reared four and two young. At a second site one pair reared three young while a second female was present and may have attempted to nest. At a third site, new and very vulnerable, one pair reared five young. Ethiopian, Australasian and Palearctic (locally through much of Europe north to south Fenno-Scandia, east across Asia). At one time more numerous and widespread, ceased to breed in England, apart from sporadic attempts, from end of 19th century to 1927 and became extinct in Ireland by 1917; then followed gradual recolonisation of England until by 1957-58 there were nearly 20 pairs. Since then there has been another marked decline, variously attributed to human disturbance, spread of Coypu Myocaslor coypus and chemical pesticides; by 1970 only two or three pairs remained. Corresponding decrease in Netherlands was attributed to food shortage, especially decrease in Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus. Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus The only ones reported had no breeding success. Norfolk: nest with four eggs found at one site but the birds deserted following hay-cutting in the vicinity. At a second site, female present and nest with two eggs found, but these did not hatch (no male was seen). Western and central Palearctic (north-west Africa and much of Europe north to Denmark and south Sweden, east to west Asia). Small but fluctuating population increased markedly during 1945- 55 to maximum of 40-50 pairs in England and first breeding records in Scotland and Ireland; then began steady decline with population reaching 15-25 pairs by mid- 1960’s, less than ten pairs by 1970 and probably only two or three pairs by 1972. Corresponding decrease in Netherlands and elsewhere. Now probably Britain’s rarest diurnal bird of prey. Osprey Pandion haliaetus 16 or more sites, ten pairs rearing 21 young. A few further pairs and eyries were suspected or rumoured but details were not sub- mitted to the panel. Inverness: three eggs laid at Loch Garten and two young reared. P erth : two young reared at Loch of Lowes. County A: three eggs laid and one young reared at one site; nest-building at two other sites in April but birds then left. County B : six pairs, five of which successfully reared young (three, two, two, two and two) ; the sixth pair was present throughout the summer and rebuilt a nest but did not line it properly. 12 Rare breeding birds in 1973 County C: at one site a female lined a nest but probably failed to find a mate; an eyrie was found at a second site in June but no birds were ever seen — possibly a nest from late 1972 or early 1973. County D: two pairs bred successfully, one rearing three and the other two young. County E: pair present at new eyrie in early August: considered to be a non- breeding young pair or failed breeders. Almost cosmopolitan including much of Palearctic (some Medi- terranean area, but mainly north and east Europe from Fenno- Scandia and Germany east across Asia). Once widespread in Scotland, was reduced to two pairs by 1900 and became extinct in 1916; recolonised 1954 or 1955, increasing to three pairs by 1967, five by 1 968 and seven by 1971. This recolonisation followed recovery in numbers in Scandinavia. Hobby Falco subbuteo 51 sites and 16 pairs proved breeding, but no details available from two of the species’ main counties (Hampshire and Sussex) . Where outcome known, eleven pairs successfully reared at least 23 young and five pairs failed to rear young. Bedford: pair at one site in July considered to have probably attempted to breed in area; one bird in suitable area on 18th May, but site not revisited. Berkshire: pairs present at two sites possibly bred. Buckingham : single birds at two sites in early summer but areas not revisited ; one pair at a third site may have nested; early August records at a fourth site suggest possible breeding in the area. Recorder comments that there are probably other pairs overlooked or unreported. Devon: ten sites, six pairs nested, but only two or three were successful (three and two young) and three were robbed by Carrion Crows Corvus corone. At the other four sites, two pairs probably nested and two pairs possibly nested. Dorset: five sites, one pair proved breeding and four more probably bred. No further details available. Hampshire: no details available. Hereford: pair present from late May was seen with flying young in early August. Northampton: one pair reared two young. Oxford: pairs seen regularly at three sites; two young reared at one of these. Somerset: pairs at four sites (only during May at one) and young being fed at one of these in August. Surrey: seven pairs present at six sites: five pairs known to have reared twelve young (three, three, three, two and one), one pair unsuccessful and outcome not known for the seventh pair. Wiltshire: pairs at four sites: one pair known to have been robbed by collector; other three pairs probably bred but outcome unknown. County A: one pair with at least one flying young in August. County B: two pairs possibly bred: observers have not supplied full details to county recorder. County C: four pairs possibly bred: observers have not supplied full details to county recorder. Rare breeding birds in 1973 1 3 County D: one pair bred, but outcome unknown. First breeding record for the county. Marginally Oriental and mainly Palearctic (north-west Africa and most of continental Europe north to south Finland and east across Asia). Decreased in 19th century, but subsequently has maintained population variously estimated at 60-100 pairs (probably at least 85), mainly in Hampshire and adjacent counties but less regularly north to Wales and central (occasionally even north) England. Spotted Crake Porzana porzana No records received. Palearctic (mainly France to south Fenno-Scandia and east across much of Europe, except north, to west Asia). Marked decrease before mid- 19th century and largely sporadic since early 1900’s, though increased 1926-37 and 1963-70. Records of birds breeding or summering in those periods in about ten widely scat- tered counties of England and YVales and, more recently, in four or five counties of Scotland. Second increase followed spread in Sweden. Dotterel Eudromias morinellus Information very incomplete. Aberdeen: present but no details available. Banff: one pair present on 3rd June. Inverness: present but no details available. Northern Palearctic (Fenno-Scandia, Netherlands, Poland, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Romania east to north-central Asia). Decreased markedly during latter half of 19th century' through shooting and collecting, but population has since remained fairly steady at 1950-60 estimates of 60-80 pairs; in recent years decrease in Cairngorms, probably due to human disturbance, has been offset by spread outside main range in central Highlands of Scotland. Remarkable colonisation of Dutch polders since early 1960’s is only recent evidence of spread on Continent, and that represents entirely new habitat for species otherwise restricted to mountains and tundra. Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa Eight sites: 54 pairs proved breeding, one more probably breeding and five more possibly breeding. Cambridge : 5 1 breeding pairs at one site but number of young reared not known. Cumberland: at least two pairs at one site and one nest found, but eggs destroyed. Lincoln: one pair holding territory in May and June, actions suggesting to one observer that young were present. i4 Rare breeding birds in igjg Norfolk: one pair reared two young. Shetland: one pair hatched at least two young. Somerset: two pairs and one single bird present at one site but breeding almost certainly unsuccessful because of spraying and rolling of fields. One pair and single bird at a second site were probably also disturbed by cultivation activities. County A: pair present and displaying early in season almost certainly did not breed, probably due to drought conditions and drainage of area. Palearctic (Iceland, Low Countries north to Baltic States, south to Ukraine, east across Asia). Once widespread in eastern England, but became extinct before mid- 19th century through drainage, disturbance and shooting; bred sporadically 1937-42 and annually since 1952 in increasing numbers, particularly in East Anglia but latterly in up to ten other areas, north to Scotland, total population in 1971 being about 75-80 pairs. Habitat changes have caused decreases in central Europe, but has been marked increase in Iceland and Netherlands since about 1920 and slight northward expansion in range. Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola Sightings of single birds at two sites. Caithness: one bird holding territory on 9th June: area not revisited until 29th July, when none seen. County A: one bird seen at a new site on 4th June. Palearctic (Denmark and Fenno-Scandia east across north Asia). Bred Northumberland 1853; began to colonise north Scotland in 1959, subsequently breeding in at least four or five counties south probably to Perth and seemed firmly established in small numbers by 1970. One of several Scandinavian species to spread or return to Scotland in last two decades. Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii One site: one or two pairs. County A: at least one (probably two) pairs, one of which almost certainly bred successfully. Northern Palearctic (Fenno-Scandia east across north Asia). Attempted unsuccessfully to breed in central Scotland (Cairngorms) or Yorkshire in four years 1934-56; one or two pairs established Scotland since 1969. Another Scandinavian species showing recent spread to Scotland. RufF Philomachus pugnax Reported from only one site. Cambridge: eight breeding females estimated at one site but breeding success not known. Palearctic (Fenno-Scandia and Low Countries east across north Europe and Asia). Formerly widespread in England, but marked Rare breeding birds in 1973 1 - decline in 1 8th and first half 19th centuries until ceased to breed regularly in 1871; nested sporadically, chiefly in Norfolk, till 1922 and then no further record until 1963, since when one or two nests have gradually increased to ten or more. Avocet Recurviroslra avosetta Four sites: 149 pairs reared about 1 15 young. Suffolk: t 12 pairs reared about 50 young at Havergate Island. 33 pairs reared about 65 young at Minsmere. County A: one and three pairs bred at two sites. Ethiopian and Palearctic (coasts of west Europe from south Sweden round Iberia to south France, and central and south-east Europe east across Asia). Bred regularly east England before mid- 19th century, then after long interval sporadically in Ireland (1938) and East Anglia (1941-46) before becoming re-established Suffolk 1 947 i increased at Havergate from four or five pairs in 1947 to nearly 100 pairs by 1957 and subsequently fluctuated about this mark, and at Minsmere from up to four pairs in 1947 and 1963 to 34 pairs in 1972; small numbers have occasionally nested in this period in other areas and other counties. Recolonisation followed marked increase in Netherlands and Denmark, and species has also recolonised south Sweden. Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus Details received from only three sites; other sites occupied but data not submitted to the panel. Outer Hebrides: at one site one pair nested unsuccessfully; one or two pairs present at a second site but no further details known. Shetland: no counts available. County A: a pair and an extra female in May and early June, but area not revisited until early August, when none present. Northern Nearctic and Palearctic (Iceland, Faeroes and north continental Europe south to south Norway and Baltic States, east across arctic Asia). Although on extreme southern fringe of range, formerly much more numerous, but marked decrease as result of collecting in 19th century; some recovery (and colonisation of north-west Ireland) in first 30 years of 20th century, but then further decrease; in recent years small but fluctuating numbers have nested Shetland, Orkney, Outer Hebrides, Tiree, and one or two sites on Scottish mainland, as well as Mayo in Ireland. Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Over ! 00 pairs reported but data are very incomplete. Berkshire: pairs present at four sites possibly bred. 1 6 Rare breeding birds in 1973 Cambridge: considered that current population is certainly below 20 pairs; breeding proved for four pairs. Cambridge/Essex/Hertford: over 70 contacts during a special two-night survey; maximum activity occurred at 03.00 GMT and those responsible for this survey consider that this species may be under-recorded. Essex: four pairs possibly bred at one site. Hampshire: at least 20 sites known but real number considered to be well in excess of this. Norfolk : numerous sites but numbers completely unknown. Oxford: two pairs at one site, one of them successfully rearing two young. Suffolk: five pairs proved breeding in coastal belt and 13 in Breckland; a further six pairs probably bred in the county and the total summering population is possibly about 50 pairs. Wiltshire: four sites, with two pairs with young at one of these and one pair hatching eggs at another. Oriental and west Palearctic (mainly central and south Europe, and north Africa, east across south Asia). Steady decrease due to cultivation, afforestation and disturbance since early 19th century, apart from partial recovery in 1920’s and 1930’s; in last 20 years rate of decrease seems to have accelerated and in Breckland, for example, population declined from over 300 pairs in 1949 to fewer than 50 by 1963; now largely confined to chalk areas from Dorset, Hampshire and Sussex to east Norfolk, with few pairs near Suffolk coast; in late 1960’s total population estimated at 200-400 pairs. Corresponding decrease in central European countries and gradual extinction in Netherlands between early 1920’s and late 1950’s. Mediterranean Gull Larus melanocephalus No records received. South-central and west Palearctic (scattered range in south Russia, Asia Minor and Balkans, with sporadic breeding north and west to Baltic and Netherlands). Pair bred Hampshire 1968, another male mated with female Black-headed Gull L. ridibundus, and another female with hybrid between the two species. In subsequent years various Mediterranean Gulls were seen in spring or summer at this site, but only hybrid bred, with female Black-headed. Black Tern Chlidonias niger No records received. Nearctic and western Palearctic (continental Europe north to south Sweden and Baltic States, east to west Asia). Formerly nested commonly in eastern England, but became extinct as result of drainage of habitat and taking of eggs before mid- 19th century; nested sporadically in Norfolk and Kent 1853-85, then not again Rare breeding birds in igyj 17 until few pairs on Cambridge/Norfolk border in 1966 and 1969 and one pair in Ireland in 1967. Snowy Owl Nyclea scandiaca Records received from only one site. Shetland: one male mated to two females on Fetlar; one hatched five young, two of which were reared but one then died in September; the second female laid three eggs but deserted during incubation. Northern Nearctic and Palearctic (Iceland, north Fenno-Scandia and north Russia). One pair has bred Shetland each year since 1967, but 1973 saw a third bird involved for first time. Hoopoe Upupa epops No records received. Ethiopian, Oriental and Palearctic (continental Europe north to Baltic States, east right across Asia). Has bred sporadically since early in 19th century, with one to four records each decade since 1830’s, chiefly in south coast counties, but north to Buckingham and Hereford. Wryneck Jynx torquilla Only one pair reported. Kent: one pair present and carrying food in June. Ethiopian and Palearctic (continental Europe north to southern half of Fenno-Scandia, east across Asia). In mid-igth century bred north to Westmorland and occasionally in almost every county of England and Wales, but steady decline since then has reduced population to few pairs in Kent and occasionally elsewhere in south- east England (even as late as 1950’s breeding was still taking place in 10-20 counties and population was 100-200 pairs); in 1965, however, two pairs appeared in Inverness and may have nested, since when summering has been recorded each year in that county and three nests were found in 1969. A corresponding, though not quite so drastic, decline has occurred over much of western Europe, but spread to Scotland is presumably another example of coloni- sation from Scandinavia. Shore Lark Eremophila alpestris Present and almost certainly bred at a locality near where first seen in summer in 1972. County A: male singing on 24th June; pair one kilometre away on 10th July; pair (and non-flying young suspected) two kilometres away on 14th, 15th and 18th August. Mainly Nearctic and Palearctic (north Fenno-Scandia and north Russia, cast across Asia, and discontinuouslv in north-west Africa, 1 8 Rare breeding birds in 1373 Balkans, Middle East and south Russia eastwards). No suggestion of breeding until seen in summer 1972. Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus One pair bred successfully and up to six other males present. Suffolk: a pair seen with five young; up to six other singing males were also heard during the summer but no nests were located. Oriental and west and central Palearctic (continental Europe north to south Sweden and Finland, east to central Asia). Long a sporadic breeder, fairly frequent in Kent in 19th century when otherwise in about ten other counties of southern England and East Anglia; 20th century has seen fewer proved or probable records, but these have been west to Devon and Wales and north to Lan- cashire (and seen in summer north to Kinross) ; some evidence of becoming established in recent years. Recently there has been increase in Denmark and spread to Sweden. Fieldfare Turdus pilaris Three sites: two pairs proved breeding. Aberdeen: one bird on 25th June. Kincardine: young bird unable to fly properly but no adults seen. Shetland: one pair nested but success not known. Palearctic (northern two-thirds of Europe from Switzerland, Germany and Fenno-Scandia east across much of Asia). First bred Orkney 1967 and Shetland 1968, since when the published records show few pairs each year in north-east Scotland and once in north- east England. This is another Scandinavian species which has recently colonised Scotland; it has also been extending its range in central Europe and colonised Denmark as recently as i960. Redwing Turdus iliacus Nine sites: at least three pairs nested. We suspect that many have gone unrecorded or unreported; if this is not the case, there has been a very considerable decrease since 1972. Banff: one singing male. Inverness: one pair nested successfully. Perth: singing males at three sites and an adult carrying food at a fourth site. Ross: two pairs at one site. Sutherland: one pair feeding young in nest at one site and a singing male at a second site. Palearctic (Iceland, Faeroes, Fenno-Scandia and Poland east across Russia and much of Asia). First nested Sutherland 1925 and then sporadically in four northern counties of Scotland up to 1 94 1 ; no further breeding proved until 1953, since when known popula- Rare breeding birds in igj3 19 tion has gradually built up from three or four pairs in late 1950’$ and early 1960’s to 40-50 pairs in 1971-72, mainly in Sutherland, Ross and Inverness, but also in Moray, Caithness and Shetland; pair also attempted to breed in Ireland in 1951. Yet another Scan- dinavian species which has recently colonised Scotland. Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros 27 sites: 44 pairs proved breeding, another eight probably breeding and seven more possibly breeding. Bedford: one pair hatched four or five young, of which two died and two or three fledged. A singing male at another site may have been the male from the first site. This is the first record of successful breeding in the county. Berkshire: one pair reared four young. Essex: one pair reared at least one young. Kent: five pairs present at one site and single pairs at four others. The five pairs raised ‘fair numbers’ of young, two of the single pairs raised at least one young, one raised three young and the fourth had young in the nest but outcome unknown. London: two pairs nested at each of two sites, rearing four and three young at one site and an unknown number (though both pairs successful) at the other. Middlesex: two pairs (one non-breeding) at one site. Norfolk: 18 pairs at one site and one pair at another. 1 7 pairs reared a minimum of 50 young at the first site and the pair at the second site reared two young. These numbers are unusual and a special study was made at the major site. Northampton: a male sang from 9th to 14th May. Orkney: nest with four eggs and female seen: male never seen. First Scottish breeding record. Stafford: male seen at traditional site but no effort made to prove breeding in >973- Suffolk: ten pairs proved breeding and a further two probably breeding at four sites; no details of breeding success. Sussex: one pair reared four young at one site; one pair laid eggs at a second site but building then demolished. There may well be other unreported records for Sussex. Warwick: male present throughout summer at traditional site. Worcester: one pair reared six young. This is the first breeding record for the county. Mainly Palearctic (north-west Africa, west Europe north to south Sweden, east to Baltic States, and thence south-east through south Russia and Asia Minor east to Himalayas, China and central Asia). After two or three sporadic attempts, first nested 1923 and regularly since 1939, mainly in south-east England and East Anglia, but sporadically west to Cornwall, Shropshire and Lanca- shire and north to Yorkshire; peak of 53-55 sites was reached in 1 950_52» after which there was general decline to low of 16 in 1962, as wartime bombed sites disappeared, and then gradual increase again, as large industrial power stations developed. 20 Rare breeding birds in 1973 Bluethroat Luscinia svecica No records received. Mainly Palearctic (north Europe south, in some cases locally, to Spain, France, Germany, Yugoslavia, and Caucasus, east across Asia). Only record is of female flushed from nest and eggs in Inverness in 1968, but this is another example of a colonist from, probably, Scandinavia. Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti Six sites: one pair proved breeding and at least 15 other singing males present. Kent: one pair with three recently fledged young and a second singing male at one site; 13 singing males at four other sites (seven, four, one and one). Suffolk: at Minsmere, singles from 22nd February to 24th April, 4th October and 7th October and two from 30th October into 1974; no evidence of breeding. Southern Palearctic (north-west Africa across south Europe through Turkey, Middle East and south-west Asia; recently spread- ing north in west Europe). After series of individual occurrences in southern England since 1961, steadily increasing in number, began to colonise Kent in 1972. This follows spread north in France, extending gradually to Channel Islands, Belgium and Netherlands. Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides Three sites: twelve singing males. Kent: three males singing throughout the summer at one site, but no evidence of breeding. Suffolk: six singing males at one site, and considered that six pairs probably bred. Three singing males at a second site, and similarly considered that three pairs probably bred. Western Palearctic (north-west Africa and across south Europe north to Netherlands and Germany, east to south-west Asia). Formerly bred in East Anglian fens in Norfolk, Cambridge and Huntingdon until mid- 19th century; became re-established in Kent in i960 (possibly as early as 1951) and by 1968 was being recorded in summer in various other counties (including Norfolk and Cambridge, but also Somerset and Flampshire) ; since at least 1970 has nested in Suffolk. Nested in Netherlands throughout hundred years or more it was absent from Britain, and recoloni- sation may have taken place from there at time of decrease through habitat destruction or may have been connected with westward expansion noted in Poland and Germany. 21 Rare breeding birds in 1973 Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris 50-80 pairs probably bred. Kent: six sites. Seven pairs at one site; pair carrying food at a second site; pair with two or three juveniles at a third site; and singing males at three further sites (two, one and one). Worcester: 40-70 pairs in the traditional areas, an increase on recent years; one pair reared three young at a new site. Western Palearctic (Low Countries and east France across Europe, north to southernmost Fenno-Scandia, east to south Urals and Caucasus, and south-east into Iran). Has long bred southern and western England, mainly in nine counties but occasionally in another eleven; in last 50 years most regular nesting has been in Worcester, Hereford, Gloucester, Somerset, Dorset, Sussex and Kent but has greatly decreased, probably partly at least as result of habitat destruction, since 1945-50 and now largely confined to Worcester, Gloucester and the south-east. Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata Over 220 pairs reported but data are incomplete. Dorset: 120 pairs present at 19 sites. Hampshire: at least 100 pairs. Surrey: two or three pairs present at one site but no proof of breeding; one pair reared two young at a second site. County A: four or five birds at a new site which was first discovered in 1972. Western Palearctic (France, Iberia to Italy and north-west Africa). Formerly bred Kent to Cornwall, north to Berkshire, and occasionally north to Shropshire and Essex; marked contraction of breeding range during 20th century, as result of steady frag- mentation of specialised habitat, with periodic population crashes due to severe winters; population was estimated at 450 pairs in 1961, but only ten pairs in 1963 after hard weather in two successive winters; this was probably lowest total ever, but long series of mild winters since then has resulted in steady increase; even so, most of population is still confined to Dorset and Hampshire with smaller numbers in two or three other counties. Firecrest Regulus ignicapillus Four sites: two pairs proved breeding and a further 14 singing males recorded. Buckingham: eleven males holding territory at one site. Dorset : one pair seen with young. Hampshire: one pair seen with three fledged young. Northampton: three males singing at one site in May and June. Western Palearctic (north-west Africa and Iberia north to Den- mark and east to west Russia, Balkans and Asia Minor). First found 22 Rare breeding birds in 1973 breeding in Hampshire in 1961, when small but regular population was located in New Forest; species has also been established in Buckingham since 1971 and breeding has been proved or at least singing males recorded in summer in six other counties: Bedford, Dorset, Kent, Somerset, Suffolk and now Northampton. May well have been established in Britain for much longer and been over- looked. Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio About 40 pairs reported but data are very incomplete. Berkshire: one pair possibly bred. Essex: one pair bred successfully but number of young reared not reported. Hampshire: details not available. Kent: pairs present at two sites and one behaved as if young were present. Norfolk: seven pairs present at four sites (three, two, one and one) and at least two bred successfully. Details from other sites are not available. Suffolk: probably not more than 30 pairs in the county, but information not all available to county recorder; 22 pairs were proved to breed, 14 in the coastal belt and eight in Breckland. Palearctic (much of Europe from north Spain north to south Fenno-Scandia and east across Asia). Formerly widespread in England and Wales, but steady decrease has been proceeding for last 100 years or more and has accelerated since 1940; population was reduced to 172 known pairs by i960, about 127 by 1966 and only about 81 by 1971; now mainly confined to coastal counties from Norfolk to Hampshire with small number in other counties of south-east England. Species has decreased throughout north-west Europe since about 1930 and it has been suggested that long-term climatic changes are primary cause. Serin Serinus serinus No records received. Western Palearctic (north-west Africa, Asia Minor and much ol continental Europe east to Ukraine and north to south Sweden and Baltic States). First bred southern England in 1967 and in subsequent years in at least three southern counties. Has been spreading steadily north in Europe during 19th and 20th centuries and further colonisation is expected. Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis Five sites: at least five pairs bred successfully. Inverness: four to six pairs nested at one site, rearing good numbers of young (probably the best year this century) ; two pairs at a second site, one rearing four young and the other (less fully watched) probably also successful ; a singing male in June/July at a third site. 23 Rare breeding birds in 1973 Perth: singing male in early June. County A: singing male at a new site on 4th June. Northern Nearctic and Palearctic (Iceland, Faeroes, north Fenno- Scandia and north Russia east across Asia). Probably more regular and widespread than now in 19th and early 20th centuries, but numbers always very small; has bred Sutherland, Ross, Perth, and even St Kilda, but in last 60 years largely confined to Inverness, particularly Cairngorms. REFERENCES British Ornithologists’ Union. 1971. The Status of Birds in Britain and Ireland. Oxford. Parslow, J. L. F. 1973. Breeding Birds of Britain and Ireland. Berkhamsted. Additions and corrections to this 1973 report will be greatly welcomed by the panel, and will form an addendum to the 1974 report. They should be sent to the first address below. Dr J. T. R. Sharrock, 39 Curlew Crescent , Bedford MK.41 7HY /. J. Ferguson- Lees, 62 High Street , Roxton, Bedford MK44 3ED Identification and ageing of Glaucous and Iceland Gulls R. A. Hume Despite papers on the two species by Kay (1947, 1950), the plum- ages and characteristics of the Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus and the Iceland Gull L. glaucoides are still given inadequate, confusing and sometimes contradictory treatment in more recent literature. With an apparently increasing number of observations of both species in at least some areas of Britain in recent years, it would seem particularly worthwhile to review the problems associated with their identification and ageing and to re-emphasise that, in the identification of Iceland Gulls in particular, there is a need for a considerably more careful and cautious approach than often seems to be the case at present. It seems likely that light- winged gulls of Herring Gull L. argentatus size with long wings are too easily accepted as Iceland Gulls without the critical examination necessary for certain identification. A recent paper by Hedgren and Larsson (1973) has helped to clarify the situation and reviews some of the Scandinavian records of these gulls. Details are given of several cases of incorrect identi- fication, even of museum specimens, and of about 50 records of Iceland Gull in Sweden up to 1972 the authors suggest that a con- siderable number are incorrect. Of seven birds recorded as Iceland Gulls or considered to be so by some experienced observers and which had photographs to support the claim, four were incor- rectly identified on the evidence of the pictures, according to Hedgren and Larsson. Of the published descriptions without photographs they consider that, strictly speaking, none rules out Glaucous or aberrant Herring Gulls and conclude that the Iceland Gull is considerably rarer in Sweden than the literature suggests. A similar situation exists in Finland and it is probable that a pro- portion of British records of Iceland Gulls is also incorrect. My own experience of Glaucous and Iceland Gulls is admittedly limited, as I have never been to northern Britain in winter for any length of time. Most of my observations have been made in Staf- fordshire and West Glamorgan. In recent winters I have seen Glaucous 26 times, involving at least 16 individuals, Iceland 20 times, involving a minimum of ten birds, plus occasional aberrant and hybrid birds and a few distant ‘indeterminates’. These include birds of all age groups except fourth-year Iceland, in all months except June, August and October, and amount to many hours of 24 Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 25 observation. I have also examined many photographs, both pub- lished and unpublished (several published pictures are, incidentally, wrongly captioned and more than one particular photograph is labelled Iceland in one work and Glaucous in another). SIZE Individual variation in gulls is considerable, in both overall length and bulk of body. Glaucous is typically between Herring and Great Black-back L. marinus in size, while Iceland is about the size of Herring and usually slightly smaller. However, male gulls are, on average, larger than females, with larger bills and relatively shorter wings (Dwight 1925, Witherbycfa/. 1941). Although male Glaucous arc larger and longer-billed than any Herring Gulls, female Glau- cous may be smaller than male Herring except in bill size. It is important to appreciate, therefore, that a light-winged gull which is smaller than a nearby Herring Gull need not, because of that fact, necessarily be an Iceland Gull. Clearly, size alone is insufficient evidence for identification of any bird as Iceland. Like Lesser Black-backs L. fuscus, Iceland Gulls have relatively longer, narrower wings, shorter bills and shorter legs than Herring Gulls, whereas Glaucous have relatively short wings, long bills and long legs. HEAD AND BILL Hedgren and Larsson, along with several other authors, state that the Iceland Gull has a relatively small and rounded head, while the Glaucous has a more powerful, larger and angular head. Kay also stressed the small size of the head in proportion to the rest of the bird as a good feature of Iceland. I agree with the former authors but believe that the shape of the head, not the size, gives the Iceland its character, combined with the shape and length of the bill. The head of the Iceland can, in fact, look quite large and often bulbous at the back of the neck. Relative to the length of the body it may be measured on many good photographs as propor- tionately equally as long as, or even longer than, the head of some Glaucous Gulls. Therefore, in the field, a small Glaucous Gull the same size as an Iceland will not necessarily show a larger head than that species; and it is the small Glaucous that is the main problem in separating the two species. In addition, the head of the Glaucous can show a decidedly curved profile rather than an angular appearance, even in obviously large individuals — in fact, I am inclined to think that this is the more typical. However, as can be seen in fig. 1, the head of the Iceland tends to have a very rounded (and low) nape and a high crown, giving a domed appearance highest above or just behind the eye and helping tfw nyy GLAUCOUS ICELAND Fig. i. Heads of Glaucous Gulls Larus hyperboreus (left) and Iceland Gulls L. glaucoides in first, second, third and fourth winters to give the bird its ‘gentle’ character. The Glaucous has a smoothly curved, though usually flatter, longer and slightly lower crown profile; the nape, though relatively higher than in Iceland, is not necessarily sharply angled. Generally it is the bill which accounts for the more ‘powerful’ appearance compared with the Iceland Gull. Much depends on the stance and position of the bird, as the shape of the head, and especially the relative thickness of the neck, change as the bird raises its head or hunches it down into the shoulders. A few minutes spent watching Herring Gulls will show just how much variation occurs. Head size and shape, therefore, are features which must be used with care. 26 FIRST WINTER SECOND WINTER THIRD WINTER FOURTH WINTER Glaucous and Iceland Gulls R4»» ^fi Plate i. Spotted Redshank Tringa erylhropus at nest. Finland, June 1964 (J. F. Reynolds ) (pages 40-42 ) Plate 2. Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis, Kenya, September 1972; below, Black-winged Stilts Himanlopus himanlopus, Kenya, October 1972 (J. F. Reynolds) P i. at es 3-4. Dunlin Calidris alpina, Merseyside. September 1951 ; below. Yellow Wagtail Motacilla Jlava, Kenya, February 1973; overleaf. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis with African Buffalo Syncerus cqffer. Kenya. April 1974 (J. F. Reynolds Plate 5. Male Kestrel Falco tinnunculus, Kenya, March 1973; below, two Tawny Eagles Aqnila rapax feeding on carcass of young Wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus, the victim of a Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, Kenya, April 1974 ( J. F. Reynolds ) ft* Plate (>. Juvenile (flossy Ibis Plegadis Jalcinellus feeding, Tanzania. Ortobei 1 9^9 ■ below, Black Stork Ciconia nigra. Kenya, October 1972 J. /■'. Reynolds Plate 7. Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria, Finland, June 1964; below, Redshank Tringa totanus by nest in water meadow, West Sussex, April 1956 (J. F. Reynolds ) Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 27 The length, relative to body length, of the head plus the bill is fractionally shorter in the Iceland Gull: the most important factor, however, is bill length relative to head length (again see fig. 1). The bill of the Iceland averages a little less than half the length of the head and rarely, if ever, quite reaches half the head length. That of the Glaucous is rarely as small as half the head length and averages rather more, being long and powerful but, in direct comparison, not so deep and massive as that of the Great Black-back. Moreover, while the Iceland Gull’s bill is not necessarily slender, the tip is more pointed and less hooked than the bill of the Glaucous, which has a markedly downcurved culmen. Combined with the more domed, rounder head and rather more centrally placed eye, the short bill of the Iceland Gull gives a ‘gentler’ appearance than the typically strong look of the Glaucous, and this remains the most definite distinguishing feature between the two. WING LENGTH AND SHAPE Wing length varies greatly in both species, with age, sex and state of moult (Dwight 1925)- The Glaucous moults a little later than the Iceland and a little later in the northern parts of its range than in the southern. Therefore its wings would generally attain their full length rather later in the winter than would those of the Iceland. Immature birds moult up to two months before adults (Ingolfsson 1970a), while juveniles retain their original wing feathers throughout their first year, in both species. Therefore, first-winter birds have full- grown wings all winter, sub-adults have wings which reach full length during the winter and adults have some short primaries until, in Glaucous Gulls, even as late as mid- or late February (Kay 1947), though the moult may have begun (with innermost primaries) as early as July. Note, however, that the old, full-length outermost primaries may not be shed until December, and the closed wings will not, until then, look short. In birds with full-grown wings the Iceland has a greater projection of the closed wing-tips beyond the tail; however, the only birds in winter with wings not likely to to project at all beyond the tail are adult Glaucous which have shed their outermost primaries. Kay (1947) described an adult Glaucous Gull whose outermost (second) primary still had 10 cm to grow in mid-December, and another bird reached this stage as late as mid-January; both had fully grown tails, however. Such birds will nevertheless show a considerable projection of wing-tip beyond tail by earlv spring, as do juveniles all winter. Although adult Icelands also have shorter primaries until mid- or late winter, an adult in early December 1973 showed a noticeable 28 Glaucous and Iceland Gulls projection of wings beyond tail, about twice that of nearby Herrings. This may have been due to the retention of old outermost feathers; consequently the projection would be less marked for a short period later, after these are shed and before the new, replacement ones are fully grown. Iceland Gulls tend to ‘hang’ their wings on either side of the tail when standing and sometimes when swimming, accentuating their long, slender appearance. Herring Gulls may also do this (beware of albinistic birds) and Glaucous Gulls will do so on occasion. The wings of Glaucous Gulls are broader-based than those of Iceland Gulls which are nearer to those of a Lesser Black-back in shape, while the wings of both Glaucous and Iceland often have relatively little angle at the carpal joint. Large Glaucous are obviously heavy and broad-winged but smaller birds, especially first-years, can show very pointed wing-tips. FLIGHT The long-winged appearance and quick action of the Iceland Gull in flight (often compared with a Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla ) is much quoted as a useful field-character. However, the flight of a lone bird can be extremely difficult to judge, as the wing action varies so much according to wind and weather, moult, feather wear and the intention of the bird. (Try timing the wing-beats of Herring Gulls flying steadily into the wind — they can be surprisingly rapid.) It is easy to miss the relative lightness of the Iceland and also easy to see what one thinks one ought to be seeing. Hedgren and Larsson cite several cases in which observers of a gull believed to be Iceland specifically commented on the quick action or light flight, though the bird in question was later proved not to have been an Iceland Gull at all. Although the larger, heavier examples of Glaucous may be ob- vious in flight, smaller birds are not. The relatively quicker action of the Iceland Gull is only really useful when the bird is flying steadily by with other gulls, so that a direct comparison in similar conditions can be made. It must be borne in mind that leucistic and albinistic birds (see pages 33-34) are likely to be excessively worn on the wing feathers and thus to have a more rapid wing action than normal. Iceland Gulls in flight can appear deceptively short-tailed as well as relatively long-winged. DOMINANCE Whereas Glaucous Gulls dominate Herring Gulls (when feeding, for example) and even Great Black-backs at times, Herring Gulls (at least adults) generally dominate Icelands (Kay 1947, 1950)- Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 29 PLUMAGE The plumages of immature Glaucous and Iceland Gulls are, unfor- tunately, particularly variable, through both individual variation and the effects of wear and bleaching of the feathers (see Dwight !925> Witherby et al. 1941). Bare parts of birds other than first-years and adults also vary to a frustrating degree. Except for first-year birds it may be impossible to be certain of the age of a bird of either species. The following descriptions attempt to show what is typical while noting the extent of variation which may be found. GLAUCOUS, FIRST winter Head pale greyish or buffish-white, thickly but diffusely streaked with pale brown, more coarsely mottled on nape, with prominent pale partial eye-ring. Neck more mottled w'ith brown or pale brown, extending as band across upper mantle, but chin and throat w'hitish, not or only faintly streaked. Back and scapulars vary in ground colour from whitish-buff to pale brown, ir- regularly but distinctly mottled or barred with brown or dark brown, with narrower wavy bars on scapulars than on back. Bars occasionally diffuse or incomplete. Rump and upper tail-coverts whitish, creamy or huffish with broad bars of light to daik brown. Breast, belly and flanks variable in tone, some birds being quite dark brown (darker below than on back), others much whiter, but generally dull whitish or drab with irregular markings of dusky brown. Lower flanks more broadly barred or smudged, but amount of wavy barrings varies. Under tail- coverts dull white with prominent brown bars. Tail lacks dark terminal band, but has marbled or mottled effect with irregular dull whitish spots and freckles on grey-brown or dull buff-grey ground. Sometimes irregular whitish band at tip. Tails of some more densely spotted paler, others more solidly brownish. Marginal wing-coverts pale brown; rest of lesser and median coverts huffish with conspicuous daik bars and mottles, thus distinctly patterned. Greater coverts generally darker than secondaries with conspicuous mottling on outer webs; primary coverts darker than primaries with subterminal dark spots and creamy tips. Primaries and secon- daries usually paler than rest of wing, never darker, varying from pale grey-brown to almost white, generally mottled darker and with subterminal dark flecks. Outer primaries whitest and innermost mottled, with buffish-white tips. Under- wing drab brown obscurely marked whitish. Iceland, first winter Similar to first-winter Glaucous but brown barring above tends to be narrower and closer, giving finer, more even pattern. Eye-ring said to be less conspicuous, while tail often shows more obvious whitish terminal band, paler than rest, beyond dark mottling. First-winter birds of either species do not necessarily look paler than all other immature gulls, especially when seen from front, as some are quite dark, particularly beneath; however, wing-tips always lighter than rest of wing. glaucous and Iceland, first summer Upperparts have fewer bars, more creamy-white, and rest of body (though often very partially moulted) generally a little whiter. Wing and tail feathers retained and consequently fade a good deal, with flight-feathers and edges of coverts sometimes becoming quite white and well worn. A %'ery few birds at this age may look all-white at distance, partly as result of individual variation and partly as result of fading. Closer views should reveal normal, though faded and indistinct, brown markings, usually most obvious in areas less subject to bleaching, such as undertail-coverts, fore-edge of wing and underwing. 1 hey also have characteristic first-year bare part coloration, and show pointed tips to primaries and rounded tips to tail feathers, which are rounder and 30 Glaucous and Iceland Gulls squarer respectively in all subsequent years (Dwight 1925); this may sometimes be noted in field when feathers fresh. Note that first-summer Herring Gulls very variable and can become very pale (though often retaining blackish mottling on back), often creamy on head and underparts and with huffish or even whitish areas on wing-coverts, so appearing as pale as Glaucous Gull on ground. However, wing-tips, though frequently very faded, remain darker than rest of wing, at least from above, and tail-band always present. glaucous and Iceland, second winter Head and neck largely whitish with streakings fewer and fainter than in first year, often greyer or dusky near eye. Back of neck and upper mantle may be strongly mottled. Back and scapulars paler than in first year, with more diffuse marks, more mottled and irregularly blotched than barred. Some pale greyish may appear on mantle at least of Glaucous at this age (Kay noted first grey on mantle of Iceland during second summer). Rump and uppertail-coverts less well barred than before. Underparts have pinkish- buff to ginger-brown mottling or wash, especially on lower breast and belly (sometimes also on sides of neck), often giving diffusely blotched effect. Undertail coverts retain brown barrings, but less prominently. Tail has more whitish with less and paler brown than in first year, consequently producing less contrast with paler tip. Primary coverts very pale whitish-brown with pale brown mottlings, and wing-coverts fade to fawn or off-white colour, rarely looking pure white. Flight- feathers vary from pinkish-drab or brownish-white to white, outermost primary being whitest, rest having darker and freckled outer webs, fading to whitish or quite white. Underwing whitish, obscurely mottled. Whereas each individual becomes paler in second year, variation is such that some pale first-year birds may be generally paler than some second-year. A few second-year become largely white, though not typical and may be distinct colour phase (perhaps more frequent in Glaucous than Iceland). This ‘colour morph’ suggestion remains to be proved (see below). glaucous and Iceland, second summer Often only partial and irregular body moult, but more pale grey appears above. Retained feathers on wings and body become whiter through wear and bleaching, which may give patchy effect. Most birds have brown mottles and brownish or buffish wash, appearing very pale in field but far from pure white. Some have all-white appearance in field similar to that described under first summer, but close views should reveal faded brown markings. ‘White’ birds much more frequent in second summer than in first. Bill and eye colour may help in deciding age. glaucous, third winter Head and neck white with variable amount of buffish or brown streaking or wash. Back and scapulars mainly pale grey but often tinged browner and with light feather edgings. Rump and uppertail-coverts white, freckled or lightly barred brown. Underparts whitish with variable pale brownish wash and mottlings, fading still paler. Under tail-coverts still retain obscure bars. Tail whitish or brownish white, finely freckled or lightly barred brown near tip, varying individually. Upperwing brownish white, buffish-fawn or drab grey with obscure brownish freckling or barring, especially on innermost coverts and tertials. Secondaries white or greyish, tipped white, sometimes finely mottled with pale brown. Primaries brownish-white or ivory-buff, white at tips; inner ones finely freckled but mottling inconspicuous and variable. Some birds have greyer primaries than others. Underwing white, with light brownish wash or obscure motding. Note that, though very pale, such birds may still appear generally buffish or buff and grey in field, with little pure white. Iceland, third winter Back and scapulars now clear pale grey with no brown tinge or flecking. Rump and uppertail-coverts white. Underparts brownish- Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 0 1 white°r white, diffusely marked with pale brown on breast. Tail largely white w.th little flecking. Lesser and greater coverts largely white or creamy-white median coverts grey, forming grey wedge extending outwards from grey ‘saddle’’ Primaries and secondaries creamy-white or pale fawn. Basically a creamy white or fawn bird with grey saddle and variable amounts of brownish, especially on head and breast and sometimes underwing. glaucous, third summer Becomes greyer above and whiter on head Wings become pale and more uniform through fading and wear. ICELAND third summer Head and breast may become quite white and wings remain pale, basically creamy or creamy-fawn, probably fading still paler. glaucous and Iceland, fourth winter Almost as adult, but variable amount of pale brown freckling especially on tail, but also scattered elsewhere often obscure and hard to see in field and varying individually. Head and neck streaked with grey-brown. glaucous AND Iceland, fourth summer Head and neck become white as in summer adults. glaucous and ICELAND, adult Pale blue-grey above (blueness varying according to light conditions and observer: some people fail to see blue tint, while- others stress it). Primaries, secondaries and scapulars tipped white (outer primaries broadly so) Not always obviously paler than Herring Gull on ground, again depending largely on light conditions, but usually more obviously pale in flight. Head, underparts and tail pure white. In winter, however, head, neck and much ot breast become conspicuously and often quite heavily streaked and mottled with grey-brown, almost solidly dark in some cases and very different from pure gleam- ing white of summer birds. Faded, moulting adult Herring Gulls may, at distance and especially m bright light, appear to have no black at wing-tip, particularly birds with no second (outer) primary and only part-grown third and fourth primaries (black therefore being largely hidden from above). Field descriptions should emphasise presence of white tip to wing, rather than just absence of black. It is evident from the foregoing paragraphs that the plumages of both species are highly variable in the immature stages. A few bilds are very white in appearance and may possibly be a distinct colour morph. However, this seems most unlikely; no other gulls have colour morphs so far as I know. Such white Glaucous Gulls weie once termed L. hutchinsii’ . The very white second-year birds of most field guides do not, in tact, appear to be typical and this has possibly increased the confusion with albinistic birds of other species. R. J. Tulloch (in lift.) has informed me that, in his extensive ex- peticnce of Glaucous and Iceland Gulls in Shetland and Iceland, he has never seen a pure white bird other than a proved albino. The whitest bird he has seen eventually died after injury and sub- sequent examination showed it to be an albinistic adult Iceland Gull. Wear and fading of already pale feathers in spring and summer reduces the amount and conspicuousness of the patterning and produces a generally paler, more uniform appearance. Also, long range and strong light tend to produce an impression of greater uniformity which may be dispelled when the bird is seen more 32 Glaucous and Iceland Gulls closely or in ‘flatter’ light. Such variations make ageing of birds by plumage alone a very hazardous business and it may not always be possible to differentiate between second- and third-year birds. BARE PARTS Iris First-year birds always show a very dark brown iris which may look black in the field. Typically, in the second year the iris becomes pale, but a small proportion of Herring Gulls retain a dark brown eye, even into their third year. This probably also happens with Glaucous and Iceland. A dark eye is not, therefore, a certain indica- tion of the first year, but a bird with a pale eye must be second- winter or older. The iris of the second-winter bird is typically pale grey-green to yellowish-white, becoming progressively yellower to reach buffish-lemon in the adult Glaucous and pale lemon-yellow in sub-adult and adult Icelands. Eye-ring Brownish in young birds, pale and effectively colourless in older birds in winter (Kay 1947). Breeding adult Glaucous Gulls have yellow eye-rings and Icelands reddish eye-rings. Legs Clear bright pink in Glaucous, perhaps lighter in old birds — a cleaner, brighter pink generally than in Herring Gulls. However, this is evidently variable as some breeding adults have greyish legs and others have pink only on the toes (see comments in Veysey 1971). Iceland has duskier or deeper pink legs than Glaucous. Bill (see fig. 1) GLAUCOUS ICELAND FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR Basal two-thirds bright pale pink. Outer third, except for extreme pale tip of upper mandible, dark brown to black. Border between light and dark sharply defined More individual variation. Typi- cally, dark area slightly reduced and small pale tip more distinct. Basal part becomes paler pink, or even develops yellowish cast, and less sharply defined. Pinkish colour may extend forwards through or around dark patch to join pale tip Basal half brownish or horn- coloured, darker on some birds. Distal half, or little less, dark brown or black, without very sharp border and extending back as wedge along cutting edge of lower mandible. Such a wedge may be seen in some immature Herring Gulls Dark area slightly reduced, now sharply defined. Basal part light grey or pale horn, extreme tip pale. Similar to first-year Glaucous in pattern but not so pink Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 33 GLAUCOUS th.ro Var.es individually. Basically, bill Pale grey or yellowish-grey with YEAR at this stage greyish, horn-coloured diffuse dark band near tip seems or yellowish, with dark but often most typical. However, an ap- diffuse band near tip. (A bird in parently third-vear bird in May March 1974 in apparently third- 1974 had rich yellow bill with year plumage had bright yellow small, solidly black tip bill with small but solidly black tip. A similar bird later that month had dull yellowish bill with brownish subterminal marks on both mandibles) fourth Similar to that of adult but with subterminal dark patch, or with year greyer base and paler reddish spot, or with mixture of dark in red patch Also described as pink with horn-coloured base and dark area on gonys (Veyscy 1971), but pink should normally be lacking adult Bill yellow, sometimes paler at extreme tip, with red patch on gonys as in Herring Gull OTHER LIGHT-WINGED GULLS A major part of the paper by Hedgren and Larsson concerns the possibilities of misidentification of leucistic and albinistic gulls, the biggest problem being wrong determination of aberrant Herrings as Icelands. Several cases are discussed and illustrated in which even experienced ornithologists made mistakes, in Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Scotland. The authors consider that such mistakes are not uncommon and it therefore seems worthwhile to draw attention to some of the problems. Leucistic Herring Gulls Veiy pale immature Herring Gulls with dilute pigmentation may suggest young Glaucous or Iceland Gulls at long range or in a brief view. However, it seems that they always retain certain charac- tei istics which preclude the two light-winged species. As an example, a bird in West Glamorgan in May 1974 was extremely pale and looked basically creamy-buff in flight. It had a markedly quick wing action. Close views, however, revealed traces of a darker hind- wing bar, some browner mottling on the outer few’ primaries and a mottled, inconspicuous darker tail-band. True Glaucous or Icelands have both secondaries and outer primaries pale, never darker than the adjacent coverts, and have no tail-band. The plumage of this pale bird, which appeared to be an aberrant Herring Gull, was seen to be extensively worn, especially on the wings— a feature of birds with reduced pigmentation, which also accounted for the rapid wing action. However, the rather small size, bill pattern (particularly a strong wedge of black back from the dark tip) and general pale appearance could easily have suggested Iceland Gull. A darker or Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 34 dusky area round the eye is said to be a feature of many abnormally pale birds, this being much less marked in Glaucous and Iceland. Albinistic Herring Gulls These birds may be much more problematical as they may approach the whitest forms of Glaucous and Iceland very closely. Apparently even pure white birds still have normal bill and eye coloration, true albinos being extremely rare. Thus, although there may be no traces of tail- bands or dark primaries to provide clues as to the true identity of a white gull, the bare part coloration may be of signi- ficance. In particular, a bird with white plumage but blackish bill and eyes is especially suspect as being an albinistic first-year Herring. Hedgren and Larsson state specifically that a combination of white plumage and dark eyes and bill cannot be found in a normal gull of any species. The only really white examples of Glaucous and Ice- land would be the occasional second-year birds which would show the characteristic bill pattern. However, Kay described a first-year Iceland in May, which was creamy-white all over except for some pale fawn blotches on its breast. The eye was very dark, the bill mid-horn with the distal half dark. Such a bird (presumably a result of a pale individual bleached still paler by the spring) would require close views in order to rule out the possibility of an albinistic gull. A distinction between such creamy-white birds and pure white birds is important, the latter being more likely to be a result of albinism than a true Iceland. An all-white bird with adult-type bill is clearly albinistic (though this does not necessarily rule out Glaucous and Iceland which presumably produce aberrant birds in the same way as other gulls). Real difficulties would arise with a distant or flying white gull, which might be a second- or third-year Glaucous or Iceland or an albinistic bird of some other species (Great and Lesser Black-backs, Herrings and even Common Gulls L. canus must be considered — leaving aside possible albino Glaucous !) ; unless it came close enough for details of its plumage and bare part coloration and its size, shape and proportions to be critically examined, identification would be at least inadvisable. Unfortunately, most field guides give the impression that normal second-year Glaucous and Iceland Gulls are all-white, so such white birds are probably not given sufficient attention. With both leucistic and albinistic gulls, the lack of pigment weakens the feathers which consequently wear more than normal. A normal young Herring Gull, in June or July, for example, becomes very tattered through abrasion, so a bird lacking in pigment there- fore looks in very poor condition. This may often help to show that a bird is aberrant. Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 35 HYBRIDS The taxonomic problems surrounding gulls are considerable, and some of the field problems associated with subspecies and hybrids almost insoluble. Glaucous and Herring Gulls hybridise regularly in Iceland (Ingolfsson 1970b), 60% of the population in some areas being hybrids, and hybrid pairs have been found in Bear Island In Alaska Herring Gulls interbreed with Glaucous-winged Gulls L. glaucescens and Glaucous-winged probably also with Glaucous, while further south Glaucous-winged hybridise with Western Gulls L. occidental is (Hedgren and Larsson 1973). Manv of the Icelandic hybrids resemble Thayer’s Gull L. thayeri and Kumlien’s Gull L. glaucoides kumlieni. In parts of north-east Canada Glaucous, Herring and Thayer’s Gulls breed separately in the same area; in other parts Glaucous, Herring and Kumlien’s likewise occupy the same area without interbreeding. In one restricted area all four breed in close associa- tion but without hybridising. The colour of the eye and eye-ring provide barriers to hybridisation: Glaucous has a yellow eye and eye-ring, Herring a yellow eye and orange eye-ring, Thayer’s a brown eye and reddish-purple eye-ring and Kumlien’s a variable iris colour and reddish-purple eye-ring (Smith 1967). European Herring Gulls have creamy eyes and yellower eye-rings like Glaucous, so that summer adult Glaucous x Herring hybrids from Iceland will also have pale eyes and yellow eye-rings. Such hybrids should be separable from all Thayer’s and Kumlien’s Gulls bv the pale iris and eye-ring. 1 he w ing-tip patterns of adult hybrids show a complete gradation e tween those of the parent species, from pure Herring to pure Glaucous (Ingolfsson 1970b). Some may therefore be easily taken or Heiring or Glaucous in the field, while others are clearly hybrids. Such birds do occur in Britain, but whether true thayeri or kumlieni have ever done so is difficult to ascertain. Unfortunately, young thayeri and kumlieni still seem to be very little known, while young Glaucous x Herring hybrids show a complete transition, as do the adults. Although an adult bird with white wing-tips but for a grey or black patch, for example, may be easily recognised as a hybrid, an immature with slightly darker or paler wing-tips than true immature Glaucous or Herring may go unnoticed. Surely some of these also resemble leucistic birds. Leucistic Herring Gulls are pale due to their lack of pigment; hybrids are pale due to the introduction of pale Glaucous charac- teristics, producing essentially similar results. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS THC ?V',C' tra»slated for me by A. Bodger, to whom I am most cgratelul. Several people have made useful suggestions during the preparation of Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 36 this paper, including R. H. Dennis, R. J. Tulloch and K. Williamson. In parti- cular I must thank P. G. Lansdown for his thorough reading of the drafts and the many valuable comments and suggestions which he made; and P. J. Grant, who also read the drafts and gave much helpful advice as well as helping to clarify certain sections. SUMMARY For certain identification, suspected Iceland Gulls Larus glaucoides require careful examination in oi'der that aberrant gulls of other species and, particularly, small Glaucous L. hyperboreus can be definitely ruled out. The length of the bill relative to that of the head is undoubtedly the major distinguishing feature between Iceland and Glaucous Gulls of similar size; the Iceland’s shorter bill, combined with its typically more domed, rounder head and rather more centrally placed eye, gives it a ‘gentler’ appearance than the more powerful-looking Glaucous. The size and shape of the head, however, require care in interpretation, as variation is such that some Glaucous may be very close to Icelands. A combination of several other features, each of which, on its own, is insufficient, should be looked for. Unless a bird is clearly too large to be Iceland, size alone is of little value : because it is no larger than a nearby Herring Gull, L. argentatus, it does not automatically follow that a light-winged gull is an Iceland, even though Glaucous is typically larger. The position of the closed wing-tips relative to the tip of the tail is not a clear-cut distinguishing feature because of complexities of age and moult and, again, requires care in interpretation. The flight action is another subtle and variable character which, without further supporting evidence, is not to be relied on. No plumage feature seems to be sufficiently distinct to allow definite separation of the two species, though several differences, particularly in first- and third-year birds, are suggested as useful secondary characters. Ageing by plumage alone is often not possible. Bare parts provide better clues as to the age of a bird but, except for first-years, are not so valuable for specific identification by their colour and pattern. Leucistic gulls should not cause too many problems if seen well, as traces of darker wing and tail markings preclude Glaucous and Iceland Gulls. Albinistic gulls are more difficult, and bare part coloration plus features such as bill size and shape should be carefully examined in the case of any white gull. REFERENCES Dwight, J. 1925. The Gulls ( Laridae ) of the World; their Plumages, Moults, Variations, Relationships and Distribution. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist., 52 : 63-408. Hedgren, S., and Larsson, L. 1973. ‘Vittrut Larus hyperboreus, vitvingad trut L. glaucoides eller missfargad annan trut — svarigheter vid faltbestamning av ljusvingade trutar’ (English summary: Glaucous Gull, Iceland Gull and mis- coloured gulls — identifying light-winged gulls in the field). Var Fagelv., 32: 173-198. Ingolfsson, A. 1970a. ‘The moult ofremiges and rectrices in Great Black-backed Gulls Larus marinus and Glaucous Gulls L. hyperboreus in Iceland’. Ibis, 112: 83-92- 1970b. ‘Hybridization of Glaucous Gulls Larus hyperboreus and Herring Gulls L. argentatus in Iceland’. Ibis, 112: 340-362. Kay, G. T. 1947. ‘The Glaucous Gull in winter’. Brit. Birds, 40: 369-373, plates 4°-53- — —1950. ‘The Iceland Gull in winter’. Brit. Birds, 43: 399-402, plates 74-81. Glaucous and Iceland Gulls 37 Smith, N. G. 1967. ‘Visual isolation in gulls’. Sci. Amer., 217: 94-102. Veysey, G. M. 1971. ‘Colour of soft parts of immature Glaucous Gull’. Brit. Birds, 64: 458-460. Witherby, H. F., et al. 1941. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 5. R. A. Hume , 31 Lime Grove, Burntwood, Walsall WS7 oha Viewpoint Bruce Campbell In this new feature we invite the personal views of guest writers on subjects of their own choosing in the fields of ornithology and conservation. Opinions expressed here are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds. Bruce Campbell is a well-known author and radio broadcaster on a wide variety of natural history subjects. He lives in rural Oxfordshire and is a frequent contributor to The Countryman, Country Life and other publications . How wild is our wildlife? High among the distinctions that separate man from what he lias been known to call the brute beasts is the quality of self-deception. This is often collective, as we see today in the illusion that Britain possesses a ‘wildlife’ which is constantly under threat of decrease or extermination. What in fact we have is a number of plants and animals which have been able in some measure to withstand or adapt themselves to the advance of the manscape and all that it implies; and we have others which have failed to resist, and survive only in the sheltered housing which we call a nature reserve or sanctuary. Since almost every writer on ecology starts by explaining to his readers that nowhere in Britain has the hand of man not profoundly modified the environment and that, for example, the bare hills so beloved of bare-kneed hikers are no more natural than a prickly stand of alien conifers, it is surprising how many of us still think that we can gaze on the ‘natural scene’, such as Pheasants against a background of larches, and draw strength from it. Let us enjoy our countryside and its present inhabitants by all means, but don’t let us kid ourselves that we are seeing remotely what Titus Vespasian or Alexander II of Scots (to name two of the lesser-known invaders of England) saw if they had time to look at 3 8 Viewpoint the scenery. What we see today is the result in large measure of human actions, almost none of which have been designed in the interests of our ‘wildlife’, except to increase the numbers of certain usually edible species which also provide a target for the sportsman. Purely as a by-product to game preservation and to the more or less contemporary enclosure of farmland, habitats were created which have proved remarkably favourable to a great diversity of plants and animals. All this we accept as a sort of biotic process and study earnestly. The deliberate enrichment of the environment, from a suburban garden to a large nature reserve, has also gradually become respect- able as ‘conservation in action’ and if, as a result, new species of birds arrive or lost ones return, we duly congratulate ourselves. I suggest that it is high time we thought out the implications of actively managing bird populations to improve their chance of survival or increase, as the lepidopterists are already doing. For several years the late Dr Roger Clarke devotedly collected eggs of the Purple Emperor butterfly from sallow trees in the woods near Oxford and reared them to imago stage in his own garden, thus eliminating the parasites which may destroy up to 98% of the eggs ‘left to nature’. He then returned the perfect insects to freedom in appropriate habitats and has thus considerably strengthened the local status of this magnificent butterfly. A similar type of operation keeps going the introduced Dutch race of the Large Copper at Woodwalton Fen. A parallel ornithological instance is provided by the Dartford Warbler, which we know faces decimation or worse in a hard winter of the 1962/63 type. Is it not therefore justifiable that individuals should be caught and experimentally overwintered so that, when we do get another 1963 — and modern forecasting should surely be able to warn us somewhat in advance — then larger numbers could be caught and seen through the winter until they could safely be released again? In fact, the massive feeding of birds in gardens being studied by the British Trust for Ornithology is a step in this direction, and we know that customers travel considerable distances to the hospitality of bird tables and other devices. But should we not be enlarging our efforts by providing feeding and watering kiosks in woodland and perhaps other habitats during hard spells? The Wildfowl Trust is already doing this in a big way at some of its reserves, while a quite involuntary and in many ways undesirable development the exposure of edible refuse round our towns and cities— has partly changed the status of the Lesser Black-backed Gull since the war from summer visitor to resident and has greatly increased the numbers of other gulls wintering inland. Viewpoint So far my suggestions have been more or less in line with received practice among ornithologists today. It is when the word ‘intro- duction rears its head that the adrenalin begins to flow. I will admit at once that the history of our mammals gives good reason foi caution, and that birds differ from terrestrial mammals in that it is theoretically possible for any flying species to colonise Britain. But is colonisation by the Collared Dove ‘natural’, or is it some- thing which has accidentally been made possible by man’s provision ol a suitable feeding niche? If the second view is correct, then what is the difference, ecologically, between accidental and deliberate introduction of a bird? Not that I would advocate anything indis- criminate, indeed, it has long seemed to me curious that it is acceptable to introduce extremely exotic waterfowl and gamebirds, but that there should be a hullabaloo when it is suggested that Crested I its might enrich our East Anglian conifer forests. What about reintroductions ? Who now wrould reverse the re- establishment of the Capercaillie in Scotland or, indeed, recent attempts to establish it in Cumbria? The White-tailed Eagles on fair Isle were a different proposition and made us realise that there may be unexpected snags. On the other hand the falconers seem to be giving us back the Goshawk and, unless you believe that they were Black and not Red Kites that tried to clean up medieval London, there are no other birds of prey lost to us in historic times that have not at least a talon-hold in Britain. In fact, there are not many other breeding species lost to us nationally that it would be feasible to attempt to reintroduce, except for the Great Bustard, already the subject of an experiment. It is rathei a question ol establishing birds in areas where they have not bred for a very long time, if at all, for example Capercaillies in England and the Greylags which wildfowlers seem determined to propagate all over the country. At the other end of the size scale. I have already indicated that Crested Tits of the appropriate race might do well in East Anglia; and I would like to see another attempt to establish Nuthatches in Scotland, if only to find out why they cannot prosper in the same sort of scrub woods in which they are common in Wales. As regards straight introductions, the addition of one or more of the European woodpeckers, which are clearly not going to make it on theii own, to the launa of our new forests is worth considering. To anyone who objects that they might come naturally, I would reply that our new breeding species seem generally to take a run- JumP at the English Channel after getting steam up across Europe; Black Woodpeckers, like Crested Larks and Tawny Pipits, have gazed at our shores for centuries without, to bring in a fourth metaphor, taking the plunge. 40 Viewpoint To end on a topical note: what about the Ringneck Parrakeets which are now surrounding London and whose increase M. D. England and R. B. Tozer (Brit. Birds, 67: 393-394, 484-485) see as a potential menace? Have we not created a niche for them com- pounded of London’s relatively higher temperatures throughout the year, the abundance of suburban orchards and bird tables and sufficient old trees with holes? If they compete successfully with House Sparrows, Starlings, feral pigeons and Woodpigeons for living space and food, I am afraid I shall lose no sleep, secure in the knowledge that there are more good ornithologists to the square mile in Metroland than anywhere else, ready and able to record it all. To sum up, I believe that we must accept the almost entirely artificial situation of our native species over 90% of the country and adopt any practicable means of conserving them ; and that we should not dismiss the possibility of introducing new ones to fit the exotic habitats that urbanisation and modern forestry have created, and with which we have to live. British bird-photographers iy J. F. Reynolds Plates i-y John Reynolds cannot remember a time when he was not fascinated by natural history, though birds did not become his dominant interest until he was about ten. For some years he collected eggs but gave this up when, at fourteen, he began meeting birdwatchers who were members of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, which organisation he joined at the age of fifteen. Shortly after this he met S. Bayliss Smith who introduced him to the thrills and frustrations of high-tide wader photography at Pagham Harbour. At that time (the late 1940’s) Bayliss Smith was one of the few bird-photographers working away from the nest; even more revolutionary was his use of a big 24-pinch telephoto lens. This was connected to a reflex camera taking 120 film by cocoa tins painted matt black, focusing being done by sliding one tin to and fro along another! The nearest John could get to this was a quarter-plate lea Reflex and a 20-inch ex-RAF Cooke Aviar lens, with tins of suitable size serving as extension tubes and lens hood. This remained his main equipment for away-from-the-nest photo- graphy until 1962 when he started using 35 mm equipment. Bird-photographers : J. F. Reynolds ^ During 1948-51 John mastered the basic field crafts for both wait-and-see and nest photography, but his photographic technique was shaky, especially on the printing side. (To this day he obtains far more pleasure in getting his negatives than in the subsequent darkroom work.) However, after seeing some of the late Guy farrar’s pictures taken in the course of high-tide work on the Red Rocks at Hoylake, he succeeded in improving his printing to a much highei standard, high enough indeed to gain admission to the Nature Photographic Society and for his prints to be hung regularly in the Nature Section of the Royal Photographic Society’s annual exhibitions. John learnt much about print quality from seeing the work of other members circulating in the folios of the NPS and. later, the Nature Photographers’ Portfolio and Zoological Photo- graphic Club, but for much of his membership he was almost the only photographer regularly using a long-focus lens. Although away-from-the-nest wader photography was his chief interest, John derived considerable pleasure from nest photography for which he used an ancient Parke Field Camera with Luc-type shutter and another ex- War Department lens, an f/8 10-inch Aldis. Most of his nest work was done within cycling distance of Taunton where, after graduating in Zoology in 1951, he worked as a biology teacher until July 1959. Shortly after his marriage in December 1958 John saw an adver- tisement in The Times Educational Supplement for an education officer to teach A-level biology in what was then Tanganyika. On mention- ing this to his wife, the immediate response was ‘When do we go?’. The initial contract was for two tours, covering four complete school years, but the Reynolds liked Tanganyika (soon to become Tanzania) and he continued teaching there until May 1971 when differences between the Tanzanian and British governments led to his contract not being renewed. In January 1972 he started working for the Kenyan Ministry of Education and is now in charge of the biology department of a large school in Nairobi. John found birding and bird-photography in tropical Africa very different from what he had been used to in Somerset and West Sussex. The ‘bush was within twenty metres of the Reynolds’ first bungalow in Tabora and, immediately, its lure was too much for him. Leaving his wife to carry on with the unpacking of household goods and hides from their heavy baggage, he made a bee-line for the nearest shrubs where he was somewhat disconcerted by almost stepping on a Leopard which bounded off into thicker cover. The Reynolds soon became used to hyaenas toppling over their dustbin, a Spotted Eagle Owl Bubo africanus calling from their rooftop most nights, and Elephants sometimes wandering over the school’s playing fields. 42 Bird-photographers : J. F. Reynolds Ti'opical lighting tends to be either bright sun or heavily over- cast, so John was very glad that he had not been too strongly con- ditioned by Britain’s leading bird-photographers in the ideal that nest photography was best attempted only when the light was ‘cloudy bright’. Lighting problems, while limiting his output, did not prevent him from carrying on with orthodox hide work, though he soon found that snakes, scorpions and giant millipedes favour unoccupied hides as ideal resting places sheltered from the direct rays of the sun. While never going on safari without several hides, experience in big-game habitats has led to John making more and more use of his Land-Rover as a mobile hide for subjects ranging from Elephants to migrant wheatears Oenanthe spp. Lacking eye- level viewing, the lea Reflex proved too cumbersome to use from a car and, in 1962, it was superseded by an S3 Pentax with 500 mm, 300 mm and 135 mm Takumar lenses. Most of John’s black-and- white work is now done with these lenses and an sv body, while a Pentax Spotmatic 1000 is used for colour. He does not really like the 35 mm format but considers that, on balance, its advantages outweigh its disadvantages, especially for ‘opportunist’ work. From the time when John first became a wader enthusiast on the saltings of Pagham Harbour he longed to follow the migrant waders to their northern breeding grounds. By arranging for some of his leave spells from East Africa to coincide with the northern summer, he has been able to realise this dream by two trips to Norwegian and Finnish Lapland in company with the Welsh cine photographer Bryn Richards, the first in 1964 (when he photographed the Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus on plate 1 and the Northern Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria on plate 7a) and the second in 1971 when, unfortunately, bad weather and a faulty shutter nullified most of his photographic work. On the latter expedition the problem of two photographers wanting to be in hides at the same time was solved by John’s eldest son, Philip, accompanying his father in the role of ‘decoy’ for the photographers. Eric Hosking Announcement by the Rarities Committee As indicated in the foreword to its annual report (Brit. Birds, 67: 3 1 0-3 1 2), it is necessary to consider new appointments to the Rarities Committee. F. R. Smith, who has completed eight years’ service as its honorary secretary and at the same time reached a youthful 70 years of age, has asked to be replaced. His has been the single most exacting burden of any committee member ever, and I take this opportunity to thank him for the way that he has made it seem so light, in his dealings both with his fellow members Announcement by the Rarities Committee 43 cind, pci haps more importantly, with the hundreds ol observers and recorders that know his writing so well. The debt of gratitude owed to Ray Smith is enormous, and we shall miss his calm, unflurried approach to the task most of all. It is always difficult to find a suitable replacement as honorary secretary, but I am happy to announce that J. N. Dymond has volunteered to fill the gap that yawned. Formerly assistant warden of Fair Isle Bird Observatory and a member of the Ringing Office staff of the British Trust for Ornithology, he was warden of Lundy Bird Observatory in 1972 and 1973 3-nd since then has worked for the Royal Society for the 1 lotection of Birds as warden of The Lodge reserve. We feel that anyone prepared to carry out the secretaryship should be adopted without election, and hope that his membership of the Committee will be considered automatic, particularly in view of his very wide field experience both in this country and abroad. Next I must announce the resignation of Peter Davis. Early in J974 h-c expressed the feeling that a term ol ten years was enough and so once again we record our gratitude to a long-serving and very expert member. I am particularly grateful to him for continu- ing pro tern. I have decided to withdraw from voting on records and to continue as chairman only as an advisor and a holder of editorial responsibility. Originally it was my wish to resign the chair completely, but I have agreed to continue in my new role in de- ference to the wishes of the editorial board. Thus we seek two new members immediately and, because several years have passed since we conducted a general canvass of opinion on persons suitable for future service, I now ask all local recorders and observatory com- mittees to send their nominations to me as soon as possible, and by 14th February at the latest. It seems impossible for the committee (or its chairman) to please everyone all of the time, but I should like to repeat our commitment to democracy. However, we ask those responsible for nominations to take note of our need to replace the link with Wales, now- threatened by the departure of Mr Davis. It is our intention to make a nomination of our own in this respect. It will also help if the willingness of nominees to stand for election is signified at the time ol nomination and if the calibre of nominees is briefly but clearly indicated. For example, no current member of the committee has seen less than half the species subject to adjudication (and most have good working libraries to hand). Finally, it should be em- phasised that, contrary- to some outside opinions, membership of the Rarities Committee is hard work for all concerned D. I. M . Wallace Chairman, Rarities Committee Notes Common and Black-headed Gulls flight-feeding over ragwort On the west coast of much of the Outer Hebrides is found the machair, a stretch of flat sandy soil used mainly for growing a mixed crop of rye and oats for animal fodder. Landward of this there are often large patches of common ragwort Senecio jacobaea. In August 1 973s on South Uist, we often saw mixed flocks of approximately equal numbers of Common and Black-headed Gulls Larus canus and L. ridibundus hovering over a patch of ragwort about 30 X 10 metres and picking insects off the flower heads with their beaks. The maximum number of gulls that we counted at any one time was seven, and other groups of gulls could be seen similarly engaged on neighbouring patches of ragwort. The birds were almost all sub-adults and on only one occasion was an adult, a Common Gull, seen. Each gull would spend several minutes traversing the patch, upwind, and would then repeat the process on the same or another area of ragwort. They were catching or attempting to catch an insect every two to five seconds. While we could not assess the success of the gulls or identify the insects which were being taken, an examination of the flowers showed that each corymb harboured several large insects. Those which might have provided suitable prey were various flies (Diptera) — Syrphus eristalis, Helophylus, Lucilia and Calliphora — and two bumblebees, Bombus pratorum and B. agrorum. It would be interesting to know if the gulls were selective in their feeding and in particular if bumblebees were predated, as these are avoided by many birds. Certainly the density of insects was sufficiently high to make this feeding method worthwhile. Both these species of gull, and in particular the Black-headed, have been observed flight-feeding on insects (Bird Study, 17: 287- 296; 19: 173-186), but not over ragwort. The occurrence of this behaviour on Uist is probably associated with the very frequent high winds there, which would aid hovering: of the ten days of our stay on the island it was calm on only two, and on those days we did not see any gulls feeding over the ragwort. A. W. and L. S. Ewing Department of Zoology, University of Edinburgh EHg 3JT J. D. R. Vernon, author of the two papers in Bird Study referred to above, has kindly commented as follows. He knows of no obser- vations of these gulls specifically feeding over ragwort, but the behaviour described is typical flight-feeding, commonly observed in both species, especially the Black-headed Gull. Flight-feeding is used to obtain insects from a variety of habitats on land and water. On land it is perhaps most noticeable over cereal crops, but 44 Notes 45 in summer also over grassland, the gulls taking mainly craneflies (Tipulidae) and sometimes swift moths (Hepialidae). Black-headed Gulls also flight-feed over trees, taking insects and fruit. He has not heard of flight-feeding over low shrubs, but both species are known to take small adult flies: Lucilia and Calliphora have occurred in their stomach contents but not, apparently, hoverflies (Syrphidae), nor bumblebees. Adult insects appear to be a secondary food source in summer when other food, especially earthworms (Lumbricidae), is more difficult to obtain. Eds Voice of the Fan-tailed Warbler In recent years, the song and calls of the Fan-tailed Warbler Cisticola juncidis have been well documented in this journal by M. J. Rogers (Brit. Birds, 61 : 230) and Dr J. T. R. Sharrock (Brit. Birds, 65: 5^7) • The additional information below is based upon my experience of the species in Gibraltar from 1972 to 1974. There the Fan-tailed Warbler is a winter visitor and passage migrant in variable numbers, and a small breeding population is observable from Gibraltar in adjacent Spanish territory. These breeding birds sing regularly from early February to mid-July, with a suppression of song from mid-April to early May which probably coincides with the tending of the first brood. Song is not infrequent in all other months, and both passage mig- rants and winter visitors also occasionally sing. The plick note is ol much more variable occurrence than Mr Rogers suggested. It can be heard both during and after song, and also alone, the number of notes being between three and twelve. Once, in March, one bird uttered this note almost continuously from a perch more than 50 times, interspersed with an occasional ‘zeep’. I. J. Ferguson-Lees, in an editorial comment after Rogers’ note, thought that this call is possibly most marked at the nest-building stage. This is likely, as I heard it most frequentlv in Februarv and March. One of the alarm notes that Dr Sharrock mentioned, a single, explosive ‘tew’, is often repeated several times in quick succession. The zip or chip call of excitement is the main feature of migrants and is often the first indication of birds flying overhead. This call is persistent and far-carrying. A similar note is also heard from perched birds, often accompanied by wing- and tail-flicking. It should be pointed out that it was very probably this call, and not actual song, that was heard from the Gape Clear bird found by Dr Sharrock. N. Elkins 10 Oakbank Place, Elgin, Grampian IV30 2LZ Chiffchaff feeding on acacia gum On 3rd November 1964, while watching migrant warblers feeding in acacia trees in the Sunt Notes 46 Forest of Khartoum, Sudan, I saw a Ghiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita feeding on the gum exudate of Acacia nilotica. In normal circum- stances the physical nature of acacia gum is such that birds would have great difficulty in feeding on it, particularly slender-billed insectivorous species. In this instance, however, the exudate was a hemispherical mass of clear gum about 2 cm in diameter on the underside of a twig and ‘crystallised’ into a sugar-like mass during drying. The Chiffchaff repeatedly pecked at the ‘crystallised gum’ and was seen to swallow some of the particles, though most of these fell to the ground as it pecked. Where particles were still in contact with the inner viscous gum at the centre of the mass and were not readily dislodged, the bird pulled them off with a sideways twist and swallowed them. Newly exuded acacia gum is a sticky, highly viscous material which, in the very dry conditions of the Sudan, soon hardens to a brittle, vitreous, sometimes partly fractured mass (‘gum- tears’), though the centres of large masses may retain their viscous state for a considerable time. Very occasionally one finds examples, usually of small exudates, that have fractured completely into small, loosely cohering particles resembling irregularly shaped sugar grains (‘crystallised gum’). It would be difficult for most birds to break ‘gum-tears’ into pieces small enough to swallow, and during my five years in the Sudan I never saw any bird attempt to do this. On the other hand, the ‘crystallised gum’ readily disin- tegrates and, in addition to the above example, White-vented Bulbuls Pycnonotus barbatus were seen twice taking this type of gum, once from A. nilotica and once from A. seyal. Unlike the oleo-resin exudates of pines described as contaminating a number of migrant birds by Ash, Hope Jones and Melville (Brit. Birds, 54: 93-100), acacia gums never or very rarely have insects trapped on their surface, and it is clear that neither species of bird was attracted to the gum for this reason. In Khartoum the bulbul is a common garden resident which occasionally feeds from sugar bowls. Bulbuls seen eating ‘crystallised gum’ may, therefore, have been attracted by its similarity to sugar, but equally these records may merely reflect the catholic feeding habits of a bird which has a marked vegetable component in its diet in the Khartoum district, including flowers and young leaves of acacias and the mesquite Prosopis juliflora. The chemical structures of the gums of A. nilotica and A. seyal are not known, but there are grounds for believing that they closely resemble that of commercial ‘gum-arabic’ which is widely used as an emulsifier in the food industry. This is derived from A. Senegal and is a water-soluble salt of arabic acid with metals such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. It seems unlikely that this com- .Notes 47 plex type of polysaccharide could be digested by an insectivorous >nd such as the GhiffchafF, though the situation may be different in the case of the bulbul. Antony Pettet -3 Cole Park Iioad, Twickenham, Greater London twi ihp Water Pipits at Hampshire watercress beds Since I. G. Johnson {Bird Study, 17: 297-319) drew the attention of ornithologists to the regular wintering in Britain of Water Pipits Anthus sbinoletta spinoletta, a watch lor the species has been kept at the watercress beds around Winchester, Hampshire, particularly at Headbourne Worthy. It has been found that Water Pipits winter regularly from October to April; indeed, in about 50 winter visits to the Head- bourne Worthy beds between April 1970 and April 1974, Water I lpits were present on every occasion. T he Headbourne Worthy watercress covers only iA hectares, so it is possible to watch the area thoroughly, especially since a main road running through the beds means that no part of the cress is moie than 55 metres from a suitable observation point, at which lange the Water Pipits are readily separable from Meadow Pipits A pratensis. The cress is divided into beds by low concrete walls which are favourite resting and preening places for the birds. O11 these low walls, or against the green background of the watercress Water Pipits can be picked out very easily. Furthermore, the birds at Headbourne Worthy do not seem particularly wary, probably >ecause in such a habitat they have become accustomed to the close proximity of workers and because the main road and built-up surrounds to the site result in a good deal of human presence Con- sequently, close observation is usually possible, and this must be one of the best places in Britain for studying Water Pipit plumage. i he main source of error in counting these birds is that they fly from the cress beds to nearby fields, so that at any one time the vvhole population is unlikely to be in the watercress. Counts are therefore minima. Apait from being so regular, there is evidence that the species has become more numerous in the past four years. Before 1971 counts at Headbourne Worthy were of only one or two individuals! Since the birds are easy to pick out, and since observers went to the site especially to look for them, it is unlikely that many were over- looked. Table 1 shows the numbers recorded on 25 visits bv mvself (sometimes accompanied by Dr G. H. Fisher and D. A. Thelwell) when careful counts were made. On some of these occasions, the other watercress beds in the area were visited as well and the counts 10m those have been included. A blank space means that the site was not visited on that date. This evidence of increased numbers in the past few winters is Notes 48 Table 1. Counts of Water Pipits Anthus spinoletta spinoletta, Headbourne Worthy watercress beds, Hampshire, with occasional counts from other cress beds in the area CO CO CO CO t"- I'' f'' rt rt* J J n ^ 6 CO CO *-> « «-< N ci <- Ct CO CO CO - 6 — M « CO Headbourne Worthy 1 5 5 1266421 55786763 127 6845 Bishop’s Sutton I 2 4 1 5 i3 8 Bighton Lane 5 5 6 0 3 Pinglestone 1 3 I I 3 Abbotstone O O O 2 I O O Tichbome I I TOTALS I I 5 14 14 21 19 22 supported by counts in the Lower Test Marshes, Hampshire, where Dr Norman Pratt has found over 20 Water Pipits, showing a marked increase on previous counts. He believes that this is a true increase and not just the result of greater skill in finding the birds. Since accurate counting in that area is impossible, his counts may be well below the true figure. This means that in the winters of 1972/73 and 1973/74 the combined population of the Winchester watercress beds and Lower Test Marshes was upwards of 40 individuals, and possibly well in excess of 50. Johnson ( loc . cit.), in a survey covering the whole of Britain, received records of 82 birds in winter 1966/67 and 85 in 1967/68 and, although these were never meant to be accurate counts, they suggest that the species may be increasing in numbers as a winter visitor, since the Lower Test birds were counted in Johnson’s survey. The recent Hampshire counts suggest that the wintering population in Britain could be quite large. In the watercress sites, the birds show a marked preference for areas that have been recently picked or cleared for replanting. Thus, the largest single count, of 13 at Bishop’s Sutton in December 1973, included ten in one recently cleared bed. Beds with a full growth of watercress are used much less frequently. The opportunities for close observation afforded at Headbourne Worthy have confirmed all the field-characters noted by other observers, especially the aggressiveness to other species and the way the birds chase each other. Two further points are that the strea- kings on the upper breast and flanks, in both winter and spring plumages, merge softly into the pale ground colour and are not clearly demarcated; and that the large and well-spaced streakings are brown and do not appear as dense or as black as they do in Meadow Pipits, which allows the two species to be separated in head-on views at considerable range. Finally, I find the ‘jizz’ of the Water Pipit quite distinctive, being more like that of a small thrush than a pipit, especially when the bird is just perched. J. H. Taverner 1 1 Stockers Avenue, Winchester, Hampshire Notes 49 Linnets feeding from floating vegetation Following reports of Siskins Carduehs sfiinus (Brit. Birds, 66: 231) and Redpolls Acanthis Jlammea (Brit. Birds, 67: 218) feeding from floating vegetation, I should like to report similar behaviour of Linnets A. cannabina On 1 2th August 1973, at Bodney, Norfolk, I watched a small flock (less than ten) of these birds fly down to feed and bathe on the surface of a tributary of the River Wissey. Alders Alnus glutinosa and willows Salix were the predominant riverside trees. The surface of the water at a bend in the river, where the current was less strong, was covered with a mat of vegetation, comprising mainly brownish algae entwining the tops of water milfoil Myriophyllum and water starwort Callitriche which grew up from the bottom. This mat of vegetation was sufficiently firm in some areas to support momentarily the weight of the birds as they alighted to feed, apparently on seeds. Some birds, however, fed while hovering, and deliberate bathing also occurred. I. F Keymer The Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London nwi 4ry Reviews A Guide to the Birds of Wales. By David Saunders. Constable, ondon, 1974. 341 pages; 21 photographs; 17 maps. £2.50. A book on Welsh birds is quite an event; David Saunders has chosen to write a guide to the best birding localities in this badly under- watched region, and to the species which can be found there. After a general introduction and an interesting outline of the history of Welsh ornithology, he devotes a chapter to each of the thirteen (pre-1974) counties. These chapters, in turn, follow a standard format : a geographical and historical introduction, followed by information on county avifaunas, details of county bird recorder and representatives of various wildlife societies, then notes on the bird species which may be found at a series of good birdwatching spots. inally there is a check-list for the county; this is not comprehen- sive, but includes those species which the author considers one ‘may reasonably expect to see during a year or two’s fieldwork’ in that county. The work ends with a listing of every species generally accepted as having been recorded in Wales up to the end of 107/ together with the scientific and Welsh names. ’ There is inevitably a fair amount of repetition in the county lists and information, and what a pity that, although several good photo- graphs are scattered through the book, some of them are printed acrojis two pages with the portrait carefully ruined through having the bird bisected by the fold of die page. I found my first reading of 50 Reviews the book to be punctuated with increasing irritation at a series of spelling errors and other minor mistakes. Nevertheless, a good deal of useful information has been collated in this volume, and one hopes that it will succeed in its aims of helping and encouraging ‘all those who seek enjoyment watching birds in Wales’, and equally importantly that it will stimulate these watchers to record and report upon the birds which they find there. P. Hope Jones Birds. By Christopher Perrins. Collins, London, 1974. 176 pages; 53 photographs; 61 drawings, maps and figures. £i‘95> This book, one of the publishers’ new Countryside Series, is said to be designed ‘to introduce beginners of all ages to one of life’s most lasting pleasures— an understanding of our natural history.’ Dr Perrins adds that it is intended for those becoming interested in birds, and with this in mind he has deliberately simplified examples and avoided detailed argument and references. Aiming at a British or at least a European audience, the examples are basically European and only occasionally taken from elsewhere in the world. Within its limits of simplification the book is an excellent intro- duction to the various phases of a bird’s life, with apt examples, often chosen from the work of the Edward Grey Institute at Oxford where the author has worked for many years. Leading in from natural selection and evolution, he goes on to deal in a series of chapters with the interrelationship of food and breeding, with the emphasis on adaptations, both physiological and ecological. In the next series of chapters the theme is population levels and the role of such factors as migration, winter survival, colonisation and mortality. The book concludes with a more philosophical look at the changing scene and the future. Although intended for beginners, the book is not without interest for a wider audience as a reminder of studies more fully described in the literature and for such useful tables as summaries of life expec- tancy. The experienced reader may, however, demur at some of the examples of over simplification, such as Ringed Plovers being con- fined as a breeding species to the coast, Little Ringed Plovers not breeding in Britain before 1944 or Bearded Tits being firmly estab- lished only in East Anglia. Again, under parental defence, species are sharply divided between those which attempt to lure a predator away and those which mob or attack the predator ; a visit to a skua colony will soon show that many of the birds switch from one method to the other very suddenly. Such quibbles, however, should not detract from a book which achieves very successfully its set purpose of concentrating on the essentials and is well suited as an Reviews 51 introduction to the problems of bird life. There might well have been a greater stimulus to further interest if more details had been given of the national societies and the nature of their activities. As it is, they appear on half a page, the rest of which is blank. No mention is made of the considerable local society activities. The many photographs are well chosen to illustrate points in the text and the book is profusely decorated by delightful line-drawings by Robert Gillmor. ' R. q. Homes ‘News and comment’ has had to be held over to the next issue. Breeding season summary D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records An exceptionally early breeding record of Great Crested Grebe Podictps cristatus came from Osterley Park (Greater London), where a nest contained a hatched chick on 26th February, indicating first laying at the end of January. Equally unusual was the sighting of a newly hatched Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficoll 'is at Rye Harbour (East Sussex) on the very late date of 25th October. At England’s only gannetry, at Bempton clifTs (Humberside), 72 pairs of Gannets Sula bassana bred and many more loafers were present during the season, and two pairs of Black Guillemots Cefiphus grylle bred again at St Bees Head (Cumbria). A pair of Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula, apparently not injured birds, summered at Abberton Reservoir (Essex). I inning to raptors, the only pair ol Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos in England raised two young in the Lake District. Disappointing news came from Wales, however, where only nine out of 20 nests of Red Kites Milvus milvus were suc- cessful. At Minsmere (Suffolk) a bigamous male Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus held two nests and another pair was present; three young fledged from one nest but the second failed. Out of 14 pairs of Ospreys Pandion haliaetus in Scotland, eleven successfully raised young. Hobbies Fa/co subbuteo bred successfully north of Northampton, a nest with two young being found on 12th August; this is well north of the main breeding strongholds. Breeding of Quails Cotumix cotumix was proven or suspected in the Middle Thames and West Midlands, as well as in Nottinghamshire. Derbyshire and Hampshire, and birds were heard in several other areas. At Walsham-le-Willows (Suffolk) five eggs of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus hatched on 21st March, having therefore been laid verv early, at the beginning of March. A pair of Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula bred successfully in Nottingham- shire, apparently the first breeding record for that county; an egg of this species was discovered at Warsash (Hampshire) on the exceptionally early date of 24th March, though it had disappeared a few days later, and early nesting also occurred at a Bedfordshire site where three chicks were already off the nest "by 27th April. Numbers of Black-tailed God wits Limosa limosa on the Ouse Washes (Cambridge- shire/Norfolk) decreased to 45 pairs in 1974, from 55 in 1973. Ninety-seven pairs 52 Breeding season summary of Avocets Recurvirostra avoselta nested on Havergate Island (Suffolk) but chick mortality was high owing to very dry weather which affected the feeding areas; at Minsmere 34 pairs had produced 57 young by the end of July. Also at Minsmere, 220 pairs ol Common Terns Sterna hirundo had 200 fledged young by the end of July, when 750 pairs of Sandwich Terns S. sandvicensis had produced about 600 young; twelve pairs of Little Terns S. albifrons also nested on the islands. The old female Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca laid five eggs on Fetlar (Shetland), four of which had hatched by the end of June, but a second nesting attempt by the same pair was unsuccessful ; the young female deserted after having laid one egg in May. A pair of Long-eared Owls Asia olus reared two young in the Mendips (Somerset), apparently the first breeding record of the species in that area since 1942. On the Calf of Man four out of five pairs of Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax raised 14 young. Stonechats Saxicola torquata seem to have had a particularly good season: for example, on the Calf of Man they increased from twelve pairs in 1973 to 20 pairs and breeding success was high, while autumn coastal records were more numerous than usual. Black Redstarts Phoenicurus ochruros also did well: a pair raised two broods in Leicestershire, the first breeding record for that county, and several pairs bred in the Portsmouth area of Hampshire after a recent absence. Cetti’s Warblers Cettia cetti maintained their foothold in Kent and continued to expand northwards, with successful breeding at one site and birds occupying two others in Norfolk. Away from their stronghold in the Severn Valley, at least two pairs of Marsh Warblers Acrocephalus palustris were found in Kent. Much reduced numbers of Grasshopper Warblers Locustella naevia were reported from many traditional breeding areas, and it is interesting that at Beachy Head (East Sussex), where they are normally common in spring, very few came through in April and May. Sedge Warblers A. schoenobaenus were also much reduced in numbers in Tyneside and Merseyside. A general decrease in Whitethroats Sylvia commttnis was reported from mid-Somerset, and in the West Midlands the distribution was said to be still uneven, though in many other parts of England all the signs were of a definite increase over 1973 and previous recent years ( contra Birds, November-December 1974, page 8). News of Dartford Warblers S. undata was most encouraging: after the near-extermination of this species in Britain caused by the severe winter of early 1963, it has been making steady progress during recent years and in 1974 at least 600 pairs were proved to have bred, the vast majority on the heaths of Hampshire and Dorset. We have no information from the New Forest (Hampshire) on numbers of Firecrests Regulus ignicapillus, though at Wendover (Buckingham- shire) 17 singing males had been located by 19th June. Red-backed Shrikes Lanins collurio have all but disappeared from the New Forest, perhaps only one pair having bred in 1974; also south of the Thames two pairs were reported in Kent; the main breeding area is now East Anglia and two pairs bred at Minsmere. Finally, a pair of Goldfinches Carduelis carduelis probably bred at Loch of Strathbeg (Grampian), well beyond the normal range of the species, and a flock of 300 Twites Acanthis Jlavirostris at Belmont (Lancashire) on 1st September may give some indication of the size of the breeding population on the surrounding moorland. 1 Jj it- t FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF EUROPEAN RAPTORS R. F. Porter, Ian Willis, Steen Christensen, Bent Pors Nielsen The authors have been studying the problems of field identification of the 38 species of European raptors for many years, and their papers from British Birds have been revised, expanded and rearranged to produce this book. Ian Willis's superb drawings and sketches, plus 178 photographs specially chosen to illustrate aspects of identification, combine with a succinct and detailed text to achieve the definitive publication of this difficult but challenging and absorbing subject £4.80 net WATCHING BIRDS James Fisher & Jim Flegg The B.T.O.'s Director has revised and updated the late James Fisher's deservedly popular introduction to the world of birds and the practice of birdwatching. The original illustrations have also been revised and redrawn and there are additional drawings by Crispin Fisher, and 14 photographs £2.30 net T. & A. D. POYSER LTD 281 High Street, Berkhamsted, Herts HP4 1 AJ WOKS ON Eim Catalogue on request WHELDON & WESLEY LTD Lytton Lodge, Codicote Hitchin, Herts SG4 8TE Tel: Stevenage (0438) 820370 Binding British Birds’ The comprehensive index for 1974 is to be published in January or February 1975. Volumes for binding (with the form on the back cover of the index filled in) should be posted direct to the binders: P. G. Chapman & Co. Ltd. Kent House Lane Beckenham Kent BR3 1LD. The charge is £2 75 per volume, which includes the cost of packing and return postage. The binding will be in the same style as in previous years' and earlier volumes can also be bound at this rate. Volume 68 Number 1 January 1975 1 Editorial: The new counties and regions 5 Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 1973 Dr J. T. R. Sharrock, I. J. Ferguson-Lees and the Rare Breeding Birds Panel 24 Identification and ageing of Glaucous and Iceland Gulls R. A. Hume 37 Viewpoint: How wild is our wildlife? Dr Bruce Campbell 40 British bird-photographers 17 J. F. Reynolds Plates 1-7 42 Announcement by the Rarities Committee Notes 44 Common and Black-headed Gulls flight-feeding over ragwort Drs A. W. and L. S. Ewing 45 Voice of the Fan-tailed Warbler N. Elkins 45 Chiffchaff feeding on acacia gum Antony Pettet 47 Water Pipits at Hampshire watercress beds J. H. Taverner 49 Linnets feeding from floating vegetation Dr I. F. Keymer Reviews 49 A Guide to the Birds of Wales by David Saunders P. Hope Jones 50 Birds by Christopher Perrins R. C. Homes 51 Breeding season summary D. A. Christie Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 2 February 1975 EDITORIAL IDENTIFICATION OF GREY GEESE BROWN FLYCATCHER STUDIES Editorial Address n Rope Walk, Rye, Sussex TN31 7NA ( telephone : 07973 2343) Editors Stanley Cramp, P. F. Bonham, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee F. R. Smith, 1 1 7 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon ex i 3PP © The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633) Annual Subscription £7.00 U.K. and Eire (£8.00 Overseas) including index (Payment may be made in any currency at the current exchange rate. Orders must be accompanied by remittance. 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After publication, 25 reprints of each paper are sent free to the author (two co-authors receive 15 each and three or more co-authors ten each); additional copies, for which a charge is made, should be ordered when the proofs are returned. Reprints of notes and other short items have to be specially ordered and are charged for. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing and wide margins, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and well spaced, and notes should be worded as concisely as possible. Authors of papers and notes, especially of those containing systematic lists, reference lists, tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of birds and other animals should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen, but group terms and names of plants should not. Both English and scientific names of birds, and the sequence, follow A Species List of British and Irish Birds (BTO Guide 13, 1971). All scientific names should be under- lined immediately after the first mention of the English name, though it is some- times more convenient instead to list them in an appendix. Subspecific names should not be used except where relevant to the discussion. Dates should always take the form ‘ 1st January 1974’, except in tables where they may be abbreviated. Conventions concerning references, including their use in the text and the form of citation used in reference lists, should follow the examples in this issue. Tables should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. They must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All tables should be self-explanatory. Figures should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. 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Their expert and personal knowledge of East Africa — Its animals, birds, history, peoples and customs — provides an unrivalled opportunity, not only to view the ever decreasing wildlife In Its natural habitat, but also to gain an insight Into the problems of its Nairobi, Lake Naivasha, Lake Nakuru, Samburu, Isiolo, Tsavo, Amboseli, Lake Manyara, Ngoron- aoro, Serengeti, Mara and Aberdare In Kenya and Tanzania. 1 2 -page full colour brochure available from: SWANS SPECIALISED SAFARIS 237 (PI 2), Tottenham Court Road, London, W1P OAL. Tel. C. A. A. Licence — ATOL189B preservation and the conservation of land needed by Africa's developing nations. A holiday that can open up new vistas of Interest. 21 DAYS— £615 DEPARTURES Mar 6; June 26; July 17; Aug 7, 28; Sep 18; Oct 9, 30; Dec 18. 01-636 8070 THE ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS Assistant Investigations Officer Required at the Society's headquarters in Sandy to assist the Investigations Officer. Duties include conducting enquiries into alleged offences under the Protection of Birds Act. First-class ornithological knowledge, an enquiring mind and the ability to interview people and present oneself in court are essential. Must be at least 25. Previous knowledge of legal procedures a distinct advantage. Pension scheme and assistance with removal expenses provided. Starting salary in the range £1,545— £2,065 plus £10 per month cost of living supplement. Closing date for applications 28 February 1975. For further particulars and application form send sae to Mrs Jean Flemmings, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL IBIN0CULARS a •of QUALITY from 1 DIRECT TO YOU AT ENORMOUS DISCOUNTS All makes available: send s.a.e. for binocular or photographic price lists Swift Audubon 8.5 X 44, retail £64.80, our price £42.07, Saratoga 8 X 40, retail £43.20, our price 30.24. Perl 9 X 35, retail £18.25, Ze,SS 10 X 408 Diafyt> retal1 £169-29, our price nif1i-9L,NoicCkeLSupra„telesc°Pe 15 X 60 X 60, retail £91.81, our tufnfW67'25' ^eK°nvr8 X retail aPProx- £27.50, our price 118.00 (approved by Nature Conservancy). All including case and post free. 14-day approval service (payment with order). Callers welcome. HERON OPTICAL COMPANY (BB2/75) 25 Kings Road, Brentwood, Essex. Tel: (STD) 0277 22 1 259/2 1 94 1 8 Barr & Stroud *?SS Greenkal JPclU SWIFT PENTAX 2Eiss 1 BRITISH BIRDS FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF EUROPEAN RAPTORS R. F. Porter, Ian Willis, Steen Christensen, Bent Pors Nielsen The authors have been studying identification of the 38 species of European raptors for many years, and their papers from British Birds have been revised, expanded and rearranged to produce this book. Ian Willis's superb drawings and sketches, plus 178 photographs specially chosen to illustrate aspects of identification, combine with a succinct and detailed text to achieve the definitive study of this challenging and absorbing subject. . . this international team of experts must be congratulated . . . a superb guide, invaluable to every birdwatcher" Habitat (Council for Nature) £4.80 net WATCHING BIRDS James Fisher & Jim Flegg The B.T.O.'s Director has revised and updated the late James Fisher's deservedly popular introduction to the world of birds and the practice of birdwatching. £2.80 net T. & A. D. POYSER LTD 281 High Street, Berkhamsted, Herts HP4 1AJ For enquiries regarding Advertising Space and Rates write to: Advertisement Dept., Macmillan Journals Ltd., 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF or telephone: 01-836 6633 and ask for the Advertisement Manager 11 Volume 68 Numbers February 1975 Editorial What results from bird-ringing? The bird ringing scheme in Britain, run by the British Trust for Ornithology, is the largest outside North America, but there is cause lor disquiet in the relatively small output of published analyses and of other papers making use of ringing data. With admirable per- sistence an annual report has been published giving summary tables of the numbers of birds ringed and recovered, together with a highly selective list of detailed recoveries, dealing with just a fraction of the year s total. Recently, rather more information has been compressed into the same space by the use of maps and tables. Also included in each report is a list of the papers and short notes published in the year in question that are based wholly or partly on data derived from the ringing scheme. A survey of the twelve reports for 1961-72 reveals just over too titles in these lists, of which about 80 are based mainly on ringing results, the remainder only partly so. This total may seem quite commendable but is small in comparison with the amount of data available. It is also heavily biased towards the interests of rather few professionals and students pursuing their particular subject. The sheer quantity of data being gathered by Britain’s 1,600 or so ringers is staggering. About half a million birds are ringed each year, while there is an unknown but undoubtedly very large number of recaptures. This mass ringing produces an average of over 12,000 recoveries annually. Encouraged by the BTO, the majority of ringers do not just ring and release each bird but also record weight several measurements, moult data, and so on. However, not only is this latter material very little used, a considerable proportion of it is of very little use. For example, the solemn measuring of the bill and 53 54 Editorial tarsus of passerines, which, excluding nestlings, amount to around two-thirds of all birds ringed, cannot remotely be justified beyond the taking of a reasonable sample of, say, ioo birds in each age and sex class. And this need be done only once, not repeated year after year up and down the country. If anyone feels that such a total waste of time and effort has some purpose, where are the published results to prove it ? Ignoring purposeless mensuration, there is still a great wealth of information being accumulated both by the ringing scheme as a whole and by individual ringers. Yet the majority of papers are coming neither from the staff of the BTO nor from the amateur ringer. Nearly two-thirds of those published during 1961-72 were written by professional biologists and full-time students at univer- sities or other institutions, all of whom clearly found ringing a most useful tool. BTO staff contributed about one-fifth of the papers, and amateurs, not all ringers, slightly fewer. It must at once be pointed out that the BTO is not really in a position to increase greatly its output of ringing analyses. The ad- ministration of the scheme is financed by a contract with the Nature Conservancy Council, plus not insignificant contributions from the ringers themselves. There is little or nothing left over to allow either the personnel or the time to be devoted to working up the results. This imbalance can only be overcome by further funding, and it is to be hoped that the NCC can be persuaded that future contracts should include money for analysis as well as for administration. Although published papers from BTO staff are few, a considerable amount of mostly small-scale analysis is carried out by them, par- ticularly in answering specific queries that arise, in compiling maps and tables for the annual ringing report, and to provide data for a recently devised scheme for the monitoring of populations of certain common species. It remains the contribution of the amateur ringer that is so disappointing and without apparent excuse. In recent years the BTO has encouraged ringers to form them- selves into informal groups to coordinate study of a particular species, or for the more efficient working of a trapping site. The species involved include waders (Charadriiformes), tits (Paridae), Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca and Acrocephalus warblers. Apart from the other advantages of such cooperative work, one of the stated aims of such groups has been the analysis and publication of some of their data. So far — and most of the groups have been in existence for at least four years — this aim has remained little more than a pious hope. One form of output that has increased has been the delivery of a short talk at the BTO’s annual Ringing and Migration Conference. Many of these lectures are necessarily interim statements on work in Editorial 55 progress, but so few completed studies have been written up and published that it seems obvious that most speakers regard such a talk as a substitute lor preparing a finished, publishable paper. This it most certainly is not. There is no permanent record, even as abstracts, ot these conference talks, and no way that a subsequent researcher can discover what was said or what results were given. The scope for analysis is enormous. Apart from the obvious fields of migration, local population studies, mortality and biometrics, it is worth pointing out that in recently published papers there has been a considerable bias towards certain species, leaving others com- pletely ignored. Not surprisingly, the species that have been studied include those with high recovery rates and others which have in- terested full-time workers. Just under half the papers in the last twelve years have dealt with the Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus. Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo and Shag P. aristotelis, plus wildfowl (Anatidae), gulls (Larinae), pigeons (Columbidae) and thrushes (Turdinae), considering in detail some 21 species. Yet the 1972 ringing report (the latest available) shows an equal number of species with over 500 recoveries— and valuable analyses have been published using under half that total— which have not been written up for many years. By far the worst example is the Sand Martin Riparia riparia, for which there was a B EO-sponsored ringing en- quiry over several years in the early 1960’s. So far, almost nothing has been published concerning the more than 11,000 available recoveries and several thousand retraps. Similarly, the enormous effort that has been put into mass wader ringing in the last 15 years has resulted in hardly any published papers. Such serious deficiencies must make one wonder whether there is any justification for such large-scale ringing. Even the relatively small interference in the life of a bird caused by catching and ringing it should not be carried out solely to provide a satisfying, interesting, indeed at times exciting, hobby for a small number of people. There is so much to be learnt from ringing that the lack of published results commensurate with the time, effort and money put into it becomes less a matter of the sheer waste of laboriously gathered information, though it is certainly that, and much more a complete failure to see the potential value of the results. Although a proportion of what can be discovered from ringing is pure knowledge that cannot be applied in any useful way, though none the worse for that, there is a great deal to be learnt that is instantly relevant in the fields of conservation and of species or habitat management. The use made by migratory birds of threatened habitats throughout their range, or the causes and effects of changes in the mortality rate of a species, are just two examples. Every ringer should be seriously considering both the present Editorial 56 value of his ringing and the way in which he can present his findings to a wider public. There is a powerful case to be made for much greater cooperation between ringers, coupled with strong leadership from the BTO. Some progress has already been made along this road but clearly much more needs to be done. Underwing pattern of Storm Petrels Jeffery Boswall Plate 11 In the third edition of the Field Guide (1974) the ‘white patch in the wing-pit’ of the Storm Petrel Hydrobates pelagicus is given as a field identification mark, distinguishing the species from both Wilson’s Petrel Oceanites oceanicus and Leach’s Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa. This character was mentioned at least as long ago as 1928 in Birds of the Ocean by W. B. Alexander, as well as in The Handbook, but was omitted from previous editions of the Field Guide. It was also shown in D. A. P. Cooke’s photograph in Brit. Birds, 57: plate 26b, and is further illustrated here on plate 1 1, which shows four shots of Storm Petrels in flight off the coast of Co. Kerry in mid-August 1973. These photographs show clearly the so-called white ‘patch’ in the wing-pit (perhaps better described as a variable white bar on the underwing) and also other features of the species, such as the conspicuous white rump, square black tail, and short, faint upperwing-bar. Jeffery Boswall, BBC Natural History Unit, Whiteladies Road, Bristol BS8 2LR Field identification of grey geese M. A. Ogilvie and D. /. M. Wallace INTRODUCTION Obsciveis of grey geese Anser spp fall into two main categories. Firstly there are those fortunates who live near or regularly visit ai eas where large flocks of one or more species winter. For them the initial recognition of the species involved will rarely be difficult; their concern will be over the finding of the scattered individuals of other kinds of geese that may be present in the flock. The second and far larger group of observers is composed of those who have an often (1< < ting view ol a single bird or a small flock of grey geese well away from normal haunts. In such encounters there is no ready compari- son to hand and frequently no second chance to see the birds in the absence of traditional feeding or roosting sites in the area. As with most identification problems, there is no real substitute for prolonged observation of the difficult species in all possible com- binations of background, lighting and behaviour. Although it is theoretically possible to achieve this fairly easily within Britain and Ireland for some grey geese, others are very local in their distribution or occur only as vagrants. We therefore hope that this short paper will help all observers, but particularly those in the second category outlined above. This is not the last word on the subject; that can never be written. 1 he far-oft bird disappearing rapidly into the darkening gloom of a winter afternoon will always have to go down as ‘unidentified grey goose’. DESCRIPTIONS OF PLUMAGE AND BARE PARTS A very brief summary is followed by a fairly detailed plumage and bare-part description for each of the eight forms of grev geese that have been recorded in the wild in Britain and Ireland.'* Details of plumage common to all are omitted. In all cases it is possible to age the geese, at least in the first part ol the winter. In some the first- year plumage becomes virtually indistinguishable from that of the adult soon after the New Year, though in others it remains distinct until the spring departure. In either case fairly good viewing con- ditions are required for successful ageing. As well as showing plumage differences, young geese also tend to look scraggy, and thinner and less well groomed than adults. It is also true of all geese that the male tends to be larger and to have a larger head than the ♦The Snow Goose A. caerulescens, which may be considered an aberrant grev goose, is not included in this papier. The European records up to the end of 1068 and the escape problem, were discussed in Brit. Birds, 64: 398, 402-405 [#ri(. Birds, 68:57-67, February 1975] 57 58 Identification of grey geese female. Both sexing and ageing of geese in the field are made easier by the maintenance of the family bond throughout the first winter of the juveniles’ life. Thus it is quite easy to pick out family units of male and female parents plus from one to four or five (rarely more) young birds, moving together within the general motion of a feeding flock. Sexing and, to some extent, ageing of single geese is possible with experience. The numbers in brackets after each of the headings that follow refer to the figures on pages 60-61. Western Bean Goose Anser fab alls f abatis (3, 4, 5) A large, tall, rather long-billed and long-necked, essentially brown goose, with a very dark head and neck. Adult: Head and neck dark brown, almost black on forehead; entire upperparts rather uniform dull brown, feathers tipped buff forming transverse pattern ; upper- tail-coverts white, contrasting with ash-brown back and tail, latter with white rim. Chest buff-brown, merging with brown (indistinctly banded darker brown) flanks and belly ; upper flanks edged White, forming obvious line. Some adults have white feathering across top and down sides of base of upper mandible. Upperwing lacks distinct pattern, with coverts similar in tone to upperparts and contrasting only slightly with dull black quills. Bill rather heavy and long, with upper mandible almost straight-edged and noticeable gape ; orange-yellow with varying amount of black extending from base, yellow sometimes restricted to small patch behind black nail. Legs and feet orange-yellow or orange. Eyes brown, with no ring. First winter: As adult but duller; transverse pattern on closed wings and back indistinct due to incomplete buff tips to feathers. Orange-yellow of bill, legs and feet dull. Distinctions become less obvious from January onwards. Russian Bean Goose Anser f abatis rossicus As nominate race but smaller, shorter-necked and shorter-billed. Adult and first winter: As Western Bean Goose, but orange-yellow on bill res- tricted to narrow band across bill behind black nail. Bill less heavy or long, with steeper angle between upper mandible and forehead. Pink-footed Goose Anser brachyrhynchus (3, 4, 5) A medium-sized, rather compact, short-billed and short-necked, essentially pinkish-brown goose, with a darker round head and fore- neck, and grey forewing obvious in flight. Adult: Head and upper neck dark brown, lower neck paler brown; upperparts pinkish-grey, increasingly separated lines of feathers tipped brownish-white form- ing regular transverse pattern ; tertials and inner secondaries brownish-grey edged greyish- whi te ; uppertail-coverts white, contrasting with ash-grey centre to back and dark grey, white-rimmed tail. Chest pinkish-brown, merging with brown (faintly and irregularly banded buff) flanks and belly; upper flanks edged white, forming obvious line. Some adults have white feathering across top and down sides of base of upper mandible. Upperwing shows distinct pattern, ash-grey primary and secondary coverts contrasting with brownish-black quills. Coverts can look ‘purplish’ in dull light. Bill light and short, usually with upper mandible slightly concave in outline; pink with varying amount of blackish-brown extending from base, pink sometimes Identification of grey geese ^ restricted to small patch behind black nail. Legs and feet cold flesh- or bluish-pink. Lyes dark brown, with no ring. Flrst mnter: l^arker than adult, with less pink or grey tone; more mottled, less neat appearance due to incomplete feather-tip colours, particularly on wing-coverts and mantle, and often with ochre legs and feet. Becomes less easy to distinguish as winter progresses. European White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons albifrons (i, 2, 4, 5) A medium-sized, rather angular, deep-chested, square-headed, essentially greyish-brown goose, with (in the adult) a white forehead and black bars on the underparts. Adult: Full feather surround to bill base (and rarely forecrown) white; head, neck and upperparts greyish-brown, increasingly separated lines of feathers finely tipped brownish-white forming transverse pattern; uppertail-coverts white, con- trasting with dusky centre to back and dusky, white-rimmed tail. Chest bufiish- brown often looking noticeably pale and contrasting with greyish-brown flanks and belly, strongly but variably barred and blotched with black; upper flanks < c ged white, forming particularly obvious line on darker birds. Upperwing lacks quills US PaUern’ S‘nCC coverts duskV 8rcy and not contrasting with greyish-black Bill not heavy, but quite long, with upper mandible slightly concave in outline: normally pink with white nail but some show orange tinge near nail. Legs and feet orange. Lyes dark hazel, with narrow spectacle of buflish-grey orbital skin usually invisible in field. l'irst winter: Distinct from adult, lacking white forehead and markedly variegated p umage; browner and more mottled, without any black bars underneath; can be confused with Greylag A. anser. White forehead appears during first winter, but black bars on underparts lacking or incomplete until second autumn. Bill, lees and feet as in adult but duller. Greenland White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons fiavirostris Similar to nominate race but darker and more olive in tone; black barring on underparts often more extensive. Adiilt: Averages 5% larger than European Whitefront, with plumage generally darker marked olive tone to brown pigment, duller chest and greater extent of black barring underneath, though some of nominate race can be as dark. White on forehead generally less extensive and often with surround of dark feathers. Bill longer and heavier, orange-yellow with white nail. Legs and feet orange. First winter: As first-winter European Whitefront but darker, duskier and more Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser erythropus (1,2) A small, rounded, dainty, small-billed and small-headed, essentiallv dusky-brown goose, with an extensive white forehead and forecrown vin the adult), a yellow eye-ring and uniform, almost immaculate plumage. Adult: Wide feather surround to bill base, and most of forecrown (to above eye) '' Hte; rcstof head and body uniform dusky-brown, upperparts showing only dull transverse lines. Underparts with white flank edge, delicate paler brow^ banding and black bars on lower flanks and belly centre; rest of plumage as in Whitefront. Fig. i. Lesser Whitefront Anser erythropus (second from right) with family of European Whitefronts A. albifrons albifrons. Note former’s daintier appearance, with noticeably rounded head, long wings and nimbler gait. Note also how variably plumage of grey geese catches light Fig. 2. Further comparison of Lesser Whitefronts Anser erythropus with European Whitefronts A. albifrons albifrons: left, immatures, Lesser (in front) showing dark, immaculate plumage, daintier appearance, long wings, small bill, and eye-ring; centre, heads of typical adults, Lesser (on left) distinguished by small bill, large white blaze on head and brilliant yellow eye-ring (but note thin dull eye-ring visible on 20% of European Whitefronts) ; right, immatures taking off, Lesser again showing generally daintier and darker appearance. All size differences shown are extreme "'STS/?'/'/?'' Fig. 3. Western Bean Goose Anser fabalis fabalis (right) with party of Pinkfeet A- brachyrhynchus. Note former’s longer bill, head and neck, darker plumage, and greater overall bulk compared with dainty but rather dumpy appearance of Pinkfeet l' !g. 4. Silhouettes of (left to right) Greylag Anser anser. Bean A. fabalis, Pinkfoot ‘ ' jf^hyrhynchus and Whitefront A. albifrons. Note general bulk (especially at rear) of Greylag; long bill, head and neck of Bean; relative roundness and small head of Pinkfoot; and rather angular appearance and square head of Whitefront '!g; Appearance in flight of (left to right) Greylag Anser anser, Bean A. fabalis, 1 inkloot A. brachyrhynchas and Whitefront A. albifrons. Note very- pale forewing of Greylag; dark head, neck and forewing of Bean ; dark head, pale chest and forcwing of 1 mkfoot; and barred underparts and dull forewing of Whitefront [continued from page 59J Bill light and small, almost triangular in shape; bright pink with white nail. Legs and feet orange. Eyes dark brown, set ofT by swollen spectacle of brilliant yellow orbital skin. ^irst Wlnter ■' Lacks white front of head, black bars on underparts and transverse lines on upperparts, but already shows yellow eye-ring. During winter some white may appear, but not black barring. Western Greylag Goose Anser anser anser (4, 5) A large, heavy, big-headed, rather thick-necked, essentially grey goose, with a strikingly pale forcwing obvious in flight. Adult : Head and neck pale buffish-grey, darker on crown and along lines of in- dented feathers falling diagonally across sides of neck; upperparts brownish-grey increasingly separated lines of feathers finely but noticeably tipped buffish-white forming regular transverse pattern; tertials and inner secondaries also brownish- grey broadly edged buffish-white; uppertail-coverts white contrasting with grey- centre to back and grey, white-rimmed tail. Chest pale buffish-grey, merging with grey (mottled white and buff) flanks and belly, latter with varying area of black spots or blotches (not forming bars) ; upper flanks increasingly edged white towards vent, forming obvious line, and rear flank feathers with blackish centres, appearing as irregular barring on well-marked birds. Upperwing shows striking pattern, pale blue-grey primary and secondary coverts contrasting with greyish-black quills. 62 Identification of grey geese Bill quite heavy and strong, essentially triangular in shape, with upper mandible lacking concave outline; pale orange, with pink tinge showing behind white nail. Legs and feet warm pink. Eyes brown, with spectacle of orange orbital skin. First winter : More mottled, lacking particularly adult’s sharply defined transverse lines on upperparts, obvious flank edges and belly marks. Bill and legs duller pink, sometimes grey-pink. Distinctions from adult become less marked after New Year. Eastern Greylag Goose Anser anser rubrirostris As nominate race, but paler and with longer bill. Adult: Slightly larger and paler than Western Greylag, with whitish tones replacing buff, particularly on head and neck (both appearing uniform) but also on upper- parts (feather edges greyish-white forming stronger transverse pattern) and flanks. Forewing even paler, appearing whitish-grey in some lights. Bill longer, wholly pink except for white nail. Legs and feet cold pink. First winter: As first- win ter Western Greylag, but paler and with longer bill. SIZE AND SHAPE The Greylag (both races) is the largest and bulkiest of the grey geese. It has a broad, deep body, a proportionately rather short, thick neck, and a noticeably large head made more prominent by the heavy bill. Although both Beans and both Whitefronts can be as tall and long as the Greylag, their bodies are much slimmer, es- pecially towards the tail, their necks longer, their heads smaller, and their bills, though they can be as long, much less heavy. The Pinkfoot is a well-rounded bird, almost dumpy at times, with a relatively short neck and small head. Although as long as many Whitefronts, it is not as tall. In comparison with the Bean, it is much more compact and smaller in every way; in particular the head and bill are less elongated. Although the Lesser Whitefront is normally a much smaller goose than any of the others, there is in fact some overlap between large specimens and small individuals of the European Whitefront, the species with which it most often occurs in Britain. In searching through a flock of the latter, size alone is no criterion for a Lesser Whitefront. The very small steep bill and small rounded head are distinctly different, however; and as in no other grey goose, except a few Whitefronts, the folded wings project well beyond the tail. FLIGHT Only the Greylag and Pinkfoot have an obvious upperwing pattern, the other species showing little or no upperwing contrast. The pale blue-grey upperwing-coverts of the Greylag contrast sharply with the greyish-black quills to produce a really prominent pale grey wing flash, much more conspicuous at all times than the darker grey fore- wing of the Pinkfoot. The silhouette of the Greylag shows its large head and thick neck, very different from the short-necked, round- Identification of grey geese g,^ headed Pinkf'oot. In addition the Greylag has a rather laboured wing beat compared with the fluid, buoyant flight of the Pinkfoot. Al- though all the grey geese ‘whiffle’ (tumble over on their sides or even upside-down), the Pinkfoot’s aerobatics are perhaps the most dramatic. I he flight silhouette of the rather uniformly dark Bean Goose shows the noticeably long thin neck and long head which should distinguish it fairly readily from the also uniform Whitefront. In pai ticular, the Greenland race of the latter can look very evenly dark in flight, though overhead the belly bars of both races should show up. 1 he Whitefront, and again more particularly the Greenland race, has longer, narrower wings than the other grey geese. There are no hard and fast rules about the way the different species fly in flocks. It depends largely on how far they are intending to fly, and on the wind strength and direction. In general, however, the Pinkfoot and Greylag more readily adopt the familiar ‘V’ forma- tion if only because they habitually flight further than the others between roosting and feeding sites. Whitefronts often proceed in quite dense bunches without coherent shape, or sometimes in long straggling lines. VOICE I hcie is one major difficulty in using calls to identify the species. A lont goose probably does not call very often, or uses only the distress note, while a single bird in a flock of another species would rarely be audible. Only en masse is the true goose voice heard and then it is less easy to describe than the individual calls of which it is composed. I he most readily recognisable call is probably that of the Greylag. Both individually and in a flock, Greylags sound very like their domestic descendants, farmyard geese. A deep, sonorous, somewhat vulgar, cackling ‘aahng-aahng-aahng’, usually trisyllabic, is most c laiactciistic, and is heard both on the ground and in the air. Close to a flock, one may also hear a multisyllabic buzzing call which, together with the cackle, gives the flock chorus a distinctly more bass, less far-carrying, sound than that of the other species. In contrast, the Pink-foot has a high-pitched, disyllabic \vink- wmk’, occasionally ‘wink-wink-wink’, as well as a three-note cackle ahng-ahng-ahng’, higher than the equivalent Greylag call. The flock chorus is distinctly higher-pitched, more urgent and more penetrating than that of any other species. Phe Bean Goose also has a double ‘wink-wink’ note akin to the Pinkfoot’s, but it is lower and fuller in tone, more tenor than treble, while the flock chorus is an even lower (closer to a baritone), broader sound than the Pinkfoot’s, though less deep than the Greylag’s. There are no apparent differences between the notes of the two 64 Identification of grey geese Whitefront races. The main call is a two-note ‘kow-yow’, producing a more musical effect than the calls of the other species and lacking their nasal tone. Of all the grey geese, this species produces a flock sound most like a pack of dogs. In flight there is a high laughing call ‘lyo-lyok’, usually quite liquid and musical but sometimes sounding harsher and more metallic. The flock sound is essentially contralto, more querulous than those of the other species. Feeding flocks often produce a loud buzzing sound, made particularly during aggressive displays between family parties. The Lesser Whitefront can be picked out by an experienced ear from a flying group of European Whitefronts. Its calls are similar to those of the larger bird but much more high-pitched and squeaky. First-winter birds of all species often do not attain a mature voice until well on in the winter. The most extraordinary squeaks and half-formed cackles may come from their throats, analogous to the breaking voice of a youth. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR Although all the species feed on land, where they have rather similar gait and postures, their feeding actions are all slightly different, the larger species in general walking more slowly and pecking at a slower rate than the smaller. Thus in a flock of geese it is often possible to pick out a stranger by the different rate at which it is moving in relation to the rest of the birds. The best example of this is the de- tection of Lesser Whitefronts in flocks of European Whitefronts. The Lesser Whitefront walks much more rapidly and pecks at a much faster rate than the Whitefronts, and watching for this behaviour is often the quickest way of spotting one of the former. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS AND HABITAT The purpose of this section is to give a baseline of probability against which to judge a sighting of grey geese in Britain and Ireland. Obviously vagrants can turn up almost anywhere, and the rearing and release of birds by wildfowlers are producing some anomalies, but the regular wintering populations are highly traditional in their ranges and habitats, and major deviations are rare. Bean Goose The taxonomy of the Bean Goose is anything but clear, but there seems to be general agreement that two races occur in Britain, though there may be intergrades between them. The Western Bean is a regular wintering species in small numbers, usually under 100, at two sites, in Norfolk and Galloway. The birds receive some pro- tection at both places but, in view of the decline in their numbers that has taken place in recent years and their vulnerability to dis- Identification of grey geese g, turbance, we take this opportunity of urging restraint on the part of birdwatchers wishing to see them. Elsewhere there are occasional records of singles or small flocks, particularly from Northumberland and Grampian where they are almost regular, but virtually any- where is possible, though Irish records are rare. The normal habitat of the regulai flocks is inland wet grassland. They do not usually arrive before mid-December, and depart in March. The Russian Bean Goose occurs only as a vagrant, most often in flocks of other geese, particularly European Whitefronts. Pink-footed Goose This species winters in the eastern half of Scotland from the Moray filth to the Border, in the Solway T irth, Lancashire and Humber- side, and around the Wash. Large flocks, often of several thousands, may be found in these areas from late September through to April, with smaller numbers remaining into May or even June. Summering by pricked birds is quite common. 1 he preferred feeding habitat is fai inland, concentrating on stubble and harvested potato fields in autumn and moving on to grass and sometimes growing cereal crops later in the winter. Feeding on saltmarshes occurs in a few localities. 1 he birds roost at night on undisturbed inland waters such as lakes and reservoirs, or on tidal mudflats. Away from the main wintering areas, the Pinkfoot may turn up almost anywhere, either singly or in small groups, alone or in a flock of another species. It formerly wintered in some numbers in Gloucestershire and Ireland, where it is now only a straggler. White-fronted Goose The European Whitefront winters in the southern half of England and Wales, with regular haunts in Norfolk, Kent, Hampshire, Corn- wall, Gloucestershire and Dyfed and around the Shropshire/Powys border. The smallest regular flock is of a little over ioo birds, the largest of 6,000-7,000. This race is not uncommonly seen on migra- tion to 01 from these haunts, and small flocks turn up with some regularity in Suffolk, Essex, East and West Sussex, Oxfordshire, Somerset, Avon and Gwent. Whitefronts feed almost exclusively on wet grassland, including saltmarshes, and roost mainly in sheltered estuaries. Floods are sometimes used for roosting, however, and in one area a small lake. This race is infrequently reported away from its traditional localities and then usually in ones or twos, or at most a family party, and with other geese. Stragglers reach Scotland and Ireland. The birds arrive from the end of September in small num- bers, building up to a January peak, before departing in mid-March. The Greenland Whitefront is virtually confined as a regular winterer to western Scotland and Ireland, with outliers on Anglesey 66 Identification of grey geese (Gwynedd) and in the Dovey estuary (Dyfed). The Scottish haunts are on the Outer and Inner Hebrides (particularly Islay), on the Mull of Kintyre (Strathclyde) and in Galloway. It is widely spread in Ireland but, apart from the 5,000-6,000 on the Wexford Slobs, occurs in small flocks rarely totalling more than a few hundreds. Indeed, even within a district where quite large numbers are present, the birds are in small flocks, or even pairs or family parties, scattered over a wide area. Although the geese have adapted in recent years to arable and improved grassland on the Wexford Slobs, the traditional habitat of wet grassland, often with extensive patches of rushes growing in it, and peat bogs, is still used elsewhere. Outside its normal range the Greenland Whitefront occurs as a straggler with flocks of other species, not unnaturally more frequently in the north and west than in other regions. The birds do not arrive in numbers until mid-October and they stay until the middle of April. Lesser White-fronted Goose This species occurs almost annually in Britain, usually from one to three individuals being seen. There is only one Irish record. It has hardly ever been identified on its own, but consorts mainly with flocks of European Whitefronts, sometimes with Bean Geese and once with Greenland Whitefronts. It is not very common in captivity and virtually all the occunrences are of undoubtedly wild birds. Greylag Goose The Western race of the Greylag is resident in the Outer Hebrides (some hundreds of birds) and, more thinly, in north and west High- land from Caithness to Wester Ross, though this small mainland population is now mingled with reintroduced birds. As a result of introductions, there is a rather larger resident population in south- west Scotland, with certainly over 1,000 in Galloway. Further intro- ductions have been made more recently in the Lake District, Kent and elsewhere, and small feral flocks of full-winged Greylags are now likely to be met with in many areas. These are not necessarily approachable, and there may be no way of distinguishing them from wild birds in the field. Consequently, unless the presence of such feral stock in the district is already known, it is now almost impossible to decide whether a small flock away from the main ranges of the wild residents and winter visitors (see below) is composed of genuine- ly wild birds or not. Wintering Greylags from Icelandic breeding grounds are now confined to Scotland (particularly the eastern half but also reaching the Firth of Clyde and Galloway), and to a handful of places in Ireland and the extreme north of England (only a few hundred birds in either country). The habitat is very similar to that of the Identification of grey geese 5 7 Pink loot, though rather more preference is shown for flooded grass- land which may be used for roosting, along with lakes and estuaries. I he geese arrive in late October and depart mostly in late April, though some stay into May. A few pricked birds probably summer. The Eastern Greylag is, unaccountably, not included in the cur- rent British and Irish list, though individuals undoubtedly referable to it have been seen in Britain, particularly in southern England, on a number of occasions. Some may have been escapes" from captivity, where it is not, however, very common, but it seems virtually certain that genuinely wild birds have occurred. The idea of difficulty in distinguishing between a Greylag and a Pinkfoot has probably never occurred to most birdwatchers living in eastern Scotland. But elsewhere this is a real problem, while nearly everyone would admit to the possibility of being puzzled by an out-of-context Bean Goose or VVhitefront. At all times it is important to concentrate on shape and silhouette. Indeed, these are often all that can be seen of a distant bird in in- different light. The upperwing pattern (or lack of it) should always be looked for, but some of the more subtle features described above are usable only when both the view and the light are good. To those whose lot it is to be baffled by stray grey geese far from their normal haunts, we would strongly urge that they go to some of the regular wintering localities of the different ' species and familiarise themselves with the birds’ appearance and calls, both in flight and on the ground. And after all, as well as improving one’s knowledge, what more rewarding experience is there than to be sur- rounded by the sight and sound of thousands of wild geese? M. A. Ogilvie, The II ildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucester GL2 7BT D. I. AT Wallace, g Woodhill Rise, Heads Lane, Hessle, Hull HU13 ohz CONCLUSIONS Studies of less familiar birds 775 Brown Flycatcher Ian C. T. Nisbet and Irene Neufeldt Photographs by Irene Neufeldt , Eric Hosking, Ian C. T. Nisbet and D. I. M. Wallace Plates 8-10 The Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris is the most widespread of a group of small, drab flycatchers inhabiting eastern and southern Asia. Its breeding range is divided into two disjunct parts. The northern population breeds from the region of the River Ob, where it extends as far west as 75°E and as far north as 59°N, east through southern Siberia, northern Mongolia, north-east China and Korea to Sakhalin and Japan (Dementiev and Gladkov 1954, Vaurie 1959, Moskvitin 1973). These northern birds are long-distance migrants, wintering over a wide area in south-east Asia from Burma east to the Philippines and south to Sumatra, Java and Borneo. Broadly overlapping with the Brown Flycatcher in eastern Asia are two similar species. The Sooty Flycatcher M. sibirica has a some- what more southern distribution in central Asia, extending only as far west as the central Altai (about 48°N, go°E), but is more northern on the Pacific coast, extending to 6o°N in Kamchatka. These are also long-distance migrants, wintering in Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. The Grey-spotted Fly- catcher M. griseistida has a more limited distribution near the Pacific seaboai'd, breeding in Kamchatka, the Kurile Islands, Sakhalin, and locally in Japan and in extreme eastern Siberia and Manchuria. It has a long overwater migration to winter east of the other two species, in the Philippines, Celebes and western New Guinea. Where the three species overlap they breed in different habitats, the Brown Flycatcher primarily in deciduous forests, the Sooty primarily in coniferous or montane forests; in Japan the Grey- spotted Flycatcher is confined to high elevations, between 1,500 and 2,200 metres above sea level (Jahn 1942, Dementiev and Glad- kov 1954, Yamashina 1961). Isolated from these northern, long-distance migrants is a group of related forms, mostly short-distance migrants, breeding in a broad band between 25°N and 35°N along the Himalayas and in southern China (see Vaurie 1953). The Brown Flycatcher itself has a popula- tion (sometimes subspecifically separated as M. 1. poonensis) breeding at low elevations in northern and central India and partially migra- 68 [Brit. Birds, 68: 68-75, February 1975] Brown Flycatcher studies 69 tory, wintering south to Ceylon. The taxonomy of this species is confused and contentious (Baker 1933, Dementiev and Gladkov I954> Vaurie 1954, Deignan 1957), but there is some evidence that local populations or subspecies breed also in southern India (Deignan 1 957> Salim Ali 1969), southern China (Dementiev and Gladkov [954)> eastern China (Vaurie I959)> Thailand (Deignan 1957), the Malay Peninsula (Gibson-Hill 1949) and the Philippines (Amadon and duPont 1970). The Sooty Flycatcher has several subspecies which breed from Afghanistan east to Szechwan and winter from northern India south-east to the Malay Peninsula. The three other basically Himalayan flycatchers in this group are the Brown- breasted Ad. muttui, Ferruginous Ad. ferruginea and Rufous-tailed M. ruficauda. Lastly, there are two exclusively tropical members, the Surnba Flycatcher Ad. segregata and the Chocolate Flycatcher Ad. williamsoni, though the validity of the latter has been doubted by Mayr (1971). The Brown flycatcher (plates 8-9I), 9c) is intermediate in size between the Spotted Ad. striata (plate 10) and Red-breasted Ficedula parva (plate gc-d), but much nearer in size to the latter. For example, The Handbook gives the following wing-lengths of males: striata 81-89 mm, latirostris 67-74 mm, parva 66-71 mm. Weights of lean birds fall within the following ranges: striata 13-15 gm (Smith 1966, Moreau 1969), latirostris 9.5-1 1 gm (Nisbet 1968), parva 8.5- 9-7 gm (Dementiev and Gladkov 1954)- I be bill is shorter than that of a Spotted Flycatcher, but proportionately much broader at the base (see especially plate 8b). Recent studies by IN have shown substantial differences between the flycatchers lumped here (as in most western literature) in the genera Muscicapa and Ficedula in the distribution of down on the nestlings, which is recognised as an important generic character r97°) 1972). Accordingly, there are good grounds for dividing the Palearctic flycatchers in several genera: Aluscicapa for the Spotted, Alseonax for the Brown and Ferruginous, Hemichelidon for the Sooty and Grey-spotted, Ficedula for the Pied F. hypoleuca and Collared F. albicollis, Siphia for the Red-breasted, and so on (for full discussion see Neufeldt 1970). In colour, the Brown Flycatcher is dull greyish-brown above and whitish below, lacking the clear streaking of the Spotted Flycatcher (slight mottling on the forehead is usually not discernible in the field). However, it is not as featureless as some textbooks imply. At least in fresh plumage, it shows distinct whitish or pale buff edges and tips to the inner secondaries, which form its most striking character in. autumn. Young birds in autumn also show a distinct wing-bar formed by pale tips to the greater coverts (plate 9e). These features become less conspicuous with wear, and the light markings 7° Brown Flycatcher studies are lacking altogether on the few spring specimens which ICTN has examined. Other distinctive features are a fairly prominent whitish eye-ring, a pale (yellowish or horn-coloured) base to the lower mandible, and a greyish-brown wash on the flanks and breast, form- ing a smudgy but fairly distinct band across the otherwise whitish underparts. A good colour photograph of a bird in the hand was published in Birds of the World, vol. 7, part 9. A vagrant in western Europe would need to be distinguished from the other two long-distance migrants of north-east Asia. The Sooty Flycatcher is at least as likely to stray to Europe as the Brown, and the Grey-spotted Flycatcher is also a potential vagrant. (The short-distance migrants of the Himalayan region seem unlikely to wander to Europe, but in any case all have reddish or warm brown in the plumage and would be relatively easy to distinguish.) For a quick guide to this problem, an excellent colour plate of the three species appears in the field guide by Kobayashi (1966). The Grey- spotted Flycatcher is rather clearly distinct, as its entire underparts are dull white with discrete, fine greyish-brown streaks. It is other- wise similar in colour to the Brown Flycatcher, but is somewhat larger, with a longer wing (82-83 mm) and a longer and narrower bill. The Sooty is usually much darker, sooty-grey above, with the underparts largely covered by broad indistinct smudges of dark grey which run together to form an almost complete dark band across the breast. Above this band is a narrow white bib which connects to a whitish crescent running below the ear-coverts to the side of the neck. The edgings to the secondaries are usually less conspicuous than in the Brown Flycatcher, despite the darker flight-feathers. IGTN has never found these two species difficult to separate in the field, but other observers have told him that occasional birds appear somewhat intermediate in plumage. In addition, however, there is an important structural difference : the Sooty has a much longer wing (76-85 mm) which extends about two-thirds of the way down the tail when the bird is at rest, whereas the wing-tips of the Brown Flycatcher extend only about one-third of the way down the tail (see plate ge). The Brown Flycatcher is the only species of the group so far re- ported in western Europe. Sight records in the Faeroes on 25th September 1949 (Williamson and Petersen a Botni 1951) and in Norway in October 1951 (Hyatt and Mylne 1952) were accom- panied by very brief descriptions which lacked several important features. A sight record in Denmark on 24th and 25th September J959 (Christensen i960) was similarly incomplete, but was sup- ported by a fairly convincing photograph. Sight records in Northum- berland on 9th September 1956 and in Co. Wexford on 6th Septem- ber r957 (Alder 1957, Irish Bird Report 1957'. 31) were recently con- I late H. Drown Flycatchers Muscicapa latiro.stris Heeling young, southern Primorve. IJssunland, far eastern USSR. June 1967 ( photos : Irene .Xeujeldt : dull grev- brown above and whitish (lightly washed grey-brown) below, with a very broad-based bill and a narrow but noticeable whitish ring round the large dark eye. Normally, the nest is built directly on a branch from mosses, fibres, bark, lichens, webs and other materials; cavities are never used (pages ($-75 Plate 9. Above, more shots of Brown Flycatchers Musci- capa latirostris at the nest, Ussuriland, USSR, June 1967 ( photos : Irene Neufeldt), again showing relative propor- tions of bill, eye and head. Below, first-autumn Brown Flycatcher, Malaysia, October 1967 {photo: Ian C. T. Ms- bet) : very distinct pale edges to inner secondaries and pale wing-bar fringing greater coverts are conspicuous on young birds in fresh plumage. Left, Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva, Scilly, October 1964 ( photos : D. I. M. Wallace ), marginally smaller but always disting- uishable by its white flashes at base of tail (page 69) Pi.atk io. Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata ( photos : Eric Hosting): much arger than the Brown (page 69), with conspicuous streaking on crown, throat and breast, a relatively longer, narrower bill, and a rovers d moult sequence unique among those of Palearctic flycatchers (see, c.g.. Brit. Birds , 65: ) Plate ii. Storm Petrel Hydrobales pelagicus of Co. Kerry, August 197; ( photos : Jeffery Boswall) showing variable white underwing-bar as well a! white rump, square blacH tail, and short, faintj upperwing-bar (page 50 Brown Flycatcher studies _ 1 sidered by the British Ornithologists’ Union Records Committee, and were not accepted because of missing field-characters. However’ a 1 of these records look at least plausible, and this appears to be a likely species to watch for in the future. (In this connection, it might be added that, in addition to the Sooty and Grey-spotted Flycatchers, theie are seven other more distinct /o/ig-distance migrant flycatchers m eastern Asia, apart from all the short-distance migrants ) The Brown Flycatcher is a typical forest bird, settling in a variety ° wo°dland habitats. It shows a preference for mature broadleaved or mixed forests, preferably deciduous but with a few coniferous species, though sometimes in river valleys it settles in entirely coniferous areas. Good undergrowth and a shrub layer must be present, but it avoids thick taiga and bushy, tightly knit, dark coniferous forests. It occurs in parks and gardens where there are quite tall trees. Everywhere it chooses the least dense areas near glades, roads, clearings or the forest edge. Where the timber has been very disturbed, it lives practically anywhere in the forest. It extends up mountainsides to the limit of deciduous trees, and during the non-breeding season even to the subalpine zone o {Rhododendron and other shrubs. On migration it occurs in completely treeless steppes, and in Amurland in spring IN has observed newly arrived individuals among shrubs in open swampy lowlands and in open pine forests and birch groves. The basic diet is insects which the bird usually catches in flight. “ring. the summer, Diptera predominate, mostly horseflies (I abamdae) , typical flies (Muscidae) and mosquitoes (Culicidae). Coleoptera taken include small leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), dung beetles and chafers (Scarabaeidae), engraver or bark beetles (Ipidae, Scolytidae) and dick beetles (Elateridae). True bugs (Hemiptera), leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), ants (Hv- menoptera: Formicidae), butterflies (Lepidoptera), dragonflies (Odonata) and caddis-flies (Trichoptera) have also been recorded. I he Brown Flycatcher locates its prey while sitting on a protruding branch high in the canopy. Then it precipitately hurls itself upon the insect and catches it in flight, characteristically snapping its beak as it does so. It returns to its original perch or repeats the hunt from a new vantage point, thus gradually covering its territory. As well as catching flying insects, this species is also able to move deftly through foliage where it plucks slow-moving caterpillars and larvae rom leaves and branches, often while hovering over them Ap- parently in autumn it plucks the succulent fruits of aralia Araha mandschurica, honeysuckle Lonicera and elder Sambucus miquelii in the same manner (Nechayev and Nazarov 1968, Nechayev 1969). Birds that wintered in ICTN’s Malaysian garden did much of their feeding from perches 10-20 metres high in Casuarina equisetifolia, retiring to 7 2 Brown Flycatcher studies trees with denser foliage in the heat of the day. Below the canopy, in shrubs and grasses, Brown Flycatchers are occasionally seen during the breeding season, principally in poor, rainy weather; early in the spring, however, migrants are attracted to this layer by a few insects which become active there earlier than those in the forest itself. There they catch prey in flight in the usual way from low perches, or while flying low over the ground, snatching spiders (Arachnida) directly from webs, or even while hopping along the ground. The male begins to sing during migration. Full song is heard soon after the return to the breeding area, often in atypical habitats before the birds take up territories where they sing from the tops of the highest trees and protruding branches. Later the males also sing from lower down in the treetops where they nest and hunt. The song is difficult to describe. It is not loud but is quite melodious, consisting of rapid trills interspersed with imitative notes mimicking sounds from other birds’ songs and calls, the whole forming a rather long, continuous, fast song. Sometimes this interweaving of sounds is reminiscent of the soft singing of the Garden Warbler Sylvia borin', at other times the imitative parts predominate. In the breaks be- tween phrases of song may be heard characteristic intermittent alarm notes similar to an analogous signal in the Spotted Flycatcher. The Brown Flycatcher, like the Sooty and Grey-spotted, typically nests in the open. There is no record of its nesting in nestboxes, hol- low trees, crevices, stumps, roots of fallen trees, and so on. The site is chosen by both sexes; they often sit, without building material, in the forks of the branches and circle in among them. Sometimes the male takes a more active part in this choice, as if inviting the female to begin building. The nest is built half way up a tall tree, most often deciduous, usually two to five metres, more seldom six to fifteen metres, above the ground. It is preferably attached to a horizontal or slightly inclined branch often near some unevenness, knot or excrescence and up to about 3^ metres away from the main trunk. More rarely it is situated in a vertical terminal whorl of the main trunk. It is a small, neat cup rather closely resembling a real excrescence or thickening of the branch (see especially plate 8a). The basic structural materials used are green moss, bast fibre, small pieces of bark and stems of herbaceous plants. The birds take turns in bringing material, though the female often stops in the nest to shape the cup, carefully adding material to make the walls dense. The exterior is coated with lichens, pieces of bark, cocoons of spiders and Hymenoptera and spiders’ webs. The lining varies with the situation of the nest and with the supply of suitable materials. It may be of soft needles of firs Abies and larches Larix, thicker pieces of coniferous bark, short grasses, stalks, inflorescences and leaves of lespedeza, small roots, moss sporangia ( Bryum , Polytrichum) , flowers Brown Flycatcher studies of small umbellate plants, hair from the winter coat of the Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus, and other materials which are not fluffy or downy. In normal conditions building takes, on average, five days. The female begins laying the day after the nest is completed. In southern Primorye the earliest eggs have been noted on 23rd May, in Amurland on 9th June, and in the Tomsk region on 12th June. I he eggs, usually five but sometimes four or six, are a rather greyish or pale yellow-olive green; there is an even covering of very fine reddish speckles over the entire shell, practically indistinguishable to the naked eye. Some eggs have a thicker layer of shell at the obtuse t nd which forms a crown-like rim. The average dimensions of 1 7 eggs \yere 1 5 - 9 X ^S*0 mm* The female incubates for eleven or twelve days. The male is constantly nearby and sings less and less, then soon stops singing altogether. He regularly feeds the sitting female. Newly hatched young are covered in quite thick, dichromatic, embryonic down; on the front third it is yellowish-white, on the rest dark grey, almost black. I he skin on the back is dark grey, that on the breast pinkish-flesh. There is down even over the eyes and eye- lids. The young leave the nest at 11-14 days, late-leaving young being able to fly well. In southern Primorye IN noted the first flight on 19th June, in Amurland on 2nd July, while the main movement in the latter region took place during 6th-8th July. Up to the time when the young leave the nest, the adults’ plumage gieatly deteriorates and fades. Soon they begin to acquire an en- tirely new plumage and this moult continues in the breeding quarters up to the start of migration. In Primorye IN first observed the moult at the beginning of July, and in Amurland in mid-July. It begins with the loss of the innermost primaries, though interest- ingly the contour feathers do not moult immediately, but begin to do so only when the third and fourth* primaries drop. Gradually the moult quickens, and the tail-feathers, secondaries and tertials drop. The moult proceeds in the Brown Flycatcher exactly as described for the Grey-spotted Flycatcher by Neufeldt (1971) : primaries 1-10, secondaries 1-6, tertials 9-7; tail-feathers from the centre outwards, both sides concurrently. In The Handbook (1 : 304) there is an error in the description of the autumn moult: it is stated that in July and August adults do not moult the flight feathers and their coverts, nor the tail-feathers, that is, that the moult is a partial one. In fact, how- ever, as has been stated above, they go through a complete moult, right up to their departure for the winter quarters, as in most passerines. The young begin to change their contour feathers when their juvenile flight- and tail-feathers stop growing, and this coincides with the period of intensive moult in their parents. Thus their flight- * Numbering the primaries descendantly, the tenth being outermost 74 Brown Flycatcher studies and tail-feathers do not change during their first autumn but are moulted somewhere in the winter quarters. The brood often does not separate until migration begins, from mid-August to the beginning of September. Migration reaches a peak at the end of September. In spring migrants begin to arrive in the southern part of the far eastern USSR towards the end of the first ten days in May; mass migrations take place there in mid-May and continue to the end of the month. In southern Siberia the birds do not arrive until the end of May and beginning of June. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to Mrs M. M. Schaefer for translating part of the above text from Russian . REFERENCES Alder, J. 1957. ‘Brown Flycatcher in Northumberland’. Brit. Birds. 50: 125-126. Amadon, D., and Dupont, J. E. 1970. ‘Notes on Philippine birds’. Nemouria, 1: 1-14. Baker, E. C. S. 1933. The Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire. London, vol. 2: 216-217. Christensen, N. H. i960. ‘Brun Fluesnapper ( Muscicapa latirostris Raffles) ved Blavand efter&r 1959’ (with English summary). Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr., 54: 36-40. Deignan, H. 1957. ‘A new flycatcher from southeastern Asia, with remarks on Muscicapa latirostris Raffles’. Ibis, 99: 340-344. Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. 1954. Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza [Birds of the Soviet Union], Moscow, vol. 6. Gibson-Hill, C. A. 1949. ‘An annotated checklist of the birds of Malaya’. Bull. Raffles Mus., 20: 1-299. Hyatt, J. H., and Mylne, C. K. 1952. ‘Ornithological observations from Lista, 1951’. Opusc. Stavanger Mus. Zool., no. 7. Jahn, H. 1942. ‘Zur Oekologie und Biologie der Vogel Japans’. J. Orn., 90: 5-301 . Kobayashi, K. 1966. [Birds of Japan in Natural Colours']. Osaka. (In Japanese.) Mayr, E. 1971. ‘New species of birds described from 1956 to 1965’. J. Orn., 112: 302-316. Moreau, R. E. 1969. ‘Comparative weights of some trans-Saharan migrants at intermediate points’. Ibis, 111: 621-624. Moskvitin, S. S. 1973. ‘Description of the distribution and life of some Siberian birds’. Proc. Biol. Inst., 16: 266-267. Nechayev, V. A. 1969. Birds of the Southern Kurelski Peninsulas, pp. 147-148. and Nazarov, Yu. N. 1968. ‘The feeding habits of some birds of the south- ern Primorye’. Scientific Papers from Institutions of Higher Learning. Bio- logical Sciences, 6:31. Neufeldt, I. A. 1970. ‘The nestlings of some Asian birds’. Trudy fool. Inst., 47: 1 1 1-181. —1971. ‘Reproduction and moult in Hemichelidon griseisticta Swinh. (Muscica- pinae, Aves)’. Proc. USSR Acad. Sci., 200, 2: 485-487. 1972. ‘Juvenile features of the Passeres and possibilities of their use in classi- fication’. Z°°l • 5I: 1836-1845. Nisbet, I. C. T. 1968. ‘Weights of birds caught at night at a Malayan radio tower’. Ibis, 1 10: 352-354. Salim Ali. 1969. Birds of Kerala. London. Brown Flycatcher studies 75 Smith, V W. 1966. ‘Autumn and spring weights of some Palaearctic migrants in Central Nigeria’. Ibis. 108: 492-512. \ aurie C. 1953. ‘A generic revision of the flycatchers of the tribe Muscicapini’ Hull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 100: 459-538. — 1954- ‘Systematic notes on Palearctic birds. No. 12. Muscicapinae, Hirun- dinidae, and Sturnidac’. Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1694. ——1959. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Passeriformes. London Williamson, K., and Petersen a Botni, N. F. 1951. ‘Fugletraek pi Faeroeme i 194.9 med notater fra Fair Isle til sammenligning’ (with long English summary ). Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr., 45: 121-138 (126). ' amashina, Y. 1961. Birds in Japan— a Field Guide. Tokyo. Dr Ian C. T. Nisbet, Massachusetts Audubon Society, Lincoln, Mass 0177 q USA ' //J’ Dr Irene Neufeldt, Zoological Institute, Academy of Sciences, Leningrad V-164, USSR Notes Breeding success of Red-throated Divers on Fetlar At the beginning of May 1971 I arrived on Fetlar, Shetland, to take up the post of summer warden on the bird reserve. Soon after I became interested in the breeding Red-throated Divers Gavia stellata. I learnt that success was poor and that in 1970 only five young had fledged from 13 pairs. I found the first nest on 15th May and by and July 15 nests had been located. These contained a total of 24 eggs. The most dangerous period was obviously during incubation, when 1 7 of the eggs dis- appeared. Only one of the pairs which lost eggs attempted to" renest. At least three eggs were lost in the second half of May when it rained continuously for nearly 36 hours. The water levels rose « washing some nests away. For the other 14 missing eggs it is difficult to say what happened, as only fragments of broken shells remained to tell the story. It appears that the main loss was due to predation by gulls and skuas. On one occasion I noticed an Arctic bkua Stercoranus parasiticus diving at a diver on its nest three or four times. The diver remained sitting, with its neck held low. At another time while I was watching from the far side of the nest loch, a diver was disturbed from its nest by passing visitors; by the time they had gone and the diver had started to return from the middle of the loch a Common Gull Larus canus had spotted the nest and landed next to it. Before the diver could reach the nest, the gull broke the egg and started to eat it. The remaining seven eggs had all hatched by the end of the first week of July, but before the chicks could fly a further two disap- Notes 76 peared; the five others fledged successfully. It is interesting to note that ten of the nests were situated on the edges of the four larger lochs on the island; the other five were each on small pools, just big enough to enable the divers to make their running take-off, and four of the five chicks which survived came from nests on these small pools. Digby P. Cyrus Stillions, 9 Windmill Hill, Alton, Hampshire Vagrant Squacco Heron feeding in dry habitats A Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides was found on St Mary’s, Isles of Scilly, on 1 st May 1970; it remained until 3rd June, occasionally visiting Tresco and St Agnes (Brit. Birds, 64: 345). On St Mary’s it fre- quented the highest part of the island, some 45 metres above sea level; a large marsh about 1 km away in a nearby valley was ap- parently seldom visited. I watched it feeding for a total of about three hours, mostly in fairly long grass in a small dry field. There were a number of ewes with very young lambs in this field, and in consequence, many large dumps of soft droppings were present. These were carefully inspected by the Squacco Heron which ex- tracted small worms from the droppings with darting movements of its head and bill. Other unidentified edible matter was taken but, in addition, the heron also obtained dozens of very small snails from the grass stalks by slowly extending its neck and head and gently picking them off. D. B. Hunt also reported the heron catching insects near the droppings, and found it visiting a small roadside pool and there taking small eels (Apodes) which were battered and then swallowed (Isles of Scilly Bird Rep. 1970: 4, 23). Bernard King Gull Cry, 9 Park Road, Newlyn, Cornwall Swift wing-clapping At 09.25 hours on 20th June 1954, at South- ampton, Hampshire, I witnessed a Swift Apus apus apparently wing- clapping after the manner of a Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus. Fly- ing about 50 metres above the ground, it appeared suddenly to raise its wings high over its back until they looked briefly vertical, and then very quickly lower them until they seemed to meet below the body. This action was repeated several times and about six claps were heard in very quick succession. There seemed no doubt that the wing-tips were in fact meeting and thus causing the rapid clap- ping sound. Although Swifts were breeding in the area, no others were seen in the vicinity at the time the wing-clapping was noted. Aerial coition was seen on the following day. There is no mention of this behaviour in The Handbook, nor in David and Elizabeth Lack’s paper on the breeding behaviour of the Swift in Brit. Birds, 45: 186-215. Graham Bundy cjo 111 Porchester Road, Woolston, Southampton Swallow singing from the ground During the showery after- noon of 19th July 1973, I was in the farmhouse kitchen at New Hall, Appleby, Cumbria, when I heard a Swallow Hirundo rustica singing strongly. On looking through the window, I saw the bird less than ten metres away, sitting on level ground on the verge of the maca- damised farm road. In the five to six minutes that it was watched it sang loudly, with only short pauses. I can find no reference to this behaviour in Swallows. R. YV. Robson The Ings, Banks Lane, Appleby, Cumbria ca i 6 6r a Bigamy in Reds^rt On 7th June 1969, at Llanfair Talhaiarn, Olwyd, I caught and ringed a hen Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus which was brooding a few small young one or two days old, and incubating several unhatched eggs, in a nest in a stone wall. On 13th June I again visited the nest to ring the young, only to find four chicks and an unringed hen sitting on five eggs. I ringed her and the young, and then retreated and watched the nest to see what hap- pened. Within five minutes a ringed hen returned and entered the nest, to be followed four or five minutes later by another ringed hen and a cock, both with food, which in turn each entered to feed the young. I visited the nest again on 22nd June when I ringed a further five young, the first four apparently having fledged. Alan E. Male 41 Brookfield Drive, Rhos-on-Sea, Clwyd Professor Dr Lars von Haartmann (1969, Ornis Fenn., 46: 1-12) cited three references to bigamy in the Redstart (1034, Beitr. ortpfibiol. Vogel, 10: 188; 1946, Vdr Fdgelv., 5: 91-92; 1958, Vogel - warte, 19: 254-255), involving five proven and successful cases t tough in at least four of these ( Vdr Fdgelvarld reference not seen) the two females had separate nests. A sixth case, mentioned in the logelwarte paper, in which only one nest was in use was unsuccessful. \ here are at least two further records of suspected bigamy (1026 Aqmla, 32-33: 289-290; 1941, Ardea, 30: 175-214). Eds Probable bigamy in Nightingale During the past few vears I have ringed a number of nestling Nightingales Luscinia megarhynchus near Farnham, Surrey. In 1972 a breeding male in this area was wearing a ring, and what was presumably the same bird held exactly the same territory in 1973. Although trapping of adults usually ceases during the breeding season, there seemed to be some justification m the latter year for taking a quick look at the ring on this bird before it had settled down to breed, and to trap the bird it was decided to lure it with a tape-recording of the song, concealed Notes 78 behind a mist-net. The whole operation took less than ten minutes and the bird proved to have been ringed as a nestling at this same site on 6th June 1970. No other male responded to either the tape or the singing Nightingale, and for the remainder of the period covered by this note no other singing Nightingale was ever seen or heard within a kilometre of this territory. The normal period for ringing young Nightingales is exceptionally short— the last two days of May and the first fortnight of June — though repeat nests for those lost earlier in the season do occur. Since I was to be away on holiday until 8th June, I asked Anthony Martin to look at the area during the weekend of 2nd-grd. On my return he reported that the female was building on 2nd. Allowing three days for the completion of the nest, four days for laying, 13 for incubation and five for the chicks to grow to a reasonable size for ringing, we decided that the site might repay further attention at the end of the month. Meanwhile, I had been asked to find a Nightingale for a keen ringer from Yorkshire who had never seen the species and who was coming to Surrey on 9th June. The first nest we visited proved to be empty — the young had probably fledgtd the previous day — so we decided to try to find the ringed male. On our arrival at the site it was immediately apparent that this pair, too, already had young. The female was carrying food which was being deposited in several different places, and occasionally, when she was particularly noisy, the male joined her; but he did not appear to be carrying food, and as soon as things quietened down he returned to a small oak about 50 metres south of the probable nest site. Breeding was finally proved when we discovered a newly fledged Nightingale in the bracken. In spite of this, AM was still convinced that a female had been carrying nesting material on 2nd June, so on 30th June we visited the territory again. This time, both birds showed in no uncertain manner that our presence was resented, but the bracken was now two metres high and no attempt was made to locate the nest. The male was seen to be wearing a ring as before. The possibility that the pair was still protecting the earlier brood had to be considered, but this appears highly unlikely, since by then they would have been five weeks old, well able to fly away from possible danger and almost certainly able to feed themselves. The only reasonable conclusion, therefore, is that two females were involved and the ringed male was the father of both this and the earlier brood. P. G. Davis Timber Tops, Marley Common, Haslemere, Surrey We have found only one old record of bigamy in the Nightingale, by G. Clodius (1895, Orn. Monatsschrift, 19: 136-137). Ens Notes 79 Unusual tameness of Robins At Comrie, Tayside, on ist December 1973, a very cold day (— io°C) with 5 cm of snow lying, I and two companions climbed through forestry plantations from about 60 metres above sea level to moorland 380 metres above sea level. Almost from the start, three or four Robins Erithacus rubecula attached themselves to us, staying within a few metres until we were out on the moor nearly 200 metres from the edge of the forest. If we paused, they would close in to within less than a metre of us, making off if we moved suddenly and then returning. They appeared to be hungry, but we could not say whether they were following us because we were possibly disturbing vegetation or soil, or whether they were ( xpeoting us to give them scraps. In such a location they would prob- ably have been either locally bred, rural Robins or winter visitors, neither of which would be expected to regard human beings as sources of food. Also, we noticed that they did not particularly search boot marks or other disturbed areas of vegetation. David Merrik West Faerwood, Dollar, Central Region Professor Dr H. Geyr von Schweppenburg, in a paper on tameness in birds (J. Orn., 93: 32-35), believed that the habit in Robins of associating in severe weather with large animals, including man, was an innate motivation, derived from the feeding opportunities provided by disturbance of snow, ice, vegetation, stones and soil. He found that Robins wintering in woodland at Eicks uber Mecher- nich, West Germany, in 1950/51 were positioned at almost every site where workmen might be. On 22nd December 1950 he entered the wood in a cart drawn by two horses; one Robin followed in short flights for about 200 metres, stopping when they reached a clearing; a second joined the horses just before they came to an open, snow- covered field, and continued with them out of the wood, perching in the snow, before returning to the trees. Later, all the wintering Robins in the area perished in the extreme cold and snow, and Geyr von Schweppenburg found that the tameness had not been ‘learnt’ by other individuals. Mr Merrie’s observation, though obviously similar, is unusual in that three or four Robins were involved to- gether, and their persistence and readiness to stray so far from cover is remarkable. Eds Letters Bill colour of juvenile Arctic Terns Graham Bundy (Brit. Birds, 67: 246-247) stated that the bills of juvenile Arctic Terns 8o Letters Sterna paradisaea on their breeding grounds in Shetland have definite red or orange at the base, this being at variance with P. J. Grant and R. E. Scott’s descriptions (Brit. Birds, 62: 297-299). While seawatching at St Ives, Cornwall, on several dates from 3rd September 1974, I was able to identify well over 100 juvenile Arctic Terns from mixed groups of Sterna terns using exactly the criteria cited by Grant and Scott in their paper. At no time did any show a trace of colour at the base of the bill. The conditions of observation and lighting were almost perfect, and many of the birds passed at very close quarters. It therefore appears that Mr Grant’s suggestion in his reply to Mr Bundy’s letter, that the pale base to the bill is rapidly lost once migration is under way, is valid for most, if not all, juvenile Arctic Terns. Victor R. Tucker 5 Westfield Avenue, Hooe, Plymouth, Devon Palearctic birds in East Africa: corrections Two inaccuracies occurred in JFR’s paper on Palearctic birds in East Africa (Brit. Birds, 67: 70-76, plates 5-12), which this note seeks to correct. Firstly, although commonly seen in the same habitats as Yellow Wagtails Motacilla fiava , almost all the Red-throated Pipits Anthus cervinus ringed in East Africa have been caught in marshy areas at Naivasha and Lake Kisima (both in Kenya), and only six (in over ten seasons) have been caught at Nairobi sewage farms with Yellow Wagtails. Secondly, JFR incorrectly reported that a Yellow Wagtail had been recovered at Gydanskii Poluostrov (7o°N, 75°E), but one has been recovered even further east near Narym, Tomsk Region, at 58°53'N, 8i°36'E. Of the 33,451 Yellow Wagtails ringed to 30th June 1974, 17 have now been recovered in the Palearctic: two in Saudi Arabia, one in Qatar, one in Iran and 13 in the USSR (Back- hurst, ‘East African bird ringing report 1972-73, 1973-74’, J- E. Afr. nat. Hist. Soc. natn. Mus., 146: 1-9). G. C. Backhurst and J. F. Reynolds P.O. Boxes 2 goo 3 and 40584., Nairobi, Kenya The best recent work by British bird-photographers The policy of the editors (Brit. Birds, 67 : 197) to allow the frequency with which a species has been previously featured in the ‘best recent work’ series to affect its future selection is to be applauded. And, as the editors themselves do, many readers will welcome the increasing proportion of stills taken away from the nest. At the other end of the frequency scale are those species least photographed or, indeed, apparently never photographed. In assem- bling photographic material for his Atlas of European birds (i960; English edition, 1964), Professor Dr K. FI. Voous could find no Letters 81 photographs of the Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris , Anda- lusian Hemipode I urnix sylvatica, Black Lark Melanocorypha yeltoni- ensis, Pied VVheatear Oenanthe pleschanka, Olive-tree Warbler Hippo- lais olive torum or Pechora Pipit Anthus gustavi. Whether these have since been photographed we do not know, but stills of them and of other very rarely photographed species would provide both a human challenge and an ornithological opportunity. Light of the 14 photographs in the most recent selection {Brit. Birds , 67: plates 29-36) were of birds away from the nest, but only two or three showed birds really ‘doing something’. Is it to be hoped that we may see more stills of birds ‘behaving’ ? We can recall no photographs of gulls Larus spp shell-smashing, Song Thrushes Eurdus p/nlomelos at the anvil or Lammergeiers Gypaetus barbatus dropping bones; and few of Goldeneye Bucephala clangula or Red- breasted Mergansers Mergus merganser displaying in the wild, or of wild b i 1 cl s anting. Has anyone photographed a House Sparrow l asser domesticus dust-bathing, or a shrike Lanins sp impaling its prey ? One last point. We suspect that the smarter-looking sex of dimorphic species come in for more attention than their mates, and that birds in adult plumage take precedence in bird-photographers’ minds over those in immature dress. Photographs of sub-adult gulls would be valuable scientifically; surely immatures provide no greater or less photographic opportunity than do adults? Pei haps our photographic editor, with his unparalleled experience, could attempt some kind of wants list, even though it would neces- sarily be somewhat arbitrary? Jeffery Boswall and Rodney Dawson BBC Natural History Unit , M hiteladies Road, Bristol bs8 2lr Easter Ellister, Port Charlotte, Islay, Strathclyde In reply, may I say that most bird-photographers today take their pictures for the sheer joy of doing so. They do it for relaxation, often being able to spend only their holidays plus a few weekends at it. They are almost all amateurs. With respect, both the authors of the above letter are in a position to spend much more of their time taking photographs than are most other bird-photographers. One is a professional who is in the fortunate position of being able to travel the world making fabulous films of birds and mammals, many of which have never been filmed before. The other is a farmer and. being his own master, can take time off whenever anything in- teresting turns up. I could not agree more with what they say, but to secure photographs of almost any of their suggestions — plus a lot more that I could think of — would take months, if not years, of care- ful planning. The amateur bird-photographer, even if he were thus inclined, just would not have the time to attempt this type of work. 82 Letters Incidentally, the authors cannot recall photographs of certain subjects they list, which goes to show how difficult it is to keep abreast of the work being done. For instance, Jane Burton has some fine photographs of birds anting (and we published a series in Brit. Birds, 50: plates 57-62) ; years ago C. W. Teager obtained an excel- lent series of pictures of birds dust-bathing, including House Sparrows (see plate 6 in The House Sparrow, by J. D. Summers- Smith, 1963) ; Richard Kearton and Frances Pitt took photographs of a Song Thrush snail-smashing ; and a German photographer has photographs of a Red-backed Shrike L. collurio impaling a beetle. Eric Hosking 20 Crouch Hall Road, London n8 8hx Please note that all prints for consideration for this year's selection should reach us by the end of February. Each print should be marked clearly with the month, year and (new) county (or country, if abroad) in which the photograph was taken. Request for information Checklist of the birds of The Gambia A comprehensive checklist of the birds of The Gambia is currently being prepared by Jens Kirkeby and Jorn Vestergaard Jensen in co-operation with the Gambian Ornithologists’ Society. It is intended that this checklist will bring together all bird records, published and unpublished, for The Gambia. Anyone having unpublished records is requested to make these known to Jorn Vestergaard Jensen, Holtevej 13, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Den- mark. All contributions will be fully acknowledged. The Common Birds Census Thirteen breeding seasons have now passed since the British Trust for Ornitho- logy started its very successful Common Birds Census. The main aim of the scheme has been to keep an annual check on the population levels of our more common birds. The technique involves mapping the breeding territories of birds on study areas selected by birdwatchers throughout the country. An important secondary object has been to quantify the breeding bird communities in different habitats and areas. Farmland is the chief habitat censused, others ranging from woodland, park, heath and moor to gravel pit, sewage farm and nature reserve. New plots are always welcomed, particularly farmland. Details may be obtained from Kenneth Williamson, Populations Section, BTO, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR. News and comment Robert Hudson **'i,ud“ *» “Hating? In ‘News ,„d commen,’ for J y 1974 (Bnt. Birds, 67: 304-305), I referred at length to disquieting attitudes h d in some quarters in North America (especially the USA) towards scientific collecting; and 1 have s.nce been told by j. B. Tatum of an incident last May when ^ Z COl,1CCu°r SHOt 41 IpSwich SParrows Basseradus princeps n RxLBCi\ °n thCir S°Iefbreeding ground on Sable Island, Nova Scotia. Insists’ Uninl Ts T thc Journa* of the American Ornitho- logists Union Dr G. h. Watson reported that, in view of concern expressed in recent years about collecting and the uses made of wild-caught animals, whether useum, laboratory, educational or display purposes, thc AOU had set up an nd lwc Committee on the Scientific and Educational Use of Wild Birds. This com- mittee had been instructed to draw up a statement that rationalises (in a contem- porary context) the need for scientific collecting and the maintenance of research ections to ofTcr a brief, meaningful code of ethics for collectors; to consider the of wild-caught birds m experiments, and to recommend a code of ethics for investigators, including minimum standards for the maintenance of wild birds in laws resn ? “T*”* Wh"e ncccssary> interpret state, national and overseas laws respecting the export, import and interstate shipment of scientific specimens and live birds; and to consider ways of developing liaison with regulator bodies so that scientists can be kept abreast of changes in laws and regulations influent^ T T* ^ '"T “ * Step in thc ri8ht direction, for thc AOU is an influential body. Even given the undoubted fart that museum ornithologv is pur- sued more assiduously in North America than in Europe, there seems no relTn why a right to bear arms should be a right to collect newly colonising breeding birds, in particular. Meanwhile, the National Audubon Society maintains a deafening silence on the issue. d? C , n , inference The fifth International Conference on the Conservation of Wetlands and Waterfowl took place from 2nd to 6th Decem- ei 1974 at Heihgenhafen in West Germany; it was attended by delegates and h 'l'Vrs T.39 natl0rS and eleven intcrnati0nal organisations, making it by far thc lar^t of these conferences yet held. Thc proceedings were in two parts- the presentatmn of national reports, followed by about 35 technical papers. These ind flie°rerCh 3 7** T*® SpCCtnim °f intcrests' from thc productivity of wetlands and the results of regular censuses of ducks and waders to the techniques used in e assessment of habitat and thc statistics and rationalisation of hunting. .Although maclcdhe effo^ H '7 COnstructive> to° of the participants had ade the fTort to produce papers for prccirculation ; this inevitably reduced dis- cussion, and therefore some of these interesting papers did not receive the considera- tion that they deserved. Thc published proceedings will be looked forward to with anticipation During the conference it was announced that Sweden had become a Contracting Party to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Im- Sthlrnaet-theh°Urth na^°K t0 d° SO' j°ining Australia> Poland and Norway. Five Ge^wTranVVT . t 7 bcCOme fuU parties to «** Convention: West Germany, Iran Switzerland, Britain and the USSR. Among the 17 recom St s h ^ thC Hcilig!,nhafCn C°nfcrencc was one urgfng the Secretary f State for Scotland to reconsider the proposed rescheduling of Pink-footed and fcStrfbS\y^%™”.'rt,P“iC5’ Under 'h' Pr°""i0n °fBird' A" ,954' ^ 'tZZZTr M“> Grcylas ™"Kri„g to Bri.ain now visit the Tayside Region of central Scotland, where they have become so 83 News and comment 84 unpopular with farmers that some are agitating for restrictions on shooting to be lifted. In November 1971 over 500 Greylags were found poisoned with trithion (carbophenothion), an acutely poisonous but non-persistent organo- phosphorus pesticide used to treat autumn-sown wheat against the wheat bulb-fly Leptohylemyia coaretata as a substitute for more persistent organochlorine com- pounds ( Wildfowl , 23: 88-91). At least 300 more geese were found poisoned in similar circumstances in Tayside in late November 1974. The birds may obtain the grain where it is not buried thoroughly in sowing in wet autumns, though it is remarkable that this does not appear to occur elsewhere. (Contributed by Dr W. R. P. Bourne.) New nature reserves The Nature Conservancy Council announced the declaration of three new National Nature Reserves on 10th December 1974. Leigh NNR in Essex is a reserve of 257 hectares at Leigh-on-Sea, comprising part of Two Tree Island, its adjoining saltmarshes and a large area of mudflats. In the past this site had been safeguarded by the Essex Naturalists’ Trust and the local wildfowlers’ association, but it has now been leased to the NCC by the District Council of Southend-on-Sea, following its rejection of proposed commercial de- velopment on the land. This reserve includes some of the best surviving examples of saltmarsh in the Thames estuary, while the adjacent mudflats are winter feeding grounds for large numbers of waders, and also for a significant number of Dark- bellied Brent Geese which utilise dense beds of foster a growing near Two Tree Island. Swanton Novers NNR in Norfolk consists of 60 hectares of ancient deciduous woodland near Fakenham, established by nature reserve agreement between the NCC and the landowner, Lord Hastings. This is probably one of the most im- portant woodland sites in lowland Britain, since it consists of what are probably mediaeval coppices which have never been completely cleared. The NCC will carry out management experiments as well as monitoring the plants and animals; the range of woodland types and the lack of disturbance make the reserve especially suitable for this kind of work, the results of which may be useful for woodland management generally. The Lizard NNR in Cornwall comprises 42 hectares of heathland on Goonhilly Downs in the parish of Mullion, purchased by the NCC in order to conserve then- wildlife. Most of this reserve is covered with purple moor-grass Molinia caerulea and black bog-rush Schoenus nigricans, while the rare Cornish heath Erica vagans grows plentifully there. Some tracts of unenclosed land have relatively undisturbed soils— a rare condition in lowland Britain. These, together with recent extensions to the Derbyshire Dales NNR and the Lindisfarne NNR in Northumberland, bring the number of national nature re- serves to 140, comprising a total of some 1 14,520 hectares. Oystercatchers again In the December 1974 ‘News and comment’ I complain- ed about the large-scale shooting of Oystercatchers being carried out in the Burry Inlet, south Wales. I have since heard that the target figure (no pun intended) of 1 1 ,000 birds in two winters was reached in early December, and that the cull has now ended, much to the relief (I gather) of the harassed Ministry of Agriculture field biologists concerned. I understand that there was little or no spat fall from cockles in the Burry Inlet this year, and that stocks are so reduced that cockle- fishing has, for the present, ceased to be a viable industry there. The futility of the Oystercatcher cull is thus underlined. It is a pity that the VIPs who authorised it cannot be compelled to pay for 1 1 ,000 cartridges out of their own pockets ! Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds October reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records 2irl°AH '?74 ^ tHf TldcS[ *n England since *9' 7- An anticyclone situated in m.d-Atlantic persisted throughout the month, producing a cold airstream from the north with several periods of gales and storms, particularly in the first four days and during the last ten. SEABIRDS A White-biUed Diver Gavia adamsii was seen off Aberdeen (Grampian) on 21st and a few days later, on 26th, a Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophns flew past Flamborough (Humberside). The only Balearic Shearwater plnus puffinus mauretanicus reported was off St Ives (Cornwall) on 19th. A Sooty Shear- water P was seen off Selsey Bill (West Sussex) on 6th, while the species was noted in higher numbers in north-east England and in the south-west: a total SluiLP?Nod hPUT ( UnbCrSldc) during thc rnoruh and ‘9 ^w north off Seaton SluK.e (Northumberhincl); maximum in the south-west was ten off St Agnes (Scilly) on 7 th. Enormous numbers of Little Auks Plautus alle were ‘wrecked’ bv the C Cnd of °ctobf : we heard sightings from 22 places and no 3b‘ 0?*®" haVC gonc unreP°rted as yet. The first two were seen off Spurn on ,st and 13th; there were no more records until 23rd when four passed Spurn and eight passed Great Yarmouth (Norfolk); a few singles were noted from then until 29th when the huge numbers were apparent. On that date large flocks, unprecedented n some cases were seen at many points on thc east coast from Kent to Northum- berland, including a total of 3 19 off Spurn and 1 79 off Hornsea (also Humberside) • movement vvas generally north in Kent, turning west into the shelter of the Swale/ ro^d toTh- W«h"‘Ua!I nfr ‘h™ f0ll°Wing ,hc E“‘ Anglia" co-MJinc ound to The Wash, north of which it appeared to be north or north-west; passage a n nl|°d ^p3-0?1 a?d 3ISt’ mvo,ving generally smaller numbers. At the same time 1 o n do nan d K e n t " ^ rCP°rtS WCre rcccived from Humberside, Suffolk, Greater Other seabirds of interest were a Gannet Sula bassana flying south-west over the |o“, f “ (Cambridgeshire/Norfolk) on 17th, and a Puffin FraUrcula arctica 1 exhausted beneath the elevated section of the Mio at Loudwater (Bucking- at Guthe s°n|lT ’ a J diGd- A Laughing GuU atricilla was identified at Gugh (Scilly) on 22nd and there were Sabine’s Gulls L. sabini at St Agnes on 3rd, 7th and 8th, in Norfolk at Blakeney on 12th and flying west at Cley on 12th (two) and 30th, at Whalsay (Shetland) again on 12th. and* Spurn on Lnd and NIGHT HERON, STORKS, SPOONBILLS AND WILDFOWL Hcr°1t! -X-vcticorax VC&orax was reported during thc month at Walland Marsh (Kent) There was a White Stork Ciconia ciconi? at Adversane Es^ex) on !h ^ ^ tW° ^ °n the Hadldgh downs and marshes he north i ll ^eseiatter may have escaped from Colchester Zoo to Warren mev r a ^ * °ame in high off the sea at Dawlish nor,h up ,he Elt<- ■—* « -ved A female Blue-winged Teal Anas discors was reported on the Ouse Washes JSV1* t0 ’4th’ and Eiders Sanatoria sfiectabUis appeared at Gutcher (ShetUnd) on ,oth and off Murcar (Grampian) on ,3th: further north a drake Steller s Polys icta stelleri was off Westray (Orkney) on 25th. Long-tailed Ducks Qcmgula hyemalts were recorded at nine places in England, including three inland. 85 86 October reports and a northerly movement was noted off Teesmouth and Northumberland with up to 47 in the latter county. Northumberland also recorded the largest numbers of Velvet Scoters Melanilta fusca with 160 north at Seaton Sluice during the month, the peak being 79 on 4th; two inland at Ogston Reservoir (Derbyshire) on 13th were the first in Derbyshire since 1968. Early Smew Mergus albellus were noted at Loch of Hillwell (Shetland) on 6th, at Teesmouth on 26th and 27th and at Cliffe (Kent) on 29th. Bean Geese Anser fabalis were reported from Steart (Somerset) early in the month (three), Hallington (Northumberland) on 6th, Fair Isle (Shetland) from 12th to 20th, Litlington (East Sussex) on 14th (five flying inland), Donna Nook (Lincolnshire) on 15th, Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) on 26th (four), and St Mary’s (Scilly) where of five which arrived at the end of the month four were later shot. Two Blue Snow Geese A. caerulescens arrived with Greenland Whitefronts A. albifrons flavirostris at Wexford Slobs at the end of the month, and another came in with Greenland Barnacles Branta leucopsis at Islay (Strathclyde) early in November. Barnacles were noted in higher than average numbers at several places: in Northumberland a southerly movement was recorded at four places with a maximum of 300 at Holy Island. The first Bewick’s Swan Cy gnus bewickii flew north at Seaton Sluice on 12th and the species was subsequently seen in at least 20 localities with no flocks exceeding 50. RAPTORS AND CRAKES After the Little Auks the second outstanding event in a highly interesting month ornithologically was an influx of Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus in numbers unprecedented this century. Singles at Size well (Suffolk) on 2nd and 9th and at Rye Harbour (East Sussex) on 9th were followed by about six more until 22nd, when the huge influx began. The vast majority of reports were understandably from the east coast: on 22nd at Minsmere (Suffolk) 45 were seen drifting south in small parties of up to three (but including one flock of eleven birds), and at least 1 5 came in off the sea at Beachy Head (East Sussex) and headed north ; two days later 40 were counted moving south-west at Walberswick (Suffolk), presumably different from those seen at Minsmere; and singles and small groups continued to be seen into November. Other raptors of note were Goshawks Accipiter gentilis at Steart on 13th and at Donna Nook on 1 6th ; a Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus at Beachy Head on 5th; single Ospreys Pandion haliaetus in the Donna Nook/ Covenham area for most of the month, at Draycote Reservoir (Warwickshire) on 5th, at Blithfield Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 7th and at Wotton Lakes (Bucking- hamshire) about 8th; and a late Hobby Falco subbuteo at Minsmere on 30th. Spotted Crakes Porzana porzana were found in Scilly on St Mary’s and St Agnes in the middle of the month, when up to three were present, and on the Exe marshes, while singles were at Blaxhall (Suffolk) on 3rd (found dead) and at Draycote Reservoir on 5th. A late Corncrake Crex crex was at Fenham-le-Moor (Norfolk) on 2nd and another on Out Skerries (Shetland) on 26th. WADERS Following the inland reports of Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima in September {Brit, Birds, 67: 529), there were further sightings at Blithfield Reservoir on 3rd and Daventry Reservoir (Northamptonshire) on 17th. Two Temminck’s Stints C. temminckii were at Lower Stoke/Allhallows sewage farm (Kent) on 12th. Up to 30 Avocets Recurvirostra avosetta were still at four places in Suffolk, while singles were at Steart from 14th and at Cliffe on 29th. Late Red-necked Phalaropes Phalaropus lobatus occurred at Freckleton (Lancashire) from 10th to 16th and at Covenham Reservoir from 23rd to 29th. Single Grey Phalaropes P. fulicarius were at Dungeness (Kent) from 1st to 5th, on St Agnes on 3rd and 4th with another there on 7th and 8th, at Byfield Reservoir (Northamptonshire) on 14th, at Wells (Norfolk) on 26th, at Sandwich Bay (Kent) on 29th and at Great Yarmouth on October reports gy 30th, while unidentified phalaropes at Spurn on 23rd and 26th were probably of this species. There were rather fewer vagrant waders in October than might have been expected. Three Lesser Golden Plovers Pluvialis dominica were in the Hayle < stuary (Cornwall) on 3rd and 4th; a Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa jlavipes at Fieckleton from 6th into November may have been the bird seen at Martin Mere (Lancashire) in September (Brit. Birds, 67: 530); a White-rumped Sandpiper C.fuscicollis was at Kidwelly (Dyfed) from 12th to 26th; and Pectoral Sandpipers C. melanotos were at Martin Mere about 7th, at Wisbech sewage farm (Lincolnshire/ Norfolk) on 9th and at Marazion (Cornwall) for the second half of the month (two). A Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopiis was found at Wells on 21st. near-passerines and passerines A Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus was reported in the New Forest (Hampshire) on 22nd, remarkably close, in both place and time, to one in 1973 (Brit. Birds, 67: 328). An immature Rufous Turtle Dove Slreptopelia orientalis on Fair Isle on 3 1st and 1st November will, if accepted, be only the fifth for Britain and Ireland. Only one Hoopoe Upupa epops was reported, near Wysall (Notting- hamshire) on 24th. Migrant Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major ap- peared on Fair Isle on 2nd (two), 8th and 9th (two) and 21st, on Holy Island from 5th to 13th, at Slaley (Northumberland) on 6th (two which arrived with thrushes), at Teesmouth on 10th and at North Shields (Tyne & Wear) on 15th. A Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea remained on Fair Isle from nth to 15th. while migrant Woodlarks Lullula arborea were seen at Donna Nook on 22nd and 23rd, at Beachy Head on 26th and at Dungcness on 31st. The autumn’s first Shore Larks Erernophila alpestris were, surprisingly, two at Chouet headland (Guernsey) on 15th and 1 6th; these were followed by very small numbers at Holy Island. I eesmouth, Spurn, Minsmere and Harty (Kent). A Treecreeper Certhia familiaris trapped on St Agnes from 4th to 12th and seen on St Mary’s the next day was the first record for Scilly. An adult female Black-throated Thrush Turdus mjicollis at Tolob (Shetland) on 5th and 6th is only the fourth British record, the second this century and the first since 1958. Stonechats Saxicola torquata showing the characters of the Siberian race maura were reported from Holy Island on 12th and 13th (two) and on Out Skerries on 16th. A Bluethroat Luscinia svecica was on Fair Isle on 2nd, another on Out Skerries on 12th, and one was caught at Sauvagdes (Guernsey) on 17th. while up to four were present on Holy Island from 12th to 14th. The continuing frequency of Cetti’s Warblers Cettia cetti was reflected in records of seven birds trapped: one on the Exe marshes on 9th and another on 21st, both juvenile females; at Holme (Norfolk) on 15th and' at Oulton Broad (Suf- folk) on 20th ; and three more at a south coast locality. A Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides was reported at Portland (Dorset) on the late date of 20th. nexpectedly, a second Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola for the autumn was trapped, this one at Hauxley (Northumberland) on 12th; if this and the one trapped on St Mary’s (Brit. Birds, 67: 531) are both accepted the British and Irish total will be five. A Sedge Warbler A. schoenobaenus was on Fair Isle on 3rd and a Reed Warbler A. scirpaceus at Spurn on 5th. Single Aquatic Warblers A. paludicola appeared at Dawlish Warren on 25th September and 10th October and at Marazion marsh on 3rd and 19th October. In Scilly there were single Melodious Warblers Hippolais polyglotta on St Agnes on 1st, St Mary’s on 13th, and Icterines H icterma on St Mary’s on 5th and from 10th to 12th, but far rarer was a Booted Warbler H. caligata on St Mary’s on 8th. This last would be the sixth record for Britain and Ireland. Barred Warblers Sylvia nisoria were reported from ten sites: apart from one on St Mary s on 5th and another at Beachy Head on 9th, all were from the east coast, a total of about 14 including seven individuals at Spurn between 6th and 20th 88 October reports Dartford Warblers S. undata appeared in Kent at Sandwich Bay on ioth (the first record for the observatory) and at Bough Beech Reservoir (the first inland record for the county since 1957); with numerous coastal records for Hampshire the breeding success of the species in 1974 is obviously being mirrored. Yellow- browed Warblers Phylloscopus inornatus were noted at 14 places, about 24 indi- viduals being found on the east, south and south-west coasts, the Isle of Man and in Scilly. However, the final outstanding event in October was the arrival of a number of other Asiatic Phylloscopi. Pallas’s Warblers P. proregulus turned up at Holy Island from 4th to 7th, at Teesmouth on 9th, on St Mary’s from 12th to 14th, at Happisburgh (Norfolk) on 14th, on St Agnes on 22nd, in the Holkham-Wells area (Norfolk) on 24th and 25th, and at Beachy Head where there were four: one from 14th to 17th, another on 3rd November and two from 17th to 19th November, one of which stayed until 21st. Also at Beachy Head, on 18th October both a Radde’s and a Dusky Warbler P. schwarzi and P.fuscatus were trapped. Another Dusky Warbler which arrived on Fair Isle on 13th was trapped on 14th. Twenty or so Red-breasted Flycatchers Ficedula parva occurred, again mostly on the east coast, though the highest number was in Scilly where there were four on St Agnes on 1 7th. Single Richard’s Pipits Anthus novaeseelandiae were present on many dates up to 9th on Fair Isle, about eight were found in Scilly during the month, and about 12 others included one inland on the Ouse Washes on 13 th and one at Port Grat (Guernsey) on 21st and 22nd. Only four Tawny Pipits A. campestris were found — singles at Long Rock, Penzance (Cornwall), on nth, at Steart on 15th, on St Agnes on 20th and at Cooling (Kent) on 26th. An Olive- backed Pipit A. hodgsoni stayed on Fair Isle from 24th to 26th, and the second Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola there this autumn was present from 2nd to ioth. An invasion of Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus became apparent when records were received from 20 places, many involving flocks of up to 60 ; most were again from the east coast, with a few inland records from Grampian, the Tynemouth area, the Midlands and East Anglia; while it would be fruitless to try to estimate the numbers involved, quite obviously several hundred arrived, mostly during the latter half of the month; many more were noted in November. Passage of Lapland Buntings Calcarius lapponica was noted on the east coast and in the west, the highest numbers being on Fair Isle where ten were present on 1 2th and 13th. Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis were found inland at Blithfield Reservoir on 12th (two) and at Drakelow (Derbyshire) on 25th, the latter the first Trent Valley record since 1969. A Serin Serinus serinus was on Tresco (Scilly) on 1 6th and another at Donna Nook on 20th, while on St Mary’s up to ten were present, though it is not known how many of these (if any) were recent arrivals. Of two Bullfinches Pyrrhula pyrrhula at Hauxley on 23rd one which was trapped was found to be of the northern (nominate) race, and another northern Bullfinch stayed at Teesmouth from 23rd to 27th. A Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus was trapped at Beachy Head on 1st and another was on St Mary’s on 1st and 2nd. As many as six Little Buntings Emberiza pusilla occurred, singles on Fair Isle from ioth to 13th, on St Mary’s on ioth (moving to Gugh where it was still present on nth), on Tresco on 16th and on St Agnes on 24th, and two were at Ross Links (Northumberland) on 14th. An immature or female Black-headed Bunting E. metanocephalawas on Fair Isle on 6th and 7th and, finally, the only Ortolan Bunting E. hortulana of the month was a first-year bird near Hartley (Northumberland) on 22nd. Books on Birds Bought and Sold An extensive collection of ornithological material is available at all times for research, reference and investment. Whether your interest lies in the Palaearctic species or those belonging to the other great regions of the world, it will ensure satisfac- tion by contacting the only ornithological literary specialist. Bird books are purchased either as single items, small collections or complete libraries. Please offer any that are surplus to your requirements. ★ ★ ★ CATALOGUES ISSUED ★ ★ ★ DAVID EVANS THE WHITE COTTAGE PITT, NEAR WINCHESTER HAMPSHIRE, U.K. Telephone Winchester (0962) 3746 Zeiss "Unbelievable!” said John Gooders, the celebrated author and ornithologist "with the new centre focusing, the 8x20B is an amazing achievement When it comes to originality, even the clever orientals cannot compete with West German Zeiss.” The central focus adjustment is just right for finger tip operation, the binoculars are ideal for use with or without spectacles, and the whole design and finish are up to the highest Carl Zeiss standards. The size of a cigarette packet, they go into your vest-pocket - what a wonderful present for Christmas. fW n V VI VI Full details from the sole UK importers flSflJElMiXiltt Carl Zeiss (Oberkochen) Limited Degenhardt House, 31-36 Foley Street, London Wl. 01-636 8050 IV Binding ‘British Birds’ The comprehensive index for 1974 is to be published in February 1975. There will be no short index to British Birds in future and all subscribers will receive a copy of the comprehensive index automatically. Volumes for binding (with the form on the back cover of the index filled in) should be posted, not to the publishers, but direct to the binders : P. G. Chapman & Co. Ltd. Kent House Lane Beckenham Kent BR3 1LD The charge is £2-75 per volume, which includes the cost of packing and return postage. The binding will be in the same style as in previous years and earlier volumes can also be bound at this rate. The West Wales Naturalists’ Trust Ltd (formerly the West Wales Field Society) Membership of the Trust is open to all who are interested in the study and conservation of wildlife in Wales. The annual subscription of £2 entitles members to: (a) (b) (c) and and and free issues of Nature in Wales, which appears half-yearly of the quarterly Trust Bulletin; field excursions, lectures and meetings; visits, without landing fees, to such island sanctuaries nature reserves as Skomer, St Margaret’s, Skokholm Cardigan Island. The activities of the Trust include the co-operative study of such habits S SS birdS 3nd SCa S 3nd 1116 recordin2 of their distribution and M^^VnNTh^°RfJlee)'ySk^*r l.sland’25P; Plant List of Pembroke- shire sin' lbLBh ? J- Cardiganshire, 55p; Plant List of Carmarthen- shire, 55p, Skokholm Bird Observatory Reports for each year to 1971 25p each; Nature in Wales back numbers, 55p' THE WEST WALES NATURALISTS’ TRUST LTD 4 Victoria Place, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire Volume 68 Number 2 February 1975 53 Editorial: What results from bird-ringing? 56 Underwing pattern of Storm Petrels Jeffery Boswall Plate 11 57 Field identification of grey geese M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace 68 Studies of less familiar birds 175 Brown Flycatcher Dr Ian C. T. Nisbet, Dr Irene Neufeldt, Eric Hosking and D. I. M. Wallace Plates 8-10 Notes 75 Breeding success of Red-throated Divers on Fetlar Digby P. Cyrus 76 Vagrant Squacco Heron feeding in dry habitats Bernard King 76 Swift wing-clapping Graham Bundy 77 Swallow singing from the ground R. W. Robson 77 Bigamy in Redstart Alan E. Male 77 Probable bigamy in Nightingale P. G. Davis 79 Unusual tameness of Robins David Merrie Letters 79 Bill colour of juvenile Arctic Terns Victor R. Tucker 80 Palearctic birds in East Africa: corrections G. C. Backhurst and J. F. Reynolds 80 The best recent work by British bird-photographers Jeffery Boswall and Rodney Dawson, and Eric Hosking Request for information 82 Checklist of the birds of The Gambia Jens Kirkeby and Jorn Vestergaard Jensen 82 The Common Birds Census 83 News and comment Robert Hudson 85 October reports D. A. Christie Printed by Henry Burt & Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 3 March 1975 BIRDS AND OTHER ANIMALS AT SAND MARTIN COLONIES VIEWPOINT MANGE IN CHAFFINCHES BARRED WARBLER STUDIES Editorial Address n Rope Walk, Rye, Sussex TN31 7NA ( telephone : 07973 2343) Editors Stanley Cramp, P. F. Bonham, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee F. R. Smith, 117 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3PP C The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 31.F ( telephone : 01-836 6633) Annual Subscription £ 7.00 U.K. and Eire (£8.00 Overseas) including index (Payment may be made in any currency at the current exchange rate. 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Pepler INTRODUCTION One of the traditional features of the ‘Notes’ section of this journal has been to publish data on nesting associations. In recent years several notes have appeared concerning species breeding in the 10 es of Sand Martins Ripana riparia; the most recent were by Durman 1973) and Mather (1973b). During the 1960’s we were both involved in catching and ringing Sand Martins during the breeding season as part of the British Trust for Ornithology’s ringing enquiry into the species. We often noticed nesting associa- tions with the Sand Martins, and also witnessed predation on them and on their ectoparasites. This paper summarises our observations Many other ringers also involved with the enquiry must have collected similar information from other parts of the countrv but no attempt has been made to obtain these data from them. COVERAGE AND METHODS The geographical extent of our combined experience at Sand Martin colonies can best be gauged from fig. 1, which shows the estimated number of colony visits in each county during 1960-69 (the old counties are used throughout this paper). In all nine counties with more than ten visits, at least one colony was visited regularly over a ^o 000 °w7u B?]tVVee,n,US’we were Pr°bably present at more than 50,000 bird handlings during several hundred visits to well over 100 difierent colonies. [Bnt. Birds , 68: 89-99, March 1975] 9° Birds and animals at Sand Martin colonies • 1-4 o. • 5-9 • 10-24 • 25-99 • 100 + Fig. i . Counties where the authors visited colonies of Sand Martins Riparia riparia for ringing during 1960-69. Dot sizes indicate the estimated number of colony visits in each county (The number of visits in Berkshire should be shown in the 10-24 category, not 25-99) Most of the colonies were in man-made situations, generally actively worked sand quarries, and, except in Scotland and Wales, hardly any were discovered in natural sites. The noimal iinging practice was to erect mist-nets in front of the holes at night to catch the birds emerging in the morning. Extensive experiments bcfoie the start of the national enquiry had shown that this technique was most effective and that, provided that the birds had not been dis- turbed during the excavation phase of the breeding cycle (generally completed during the first part of May), it did not cause the Sand Martins to desert. The nets were removed from the holes while the first catch was ringed and recorded, and were then re-erected for a second catch. These techniques allowed birds of any species occupy- ing Sand Martin holes to be caught and examined, and also meant Blrds and animals at Sand Martin colonies 9I tliat the ringers were present at, or very near, the nesting burrows tor a considerable part of the time spent at the colonies. NESTING ASSOCIATIONS The most obvious nesting association involved another species breeding within an occupied colony in unmodified Sand Martin bur- rows. In the case of species which actively excavate their own bur- row, nothing short of continuous observation could prove whether or not the hole being used had been dug initially by a martin. The systematic list that follows does contain examples of perfect burrows icing used by other species, but several instances refer to imperfect r ? ‘Ct 10 ^ heinS ut,1,sed by rather unlikely birds. In all cases, since the actual nesting chamber of the Sand Martin, whether still at the end of a burrow or exposed by erosion, was probably being used by he intrusive species, it would be quite possible for parasites normally associated with the martins (see page 94) to be transferred to other hosts. lor instance, the tick Ixodes lividus has been taken from Tree Sparrows Passer montanus occupying Sand Martin burrows (S F Barnett in litt.). v ' We have not conducted a search of the literature, which contains inrlnLrr^rd^°LneS-^guaSS0Ciati0nS (f°r exampIe> The Handbook included Sand Martin s burrow among recorded nest sites of the Wryneck Jynx torquilla ); all are from our personal experience. ei laps one exceptional species might be mentioned, though our only direct experience of its nesting with Sand Martins was at Zaragoza, Spain: the Bee-eater Merops afiasler. The 1955 nesting record from Sussex (Barhan, a al. ,956) was front a Sand Martin colony at which one of us subsequently ringed. In most cases, the list that follows gives the number of colonies w nn each county where the species in question was recorded (one m ^of^r6 nUmber-iS sPecificd)- In ^ny instances, several [ H mfUS1Ve SpeC,CS WCre prcsent in a sinSIe colony; also, species were often present for several years. ^iffnff^i? tinnUHClluS: NorfoIk (tw°)i Dorset, Hampshire and h the n r.CaSer nCStS WCre in greatly en,ar-ed holes or rifts the colony face. In two instances the enlargements were probably caused by children playing, but the other nests were in holes either enlarged by the effects of the weather or, possibly, caused by animals before the pit was excavated. The nests were all situated well into rof aCC’ !S doubtful that an exposed Kestrel nest in an active °n> could be successful, as the occupants would be mobbed continuously by the martins as long as they w-ere in sight. Stock Dove Columba oenas : Hampshire, Norfolk and Suffolk (several in each); Bedfordshire (three); Berkshire, Dorset and Birds and animals at Sand Martin colonies 92 Oxfordshire (two each) ; Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire and Sussex. This species was often present in surprisingly narrow holes within the main part of a colony. Sometimes several pairs were nesting at one site. One Suffolk colony had four pairs in the face occupied by Sand Martins and at least a further four down burrows of Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus , all active at the same time. Little Owl Athene noctua : Hampshire (two); Bedfordshire and Norfolk. In all cases the occupied hole was at the edge of the colony. Although one of the Hampshire holes had probably been enlarged by human digging, the others were probably ‘natural’. Kingfisher Alcedo atthis : Berkshire and Hampshire. In both cases the presence of a Kingfisher nest at the colony was probably fortuitous, the conditions for one species to be able to dig its burrow being suitable also for the other. One nest was directly over water, and suitable streams for the birds to fish in were within easy reach. Jackdaw Corvus monedula: Hampshire (two) ; Berkshire, Cambridge- shire, Dorset, Norfolk, Perthshire and Suffolk. Large holes at old colonies were often regularly occupied from year to year. At the Noi'folk colony four or five pairs were sometimes present. Great Tit Parus major : Hampshire (four); Norfolk and Suffolk (three each); Bedfordshire (two); Dorset, Fife, Nairnshire and Sussex. Great Tits can easily enter and use normal Sand Martin holes for nesting. All the occupied holes were at colonies with trees close at hand. Blue Tit Parus caeruleus : Oxfordshire (four); Hampshire (three); Lincolnshire and Norfolk (two each) ; Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Perthshire and Sussex. Even the narrowest Sand Martin hole can be used. Several occupied holes were a considerable distance from the nearest trees. Coal Tit Parus ater : Aberdeenshire, Inverness-shire, Norfolk, Perthshire and Suffolk. It is rather surprising that more Coal Tit nests were not found, since sand outcrops are often associated with coniferous trees and Coal Tits frequently nest in holes in the ground, among tree roots or, when they are available, in stone walls. Wren Troglodytes troglodytes'. Dorset and Hampshire. In both cases the nesting chamber of a partly eroded burrow was used as a base for a normal domed Wren’s nest. Both were at colonies in old sand- faces partly overhung by dead vegetation and roots. Blackbird Turdus merula : Oxfordshire. The exposed nesting cham- ber at a badly eroded face provided a platform for a typical Black- bird nest. ttnds and animals at Sand Martin colonies (.^ Robin Erithacus rubecula : Bedfordshire. The nest was constructed in the same situation as the two Wrens’ nests described above. Spotte*1 Flycatcher Muscicafia striata : Suffolk. The nest was built m the exposed nesting chamber of a Sand Martin burrow; although ve acta?011063 Cd 67 °Verhangin^ veSetation> ^ was not supported by vegetation or roots. y Tied Wagtail Motacilla alba: Berkshire, Huntingdonshire Norfolk and Oxfordshire In all cases a partly eroded hole was used as the ip of thence1' H ° C°UntieS the nests were dose to the hp of the face and among the roots of the overlying vegetation but m the others they were partly inside crumbling hole? on a s’a d face free of vegetation. Starling Sturms vulgaris Almost every well-established colony had Sand Martin holes taken over by Starlings. The only countv of the 30 visited (see fig 1) where they were not found was Kincardineshire where only one colony was visited. In our experience newly dug oles were never taken over by Starlings, as their breeding season starts so much earlier than the Sand Martins. However, hofes from Er^tWere rai'able; if ,hC sand-fa“ had survived the s ’ f cas' one ,burrow was usually taken over by Starlings. Some colonics housed up to a dozen pairs. HZnes hr™" fT" d°meStiCUS Again’ "10St well-established colonies had some holes occupied by House Sparrows, but a few present i^eT™ hf ltatIOn’ had none- No House Sparrows wer^ present n the few colonies we visited in Carmarthenshire Kin- cardineshire, Midlothian and Morayshire. This pugnacious species is probably able to dispossess Sand Martins but, as with the Starling most pairs are likely to be ‘in residence’ before the martins are showing serious interest m the colonies. Their presence provided apparent amusement for the newly fledged Sand Martins. While still withm the colony, the young martins, frequently in large gangs very often chased drifting feathers, many of which were provided bv the untidy nests of the sparrows. Sometimes adult sparrows while attempting to add material to their nests, were so harried by the ::t » d”p Tree Sparrow Passer montanus Although this species is not nearlv *e H°USe wefound 1, nesZt lost of the Sand Martin colonies within its range. All counties hr TT iaUg lt STd Martins between the Thames and the Hum- 1 had colonies with Tree Sparrows, as did Sussex. Some contained lreasdiri0no.aCt'Ve 1?“' ^ 7'" Colonies rcmole wooded a eas did not escape this species attention. Birds and animals at Sand Martin colonies 94 Other hirundines Although not a nesting association as such, the two other British breeding hirundine species are occasionally found at Sand Martin colonies during the nesting season. Mather (1973a) mentioned a record of a juvenile House Martin Delichon urbica entering a hole in an occupied colony, possibly to roost. Up to one in every thousand of the martins we trapped at Sand Martin colonies were actually House Martins. Although these were often attracted to the colony simply by the activity of the Sand Martins, there were several instances when House Martins were caught in the first morning catch and it was thus inferred that the individuals concerned had spent the night in a burrow. This also happened, though much less frequently, with Swallows Hirundo rustica. PREDATION AT SAND MARTIN COLONIES We have recorded several species of birds and mammals taking or attempting to take Sand Martins from burrows or while flying, apparently feeding on parasites at the nest entrances, or scavenging below the occupied face. All such activities are described in the following sections. The parasites taken, familiar to all Sand Martin ringers, were almost certainly the flea Ceratophyllus styx which overwinters in Sand Martin burrows and forms a ‘reception committee’ (Rothschild and Clay 1952) for the returning migrants. The fleas are stirred into action by the first visit of a bird to the burrow where they have overwintered. If the weather is warm enough, they migrate down the burrow to sit clustered on its lip, ready to jump on to anything which passes close enough to put them in a dark shadow. At this stage they are readily visible and can be pecked off by any bird willing to brave the inevitable shower of fleas provoked by its own shadow. Avian predators Buzzard Buteo buteo At a Dorset colony a Buzzard landed on the lip of a sand-face occupied by Sand Martins and started to eat what proved to be a freshly dead juvenile. Later, what was assumed to be the same Buzzard spent some time apparently trying to take young Sand Martins which were congregating on the sand-face; it was persistently mobbed by a cloud of martins. It is not possible to say with complete certainty that the bird was starting to eat a Sand Martin it had itself killed rather than a corpse it had found. I he body was, from the state of its primaries, of a fully fledged bird. Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus Although Sparrowhawks were at a low ebb during the period we were trapping Sand Martins, they Birds and animals at Sand Martin colonies g,- were undoubtedly regular predators at colonies in districts where they were stdl present. The hunting hawk normally appeared low and fast over the lip of the occupied face of the pit and took a martin, m light, before any of the birds realised what was happening Passing, cruising Sparrowhawks and those flying slowly having made a kill were persistently mobbed by the Sand Martins. Records o predation by this species came from several colonies in Hampshire rorn two each in Dorset and Norfolk, and from one each in Bedford- shire, Berkshire, Nairnshire, Perthshire and Suffolk. Hobby Falco subbuteo This species was a common predator at “ omes m southern England. The Hobby would ‘wait on’ over the colony and suddenly stoop very fast, ‘throwing up’ at the end to take a martin During the quiet of an early morning, the sound of the Hobby rushing through the air followed by the distinct thud of its impact on the unfortunate martin was unforgettable. Some large colonies which were obviously close to nesting Hobbies were sub- jected to very considerable predation. During a late July visit to one ampshire colony, lasting six hours, there were eleven Hobby kills (every stoop successful). Almost every colony regularly worked in Hampshire and Dorset was subjected to Hobby predation at some time during our visits. It was also recorded in Bedfordshire, Berk- shire, Norfolk, Suffolk and Surrey. Several autumn roosts of Sand tins which we visited were also subject to Hobby predation. In some cases locally breeding Hobbies (or oflT-passage birds) appeared every evening at the time that the martins started to gather. At Chichester, Sussex, up to three Hobbies were present together in some years. Merlin Falco columbanus At an Inverness-shire colony a Sand Martin was taken m flight by a Merlin which appeared from, and returned to, adjoining hill country. The ease with which it took the martin seemed to indicate that it regularly fed on them. Kestrel Falco tinnunculus A ubiquitous predator at Sand Martin colonies, this species was very much less successful than the Hobbv in taking flying martins. All raptors are mobbed by Sand Martins which have a special alarm call to warn of the presence of avian predators. Successful Kestrel predation most often took place close i° a C°lony and Presumably most often involved voung birds. Sand Martins caught in mist-nets proved particularly attrac- iv c and this resulted m our capturing and ringing over 30 Kestrels, compared with only a handful of Sparrowhawks and a single Hobby. Prairie Falcon Falco mexicanus A free-living Prairie Falcon, later Mar°t ZZt fR HfVe^een l0,St S'X m0nth$ PreviousI>’’ took a Sand * lartin at a Bedfordshire colony in a most spectacular fashion. Birds and animals at Sand Martin colonies 96 Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus At several colonies in Hamp- shire and at one in Dorset this species was regularly seen coming down to hole entrances. The gulls’ actions were usually consistent with flea feeding, but they readily took the contents of exposed nests after cliff falls. Barn Owl Tyto alba At two colonies, in Hampshire and Norfolk, Barn Owls came over in daylight and swooped down at the occupied face. At the Norfolk colony a bird (presumably a Sand Martin, though Tree Sparrows were also present) was taken. Little Owl Athene noctua At one of the Hampshire colonies where Little Owls were breeding (see page 92), both birds of the pair attempted to catch Sand Martins during the morning. One martin was taken, and it is likely that young, free-flying martins are vulner- able to this species. Tawny Owl Strix aluco At a Hampshire colony a Tawny Owl appeared several times at the occupied face and attempted to catch Sand Martins. At least one attempt was successful (only martins were present). All three owl species were seen attempting to catch Sand Martins only during the later part of the season when young, inexperienced birds, not yet capable of expert flight, were available. Corvids All five widely distributed species were seen to show interest in Sand Martin holes, apparently as a source of food. Jackdaws and Carrion Crows Corvus corone were definitely seen to peck at the entrances as if taking small items of food, presumably the fleas. Adult Rooks C.frugilegus were seen doing this only once, at a colony in Bedfordshire with Jackdaws. Carrion Crows, Jackdaws, Magpies Pica pica and, once in Lincolnshire, a Jay Garrulus glandarius were seen to take advantage of cliff falls both to predate exposed nests and also to scavenge Sand Martin casualties below the face. Magpies and, to a lesser extent, Carrion Crows were seen enlarging holes in obvious attempts to expose the nest contents. Only once were Rooks seen to do this. Mammalian predators Mammal predation of, or at least interest in, Sand Martin nests was mostly inferred from tracks found in the sand at the burrow en- trances. It was difficult to be certain what the mammals were doing, though pulled out nests were clear evidence of predation. Unlike avian predators, mammals cannot normally reach the entrances of burrows in colonies built in vertical faces. Mammal predation can thus take place only in the following circumstances : (1) Where the colony has been built on a low or sloping bank affording access to mammals. This is fairly frequent when, at a previously successful site, the birds are not afforded the opportunity, lhrds and animals at Sand Martin colonies gy by human activity or natural cliff falls, of building their burrows into a clean, vertical face. (a) Where erosion or human interference (usually quarrying operations but sometimes children playing) has created a scree reaching the holes or a ramp against the face. (3) Where the martins have built their holes at the top of the sand-lace. Here predators may be able to climb down from the top usmg overhanging vegetation and roots. It would be possible for them also to dig out nests near the surface, but we have never had a clear indication that this strategy has been adopted— except by the young of Homo sapiens ! y Hedgehog Erinacms europaeus A Hedgehog was discovered at night .. ow an occupied face in Hampshire eating the remains of a Sand Martin which had almost certainly been killed by a cliff fall. Red Squirrel Sciurus vulgaris In Norfolk a Red Squirrel was dis- turbed from part of a colony behind overhanging tree roots. Marks sm, rrnlCrtrMCC a behind the roots indicated that the squirrel had been trying to enter. This attempt was not successful, 1964) SPCCleS “ kn°Wn t0 Cat thC CggS and y°Ung of birds (Southern Brown Rat Rattus norvegicus Brown Rats were invariably present at colonies close to pits used for tipping rubbish. Their characteristic tracks were seen several times on scree and at the entrances of low v,Vhl m PAdu°- °n\eS' S°me burrOWS had tufts of nest material visible and had obviously been entered and disturbed Fox Vulpes vulpes The tracks of foraging Foxes were often seen in the did at colonies and, where burrows were within reach, deter- mined and often successful attempts were made to enlarge them and devour the contents of the nests. Stoat Mustela erminea and Weasel M. nivalis Mustelid tracks were doub edk T, 31 °CCUpied COl°nieS and both sPecics would un- doubtedly relish eggs, young or adult Sand Martins. The only direct evidence of successful predation was by a Stoat at a Norfolk colony mlel tW° En^Iish colonies> in Hampshire and uffolk burrows which had been dug out in low banks showed the unmistakable prints of this species. At a Scottish colonv, in Nairn- f 're,,a Eadger ,WaS disturbed as it approached an occupied sand- face, but no evidence could be found to suggest that anv previous attempts to excavate burrows had been made. Domestic animals , bats and invertebrates Cats and dogs have also been seen to interfere with Sand Martins colon, es near human habitation. Cats were never seen to attempt Birds and animals at Sand Martin colonies 98 to dig out birds from holes, but they often tried to catch both flying and perched martins. They were often successful in catching even the flying birds near the colony where the martins habitually flew very low. The cats normally concealed themselves in some sort of cover, sometimes up to a metre from ground level, to pounce on passing birds. The corpses examined were almost always of juveniles. Dogs generally paid little attention to the Sand Martins, but low holes were sometimes attacked. At one memorable colony the startled ringer discovered, at about midnight and by the light of a fast-failing torch, enormous dog footprints along the sand-face. It is at such times that warning notices about guard-dogs on patrol have their maximum effect! It is, perhaps, surprising that we have no records of bats (Chiro- ptera) entering or leaving Sand Martin holes. Several species com- monly occurred in areas where we operated, but it seems likely that they were living in buildings, hollow trees or other conventional sites rather than Sand Martin burrows. Obviously many invertebrates, apart from the parasites already mentioned, use burrows, but the only really memorable one was a species of wasp (probably Vespa sp ) which had an active nest in an old hole at the edge of an occupied colony in Hampshire. REMARKS From this summary it may seem that all sorts of disasters can over- take nesting Sand Martins and that they are the gullible victims both of species which wish to usurp their nests and also of predators. This is, of course, not the case. Only a tiny proportion of the nests at a normal colony is interfered with by other species of birds and, usually, none is accessible to mammalian predators. The recent sharp decline of the species in this country, which coincided with the crash in numbers of Whitethroats Sylvia communis, was certainly not due to this sort of interference with the breeding cycle. Recent evidence (Winstanley et al. 1974) correlates the decline of the Whitethroat with climatic change south of the Sahara and this is most probably the case with Sand Martins also. SUMMARY During several hundred visits to colonies of Sand Martins Riparia riparia for ringing purposes in the 1960’s, 16 other species of birds were discovered nesting in Sand Martin burrows. Three species — Starling Sturnus vulgaris, House Sparrow Passer domesticus and Tree Sparrow P. montanus — were particularly often encountered using unmodified burrows, but several others utilised only eroded, enlarged or relict holes. The records are listed by species and enumerated by county. As well as these nesting associations, predation on Sand Martins (or scavenging) at colonies by six species of raptors, three owls and five corvids, as well as by Black-headed Gulls Laras ridibundus and six or seven different mammals, is also described. These records too are listed by species and enumerated by county, Birds and animals at Sand Martin colonies 99 lean * veSlT^T* ^ ^ predator is mentioned. Sand Martin colonies in clean, vertical sand-faces cannot be reached by mammalian predators but rap ors may take quite a lot of birds at some colonies; Hobbies Falco subbuteo at ?Ze coin m SOU,!hern E?and’ COuld wcl1 take hundreds of birds from a single large colony each year. Nevertheless, such predation is considered to be almost insignificant in controlling the total population. REFERENCES Barham, K E I Conder, P. j„ and Ferguson-Lees, I. J. ,q56 ‘Bee-eaters “d “her SP"i" "",ing ” Sa"d Mani" Mcotey:.JB,t bmZ 66H44”«8ar‘in aPPare”tlV g0i"g 10 in Sand M"li” ^Parr°WS and °,her SP''C'" "“ling in Sand Marlin colonies'. W wscre W an U* ' sPecips ^ got through and so many field marks to be learned. Surely it is possible to watch and enjoy the birds and incidentally, at the same time, to learn the finer points of identification, many of which are connected more with their character than with their plumage and • ° 01 f on. Why, indeed, are we so anxious to encourage beginners m a belief that identification is a prime aim? Nlost^eople can appreciate a beautiful tree without asking what species i! is or see a dn k landscape without knowing that it is a cretaceous she w TP Wlth an an«ular flim ^el deposit. Whv s hou d not people enjoy tile sight and sound of birds pure and develon ,n,aWarCneSS °f differences and thus of identification will aevtJop at its own pace. Wlna,LSUrVhat 1 bCen describing a recent phenomenon. Why, foi instance, is it now so difficult for an amateur to write a monograph on his bird? Why does so much currentlv published work on birds conform to a scientific mould which cramps dfver-ence o thought or style? Will we again see men who can combffie “iP?inT °rnithoI°P with an ability to communicate their thusiasm . I suspect that present attitudes probably dictate the 102 Viewpoint least healthy answers to such questions. I am sure, for instance, that the old-time collectors now described in derogatory terms knew far more of the lives and habits of their quarry than do their modern counterparts. I know countrymen and farmers who have probably never seen a Peterson field guide, nor read British Birds , but who have a deep feeling and understanding of the ways of birds. Some- times their ideas deviate from accepted scientific wisdom: and here is the centre of the matter, because it is the increased scientific and professional nature of ornithology that has forced a rift between the birds and their admirers. While there are notable exceptions, such as the BTO-IWG Atlas project, it seems as if professional ornithology is increasingly antagonistic to the amateur, which in turn has altered the outlook of many amateurs led to believe that a scientific approach is essential. Surely there is no reason to scorn birdwatchers who delight simply in seeing birds with no other pretensions. I am sure that a generation of birdwatchers endowed with a simple interest in birds and a delight in their place in nature would produce a healthier ornithological movement in Britain. To many ornithologists today, I can only say keep your eyes and ears open because real appreciation of wildlife cannot be switched on and off: it is an attitude of mind, an awareness of the natural scene around you. Next time you leave a theatre (or pub) at night, lend your ear a minute to listen for any migrants passing overhead. Next time a flock of Lapwings flies past, ignore their state of moult, the adult/ juvenile ratio and the direction of flight, don’t count them, just watch and listen to one of our most beautiful birds. By such an approach, the natural ornithologist will find himself asking and then devising ways to answer his own questions, and all will realise that birds are wonderful creatures. Finally, if you find the periodical literature designed for amateurs unreadable, don’t despair and certainly don’t be ashamed. Why not write to the editors to ask who took the birds out of British orni- thology ? Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds Knemidokoptic mange in Chaffinches J. W. Macdonald and G. H. Gush INTRODUCTION In June 1961JWM examined a case of knemidokoptic mange* in a Chaffinch Fnngilla coelebs from Somerset in which the causative mite was provisionally identified as Knemidokoptes nutans (Macdonald 1902) ; since then, however, further work by Professor A. Fain in I ' atrhl rhaf Sh0T,n tHiS SpedeS t0 be restricted to the Galliformes. ;,n 7™ > Mocnemidocoptes passeris (Fritsch, 1962) occurs in he leather follicles, while on the skin of the legs K. jamaicensis Elsen^ 967) ^ tHC SpeCieS resP°nsible &>r the mange (Fain and From discussions with local ornithologists, it subsequently trans- pired that deformed feet’ in Chaffinches had long been recognised as endemic in Somerset and east Devon. In 1971, as part of a study PRr, 7 U T ?fsUmmer and w,ntcr migrants, including Chaffinches, lr , AT tC: nng as many as P°ssible of the Iocal population at Higher Metcombe, on the edge of the Venn Ottery Reserve of the Devon I rust foi Nature Conservation, near Ottery St Mary. results The rules of the British ringing scheme lay down that, except in oUedai irdCUmSt?CeS whi,C\mUSt be appr°Ved’ no sick> ^jured or oiled birds may be ringed. At the reserve 500 healthy Chaffinches have now been ringed. When a bird which has borne a ring for moie than six months is caught again, a retrap card is made out birds Zt W n°W fVailable f°r 58 Chaffinches a"d> of tbese, eight taS 77 Sh°T Varymg deSrees mange. As shown in sample’ predllect,on for a Particular sex emerged from this small The first evidence of the disease was invariably seen in winter or Tmg: 7 7'° b,rds °nly the riSht leS was affected, and in tvvo Others both legs simultaneously; in the four remaining, the sease stai ted in the right leg in two cases and in the left in the other two and eventually spread to affect both legs. Six of the birds were £— ..&5 5K3’,“ fool ST °r mannC affcct,ng thc tarsi and ‘he cauliflower growth, involving the joint, of papillomas can be readily differentiated in the field* S“;r,1 BoA cldi, o„s desenbed and illustrated in the references listed on pages 106-107 Ifini. Birds, f>8: 103-107. March 1975J 103 3 > -g V '> g n fl 2 c $ o c fl 0 > O Q 8? fl U C/5 C £ .2 O S bo-5 < Q fa H O fa fa fa < cT w fa Q Z < K » jes w c I fl X U -*-> X W) o W) c fl & 0 faj 0 TJ 4/ c faS in u to fl U •fi fl H T3 ^ —* bo C F T3 fl ^ bo < p -3 - 4-- C iTi3 s -s co CO - *"■ fl bo c3 c CN ■fl* co it _j fl CO (N o o 2 CO > o 2 c< r^» o c< CO CO r^* i"* 0 in ^ H A S •4* ,, ^ It X CO d *^Ph CO r>* cS C3 0 a § l3 a, 5 Q ^ C •5 ^ bo CL • 0 0$ <1 Both >0 Left Both Both •S .faD 0 CO | C/5 -g as (D in c >-l a < co c 0 s — . fl 3 3 ^ CO R '- (N r- CO -I r 1 3 fifa u 3 0 s a 2= , a fl fa fa a a 0 V Q (j Dec 72 Jan Jun %** >-7 0 *-> << tM U u C 0 , shelved symptoms of mange on ti e right leg in January 1973; no further change was detected when he bird was recaught March and April of that year, but in the fo lowing month, when she was breeding, a papilloma of the foot was seen to have developed in the already parasitised limb. DISCUSSION Although the parents of nestlings JE68567 and JE68569 (see above) u te not visibly affected with mange, the disease can remain latent for up ,0 five years (Fain and Elsen ,967) and apparentlv normal parents could be healthy carriers of the mite, transferring it to their eaclTnesdlr nCS'- Thr aPPeara„ce of the lesion in each nestling suggests that they were exposed to infection at the same time, and this could have occurred in the nest. The prepatenl P E J-> and Ash, j. S. ,969. ‘Mite lesions in Sedge \\arblers and bee-eaters in Africa1. Ibis, 111:6. 1-6.2, plate 18.] oTwUd bi’rru’*’ ancJ B^agkmore> D- K- '964- ‘Diseases of the skin and soft parts ol wild birds Brit. Birds, 57: 175- 179 (177), plates 22-23 (23b*).] ™SE,2* gg9^6' Dnemidocoptic mite infestations in wild birds’. Bull. Wildl. Dis. [LsnmVP' nVCSI.96,9'/I UniOUrS and wart-|lkc excrescences on feet and legs of some wdd^birds . Ardea, 57: 64-66, plates 3-4 foa-h*).] 77 I971, 5- ‘Chaffinches with papillomas’. Brit. Birds, 58: 346-347, plate 184 ]NGT°N’ ,9°4' ‘Unusual growths on feet of Chaffinches’. Brit. Birds, 57: W™N' 3ntl V,NCENT> D- J- '958. ‘Cnemidocoptic mange in the budgerigar ( Melopsittacus undulatus)'. J.A. V.M.A., 133: 522-524. J. w. Macdonald, MAFF Veterinary Laboratory, Lasswade, Lothian EH IO I HU G. H. Gush, Heather Cottage, Higher Metcombe, Ottery St Mary Devon EX I I I SR ^ J Studies of less familiar birds ij6 Barred Warbler D. A. Christie Photographs by A. N. H. Peach and J. B. and S. Bottomley Plates 12-15 The French ‘Fauvette epervieu , German ‘£/^ eastwards between about 56 N and 36 N to north-west Mongolia, just reaching northern Afghanistan (Vaune 1959). Birds from Turkestan eastwards are paler and greyer and have been assigned to a separate subspecies merzbachen. In Europe the Barred Warbler has extended its range north-westwards, small populations having become established comparatively recently in south Finland and southern Scandinavia, nc .cations that it may still be spreading north-west are provided by the first breeding record in the province of Sodermanland in Sweden in 1963 and 1964 at 59°8'N (Jenning 1965); in June ,972 VesffiTwM^ r7d f°r the firSt time in Norway, at Molen in V estfold (Numme et al. 1973), where the species had beer, an annual summer visitor since 1969. The preferred habitat is thick shrubbery, usually thorny on commons and meadowland. Damp meadows of willow Salix and ash Fraxinus are also frequented, as well as loose willow plantations interspersed with buckthorn Rhamnus, birch Betula and scattered irs. n parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina habitat consisting of oak willow and hawthorn Crataegus is occupied, and in Montene^o shady deciduous forest (Niethammer 1937, Steinfatt inf ’ ?' Rn1SCr 111 MC Cher I952^ The Barrcd Warbler is found also n bushy allotments, parkland and overgrown clearings in woods, though it normally avoids extensive forest. In the eastern parts \Ll Tmnge It.occurs mountains up to 2,300 metres above sea evel (Dementiev and Gladkov 1968). A notable feature is the speaes preference for damp situations, and a great liking is shown or wet meadows and overgrown ditches, while it is also found, some- times in some numbers, in open, bushy peat bogs. In Poland Gotzman (1965) found that low, thick bushes intertwined with tall grasses were a prerequisite for colonisation by the Barred Warbler and iso,ated ta" bush- — * p" Within all these habitats the Barred Warbler occurs irregularly nietrpOCa ' th°Ugh pairs may occasionally nest onlv too netres or so apart. It is one of the most skulking of its genus and especially during the breeding season, may easily be oveflooked I 10 Barred Warbler studies Since Barred Warblers prefer to feed in thick cover, perhaps the best clue to their presence is the voice. The remarkably loud, harsh alarm call, once learned, is unmistakable. It is usually uttered from cover, though it is not rare for a bird, when taken by surprise, to emit this metallic, grating sound from an open perch before darting for cover. The call is best transcribed as ‘tcherrr’ or ‘terrrr’, dimini- shing in speed and often followed by several softer, subdued notes ‘tjed, tjed’. A second common utterance used in excitement is a series of short, metallic notes, increasing in pitch and speed as the excite- ment intensifies and often heard when an intruder reaches the immediate vicinity of the nest. It may be described as a rapid ‘ti-ti- ti-ti-titititi’. Melcher (1952) recalled that when he was taking egg measurements the male perched on a nearby cherry tree and uttered this call continuously, while the female crept about in the bushes silent and almost unnoticed. U. A. Corti (quoted by Melcher) found that the churring call was not uttered in the immediate vicinity of the nest, rather that the bird moved to a distance of about 60 metres before calling, while Melcher himself found 20 metres to be the limit. The bird is, however, not always vocal: Rauhe (1956), after a fruitless half-hour search of habitat in Lower Saxony, suddenly heard the alarm churr only when a Fox Vulpes vulpes appeared. There is also a hard ‘tcheck’, similar to that of other Sylvia warblers. The song is a rather typical Sylvia warbling, perhaps most similar to that of the Garden Warbler and also somewhat like an improved version of the Red-backed Shrike’s song (Melcher 1952). It has a rich tone, comparable to that of the Blackcap S. atricapilla (Fry 1970), with rapid short phrases reminiscent of the scratchy phrases of the Whitethroat, and not infrequently the alarm churr is incor- porated into the whole. Melcher found these single phrases often varied and recorded occasional mimicry, fragments of the song ol the Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis being emitted, as well as single calls ‘dliii, dliu’ with a timbre recalling notes in the song of the Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos . Although the full song is at times uttered from deep cover, more generally a song-post overlooking the territory is chosen. This may be an exposed perch or the top of a well-foliaged taller tree or bush. From such song-posts the song-flight is conducted. This takes the form of an irregular fluttering flight, twelve metres or so above the ground, which may terminate at the starting point or elsewhere in the territory. Though infrequent, it is rather characteristic and may properly be considered a field mark. At the beginning of the iDreeding season song is most regular in the early morning and late evening. It generally ceases by mid- or late July. Birds arrive on their breeding grounds in late April and early May, Barred Warbler studies slightly later in the eastern parts of the range, though arrivals are j ln thc Moscow area from 18th April (Dementiev and Gladkov 1968). Nest-building takes place between mid-May and early June, the site chosen being normally very well concealed ow down in a bush, but sometimes up to 2.5 metres above the ground (Dementiev and Gladkov). Of 20 nests examined by a) /man (1965) m Poland, 15 were in twigs intertwined with tall sheltering grasses. Ten of these nest sites he studied in greater e ail and obtained the following averages: total height of the bush in which the nest was placed, 97 cm (50-200) ; height of the nest above the ground, 44 cm (20-100); thickness of the branches on which the nest was placed, 1 3 mm (6-22) ; length of branches, 4 1 cm Both sexes are said to build the nest (Witherby el al. 1938), though the males share may be limited and the nest lined by the female alone (Melcher). It is a typical Sylvia nest, resembling a large Wh. ethroats. An untidy structure, it is made of grass stalks and dried plant stems. On the outside the material is put together loosely and projects in all directions (see plates 14-15). The construction becomes t.d.er towards the inner cup, which is smooth and even and hned with very fine stalks and hair. The nest studied by Melcher had a cup measuring 8 cm in diameter and 4.2 cm in depth' and a ^tal depth of 7.5 cm. Dementiev and Gladkov gave corres- ponding average figures of 6-7 cm, 5-6.5 cm and 6.5-7. 5 cm respectively. 3 ' 3 A normal clutch is five, though there may be as few as three or as many as six eggs. Their ground colour is dull grevish-green or 82“* blotched irregularly with pale grey and with super- fic al faint brown speckles which arc more profuse towards the blunt end. Eggs with bold red-brown spots, as well as pure white unmarked eggs, have been recorded (Witherby et al.). Eggs are deposited on consecutive days. They are incubated, by both sexes fo^ da" and the fledging period is 14-16 days (Niethammer 1937). A single brood is normal but two broods have been recorded in Batumi, Georgia (Dementiev and Gladkov) Birred YvTh !."* "* Red-backed Shrik' overlaps tha, of the at rcc Warbler and the nesting association between the two species ^n kTc tA StUd,y °f "'is ^‘-nship made in Poland bv cmtcrrTl :965- ievej s “me interestinS facts. His observations , C<1 tc" lso|atcd nests of the shrike, nine of the warbler and eleven cases where both species bred in close proximity taXT nS,ZermT ured °-25-°-4° ha in the former and 0.16-0.30 ha D rox m hv to thoSe.cases ln "hich the two species bred in close proxtmtty to one another, territories overlapped completely in five instances and partly in two, while there was no overlap in three Barred Warbler studies I 12 This last situation occurred when two pairs were breeding at the edge of two different habitats, and then each species hunted in ‘its own’ habitat. There were several examples of both species nesting in the same bush complex in more than one year, and alternating breeding also took place in which one species nested in one year and the other in the same bush the following year. Fry (1970) thought it probable that this nesting association conferred some selective advantage on each species which was too slight to be measured. Gotzman mentioned the possibility that a mutual warning against danger might result, though he could not establish any mutual defence of the territory. He concluded that it was highly probable that the association was brought about by a particular composition of the habitat conditions and that no advantage was gained by either species. It is interesting to note, however, that the two species have been seen to associate closely with each other outside the breeding season (Ennion 1955). Though Red-backed Shrikes are generally aggressive towards other birds, Gotzman observed no direct contact between these and Barred Warblers, nor any attempts by either to drive the other away. On the other hand, Melcher (1952) witnessed aggression by a shrike on a number of occasions, especially when the warbler was in its immediate breeding area or visited its favourite lookout post. Pursuits were never sustained by the shrike, whose behaviour was, moreover, inconsistent. Sometimes it ignored the warbler when it used its lookout post, and it would often tolerate the warbler’s presence at a distance of only 60 cm. This same Barred Warbler attacked a Goal Tit Paras ater which entered its territory, driving it out from the hedge over open fields, this after the young warblers had left the nest. The principal diet is insects. These are generally obtained from low shrubbery and thick hedges in which the bird moves about stealthily, hopping from twig to twig, carefully searching the whole mass of foliage and tangled undergrowth and picking off its prey. Occasional attempts to catch insects in flight are rarely successful, the Barred Warbler being rather heavy and inept when it comes to twisting and turning sharply. Out of 50 observed instances of feeding, Gotzman (1965) found that 38 (76%) took place in low bushes up to 60 cm high intertwined with grasses, nine were between the thin twigs of taller bushes, and only three in tall grass near the bushes. Schmidt (1964-65) recorded that two pairs breeding along ditches in Hungary sometimes flew just out over the edge of the ditch to find food but usually remained to hunt in the bush and weed zone of the ditch edge. This tendency to feed in well-concealed habitats renders accurate observation extremely difficult, and may explain the paucity of detailed studies. In Russia ants (Formicidae) are Barred Warbler studies 1 1 3 commonly taken, as well as larvae of Locusts Locusta migratoria and various insects injurious to trees, and the species is consequently considered beneficial to agriculture (Dementiev and Gladkov). In autumn the birds take a greater variety of foods, including berries and, according to Fry (1970), the flesh of fruits such as pears and apples, as well as earthworms (Lumbricidae) and larvae- even the remains of a small crab (Malacostraca) have been found in the stomach of a British-killed bird (Witherby et al.). It is generally stated that Barred Warblers leave their breeding grounds in mid- to late August and early September (Niethammer 1937, Salomonsen 1953, Dementiev and Gladkov), but observations in west Slovakia by Kanuscak and Kuban (1969) during the autumns of 1965-67 showed that passage occurred from 26th July to nth September, with the peak in the first half of August. Autumn records on the Continent west of the breeding ransje are rare, one caught on Vlieland in the Frisian Islands on 30th August 1964 being only the sixth record this century for the Netherlands (Westra 1965), while three at Hesbaye on 4th September in the same year were the first ever for Belgium (Dambiermont et al. 1964). However, this does not apply to Britain, where the species is a regular autumn migrant. During 1958-67 at least 514, almost all juveniles were recorded, the great majority (83%) on the cast coast from Norfolk northwards, particularly in Shetland (Sharrock 1 H?3’ rA74)- More than three-quarters of these records were between 20th August and 23rd September, and almost half between 27th August and 9th September. The migration route in the western part of the range is assumed to be south-eastward. Sharrock concluded from the many data that BntIsh occurrences result from reverse migration. VV hfle this is very probable, the recovery of a bird in the province of Barcelona, Spam, on 5th October 1973 which had been ringed as 10,,' (F™ mJur™° (59°50'N, 2i°37'E), Finland, on ,6th August 9/ (Fernandez-Cruz 1974) suggests that perhaps a small number bvl^lf^ \Varblers do migrate south-west, as postulated y Rudebeck (1956). Accepting that the return northwards in spring «CC al°ngra north-westerly route, it is difficult to understand why there are so few records of Barred Warblers reaching Britain bv D^Gs^TqGA m AIay and JunC’ a P°int noted b>' both Sharrock and Although one might expect at least the birds in the eastern part Barred W kT ^ ^ in India^ the entire population of Barred Warblers winters in south Arabia and eastern Africa. in thiyth°m Uganda t0 TanZania (Vaurie !959). inhabiting scrub from T T™ I"dced’ there are only two records liom India, both in autumn (Salim Ali and Ripley 1973). Barred Warbler studies 1 14 REFERENCES Dambiermont, J.-L., Fouarge, J., and Delvaux, L. 1964. ‘Capture d’une Fauvette eperviere ( Sylvia nisoria Bechstein)’. Aves, 1 : 77-84. Davis, P. 1967. ‘Migration-seasons of the Sylvia warblers at British bird observa- tories’. Bird Study, 14: 65-95. Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. 1968. Birds of the Soviet Union. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, vol 6. Ennion, E. A. R. 1955. ‘Association of Barred Warbler and Red-backed Shrike on passage’. Brit. Birds, 48: 185-186. Fernandez-Cruz, M. 1974. ‘Recuperacion en Barcelona de una Curruca Gavilana ( Sylvia nisoria) anillada en Finlandia’. Ardeola, 20: 374- Fry, C. H. 1970. ‘Barred Warbler’. Birds of the World, 8: 2122-2123. Gotzman, J. 1965. ‘Die transspezifischen raumlichen Beziehungen zwischen dem Neuntoter ( Lanius collurio L.) und der Sperbergrasmucke [ Sylvia nisoria (Bechst.)] in der Brutzeit’. Ekol. Polska, 13A, 1 : 1-22. Jenning, W. 1965. ‘Hoksangare ( Sylvia nisoria) hackande i Sodertorn’. Var Fagelv., 24: 185. Kanus6ak, P., and Kuban, V. 1969. ‘Einige Bemerkungen zum Herbstziigen der Vogel von Umgebung Piestany’. fhornik, 15(2): I53_I56- Melcher, R. 1952. ‘Brutvorkommen der Sperbergrasmucke, Sylvia nisoria (Bechst.) im Domleschg (Kt. Graubiinden)’. Orn Beob., 49: 105-116. Niethammer, G. 1937. Handbuch der Deutschen Vogelkunde. Leipzig, vol 1. Numme, G., Sandve, J., and Thollefsen, J. 1973. ‘Hekkefun av Hauksanger i Norge’. Sterna, 12:61-64. Rauhe, H. 1956. ‘Auffallende Haufung der Sperbergrasmucke ( Sylvia nisoria) zwischen Elb- und Wesermundung’. Orn Mitt., 8: 24-27. Rudebeck, G. 1956. ‘Some aspects on bird migration in the western Palaearctic region’. Hanstrom Festschrift (Lund): 257-268. Salim Ali and Ripley, S. D. 1973. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay, London and New York, vol 8. Salomonsen, F. 1953. Fugletraekket og dels Gader. Copenhagen. Schmidt, E. 1964-65. ‘Vogelzonologische Untersuchungen in den Bergen um Buda. III. Nagykovdcsi’. Aquila, 71-72: 136-147. Sharrock, J. T. R. 1973. ‘Scarce migrants in Britain and Ireland during 1958-67. Part 9. Aquatic Warbler, Barred Warbler and Red-breasted Flycatcher’. Brit. Birds, 66: 46-64. 1974- Scarce Migrant Birds in Britain and Ireland. Berkhamsted. Steinfatt, O. 1938. ‘Nestbeobachtungen bei der Sperbergrasmucke’. Orn Beob., 35: 122-126. Vaurie, C. 1959. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Passeriformes. London. Westra, D. 1965. ‘Vangst van een Sperwergrasmus ( Sylvia nisoria) op Vheland’. Limosa, 38: 101-103. Witherby, H. F., et al. 1936- The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 2. D. A. Christie, 11 Rope Walk, Rye, East Sussex TN31 7NA Notes Fulmar occupying Ravens’ nest On 18th March 1974 I watched a pair oi Ravens Corvus corax nest-building at a sea-cliff site on Out Skerries, Shetland. The pair carried materials to the site all day and by about 18.00 hours the nest was virtually completed, with some lining materials in place. When I returned the following morning I found that the nest was occupied by a fulmar Fulmarus glacialis. About half the nest had been removed and was lying at the foot of the cliff, and I was able to see that what remained of the nest was spattered with an oily substance. I examined the fallen material and found that it too was spattered with Fulmar oil. The remains of the nest gradually c isappeared from the site, and later in the year a pair of Fulmars ->red on the bare ledge. The Ravens did not return to that cliff but built a new nest about 2 km away which was successful. As there had been no strong wind on the night of i8th/iqth March, it seemed unlikely that the nest had been partially removed by natural causes; I therefore drew the conclusion that it had been spattered with oil by Fulmars, which had taken it over and which later destroyed it. I had seen Fulmars in possession of Ravens’ nests on several ot ter occasions, but it had always been open to doubt whether they had evicted the Ravens or merely taken over a deserted nest. Iain S. Robertson lortland Bird Observatory and Field Centre , Old Lower Light, Portland, sheep wntammated by Fulmar oil During the autumn of .972, on Fetlar, Shetland, a crofter showed me several sheep that had been contaminated by oil from Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis. The wool was matted and sticky, with particles of heather, grass and other mate- rials adhering to it; in severe cases the wool had formed a black sticky lump. The crofter considered that he would be unable to sell sheep in that condition and, of course, the fleeces were useless In the area where these particular sheep were kept there was an inland colony of Fulmars. About 14 pairs nested on a rocky outcrop about 500 metres from the sea. It appears that the feeding sheep had strayed too close to the nesting Fulmars and had received the usual treatment meted out to intruders. From the extent of the oil- mg, sometimes on both sides of the animal, it seems that the sheep had been repeatedly oiled, and that they had not been alarmed or discouraged by the initial contact with the Fulmars but had conti- nued to feed within range of the sitting birds. Notes 1 1 6 With the rapidly increasing population of Fulmars, more and more inland sites are being used and this hazard to sheep seems likely to increase. Understandably the Fulmar is fast becoming an unpopu- lar bird among the crofters. Iain S. Robertson Portland Bird Observatory and Field Centre, Old Lower Light, Portland, Dorset Fulmar sitting on egg and two dead passerine nestlings On 7th June 1973, on Fetlar, Shetland, P. L. Garvey and I approached a Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis which was sitting on a small platform, in long grass, on a steeply sloping bank above a small cliff. The bird refused to budge even when we stood within a metre or two of it. The following evening we walked along the same cliff-top path and this time the Fulmar flew off while we were still some 15 metres away. On reaching the spot I found the usual single white egg lying on a patch of dead, flattened grasses, with grass about 30-40 cm high growing around it. Some 2-3 cm away from the egg was a very small, flattened nestling of a small passerine; and actually touching the egg on the other side was a second dead nestling, this one much larger, about twice the size of the egg, but still unfledged. It appeared to be a young Starling Sturmis vulgaris. Immediately adjacent to the flattened platform, leading into the bank, was a round, deep burrow like a Rabbit burrow. The sitting Fulmar would have effectively blocked this burrow entrance. The burrow may have been purely coincidental, or the nestlings may have been hatched in a nest inside; there was no sign of any parents. R. A. Hume 31 Lime Grove, Burntwood, Walsall WS7 oha Incubating Fulmars often lean forward and pick up objects from around the nest scrape, raking them in and sometimes dropping them to one side. However, it is impossible to speculate on how the dead nestlings came to be in the Fulmar’s nest. Eds Habitat preference and. behaviour of Crested Coots in winter The Crested Coot Fulica cristata is well distributed throughout eastern and southern Africa, but its range in the Palearctic is restricted to southern Spain and north-west Morocco, where it is very local. Smith (1965), who visited the majority of Morocco’s wetland habitats during a 15-month ornithological reconnaissance of that country, reported it from only three localities, and found it breeding at two of them, Daiat Douiyet (34°3'N, 5°8'W) and Lagune de Mehdia (34°i5'N, 6°4o'W). During late November and December 1973 I was privileged to visit both these lakes but, as Daiat Douiyet had almost dried out, I found Crested Coots only at Lagune de JVotes Mchdia This is a long narrow lake of about 175 hectares, steep- sidcd and deepest at the north and south ends, with little sub- mergent vegetation but with a shallower central area with an extensive grass bank and reed-beds of Salicornia and J uncus. The 21 Crested Coots that inhabited the lake spent almost all their time in this central area, grazing on the grass bank and occasionally feeding in the water, though rarely going far from the banks. wenty-three Eurasian Coots F. atra which shared the lake only occasionally ventured into this area, keeping to the more open waters of the north and south ends. On the few occasions when the two species intermingled, no interspecific intolerance was observed wh.ch suggests that habitat preferences rather than other factors separated the two species. Further, no aggressive behaviour was observed between Crested Coots and Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angushrostns or Moorhens Gallinula chlorofius which approached within 30 cm on occasion. 1 Compared with the frequency of aggressive behaviour that I have observed among winter flocks of Eurasian Coots, the Crested Coots were relatively passive. Charging was observed only twice and this metre ^ thf length °f the charSe being about one ct e. Neither party took to splattering, so frequent in Eurasian Coot conflicts, though the fleeing bird did partially extend its wings m an effort to travel more quickly; splattering is, however, known fo occur in this species (McLachlan and Liversidge 1957) On several occasions a Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus appeared • he grazing Crested Coots immediately fled to the water, assembled Zu' t rCu and T rePeatCd l0Ud’ hiSh-Pitcbed ‘hue-hue-hue’ calls. As the harrier hovered some three metres above the pack the coots stretched their necks forwards and upwards in defence Onlv when one strayed from the pack was a real attack made, the harrier then relentlessly swooping down, but each time the coot dived re- mained submerged for about ten seconds, reappeared briefly and and T °CCaSi°n * manaSed thus to rejoin the pack, shot n ™ r" retired’ ICaving the COOts to to the shoi e to graze. The formation of such packs has been reported in the Eurasian Coot in defence of attacks by birds of prey (Wend land iS-5 K,017°TWSk,1 I957i and by a Herring Gull Lams argentatus (Lord 1955), but I observed no response in Crested Coots to Ravens Camus corax or overhead aeroplanes; cattle were tolerated to within nee metres of a grazing bird, and sometimes individuals ventured to withm ten metres of me. However, the sudden appearance of a shepherd caused the coots to flee to the water and make metallic disninS Kr0f°0"\ Ca S’ and f°Ur individuals performed ‘churning’’ displays before the group split up into smaller units which took ver in the nearby reeds. Churning in both the Eurasian and 1 18 Notes American Coots F. americana is a display associated with nest defence (Gullion 1952, Kornowski 1957), and it is therefore interesting that this species should have indulged in this behaviour when not nesting. On another occasion when the shepherd appeared, no calls were given and the coots simply took wing and landed further out on the water. Nicholas A. Wood Breadstone Lodge, Breadstone, Berkeley, Gloucestershire REFERENCES Gullion, G. W. 1952. ‘The displays and calls of the American Coot’. Wilson Bull., 64: 83-97. Kornowski, G. 1957. ‘Beitrage zur Ethologie des Blasshuhns ( Fulica atra L.) . J. Orn., 98: 318-355. Lord, J. 1955. ‘Defence behaviour of a flock of Coot’. Brit. Birds, 48: 176. McLachlan, G. R., and Liversidge, R. 1957. Roberts Birds of South Africa. Cape Town. Second edition. Smith, K. D. 1965. ‘On the birds of Morocco’. Ibis, 107: 493-526. Wendland, V. 1937. ‘Beobachtungen iiber den Seeadler’. Beitr. Fortpflbiol. Vogel, 13: 175-182, 224-227. Long-tailed Tits using willow catkins as nest material In both 1972 and 1973, near Hale, Cheshire, my husband and I watched a pair of Long-tailed Tits Aegithalos caudatus building their nest in a large briar patch, using catkins from willows Salix, and a little moss. When completed, the nest was a large grey woolly ball of catkins. The usual covering of lichens was entirely absent. Phyllis French iyy Chapel Lane, Hale Barns, Altrincham, Cheshire WA15 osw A nest in a central London park in 1972, mentioned on the BBC radio programme The Living World, was also built without lichens, these being replaced by several kinds of mosses (but not catkins). We are grateful to Dr Bruce Campbell for bringing these records to our notice. Eds Dunnock killing Dunnock Dr Bruce Campbell s note ( Brit . Birds, 67: 121-122) on one Robin Erithacus rubecula killing another reminded us of an incident witnessed by half a dozen members ol the staff of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds at The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire, on 4th March 1970- Snow had been falling all day, eventually lying to a depth of up to 30 cm, and the bird tables were well patronised. Casual obser- vations at one of these, overlooked by a window in The Lodge, included a number of sightings of a particularly aggressive Dunnock Prunella modularis vigorously and continuously chasing another, with occasional brief flurries of actual fighting. Finally, somebody noticed that one of these, no doubt the aggressive bird, was standing .Motes ii9 on the prostrate but still living body of another small bird; as we watched the former was seen plucking out the latter’s crown eathers literally by the beakful, between delivering numerous heavy blows with its bill. The depth and softness of the snow made it difficult to see precisely what had happened to the victim. After a lew minutes MJE went out to look and found the corpse of a Dunnock its crown stripped bare of feathers and beaten to a bloody pulp. Subsequent examination revealed that the cranium had been cracked in at least two places. I he persistence of the aggressor was surprising in itself, but the savagery of what appeared to have been a brief struggle and the damage to the victim’s skull were quite remarkable. Michael J. Everett and Nicholas Hammond RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire scig 2dl Dr K. E. L. Simmons informs us that in spring 1974 he and his wife watched a prolonged fight between two Dunnocks which were spreadeagled and interlocked— claws-to-claws, breast-to-breast lor at least ten minutes. Eds Letters Manx Shearwaters plunge-diving Manx Shearwaters Puffinus piiffinus commonly feed by plunge-diving, in the manner described by Bernard King (Brit. Birds, 67: 77), when fish shoals are located very close to the surface. I think that the presence of numbers of predatory fish is an important contributory factor, serving to con- centrate previously widespread smaller shoals which have attracted large numbers of seabirds into several more concentrated groups, t lus offering a smaller, though much denser, feeding area. The shearwaters crowd together, and plunge-diving into die available ait as ol exposed sea affords an obvious advantage On 2nd August 1973, for example, in a i^-hour watch from the coast at Ilfracombe, Devon, during which several thousand Manx shearwaters and other seabirds were feeding over a large area of sea, I noted that several larger rafts were being formed. One, to w nch I paid particular attention, consisted of perhaps a thousand s earwaters, many Herring Gulls Larus argentatus , several Great Black-backed Gulls L. mannus and up to a score of Gannets Sula bass ana. This raft, over a dense fish shoal, was a scene of furious activuy, with many shearwaters feeding on or diving from the surface while the air immediately above was full of others wheeling and plunge-diving. Some idea of the density and proximity of the shoal to the surface could be gained from the behaviour of’the Gannets mostly first-year birds, which were flapping up heavily for only two 120 Letters metres or so before twisting in the air and plunging down again. Activity declined little during the watch. I have always regarded plunge-diving merely as one of several feeding methods that make the Manx Shearwater so adaptable in exploiting the available food supply to the best advantage. I would not think that the state of the tide, weather conditions, time of day or distance from the nearest breeding colony, all mentioned in Mr King’s note, are particularly important. The only record I have of a Manx Shearwater diving from flight other than when feeding was obtained on 12th July 1 973s when a fairly short but very spirited chase by a Great Skua Stercorarius skua was ended by the shearwater literally flying into the sea. W. E. Jones Ford House, Northfield Road, Ilfracombe, Devon EX34 8al Ectoparasites from other birds at Sand Martin colonies The recent references in this journal to various species of birds found nesting at colonies of Sand Martins Riparia riparia (see also pages 89-99) interest me very much as a parasitologist. For many years I have endeavoured to obtain information on the association parti- cularly of House Martins Delichon urbica with Sand Martin colonies. Attention was drawn to this in a paper by H. E. Beaumont and myself in The Naturalist (1968, no. 907, m-114) in which all the known records of the specific flat-fly Stenepteryx hirundinis of the House Martin found on Sand Martins were listed. In view of the fact that this flat-fly is incapable of flight, its presence on Sand Martins indicates some association with House Martins. There are records of certain species of bird fleas and of other species of flat- flies on Sand Martins that are not normally parasitic on them, which could be accounted for by the presence of Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, Tree Sparrows Passer montanus and other birds at their colonies. I would be interested to hear from anyone who has collected ectoparasitic material from Sand Martins and their nests, as I am studying the whole complex of the ectoparasites of the House Martin, Sand Martin, Swallow Hirundo rustica and Swift Apus apus. Gordon B. Thompson y6 Beaumont Road, Cambridge cbi 4PY News and comment Robert Hudson ?"“ed Greb' Thorough breeding reason censuses o the Great Crested Grebe were made in 1935, ,946-55 and 1965; and to maintain ctmus onnhersn thcRBntish Truust for Ornithology is arranging for a further “ t T P C1CS “ Bnta,n in the summer ^ 1975- The weekend chosen is 31st May- 1st June, and i t is essential that as many waters as possible arc covered admitted Oh ' °* areas. dlfTlcult of access> obtained up to 8th June will be ttcd Observers willing to participate, who have not already been contacted are invited to write to Mrs Diana Bertram, BTO, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertford- shire „p23 5^. Breeding Great Crested Grebes have been increasing steadily in lre™g *main£iS!“ry’ *"d “ ** imcrati"S *° •« "hcther this trend is still Future of estuarine counts The joint BTO/RSPB/WT ‘Birds of Estuaries Enquiry has been receiving regular counts for over 150 estuaries in Britain in many cases covering six complete winters, and these counts have formed the first thorough inventory of wading birds of the British coastline. The first phase of the t nquiry will end in May this year, and writing-up will begin. The future of these \ I apra Ua?thC C°UntS haS bCCn Uncl,‘r rcview’ anci in a rcccnt BTO News (no. 69) A J. Prater (the organiser) reported that it has been decided to design a new erus of counts to maintain a monitoring function; future counts wilf\c made each winter m December, January and February (when winter populations are most s able), starting in December 1975. These will enable a check to be kept on the distribution of estuarine birds, which will of course vary when parts of estuaries Th^BirdTof FstV neWFCVel°Pr,nen^ Natural‘y- onc of the most useful functions of b. t B b ?[E , S Lnquiry 1S to determine which sites ought not to be destroyed ■ but, with the planning for Wash and Morecambe Bay barrage schemes now well advanced, changes are bound to occur in the long term. RSPB expansion 1 he Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has recently (smbhshed a permanent South West Regional Office, based in Exeter Devon Hus office will cover Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire and Avon • mentthrolReglt°hnap0ffiCr!r apP°inted is Stanl°y Davk‘s- "ho formerly had a manage- nt roh. in the I ort ofEondon Authority, but joined the RSPB staff last October ro4T.ndt£fc“8lS,d UP°" T>“)’ 'Vala (NC'V'°'™- Taimyr tundra reserve The Soviet Information Bulletin of 8th October reported that a large area of the Taimyr Peninsula. Siberia, has been declared a s reserve; ,2.ooo sq km are involved, including tundra, river moufhs and lakes A b* !°®1Cal Stat'0n “ to be set UP therc to study the problem of protecting the fauna and flora of fragile tundra. The Taimyr Peninsula is an important breed”"* ? d f°r lafSe numbers of waterfowl which winter in Europe, and especially or it c ec ining Red-breasted Goose of which possibly as much as 8o0/ of the world population breeds there. ‘ °° 0 ol the ,S°.S°on after the rePrieve of Foulness comes the news that another of Europe s rich ornithological habitats is in danger of extinction from a.rpo.t development: this time the island of Saltholm in Denmark. The Danish overnment plans to build an international airport there, which would banish i.5oo pons of Elders and alro breed, „s colonies" ol' Greylag Crete BUck S I 2 I 122 News and comment Godwits and Avocets. Local arguments parallel those that surrounded the Foul- ness issue, for the island is important ornithologically and the aviation industry is concerned about the bird-strike risks attending an airport there. The one ray of hope is that the deteriorating international financial situation, which is hitting Denmark badly, will lead to cancellation or indefinite postponement for fiscal reasons. Seabird Group changes The Seabird Group is one of those organisations having a constitution which allows people to remain in office for what is some- times considered a rather long time : three of the committee had until recently been in residence since the Group was founded in 1966. With the publication of The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland, giving the results of the national census of breeding seabirds during 1969-70 (Operation Seafarer), it seemed time for a change. Stanley Cramp has resigned as chairman, Dr W. R. P. Bourne as secretary (he remains director), and the first chairman, Professor George Dunnet, has also left the committee. Dr C. M. Perrins has been promoted chairman, and Norman Hammond secretary; while David Saunders (national organiser of Operation Seafarer), Dr John Croxall (director of the Oiled Bird Research Unit at Newcastle University) and Peter Oliver (of Cap Gris Nez Bird Observatory) have joined the committee. Correspondence should be addressed to Norman Hammond at 39 Outgang Road, Aspatria, Carlisle, Cumbria. It will be interesting to see if this transfusion of new blood, which led to the replacement of over hall the committee in two years, combined with a shake-up for the rest, will breathe new life into what had become an increasingly sluggish body. New Year Honours Once again it is a pleasure to find the names of some well- known ornithologists in the list of New Year Honours, and we offer congratulations to those concerned. First and foremost came Stanley Cramp, with an OBE for services to nature conservation. His involvement in conservation work has involved too many facets of the subject for there to be any hope of listing them here, while he still finds time for a number of other equally exacting roles, such as senior editorship of this journal and of the progressing Birds of the Western Palearclic. An MBE was awarded to Robert Chestney, who for many years has been the warden and guardian angel of Scolt Head National Nature Reserve, Norfolk. In the Overseas List the dedicated searcher will have found David Wingate of Bermuda, also given an MBE for services to nature conservation; he has been at the forefront of the struggle to save the Cahow, one of the world’s rarest petrels, of which only a few pairs survive in Bermuda, and it was he who in 1963 discoveied the Capped Petrel breeding in winter in the inland mountains of Hispaniola, at a time when fears (fortunately unjustified) for the survival of that species were being expressed. A new Scottish bird report The expansion in recent yeais of ornithological fieldwork in north-east Scotland has been inevitable with the lively interest in the subject taken by staff and students of Aberdeen University. It was equally inevit- able that they would in the end produce their own annual publication, and the first (1974) North-East Scotland Bird Report has recently arrived on my desk. With the ever-present likelihood, nowadays, of attractive sites being coveted by industries associated with the race to extract oil from the North Sea, it is important that the ornithological merits of all parts of the coast of north-east Scotland be appreciated, and it is to this problem that the Aberdeen University Bird Club is addressing itself. Copies of this report can be obtained (price 3op) from the Bird Club, Department of Zoology, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen AB9 2TN. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds November reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records A Balearic Shearwater Puffmus fiuffinus mauretanicus was identified off St Agnes silt 0nc,2nd’ )Ji e,thc ,°nl>' Manx Shearwaters P. p. puffmus reported were Seaton Sluice (Northumberland), where one flew north on 21st and three south 23/?- Al? unidentified petrel was seen at Dungeness (Kent) on 1st, but two which boarded a ship in the English Channel and arrived at Southampton (Hamp- shire) on 1 8 th were found to be Leach’s Oceanodroma hue or ho a. A White Stork Cicoma ciconia was located at the Roe estuary (Co. Londonderry) on 20th, about , nofth °f where one was present earlier in the year (Brit. Birds, 67- «7\. and one between Westleton and Yoxford (Suffolk) in the middle of the month was still being seen in February 1975. On 17th a large number of sea ducks in the Findhorn Bay/Culbin Bar area of Grampian included 680 Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalu and 265 Velvet coters MelamUa fusca Also in Scotland, the King Eider SomaUria spectabilis which appeared at Fair Isle (Shetland) in September (Brit. Birds, 67: 528) was last seen on 6th, while a drake in Loch Fleet (Sutherland) on 24th stayed into 1975 mew Mergus albellus were reported from coastal areas in Northumberland. tNn ; 01 and Kent, and from inland localities in Somerset and Leicestershire, a total of about eight individuals. Further records of Bean Geese Anser fabalis came rom the south-west Lancashire mosses where five were present during the month from Thornton Reservoir (Leicestershire) where there were four on .9th and 23rd' and from the Ouse Washes (Cambridgeshire/Norfolk) where two on 10th showed the characters of the race rossicus. Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus continued to be seen in many parts of rngland, though no major influxes were reported. Singh- Goshawks AccipiUr S lWr SCCnHat i r n,ChrtCr HiU »s t^olor at Pembrey (Dyfed) on 12th. Late skuas involved Great Stercoranus skua at Spiggie Loch (Shetland) on 3rd. at Seaton Sluice on toth and 23rd (three), at Grain (Kent) on 28th and in the B^ulv Firth T 29thif°l‘r Pomar,ne P°m^inus flying south at Seaton Sluice on toth and one in the Beauly Firth on 29th; and an Arctic 5. parasiticus flving Rine hill^G u'7 ^ (WeSt Glanl«^n), where the first two Ratig-bUled GuUs delawarcnsis m Britain and Ireland were positively iden- ed (But Birds, 66: 509-517), an adult returned on 28th and was joined bv a second tiduh on 24th December, both remaining until at least Ma!ch 1973- these birds are presumably the same as those seen in the previous two winS' A atC Ct™T° a T.Crn ltema hrUnd° aPPcarcd at Newlyn (Cornwall) on 27th. tvs mori Little Auks Plautus alle were reported after the October ‘wreck’: 123 124 November reports three off the east coast, three in Hampshire and several off Out Skerries (Shet- land), while inland an exhausted bird found at Rugeley (Staffordshire) on ist died later and another was found already dead at Pickworth (Leicestershire) on 5th. A Guillemot Uria aalge was found on the M2 motorway in Kent on 30th and released near Leysdown, Isle of Sheppey. A female Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca stayed at Cabrach (Grampian) from 24th to 26th, and there was a Hoopoe Upupa epops at Leiston (Suffolk) from 16th to 1 8th and another lingering until 18th at Pleinmont (Guernsey). Coming to passerines, the bird of the month was a male Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti which arrived at Fraisthorpe (Humberside) on 29th and stayed for a few days into December. Another rarity was a Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea which was present on Out Skerries from 1 ith to 20th. Shore Larks Eremo- phila alpestris were few, with reports from just six east coast sites and a maximum of up to 30 at Minsmere. Stonechats Saxicola torquata of the Siberian race maura were identified at Snettisham (Norfolk) on 4th and at Priors Park, Tynemouth (Tyne & Wear), from 7th to 15th. A report received too late for inclusion in the previous summary was of a Nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes at Ruan Lani- horne (Cornwall) on 12th October. In Devon, a Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti trapped on the Exe marshes on 9th October was retrapped there on 5th November, and one was present at Slapton Ley from 19th November at least into January 1975. An unusually tardy Barred Warbler Sylvia nisoria was seen on St Agnes on 3rd; while the Dartford Warbler S. undata which appeared at Steart (Somerset) in August {Brit. Birds , 67 : 492) and later became so elusive that local watchers thought it had moved on was seen again there on 17th November. A Pallas’s Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus at Milford-on-Sea (Hampshire) on 23rd was the fourth reported in November, after the three at Beachy Head (East Sussex) listed in last month’s summary {Brit. Birds, 68: 88), and about the eleventh for the autumn as a whole, making 1974 the best year for this irregular far-eastern vagrant since the record 18 in 1968 {Brit. Birds, 62: 480-481). A Richard’s Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae arrived at Keyhaven (Hampshire) on 3rd and another was seen in the Bann estuary (Co. Londonderry) from 1 2th to 14th. Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus spread slowly through Britain after the invasion in October; there were numerous small flocks in Scotland, but the largest were in the Tyneside area where the species was very widespread : the maximum was 1 50 at Heaton Park and flocks of 50 to 1 00 were recorded at ten or so places. A Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla at Flamborough on 10th was a second Humberside rarity. Lapland Buntings Calcarius lapponicus were reported from ten places, mostly in ones, twos or threes, with a maximum of at least twelve at Cley (Norfolk) on 16th; the only ones away from the east coast were three on the Calf of Man on 4th and 6th and one at Pennington marshes (Hampshire) on 1 8th. A massive movement of Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis occurred on Fair Isle between 7th and 9th, with over 3,000 on 8th; numbers were higher than usual in several other places, particularly in Co. Londonderry where there were 150 at Myroe, Foyle, on 20th; in Tyneside parties were arriving from the north-east all month; up to four were present at four sites in Guernsey; and lastly there were singles well inland flying south in Derbyshire at Church Wilne Reservoii on 4th and at Egginton gravel pits on 24th, in Nottinghamshire at Stoke Bardolph on 2nd and at Gunthorpe on 9th, and in Greater London at Perry Oaks sewage farm on 24th, while as many as four were present together at Easton Hornsteads (Northamptonshire) on 8th. correction The Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni in the October reports {Brit. Birds, 68: 88) was in fact present on Fair Isle from 24th to 26th November, not October. FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF EUROPEAN RAPTORS R. F. Porter, Ian Willis, Steen Christensen, Bent Pors Nielsen The authors have been studying identification of the 38 species of European raptors for many years and their papers from British Birds have been revised, expanded and rearranged to produce this book. Ian Willis's superb drawings and sketches, plus 178 photographs specially chosen to illustrate aspects of identification, combine with a succinct and detailed text to achieve the definitive study of this challenging and absorbinq subject. "• . . this international team of experts must be congratulated a superb guide, invaluable to every birdwatcher" Habitat (Council for Nature) £4.80 net WATCHING BIRDS James Fisher & Jim Flegg The B.T.O.'s Director has revised and updated the late James Fisher's deservedly popular introduction to the world of birds and the practice of birdwatching. £ 2.80 net T. & A. D. 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Schierenberg & Sons B.V. LOCHEM/ Holland IV Please enter starting with Become a subscriber to British Birds by filling in this coupon and returning it to: The Subscription Department, Macmillan Journals Ltd., Brunei Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 2XS. my name for a year's subscription to British Birds the issue dated I enclose £7 00 U.K. and Eire (£8 00 rest of world) b» shield1 ^lfy«ccomp'anl«dn bV^remitUncS * Ch«u« r,te OrUtn c«n only Name Address Postal Code Registered No: 785998 England Registered Office: 4 Little Essex St., London WC2R 3LF The West Wales Naturalists’ Trust Ltd (formerly the West Wales Field Society) «Xbo^.«Mh'o,Ts'lSi'i?.of„ei wi*s Ttvnvm,"erd !" ,ht ^ entitles members to: The annual subscr.ption of £2 with much calling, attack and flight display. This was commonest in spring, mainly by adults from nearby territories gathering over one of six hills each a common boundary of three breeding territories. In autumn Ind Sifted H b>' tW° passaSe birds> which met 1! 1 , 3 K ImmatUrCS were commonly involved in autumn but rarely in spring, even on days when they soared else- frC 'n tbe study area> so that most birds involved were of evidently high social status. - d'Splay °V " SlopCS- GrouPs ofthree to six birds were occasionally seen soaring low and briefly over small slopes. There was much calling attack and diving display, including the dropping were i, ,hn? °l obJe,cts' Most °f *' M«l» were immatures and son,? monl, ’eir second year, or showed unseasonable wing and tail o,S h “T with poor condition. This activitv took place outside breeding territories, from September to March and evidently most birds involved were of low social status. FLAPPING and gliding flight Flights by one bird rollo'vin8- A maie flyinS less than 50 metres above g ound along a precise course for distances of too metres to 3 km 130 Social behaviour in the Buzzard, usually induced a boundary dispute or subsequently performed a ‘deep wing beat’ flight (below), often after movement or calling by another Buzzard nearby. These low flights were normally in breed- ing territories and, as they followed known boundaries closely, evidently had a ‘patrolling’ and advertisement function. 2. Deep wing beats. After patrolling, the male might turn away from the boundary, usually over open ground, and give a few very deep, slow and rhythmic wing beats. The upstroke was exaggerated and the underwing pattern prominently displayed (fig. 6). Mebs (1964) desci'ibed this as an aggressive flight, but we agree with Demandt (1934) that it has advertisement, pair-forming or pair contact function, as we saw it in the context described and not when an intruder was approached. 3. Approaching an intruder. When a Buzzard flew towards an intruder, it did so in a manner which emphasised the downstroke of the wing beat. If the intruder did not fly immediately, the ap- proaching bird accelerated with shallow wing beats and, as distance decreased still further, went into a glide. These were aggressive flights, mostly by territorial residents. 4. High travelling. Birds often flew long distances on a direct course 150 to 500 metres above the ground, and made no obvious attempt to avoid passing over occupied territories. Residents rarely flew towards the passing bird but might look at it or call. Our captive birds detected other Buzzards at great heights and distances, which indicated that most passing birds were likely to be seen. II the concept of a three-dimensional raptor territory with a ceiling (Craighead and Craighead 1956) is accepted, these flights had a social, avoidance function. 5. Cryptic travelling. When immatures or unpaired adults were in other Buzzards’ territories, they flew low across open ground or Social behaviour in the Buzzard 1 ^ J through woodland with short and rapid flights. These flights were fnkaTreedted ‘]°W Perching’ (below)- Repeated observations in a breeding territory through which many passage birds were ihisgwtTraV ,SU8|e?ed 'hat in'rUderS might avoid detec,ion in behaXL P i° 36 h°UrS (C/- Dare '96')- The same avoidance 1 °ur was shown in spring and summer bv single immalure males even within their own territories. ' C Flights by two birds '■ Fo,lo"’-lJight s. When a bird followed another of the opposite ex, ,t usually kept 10 to 50 metres behind it and copied its actions One or both birds might call on take-off or for much of the Time A .. def‘s' aT bet"Ten ‘he ‘W° had the resul‘s described abovt under -Soaring by two birds’. These ‘follow-flights’ arc very com ('.96, T for' 7/t ,"fC °rn irrd bTardS 3nd Werc described by Dare . . ' or IS. buteo and by Craighead and Craighead fio^bi for IS =7u„c^„:h°Ught ‘hey had i'”P""ta''' 4 bird 'Tggiagfl niglUS; When beggi"K for food in flight, a young bird called and flew with rapid, shallow wing beats one to 50 metre! fl e !!gr°'"K r genera"y behind and below an adult. We also saw he younger of two adult females of a bigamous male several times begging from the older in this way, and immature, after hem " B T terfl'Tal and °th" adui,s "'hich sometimes ‘fosfered’ hen, Begging flights might thus enable some Buzzards ,0 be tolerated within another’s territory. 3- Chasing flights. These could have any of three results First pan-format, on or contact might occur, if the bird be „g chased was an intruder of the opposite sex. Second, the bird being chased dew ,n a leisurely manner, from one ,0 ,00 metres al»« groi^d the other™^^ ‘Cnded '° “nCeal 'h' unde™u« pattern from sive behlv^ !n° attempt '° aVOid an eocounter, no aggres- - 111 v\as shown and low perching’ might occur (fie n) — -andadu'« made these flights while crossing the ferrh hil s A tte’vh ZaT’ ,hC la,t" Whik going t0 and from displav • - though miniatures were sometimes attacked bv territorial adults, attacks on them by territorial immature, were rare Th! continued I'T** *° inhibit **>•-•- Third, ^u^ft tumbling.’ Thegaa«e«r' to f Aepurmld V (U O u -*-» •— £ a a T3 « s > o a u X V V £< u-. c/3 O > & 'u G T5 V § § N .b 5/3 < ^ -S K C u •- 3 £ J C .a *■ ■a l S! ec c u V > w -Q G O 3 « fc 12 c 15 5 -5 < ,bo U-i ^ X c « 2r cr a * .2 -o . Lower right : a passes beyond the known boundary of b’s territory, rises and continues to travel, while B flies back to its Social behaviour in the Buzzard 134 pattern clearly during evasion. These attacks were by territorial residents evidently defending range. Mebs (1964) noted and Dare (1961) implied that immature and other transients were more often attacked by territorial adults than were neighbouring pairs. DIVING Diving by one bird 1 . Roller-coaster. Males made a series of up to 20 undulations during level or descending flight (fig. 8), which varied from shallow to near vertical. In the former, the flexed wings were only partly closed and extended, but in the latter, the wings might be com- pletely closed during the dive and partly opened during the ascent, sometimes with a few vigorous beats. Extreme displays in which the bird might then stall vertically or loop or roll into the next plunge were mainly by loudly-calling males in spring, with the bird rising about 30 metres and falling about 60 metres each time. Like Dare (1961), we saw females which seemed about to perform this display, but we only once saw a dive. Fitch et al. (1946) stated that this display has a sexual function in the Red-tailed Hawk, but we think it might also have advertisement function in the Buzzard. 2. Steep dives. Dives to perches in woods were often long and nearly vertical. The wings were initially closed but the carpal joints were later held out slightly and the alulae extended. Similar, less steep dives were made to perches in the open. Typically, steep dives concluded roller-coaster or other displays, and the ‘target’ perch was within a roosting or nesting wood. Occasionally a perched intruder was attacked in this way. We thought that steep dives had advertisement, pair-forming or pair contact function. Steep dives combined with roller-coaster flights were described as ‘diving displays’ by Dare (1961), and as ‘ Balz ’ flights by Mebs (1964) when combined with pair soaring. 3. Dropping and catching flights. Males sometimes left females or groups to hold position briefly at moderate height with a stick or prey item (fig. 9). They then dropped it, dived in a zigzag or tumbling way to catch it, and rose to repeat the performance. This took place during pair-forming or pair contact flights or communal displays, especially over small slopes. Brown and Amadon (1968) described such activities as play. Diving by two birds 1 . Mutual diving. When males were seen flying on parallel courses in a vigorous roller-coaster flight, they were usually either side ot a mutual territory boundary. These ‘diving contests,’ described by Dare (1961), were an advertisement/defence activity. Social behaviour in the Buzzard 1 35 IS ^T'rl he^ We,re rrePeated short dives by males from low b Itn me rn C'OSdy f°1IOWed ,he «r°und contours or wove r ' lh;y wcre seen during communal displays over Slopes and were often interspersed with roller-coaster or dropping female hmg ‘Rh‘S W,:n prdiminar>' to landing bv a male and perching Situations i. High perch. Throughout the year Buzzards used prominent ,Pn the6^ boundaries- Many were used frequently advertiV y 1* v tfrntonal Pairs> specially before or after flight advertisement, display or social contact with neighbours Both birds might use the same high perch from which several different calh were made Intruders were often detected after a move to a high perch, and disputes by two males on either side of a boundary were common, both calling for up to 30 minutes. High perching bv “ ™d — — during building o/at^he.aft of laying. We twice saw attempted coition early in the vear Ion 1 7th January and 20th March) on very prominent perches Ilthough coition normally takes place on the nest (Witherby et al. ,939) We considered high perching had an advertisement defensive function. Dare (1961) for the Buzzard, and Craighead and Craig! lead (1956) lor the Red-tailed and Red-shouldered Hawks B Z "S; Tt lh<: IeqtVCnt P-ches in breeding " “ if- " , « a"d A. H.Joensen considered them impon^, uzzard on shared hunting range outside woodland. :fLa°:h^h;'" 0p™- the '“w Parches used might be the lowest ri anfl in woodland were often inconspicuous They were mostly used by immature males and transients aTd Trc W^ion. Cr>P,iC fligh'S °r fligh'S "’hirh —ed to inhibh l 7 pnght perching 1 Basic posture. This was used on both high and low perches and was .mens, rally asocial. The body was held upright the wi "gt lightly crossed over the tail, the neck sunk into fhe shoulders and re bird squatted slightly so that the tarsi were often hidden (fig. I0). 2‘ Alert posture. The stance was slightly elevated more compressed and the head raised" or tilted. This respon^to Ji > 1 ng Buzzard was classed simply as recognition. of th^r^ POStU/C- The head was he,d slightly above the line c s loulders, and the feathers on the back of the crown, nape Fig. io. Basic upright posture Fig. 1 1 . ‘Wedge-head’ aggressive upright pos- ture Fig. 12. Upright posture showing anxiety at the approach of another Buzzard and cheeks were partly raised so that the head appeared wedge- shaped in profile or enlarged from the front (fig. 11). A fixed stare might be directed at another Buzzard and cause it to fly; the posture seemed to be aggressive. 4. Elongated posture. The legs and neck were extended and the plumage was tightly compressed (fig. 12), as another Buzzard approached. This posture preceded flight or defensive threat (below) . Slanted perching 1. Basic posture. The body was slanted up or horizontal, the plumage generally more compressed and the legs variably extended (%• 13)- 2. Pre-flight with head high. The carpal joints were held out and slightly lowered, the legs were flexed and straightened, sometimes repeatedly and rapidly, the neck was extended slightly, and the head was held high and sometimes bobbed (fig. 14). Flight from another Buzzard followed. 3. Pre-flight with head low. The wings were held nearer the body, sometimes drooped; the legs were less flexed and the tail was more level. The neck was retracted and the head held low and level (fig. 15). Other Buzzards were attacked from this posture. 4. Head low, calling. The wings and tail were partly spread and Social behaviour in the Buzzed 137 I ig. 14. Anxiety variant of slanted posture FiS- ‘5- Aggressive variant of slanted posture drooped and the bird crouched erected and its head held very 1 lie posture was used either by ! by immatures towards adults. F,S- 16. Food-begging or /emale sexual variant of slanted posture low, calling, with its mantle partly low and thrust forward (fig. 16). e males towards displaying males or 5- Inverted posture. In this very rare posture, a male hung upside- " for "P 10 °'K minute with its head level, feet well apart and wmgs partly spread. I, was seen only during communal dispfavs s°ituItionPeS ai>d Sh°Wed 'he nn^01" *nS pattern well in a social GROUND POSTURING Situations “land^ T thc ^ound to «st, preen, or search for or eat Tho ' 7 VVa ked qUlte faSt’ °r ran with a markedly rolling gait f f ,Cia COnta^ts seen were mainly at carrion, and where? these ok place outside breeding territories the largest females were often dominant, regardless of age. wmaies were Sitting or standing postures 1. Angel postures. The head was pressed back between the shoulders, Social behaviour in the Buzzard 138 the crown and nape feathers erect, breast and flank feathers puffed out and the beak slightly open. In the least extreme ‘half angel’ (fig. 17), sometimes used on a perch, the wings were only partly spread and the body was upright. In the ‘full angel’ (fig. 18) the wings were fully extended and often rotated back so that the under- wing pattern showed. In the extreme ‘fallen angel’ (fig. 19) the bird lay down and the trailing edges of the wings supported the body, freeing the feet for striking. This extreme form was often accompanied by a ‘chittering’ call (below). Angel postures were assumed when an approaching Buzzard was about 20 metres away and might become more extreme as distance lessened. They were also seen when unpaired birds fed at either end of a carcass, or when a Buzzard closely approached a large or unfamiliar carrion item or when it killed prey. These postures were clearly defensive threats, but the posture described as this by Brown and Amadon (1968) contained elements of both the angel and the ‘griffon’ postures (see opposite). We saw transition between the two. Social behaviour in the Buzzard [39 Fig. 21. Immature male mantling food 2. Griffon posture. This was adopted by two birds facing each other shott range (fig, 20), generally across a carcass. One bird might abandon the posture and retreat. I, was associated with dominance at carrion, as in the Griffon Vulture Gyps films (Valverde 1959). 3. Mantling. A bird might spread its wings over prey (fig 21) especially ,f another landed nearby, and turn away while dig o All immatures appeared to mantle prey, but we saw it much less asocial ^ Z"‘ tha” am°,ng “Ptiw adul,s- 11 "ay also have some asocial function m surrounding and subduing live prey. Walking or running postures '■ Neck humP walk- A bird held the wings out slightly, with the 140 Social behaviour in the Buzzard. carpal joints lowered (fig. 22). The neck was extended and arched, the head pointing slightly down and the nape and neck feathers raised. It was used by one bird approaching or circling another which might retreat. 2. Wing drag walk. A bird circled another slowly with the neck erect, plumage compressed and wing tips brushing the ground (fig. 23). Often the approached bird retreated without fighting. VOICE Main call 1. ‘Pee-yah’ call. This typical ‘adult’ form was loud and disyllabic and was first used by nine captive immatures five to twelve months after fledging. It was commonly associated with alarm or aggression. 2. ‘Pee-ee-yah’ call. A louder, long-drawn and quavering trisyllabic variant was given during the first wing beats of aggressive flight. Fitch et al. (1946) noted that a similar variant of the Red-tailed Hawk’s basic call was used in the same way. 3. ‘Paa-ah’ or ‘mah’ call. A short, quieter call, of one or two syllables, was the normal contact call. 4. ‘Pyah’ calls. Males chanted a loud, ringing single note from a high perch or in roller-coaster flights. Additionally, males gave this call from a high perch and it became faster and louder as the female joined in with a similar, deeper note. This was true duetting, of pair-bond/courtship function (Thorpe 1964), and was more formal and organised than the ‘screaming duet’ of the Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (Brown and Amadon 1968). Other calls 1. ‘Whee-ee-yah’ and ‘seee-ee-yuk’ calls. Young birds had a softer, more whistling trisyllabic call than any form of the main call. It was both a food-begging and contact call, often shortened in the latter. When an adult approached with food, it might become Social behaviour in the Buzzed i 4 j indistinguishable from the trisyllabic, hissing note of adult females duung food-begging or approach by displaying males. 2.: Chlttenng- Thls continuous call, not readily transcribed, denoted distress. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS YVc arc gianful to many people for their advice during the preparation of this T p, " Particular we thank Drs C. j. Cadbury, D. Jenkins, I. Newton and Rtiarrh Ti o' ’ f°r their commcnts- D\V was a member of the lesearch Staff of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds during this study. S UMMARY Activities, postures and calls considered relevant to spacing of Buzzards Buteo ascribedTo t T81 r dcscrib<,d- Territory advertisement or defence was ascribed to twelve forms of soaring, flapping and gliding, or diving flight, by one wo or more birds. Related to this, aggression or dominance at food was ascribed to two perched postures, a form of perching, three ground postures and a call. We Hlnnina * pair;!(;rrninK’ p;*lr conta« or «-xual function to eight forms or soaring, flapping and gliding, or diving flight, by one or two birds, to a pe rched posture was ascribed T f ,nhdnt,on of aggression, submissive or avoidance function more birdsdfl tr ? S|Manng °r f,appin« and Sliding flight by one, two or DefensV du PCrched P°sturcs’ to a form of perching and to two calls. D knsive threat was apparent in one perched and two ground postures and in a of eviden°tlCv0rnmil.n. d‘*pIayS’ a divin* f,iSht a"d a perched posture were ol evidently social but obscure function. REFERENCES a,;d A-aoon, D. .968. Eagles, Hawks and Falcon of the World. London. HarHsbiVpa'’ 3,1 HEAD’ F‘ C’ IQ56- OwU and Wildlife. Dare, P. J. 1961. ‘Ecological observations on a breeding population of the Com- hTbitf’Tnn With PartiCUlar ^-ceTthe diet and Habits . Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Exeter. Demandt, C. 1934. ‘Balzfluge des Mausebussards’. Beitr. Fortpfbiol Vogel 10 • 144-145. " 6 ’ F‘If *thcH RS d S»rr I °w’ IjLLOTSON- D- F- >946. ‘Behaviour and food habits ot the Red-tailed Hawk . Condor , 48: 205-237. BK°l0gi! l'ndI>Popi,Iat*0nsdynamik des Mausebussards (Buteo buteo) (Unter besondercr Berucksichtigung der Abhangigkeit vom Massenwechsel der Feldmans Microtus arvalis)’. J. Orn.. 105: 247-306 ,974' ■Bre"ling biolog>' ortl" ™ Spcyride’. ts; s„t„spp tdi,ed ty a- i-ands- V AL VERDE, J. A. 1959. ‘Moyens depression et hierarchic sociale chez le Vautour Fauve Gypsfulvus (Hablizl)’. Alauda. 27: 1-15 urQRB^ R - t,cehurst> n- *■> •«* ticker. b. w. 1939. The Handbook of Bntrsh Birds. London, vol 3: 50-55. Hon. D. Weir, Creagdhu , Newtonmore , Highland N Picozzi, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Blackhall, Banchory (.rrampian AB3 3PS - Studies of breeding Sandwich Terns Alistair J. M. Smith Photographs by Jan van de Kam Plates 16-23 INTRODUCTION It is opportune that a series of Jan van de Kam’s wonderful photo- graphs of Sandwich Terns Sterna sandvicensis at a Dutch breeding colony (plates 16-23) should appear at a time when the European population is threatened at both ends of its range. The effects of human disturbance and ground predators in Scottish colonies and of trapping for food in West Africa have been highlighted recently (Bourne and Smith 1974). The disastrous effects of pollution at Dutch colonies in the ig6o’s are well known (Rooth and Jonkers 1972) and, although these colonies have shown signs of recovery, only about 3,500 pairs bred in 1973 (B. Speek verbally). Apparently half of the west European population now breeds in Britain and Ireland, where there are possibly 12,000 pairs (Cramp et al. 1974). The Sandwich Tern is usually placed in the genus Sterna , but Moynihan (1959) related it to the crested ‘ Thalasseus' terns and certainly its breeding behaviour seems more akin to that of such species as the Royal Tern S. maxima (Buckley and Buckley 1972) and Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia (Bergman 1953) than to that of the smaller Sterna terns. ARRIVAL AT BREEDING COLONIES The Sandwich Tern has a vast wintering range, extending from the north Mediterranean along the north and west coasts of Africa to the Cape and thence north-east as far as Mozambique (Muller 1959, Langham 1971, C. J. Mead in litt.). Most breeding adults (three years and older) and some first- and second-year birds begin to return north from February. Adults assume breeding plumage from early February and I have seen aerial courtship from mid-February in Ghana. Once, in Sierra Leone, I encountered ground courtship as early as 20th January, while the birds were still in winter plumage. The first arrivals normally reach the south coast of England in March and it is not uncommon to find them at a breeding colony in northern Scotland at the end of March or early April. There is very little information on their behaviour at this time, but at Sands of Forvie, Grampian, their habit of visiting the colony immediately on arrival has given me an opportunity to study this 142 [Brit. Birds, 68: 142-156, April 1975] Sandwich Tern studies J43 stage. At first they tend to leave at dawn to fish along adjacent coasts, sometimes up to i£ km offshore. During the forenoon single )irds pairs or small groups only occasionally visit the colony, ymg low over it and often alighting to preen or roost on the sandy foreshore. Visits increase around midday and then follows a period of preening and roosting. During the afternoon the terns gradually disappear, and they come in to roost only as darkness falls. It has been suggested that at this stage they spend most of the day fishing because of the scarcity of food in the surface layers of inshore waters, but thus diurnal pattern is very similar to that which I have seen m West Africa during the two months prior to their departure north. Before mid-April there are terns at the colony throughout ic day, but with a small peak in numbers around midday and early afternoon and a big influx at dusk. I he Sandwich lern’s habit of nesting with more belligerent species, such as Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus , is well docu- mented. Many years’ study have shown that in northern Scotland it prefers to nest in early May, when its breeding success is likely to be enhanced. Perhaps for this reason, it tends to synchronise more readily with an early nester such as the Black-headed Gull which is on the colony from early March and lays in mid-April’ than with the smaller terns which do not begin laying until mid- May. The influence of nesting Black-headed Gulls on Sandwich ferns in search of breeding sites has been discussed by a number of writers, such as Salomonsen (1947), Van den Assem (1954) and Isenmann (1972). At Forvie, from mid-April until laying time, the Sandwich Tern flock has in recent years moved at dusk into the Black-headed Gull colony until ,t is protected on all sides. This may be primarily OI Protect,cm from ground predators, but it is possible also that the terns use the situation to gauge the suitability of the area for breed- mg_ Although there are disadvantages in this association, Lind (1963) considered that the advantages were greater. The terns certain y benefit from the greater vigilance and aggressiveness of te gulls, but Rooth (1958) thought that the latter ‘may be harmful o the tern populations on account of space competition, food parasitism, predation of eggs and predation of young birds’. In the ; argue* France, no Prcdalion °f eggs and young was recorded in a mixed colony of Sandwich Terns and Black-headed Gulls (Isenmann 1972) Although gull predation of eggs and young occurs at Sands of Forvie, i, does no. seriously lee. breeding success (though see pages 150-151). courtship Colour-ringing at Forvie has shown that among the early arrivals i44 Sandwich Tern studies there are paired birds, some of which have been identified in pre- vious years. One pair nested in four successive seasons and, once paired, usually in the third or fourth year, the Sandwich Tern may well pair for life. Many other early arrivals are unattached or have poorly developed pair bonds, while later arrivals are almost always paired, though in mid-June there is an influx of unpaired two- and three-year-old birds (see pages 152- 153). At first courtship is latent, especially in the earliest arrivals, but it requires only the appearance of a newcomer or a blink of sunshine to set off ground or aerial courtship. At this stage, however, particularly in the overcast weather of northern Scotland, it often quickly wanes. Prolonged sunshine encourages a continuation of courtship, especially aerial courtship. The typical ‘high flight' (see below) has been described in considerable detail by Van den Assem (1954) and Cullen (1960a). It may be started by two or three (occasionally four or five) birds which have just flown in from the sea and arrived over the colony, or by members of the flock on the shore near the colony, or by a male in advertisement flight over the flock. The collective ‘upflight’ (Lind 1963), or rising up of the whole flock, is also often seen at this stage, precipitated by, for example, a movement of the tide, a corvid flying near, or the approach of a human being. Lind suggested that such com- munal flights may well influence the frequency of sexual behaviour, and certainly many high flights originate from them. The earliest high flight I saw in Ghana was triggered by an upflight when a Black Kite Milvus migrans flew over the flock roosting at a lagoon. An unmated male Sandwich Tern attracts the attention of the females by flying around over the flock, carrying a fish and calling a characteristic ‘koreet’. Occasionally no fish is carried and the call then sounds more like ‘kireet’ or ‘kirrik’. This is the male’s advertisement flight. Alternatively he may alight in or near the flock and approach several birds, calling and raising his head and bill. Usually the wings are held away from the body and the crest raised in excitement. When he has the attention of a female, which may be when she also adopts the courtship display (plate 17), he takes off in an aerial ‘bent posture’, with head and bill pointed downwards and back slightly arched, and she follows him into the high flight. Other birds may join them. Circling, they climb rapidly until sometimes they are almost invisible even with powerful binoculars. Before they reach this height, the original male may be left with his female, but occasionally in the initial stages three, four or even five birds may stay together throughout and break up only after the fast downward ‘glide’ which often follows several false starts. The high flight may persist for some time, individual birds participating for up to ten minutes or longer before going Sandwich Tern studies 145 into a glide. In the glide the birds may fly very close, and on several occasions I have seen them touch at the ‘pass’ when one overtakes another, which happens a number of times during the descent. The overtaken bird goes into the bent posture described above, while the other, if paired to it, appears normal (Cullen 1960a); but vvhere a number of birds are participating I have seen both go into the bent posture at the pass. The overtaken bird, especially if carrying a fish, may also raise its wings over its back, sometimes beating them slightly; this has been termed ‘V-flying’ which describes the action well. The calls during the high flight arc characteristic. During the upward part both birds give ‘koreet’, ‘kek’, and ‘arrie’ or ‘erre’ calls (Van den Assem 1954), and R. Chestney ( verbally ) thinks that the sexes can thus be differentiated, the female calling noticeably higher than the male. During the glide a quickly repeated kekekekekekekek is uttered by both birds, especially the bent one at the pass. following the glide, and depending on the development of the pair bond, the participants may break off to fish, preen, or go into ground courtship or often into another display flight described very well by \ an den Assem (1954) : 4 he flight occurs in a particu- lar way: the wings are thrust emphatically through the beat, by which the body without actually advancing more quicklv gets a push upwards so that the flight looks like a dance’. Overtaking also occurs in this display, and before being overtaken the leading bird opens its bill wide, with head lifted slightly, and calls a nasal ‘wah’ suggesting to me a loud yawn. This call is also given commonlv on the ground, with head and neck held in the same attitude, ' not only during courtship but also from birds making nest reliefs (page 150); it has been described as an ambivalent call indicating strong escape tendencies (Van Iersel and Bol 1958). As the birds become used to one another it is heard less often in this context. It is also card m the colony as an alarm: aggressive terns have flown out from the colony to meet me with this peculiar dancing flight and wah cal before changing to normal flight and scolding me with a harsh kekekek . In ground courtship there are a number of variations and inten- sities of stretch posture. One has been termed the ‘pole stance’ y an den Assem I954) and is equivalent to what was termed the erect posture’ by Dr J. M. Cullen (in Bannerman 1962); stretch postures are illustrated in plate 17 and the pole stance (or erect posture) in plate 19a. Y an den Assem and P. M. Schenk (in Van Iersel and Bol 1958) considered that ‘the ambivalent (aggression- escape) stretch posture consists of more or less independently varying elements such as neck stretching, ruffling or depressing the crest Sandwich Tern studies 146 and neck feathers, lifting the wings. Depending on the relative strengths of these elements, the stretch posture indicates a greater or lesser predominance of the escape drive’. The pole stance is often adopted after a high flight and, since this appears to be the strongest indication of the escape drive, it may serve in this context to decrease the aggression latent in the high flight which contains overtly hostile elements (Cullen 1960a). Dr Cullen (in Bannerman 1962) suggested that the Sandwich Tern probably also had the ‘ground bent posture’ of the Common Tern S. hirundo (like the male in plate 1 7b, but with neck vertical and stretched higher, and head and bill angled downwards). Van Iersel and Bol did not agree, but in my experience males do adopt a posture with some elements analogous to it. If a female approximates this position in courtship with a male, she rarely allows her bill to be angled below his. Typical of three birds coming in from the glide to alight on the shore was the following. The leading one, a female, landed and immediately went into the pole stance with wing ‘arms’ spread wide and wing tips below the tail on the sand (plate 19a). The second bird, a male carrying a fish, alighted and held the fish in his bill as in Cullen’s ground bent posture. The female lowered the intensity of the stretch to a moderate stretch posture, with bill slightly raised, and walked around the male (plate 17b). She then went into the begging position (plate 18a) and immediately the male jumped on her back, holding the fish. This attempted copula- tion was interrupted by a second male which had circled above, making a low pass in the bent posture. The female then flew off in the bent posture, dislodging the male which followed her similarly. Copulation commonly occurs on the shore between pairs on their own or in a flock. It may precede scraping, but often there have been visits to the subcolonies where the male leads in a posture approaching the ground bent, with the female in a moderate stretch posture. When they have selected a suitable spot, which may coincide exactly with the one used in previous years, both birds examine it with bills down and may scrape, though initially only the male does so. During these ceremonies it is not unusual for both to adopt the pole stance with much head turning, and then gradually assume the stretch posture as before. As copulation approaches, the soliciting female utters a ‘quee-quee-quee’ call in a begging posture similar to that of a chick about to be fed (compare the female in plate 1 8a with the chick in plate 22b). She may attract a male from the air using this call, but it is a particular male and not a chance contact. The male, normally in her company for some time, usually goes into a moderate stretch position with horizontal or lowered bill, and calls a deep-throated ‘kuk-kuk’. He tries to circle, pre- sumably to get into a position to mount, but she keeps facing him Sandwich Tern studies * 4 / nd. callinS a persistent ‘quee-quee-quee’ (plate 18a). Eventually he jumps on her back and finally lowers his legs and waggles his nh?S hftMerrdi! humelf under her ^til the cloacae make contact (p ate 1 8b). I have counted up to eight contacts in one mounting and more are apparently not uncommon (Van den Assem iq^a). ■ ome times the female unmounts her partner by walking from beneath him, or a copulation is disturbed by other birds. When this happens the male may press his cloaca on the sand, waggling his tail to and fro as during copulation, and may ejaculate. The pole “y K °uted n!imediatcly after copulation when it may e bioken off quickly as the partners go into a bout of preening or hCg\n !rnmediateIy- As in ‘he Royal Tern (Buckley and Buckley 1972), incubating females may be mounted, but I have not seen this happen to a brooding female. COLONY STRUCTURE /rn!oPWS‘Cal ,ay°Ut10f'a Colony may bc simPle or complex. Dircksen ( J32) found a single large colony in some years and a number of separate ones in others, for no apparent reason. The change did not appear to increase breeding success, as it often encouraged predation by Herrmg Gulls L. argentatus. On the Fames and ■ qua Island, Northumberland, where the development of a single barge colony is possible, this occurs only at the former. Dr 1 • . E. Langham (in lilt .) suggests that the dense nesting habit 0 us species has necessitated the division into subcolonies as an IOn TT gTUnd Predatio"; synchronised breeding in a condT n ^ COl°ny °r a number of subcolonies. weaTher s reTen (l97°} SU^ested adverse a single f°r formation of subcolonies: for example, the ffll • gC C° °n>, Was formed during fine weather in 1965 but following year, during periods of adverse weather, seven sub- Sandwich Tern studies 148 colonies were formed. Bad weather does affect the start of laying at subcolonies, but other factors, including human disturbance, ground and aerial predators, may also be responsible. Langham (iq74) suggested that the subcolonial habit becomes superfluous at safe, long-established sites like the Fames where groups tend to merge into one another, and presumably, in the absence of ground predators, one might expect a single large colony to develop even- tually on Coquet Island. LAYING AND INCUBATION The eggs are laid at any time of the day or night, apparently mostly between 18.00 and 06.00. In 1974 at Sands of Forvie the first egg was laid just after midday, and its owner incubated it alone in the middle of a group of Black-headed Gulls while the other Sandwich Terns in the subcolony, which had been scraping and courting, left to roost on the shore in the early afternoon, returning later. The nest is commonly nothing more than a scrape in sand or a slight depression in or on vegetation. Occasionally a Sandwich Tern appropriates a Black-headed Gull’s nest vacated when a particularly dense group of terns starts to nest among the gulls. Most gulls persist, however, and the terns group themselves around or between their nests. After incubation begins, many nests become quite substantial due to the billing of straws and other material into the hollow by the sitting bird (plate 19b). This behaviour is an extension of the formalised straw- tossing in which Sandwich Terns engage, in common with other terns and gulls (Tinbergen 1 935s Palmer 1941). Relieved birds often pick up material, even grains of sand, as they leave the nest, and drop or toss it sideways and to the rear. Clutches are normally of one or two eggs. Less than 1 % are oi three, some, though not all, clearly resulting from rolled eggs or two females laying in one nest (see below). Over half the pairs may have one-egg clutches in one season, with the reverse the following year. Clutch size also varies during a season, in general being higher at peak laying periods in subcolonies and highei in eail\ subcolonies than in later ones (see also Langham 1974). Occasionally in two-egg clutches the egg colorations are clearly different and one suspects that two females were involved. Colour-ringing has shown that it is not uncommon for two females to lay in one nest, particularly among three-year-old birds breeding for the first time, though it has also been recorded in one bird seven years old. I have recorded multiple relationships in which two males and one lemalc were on one egg, one male and two females on two eggs, and (once) two males and two females at one nest containing two eggs. There were key birds in each case, and no nest relief took place unless the Sandwich Tern studies x49 key bird was either relieving or being relieved. None of these relation- ships persisted to the hatching time. The laying interval in two-egg clutches varies from two to five days, and incubation averages about 25 days and may extend from 21 to 29 days. Dr N. P. E. Langham (in lilt.) found that the first Sandwich Terns to lay on Coquet appeared to leave the island at night and return m the morning to their eggs, but I have found no evidence of this at Sands of Forvie. It may be connected with their familiarity with the site: in 1965 on Coquet the terns began laying only two days alter arrival, and in 1966 four days after, whereas Sands of Forvie birds are much more familiar with the colony, many having been in the vicinity for up to a month and having roosted in the colony area for up to two weeks before laying. The synchronisation of arrival and laying is thought to be an important anti-predator device (Cullen 1960b): intervals of three or four days in the Camargue (Isenmann 1972) and of five at Scolt Head (Chestney 1970), as well as Langham’s two to four days, confirm that this synchronisation exists. My own experience is clearly different, and it is interesting that at Langenwerder, East Germanv, Nehls (1969) reported that in 1968 the Sandwich Terns occupied the colony from 4th April but it was not until 25th April that the first egg was found. It is difficult to account for this widely divergent behaviour. I here is a direct correlation between breeding synchronisation and nest density. In a highly synchronised subcolony the inter-nest distance is the bare minimum for successful breeding. Some birds occasionally lay too close to their neighbours, which causes pro- tracted bickering and probably the desertion or failure of one or more of the clutches so affected (see also Dircksen 1932, Ansingh et at. 1 960) . 6 In such dense colonies the question of nest and egg recognition anscs It has been stated that egg colour variation assists adult Royal Terns in locating their eggs among the many thousands in a ypical colony, though some aspects of nest location also have a significant effect (Buckley and Buckley 1972). I have trapped large numbers of Sandwich Terns on the nest and substituted plaster- hlled blown eggs during the critical period before the clutch was covered by the other bird of the pair. In no case were these eggs rejected, though often quite different from the real ones, and no problems were experienced on the return of the original eggs at a atei c ate. It seems clear that skill in egg recognition as well as nest ocation is essential in the relatively featureless Roval Tern colonies with their thousands of clutches, but a highly developed skill in nest location is probably sufficient for Sandwich Terns at a colony such as forvie where characteristic features of topographv are plentiful *5° Sandwich Tern studies Within dense subcolonies, it is obviously impossible for copulation, preening and so on to take place, and indeed it is often difficult for birds to make nest reliefs. Both sexes have brood patches and share in incubation. Reliefs are usually accompanied by courtship displays, as previously described, which tend to diminish in intensity as incubation progresses; before the halfway stage some take place without noticeable display. The male feeds his mate regularly at first, but the frequency of feeding may also decrease as incubation progresses. It is not unknown for an incubating female to rise from the nest, fly off to fish and return to incubate a few minutes later. Reliefs occur at regular intervals between birds of a pair, but there are wide variations between pairs. Some females are loath to move off eggs, particularly if the male is a good provider, and when they do it is only for a short time. On their return they quickly try to relieve the male and, if he is unwilling to move, may physically push him off the nest. Other pairs seem content to share incubation equally, but some change at intervals as short as 15 minutes or as long as nine hours overnight. I have never seen a nest relief during the hours of darkness (23.00 to 02.30 BST). In dense subcolonies there is much threat behaviour between incubating birds, called gackering. This ‘consists of turning the bill and stretching the neck — of which the plumage is more or less ruffled — towards the opponent, and uttering a hoarse rhythmic “gagaga" or “gegege” ’ (Van Iersel and Bol 1958). The bill is characteristically held fairly wide open, though in the least intense form the bill is turned and the neck stretched without further movement or calling. (A variant of the gackering call, resembling a fat quacking, is uttered by fishing terns which come too close to one another, and I have heard it, probably as a warning signal, from birds fishing- in fog.) Gackering can develop into pecking or grasping of bills if the other bird reacts aggressively, but sometimes it does not respond. It is also directed at aerial predators such as Black-headed Gulls (plate 20), which fly too low when either searching for uncovered eggs or intent on taking fish from incoming terns. During such attacks the gackering calls can become quite intense, and in my experience usually deter these gulls from uncovered eggs but hardly do so at all when they are pursuing terns flying in with fish to feed chicks. Gackering rarely deters Herring Gulls; Dr E. Fuchs ( verbally ) has even seen one boldly push a gackering tern off its nest on the perimeter of a subcolony and take its egg. In 1972 at Forvie, in a particularly dense subcolony of 400 pairs surrounded by Black-headed Gulls’ nests, almost half of the second chicks starved because of intense kleptoparasitism by the gulls. This was the first evidence in 16 years’ study that such parasitism seriously affected the terns’ breeding success. None of the remaining iTE i(). I nmated male dvvich Tern Sterna - fvicenrh, Waddensee, herlands, attracting attention of the fe- es by flying around the flock carrying • sh, r by alighting r near the flock and ng with persistent ■et' (pages 142-156) '•■os: Jan ran tie /Cam) Plates 17-18. Fish-carrying male Sandwich Tern eliciting courtship display from female in moderate stretch posture with wing-arms held wide; this leads to aerial courtship in early stages of pairing and to scraping and copulation later. Below, a display which often follows if fish accepted and swallowed by female (male on left). Upper right, pre-copulatory behaviour in which female (right) adopts begging posture and calls persistently ‘quee-quee-quee’, and male posi- tions himself for mounting. Lower right, numerous cloacal contacts may occur at one mounting; female may unmount partner by walking from beneath him, or copulation may be disturbed by other birds (pages 145- 147) {photos : Jan van de Kam ) Plate 19. Above, ‘pole stance’ or ‘erect posture’ — most intense form of stretch posture — commonly seen immediately after two birds land from the ‘high flight’, during scraping and after copulation (pages 144- 147). Below, empty shells are billed out of scrapes but left to litter colony (page 1 5 1 ) ( photos : Jan van de Kam ) fomin* Swdwid|k' TerdedT»GU“ * rid?undm moving »> “> «<*al fish from in- g >Sandw,c“ Fhc '"ajomy of silling birds arc ‘gackering’ intensely anti the noise and threat produced would usually keep egg-stealing gulls awav but rar,.K d* Ac* bc„, „„ .u-aling 6* „,as,. ,4 Plate 21. After hatching, nest reliefs continue and both sexes feed the young (head moult, on left, may affect 10% of breeding birds by first week of June). Below, from the third day the chicks are led away by their parents ; adult in centre is ‘gackering’ mildly at the flying bird (page 1 5 1 ) ( photos : Jan van de Kam ) ino-^fJirl 2J' .Above> well-grown young Sandwich Tern exercising its wings, remain- f V-'l t<’| rovTr> Hedging period is normally 28-30 days. Below, well- -jJZr'Z ’ ad°Pt|'n,g "om'al food-begging posture and calling a querulous chee-chee-chee as adult fl.es tn with fish (page ,53) (photos: Jan J* Sit Plate 23. Adult Sandwich Tern feeding juvenile, illustrating an exaggerated form of the food-begging posture that is often adopted when adults have to make a very fast delivery to avoid fish predators, such as gulls and skuas {photo: Jan van de ham) Sandwich Tern studies . . *5* that0seSon m SCVCral Subcolonies was affected in this way during The Sandwich Tern’s habit of advertising the colony by a radial " '“'ng"f droppings around the nest has been described ground' tTni|Th' T’Tl '° ma‘Ch the Suan<«Pattered back- ground Cullen 1960b), but on a dense mat of green vegetation in a typed island habitat such as on Coquet or the Fames, fhSwUte" ,1,‘eeLgs o!r,rY0hlhC hUman Cye a‘ leaSt’ ‘° draw attent*on to (Chesmey ;7o) ’ °WeVe'’ “ S"mS '° pr°vide b«"r POST-HATCHING BEHAVIOUR When the eggs hatch, the shells are usually billed out of the scrape by one of the adults but are left to litter the colony, blowing ,0 and m he WInd- d hcre seems, therefore, little elf„;, ,0 camouflage the colony; presumably synchronised breeding in dense colonies tourers advantages which make such anti-predator devices no longer necessary (Cullen 1960b). Disturbance at hatching induces a speedv movement of the chicks away and I have often found second eggs left in the nest scrapes (see also Chestney ,97o). Most writ™ agree , ha, The exodus occurs from the third day, but in 1970 at Scolt Head Chestney showed me young Hedging where they had hatched because the colony was completely undisturbed that season. I have also noticed that chicks left within three days of hatching at sub- colonies used for research and visited daily, while at others in the same colony, which were undisturbed, the exodus was much slower. te c ucks are led away by their parents using an encouraging cad similar to the male’s when he leads a fenfale to "rape f koreet with head and bill raised at each call (plate 21b) The behaviour of adults and chicks thereafter seems to differ in certain respects from colony to colony. The so-called creche behaviour appears to be facultative in western Europe. At Sands of Forvie the chicks disperse throughout the colony area of marram sand dunes and never stray far from cover. When danger approaches they lnde m the vegetation or occasionally crouch on open sand or pe bbles. Some scrape ‘funk-holes’ in the sand, usually under cover and are found there on every visit to the colonv, though others move No°rmallv ^ nCVCr f°Und in the sa™ P^ce twice, in wTdi hlCk,famiheS sta>’ together, but I have found siblings ZrT ^yftSeparated Parts of the colony for most of the fledging period 28-30 days— so they were presumably fed by different parents. (These observations were made before I discovered three- rd relat>onships, and it is possible that two females were involved ) r52 Sandwich Tern studies I have records of marked siblings being fed only by the female. The classic creche of Sandwich Tern type was well described for the Royal Tern by the Buckleys (1972) : . a creche may be loose and strung out over a wide area at the colony site (a relaxed creche), or it may become a tightly packed mass of moving chicks (an alarmed creche) .... The degree of spread of the relaxed creche is a function of cover, island size, nearness to water and size of area accommodating the creche. At an alarm, . . . the chicks coalesce into one or more very tight masses, moving, amoeboid, as a unit away from the disturbance’. In 16 years at Forvie, this has happened, to my knowledge, on only four occasions, during considerable human disturbance. Only a small proportion of the available chicks took part, most remaining in hiding, and the colony returned to normal very soon after the removal of the disturbance. Marples and Marples (1934) gave a good account and included a photograph of a classic creche at Blakeney Point, Norfolk, though I have never seen one at nearby Scolt Head. On the Fames the chicks almost always ‘troop’ (the local term for an alarmed creche), though on Coquet I found that alarmed chicks preferred to crouch in cover rather than form a creche. There is a great deal of inter- change between the Fames and Forvie birds, yet the behaviour at each colony does not appear to be affected. Where creching occurs, it is interesting to watch adults returning from a fishing expedition to look for their young, often among many hundreds of birds. It is easy to understand the former belief (see Armstrong 1947) that young in creches were fed indiscriminately by any fish-carrying adult. Long before this, however, Steinbacher (1931) was of the opinion that chicks were fed only by their own parents. During 1960-63 I colour-ringed a large sample of adults and their chicks, and subsequent observation on the shore flock, comprising fledglings and young about to fledge, showed no excep- tion to Steinbacher’s belief. Often two- and three-year-old birds, and occasionally four-year-olds, possibly all non-breeding, attempted to feed young at random, but all their offers were rejected. I have several records of such young making an aggressive response like gackering, but lacking the adult’s characteristic calls, towards these ‘intruders’. I suspect that during a lean period the young would steal any such offerings; in Royal Tern creches alien chicks occasion- ally grab food from an adult before it can feed its own chick (Buckley and Buckley 1972). Normally during early June the number of three-year-old birds in the colony increases. Some breed but it is unusual for many of the late arrivals to do so. With a few two-year-olds which arrive in mid-June, some four-year-olds and a few older birds, these are the non-breeders whose numbers fluctuate from year to year. Sandwich Tern studies lo?> They spend a lot of time courting and scraping in the subcolonies, and when chicks appear often carry fish and attempt to feed any t uit happen to incite the feeding urge. As previously mentioned, they continue this behaviour in the shore flocks of fledglings. POST-FLEDGING BEHAVIOUR Post- fledging dispersal begins in late June or early July, often as soon as the young fledge. I have observed Forvie juveniles in the foray Firth and up to 65 km south of the colony only three days a ter fledging The urge to disperse so quickly may be motivated >y the high density at the breeding colony as the result of syn- i97a)OUa hatchmg of largc nurnbers of young (see also Iscnmann During this dispersal the young terns continue to be fed by their parents, though often by only one, probably the female. Feeding occurs on land or water and, when conditions permit, there seems to be a preference for feeding on the surface of the sea or on an estuary, but occasionally on flotsam or salmon-fishing nets and poles. I he juvenile, calling querulously ‘chee-chee-chee’, alights on the surface for a moment and the adult may pass the food over without a lghting. On land the attitude adopted by the voung bird (plates 22b, 23) and its begging call are reminiscent of the pre-copulatory display and call of the adult female (page 146). Juveniles imitate the hunting technique of their parents, quartering the sea or estuary and hovering, but at a much lower average height. They practise cipping at small sticks, seaweed or other flotsam which they pick up and drop again and again. Plunge-diving appears to bring ht If or™ su.cce,ss at first> though within a few weeks success is achieved, particularly with stranded fry in shallow pools. Langham (1971) found that dispersal was directed nearly equally north and south. On the east coast of Britain there is certainly an annual movement of adults with young to traditional feeding grounds m the Moray Firth and elsewhere off eastern Scotland in July ‘ flrl§pSt anC SePtfmber- Juveniles from the Fames and Forth appear oil Forvie in July and August each year and often remain there untd mid-September before returning south; for example, in iq74 the first Fames juveniles were at Forvie on 22nd July, mixing in the s iou lock with the local birds. Breeding recommenced at Forvie alter a prolonged lapse, and adults controlled there in the first few years originated in the Fames and Forth. Some adults and young remain in the colonv area until at least late August (and perhaps mid-September), while others must migrate immediately or soon after they leave the colonv, since there are ringing recoveries from Ghana at the beginning of September Sandwich Tern studies J54 When the last birds pass south along the east coast in late September and sometimes October, the young are still dependent on parental care. The skills of the highly specialised feeding techniques are not learned quickly and little is known about the duration of parental dependence. In January and February 1970, in Sierra Leone and Ghana, it appeared to me that all dependence had ceased, though Dunn (1972), who was in Sierre Leone at the same time, saw one first-winter bird persistently following an adult throughout a fishing session, and it is possible that dependence may continue in some young birds. Indeed, in the Royal Tern feeding of the young has been seen in December and January in winter quarters in Peru (Ashmole and Tovar S 1968) and well into February and March on Bonaire Island, Lesser Antilles (Buckley and Buckley 1972). The calls of adults and young change towards the end of the year, and in January and early February 1970 the only call I heard in West Africa was a monosyllabic call rendered ‘krik’ by Dunn (1972), though I thought it was ‘djeet’. I have since heard and recorded this call from a few adults and young fishing in late September and early October in this country. I heard the first characteristic ‘kirrik’ during aerial courtship in Ghana in mid- February, by which time adults have begun to resume breeding plumage and move north again. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I should like to acknowledge the financial assistance received from the Nature Conservancy Council who also gave me permission to work at the Sands of Forvie National Nature Reserve, Grampian. My thanks are also due to the Frank Chapman Memorial Fund of the American Museum of Natural History and to the Royal Society for financial assistance in mounting an expedition with Dr N. P. E. Langham to West Africa in 1970. SUMMARY Certain aspects of the behaviour and breeding biology of the Sandwich Tern Sterna sanclvicensis are reviewed and described in general terms. The colony at the Sands of Forvie, Grampian, is contrasted with others on the east coast of Britain and in Europe. The terns were found at the breeding colony at Forvie from their arrival usually in early April until laying time a month later. Previous writers have postulated synchronised arrival and laying in the Sandwich Tern, but the Forvie and apparently Langenwerder, East Germany, colonies seem to be exceptional. At both sites terns are on the colony from three weeks to a month before the first eggs are laid. Courtship commenced immediately on arrival at the colony, and displays such as the male advertisement flight, the high flight and glide, the various stretch postures, scraping and mating are described. Sandwich Terns may nest in one large group or several small groups or sub- colonies within a colony. These adaptations are discussed and it is suggested that subcolony nesting may be an adaptation against ground predators, although other factors such as human disturbance and weather may contribute to this effect. Multiple relationships at one nest were proved by colour ringing, and some appear to account for differently coloured eggs in some two-egg and probably Sandwich Tern studies 1 55 place 'vLiX thn-cv, a fTl'k' J°f k'y l”"*5 Was “!'"lial lor ”«** reliefi to take « -- rpye‘irjy:rr“ht?,r' mvolved in ,htse re—ips -d Europc “d «™ Sandwich Tern °f lhC Bla';|l‘ll''fd'yJ Gull Lotus ridibundus on the breeding of the SlTd l ' * rrv,ew,d and f '*“• ™> -he breeding success of , helms i, the term shown I h seas<*n,in 16 al Forvie was kleptoparasitism by the gulls on the terns shown to have a serious effect on chick mortality. adSrrr„rrr'OUr-riTl*d“,1S and ,hcir chi‘k« the belief .ha, auempted Z feei chi T" , 'h°Ugh °‘h'r adu"S' P°“ilalv non-breeders, attempted to iced chicks and fledglings at random. 1o g,"g d‘SPersaI tak«* p!ace from the time the young ran fly at 28-cto davs r„ SS r,ngarCaS rnd in SOme CaSCS — * merge quickly inm miction Parent recoycnes .lnd‘cate arrival in West Africa in early September I Js south !r J'n“ ■" bas been oUerved in Britain unfil the las, bird, characteristic calls .dad '777 havc ceased by January in West Africa. The a call rendered Sir ! were not heard in West Africa and only in Ghana ”** 'Wor*d- find ’kirrik’ was heard in tnid-Fcbruary REFERENCES Ansinch F H„ Koelers, H.J., van der Were, P. A., and Yoous K H .060 .SsS-' 5!,-65Cay0nnC “ fellow-billed Sandwich Tern in Curagao in' jSSTS P A' !,9e4r7' BiTd DlSplay and B‘haviour. London. lo^968- ****** ParCntal “ **- Terns IUnnerman, D. A. ,962. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London. “te&jrLr.' o010*" d" Radbseeschwalbc (Hydroprogo, B0ShIfRc/„OT“lS2“™’1A-J' M' 'Th™B » *««■ Sandwich 3? ' /r,W L^Z!E' ' “d SAUNDERS' D- W4- n. Seabirds of Bril and CV.}ZZ; k^j960*- 'The aCrial di,play °f lh' Amic Ten, and other species’. 7^rT.°E'Il3™7i,daP,ati“! ^ ,h' n",inS b"ha''i0Ur °f ,emS’’ Proe ’ ,nL °™' “nsb’.'S; .'“r “ ,h' ■“* af Sa"d"'i'h Terns Sterna uZZ' N V97E !r.2d r Camare“e' A“ >■= Ocean’. Bird Siudy'fs!',-^ M0WTO"“ °f Bri*h «™ * 'be Atlantic ~2'79774- ,ComParative brecdinS biol°SY Of the Sandwich Tern’. Auk, 9,: Sandwich Tern studies I56 Lind, H. 1963. ‘Nogle sociale reaktioner hos terner’ (English summary: ‘Notes on social behaviour of terns’). Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr., 57: 155-175- Marples, G., and Marples, A. 1934. Sea Terns or Sea Swallows. London. Moynihan, M. 1959. ‘A revision of the family Laridae (Aves)’. Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1928. Muller, H. 1959. ‘Die Zugverhaltnisse der europaischen Brandseeschwalben (Sterna sandvicensis) nach Beringungsergebnissen’. Vogelwarte, 20: 91-115. Nehls, H. W. 1969. ‘Zur Umsiedlung, Brutortstreue und Brutreife der Brandsee- schwalbe ( Sterna sandvicensis) nach Ringfunden auf Langenwerder’. Vogelwarte, 25: 52-57- Palmer, R. S. 1941. ‘A behavior study of the Common Tern ( Sterna hirundo hirando L.)’. Proc. Boston Soc. nat. Hist., 42: 1 - 1 19. Rooth, J. 1958. ‘Relations between Black-headed Gulls (Larus ridibundus) and terns (Sterna spec.) in the Netherlands’. Bull. Int. Comm. Bird Pres., 7: 1 17-1 19. , and Jonkers, D. A. 1972. ‘The status of some piscivorous birds in the Netherlands’. TNO-nieuws, 27: 551-555- Salomonsen, F. 1947. ‘Maagekolonierne paa Hirsholmene’ (English summary: ‘The gull-colonies on Hirsholmene’). Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr., 41: 174-186. Steinbacher, G. 1931. ‘Beitrage zur Brutbiologie von Silbermowe und Brandsee- schwalbe’. J. Orn., 79: 349-353. Tinbergen, N. 1935. ‘Field observations of East Greenland birds’. Ardea, 24: 1-42. Van den Assem, J. 1954. ‘Waarnemingen over het gedrag van de Grote Sterns’. Levende Nat., 57: 1-9. Van Iersel, J. J. A., and Bol, A. C. A. 1958. ‘Preening of two tern species. A study on displacement activities’. Behaviour, 13: 1-87. Supt Alistair J. M. Smith , Scottish Police College, Tulliallan Castle, Kincardine-on-Forth, Alloa, Central Region Notes Kestrel apparently attempting to catch Goldfish In 1074 a Kestre Falco tinnunculus nested in a beech coppice near my house near Blackboys, East Sussex, and frequently hunted for beetles and nnee in the ha-ha which divides my garden from a field of barlev. eur the ha-ha and 14 metres from my window is an ornamental pond inhabited by Goldfish Carassius auratus. The Kestrel used a tree >y !hCn°rd aS * lookout P°st- On 8th October 1974 I saw it swoop vci ically from the tree to the pond in an apparent attempt to catch one of the numerous fish which I had seen a few moments before basking m the shallows. It Exiled, though both feet touched the water. I do not believe that Goldfish have previously been recorded as potential prey for this species. The pond had no frogs or voles and it was too late in the season for it to have been likely that an aquatic insect had attracted the Kestrel. Guv Mount fort Pl°VerS Meadow> Possingworth Park, Blackboys , Uckfield, East Sussex Contrasting predator-reactions of two Oystercatcher chicks On 28th June 1974, on a beach at the mouth of the River Ba, Loch na < a , sc of Mull, I found an adult Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus with two chicks three-quarters grown. As I approached the adult flew off and the chicks ran left and right of me along the water s edge. 1 he one on my left ran up on to a rocky outcrop and on realising it was cornered, jumped into the water and submerged! _!°m the rocks I could see it swimming strongly upstream about 5 cm below the surface. It was using its wings and travelled at least our metres before surfacing, when it looked somewhat be- di ag?led, with several strands of seaweed draped over its head and it further SWam t0 Sh°rC’ Sh°0k itSdf and ran off' 1 did not follow Meanwhile the other chick had taken to the water and swam the in Ta r °ir T1 CaUght k and t00k k downstream towards sea-loch. A female Red-breasted Merganser Mergus senator that was sw miming along the opposite shore swam quickly across to the young Oystercatcher, took up a position downstream of it and then apparently shepherded it across the fastest stretch of the river mouth. It swam with the Oystercatcher for at least seven metres and was never more than 45 cm from it. As soon as the birds were made 6 n1lerSanser swam away and the Oystercatcher made for the shore, where the adult stood calling. Richard Coomber 4 Staffa Cottages , Tobermory , Isle of Mull, Strathclyde PA75 6pl r57 Notes 158 In Dr K. E. L. Simmons’s paper on predator-reactions of waders (1955, Behaviour , 8 : 1 30- 1 73) , he wrote (page 1 38) : ‘Dr N. Tinbergen informs me that he once saw an almost fledged Oystercatcher run away from him into the surf and dive at less than four feet [1.2 metres] in front of him, swimming away under water using its wings.’ Swimming on the surface is a common reaction by young waders to danger, and diving is probably also quite frequent. As for the behaviour of the merganser, curiosity seems much the likeliest motive for its joining the Oystercatcher chick in the first place, and there is no way of knowing in which direction (if at all) the subsequent events were connected. Eds Laughing Gull in Co. Cork On 12th August 1968, among a roosting flock of about 6,500 gulls at Tivoli, Cork, I noted a very striking individual standing with a party of Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus and Common Gulls L. cams slightly apart from the main flock. It appeared to be in a state of exhaustion and spent the whole period for which it was under observation in a hunched position, with its head drawn into its shoulders. Only once did it move, when it momentarily flapped its wings as if to regain balance, even though at one point a passing train disturbed all other birds in its immediate area. I watched the gull for about half an hour at 50 metres, a closer approach being impossible owing to the con- dition of the mud surrounding the roosting area. I then tried to disturb it by hand-clapping, so that the flight pattern could be seen; although this caused all its companions to move away, it remained oblivious. Despite a thorough search the following day, it was not located again. The following description is compiled from notes taken at the time : Size : Larger than Black-headed Gull, much as Common Gull. Head: Fore- head white; greyish wash on crown gave obscure cap; some scattered dark markings on crown and nape; fairly prominent white orbital ring sur- rounded by dark ring, densest in front of eye and thinner above, below and to rear. Upperparts: Mantle, back, scapulars and wing-coverts all slate-grey, not quite as dark as in nearby Lesser Black-backed Gull L. fuscus, but con- siderably darker than in Common Gull; primaries jet black with no ‘mirrors’; secondaries appeared dark brown with white tips which gave broad white trailing edge to extended wing and appeared as distinctive white crescent separating grey coverts from black primaries on folded wing. Underparts: Pure white from chin to vent, relieved only by some sparse streaks and blotches in form of obscure collar on upper breast. Bill: Black, larger and heavier than Black-headed Gull’s. Legs: Black. At all times it was a very striking bird, its wings being far darker above than those of any other small gull present, and approaching a Lesser Black-back’s in shade. In shape, it was much as a Black- headed Gull but larger and with a longer and stouter bill. It had Notes a slightly short-legged appearance, though this may have been dark mark Un Thc ^ °rbital ring and it* surrounding dark mark were prominent at all times, as were the white crescentic •narks separating the uniform slate-grey wing-coverts from the f frlv War,CS’ When thC TngS WCre briefly "tended they looked 1 T lmPression borne out on the resting bird which seen Though hi at !hc rear< The wing-pattern was not well seen, though black primaries with no ‘mirrors’ were noted- there “I0 r 3 fatbr°W^ band aCr°SS the secondaries, arid inner prtariea Wh'‘e tra‘lmg ^ “hich pe"red «“ on the Apart from the dark brown band on the secondaries, which hould be grey or black according to the age of the bird, the descrip- tion was considered to fit a Laughing Gull L. atncilla in sub-adult j umage (one year old) (Irish Bird Report , 16: 36-37) This was the fifth record for Britain and Ireland as a whole and Che fi™ in iTeTa^ ^ ^ P P J *J» Q 1^- The Rennies , Boreenmanna Road, Cork Guillemot swimming on its back when under water Further > my note on a Razorbill Alca tarda swimming on its back below the WU" (BrU. Buds, 45: 430), I had rather a similaT experience at Penzance, Cornwall, on 28th January iq73, involving a (.111 Hemot Una aalge. From the elevated promenade I noticed the bird diving just offshore, on the rising tide. As the sea was calm discern ^t Srlv^ Hfh'pene,rated well Wow the surface, I could see 'nv he C Y Ur"’g 'a dlV“' AUhouSh 1 was unable to set any, he Guillemot appeared to be in close pursuit offish and when quickly doubling back on its track, sometimes turned on"* meteT?n"thte °h ? U"dcrPar,s were «*■>• •< » for manv metres m this way before righting itself. This behaviour seemed to P° ‘dc “ q“cker ,and easler way of catching fish. Although it may e common for auks to swim on iheir backs when in pursuit of food few observations have been published and I feel it is worth recording! Gull Cry, g Park Road, Newly,, , Cornwall B E E R n King Choughs feeding on blow fly larvae at cow carcass On the IslirirmThJUde I9^’ WJhilC CrOSSing ,he hcath" O" m, Way Tarm, I heard in the distance the call of a young Choueh fyrhocorax Pyrrkocora* begging for food. On closer investigation I ound the bird on the ground among some pea, digging j ”a fully feathered but readily separable from an adult bv it's much stomach0!3"®''^- a''1' B>' Stalking throuSh the heather °n my omach, I came within eight metres of the juvenile which was now i6o Notes being fed at intervals by an adult. It was at this point that I dis- cerned an awful smell and then suddenly remembered that a dead cow had been buried at this spot during the previous winter. Eventually the Choughs noticed my presence and flew up to reveal a total of six birds, probably a family party. The face of the peat bank had been hacked away in a cavity about a metre in width. I found the peat riddled with maggots and pupae of blow flies Calliphora which had obviously laid eggs in the carcass of the cow. The maggots had crawled out of the cow in order to pupate in the very acceptable medium of the peat bank. I was sad to lose the cow but rejoice that she is now providing such a prolific source of food to Choughs, which in Scotland are confined to the islands of Islay and Jura. On Islay the species is flourishing, and in 1974 there were reports of up to 40 in one flock. In the last few years numbers of cattle and sheep on Islay have increased to a great extent, and inevitably many sheep die on the hills, mainly through clostridial diseases. It is possible that there is some cori'elation between this increase of livestock and the recent increase of Choughs. Rodney Dawson Easter Ellister, Port Charlotte, Islay, Strathclyde Insect larvae are a normal food of Choughs, but the main point of the above note is that Chough populations, which have been steadily declining over much of their range, might depend partly on the abundance of breeding places for large insects where other food is scarce. In Wales Choughs sometimes feed at rubbish tips and manure heaps and have been seen breaking up cowpats to get at the larvae underneath. Eds Song Thrushes using old nest of Blackbirds During the spring of 1973, at Mumbles, West Glamorgan, a pair of Blackbirds Turdus merula successfully raised young from a nest built on top of a rough stone garden wall about ij metres high. The nest was partially hidden under a branch of Cotoneaster horizontalis, which grows over the top of the wall. It survived the winter weather extremely well and looked as good as new in the spring of 1974- It was a great surprise when, on 29th May I974> while walking by the wall, I flushed a Song Thrush T. philomelos off the nest. It then contained four eggs and had been lined with mud in typical Song Thrush manner. The young hatched a few days later and sub- sequently fledged. E). K. Thomas 4 Langland Villas, Mumbles, Swansea, West Glamorgan Song Thrushes rarely use old nests of other species, but previous notes on their taking over Blackbirds’ nests were published in Brit. Birds, 21: 44; 66: 281. Eds Notes 1 6 1 Probable feeding of young Starlings of second brood by Hedged juvenile In 1974 a pair of Starlings Sturnus vulgaris i eared a brood of three young in a nestbox on the wall of my house a Bishop Sutton, Bristol. The young fledged on 6th May. A second clutch was completed on 19th May and hatched on 1st June On several occasions during incubation, one of the juveniles from the hrst brood entered the nestbox, and on 1st June it was fed there by the male while perched at the entrance hole. On subsequent days • t continued to enter the nestbox repeatedly and to receive food bom the male either there or on nearby power lines many times. When perched at the entrance hole, it would turn and enter the )ox, still holding the food, the presumption being that it then fed the young inside. The loud food-calls they had been uttering sub- sided with the entrance of the juvenile. This behaviour continued up to 10th June; at no time was the juvenile seen to bring food it had collected itself. Two of the three second-brood young fledged on 20th June, the third being found dead in the nest. D. Warden Lentaur, Ham Lane, Bishop Sutton, Bristol bsi8 4tz Reviews Ocean Wanderers. The migratory sea birds of the world. By Ronald M. Lockley. David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1974- 168 pages; 9 colour and 39 black-and-white photo- graphs; 22 maps. £4.50. * 1 his picture is painted on a broad canvas. The author discusses c\o u ion, numbers and distribution, oceanographv, ecology behaviour, migration, the major taxa and man’s relation to seabirds’ a within 152 pages of wide-margined text. Ronald Lockley, a pioneer of seabird studies, who has seen many of his leads developed by professional biologists, thus sets himself a grandmaster’s task. 1 h great respect and with unstinted recommendation of his fascinating book, I consider his success qualified. May I dismiss the praise by saying simply that the book is enthralling, full of interesting acts and eminently worthwhile, and concentrate on the criticism? First, there is the challenge of compressing difficult and some- tunes controversial concepts into a few brief sentences. It leads to Reader s Digest-e se and one knows what that does to sex and reli- gion, to say nothing of more important matters like seabird biology, ten, too, the right technical word is used but without the under- amornanVffi tUfal a"*7' ^ infant SenSes feed each impression * V° he COmpUtn (my italics) of the brain and nervous , em, already programmed to respond to these electrical signals Reviews 162 of impulses in a specific way by the genetical codes which the primordial cell has acquired from its parents . . really says very little precisely. We are told that . chemical and electronic (sic) development and changes occur in the memory cells during life, known as learning’ : it would have been more helpful to define the nature and function of the learning the author had in mind, for assuredly the sentence quoted above will not help many people. The statement that learning ‘combined with innate processes . . . enable the higher vertebrates to regulate their lives with a degree of reasoning more or less akin to that in man’ strikes me as seriously misleading. The important concept of imprinting is badly mis- handled; and it is stated as a fact that flocks of seabirds feeding at sea have a hierarchical structure, but this can only be the author’s extrapolation from odd observations that, occasionally, an individual is seen to drive others from a food source. The rigorous (editorial?) elimination of caveats (beloved of the pedant like me but neverthe- less often essential for accuracy) is partly to blame for some mis- leading statements; male frigatebirds, in general, do not desert the chick at fledging time, even if this does occur in some populations of the Magnificent Frigatebird. The best sections are those on more concrete matters, such as the oceans of the world (excellent), and on the auks, skuas, gulls and terns where the author’s personal knowledge shines through; his best descriptive passages are splendid. Second, there are a few factual errors. White boobies do not rear more than one young following a bad year; Great Frigatebirds are not ‘faithful to their mates’ (presumably meaning in successive breeding attempts) ; subspecies are not the constituents of ‘super- species’, at least not sensu stricto. None of these criticisms seriously diminishes the value of this work for the informed, general reader, and there will be few orni- thologists or even seabird specialists who will learn nothing from it. The photographs are delightful and well chosen, but the Gannet caption (page 49) — ‘the chick . . . will be deserted at fledging time’ — seems to propagate the hydra-like myth that Gannets desert their fully grown young, which Lockley of all people must know is not so. Robert Gillmor’s illustrations are lively and evocative, and the maps clear and useful. This book is excellent value at £4.50 and one to browse through time and again. Bryan Nelson Swans of the World. By Sylvia Bruce Wilmore. David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1974. 229 pages; 13 black-and-white photographs; 11 maps and numerous line-drawings. £4.50. This is an uneven and rather uncritical assembly of data about swans and clearly owes little if anything to personal observation on the part of the author, though she does thank her husband for Reviews 1 63 accompanying her on a ‘hunt for swans from south-west England to SOU hern Sweden’. Of the dozen chapters, one is introductory, eight eal with the individual swans, one is concerned with the history headeT‘s '0m !! ‘° th' Middle AgeS' and the last tw° are u aded Swans and Man and ‘Myths and Inspiration’. 1 he book inevitably invites comparison with the recent and Wildfowl The Swans ’ by Peter Scott and the 6,. .o.x rhUf pubhsbed in APnl !972 (reviewed in Brit. Birds, but V t h\ ,mcluded some Previously unpublished material V dt aSlde> both compilations had the same pre-i972 material to draw on, and a certain similarity was to be expected. The overlap XeT ;SfCOnSf rable’ and ‘^re seems to have been surprising^ tt c effort to make the second book different from the first by sel'ec- •on or emphasis, though this could have been fairly easily achieved Nor has any particular effort been made to include in Swans of the HanlenCl/nt; W°? pub,ishcd in ‘972 a"d ‘973, such as that by ansen el (d. on the Trumpeter, and by the Finnish trio led by ffrevPann 0,1 KlC Wh°°Per- Ar,y°ne wh(> reads both books is led rrevocabjy to the conclusion that, but for the existence of the first the second would have been significantly different. Furthermore the ineagreuess of the acknowledgement is such that Peter Scott and on t7haT K)^ W°n d beren‘itled l° CXpreSS Some honest indigna- tion at the bland rifling of their material, notably perhaps of the comparative measurements in the appendix. A parallel case is the lohn ng £m -/PT ‘l |S) °f many of the drawings direct from P. A i.fthTb 1 ,r Handb°°k °f Wfrfowl Behaviour (1965). The references completely cifeff Y ^ inaccuratel>’’ inconsistently or in- I am sorry but The Swans from the Wildfowl Trust is bigger ‘ter, more fully and attractively illustrated and cheaper! aFso it ■s hardly less up to date, though published 2* years earlier Jeffery Boswall The World Atlas of Birds. Mitchell Beazley, London, ,974 272 pages; many photographs, drawings and paintings 111 m colour. £,0.95 (in slip case). P 8 * cTeidLTtheh- H°°Vr OWTrS of soundI>' built coffee-tables. It escribes the birds of the world area by area; many of the regions W aiVhe Standard zo°geographical ones— Neotropical, Pale- :uKrCpdar’SVh~bUt thrC arC 2 fCW °therS herc> such as ‘Oceanic’ and Polai There are three main sections. The first is an introduc- t.on to the biology of birds, describing briefly their flight, feeding aims, migrations and language, and gives short descriptions of the pecies that are most threatened in each area. To be kind, these are wildly inconsistent. It is difficult to see how the Passenger Pigeon Reviews 164 ox' the Labradoi' Duck can any longei' be considered at risk. The Cypi'us Dipper’s disappearance is hardly on a par with that of the Gi'eat Auk; most works treat it as only a race. Further, the informa- tion presented on these rare forms is not always in line with more x'ecent literature. The middle section, of some 180 pages, is the main one and covers each of the large faunal areas. Each major habitat within an area is dealt with in a two-page spread. This includes a description of the habitat (frequently with a good, though smallish, photo- graph) and coloured illustrations of some of the birds, with 100 words or so on each of those depicted and sometimes also with x'ange maps. There are often additional treatments of particular groups or pi'oblems, such as honeyguides, migrant cuckoos, and adaptations for shore-feeding. The unavoidable inclusion of so few species from each habitat inevitably makes this part of the book somewhat patchy. The text is reasonably accui'ate, though not infallible. At the end there is a useful 40-page section describing the birds of the world, family by family. In the middle section, the colour pair tings make up as much as 50% of the page and, presumably, the book will largely stand or fall by these. Sadly, they do not delight my eye. Oi'nithologists have become so used to outstandingly high quality of illusti'ation that mediocrity seems poor. In at least some of the pictures the colour balance is wrong, in others the bird would look odd whatever the colour. At a casual glance this is quite a pi'etty book to look at, but it is difficult to see what niche it fills. If I were asked to recommend a work on birds of the world, I would greatly prefer either Living Birds of the World by E. T. Gilliard (reviewed in Brit. Birds, 52: 30-31) or Birds of the Worldby O. L. Austin (Brit. Birds, 57 : 132- 133), both ai’ound 15 yeai's old but well illustrated and far less expensive. Neither of these, however, attempts to describe the world’s birds by habitats, and if this is what the reader really wants then I would recommend The Living World of Animals, published in 197 o by the Reader's Digest (Brit. Birds, 64: 82-83), though this is by no means exclusively on birds. C. M. Perrins Estonian Wetlands and their Life. Edited by E. Kumari. Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR, Tallinn, 1974. 288 pages, 95 photographs and figures. Rbl 2.45. It is unfortunate that relatively little ornithological literature appeal's from the Soviet Union, despite the considerable amount of work carried out there; it is, therefore, particularly pleasing to see this book on Estonian wetlands. It is made up of a collection of 1 3 papers dealing with several aspects of wetlands, including classification Reviews 165 and vegetation, plus a bibliography. The ornithological content is considerable. Ihc book starts with a general review of European wetland conservation and more specifically with that of important Estonian wetlands, in particular Matsalu Bay. This is followed by four species studies, on the Mute Swan, Greylag Goose, Avocet and Peregrine. \ hc Population trends during this century are traced for each of these dynamic species. The first three have been increasing and now number 60 pairs (since 1959), 750 pairs and 38 pairs (since 1962), tcspectively. I heir breeding biology is briefly discussed. The general review of the Peregrine reveals that the primarily ground-nesting population in Estonia has slumped from 40-50 pairs in the 1950 s to such a low level that there has been only a single proven breeding record since 1962. Observations are made on the diet and on some of the causes of the decrease, primarily infertile eggs and decreasing clutch size. Ihc three remaining papers deal with the breeding bird popula- tions in Kama Bay, a peat bog and the fenlands. The first two provide detailed population estimates for these habitats, while the last discusses, unfortunately only in general terms, the changes associated with man-made drainage of the wetlands. 1 here is much of interest and value in this well-produced book. jCt us hope it is the forerunner of man)- more. A. J. Prater £*t*f°gUS Fa“"»e Jugoslaviae. IV 3. Aves It should be noted that this check- l° aaV b‘rds’ reviewed “ thc December ,974 issue, is obtainable not from the address given on page 523 but from the export bookshop: Trubarjcv Ant.kvanat Mcstm trg 25. 61000 Ljubljana. Yugoslavia. Letters Effects of agricultural change on birds I have found the correspondence between Derek Barber, and Dr R. K. Murton ^ WeStWO°d [Brit- Birds> 67: 395-396, 485-487), of con- derable interest, for I strongly suspect that hedgerows have, of themselves, assumed too large an importance in the conservation and farming issue in the sense that trying to preserve them, while accepting as inevitable a system of farming in which they have become an anachronistic and expensive nuisance, does not seem \ci\ logical. Clearly the basic structure of farmland— that is the pattern of fields, meadows, hedges and farmsteads, with their associated ponds, copses and other features-exerts an enormous influence on the appearance of our countryside, and I believe that ■ t has evolved for practical reasons which derive from the basic systems of farming. These systems thus largely decide the appear- 1 66 Letters ance of the countryside and, if a more traditional pattern is desired, then a more traditional system of farming should be urged. Now may be a good time to do this. For example, modern inten- sive livestock and cereal farming systems, which are so often sepa- rated, are frequently prodigal of energy, a commodity we cannot afford to waste. In these terms there is merit in returning to older mixed systems where stock, and crops grown for it such as clovers, provide a good proportion of the fertilisers needed for cereal growing in an integrated system. In such a system hedges serve as fences and provide shelter, which may be valuable. Yields, in terms of food available for human consumption, need not suffer. That such a system preserves the traditional appearance of our countryside was evident to me in a recent visit to Northumberland. Here most of the farms I saw mix arable farming with sheep and cattle. Their hedges are cared for, and I got the strong impression that tree planting for shelter and shade (and ornament?) is a regularly continuing activity. Crops are varied. The result is a county which drives home just what has been destroyed elsewhere, and I agree wholeheartedly with Mr Barber that one cannot doubt that such country holds a larger and more varied population of typical farmland birds than do many of the grimly uniform and featureless areas of intensive arable elsewhere in England. I have always believed that farmland usually holds smaller bird populations than the maximum that could be supported by the food available, because of the nature and distribution of the available cover. Thus I agree with Dr Murton and Mr Westwood that quite radical changes in farming may not greatly affect numbers or diversity, though affecting individual species. But this will remain true only as long as the restructuring of their study area, for example, goes no further. Few ornithologists would argue that any common passerine typical of farmland is threatened, as a species, by hedgerow removal and similar changes in farmland. But Mr Barber’s point is that the continued presence of several species in large areas is so threatened, as this depends, to put it crudely, on the presence or absence of bushes in farmland; and that, in attempting to preserve the birds of our countryside, it is strategically and politically unsound to surrender large areas of country without a murmur. I am sure he is right, and I noted with considerable interest and some surprise that Dr Murton and Mr Westwood’s thesis excluded any figures from prairie-type farms without any hedges or copses. These are surely what the argument is about. I profoundly disagree, therefore, with Dr Murton and Mr West- wood’s conclusion {Brit. Birds, 67 : 63) that ‘The conservationist should be less concerned with what happens on the farm per se, provided agricultural practice does not result in widescale hazards Letters 167 to wildlife through indiscriminate use of toxic chemicals or the pollution of waterways’. The removal of hedges and of special features they particularly mentioned as valuable, such as patches o wetland, scrub or natural grassland, are two parts of the same operation, or programme of rationalisation, and difficult to separate in practical farming terms. So it is pointless to suggest that the latter should not be regarded as part of farmland if they come under the influence of farmers. Agricultural practices are just what we should challenge, for as long as conservation attempts merely to palliate the worst effects of modern intensive farming on the countryside, it will never keep pace with agricultural development. jere are strong grounds for such a challenge, which would, I believe, find support from within the industry. finally, I would like to stress that I have concerned myself here with the appearance of the countryside as well as with bird popula- tions. I agree with Mr Barber that we need popular support. But this support is more likely to be concerned about such things as the sad, scorched or blackened trees it so often sees after harvest than with the loss of birds such as Linnets Acanthis cannabina, which it may not be able to identify. The Linnets will remain if the habitat is right. » r c . 6 M. Shrubb F airfields, Sidlesham, Chichester , West Sussex Collecting of Ipswich Sparrows ‘News and comment’ in the February 1975 issue [Bril. Birds, 68: 83) referred to the collecting ot Ipswich Sparrows Passerculus sandwichensis princeps (a race of the Savannah Sparrow) on Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada. The incident was reported in a peculiarly uninformative and, I think biased way in connection with scattered collecting of newlv coloni- sing or straying birds and with the concern of the American Orni- thologists Union about scientific collecting in general. I was a member of the scientific party on Sable Island on May 1074 when t he specimens of Ipswich Sparrows were collected (though ! was not the collector, nor was I directly involved in his research). Mv comments may help to clear up some misunderstandings The Ipswich Sparrow population on Sable Island has remained relatively stable over at least several years. The pre-breeding population in spring (when the collection was made) averages 2 700 birds and that m autumn, just before migration, about 11,000. ate ung success (85%) and fledging success (92%) are verv high. Predation during the breeding season is very low, and the main factor affecting the upper limit of population on the island from summer to summer is weather. Winter mortality is high, probablv rrtenng Srounds centred on the coastal beaches of the middle Atlantic states. The main threats to continued well-being of Letters 1 68 the Ipswich Sparrow are habitat destruction in the United States and coastal Nova Scotia. A monograph on the biology of this interesting and unusual race, by Professor J. A. McLaren (of Dalhousie University) and Dr W. J. Stobo, is in press. The scientific collecting that occurred in May 1974 was justified, scrupulously conducted, and conservative. The specimens, intended to represent variation in the population, are being used in a study of the Savannah Sparrow across its whole range in North America. There were, before this collection, no properly representative col- lections of this race in museums, because older collectors (most of them in the 19th century) preferred the largest, palest birds. The series taken in 1974 yielded not just museum skins but also skeletal material for comparison with other races of the Savannah Sparrow. The research and collecting operation were both carefully planned beforehand. There is no question that the collecting could have harassed this race in any way and, had there been the possibility of harm, no collecting would have been done. I am in close agreement with J. B. Tatum and most of your readers about the pointless nature of most collecting. In this case, collecting was both justified and properly done. In this framework, your readers would be best served by ‘News and comment’ repre- senting facts, not suppositions placed in misleading contexts. Otherwise you weaken your justifiable concern about needless collecting. Eric L. Mills Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., Canada Professor Mills objects to my criticism of the fact that in May 1974 41 Ipswich Sparrows (a Red Book bird) were shot on their sole breeding ground on Sable Island, Nova Scotia, and to my belief that the event can be seen in the larger context of North American attitudes to scientific collecting. He is entitled to hold opposite views, of course, but his letter fails to justify his charge of misrep- resentation. I am not so prejudiced as to deny that there are certain fields of re- search where collecting is necessary, but I feel obliged to question the ethics of shooting / throughout the month rlntot Th kk FcbfUary *975- There were two exceptionally late raptors, a Hobby Falco subbuteo at Chclsf.eld (Kent) on 9th and an Osprey Pandion met, is at Church Stretton (Shropshire) on 10th, while a Red-footed Falcon be rCP°rt a ?Ctf°Drd (Nottinghamshire) on 15th would, if accepted, be the latest ever recorded in Britain and Ireland F m^°meaSOn uVadCfS Wer" a St°ne Curlew B"rhinus oedicnemus at Farlington marshes (Hampshire on i3,h and a Black-winged Stilt HimantoPus Inman, opts, a ate Grl pb "0rmally ^ters “ at Steart (Somerset) on ,9th. while a V Phalarope Phalaropus julicarius turned up at Marazion (Cornwall) on -4th. \ ery late Great Skuas Stercorarius skua were seen at Seaton Sluice, where 14 flew north and two south during the month, the peak being eight on 15th ^oreds°oef JZlV ***** n Cheddar Reservoir (Somerset) on 27th. Inland records of Mediterranean Gulls Lotus melanocephalus are rare, but one was at . la^'water (Staffordshire) on 4th. Perhaps even more remarkable, a Common or fW, hmmd°iP«™d,saca was at Sandgate (Kent) on 28th. and a Common m the M.nsmere-Sizewell area of Suffolk throughout the month even- a!ha?d n! ^h^' X AukS PlaUtUS dU flew north at Seaton Sluice on 14111 and one north on 29th. Further unusual sightings for the time of year included a Hoopoe Upupa epops at Rainham (Kent) on ,9th and another at Fishers Pond (Hampshire) from mid- ™rr throughout January. A late Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe was at Little- coZ m Iff °A m and,f LeSSCr Whhethroat ^ which started to Jaguar? \ Wdll w' m" ^ Christmas DaV was seen throughout J ry. . Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus was identified at Tylers Green 172 December reports and autumn summary (Buckinghamshire) on 9th. The numerous hirundines, Blackcaps S. atricapilla, Chiffchaffs P. collybita, Firecrests Regulus ignicapillus and Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus will be summarised later. Only one Lapland Bunting Calcarius lapponicus was reported to us, at Capel Fleet (Kent) on 1st, though there must have been others which were either overlooked or have not reached our notice. A Cirl Bunting Emberiza cirlus at Great Chart (Kent) on 5th is of interest in view of this species’ fast-diminishing status in south-east England. Finally, there was yet another Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti found, this time at South Milton Ley (Devon) on 24th, making nine new records during October- December. Autumn migration The whole autumn period was almost totally dominated by weather from the Atlantic as a long series of depressions crossed Britain, bringing severe gales at frequent intervals, until a northerly airstream produced one of the coldest Octobers on record. The only really calm periods came at the end of August and in mid- September, when the main passerine movements occurred. GANNETS, SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS The largest passages of Gannets were reported from Northumberland, with 947 north in two hours at Seaton Sluice on 24th September and up to 1 ,300 per hour north at Annstead on 2nd and 3rd October. Also at Seaton Sluice during August- October, a total of 55 Great Skuas flew north and 16 south, 50 Pomarine Sterco- rarius pomarinus north and 24 south, and 850 Arctic S. parasiticus north and 684 south. Reports from other east coast sites indicate that skua passage there was heaviest on 24th September when, for example, at Spurn (Humberside) 102 Great, five Pomarine and 442 Arctic were noted, while at Shellness (Kent) equivalent data were 80, seven and 125. Passage of Glaucous Gulls Lams hyperboreus took place from the latter half of August, with most birds in October; the maximum was up to seven in the Cley area of Norfolk during the last four days of that month, though only one was reported inland — an adult at Drakelow (Warwickshire) on 8th October. Only eight Iceland Gulls L. glaucoides were reported, all singles and all on the coast. Mediterranean Gulls L. melanocephalus might have been expected in larger numbers: there were just eight in August, three in September and seven in Octo- ber; all were on the coast, from Teesmouth (Cleveland) round to Formby (Mersey- side), and they included a bird at Covehithe (Suffolk) which returned for the eleventh time. Numbers of Little Gulls L. minutus in Fife have not been supplied to us, but elsewhere the largest gatherings were on the east coast of England, with a maximum of 60 or more at Dungeness (Kent) on 2nd September; flocks were generally small and none of the large numbers which have been recorded in recent years in Merseyside appeared, the highest there being 41 in the Alt estuary on 1 5th September. There were large movements of Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla in October: 5,700 passed Spurn on 13th, 10,000 flew west at St Ives (Cornwall) on 19th, up to 2,000 per hour flew north off the Northumberland coast on 22nd, while at the end of the month movement was south, again up to 2,000 per hour in North- umberland, 3,000 at Spurn and 6,000 at Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire). Black Terns Chlidonias niger were very numerous. There was a large passage at the end of August and in the first few days of September, mostly on the coast, including up to 200 at Dungeness during this period, and 102 flying south at Calshot (Hampshire) on 1st September; 87 at Teesmouth on 2nd was a high number so far north. Towards mid-September a further large passage was much more noticeable inland. There were 200 at Chew Valley Lake on 1 ith and 100 at Bittell (Worcestershire) the next day, but the highest numbers came on 15th when December reports and autumn summary m the species was abundant at many waters, particularly in the Midlands; at least 3°° p^sed through the Oxford and Banbury areas and 289 were recorded in the middle 1 hames valley, while in the south-east there were 130 at Staines Reservoirs Surrey) and 100 or more at Bough Beech Reservoir. We received records often birds in October, the last at Pennington Flash (Greater Manchester) on 17th. WADERS Main arrival of Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus took place as usual in October: at Blaydon ( I yne & Wear) there were eleven on 1st, but the main influx was between 19th and 23rd, maxima being 14 at Pitsford Reservoir (Northamptonshire) and ■Jo at Stoke (Kent), both on 19th. Some larger than usual numbers of Green and Common Sandpipers Tringa ochropus and T. hypoUucos were noted: of the former 19 at IYing Reservoirs (Hertfordshire) on 3rd August, 29 at Chew Valley Lake on 9th and 20 at Daventry Reservoir (Northamptonshire) on 20th were all above average; while 46 Common were at Chew Valley Lake on 16th August and up to 50 at Draycote (Warwickshire) during September, both of which, however, were eclipsed by an exceptional 85 at Sandwich Bay (Kent) on 5th August. About 130 Wood Sandpipers T. glareola were reported to us, mostly in ones or twos with only twelve parties of three or more; there was an early bird near Earsdon (Tyne & Wear) on 25th June, followed by six at Tring Reservoirs on and July, then about 14 more until August when the majority passed through; seven at Chew Valley- Cake on 27th was the autumn maximum for Britain. Passage continued through September and included five near Havergate (Suffolk) on 22nd, and there were just foui October reports, two in Cornwall, one near Pittenheath (Grampian) on 1 1 (a •'eiy late date for Scotland) and one at Cley on 19th. A good passage of potted Redshanks T. erythropus also occurred: the first returns were at Mins- mere on i2th June and at Arne (Dorsct) on 13th; at the latter locality numbers soon bu.lt up to a peak of 38 on 22nd, followed by a July peak of 70 on 20th and a record .30 or more on 29th August. At least 25 on the Ythan estuary (Grampian) on 1st September was another record count. On the Dee estuary (Clwyd) the peak occurred later, 84 in September rising to no in early October. Similarly, a leavy passage of Ruffs Philomachus pugnax was noted: 80 were already at Freckle- ton (Lancashire) by 3ist July and up to 100 were recorded there in September- ^ aPPrrrCm rHind/hc Cnd of AuS°st and beginning of September when there were 66 (and possibly 71) at Chew Valley Lake on 31st, and 51 in the Trent valley and 80 flying south at Gibraltar Point on the next day; three days ‘ater too were counted at Washington (Tyne & Wear), and on 8th September 50 at Sumburgh (Shetland), 70 at Pitsford Reservoir and 90 at Lough Beg (Co AntrmVLondonderry). Maxima at Teesmouth were 85 on 16th August and 82 on 9tb September; many other flocks of up to 50 were reported from all parts of October^'1 thCrC WCre 127 °n thC °USe WaShCS ( Lincolnshire/Norfolk ) on 14th onB^CkR'tT1K1.ed ? °d"i1ts Limosa limosa gathered at their regular sites at Steart and on he Ribble (Lancashire) At Steart there was a rapid build-up to 1,131 by 27th July which decreased slowly until another influx put numbers up to .,300 fJll ' T n o ulf CP,tCnibCr maximum was 9*5 on 14th, followed by a gradual fal-ofT. On the Ribble there were 550 by the end of July, 800 on 18th August and 1,400 o„ 25th September. Little Stints Calidris minutus occurred in aboufaverage or below average numbers. There were late June records from Merseyside, Hum- rs.de and Northumberland. About 22 birds were recorded in July, and the main ren hT “* ,gUSt T Car‘y SePtember, though flocks often or more were eported from only twelve sites, the only- inland ones being of ten at Wisbech ewage larm (Lincolnshire/Norfolk) on 26th August and eleven at Blithfield Rcservo.r (Staffordshire) on 5th September. The largest flocks were of 27 at den Bay (Hampshire) on 9th September, 34 at Teesmouth on nth and 50 x74 December reports and autumn summary on the Weaver estuary (Cheshire) in the first week of that month. About 37 October birds included six at Pegwell Bay (Kent) on 29th, and a further 13 or so in November may have referred to wintering individuals. The autumn was a very poor one for Curlew Sandpipers C. ferruginea. Two at Cley on 1 6th June were followed by a further six in that month, while only a dozen or so were reported to us in July. August passage was very small with maxima of ten at Cliffe (Kent) on 3rd, 14 at Minsmere on 8th and 15 at Grain (Kent) on 17th, while the only place to hold double figures in September was the West Swale (also Kent) with 30 on 15th. In October birds were found at Dibden Bay on 1st, Frampton (Glou- cestershire) and Pitsford Reservoir on 6th, Steart on 14th, Calshot on 17th and St George’s Wharf (Avon) on 20th (three) and 27th, and the only November record was of one in the Alt estuary on 1 7th. In north-west England there were 74,000 Knots C. canutus on the Ribble on 1 8th August, the only figure we have for the area, and at the same place a spec- tacular influx of Dunlins C. alpina in July gave a count of over 50,000 on 21st. NEAR-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES Falls of the commoner summer visitors There were several smaller falls and two major ones. Both of the latter included Wrynecks Jynx torquilla (see below) and rarer species, such as Barred Warblers Sylvia nisoria, Icterine Warblers Hippolais icterina and Melodious Warblers H. polyglotta, which have been mentioned in earlier summaries. The first large fall occurred on 30th-3ist August and was confined for the most part to the east coast from Humberside to Norfolk (see table). It was also noticed in Kent where Numbers of some commoner migrants in east coast fall, 30th August 1974 Donna Blakeney Bempton Spurn Nook Point Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe 60 IOO 150 Whinchat Saxicola rubetra 30 90 70 20 + Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus IO 25 *5 *5 Garden Warbler Sylvia borin 45 10 + Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus 80 Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca 42 250 150 70 there was a remarkable estimate of 85 Lesser Whitethroats at Dungeness on 31st. Pied Flycatchers were more scattered along the east coast than the other species and, apart from the numbers already quoted, on 30th there were 30 at Whitley Bay (Tyne & Wear), 20 at Tynemouth, 40 at Teesmouth, 80 each at Anderby and Gibraltar Point (both Lincolnshire), 50 at Great Yarmouth (Norfolk), twelve at Dungeness and even 18 on the south coast at Portland (Dorset). The second large fall, in the period 14th- 17th September, affected mainly Kent and East Sussex. At Sandwich Bay 45 Whinchats were counted on 15th; at Dungeness on 16th there were 120 Wheatears (after 100 on 12th), 170 Whin- chats, 22 Whitethroats S. communis and 35 Pied Flycatchers, and on the next day 20 Redstarts, 15 Garden Warblers and 100 Chiffchaffs. At Beachy Head (East Sussex) the main arrival was on 14th, with 60 Wheatears, 70 Whinchats, 16 Redstarts, 180 Chiffchaffs and 20 Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata. A small fall on 2nd October brought 35 Blackcaps, 30 Garden Warblers and 75 Chiffchaffs to Dungeness and 150 Blackcaps to Beachy Head. Record numbers of Blackcaps were recorded at Spurn, 80 on 8th October; late passage was recorded at Dungeness where there were twelve on 1st November, two on 2nd and one on 19th, and at Fair Isle (Shetland) where 39 were trapped during November, with December reports and autumn summary r75 maxima of 14 on 4th, 15 on 13th, ten on 16th and the last four on 24th. Other S1w“h18 COUnt" °J passcrine migrants at Beach y Head included 250 Willow Warblers on 2nd August and 300 on i7th, and 300 ChifTchaffs on ,oth FlvrnT It'" ' an at Pl'ng, n(SS *5° Wi,low Warblers on 13th August, 50 Spotted Flycatchers on 9th September and 18 Redstarts on 6th October. Wrynecks, hirundines and miscellaneous Hnrdlerrff Partirularly,gO0d for the number of Wrynecks. The first was at Held ,h ^ M,?" Ifatl August’ foIIowed the next day bv one at Beachy fhad then a huge fall occurred between 28th and 2nd September when a total o at least 105 was reported from widely scattered localities from Beachy Head and along the whole of the east coast north to Shetland, apart from one in Lancashire; some large groups included ten or more at Blakeney Point (Norfolk) on 30th August, t5 at Spurn on 31st and a record 20 on Fair Isle on 2nd September wlT’I °r S°uWm‘ ,Tp°rU'd until '4tb-.8th September when another influx Shed PPrr rain and cold ‘emprratures, arrived in Kent and East Sussex where there were instances of their even entering houses in a ge numbers for shelter and warmth. Large-scale deaths occurred also in Switzerland at the end of the first week of October when the weather in southern Europe suddenly turned cold before the birds could cross the Alps, and many Swallows were also involved in this upset, which local ornithologists attempted unsuccessfully to correct by airlifting the birds across the Mediterranean. • good passage of Stonechats Saxicola lorquata was recorded. There was an K 1 r'S 31 SPUT IV°m 28th ScPtember- with a maximum of ,8 ‘ 29th, while in Kent 16 were at Sandwich Bay on 15th October, two days after as many as 39 had been counted at Conyer. A very late female was on Fair Isle on 2.st November. Red-backed Shrikes Lomus collurio were reported from 25 £ J r"m ,h' °nl> more than three w2 n Fan Isle where here were nine on 2nd-3rd September, and the last was a female at Northward Hill (Kent) on 19th October. Goldcrests Regulus regulus were widespread and too or more were recorded at 27fh to) Duni (HampSh^e) T 23rd Seplcmber (200). Bardsey on 26th and time) ’t1? S ’f1 °Ctober’ *7th-aoth. and 1st November (too each time). Fair Isle on 2nd October (200) and Beachy Head on 18th (170). Passage of F, recrests was extremely late everywhere and much more scattered than usual si„danyhPRaC" “‘•T’ “ wcU “ «< •>>' October maxima werenine1 at on ™h> s"Tn al Dungcness on 17th and eight at Beachv Head on - 6 th. but in November a large passage included an unprecedented fall of at least 70 bHore SS °n ,St; many remained *° wintcr in Br'tain, in numbers unrecorded Black Redstarts Phoenicians ochruros showed up well in October, the maximum * , .?U gtneSSf bemS 2’? ,°n ,9th’ vvh,le at SPurn Passage lasted from 16th to 28th with peaks of 20 on 16th and 16 on 19th. Late summer migrants There were more late migrants than usual. Turtle Doves Streptofielia turtur were V 975 176 December reports and autumn summary seen on VVhalsay on 27th October, at YVath Ings (South Yorkshire) on 31st, at Bury St Edmunds (Suffolk) into November and on Guernsey on 1st November. A very late Cuckoo Citctthts canorus was on Guernsey on 10th November, and a Night- jar Caprimiilgus europaeus, equally late, at Great Brickhill (Buckinghamshire) on 24th. Swifts Apus apus were seen at six places in October and at three in November, and there was an exceptional record of one in Ipswich (Suffolk) from October until late December, presumably attempting to winter. Late Swallows and House Martins were very numerous, especially in the south, and even Sand Martins Ripana riparia stayed late, in Suffolk until November and at Thoresby Lake (Nottinghamshire) on 20th November. Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus were found in November at Salthouse (Norfolk) on 2nd and on VVhalsay on 13th and in December on the Cheviot (Northumberland) on 1st. We heard of eight Wheatears and three Whinchats in November, the latest of the latter being at Harty (Kent) on 23rd, while Redstarts were seen at Congresbury (Avon) on 3rd November and at Dungeness on 16th. At the last-named place a Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus was trapped on 8th November. Three Garden Warblers were at Hauxley (Northumberland) on 3rd and 4th November, and singles were at Fair Isle on 4th, 1 ith and 13th, trapped at Sandwich Bay on 5th and found dead near Man- chester on 20th, this last having been ringed at Holme (Norfolk) on gth October 1974. On Out Skerries (Shetland) a Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis stayed from 19th October until 2nd November. Winter visitors Winter visitors tended to be left out in the cold with so many late-staying summer visitors and migrants. However, 1.000 Fieldfares T. pilaris and 750 Redwings T. iliacus passed over the Calf of Man on 3rd October, and 1,000 Fieldfares and 250 Redwings flew north-east at St Agnes (Scilly) on 30th, while at Beachy Head 1,500 Redwings arrived on 10th October, three days before 10,000 were counted coming in to roost at Detling/Boxley (Kent). Arrivals of Blackbirds T. menda were noted at Spurn on 16th October (800), at Dungeness on 29th (500) and at Sandwich Bay (250) and Beachy Head (230) on 30th. Great Grey Shrikes L. excubitor also came in during October but numbers seemed about normal, the highest count at the observatories being four at Spurn, though there were five at Tyneside between 2nd and 4th. There were several reports of finches and buntings arriving in October. At Beachy Head 1,000 Chaffinches Fringilla coelebs and 35 Twites Acant-his flavirostris headed in off the sea on 8th, and 300 Redpolls A. ji amine a on 13th. Further large movements of Redpolls were reported from Dungeness, with a peak of 600 on 6th, and from Sandwich Bay where 200 flew north on 13th, while at Stanion Lane Plantations (Northamptonshire) 600 were trapped during October and November. Five hundred Chaffinches were on the Calf of Man on 31st October. Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis arrived in larger numbers than in most years; the huge November influxes have already been mentioned {Brit. Birds, 68: 124), but previously in October flocks of up to 200 had been noted in Shetland and high counts were recorded along the east coast. stop press Recent reports include a Ross’s Gull at Teesside during the first week of April; a Bonaparte’s Gull at Stanpit marsh (Dorset) from gth to nth April; a Slate-coloured Junco at Haresfield, Gloucestershire, from about mid- March; and a Black-browed Albatross, which has returned to Hermaness (Shetland). correction The eastern Stonechats in Northumberland and Tyne & Wear mentioned in the October and November Reports (Brit. Birds, 68: 87, 124) were in fact not identified as of the race maura, but most closely resembled slejnegeri , which breeds to the east of the ranee of maura. ^60hespo«^ nka ?R ounces, eas' t',?a quality makesiV ’"C End caps P'°'e.cc joymentfor b\rd UheGreenkat— ces htto carry, onW zo....,^aki ceUentop1-.- elective. 1 weathers, tUP reservoir, 11% ftxoeditions .q,. 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Licence— ATOL189B BINOCULARS of QUALITY from DIRECT TO YOU AT ENORMOUS DISCOUNTS All makes available: send s.a.e. for binocular or photographic price lists Swift Audubon 8.5 x 44, retail £66.00, our price £42.07. Saratoga 8 x 40, retail £47.20, our price 30.24. Perl 9 x 35 nin e, £2I'°6 °Vr P«ce £16.85. Zeiss 10 X 40B Dialyt, retail £189.81, our price £126.54. Nickel Supra telescope 15 x 60 < 60, retail £100.44, our price £69.95. Heron 8 x 40, retail approx. £27.50, our price £18.40 (approved by Nature Con- servancy). All including case and post free. 14-day approval service (payment with order). Callers welcome. HERON OPTICAL COMPANY i939/4°, 1941/42, 1946/47, 1961/62 and 1962/63 (and probably others). 3. At any time and place, the bird appears to have been patchy in distribution, with some heaths densely populated and others seem- ingly suitable but not occupied. It thus seems as if it has rarely, if ever, had sufficient time between crashes to reach saturation of all the available heathland. 4. The species has always been associated with heathland in England and it appears that no other breeding habitats have been described. Some authors describe furze (or gorse) Ulex as the favoured characteristic, while others regard heather Calluna to be the prime essential, a discrepancy which is discussed in a later section (pages 182-184). With the recent growth of birdwatching, the history of the Dartford Warbler can almost be quantified since the last population slump as a result of the consecutive severe winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63, which caused reductions of about 80% and 90% respec- tively (total 98%). HISTORY SINCE I 960 The population was surveyed fairly thoroughly in 1960-61 (Boys 1961, Raynsford 1963, Tubbs 1963) and the effects of the severe winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63 were discussed by Tubbs, Raynsford and county bird reports. Further information during the recovery period has been published by Tubbs (1969) and county bird reports. The accuracy of previous counts, especially in Dorset, is unknown and probably not high. St.'- AfProSmale numb"S *"<1 distribution of breeding Dartford Warblers combmed. and Sussex: p md.cates less than five pairs. See text for sources 180 Dartford Warbler status, habitats and conservation By 1974 it was apparent that the state of the population and its distribution were inadequately known, so an attempt at a thorough census of England was made. CJB, assisted for a period by A. Burn and P. Dolton, searched all the heathland in Dorset as well as areas of gorsy grassland, old sand pits and forestry plantations. The New Forest was surveyed by observers allocated 1 km squares to investi- gate. Local ornithologists in Devon, Isle of Wight, Surrey and Sussex checked most likely sites. The numbers of territories found in each county are displayed on fig. 1 and compared with those in 1960-61, 1963 and 197°- The 196° New Forest figure has been reduced to 350 territories from Tubbs’ (1963) estimate of 382, as it is now thought to have included over- estimation by one observer. In the New Forest in 1974? 203 Pairs were actually found, but two large areas thought to support about 40 pairs were not recorded at all and another area was only partially covered, so the total of 250 territories includes an element of estima- tion. The overall accuracy of these counts is unknown, but Dartford Warblers can be very elusive. The Dorset figure is probably no more than 90% of the real total, and the New Forest results less accurate. It is unlikely that more than a few pairs nest undetected outside the known range. Although the total population in 1974 was similar to that at the last peak (1960-61), a marked change of distribution is apparent. The Surrey and north-east Hampshire population of at least 90 pairs in 1933 (Bond 1955) and of about 40 in 1961 has failed to re-establish itself. There have been sporadic attempts since 1968, and recolonisation looked promising in spring 1974 until fire de- stroyed the main site. Many of these heaths are becoming unsuitable for Dartford Warblers because of tree encroachment, but isolation from the main population is probably restricting expansion too. The small Sussex population had a short period of success, largely as a result of gorse development on a single site following a reduction of grazing after myxomatosis. Numbers are now declining at the main site, possibly as a result of the gorse becoming too old, tall and unsuitable, but as new sites are colonised the population is just holding its own. New Forest numbers took a long time to recover from the low 1963 level, perhaps in part owing to a snowfall in mid-April 1966 which caused a marked setback. This snow was less severe in coastal Sussex and Dorset sites. There appear to be still a few suitable areas in the New Forest which are not occupied, though the total area of suitable habitat has declined since i960. Populations in Dorset, as far as they are known, have fared better, roughly doubling every two years to reach a level where they now occupy most of the seemingly suitable areas and are substantially more numerous than in 1960-61, in spite of a 40% reduction in the Dartjord Warbler status , habitats and conservation 1 8 1 heathland area in the meantime. Although the count in i960 was probably nowhere near as thorough as the present one, several well- covered sites had many fewer pairs in i960 than at present. The reasons for these relative changes in numbers between Dorset and the New forest are unknown; a broadening of the habitat tolerance o. the bird has been involved, though this is probably an effect rather than a cause (see next section). The Isle of Wight, surprisingly, was recolonised m 1964, but no Dartford Warblers bred in the following lew years. The available habitat is very limited, and the 1974 population of about six pairs is unlikely to be much exceeded. In Devon alter 1962, breeding first occurred in 1968 and has been intermittent subsequently. The heathland areas on the pebble-bed commons in the south-east are frequently burned. Further to the south and west, there are areas which appear superficially to be suitable for Dartford Warblers, some of which, especially coastal goisc thickets, enjoy a mild winter climate. A small and remote colony discovered in 1972 and continuing to the present confirms that these areas can be suitable, so it is believed that a lack of colonists is critical. habitats Physical and vegetational characteristics of 282 Dartford Warbler territories in east Dorset and of 190 in the New Forest were recorded m 1974. The vegetation within an arbitrary 30 metres of the centre of activity of the birds was considered, describing each species as dominant, abundant, present or absent. All Dorset sites were described by CJB, and those in the New Forest by voluntary helpers so in scope and precision they are not always thoroughly comparable! 1 u abundant and dominant categories have been combined in the present analysis, as discrimination between them was not very consistent between observers. Table 1 shows the primary vegetation characteristics of the 472 territories. These findings confirm the traditional predilection of the species for gorseg (usually Ulex europaeus and sometimes in Dorset western gorse U. gallii) and an ericaceous dwarf scrub layer dominated by heather or ling Calluna vulgaris with bell heather Erica cinerea and less frequently cross- eaved heath E tetrahx or, in Dorset, even Dorset heath E. cilians ■ u xlommant. No territories were withoutericaceousplants, thoughat argeTv1^0^ T * ^ NeW F°reSt these — scarce and largely replaced by moor grass Molinia caerulea and bristle bent Set“Cea °r bracken Ptendium aquilinum beneath dense gorse thickets One New Forest territory, apart from an area of UUx! 1 Iol^nt^4Sros^, included a young forestry plantation and a bed of widel gmit€S AIth°Ugh S°rse/§rass associations occur widely on superficial deposits on chalk and limestone in southern 1 82 Dartford Warbler status, habitats and conservation Table i. Primary vegetation characteristics of 472 territories of Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata, 1974 The figures are the percentages of the total falling within each category: see text for methods Gorse Ulex europaeus, Ericaceous ground Pines, mainly Scots western gorse U. gallii vegetation pine Pinus sylvestris EAST DORSET ( 282 territories) Dom. Pres. Abs. Dominant 78.6 14.2 32.8 31.6 Dominant 82.9 Present 4-3 0.7 — 3-6 Absent — — — — Dominant 6.4 4-3 1.4 0.7 Present 6.4 Present — — — — Absent — — — — Dominant 10.7 9.6 0.7 0.4 Absent 10.7 Present — — — — Absent — — — — NEW FOREST ( 1 go territories) Dom. Pres. Abs. Dominant 73-2 6-3 4-7 62.2 Dominant 75-3 Present 2.1 o-5 — 1.6 Absent — — — — Dominant 15-2 4.2 5-8 5-2 Present 15-2 Present — — — — Absent — — — — Dominant 9-5 9.0 o-5 — Absent 9-5 Present — — — — Absent — — England, Dartford Warblers rarely if ever breed in such situations unless they are sufficiently acidic to give rise to heathland. The present Sussex sites are largely of this kind, with the ground vege- tation predominantly grassy but not to the complete exclusion of heather. Bramble Rubus is also frequent at these sites, and at others in the Channel Islands (Dr C. J. Cadbury, verbally), and may be an acceptable dwarf scrub in place of heather. In Dorset, heights of gorse and ground vegetation in each terri- tory were assessed by a visual selection of the average which was then measured to the nearest 10 cm. These data are presented in table 2. Ground vegetation of moderate depth (median 35 cm) was most frequent, though examples were found of Dartford Warblers living in the complete range of depths which occur. The New Forest data, measured in feet, were too crude for comparison, but the impression is that ground vegetation was deeper, being over two feet (60 cm) deep in 50% of territories compared with only 8% in Dorset. It is suggested that this primarily represents difference of growth between the two areas. Raynsford (i960) reported that, even with suitable Dartford Warbler status , habitats and conservation 183 Table 2. Average heights of ground vegetation and gorse (Jlex in territories Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata in east Dorset, 1974 Gorse (cm) 10 20 30 Ground 40 vegetation (cm) 50 60 70 80 90 TOTALS — 1 8 1 1 7 3 2 , 33 40 — I — — — — — I 50 60 I 4 3 6 4 I — — — — 4 1 3 70 — 7 5 8 — 1 21 80 I 9 10 8 2 3 — — — 33 90 4 9 10 3 2 — 28 100 I 3 10 6 3 — 2 1 10 — 3 6 2 1 — — 1 120 — 2 1 1 9 6 3 X — 32 130 I 2 4 5 3 3 — — 1 19 140 I 2 3 6 I 1 — 1 I S 150 160 I 2 5 4 I 3 4 1 1 2 — — *5 Q 170 — 2 3 — 2 1 8 180 — — 2 3 — 1 1 _ 7 190 — — — — — — 200 — — — — 1 — _ - I 250 — — — 1 — — — — I TOTALS 6 42 89 76 36 19 7 4 , 280 gorse, Dartford Warblers were absent in Surrey if heather was less than two feet high, and Moore (1975) found a similar situation in Dorset at this time. Stands of heather on Dorset heathland rarely exceed 60 cm in depth at the moment, but there are a few areas, especially where grazed, with suitable gorse and very low heather (under 20 cm) that are thinly tenanted. The New Forest has exten- sive areas of low, heavily grazed ground vegetation sparsely occupied by Dartford Warblers. Height of gorse, on the other hand, seems to be selected more critically. The median height of only 104 cm in Dorset and the few territories in gorse more than 150 cm high suggest strong selection against tall stands. Gorse was commonly found in excess of 200 cm high. The factor common to most of the gorse areas occupied was a dense continuity between the ground vegetation and the gorse canopy. In view of the correlation between heights of gorse and ground vegetation (see table 2), it is suggested that it is primarily the physique of gorse which determines when a heathland area is suitable for Dartford Warblers, and the fact that the heather is normally fairly deep merely reflects the amount it has grown in the time taken for gorse to develop sufficiently following fire or cutting. Gorse was scarce or absent in 51 of 282 (18%) Dorset territories and in 18 of 190 (9%) in the New Forest. Of these, 33 in Dorset and 184 Dartford Warbler status , habitats and conservation 17 in the New Forest were in areas dominated by pine Pinus and heather. A mere 15 territories in Dorset and one in the New Forest had only little pine or gorse and were predominantly heather, so this does not seem to be a major habitat at the moment. In his 1961 survey, Tubbs (1963) recorded eight pairs out of 77 from heather territories without pine or gorse. Pure heather is more widespread in the New Forest than in Dorset, and reaches greater heights in the few areas where it is not overgrazed. The pure heather territories reported in the past seem to have involved stands at least 70-100 cm deep. These are most likely to occur on the slightly richer soils in Surrey. In Dorset such depths are extremely infrequent, perhaps in part because few areas have survived unburned for long enough but also probably because of the extremely impoverished soils. In 1974 only one territory (in Dorset) lacked pine and gorse, having extensive bramble thickets with a scattering of birch Betula, broom Sarothamnus scoparius, ash Fraxinus excelsior and rose Rosa. Of the 80 territories (51 in Dorset, 29 in the New Forest) where pine trees predominated, 76 were forestry plantations and the re- maining four, all in Dorset, the result of natural regeneration. This habitat has previously been under-recorded, though diaries of B. J. Ringrose in CRT’s possession confirm that it was used in the New Forest in the 1930’s, and Bond (1939) described small pines a few feet above the heather as a near-essential feature and attributed the Dartford Warbler’s strength in Dorset in the 1930’s to the Forestry Commission’s activities in planting pines. Neither Tubbs (1963) nor Moore (1975) found the birds in such areas. In Dorset in 1974 the plantations were mostly of Scots pines P. sylvestris and Corsi- can pines P. nigra, and occasionally of other species. Scots pines ap- peared to be favoured, nearby areas of exotic species sometimes not being occupied. In the New Forest, 17 territories were dominated by Scots pine but the remaining twelve contained a wide range of species, mostly in mixtures and including beech Fagus sylvatica, larch Larix decidua, Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii and Norway spruce Picea abies. In Dorset the trees were mainly between eight and eleven years old; two younger sites with trees five and six years old were dominated by gorse. There were three sites with trees 12-14 years old and none with older. In the New Forest, the plantations were 10-14 years old. All, however, showed great variability of performance, with some trees over ten years old still less than a metre high (table 3). It is only the slow growth of some of the trees that allows heather to re-establish itself after the disturbance of planting and reach sufficient height for Dartford Warblers before the tree canopy closes and the site becomes unsuitable. The partial shading probably helps by drawing the heather up. Many of these areas were ploughed before planting, which might also encourage a Dartford Warbler status, habitats and conservation Table 3. Height range of young pines Pinus in 51 Dorset territories of Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata in which these were dominant, 1974 Maximum (metres) 2 3 4 5 6 Minimum < 1 1 7 7 2 _ (metres) 1 4 g 14 2 1 dense ground vegetation: certainly in some large areas it has led to development of gorse, which favours disturbed ground. Another unexpected feature is the presence of mature pine trees in many territories. Tubbs (1963) and Moore (1975) found their absence characteristic, though Walpole-Bond (1914) discovered Dartford Warblers in such terrain. The present survey found mature pines in 65 of 282 territories in Dorset, where savannah pine heaths (Moore 1962) are common, but in only five in the New Forest. In Dorset, there were usually one to five such trees within an arbitrary 30 metres of the centre of a territory (a density of 4- 18 per hectare), and occasionally up to ten. Heights varied between five and 20 metres with a mean of 10-3 metres. Birds were seen foraging and singing in the canopies of these trees, in one case 20 metres off the ground. Moore (1962) observed that the Dartford Warbler was rarely, if ever, found near large trees, hence its absence on savannah pine heath and near the edges of plantations. This is now untrue, and indeed the two biggest concentrations in Dorset in 1974 were on areas of savannah pine heath where the birds were scarce in the previous survey. Dartford Warblers appear to inhabit areas with dense and scattered pines in France and Spain. In England, perhaps, as with other birds at the edge of their range, the habitat is normally more limited and the present high population may have encouraged spread into other areas. Small pine trees were present in territories in the New Forest and especially Dorset where, as a result of extensive plantations, there are more parent trees and more signs of pine colonisation of open heathland. Venables (1937) described Dartford Warblers actually nesting in such trees in Surrey at a time of high population. The only other widespread scrub vegetation was birch which was present in 132 territories (only nine of them in the New Forest where it is relatively uncommon on the heaths). It was abundant in a further 15 territories in Dorset where willow Salix was found in 37 territories, bramble and oak Quercus both in 19. No other scrub species occurred in more than ten territories. Dartford Warblers were observed feeding in birch, especially on lepidopterous and hy menopterous larvae on the merging leaves in spring, so this might 1 86 Dartford Warbler status, habitats and conservation be an important source of food at an otherwise lean time of year, but this is outside the scope of the present paper. The incidence of small deciduous trees, especially birch, is higher now than in i960, when this kind of area was considered to be the typical domain of the Whitethroat Sylvia communis (Moore 1975). In 1974 White- throats were very uncommon on Dorset heaths as a result of the population crash in 1969 and their subsequent failure to recover (Winstanley et al. 1974). It may be that when the Whitethroat was common it prevented the Dartford Warbler from occupying these areas. This seems unlikely, as Dartford Warblers would often have been incubating by the time Whitethroats reach the country, but F. V. Blackburn (in litt .) has described how in two cases he has seen territory-holding Dartford Warblers apparently displaced by later- arriving Whitethroats which are substantially bigger (average weights of breeding birds about 9-10 gm and 13-14 gm respectively). It has been suggested by Moore (1962) and several observers ver- bally that the Dartford Warbler favours sheltered areas and south- facing slopes for breeding, while Nethersole-Thompson (1933) and Raynsford (i960) described a preference for slopes without men- tioning aspects, so the data from this survey were investigated with this in mind (table 4). Pairs were found on slopes facing various directions, with no clear preference for any one. In Dorset, three-quarters of the terri- tories were on slopes or undulating ground. In contrast, in the New Forest 137 of 203 territories recorded were on flat ground. These differences are probably caused by differences of topography of the heaths. Away from the New Forest, flat heaths are most prone to reclamation. Furthermore, gorse is more frequent on broken ground and valleys or banks. Thus, this analysis shows no tendency for birds to select sloping ground, but merely reflects its frequency on Table 4. Aspects of 214 territories of Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata in 1974 The remaining territories were either flat or with no single aspect Flat slope DORSET Broken slope Valley NEW FOREST Totals GRAND TOTALS N 13 8 2 0 23 NE 10 4 I 3 18 E 13 3 I IO 27 SE 13 10 5 5 33 S 19 6 4 18 47 SW IO 4 I 2 17 W 5 5 I IO 21 NW I I 7 2 8 28 TOTALS 94 47 17 56 214 Dartford Warbler status, habitats and conservation 187 the areas under study. As the same time it may be that, in the ex- posed heathland environment, birds are selecting shelter or other desirable micro-climates too subtle for detection by this crude investigation. This might especially be true in winter. DENSITY AND TERRITORY SIZE Densities of Dartford Warblers are difficult to calculate because there are few areas where suitable habitat is extensive. On most dry, heather-dominated heaths, gorse occurs only in patches often along old tracks, field systems and boundaries, or in valleys (Jones and Tubbs 1963), so any measurement of the area available to Dartford Warblers is arbitrary. However, Tubbs (1974) calculated the area of Ulex europaeus associated with deep heather in the New Forest as 1,226 acres (496.2 ha). This excluded forestry plantations and manorial wastes adjoining the Forest, both of which were covered by the 1974 Dartford Warbler survey. Taking this into account there were, in 1974, 160 pairs of Dartford Warblers on 496.2 ha of habitat, giving a mean density of 3.1 ha per pair or 32.2 pairs per square kilometre. Table 5 records observed densities calculated in two different ways. The upper half of the table includes all Dorset sites with more than ten pairs on a single fragment of heath, but the total areas include obviously unsuitable habitat such as boggy or recently burned ground. The lower half shows densities in those places where a con- centration of Dartford Warblers was found, from measurement of the actual area occupied by the birds. Thus, in the rare places where good habitat is extensive, densities of 30-70 pairs per sq km occur, but in practice suitable habitat is very fragmented and densities of 10-20 pairs per sq km are more typical for an area of dry heathland. The densities in pine plantations were similar to those found on gorse and heather habitats. Because of the difficulty of assessing densities by such a method, another was tried. For each pair in Dorset, the distance of its centre of activity from that of its nearest neighbour was measured from a map if there was continuous dry heathland between them (table 6) No pairs less than 70 metres apart were found and the average separation was 166 metres. If birds were uniformly spaced at this separation, this would give a territory size of 2.38 ha or a density of 42 pairs per sq km. This figure agrees closely with the maximum densities actually found in the few places of uniformly suitable habitat shown in table 5. Previous estimates of Dartford Warbler densities are few. Venables (1934) gave 19.6 pairs per sq km (5.1 ha per pair) on the best area of a Surrey heath where many pairs were evidently nesting in pure heather. Blondel (1969) found about 5 ha per pair in a good year Dartford Warbler status , habitats and conservation 188 Table 5. Densities of Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata in 1974 The upper part covers all heaths in Dorset with more than ten pairs on a single fragment; the areas of these fragments include bog and burned ground. The lower part considers only marked concentrations of Dartford Warblers in areas of continuous apparently suitable habitat Site Area (ha) Pairs ha/pair prs/km2 Features A 235 12 19.6 5-i some bog B 270 18 15.0 6.7 much bog w C 4°7 25 16.3 6.1 bog and recent fire CO D 219 H 15.6 6.4 much bog 0 E 171 20 8.6 ”•7 bog and recent fire F 386 31 12.5 8.0 much bog G 129 28 4.6 21.7 mainly dry heath C 39 17 2-3 43-6 ] H fa F 29 21 1.4 72.4 >- dry heath with Ulex £ G 53 27 2.0 50-9 J 0 Q H J 43 16 13 8 3-3 2.0 30.2 50.0 J - forestry plantation K 28 8 3-5 28.6 H L 34 15 2-3 44.1 W M 34 10 3-4 29-4 ► dry heath with Ulex 0 N 20 6 3-3 30.0 fa O 19 9 2.1 47.4 s P 32 I I 2-9 34-4 J 2 a R 18 28 6 10 3-o 2.8 33-3 35-7 J > forestry plantation TOTALS 288 124 2-3 43-i dry heath with Ulex 105 37 2.8 35-2 forestry plantation Table 6. Distance of each pair of Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata from its nearest neighbour for all territories where there was continuous heathland between them See text for method of calculation. The mean separation was 166 metres metres pairs metres pairs metres pairs 70 8 170 8 270 4 80 20 180 17 280 - 90 14 190 10 290 4 100 l6 200 2 300 3 1 10 7 210 15 310 3 120 6 220 6 320 4 130 22 230 5 330 — 140 12 240 IO 340 1 150 6 250 ofio 5 0 350 4 160 9 260 2 Dartford Warbler status , habitats and conservation 189 on a southern French garrigue where there was possibly competition from Sardinian Warblers S. melanocephala and Subalpine Warblers S. cantillans. On a 10-ha heath in Brittany, Constant and Maheo (1970) found four pairs in two successive years. Thus the best areas in England in 1974 had higher densities of Dartford Warblers than previously recorded, but for most areas the figures compare with those from elsewhere. Other Sylvia species in north and central Europe appear to occupy smaller territories, often less than 1.0 ha. From data collected in 1971 for the British Trust for Ornithology at Northward Hill, Kent, the following territory sizes were estimated : Garden Warbler S. borin, 1.04 ha (13 territories); Lesser White- throat 5. curruca, 1.02 ha (6); Blackcap 5. atricapilla, 0.51 ha (35); and Whitethroat, 0.50 ha (25) (see also, e.g., Raines 1945, Siefke 1962, Diesselhorst 1968, Persson 1971). On the other hand, the very similar Marmora’s Warbler S. sarda, which largely replaces the Dartford geographically in the western Mediterranean islands, was found to occur at 15 pairs per sq km in Formentera, though an analysis of distance between neighbouring nests gave 25 pairs per sq km (Berthold and Berthold 1973). Both Moore and I ubbs have suggested that fragmentation of the habitat available to Dartford Warblers (and other heathland creatures) may have a deleterious effect over and above the direct loss of total area. No detailed evidence to support such a contention had been published, so a further analysis of the 1974 distribution of Dartford Warblers was made. The areas of all separate fragments of heathland in Dorset were measured from a 1 : 25,000 map to the nearest 0.1 ha using an electronic digitiser and integrating program. Areas divided by only a road were considered as one. In practice some of the smaller areas were separated from or united with the parent site somewhat arbitrarily when the ground between was partially destroyed heath, but separation of the larger sites was generally clear. No attempt was made to measure areas considered suitable for Dartford Warblers, on the assumption that, as already mentioned, this would not have been easy, and in addition would partially beg the answer to the question under investigation. Table 7 sets out the size distribution of sites in Dorset and the numbers of Dartford Warblers occupying them. A trend ofincreasing density of birds with increasing size of site is apparent, though the three largest sites formed an unfortunate sample because one is a tank firing range, much burned and churned up, the second is a development site also much burned, and only one is mature heath, though that too suffered a major fire in 1974 (but had 39 of the 47* pairs involved). Nevertheless, without making allowance for this fact, the densities on the 63 smaller sites (64 ha or less) were com- pared with those on the rest by a chi-squared test and found to be I9° Dartford Warbler status, habitats and conservation Table 7. Distribution of Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata in relation to size of sites All heathland sites in Dorset are included whether or not they were occupied by or even suitable for Dartford Warblers Area (ha) Number of sites Total area (ha) Pairs Prs/km2 0-32 46 548.2 14 2.6 32.1- 64 17 717.2 20 2.8 64.1- 128 7 654.4 21 3-2 128.1- 256 10 1,804.0 108 6.0 256.1- 512 2 655-5 50 7.6 512.1-1,024 3 1,802.2 47 2.6 TOTALS 85 6,181.5 260 4.2 significantly lower (p status and nesting of the Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata dartfordiensis'. Ool. Rec. 12: 49-61 g Pfp^N\T' '776-*n‘jh Z°ol°gy- Warrington and London. Fourth edition. SN’ B' 1971 'T H^bltat selection and nesting of a south Swedish Whitethroat Sylvia communis Lath, population’. Ornis Scand., 2: 119-126. ^diesI; in^r/, A' S'’/v nd C?anE'rT’ K‘ R 1 974- ‘British amphibians and ptiles in The Changing Flora and hauna of Britain, edited by D. L. Hawksworth London, pp. 229-254. Raynsford, L. J. i960. ‘Dartford Warblers in Surrey’. Bird Notes, 29: 43-44 ~T6?63',-A Sh°rt hl$t0ry °f thC Dartford Warblcr in Surrey’. Surrey Bird Rep. 9 * 3 ^ 33* Rippey, B. H. R T. 1973. ‘The conservation of Dorset heaths: a factual study’. Discourse for degree of MSc (Conservation), Univ. Coll. London. oiefke, A. 1962. Dorn- und % aungrasmucke . Wittenberg Lutherstadt. w"S’ , R‘ 'f3: 'Tbc significance of the New Forest to the status of the Dartford Warbler in England’. Brit. Birds, 56: 41-48 °f Dartf°rd Warblers in England during I962-66’- BriL 1969. The New Forest: an Ecological History. Newton Abbot “ 'h' ForCSt' H“’I“hire’ E"Sl»nd'. V enaeles L. S. V. 1934. ‘Notes on territory in the Dartford Warbler’. Brit. Birds, 20. 58-03, plate 2. ’ T~!937' . Bird. ^s^bution on Surrey greensand heaths: the avifaunal- botanical correlation’. J. Anim. Ecol., 6: 73-85. Yoous, K. H. 1960. Atlas of European Birds. London. Ualpole-Bond, J. 1914. Field-Studies of Some Rarer British Birds. London. S 5 ’ J°NES’ A’ D-’ and NIanton, M. 1972. ‘The vegetation of Dartmoor’. field. Studies, 3 : 505-533. Winstanley, D., Spencer, R., and Williamson, K. 1974. ‘Where have all the Whitethroats gone?’ Bird Study, 21: 1-14. W’itherby, H. F., JOURDAIN, F. C. R., Ticehurst, N. F., and Tucker, B. W. 1940. Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 2. ^.m 3' Bib by, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL (present address : u Courtenay Close, Wareham, Dorset BH20 4ED) Cohn R. Tubbs, NCC, Shrubbs Hill Road, Lyndhurst, Hampshire S04 7DJ Status and habitats of the Dartford Warbler, Whitethroat and Stonechat in Dorset in 1959-60 JV. W. Moore INTRODUCTION From 1954 to i960 I made a study of the flora and fauna of the Dor- set heathlands in order to determine the conservation requirements of the area. This involved an intensive study on the distribution of certain indicator species in the summers of 1959 and i960; the species included the Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata and the Stone- chat Saxicola torquata (Moore 1962). I also studied the Whitethroat S. communis which occurred commonly on the same heaths. Con- current studies on the habitats of all three species were made, but the work was not published since I hoped to add to the rather slender data at a later date ; this proved impossible owing to my move from the district in i960. Since i960 the heaths have been further reduced and the status of the three species has changed. The Dartford War- bler and Stonechat were nearly exterminated in Dorset by the severe winter of 1962/63, but have recovered since. In 1969 the White- throat declined throughout Britain and its population remains much reduced (Winstanley et al. 1 974) . Therefore it now seems worth putting on record a description of the situation which existed 15 years ago, despite the inadequacy of the data. For the Dartford Warbler, this account also provides some background information to the more extensive recent studies of Bibby and Tubbs described in the foregoing paper. THE BREEDING BIRDS OF THE HEATHLANDS During 1959-60 I visited all the main blocks of heathland from Black Down, five miles (8 km) west of Dorchester, to the heaths lying immediately west of the River Avon (then in west Hampshire). At that time they composed 27 entities which varied in size from about 1,330 acres (538 hectares) to about 40 acres (16 hectares). All con- tained dry heath, of which common heather or ling Calluna vulgaris, bell heather Erica cinerea , bristle bent Agrostis setacea and one or more of the three gorse species Ulex europaeus, U. minor (dwarf gorse) and U. gallii (western gorse) were characteristic. All the heaths supported some trees, notably Scots pine Pinus sylvestris and birch Betula. I recorded all the species of birds observed during the breeding season (May to July) on these 27 heaths. Stonechats were found on 24 heaths, Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis on 22, Dartford Warblers on 19, Linnets Acanthis cannabina on 18, Whitethroats on 17, Black- 196 (Brit. Birds, 68: 196-202, M»y :97s J Dartford Warbler, Whitethroat and Stonechat, 1959-60 197 birds Turdus merula on 15, and 35 other species on fewer than half of the heaths. Some of the more rarely observed species were clear- ly marginal, living on the edges of the heath; probably they were only partly dependent on heathland ecosystems. These results give no more than an approximate indication of the relative abundance of the species at the time, because the heaths differed greatly in size and variety of habitat, and because some were visited more often than others. habitats The Dartford Warbler was virtually confined to lowland heathlands, which were also the preferred habitat of the Stonechat, whereas the Whitethroat was numerous in a wide range of other habitats in the district. Table 1 shows that the three species were closely associated and often occurred on the same heath, the association between Dartford Warbler and Stonechat being closer than that between Dartford Warbler and Whitethroat. Table i. Association of Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata , White- throat S. communis and Stonechat Saxicola tor quota, Dorset heaths, 1959-60 Association Number of heaths with association indicated Dartford Warbler -f Whitethroat + Stonechat I I Dartford Warbler Stonechat 6 Dartford Warbler + Whitethroat | Dartford Warbler only I Whitethroat + Stonechat Whitethroat only D O Stonechat only 2 None of three species present 1 total heaths visited 27 Whenever I saw one of these three species, I recorded the prin- cipal plants within two yards of where I first saw it perched; these records are summarised in table 2. They show that the habitats of the Dartford Warbler and Stonechat were floristically extremely similar; common gorse U. europaeus and common heather (in some cases with small amounts of bell heather) were the preferred species, 77% of the Dartford Warblers and 69% of the Stonechats being seen in a mixture of heather and gorse. The Whitethroat was found with a wider range of plants; gorse and birch were its preferred species. Heather was often present, but only 27% of the Whitethroats were seen in mixtures of heather and gorse. It should be emphasised that practically all the sightings of the three species were within a few metres of the common heathland shrubs gorse and heather. Never- i98 Dartford Warbler , Whitethroat and Stonechat, iggg-6o Table 2. Plant species associated with Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata, Stonechat Saxicola torquata and Whitethroat Sylvia communis in Dorset, 1959-60 In some cases common heather was accompanied by small amounts of bell heather Erica cinerea Dartford Warbler Stonechat Whitethroat (52 records) (42 records) (45 records) Gorse Ulex europaeus 50 36 4i Common heather Calluna vulgaris 43 30 >3 Birch Betula 10 6 21 Scots pine Pinus sylvestris Sallow Salix Moor grass Molinia caerulea Bristle bent Agrostis setacea Undetermined grasses Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna Western gorse Ulex gallii Holly Ilex aqui/olium Bramble Rubus Bracken Pteridium aquilinum Rhododendron Rhododendron ponticum Oak Quercus robur Blackthorn Prunus spinosa Hazel Corylus avellana Grey poplar Populus canescens 4 I }'■ i (dead) 10 1 2 1 1 1 theless, there is a clear indication that the Whitethroat occurred in the more marginal, and hence more complex, habitats within the heathland ecosystems, whereas the Dartford Warbler and Stone- chat were associated with pure, and hence simpler, heathland habitats. This is in accord with the general distribution of the species in Dorset, as mentioned above. The heights of heather, gorse and trees at each place where birds were sighted were also recorded. The results are shown in fig 1. They indicate that: (i) The Dartford Warbler was usually found in treeless situations in which gorse was about four feet (1.2 metres) high and heather about two feet (0.6 metres) high. These observations are consistent with those of Tubbs (1963) on the habitat of Dartford Warblers in the New Forest. In no instance in Dorset were Dartford Warblers found in trees greater than eight feet (2.4 metres) high. During the period of these observations many conifer plantations with taller trees were also visited, but no Dartford Warblers were ever seen in them during the breeding season (see page 20 1). (ii) The pattern shown by the Stonechat was very similar to that of the Dart- ford Warbler, but in five instances Stonechats were observed on trees more than eight feet (2.4 metres) high. Eight birds were also seen in places where the heather was only one foot (0.3 metres) high; only one Dartford Warbler was recorded from such low heather. The observations on the height of the gorse bushes are in accord with the statement of Johnson (1971) that Stonechats require a perch up to 1.5 metres in height, from which they drop on to insects. I late .>4. Male VVheatear Oenanthe oenanthe bringing food to nearly Hedged young, Highland, June 1969 (. Harold E. Grenfell (pages 204-207’ Plate 25. Male Brambling Fringilla montifringilla in breeding plumage at drinking pool, Hertfordshire, April 1974 (E. A. Janes)-, below, Snow Bun- ting Plectrophenax nivalis , Cornwall, October 1974 (J. B. and S. Bottomlsv) pLAXE 36. Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria calling (four chicks were Mattered in the vicinity), Clwyd. June 1973 {Dennis Green); below, one of tup of 22 Dotterel Eudromias morirullus, Kent, May 1974 (Pamela Harmon % 4 PI Plate 27. Coots Fulica atra fighting, Surrey, August 1974 ( Michael W. Richards)', below, Water Rail Rallus aquaticus, Hereford & Worcester, December 1974 {R. J. C. Blewitt) Pi .vrp, 28. Dipper Cinclus cinclus, Dy fed, June 1973 {Graham F. Date : below. Tree ipu An thus trivialis in bathing pool, Nottinghamshire, June 1974 7- Russell t § I laths 29-30. Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major carrying faecal sac away Irom nesting hole, East Sussex, June 1974. and Starling Sturnus rii/gans leaving occupied nest. Surrey. May 1974 ( Stephen Dalton ■. above. Mam Ow Tyto alba returning to its nest in lime tree, with female Short- tailed vole Microtus agrestis , Strathclyde, August 1973 ( Donald A. Smith Plate 31. Rock Dove Columba livia at night roost, coastal cliffs of Islay, Strath- clyde, March 1973 ( Rodney Dawson); below, Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus passing food-ball of moths to chick. Surrey, September 1974 ( Frank V. Blackburn) I late 38. Two portraits of passerines. Male Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hyboUuca <>n hchened perch, Powys, June 1974 (. Arthur Gilpin); and .Nightingale I.mcinia megarhynchos singing, Hereford & Worcester, May 1974 (P. I). V. Wearing Plate 33. Moustached Warbler Acrocephalus melanopogon, Austria, June 1974 (A. J. Carlson ms corax on huge stirk nest. Powys. jBp Plate 35. Roller Coracias garrulus bringing up pellet, Kenya, April 1974 (J. F. Remolds ) ; below, Rook Corvus frugilegus , Humberside, December 1973 [M. Holliday) 200 Dartford Warbler, Whitethroat and Stonechat, iggg-6o (iii) The Whitethroat differed considerably from the other two species in that most of the records were from habitats containing trees. No fewer than 20 birds out of the 45 recorded were in or close to trees more than eight feet (2.4 metres) high. Most of the Whitethroats were seen away from heather, but where they occurred in heather and gorse this tended to be where these plants grew to the heights preferred by Dartford Warblers and Stonechats. Theoretically, the patterns of distribution of the birds in the different categories of vegetation height could reflect availability of habitat rather than habitat preference. However, this is cer- tainly not the case in so far as the lower values are concerned, because most of the heather and gorse on the heaths was lower than two and four feet (0.6 and 1.2 metres) respectively. Although there was plently of gorse and heather at heights greater than the ‘prefer- red’ levels, the scarcity of records at the extreme upper limits — in four-foot ( 1. 2-metre) heather and seven- to eight-foot (2.1- to 2.4-metre) gorse — might have been influenced by the relative scarcity of vegetation in these categories. However, in general, it is safe to assume that the maxima for heather and gorse in fig 1 indicate height ‘preferences’. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION Whereas the Dartford Warbler was wholly, and the Stonechat mainly, confined to true heathland consisting of gorse and heather, the Whitethroat was found principally in the small islands of more complex habitats in which other plant species, including trees, had supplanted the heathland vegetation. Therefore, it is unlikely that the Whitethroat was a significant competitor with its close relation the Dartford Warbler or with the Stonechat. The relationship between Dartford Warbler and Stonechat is an interesting one. Not only were they usually found on the same heath (17 out of 27), but also they were frequently found in the same patch of scrub. In fact, a good way to discover Dartford Warblers in new terrain is to search those places where one has seen the much more conspicuous Stonechat. The breeding season, nesting and gene- ral food requirements of the two species overlap to a large extent, but I have never observed any interspecific fighting between them, such as that recorded by Phillips (1970) between Stonechats and Whinchats Saxicola rubetra. Nor were fights observed between either of the two species and the Whitethroat. The Dartford Warbler feeds largely in heather and gorse and the Stonechat on the ground; the overlap in food requirements is almost certainly more apparent than real. The severe winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63 nearly exterminated the Dartford Warbler and Stonechat in southern England (Tubbs 1963, Dobinson and Richards 1964, Bibby and Tubbs 1975). If a 201 Dartford Warbler , Whitethroat and Stonechat, 1959-60 competitive situation between the three species had existed previous- ly, one would have expected the migrant Whitethroat to have increased after 1963 in areas where such competition had been rife. I do not know of any evidence to show that this occurred. By 1969 the Dartford Warbler and Stonechat were recovering, but the Whitethroat had declined, almost certainly owing to the disastrous drought in the Sahelian zone of Africa (Winstanley et al. 1974). Recent observations suggest that both the Wren Troglodytes troglodytes and Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs are now much more abundant breed- ing species on the heaths than in 1959-60. It is conceivable that the Wren may be filling the Whitethroat’s niche, but a more likely explanation is that, as the heathland fragments get smaller, edge effects increase, and marginal species like the Wren can now make increased use of heathlands. On the Continent the Dartford Warbler can live in pinewoods. For example, five of my eleven records of this species in Galicia, Spain, in summer 1974 were in pinewoods with trees 20 feet (six me- tres) high. There is increasing evidence to suggest that in England also the Dartford Warbler is acquiring the ability to live in the pine plantations from which it was apparently absent in 1959-60 (Bibby and Tubbs 1975). Therefore, it may become more like the White- throat in being less exacting in its habitat requirements. If this should occur, a new situation which is truly competitive might conceivably arise. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My thanks arc due to Mrs Margaret Haas for assistance with figure i and to John Parslow for helpful criticisms of the manuscript. SUMMARY In 1959-60 the Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata, Whitethroat S. communis and Stonechat Saxicola torquata were present on most of the heaths of Dorset. Dartford Warblers and Stonechats preferred mixtures of two-foot (o.6-metre) common heather Calluna vulgaris, in some case, mixed with small amounts of bell heather Erica cinerea, and four-foot (1.2-metre) common gorse Ulex europaeus in treeless areas. In the breeding season no Dartford Warbler was seen in habitats containing trees more than eight feet (2.4 metres) high. Whitethroats were found mainly in richer habitats within the heaths, where there was a greater variety of plant species and where trees were present. There is no evidence to show that the three species competed under the conditions of the time, nor that recent changes in the status of other species are attributable to changes in the status of these three. REFERENCES Bibby, C. J., and Tubbs, C. R. i 975- 'Status, habitats and conservation of the Dartford Warbler in England’. Brit. Birds, 68: 177-195. Dobinson, H. M., and Richards, A. J. 1964. ‘The effects of the severe winter of 1962/63 on birds in Britain’. Brit. Birds, 57: 373-434. Johnson, E. D. H. 1971. ‘Observations on a resident population of Stonechats in Jersey’. Brit. Birds, 64: 201-2 13, 267-279. 202 Dartford Warbler , Whitethroat and Stonechat, iggg-6o Moore, N. W. 1962. ‘The heaths of Dorset and their conservation’. J. Ecol., 50: 369-39I- Phillips, J. S. 1970. ‘Inter-specific competition in Stonechat and Whinchat’. Bird Study, 1 7 : 320-324. Tubbs, C. R. 1963. ‘The significance of the New Forest to the status of the Dartford Warbler in England’. Brit. Birds, 56: 41-48. Winstanley, D., Spencer, R., and Williamson, K. 1974. ‘Where have all the Whitethroats gone?’ Bird Study, 21 : 1-14. Dr N. W. Moore, Nature Conservancy Council , 19-20 Belgrave Square, London swix 8py Viewpoint D. I. M. Wallace Ian Wallace is an amateur ornithologist and occasional illustrator whose past tendency to erratic and international vagrancy has been replaced by a regular shuttle up and down the east coast of Britain. He now enjoys the relative solitude of birdwatching in north Humberside. Migration in the doldrums Turn the clock of British ornithological literature back 20 years: whether one flicks the pages of Ibis, of British Birds, or of the Fair Isle Bird Observatory Bulletin, it is clear that in the mid- 1950’s the study of migration was the chief pursuit of many of our most active observers. Turn it back only a dozen years: the British Trust for Ornithology had just appointed its second migration research officer and was publishing an exciting journal entitled Bird Migration, every issue of which contained at least a minor discovery. In the early 1960’s the many students of migration were having a field day: their activities were well co-ordinated and the results well publicised. Criticism of the coastal bias in observatory locations had been countered by the setting up of experimental inland observation points. The voice of the radar display watcher was grow- ing louder in the land, and the imaginative concept of ‘drift’ gave ground as, for the first time, we glimpsed and wondered at the total dimensions of bird movements. The wintry spires of Oxford saw an annual flocking of real enthusiasts to the Bird Observatories Con- ference, wearing local colours and arguing far into the night. Then, quite suddenly, it all stopped. The BTO, sensitive to changes in its financial support, re-ordered its priorities and had no option but to concentrate on population work. Very quickly a chain reaction became evident. The collective enthusiasm of a whole [Bril. Birds, 68: 202-203, May 1975] Viewpoint 203 generation of leading observers with at least considered opinions (if not much published work) just faded away. In 1964 Bird Migration was integrated, later to be extinguished, in Bird Study. Observatories, once again coastal and insular, became fewer; wardens moulted into hard-pressed reserve managers or returned to skulk in their own buckthorn. It seemed that the radar descriptions of migrations had swamped the isolated perceptions of single pairs of eyes. Migration study in this country withered. Certainly there were local exceptions to the decline at a handful of long-established observatories, but an outsider turning the pages of British journals now might well suggest that today’s ornithologists are failing to honour a long heritage of migration science. I do not wish in any way to denigrate the all-important popula- tion work of the BTO, but I am concerned with the effects of its withdrawal from any real command of migration studies; for what seems to have taken their place, especially among many of the youngest and most energetic observers, is an unfortunate bias to- wards ringing for its own sake or, worse still, an interest in rarities alone. However properly motivated have been the BTO’s policies— and perhaps, too, the ideals of the editors of this journal in setting up a national discipline on rarity records — it now appears that, directly or indirectly, they have upset the equilibrium of ornithology in Britain, and potentially important events are being neglected. Take the recent immigrations of several Eurasian species as an example: hundreds of birds ‘ticked off’ but still no real understand- ing of these astonishing phenomena (some already fading). Take also our ignorance of the migratory routes of our precious breeding species. To conserve their variety— Marsh Warblers Acrocephalus palustns as well as Reed Warblers A. scirpaceus — we may well require moi e than the Atlas of Breeding Birds on our library shelves. These islands lie at the edge of the world’s largest land-mass and in the path of one of its least predictable weather systems, presenting unique opportunities to relate the study of migration to population work. If we are not to lose track of a whole branch of ornithology, we must act quickly. Frustration has built up be- cause many arguments have not been resolved, ideas for co-ordinated mass observation have been left untested, and the prospects of an international inventory of migrant habitats remain distant. Admit- tedly the subject needs redefinition, new aims and methods; but it remains worthy of, even demands, a professional lead. The amateur enthusiasm is no less abundant, and I earnestly recommend to the BTO the appointment of a study group to consider in a west Euro- pean context the resumption of migration studies related to con- servation. It really is time for the general migration student to come in from the cold. More examples of the best recent work by British bird-photographers Plates 24-35 This is the sixteenth annual feature on the best contemporary black-and-white bird photographs. Once again we had a record number of prints submitted to us, 215 by 43 photographers, which really is gratifying when one considers that most photographers nowadays use nothing but colour, and it does show that there is still a place for monochrome work. Indeed, we were told recently by a well-known publisher that the costs of reproducing colour are soaring so much that we are unlikely to see an increase in the number of colour plates used in books during the foreseeable future. We have noticed that in a few cases a black-and-white print has been made from an original colour picture. Unfortunately this generally leads to a degradation of tones and a certain loss of defini- tion, which is normally unacceptable when the emphasis is on photographic quality rather than ornithological interest. If a really unusual or spectacular transparency has been obtained, however, it is certainly worth while having a monochrome print made. Since it is possible to make a black-and-white from a colour transparency but obviously not the reverse, we would have to advise photographers to use colour but wherever possible to repeat it in monochrome if the subject permits. Partly owing to the record number of prints, but mainly because of the exceptionally high quality of those submitted, we have decided, on this occasion, to publish twelve plates and show the work of 20 photographers. Even so, the task of making the final selection was extremely difficult and many photographs we should have liked to include just had to be omitted. Nevertheless, we are very pleased to be able to include the work of four photographers new to this feature. We start this selection with a delightful study by Harold Grenfell of a cock Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe bringing food to a nearly fledged chick (plate 24), which we like for the action shown in both birds. E. A. Janes’ photographic work has improved steadily over the years, although we have not until now managed to include any of his pictures in this feature. This year he submitted several very fine prints of which we considered his cock Brambling Fringilla montifringilla in summer plumage (plate 25a) to be the best. Brian and Sheila Bottomley regularly send us a splendid variety of prints; this year was no exception. We finally selected from these a bird 204 [Brit. Birds, 68: 204-207, May 1975] Recent work by British bird-photographers 205 whose portrait we have not previously included— a Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis photographed in October (plate 25b). As we look at Dennis Green’s Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria (plate 26a) we can almost hear it calling, that rather sad but musical note that is such a feature of some moors during the breeding season. Most of the photographs of Dotterels Eudromias morinellus we see are taken on the high tops of the Scottish mountains but Pamela Harrison secured hers on the north Kent marshes, one of a flock of 22 birds (plate 26b). What tremendous action is shown in the photograph of Coots Fulica atra fighting (plate 27a) by another new photographer to our series, Michael Richards, drops of water flying in all directions as the combatants kick out at each other, one high in the water, the other almost submerged. There are few good photographs in existence of Water Rails Rallus aquaticus and most of these have been taken at the nest, but Roy Blewitt succeeded in getting his bird to come to bait which he put down daily for a week before obtaining the photograph we show (plate 27b). This is a branch of photography where there is still great scope for much more work to be done. We have seen numbers of photographs of Dippers Cinclus cinclus \ a comparatively easy bird to portray, but few have been so well composed as the one (plate 28a) by Graham Date. The water swirl- ing round the rock in the middle of a stream adds so much to it. A third newcomer is J. Russell and we liked his study of a Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis bathing in the clear water of a little pool in Notting- hamshire (plate 28b). I or some years now Stephen Dalton has been producing some quite remarkable photographs by high speed electronic flash sets which he has been developing himself. It is not often in this series that we use more than one print by the same photographer but on this occasion we include two of his, a Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major just taking flight as it drops from the nesting hole carrying a faecal sac in its bill (plate 29a), and a Starling Sturnus vulgaris leaping away from its nest (plate 29b), showing how it kicks itself clear. The latter was taken at 1/22, oooth second and the woodpecker at 1/11, oooth second, and such speeds have frozen all movement. So often when flash has been used there have been black backgrounds because the artificial light does not pene- trate very far, but in these two photographs a method has been devised to illuminate the background, giving a more natural effect. Probably the most photogenic British bird is the Barn Owl Tyto alba, and never a year goes by without our receiving a number of fine studies of this subject. Indeed, we have already published five in this series and have had to turn down many others, but Donald Smith’s result (plate 30) was so outstanding we had to include it. 206 Recent work by British bird-photographers Many years ago a list was drawn up by the Zoological Photographic Society of British birds that had never been photographed, and one of these was the Rock Dove Columba livia. We cannot recall having seen a good photograph of this species and we are glad to be able to publish Rodney Dawson’s shot taken at night at a roost on the coastal cliffs of Islay (plate 31a). We mentioned earlier that black-and-white prints from colour transparencies were not always successful. One exception to this is the picture by Frank Blackburn of a Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus passing a food-ball to its young (plate 31b). The young were already free-flying and had spent a day away from the nest, but returned to it for the evening feed. Another photographer who always takes the greatest care to get as near perfection as possible in his photographs is Arthur Gilpin, this point being well illustrated in his lovely cock Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca (plate 32a) ; whether the lichen-covered perch is natural or has been placed there we do not know, but it certainly helps to make a really attractive picture. Portraits of birds singing are very difficult to obtain and we can- not remember ever having seen a really good photograph of a Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos in full voice. Philip Weaving has filled this gap and the picture we reproduce (plate 32b) is one of several he obtained. Only two of the photographs in this year’s feature were taken abroad. One of these, by Dr Kevin Carlson, portrays a Moustached Warbler Acrocephalus melanopogon in Austria in June 1974 (plate 33). It shows the bird, nest and habitat very well indeed. There does not seem to be as much tree-top photography being done today as there was a few years ago and the only example we show on this occasion is the picture by G. H. E. Young of a hen Raven Corvus corax at its nest in mid-Wales (plate 34). It gives a good impression of height and was taken before the leaves came out. The second photograph obtained abroad is that of the Roller Coracias garrulus bringing up a pellet (plate 35a), which was secured in Kenya in April 1974 by John Reynolds. He really is getting the best out of his photography in Africa and from the selection he sent us we had great difficulty in making a choice. (See also Brit. Birds, 68: plates 1-7.) We conclude with the fourth of our new photographers, M. Holliday, and we are pleased to use his picture of a Rook Corvus frugilegus calling aggressively in north Humberside (plate 35b). This shows not only the fine sheen on the bird’s plumage but also an attitude we so frequently see but which is rarely photo- graphed. We hope that those photographers whose work we have been unable to include on this occasion will not hesitate to submit their prints to us again next year. We should like to thank all those who Recent work by British bird- photographers 207 suSSested Pai ticular photographs to us, and also the secretaries of the Zoological Photographic Club, the Nature Photographic Society and the Nature Photographers’ Portfolio for their recommendations. I rints for next year s selection should arrive by 23rd February 1976. Finally may we again remind all bird-photographers that birds on Schedule 1 of the Protection of Birds Act 1967 (listed in Brit. Birds, 61 : 215; 64: 189) may not be disturbed at or near the nest unless approval is first obtained from the Nature Conservancy Council at 12 Hope Terrace, Edinburgh EH9 2as. Eric Hosking Notes ‘Freezing’ behaviour of Pheasants on tree branches At 15.00 hours on 19th February 1972, in Hetchell Wood, north-east of Leeds, West Yorkshire, we found an old hawthorn Crataegus monogyna covered with droppings, with more droppings on the ground below, suggesting a regular roost. On a branch three metres from the ground, we noticed a hen Pheasant Phasianus colchicus. The bird was lying on the branch, facing away from the trunk, with its body crouched and its tail along the length of the branch and invisible from below. We then saw two other hen Pheasants in similar attitudes on different branches, each about 4$ metres up. The three birds were positioned at equal angles to each other, so that each could observe a different third of the tree’s perimeter. None made any movements, apart from keeping a constant watch on us by following us with their eyes and occasionally adjusting the position of their heads; at no time did they look up. We watched them for five minutes or more, during which time they made no movements even when we stood direcdy underneath the lowest one, almost within reach of it, and tried to frighten them by shouting. We then walked about 20 metres away and observed from a distance, but they remained still. The positioning of the birds suggested that they were able to observe an approaching predator from any direction, and their ‘free- zing’ behaviour was presumably equivalent to that adopted on the ground, when they can exploit their cryptic coloration. As it was too early for the birds to be settling down to roost, and as the tree appeared to be a regular site, it seems that they adopted this unusual behaviour during the day in what would be a safe site at night, to avoid possible predators, such as Foxes Vulpes vulpes or people; there was little suitable ground cover near the tree. About ten minutes before we found the birds, we had heard Pheasant alarm calls from the direction of the tree in question, but we did not see any predators in the area. 208 Notes We returned to the site a week later, at the same time of day, but no birds were present. R. A. Cheke and J. A. Coles School of Environmental Sciences, Plymouth Polytechnic, Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8aa ‘Freezing’ attitudes of Hoopoes when approached by man On 28th August 1973 I spent some time watching a juvenile Hoopoe Upupa epops near St Flour in the Massif Central, France. The bird was preening in a thick hedgerow about 15 metres away and it did not notice me for several minutes, but as I slowly approached it turned its back to me and ‘froze’ upright on the branch, with its head turned to one side. It was surprisingly inconspicuous, the black and white stripes camouflaging it well in the shadows of the bushes. Except for an occasional slight turn of the head, it remained motion- less for several minutes but flew off when my attention was momen- tarily distracted. A little later I discovered what was probably the same bird sit- ting front-on on the opposite side of the hedge. As soon as it noticed me, it moved to a nearby branch and sat with its back to me, adopting the same ‘frozen’ attitude as before. It remained there for several minutes before joining two adults and two more juveniles feeding on the ground nearby. On 10th January 1975, I witnessed similar behaviour by two Hoopoes at Sousse, Tunisia. I was sitting by a small pool when a Hoopoe flew over my head and landed behind me, giving a soft, quiet scream as it alighted. I approached the area where it had come down, concealed by a bank about a metre in height. When I looked over the top, I found two Hoopoes about ten metres away, one in a tree silhouetted against the sky and the other on bare ground. They obviously saw me, but kept perfectly still, not moving at all for several minutes. Both birds were more or less front-on, in a normal settled position. I, too, remained perfectly still. Eventually the one in the tree dropped to the ground and began feeding. The second one soon joined it, but both occasionally showed signs of nervousness. After a while they flew off, one giving a quiet screech. I can find no reference to Hoopoes ‘freezing’ in The Handbook or other standard text-books, but this behaviour must be of real survi- val value to a bird which is much more conspicuous in flight than when settled. K. E. Vinicombe 36 Gorlangton Close, Hengrove, Bristol BS14 guB Long-eared Owls attacking Foxes, Hare and man The be- haviour of roosting Long-eared Owls Asio otus observed in West Germany by Wing Commander T. R. Holland {Brit. Birds, 67: 2 1 2-2 1 3) made interesting reading. Wing Commander Holland was Notes 209 most fortunate to locate a winter roost of approximately 50 owls; winter roosts in Britain rarely number more than 20 birds. I have made a field study of the Long-eared Owl for over 27 years, and have several records of aggressive behaviour towards large mammals. On the very cold night of 21st February 1968, I was sitting under pines in one of the Forestry Commission’s properties in Lincolnshire listening to a male and a female Long-eared Owl. At about 10.00 p.m. it began to snow and the owls stopped calling. It snowed for an hour, then the sky cleared slightly and the male began calling again. At 1 1. 10 he flew above the ride close to where I was sitting, then turned, flew back and alighted in a tree about 15 metres from me. He resumed calling, so it was obvious that he was marking his terri- tory. At 11.50 he vacated his perch and began to fly round and round just above the tops of the conifers, wing-clapping once every short circuit. At first I thought that this routine was part of his dis- play flight, but then he turned rapidly and came in low above the snow-covered ride. There was an animal on the ride walking towards me, and when it was approximately 30 metres away I saw that it was a I1 ox I ulpes vulpes. The Long-eared Owl silently approached it from behind, about two metres above the ride. With feet extended down- wards the owl swooped, causing the Fox to crouch. No contact was made. The owl turned along the ride and swooped again, and the Fox ran into cover almost opposite me. In May 1968, while photographing Long-eared Owls in Notting- hamshire, I saw one of the adults swoop and scatter a trio of small l ox cubs which were exploring the ground close to my pylon hide. Similar behaviour was exacted upon an adult Fox in the same place one week later by the female owl. This display was accompanied by her vocal disapproval— an almost continuous ‘whick-whack’. In the early evening of 1 7th April 1970, my wife and I watched a hunting Long-eared Owl quartering a grass field about 300 metres from where its mate was brooding small young. The owl was quarter- ing the field in strips, flying two or three metres above the ground. The flight was slow but deliberate, four to six wing-beats being followed by a glide, the latter occasionally punctuated by brief hovering (also observed by Wing Commander Holland, but seldom mentioned in the literature). For about five minutes the owl hunted unsuccessfully, then a Hare Lepus europaeus broke cover and ran diagonally across the field, pursued by the owl. Several times the Hare changed direction, and each time the owl cut across its line. Once, when the Hare stopped, the owl hovered just above it with legs down and claws extended, but no direct contact was made. For ten minutes the game continued ; eventually the owl turned away to continue the more serious business of hunting animals within its prey range. 210 Notes I have only once encounted a Long-eared Owl which assaulted human beings, and that was a female at a Lincolnshire site in 1961. Her repeated attacks were made only after her young were 16 to 17 days old. She flew at me on eight separate occasions, striking me twice, once with her feet and once with her claws. She also attacked two other observers, Douglas Atkinson and John Richards, drawing blood on the former’s head and twice assaulting the latter, lacerating his left ear. A. C. Bent, in Life Histories of North American Birds of Prey (vol. 2, 1938), mentioned that a Mr Joseph Dixon was attacked several times by a Long-eared Owl while he was attempting to photograph her young. At first she used only her wings, but later she struck with her claws, and once inflicted slight wounds in his scalp. Derick Scott West View, Walkeringham, Doncaster, South Yorkshire dnio 4.HZ Unusual pre-copulatory display by Song Thrush At 6.15 p.m. on 6th July 1972, in my garden at Brentry, Bristol, I saw a pair of Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos facing each other on a lawn, about 30 cm apart. The larger bird, presumably the male, raised the head and neck vertically while the wings were partly extended and the breast feathers puffed out. Maintaining this posture and making short movements with the feet, the bird rotated slowly, opening and closing the bill; no sound was heard. Eventually it turned through a complete circle to face the second thrush once again. Then the dis- playing bird fluttered and mounted the other and coition ensued, after which both thrushes flew off. A. P. Radford 2 Wyck Beck Road, Brentry, Bristol bsio 7je The Very Rev P. H. T. Hartley comments that the rotation is an atypical feature of pre-copulatory display, though the posture was otherwise normal. Eds Reed Warblers breeding in Shetland On 13th June 1973, while working on a Common Birds Census at Baltasound, Unst, Shetland, I located a singing Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus. It was singing in the same bush until at least 23rd June, after which the area was not visited until mid-July. On 2nd August two adults were feeding at least two juveniles in the same thicket, and they continued to collect food until 10th August. When first seen the juveniles were obviously fresh from a well-hidden nest, having wide gapes and very short stumpy tails. They constantly uttered guttural, churring notes, presumably to advertise their whereabouts to food-bearing adults. In addition to collecting food from the thicket, which straggled alongside a drystone wall, the adults were flying into a nearby sycamore copse and returning with what appeared to be Notes 21 1 green caterpillars. The singing bird and the young were always seen in a line of snowberry Symphoricarpos rivularis, a shrub that, signifi- cantly perhaps, has an abundance of vertically growing woody stems, not unlike reeds Phragmites in that they grow in dense perpen- dicular clusters. The shrub has thick foliage, difficult to penetrate and impossible to see into. On 14th August Dr B. Marshall mist-netted two birds, from at least four present, the details of which were as follows. Adult: Wing 62 mm, bill 16.5 mm, tarsus 23 mm, tail 49 mm, weight 14 gm; Aged as 'first-winter' : Wing 62.5 mm, bill 16.5 mm, tarsus 24.5 mm, tail 51 mm, weight 13 gm. J ’ The weights were above the averages given by Kenneth Williamson (1963, Identification for Ringers, 1) from small samples of migrants on Fair Isle, Shetland, and at Sandwich Bay and Dungeness, Kent I am grateful to Dr Marshall for these data. The last Reed Warbler was seen at Baltasound on 23rd August two further visits in August being negative. This is apparently the first breeding record for Shetland, and indeed for the whole of Scot- land, the most northerly regular site in Britain being at Gosforth, Tyne and Wear. However, Reed Warblers colonised south-east Norway in 1947 and have spread since (K. H. Voous, i960, Atlas of European Birds), which suggests an eastern rather than a southern origin for the Shetland birds; the species is still very local north of the English midlands. Graham Bundy 9° Cauldwell Lane, Monkseaton, Whitley Bay, Tyne & Wear NE25 8lr Reviews Birds of Prey in Europe. By Maarten Bijleveld. Macmillan, London, 1974. 263 pages; two black-and-white plates; five figures. £12.50. The bare bones of this grim tale can be exposed in a few words In the estimation of Professor Dr. K. H. Voous, whom the author quotes in his preface, there were in 1965 no more than 1% of the numbers of birds of prey that existed in Europe 150 years ago. And t e decline continues inexorably with the destruction of biotopes, prodigal use of biocides and, in all too many countries, particularly Norway, Austria, France, Czechoslovakia and Greece, direct and fanatical persecution by man. In Britain, now that the chemical tide has receded and the land, if not the sea, cleanses itself, there is a tendency to feel rather com- fortable about the situation: Peregrines re-occupy formerly deserted eyries; Sparrowhawks flourish; Ospreys regain a toehold; Red 2 1 2 Reviews Kites maintain themselves. For anyone inclined to a complacent attitude, this book should be required reading. The author, who works for the World Wildlife Fund in Switzer- land, embarked on the monumental task of researching and assembling the long, unhappy saga as a thesis for a doctor’s degree in natural sciences at Amsterdam. Thanks to helpful influences, not least those of Stanley Cramp, the result of his labours is now in our hands. A lively as well as a lucid and orderly mind has been at work. The appalling record of three centuries (18th, prelude; 19th, culmination; 20th, finale) is followed by a review of the human influences affecting raptorial birds — logging, drainage, agriculture, electricity lines (a steady toll), the use of strychnine (a persisting practice in the Balkans) — and a chapter discussing the patterns of the decline, as well as a remarkably detailed country-by-country account of the status of 37 individual species. Equally valuable is the ensuing chapter on the state of play on legislation in 26 European countries. The final section covers examples of practical conservation (feeding places for vultures, funded by tourism), thoughts on a co- ordinated European effort, pinpointing the need to seek out and safeguard ‘biologically intact’ areas, a prognosis, a summary and an immense bibliography. The prognosis is hardly encouraging: no general improvement can be expected, and further declines are confidently predicted for the White-tailed Eagle, Osprey and Black Kite (sea and fresh water contamination), for vultures (food shortage), for the Peregrine, Goshawk and Sparrowhawk (farmland poisons), for the Imperial and Lesser Spotted Eagles and the harriers (biotope removal), and for the commoner species through the biological levelling of the landscape. Overall, on every horizon lurk the bands of trigger- happy primitives, and egg-collectors eager to apply the coup de grace to any species on its last legs. More money and changes of attitude are needed desperately. Perhaps, following precedent, the next international conference in Vienna in October 1975 will provide some of the required urgency. As for the book, I would like to see it in paperback and translated into at least three European languages. In this form, its pregnant message would provide a major contribution to the crusade to keep birds of prey in the sky. Derek Barber The Migration of the Swallow. By Collingwood Ingram. Witherby, London, 1974. 86 pages; 4 plates; one line-drawing. £1.80. In eight rather brief chapters, Collingwood Ingram has attempted to cover the major aspects of the migration of Hirundo rustica in the Reviews 213 Old World. The author clearly loves his subject and has read widely , yet this book has its limitations, to which it is a reviewer’s duty to draw attention. British readers will be puzzled by the absence of any mention of some important published works on the subject, particularly the late Reg Moreau’s last book ( The Palaearctic- Afncan Bird Migration Systems, 1972) and detailed analyses of British ringing results presented in Bird Study for 1965 and 1970; thus this book overlooks the fairly recent discovery of a westward shift in the South African winter-quarters of British Swallows. Indeed, it is surprising how little use is made of ringing recoveries other than in general statements; the only map in the book is a schematic one. The author has stressed some important points, such as the Swallow’s reluctance to fly downwind when wind-speeds equal or exceed the birds’ air-speeds, the fact that those birds with furthest to travel are among the last to leave the winter-quarters, and the way upper winds bear little relation to surface winds; but some other major points are more contentious. It is claimed that most Swallows avoid crossing arid areas by skirting around their perimeters; perhaps it depends on what one understands by ‘most’ but there is no doubt that many Swallows do cross the Sahara direct, this species being one of the most frequently encountered migrants at oases and common on passage in the desert republic of Chad. The author believes that Swallows almost certainly migrate by instinct alone (that is, without navigational ability), having an inherited knowledge of the topography of the route they are following; but no real evi- dence is presented to back this theory. The title of the book suggests it is a definitive work on Swallow migration, though, in practice, too many generalisations are made without adequate supporting data. The book is a useful introduction to its subject, but serious students will wish to delve more deeply. Robert Hudson The Buzzard. By Colin R. Tubbs. David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1974. 199 pages, including 8 plates and 11 figures. £4-75* This book nicely summarises much of the published information on the Buzzard. This is one of the most widely studied birds of prey in Europe, but the emphasis here is on British Buzzards, and especially those in the New Forest, which the author has studied so effectively since 1962. He inevitably also draws on the important paper on the history of the British population by N. W. Moore (1957, Brit. Birds, 50: 173- 197); on the more recent regional studies by M. Holdsworth in Yorkshire (1971, Brit. Birds, 64: 412-420) and by N. Picozzi and D. Weir in Speyside (published since the book, 1974, Brit. Birds, 67: 199-2 10); and on P. J. Dare’s remarkable doctoral thesis of 1961, unfortunately still unpublished. Important continental 214 Reviews studies are also referred to, but are given far less weight. The first chapter (2 1 pages) deals briefly with the taxonomic status of the Buzzard, and in detail with its breeding density, habitat and feeding ecology. The best habitat is broken woodland, or woods interspersed with small fields, growing on good soil, with plenty of Rabbits or smaller mammals. In these conditions Buzzards often reach densities of two or more pairs per square mile. Despite their love of Rabbits, Buzzards have extremely varied diets, including almost any small mammals, small and medium-sized birds, and invertebrates such as beetles and earthworms. Chapters 2 and 3, totalling 56 pages, deal with the history of the Buzzard in Britain from about the year 1600 to the present. They give a story of continuing decline, through persecution, until the First World War, and of partial recovery since then. The author has done a good job in digging out historical information. It was surprising to learn how much persecution went on in the 17th and 1 8th centuries, but is was not until the 19th century, and the pro- liferation of gamekeepers, that the Buzzard was exterminated from most of the country. Its recovery was associated with a reduction in the number of gamekeepers, and there is little doubt that, without continuing persecution, the Buzzard would soon spread over the eastern half of Britain, from which it is still mainly absent. Tubbs estimates the present population at around 8,000-10,000 pairs, still almost entirely in western districts. The Buzzard has been less affected by organochlorine pesticides than have some other raptors. Small amounts of residue were found in all eggs analysed, from several parts of Britain, and egg-breakage occurred occasionally, but the species suffered no widespread population decline. The decline which occurred in the mid- 1950’s following the decimation of Rabbits by myxomatosis was perhaps less marked than previously thought, but for a year or two non- breeding was widespread. Chapter 4 (30 pages) deals with the regulation of breeding density by social behaviour. It is based almost entirely on the author’s own study in the New Forest, and to my mind is the best in the book. It is puzzling that, despite relatively good breeding and freedom from persecution, there was no year in which all 43 known territories were occupied. Instead, numbers remained fairly stable at 33-37 pairs over the ten years concerned, and in different years produced an average of 0.8- 1.5 young per nest. Chapters 5 and 6 deal with breeding behaviour (30 pages) and population ecology (27 pages). They rely heavily on the author’s observations and on his analysis of nest record cards (1972, Bird Study , 19:96-104), but also deal with dispersion and mortality, as assessed from ringing recoveries. The role of man is again apparent. Reviews 2I5 Between one-third and one-half of all nest failures are attributed to direct human intervention, and, of the young that fly, 70-90% die before reaching sexual maturity, chiefly from shooting. Most of the remaining birds breed in their second year and then live for perhaps four to six further years. In conclusion, the author has produced an admirable and read- able book. My main complaint concerns the price, which seems excessive for a book of this size. I. Newton Vogelleben zwischen Nord- und Ostsee. Eine Vogelkunde Schleswig-Holsteins. By Gunther A. J. Schmidt and Kuno Brehm. Karl Wachholtz Verlag, Neumiinster, 1974. 280 pages; 4 colour and 40 black-and-white plates; 42 maps, numerous line-drawings. DM39. Well co-ordinated teamwork has given us a book on the birds of West Germany’s northernmost state which is a delight to handle. This most pleasing blend of careful research and concern for threatened bird populations is, of course, useful to the birdwatcher wanting to know ‘what, where, when?’ but is primarily aimed at enthusiastic and committed amateurs — teachers, students and school pupils — who, it is hoped, will extricate themselves from the tangle of modern popular ornithology and use more solid biological ground in helping to tackle the many questions which require a speedy solution. In the first of six major sections, Gunther Schmidt offers a lively- first attempt at an ecology of the state’s birds, following this in Sec- tion 2 with an ornitho-geography of Schleswig-Holstein : this is part of a study which will eventually involve a complete reassessment of bird distribution in the whole Baltic-North Sea area. G. Pfeifer then demonstrates, with the aid of eminently clear maps, the impor- tance of Schleswig-Holstein as a junction for north-south and east- west migration routes. Section 4 is, by admission of the authors, H. Hiilsmann and D. Joern, at least to some extent a realm of conjecture and speculation: nevertheless, I found this attempt to portray the bird year in weather pictures both stimulating and exciting. In the fifth section, ‘Landscape-Man-Bird’, Kuno Brehm paints an all too depressingly familiar picture: man advances, habitats are destroyed, birds retreat. Finally, Schmidt’s ‘what’s gone, what hangs on ?’ survey of Schleswig-Holstein’s avifauna is a useful, concise index to the different factors threatening the birds of that region. With an attractive set of illustrations, well chosen for variety and relevance to the text, together with copious references, this is indeed a most useful guide to ornithological study in that world between the North Sea and Baltic. The promised second volume on the breeding birds will be eagerly awaited. Michael Wilson Letters Birds and oil In view of the communications you have published first about auks (Alcidae) with defective plumage and sometimes enteritis, and then about the ability of oiled birds to clean themselves (Brit- Birds, 63: 34-36; 64: 229-230; 65: 85-87; 66: 535*537; 67: 483-484), it should be pointed out that, since lightly oiled birds are surprisingly scarce compared with heavily oiled birds, some of them at least must be capable of cleaning themselves. It has been remarked elsewhere, however, that they may damage their plumage while cleaning it, which may help explain the appearance of auks with defective plumage; also that their vulnerability appears to vary greatly with the character of the oil and the length of time taken for fluid oil to be reduced to inert solid residues, which appears to depend greatly on the temperature. This explains why bird mortality due to oil pollution appears to be much greater in cool climates in the winter, whereas it is seldom noticed where tar-balls derived from tanker- washings are giving rise to growing complaints in the tropics (Alar. Poll. Bull., 6: 88-go; 7 in press). If John R. Mather, who wonders whether salivary enzymes might affect oil (Brit. Birds, 67: 483-484), cares to consult a physiology textbook, he will learn that saliva is a weak aqueous solution of amylases whose main function appears to be lubrication, so it is unlikely to have much effect upon hydrocarbons. The secretion of the preen-gland, which contains various complex waxes and esters, might help soften or emulsify them. W. R. P. Bourne The Seabird Group, Department of Zoology, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen ABg 2TN High flight of House Martins In his book The Palaearctic- African Bird Aligration Systems (1972), the late R. E. Moreau estimated that possibly 90 million House Martins Delichon urbica winter in Africa. He mentioned how very infrequently these birds had been observed there and discussed the idea put forward by R. Verheyen in 1952 (Gerfaut, 42: 92-124), that they spend much of their time too high to be seen, suggesting that there must be a change in their habits between summer and winter. I maintain that there is no sudden change and that House Martins also piobably spend a good deal of their time at great heights in their Palearctic breeding quarters. Particularly during fine weather in August and September, I have often seen them flying at heights Letters 217 where they are only just visible with 8 X 30 binoculars. The technique I use is to relax in a deck chair and look up into the sky with good sunglasses in order to pick out a high-flying group of martins. If binoculars are then focused on these birds, searching the sky at greater distances beyond them often reveals more. One might call this ‘sky watching’ and it is exciting to pick out these birds and watch them in flight at heights where they are quite invisible with the naked eye. It appears that they can gain height quite quickly, possibly on rising thermals. In Africa the opportunity for this must be vastly greater than in the Palearctic region. House Martins often return to roost well after sunset and later than most other birds. This would also help to explain their elusive- ness in their African winter quarters. D. D. Lees Hailey Lodge, Hertford Heath, Hertford News and comment Robert Hudson New mammoth reservoir Work is now far advanced in the construction of Empingham Reservoir in Leicestershire, and water will begin flowing in shortly. When the flooding is completed in 1977— water will be pumped from the Welland and Nene rivers — the surface area will extend to 1,255 hectares, making this the largest man-made lake in England. Its depth will vary from eight metres to 30 metres, and the reservoir will consist of two main arms divided by the 120-mctre high Hambleton Hill. Under an agreement between the Anglian Water Authority and the Leicestershire and Rutland Trust for Nature Conservation, the western ends of both arms, together with 142 hectares of adjacent land, will become a nature reserve managed by the Trust. To make the reserve attractive to birds, a number of islands and crescent-shaped ‘bunds’ are to be constructed so that shallow lagoons will be formed when water levels are low, and extensive tree planting will be carried out along the shores. There will be limited public access to the southern shore, where observation hides will be constructed; the Trust will shortly be appointing a full- time warden. This huge reservoir undoubtedly has tremendous potential, and it could become one of the most important wildfowl roosts in Britain. (With acknow- ledgement to Conservation Review no. 10.) RSPB Appeal Concerned over spiralling land prices and the effect these are having on its reserve acquisition programme, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds launched on 14th April a public appeal for £1 million under the slogan ‘Save a place lot buds . In anticipation of this appeal, the RSPB recently acquired several thousand acres of Morecambe Bay at a cost of nearly £150,000; and other areas of key ornithological importance earmarked for purchase, provided funds are forthcoming, include wetlands, oakwoods, pine forest, moorland, and seabird cliffs and islands. The Society is currently negotiating to buy some 625 hectares of land around Loch Garten, the famous Spey valley Osprey site, and this will cost over £270,000 (since sporting and mineral rights are involved). In preparation for this appeal, the RSPB s own Film Unit has produced a special 25-minute colour film to be shown at fund-raising meetings to be held throughout the country. Lloyds Bank Ltd has already contributed £45,000 towards the expenses of the appeal, so that all donations received will be used exclusively for the purpose of establishing bird reserves. 2l8 News and comment New Durham Bird Club We have been informed of the recent founding of the Durham Bird Club, which already has ioo members. The Club will cover the whole of the old Co. Durham, therefore including those parts of the new county of Cleveland lying north of the Tees and of the county of Tyne and Wear lying south of the Tyne. The Club has taken over the production of the Durham Bird Report, and now produces (for the first time) monthly bulletins covering the whole Tyne- Tees area. The Secretary and Recorder is Brian Unwin, 2 Albyn Gardens, Sunder- land, Tyne and Wear. A new Irish bird report To the still small — though slowly increasing — ranks of Irish county bird reports can now be added another: the first issue of the Louth Bird Report (for 1974) has just come to hand. For some time there has been a local feeling that an annual bird report for Co. Louth is necessary to encourage more work therein; there are few resident birdwatchers and Louth has for too long been a Cinderella among Irish Sea counties. Yet significant numbers of wildfowl and waders occur there, and the seawatching potential is considerable. It is hoped that this new annual report will stimulate birdwatchers in Louth and neighbouring counties to concentrate on this underworked area. The Recorder and Editor is C. C. Moore, c/o Research Laboratory, Botany Department, University College, Belfield, Dublin 4. New ICBP magazine The International Council for Bird Preservation is to launch a new colour magazine entitled Birds International. This is to be published quarterly, and will be distributed free to all members, patrons and associates of the ICBP; the first issue will appear in late May. The editor is to be John A. Burton, and the editorial address will be: Birds International, 5 Macfarlane Road, London W12. Short feature articles on rare birds, conservation issues and allied topics will be welcomed, together with news items and books for review. Associate member- ship of the ICBP costs £1.00 per year, and details can be obtained from the ICBP British Section, c/o British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London SW7. Proposed Greek biological station The Council for Europe Newsletter no. 75-3 reports that the first biological station in Greece is to be set up in the Evros delta, an internationally important wetland near the Turkish frontier and one of the few European breeding localities of that recent colonist, the Spur-winged Plover. The main function of this station will be the study and protection of the delta’s bird life, though its facilities will be available to Greek and foreign experts and students wishing to study the fauna and flora of the region. Obituary The last Irish Wildbird Conservancy Newsletter carried the sad news that Lt.-Col. C. F. Scroope died on 5th March, at the advanced age of 89. Colonel Scroope is best known to ornithologists for his co-authorship (with Major R. F. Ruttledge and the late Rev. P. G. Kennedy) of The Birds of Ireland, published in *954- He became interested in birds under the influence of that famous Irish orni- thologist, Robert Warren. The Army was his chosen profession; he commanded a regiment in the Indian Army, but suffered a severe wound during the Turkish Campaign of the First World War. In retirement, his time was given almost exclusively to the study of Irish birds. Being of a retiring nature he did most of his birdwatching alone or with his brother; and it is a matter for regret that he did not publish more about his copious observations. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds January reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records 1 he exceptionally mild weather of December continued, with westerly winds associated with depressions in the Atlantic dominating the pattern and producing above-average rainfall. 1 he first heavy snow of the winter fell on 28th, but this dispersed almost immediately. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the month was the number of overwintering summer visitors and migrants, including some never previously recorded in Britain in January'. Unusual numbers ol Gannets Sula banana were reported for the time of year. One was seen at Dungeness (Kent) on 1st, an adult, recently dead, was washed up at Weston beach (Avon) on 4th, two were at Ramsgate (Kent) on 11th and 30 were watched fishing at Gletness (Shetland) on 23rd; while in Northumberland inshore movement was recorded on 12th, when 54 flew north at Seaton Sluice and at least 15 south at Ross, and on 25th, when 20 passed south at Seaton Sluice. A Spoonbill Plalalea leucorodia returned to the River Lynher (Cornwall) early in the month, probably the same as the one which wintered there during the 1973/ 74 winter {Brit. Birds, (>7: 130, 250). Numbers oi Smew Mergus albellus remained low, the most being five at Wraysbury gravel pits (Surrey) on 26th. There were, however, records of rarer wildfowl. At Loch Fleet (Highland) two drake Surf Scoters Slelanitta perspicillata were present from the beginning of the month and through February, and the drake King Eider Somateria spectabilis first noted there in November (Brit. Birds, (id: 123) also stayed throughout January and February; another male King Eider was seen at Sullom (Shetland) on 8th January and 5th February. The only reports of geese which were at all unusual concerned Bean Geese Anser fabalis— one at Plex moss (Merseyside) and six at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) all on 26th. A Gyrfalcon Falco rnsticolus appeared at an oilrig in Forties Field, about 210 km north-cast of Aberdeen (Grampian) on -,th. but died before the end of the month. The winter’s second Little Crake Porzana parva was reported, a male at Attenborough (Nottinghamshire) on 3rd, though one can only speculate as to whether this was the bird se~n at Hams Hall, Sutton Coldfield "(West Midlands) m Novembei and December r 9 74 (Brit. Birds, (58: 123). It would, however, seem likely that a Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus present in the north Wirral area of Merseyside duringjanuary and seen on 15th February at Hoylake was the same individual that was noted at Hoylake in the latter part of the winter of *973/74 (Bril. Birds , 67: 220). Surprisingly, only two reports of wintering Whim- brels jVumenius phaeopns reached us, singles at Pagham Harbour (West Sussex) about 1 8th and flying over Headcorn (Kent) on 27th. A Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius was present at Weymouth (Dorset) on 26th. Great Skua Stercorarius skua flew north at the Don estuarv (Grampian on 1 1 th. There was just one adult Mediterranean Gull Lams nielanocephalus reported horn the Blackpill area of West Glamorgan, and elsewhere one was at Dungeness (Kent) on 26th, ten days after an adult had turned up at Keyhaven (Hampshire). Little Gulls L. minutus were also comparatively scarce, just five together at Mumbles, Swansea (also West Glamorgan), on 231I1 and a single adult at Fresh- fi< Id (Merseyside) on 27th. An adult Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea attracted dozens of local birdwatchers to Scalloway (Shetland) during its stay from 19th to 29th. A most unusual report, even during one of the mildest winters ever, was that of a flock of 14 Common or Arctic Terns Sterna hirundo paradisaea at Scabrook (Kent) on 13th, while just as unexpected was an adult Black Tern Chi idonias niger in summer plumage also in Kent, at Hammond’s Corner, Romney Marsh, 011 8th. 219 220 January reports This latter, if accepted, would be the first record of the species in Britain in January (R. Hudson, 1973, Early and late dates for summer migrants). A Little Auk Plautus alle was found dead well inland at Stamfordham (Northumberland) on 4th, and in Shetland the species was noted at Sumburgh on 8th and at YVhalsay on 17th and 20th; in Devon one was picked up at Dawlish Warren on 25th but died the same day, while another picked up alive on a farm near South Molton on 28th was first fed before being released on to the sea at Combe Martin. A Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur was watched at close quarters at Benacre Ness (Suffolk) on 1st. Overwintering Whinchats Saxicola rubetra were found at Thatcham (Berkshire) on 1 1 th and at Snodland (Kent) on 26th, while a belated report concerns one in November and December at Witheridge (Devon) for the second year in succession. More exceptional was a record of a wintering male Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus near the River Thames about 5 km south of Wallingford (Oxfordshire) on 26th: according to R. Hudson {op. cit.) there have been no accepted records of Redstarts in Britain in either January or February. A Garden Warbler Sylvia borin recovered at Castle Eden (Durham) on 2nd had been ringed at Spurn (Humberside) on gth October 1974 {cf. Brit. Birds, 68: 176), while yet another overwintering passerine found was a Whitethroat S’, communis near Bishop’s Stortford (Essex) on 21st. The mildness of the winter was exemplified by the fact that even a Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus, an Asiatic vagrant which normally winters in south-east Asia, managed to survive, being discovered on Thorney Island (West Sussex) about 1 ith January and still present in April. Two White Wagtails Motacilla alba alba were reported at Sevenoaks (Kent) on 19th. Of interest was the news that the Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla first found at Washington (Tyne & Wear) in September {Brit. Birds, 67: 532) was still present on 2nd January. Finally, the only reports of Lapland Buntings Calcarius lapponicus came also from Tyne & Wear, a single bird at St Mary’s on New Year’s Day, and from Cley (Norfolk), where the January maximum was four on 26th, though it is hard to believe that there were no others on the east coast of Britain during the month. Notice ICBP Birds of Prey Conference A conference on birds of prey organised by the ICBP World Working Group on Birds of Prey will be held in Vienna from 1st to 3rd October 1975. The programme will include reports and papers on the current trends in bird of prey populations, present national legTshffTon and international agreements, research relevant to conservation, protective methods and manage- ment. identification of the main problems facing birds of prey, and discussions on future action, as well as excursions. Like the successful European Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls held in Caen in April 1964, spokesmen for ornithology, conservation, hunting and falconry will take part. This time, however, the Con- ference will be on a world basis, for although much progress has been made since Caen (in improved national legislation, stricter international controls on trade in predators, and increasing restrictions on pesticides), the threats to birds of prey are becoming both more pressing and more widespread. Details can be obtained from Miss P. Barclay-Smith, International Council for Bird Preservation, c/o British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London SW7. M British Birds M EDITOR Applications arc invited for the post of Executive Editor of BRITISH BIRDS who might also act as an ornithological adviser for the book publishing Companies of Macmillan. Duties on BRITISH BIRDS will include selection of submitted and solicited material in conjunction with the Editorial Board: overall editorial responsibility (with substantial sub-editing assistance); forward planning and policy making in conjunction with the Editorial Board. This is a senior and challenging post. High standard of general ornithological knowledge, ability to generate ideas, and good writing flair more important than previous editing experience, though latter would be an advantage. For further details and application form, write by 7th July to the Publishing Director, Macmillan Journals Ltd., 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF. Macmillan Journals Ltd. 7^ SWANS BIG GAME & & BIRDS SAFARIS VISITING THESE NATIONAL PARKS & GAME RESERVES IN EAST AFRICA Nairobi. Lake Nalvaaha, Lake Nakuru, Samburu, Isiolo, Taavo, Ambosell. Lake Martyara, Ngoron- uoro, Serengetl. Mara and Mberdare In Kenya and Tanzania. GUEST LECTURERS accompany aach Safari Thair expert and personal knowledge of East Africa — its animal*, bird*. history, people* and customs — provide* *n unrivalled opportunity, not only to view the ever decreasing wildlife in its natural habitat, but also to gain an insight into the problem* of its preservation and the conservation of land needed by Africa's developing nations. A holiday that can open up new vistas of interest. 21 DAYS— £515 DEPARTURES: Jun 26; July 17; Aug 7, 28; Sep 18; Oct 9. 30; Dec 18. 1975 Jan 15, 22. 29; Feb 5, 12. 19. 26; Mar 4, 1976. 12-page full colour brochure available from: SWANS SPECIALISED SAFARIS 237 |P 1 2) , Tottenham Court Road, London, W1P OAL. Tel.: 01-636 8070 C.A.A. Licence — ATOL169B ‘FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRD SONGS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE’ Specially imported set of 14 x 12 in. L.P. Records from Sweden (in stereo) The most comprehensive and best produced sound guide to British Residents, Migrants and Accidentals. Contains all the species listed in the Peterson, Mountfort & Hollom “Birds of Britain and Europe” publication. £39-50 the set (inclusive of postage and packing) Payable to: Wildlife Books & Gifts, 29 Stephenson Place, Chesterfield. Telephone: 35423 Volume 68 Number 5 May 1975 177 Status, habitats and conservation of the Dartford Warbler in England C. J. Bibby and C. R. Tubbs 196 Status and habitats of the Dartford Warbler, Whitethroat and Stonechat in Dorset in 1959-60 Dr N. W . Moore 202 Viewpoint: Migration in the doldrums D. I. M. Wallace 204 More examples of the best recent work by British bird-photo- graphers Text by Eric Hosking Plates 24-35 Notes 207 ‘Freezing’ behaviour of Pheasants on tree branches Drs R. A. Cheke and J. A. Coles 208 ‘Freezing’ attitudes of Hoopoes when approached by man K. E. Vinicombe 208 Long-eared Owls attacking Foxes, Hare and man Derick Scott 210 Unusual pre-copulatory display by Song Thrush Dr A. P. Radford 210 Reed Warblers breeding in Shetland Graham Bundy Reviews 211 Birds of Prey in Europe by Maarten Bijleveld Derek Barber 212 The Migration of the Swallow by Collingwood Ingram Robert Hudson 213 The Buzzard by Colin R. Tubbs Dr I. Newton 215 Vogelleben zwischen Nord- und Ostsee by Gunther A. J. Schmidt and Kuno Brehm Michael Wilson Letters 216 Birds and oil Dr W . R. P. Bourne 217 High flight of House Martins D. D. Lees 217 News and comment Robert Hudson 219 January reports D. A. Christie Notice 220 ICBP Birds of Prey Conference Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 6 June 1975 BREEDING TERNS DURING 1969-74 CALANDRELLA LARK IDENTIFICATION Editorial Address n Rope Walk, Rye, Sussex TN31 7NA ( telephone : 07973 2343) Editors Stanley Cramp, P. F. Bonham, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee J. N. Dymond, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire sg 19 2DL © The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633) Annual Subscription £7.00 U.K. and Eire (£8.00 Overseas) including index (Payment may be made in any currency at the current exchange rate. Orders must be accompanied by remittance. Prices applicable only to orders received before 31st December 1975) Cheques should be made payable to Macmillan Journals Limited: Subscription Department, Brunei Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG2 i 2xs, England Enquiries concerning advertising space and rates should be addressed to: Advertisement Department, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633) British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of the west Palearctic or, where appropriate, on the species of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered in whole or in part to any other journal. Photographs and sketches are welcomed. After publication, 25 reprints of each paper are sent free to the author (two co-authors receive 15 each and three or more co-authors ten each); additional copies, for which a charge is made, should be ordered in advance of publication. Reprints of notes and other short items have to be specially ordered and are charged for. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing and wide margins, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and well spaced, and notes should be worded as concisely as possible. Authors of papers and notes, especially of those containing systematic lists, reference lists, tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of birds and other animals should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen, but group terms and names of plants should not. Both English and scientific names of birds, and the sequence, follow A Species List of British and Irish Birds (BTO Guide 13, 1971). All scientific names should be under- lined immediately after the first mention of the English name, though it is some- times more convenient instead to list them in an appendix. Subspecific names should not be used except where relevant to the discussion. Dates should always take the form Tst January 1974’, except in tables where they may be abbreviated. Conventions concerning references, including their use in the text and the form of citation used in reference lists, should follow the examples in this issue. Tables should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. They must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All tables should be self-explanatory. Figures should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. 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WW « Full details from the sole UK importers MaWa I Carl Zeiss (Oberkochcn) Limited Degenhardt I louse. 5 1 -36 Foley Street. London Wl. 01-656 8050 I BIRD ILLUSTRATORS Some Artists in Early Lithography A NEW BOOK by C. E. JACKSON 14 COLOUR PLATES £7 WITHERBY BIRDS OF PREY — BIJLEVELD Publisher ’s Announcement The special offer to readers of “British Birds” given in the April issue is now closed Edited by JANET KEAR and NICOLE DUPLAIX-HALL Flamingos' thirty-nine chapters derive from papers delivered at the International Flamingo Symposium held at the Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, in July 1973. They form four sections: Populations, Ecology and Conservation; Flamingos in Captivity; Ethology and Taxonomy; Flamingo Physiology — in addition there are appendices of biological and other information, a comprehensive bibliography, and an Introduction by Sir Peter Scott. Approximately half of the book is concerned with populations in the wild, with field studies and conservation. However, flamingos are one of the more popular and common of zoo animals and part of the book is concerned with the problems of breeding, rearing and maintaining the birds in captivity, and the stress and disease to which they can be prone. Sir Peter Scott in his Introduction expects that within ten years zoos should be breeding all the flamingos they need. There are many line drawings and diagrams in the text, plus 48 pages of monochrome photographs and seven full-colour plates. Publication 27th June, £8.00 net T. & A. D. Poyser Ltd 281 High Street, Berkhamsted, Herts HP4 1AJ ii Volume 68 Number 6 June 1975 Breeding terns in Britain and Ireland in 1969-74 C. S. Lloyd , C. J. Bibby and M. J. Everett The status of Britain and Ireland’s five breeding terns has given conservationists cause for concern in recent years. The coastal breeding colonies of each species were thoroughly counted in 1969-70 during Operation Seafarer (Cramp et at. 1974), and the results of these counts were compared with the small amount of information previously published. Only the Little Tern Sterna albifrons had earlier been the subject of a comprehensive count, in 1967 (Norman and Saunders 1969). The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, in conjunction with the Seabird Group, has collected information on breeding numbers and success of all tern species since 1969. Sand- wich Terns S. sandvicensis and Roseate Terns S. dougallii are confined to relatively few sites in Britain and most of these are visited annually by local ornithologists, so there is no need for a special survey to assess population changes. An effort was made in 1974 to collect current and past information from the larger colonies of Common Terns 5. hirundo and Arctic Terns S. paradisaea. The Little Tern was specially counted in 1971 and results from a selection of colonies have been recorded annually since. Counts of each species are presented below and compared with the 1969-70 counts and with any known population trends elsewhere; the probable causes of changes in numbers are discussed. The old counties are used throughout, to allow comparison with the Operation Seafarer totals. Roseate Tern The Roseate Tern has a worldwide but much fragmented breeding distribution with major strongholds in warm tropical and sub- 221 222 Breeding terns during igSg-j 4 tropical seas. In the western Atlantic the species appears to be maintaining its numbers in a few remaining sizable colonies. In 1972 the total population in New England, USA, was still some 4,700 pairs (Drury 1973-74), though in Massachusetts it had almost halved in the previous 20 years to only 2,300 pairs, this decrease being largely compensated for by an increase on Long Island, New York (Nisbet 1973). In north-west Europe the Roseate Tern now nests only in Brittany, Britain and Ireland. In Brittany there have been signs of decline, mainly in the number of sites occupied but also in the total breeding strength: the population is now about 500 pairs and the majority nest on a single island (J.-Y. Monnat in litt.). Parslow (1967) recorded a substantial increase in the numbers breeding in Britain and Ireland from the beginning of the century, when the species was thought to be near extinction. The increase appears to have reached its peak in the late I95°,s when the population totalled nearly 3,000 pairs. In 1969 this figure had decreased to 2,530 pairs, of which 2,458 (97%) bred in twelve colonies. This represented about five-sixths of the total north-west European breeding popula- tion. Records of numbers at the main breeding colonies since 1969 are given in table 1. Few colonies are currently increasing and from 1969 to 1974 the total breeding population at the main colonies fell from 2,476 to 1,414 pairs. All major Roseate Tern colonies are on Table i. Pairs of Roseate Terns Sterna dougallii breeding at main sites in Britain and Ireland, 1969-74 A dash indicates that no count was made. The 1969 figure for Tern Island is from the Operation 1 Seafarer files (the published count was 1,200 pairs) 1969 1 97° i97i 1972 1973 1974 Horse Island, Ayrshire 15 22 0 0 I I Inchmickery, Firth of Forth 46 7 0 75 52 80 Fidra, Firth of Forth 50 100 88 0 0 O Holy Island, Northumberland 25 0 0 0 0 2 Fame Islands, Northumberland 60 40 17 19 30 14 L Coquet Island, Northumberland 230 144 75 75 60 60 Isles of Scilly 20 20 20 20 20 5 Anglesey 202 256 206 156 165 251 Swan Island, Co. Antrim 190 190 145 ‘some’ 67 52 Greenisland, Co. Down 228 276 697 275 160 236 Rockabill, Co. Dublin 60 — _ 100 Tern Island, Co. Wexford i,35° *,35° 538 533 687 603 TOTAL AT MAIN SITES 2,476* 2,405+ 1,786+ i,i53 + 1,241 + 1,414 *98% of Operation Seafarer total population, adjusted for Tern Island Breeding terns during 1969-74 22g offshore islands, though some pairs breed sporadically among coastal colonies of Common and Arctic Terns. Unlike the other species, these terns frequently conceal their eggs in vegetation or even partially underground in burrows of Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus or Puffins Fratercula arctica. Disturbance appears to have been a major factor limiting Roseate Tern numbers; many colonies are on inaccessible or protected sites and the species’ breeding distribution probably reflects the birds’ vulnerability to disturbance. One of the earliest protection measures, adopted at the beginning of the century, was security over the location of colonies. This has made the history of the species difficult to trace, though we are indebted to G. R. Humphreys for the following information on the species’ status in Ireland ( Irish Times, 18th June 1974): ‘After the middle of the last century there appears to be no mention of its presence in numbers until 1913, when I discovered about forty pairs nesting among Common and Arctic Terns at Malahide, Co. Dublin. Then followed the discovery of colonics on the Keeragh Islands, Co. Wexford, in 1917 by the late Mr C. J. Carroll and on Green Island, Co. Down by the late Mr C. V. Stoney in 1922. Only the last of these three colonies exists and flourishes today. As the old established colony on Rockabill, Co. Dublin, ceased to exist sometime after the middle of the last century, not until 1930 was the Roseate Tern seen to breed there again, about 12 pairs being identified’. A major colony in Ireland was deserted in the early 1960’s following repeated dis- turbance from sailors, and the birds moved to the present colony in Co. Wexford. In 1974 the large-scale disappearance of eggs and young from the second largest colony in Britain and Ireland (on Anglesey) was undoubtedly caused by humans. Sandwich Tern In north-west Europe Sandwich Terns breed in Sweden, East and West Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Brittany, Britain and Ireland. The total population in 1973 was given as 23,350 pairs by Rooth (1974), but this figure included an underestimate for the British and Irish colonies of at least 3,000 pairs. The Netherlands held 25,000 to 40,000 pairs from 1940 to 1957 (Rooth and Morzer Bruijns 1959), after which dieldrin and telodrin poisoning reduced the population to 650 pairs (Rooth 1967, Koeman 1971); numbers have since increased to 4,000 pairs in 1973 (Rooth 1974). In 1974 8,200 pairs of Sandwich Terns bred at three island sites off the coast of West Germany (Dr M. Carstens, verbally), and in 1973 a further 450 pairs bred in East Germany, 400 pairs in Sweden, 2,000 pairs in both Denmark and Brittany and 4,000 pairs in the Nether- lands (Rooth 1974). 224 Breeding terns during 1969-74 Table 2. Pairs of Sandwich Terns Sterna sandvicensis breeding at main sites in Britain j and Ireland, 1969-74 A dash indicates that no count was made. Not all Orkney colonies were covered each year / 1969 1970 i97i 1972 1973 1974 Horse Island, Ayrshire 120 0 O IOO 0 Main Orkney islands 285 250 55 200 231 256 Caithness O — — — 130 Easter Ross 1,000 147 O 35 72 242 East Inverness-shire 0 150 0 0 0 O Sands of Forvie, Aberdeenshire 740 1,281 2,100 1,240 80 550 Inchmickery, Firth of Forth 46 50 2 250 340 450 Aberlady, Firth of Forth 0 I 60 30 42 0 Fidra, Firth of Forth 60 225 320 0 0 0 Holy Island, Northumberland 62 20 90 l6 I I Fame Islands, Northumberland 2,000 2,000 2,750 2,500 3,ooo 2,500 Coquet Island, Northumberland 206 708 800 800 1,800 1,100 Scolt Head, Norfolk 3>850 4,022 4,400 4,800 800 1,610 Stiffkey, Norfolk 96 O 0 350 3,ooo 1,500 Minsmere, Suffolk 13 90 600 500 750 750 Havergate Island, Suffolk 60 70 O O O 80 Foulness, Essex 17 O O 27 40 8 Needs Oar Point, Hampshire 09 228 242 I l6 214 245 Keyhaven, Hampshire 44 2 40 30 30 7 Brownsea Island, Dorset O O O O 24 0 Foulney Island, Lancashire IO 0 O 0 20 170 Isle of Walney, Lancashire H7 220 300 400 0 0 Ravenglass, Cumberland 458 845 819 828 622 600 Anglesey I 20 IOO 201 85 72 Greenisland, Co. Down 477 794 700 877 1,100 700 Strangford Lough, Co. Down 666 310 530 325 368 755 Tern Island, Co. Wexford 246 560 392 572 5*5 54i TOTAL AT MAIN SITES 10,783* IL993 + 14,300 + I4,I97+ i3,i34+ 12,267 *91% of Operation Seafarer total population Sandwich Terns have a fluctuating breeding population in Britain and Ireland; Parslow (1967) found signs of an increase in numbers during this century and suggested that the estimated total popula- tion of 6,000 pairs in 1962 was probably higher than ever before in recorded history. The Operation Seafarer count in 1969 produced a figure of 11,860 pairs, and the 12,267 pairs in Britain and Ireland in 1974 represented 42% of the north European total. Table 2 shows the number of pairs breeding at the main colonies. Details of the small colonies in the west of Ireland are not known; these include several on inland loughs but the total population probably amounts to little more than 500 pairs. Colonies are extremely variable in size from year to year and interchange between them is frequently recorded, so no clear population trend emerges. Breeding terns during ig6g-y 4 225 The most notable change since 1969 has been the decrease from 2,015 Pairs in that year to 534 pairs in 1973 at colonies in east Scotland (see Bourne and Smith 1974). Sandwich Terns tend to nest at a higher density within their colonies than other terns. Colonies occur on islands and in undis- turbed coastal areas, especially sand dunes. Nest sites are often exposed, either on sand or where the density of birds and their faeces inhibit the growth of vegetation. Because these terns are especially sensitive to disturbance, most of the existing colonies in regular use are found on areas protected as reserves. Sandwich Terns have a strong tendency to desert their colonies, especially if disturbed during egg-laying (Cullen i960). During the period covered by this survey the reduction of Scottish colonies was caused largely by human disturbance. In 1 97 1 largc numbers of Sandwich Terns left Morrich More, Easter Ross, and bred at the Sands of Forvie, Aberdeenshire, but disturbance by people and Foxes Vulpes vulpes reduced this colony too. The displaced birds, many of which were colour-ringed, later bred in sites free from disturbance in Northumberland. Similar movements occurred at Minsmere, Suffolk, in 1974 when the terns were disturbed by a Fox early in the season and some finally attempted to breed on nearby Havergate Island. Even on nature reserves special care is required as a single disturbance is enough to cause the birds to desert. This happened in 1973 at the well-guarded colony at Scolt Head, Norfolk, where most of the Sandwich Terns departed to breed at a remote but unpro- tected site nearby. Common Tern Common Terns breed throughout much of the northern hemisphere (Voous i960). Numbers in the western Atlantic colonies, having increased following the removal of hunting pressure at the turn of the century, appear to have declined within the last decade. A total of 24,000 pairs breed in New England, USA (Drury 1973-74), including 7,500 pairs in Massachusetts alone (Nisbet 1973).’ About 6,000 pairs of Common Terns breed in both Finland and Germany (Lippens and Wille 1972) and another 10,000 pairs in the Netherlands (J. Rooth in litt.). In Britain and Ireland Common Tern numbers, like those of Sandwich and Roseate, increased significantly early this century in response to protection. Since then the population has fluctuated, but Parslow (1967) suspected that there had been a small overall decrease in the last two or three decades. Inland colonies exist, especially in Scotland, so that the species is difficult to count completely. Parslow estimated the English population to be 5,500-6,000 pairs in 1966, and more than 64)00 226 Breeding terns during ig6g-j4 Table 3. Pairs of Common Terns Sterna hirundo (and undetermined Common/Arctic 5. paradisaea) breeding at main sites in Britain and Ireland, 1969-74 A dash indicates that no count was made, and a question mark that none is available. Italics refer to undetermined Common/Arctic 1969 1970 i97i 1972 1973 1974 Horse Island, Ayrshire 60 300 50 ‘few’ — 29 Islay, Argyll 80 - - - - 1 10 Easter Ross 20 - - 250 250 200 East Inverness-shire O 200 50 180 250 285 Morayshire 450 - 450 500 500 400 Sands of Eorvie, Aberdeenshire 475 544 350 240 300 325 Angus and Kincardineshire 90 - - - - 200 Inchmickery, Firth of Forth 100 150 I 450 780 750 Aberlady, Firth of Forth 75 260 450 500 i75 72 Fidra, Firth of Forth 250 250 310 100 20 0 Other main sites. Firth of Forth 21 - 40 20 27 150 Holy Island, Northumberland 120 90 5° 40 34 27 Fame Islands, Northumberland 182 60 40 108 230 140 Coquet Island, Northumberland 1,200 1,200 1,000 1,000 1,700 1,300 Snettisham, Norfolk 32 27 3t 32 48 54 Scolt Head, Norfolk 500 530 540 600 600 625 Stiffkey, Norfolk 130 148 148 135 141 96 Blakeney Point, Norfolk 1,200 1,700 1,500 1,800 1,400 1,600 Minsmere, Suffolk 250 350 400 250 200 220 Havergate Island, Suffolk 30 30 40 45 35 20 Foulness, Essex 3 O O 6l 160 1 10 Dungeness, Kent 1 10 - 250 100 140 165 Needs Oar Point, Hampshire 120 130 200 170 225 250 Keyhaven, Hampshire 86 90 90 45 50 65 Brownsea Island, Dorset 74 - 60 60 65 26 Isles of Scilly 150 - - - 100+ 108 Lancashire marshes 572 295 400 595 690 970 Foulney Island, Lancashire IO ? ? ? 150 125 Isle of Walney, Lancashire M3 ? 200 ? 6 0 Ravenglass, Cumberland 10 «7 53 17 29 0 Rockcliffe, Cumberland I 12 223 202 123 95 222 Anglesey 51 - - - - 151 Swan Island, Co. Antrim 380 380 330 200 209 227 Greenisland, Co. Down 523 647 772 492 792 320 Strangford Lough, Co. Down 498 + 64 - 474 1,117 - 850 Rockabill, Co. Dublin 35 - - - - 40 Tern Island, Co. Wexford 800 500 209 500 359 345 Channel Islands 100 - - - 44 36 TOTAL COMMON AT MAIN SITES Undetermined Common /Arctic GRAND TOTALS 8,139 967 7,094+ 1,027+ 7,061 + 1,629 7.92 1 + 1,809 8,618+ i, 1 86+ 9,216 i,397 9,106* 8,121 + 8,690+ 9,73°+ 9,804+ 10,613 *57% °f Operation Seafarer total population of Common and Common/Arctic Terns Breeding terns during 1969-J4 227 pairs were found during the survey of coastal colonies alone in England in 1969. Population changes at the larger coastal colonies are shown in table 3. Declining numbers in England and Ireland appear to be paralleled by increases at Scottish colonies, notably due to pro- tection measures. The disappearance of several Common Tern colonies in the 1950’s has been attributed to displacement by gulls (Isle of May, Firth of Forth) or to human disturbance (Ainsdale dunes, Lancashire). At least some of the displaced birds Irom the latter colony formed a successful colony nearby (Greenhalgh 1974). Since 1950 the reclamation of saltmarsh on the Wash has also forced terns to move nesting sites on several occasions (Cadbury, in press). Common Ferns respond well to protection from disturbance and to the pro- vision of suitable artificial nesting habitat (Eades 1972, RSPB records for reserves at Minsmere, Havergate, Dungeness and Snettisham). The increase at many inland colonies (for example, in the Norfolk Broads) suggests that the maintenance of breeding numbers in this species may be furthered by attracting birds to safe inland sites. Arctic Tern This species has a circumpolar breeding distribution, replacing the Common Tern at higher latitudes (Voous i960). Like those of the Common Tern, Arctic Tern numbers increased dramatically at colonies in New England, USA, early this century but have since declined to 8,000 pairs (Drury 1973-74), with only 100 pairs in Massachusetts (Nisbet 1973). About 6,000 pairs of Arctic Terns breed in Finland and a further 1,000 pairs in Germany (Lippens and Wille 1972). The Aictic Tern is Britain and Ireland’s most numerous tern; in 1969-70 the total was put at 30,773 pairs (Cramp et al. 1974), but this included a very cautious estimate of the size of some large Orkney colonies (see below) and the total may well have been at least 50,000 pairs. Parslow (1967) recorded a decrease in the Irish population and the extinction of all inland colonies in Ireland this century, except one in Co. Fermanagh, but detected no widespread changes in the British population. The current status of the Arctic Tern is shown in table 4. Unfor- tunately, regular records are available from only one colony in Ireland, where small, scattered colonies occurred throughout much of the countiy, but the Irish population numbers probably less than 1,000 pairs. Elsewhere the majority of the birds are still found in Scotland where some colonies are very large. In spite of an increase in some of the smaller colonies and the formation of 228 228 Breeding terns during 1969-74 Table 4. Pairs of Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea (and undetermined Arctic/Common S. hirundo) breeding at main sites in Britain and Ireland, 1969-74 A dash indicates that no count was made, and a question mark that none is available. Italics refer to undetermined Arctic/Common 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Horse Island, Ayrshire 40 300 20 _ — 87 Islay, Argyll 450 - - - - 162 Sutherland 208 — — 200 50 100 Out Skerries, Shetland 680 700 — — 525 615 Foula, Shetland 4OO - 800 1,000 750 1,700 Westray group, Orkney (including North Hill) 27.795 15,686 Other Orkney islands 384 - - - - 4,400 Caithness 0 - - - - 1,965 Easter Ross 100 100 100 O 0 0 Sands of Forvie, Aberdeenshire 125 156 117 53 55 80 Holy Island, Northumberland 80 90 48 12 4 25 Fame Islands, Northumberland 3,208 - 2,697 2,662 2,237 2,261 Coquet Island, Northumberland 700 800 500 500 600 650 Foulney Island, Lancashire 20 ? ? 150 125 Isle of Walney, Lancashire 102 ? 150 ? 6 0 Ravenglass, Cumberland 40 21 53 57 29 30 Anglesey 400 - - - 0 250 Swan Island, Co. Antrim 380 380 330 200 209 227 Greenisland, Co. Down 523 647 772 492 792 320 Strangford Lough, Co. Down 64 - 474 1,117 - 850 Rockabill, Co. Dublin 120 - - - - 0 Tern Island, Co. Wexford 40 150 47 45 27 36 TOTAL ARCTIC AT MAIN SITES 34.892 2,30+ 4,479 + 4,529+ 4,248 + 28,172 Undetermined Arctic/ Common 967 1,027 + 1,629 1,809 1,186+ 1,397 GRAND TOTALS 35.859* 3,344+ 6,108 + 6,338+ 5,434+ 29+69 *69% of Operation Seafarer total population of Arctic Terns, adjusted for North Hill, Papa Westray, and Arctic/ Common Terns some new ones, the Scottish population has undergone a significant overall decrease since 1969 which undoubtedly gives cause for concern. The strongholds of breeding Arctic Terns in northern England have also diminished, and the Welsh population at main sites on Anglesey decreased from 400 pairs in 1969 to 250 pairs in 1974, nearly all of which failed to fledge young. The Arctic Tern colony on North Hill, Papa Westray, Orkney, was estimated to hold 17,500 pairs in 1969. The size of this colony had previously not been appreciated and a conservative estimate was used in the Operation Seafarer totals. Estimates in 1972 and 1973 put the population at 4,000-8,000 pairs (Dr W. R. P. Bourne and D. Lea, verbally) and a detailed count in 1974 produced 7,775 pairs Breeding terns during 1969-J4 229 (Hammond 1974). However, the nest densities and area covered by this colony in 1974 indicated that the 1969 population may actually have been higher than 17,500 pairs. The recent decrease in numbers at this and other large colonies in north Orkney appears to be the result of fragmentation caused by disturbance. These vast assem- blages of nesting birds are most vulnerable to trampling by cattle. As a result the birds often harass the cattle, thereby incurring the displeasure of and disturbance by local farmers. Increasing popula- tions of Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus and gulls also appear to be responsible for the modification and reduction of tern nesting areas and possibly for decreased breeding success through predation. Elsewhere scattered pairs of Arctic Terns nest regularly in Norfolk, Suffolk, Dorset and Brittany. Little Tern The Little Tern has a wide breeding distribution, nesting in every continent except the Antarctic. Recently, numbers have declined in parts of eastern North America (Nisbet 1973, Mrs B. Fisk in Mead *973) and California (Swickard 1972), and on the mainland of north-west Europe (Lippens and Wille 1972). The Netherlands, for example, held some 1,000 pairs at the beginning of the century but only about 50 by the mid-i96o’s, though numbers rose again to about 150 by 1971 (Rooth and Jonkers 1972). Little Terns have dis- appeared from Belgium as breeding birds in recent vears (Lippens and Wille 1972). Although the second scarcest seabird in Britain and Ireland, the Little Tern has a widespread breeding distribution (168 colonies in 1969) which makes it difficult to count thoroughly. Like those of the other tern species, the population appears to have been low at the beginning of the century and then to have increased. A peak in numbers was probably reached in the 1920’$ or early 1930*5, but since then numbers have declined again (Parslow 1967). Table 5 gives the results of the three national Little Tern surveys; the figures for 1967 and 1971 are incomplete but a comparison of the counties fully covered shows a slight increase between 1967 and 1969-70 with little change to 1971. Counts have continued at selected colonies up to 1974; while these have not indicated any major changes in overall numbers so far, marked increases or declines have occurred in a few cases. The most striking increase has been at St Cyrus, Kincardineshire, where the population rose from 20 pairs in *9^7 ^ 60 in 1971 snd to more than 140 in 1973* Other increases have occurred in Hampshire at Needs Oar Point (25 pairs in 1971, 43 1974) and Pennington (36 pairs in 1971, 56 in 1974). On the other hand, at Ravenglass, Cumberland, numbers have dropped from 5^*59 pairs in 1971-72 to 22 in 1974- The population appears stable 230 Breeding terns during ig6g-j4 Table 5. Pairs of Little Terns Sterna albifrons breeding in Britain and Ireland in 1967, 1969 (in some cases 1970) and 1971, and in south-east England in 1974 The number of colonies is shown in parentheses. A dash indicates that no counts were made, and italics that the census was incomplete. Colonies for which 1974 counts are given supported 60% of the total population in 1969/70 1967 I969/7O i97i 1974 Kirkcudbrightshire 0 2 (0 0 Wigtownshire 2 (2) I (0 1 (0 Ayrshire 8(t) 6(1) 6(1) Argyll 4i (#) 60 (15) 5-2+ (8) Outer Hebrides 25 (7) 66 (12) 30 + (rr) Caithness 5 (2) 3 (0 6 (1) East Sutherland 1 (0 6 (1) 8 (2) Morayshire 3 (0 10 (2) 5 (2) Inverness-shire 0 0 1 (0 Aberdeenshire 11 (3) 24 (2) 20 (1) Kincardineshire 20 (0 40 (1) 60 (1) Angus 30 (1) 10 (2) 6 (1) Fife 7 (3) 10 (4) 5 (4) East Lothian 19 (2) i3 (4) 35 (4) Northumberland 7 (2) 15 (4' 14 (2) Co. Durham 4 (0 2 (0 4 (0 Yorkshire 9 (2) 4 (0 4 (2) Lincolnshire 32 (5) 60 (5) 131 (6) c- 96 (5) Norfolk 304 (11) 416 (11) 390 (9) c. 380 (8) Suffolk 7i (9) 70 (9) 80+ (9) 32 (4) Essex 152 (7) 130 (8) 103 (5) 166 (6) Kent 92 (9) 55 (4) 42 (9) 29 (4) Sussex 102 (6) 160 (7) 93 (5) 140-160 (3) Hampshire 59 (7) 80 (7) 93 (8) 99 (3) Isle of Wight 5 (0 5 (0 - - Dorset 200 (0 120 (1) 125 (0 81 (1) Lancashire 18 (5) 35 (4) 44 (6) Cumberland 4i (4) 70 (6) 1 19 (c. 16) Isle of Man 14 (0 20 (2) - Merionethshire 3 (0 7 (0 15 (0 Caernarvonshire 7 (0 7 (1) 4+ (0 Anglesey 12 (4) 7 (3) 1 (0 Flintshire 13 (2) 4 (0 9 (0 Co. Dublin 3 (0 13 (3) 55 (5) Co. Wicklow 2 (2) 50 (3) 5 (2) Co. Wexford 37 (7) 100 (8) 78 (5) Co. Waterford - 0 13 (0 Co. Cork 11 (2) 2 (0 2 (2) Co. Kerry 11 (1) 11 (2) 10 (2) Co. Galway 13 (0 60 (15) 4 (3) Co. Mayo 13 (2) 12 (5) 4 (3) Co. Sligo - 2 (0 2 (0 Co. Donegal - 40 (5) 6(4) Co. Londonderry 20 (2) 6(1) 0 TOTALS 1,427+ (125 + ) 1,814 (168) 1,685+ (150+) Breeding terns during ig6g-J4 231 at about 200 pairs in the Blakeney Point area where the largest single concentration of breeding Little Terns is currently found. The major concentration of 200 pairs on Chesil Beach, Dorset (Bourne 1 967)5 had fallen to 81 pairs in 1974 as a result of increased human disturbance. I he survey in 1971 collected additional information on the type of nesting habitat in Little Tern colonies. This agreed closely with the findings of Norman and Saunders (1969). Most colonies were small, usually on the open seashore and frequently very close to high water mark; a few pairs nested inland. In Scotland a traditional site on crumbled concrete hangar bases expanded with a new offshoot some 1 h km from the sea, and a second similar site on a Scottish airfield was discovered in 1 97 1 . A new record concerned birds nesting singly in growing wheat in the Outer Hebrides (G. Critchley in litt.). Since 1971 inland breeding has also occurred at two localities in Norfolk, one 10 km from the sea and the other at a specially prepared site on an island 1 £ km from the sea (P. R. Allard in litt.). Contributors to the 1 97 1 survey were also asked to describe any threats to Little Terns in the colonies they visited: these are sum- marised in table 6. Although this method of investigation is likely to emphasise the more conspicuous threats, it does confirm the direct effect of man on Little Tern colonies and the hazards of high tides which often destroy the nests of this species. Similar threats have also been recorded at the few colonies visited annually since 1971. Egg collecting occurred at several colonies, most seriously in Essex where at least 50 nests in three colonies were robbed in 1974 (Blindell 1975 and in litt.). Unlike other terns, rather than leaving the area completely following nesting failure the Little Tern often replaces lost eggs at a site close by; as a result, birds tend to become concentrated in safer areas towards the end of summer. For example, at Minsmere heavy disturbance on a popular beach causes loss or destruction of Table 6. Threats to breeding Little Terns Sterna albifrons recorded in 1971 No. of ithropogenic threats colonies Natural threats No. of colonies 1 iman disturbance g collectors sturbance from helicopters sturbance from other aircraft avel/sand extraction *35% of all colonies visited 53* Flooding by high tides n 3 Predation by Foxes Vulpes vulpes 7 2 Predation by gulls 6 2 Predation by other birds 4 1 Predation by other mammals 3 Unidentified predators 2 Adverse weather 1 232 Breeding terns during 1969-J4 many early clutches. The birds then tend to join others which have already colonised specially provided islands on the adjacent ‘Scrape’. Breeding success in this latter area, which is virtually disturbance- free, is generally good. Similar success with specially prepared breed- ing areas has been achieved in the United States (Swickard 1972). In many areas various other forms of protection have been tried since 1971, with mixed success. The use of simple boundary markers, such as rope ‘fences’, has often reduced the more casual forms of human interference, especially when used in conjunction with suitably worded notices. Warnings of this kind were most successful at Foulness, Essex, in 1974, where 66 pairs reared at least 120 young (R. M. Blindell in lift.). The conservation possibilities for this species should be investigated more fully, but apparently total pro- tection from disturbance, either by full-time wardening or by the restriction of access by the establishment of reserves, does ensure better breeding success and an increase in colony size. The specta- cular increase at St Cyrus mentioned above was made possible by the establishment of a reserve area. Wardening improved breeding success at the important Winterton colony in Norfolk, enabling 77 pairs to rear 30-40 young in 1974 where 87 pairs had reared only nine young in the previous year (P. R. Allard in litt.). A combina- tion of full-time and voluntary wardening at Tywyn, Merioneth, carried out for the first time in 1974, enabled at least eleven pairs to rear a minimum of 22 young: very few had fledged in 1972 and none at all in 1973. There are no signs yet that low breeding success has resulted in a population decline since 1967. Recruitment from the more productive colonies seems adequate, but an increase in breeding success is obviously desirable. DISCUSSION Disturbance can cause terns to move between colonies in different years or during one year. This complicates counting, as trends at one colony are not always representative of the overall state of the population. For example, the decline in numbers of terns breeding on the island of Fidra in the Firth of Forth has been due not to an overall decrease in the population but to movement by the birds to other islands, especially Inchmickery, where nesting sites became available as a result of the reduction of the gull population (G. J. Thomas, verbally ). Meanwhile the total population of Common Terns in the Firth has increased from 496 pairs in 1969 to about 1,000 pairs in recent years, though it is still considerably below the level of the early ig6o’s. Breeding terns during 1969-74 233 Although disturbance appears to be the main factor causing the fluctuation and decline of tern breeding populations, additional factors such as predation are also important. Most terns have adaptations to cope with predation, either by forming large breeding concentrations with synchronised nesting and a tendency to abandon unsuccessful sites, or by dispersal of nests. Shortage of suitable nesting habitat may, however, reduce the effectiveness of these strategies. Huge concentrations of terns and gulls nesting in safe areas may tend to attract predators, Foxes being the most widely reported. Brown Rats Rattus norvegicus also caused large-scale nesting failure at Holy Island, Northumberland, in 1974; and Sandwich Terns at Minsmere took two years to recover from heavy predation by rats in 1969- Predation of Little Terns seems to be localised but could become a serious threat if this species is con- centrated in protected areas and abandons the security derived from wide dispersal. Stoats Aiustela erminea, Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus and Carrion Crows Corvus corone have also caused problems with nesting terns and could become a nuisance on reserves (Axell 1956). Less frequent predators ol terns include Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus, Oystercatchers Haemalopus ostralegus and Short-eared Owls Asio Jlammeus, and even Rabbits (Brown 1974). The large increase in gull populations during this century (Harris 1970) may also be affecting terns. Roseate Terns have undoubtedly been displaced by Herring Larus argentatus, Lesser Black-backed L.fuscus and less frequently Great Black-backed Gulls L. mar inns in places where gull numbers have increased locally (Gibson 1969, Thomas 1972). The more obvious effect of these gulls, which occupy sites much earlier in the spring than do the terns, is to 1 educe the nesting space available to the latter by direct territorial aggression. In some cases predation of eggs and chicks also probably 1 educes the terns breeding success. Tern numbers in colonies such as some of those in the Firth of Forth have increased following the removal of large gulls. Elsewhere, if enough suitable habitat is available, terns and the smaller gull species thrive together. This happens at two of Britain’s largest gulleries: at Needs Oar Point 20,000 pairs of Black-headed Gulls L. ridibundus breed beside only about 450 pairs of Common and Sandwich Terns (Taverner 1974) , and at Ravenglass Sandwich Terns nest with 10,000 pairs of Black- headed Gulls. In fact Sandwich Terns, with their preference for more open breeding sites, are often associated with Black-headed and Common Gulls L. canus. These gulls have been cited as causes of decline of Sandwich Terns at some sites, but in a high concentration the terns are well able to defend themselves \ indeed they may actually derive benefit from the gulls (Koskimies 1957, Croze 1970, Taverner 1970, 1974). 234 Breeding terns during ig6g-j4 Kleptoparasitism of terns, usually by Black-headed or Common Gulls (Thomas 1972) and occasionally by Arctic Skuas, Common Terns (Hopkins and Wiley 1972) and Roseate Terns (Dunn 1973), has been recorded. This may influence breeding success at some colonies. Erosion is causing problems to terns breeding on Green Island in Carlingford Lough, Go. Down. Here vegetation on the shingle banks, favouring especially Roseate Terns, is in danger of being removed. Little Tern nests are known to be prone to destruc- tion by high tides, but Common and Arctic Terns can be similarly affected. The decline in Roseate Tern numbers may be associated with the deterioration of the climate (Lamb 1966) which could affect food availability (Bibby et al. 1974). As this is predominantly a warm- water species, such changes could perhaps be expected to affect it more than the other terns. Direct effects of pollution on terns have not been recorded in Britain and Ireland, though pesticide effluent caused the catastrophic mortality of Sandwich Terns in the Netherlands mentioned earlier. Abnormalities in growth of tern chicks in the United States have also been attributed to polychlorinated biphenyls (Hays and Rise- brough 1972). Oil pollution, although a major threat in winter, has not yet been found to affect terns in Britain, though special action had to be taken to prevent damage by oil pollution to a large colony of Sooty Terns Sterna fuscata and Brown Noddies Anous stolidus at the Dry Tortugas, Florida (Clarke et al. 1965). Sooty Terns in this colony also suffered low breeding success as a result of large-scale desertion of both eggs and newly hatched chicks following frequent sonic booms in the area (Austin et al. 1972). When Common and Sandwich Terns accidentally smeared their eggs and chicks with oil at a colony in north-west Germany there was a reduction in breeding success (Rittinghaus 1956). The fact that such factors have influenced terns elsewhere should cause us to increase the surveillance of our own birds. An additional threat to Sandwich and Roseate Terns which has recently emerged as a result of ringing studies occurs on the winter- ing grounds (Mead 1971). Large numbers of ringed birds are caught and often killed by children in West Africa. This suggests that conditions on the breeding grounds may not be solely responsible for population changes. Disease has also been known to cause heavy mortality among Common Terns in their winter quarters (Elliott 1971). Britain and Ireland are the main north European strongholds of Roseate and, to a lesser extent, Sandwich and Little Terns, and are also important breeding areas for the other two species. With the current development of coastal areas for industry, water storage, Breeding terns during 1969-74 235 agriculture and human recreation, the number of secure breeding sites foi all terns is rapidly diminishing and active measures aie necessary to secure their future. Many estuarine areas such as the Wash, I hames, Severn and Dee do not at present have large bleeding concentrations of terns. This may be due simply to a lack of suitable breeding sites; developments in these and many other coastal areas in future could not only provide protection but also actually create breeding sites. Of the five species of terns breeding in Britain and Ireland, Roseate and Little Terns have recently declined significantly from the peak populations reached since the turn of the century. With the necessary attention from conservationists, perhaps further decrease of these important populations can be prevented. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are most grateful to everyone contributing information to the tern survey who are too many to mention by name but without whom this paper would not have been possible. David Saunders was responsible for much of the Little Tern census, and the following were also especially helpful in collecting data locally: C.. J. Beale, R. M. Blindcll, R. H. Dennis, N. Hammond, D. Lea and O. J Mcrne Drs W. R. p. Bourne and C. J. Cadbury, and G. J. Thomas, provided much useful ciiticism of the manuscript, and Mrs Pamela Garner very kindly typed it. SUMMARY Fopidation figures are presented for the years 1969-74 for the majority of colonies of Sandwich Sterna sandvicensis and Roseate Terns S. dougallii in Britain and Ireland, and for a selection of those of Common S. hirundo and Arctic S. paradisaea; data were also collected from most colonies of Little Terns S. albifrons in 1967, 1969-70 and 1971. At the colonies examined, Roseate Terns have probably halved in numbers and Arctic Terns reduced by a fifth since 1969. The other terns showed erratic fluctuations but appear to have increased slightly in the last six years. Human disturbance appears to be the major factor influencing Sandwich, Com- mon and Little Terns, with predation by birds and mammals of secondary impor- tance. Roseate Terns may also be suffering from the effects of trapping in their winter quarters. No signs of marine pollution affecting terns have been found. Britain and Ireland, which are the major north European breeding sites of Roseate, Little and Sandwich Terns, merit special conservation effort. Terns respond well to protection afforded by reserves and there is every chance of their maintaining or even increasing their numbers, especially if future coastal developments include conservation considerations. REFERENCES Austin, O. L., Robertson, W. B., and YVoolfenden, G. E. 1972. ‘Mass hatching failure in Dry Tortugas Sooty Terns ( Sterna fuscata)'. Proc. Int. Orn Coner 15: 627. s ’’ Axell, H. E. 1956. ‘Predation and protection at Dungeness Bird Reserve’. Brit Birds, 49: 193-2 12. Bibby C. J Bourne, W. R. P., and Merne, O. J. 1974. ‘Roseate Terns in trouble . BTO News, no. 63: 8-q. 236 Breeding terns during ig6g-j4 Blindell, R. M. 1975. ‘Protection at Little Tern colonies’. Brit. Birds, 68: 250-251. Bourne, W. R. P. 1967. ‘The fate of Dungeness and the Chesil Bank’. Seabird Bull., 4: 46-48. 1973- ‘The Seafarer totals’. BTO News, no. 62: 1-2. , and Smith, A. J. M. 1974. ‘Threats to Scottish Sandwich Terns’. Biol. Conserv., 6: 222-224. Brown, W. Y. 1974. ‘Rabbit destruction of tern eggs’. Auk, 91 : 890-891. Cadbury, C. J. in press. ‘Report on feasibility study for water storage in The Wash. Appendix. Breeding birds of The Wash’. NERC. Clarke, C. H. D., Gabrielson, I. N., Kessel, B., Robertson, W. B. Jr., Wallace, G. J., and Calahane, V. H. 1965. ‘Report of the Committee on Bird Protection, 1964. Oil and sea birds’. Auk, 82: 487. Cramp, S., Bourne, W. R. P., and Saunders, D. 1974. The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland. London. Croze. H. 1970. Searching Image in Carrion Crows. Berlin. Cullen, J. M. i960. ‘Some adaptations in the nesting behaviour of terns’. Proc. Int. Orn. Congr., 12: 153- 157. Drury, W. H. 1973-74. ‘Population changes in New England seabirds’. Bird- Banding, 44: 267-313; 45: 1-15. Dunn, E. K. 1973. ‘Robbing behavior of Roseate Terns’. Auk, 90: 641-651. Eades, R. 1972. ‘An artificial raft as a nesting site for terns on the Dee’. Seabird Rep., 2 : 45. Elliott, C. C. H. 1971. ‘Analysis of the ringing and recoveries of three migrant terns’. Ostrich, suppl. 9: 71-82. Gibson, J. A. 1969. ‘Population studies of Clyde seabirds. Part T. Tram. Butesh. nat. Hist. Soc., 17: 79-95. Greenhalgh, M. E. 1974. ‘Population growth and breeding success in a saltmarsh Common Tern colony’. Naturalist, no. 931: 121-127. Hammond, N. 1974. ‘The counting of terns and auks on the Westray Group’, NCC Symposium on The Natural Environment of Orkney. Paper no. 12. Harris, M. P. 1970. ‘Rates and causes of increases of some British gull populations’. Bird Study, 17: 325-335. Hays, H., and Risebrough, R. W. 1972. ‘Pollutant concentrations in abnormal young terns from Long Island Sound’. Auk. 89: 19-35. Hopkins, C. D., and Wiley, R. H. 1972. ‘Food parasitism and competition in two terns’. Auk, 89: 583-594. Koeman, J. H. 1971. Het Voorkomen en de Toxicologische Betekenis van Enkele Chloorkool- waterstoffen aan de Nederlandse Kust in de Periode van 1969 tot 1970 [The Occurrence and Toxicological Implications of some Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the Dutch Coastal Area in the Period from 1965 to 1970]. University of Utrecht. Koskimies, J. 1957. ‘Terns and gulls as features of habitat recognition for birds nesting in colonies’. Orn. Fenn., 34: 1-6. Lamb, H. H. 1966. The Changing Climate. London. Lippens, L., and Wille, H. 1972. Atlas des Oiseaux de Belgique et d’ Europe Occidentale. Tielt. Mead, C. J. 1971. ‘Seabird mortality as seen through ringing’. Ibis, 1 13: 418. 1973- ‘Feeling the crunch’. BTO News, no. 59: 1. Nisbet, I. C. T. 1973. ‘Terns in Massachusetts: present numbers and historical changes’. Bird-Banding, 44: 27-55. Norman, R. K., and Saunders, D. R. 1969. ‘Status of Little Terns in Great Britain and Ireland in 1967’. Brit. Birds, 62: 4-13. Parslow, J. L. F. 1967. ‘Changes in status among breeding birds in Britain and Ireland. Part 3’. Brit. Birds, 60: 177-202. Rittinghaus, H. 1956. ‘Etwas uber die “indirekte” Verbreitung der Olpest in 237 Breeding terns during ig6g-y 4 einem Seevogelschutzgebiet’. Orn. Mitt., 8: 43-46. Rooth, J. 1967. ‘Beter 10 vogels in de lucht dan een in de hand’. RIVON-Ver- handeling, 4: 65-68. — 1974- Over de stand van enkele voor Nederland karakteristieke broedvogels’. Vogeljaar, 75: 681-688. > and Jonkers, D. A. 1972. ‘The status of some piscivorous birds in the Netherlands’. TNO-nieuws, 27: 551-555. , and Morzer Bruijns, M. F. 1959. ‘De Grote Stern ( Sterna s. sandvicensis Lath.) als broedvogel in Nederland’. Limosa, 32: 13-23. Swickard, D. K. 1972. ‘Status of the Least Tern at Camp Pendleton, California’. Calif. Birds, 3: 49-58. Taverner, J. H. 1970. ‘Further observations on the breeding behaviour of Sand- wich Terns’. Seabird Rep., 1 : 46-47. 1974. ‘The effect on tern populations of Black-headed Gull numbers’. Seabird Rep., 4: 36-39. Thomas, G. J. 1972. ‘A review of gull damage and management methods on nature reserves’. Biol. Conserv., 4: 117-127. V oous, K. H. i960. Atlas of European Birds. London. Clare 6. Lloyd, Colin J. Bibby and Michael J. Everett , Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL Field identification of Short-toed and Lesser Short-toed Larks R. H. Dennis and D. I. M. Wallace Plates 36-37 Although over 40 Lesser Short-toed Larks Calandrella rufescens have been recorded in Ireland, in Cos. Kerry, Wexford (twice) and Mayo (Brit. Birds, 53: 241-243), there is not one accepted record for Britain. During examination of a report of this species in Britain, RHD circulated to other members of the British Birds Rarities Committee photographs of a Short-toed Lark C. cinerea with distinctly streaked breast and sides of lower chest which was present on Fair Isle, Shetland, from 20th May to rst June 1968 [Brit. Birds, 62: 475) ; it was trapped and ringed on 20th May (see plate 36). In the literature, this field character is associated in spring with the Lesser Short-toed Lark, not the Short-toed. Peter Davis confirmed the occurrence of Short-toed Larks with streaked breasts among about 50 birds of this species which he handled while ringing in the Coto Doiiana, Spain, in spring 1966. This short paper, which originates from the Rarities Committee, and the accompanying photographs are intended to draw attention to the widespread misunderstanding concerning the colour of, and the extent of markings on, the under- parts of some Short-toed Larks in spring. VARIATION IN BREAST MARKINGS The Handbook (1: 170- 172) stated that the underparts of the adult Short-toed Lark are unmarked and nearly white, except for a vaguely defined band of buffish across the breast. The underparts of the juvenile were given as white, with an irregular band of dark brown spots across the upper breast coalescing and forming patches at the sides, as in adults, but this plumage is completely moulted in August-September and the birds are then like adults. The first edition of the Field Guide (1954) stated ‘ unstreaked buffish-white below; ... Juvenile has spotted dark brown breast-band’; the latter point was amended to ‘a few spots on breast’ in the second edition (1965) and to ‘slightly streaked on breast, giving effect of cloudy side-patches’ in the third edition (1974). Williamson (1961), reviewing the differences between these two species of Calandrella, stated that the underparts of the Short-toed Lark at all ages are almost immaculate, except for a buffish suffusion on the breast and the well-known dark neck patches. RHD is familiar with Short-toed Larks as migrants on Fair Isle in 238 Calandrella larks 239 spring and autumn, and, although most of them can be described as pale and unstreaked below, there is variation in the colour and markings of the underparts and some individuals in spring can be distinctly, even conspicuously, streaked across the breast and upper flanks, ihis has also been noted by Peter Davis on spring birds in Spain (as mentioned above) and by D. G. Bell in Majorca in April 1968. It seems probable that these streaky-breasted birds are young ones which have not moulted into adult-like plumage in the autumn, though breeding birds may also retain a few streaks, at least in the form breeding in Jordan where DIMW has photographed birds so marked. One other supposed character needs discussion. Williamson (1961) suggested, after examination of museum skins, that there is a tendency in Lesser Short-toed Larks (not, apparently, in Short-toed Larks) for the superciliary stripes to meet above the bill. Peter Davis and RHD have seen this effect in Short- toed Larks in the field (including the Fair Isle bird of spring 1968), and we do not think it is a valid field character for distinguishing between the two species. REVIEW OF DIAGNOSTIC FIELD CHARACTERS Given the above comments, it is clearly important to remind observers of the most trustworthy field characters in both species. In general size and obvious structure there is little difference between the two. Western Short-toed have slightly longer wings, but potenti- ally more important is the fact that all forms of that species have long tertials which almost reach the ends of the folded wings and usually cloak all but one or two primary tips. An examination of photo- graphs (of breeding adults) taken from Spain to Jordan has shown that this feature is constantly visible (see plate 37b) . Conversely, the tertials of the Lesser Short-toed do not approach closely the ends of the folded wings. The shortfall is at least 15 mm (Meinertzhagen !954) ancl at least four primary tips should show at close range (deduced from Svensson 1970). No corroborating photograph has been sighted (though see plate 37a), but the point has been well illustrated (D. M. Reid-Henry in Hollom 19605 Svensson 1970). Phis difference in folded wing shape has not been advanced before as a field mark but has long been known to systematic workers (see The Handbook). A round-headed, high-crowned appearance is attributed to the Lesser Short-toed Lark (D. G. Bell and L. Corn- wallis in lift .), but this character is not unique, since Short-toed, particularly males in display, raise their crown feathers frequently. Generally, however, the latter look rather flat-headed, recalling sparrows Passer spp (plates 36, 37b). The upperparts of the two species are similar in pattern, but the 240 Calandrella larks dark feather centres are stronger in Lesser Short-toed, being parti- cularly obvious on the scapulars of adults and contributing to the darker, duller appearance of western forms. In addition, the closed wings of Lesser Short-toed show little pattern, whereas those of Short-toed clearly show the feather contours, the median coverts appearing very dark-centred in all races and forming, when worn, a a dark bar across the wing. The underparts of the two species are normally dissimilar. Those of Lesser Short-toed are copiously and regularly streaked across the chest in a wide band, the streak- ings usually extending down the flanks. The underparts of Short- toed have variable marks (as discussed above), but these are situated close against the neck or in a narrow and irregular band across the upper chest ; they rarely extend towards the flanks, either in adults or in immatures. Even in the most heavily streaked birds, the general tone of the underparts is always very pale. Plates 36-37 illustrate these points. DIFFERENCES IN VOICE More helpful than the above plumage characters are the vocabularies of the two species. The songs are quite different and so is the manner of their delivery. Short-toed sing in quickening, high- pitched phrases, putting about eight notes into two seconds of a five-second cycle. This pattern is often sustained for minutes on end and is varied by imitative phrases and interspersed call notes. They tend to sing high in the air, flying in small circles with deep undula- tions coinciding with each song phrase. Lesser Short-toed sing almost continuously, with a jaunty, jerky, sometimes almost hysterical jangle of notes. Only momentary pauses occur which may herald a change in style and tone, from throaty rattling to a series of call notes or the odd plaintive note, and back again. The song- flight takes place at a lower height than in the case of the Short- toed, the bird singing as it climbs into wide circles with little undulation but with occasional changes of pace. The chief calls of Short-toed are a short, dry ‘tchirrup’ and a plaintive ‘wee-00’ or ‘tee-00’. Rising parties can sound like quiet Skylarks Alauda arvensis, and the first call also recalls either House Sparrow P. domesticus or Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba. The chief call of Lesser Short-toed is more protracted than the Short-toed’ s ‘tchirrup’, attracting transcriptions such as ‘prrit’, ‘chrit’, ‘prrrrt’ and ‘prrirrick’. It may be given in couplet — ‘chirrick-chirrit’ — and flushed birds can sound like Lapland Buntings Calcarius lapponicus. While there are indications that the Lesser Short-toed can utter sounds like the typical ‘tchirrup’ of its congener, there is no evidence that the rather sharp, quite loud and protracted ‘prrrrt’ is anything but unique to itself. I’latk 36. Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea of one of the reddish races Fair Isle. Shetland. May 1968 (photos: Roy H. Dennis ): note streaks on upper breast [cj. Lesser Short-toed C. rufescens on plate 37a), superciliary stripes just meeting above bill, contrasting broad, dark bar across closed wing (formed by dark-centred median coverts) and typical flat-headed appearance pages 238-241 Plate 37. Above, Lesser Short-toed Lark Calandrella rufescens with nestling under Suaeda vermiculata shrub, Jordan, April 1965; below, pair of Short-toed Larks C. cinerea with food for young, also Jordan, April 1963 ( photos : Eric Hosking). Lesser Short-toed has more extensive and more definite breast marks than Short-toed, with long streaks usually extending well down sides (page 240) V Plates 38-39. Chronological sequence showing Greenshank Tringa nebularia rapturing a young Eel Anguilla anguilla, South Glamorgan. August 1974 [photos: heri II ilharns) : above, slowly pulling the prey out <>l muddy water; below and over, the Eel promptly coils itsell round the bird's bill and is then carried to dry ground where it is dropped, squeezed and eventually swallowed (pages 243-245) Calandrella larks 241 CONCLUSION To sum up, an observer faced with vagrant Calandrella should listen carefully to its call, try hard to establish the folded wing shape, clearly define the extent of streaks on the underparts and examine carefully the wing-covert marks. Given notes on all four characters, specific identification can safely be made even of the well-marked Short-toed discussed earlier. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank D. G. Bell, L. Cornwallis, Peter Davis and P. A. D. Hollom for their help in the preparation of this paper. REFERENCES Hollom, P. A. D. i960. The Popular Handbook of Rarer British Birds. London, plate 23- Meinertzhagen, R. 1954. The Birds of Arabia. Edinburgh and London. Svensson, L. 1970. Identification Guide to European Passerines. Stockholm, pp. 34-35. Williamson, K. 1961. ‘The differences between two species of Calandrella’. Bird Migration , 2: 34-37. R. H. Dennis , Landberg, fiorth Kessock, Inverness ivi ixd D. I. A1. H all ace, 9 Woodhill Rise, Heads Lane, Hessle, Hull HU13 ohz Notes Hobbies feeding on bats, and notes on other prey On gth August 1974, in Hampshire, we found the remains of two bats (Chiroptera) at a nest of Hobbies Falco subbuteo. The bodies had been eaten, leaving the heads, wings and legs attached to the skins. These remains were later identified as those of Noctules Nyctalus noctula. One was an adult, the other a juvenile about three weeks old, almost too young to fly. Noctules fly from about sunset and could therefore have been taken during late evening hawking by the Hobbies. After the young Hobbies had fledged, the nest contents were checked to see if there was any further evidence of bats being taken as prey. A lower mandible, pelvic girdle and fur of a Noctule were found, although these were not sufficient evidence to show that more than the original two bats had been taken. However, the nest contents contained the remains of each of the following bird species: Cuckoo Cuculus canorus, Budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus, House Martin Delichon urbica and Starling Sturnus vulgaris. The insect remains which could be identified included those of Dor Beetles Geotrupes stercorarius and of the dragonflies Cordulegaster boltonii and Aeshna cyanea or A. juncea. The bats and insects were kindly identified by R. E. Stebbings, the bird remains by A. A. Bell, both of Monks Wood Experimental Station, Abbots Ripton, Huntingdon. Hugh Insley and Maurice G. Holland 32 Treagore Road , New Forest Park , Calmore , Hampshire Bats were recorded as having been taken by Hobbies ‘several times’ in The Handbook and ‘occasionally’ in Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World by Leslie Brown and Dean Amadon (1968). Peregrines F. peregrinus have been recorded feeding regularly on bats, and Kestrels F. tinnunculus and American Kestrels F. sparverius more rarely. Professor G. Rudebeck (in litt. to D. Goodwin) believes that raptors, because of a tendency to attack prey that looks out of the ordinary, sometimes have a more repressive influence on rare than on abundant species. The comparative frequency with which re- mains of Cuckoos killed by raptors are found, and the Budgerigar prey in the above note, seem to illustrate this. (See also the note on Swallows chasing bats on page 248.) Eds Young male Peregrines passing vegetation fragments to each other On 24th June 1974, while engaged in protection duties on behalf of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds at a Welsh eyrie, I watched four recently fledged Peregrines Falco pcre- 242 Notes 243 grinus for several hours. 1 he birds had been out of the nest for five to eight days. At times all four were in the air together, but for a period of about an hour two males perched on a large boulder about 30 metres away from me. They appeared unconcerned by my presence, provided I remained still, and I was able to study them closely. For much of the time they preened, but for about five minutes they indulged in delicate bill-pecking activities, as if exchanging food morsels. Close examination showed first one bird, then the other, breaking off tiny pieces of ivy' Hedera helix stems from the boulder by holding down the plant with the foot and pulling with the bill, as when tearing up a prey item. Each bird appeared to pass these pieces of vegetation to the other, but owing to their small size (not more than 1 cm long) it was not possible to see if any were swallowed. After receiving such a fragment, one bird shook its head with its bill open, as if finding it distasteful; soon after both birds left the rock to indulge in the aerial mock-battles typical of Peregrines of this age. I have spent several hundred hours watching this particular eyrie in the last two years, but have not previously seen this behaviour, though it would be easy to overlook unless the birds were very close. Alan Parker cl° 3 1 Bourne Avenue , Hayes , Greater London Summer food and feeding habitats of the Greenshank The remarkable photographs on plates 38-39, taken in August 1974 by Keri Williams at Aberthaw, South Glamorgan, show a Greenshank Tnnga nebularia capturing a young Eel Anguilla anguilla. In plate 38a the Greenshank is slowly pulling the Eel out of muddy water, much in the way that a Blackbird Turdus merula extracts a worm from a lawn. After the Eel was out of the water it promptly coiled itself round the birds bill (plates 38b, 39a), and the Greenshank then carried its prey to dry' ground where it swallowed it after dropping and squeezing it several times (plate 39b). Eels are possibly unusual food, but Greenshanks take a wide range of larger prey on their breeding grounds. In Sutherland, for example, they sometimes catch and eat Common Frogs Rana tempo- ral 1a, newts Triturus and small Common Lizards Lacerta vivipara, and they frequently chase and take parr and fry of Salmon Salmo salar, and small Trout S. trutta, in the rivers. They pursue the fish by rapid dashes in shallow water, but occasionally go out of their depth and then briefly swim and upend to catch them. At other times a Greenshank pushes its bill under and then lifts a small stone to take 1 he fish hidden below it. Other larger food includes diving beetles Dytiscus and water-boatmen Corixa and their larvae. Greenshanks have many different methods of capturing insects. 244 Notes They follow the darts, twists and gyrations of pond skaters Gerris and whirligig beetles Gyrinus on the surface of pool and tarn, sometimes turning through 180 degrees to take them, and they stir up aquatic insects as they move through stagnant water. They make sweeping bill movements to catch stoneflies (Plecoptera) or other insects hatch- ing out on stony ground or river shingle, or they rapidly dab at them and pick them out between the stones. They catch caddis flies (Trichoptera) and their larvae on or beside river and stream, and they and their chicks feed greedily on midges (Chironomidae) in squashy flows, beside pools, and sometimes on quite dry grass-heath. A Greenshank also sometimes stands on a stone in mid-stream, dabbing at mayflies (Ephemeroptera) or their nymphs as they pass by on or just below the surface. I have also seen a Greenshank catch a small unidentified moth (Lepidoptera) on dry ground. On their breeding grounds in the Scottish Highlands, Greenshanks often leed on the shores and shallows of large and smaller lochs, and in the shallows and backwaters, and on the stony edges and gravel bars, and sometimes banks, of river and stream. When the river is in flood Greenshanks often call excitedly as they seek more accessible feeding places. They also feed in and beside tarns and dubhlochans; in stagnant pools, water chains, water saucers and peat runnels; in surface water on open moor or occasionally in waterlogged croft meadows ; and on the shores and flats of firth and estuary. They also exploit flies (Diptera) and beetles (Coleoptera) on Sphagnum and Rhacomitrium moss, in grass-heath in wet flows, and occasionally in short grass on eroded peat. The parents lead their broods to feeding grounds which are sometimes a kilometre or more from the nest. In the Spey valley they often shepherd their chicks to the grassy shores of a loch or to squashy places around tarns. In Sutherland, where young chicks often cross and re-cross a river, one particular hen has taken her brood to the same part of a wet and mossy flow for the last eight years. Food for the chicks sometimes appears to be scarce. The parents (particularly the cock) then explore new feeding grounds, the cock often singing in display before he leads hen and brood to a new ground. In Sutherland Common Sandpipers Tringa hypoleucos sometimes appear to compete with Greenshanks on the shores and banks of loch, tarn and river, but they probably tend to take smaller food. I have watched a Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria with a brood jostle a Greenshank which was feeding in short grass-heath and on eroded peat, and I have also seen a Dunlin Calidris alpina fly at a Green- shank which was wading in a pool in its display territory, but I doubt whether this aggression was of much significance. In my study area in Sutherland there are no Curlews Numenius arquata, and the fewer Snipe Gallinago gallinago seldom appear to compete. Red- Notes 245 shanks 7 . totanus are also absent, but they and the Greenshanks formerly often fed close together and sometimes bickered on the shore of Loch Morlich in the Spey valley, although their nesting habitats did not overlap. Periodically Greenshanks eject pellets containing the elytra of beetles and other indigestible matter. These are dropped from the side of the bill, usually singly but occasionally two or three con- secutively. After exceptionally cold and wet Aprils, when their usual food is possibly scarce or less easy to obtain, Greenshanks have sometimes produced thinner-shelled eggs; in 1973 laid a pygmy egg weighing only 9 gm. This may be due to a deficiency of calcium in their diet. In the arctic tundra of northern Alaska, S. F. MacLean (Ibis, 1 16: 552'557) discovered teeth, bones and vertebrae of Brown Lemmings Lemmus trimucronatus in the stomachs of 38% of the 84 female sandpipers Calidris spp that were collected during their laying season in June. It is therefore of interest that Dr Philip Burton, who is analysing Greenshank pellets that we have collected in Sutherland, has also found rodent bones in two of them. Desmond Nethersole-Thompson Ivy Cottage, Culrain, Ardgay, Highland IV24 3DW Kittiwake taking bread from hand On 3rd August 1970 I saw a juvenile Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla taking bread from an angler’s hand at Mumbles Pier, West Glamorgan. This incident illustrates the increasing tameness of the Kittiwake during this century, and its growing habit of taking scraps of unnatural food from ships, piers and similar places (The Birds of the British Isles, 11: 353).’ In my experience this is far more marked in Glamorgan Kittiwakes than in the north Devon population only 30 km away. They usually beat Herring Gulls Laras argentatus to scraps thrown overboard from ships, even though they are invariably outnumbered by the larger sPecies- B. L. Kington 49 Stonebridge Park, Bristol BS5 6rp Golden Orioles diving into water At 8.15 a.m. on 4th August 1974 I was listening to Golden Orioles Oriolus oriolus calling from tree cover by the Guadiana River at Mertola, south-east Portugal, when one of the birds surprised me by dropping out of cover afan angle of roughly 45 degrees, belly-flopping into the water and flying back up into the trees. The bird was a male, but almost immediately a female repeated the trick, gliding down from cover, splashing on to the sur face for a split second, and flying back into the same group of trees. Others followed: involving perhaps as many as six individuals, Notes 246 this behaviour was repeated about 30 times, nearly always in a simple sequence of one at a time, though occasionally two went in together. At first I thought that the birds might be trying to pick off some kind of food from the river, but through binoculars none appeared to dip its bill in the water as it struck the surface. As the divings continued, a number of juvenile birds became involved, and their performances were noticeably less efficient, sometimes missing the surface altogether, and once splashing heavily into the current. The banks of the Guadiana are fairly steep at Mertola, there are no backwater shallows, and at that time of year there were no rainwater puddles, so I presume that the orioles were simply bathing by a necessary technique, and that the juveniles were getting the measure of it by a process of trial and error. Nigel Collar 12 Rockleaze, Bristol Bsg ine We are grateful to Derek Goodwin for the following information. This remarkable behaviour is apparently the usual bathing method of Golden Orioles, though it seems to have been largely overlooked in the English literature. O. and M. Heinroth (1926, Die Vogel Mittel- europas, vol. 1) stated that: ‘In contrast to most passerines, the Golden Oriole bathes by directly “impact-diving”; in this it flies out from a treetop rather steeply down on to the water, so that it [i.e., the water] splashes up, and returns to its perch; this is then repeated about a dozen times’ (translation by D. A. Christie). They went on to say that this behaviour is innate and was seen with hand- reared Golden Orioles given water in a large dish on a window ledge, but they had occasionally seen both wild and captive Golden Orioles bathe while perched on the edge, or even hop into the water. Eds Aberrant or hybrid Swallow On 27th June 1974, while walking round the Abbey Pool on Tresco, Isles of Scilly, my attention was drawn to a pale hirundine. I noticed a pale rump and nape patch on an otherwise fairly ordinary-looking Swallow Hirundo rustica. I immediately informed R. W. Allen nearby and we both obtained brief but good views of the bird as it swept past me at about 20 metres’ range. It was not seen subsequently, but our views were sufficient to enable me to compile the following description. Blue crown and forehead, but distinct pale buff patch on nape as in Red- rumped Swallow H. daurica. Also rather thin but obvious yellow-brown patch visible on rump, though not as extensive as on Red-rumped. Wings pale blue- grey but speckled buff and paler than mantle which was also flecked brown. (Wings markedly buffer/browner than in H. rustica — RWA.) Throat patch bright red, as in H. rustica, and rest of underparts as that species. White spots on tail not noted, but tail short as in juvenile H. rustica. Notes 247 In her book Bird. Hybrids (i95^)j A. P. Gray listed 13 refer ences to presumed hybrid Swallow X House Martins Delichon urbica (see also Biit. Birds, 66: 398-400, plate 60), though I have failed to locate any reference to a Swallow x Red-rumped Swallow which I believe is one possibility which might have accounted for the bird on Tresco. D. S. Flumm / 00 Rectory Road, Worthing, West Sussex Swallows nesting in old nest of Robins In 1974 a pair of Swal- lows Hirundo rustica nested in my garage at Sidlesham, West Sussex, building a conventional mud nest against a rafter in the apex of the roof. I was interested to note that they had much difficulty in starting the nest and eventually I supplied them with a small ledge; the final result could only be described as ‘jerry-built’ but four young fledged. For their second brood the pair started to refurbish one of the several other old Swallow’s nests in the garage, and then the female suddenly vanished. Since neither my wife nor I could see any sign of her on any ol the nests, nor indeed saw her at all for some days, vvc assumed she had been killed, although the continued presence of, and luss from, the male puzzled us. Later it was clear that both birds were still present and feeding young in the garage, and drop- pings down the wall showed the position of the nest, which was invisible. On 3rd September I found four young just out of the nest flying around inside the garage, so I investigated the nest site. I found that the birds had used an old nest of a pair of Robins Erithacus rubecula, which had been built in April. This had been tucked under the inside of the eaves, where the roof, two rafters and the wall plate made an open-topped box about 30 cm long, 13 cm wide and 10 cm deep. The nest was invisible from the ground and the Robins had filled the whole cavity with material, mainly dry grasses and leaves, making a cup in one corner. The Swallows had not used the old cup but had simply added a few leathers to the opposite corner to make the sketchy suggestions of a cup; the female had laid virtually straight on to the pile of dead grasses and leaves left by the Robins. M. Shrubb Fairfields, Sidlesham, Chichester, West Sussex In dry conditions when wet mud is hard to obtain, Swallows occasionally take over old nests of other species, such as House Martins Delichon urbica, Blackbirds Furdus merula (see e g Brit Birds, 63. 37) pHte 7b) and House Sparrows Passer domesticus (1972, A Field Guide to Birds' Nests, page 336), though we have not found a previous record of their using an old Robins’ nest. Eds Notes 248 Swallows chasing bats In the evening of 15th September 1974 I watched a large migrant feeding flock of some 4,000 Swallows Hirundo rustica over Stodmarsh, Kent. There was virtually no wind and the sky was almost clear. While I was observing their aerobatics among the swarms of gnats, I noticed an adult Swallow avidly pursuing a bat. This aerial chase lasted for just over a minute; although the bat attempted to elude the bird, the latter still persisted in the chase. The following evening at Stodmarsh, with extremely similar weather conditions, I watched several Swallows chasing two or three bats. Again only adult birds were involved. D. B. Rosair Hector's House, The Aerodrome, Bekesbourne, Canterbury, Kent We have published a previous note on Swallows chasing a bat {Brit. Birds, 59: 435; see also 60: 1 74-175), though the circumstances were very different. Eds Swallows feeding wasps to young Having read T. R. Birkhead’s review of birds eating social wasps {Bnt. Birds, 67: 221-229), I thought that the following account would be of interest. Each summer a pair of Swallows Hirundo rustica nests in the bicycle shed at Oundle School, Northamptonshire, and in 1973 I set up a hide to photograph them. The first time I occupied it the young were about ten days old, and the parent birds were bringing food to the nest about once every three minutes. After I had been there for about half an hour one of the parents returned with a wasp in its beak. Some of the young declined to eat this, but one did take it and ate it while it was still buzzing. The parent could not have doctored it in any way, in order to remove the sting, unless it had caught it in such a way that it had squeezed the sting out in the process. During the next hour and a half several more wasps were brought to the nest, though not all of them were still alive like the first. It is possible that the parents were bringing drones only, as I was unable to distinguish the prey sufficiently closely. The wasps were believed to be Common Wasps Vespula vulgaris from a nearby nest. The young always accepted them in the end, though there was still some hesitation even when they were not buzzing. None of the young appeared to be harmed by the wasps, as they all fledged successfully and I feel sure that one sting would have been fatal to such small birds. Keith R. Gabriel Sanderson House, Oundle, Northamptonshire Coal Tits feeding wasps to young On 17th May 1970, in a garden at Ravensbourne, Beckenham, Greater London, a friend and Notes 249 I observed a pair of Coal Tits Parus ater bringing Common Wasps \ e sputa vulgaris to a small cavity in a clump of rocks, behind which we could hear the calls of several young birds. Subsequently the parents visited the nest hole on average once every six to seven min- utes, a wasp in the bill on each occasion, and upon at least two visits it was noted that the quarry had been decapitated. It proved im- possible to locate the wasps’ nest; thus it could not be discerned whether the Coal Tits were taking dead or live prey, nor how they were obtaining it and removing the stings. After some 40 minutes of continuous observation, during which time we had seen each parent bring about six wasps, the birds resumed feeding their young on a more normal diet (small caterpillars, insects and so on). On our subsequent visits to the nest site, neither Coal Tit brought wasps and both birds were behaving normally, so obviously they had not suffered any injury from the wasps. T. R. Birkhead {Brit. Birds , 67: 224) referred to Great Tits P. major removing the stings of dead Honeybees Apis mellifera and eating wasps, so it is possible that the Coal Tits I observed were quite able to deal competently with live, active wasps; on the other hand, the wasps may have been in a torpid condition which, as Mr Birkhead stressed, would make predation by most species of birds a fairly easy task. ' D. C. Gilbert 64 Tivoli Park Avenue, Margate, Kent Yellow-browed Warblers feeding on the ground On 17th October iq74> Porthgwarra, Cornwall, we found a Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus in an isolated elder bush in a field of short weeds, mainly groundsel Senecio vulgaris. Shortly after its discovery the bird was seen to descend to the ground, where it remained for about five minutes. During this time it was feeding continually, probably on small invertebrates, taken by making short flycatching sallies (up to two metres in length) from place to place on the ground. It was also seen a few times to hover in front of rather taller plants (ragwort, probably S. jacobaea) and to pick at them in typical Phylloscopus manner. On one occasion the bird flew to the top of a tall ragwort, from where it made an attempt to catch prey on the wing, returning to the same plant; it then flew back down to the ground. According to The Handbook, the species seldom descends near the gi ound, and we can find no reference to ground-feeding in the literature. N. J. Phillips and V. E. Wood Cucurrian Mill, Nancledra, Penzance, Cornwall From 10th to 12th October 1974 a Yellow-browed Warbler was watched by many observers on St Agnes, Isles of Scilly. On 1 ith, a 250 Notes dry, bright but rather windy day, the bird spent the major part of several hours feeding in a small sheltered field of dense short weeds, mainly near one end where the field was bounded by a thick Pittosporum hedge some three metres high. For most of this time the warbler stayed entirely out of sight, well below the tops of the weeds and probably on or near the ground. At irregular intervals it leapt out of this cover, usually dropping back into it almost immediately after a brief, low flight or after hovering for up to two or three seconds at weed-top level, but sometimes darting straight up into the hedge about two metres above ground, where it remained for up to a few minutes before descending into the weeds again. Only occasionally did the bird hop up plant stems into view, or move about and perch on the tops of the weeds, or fly out from weeds or hedge in a brief flycatching sally. P. F. Bonham ii Rope Walk , Rye , East Sussex TN31 7NA Red-breasted Flycatchers feeding on the ground On 1 7th October 1974, on St Agnes, Isles of Scilly, I watched four different Red-breasted Flycatchers Ficedula parva, all of which were actively flycatching in typical fashion from hedges, bushes and trees. Towards evening I returned to watch one of these birds and found it in a small field in which the earth had been newly turned. Over a period often minutes I watched it at close range and throughout this period it fed on the ground, not once returning to surrounding hedges. It hopped about, with tail cocked, almost like a Robin Erithacus rubecula, and often perched on lumps of earth, looking then more like a small chat Saxicola sp. Every so often if would fly off for a metre or two after an insect but more usually appeared to take food from the ground, merely flitting forward less than a metre for it. At least once it caught a small earthworm (Lumbricidae) and ate most or all of it. On 20th I watched what was probably a fifth individual fly- catching in the normal way but also often settling on ploughed earth in a field, or even on a sandy beach, for several seconds at a time. The Handbook states that the species seldom makes more than a momentary excursion to the ground to catch an insect and, in addition to insects, mentions small fruit, berries and insect larvae as food, but makes no mention of earthworms. R. A. Hume 31 Lime Grove , Burntwood, Walsall WS7 oh a Letter Protection at Little Tern colonies May I draw your readers’ attention to the problem of disturbance by birdwatchers at colonies of Little Terns Sterna albifrons ? It is doubtful whether any other Letter 25* Schedule i species benefits less than the Little Tern from its inclusion in that category in the Protection of Birds Acts, which were designed, among other things, to protect species at the nest from unnecessary disturbance and predation. Intrusions into colonies by unauthorised persons, lacking the necessary NERG licences, are becoming alarmingly frequent, at least in Essex where in 1974 a special study revealed that 61% of all clutch losses were due to human agency, and there were several instances of deliberate harassment by curious and irresponsible birdwatchers. Wardens are particularly concerned that, having eliminated the bulk of casual human disturbance by the use of informative notices and personal persua- sion, there is increasing interference from unlicensed birdwatchers. At a time when there are encouraging signs that the general public is responding to our pleas to avoid terneries, and when Little Terns are showing signs of making a recovery from the low population levels of the igfio’s, it is most disquieting that weeks of dedication and worry on the part of a tiny band of wardens are frustrated by careless birdwatchers. In an age of severe egg-collecting pressures on the Little Tern, we can well do without the need to control birdwatchers, and turn our attentions instead to thwarting nest-robbing attempts. Surely, it is shameful that persons genuinely interested in wildlife should be behaving so irresponsibly, when the vast majority of a largely ignorant public willingly responds to our requests for restraint. R. M. Blindell Essex organiser , ‘ Birds of Estuaries' Enquiry cjo Layer Breton Farm , Layer Breton , Colchester, Essex An ornithological Domesday Book At a time when good bird habitats are becoming threatened at an ever-increasing rate, the documentation of such areas is of fundamental importance to conser- vation. The British Trust for Ornithology is currently compiling a Register of all omithologically important sites, from which it will be possible to" extract factual evidence of the need for conservation of any threatened area. The results will also be of great value to those involved in long-term environmental plan- ning. The survey, which covers every type of habitat, aims to record for each site the birds using it on passage, during the breeding season and in the winter. Already a considerable data bank has been compiled which is proving of positive conservation value. There are, however, many areas for which the necessary facts arc not yet recorded, and anyone who either knows a site well already or is prepared to carry out fieldwork (even in remote areas while on holiday) can obtain details from Robert Fuller, Sites Register, BTO, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR. News and comment Robert Hudson WWF/IUCN programme The World Wildlife Fund and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature have recently published their conservation programme for 1975-76. Their main priority in this period is the conservation of tropical forests, for which one million dollars has been earmarked; but there are many other less expensive projects. The 1975-76 programme contains brief descriptions of all the 141 projects scheduled for the world at large, for which immediate collection of funds is planned. Endangered species to receive special attention include the Spanish Imperial and White-tailed Eagles, cranes in Korea and Japan, Mediterranean Monk and Common Seals, and the Wolf. Additionally, the programme includes provision of vehicles and equipment needed to combat poaching in national parks and nature reserves in various countries. The avicultural trade In 1972 the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds set up a working party to study the importation of wild birds into Britain by the avicultural trade; T. P. Inskipp joined their staff as organiser, and the results have just been published in the form of a glossy booklet entitled All Heaven in a Rage. Despite this emotive title, the report itself is a well-balanced statement and reveals a disturbing picture. Over 600,000 birds are imported into Britain annually (one leading dealer has since stated that he alone imports 500,000 each year), and these often arrive in appalling conditions. The eight main importing countries together handle over 5J million birds per annum, so the scale of international traffic is obviously immense. The latter figure excludes an estimated 50% mortality between trapping and export from the countries of origin (India and Thailand account for over 80% of captures). Additional mortality during shipment and while acclimati- sation is being attempted by ultimate purchasers is also high, but this varies between consignments according to the degree of overcrowding and lack of care in transit. The RSPCA Hostel at Heathrow Airport reports an overall mortality rate there of 4%, lower for most consignments of seed-eating passerines but often up to 40% for specialist feeders such as Hoopoe, hummingbirds, sunbirds and zosterops. It is estimated that the British trade is worth million per annum, and some scarcer species sell at up to £600 per bird, which encourages smuggling where export licences are unobtainable (as in Australia). This disturbing report ends with a series of recommendations urging the British Government to tighten up restrictions on live imports, particularly of parrots (because of the psittacosis risk) and delicate species which cannot be transported without excessive mortality occurring, with fewer ports of entry and proper reception centres at each; the International Council for Bird Preservation and the IUCN are asked to organise similar studies in other importing and exporting countries, while aviculturists are urged to breed more and import less, and concentrate importations on species which are classified as pests in their countries of origin. All very sensible, but will anything be done by a government which is not even sufficiently interested to ratify the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species? Avian longevity There has long been a considerable interest in the longevity of wild birds as revealed by ringing, and lists of records have been published at various times in The Ring. A North American Herring Gull of 36 years has been quoted as the oldest wild bird of all, but this record was recently withdrawn, since it was found to be due to an error over the ringing date (Auk, 91 : 432) ; this left the ‘title’ to a 34-year-old West German Oystercatcher. However, an even older bird is now reported by the New Zealand Banding Scheme (Notornis, 22 : 58). A Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora ringed as a breeding adult in 1937 was still alive at its colony in December 1974, after an elapsed time of 37 years; but, since 252 News and comment 253 birds ol this species do not begin breeding until nine years old, this particular individual must be at least 46 years of age. It is not surprising that a Procellarii- formes species should head the longevity table, for members of this order have the slow reproductive rates (delayed maturity, one-egg clutches) that are associated with long adult life. Cliff hazards It was with great sadness that we heard that David Frost, this season s assistant warden at Fair Isle Bird Observatory, died on 23rd May when he fell from a cliff face on the island. David was only 26 years of age, and his premature death robbed us of one who seemed destined to become prominent in seabird circles. Looking back over the years, we cannot but deplore the loss of several young friends and acquaintances in similar circumstances. W’e most earnestly beseech all those who go in for cliff scrambling after birds to exercise the utmost caution in conditions that can never be 100% safe; difficult cliffs should be tackled only by two or more people working together, and using ropes. Birds of Islay Birdwatchers visiting Scotland are apt to head for the north or the far west, and the Inner Hebrides have received less attention than they deserve. One such island, with a fine avifauna, is Islay, and it is the subject of a new 56- page booklet, Birds of Islay , by C. Gordon Booth. The text is in systematic list form, and includes some good black-and-white photographs by Morley Hedley and Arthur Gilpin; but the absence of any habitat illustrations is unfortunate. Islay is 40 km long by 32 km wide, and its 60,000 hectares contain a wide variety of habitats. There is woodland and moorland (holding both Black and Red Grouse), arable and grassland (where the Corncrake is still widespread), lochs with breeding Red-throated Divers and Common Scoters, sand dunes with breeding terns, and some fine cliffs where Cormorants, Shags, Kittiwakes, auks, Rock Doves and Choughs can be seen. Islay, sometimes called the Queen of the Hebrides, possesses seven breeding raptor species, including Golden Eagle, Hen Harrier, Peregrine and Merlin, but the island is most important for its wintering geese, with 150-200 Greylags, 2,000-4,000 Greenland Whitefronts and 17,000-18,000 Barnacles, and it is one of the few places in Britain or Ireland where small, wild Canada Geese (almost certainly transatlantic visitors) occur almost annually. Birds of Islay can be obtained from Argyll Reproductions Ltd, Port Charlotte, Isle of Islay, Argyll; at £i-3° (postage included) it is a trifle expensive for its size, but it is a ‘must’ for intending visitors. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds February reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records Twenty-five Gannets Sula bassana at Holy Island (Northumberland) on 8th were very early for such a large number (see Brit. Birds, 67: 89-103). Smew Mergus albellus reached a maximum for the winter of only ten at Wraysbury gravel pits (Surrey) on 16th, while no more than three were seen together elsewhere. The six Bean Geese Anser fabalis at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) in January (Brit. Birds, 68: 219) stayed until March, while seven were noted on the Ouse Washes (Cambridgeshire/Norfolk) on 1st February and two at Minsmere (Suffolk) on 15th; on the south-west Lancashire mosses, however, at least 21 were present on 16th’ decreasing to twelve by 2nd March. 254 February reports A Red Kite Milvus milvus was at Banks Marsh (Lancashire) on 15th, and a Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus was on the Exe marshes (Devon) on 6th. A Spotted Crake Porzana porzana was found at Thrapston gravel pit (Northamptonshire) on 15th and, more unusual in winter, a Corncrake Crex crex at Harty (Kent) on 23rd. There was little of interest in a very dull month for unusual waders. The Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus in the Wirral (Merseyside) in January {Brit. Birds, 68: 219) remained through February and most of March; while the only Little Stint Calidris minuta reported to us was one at Sand Bay (Avon) on 27th. The first Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta returned to Minsmere on 16th, 17 being present by 24th, while inland at Chew Valley Lake (Avon) there was a single bird on 23rd. Single Great Skuas Stercorarius skua were seen flying south about 16 km off Sunderland (Tyne & Wear) on 4th and 18th. A Mediterranean Gull Larus melanocephalus was at Dungeness (Kent) on 16th, but of more interest were two rare inland sightings, both in Staffordshire, involving a second-winter bird at Blithfield Reservoir on 9th and a first-winter at Chasewater on 25th, 26th and 28th. The only Little Gull L. minutus reported, however, was on the coast: an immature flying south at Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) on 9th. In western England single Little Auks Plautus alle were seen at Blagdon Lake (Avon) on 1st and at Bournemouth (Dorset) on 3rd, and found dead at Michael- wood (Avon) on 7th, while of several reports in Shetland (where this species is a regular winter visitor) the maximum was 20 in Yell Sound on 5th. We also heard of one picked up near Leighton Moss (Lancashire) during the second week and one seen at Hunstanton (Norfolk) on 21st. A Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur at Oxey (Hampshire) on 8th and 9th was considered possibly an escape, but one or two Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus near Chillingham (Northumberland) on 23rd were more likely to be wintering wild birds. Early Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe were recorded at Steart (Somerset) on 2nd, at Washington (Tyne & Wear) on 5th, and on Guernsey at Vazon and Fort le Marchant on 11th. A Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus was singing near Barnstaple (Devon) on 15th; but, much more surprisingly, a Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata was seen in Exeter (also Devon) on 10th, by far the earliest ever recorded in Britain and Ireland (see R. Hudson, 1973, Early and Late Dates for Summer Migrants ). Another early or overwintering passerine was a Y ellow Wagtail Motacilla Jlava at Hornsea Mere (Humberside) from 5th to 9th. New records of Cetti’s Warblers Cettia cetti came from the Channel Islands, where singles on Guernsey on 1st and 2nd and on Herm on the latter date were the first ever for those islands; one was recorded near Mansbridge (Hampshire) from 19th to 22nd; and yet another was at Chew Valley Lake on 25th (trapped). Three Lapland Buntings Calcarius lapponicus flew north at Druridge (Northum- berland) on 23rd. Finally, and on a rare note, a Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera was reported at Sandringham (Norfolk) on 16th. stop press Rarities reported during June include a Terek Sandpiper at Breydon Water, Great Yarmouth (Norfolk), and a Red-throated Pipit at Hornsea Mere on 1st; a Black-eared Wheatear at Holme (Norfolk) on 2nd; a Red-rumped Swallow at Wanstead Park (Greater London) on 4th; a Red-footed Falcon at Holme on 6th; a Greenish Warbler singing at Dungeness on 6th; a Rustic Bunting on Skokholm (Dyfed) on 6th and 7th ; a summer-plumaged male Wilson’s Phalarope at Wisbech sewage farm (Lincolnshire/Norfolk) from 7th; and a Hermit Thrush on Fair Isle (Shetland) and another Greenish Warbler at Bempton (Humberside), both during the first ten days of June. List of county and regional recorders in Britain and Ireland 7 he main aims of this list of bird recorders and editors are to ensure that observers on holiday away from their home areas send records to the right people, to encourage co-operation at the inter-county and intra-county levels, and to provide a source of reference for those collating records on a national basis. Several counties arc divided into areas for recording purposes, but to save space, and because we believe it is less confusing, the list generally includes one name only against each county or region. For the same reasons we have largely discontinued our previous practice of mentioning observatory and other local reports which overlap with the county or regional ones, though some of these contain much important information. Titles ol publications are added only when they do not include the name of the county or counties concerned. We shall be glad to know of any errors, omissions or changes of address. ENGLAND All counties or regions are now publishing or intending to publish annual reports, though recording arrangements have become com- plicated by local government reorganisation and the following list should be regarded as tentative (see also fig. i). All county names lefer to the new counties (see Brit. Birds , 68: 1-4) except where other- wise specified. The recording area is described only where it differs in any way from the new county concerned; an italicised cross- reference indicates an apparent overlap in recording territory (in some cases very slight). A number of other reports overlap with adjacent ones to a greater or lesser extent and cover parts of one or more counties; among the most important is the North-Western Bird Report , published by the Merseyside Naturalists’ Association (Eric Hardy, 47 Woodsorrel Road, Liverpool L15 6ub), which not only covers Merseyside but ranges widely over north-west England and north Wales. There is now generally a good exchange of information between overlapping reports and between local and county publi- cations, but in a few instances co-operation is still only partial or even lacking, and we again urge those concerned to resolve such situations which greatly add to the work of any national collator and confuse the casual visitor. Likewise, we hope that county societies which cover areas where the boundaries have been altered attempt to reduce unnecessary overlaps and (most important) ensure than no areas are left without a recorder. 255 256 County and regional recorders Fig. 1. County recording boundaries for 1974-75 in England and Wales. The blacked-in areas are covered by two recorders (see text) County and regional recorders 257 Avon P. J. Chadwick, 3 Hill Burn, Henleaze, Bristol Bsg 4R11. See also Somerset Bedfordshire B. D. Harding, 26 Woodlands Avenue, Houghton Regis, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU5 5LJ Berkshire P. E. Standley, Siskins, 7 Llanvair Drive, South Ascot, Berkshire SL5 9ns. See also Buckinghamshire Buckinghamshire R. E. Youngman, 53 Seymour Park Road, Marlow, Buckingham- shire SL7 3ER. Report ( The Middle-Thames Naturalist) covers Buckinghamshire and Berkshire east of the River Loddon. See also London Cambridgeshire For the old county of Cambridgeshire: M. J. Allen, Honey End, Honey Hill, Fenstanton, Huntingdon pei8 gjp. For the old county of Hunting- donshire: D. O. Elias, Monks Wood Experimental Station, Abbots Ripton, Huntingdon PE17 2ls. Records for the whole of the new county will be published in the Cambridgeshire report, but Huntingdonshire records will also be abstracted for separate publication. Cheshire Dr R. J. Raines, 34 Beryl Road, Noctorum, Birkenhead, Merseyside. Report covers the old county of Cheshire apart from the Longdendale area, now m Derbyshire; and a small, newly acquired area from Heald Green to Moss Side, lormcrly in Lancashire and now in Greater Manchester Cleveland I. F. Stewart, 3 Orchard Road, Middlesbrough, Cleveland ts^. =pn See also Durham Cornwall N. R. Phillips, Cucurrian Mill, Nancledra, Penzance, Cornwall Cumbria For the old county of Cumberland : R. Stokoe, 4 Fern Bank, Cockermouth, Cumbria ca 1 3 ode. For the rest of Cumbria: Malcolm Hutcheson, Garden Cottage, Sizergh Castle, Kendal, Cumbria i.a8 8ae. See also Lancashire Derbyshire David Amedro, 212 Derby Road, Ilkeston, Derbyshire DE7 5fb Devon P. W. Ellicott, Glitters, I rusham, Newton Abbot, Devon TQ13 olx Dorset J. V. Boys, 2 Hie Park, Canford Magna, Wimborne, Dorset BH21 3AF Durham Brian Unwin, 2 Albyn Gardens, Sunderland, Tyne & Wear. Report also covers those parts of Cleveland and 1 yne & Wear which were included in the old county of Durham. See also North , South and West Yorkshire East and West Sussex C. M. James, 21 River Mead, Horsham, West Sussex rhis isp Essex P. J. Howard, 18 Woodsidc Close, Colchester, Essex C04 3»d; J. Thorogood, 49 Oaklands Avenue, Colchester, Essex C03 5ET; and A. R. Wood, 2 Buxton Road, Monkwick Estate, Colchester, Essex. Report also covers Greater London ^ cast of the River Lea and north of the Thames. See also London Gloucestershire C. M. Swaine, Mill House, Rendcomb, Cirencester, Gloucestershire (greater London See London Greater Manchester See Cheshire and Lancashire Hampshire J. H. Taverner, 13 Stockers Avenue, Winchester, Hampshire Hereford & Worcester For the old county of Herefordshire: Allen J. Smith, 4 The Orchard, Moreton-on-Lugg, Hereford HR4 8dg. Report covers the old counties of Herefordshire and Radnorshire; the old county of Worcestershire is covered by the West Midland Bird Report (see Staffordshire) Hertfordshire M. J. Blindell, 6 Townsend Drive, St Albans, Hertfordshire AL3 srd See also London Humberside North Humberside is included in Yorkshire (see North, South and West \ orkshire) ; South Humberside is included in Lincolnshire Isle of Wight Dr J. Stafford, Westering, Moor Lane, Brighstone, Newport. Isle of Wight P030 4DL Isles of Scilly D. B. Hunt, Pednbrose, St Mary’s, Isles of Scilly Rent D. M. Batchelor, No. 2 Bungalow, Old Downs Farm, Sandwich Bav. Sand- wich, Kent. See also London Lancashire K. G. Spencer, 3 Landseer Close, off Carr Road. Burnley, Lancashire. Report covers the old county of Lancashire. See also Cheshire and Cumbria Leicestershire K. Allsopp. 81 Uplands Road. Oadby, Leicester LE2 4nt 25& County and regional recorders Lincolnshire K. Atkin, 5 Hazel Grove, Louth, Lincolnshire lnii 8ru. Report also covers South Humberside London K. C. Osborne, 8 Ellice Road, Oxted, Surrey rh8 opy. The London Natural History Society’s recording area takes in Greater London and those parts of Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent and Surrey which fall within a 20-mile (32.2-km) radius of St Paul’s Cathedral Merseyside See Cheshire and Lancashire Norfolk M. J. Seago, 33 Acacia Road, Thorpe St Andrew, Norwich, Norfolk NR7 OPP Northamptonshire C. J. Coe, 3 The Orchard, Flore, Northampton NN7 4LH North, South and West Yorkshire John R. Mather, 44 Aspin Lane, Knaresborough, North Yorkshire. Report covers the old county of Yorkshire, apart from the former rural district of Sedbergh which is now included in Cumbria and the part of Cleveland formerly in Yorkshire. See also Durham Northumberland B. Galloway, 3 Grosvenor Court, Chapel Park, Westerhope, New- castle upon Tyne. Report also covers Tyne & Wear north of the Tyne Nottinghamshire A. Dobbs, Cloverleigh, Old Main Road, Bulcote, Nottingham NG14 5GU Oxfordshire J. M. Campbell, OCC Department of Museum Services, Fletchers House, Woodstock, Oxford 0x7 isn Shropshire C. E. Wright, Larne, Park Avenue, Whitchurch, Shropshire SY13 ish Somerset Miss E. M. Palmer, Highfield, Sandford Hill, Bridgwater, Somerset TA5 2 ay. Report covers the old county of Somerset, thus including south Avon South Yorkshire See North, South and West Yorkshire Staffordshire B. R. Dean, 2 Charingworth Road, Solihull, Warwickshire B92 8ht. The West Midland Bird Report covers Staffordshire, Warwickshire, West Midlands and the old county of Worcestershire Suffolk W. H. Payn, Hartest Place, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk IP29 Surrey D. Washington, 15 Bond Gardens, Wallington, Surrey. Report covers the old Vice-County of Surrey, thus excluding the new District of Spelthorne (containing the Staines group of reservoirs) but including Greater London south of the Thames as far east as Surrey Docks and New Addington. See also London Tyne & Wear See Durham and Northumberland Warwickshire See Staffordshire West Midlands See Staffordshire West Sussex See East and West Sussex West Yorkshire See North, South and West Yorkshire Wiltshire G. L. Webber, 66 Southbrook Extension, Swindon, Wiltshire SN2 ihg ISLE OF MAN Records are collected by the Manx Museum and National Trust, and edited by Dr J. P. Cullen, Troutbeck, Cronkbourne, Braddan, Isle of Man, for publication in The Peregrine , which is produced by the Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society and the Manx Ornithological Society. WALES The annual ‘Welsh Bird Report’, compiled by P. E. Davis and P. Hope Jones, is published in the twice-yearly journal Nature in Wales. County and regional recorders 259 Reprints are obtainable from D. Miles, 4 Victoria Place, Haverford- west, Dyfed (price 2op post free). This presents a summary of records in Wales as a whole, but county or regional reports are also published and recording is mainly on an ‘old county’ basis. The names of the new counties are, however, used in the following list (see also fig. 1) : Clwyd ( Flintshire ) R. R. Birch, 8 Thornberry Close, Saughall, Chester Clwyd ( Denbighshire ) as Gwynedd, though discussions at present taking place may result in a combined report for Clwyd Dyfed { Cardiganshire ) P. E. Davis, Fullbrook Mill, Tregaron, Dyfed Dyfed {Carmarthenshire) D. H. V. Roberts, 6 Ger-y-coed, Pontiets, Llanelli, Dyfed Dyfed {Pembrokeshire) J. W. Donovan, The Burren, Dingle Lane, Crundale, Haver- fordwest, Dyfed (•went E. Sarson, io Knoll Road, Abergavenny, Gwent Gwynedd P. J Dare, Tan-yr-allt, Trefriw, Gwynedd ( Annual Report of Cambrian Ornithological Society) Mid Glamorgan S. F. Young, 197 Cathedral Road, Cardiff, South Glamorgan Powys {Breconshire) M. E. Massey, Windyridge, Pennorth, Brecon, Powys Powys {Montgomeryshire) R. R. Lovegrove, The Walk Mill, Mochdre, Newtown Powys Powys {Radnorshire) See England Hereford & Worcester South Glamorgan as Mid Glamorgan West Glamorgan {except Gower) as Mid Glamorgan West Glamorgan {Gower only) H. E. Grenfell, The Woods, 14 Bryn Terrace, Mumbles Swansea, West Glamorgan SCOTLAND The annual Scottish Bird Report’, compiled by R. H. Dennis, is published in the quarterly journal Scottish Birds, the editor ’ of winch is D. Bates, Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, 21 Regent Terrace. Edinburgh eh 7 5BT. This presents a summary of records in the whole of Scotland, but for the time being recording continues to be on a regional basis (not corresponding to the new administrative regions), partly by old counties and partly by the ‘faunal areas’ shown on the map at the end of volume 2 of E. V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul s The Birds of Scotland (1953). Note that Skye and the Hebrides are treated separately from the counties in which they lay. The recording areas are listed from north to south under old countv names : Shetland {except Fair Isle) R. J. Tulloch, Reafirth, Mid Yell, Shetland Fair Isle R. A. Broad, Bird Observatory, Fair Isle, Shetland Orkney D. Lea, Easter Sower, Orphir, Orkney KW17 2re Outer Hebrides {except St Kilda) Dr P. G. Hopkins, Leurbost Schoolhouse, Isle of Lewis, Western Isles St Kilda Dr I. D. Pennie, Varkasaig, Scourie, Sutherland IV27 4SZ Caithness Mrs P. M. Collett, Sandyquoy, East Gills, Scrabster, Caithness kwi4 Sutherland , Ross- shire {except Black Isle) D. Macdonald. Elmbank, Dornoch Suther- land 260 County and regional recorders Inverness-shire ( within 18 miles of Inverness), Ross-shire ( Black Isle only) Dr Maeve Rusk, Arniston, 51 Old Edinburgh Road, Inverness Inverness-shire ( mainland more than 18 miles from Inverness) R. H. Dennis, Landberg, North Kessock, Inverness ivi ixd Nairnshire, Morayshire, Banffshire J. Edelsten, 14 South High Street, Portsoy, Banff AB4 2 NT Aberdeenshire, north Kincardineshire A. G. Knox, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen ABg oaa and W. Murray, Culterty Field Station, Newburgh, Aberdeen AB4 oaa South Kincardineshire, Angus G. M. Crichton, 23 Church Street, Brechin, Angus Perthshire R. L. McMillan, 29 Lewis Place, North Muirton, Perth Kinross-shire Miss Bridget H. Moore, Loch Leven Nature Centre, Vane Farm, Kinross Isle of May J. M. S. Arnott, East Redford House, Redford Road, Edinburgh eh 1 3 OAS Fife D. W. Oliver, East Cottage, Balass, Cupar, Fife Clackmannanshire, east Stirlingshire Dr C. J. Henty, 3 The Broich, Alva, Clack- mannan West Lothian, Midlothian, Forth islands ( except May) R. W. J. Smith, 33 Hunter Terrace, Loanhead, Lothian East Lothian, Berwickshire K. S. Macgregor, 16 Merchiston Avenue, Edinburgh eh 10 4NY Peeblesshire, Roxburghshire, Selkirkshire A. J. Smith, Glenview, Selkirk TD7 4LX Argyll, Inner Hebrides, Skye M. J. P. Gregory, Dmletter, Kilmory Road, Lochgilp- head, Strathclyde PA31 8nl Dunbartonshire, west Stirlingshire, Renfrewshire, Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, Arran, Bute R. W. Forrester, 19 Woodside Avenue, Lenzie, Dumbarton g66 4NG Dumfriesshire D. Skilling, 86 Auchenkeld Avenue, Heathhall, Dumfries and R. T. Smith, Applegarthtown, Lockerbie, Dumfries Kirkcudbrightshire, Wigtownshire A. D. Watson, Barone, Dairy, Castle Douglas, Kirkcudbright In addition to the ‘Scottish Bird Report’, there are annual reports covering Shetland (except Fair Isle), Fair Isle, the Aberdeen area, the old county of Perthshire, the Isle of May, and the Clyde. IRELAND The annual ‘Irish Bird Report’, edited by K. Preston, The Rennies, Boreenmanna Road, Cork, and available from K. Perry, 1 7 Bridge Street, Banbridge, Co. Down, covers the whole of Ireland. In addition, county or regional reports are produced for the following areas: Dublin and Wicklow K. Mullarney, Mill House, Whitechurch Road, Rathfarnham, Dublin 14 Louth C. C. Moore, Botany Department, University College Dublin, Belfieid, Dublin 4 Waterford M. O’Meara, 153 St John’s Park, Waterford Wexford O. J. Merne, Wexford Wildfowl Reserve, North Slob, Wexford SWANS BIG GAME & BIRDS SAFARIS VISITING THESE NATIONAL PARKS & GAME RESERVES IN EAST AFRICA GUEST LECTURERS accompany each Safari. Their expert and personal knowledge of East Africa — .ts animals, birds, history, peoples and customs — provides an Nairobi, Lake Naivasha, Lake Nakuru, Samburu, Isiolo, Tsavo, Amboseli, Lake Manyara, Ngoron- goro, Serengeti, Mara and Aberdare in Kenya and Tanzania. 12 page full colour brochure available from • SWANS SPECIALISED SAFARIS 237 (PI 2), Tottenham Court Road, London, W1P OAL. Tel C.A.A. L Icence—A TO LI 89 B ■ - -- unrivalled opportunity, not only to view the ever decreasing wildlife in its natural habitat, but also to gain an insight into the problems of us preservation and the conservation of land needed by Africa's developing nations. A holiday that can open up new vistas of interest. 21 DAYS — £515 DEPARTURES: 1975: June 26; July 17; Aug 7, 28; Sep 18; Oct 9, 30; Dec 18. 1976: Jan 1 5, 22, 29; Feb 5. 12, 19, 26; Mar 4. 01-636 8070 Books on Birds An extensive collection of ornithological material is available at all times for research, reference and investment. WRITE FOR CATALOGUE Bird books are purchased either as single items, small collections or complete libraries. 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Tel: (STD) 0277 221259 219418 in Binding ‘British Birds’ The comprehensive index for 1974 was published in February 1975. There will be no short index to British Birds in future and all subscribers will receive a copy of the comprehensive index automatically. Volumes for binding (with the form on the back cover of the index filled in) should be posted, not to the publishers, but direct to the binders : P. G. Chapman & Co. Ltd. Kent House Lane Beckenham Kent BR3 1LD The charge is £2-75 per volume, which includes the cost of packing and return postage. The binding will be in the same style as in previous years and earlier volumes can also be bound at this rate. The West Wales Naturalists’ Trust Ltd (formerly the West Wales Field Society) Membership of the Trust is open to all who are interested in the study and conservation of wildlife in Wales. 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The activities of the Trust include the co-operative study of such animals as birds and seals and the recording of their distribution and habits. publications (post free): Skomer Island, 25p; Plant List of Pembroke- shire, 60p; The Birds of Cardiganshire, 60p; Plant List of Carmarthen- shire, 60p; Skokholm Bird Observatory and Skomer National Nature Reserve Report, 1974, 43p; Nature in Wales back numbers, 60p THE WEST WALES NATURALISTS’ TRUST LTD 4 Victoria Place, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire iv Mr Frank promises perfect alignment Our reputation as binocular specialists is due, in no small measure, to the fact that since the turn of the century we have never lost sight of the importance of binocular align- ment, and we have always maintained a well-equipped workshop staffed by technicians qualified to test every binocular we sell. We stock binoculars by the world’s best makers, and particularly recommend the range of FRANK- NIPOLE binoculars as representing best value available today. 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Our booklet about binoculars: ‘Tell Me Mr Frank — usually 20p — is free on request, together with catalogue. 8x30 (wt l8oz) £19.25 10x50 (wt 36oz) £27.50 8x40 (wt 25oz) £37.76 Complete with case and straps Send for any model on 7 days free trial — naturally without obligation Excellent discounts can also be offered on many other new items Famous for fine instruments since the turn of the century CHARLES FRANK LTD 144 Ingram Street, Glasgow Gl Tel: 041-221 6666 Write, phone or call Volume 68 Number 6 June 1975 221 Breeding terns in Britain and Ireland in 1969-74 Miss C. S. Lloyd, C. J. Bibby and M. J. Everett 238 Field identification of Short-toed and Lesser Short-toed Larks R. H. Dennis and D. I. M. Wallace Plates 36-37 Notes 242 Hobbies feeding on bats, and notes on other prey Hugh Insley and Maurice G. Holland 242 Young male Peregrines passing vegetation fragments to each other Alan Parker 243 Summer food and feeding habitats of the Greenshank Desmond Nether- sole-Thompson Plates 38-39 245 Kittiwake taking bread from hand B. L. Kington 245 Golden Orioles diving into water Dr Nigel Collar 246 Aberrant or hybrid Swallow D. S. Flumm 247 Swallows nesting in old nest of Robins M. Shrubb 248 Swallows chasing bats D. B. Rosair 248 Swallows feeding wasps to young Keith R. Gabriel 248 Coal Tits feeding wasps to young D. C. Gilbert 249 Yellow-browed Warblers feeding on the ground N. J. Phillips and V. E. Wood, and P. F. Bonham 250 Red-breasted Flycatchers feeding on the ground R. A. Hume Letter 250 Protection at Little Tern colonies R. M. Blindell 251 An ornithological Domesday Book Robert Fuller 252 News and comment Robert Hudson 253 February reports D. A. Christie 255 List of county and regional recorders in Britain and Ireland Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd. 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 7 July 1975 / BIRDS OF ORKNEY PURPLE SANDPIPER STUDIES VIEWPOINT Editorial Address n Rope Walk, Rye, Sussex TN31 7NA ( telephone : 07973 2343) Editors Stanley Cramp, P. F. Bonham, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee J. N. Dymond, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire so 19 2dl © The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633) Annual Subscription £ 8.00 including index (Orders must be accompanied by remittance. 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This is the only book which adequately covers the subjects of vision throughout the ani- mal kingdom including man, and as such will prove in- valuable not only to students of biology, veterinary science and opthalmology, but will also provide absorbing read- ing for all those who love animals and are interested in their way of life and their ability to view the world about them. £6.95 SBN: 333 18034 8 For further details please write to Anne Calcott, The Macmillan Press, Little Essex Street, London, WC2R 3LF MACMILLAN PRESS BRITISH BIRDS For enquiries regarding Advertising Space and Rates write to: Advertisement Dept., Macmillan Journals Ltd., 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF or telephone: 01-836 6633 and ask for the Advertisement Manager II Volume 68 Number 7 July 1975 The birds of Orkney David. Lea and W. R. P. Bourne This paper was read at the Nature Conservancy Council Symposium on the Natural Environ- ment of Orkney, held in Edinburgh on 2 6th- 27th November 1974. The only major alteration is the omission of an appendix which gave the number of pairs of seabirds breeding on the different islands during the Seabird Group's national breeding census, ‘ Operation Seafarer ln 1 969-70- This appendix is reproduced in the Proceedings of the Symposium which hate now been published by the NCC, 12 Hope Terrace, Edinburgh EH9 2 as. The editors and authors are grateful to the NCC for permission to reprint this paper. Eddie Balfour was to have been a joint author but died suddenly in August 1974; his unrivalled knowledge of the birds of his native county would have added greatly to the content. W hile it is a poor substitute for his personal involvement, he left many published and un- published notes and it would have been difficult to write authoritatively without these. His study of the Orkney Hen Harrier population represented the longest study of a bird of prey population anywhere in the world and is the subject of a separate contribution to the NCC Symposium ( Balfour and Cadbury 1979). INTRODUCTION T lie character of an island bird community is determined by the latitude and climate, the size, ecological diversity and isolation of the island, and the numbers of potential immigrants and their freedom from persecution. The information available on just over 300 bird species recorded in Orkney has already been summarised by Balfour (1972), and their character and that of the different islands were discussed by Lack (1942-43). This paper analyses the avifauna in terms of bird communities, with particular emphasis on the breeding species and common passage migrants and winter visitors. The communities have been defined on a rather broad and arbitrary basis because members of the same association are liable to frequent many different habitats (described by Bullard and Johnston 1975) and any detailed subdi- vision is difficult. 261 262 The birds of Orkney The proximity of all parts of Orkney to the sea exerts a profound influence on the birds: gulls are the commonest breeding birds on many moors, Fulmars* are one of the main foods fed to their young by the Golden Eagles on Hoy, and many of the birds found on farm- land feed and roost along the shore, whereas coastal species are likewise liable to feed or roost on farmland. THE PRESENT SITUATION The species which have bred regularly in the last five years, and some common visitors, are listed and their habitat preferences assessed in appendix 1 on pages 280-282. A comparison is made in table 1 with the breeding birds of Caithness and Sutherland, Shet- land, and the Faeroes, much of the Scottish information being taken from Parslow (1973) and that for the Faeroes from Williamson (1970). It will be noted that there are 37 species breeding in the two northernmost counties of the Scottish mainland that do not breed in Orkney, only 10 km (6 miles) to the north. About 17 of these are associated with trees, which were almost eliminated at one stage and are still scarce in Orkney, though 15% of the breeding birds nest exclusively in this habitat or associated buildings. This deficiency of sites has caused such species as the Kestrel and Woodpigeon to start nesting on the ground (Balfour 1955). There appears to be suitable habitat for most of the other missing north Scottish species, and the isolated and fragmented character of the islands or more subtle deficiencies in the environment must account for their absence. This impoverishment of the environment and avifauna is even more marked in Shetland, which in its turn lacks a third of Orkney’s breeding species, and in the Faeroes, which lack nearly half. The absence of voles from these northern groups may explain the deficiency of such predators as the Hen Harrier, Kestrel and Short-eared Owl which are quite numerous in Orkney. Some of the species which breed in Orkney are on the margin of their world range (Voous i960), especially such southern forms as the Little Grebe, Coot, Sandwich Tern and Stonechat. However, all the northern species breeding in Orkney also breed elsewhere in the north and west of Scotland, and, in the case of the Red-throated Diver and recently lost Red-necked Phalarope, in Ireland as well. The Purple Sandpiper is the only species breeding regularly in the Faeroes that is not known to nest further south, though it was reported breeding in Shetland in the last century. Similarly, only one species breeding regularly in Shetland, the Snowy Owl, does not breed further south, though the Whimbrel and Red-necked Phal- *Scientific names of birds are listed in the appendices on pages 280-283 The birds of Orkney 263 Table i. Comparison between regular breeding birds of Caithness and Sutherland, Orkney, Shetland, and the Faeroes The status of a good many of these birds in the different archipelagoes fluctuates, and the information for the Faeroes in particular is incomplete and probably not up to date Caithness and Sutherland but not Orkney Black-throated Diver Greenshank Treecreeper Slavonian Grebe Little Tern Redwing Common Scoter Tawny Owl Whinchat Goosander Swift Redstart Greylag Goose Great Spotted Woodpecker Grasshopper Warbler Sparrowhawk House Martin Whitethroat Ptarmigan Sand Martin Wood Warbler Black Grouse Magpie Tree Pipit Partridge Great Tit Grey Wagtail Dotterel Blue Tit Siskin Woodcock Coal Tit Redpoll Wood Sandpiper Long-tailed Tit Bullfinch Orkney but not Caithness or Sutherland Manx Shearwater (Leach’s Petrel?) Gannet Orkney but not Shetland Little Grebe Water Rail Sedge Warbler Grey Heron Moorhen Willow Warbler Wigeon Coot Goldcrest Pintail Sandwich Tern Spotted Flycatcher Shoveler Short-eared Owl Dunnock Mute Swan Dipper ? Greenfinch Golden Eagle Song Thrush Linnet Buzzard Ring Ouzel Chaffinch Hen Harrier Stonechat Yellowhammcr Kestrel Robin Shetland but not Orkney Common Scoter Red-necked Phalarope House Martin Whimbrel Black-tailed Godwit Snowy Owl Fieldfare Shetland but not Faeroe Wigeon Black-tailed Godwit Skylark Tufted Duck Common Tern Rook Common Scoter Woodpigeon Jackdaw Peregrine Collared Dove Blackbird Corncrake Snowy Owl Com Bunting Curlew Long-eared Owl Reed Bunting Faeroe but not Shetland Greylag Goose Ptarmigan Redwing Mute Swan Purple Sandpiper White Wagtail 2^4 The birds of Orkney arope are scarce elsewhere. Other northern and southern birds which have bred occasionally in these archipelagoes have had difficulty in establishing stable populations. This is perhaps due to human interference, but they are likely also to be particularly sensitive to fluctuations in climate at the edge of their range which influence not only their own breeding success but also the supply of reinforcements. CHANGES IN STATUS Table 2 summarises changes in status and lists species which have bred occasionally this century. The existing avifauna is known to have been modified markedly over the course of time by fluctuations in the climate and by human activity. The latter acts both directly Table 2. Changes in status of Orkney birds Former breeding species not now breeding Common Scoter (until 1958) White-tailed Eagle ( c . 1870) Great Auk ( c . 1810) Whooper Swan (c. 1800) Ptarmigan ( c . 1830) Sand Martin ( c . 1900?) Sparrowhawk (c. 1940) Red-necked Phalarope (c. 1970) Regular breeding species which Manx Shearwater Grey Heron Eider Red-breasted Merganser Peregrine Merlin Red Grouse have decreased this century Water Rail Corncrake Coot Lapwing Ringed Plover Golden Plover Common Sandpiper Dunlin Skylark Greenfinch Corn Bunting Yellowhammer Species which were lost but have returned Golden Eagle (ceased to breed c. 1840 but now breeding again) Dipper (ceased to breed c. 1940 but now probably breeding again) Regular breeding species which have increased this century Red-throated Diver Oystercatcher Kittiwake Mallard Curlew Stonechat Shoveler Arctic Skua Reed Bunting Hen Harrier Great Black-backed Gull Species recorded breeding for the first time since 1800 and now regular Fulmar (from 1900) Buzzard (1961) Rook (after 1850) Wigeon ( c . 1870) Great Skua (1915) Goldcrest ( c . 1830?) Pintail (1908) Woodpigeon ( c . 1840) Tree Sparrow (1961) Mute Swan ( c . 1890) Collared Dove (1962) Species which have bred occasionally this century Gadwall Black- tailed God wit Black Redstart Scaup Greenshank Blackcap Pochard House Martin Garden Warbler Long-tailed Duck Mistle Thrush Whitethroat Quail Fieldfare Wood Warbler Whimbrel Whinchat Grey Wagtail The birds of Orkney 265 through predation and indirectly through changes in the habitat. 1 he National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland has reported the following bird species among the remains found in the very numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments of Orkney, some coming from the later Brochs (Groundwater 1974): Great Northern Diver, grebe sp., shearwater sp. (probably Manx), Gannet, Cormorant, Shag, Bittern, duck sp., Pink-footed Goose, Whooper Swan, Golden and White-tailed Eagles, buzzard sp., falcon sp., Merlin, Curlew, skua sp. (probably Arctic), Great Black-backed, Herring and Common Gulls, Greak Auk, Guillemot and ‘Carrion’ Crow. While, in common with other archaeological finds, these probablv deserve more study, they at least indicate the character of the original avifauna. It will be noted that, in addition to northern forms, they include a southern form, the Bittern; the climate was warm for much of the Neolithic period. Changes within the historic period were documented by Buckley and Harvie-Brown (1891), Lack (1942-43) and Balfour (1968, These include the loss of such species as the Greylag Goose, Whooper Swan, Golden and White-tailed Eagles and Great Auk due to persecution and reclamation in the 1 8th and 19th centuries, much as in the other north-east Atlantic archipelagoes. A recent reversal of this trend, owing to a loss of interest in hunting and to the institution of protection, has already brought back the Golden Eagle, and there has been an influx of species associated with human activi- ties, including agriculture. The evidence for the influence of climatic change in the past is weak, though we are fortunate (the birds less so) that the islands were toured by one of the greatest collectors of all time, William Bullock (in Montagu 1813), during the nadir of a past phase of climatic deterioration in the summer of 1812. He saw the last Great Auk, claimed a King Eider’s nest on Papa Westray, was told that a pair of Snowy Owls had tried to summer in the North Isles, and reported that Golden and White-tailed Eagles were breeding on Hoy and Red-necked Phalaropes on many islands. Apparently Whimbrel also bred on Hoy at least until the end of the last century, but since then the climate has improved steadily until recently and such events have become rare, while southern colonists have appeared instead. COASTAL HABITATS The rocks of Orkney are mainly Old Red Sandstones, middle beds predominating except for most of Hoy which is formed from the rugged upper beds. Particularly where these rocks are flagstones, they erode along the coast in many places to produce vertical cliffs with horizontal ledges attractive to breeding seabirds. The relief of the islands, which consist basically of a dissected promontory projecting north-east from the Scottish mainland and divided by shallow sounds with strong tidal currents, provides ideal feeding conditions for coastal seabirds. WRPB (in Cramp et al. 1974) describes how comparatively fresh coastal water and more saline oceanic water moving north up the coast of Europe are mixed as they are swept into the North Sea through the Fair Isle Channel, resulting in a high marine productivity all round the islands. The rich plankton attracts many small shoaling fish preyed upon by seabirds, which also feed around the trawlers frequenting the area. In consequence, Fig. 1. Principal islands and seabird colonies of Orkney. The largest dot marks at least 100,000 pairs, the next at least 10,000 pairs and the smallest at least 1,000 pairs The birds of Orkney 267 Orkney provides one of the main nurseries for the seabirds of the w hole temperate North Atlantic. The largest colonies overlook the continental shelf at Marwick Head in north-west Mainland and at Noup Head in YVestray, while there are substantial ones facing west from Hoy, east from Copinsay and south from South Ronaldsay. The principal colonies are shown in fig. 1. A general confirmation of the size of the biggest colonies was obtained during a flight round the islands on 15th April 1971. It was thought that the Marwick Head colony, which was not counted in 1969, equalled the largest of the colonies on the Scottish mainland, such as those on Handa, Sutherland (50,000 pairs), and at Fowlsheugh, Kincardineshire (70,000 pairs); while the west side of YVestray held the largest assembly of cliff-breeding seabirds in Britain and Ireland, several times bigger than those at Marwick Head, Handa or Fowlsheugh, all of which were seen on the same day. There are also vast colonies of Arctic Terns which feed out at sea over the Fair Isle Channel in this area; although the original estimate for ‘Operation Seafarer’ of over 25,000 pairs on YVestray and Papa YVestray was doubted, it now seems likely to have been correct (Hammond 1975). In table 3 the numbers of seabirds reported breeding in Orkney table 3. Number of pairs and proportion of the British total of seabirds reported r reeding in the Outer Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland during Operation Seafarer, 1968-70 ational totals and proportions in parentheses refer to species where substantial numbers receding inland were not counted. Some three-quarters of the Hebridean total breed on St ilda, including very roughly 37,000 pairs of Fulmars, 52,000 pairs of Gannets and 173,000 1 firs of Puffins. There were also 66 pairs of Little Terns breeding in the Outer Hebrides. ‘Orders of abundance’ are explained in appendix 1 Outer Hebrides 1 lmar 60,000 21% inx Shearwater Ord. 4? ? >rm Petrel Ord. 4 + ? > ach’s Petrel Ord. 4? p8%? Linnet 60,000 53% rmorant 380 2,800 6% ag >0% eat Skua 18 1% ctic Skua 40 4% eat Black-backed Gull 2,600 14% (1%) ' wer Black-backed Gull 500 » rring Gull 3.600 (1%) nmmon Gull 640 (6%) « ick-headed Gull 800 (1%) ttiwake 25,000 6% mmon Tern 76 1% rtic Tern 1,200 4% t ldwirh Tern 1 zorbill 22.000 65.000 23% - illemot 13% i ck Guillemot 530 7% tfin 186,000? 37% ? tali 430,000 + British Orkney Shetland total 47,000 16% 1 17,000 4i% 285,000 Ord. 2? ? Ord. 3? ? Ord. 6 Ord. 4? '? Ord. 4~? ? Ord. 5 + ? Ord. s? i%? Ord. 1? i%? Ord. 4? 4,000 4% 10,000 9% 1 1^,000 600 3,600 >0% 13% 460 8,600 7% 30% 6,200 28,500 90 3% 3,060 96% 3, >70 230 21% 770 70% 1,100 6,000 32% 2,500 >3% 19,000 800 (2%) 570 (>%) (45,000) 7,800 (3%) 10,150 (4%) (278,000) 4,850 (42%) 1,400 (12%) ( 1 1, 600) 4.5°° (6%) 30% 530 (1%) (72,000) 128.000 43,000 10% 427.500 200 2% 390 3% I 1 ,200 12,300 41% 7.650 26% 30,000 390 8,500 4% 9°o 8,900 9% 9.700 96,000 29,000 26% 77,ooo 15% 498,000 2,240 29% 2,300 3°% 7.600 66,000 ? 13%? 50,000? <°%? 500,000? 17% 426,000 + 17% 344,000 + >4% 2,500,000 268 The birds of Orkney are compared with those reported in the two other outlying archi- pelagoes north and west of Britain, Shetland and the Outer Hebrides. Although it receives much less publicity, Orkney was reported to hold substantially more seabirds than Shetland (where, however, the numbers may have been underestimated) and nearly as many as the Outer Hebrides, which include the greatest seabird station in the temperate North Atlantic, St Kilda. While the variety of species is much the same in the three groups, the proportions of each species vary. Orkney attracts particularly large numbers of Guillemots, Kittiwakes and Arctic Terns, whereas the Outer Hebrides have more Gannets and Puffins, and Shetland many Ful- mars and Great Skuas now, though this is quite a recent develop- ment. The grand total of over 4°o>ooo pairs of seabirds breeding in Orkney probably includes at least a fifth of the national totals of six species (Arctic Skua, Great Black-backed Gull, Kittiwake, Arctic Tern, Guillemot and Black Guillemot) and at least a tenth of those of four more (Fulmar, Cormorant, Shag and Puffin). Shetland holds at least a fifth of the populations of six species and a tenth of those of five more, while the Outer Hebrides hold at least a fifth of those of five species and a tenth of those of four more. Many of these birds, such as the Fulmar, Leach’s Petrel, Gannet, Great Skua, Kittiwake, Razorbill, Guillemot and Puffin, have large parts of their European populations breeding in Britain. Five of the seabirds listed in table 3 — Fulmar, Shag, Kittiwake, Razorbill and Guillemot — nest primarily on the cliffs. In some areas Shags and Razorbills also nest among boulders, while Fulmars and Black Guillemots are starting to nest well inland on slopes, level ground, walls and old buildings. So far the only Gannet colony is on Sule Stack (Stack Skerry on maps and charts) far to the west, but this species is expanding so fast that more colonies are likely to be founded at any time There is currently a gap between the nearest large colonies on Noss, Shetland, to the north and on the Bass Rock, East Lothian, to the south. Recently Gannets have nested on Fair Isle for the first time; and Copinsay, where Gannets appear from time to time, also appears a likely site. The comparatively few Cormorant colonies are of national importance; while these are normally on small holms or cliff tops, part of the Calf of Eday colony is some 300 metres back from the cliff edge. These birds have been studied in some detail by Balfour et al. (1967). Where the ground is suitable, Herring and a few Great Black- backed Gulls nest on the cliffs and, together with Lesser Black- backed and Common Gulls, skuas and terns, on many of the smaller holms and the maritime and inland heaths. The last habitat is discussed in more detail later; numbers may be hard to estimate there because the birds naturally tend to seek the less-visited sites, The birds of Orkney 269 and the terns in particular tend to move around. Thus, while an astonishing, almost incalculable concentration of Arctic Terns, originally estimated at about 28,000 pairs but downgraded by Cramp et al. (1974)} was found in the north-western islands in 1969, the numbers there were beginning to decline by 1974 (Hammond I975)> when larger numbers were present at a number of other colonies throughout both Orkney and Shetland (Lloyd et al. 1975). Apart from the huge colony on Sule Skerry, which requires early reassessment, Puffins tend to have a scattered distribution, occurring in comparatively small numbers either where the slope of the cliff allows the development of grassland with a sufficient depth of soil for burrowing, or in crevices and burrows near the cliff edge. Black Guillemots nest mainly among boulders close to the shore, occasion- ally using Rabbit burrows, and appear to be most common on the smaller, more remote islands. A few pairs breed among the large concrete blocks used to build the Churchill Barriers along the east side of Scapa Flow. Newton (1898) postulated that the last pair of Great Auks to breed in Britain must have nested on the rock slope on the sheltered north-west side of the Holm of Papa VVestray, and that the last bird took refuge on a cliff ledge of the main island only when it was persecuted. Papa Westray is ideally situated for the exploitation of the rich waters off Noup Head. Little is known about the distribution of the Manx Shearwater or of Storm and Leach’s Petrels which are not numerous at sea. Shear- waters may have been more widespread in the past when they were collected for food (Buckley and Harvie-Brown 1 8g 1 ) , but only two small colonies are known at present, on Hoy. As quite large rafts occur off Rackwick along this coast and have been reported off Rousay further north, there may be other colonies, though these birds could be non-breeders, or even commuters from the great colonies in the Inner Hebrides. The Storm Petrel has been proved to breed at nine sites (Sule Skerry, Pentland Skerries, Switha, Aus- kerry, Green Holms; and Faray, Rusk, Wart and Skea Holms off Westray), often nesting in holes in the peat, where it tends to get overlooked, as well as among boulders and in cliff faces. It is probably much under-recorded, though the numbers are certainly not as large as they are further south-west. The report by Robinson (1934) that Leach’s Petrel breeds on Sule Skerry has generally been questioned, but there seems no reason to doubt it as there are eggs taken there at that time in the Stromness Museum. Peregrines, Ravens and Jackdaws nest mainly in the cliffs, along with Rock Doves, Hooded Crows and Wrens. The important Orkney- Peregrine population was studied by Balfour for many years and he recorded a total of 27 sites, though some of these were probably alternatives for the same pair. In 1971 14 of 24 sites visited were 270 The birds of Orkney occupied, eggs were known to have been laid in nine, and large young were seen in six (Ratcliffe 1972) . Hoy is particularly important for this species and may now have the densest population in Britain. This island was also once an important site for White-tailed Eagles until they were wiped out in the middle of the last century, with up to three pairs ; a report that there used to be ten or twelve pairs (in Buckley and Harvie-Brown 1891) probably referred to gatherings of young birds, which may still reach up to 50 individuals around seabird colonies in north Norway. In appendix 1 the inter-tidal zone and the maritime heaths are included in the column for coastal habitats (C) in assessing how they are used, but they are discussed in the following two sections respectively. Detailed work on Eynhallow is also discussed by Dunnet (1975). THE SEA Observations at sea around Orkney (Bourne and Dixon in prep.) have shown that the area is frequented by large numbers of seabirds throughout the year. Many travel west to feed out to the edge of the continental shelf in summer, but it is difficult to obtain information for this extremely exposed area in winter. Local concentrations are also found off the east coast in the same way that they are found all down the east coast of Scotland, though apparently not on such a marked scale as off the east coast of Shetland (Bourne and Dixon 1974). Large numbers of birds also scatter north and east over the North Sea inflow where their distribution tends to be rather patchy and variable, possibly owing to irregularities in the flow of the current. Fig. 2 shows how much more widely dispersed the birds are around Orkney than around Shetland. Owing to the local topography, concentrated movements through the sounds and around projecting headlands also appear to be less prominent in Orkney than in Shetland, and most of the birds appear to disperse straight out to sea from colonies facing their feeding grounds. The main concentrated movements attracting attention have been those round Duncansby Head, Caithness, to the south- east, round the north end of North Ronaldsay to the north (E. J. Wiseman in lift.), and along the north coast of Sutherland to Cape Wrath to the south-west. Some of these birds may be going to feed, but they often appear to be taking part in migratory or weather movements. At most seasons of the year a regular movement of doubtful significance can be traced up the east coast of Scotland, turning west into the Atlantic round North Ronaldsay. There is also a more clearly migratory movement west along the north coast of Sutherland and south round Cape Wrath in the autumn. Comparatively few birds seem to pass through the Pentland Firth. 7 he birds of Orkney 271 In calm weather the more pelagic seabirds can often be seen leeding socially over shoals of fish forced to the surface by submarine predators out at sea, apparently taking small gadoids, clupeids and sand-eels Ammodytes and, in the case of the Gannets, larger Mackerel Scomber scombrus and Herrings Clupea harengus, as they are available. The big gulls, Kittiwakes, Fulmars and sometimes Gannets also feed around trawlers, both by day and by night. The auks do not follow trawlers but feed by deep diving, while Kittiwakes, Fulmars and small petrels may also feed on plankton coming to the surface at night, though this has proved difficult to investigate. The skuas also appear to feed to a large extent at sea, occasional birds visiting fish shoals or trawlers, though comparatively few join the mixed flocks of other species feeding there. It is uncertain to what extent they rob other species when they are fully fed and leave the flocks. Shags travel up to 8 km (5 miles) out to sea to feed on small shoaling fish, especially sand-eels, but Cormorants feed mainly in the more 272 The birds of Orkney sheltered sounds where they take flat-fish (Heterosomata). The Black Guillemot feeds laigely on the bottom, where it takes many crustaceans, though small fish are brought to the young. The annual cycle of the birds has been discussed already in connec- tion with Shetland, where useful information is available from Fair Isle Bird Observatory (Bourne and Dixon 1974) ; this cycle is likely to be similar in Orkney. In general, some birds of most of the larger species are present throughout the year, but the nocturnal petrels, skuas, Lesser Black-backed Gull, terns and most Puffins migrate south in winter. They tend to be replaced by more individuals of the larger species and by variable numbers of Little Auks from the north. The birds leave the breeding colonies when the young fledge. With most species this occurs in July and August, after which they moult and many gather in parties along or just off the shore; the divers, sea duck and auks become flightless on the water. Fulmars and Guillemots return to the colonies in good weather by October, but most other species wait till the spring; Kittiwakes and Razorbills begin to return in January and February, most others in March or April and some long-distance migrants in May. The Red-throated Diver feeds almost entirely at sea but returns to its breeding area earlier than has normally been appreciated, often being recorded in March. A certain number of the more marine seabirds that are ringed to the north and east are recovered in Orkney, but no more than further down the east coast of Britain. It seems likely that once these birds have left their breeding places they are very mobile, often moving according to the weather. Having a large area of shallow, sheltered water round its coast, Orkney appears to be a much more Table 4. Principal counts of Long-tailed Ducks in Orkney during December 1973-March 1974 Long-tailed Ducks were also recorded in apparently good numbers (more than 50) off the west of Eday and around the north and west of Shapinsay. Stronsay and North Ronaldsay were not visited. Scattered parties can be seen in many parts of Orkney in winter, and the total Orkney wintering population may be of the order of 6,000 Scapa Flow 1,610 Eynhallow Sound 300 Wyre and Rousay Sounds 480 Off east of Egilsay 1 50 Off east and south of Wyre 580 Gairsay, mainly in Gairsay Sound 340 Westray/Papa Westray, mainly in Papa Sound 470 Sanday (figure considered low) 350 + Finstown to Deemess on Mainland 300 TOTAL 4>58o + The birds of Orkney 273 important wintering area for coastal species than Shetland. Con- siderable numbers of Shags, Eiders, Red-breasted Mergansers and Black Guillemots are present throughout the year, though their distributions in summer and winter are different. They are joined after the breeding season by Great Northern Divers, Velvet Scoters and quite large numbers of Long-tailed Ducks. The estimated population of this species, 6,000 in winter 1973/74 (table 4), is the largest recorded in Britain, though numbers may have been over- looked in the past elsewhere as the species tends to stay offshore where it is difficult to locate. A special study is being made of the birds wintering in Scapa I low before the oil terminal now being built becomes operational. It still remains to be found how many birds frequent the sounds between some of the North Isles and the period during which they are present. Virtually nothing is known about the food supplies of these birds in Orkney, which appear to be largely fish and shellfish feeding on the rich marine plankton swept through the sounds by the tide. The inter-tidal zone has also received little attention in Orkney as a habitat for birds. It is certainly exploited by large numbers of such species as Golden Plovers, Curlews, Redshanks and Common Gulls, which also feed on the adjacent farmland, and it may become °f particular importance for these and other birds in hard weather. Turnstones and Purple Sandpipers are common on many shores, while the sandy bays like those at Scapa, Deer Sound and Otters Wick hold such species as Bar-tailed Godwit, Knot and Dunlin, especially in the autumn. Some sea ducks come in with the tide to feed over this zone by diving, and large numbers of Wigeon, with fewer Mallard and Teal, can be found in many places. MOORS AND OTHER HEATHS The heather-dominated moors of Orkney have long been known for their rich bird community in summer. During 1974 the summer warden for the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Keith Hobbs, spent several months assessing the distribution and density of the birds breeding on 1,098 ha (2,713 acres) of the 1,857 ha (4,588 acres) of moorland owned or leased by the society on Main- land. His results are summarised in table 5 and show the diversity of the breeding bird community of a moderately typical Orkney moor. The actual numbers of pairs shown are considered reasonably accurate for the less common species but should be taken only as giving an indication of the density of those which are more numerous; the survey was concerned more with the distribution of species within the moorland habitat than with obtaining accurate density figures. 274 The birds of Orkney Table 5. Pairs of birds breeding on 1,098 ha (2,713 acres) of moorland in north Mainland, Orkney, in 1974 Asterisks refer to maximum counts of individuals Red-throated Diver 2 Curlew 139 Raven 1 Mallard 22 Redshank 5 Hooded Crow 1 Teal I Dunlin 2 Wren 26 Eider 2 Great Skua 5 Song Thrush I Red-breasted Merganser 4 Arctic Skua I I Blackbird 2 Hen Harrier 12 Great Black-backed Gull cn cc * Wheatear 3 Merlin 4 Lesser Black-backed Gull 714* Stonechat 7 Kestrel 3 Herring Gull 144* Robin I Red Grouse bred Common Gull 280* Sedge Warbler 3 Oystercatcher 3 Black-headed Gull 8 Meadow Pipit i55 Lapwing 20 Rock Dove 3 Starling bred Ringed Plover 1 Woodpigeon 5 Twite •3 Golden Plover 8 Short-eared Owl 6 Reed Bunting 20 Snipe 21 Skylark 269 As a bird habitat, the moors of Rousay and Eday are broadly similar, but the extensive moors on Hoy hold a rather different bird community. This is most marked with the birds of prey, Hen Harriers and Short-eared Owls certainly being less numerous on Hoy, and Merlins possibly so. The absence of the Orkney Vole Microtus arvalis orcadensis may provide one reason; others may be the greater average altitude, the difference in underlying rocks, and the comparatively small area of improved farmland surrounding the moors. It is interesting that the Kestrels breeding on Hoy feed their young entirely on young birds and nest later than those on Main- land (C. J. Booth, verbally) ; presumably their breeding season coincides with the maximum availability of food for the young which differs on the two islands. The only pair of Golden Eagles in Orkney breeds on Hoy and has apparently been successful every year since the birds returned to breed in 1966 after an absence of over a century. From observations made by Balfour, it appears that the young are fed largely on Fulmars and Blue Hares Lepus timidus. One or two pairs of Buzzards also breed annually on Hoy. Little is known about the extent to which the birds of prey and waders nesting on the moors feed there or on the adjoining farm- land. Certainly food is taken from the farmland in the breeding season, and at other times of the year very few birds are found on the moors. It seems likely that the fertility of the farmland, and perhaps of the rocks underlying the moors, is an important factor in the richness of the bird community. Another may be the low grazing pressure, as there are large areas of moorland which have not been grazed by farm animals for a long time, and there are no deer The birds of Orkney 275 (Cervidae) in Orkney. The absence of Stoats Mustela erminea and Foxes I'ttlpes vulpes reduces the risk of nest predation and may also reduce competition for prey, particularly voles. Fortunately, the illegal activities so often associated with game management in the south appear to be largely non-existent in Orkney. On these ungrazed moors the only significant influence by man on the plant and animal communities is from peat-digging and indiscriminate burning. This last is usually harmful; and it may also be necessary in the future to ensure that the activities of visiting birdwatchers do not adversely affect the nesting birds by causing undue disturbance. With the exception of the Black-headed Gull, the seabird species listed in table 5, together with the Arctic Tern, also dominate the bird community of many of the maritime heaths. It has already been pointed out that the numbers of Arctic Terns may have been under- estimated in the past. I he skuas breeding in Orkney were also counted again in i974> when virtually complete cover was ob- tained. Although all the results are not yet available, considerably larger numbers were found than in 1969, when in many areas the survey was confined to the coast, though there has clearly also been a further increase; the total for the Great Skua will probably be about 480 pairs and that for the Arctic Skua 660 pairs (C. J. Booth, verbally). FARMLAND In appendix 1 it is shown that comparatively few birds breed in this habitat but that it is important for feeding, and the brevity of this section reflects how little is known about its use by birds. It has already been noted that the good food supply provided by the fertile Orkney farmland may be one reason for the richness of the moorland breeding bird community. Outside the breeding season most of the species concerned are found on the farms, except for the divers, wildfowl and more marine seabirds. The very large flocks of waders, especially Lapwings, Golden Plovers and Curlews, are a particularly spectacular feature. They may be of national impor- tance and certainly merit further study. Only two species seem to rely wholly on farmland for breeding, the Corncrake and Corn Bunting, and both have declined in recent years, particularly on Mainland. To what extent changing farming practices have contributed is not clear, but they are likely to be a factor in the Corncrake’s decline, though others are probably operating as well. Much of the best Orkney farmland is interspersed with unim- proved ground, either areas of heath or poorly drained pasture. This adds to the ornithological interest, but it is pointed out else- where that changes are taking place. 276 The birds of Orkney FRESHWATER HABITATS The lochs of Orkney vary from eutrophic to oligotrophic, but there are few of the latter. They are often associated with marshes; and some, such as the Loch of Isbister and The Loons, the Loch of Banks and the wetlands on the island of Sanday, have quite rich breeding bird communities with eight species of duck, including Pintail (a rare breeding species in Britain), Shoveler in reasonable numbers, and occasionally Scaup and Pochard. This aspect of the breeding avi- fauna may be yet another that is inadequately studied. The density and diversity of breeding waders is also high; these include many Lapwings, Snipe, Curlews and Redshanks, with smaller numbers of Dunlins. Black-tailed Godwits have nested, and in each of the last three years (1972-74) a pair has been seen displaying and apparently defending territory, though breeding has not been proved. On some lochs situated close to cliff-nesting seabird colonies very large num- bers of Kittiwakes come to rest and bathe. In winter the richer lochs hold quite large flocks of wildfowl and a number of waters are counted regularly as part of the National Wildfowl Counts. Table 6 gives the 1 973 ^74 counts for the Loch of Harray, which holds the most wintering wildfowl in Orkney. The figures give an indication of the seasonal changes that occur, and a number of other lochs hold substantial populations of the same species. Table 6. Counts of principal species of wildfowl on the Loch of Harray, Orkney, in winter 1973/74 The December count was made after a period of frost, unusually severe for Orkney, when the loch had been frozen over Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Mallard 5 100 120 70 •74 9 9 Teal 0 25 O 2 30 0 0 Wigeon 420 1,665 350 209 606 484 750 Scaup 3 100 O O O 100 386 Tutted Duck 340 1,895 1,700 *,277 2,600 •,833 975 Pochard 60 2,085 2,200 168 700 2,830 992 Goldeneye O H 70 125 .78 85 106 Greylag Goose 0 30 50 7 56 0 100 Mute Swan 228 53 127 87 75 63 73 There are few burns of any size in Orkney, but a number of species nest beside them and their presence results in a considerable increase in the breeding bird diversity of the moors, as may be noted from table 5. Dippers used to breed in Orkney, and recently they have been recorded again on several burns in Hoy. In 1974 a pair of Grey Wagtails nested by a burn on Mainland. 277 The birds of Orkney WOODS, GARDENS AND BUILDINGS Although the total area of this habitat in Orkney is very small, it contributes considerably to the diversity of the breeding bird com- munity, with 14 species (15%) nesting almost wholly in it, as shown in appendix 1. The only natural wood surviving in Orkney, Berrie- dale in Hoy, holds rather few species, as do the Forestry Commission plantations on the same island. The planted woodlands such as Binscarth on Mainland, T1 rumland on Rousay and Balfour on Shapinsay are far richer for birds. Orkney’s only breeding Tree Sparrows are found in a mixed plantation above Carrick House on Eday, and Rooks breed in a number of woods and in sycamores Acer pseudoplatanus in Kirkwall and Stromness. THE FUTURE Too often the words ‘The Future’ in publications about the environ- ment preface a catalogue of dire warnings about hypothetical threats facing wildlife. There are certainly some changes taking place in Orkney that could be harmful to birds, but others could be bene- ficial. The number of species breeding regularly is almost identical with that in 1941 (Lack 1942-43), whereas the number detected breeding occasionally is significantly larger. This may be partly explained by improved observation, since more people are now tak- ing a sympathetic interest in birds than ever before, and also by a reduction in the casual destruction of birds and their eggs. This growing interest in and awareness of the islands’ exceptional bird- life is of great importance in helping to ensure that the increasing pace of change does not have harmful results. Oil will be extracted from and transported through the fertile seas around and between the islands in ever-increasing quantities, and Scapa Flow is to become an oil terminal. If any leaks occur in these open channels, with their tide-races, the oil will be spread rapidly far and wide, and the weather may often prevent much action to retrieve or disperse it. The Islands Council, with its new harbour powers, is in a position to restrict pollution of the Flow to a minimum, and has accepted its consultants’ conclusion that the area is of particular importance for its wintering birds. More re- search is needed to quantify this importance and the factors in- fluencing it. Public opinion must encourage the Council to use its powers effectively in an enlightened way. It is to be hoped that the present policy whereby the North Isles and the waters between them are to be shielded from development is never reversed. The situation out at sea gives cause for concern, as pollution there is more difficult to detect and controls are harder to enforce. If pollution were to become widespread there, it could cause a vast slaughter. However, out at sea the birds are usually widely scattered, 278 The birds of Orkney and with normal hazards only a small proportion of them are likely to be threatened. The situation would be very different if a large oil slick came under one of the great breeding cliffs, such as Noup Head or Marwick Head, where during the breeding season a large proportion of the birds are always sitting in groups on the water just offshore. If this happened, a substantial part of the national popu- lation of some species could be wiped out overnight. Even if there is no sudden disaster, chronic pollution might gradually erode these populations, which need to be monitored carefully to ensure they are maintaining their numbers. We also need to know more about the unusually rich moorland bird community and the way in which it survives and utilises the heaths and adjoining farms when so many comparable areas further south have lost their birds. Agricultural improvement and the reclamation of moors and marshes is a continuing feature of Orkney’s most important industry which is likely to find an incentive to expand in the future. Fortunately, there is no evidence of harmful effects on birdlife so far, but there must be a limit to the amount of breeding habitat the birds can afford to lose. Ideally the most important areas, which are not usually large or particularly important for agriculture, should be safeguarded as nature reserves. Perhaps also, as our knowledge increases, it will be possible to arrive at conser- vation agreements with some farmers and landowners whereby their land can be managed for the twin aims of profitable agriculture and the maintenance of a diverse wildlife. Conservation is a state of harmony between man and land (Leo- pold 1949) ; nature conservation is a state of harmony between man and nature. As man has evolved in Orkney he has helped to produce a county of great beauty and serenity with a rich and diverse scenery and wildlife. In this paper mainly subjective judgements have been made of the relative importance of one group of birds against another; these are necessary because priorities for action have to be established in nature conservation as in most other fields. But we must not forget that it is the whole community of living things, including man, which matters most and that the more diverse systems of plants and animals are normally the most stable. The human environment in Orkney will continue to change, as will the bird populations, but we now have more power than ever before to control these changes. Decisions must be taken in the full understanding that we are but a part of a vast community to which we have inescapable moral obligations as the dominant member. Only in this way can the partnership of man and nature, which is one of Orkney’s greatest assets, be preserved. 279 The birds of Orkney ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS YVe are particularly grateful to Mrs R. Balfour for making her late husband’s notes and records available to us. P. K. Kinnear and Roy H. Dennis have given valuable advice about the species breeding regularly in Shetland and in Caithness and Sutherland, respectively, and Eric Hardy directed our attention to the importance of William Bullock’s survey at the beginning of the 19th century. T. J. Dixon helped make the observations at sea; while, in addition to providing details of his observations on land, discussions with C. J. Booth on many aspects of this paper have been invaluable. Dr W. R. P. Bourne and 1 . J. Dixon are indebted to the Department of Agri- culture and Fisheries for Scotland and the Royal Air Force for assistance with surveys at sea and by air, which were carried out in the course of an investigation of the distribution and ecology of birds at sea financed by a grant from the Natural Environment Research Council to Professor G. M. Dunnet at the Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen. SUMMARY Orkney is remarkable for its rich and varied environment and wildlife. It provides a breeding-place for many seabirds feeding in the biologically productive area of mixing where water from the Atlantic enters the North Sea. These include over a fifth of the British populations of the Arctic Skua, Great Black-backed Gull, Kittiwake, Arctic Tern, Common and Black Guillemots. Where these waters are swept by the tide through its many sounds there are equally rich invertebrate populations exploited by many shore and water birds, including one of the largest British winter populations of Long-tailed Duck. Some of these sea, shore and water birds breed on the moors, farms and wetlands. The occurrence of many voles in the absence of ground and human predators has also resulted in the development of an unusually rich moorland bird community, including the most important population of Hen Harriers in Britain. Many of the shore and moorland birds go to feed on the exceptionally productive agricultural land, now diversified again with a few trees after a period of total deforestation, so that there has also been an influx of woodland and agricultural species in recent years. Care is required to protect this important natural heritage, particularly in the face of the development of Scapa Flow as a North Sea oil terminal. REFERENCES Balfour, E. 1955. ‘Kestrels nesting on the ground in Orkney’. Bird Notes, 26: 245-253- 1968. ‘Breeding birds of Orkney’. Scot. Birds, 5: 89-104. 1972. Orkney Birds, Status and Guide. Stromness. , Anderson, A., and Dunnet, G. M. 1967. ‘Orkney Cormorants— their breeding distribution and dispersal’. Scot. Birds, 4: 481-493. , and Cadbury, C. J. 1975. ‘A population study of the Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) in Orkney’. In The Natural Environment of Orkney, edited by R. Goodier. NCC, Edinburgh. Bourne, W. R. P., and Dixon, T. J. 1974. ‘The seabirds of Shetland’. In The Natural Environment of Shetland, edited by R. Goodier. NCC, Edinburgh. (Reprinted in Seabird Rep., 4: 1-18.) Buckley, T. E., and Harvie-Brown, J. A. 1891. A Vertebrate Fauna of the Orkney Islands. Edinburgh. Bullard, E., and Johnston, J. L. 1975. ‘Orkney habitats: an oudine and ecolo- gical framework’. In The Natural Environment of Orkney, edited by R. Goodier. NCC, Edinburgh. 280 The birds of Orkney Cramp, S., Bourne, W. R. P., and Saunders, D. 1974. The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland. London. Dunnet, G. M. 1975- 'Seabird studies on Eynhallow’. In The Natural Environment of Orkney, edited by R. Goodier. NCC, Edinburgh. Groundwater, W. 1974. Birds and Mammals of Orkney. Kirkwall. Hammond, N. 1975. ‘The counting of terns and auks on the Westray group’. In The Natural Environment of Orkney, edited by R. Goodier. NCC, Edinburgh. Lack, D. 1942-43. ‘The breeding birds of Orkney’. Ibis, 84: 461-484; 85: 1-27. Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. New York. Lloyd, C. S., Bibby, C. J., and Everett, M. J. 1975. ‘Breeding terns in Britain and Ireland in 1969-74’. Brit. Birds, 68: 221-238. Montagu, G. 1813. Supplement to the Ornithological Dictionary, or Synopsis of British Birds. London. Newton, A. 1898. ‘On the Orcadian home of the Garefowl {Ale a impennis)’ . Ibis, 7 (4) = 587-592- Parslow, J. 1973. Breeding Birds of Britain and Ireland. Berkhamsted. Ratcliffe, D. A. 1972. ‘The Peregrine population of Great Britain in 1971’. Bird Study, 19: 117-156. Robinson, H. W. 1934. ‘First nesting of Leach’s Fork-tailed Petrel in Orkney’. Scot. Nat. (1934): 93. Voous, K. H. i960. Atlas of European Birds. London. Williamson, K. 197°- The Atlantic Islands. London. Second edition. Appendix 1. Regular breeding species, some common passage migrants and winter visitors, and their use of habitats on Orkney Each species is given a number of points equal to the number of habitats, 5 for breeding and 6 for feeding. It is then ‘scored’ according to the extent to which it regularly uses each habitat. The habitat categories are S (sea), C (coastal), F (farmland), W (wetland — freshwater), M (moorland) and G (gardens, woods and buildings). The last column gives the order of abundance, as follows: 1=1-9 pairs; 2 = 10-99; 3 = 100-999; 4 = 1,000-9,999; 5 = 10,000-99,999 ; 6 = 1 00,000 -f- BREEDING FEEDING CFWMG S C FWMG Order Regular breeders Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata I 4 - 6 2 Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis - - 5 ~ - 6 - - 2 Fulmar Fulmar us glacialis 5 6 5 Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus 5 6 3 Storm Petrel Hydrobates pelagicus 5 6 4 Gannet Sula bassana 5 6 4 Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo 5 6 3 Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis 5 6 4 Grey Heron Ardea cinerea 5 - 4 - 2 - - I Mallard Anas platyrhynchos - - 3 2 - - 1 2 3 - - 3/4 Teal Anas crecca - - 4 1 - — 1 - 5 - - 3 Wigeon Anas penelope - - 2 3 - - 2 2 2 2 Pintail Anas acuta - - 5 - “ 6 - - I Shoveler Anas clypeata - - 5 - - 6 - - 2 Tufted Duck Ay thy a fuligula - - 5 - “ 6 - - 3 Eider Somateria mollissima 3 - - 2 - 6 4 The birds of Orkney 281 Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serralor Shelduck Tadorna tadorna Mute Swan Cygnus olor Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos Buzzard Buteo buteo Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus Peregrine Falco peregrinus Merlin Falco columbarius Kestrel Falco tinnunculus Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus Pheasant Phasianus colchicus Corncrake Crex crex Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Coot Fulica atra Oystercatcher Haematopus oslralegus Lapwing Vaneltus vanellus Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria Snipe Gallinago gallinago Curlew Numenius arquata Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos Redshank Tringa totanus Dunlin Calidris alpina Great Skua Stercorarius skua Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus Herring Gull Larus argentatus Common Gull Larus canus Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla Common Tern Sterna hirundo Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis Razorbill Alca torda Guillemot Uria aalge Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle Puffin Fratercula arctica Rock Dove Columba livia YVoodpigeon Columba palumbus Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Cuckoo Cuculus canorus Long-eared Owl Asio otus Short-eared Owl Asio fiammeus Skylark Alauda arvensis Swallow Hirundo rustica Raven Corvus corax Hooded Crow Corvus corone Rook Corvus frugilegus Jackdaw Corvus monedula Wren Troglodytes troglodytes Song Thrush Turdus philomelos BREEDING FEEDING CFWMG SCFWMG Order I - 3 * - 4 - 2 — 3 - 1 1 - 3 3 — — 5 - - 5 — — - 5 - 2 — 4 - — - 5 - - - 1 - 5 - — - 5 - - - 3 - 3 - 5 - — — — ~ 3 1 1 1 - — - 5 - - I 3 - 2 - 2 - - 2 1 - - 5 - I “ — - 5 - - - — 6 - - 2 - - 3 - - 4 - - 2 - 5 6 - — 5 - - - I • 4 — 3 2 — - 4 2 - — - 3 1 1 - - - 5 » — 4 - I - 5 - I — — — - 5 - - I 4 - I - “ I 2 2 - - I 2 2 1 - - 1 1 3 - - I 4 - I - - 2 2 1 - - 2 3 1 — — 3 2 - - 3 1 1 I ~ I “ - 4 - 4 2 — — 2 - - 3 - 4 1 — 1 - 2 - “ 3 - 3 I I - 1 - 1 - - 4 - 5 - I - — 3 - - 2 - 4 I I - — I - 1 3 - I 1 2 1 I - — 4 1 - I I 2 2 — 5 - — 6 - — — 3 1 I 6 - — — 3 1 I 6 — — — 2 2 I 6 — — _ _ 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 6 4 1 6 32 5 - 2 - 3 - 14 1 4- 12-2 — 5 4--1- 2 1 — 1 1 5 4 1 1 1 - 2 1 - - 4 - 1 1 - - 1 - - 5 2-3 1 3-12 --3-3- -13-2- - - 5 _ _ 1 -22—2 — - I 4 - I - 6 - - 6 -21-21 5 2 4 3 2 2/3 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 4 4 3 3 4 4 3/4 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 3 5 3 4 6 4 5 4 3 3 1 1 4 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 282 The birds of Orkney BREEDING C FWMG FEEDING SC FWMG Order Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus Blackbird Turdus merula Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe Stonechat Saxicola torquata Robin Erithacus rubecula Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus Goldcrest Regulus regulus Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata Dunnock Prunella modularis Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis Rock Pipit Anthus spinoletta Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba Starling Sturnus vulgaris Greenfinch Carduelis chloris Linnet Acanthis cannabina Twite Acanthis flcwirostris Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra Yellowhammer Emberiza citnnella Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus Flouse Sparrow Passer domesticus Tree Sparrow Passer montanus Passage migrants and winter visitors Great Northern Diver Gavia immer — — — 5 — — _ 6 I - - - 2 3 - - 2 - 2 2 4 3 - - 2 - - 2 2 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 3 - - - 2 - 4 - 2 — — - 5 - - - - - 6 2 I 4 - - - I 5 - - 2 — - — 5 - - - - - 6 I - - - - 5 - - - - - 6 I - - - - 5 - - - - - 6 I - - - - 5 - - - - — 6 2 I I - 3 - - I 3 - 2 - 4 5 — — — ~ 5 - - I - 4 I 2 I I - I 2 2 - I 3 I I I 2 - 2 3 - - I 4 - — — 5 - ~ - - - 6 I - 2 - I 2 - - 3 - 1 2 3 I I 2 I - I 2 - 2 1 4 — ~ - 5 ■ - 2 - - 4 2 - 5 - - 6 - - - 2 - I - 4 - - - 4 - 2 - I - I 2 2 - - - 2 2 I I 3 — — — 5 - - 3 - - 3 4 — 5 — — 2 - “ 4 2 Scaup Aythya marila 6 - - Pochard Aythya ferine 6 - - Goldeneye Bucephala clangula 3 3 Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis 5 1 Velvet Scoter Melanitta fusca 6 White-fronted Goose A user albifrons - - 6 Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus - - 3 3 - - Turnstone Arenaria interpres - 5 1 Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica - 5 , Knot Calidris canutus - 6 Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritime _6 Fieldfare Turdus pilaris 4-1 1 Redwing Turdus iliacus 4-1 1 Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis - 2 3 - 1 - Expressed as percentages of the total possible score, the results of totalling the , columns are as follows: BREEDING FEEDING Sea — 23.O Coastal habitats 28.0 •3-5 Farmland habitats 9-5 26.0 Wetland habitats '7-5 I5.O Moorland habitats 25-5 I 1.0 Gardens, woods and buildings 19-5 ”•5 Plate 40. Purple Sandpiper CalitJris maritima on nest (bottom centre) in typical tundra habitat. Spitsbergen. August 1973 (photo: C. R. Knights) (pages 284-288 Plate 41. More shots of Purple Sandpipers in Spitsbergen, August 1973. Above, the bird in plate 40 standing on stone beside its nest, allowing close approach ot man {photo: M. A. Ogilvie). Below, ‘rodent-run’: head low to ground, back hunched, wings trailing and tail fanned {photo: C. R. Knights) (pages 286-287) Plath 42. Purple Sandpiper incubating on nest at about 1,650 metres above sea level, Norway, June 1970 {photo: R. G. Carlson). Below, bird in winter plu- mage (darker, less rufous and more uniform on back, head and breast than during the breeding season), Glamorgan, November 1973 {photo: h'rri Williams page 284 Plate 43. Winter flocks of Purple Sandpipers, Cornwall, March 1971 (above) and February 1972 ( photos : J. B. and S. Bottomley ). The nine above were resting and preening on the Battery Rocks, Penzance, where up to 50 winter every year 1 mjp' W* .. 4 i jv Ik* ' ->^J The birds of Orkney 2gg Appendix 2. Scientific names of bird species mentioned in the text and tables but not in appendix i Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus Leach’s Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa Bittern Botaurus stellaris Gadwall Anas strepera Common Scoter Melanitla nigra King Eider Somateria spectabilis Goosander Mergus merganser Greylag Goose Anser anser Pink-footed Goose Anser brachyrhynchus Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix Partridge Perdix perdix Quail Coturnix coturnix Dotterel Eudromias morinellus Woodcock Scolopax rusticola Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola Greenshank Tringa nebularia Red-necked Phalaropc Phalaropus lobatu. Little Tern Sterna albi/rons Great Auk Pinguinus impennis Little Auk Plautus alle Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca Tawny Owl Strix aluco Swift Apus apus Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major House Martin Delichon urbica Sand Martin Riparia riparia Magpie Pica pica Great Tit Pams major Blue Tit Pams caeruleus Coal Tit Pams ater Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatus Treecreeper Certhia familiaris Dipper Cinclus cinclus Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus Whinchat Saxicola rubetra Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicums Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla Garden Warbler Sylvia borin Whitethroat Sylvia communis Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix Free Pipit Anthus trivialis White Wagtail Motacilla a. alba Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea Siskin Carduelis spinus Redpoll Acanthis flammea Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula David Lea , Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Easter Sower, Orbhir, Orkney kwi 7 2 re Dr IV. R.P. Bourne, The Seabird Group, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen abq 2tn Studies of less familiar birds *77 Purple Sandpiper M. A. Ogilvie Photographs by J. B. and S. Bottomley, R. G. Carlson , C. R. Knights , M. A. Ogilvie and Keri Williams Plates 40-43 The Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima has featured in this series before (Swanberg et at. 1950) but the text then was very brief and some new photographs are now available (plates 40-43). It is a dumpy purplish-grey wader, not unlike a rather large, stocky Dunlin C. alpina. It is generally darker in colour than its relatives and has dull yellow legs, which are a good field character. The adults are similar in plumage and in winter have a dark brown head, neck, breast and back, the last showing a purplish gloss. The throat is whitish, and the darker breast pales gradually towards the white of the belly and flanks. The latter have fine darker markings, lorming narrow lines. In the breeding plumage the general effect is lighter with rufous edgings to the back feathers and pale edgings to those of the head and breast. Its resemblance to a Dunlin, though without the black belly, is then closer. In flight a whitish wing-bar on the secondaries is distinctive, as is the white underwing. There is a dark line down the rump. The bill is dark brown with a yellowish base. The female’s bill is longer than the male’s with very little overlap; with experience this difference can be used to sex the birds in the field. In winter and summer this is among the tamest of the waders, and it is quite usual to be able to approach a single bird or a flock on a rocky shore to within a matter of metres, when identification should be beyond doubt. On the nest, too, the bird sits very tightly (plate 41a). Purple Sandpipers make little noise in winter, just a soft twittering when in a flock. On the breeding grounds there are a number of different calls. The main ones are (1) the display call, described by Keith (1938) as a ‘wheezy “prie-r-r-r-r” on a slightly descending scale’; (2) an alarm note which is a high-pitched trill; and (3) a rather complicated song which has been variously put into words in the literature (Keith 1938, Witherby et at. 1940, Bengtson 1970) and is essentially a series of short notes, each repeated three or four times, strung together into a song. This usually ends with the 284 Purple Sandpiper studies wheezy descending display call. Each song may last for several seconds. In winter Purple Sandpipers are almost exclusively coastal birds, frequenting mainly rocky shores. Even where they occur on sandy or muddy shores they will virtually always be found on interspersed stony patches or on man-made breakwaters and piers. In summer they live on arctic tundra (plate 40) and, to the south of the arctic, on bare mountain sides and hilltops. The breeding range is nearly circumpolar, in the Canadian arctic islands and a fringe of the mainland, west and east Greenland, Iceland, Spitsbergen, northern Scandinavia, Novaya Zemlya, and the coast of Siberia east to the 1 aimyr Peninsula. In Norway and Sweden the range comes quite far south but is restricted to high ground. The closely related Rock Sandpiper C. ptilocnemis (often regarded as conspecific) replaces the I urple Sandpiper in Alaska and on the Bering Sea islands. The breeding season in the high arctic begins late, with the earliest completed clutch recorded in Spitsbergen on 7th June, and the peak laying peiiod falling in the last two weeks of the month (Lovenskiold 1964). When the Purple Sandpipers arrive at the breeding grounds in the aictic the ground is usually completely snow-covered. Until the melt begins the birds resort to the shoreline, feeding among storm-driven seaweed. Within the feeding flocks the birds are clearly paired (Bengtson 1970). Breeding territories arc taken up as soon as snow-free land appears. There is no information on the size of territories but Hartley and Fisher (1936) found that in one valley area of Spitsbergen the normal density of pairs was about two per mile (1.6 km). In another part of Spitsbergen I found three broods between 300 and 400 metres apart. Bengtson (1970) observed courtship flights covering up to 700 metres of tundra, and a bird in distraction display for up to 1,200 metres. The male performs territorial flights which take him to 30 to 40 metres above the ground, where he flies round in large circles before descending rapidly in a steep glide with his wings held above his back. The flight is invariably accompanied by the song already described. Other territorial flights consist of flying with slow abrupt wing beats, and gliding in circles while uttering the display call. Finally the male may glide with his wings quivering and held below the horizontal, not unlike a displaying Redshank Tringa totanus meanwhile giving the display call. On the ground the Purple Sandpiper has a number of display postures (Bengtson 1970). These are used for territorial defence, courtship, aggression, and as a response to disturbance. The most characteristic is the ‘wing-lift’ where one or both wings are stretched vertically above the back and held there for a few seconds, though occasionally for as long as 20 seconds. This action exposes the con- 286 Purple Sandpiper studies spicuous white underwing. Wing-lift is adopted in courtship, in aggressive situations, and also when the birds have been disturbed. It has even been seen in young only two to three days old (Swanberg 1945). Another attitude used when the birds are disturbed or alarmed is the ‘erect posture’. Here the bird stands looking very alert with the head and neck stretched up but the bill held horizon- tally or slightly downward. Alarm calls are usually uttered at the same time. Finally the bird may crouch, with its head and neck lowered, and legs slightly bent. When running in this position it somewhat resembles a small rodent but this is not the true ‘rodent- run’ which will be described below. Crouching is adopted in aggres- sive situations, or in chases between the pair. Courtship flights take place over the territory in the period before and probably during egg-laying. The male follows the female in fast erratic flight, usually close to the ground. The flight ends when the male overtakes the female and glides in front of her on stiff wings, uttering the display call. Chases on the ground with both birds in the crouching position are also common, and are often followed by wing-lifting by both birds. The nest is a circular cup in the tundra about 10 cm in diameter and 5-7 cm deep. The top is flush with the ground (plates 40, 42a). The male makes a number of such cups (Bengtson 1970) or just one extra ‘cock’s-nest’ (Keith 1938), and the female then selects one and lays in it. The nest cups are very persistent and can be found almost unchanged as they emerge from the melting snow in the year fol- lowing use. Presumably they fill with snow at the first autumn fall and this then freezes and helps preserve the shape. The nest is invariably lined with tiny leaves, often of willow Salix, but how much of this is deliberately added by the birds and how much merely falls or blows in is not clear. The usual clutch is four, occasionally three. The eggs have a green ground colour which fades to olive or even light brown; this is blotched and spotted with purplish brown markings. Bengtson (1970) stated that both sexes participate in the incubation, though without specifying in what proportions, but according to the standard reference books (e.g. Witherby et al. 1940) incubation is chiefly by the male, with the female taking a smaller share. Loven- skiold (1964) quoted a number of observers who found only males incubating but also mentioned a collector who took females with brood patches, thus suggesting that both sexes took part. The incubating bird sits very tightly and will not flush until almost trodden on. When disturbed from the nest it will flutter off over the ground in a distraction display called a ‘rodent-run’ (plate 41). Its head is held close to the ground, the back is distinctly humped, while the wings are trailing and fluttering on the ground. Purple Sandpiper studies 287 The tail is fanned, exposing the prominent dark line down the middle of the back and giving a most lifelike imitation of a rat or other small rodent, with the wings looking like the animal’s back legs, and the dark line simulating the tail. A description and possible interpretation of this display were given by Duffey et al. (1950). A rodent-run can lead the observer, or a dog, as much as 1,200 metres from the nest before the bird gives up and flies off. Not only does the incubating bird sit tight but it is very difficult to follow back to the nest, making this one of the harder wader species to locate. It is probably just as quick to walk an area in which a nest is suspected and to try to flush the incubating bird. The winter food of the Purple Sandpiper has been studied in some detail by Feare (1966a) who made observations on two flocks on the North Yorkshire coast. He found that there the principal foods were winkles Lillorina spp and Common Dogwhelks Thais lapillus. Common Mussels Mytilus edulis and Shore Crabs Carcinus maenas were also important. The birds fed throughout the daylight hours whenever the tide permitted, working up and down the shore keeping close to the water’s edge. Their diet therefore reflected the zonal distribution of the various littoral organisms. Small quantities of other animals were taken, also occasional fragments of green algae. Feare concluded from his investigation that Purple Sandpipers were an integral part of the littoral fauna in his study area. However it was pointed out by Waters (1966) and agreed by Feare (1966b) that they are not exclusively coastal and can be found inland feeding on grassy island tops, or among resting Grey Seals Halichoerus grypus, where they are not restricted by the tide. In summer Purple Sandpipers will take both animal and veget- able matter. In the arctic they may have to rely entirely on plants in the periodic absences of insects, and Le Roi found only vegetable remains in 18 out of 25 stomachs examined, principally small leaves and seeds (Witherby et al. 1940). Summerhayes and Elton ( 1 923> l92&) recorded large numbers of springtails (Collembola) and flies (Diptera) being taken from rotting seaweed on the storm beach, as well as the oligochaete worm Lumbricillus aegialites, which occurs in the intertidal zone. Among freshwater insects taken from small pools and marshes were chironomid flies Chironomus spp. Purple Sandpipers winter in the more southerly parts of their breeding range including areas of southern Greenland, Iceland and northern Norway where the shore stays ice-free. In these parts they may be sedentary or the breeding birds may have moved south to be replaced by migrants from further north. They are probably the most northerly wintering waders in the world. Elsewhere they winter in the temperate zone around the shores of Britain and Ireland, the North Sea and the Baltic, and on the eastern seaboard of North 288 Purple Sandpiper studies America as far south as New York State. Stragglers have been reported further south on both sides of the Atlantic. REFERENCES Bengtson, S.-A. 1970. ‘Breeding behaviour of the Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima in West Spitsbergen’. Ornis Scand., 1 : 1 7-25. Duffey, E., Creasey, N., and Williamson, K. 1950. ‘The “Rodent-run” distrac- tion-behaviour of certain waders’. Ibis, 92: 27-33. Feare, C. J. 1966a. ‘The winter feeding of the Purple Sandpiper’. Brit. Birds, 59: 165-179. 1966b. ‘Purple Sandpipers feeding above the littoral zone’. Brit. Birds, 59: 346-348- Hartley, C. H., and Fisher, J. 1936. ‘The marine food of birds in an inland fjord-region in West-Spitsbergen. Part 2. Birds’. J. Anim. Ecol., 5: 370-389. Keith, D. B. 1938- Observations on the Purple Sandpiper in Northeastland’. Proc. Zool- Soc. Lond., io8a: 185-194. Lovenskiold, H. L. 1964- Avifauna Svalbardensis. Oslo. Summerhayes, V. S., and Elton, C. S. 1923- ‘Contributions to the ecology of Spitsbergen and Bear Island’. J. Ecol., 1 1 : 214-286. 1928. ‘Further contributions to the ecology of Spitsbergen’. J. Ecol., 16: 193-246. Swanberg, P. O. 1945. ‘Om skarsniippan, Calidris m. maritima (Briinnich), i de svenska fjallen och dess hackningsbiologi’. Fauna och Flora, 40: 108-133, I54"I69. , Yeates, G. K., and Des Forges, C. G. 1950. ‘Studies of some species rarely photographed. XXV. The Purple Sandpiper’. Brit. Birds, 43: 112-113, plates 18-25. Waters, E. 1966. ‘Purple Sandpipers feeding above the littoral zone’. Brit. Birds, 59: 345-346. Witherby, H. F., el al. 1940. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 3. M. A. Ogilvie, The Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucester GL2 Jbt Viewpoint M. Shrubb Michael Shrubb is a farmer by profession and an ornithologist by preference. He farms in south-west Sussex, in an area notable for birds, and finds re- conciling modem farming with a consuming interest in birds increasingly difficult. Conservation on the farm — where next? We are frequently told of the artificial nature of the English country- side. Artificial, that is, in the sense that it has been manipulated by man for his own purposes for centuries. There is no chance that we will stop such manipulations, being far too dependent on the end products, such as raw materials and food. Changes in the forms of management are inevitable, and marked changes in management will affect populations of wild animals and plants, sometimes very considerably. It is human preferences and needs, rather than anything else, which decide our policies in conservation and land-use and, with agriculture, these are producing an increasing dilemma. Although the need for effective food production is undeniable, there is no doubt that most people prefer the agreeable diversity of what has come to be regarded as the traditional English landscape to the intensely cultivated plain with which it is slowly being replaced by modern agriculture. Basically we urge this landscape’s conservation for this reason, which is sensible; we have to live here too. I have already touched on this subject in a recent letter in this joui nal (Brit. Birds, 68: 165*167) and I wish to develop my argu- ment for, as a farmer, I suspect that the days of this varied land- scape may be numbered. Technically agriculture is becoming lapidly more sophisticated and it is now possible to create over large aieas a true monoculture, that is, areas devoted to one crop) — no hedges, no trees, no other plant or habitat at all except the cereal or other crops the farmer plants and removes in regular rotation. Even ten years ago this ability was probably not available to farmers and the techniques are being refined and improved, made cheaper and being more widely applied the whole time. I am concerned that the thinking of conservation bodies here apparently lags far behind the evolution of agriculture. As a small example, I noted, in reading Dr R. K. Murton and N. J. Westwood’s paper in British Birds (67: 41-69), that all the papers dealing with agricultural practice quoted were five to ten years out of date, a long time in this industry-. I have received this impression from other sources too, and suggest that the conservation movement in general is much too readily dis- posed to accept unchallenged systems of farming (or, in fact, indus- trial or other development) which are basically inimical to wildlife 289 2 9° Viewpoint but which are urged as being economically necessary or in the public interest by their proponents. This is not to belittle the work of such bodies as the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group, which has done much to ameliorate and to publicise to farmers the effects of agri- cultural change on wildlife. But I feel that this can only be a hol- ding operation and would suggest that we should now be looking at what is likely to happen in the future just as closely as what is hap- pening today, and I offer three basic points which should be con- sidered. There is little doubt that the world produces less food than its peoples need: a year like 1974, with its near-disasters to crops in several countries, underlines this. With increasing international concern for this problem the United Kingdom, which is, to some extent as the result of deliberate policy, no more self-sufficient in food than Bangladesh, is likely to come under great political pressure to reduce its import of foods which could be diverted to more needy customers. If this pressure becomes really effective, we shall be obliged to produce far more food at home as cheaply as possible. Until now doing this has meant increasing intensification in agriculture, with the farmer’s capital and resources being steadily concentrated on fewer enterprises. Such specialisation inevitably produces an increasingly monotonous and unattractive landscape. Ornithology has played a large part in showing the effects of this process on our wildlife, as birdwatchers are well organised and birds comparatively easily studied, although I suspect that their reliability as indicators of the effects of changes is limited in some respects by their adaptability and mobility and that attention must be paid to other groups. So far, however, it seems to be the specialised bird or other creature or plant needing, for example, wetlands or a particular type of scrub or grassland which has suffered most, and with more widespread species changes in distribution or numbers have been more local than general. Thus it may be arguable that the effects of this agricultural revolution on the wildlife of our countryside have been comparatively limited, when viewed in this wider context. I regard this as a dangerously complacent argument. The agricultural revolution is not going to stop at its present point and, as its course proceeds to its logical conclusion, more species will be more widely affected. On my own farm, for example, about 70% of the common breeding bird species — Kestrel, three pigeons, Cuckoo, two owls, four corvids, three tits, Wren, three thrushes, Robin, four warblers, Dunnock, Starling, five finches, a bunting and a sparrow — depend partly or entirely on features the intensive arable farmer particul- arly no longer needs or wants, leaving perhaps a duck and one of two rails, three gamebirds, Lapwing, perhaps Stock Dove (mine are Viewpoint 2gj mainly in buildings), an owl, a lark, Swallow, a pipit, one or two buntings and a sparrow. The proportion at risk is probably very much higher with wild flowers (weeds to the farmer) and, for example, butterflies. A second option is available: to move back to older, mixed systems of farming in which farm animals, and the crops grown for them, provide much of what we now supply to arable crops from the chemical bottle and fertiliser bag. Allied with greatly improved plant-breeding techniques, there is no reason why satisfactory yields cannot be maintained with such methods. The choice is very largely a matter of business economics, and I am convinced that this switch from specialised to mixed systems of agriculture is necessary to retain the diversity we desire in the countryside. Clearly, all a farmer really needs to grow just corn or sugar beet or vegetables or other crops intensively is a field of the acreage he intends to plant and a store for his tools and crop. Once animals, particularly cattle or sheep, are introduced, crops and cultivations become more varied (which can be shown by the Ministry of Agriculture June Census statistics) and fences and shelter are widely needed, as well as more varied buildings. T his only outlines, in a much oversimplified way, the result of this switch from intensive arable to a mixed system. But a move from intensive dairying or other stock enterprise to a mixed system is probably just as important. Intensive stock farming provides its own problems for conservation, such as the disposal of effluent or the application of very high levels of nitrogen to pasture. Two strands are important in this argument. Features of the farmland habitat, such as hedgerows, originally appeared to serve a useful purpose in a mixed farm economy and will inevitably disappear if they become useless. Secondly, mixed farms are economically better balanced and, in general, there is less pressure to make the utmost out of every square yard. It must be understood, however, that Government policy, through the instrument of an increasingly controlled and artificial price structure in the industry, is very largely responsible for setting trends in agricultural practice; food production is too politically sensitive an area for politicians to leave alone. Therefore, to achieve this basic switch in our farming systems, conservation bodies should be urging it as a long-term policy on those responsible for deciding the future of the industry, and there are strong arguments to support their case. Many farmers have discovered recently how specialisation, w ith its heavy capitalisation and dependence on bought-in materials, can often be economically unsound practice, particularly in an era w’hen the most obvious results of the fiscal policy of successive governments are severe inflation and punitive interest rates. Being better balanced, mixed farms are also always better able to resist 292 Viewpoint the strains produced by the marked swings which are a feature of today s markets and a by-product of inflation and arbitrary changes in government measures affecting the industry. My third point concerns land tenure. Changes in capital taxation now proposed are likely to result in marked changes in the way land in this country is held. Historically such changes have usually markedly altered the countryside’s appearance, and this seems equally likely today. Conservation bodies have made representa- tions, for example about the possible effects of the proposed wealth tax on our woodlands, but I am concerned here with the cumula- tive effect of a wealth tax superimposed on a capital transfer tax superimposed on the existing capital gains tax, as is at present intended. The long-term result of this tax structure will be to exchange the existing system of individual ownership of smallish units of land for a corporate ownership of much larger units, whether by the State, existing commercial companies or institutions or by an entirely new type of corporate ownership evolving out of the present system. For conservation this change would have two powerful disadvantages. It would make it much more difficult to obtain decisions or agreements from an increasingly bureaucratic form of ownership or management. More important, it would result in much more uniform management of increasingly large areas of land, often controlled by people who do not live on them, management which is likely to be increasingly based on the single criterion of return on capital employed. It should be noted that land ownership and management by many intensely independent individuals has con- tributed much variety to the landscape, which will probably dis- appear. One may well ask what all this has to do with birds. Conservation as we now understand it is ultimately about land-use; and I am quite sure that on the decisions taken on these basic questions of how much food we produce in our country, what basic form will the agriculture which produces it take, and how will the land where this agriculture is practised be held, depends the sort of countryside and birdlife succeeding generations may, or may not, enjoy. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds Notes Golden Eagle eating Fulmars On the Isle of Eigg, Lochaber, Highland, a pair of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos apparently nests on the ioo-metre north-west-facing sea cliffs, a haunt more typical of the White-tailed Eagle Haliaetus albicilla. During a fortnight’s stay on the island in late August 1972, I discovered food remains on a ledge on these cliffs that was used as a feeding base by one of the eagles. The three pellets present contained a skull of a Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, a complete beak and some feathers of a Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis, and assorted bones of both species. Beside these lay a complete and freshly stripped skeleton of a second Fulmar still bearing drops and smears of unclotted blood. Dr D. A. Bannerman (1956, The Birds of the British Isles, vol. 5) mentioned both Bald Eagles H. leucocephalus and Peregrines Falco peregrinus taking Fulmars; while the late James Fisher (1952, The Fulmar) recorded Bald and White-tailed Eagles as major predators of this species. In view of the presence of large numbers of Rabbits over the whole of the island, it would appear rather curious that the Golden Eagles on Eigg should take Fulmars, firstly because of their relative scarcity and secondly because of the difficulty of catching them while avoiding the oil ejected by the victims (see, e.g., Brit. Birds, 67: 297-301). The possibility of a Peregrine having made the kills cannot be ruled out, though no Peregrines were seen on Eigg by myself and my two companions during our stay. David M. Hawker Walnut Tree House, ig Wycome Road, Hall Green, Birmingham B28 9EN David Lea has seen dead Fulmars at or close by the Golden Eagle eyrie on Hoy, Orkney (see page 262), and the late E. Balfour told him of an incident he had witnessed of an eagle on Hoy actually taking a Fulmar in flight; it is also known in the Inner Hebrides. Leslie H. Brown, in a paper on Golden Eagles in north-west Suther- land {Brit. Birds, 62: 345-363), stated (page 355) that ‘one pair of eagles fed extensively on Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis in late June and July [1967], and must have travelled eight to ten miles to catch them, the nest could be located by the smell of Fulmars’; but no evidence of Fulmar prey could be found in the eyries of the 17 other pairs studied, and incidentally there was no evidence at all of gulls being eaten. Eds Feeding association between Little Grebes and feral domestic ducks The note by J. F. Reynolds (Brit. Birds, 67: 477) on a feeding association between a Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis and two Hottentot Teal Anas hottentata reminded me of an incident 293 294 Notes I observed on the River Eden near Appleby, Cumbria, on 20th December 1973? involving two Little Grebes Tachybaptus ruficollis and four feral domestic ducks A. platyrhynchos. The two grebes fol- lowed the ducks, twice crossing the stream where it was 20 metres wide. They progressed upstream with the ducks about 250 metres in 15 minutes, feeding voraciously in sandy stretches averaging 25-50 cm in depth; it seemed obvious that they were taking advantage of the dabbling of the ducks. This was the third occasion on which I had seen Little Grebes in company with these ducks within the course of a few weeks, and I had suspected this behaviour previously. R. W. Robson The Ings, Banks Lane , Appleby, Cumbria cai6 6ra Feeding associations have been recorded between Little Grebes and Shoveler A. clypeata ( Wildfowl Trust Ann. Rep., 14: 172), Cape Shoveler A. smithi (Ibis, 1 1 3 : 236-238), and Coots Fulica atra (Brit. Birds, 49: 501; Dr K. E. L. Simmons in litt .); as well as between Black-throated Little Grebes T. novaehollandiae and Australian Black Duck A. superciliosa (Emu, 59: 207), Coots and a Dusky Moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa (Brit. Birds, 50: 351-352; Emu, 58: 129). Eds Marsh Sandpipers associating with feeding Avocets and other species On 4th February 1971 Geoffrey Brown and I were watching Palearctic waders on the extensive mudflats of Lake Magadi in Kenya. We noticed that several Marsh Sandpipers Tringa stagnatilis were each following in the wake of a feeding Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta. It was obvious that they were using the Avocets to disturb food items in the very shallow water which was a mere 2 cm in depth. Each bird followed its own Avocet, about a metre behind ; once a second Marsh Sandpiper landed nearby and attempted to join the feeding bird, but the first Marsh Sandpiper drove it away. I took several photographs showing this feeding association. We thought that this behaviour must have been well recorded and did not, therefore, make more detailed notes. Since that time Geoffrey Brown has been working in Saudi Arabia. In early 1975 he wrote to me as follows: ‘Marsh Sandpipers winter here. Damman Marsh is where I do most of my wader watch- ing, and five to ten are always there. This habit of associating with other birds which we first noticed on Lake Magadi has been observed on several occasions this winter. I have again noticed it with Avocets, and also with Black-winged Stilts [ Himantopus himantopus ], Little Egrets [Egretta garzetta ], Black-tailed Godwits [Limosa limosa], Redshanks [7~. totanus ] and Greenshanks [ T '. nebularia ]. When we saw them at Lake Magadi, the sandpipers were following about Notes 295 three to four feet behind the Avocets, sometimes even closer, but here usually the distance is greater and there are variations, as when a Marsh Sandpiper runs five yards to pick up food from the wake of a Redshank. Undoubtedly it is the food disturbed which is the attraction, because the Marsh Sandpiper generally feeds by picking off the water and not by probing.’ Rodney Dawson Easter Ellister, Port Charlotte , Islay, Strathclyde Marsh Sandpipers associating with feeding Teal On 21st January 1967 I visited Umm Shugeira Island in the White Nile, Khartoum Province, Sudan. There were eight Marsh Sandpipers / ringa stagnatilis feeding with about 600 Wigeon Anas penelope and 40 Teal A. crecca which were dabbling in the shallow water bordering the island. Six of the Marsh Sandpipers were feeding in close association with the 'real, rapidly picking up material from left and 1 ight as they followed the ducks that were slowly meandering through the water as they fed. Normally each sandpiper followed its own Teal, though for one long spell one duck was seen to be followed by three sandpipers. The feeding association continued for the two hours I was on the island. Throughout that time I saw no cases of Marsh Sandpipers following Wigeon, possibly because they tended to feed in somewhat deeper water than the Teal, though super- ficially the depth seemed within the accommodation of the sand- pipers. None of the other species of wader present, some in their thousands, was seen associating with ducks. Antony Pettft 23 Cole Park Road, I wickenham, Greater London twi ihp Black-headed Gulls associating with feeding Goldeneyes On 24th December 1974, at Bartley Green Reservoir, Warwick- shire, I noticed that a Black-headed Gull Lams ridibundus was always in close attendance on a male Goldeneye Bucephala clangula. 1 his association was confirmed at the reservoir on 2nd January 1975, when three female Goldeneyes were involved, each with its atten- dant Black-headed Gull. The ducks were diving repeatedly, and each time one surfaced the appropriate gull would fly to join it. The feeling that this was a deliberate behaviour pattern was enhanced when two of the Goldeneyes flew to the other end of the reservoir to be followed immediately by their attendant gulls. As soon as the Goldeneyes resumed diving, the Black-headed Gulls consistently repeated their previous behaviour. The Handbook (5: 64) mentioned that the Black-headed Gull fi equently snatches food from . . . diving ducks, grebes and coots’. In this instance, however, no intimidation was observed, and the behaviour would seem to be more similar to the feeding association observed between Black-headed Gulls and Shoveler Anas clypeata Notes 296 by E. G. Gatenby (Brit. Birds, 61: 31) and, perhaps more appro- priately, to those between Little Gulls L. minutus and Razorbills Alca torda noted by S. G. Madge (Brit. Birds, 58: 192) and R. E. Scott (Brit. Birds, 65 : 259). One can only assume that the turbulence created by the diving Goldeneye was sufficient to disturb and bring to the surface organisms and submerged material on which the Black-headed Gulls were feeding. A. J. Gerrard 47 Wentworth Way, Harborne, Birmingham B32 2uz Kittiwakes associating with feeding Razorbills The feeding association with Razorbills Alca torda noted by R. E. Scott (Brit. Birds, 65: 259) is not confined to Little Gulls Lams minutus, since on 3rd July 1972 I recorded similar behaviour involving Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla at Ilfracombe, Devon. A note in my records reads: ‘Two Kittiwakes feeding near three Razorbills offshore seemed to be dropping down near where the auks were diving and plunging head and neck below the surface, perhaps feeding on small fish or animals disturbed by the auks. They later settled when the Razor- bills stopped diving, but rose to follow them when they moved away.’ I too saw the Kittiwakes diving down at the Razorbills, which then submerged, but I could not decide whether this was a deliberate attempt on the part of the gulls to make the auks dive, or whether the latter instinctively dived when the gulls swooped down towards them to pick from the sea where they had surfaced. The group was later joined by two Herring Gulls L. argentatus which similarly fed in the area, both settling on the sea and dropping down in flight, but these made no attempt to dive towards the auks. The time was 18.15 hours BST and the sea quite rough, whipped up by a force 4 south to south-west wind. W. E. Jones Ford House, Northfield Road, Ilfracombe, Devon Feeding association between Common Tern and Razorbill On 8th September 1974, at Ferrybridge, Dorset, we watched a feeding association involving a Razorbill Alca torda and an adult Common Tern Sterna hirundo. The latter was accompanied by an immature Common Tern and an immature Arctic Tern S. paradisaea. The Razorbill was feeding in the Fleet very close to Chesil Beach, permitting views down to five metres. The terns, which were in a loose group, kept pace with the Razorbill which could be observed as it swam submerged in the clear, shallow water. The adult Common Tern closely watched the Razorbill’s progress and as it surfaced persistently dived just in front of the auk to catch fish driven to the surface. In about 20 minutes it was seen to feed only when the Razorbill surfaced, suggesting that this action was deli- berate. The two immature terns were feeding normally and did not exploit the opportunities provided by the Razorbill. J. Cantelo and P. A. Gregory 52 Lower Mortimer Road, Woolston, Southampton S02 7HF Field characters of Audouin’s Gull During 4th-iith August *974> on ^e coast of Majorca, I had opportunities for watching a number of Audouin’s Gull Larus audouinii in good light at close range in association with Herring Gulls L. argentatus. Not then having access to literature, my comparative observations substantially overlapped those of D. I. M. Wallace (Brit. Birds, 62: 223-229, plate 41 , see also plates 37-40), but provided some supplementary material, which for convenience may be presented in the same order as his. Watching was from clifftops about 30-40 metres above the sea, facing south-east, between Cala Llonga and Cala Mondrago, and the birds were mostly passing at similar height at a range of 100 metres or so in excellent visibility, lit by low evening sun. Most were seen between 18.50 and 20.15 local emergency time (GMT plus two hours, or some 1 hour 45 minutes after sun time for this longitude). Few gulls were seen any distance out to sea, and none following vessels. The great majority of both species were coasting south-west, but occasional reverse passes were noted. Direction and distance would be consistent with roosting at the supposed breeding site in the Cabrera island group some 30 km on. This would accord with Wallace’s inferences, for a different sector of the coast, that merely local movements were involved. Although these were duplicated on some days they were missing on others. The most fruitful watch was that from 19.00 to 20.00 on gth August when 57 Yellow-legged Herring Gulls L. a. cachinnans passed and five adult Audouin’s. The next day, during the first half-hour’s watch from 18.50, five adult Audouin’s passed before any Herring Gull, after which there were six of these and only two more Audouin’s. The Audouin’s were usually solitary, but one flew in company with a Herring Gull with another Audouin’s not far astern. Wallace’s two tables of plumage differences show acute critical observation but are not totally satisfactory. While he referred to the factor of distance, and rightly stressed that he found ‘no quick way of identifying single gulls at middle and long ranges (say half a mile) as one or the other’, he lumped together characters visible at only a few metres with those still useful at 100-200 metres or more, to which I gave primary attention as being most practically valuable. At such ranges his notes on Head, Body, Wings and Tail icmain \alid, but such points as the “prominent coral-red rim’ to Notes 298 the eye fade out, while the colour of the feet is irrelevant in flight because, in contrast to the sagging Herring Gull’s, they are so tightly tucked up under the tail as to be invisible. An approaching Herring Gull shows quite a different face because the heavy yellow bill is accentuated by its bright red tip, while in Audouin’s the deep blood-red bill looks much darker than illus- trations suggest and tends to appear foreshortened by the sub- terminal band at ranges beyond about 100 metres. In addition, the colour and shape of the Herring Gull’s eye produces an ovoid complex in sharp contrast, even at some appreciable range, to the round, dark, button-like eye of Audouin’s set against its more cleanly white and slenderer head. When one sees both species successively approaching at eye level these differences are instantly conclusive, even before colours can be resolved. Another point concerns the white tips to the black outer primaries which stand out conspicuously at rest, as is clearly shown on plates 37> 38 and 40 accompanying Wallace’s paper and its companion by Dr W. Makatsch (Brit. Birds, 62: 230-232). The flight photographs (except partially in plate 40a) agree, however, with Wallace’s drawings (plate 41) and with my own observations in minimising this feature, which during my watches was virtually invisible in contrast to the conspicuous ‘windows’ within the black primaries of the adult Herring Gull. Finally Audouin’s is, as Wallace says, a much abler flier than the Herring Gull, and this calls for amplification. When both species are exploiting the same updraught, Audouin’s is more efficient and shows a more masterly style, with a perfectly adapted dihedral and better capacity for gliding without wing-beats. Generally the Herring Gull’s performance is much more laboured and inelegant, but caution should be observed in applying this in distant identi- fication, since Herring Gulls may show to more advantage in favou- rable air currents and Audouin’s conversely in adverse conditions. It is, as Wallace commented, extraordinary that a species so appar- ently skilful should be so scarce, and that we should still be so lacking in the necessary knowledge to promote its conservation. E. M. Nicholson 13 Upper Cheyne Row, London SW3 A request for information on Audouin’s Gull appears on page 304. Letters Results from bird-ringing The editorial in your February issue (Brit. Birds, 68: 53-56) criticised ringers for being more interested Letters 299 in ringing birds than in analysing the results they obtain, and supported this allegation by reference to the list of publications which appears in each annual ‘Report on bird-ringing’. In so doing, it overlooked the fact that much of the output of reports and analyses from the amateur ringers appears in ringing group, local and county reports and that, perhaps wrongly, these are not always included in the list which was quoted. Some of these papers would probably be judged local or interim in character, but the Ringing and Migration Committee is convinced of their value. The position is not static. Ringers, who contribute about £15,000 a year towards the cost of running the Ringing Scheme and finance the publication of the annual report, have recently voted to support and pay for a new journal. This will publish the results of their work on a national scale, together with analyses by both amateurs and professionals, the latter having the required time, skill and experience to make the best use of the data. We welcome the editors’ plea that future contracts from the Nature Conservancy Council should include support for analysis as well as for administration, and believe that it would be a mistake to curtail ringing just as the analysis of data is beginning to gain momentum. A. Barrie Watson Chairman, Ringing and Migration Committee British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR We also thank E. Cowley and T. H. Ellis for letters in response to our February editorial. Eds High flight of House Martins D. D. Lees (Brit. Birds, 68: 216- 217) claims that House Martins Delichon urbica ‘spend a good deal of their time at great heights in their Palearctic breeding quarters’. In his book Bird-Watching and Bird Behaviour (1930), the late Sir Julian Huxley described going out early one morning in the Upper Thames valley in the hope of seeing something of the courtship of the House Martin. ‘To my surprise, there were no martins to be seen — none in or by their nests, none flying round. I walked round the place, and up and down the towpath, along which spread a faint mist from the river, and still I saw nothing of my birds. Then from the barn came a single swallow, and flew steeply up into the sky. I followed its flight with my eyes and suddenly saw why I had failed to find the martins. They were all up there in the blue, circling round in company with some barn-swallows and chimney- swifts, from which I could just distinguish them at the height they were flying. The sun had not yet risen where I stood on the solid 300 Letters earth; but he already reached the birds high above my head. . . . There can be little doubt that when I first came out, half an hour before I saw the birds, they had already flown up to greet the sun and make themselves a longer day ; but how far above the earth they flew before they reached the light and began to circle in it and sink with it, I do not know.’ These observations must raise the question whether House Martins, like Swifts Apus apus, roost on the wing; for they are very rarely found at roost, except when incubating or brooding in the nest- E. J. M. Buxton Cole Park, Malmesbury, Wiltshire Feral populations of Ring-necked Parakeets M. D. England has already drawn attention to small feral populations of the Ring- necked Parakeet Psittacula krameri in various parts of England {Brit. Birds, 67: 393-394). The Records Committee of the British Orni- thologists’ Union has recently considered the status of this species and has concluded that these populations cannot yet be regarded as self-supporting. Therefore, the Ring-necked Parakeet will be placed in category D in the Records Committee’s Ninth Report (in preparation). The categories of the British and Irish list are set out in The Status of Birds in Britain and Ireland (BOU, 1971, p. xii) and have also been published in Ibis ( 1 13 : 420) and British Birds (64: 429-430): categories A, B and C form the main list, while category D is designed as a means of collecting together occurrences of species which are not yet full additions. As with other feral species in category D, the Records Committee will review the situation at five-yearly intervals, in case the populations become self-supporting and the species should be admitted to the British and Irish list in category C (species which, although originally introduced by man, have now established a regular feral breeding stock which apparently maintains itself with- out necessary recourse to further introduction). For this reason, we particularly ask that observers and county report editors keep all records of the Ring-necked Parakeet, so that the next review of the species’ status can consider the complete picture. At the same time, we should like to draw attention to the follow- ing species also currently in category D on the strength of small feral populations (years of forthcoming review in brackets), and similarly request full documentation in county reports: Wood Duck Aix sponsa (1977); Reeves’s Pheasant Syrmaticus reevesi (1976); and Bob-white Quail Colinus virginianus (1979). I. J. Ferguson-Lees and J. T. R. Sharrock Chairman and Secretary, Records Committee, British Ornithologists’ Union, cjo Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London nwi 4RY News and comment Robert Hudson Cliff-climbing hazards In last month’s ‘News and comment’ I had the melan- choly task of recording the death in a cliff fall of Fair Isle Bird Observatory’s assistant warden; and this week I have learned of another, similar, fatality. S. Bradbury, a member of the University of East Anglia expedition to Unst, Shetland, died while surveying a Puffin colony when he slithered down a slope and over the cliff. It is high time there was greater awareness among ornithologists and others of the hazards of cliff-climbing. Dr W. R. P. Bourne, who has strong opinions on the subject and whose notes I use here, comments that every spring local newspapers somewhere carry small paragraphs about people killed on sea cliffs, usually while after birds’ eggs, so that the cumulative total of death and injury is probably large. In the Press and Journal (Aberdeen) for 26th May, John Duckers reported on the situation along the east coast of Scotland. Commander Michael Woolcombe, East of Scotland Divisional Inspector of Coastguards, expected at least a dozen incidents per year (with an average of four people killed) along the 400 km of coast between the Forth and Inverness. The Grampian Police confirmed that 16 people had been killed in the twelve years since 1963 along only 16 km of low, sloping, rocky shore between Nigg Bay and Muchalls (south of Aberdeen) ; and their Community Involvement Officer stressed that local people knew of the risks, and it was usually children from the City of Aberdeen who got into trouble. It is noticeable that few or none of the aforementioned cliffs are fenced off or supplied with warning notices, although many of them contain fearful traps with nests sited in tempting but dangerous places which have repeatedly claimed victims. How- ever, the provision of warning notices and fences alone will not eliminate such accidents, as evidenced by the death of a four-year-old boy at the RSPB reserve of Bcmpton Cliffs in North Humberside. From some points of view it is, perhaps, unfortunate that the large gulls are now among the few birds whose eggs are excluded from protection, so that it is impossible even to tell children that they are not allowed to take them. Tern troubles in the north Tern colonies are always vulnerable to disturbance, and mainland ones seem to have a particular attraction for youthful egg-collectors! Until last year, Cultcrty Field Station personnel and associates helped warden the Forvie Sandwich Ternery north of Aberdeen, and Alastair Smith, whose study of this colony was published in the April issue {Brit. Birds, 68: 142-156), actually caught some nesting schoolboys, though the court let them off with a warning. But this year the Nature Conservancy Council wanted to be wholly responsible for the wardenmg, and a local source tells me that 100 eggs have already gone without the culprits being caught. Further north, Arctic" Terns nesting on the Out Skerries in Shetland had an unpleasant surprise when a helicopter landed in their midst; it transpired that a company under contract to British Petroleum had arrived to erect a direction-finding beacon, the batteries for which will require regular changing. The frequent helicopter visits then planned would have had serious effects on the terns; but belated liaison has resulted in an islander being allotted the task of changing the beacon’s batteries, so that disturbance will be kept to a minimum. Ironically, another oil company, Shell, have named their latest ‘find’ the Tern Field: perhaps it is the Black Tern they have in mind! ; . . . and in the south Terns have their problems in England, too; and an incident which has worrying implications was recently reported to me from Essex. Two youths were intercepted near Dovercourt, and diverted from their intention of 3° I 302 News and comment taking tern eggs from local colonies. On being interrogated by Peter Smith, the guardian angel of the Dovercourt area terneries, the youths blandly admitted that they had planned a tour of south-east England for the purpose of egg-collecting, and were using John Gooders’ Where to Watch Birds as their bible. I now have another grey hair. New Sussex NNR The Nature Conservancy Council announced on 13th June that the 142nd national nature reserve had been established on the East Sussex Downs 5 km south-west of Lewes, on land leased from Brighton District Council. Castle Hill NNR, as it is called, covers 47 hectares and consists of southward- facing grazed chalk grassland, some arable which is now reverting to grassland, and a few patches of gorse and hawthorn scrub. Typical downland breeding birds are present, while the area contains some uncommon insect and plant species. Public access is restricted to a bridleway which bisects the reserve. Fishing line hazards The coarse fishing season opened on 1 6th June, and once again birds are at risk of getting their bills, legs or wings entwined in discarded lengths of nylon line (which does not decompose) , and thereby suffering slow and painful deaths. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has put out a press release appealing to anglers to collect up all discarded fishing line; and its 65,000 Young Ornithologists’ Club members have been asked to search shores and the banks of rivers, lakes and reservoirs, to collect information on the incidence of the problem and the lengths of such discarded pieces. White Stork trends For many decades now the White Stork has been decreasing in the western half of its European range ; it has gone from Sweden and Switzerland, and seems destined to do so from Denmark and the Netherlands. Climatic factors are thought to be responsible. Thus it is heartening to know that the species is holding its own or increasing further east, a fact brought out in a recent survey published in Die Vogelwarte (28: 61-93). An April press release by the Novosti Information Service, Moscow, reports that the numbers of storks in the Pskov Region have trebled over the last 15 years to reach 4,500. Oystercatchers on the roof Roof-top nesting by gulls has been well documented in various parts of the country (see Brit. Birds 64: 476-487) ; that a wader should do so is rather more surprising. The April number of Tempo, the staff newspaper of the Grampian Health Board, contains some interesting information about Oystercatchers nesting on the roof of Foresterhill College in Aberdeen, one of a complex of medical buildings set in open grassy grounds. Apparently the birds first used their regular site close to the ventilator to the janitor’s bathroom in 1971, but were not noticed until a workman found the two chicks, one of which fledged. They raised two chicks successfully in 1972 and 1973 ; in 1974 they first reappeared on 4th February, but all three chicks unfortunately fell or were blown off the roof prematurely. This year they reappeared on the evening of 2nd February and incubation began on 15th April, but only one egg hatched, owing to disturbance by a third adult. Over the years the birds have accumulated a pile of pebbles at the nest site; the chicks are brooded there for two or three weeks and do not depart until they are about a month old and learning to fly. Oystercatchers are also said to be breeding on at least one other roof in central Aberdeen, belonging to a school where the adults feed on playing fields which (naturally) are disturbed during the day. So far people are apparently rather pleased to have a ‘piper’ on the roof, but one wonders how long it will last. (Contributed by Dr W. R. P. Bourne.) Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds March reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records The Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris returned to the colony of Gannets Sula bassana at Hermaness, Unst (Shetland), on x 6th, earlier than in 1972 and 1974. A very early Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus passed Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) on 22nd, but the most notable seabird record during March was that of a Little Shearwater P. assimilis picked up freshly dead at Cleveleys, Fylde (Lancashire), on 27th. A Gannet was found dead beside the River Wear above Witton le Wear (Co. Durham), 33 km inland, on 22nd. A Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis which stayed at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) from 2nd to 7th may have been the one seen there on 20th April 1974, though the origin of the bird(s) is open to question. Similar doubts might be expressed about a White Stork Ciconia ciconia watched at Walbury Hill (Berkshire) on 1 6th. In Kent a Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia appeared at Dcngemarsh and the ARC pits at Dungcncss on 23rd, and presumably the same bird was seen that day also at Pett Level (East Sussex). There was an unusual inland occurrence of an immature Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis at Ogston Reservoir (Derbyshire) on the last day of the month. Equally surprising was the sight of six Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis at Swithland Reservoir (Leicestershire) in the early morning of 2nd, though few others were reported in England, even in the more normal coastal haunts. Up to seven Smew Mergus albelliis were at Wraysbury gravel pits (Surrey) during the month, the only gathering of any note in another poor winter for the species. A Bean Goose Anser fabalis remained on Fair Isle (Shetland) from 28th to 31st. A Goshawk Accipiter gentilis was seen in south-west Northumberland on qth. Single Red Kites Milvus milvus appeared at four places in England: over North- ampton on 10th, at Dungeness on 13th, at Minsmere (Suffolk) on 1 6th, and in the Cuckmere valley (East Sussex) on 30th. A Crane Grus grus put in an appearance at Sutton Bingham Reservoir (Dorset/Somerset) on 30th. The only Little Stints Calidris minuta which were brought to our attention were singles at Marshsidc (Lancashire) on 15th and inland at Alvecote (Warwick- shire) a week later, and two found wintering at the Weaver Bend (Cheshire) on 23rd; more unusual was a Temminck’s Stint C. temminckii on Thorney Island (West Sussex) on 19th. There was a report of a dowitcher Limnodromus sp at Hale (Merseyside) on 23rd. Avocets Recurvirostra avosetta were on the move: apart from the usual wintering bird at Steart (Somerset) all month and two in Pagham Harbour (West Sussex) from the beginning of the year until early March, migrants were seen in Kent at Cliffe on 15th and at Pegwell Bay on 28th (seven), and in Hampshire at Farlington Marshes on 28th (two) and 2gth-30th (three); 45 had returned to Minsmere by 3 1st. A Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius was reported at Ashlett (Hampshire) on 29th and 30th, and an early Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus was identified at Dungeness on 29th. Two adult Ring-billed Gulls Larus delawarensis which remained at Blackpill (West Glamorgan) throughout the month were joined by a third adult on 21st. Several other gull reports, including a series of Mediterranean Gulls L. melanocephalus at Dungeness, will be treated later in the spring summary. A Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca was on Unst during March, while one on North Roe (also Shetland) on 2nd February was omitted from the last summary. In Ireland a Hoopoe Upupa e pops frequented Rosslare Strand (Co. Wexford) from 26th February until at least 8th March, while during this same period another was found dead in Waterford city; one was also reported at Chequers (Buckingham- shire) from mid to late March. A migrant Woodlark Lullula arborea appeared at 303 304 March reports Dungeness on 8th. Most unusual was a male Red-spotted Bluethroat Luscinia s. svecica which was found at Horton, near Wimbome (Dorset), in the middle of March and was still present on 26th April. A Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti was heard in the Fermain area of Guernsey on 1st and 2nd, there was one at Minsmere on 8th and one at Dungeness Bird Reserve on 26th. A Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus trapped at West Dean (East Sussex) on 29th must surely have survived the unusually mild winter, as did that which wintered on Thorney Island mentioned in a previous summary {Brit. Birds, 68: 220). Equally surprising, a Bonelli’s Warbler P. bonelli was reported at Marazion (Cornwall) on 16th. Once again, very few reports of Lapland Buntings Calcarius lapponicus were received, in fact just one, concerning a singleton at Holy Island (Northumberland) on 23rd, though seven between Minnis Bay and Reculver (Kent) on 22nd February were unfortunately left out of the summary for that month. _ Finally, two vagrants are worthy of special mention. The first was an Isabel- line or Red-tailed Shrike Lanius collurio ‘isabellinus’ which was discovered at Sidlesham Ferry (West Sussex) on 1st and subsequently seen by many observers during its stay of several weeks. Secondly, a male Slate-coloured J unco Jfunco hyemalis, an American bunting which had been recorded in Britain and Ireland only five times previously, also received the attentions of hundreds of bird- watchers who made the trip to Haresfield (Gloucestershire) between mid-March and mid-April. That a Slate-coloured Junco was on Bardsey (Gwynedd) from 25th April to 3rd May (trapped on 28th) is of further interest. /< Requests for information 1 J AU( Status of Audouin’s Gull For several decades the endangered existence of Audouin’s Gull Larus audouinii has been well known. The latest Red Book sheet (May 1970) of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature suggests that the total world population is down to about 1,250 individuals, all in the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. While the numbers of other European gulls increase as a result of anthropogenic influences, the population of Audouin’s decreases at an uncertain rate. Breeding success is diminished by various factors: fishermen, tourists and photographers disturb adults during the breeding season; eggs and fledglings are frequently left unprotected and chicks may die from heat exposure; oologists collect eggs indiscriminately. In co-operation with the World Wildlife Fund, a programme of collecting all information about colonies, pairs and breeding success has been initiated to form a broad and reliable basis for a study of the population dynamics and general state of this species. Ornithologists and birdwatchers are asked to make available unpublished data on Audouin’s Gull so that the combined knowledge can be used hopefully to save the species. Confidential information, such as the exact position of colonies, will not be publicised. Only full co-operation will make it possible to institute an efficient conservation programme. All information should be sent in confidence to Hans Witt, Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig, D-53 Bonn 1, Adenauerallee 150-164, West Germany. Birds of Crete To help in the preparation of a check-list of the birds of Crete, unpublished observations would be gratefully received by John Parrott (Hon. Secretary, Crete Ringing Group), Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen ABg 2TN. All contributions will be fully acknowledged. 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London WC2R 3LF iii THE BIOLOGY OF PENGUINS Edited by Bernard Stonehouse This book presents up-to-date review articles and new research papers on the various aspects of the penguin by an international team of con- tributors, many of them well-known in the field of penguin research. It ranges in scope from the Galapagos islands to Antarctica, and among the topics covered there is a contribution on the seldom-studied Little penguin. Seventy photographs illustrate this comprehensive and highly readable account of a fascinating group of birds which has long been of interest to amateur and professional ornithologists alike. £18.50 For further details, please write to Anne Calcott, The Macmillan Press. Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF IV Mr Frank promises perfect alignment Our reputation as binocular specialists is due, in no small measure, to the fact that since the turn of the century we have never lost sight of the importance of binocular align- ment, and we have always maintained a well-equipped workshop staffed by technicians qualified to test every binocular we sell. We stock binoculars by the world’s best makers, and particularly recommend the range of FRANK- NIPOLE binoculars as representing best value available today. Tests show they are comparable in performance to others costing two or three times as much. From the range we select the most popular models — 30% DISCOUNT Although we are rather better known for quality than for price reductions, we are nevertheless happy to offer Zeiss, Leitz, Ross, Swift, Barr & Stroud and Russian binoculars at a 30% discount. Our only requirement is that remit- tance should accompany order, with 60p included for post pkg. ins. Our booklet about binoculars: ‘Tell Me Mr Frank usually 20p — is free on request, together with catalogue. 8x30 (wt l8oz) £19.25 10x50 (wt 36oz) £27.50 8x40 (wt 25oz) £37.76 Complete with case and straps Send for any model on 7 days free trial — naturally without obligation Excellent discounts can also be offered on many other new items — _ Famous for fine instruments since the turn of the century CHARLES FRANK LTD 144 Ingram Street, Glasgow Gl Tel: 041-221 6666 Write, phone or call Volume 68 Number 7 July 1975 261 The birds of Orkney David Lea and Dr W. R. P. Bourne 284 Studies of less familiar birds 177 Purple Sandpiper M. A. Ogilvie, J. B. and Mrs S. Bottom ley, Dr R. G. Carlson, C. R. Knights and Keri Williams Plates 40-43 289 Viewpoint: Conservation on the farm— where next? M. Shrubb Notes 293 Golden Eagle eating Fulmars David M. Hawker 293 Feeding association between Little Grebes and feral domestic ducks R. W. Robson 294 Marsh Sandpipers associating with feeding Avocets and other species Rodney Dawson 295 Marsh Sandpipers associating with feeding Teal Antony Pettet 295 Black-headed Gulls associating with feeding Goldeneyes A. J. Gerrard 296 Kittiwakes associating with feeding Razorbills W. E. Jones 296 Feeding association between Common Tern and Razorbill J. Cantelo and P. A. Gregory 297 Field characters of Audouin’s Gull E. M. Nicholson Letters 298 Results from bird-ringing Dr A. Barrie Watson 299 Feral populations of Ring-necked Parakeets /. J. Ferguson-Lees and Dr J. T. R. Sharrock 300 High flight of House Martins E. J. M. Buxton 301 News and comment Robert Hudson 303 March reports D. A. Christie Requests for information 304 Status of Audouin's Gull Hans Witt 304 Birds of Crete John Parrott Printed by Henry Burt & Son Ltd. College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street. London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 8 August 1975 RARITIES COMMITTEE ANNOUNCEMENT RARE BIRDS IN GREAT BRITAIN 1974 FOOD OF TURNSTONES Editorial Address British Birds, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone 01-836 6633) Editors Stanley Cramp, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee J. N. Dymond, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2dl © The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London wc2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633). ISSN 0007-0335 Annual Subscription £8.00 including index (Orders must be accompanied by remittance. Prices applicable only to orders received before 31st December 1975) Cheques should be made payable to Macmillan Journals Limited: Subscription Department, Brunei Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG2 i 2xs, England Enquiries concerning advertising space and rates should be addressed to: Advertisement Department, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633) British Birds, Macmillan Journals Ltd., 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF. (. telephone : 01-836 6633) Change of Address Please note that the address of the editorial zs SWANS BIG GAME & BIRDS SAFARIS VISITING THESE NATIONAL PARKS & GAME RESERVES IN EAST AFRICA Nairobi, Lake Naivasha, Lake Nakuru, Samburu, Isiolo, Tsavo, Amboseli, Lake Manyara, Ngoron- goro, Serengeti, Mara and Aberdare in Kenya and Tanzania. GUEST LECTURERS accompany each Safari. Their expert and personal knowledge of East Africa — its animals, birds, history, peoples and customs — provides an unrivalled opportunity, not only to view the ever decreasing wildlife in its natural habitat, but also to gain an insight into the problems of its preservation and the conservation of land needed by Africa's developing nations. A holiday that can open up new vistas of interest. 1 2 -page full colour brochure available from : „7 ables’ are not included. In the case of the very similar Long-billed and Short-billed Dowitchers Limnodromus scolopaceus and L. griseus, however, we are continuing to publish indeterminable records, and this also applies to observations of the two pratincoles Glareola spp and of such ‘difficult’ groups as albatrosses Diomedea spp and frigatebirds Fregata spp. (iv) The sequence of species, vernacular names and scientific nomenclature follow the British Trust for Ornithology’s guide A Species List of British and Irish Birds (1971). Any sight records of subspecies (including those of birds trapped and released) are normally referred to as ‘showing the characters’ of the race concerned. Duplicated draft lists of the British records in this report have again been sent to all the county recorders concerned in England and to the regional recorders in Scotland, Wales and the Isle of Man; duplicated final drafts of the whole report have also been approved by the appropriate authorites in Scotland, Wales and Ireland and individually by the members of the committee. This double-checking of the details and improvements in the exchange of information have reduced the likelihood of discrepancies between this report and regional publications. Observers can help by sup- plying the last dates on which birds were seen. Rare birds in Great Britain igj4 309 Problems concerning escapes and introductions have again been dealt with by M. D. England, author of a review of this subject {Brit. Birds, 67: 1 77-197). The Wildfowl Trust has continued to help with advice on wildfowl escape and identification problems, while Derek Goodwin has continued to advise on problems involv- ing museum research, under the arrangement made with the British Museum (Natural History). The committee is most grateful to the many individuals and organisations whose co-operation has made the publication of this report possible. All records should now be addressed to the new honorary secretary, J. N. Dymond, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL* Systematic list of records accepted White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii Aberdeenshire: Aberdeen, 21st October (A. G. Knox). Shetland: I'ctlar, 30th May to 9th June (R. J. Tulloch et at.). Hascosay, a different bird, 1 1 th June (R. J. Tulloch et at.). Sutherland: Loch Fleet, 24th March (N. J. Phillips, V. Wood). (Arctic Russia, Siberia and Alaska) Also one at Lough Hyne, Co. Cork, on 3rd February, the first Irish record. Five successful identifications in one year are indicative of the new appreciation of both field diagnosis and status since the publication of a full review of all past records by D. M. Burn and J. R. Mather (Brit. Birds, 67: 257-296, plates 41-44). Late spring and early summer records are not unusual. Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris Shetland: Unst, about 10th June to 7th August (S. Albon, B. Britton, R. J. Tulloch et at.) (plate 47b). Sussex: Sandy Point, Chichester Harbour, 10th May (K. Shackleton). Yorkshire: Flamborough Head, 26th October (P. A. Lassey, I. Smith). (Southern oceans) All three records may well have involved the same individual. The haunting of the gannetry at Hermaness, Unst (see also Brit. Birds, 67: 342), recalls the long stays of an earlier bird at the Bass Rock, East Lothian, during 1967-69. Before 1963 there had been only two certain records of this species, whereas in the last twelve years there have been about 18, as well as a dozen unidentified albatrosses. Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea Kent: Folkestone, two, nth July (K. Barrett). Ross-shire: Tarbat Ness, 1st September (R. H. Dennis). Suffolk: Ness Point, Lowestoft, 19th September (D. R. Moore). (East Atlantic and Mediterranean) Also off Cape Clear Island, Co. Cork, as follows: two on 14th August, one on 15th, twro on 16th, 3io Rare birds in Great Britain igy4 one on 24th, one on 29th and one on 10th September; three off Clogher Head, Co. Louth, on 24th August; and one off Mizen Head, Co. Cork, on 8th September. The absence of records from south-west English waters is striking, as is the lack of spring records (for the first time since 1964). Little Shearwater Pitffinus assimilis Argyll: Islay, 30th June (K. Verrall). Scilly: St Agnes, 30th April (D. I. M. Wallace). (Atlantic south from Madeira and Caribbean, and southern oceans) The Scilly record falls within the established pattern of spring occurrences, but the other is unusual, the bird having travelled farther north than any previous. The latter is also the first record for Scotland. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Cornwall: Porthgwarra, immature, 19th April (R. W. Allen, H. P. K. Robin- son). Hampshire: St Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight, 22nd and 24th April (T. A. Lawman). Kent: Dungeness, 21st April (M. A. Hollingworth). Stodmarsh, two, 19th May (J. N. Hollyer). Sandwich Bay, immature, 10th September (Miss M. M. Lees). Lancashire: Leighton Moss, 25th June to 26th July (P. J. Marsh et at.). Norfolk: Hickling Broad, immature, 17th August to 2nd September (B. Bland, P. J. Milford et al.). Suffolk: Walberswick, two, 14th May (G. A. Bond, P. S. Campbell), one 25th (D. I. M. Wallace). Minsmere, immature, 18th May (M. A. and Mrs J. M. Hollingworth, C. W. Westwood). (South-central Eurasia, north to Netherlands, and Africa) These ten or more take the grand total since 1958 to at least 162. Little Egret Egretta garzetta Aberdeenshire: Loch of Strathbeg, 22nd to 29th May (J. Dunbar). Carmarthenshire: Tumble, 2nd August (P. G. Lansdown). Kidwelly Saltings, about 22nd to 30th September (H. E. Grenfell, E. Smith et al.). Devon: Slapton Ley, 20th April (J. Barrell, R. Belringer et al.). River Exe, near Exeter, 30th May to 6th June (D. N. Arnold, G. Glombek et al.). Axe estuary, nth and 12th July (R. Cottrill, D. E. Pauli, R. H. Ryall). Exe estuary, 13th July (J. G. M. Non et al.). Kent: Stodmarsh, 1st to 3rd June (C. P. Carpenter, A. R. Mountford, D. B. Rosair et al.). Dungeness, 30th July (J. D. Okill, K. Redshaw). Lancashire: Ribble marshes, 10th to 28th April (P. Carah, M. Jones, H. Shor- rock et al.). Lincolnshire: Huttoft Bank, 1st June (K. Atkin, P. Haywood, F. Stewart). Staffordshire: Belvide Reservoir, 30th May (C. J. Hawkridge, S. McMinn). Suffolk: Havergate Island, 17th June (J. Partridge, P. J. Roberts et al.). Rare birds in Great Britain igj4 31 1 (South Eurasia, Africa and Australia) Also one at Aghadown, Co. Cork, from 10th October 1973 (omitted from the previous report) to at least 5th January ; one at Aughinish Island, Co. Limerick, from 1 ith March to November; and singles in Co. Wexford as follows: at Lady’s Island Lake from 5th to 12th May, at North Slob on 6th June and a different bird at Tacumshin on 21st June and 7th July, and lastly again at North Slob on 26th August. A further repetition of the spring influxes characteristic of this species in recent years. As in 1973, one reached northern Scotland in May, frequenting a coastal loch that also attracted three escaped flamingoes Phoenicopterus spp. . Great White Egret Egretta alba Derbyshire: Clay Mills gravel pits, 19th May (R. H. Appleby, E. and P. Warren et at.). Dorset: Lodmoor, Weymouth, nth June (S. C. Edds, D. C. Gilbert). Brownsea Island, Poole, 12th June (H. Prcndergast) . Hampshire: Christchurch Harbour, 12th and 13th June (N. A. Meader et at.). Yorkshire: Scaling Dam Reservoir, 28th May to 6th June (D. G. Bell, H. Collin- son, G. P. Green et at.). Spurn, 1st June (A. Broome, K. Knowles, R. A. Williams). (Almost cosmopolitan, nearest in eastern Europe where very local) In addition to the above, a white heron probably of this species was seen on 16th May flying over Sutton-in-Ashficld, Nottinghamshire, towards the Derbyshire locality. It is possible that no more than two wandering individuals were involved in all these records, but even so this does not lessen the drama of the general event, the most obvious influx ever of this majestic bird. It is the second rarest of the European herons (after the Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis ) : before 1974 there had been only ten accepted records, the last as long ago as 1951. Night Heron Nycticorax nydicorax Cumberland: Clcator, 12th to 18th April (B. R. S. Shaw). Kent: Walland Marsh, immature, 2nd October (Dr J. G. Harrison). Norfolk: Hickling Broad, adult, 28th October (Dr G. R. S. Stewart). (South Eurasia, Africa and the Americas) For the second year in succession, a poor showing for a heron which breeds as close as the Netherlands. The absence of Little Bitterns Ixobrychus minutus in the year under review may be noted here. White Stork Ciconia ciconia Essex: Hadleigh Downs and Marshes, two, 13th October (R. Howard, C. Stratford). Suffolk: Rcndham/Yoxford area, 22nd October to April 1975 (H. E. Axell et at.). Sussex: Adversane and vicinity, mid-September to 16th February 1975 (F. W. Dougharty, S. W. M. Hughes, K. Neale et at.). Yorkshire: Gisburn, adult and immature, 15th September (R. Freethy). 312 Rare birds in Great Britain igj4 (Central and south Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa) Also one at Lough Beg, Co. Londonderry, on 25th April which had moved to the Ballykelly area by 14th May, where it remained to about December; and one at North Slob, Co. Wexford, on 6th June and at Baltray, Co. Louth, from 10th to 19th June. In common with several herons, this species is again becoming rarer in Biitain. The two in Ireland were the first there since 1909. The Essex birds were both rather tame and had a number of primaries and secondaries missing. A report that two White Storks had escaped from Colchester Zoo during autumn 1974 has been denied by the owner of the zoo (J. Howard, Essex recorder, in litt.), and thus the question of origin remains open. Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus Kent: Swanscombe Marsh, nth April to 12th May (B. Fagg, J. D. Hook L. F Woollard et at.). (Cosmopolitan but very local, nearest breeding colonies in Bal- kans) Although wary at first, this bird became unusually tame during its stay, even perching on barges on the Thames. The species is rare in captivity, and its occurrence in Britain in three conse- cutive years is without recent precedent. Equally unusual is the date; most records have been between September and November. Green- winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis Drakes showing the characters of this North American race of the Teal were recorded as follows: Devon: Burrator Reservoir, 15th December to 26th January 1975 (L. I. Hamilton et at.). Durham: Hurworth Burn Reservoir, the one recorded from 23rd December 1973 {Brit. Birds, 67: 316) was last seen on 28th January (M. A. Blick, P. T. Salmon et at.). Suffolk: Walberswick, 20th April to 5th May (G. J. Jobson, C. S. Waller); Mins- mere, nth to 20th May (H. E. and Mrs J. M. Axell, P. J Makepeace et at.). (North America) Also single drakes at Akeragh Lough, Co. Kerry, on 24th February; at Ballycotton, Co. Cork, on 14th April; and at the North Bull, Co. Dublin, on 21st April. The grand total for Biitain and Ireland is now about 90, though it is almost certain that some individuals recur from year to year in the same neighbourhood, as with, for example, the Ring-necked Duck and King Eider (see below) . Blue- winged Teal Anas discors Cambridgeshire: Ouse Washes, $, nth to 14th October (S. C. Madge, A. R. Pickup, J. Sorensen). Yorkshire: Hornsea Mere, eclipse 10th to 26th August (R. G. Hawley, S. C. Madge, D. I. M. Wallace et at.). (North America) Also an adult male at the North Bull and in Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 313 various estuaries in Co. Dublin from 22nd October into 1975. For the two British records, the descriptions did not entirely rule out Cinnamon deal A. cyanoptera, though the latter was considered an unlikely possibility. Both species are, however, kept in collections and arc liable to escape. American Wigeon Anas americana Leicestershire/Rutland : Eye Brook Reservoir, d, 1 7th April to 1 7th May (D. R. Willett et at.). Lincolnshire: Covenham Reservoir, d> 12th to 14th February (S. Lorand, M. Mellor, G. Roberts et at.). Suffolk: Benacre, d> 20th May (C. R. Naunton). Minsmer;, pair, 21st May to 2nd July (H. E. Axell, P. J. Makepeace, D. I. M. Wallace et at.). (North America) For all records to be in spring is remarkable, though there has been a marked change in their seasonal distribu- tion in the last two decades so that during 1972-74 spring sightings have actually outnumbered those in autumn and winter. The grand total for Britain and Ireland is now about 75. Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris Buckinghamshire: Marlow gravel pits, the d recorded in 1972 and 1973 {Brit. Birds, 66: 337> 67: 3'^) was last seen on 17th April (R. E. Youngman et at.). Hertfordshire: Broxbournc gravel pits, d, 28th to 30th April (H. P. Mcdhurst et at.). (North America) Also a female (the first ever recorded in Britain and Ireland) at Lough Skahanagh and Shreelane Lakes, Co. Cork, from 10th February to at least 1 6th March, and a male at the latter locality from 5th to at least 1 6th March and (presumed to be the same individual) at Gullane’s Lough, Co. Cork, on 4th and 5th May. It seems possible that both British records refer to the same bird. 1 he failure of other drakes to reappear at traditional local- ities in Devon and Somerset is noteworthv. Surf Scoter Melamtta perspicillata Northumberland: Bamburgh, the $ recorded from 25th October 1973 {Brit. Birds, 67: 317) was last seen on 10th February (A. J. P. Gloth, M. Henry et at.). Coquet Island, d, 5th October (R. Gomes). Sutherland: Loch Fleet Bar, d, 21st March to 14th April (Mrs M. Hall, D. Mac- donald, N. W. G. Wright et at.). Steller’s Eider Polysticta stelleri Orkney: Westray, immature d, 25th October to at least 14th November (R. H. Dennis, R. Hastings). Outer Hebrides: South Uist, the d recorded in 1972 and 1973 {Brit. Birds, 66: 338; 67: 317, plate 48) stayed all year, and was seen with two ??, 13th April (D. Waring et at.). (Arctic Russia to extreme north-west Canada) The sixth record 3H Rare birds in Great Britain ig74 ever of this distinctive eider was in 1959, followed by a ten-year gap; thus the six further individuals during 1970-74 have defied all precedent, as has the continuing stay of the drake on South Uist. King Eider Somateria spectabilis Aberdeenshire: Murcar, f°r the first year since 1966. Laughing Gull Larus atricilla Argyll: Loch Skerrols, Islay, 21st April (K. Verrall). Essex: Holliwell Point, Burnham-on-Crouch, 5th May (C. J. Mackenzie-Grieve). (North America and Caribbean) Two more records bring the total for Britain and Ireland to eight. The Argyll record is the first for Scotland. No clear seasonal pattern has yet emerged. Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea Hampshire: Stanpit Marshes, Christchurch, immature, 16th June to 20th August (F. R. Clafton, K. L. Hainsworth, R. Sutton et at.) (Brit. Birds, 67: plate 64). Yorkshire: Bridlington, immature, 27th January (M. Densley). (North-east Siberia) For a bird of this high-arctic species to summer on the south coast was perhaps the most remarkable ornithological event of the year. Records since 1958 now add to ten of a grand total of twelve, while those of the other high-arctic gull, the Ivory Pagophila eburnea, in the same period amount to only eleven out of some 87 in all, setting a considerable puzzle. White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus Glamorgan: Eglwys Nunydd Reservoir, immatures, 5th to 1 ith and 6th to 1 ith September (P. G. Lansdown, Dr D. K. Thomas et at.). Kent: Dungeness, immature, 25th August to 7th September (P. J. Grant, N. Riddiford, A. T. M. Ruck et at.). Lincolnshire: Covenham Reservoir, immature, 8th August (A. Grieve); another immature, 30th August to 10th September (R. A. Frost, A. Grieve, M. E. Taylor et at.) (plate 47a). Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 321 Middlesex: Queen Mary Reservoir, immature, 9th September (M. J. Rogers). Norfolk: I itchwell, immature, 4th September (A. Parker). Somerset: Chew Valley Lake, immature, nth September (K. E. Vinicombe). Steart, immature, 17th September (B. Rabbitts). Staffordshire: Belvide Reservoir, immature, 15th to 18th September (B. Crad- dock, F. C. Gribble, D. Smallshire et at.). Yorkshire: Hornsea Mere, immature, 1st to 13th September (R. G. Hawley, D. I. M. Wallace et at.). (South-east Europe, west and east Asia) Also one at Tacumshin, Co. Wexford, on 1 6th September. Twelve is well below the average °1 recent years and the absence of spring records is equally striking. Even so, the grand total moves on to about 280. Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida Glamorgan: Blackpill, two, 13th May (C. Spencer, D. K. Thomas). Eglwys Nunydd Reservoir, adult, 7th September (P. G. Lansdown, J. D. Wells). Hampshire: Hamble estuary, Southampton Water, adult, 17th August (D. A. Christie). (South Eurasia, parts of Africa, and Australia) Three typical records (four birds) take the grand total to 56 individuals. Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica Dorset: Portland Bill, 1 6th May (P. and M. C. Cambridge): 14th September (J. E. Hunt, J. N. Mutch et at.). Essex: Maplin Sands, 5th September (R. A. Jacobs). Hampshire: St Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight, three, 3rd May (D. B. Wool- dridge). Norfolk: Blakency, 25th August (J. A. Hazell). Cley, two, 28th September (M. J. Arnold, A. V. Moon et at.). Thornham/Holme, 14th October (W. N. Loseby). Suffolk: Sizewcll Beach, 10th May (M. A. Hall, D. Nesling). Sussex: Pagham Harbour, nth May (J. Brock, C. B. Cole et at.). Pett Level. 12th May (A. Davis). (Almost cosmopolitan, nearest breeding colony in Denmark) Ten tecords (13 individuals) is well above the recent average and echoes the widespread scatter of 1967. A further parallel with that year can be found in the four autumn birds in Norfolk. The grand total is now at least 1735 *n addition, a pair bred in Essex in 1950. Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia Aberdeenshire: Loch of Strathbeg, 13th August (J. Dunbar . Cardiganshire: Ynys-las and Ynys-hir, 8th to 28th May (C. W. Helliwell A. Parker et at.). Hampshire: Milford-on-Sea, 22nd June (L. Mulford, A. J. L. Smith). Yorkshire: Spurn, 3rd August (R. F. Porter). (Almost cosmopolitan, nearest breeding colonies in Baltic) These lour take the total since 1 95® to 74 individuals. The Aberdeenshire bird was the farthest north of the four ever recorded in Scotland. Welsh and Irish records number only three and one respectively. 322 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Caspian or Royal Tern Hydroprogne caspia/ Sterna maxima Cheshire: Hilbre Island, 8th September (R. Anderson, K. A. Dummigan, J. Gittins). Flintshire: Point of Air, 22nd September (B. Boothby) ; same bird as above. Rufous Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis Shetland: Fair Isle, 31st October and 1st November (G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad). (Most of Asia, except far north) This is only the fifth British record but the second in two years. Another was reported from Suf- folk in the previous week but no details have been received. Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca Banffshire: Cabrach, 24th to 26th November (M. J. H. Cook, J. Edelsten). Shetland: Fetlar, up to three, January to March; as in 1973 {Brit. Birds , 67: 328) (J mated to two old laid five eggs, from about 24th May; all hatched, though three of the chicks died during cold and mist, 8th-gth July; remaining two young left nest area but one found dead at end of July; last chick fledged but came to grief on a barbed-wire fence and was taken into care on 1 6th August and released 19th September; this last bird could have been one of the three to four that stayed on Fetlar to the end of the year; young $ laid one egg on 30th May but subsequently deserted and left the area (R. J. Tulloch et at.). Unst, $, 6th and 18th May (I. Spence); possibly the same bird, 24th and 29th May (G. Bundy). Fair Isle, immature $, 17th to 20th May (R. A. Broad et at.). Near Hamnavoe, 30th May {per P. Cole). Foula, two, May {per Brathay Exploration Group). Norwick, 6th June {per M. Sinclair). Collafirth Hill, 22nd July (D. Coutts). Ronas Hill, $, 28th July (I. Sandison); possibly the same bird, mid- August (F. Dunn). (Circumpolar Arctic) Following a flush of records throughout Britain in 1972 and the presence of at least three pairs on Scottish isles in 1973? it is difficult not to feel concern over this poor showing. Low breeding success may be about to eclipse the presence of this fine owl in Britain. Alpine Swift Apus melba Lincolnshire: Gibraltar Point, nth June (D. Brooke, K. Payne). Norfolk: Cley, 17th May (M. A. Blick, P. A. Dukes, R. A. Richardson et al.). Stiffkey, 23rd September (R. Harrison, B. C. Shergold et al.). Outer Hebrides: pair, January to April, J1 all year, $ in different area 17th September (W. A. J. Cunningham, P. G. Hopkins, R. MacIntyre). Pembrokeshire: Ramsey Island, 28th June (T. Gladwin, M. Thomas et al.). Sussex: Beachy Head, 25th August (D. S. Flumm). Yorkshire: Hunmanby Gap, Bempton Cliffs, 13th May (S. D. and Mrs S. B. Gall). (South Eurasia, north-west and east Africa) There have now been about 103 since 1958. It is interesting to note that the three May birds were shortly followed by two Bee-eaters and two Rollers (see below). 323 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Bee-eater Merops apiaster Cornwall: Porthgwarra, 14th September (D. J. Barker, L. P. Williams). Kent: Dungeness, 19th May (R. E. Hewlett); 7th August (K. Redshaw. N. Riddiford et at.). Yorkshire: Bempton Cliffs, 17th May (S. C. Madge). (South Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa) After the previous year’s exceptional influx, this average showing takes the number of birds since 1958 to at least 91 out of an all-time total of over 245. Three pairs bred in Sussex in 1955. Roller Coracias garrulus Banffshire: Grange, 29th May to 3rd June (J. Edelsten et at.). Oxfordshire: Aston Upthorpe Down, 23rd to 27th May (F. Berry, J. A. Lucas A. Rolf et at.). (South and east Europe, west Asia and north-west Africa) These two typical records take the total for Britain and Ireland to about 178, though only 43 of these have occurred since 1958. Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea Shetland: Fair Isle, nth to 15th May (G. J. Barnes, J. Selwyn); nth to 15th October (G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad et at.). Out Skerries, nth to 20th November (I. S. and Mrs S. Robertson). Yorkshire: Spurn, trapped, 9th May (B. R. and Mrs C. Spence). Coatham Marsh, Rcdcar, 21st June to 14th August (D. G. Bell, D. J. Britton et at.). (South Eurasia, north and east Africa) Only five is well below par for this small lark in recent years. The summering of the one in Yorkshire is without precedent. Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Yorkshire: Healaugh Pond, Rceth, 7th May (P. J. Dunn, Miss K. Sawyer). (South and east Eurasia, and Africa) The least showing since 1966. Black-throated Thrush Tardus rujicollis Shetland: Tolob, adult $, 5th and 6th October (A. D. J. Cook, D. Coutts, C. J. Mackenzie-Grieve et at.) (plate 45b). (Central Asia) This is only the fourth ever and the first female. The three previous records were in December 1868 (Sussex), February 1879 (Perthshire) and December i957'January 1958 (Fair Isle). It is surprising that this large and conspicuous bird does not occur far more often than its eastern Palearctic relatives, the Siberian T. sibiricus, Eye-browed T. obscurus and Dusky Thrushes T. naumanni (with one, three and four records respectively), since its winter distribution is much more westerly than any of theirs. Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis (Central and south Eurasia) None in Britain, but an adult male 324 Rare birds in Great Britain ig74 at Clogher Head, Go. Louth, on 20th and 21st May was the first for Ireland. There have been eleven British records, all but two in May or June (see page 333). Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti Yorkshire: Fraisthorpe, (J, 29th November to 1st December (G. Brown, D. I. M. Wallace et at.). (North Africa and south-central Asia) This is the nineteenth known to have reached Britain since 1880, when the first was found. The extent of white on the inner webs of the remiges marked it as belonging to one of the eastern races deserti or atrogularis. It had successfully found a small but almost perfect coastal replica of its breeding habitat, but sadly it is likely that it died there. Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica Devon: Lundy, d1, 14th May (P. Bowyer). Kent: Dengemarsh, Dungeness, two adult 21st May (Miss Tubbs), one (trapped) staying to 29th May (P. J. Grant, N. Riddiford, D. B. Rosair et at.) ; both of the black-throated form. (South Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa) Three overshooting birds that came in a period marked by the arrival of several Mediterranean species take the grand total to 28. Siberian Stonechat Saxicola torquata maura\stejnegen Stonechats showing the characters of one or other of these eastern races were recorded as follows: Dorset: Portland, 21st October (G. Walbridge et at.). Norfolk: Snettisham, 4th November (G. B. Brown). Northumberland: Holy Island, two, 12th and 13th October (B. Galloway, B. Little, E. R. Meeker at.). Tynemouth, 7th to 15th November (K. G. Dures, M. S. Hodgson, E. R. Meek). Shetland: Out Skerries, 16th October (I. S. Robertson). (Eastwards from north-east Russia) These six, plus one in 1961 (page 333), and three others in 1904, 1913 and 1964, make a total of ten so far published. I. S. Robertson is preparing a review of their British status (all records welcomed by the committee). Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia Shetland: Whalsay, trapped, 14th to 20th May (Dr B. Marshall et at.). Out Skerries, 17th May (I. S. Robertson). Fair Isle, 21st and 22nd May (B. S. Barnacal, D. Bell, Mrs V. MacFarland et at.); immature, trapped, 13th Tune (G. T. Barnes, I. G. Black, R. A. Broad et at.). (Scandinavia, east Europe and west Asia) A remarkable repeat of the 1973 occurrences on Fair Isle, and further evidence of the overshooting of Scandinavian adults in late May. The total moves on to 26, all but one in the last 18 years. 325 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti Cornwall: Marazion Marsh, 16th September (W. E. Oddie). Devon: Exe reedbeds, immature $, trapped, gth October to 5th November (F. R. Smith); immature ?, trapped, 21st October (R. Khan, F. R. Smith, Mrs H. A. Woodland et at.). Slapton Ley, 19th November to mid-April 1975 (P. Brown, M. R. Edmonds et at.). South Milton Ley, 24th December (R. Burridge). Dorset: Radipole Lake, 29th September (N. A. and Mrs L. Tucker). Hampshire: Alrcsford, singing 19th June (R. J. Haycock, M. Wright). Northumberland: Tynemouth, trapped, 30th August (K. G. Dures, M. S. Hodgson, T. Watson). Low Hauxley, immature, trapped, 1st September (L. G. Macfarlane, E. R. Meek et at.). Shetland: Fair Isle, immature, trapped, 14th September (B. Bland, R. A. Broad et at.). Whalsay, trapped, 14th to 19th September (Dr B. Marshall). Yorkshire: Kilnsea, 1st to 5th September (S. C. Madge et at.). (Eurasia east from north-east Germany) Another late spring overshoot and another small autumn arrival of immatures, pre- sumably on reversed migration, continue the recent pattern. The dates of the first four autumn birds are virtually identical with those of the unprecedented influx to north Norfolk in 1972. The grand total becomes 97, all but one since 1945. v ' :• '■ V>- t\ .i ' .. - * & : Ji JJ / : .l /'■’ t s* £2£>> .ms/\t.4tT *iT> Ii.aik 44. Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata , Scilly, September 1974 (page 318), in bottom picture with three Pectoral Sandpipers C. melanotos at same place (lower, centre and right). The white supercilium contrasting with the dark crown is obvious (cf. British Birds. 87: plate 50) ( photos : I). B. Hunt Plate 45. Above, Chiffchaff Phyllo- scopus collybita (left) and Dusky Warbler P. fuscatus, East Sus- sex, October 1974 (page 327) : note small size and dark plumage of latter and prominent supercilium {photo: R. H. Charlwood). Below, female Black- throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis, Shetland, October !974 (page 323): only the fourth time that this large thrush had occurred in Britain and the first female ; note the heavy streaking ex- tending well down the flanks and the dark and light mark on the closed wing {photo: D. Coutts). y , Plate 4<>. Radde’s Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi, Kent, October 1962 (see lirit. Buds. 56. 420-421, plate 64); another appeared in East Sussex in October 1974 (page 328) in a remarkable autumn for Asiatic warblers (photo: G. R. Shannon). Plate 47. Above, juvenile White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus, Lincolnshire, September 1974 (page 320) : the dark back contrasting with the paler wings and white rump shows up well in this photograph ; note also the dark crown, white forehead and white nape, and the grey, square-ended tail {photo: K. Atkin). Below, Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis with (below) Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris, Shetland, 1974 (page 309) : the albatross stayed for two months in the gannetry at Hermaness, where an individual, perhaps the same, summered in 1972 {Brit. Birds, 67: 342) {photo: D. Coutts). I 327 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli Norfolk: Great Yarmouth, 30th August to 2nd September (P. R. Allard, G. E. Dunmore, D. J. Holman et at.). Scilly : St Agnes, nth September (R. F. VV. Hemming, A. R. Lowe, W. E. Oddie et at.). (Central, west and south Europe, Levant and north-west Africa) Two more take the British and Irish total to 39. It is difficult to understand the coincidence of the first with the largest fall of Scandinavian night migrants on the east coast in 1974. Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis Shetland: Out Skerries, 18th August (I. S. Robertson). (North-east Europe, north Asia and Alaska) It is 1 1 years since fewer than two were accepted in an autumn. Grand total now 80. Pallas’s Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus Dorset: Portland Bill, 14th October (Mrs M. Tucker). Durham: Hartlepool, 9th October (J. M. Bayldon, D. Clayton). Hampshire: Milford-on-Sca, 23rd November (J. Sylvester), Norfolk: Happisburgh, trapped, 14th to 16th October (Mrs B. M. E. Unsworth et al.). Wells, 24th and 25th October (D. I. M. Wallace et al.). Northumberland: Coquet Island, trapped, 3rd to 6th October (R. Gomes). Holy Island, 4th October (T. and Mrs B. Hallam). Scilly: St Mary’s, 12th to 14th October (P. Maker, B. K. Mellow, C. Murphy et al.). St Agnes, 22nd October (P. G. Lansdown). Sussex: Beachy Head, trapped, 14th to 17th October (R. H. and Mrs M. E. Charlwood) ; another, 3rd November; two (one trapped), 17th to 19th November, one staying to 21st (S. Greenwood, A. Quinn et al.). (Central, east and south-east Asia) There were some who feared that, after two years which could muster between them only a single record of this jewel of a bird, their eyes might never feast upon it. Yet suddenly 13 came apparently from nowhere in the second half of the autumn and gave much happiness to scores of observers. The influx was second in scale only to that of 1968 (when 18 ap- peared) and was associated with anticyclones at high latitudes in Fenno-Scandia which produced an easterly airstream out of north Russia. It is remarkable that, in contrast to several of its congeners, this species is tending to occur earlier than hitherto. The mean date of these 13 is 24th October, and the number of records in the first half of October now jumps from four to eleven. The all-time total for Britain and Ireland moves on to 60. There was a con- temporaneous influx into south Norway in the year under review with ten birds between 5th and 27th October, their mean date being 15th October. Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus Shetland: Fair Isle, immature, trapped, 13th and 14th October (G. J. Barnes I. G. Black, R. A. Broad et al.). 32^ Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Sussex: Beachy Head, trapped, 18th October (J. F. Cooper, D. and T. Parmenter et at.) (plate 45a). (Central and north-east to south-east Asia) Two birds appearing, as the last species, rather earlier than usual take the British total to 16. These were the first since 1970. Radde’s Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi Sussex: Beachy Head, trapped, 18th October (R. H. and Mrs M. E. Charlwood et at.). (Central and east Asia) This bird completed a remarkable quartet of Asiatic warblers that came to Beachy Head during the week 14th- 1 8th October — Yellow-browed P. inornatus and Pallas’s on 14th, Dusky and Radde’s on 18th — and added further evidence of their unusual displacement in the year under review. Almost on a par with the last species, the grand total now becomes 14. Tawny Pipit Ant bus campestris Cornwall: Marazion Marsh, 21st and 22nd September (P. A. Maker, B. K. Mellow et at.). Long Rock, Penzance, nth October (L. P. Williams). Dorset: Ferrybridge, 13th to 15th September (M. Casement, T. Kittle). Hampshire: Hengistbury Head, 14th September (A. E. and T. J. Christmas). Kent: Dungeness, 29th August (P. J. Grant, N. Riddiford et at.); two, perhaps three, 12th September (N. Riddiford et at.). Outer Hebrides: Hirta, St Kilda, 8th May (Dr. M. P. Harris). Pembrokeshire: Skomer Island, 13th May (J. E. and Mrs H. Davis, A. Jones). Scilly: St Agnes, 23rd April (D. B. Hunt, D. I. M. Wallace et at.). St Mary’s, 23rd to 29th April (R. W. Allen, D. S. Flumm, N. A. G. Lord) ; 1 ith to 13th Sep- tember, two on 14th September (R. F. W. Hemming, A. R. Lowe, W. E. Oddie et at.). Shetland: Out Skerries, 14th to 17th May (I. S. Robertson); 26th May (I. S. Robertson) . Somerset: Steart, 15th October (B. Rabbitts, K. Utteridge). Sussex: Beachy Head, 29th August (M. Eales); two, 30th August to 2nd Sep- tember, one 8th to 14th September (R. H. and Mrs M. E. Charlwood); singles, 2nd and 16th September (T. Gravett) and 29th September (P. Clement). Rye Harbour, 16th and 17th September (P. F. Bonham, C. Parish, N. Pinder et at.). Yorkshire: Bempton Cliffs, 18th and 19th May (S. C. Madge). (Europe, south Asia and north-west Africa) Another 22 or so individuals take the grand total to about 415 (300 since 1958), continuing the recent pattern of 20-35 birds each year since 1968. The spring overshooting to four western islands and to Shetland is the most striking ever recorded. Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni Shetland: Fair Isle, immature, trapped, 24th to 26th November (G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad et at.). (North-east Russia, central and east Asia) The locality is typical but the date is 52 days behind the mean of the first three British Rare birds in Great Britain ig74 329 autumn records (there has also been one in spring). The last of the Pallas s Warblers was found on the previous day and a Desert Wheatear only five days later. Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus Northumberland: Brownsman, Fame Islands, and to 6th May (C. J. Clarke, R. A. Langston). (Arctic Eurasia) After the bumper crop of nine in 1973, this single spring bird looks strangely lonely. The absence of any autumn record further underlines the paucity of Fenno-Scandian rarities in the autumn under review. Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola Shetland: Fair Isle, immature, 2nd to 4th September (J. K. Bowers, D. A. Boyd, R. V. A. Marshall et at.); immature, 2nd to 10th October (R. A. Broad, H. Nash et at.). (East European Russia and west-central Asia) The total is now 20, all since 1954. Black-headed Wagtail Alotacilla Jlava feldegg Males showing the characters of this distinctive subspecies of the Yellow Wagtail were recorded as follows: Shetland: Fair Isle, 3rd to 8th May (R. A. Broad, E. Thomson et at.). Sussex: Thorney Island, 23rd July (Rev H. M. Hill). (Balkans and Asia Minor) The ninth and tenth records, and the fit st since 1 97°- The May bird came during a period characterised by marked overshooting of Tawny Pipits. Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor Argyll: Salcn, Mull, 5th September (R. F. Coomber, A. Stephenson, Dr M. E. Witherick). Durham: near Port Clarence, Teesmouth, 29th June to 3rd July (E. C. Gatcnbv et at.). Pembrokeshire: Skomer Island, 18th September (J. E. Davis). Shetland: Fetlar, 14th and 15th June (M. C. Robinson). Unst, 19th June (G. Bundy). Fair Isle, 24th to 28th June (R. A. Broad et at.). (South and east Europe and south-west Asia) These four June and two September records make up an above-average showing for this shrike, matched only in 1961, 1970 and 1973, and take the grand total to 93- Note the close association of the spring records with three W oodchats and two Rose-coloured Starlings (see below). Woodchat Shrike Lanins senator Buckinghamshire: Padbury Hill Farm, 5th June (E. Coles). Cornwall: Porthgwarra, 17th and 18th May (H. P. K. Robinson et al.). Devon: Lundy, 20th June (G. Glombek, A. M. Taylor); immature, 21st to 2=uh September (C. C. Baillic, N. A. Clark et al.). 330 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Lincolnshire : Skidbrooke North End, immature, 2 1 st September (P. F. Le Brocq) . Scilly: Samson, iBth May (I. S. Robertson); 29th August, two difTerent ones on 31st August and 1st September; one on 10th, 27th, 28th, two 29th and one on 30th September (I. S. Robertson et d.). Bigton, ?, 2nd June (D. Coutts). l'air Isle, trapped, 15th and 16th June; 29th August; trapped, 10th September; two nth to 14th, one to 17th; trapped, 21st and 22nd; five 23rd, two to 25th; thiee 2hth , six 27th September — at least ten individuals in autumn, all immature or ^ (R. A. Broad et d.). Foula, 30th August (Brathay Exploration Group). Sumburgh, 31st August (J. K. Bowers, D. Boyd); 1st September (D. Coutts). Whalsay, 1st September, three 2nd, one 5th, three individuals in all (Dr B. Marshall). Uyeasound, Unst, 13th and 14th September (I. Spence). Sussex: Beachy Head, trapped, 1st October (R. H. and Mrs M. E. Charlwood). Yorkshire: Spurn, trapped, nth September (T. J. Bennett et d.). (East Europe and across Asia, and east Turkey to Himalayas) Another 35 or so keep the recent tide of dramatically increased occurrences flowing. The consistency of the trend argues strongly for the basic cause to be reversed migration from an expanding popu- lation. The total since 1958 is now about 280 \ this is the second commonest passerine on our list, after the Tawny Pipit. Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala Argyll: Island ofSeil, 21st June (Mr and Mrs D. Richmond). Lincolnshire: Theddlethorpe, 14th September (R. K. Norman). (South-east Europe and south-west Asia) Given the backcloth of several other southern or eastern species in June, including four of the Lesser Grey Shrikes and two of the Rose-coloured Starlings, all in northern Britain, the Argyll bird was surely wild. The other’s origin is more contentious, though autumn records are not rare (and made up three out of the four in 1973). The grand total is now about 38, 29 of these since 1958. 332 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola Fife: Isle of May, trapped, ist and 2nd September, another 2nd September (D. R. Langslow, D. Moss, G. L. Sandeman et at.). Scilly: St Mary’s, immature, 25th to 27th September (D. S. Flumm, C. Heard, N. A. G. Lord et at.). Shetland: Fair Isle, $$ or immatures, 29th August to 3rd September, roth to 17th September, and 16th and 17th September (three birds in all); immature, probably <$, 23rd to 25th September (R. A. Broad et at.). Out Skerries, 12th September, two 13th, one 14th September, all immature (Dr M. Harris, I. S. Robertson, R. J. Tulloch et at.). (North-east Europe and north Asia) This is the third successive year in which this bunting has put in an above-average appearance. Hot on the heels of the first Welsh bird in 1973 comes the first for south-west England. We have already argued that there is a link between the occurrences of this species and those of the Scarlet Rosefinch (Brit. Birds, 67: 339). In total, there have now been 55 (35 since 1966). Surprisingly, it is still very much an ‘island’ rarity. Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica Fife: Isle of May, 18th May (J. A. Morgan). Shetland: Fair Isle, $, 10th to 14th May (R. A. Broad, B. Cochrane, E. Thomson et at.); o> 15th and 16th May (S. Baines, I. G. Black et at.); 17th to 22nd May (R. A. Broad et at.). Whalsay, 13th May (Dr B. Marshall); 20th and 21st May (J. H. Simpson). Out Skerries, 16th May (I. S. and Mrs S. Robertson). (North-east Europe and north Asia) Six in Shetland and one in Fife in eleven May days constitutes the most striking spring influx ever recorded. Their close association with three Thrush Nightin- gales is noteworthy. The grand total is now about 88. Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla Fife: Isle of May, nth and 12th October (M. F. Carrier, T. Irving, D. Skilling et at.). Scilly: St Mary’s, 10th October (P. S. Campbell, A. Goodwin, C. Murphy), and probably the same bird, Gugh, 10th and nth October (T. P. Inskipp et at.). Tresco, 16th October (B. D. Harding, T. H. Marchant, D. B. Rosair et at.). St Agnes, 24th October (P. A. Dukes). Shetland: Fair Isle, 10th to 13th October (R. D. Moore, D. R. Waugh et at.). (North-east Europe and north Asia) Five is the average since 1958 (and since 1968), and the dates and island distribution, too, were typical. 333 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Amendment to the 1973 report Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris Solly: B. D. Harding’s name should be omitted from the St Mary’s records. Supplementary 1961 record accepted Siberian Stonechat Saxicola torquata maurajstejnegeri Shetland: Fair Isle, $, showing the characters of one of these eastern 13th to 17th October (G. J. Barnes, P. E. Davis). races, (Eastwards from north-east Russia) This becomes the third accepted out of eight in all (see page 324). Supplementary 1969 records accepted Bonaparte’s Gull Larus Philadelphia Yorkshire: Filey, aoth June (L. G. Dewdney). This record, previously rejected, has been reconsidered and accepted after further discussion of the details and circumstances of the occurrence. Rock Thrush Alonticola saxatilis Yorkshire: Sutton Bank. <$, 17th May (C. Clapham). (Central and southern Eurasia) This was the tenth British record, coming only eight days after a male in Norfolk (Brit. Birds , 63: 284); the Fair Isle bird of June 1970 (Brit. Birds, 64: 358) thus becomes the eleventh. The first Irish record is mentioned on paee 324. K 6 Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor Lincolnshire: Saltfleetby, 5th October (R. May, D. C. Robinson). Supplementary 1970 record accepted Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala Dorset: Weston, Portland, 24th May (G. Walbridge). 334 Rare birds in Great Britain ig/4 Supplementary 1972 records accepted Alpine Swift Apus melba Cornwall: Saltash, 22nd May (E. Griffiths). Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea Cheshire: Meols, Wirral, 13th to 18th October (D. J. Bates, C. Murphy et at.). Supplementary 1973 records accepted Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea Scilly: Gugh, ist May (J. D. Sanders et at.). Little Egret Egretta garzetta Lancashire: Freckleton area, 26th May to 3rd June (D. J. Hall, Miss U. L. Jamieson et at.). Sussex: Hastings, 3rd June (R. E. C. Collins). (South Eurasia, Africa and Australia) Also one at Aghadown, Co. Cork, from 10th October to at least 5th January 1974, much the latest to appear in 1973 and providing a further case of attempted overwintering in a western estuary. American Bittern Botaurus lentiginosus (North America) None in Britain, but one, the first since 1962, at Malin Beg, Co. Donegal, on 21st October was the 21st Irish. Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Berkshire: Bracknell, $, 27th September (T. A. Guyatt). (East Europe and south from Siberia) Also an adult female at Copeland Island, Co. Down, on 26th May, only the third ever identified in Ireland (the other two were in 1832 and 1966). These two further increase the record 1973 total to about 42. Great Bustard Otis tarda Yorkshire: Goathland Moor, J, 18th August (D. Clarke). (Central and south Eurasia, discontinuously from Portugal to the Pacific) This species is kept in captivity on the Continent (as well as on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire) and a number are believed to have been imported. Furthermore, August is an exceptional month: the twelve other birds since 1910 have occurred in December (six), January (four), March and May, and before that it was primarily a winter visitor. Thus this individual’s origin is very much open to doubt. 335 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Lesser Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica Cornwall: Stithians Reservoir, two, 15th September (E. Griffiths). Great Snipe Gallinago media Scilly: St Agnes, 13th October (R. J. McCann, S. C. Madge). Spotted Sandpiper Tringa macularia Dorset: Weymouth, 8th or 9th December to 24th March 1974 (D. Fisher). (North America) For comments see page 317. White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis Lincolnshire: Frampton Marsh, 16th September (B. Redman). Semipalmated or Western Sandpiper Calidris pi/silla/mauri Dorset/Somerset: Sutton Bingham Reservoir, 18th to 20th October (D. E. Pauli, R. H. Ryall et at.). Wilson’s Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor Durham: Washington Ponds, 20th to 22nd July (B. Armstrong et at.). Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti Hampshire: Farlington Marshes, 25th February (S. J. M. Gantlett, R. G. Mill- ington et at.). Norfolk: Norwich, found dead, 28th June [per J. G. Goldsmith), ringed as a juvenile at Hensies, Hainaut, Belgium, on 23rd August 1970; specimen at Castle Museum, Norwich. (South and west Europe north to England and Belgium, south- west Asia and north-west Africa) The Norfolk recovery is the only direct evidence to date of the origin of the British colonists. Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides Hampshire: Farlington Marshes, singing 14th to 17th June (J. D. Lindsay, R. Tofts, A. N. Williamson). Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola Dorset: Lodmoor, Weymouth, 8th October (D. C. Gilbert). Tawny Pipit Ant bus campestris Scilly: St Agnes, 10th to 13th October, perhaps another on 14th October (B. D. Harding et at.). Serin Serinus serinus Hampshire: Fleet Pond, pair with juvenile, 17th September (R. G. Millington). (Continental Europe, Mediterranean, Asia Minor and north-west Africa) Particularly since post-breeding dispersal in this species does not normally start until October (Brit. Birds, 64: 221-222), this record suggests to us that breeding took place somewhere in the area, where there is an abundance of suitable habitat. 33^ Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Appendix 1. List of 1974 records not accepted This list contains all the 1974 records not accepted after circu- lation to the committee. It does not include (a) records withdrawn by the observer (s), without circulation, after discussion with the honorary secretary; (b) records which, even if circulated, were not attributed by the observer(s) to any definite species; or (c) records mentioned in Recent reports’ of which full details were unobtain- able. Birds considered to be escapes are also omitted. In the vast majority of cases the record was not accepted because we were not convinced, on the evidence before us, that the identifi- cation was fully established; in only a very few cases were we satis- fied that a mistake had been made. Albatross sp Cory’s Shearwater Little Shearwater Purple Heron American Bittern White Stork Blue-winged Teal Surf Scoter King Eider Red-footed Falcon Lesser Kestrel Dowitcher Great Snipe Upland Sandpiper Greater Yellowlegs Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Buff-breasted Sandpiper Broad-billed Sandpiper Black-winged Stilt Wilson’s Phalarope Portland Bill, Dorset, 27th April Spurn, Yorkshire, 20th August Lundy, Devon, 7th September St Agnes, Scilly, 7th October Cley, Norfolk, 13th May Conyer, Kent, 18th August Pennington Flash, Leigh, Lancashire, 27th August Altcar Withins, Formby, Lancashire, 13th September Minsmere, Suffolk, 16th November North Camp gravel pits, Farnborough, Hampshire/ Surrey, 21st June Braunton, Devon, 23rd October Minsmere, Suffolk, 25th May Water Sound, Orkney, 4th July Eastbridge, Suffolk, 3rd June Woodham Ferrers, Essex, nth to 15th June Battlesbridge, Essex, 1st July Sutton Bingham Reservoir, Dorset/Somerset, 5th August Wensleydale, Yorkshire, 23rd April near Bishop’s Castle, Shropshire, 16th August Aberthaw, Glamorgan, 3rd September Shellness, Kent, two, 8th September Fairburn Ings, Yorkshire, three, 25th September Bo’ness, West Lothian, seven, 29th September Eastbridge, Suffolk, 28th May Saxlingham, Norfolk, 31st August Windrush valley, Oxfordshire, 28th August Islay, Argyll, 1 ith September Murton Common, Glamorgan, 1st November St Agnes and Gugh, Scilly, 27th September Pagham Harbour, Sussex, 6th July Marshside, Southport, Lancashire, 2nd October Marshside, Southport, Lancashire, 13th May Lundy, Devon, 30th August to 9th September Wells, Norfolk, 21st October Steart, Somerset, 5th August 337 Rare birds in Great Britain iQj 4 Pratincole sp Ivory Gull Bonaparte’s Gull Ross’s Gull White-winged Black Tern Whiskered Tern Gull-billed Tern Great Spotted Cuckoo Yellow- billed Cuckoo Roller Black Woodpecker Nutcracker White’s Thrush Rock Thrush Isabelline Wheatear Savi’s Warbler Bonelli’s Warbler Arctic Warbler Tawny Pipit Red-throated Pipit Citrine Wagtail Black-headed Wagtail Lesser Grey Shrike Serin Black-headed Bunting Little Bunting Snow Finch Durleigh Reservoir, Somerset, 12th May Rumworth Reservoir, Bolton, Lancashire, two, 15th September Billing gravel pit, Northampton, 13th October Breydon Water, Norfolk, 26th June Worthing, Sussex, 9th May Redcar, Yorkshire, 22nd August Minsmere, Suffolk, 1 8th May Swalecliffe, Kent, 22nd and 26th August Abberton Reservoir, Essex, 14th July Chew Valley Lake, Somerset, 10th August Belvide Reservoir, Staffordshire, 1st and 2nd September Langney Point, Sussex, two, 14th May, one 16th May Cemlyn, Anglesey, 27th May Covehithe, Suffolk, 27th July New Forest, Hampshire, 22nd October Clyst St George, Devon, 17th and 1 8th June I vinghoe, Buckinghamshire, two, 20th September Egerton, Ashford, Kent, eight, 22nd to 30th August Ruan Lanihorne, Cornwall, 12th October Eynsford, Kent, 28th September Bletchingley, Surrey, 15th to 25th November Southam, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, 6th June Liskcard, Cornwall, 14th to 21st September Scotton, Knaresborough, Yorkshire, 23rd April Portland, Dorset, 20th October Gugh, Scilly, 29th April Brownsman, Fame Islands, Northumberland, 30th August Lowestoft, Suffolk, 8th September Murton Common, Glamorgan, 19th September St Agnes, Scilly, 20th October Fair Isle, Shetland, 13th and 14th May AJtcar Withins, Formby, Lancashire, 19th March Hurworth Burn Reservoir, Durham, 4th to at least 29th May Radcliffe-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, 28th April Farmoor, Oxfordshire, 29th March Salthouse, Norfolk, 4th May Selsey, Sussex, 25th August Horsham, Sussex, two, 14th to 17th March North Muskham, Nottinghamshire, 31st March Cley, Norfolk, 1 7th September Isle of May, Fife, 23rd October Flamborough Head, Yorkshire, 10th November Cromer, Norfolk, 22nd May Appendix 2. Supplementary 1968 record not accepted Orphean Warbler Portland Bill, Dorset, 5th May Appendix 3. Supplementary 1971 record not accepted Brown Flycatcher St Agnes, Scilly, 5th October w *n e 338 Rare birds in Great Britain 1974 Appendix 4. Supplementary 1973 records not accepted Night Heron Black Kite Ring-billed Gull Arctic Warbler Serin Pine Bunting Little Bunting Raithby, Lincolnshire, 1 1 th November Snettisham, Norfolk, 14th January Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire, 21st February Pagham Lagoon, Sussex, 25th February Titchwell, Norfolk, 25th September Tresco, Scilly, 1 1 th September South Shields, Durham, 27th October Deerness, Orkney, 19th August F. R. Smith, 1 17 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3PP Food of Turnstones in the Wash R. E. Jones During 1973 R. Berry and I collected small samples of pellets from Turnstones Arenaria interpres in the Wash in an attempt to discover the major prey species. This short paper discusses the feeding habits of these birds and summarises the results of our collections. the Wash holds a winter population of about 1,200 Turnstones. This estuary comprises a large area of mud- and sandflats, with no rocky outcrops except a few in the vicinity of Hunstanton, Norfolk, and the rock-covered embankments of the major river channels. There are many mussel* beds and it is on these that the majority of the Turnstones appear to feed; though they have also been ob- served regularly exploiting other food sources. The ability of this species to scavenge is well documented (e.g. MacDonald and Parmelee 19^2, Mercer 1966). 1 urnstones were several times observed feeding on mussels washed up by storms and dead or dying along the tideline. Cockles washed out of the mud accumulate in large drifts in some of the shallower creeks and these too are exploited, either by opening the shells or by waiting until they gape and then extracting the flesh. Small individuals may be swallowed whole. During our study an offshore bank, Daseley’s Sand, supported up to 120 Turnstones which obtained most of their food from cockles damaged by cocklefishers’ rakes. A small flock of 10-12 was also observed during the winter of 1973/74 feeding in a similar manner around cockle boats on the western shore. This habit is not con- fined to Turnstones, having been noted regularly in Redshanks Tringa totanus and Dunlins Calidris alpina and occasionally in Knots C. canutus. Another feeding method which I have not seen described else- where is systematically digging through a patch of mud to extract the invertebrates present. P. Newbery (verbally) has watched Turnstones feeding in this manner on Corophium beds (Crustacea: Amphipoda) on several occasions. In the present study the pellets were all collected from high-tide roosts at various sites around the Wash. Turnstone pellets are small and irregular in shape; not having constant characteristics, they cannot readily be separated from pellets of other waders in mixed roosts. For this reason, they were collected only on the relatively few occasions when Turnstones were found roosting in pure flocks. The problems of presenting pellet data are well known. In this study we recorded presence, absence or trace; for prey species which •Scientific names not given in the text are listed in table 1. [Brit. Birds, 68: 339-341, August 1975] 339 34° Food of Turnstones Table i. Analysis of 37 pellets of Turnstones Arenaria interpres collected at high-tide roosts around the Wash in 1973 Within the main body of the table, the first figure gives the number of pellets in which the prey animal was detected; this is followed either by a / sign and the minimum total of spat or small individuals in those pellets (see above for method of calculation), or by p (present) or t (trace) representing fragments of larger specimens whose possible origin Wolferton Jan Aug is discussed above Dersing- Hoi- Butter- 1 ham beach wick Sep Mar Mar Aug Pellets cont’g prey No. % CRUSTACEA Barnacles (Cirripedia) — ■ 2P 8t — 5p 3T 4T — 22 59% Shore Crab Carcinus manias — 12/88 1/2 5/5 9/68 1/3 28 76% Hermit Crab Eupagurus sp — — — — — i/t I 3% INS ECTA Insects 1/1 1/2 4T — 1/1 1/1 IT — 9 OA0/ 24 /o LORIC AT A Chiton Lepidochitona cinereus — 3P — — 6p IP IO 27% GASTROPODA Common Top Shell Calliostoma zizyphinum — — — 1/3 — — I 3% Winles Littorina spp — 2/33 — ip 5/630+ — 9 24% Spire shells Hydrobia spp — 8/18 — IT 5/6 — ■4 38% LAMELLI BRANCHIA Common Cockle Cardium edule 2P 2T i/3 1/5 2P 7T 2P 2T — 19 51% Common Mussel Mytiliis edulis 1/1 5T 3/6 IP 4T 2/8 IT ' 17 46% Baltic Tellin Macoma balthica — 2/2 IT >/ 1 2/3 IT — 7 19% OTHER CONTENTS Vegetable matter 2P 7p IP 6p — — l6 43% Grit 2P 5p IP 1 ip — — ■9 5i% TOTAL PELLETS COLLECTED 2 12 I 1 1 IO 1 37 occurred whole or in countable fragments (such as umboes of bivalve molluscs, opercula of gastropods and chelae of crabs), the indivi- duals or fragments were counted, and in the latter case the total was divided by the number of times these fragments occur in the animal in question to give the minimum number of prey animals ingested. The results are summarised in table 1. They agree in general with data from Morecambe Bay (Davidson 1971, Prater 1972) in that the diet consists mainly of small crustaceans and molluscs. The majority of the prey appears to have been obtained from mussel beds. The Shore Crab was the most frequent prey, occurring in 76% of the pellets. Many crabs were extremely small, the only intact individual having a carapace 3 mm wide. l'ood oj Turnstones 341 Soft-bodied (wholly digestible) prey obviously does not leave traces in pellets and this fact should be borne in mind when inter- preting these results. Scavenged cockle flesh does not show up in pellets but the fragments of large cockle and mussel shells which occurred may well have been ingested with flesh from damaged, scavenged prey. The presence of mussel pearls in a pellet was taken as evidence of mussel flesh having been eaten. Cockles and mussels wt 1 c clearly of considerable importance, occurring in 5 1 % and 46% of the pellets respectively. Cockles were not recorded by either Davidson or Prater, nor were chitons which were frequent prey mol- uscs in the Wash. The Common Top Shell occurred in onlv one pellet, being represented by three whole individuals each about 2 mm long- In a11 cases where insect remains could be identified they were of beetles (Coleoptera). Lastly, a single I urnstone stomach was examined. Its contents were as follows: Species Minimum no. individuals, and remarks Shore Crab Carcinus rnaenas 6 Including one whole individual of 7 mm carapace width Mussels Mytilus spat 27 Including whole individuals 6, 7, 7, and 7.5 mm in length Rough Periwinkle Littorina saxatilis Ragworm Nereis sp (Polychacta) Barnacle (Cirripcdia) Trace REFERENCES R. E. Jones , 40 Oak Road , Fareham , Hampshire P015 5HD Notes Carrion Crow taking House Martin I refer to previous notes on Carrion Crows Corvus corone stooping at Swallows Hirundo rustica [Brit. Birds, 62: 158; 63: 428-429). On 28th September 1954 two young House Martins Delichon urbica were flying in front of Malham Cove, North Yorkshire, a natural nesting site for the species. Their flight was weak and they often settled. A Carrion Crow appeared, pursued one of the martins, took it in its beak and flew off. W. B. Yapp Church End House, Twyning, Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire GL20 6da Two pairs of Carrion Crows nesting in the same tree On 26th May 1973, Ian Black and I visited the nest of a Carrion Crow Corvus corone on Venn Ottery Common in east Devon to ring the young. The nest was at the end of some very narrow branches in a Scots pine Pinus sylvestris. Since these branches would not bear a man’s weight we thought that it might be possible to fix ropes over an outreaching branch and lower away to reach the nest. From above it was seen that the nest contained two well-fledged young. In order to gain greater height IB climbed the main trunk and found there in a fork in the crown of the tree another nest, also of a Carrion Crow and also containing two fledged young. These were ringed but no further effort was made to reach the first nest. The young in the higher nest were older than those in the lower, though none was yet capable of leaving the nest. Four adult birds were always in attendance. Venn Ottery Common is by no means treeless, having- many full-grown broadleaved and coniferous trees on its perimeter. Geoffrey H. Gush Heather Cottage, Higher Metcombe, Ottery St Alary, Devon exi x xsr Nesting in such close proximity is extremely rare in Carrion Crows. It is, however, mentioned in a previous note by M. D. England, with a comment by D. T. Holyoak {Brit. Birds, 63:385- 387). Eds Possible confusion between Red-breasted and Orange- gorgeted Flycatchers On 1 7th November 1973, on Lundy, Devon, a small flycatcher was seen by M. Rogers and myself. It was trapped and examined in the hand, and subsequently identified as an Orange- gorgeted Flycatcher Ficedula strophiata. In size, shape and behaviour it greatly resembled a Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva, and one of the main field characters was the white flashes on the basal half of its tail. Though the upperparts are basically the same in both species, the underparts of the Orange-gorgeted are slate-grey, paler on the 342 Notes 343 lower breast and fading into bufTish on the belly, with a small orange patch in the centre of the breast. This species lacks the white eye-ring of the Red-breasted but has a thin white line from the base oi the culmen to just above the front of the eye; it also has pale greyish-pink legs, striking at close quarters. O range-go rge ted Flycatchers occur in the eastern Himalayan region, where they are altitudinal and partial migrants. They are frequently imported into Britain and it has since been learned that one escaped from an aviary in Cornwall on 19th September 1973. I he purpose of this note is to draw attention to the similarity' be- tween the two species; a brief flight or rear view of a small flycatcher with white tail flashes is not necessarily sufficient to identify a Red- breasted Flycatcher. J. N. Dymond RSPB, The Lodge , Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL News and comment Robert Hudson °il on the carpet The Warren Spring Laboratory (Department of Trade and Industry) found itself on the carpet in July, when it became known that it was planning imminent deliberate releases of oil (up to too tons at a time) on the North Sea east of Shetland, to examine the behaviour of oil slicks and test equipment for controlling them. This research is valid, but conservationists immediately raised an outcry at these experiments being made at the time when auks are leaving their clilTs and beginning their northward migration to Norwegian coasts; later in the year auks become rare far out to sea and this would have been a more suitable time to play with oil slicks. Eventually Warren Spring had to back down to the extent of releasing much smaller quantities of oil; and I have not heard that any bird casualties resulted. This whole episode underlines once again the lack of forethought on the part of those engaging in oil research. The Nature Conservancy Council subsequently admitted that they had been consulted in June, though after the date lor the trials had been fixed; and thus they too have been criticised for lading to liaise fully with other ornithological bodies. Black marks all round. Botulism outbreaks Botulism is a form of bacterial poisoning which attacks through the production of nerve toxins; serious outbreaks usuallv occur in hot weather such as we have been experiencing this summer. A number of large bird kills were reported in Britain and Ireland between Mav and July. Botulism has been diagnosed for at least one and is suspected for others; though paralvtic shell- fish poisoning may have been responsible for seabird deaths (especially Shags and Herring Gulls) in Northumberland in late May, when the dinoflagellate Gonyaulax was detected at sea. Over 1,500 Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls died'in the Firth of Forth in June (class C botulism identified), and many more at around the same time in the hirth of Clyde and in Anglesey; while at least 600 Herring Gulls died on Rathlin Island in Co. Antrim. In late July, I learn, there was a bad outbreak of botulism among ducks on the Dutch Ijsselmeer; one can but hope that this will not occur among waterfowl on this side of the North Sea. International Wetland Year During the last decade there has been a craze lor designating each year a National (or International) Something Year. iq76 will be no exception, the Council of Europe having revealed recently that it will 344 News and comment then run a campaign to conserve wetlands. In Britain, the Nature Conservancy Council is planning our national participation in consultation with leading con- servationist, agriculturalist, recreational and amenity bodies. I have doubts whether these pretentious campaigns really achieve anything in the long term ; but at least the present one should keep paper flowing nicely through Belgrave Square. Pyrotechnics and nature reserves Three years ago there was a serious fire in an Essex nature reserve when stubble burning on adjacent farmland got out of control (Brit. Birds, 65: 450). Now a similar incident has occurred in Anglesey. A major fire on a rubbish dump at Penrhos on 23rd June got out of control and burnt its way down to the sea. The fire swept through a local nature reserve, destroying 300 trees and thoroughly devastating the area ; while dense, acrid smoke was blown across a nearby island which houses the largest Welsh colony of Roseate Terns. The offending tip is used by the Anglesey Borough Council for domestic refuse, and by Anglesey Aluminium for inert industrial waste. Now that it is too late, local voices are belatedly questioning the wisdom of siting a tip so close to a nature reserve. Helping hand for Sea Eagles A 1968 attempt by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds to reintroduce the White-tailed Eagle to Fair Isle failed when the birds left the island and disappeared. A more determined attempt is now being made by the Nature Conservancy Council to reintroduce the species to the Inner Hebrides. Earlier this summer four eaglets from Norway were imported to the National Nature Reserve on the island of Rhum; as they develop, the aviaries will be opened and the young birds encouraged to forage for their own food until they are independent. The NCC hopes to repeat this exercise annually for three or four years with a view to re-establishing resident breeding pairs in the Western Isles. This, however, will be a long-term project, because White-tailed Eagles do not breed until four or five years old. Camargue developments The Official Gazette (Paris) of 10th May published two orders by the French Minister of the Environment affecting the Camargue. The first created the Camargue National Reserve, and the second contained provisions governing its management and installation; camping, hiking, motor traffic, boating, overflying below 1,000 metres, hunting and fishing are all pro- hibited. Introductions of animals and plants are also banned, and only local strains of horses and bulls will be allowed ( Council of Europe Newsletter 75-6). Local Societies Since its inaugural meeting on 1 8th January last, the Wiltshire Ornithological Society has continued to grow rapidly and it now has over 200 members. A quarterly bulletin, VV.O.S. News, keeps members informed of Wiltshire bird news, and an annual report entitled The Hobby is to be published. A special members’ survey, commenced this summer, concerns the status and distribution of the House Martin in the county. The Hon. Secretary is John Govett, 5 Lilac Grove, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, BA14 ohb. In the Isle of Man, too, a new wind is blowing. Apart from the flourishing Calf of Man Bird Observatory, Manx orni- thology has been in the doldrums since 1958, when W. S. Cowin died and the Manx Field Club disappeared. Now, however, the recently established Manx Orni- thological Society is flourishing; and it has become joint sponsor (with the Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society) of Peregrine. The current issue of this journal includes Manx bird reports for 1973 and 1974, and it is hoped these will henceforth appear annually. Orders for Peregrine (58P post paid) and other enquiries may be addressed to Larch S. Garrad, c/o Manx Museum, Douglas. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds April reports and winter summary D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records April was a month of varying weather dominated by an anticyclone to the west of Britain. The first ten or so days were extremely cold everywhere with northerly winds and snow in most parts, while rainfall was above average. The wind became southerly from iith and temperatures rose noticeably. Heavy rain on the night of 1 8th/ 1 9th accompanied by east winds brought several small ‘falls’ which will be summarised later. The last seven or eight days were generally warm. I here were two inland occurrences of Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis, one at Ratby (Leicestershire) and another picked up almost dead at Kings Heath (Northamp- tonshire), both on 5th. Six Purple Herons Ardea purpurea arrived in April. The first, at Dungencss (Kent) on 19th, was followed by two at Stodmarsh (also Kent) on 24th, singles at Pctt Level (East Sussex) and Hickling Broad (Norfolk) on 26th and one at Cley (also Norfolk) from 27th to 29th. Hickling Broad also held a Cattle Egret Bubulctis ibis from the second week. An adult Night Heron jXycticorax nvelieorax was seen on Lundy (Devon) in the middle of the month, when a Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus was reported near Ipswich (Suffolk). A White Stork Ciconia ciconia in the Formby area of Merseyside during the first week may have escaped from captivity though no such doubts were expressed about one which was seen in six localities in north-east Scotland from 21st until 10th May. At Landguard (Suffolk) there was a Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia from 22nd to 24th, and one appeared at Cley from 29th until 9th May. A Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis inland at Church Wilne Reservoir (Derbyshire) on 20th departed south-west, and another stopped off at Belvidc Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 29th. A female Surf Scoter Alelanitta perspicillata was identified ofl the coast of the Isle of Tiree (Strathclyde) on 1st. King Eiders Somateria spectabilis were noted at several places in Scotland, with three adult drakes together at Loch Fleet (Highland). A small passage of Bean Geese Anser Jabalis was noted at Loch of Strathbeg (Grampian), where there were six on 2nd, nine on 12th and three on 18th. Single Red Kites Milvus milvus occurred on the coast at Spurn (Humberside) on 6th and 12th, at Portland Bill (Dorset) on 9th and at Ryhopc (Tyne & Wear) on 27th. Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were more numerous: from 4th, when one appeared at Banks marsh (Lancashire), there were at least 14 more to the end of the month. The only Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertirms, however, was one at Walthamstow Reservoir (Greater London) from 21st for about two weeks. The scarcer migrant waders included a Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus at Cley from 19th; a Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola at Pennington Flash (Lancashire) on 20th; a Little Stint Calidris mimita at Levington (Suffolk) from 6th and two at Marshside (Merseyside) from 13th; and Grey Phalaropes Phalaropus fulicarius at Oare (Kent) on 2nd and 3rd and at Scarborough (North Yorkshire) during 6th-7th. Two vagrants involved a Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subrujicollis at Towyn Point, Llanelli (Dyfed), from 26th to 29th and a Great Snipe Gallinago media near Drumnadrochit (Highland) on 29th. A Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis stayed at Blackpill (West Glamorgan) from 22nd to 25th, the fourth adult seen there during the winter. Another Nearctic gull, a Bonaparte’s L. Philadelphia . was at Stanpit marsh (Dorset) for about five days from 6th, and a Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea was watched at Seaton Carew (Cleveland) on 6th and 9th. Single Little Auks Plautus alle were at Rattray 345 34^ April reports and spring summary (Grampian) on 6th and about 6£ km off Sunderland (Tyne & Wear) on 12th. A wandering Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca appeared on Whalsay (Shetland) on 20th, while on Fetlar there were four females and a single male early in the month. Migrant Long-eared Owls Asia otus were recorded on Fair Isle (Shetland) on 20th and at Teesmouth (Cleveland) on 2 1st. A total of eleven Hoopoes Upupa epops was reported from East Sussex, Kent, Suffolk, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Derbyshire, though there were probably others which have not come to our notice. Wrynecks Jynx torquilla, possibly breeders, were found in central Kent on 6th and west Kent on 29th, while migrants were reported at Ecton sewage farm (Northamptonshire) on 19th and 26th and at Cley on 22nd. A Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea was on Fair Isle from 20th to 26th and migrant Woodlarks Lullula arborea turned up at Spurn on 7th, Beachy Head (East Sussex) on 23rd and Sandwich Bay (Kent) on 26th. Bluethroats Luscinia svecica, both of the White-spotted form pallidogularis, were on Whalsay from 20th to 22nd and on Fair Isle on 21st and 22nd. Further Cetti’s Warblers Cettia cetti arrived in southern England, at Sandwich Bay on 20th and at Lodmoor (Dorset) on 25th, the latter remaining into June. A lengthy stay was made also by a Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans at Portland Bill, from 15th until 7th May. A Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris at Horse-eye levels (East Sussex) on 30th was rather early. Far more surprising, however, was the Pechora Pipit A. gustavi which was discovered at Minsmere (Suffolk) on 27th; this Asiatic species has never before been encountered in Britain in the spring and this is only the third record ever away from Fair Isle. Just as unexpected was the Pine Bunting Emberiza leucocephala at Southwell, Portland, on 15th, only the fourth British record and again the first in spring though the possibility of its being an escape must be borne in mind. Three Hawfinches Coccothraustes cocco- thraustes on St Mary’s Island (Northumberland) on 1 gth during a ‘fall’ of passerines were very unusual. Finally, a Serin Serinus serinus arrived at Beachy Head on 1 9th, on the same day as three were found at Portland, where the same number on 20th included one different bird; a male was at Guckmere Haven (East Sussex) on 26th and another individual arrived at Portland the following day. The winter season NON-PASSERINES Several large gatherings of divers were noted in Scotland. There were 79 Great Northern Gavia immer in the area of Yell/Fetlar/Unst on 7th December, and 37 at Whalsay on 10th February, while at Golspie (Highland) 25 Black-throated G. arctica were present on 17th January. Up to four Great Northern Divers wintered inland at Chew Valley Lake (Avon). A record total of 46 Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus was counted in Shetland in February. Numbers of the commoner ducks were high. On the Ouse Washes (Cambridge- shire/Norfolk) the January wildfowl count of 45,758 included 7,570 Teal Anas crecca, 30,700 Wigeon A. penelope and 3,260 Pintail A. acuta, the February count of 57,154 including a record 42,500 Wigeon and 1,650 Pochard Aythya ferina. There were also 5,500 Pintail on the Mersey estuary on 12th January, while Duddingston Loch, Edinburgh, held over 8,000 Pochard during the winter (cf. Brit. Birds , 67: 251). There were fewer Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis in England than in previous years. In the Ross/Bamburgh area of Northumber- land, for example, the winter peak was as low as 20. In Scotland, however, 3,1 15 were counted between Findhorn and Culbin Bar (Grampian) on 15th December, when there were also 376 Velvet Scoter Melanitla fusca in the same area. An exceptional 1,200 or more Goosander Mergus merganser were in the Beauly Firth (Highland) on Christmas Day. Geese generally had a poor breeding season which was reflected in the number wintering in Britain and Ireland. Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus fared April reports and spring summary 34.7 best with a total ol 89,000 in November, including over 12,000 on the south-west Lancashire mosses and 11,900 at Meikle Loch (Grampian). Though Greylags A. anser were down in numbers, 2,700 at Skene (Grampian) on 10th November was a record. Greenland Whitefronts A. albifrons flavirostris peaked at 5,567 on the Wexford Slobs on 19th February, the last two leaving there on 2nd May; at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire), however, the maximum count of European Whitefronts A. a. albifrons, i,45° on 17th January, was the lowest winter peak since the Wildfowl 1 rust was founded in 1946- Brent Geese Branta bernicla at Cley numbered over 2,000 in early February, a quite exceptional figure for that locality, though elsewhere there was no indication of any increase of flock sizes. Equally unusual was a flock of 45 Barnacle Geese B. leucopsis with the Brents at Cley. On the Solway F irth (Cumbria Dumfries & Galloway) the Barnacles reached a peak of 5,200, slightly higher than in 1 973/ 74* and on Islay (Strathclyde) 19,300 wintered, 1,000 more than in the previous winter. Light-bellied Brents B. b. hrota in Ireland were more than 4,500 down on 1973/74 numbers. 1 he only sizeable count of Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus notified to us was of 550 on Lough Foyle (Co. Londonderry) on 20th November, while in North- umberland about 200 were at Fenham Flats in December. The Ouse Washes counts mentioned above included 906 Bewick’s Swans C. bewickii in January and 921 in February. On the Wexford Slobs the peak was 438 on 12th December, most of which had departed by 2nd March, but at Slimbridge the register of 1 individual birds seen reached only 259 compared with 541 in 1973/74 {Brit. Birds, 67: 251) and the greatest number present on any one day was only 185, with coun ts of up to 200 at night during the Christmas period ; the last ten were recorded at Slimbridge on 27th February, but five were seen in the area on several occasions in March. A Steppe Buzzard Buteo buleo vulpinus was reported on several occasions in the I Reculver area of Kent during the winter. Following the abnormal numbers of I Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus in Britain in 1973/74 {Brit. Birds, 67: 251) and the repeat invasion in the autumn of 1974 (Brit. Birds, 68: 86), many reports were received throughout the winter, particularly from the cast coast of England and the downland of southern England ; several small groups were seen and the largest number together was nine at Inkpcn, near Andover (Hampshire). A paper on the two invasions is currently in preparation. A Red Kite which wintered in the \\ alberswick area of Suffolk was omitted from previous summaries. Up to four Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosas were at Minsmere from January and one or two others wintered on the east coast, but one in Southampton Water on 8th and 9th February was more unusual. Gatherings of up to 2 1 Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus occurred at many places, particularly inland, and on the Somerset levels high concentrations of waders included up to 150 Black-tailed Godwits Limosa limosa, 80 Redshanks Tringa totanus and over 3!°°° Dunlins Calidris alpina. A record 98,000 Dunlins were counted on the Ribble (Lancashire) on 15th and 16th December, when there were also 37,000 on the Mersey. Rather more Glaucous Gulls Larus hvperboreus than usual were recorded. As many as 23 were ofT Out Skerries (Shetland) on 9th December and at least 30 individuals turned up inland. There were far fewer Uceland Gulls L. glaucoides and only about eight inland. Of interest may be the record of 5-10,000 Little Gulls L. minutus flying west at St Brieuc Bay in Brittany 3n 24th December, while also from Brittany came a report of up to seven Sandwich irerns Sterna sandvicensis at Penerf in January and February. 'M EAR-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES \ Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur overwintered near Ipswich and a Cuckoo 1 juculus canorus at St Pol in Brittany on 26th February must surely also have vintered. Swallows Hirundo rustica were noted in many parts of southern England, 34-8 April reports and spring summary particularly in the west where up to 15 remained in the Penzance/Marazion area of Cornwall for most of December, the last ones being seen on 28th February; and House Martins Delichon urbica, though less numerous and widespread, appeared at several localities with at least six at Fairlight (East Sussex) at the beginning of December and one as far north as Heddon (Tyne & Wear) on 7th. Wintering Blackcaps Sylvia atricapilla were everywhere commoner than usual: in a Mumbles (West Glamorgan) garden at least six were present throughout November; the same number was recorded as far north as Old Aberdeen and singles even in Shetland; at Margate (Kent) four females were trapped on 1st March and four males on 9th; and in the Tyneside area the species was noted in 17 localities from December with seven at one site and two singing males in February. Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus collybita likewise were common: they were noted from Shetland to Cornwall, many reports referring to ‘eastern’ races, and while Wraysbury (Surrey) held at least nine 30-40 were in the Penzance area all December. Unprecedented numbers of Firecrests Regulus ignicapillus wintered in Britain: most were in the south, 30-40 being reported from the Isle of Purbeck (Dorset), but six stayed at Blackpill and one which wintered at Combs Reservoir was the first ever record for Derbyshire. Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris appeared to be down in numbers. We received very few reports and only from Minsmere was there any regularity, the peak being 50 on 26th January. Three-figured flocks of Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis were recorded in Scotland and many parts of east England, including an ex- ceptional 800 at Hornsea Mere (Humberside) on 8th and 9th December, and several inland reports included flocks of up to 40 in Northumberland and the West Midlands; small numbers were again recorded in the Channel Islands. The highest numbers of Twites Acanthis flavirostris were as usual in Kent, the most being 600 at Sandwich Bay in December, while on the south coast 118 in the same month was the peak at Dibden Bay (Hampshire). Flocks of 100 or more Bramblings Fringilla montifringilla were reported from only nine localities, mostly in the Midlands, but in Sussex three flocks totalling 1,200 flew north at Possingworth Park on 9th January. After the large autumn influxes of Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus flocks of varying sizes were widely reported : they were largest and most frequent in north- east England where parties of xoo were present at several sites, and became a familiar sight in the centre of Old Aberdeen. Evidence of how common Magpies Pica pica have become in some areas is provided by a flock of 85 together on 8th February in the Rivelin Valley (South Yorkshire), while a flock of tits, mostly Blue Parus caeruleus and Great P. major, at Brandon Hall (Warwickshire) in the latter half of December which numbered 1 ,000 is worthy of mention. An indication of the size of the Hawfinch population at Bedgebury (Kent) was given on 26th January when 200 came in to roost, and a roost of Corn Buntings Emberiza calandra in a Glyceria bed in South Yorkshire was found to contain 1,000 birds in November. To conclude, we received a belated report of an American Robin Turdus migratorius first discovered on St Kilda in the Outer Hebrides about 14th January which was still present on the island over a month later. Binding ‘British Birds’ The comprehensive index for 1974 was published in February 1975. There will be no short index to British Birds in future and all subscribers will receive a copy of the comprehensive index automatically. Volumes for binding (with the form on the back cover of the index filled in) should be posted, not to the publishers, but direct to the binders : P. G. Chapman & Co. Ltd. Kent House Lane Beckenham Kent BR3 1LD The charge is £2-75 per volume, which includes the cost of packing and return postage. The binding will be in the same style as in previous years and earlier volumes can also be bound at this rate. The West Wales Naturalists’ Trust Ltd (formerly the West Wales Field Society) Membership of the Trust is open to all who are interested in the study and conservation of wildlife in Wales. The annual subscription of £2 entitles members to : (a) free issues of Nature in Wales, which appears half-yearly, and of the quarterly Trust Bulletin; (b) field excursions, lectures and meetings; (c) visits, without landing fees, to such island sanctuaries and nature reserves as Skomer, St Margaret’s, Skokholm and Cardigan Island. The activities of the Trust include the co-operative study of such animals as birds and seals and the recording of their distribution and habits. publications (post free): Skomer Island, 25p; Plant List of Pembroke- shire, 60p; The Birds of Cardiganshire, 60p; Plant List of Carmarthen- shire, 60p; Skokholm Bird Observatory and Skomer National Nature Reserve Report, 1974, 43p; Nature in Wales back numbers, 60p THE WEST WALES NATURALISTS’ TRUST LTD 4 Victoria Place, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire in VISION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD R. H. Smythe M.R.C.V.S. # A cock robin can see a female and recognise her sex at thirty yards. On the other hand it can be deceived by a tiny piece of red rag stuffed between the branches of a garden bush and will attack it furiously. 0 Hawks and owls can spot the infra-red rays which emanate from the bodies of their prey at night. # An elephant’s vision com- pares unfavourably with that of a Pekinese. Just a small selection of the wide variety of interesting facts contained in this volume. This is the only book which adequately covers the subjects of vision throughout the ani- mal kingdom including man, and as such will prove in- valuable not only to students of biology, veterinary science and opthalmology, but will also provide absorbing read- ing for all those who love animals and are interested in their way of life and their ability to view the world about them. £6.95 SBN: 333 18034 8 For further details please write to Anne Calcott, The Macmillan Press, Little Essex Street, London, WC2R 3LF MACMILLAN PRESS BRITISH BIRDS For enquiries regarding Advertising Space and Rates write to: Advertisement Dept., Macmillan Journals Ltd., 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF or telephone: 01-836 6633 and ask for the Advertisement Manager IV Mr Frank promises perfect alignment Our reputation as binocular specialists is due, in no small measure, to the fact that since the turn of the century we have never lost sight of the importance of binocular align- ment, and we have always maintained a well-equipped workshop staffed by technicians qualified to test every binocular we sell. 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Famous for fine instruments since the turn of the century CHARLES FRANK LTD 144 Ingram Street, Glasgow Gl Tel: 041-221 6666 Write, phone or call Volume 68 Number 8 August 1975 305 Announcement by the Rarities Committee 306 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1974 (with additions for 1961 and 1968-73) F. R. Smith and the Rarities Committee Plates 44-47 339 Food of Turnstones in the Wash R. E. Jones Notes 342 Carrion Crow taking House Martin W. B. Yapp 342 Two pairs of Carrion Crows nesting in the same tree Geoffrey H. Gush 342 Possible confusion between Red-breasted and Orange-gorgeted Flycatchers J. N. Dymond 343 News and comment Robert Hudson 345 April reports and winter summary D. A. Christie D. I. M. Wallace drew the Pallas's Warbler (page 338) Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 9 September 1975 WREN RINGING ANALYSIS LITTLE RINGED PLOVERS 1968-73 CUCKOOS AND REED WARBLERS VIEWPOINT Editorial Address British Birds, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone 01-836 6633) Editors Stanley Cramp, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee J. N. Dymond, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire so 19 2dl © The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London wc2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633). ISSN 0007-0335 Annual Subscription £8.00 including index (Orders must be accompanied by remittance. Prices applicable only to orders received before 31st December 1975) Cheques should be made payable to Macmillan Journals Limited: Subscription Department, Brunei Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG2 i 2xs, England Enquiries concerning advertising space and rates should be addressed to: Advertisement Department, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633) Change of Address Please note that the address of the editorial office is now as follows: British Birds, Macmillan Journals Ltd., 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF. (i telephone : 01-836 6633) VISION IN THE ANIMAL WORLD R. H. Smythe M.R.C.V.S. # A cock robin can see a female and recognise her sex at thirty yards. On the other hand it can be deceived by a tiny piece of red rag stuffed between the branches of a garden bush and will attack it furiously. 0 Hawks and owls can spot the infra-red rays which emanate from the bodies of their prey at night. # An elephant’s vision com- pares unfavourably with that of a Pekinese. Just a small selection of the wide variety of interesting facts contained in this volume. This is the only book which adequately covers the subjects of vision throughout the ani- mal kingdom including man, and as such will prove in- valuable not only to students of biology, veterinary science and opthalmology, but will also provide absorbing read- ing for all those who love animals and are interested in their way of life and their ability to view the world about them. £6.95 SBN: 333 18034 8 For further details please write to Anne Calcott. The Macmillan Press, Little Essex Street. London, WC2R 3LF MACMILLAN PRESS Publication 26 th September Ducks of Britain and Europe by M. A. Ogilvie The 41 species of ducks to be found in the wild in Europe are the subject of the book’s seven chapters: Classification; General behaviour and ecology; Identification; Breeding; Distribution and status; Migrations ; Exploitation and conservation. There are detailed identification descriptions of adult males and females, immatures, eclipse birds, and downy young, plus 16 full colour plates of in-flight male and female ducks and some immatures. With 24 distribution maps and over 90 line drawings. 208 pages plus 16 colour plates £ 5-00 net l T & A D POYSER 281 High St., Berkhamsted, Herts. Zeiss "Unbelievable!” said John G ooders, the celebrated author and ornithologist "with the new centre focusing, the 8 x 20B is an amazing achievement. When it comes to originality, even the clever orientals cannot compete with West German Zeiss” The central focus adjustment is just right for finger tip operation, the binoculars are ideal for use with or without spectacles, and the whole design and finish arc up to the highest Carl Zeiss standards. The size of a cigarette packet, they go into your vest-pocket - what a wonderful present for Christmas. Full details from the sole UK importers ClElMlSi l3k Carl Zeiss (Oberkochen) Limited Degenhardt House, 31-36 Foley Street, London Wl. 01-636 8050 n Volume 68 Number 9 September 1975 Wren movements and survival /. Hawthorn and C. J. Mead As a logical progression from the detailed study of Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes which one of us (IH) has been undertaking near Newbury, Berkshire, the ringing recoveries reported to the British ringing scheme have been analysed. The two aspects investigated concern movements and survival. The data available for the analysis depend, of course, on ringers being able to catch and mark the birds. Nine Wrens were ringed in 1909, the year the British ringing scheme was founded, but they are not easy to catch except with mist-nets, which were not introduced until 1956, and only 7,157 had been marked by the end of 1955. Very few can safely be ringed as nestlings, since the typical domed nest would be damaged. The first year with over 1,000 ringed was 1957 and the British and Irish grand total had reached 69,363 by the end of 1972, the last year for which figures are available. The recovery rate is low at 0.59% (Mead 1974) and, omitting local reports of live birds by ringers, 378 recoveries reported up to 30th March 1974 were available. In addition, with the help of Margaret Burroughs, the ringing schedules for size aa rings filed at the Ringing Office were scanned to extract the month of ringing of 20,298 Wrens for comparison with the ringing dates of Wrens subsequently recovered. MOVEMENTS All recoveries 5 km or more from the ringing place were analysed to discover whether any consistent directions of movement existed. These concerned 87 birds, or 23% of the total. Studies of a winter population in a Berkshire reed-bed (Hawthorn et al. 1971, Haw- thorn 1975) had shown that the autumn movement to this wintering 349 35° Wren movements and survival Fig. i. Recoveries of Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes over ioo km from ringing sites. The lines join ringing sites (unmarked) to recovery localities (marked by arrows). Solid arrows indicate summer ringing and winter recovery dates, open arrows winter ringing and summer recovery. Thick lines mark recoveries classi- fied as definite movements and thin lines those as probable movements (see text) : these terms refer to the certainty or otherwise of ascribing the ringing and recovery dates to summer and winter ground happened over quite a long period centred on October and that the spring movement away took place in March or April. Accordingly, all ringing and recovery dates from May to September were called ‘summer’ and those from November to March ‘winter’. Twenty-eight of the recoveries concerned Wrens ringed in summer and recovered in winter (or vice versa) and these are referred to as ‘definite movements’. A further 48 were ringed and/or recovered in October and/or April but could be allotted to the summer or winter periods by more detailed consideration. These 48 recoveries are referred to as ‘probable movements’. The final eleven recovei'ies cannot be categorised as summer to winter or vice versa , and are not included in the following table: Distance moved (km) <5 5-25 26-100 101-250 >250 total Number of records 302 33 20 16 7 378 Fig. 1 plots the movements over 100 km. The probable move- ments, including birds ringed and/or recovered in the transition months of October and April, are marked by thin lines and appear similar to the definite recoveries from summer to winter, marked by thick lines. Furthermore, fig. 2 shows all the movement over 25 km converted to the summer-to-winter direction on a compass rose. Sixteen compass points were used and definite movements are marked by solid circles, probable movements by stars. Two methods of analysis of data of this sort could be undertaken. The first, and Wren movements and survival 351 possibly more obvious, involves calculating separate means of the distances and directions moved. This was rejected, as it does not give the additional weight which seems logically due to a direction favoured by birds moving a long distance (if such a direction exists). The second method, performed here, is a vector analysis where each distance and direction is considered together to form a mean vector (distance and direction again) for the recoveries being considered. Perhaps an easy way to think of this vector is that, if all the recoveries had originated at one point, the mean vector would be the distance and direction, from the initial point, of the centre of / • \ • 650 * 900 •950 Fig. 2. Distances and directions of movements of Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes over *5 km. Solid circles indicate definite movements and stars probable movements (see text). All are converted to summer-to-winter direction Wren movements and survival 352 the distribution of eventual recovery localities. The results of the vector analysis for all movements between five and 50 km was less than 5 km for both the 17 definite movements (mean 4 km west) and the 27 probables (mean 3 km WSW). Recoveries over 50 km were highly oriented southwards, with mean distances of 199 km for the eleven definite movements and of 1 28 km for the 2 1 probables. Even when the seven which travelled more than 250 km were omitted, the southerly orientation was still apparent: means were 60 km SSW for the seven definite movements and 76 km south for the 18 probables. Thus two types of movement are recorded between summer and winter areas for British Wrens. The first is probably random in direction and extends up to 50 km. Since the Wrens recovered were seldom aged by the ringers, it is not possible definitely to equate this with the major dispersal of mainly first-year birds suggested by Armstrong (1955), but this seems likely to be the age-group involved. The moult has been finished (Hawthorn 1974) and there is an in- crease in territorial activity in October when this movement seems to take place. Wrens forced out of the places where they have been reared or have bred will be able to establish winter territories in areas such as reedbeds where breeding does not normally take place but which provide a suitable winter territory. The spring movement out of such habitat (unsuitable for breeding) will necessarily be most important. It seems possible that many instances of this sort of local shift will be over distances less than 5 km and thus lost in the ‘local’ category of movement on the ringing re- coveries. In addition, there is a less common and more distant movement oriented southwards in the autumn, a few birds travelling over 500 km. Although many of the Wrens involved have been ringed at coastal observatories, the only evidence of continental origin is the one recovery in Belgium, on 10th April, twelve days after being ringed at Dungeness, Kent. Other movements from inland to the coast in winter, and from the coast in the winter to inland sites in the summer, show that the birds concerned are very likely of British origin. Although the majority of movements recorded were in the sum- mer-to-winter direction, about 30% were the other way. Since most ringing takes place in the late summer and autumn and most mortality in the winter, this probably indicates that most moving Wrens which survive the winter move again in the spring. More than two-thirds of the recoveries showing movement occurred within one year of ringing, so most of them are not complicated by shifts in wintering or summering areas in subsequent years. Six recoveries of summer-ringed birds over 5 km away in subsequent summers averaged only 20 km, and only one winter-to-winter movement, Wren movements and survival 353 oi 14 km, was reported. Another bird which moved 85 km was probably still a migrant when ringed on 6th November. There was an 1 1 -km movement within the same winter and another of the same distance within the same summer. The eleventh ‘unclassified’ recovery is of an April-ringed bird from Lincolnshire found during the following April 80 km away in Norfolk. One influence which might be expected to act on such a small species as the Wren is cold weather. As will be seen later, the severe peiiods during 1962 and 1963 affected the numbers of Wrens ringed and recovered, but there is no evidence of increased movements. It seems likely that the maintenance of its winter territory and the local knowledge it will have gained in the previous weeks has more survival value to a Wren than a panic movement away from the familiar territory even to less severe weather conditions. If the short- distance movements in both autumn and spring are random, this is a factor which could have aided the species’ rapid colonisation of Eurasia (Armstrong 1955), and it would also be a powerful mechanism for speedy recolonisation of areas where the population has been decimated by bad weather. Ringers’ own retrap files have not been consulted to gather evidence whether most British Wrens lemain on their breeding grounds in the winter. Two long-term woodland studies in southern England give conflicting results. At a lowland Rent site (less than 60 metres above sea level), retraps show that most Wrens are resident throughout the year (Dr J. J. M. Flegg, verbally), whereas a Chiltern site (about 200 metres above sea level) worked by CJM holds only a small part of its substantial breeding population during the winter months. Table 1. Mortality of British-ringed Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes The figures in column 1 refer to birds which have lived through one 1st April, those in column two through two 1st Aprils, and so on. The data for Wrens ringed after 31^ March 1968 are incomplete since some survived after the end of the period under review Complete data Ringed up to 31.3.68 Incomplete data Ringed 1.4.68-31.3.69 Ringed 1.4.69-31.3.70 Ringed 1.4.70-3 1.3. 71 Ringed 1.4.7 1-3 1.3. 72 Ringed 1.4.72-31.3.73 TOTALS Number of recoveries each year I 2 3 4 5 TOTALS 69 31 9 7 I 1 17 «3 6 I 0 0 20 5 3 1 0 »* • 9 12 3 2 >7 6 4 10 8 8 44 16 4 0 0 64 354 Wren movements and survival SURVIVAL The oldest British-ringed Wren reported to the Ringing Office was one retrapped by its original ringer six weeks short of five years after ringing. None of the Wrens recovered dead had survived through its fifth year. Table i gives the number of years survived for all 1 8 1 Wrens recovered dead later than ist April after ringing, which was taken as the initial date for the mortality analysis. Using the methods given by Haldane (1955), a Lack analysis for annual survival rate on the 1 17 ringed up to 31st March 1968 gives 38.7 ffi 3-53%> and a Haldane analysis on the 64 recoveries from subsequent ringing gives 35.0 6.62%. These two estimates are quite consistent, and a combined estimate, as suggested by Haldane, was not attempted as the confidence limits would be reduced by only about 12%. The annual survival rate is thus approximately 37%. Monthly mortality totals are set out in table 2 for the three main categories: killed by predators (all cats except one Kestrel Falco tinnunculus, one unidentified owl, one Jay Garrulus glandarius, one Weasel Mustela nivalis and one Rat Rattus norvegicus) ; killed by traffic on roads; and found dead and other causes (four drowned, two trapped, one shot in Belgium and one egg-bound on nest). Monthly totals for live birds reported are also given: these favour the autumn, when most Wrens are handled by ringers. It seems that Wrens are more likely to be reported dead on the road in summer and killed by cats in winter: comparing recovery rates during April- September and November-March, these two causes show signifi- cantly different trends (P < 0.05, y2 = 4.36; 1 d.f.). Fig. 3 gives three monthly histograms showing percentages of (a) all recoveries reported in each month (including controls), (b) all recoveries ringed in each month, and (c) Wrens ringed in each month ffom a sample of 20,298 extracted from schedules for aa rings used from the early 1960’s. With almost half the recoveries reported from the first four months of the year, it is not surprising that the percentages for the months of ringing of the recovered birds Table 2. Monthly recovery totals of British-ringed Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes j Killed by predators 7 Killed by traffic 2 Found dead and other causes 3 1 Alive and released (mostly by ringers) o by method of recovery F M A M J J A 12 15 12 4 6 3 5 5 5 11 3363 20 30 25 21 18 8 6 21 1421 1 S O N D TOTALS 3 io 7 8 92 1425 50 8 14 17 10 208 5830 28 TOTALS 4° 39 5i 49 32 29 18 15 17 36 29 23 378 Wren movements and survival 355 J FMAMJ JASOND Fig. 3. Monthly percentage histograms of (a) recovery months ofWrens Troglodytes troglodytes, (b) ringing months of Wrens sub- sequently recovered, and (c) ringing months of sample of 20,298 Wrens extracted from ringing schedules are rather higher for late autumn and early winter than the sample from the ringing schedules. Both have peaks in the period from July to October, when young Wrens are available for ringers to catch, and particularly in October when the main movements take place. The schedule sample from April to August gives over 6.6% more than the recovery sample ; this could be accounted for by deaths in the autumn of birds which are most unlikely to be found in the thick vegetation at that season. The preponderance of recoveries in the first four months of the year is striking. The initial reaction, that these are all to be accounted for by the influence of cold weather, is not supported by detailed consideration. The two peak months are March and April and, while cold spells are common in March, April is not normally re- nowned for freezing conditions in Britain. It seems more likely that this peak in mortality is accounted for by the urgent need ofWrens which have wintered in areas unsuitable for breeding to find suitable nesting habitat and a mate. The ringing figures by months show that the great majority of these recoveries are of birds which have survived the worst winter weather (peak ringings are in autumn). However, cold weather does of course have its effect: the 1962/63 winter produced many recoveries during the cold spell and the number ofWrens ringed wras badly affected. Ginn (1969) related the ringing totals to totals of nest record cards for a number of species and mentioned the Wren. Fig. 4 shows the total as an index (1966 = 100) of full-grown Wrens ringed each 35^ Wren movements and survival Fig. 4. Annual total of full-grown Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes ringed from 1957 to 1972 (solid line) converted to an index (1966 = 100). The dotted line is the Common Birds Census population index from 1962 to 1972 (1966 = 100) year from 1957, the first year when over 1 ,000 were marked, and also the population index derived from the Common Birds Census from 1962 to 1972 (Batten 1973)- Much of the initial increase in Wrens ringed can be attributed to the gradual spread of mist-nets as a catching method, but the return of the Wren after the hard winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63 is well illustrated by these figures of numbers of birds ringed. The two indices have closely agreed in recent years probably because the level of mist-netting activity, using the small- mesh nets introduced in the early 1960’s, and the annual total of birds ringed have reached a plateau. Since the recovery reporting rate, mortality rate, annual ringing figures, and monthly ringing and recovery percentages were all available, an attempt was made to predict the annual recovery figures. This showed that each year too few recoveries were pre- dicted for the mid- 1 960’s and too many in recent years. This is the opposite of what might be expected if the build-up of the species following the cold winter 1962/63 was due to increased survival but, unfortunately, other factors were obviously affecting the prediction. Two were probably particularly important. Firstly, the rings currently in use have the bto tring England address, rather than brit museum London SW7 that was used on the larger overlap rings Wren movements and survival 357 which were phased out about ten years ago. Sales (1973) showed that for Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, with a ring otherwise identical, about 45% of the recoveries which would have been reported with the Museum address were lost if the BTO address was substituted. Secondly, the spread of trapping activities from suburban gardens to much more rural areas would also tend to depress the reporting rate. Thus a crucial premise, that the reporting rate remained constant, had been violated. However, during the next few years, with a standard ring design and address and an apparently constant ringing effort, this type of calculation may prove a valuable check on mortality rates calculated by conventional methods. It seems likely that ringing figures will become increasingly useful for monitoring population fluctuations in the future for species caught in relatively small numbers by many ringers. Obviously they are liable to be biased if particularly large numbers are ringed by a few individuals. However, in recent years a number of ringers and groups have been gathering information on population levels by trying to standardise their catching effort from year to year. These studies are necessarily of a long-term nature and the results are not likely to be published until data from a scries of years have been analysed together. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Margaret Burroughs provided invaluable assistance with the extraction of ringing dates of Wrens from the schedules filed at Tring. Robert Spencer initially sug- gested the re-examination of ringing totals in relation to population levels with the recently achieved plateau in numbers of birds ringed. The Ringing and Migration Committee granted permission to use the recoveries and its immediate past chairman, J. M. McMecking, commented most helpfully on an earlier draft. Rctrap information from the Kent woodland study was kindly provided by Dr J. J. M. Flegg. Our best thanks are, however, due to the ringers who caught the Wrens that provided the recoveries. Very few would claim to specialise in this species, and this analysis shows that useful results can be obtained from ‘random’ ringing, even of a species with such a low reporting rate as the Wren. S UMMARY Although relatively few ringed Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes are recovered (about six from each thousand marked), the 378 such recoveries analysed in this paper reveal two types of movement within the British population. The first, over distances up to 50 km, appears to be random in direction; but the second, usually between 50 and 250 km, is highly oriented from north to south between summer and winter and vice versa. The survival rate is about 37% per annum and most dead birds are reported in the first four months of the year. Traffic and predators (mostly cats) are responsible for the deaths of many of those recovered. Since the 1962/63 cold winter the changes in the Common Birds Census index and the totals of full- grown Wrens ringed in Britain and Ireland have been in remarkably close agree- ment. 358 Wren movements and survival REFERENCES Armstrong, E. A. 1955. The Wren. London. Batten, L. A. 1973. ‘Bird population changes for the years 1971-72’. Bird Study, 20: 303-307. (See also papers on previous years’ results.) Ginn, H. B. 1969. ‘The use of annual ringing and nest record card totals as indi- cators of bird population levels’. Bird Study, 16: 210-248. Haldane, J. B. S. 1955. ‘The calculation of mortality rates from ringing data’. Proc. Int. Orn. Congr., 1 1 : 454-458. Hawthorn, I. 1974. ‘Moult and dispersal of juvenile Wrens’. Bird Study, 21: 88-91. 1975. ‘Wrens wintering in a reed-bed’. Bird Study, 22: 19-23. , Weston, I., Crockford, R., and Smith, R. G. 1971. ‘Wrens wintering in a reed-bed at Thatcham, Berkshire’. Bird Study, 18: 27-29. Mead, C. J. 1974. Bird Ringing. BTO, Tring. ' Sales, D. I. 1973. ‘A ring address experiment’. Bird Study, 20: 313-314. I. Hawthorn and C. J. Mead, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Little Ringed Plovers in Britain in 1968-73 E. R. and E. D. Parrinder In 1973 a complete census was attempted of Little Ringed Plovers Charadrius dubius summering in Britain, in parallel with the census of Ringed Plovers C. hiaticula organised by the British Trust for Ornithology. The result showed that, 35 years after the first recorded nesting of the Little Ringed Plover in Britain, in Hertfordshire in x93^> had spread to all but the most western counties of England and increased to such an extent that over most of its range it is no longer a rare species. This paper gives details of the census and compares the results with the position in 1967, when the previous count was organised (see Brit. Birds, 62: 219-223). INCREASE FROM I 9 6 7 TO 19 73 In 1967 at least 223 pairs of Little Ringed Plovers summered in 26 English counties. By 1973 the total had increased by over 100% to at least 467 pairs. The figures for both years are certainly underesti- mates; work for the BIO/IWC Atlas Project (1968-72) revealed many occupied sites within the existing breeding range which had not been looked at in previous years (fig. 1) and in 1973 some areas, especially in the north, were incompletely covered. Probably it is Fig. 1 . Breeding distribution of the Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius in Britain during 1968-72 (reproduced, by permission, from the BTO/IWC Adas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland) : the smallest dot indicates possible breeding, the next probable and the largest confirmed breeding t Brit. Birds, 68: 359-368, September 1975] 359 360 Little Ringed Plovers in 1968-73 no longer feasible to achieve an accurate count of Little Ringed Plovers throughout Britain; in 1973 there were over 260 known localities and many others, possibly suitable, had to be checked. Some sites are on private or Government land and difficult of access. Others, such as the brick clay pits in Huntingdonshire, are so vast that an accurate count is impossible without an army of observers. By far the majority of sites chosen by Little Ringed Plovers are man-made and subject to subsequent ecological change; gravel pits rapidly become unsuitable when they are worked out and become overgrown or filled, as do new reservoirs when they are Table i. Pairs of Little Ringed Plovers Charadrius dubius summering in Britain in 1967 and 1973, with year of first proved nesting and highest recorded number of sum- mering pairs in each county Summering pairs Occurrences First proved Highest number of 1967 1973 1968-72 nesting summering pairs Hampshire 2 4 Each year 1952 4 1973 Sussex - 3 Not 1968 1949 7 1952, 54 Kent 13 14-16 Each year 1947 14-16 1973 Surrey 3-4 8 Each year 1950 13 1962 Essex 18 25-26 Each year 1947 27 1969 Hertford 8 33 Each year 1938 33 1973 Middlesex 12 13 Each year 1944 13 1973 Berkshire IO-I 1 23-25 Each year 1946 23-25 1973 Wiltshire - 2 1970 only 1970 2 i97°j 73 Gloucester 6 12 Each year 1953 12 1972, 73 Oxford 5 5 Each year 1954 9 1966 Buckingham 5 18 Each year 1949 18 1973 Suffolk I 9 1972 only 1948 IO 1972 Norfolk 4 15-16 Each year i960 15-16 1973 Cambridge 4 13 Each year 1952 13 1973 Bedford 10-12 T CG HH Each year 1951 12-17 1971 Huntingdon IO 6l Each year 1952 61 1973 Northampton 3 8 Each year 1953 9-12 1971 Warwick 8 16 Each year 1959 16-17 1970 Worcester - - Not 1968-69 1970 I i97o» 7b Stafford 6 1 1 — 1 2 Each year 1952 I I — 1 2 1973 Lincoln 8 30 Each year 1950 4° 1970 Leicester 3 13 Each year 1955 13 1973 Nottingham 25 25 Each year 1956 42-44 1971 Derby 12 22 Each year 1950 31-34 1970 Cheshire I I 13 Each year 1954 20-30 1972 North-east Wales - - Not 1968-69 1970 5 1971 Yorkshire 3i-33 38-40 Each year 1947 56 1972 Lancashire 3 IO Each year 1966 12-13 1972 Westmorland - - 1970 only 1970 I 1970 Durham 2-3 9 Each year 1962 9 1973 N or thumberland - I Not 1969, 72 1968 3 I97° Scotland - — 1968 only 1968 I 1968 TOTALS 223-230 467-477 Little Ringed Plovers in ig68-y$ 361 completed and waste ground when it is cleared and developed. The Little Ringed Plovers then move to other sites and these have to be found by the census worker: now that the species is no longer a rarity, there is less enthusiasm for the intensive field work required. The numbers of pairs recorded as summering in each county in 1967 and 1 973 are given in table 1. To facilitate comparison with previous reviews, the county names and boundaries are those still in force in 1973. Figures for the intervening years are not shown in detail, but the final columns give the maximum number for each county in any year since the species was first recorded nesting. Where two figures are shown, the higher includes pairs which, from the dates they were seen or from their behaviour, are most likely to have summered, although the observations were insufficient for conclusive proof. The higher figures have been used in the com- parisons with previous periods. EXTENSIONS IN RANGE Between 1967 (fig. 2) and 1973 (fig. 3), Little Ringed Plovers extended their breeding range in England to Northumberland in 1968 and to Westmorland, Worcestershire and Wiltshire in 1970. This left only Cumberland in the north, Shropshire and Hereford- shire in the west and Somerset, Dorset, Devon and Cornwall in the south-west still unoccupied. The first nesting in Northumberland was on a colliery waste heap in 1968 ( Ornithological Report, ig68, for Northumberland & Durham and the Fame Islands). The site was later destroyed by roadworks and no nesting occurred in 1969, but three pairs bred in Northumber- land in 1970 — one on river shingle — and one pair in 1971 and 1973 {per G. Macfarlane). In Westmorland, a pair bred on river shingle in 1970 but there were no subsequent records {per R. Stokoe). In Worcestershire, Little Ringed Plovers had occurred fairly regularly on passage and the first breeding of one pair was proved in 1970 {West Midland Bird Report, igyo). A pair nested at a different site in 1971 and may have done so in 1972, but no birds were seen at the breeding sites in 1973. Before 1970, Little Ringed Plovers had become regular autumn but scarce spring visitors to Wiltshire; in 1970 two pairs bred but only three of the young survived, the rest being taken by predators, probably Carrion Crows Corvus corone {Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, igyo ). No nests were found in 1971 or 1972 but two pairs bred at the same site in 1973. In Scotland, the first nesting record was in 1968 when a pair bred on a piece of waste ground in the Clyde area {Scot. Birds, 5 : 282-283). By the following year, however, the site was overgrown and unsuit- able, and no further nesting has been reported. 362 Little Ringed Plovers in ig68-yj r ■ E 1973 < 8_* I' V -- ■ 1 1 •t ) £- 1 ij^ m PJL ■ J Figs. 2-3. Distributions in 1967 and 1973 of summering pairs of Little Ringed Plovers Charadrw dubius in ten-kilometre squares in Britain. Squares blocked in denote the summering of at least one pair; they do not indicate the number of pairs in any square, nor do they show confirmed breeding In north-east Wales, a pair nested unsuccessfully in 1970 ( Nature in Wales, 12: 229), and in 1971 five pairs summered at four sites, four pairs breeding successfully ( Nature in Wales, 13: 1 18). One pair bred at a gravel pit in 1972, but the pit was drained in 1973 and no nesting was reported in Wales in that year, although birds were seen in the spring and autumn. Outside the breeding range, Little Ringed Plovers have been noted as becoming more common on passage in a number of areas. In Shropshire they are seen regularly on migration and, as the county is not well covered by observers, the possibility of unrecorded breeding seems quite likely {per C. E. Wright). In Wales, too, the species is spreading as an occasional visitor or passage migrant outside the breeding areas in the north-east. In south Wales, single birds were seen in Glamorgan on spring or autumn passage in each year from 1969 to 1972 inclusive, and in Monmouthshire, where two in April 1968 constituted only the third county record, singles were seen in April and August 1971, in August 1972 and on eight dates in the autumn of 1973. In west Wales, one at St Ishmaels, Ferryside, Little Ringed Plovers in ig68-yg 363 on 15th April 1968 was the first record for Carmarthenshire ( Nature in Wales, 11: 207), and one at Cors Tregaron from 10th to 12th April 1971 was the first for Cardiganshire ( Nature in Wales, 13: 1 18). In July 1972 one was recorded on the boundary of Cardigan and Merioneth. In the Irish Sea, one on Bardsey, Caernarvonshire, on 29th and 30th May 1966 (not mentioned in our previous review) was the first for the island, and one on the Langness Peninsula of the Isle of Man on 6th May 1969 was the first Manx record {per R. M. Wright). In Ii eland, one seen in Co. Cork from 22nd to 27th September 1968 was the only record in the period under review ( per Major R. F. Ruttledge). In south-west England, passage birds occurred in each year from 1968 to 1973 at reservoirs in Somerset. In 1970, one was seen on the coast at Berrow Sands on the early date of 26th March. The autumn records in Somerset reached a peak in 1972 and 1973 when five to seven individuals were seen, mostly immatures. In Dorset, Little Ringed Plovers are now almost annual spring and autumn visitors. In Devon and Cornwall, too, the species is occurring more frequently on migration; in Cornwall records have been annual since 1968 and numbers are increasing, especially on autumn migration (R. D. Penhallurick in litt.). The first record in this century for the Isles of Scilly occurred in 1971 when at least two were present on St Agnes from 20th to 24th April; another was seen on Gugh Bar, St Agnes, on 15th October 1972 {Isles of Scilly Bird Reports, igyi, 1972). It is interesting that Little Ringed Plovers have begun to pass through the Channel Islands, especially in the spring. In Jersey, one or two were seen in late March or April in 1969, 1970 and 1971 {per Mrs F. Le Sueur). In Guernsey, there were one or two in April 1965, 1967, 1968, 1971 and 1973; in addition, two were seen from 14th to 1 6th May igji and one on 26th and 27th July 1972 {per A. J. Bisson). INCREASE IN DENSITY The north and west extension in the range of the Little Ringed Plover accounts for less than 5% of the increase in summering pairs between 1967 and 1973- The bulk of the increase took place within the existing breeding range and, although it is known that some sites were missed in 1967 (and others in 1973), it is certain that most of the increase was genuine. In some of the intervening years, and especially in 1973, the early part of the summer was exceptionally dry and the consequent fall in water levels at gravel pits, reservoirs and other sites greatly increased the suitable habitat. In 1967, for example, only three reservoirs were occupied, but in the dry summer 3^4 Little Ringed Plovers in 1968-73 °f 1973 15 were used by a total of 51 pairs. The correlation between the increase and spread of Little Ringed Plovers and the excavation of sand and gravel for use in construction has been detailed in previous papers {Brit. Birds , 57: 191-198; 62: 219-223). Gravel production in England increased by i6£% between 1967 and 1973 {Production of Aggregates in Great Britain 1972 and 1973, HMSO, 1975), and new pits were being dug and existing ones extended throughout the period under review. Counties where the increase in gravel production was well above the national average were Suffolk, Cambridge, Huntingdon, Derby and Cheshire, and in the first three of these the increase in Little Ringed Plovers was also above the overall average. In Huntingdon, the county with the highest number of pairs in 1973, gravel produc- tion increased by 141% between 1967 and 1973. RATE OF INCREASE Despite the large increase in summering pairs between 1967 and 1973, the average annual increase has fallen from 14.4% from 1948 to 1962 to 10.6% from 1962 to 1973, reducing the average over the full period to approximately 12.7%. Unfortunately, there are insuf- ficient comparative data on breeding success to provide conclusive reasons for the apparent decline in the rate of increase. Part of the explanation may be that the 1973 total, as has been mentioned earlier, is likely to be an underestimate : but to restore the average annual increase of 14.4% would require an underestimate of over 200 pairs and this seems highly improbable. When Little Ringed Plovers are allowed to breed undisturbed, their success rate is often high and they may bring off two broods; but the fact that they are ground-nesters, together with the nature of the sites they choose, means that disturbance of one kind or another is normal rather than exceptional. One of the principal causes of hatching failure is climatic: most of the sites are on flat ground, and if the chosen areas are those exposed by dry weather in the spring they are very prone to flooding if there is heavy rain in the summer. There are many reports within the period under review of nests washed away by a rise in water level, but there is no evidence that conditions were consistently worse throughout England than in previous periods covered by these reports. Disturbance by workmen and machines is also a frequent cause of failure. At most man-made sites the most suitable areas, being relatively free of vegetation, are those which are being worked actively, and there are many reports of nests destroyed by bulldozers and lorries and of sites being buried when worked-out areas are filled in. Again, however, these hazards have always existed and there is no evidence that they have become worse. Predation by Carrion Crows, Magpies Pica pica Little Ringed Plovers in 1968-73 365 and small mammals is often recorded as a consequence of dis- turbance. Predation by egg-collectors still persists: eight instances of clutches being taken by adult collectors came to the knowledge of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds during the period under review ( per R. F. Porter), and others are known to have been taken by children. Another possible reason for the apparent decline in the rate of increase is that saturation may have been reached within parts of the breeding range, so that pairs seeking new sites may be left with those which are most liable to flooding or disturbance. Also, some individual sites seem to have become overcrowded, and the conse- quential territorial bickering may leave eggs unprotected from predators. T here is some evidence, too, at a few sites of increased competition from Ringed Plovers and Common Terns Sterna hirundo, both of which are becoming more frequent as inland breeders. Ringed Plovers, in particular, have similar habitat preferences, take up their territories earlier and are more aggressive than Little Ringed, even to the extent of occupying their nests (cf. Brit. Birds, 62: 233). There is room for some expansion of Little Ringed Plovers outside the present breeding range, but in these regions there is less gravel extraction and less industrial wasteland. Moreover, the agricultural or hilly areas to the north and west could not support the density which has been achieved in the east and south. There have been more occurrences on river shingle and the edges of inland waters (typical continental habitats) in recent years, and it is to be expected that such sites will become more frequent if the expansion to the north and west continues. In previous reports, numbers north of a hypothetical line from the Welland to the Severn have been compared with those to the south. In 1967 almost equal numbers summered on each side of the line, but in 1973 60% were to the south and 40% to the north. The reason for this change, which reverses the previous tendency for numbers to increase more quickly in the north, is uncertain. Gravel production increased by the same percentage north and south of the line. SITES In i967» x54 separate sites were used by Little Ringed Plovers; by 1973 the total had increased to over 260. The sites used in both years are classified in table 2, with those north of the Welland-Severn line separated from those to the south. Gravel pits and quarries account for about 70% of the total in both years, but the proportion of gravel-pit habitats is much higher to the south of the Welland- Severn line. 3^6 Little Ringed Plovers in ig68-yj New excavations may be occupied almost as soon as work begins. A. G. Parker [in litt .) reports that in Essex prior to deep excavation the topsoil is scraped off, in areas of two to four hectares, and the resultant flat area of shingle forms an ideal habitat for Little Ringed Plovers, as well as Skylarks Alauda arvensis, Yellow Wagtails Motacilla flava and Red-legged Partridges Alectoris rufa. The highest recorded nest was in Derbyshire in 1973, when a pair bred on the floor of a limestone quarry 400 metres above sea level {per R. A. Frost). The increase, in 1973? in the use of habitats other than gravel pits was partly a result of the dry summer providing many alternative sites, but there was also an increase in the use of waste ground and an extension to land being cleared for building and the construction of motorways. In four eastern counties the settling beds of sugar- beet factories provided flat, largely unvegetated surfaces for a total of ten pairs. FIRST AND LAST DATES During the period under review, Little Ringed Plovers returned each year to all parts of their range in March, especially the last ten days, or early April. The first arrivals were usually single birds and the main influx occurred during April and continued into May. Table 2. Sites used by Little Ringed Plovers Charadrius dubius in Britain in 1967 and I973> with pairs summering at each habitat type in 1973 S and N refer to counts south and north of the Welland-Severn line Sites 1 967 Sites 1973 Pairs 1973 S N TOTAL S N TOTAL S N TOTAL Gravel and sand pits and other quarries 60 48 108 125 62 187 235 108 343 Waste ground and dumps adjoining industrial plants etc., sugar-beet factory ettling beds 3 13 l6 10 17 27 10 27 37 Areas associated with coal-mining, including opencast 14 14 20 20 30 30 Reservoirs, including those under construction 3 3 6 9 15 37 14 51 River shingle - - - - 4 4 — 4 4 Edges of lakes - - - 2 I 3 4 I 5 Sewage farms 4 - 4 - 3 3 3 3 Disused airfields 2 - 2 — I I _ I I Unspecified 7 - 7 - I I - 3 3 TOTALS 79 75 154 i43 1 18 261 286 191 477 ]( !i Little Ringed Plovers in 1968-73 367 Actual arrival appears to have been witnessed at Beachy Head, Sussex, on 2nd May 1969 when a Little Ringed Plover was seen flying north, and at Hurst, Hampshire, in 1971 when one was seen coming in ofT the sea on 28th April and another on 30th April. Exceptionally early birds, or perhaps ones which had failed to emigrate, occurred in Dorset on 21st February 1969 ( Check List of the Birds of Dorset, 1972) and at Little Paxton, Huntingdon, on 23rcj January 1972 {per T. Gunton). Nesting usually began in late April or early May but in Cheshire, in 1972, a bird was found sitting on a clutch of three eggs on 1 7th April {per Dr R. J. Raines). Movement away from the nesting sites began in July and they wcie usually deserted by mid-August. The autumn migration was most evident at reservoirs, sewage farms and estuarine and coastal marshes, and it reached a peak at the end of July or in early August. The highest numbers recorded were at Rainham Marshes, Essex, by K. Noble and R. Glover, as under: 9th August 1968 20 24th July 1971 45 24th July 1969 44 26th July 1972 1 7 (marshes unusually dry) 28th July 1970 35 24th July 1973 63 Large concentrations w'ere also recorded in most years at Ham Sewage Farm, Berkshire; Stanwell Moor, Middlesex; Wisbech Sewage Farm, Lincolnshire/Norfolk; and Ecton Sewage Farm, Northampton. At Ham Sewage Farm in 1972, 30 adults and three juveniles were seen on 16th July and 20 juveniles on 27th July. Migration in Britain continued, in smaller numbers, throughout August and early September, and in most years a few birds were recorded to the end of October. The latest was an immature at Stithians Reservoir, Cornwall, on 27th November 1969 {Cornwall Bird-Watching and Preservation Society Annual Report, 1969). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the British Trust for Ornithology for permission to reproduce the Atlas map for the Little Ringed Plover and for allowing us to see the Nest Record Cards. We thank W. Ashley, R. A. Frost and B. S. Milne for extensive notes and comments, and the following editors of local reports and others who supplied information and answered our questions: R. Alderton, K. Allsopp, D. Amedro, R. H. Appleby, K. Atkin, J. A. G. Barnes, T. Hedley Bell. P. F. Bonham, D. Bowtell, J. W. Brucker, D. Budworth, H. O. Bunce, J. Burley, Dr B. Campbell, J. Charman. D. K. Chesterman, W. Clark, T. Cockburn, C. J. Coe, M. J. H. Cook, A. Cooke, Dr S. Cox.J.E. Dale, Dr P.J. Dare, B. R. Dean, A. Dobbs, R. F. Durman’ P. H. Dymott, G. M. S. Easy, G. D. Elcome, C. Emarv, P.J. Evans. J. Firmin,J Fitzpatrick, A. D. Fox, R. J. Fox, R. Fuller, S. J. Galley, T. W. Gladwin. R. Glover, A. P. Goddard. P.J. Grant. M. E. Greenhalgh, Dr J. G. Harrison, J. M. Harrop, R. A. O. Hickling, A. J. Holcombe, R. C. Homes, J. D. Hook, P Hope Jones, B. H. Hughes, S. W. M. Hughes, R. A. Hume, A. W. Kerridge, D. A. Kmveton, E. T. Lees, A. J. Livett, J. Lord, R. R. Lovegrove, R. T. McAndrew, D. V. Mardle, A. J. Marshall, M. E. Massey, E. Maugham, K. W. Morris, K. 3^8 Little Ringed Plovers in ig68-y 3 Noble, K. C. Osborne, Miss E. M. Palmer, A. C. Parker, Dr J. D. Parrack, W. H. Payn, Mrs R. Phillips, K. Preston, Dr R. J. Raines, R. B. Ratcliffe, C. M. Reynolds, V. Robson, M. H. Rowntree, Major R. F. Ruttledge, M. J. Seago, M. Shrubb, D. Smallshire, G. Smith, R. W. J. Smith, K. G. Spencer, P. E. Standley, Dr R. Stanford, P. J. Stead, D. J. Steventon, R. Stokoe, C. M. Swaine, Mrs L. Swift, D. Talbot, D. W. Taylor, J. Thorogood, P. Waterton, C. H. Wear, G. L. Webber, C. W. Westwood, P. D. Whalley, J. Willis, A. R. Wood, A. Woodcock, L. F. Woollard, G. E. Wright, M. Wright and R. E. Youngman. SUMMARY The status of the Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius in Britain in 1973 is compared with that in 1967 for each of the counties in which it has bred. In J973 at least 467 pairs summered, an increase of over 100%. There were further extensions of the breeding range to the north and west, but most of the increase in numbers was within the existing range. The average annual rate of increase since 1948 has fallen from 14.4% to 12.7% (10.6% from 1962 to 1973) and possible reasons are discussed. A table of sites shows the importance of gravel and sand pits, which account for over 70% of the habitats. Mr and Mrs E. R. Parrinder, gi Weald Road , Sevenoaks, Kent Study of Cuckoos and Reed Warblers Ian Wyllie Plates 48-51 INTRODUCTION In the spring of 1973 wildlife photographer Maurice Tibbies began to make a film for television on the Cuckoo Cuculus canorus under a two-year contract for the BBC and Time-Life Films. At a site close to my home in Cambridgeshire a young Cuckoo, about two weeks old, was found in the nest of a Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus ; this was filmed by Tibbies and we subsequently found a further twelve young of different ages and three Cuckoo eggs, all in Reed Warbler nests. We had discovered a seemingly excellent site but it was by then late June and the end of the Cuckoo’s laying period. After visiting various Cuckoo habitats all over Great Britain, Tibbies decided that this site in Cambridgeshire offered the best opportuni- ties for filming one of the most cryptic aspects of the Cuckoo’s behaviour — the egg-laying. This paper recounts some of the observa- tions made on Cuckoos when Tibbies returned to the site in 1974 to complete the film. Until 1922, when E. P. Chance published his book The Cuckoo's Secret , there were several theories concerning the act of egg-laying. The most generally accepted of these, based on sightings of Cuckoos carrying eggs in their beaks, was that the egg was laid on the ground, picked up in the beak and thus placed in the host species’ nest. Chance (1922, 1940) disproved this and showed that the Cuckoo layed directly into the nest. As well as collecting scientific data, which have since been analysed by Lack (1963) and Seel (*973)» Chance made numerous assertions that we considered sufficiently reliable to help us in our attempts to film the egg-laying. In essence, these were as follows: only the male Cuckoo calls cuckoo and only the female ‘bubbles’; the female maintains a territory and deters other females wishing to use that area; each female parasitises one main host species; she locates the nests and lays her eggs unaided by the male; she may visit the nest to deter- mine its precise location prior to egg-laying; when a nest is selected for egg-laying the female becomes determined to use that nest; if a selected nest is destroyed or a suitable nest cannot be found she may lay almost anywhere, even on the ground or in the nest of an unsuitable host species; the egg can be retained in the oviduct for several hours (but not indefinitely) until conditions for laying are suitable; each female lays eggs which differ in size, colour’and markings from those of other Cuckoos, i.e. each female can be identified by her eggs; the eggs are laid at intervals of not less than [Brit. Birds, 68 : 369-378, September 1975] 369 370 Cuckoos and Reed Warblers two days, i.e. eggs are not laid on consecutive days; eggs tend to be laid in ‘clutches’ of about five, with a longer interval (than two days) between each clutch; the egg is usually laid after midday following a varying length of time spent by the female watching the host’s nest from a suitable vantage point; each egg is usually laid when the host species is forming a clutch, but preferably when the host has two eggs; the female ‘glides’ to the nest in hawk-like fashion when about to lay; she lays directly into the host species’ nest, usually removing one egg; the time taken to lay an egg is extremely brief — about nine seconds; cuckoos take no further interest in the host’s nest after egg-laying; where host species’ nests are plentiful a female may lay up to 25 eggs in one season. Further investigations are required to verify many of these claims but, for the purpose of our studies, they were accepted as true. It should be noted that Chance’s data were collected on Cuckoos parasitising Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis and that we were attempt- ing to apply them to Reed Warbler-Cuckoos. To film a Cuckoo laying an egg it was necessary to predict where and when a particular female was going to lay. We knew from our experience in 1973 that Reed Warblers were the main host species, so a constant watch had to be kept on all Reed Warbler nests that could be found in the area. When the first Cuckoo egg appeared we could, according to Chance, expect that subsequent eggs would be laid in the afternoons on alternate days in nests with one, two or three eggs. Also, we could expect to see the bird watching or visiting a chosen nest before an egg was actually laid. The study site in Cambridgeshire consists of a number of small Phragmites reed-beds, some of which are surrounded by bushes and mature trees. A plan of the site (fig. 1) shows the area used by Cuckoos with the positions and distances between the relevant habitat features. The site was visited on 85 consecutive days from 28th April until 21st July, during which over 300 hours’ field-work were logged. Visits were usually made in the morning, in the evening and all day at week-ends. Notes were kept on the Cuckoos’ where- abouts and activities, on the contents and stages of development of Reed Warbler nests, and on the eggs and young of Cuckoos. FIELD OBSERVATIONS A minimum of eight Cuckoos were in the area at some time during the 1974 season. At least two were males which were frequently heard calling against one another. Evidence for six females was established from the variation in egg-colour by which we also labelled them. These included Cuckoo p laying pink eggs similar to those of a Robin Erithacus rubecula ; Cuckoo b laying brown eggs like those of a Skylark Alauda arvensis; Cuckoo s laying a spotted egg like 1 late 48. Above, completed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus taming in foreground slightly larger but similarly marked egg l.iieulus canorus ; below, using powerful leg muscles and hollow back. Cuckoo ejects hosts’ eggs eight to 36 hours alter hatching (photos: clutch con- of Cuckoo the young Ian H'yllie Plate 49. Above, adult Cuckoo Cuculus canorus approaching nest of Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus through reeds; below, Cuckoo causes no damage to hosts’ nest as she clings to side in order to pick out an egg ( photos : Ian Wyllie) Firm mm IVv jffl LATK 50. Above, a Cuckoo Cuculus canorus occasionally destroys the nest of a Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirfiaceus by devouring the contents, causing hosts to relnidd; below, when egg laying, a female Cuckoo holds egg of host in her bill before quickly moving across open nest to drop own egg (photos : Ian Wyllie Plate 51. At 16 clays old a young Cuckoo Cuculus canorus in nest ol Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus already dwarfs its foster parent {photo: lan Wyllie) that of,a House Sparrow Passer domesticus; Cuckoo bl laying eggs with aV U1 ! tiaSe; Cuckoo g laying grey eggs similar to those of a Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba-, and Cuckoo l laying a very large grey egg. Arrival The site was first visited on 28th April when a single male Cuckoo (1 entified by call) was in evidence, together with at least one singing male Reed Warbler. The first female (identified by the bubbling call) arrived one week later and was heard on 4th' May at 07.00 hours (the times given throughout are BST). The second male arrived on 6th May and immediately began to sing against the first, which resulted in much aggression and displaying between the two. On 8th May both males were seen displaying to a female and thereafter Cuckoos were frequently seen in twos and threes and on one occasion, four were seen together. A calendar of Cuckoo activities in 1974 is shown in fig. 2. The first pair of Reed Warblers was seen on 12th May and the first signs of nest-building were noticed on 18th May. The' two male Cuckoos were heard and seen daily until and including 23rd May but there was no further sign of an obvious female until 26th May’ by which time two Cuckoo eggs had been laid (see table 1) No Cuckoos were heard or seen on 24th and 25th Mav although Cuckoo p had almost certainly laid her second egg of the season in the afternoon of 24th May. All the Cuckoos, therefore, had become very secretive at the beginning of the laving period Cuckoos and Reed Warblers 372 Egg-laying A female Cuckoo ‘bubbled’ in the morning of 26th May, and at 13.15 hours she took up position in a hedge about 20 metres from a Reed Warbler nest containing three eggs in Southtrack reed-bed (see fig. x). At 14.15 hours the Cuckoo dropped with a crash into the dead reeds about two metres from the nest. She emerged a few seconds later to return to her previous position and within five minutes, accompanied by a male Cuckoo, flew to South reed-bed. To our surprise Cuckoo p had not laid and there was no further sign of Cuckoos that day. The following morning Cuckoo p’s third egg was found in a nest with two of the host’s eggs in South reed-bed. The fourth and fifth eggs of this particular bird were laid in nests containing no eggs and they, too, were not discovered until the morning after they were laid. By the end of May, Cuckoo p had succeeded in laying five eggs, probably in the afternoons on alternate days, without our having witnessed one of the layings. From our brief notes made in 1973 ^ was aPParent that three of these five eggs had been laid in nests located almost exactly where young Cuckoos had been found the year before. We decided, there- fore, to pay rather more attention to sites where Reed Warblers had been cuckolded in 1973. One such site (West reed-bed in fig. 1) consisted of a small patch of reeds surrounded by bushes, where both male and female Cuckoos were often seen. By 2nd June the only pair of Reed Warblers using this site had completed their nest, so a completely camouflaged hide was constructed under the bushes about two metres away. On 3rd June the warbler laid her first egg and at 15.00 hours, having given no warning, Cuckoo p scrambled through the reeds, removed the Reed Warbler’s single egg and laid her own directly into the host s nest. The whole operation took only 1 1 seconds and can be seen in the film The Private Life of the Cuckoo. Five other Reed Warbler nests at a suitable stage for egg-laying by Cuckoos were also available on 3rd June, including two more At least one male present At least two males present At least one female present Egg-laying by Cuckoo P Egg-laying by Cuckoo B Egg-laying by Cuckoo BL Egg-laying by Cuckoo S Egg-laying by Cuckoo G Cuckoo eggs in nests Cuckoo young in nests Fledged young Cuckoos present 30 ' Apr 3 C=D D , -=3 I □ ~31 ~ 30 31~ May June July 1 31 Aug Fig. 2. Calendar of Cuckoo Cuculus canorus activities from observations at Cam- bridgeshire site, 1974 Cuckoos and Reed Warblers 373 Table i. Dates when eggs of Cuckoos Guculus canorus were laid, Cambridge- shire, 1974 Asterisks refer to Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus pairs which were cuckolded twice. The data in parentheses are assumed or estimated Reed Warbler No. host’s Date Time (BST) Cuckoo pair number eggs Site (22.5) — P 35 (2) East 24-5 after 1 1 .30 P 4 2 South track 26.5 after 14.20 P 25 2 South 28.5 — P 14 0 Withy 30.5 — P 12* 0 Bridge (1.6) — B Sedge Warbler (2) River 3-6 15.00 P 7* 1 West 3-6 after 12.45 B 36* I Central (6.6) before 19.00 BL 33 (2) Typha 7.6 after 14.30 B 2 3 Southtrack 7.6 I7-I5 S I I 4 Central ( i i .6) — B 12* (2) Bridge 12.6 before 19.00 G 42 2 Northeast 16.6 1 1.30-20.30 G 14 3 Withy 17.6 19.20 B 5 2 Southtrack 17.6 before 20.00 BL 24 I South 19.6 after 18.00 B 10 2 Central 23.6 16.15 B 53 2 Northtrack (27.6) — B 36* — Central 29.6 18.15 B 7* 2 West i-7 after 18.00 B 8 I Northtrack (2.7) — BL 38 — North (3-7) before 14.20 B 9 (0 Southtrack (6.7) — BL 45 North (6-7) — L 54 — River u. 7 before 20.40 B 6 2 Southtrack nests containing single eggs. One of these was used by Cuckoo b for her second egg of the season, her first having been laid in the nest of a Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus about 500 metres from the main reed-beds around the track (see fig. 1). This was the only Cuckoo egg found in anything but a Reed Warbler nest and suggests that Cuckoo p, having established a laying pattern in the main reed-beds, had prevented Cuckoo b from using ‘her’ nests. Cuckoo b had moved into the main reed-beds at the same time that Cuckoo p laid her last known egg. (On the morning of 26th May three Cuckoos were sighted at Central reed-bed, two apparently chasing the other to River reed-bed. Although only one bird ‘cuckoo’d’, it was thought that this had been Cuckoo p and her mate chasing the other male known to be in the area. However, it could just as easily have been Cuckoo p driving Cuckoo B from the main reed-beds with a male Cuckoo attempting to court both females.) Cuckoos and Reed Warblers 374 A regular pattern of egg-layings on alternate days was not recorded after Cuckoo p’s fifth egg. Nevertheless, the known dates of subse- quent layings tended to be at multiples of two-day intervals. For example, Cuckoo b laid on 3rd, 7^b> i7^j 23r(^> an<^ 29^ June, and ist and nth July. As with Chance’s observations, undetected eggs could have been laid. (At least one egg was un- located, the fledged youngster being seen on 18th August.) Cuckoo b was filmed in the act of egg-laying on 23rd and 29th June (see plate 50b). Nest-robbing An alarming number of Reed Warbler nests were predated through- out the season from 28th May onwards. Although the nests were easier to find than usual owing to the poor growth of reeds caused by the lack of spring rain, the only natural predator thought to steal eggs was a pair of Jays Garrulus glandarius. Human disturbance by bird-watchers, ramblers, fishermen and even egg-collectors was responsible for the loss of some nests and eggs. Predation of Reed Warbler nests by Cuckoos (apart from warbler eggs taken during egg-laying) was recorded on nine occasions and circumstantial evidence suggested that Cuckoos frequently took and ate eggs from nests on other occasions (see table 2). On 7th June, at 17.05 hours, a Cuckoo was photographed taking the only egg from a Reed Warbler’s nest in South reed-bed (plates 49, 50). Ten minutes later Cuckoo s laid in a nest with four eggs that had been incubated for four days in Central reed-bed. Although Cuckoo s was possibly a young, inexperienced bird, the observations suggest that the dominant female Cuckoo (at that time Cuckoo b) attempted to prevent her from laying by robbing the egg from the only suitable nest in the territory. No further eggs of Cuckoo s were found, so she may have been driven out of the area or foiced to use some other host species. Table 2. Host-nest predation by Cuckoos Cuculus canonis , Cambridgeshire, 1974 Contents of Date Time (BST) Nest number nest Predation 7.6 i7-°5 25a 1 egg 1 egg 9.6 12.30 47 2 eggs 2 eggs 22.6 07.00 80 3 eggs 3 eggs 22.6 11.30 32 1 egg (infertile) 2 young 2 young 29.6 13.00 90 2 eggs 2 eggs 29.6 18.00 75 4 eggs 2 eggs 30.6 11.30 75 2 eggs 2 eggs 5-7 i5-!5 86 4 eggs 4 eggs 8.7 16.30 103 3 eggs 3 eggs Cuckoos and Reed Warblers 375 At 12.30 hours on 9th June (an assumed laying-day) the contents of a nest with two eggs in Bridge reed-bed were robbed, accom- panied by a series ol excited bubbling calls. Several observers were standing only about 50 metres from the nest and a hide had been placed about four metres away in anticipation of laying. The repeat-nest of this pair of warblers was also robbed on 17th June when three eggs were taken. Furthermore, a female Cuckoo was witnessed robbing a two-egg nest at this spot at 17.16 hours on 27tb June 1973. It seemed that a female Cuckoo was repeatedly victimising the Reed Warblers using this particular site. Another nest-robbing incident is of special note as it involved the predation of nestlings, an activity which has not been fully recorded previously (see Chance 1940, p 167). Cuckoo p’s sixth egg, laid on 3rd June in West reed-bed, mysteriously disappeared by nth June (it was possibly taken by egg-collectors). Two of the remaining three Reed Warbler eggs hatched on 18th June, the third being infertile. At 11.10 hours on 22nd June two Cuckoos, presumably females, were heard bubbling excitedly from the vicinity of the nest. At 1 1.40 hours, after eight bubbling calls, a Cuckoo was seen eating a young Reed Warbler. The four-day old nestling was held by the abdomen, shaken in the same manner as a caterpillar, and finally swallowed whole. An inspection of the nest and its surroundings revealed no sign of the other young warbler but the infertile egg was still present and intact. Cuckoo B was filmed laying in the repeat-nest of this pair of warblers one week later. Summary counts By the end of the 1974 season, 26 eggs from six female Cuckoos had been found and 27 were known to have been laid. One bird had laid a minimum of 12 eggs, another six, a third four, and three others one or two eggs each (see table 1). The laying period ex- tended from 22nd May until the uncommonly late date of 11th July. Male Cuckoos were heard from 28th April until 10th July and females from 4th May to 14th July. (In 1973 the last female was seen on 8th July.) Only two young fledged, the last being still dependent upon the host species on 18th August. There were 54 pairs of Reed Warblers and 136 of their nests were found. Of these, 28 were deserted; 25 were cuckolded; 80 were robbed; 11 produced fledged young (one, a Cuckoo); and 19 were not followed up. Five Sedge Warbler nests were also found, one of which was cuckolded, the others producing fledged young. An unlocated Reed Warbler nest produced a fledged young Cuckoo. DISCUSSION Most of Chance’s assertions on egg-laying by Cuckoos (pages 369-370) 2^6 Cuckoos and Reed Warblers were supported by our 1974 observations. In some instances, how- ever, our studies produced no evidence to support or refute his claims. For example, the maximum number of eggs recorded from a single Cuckoo in our study area in 1974 was twelve, whereas Chance recorded up to 25 eggs laid by one bird (though under experimental conditions). Also, while we cannot disprove Chance s conclusion that only the male calls ‘cuckoo’, we believe that the female may also do so on occasions. In the case of four of his points, our evidence pointed to contrary conclusions, all of which, however, may be related to the different host species (and very different habitats) which were utilised in the different study areas. In par- ticular, in our study area the Cuckoos did not have to cross large open areas and may have had less difficulty in locating the nests of their hosts. Unlike Chance’s findings, mostly on Meadow Pipit- Cuckoos, our observations of Reed Warbler-Cuckoos were that (i) the male sometimes accompanied the female when egg-laying, (ii) the female did not ‘glide’ to the nest but usually approached through the reeds; (iii) the female did not visit the nest immediately before laying to determine its precise location; (iv) cuckolded nests were sometimes revisited and repeat-nests of cuckolded hosts were occasionally cuckolded again. If a successful breeding season at the site in 1973 was reflected over the country as a whole, it may not be surprising that there were as many as six female and at least two male Cuckoos in an area o about 150 hectares in 1974. A full description of the eggs found in 1973 was not recorded but it was thought that they most resembled the 1974 eggs of Cuckoo p. Since there was a tendency for her 1974 eggs to be laid in almost identical sites to those in 1973, this bird may have been using the territory in both years. Alternatively, but less likely, if the eggs of the female offspring resemble those of the parent, Cuckoo p may have been a one-year old offspring of the 1973 female. A male Cuckoo in 1973 often called from exposed telegraph poles, but this behaviour was not noted in 1974 and it seemed reasonable to believe that the dominant male of the previous year had not returned. Egc-laying by Cuckoos began on virtually the earliest possible date (22nd May) for Reed Warbler nests and continued as late as nth July, after the males had apparently left the territory. Lack (1963), using data recorded by egg-collectors G. Charteris and A. E. Lees, indicated that Reed Warbler-Cuckoos did not apparently lay after 8th July, despite the availability of nests. He suggested that cessation of laying may be primarily determined by the available food supply, although more research was necessary for this hypothesis to be established. At the Cambridgeshire site in 1974 there was an abundant supply of Peacock Nymphalis 10 butter- Cuckoos and Reed Warblers 377 fly larvae until the end of July, and the Cuckoos were seen feeding on these from mid-June to 14th July. From records kept at Monks Wood Nature Reserve, the peak numbers of adult Peacocks occurred about one week later in 1974 compared with 1973. The Cuckoos’ departure from the site was also about one week later in 1974 and the two facts may be correlated. In 1973 independent young Cuckoos were seen at the site from the end of June onwards. In 1974, after much predation, the first independent juvenile was not seen until 12th July, one day after the laying of the last egg. Clearly, more research is required, but it seems possible that the cessation of laying may be linked with the appearance of fledged young Cuckoos within the breeding territory. Cuckoos were known to rob nests on nine occasions extending from 7th June until 8th July. Of the eight nests involved, 15 fresh eggs, four deserted fresh eggs, and two four-day old nestlings were taken. Circumstantial evidence, such as bubbling calls heard or birds seen near the nests, suggested that 15% of the remaining 72 robbed nests were predated by Cuckoos. There are three main reasons why adult Cuckoos may take eggs and young from the nests of their hosts: (i) for additional food; (ii) to force the hosts to re-nest, thus bringing their breeding cycle in line with that of the Cuckoo ; (iii) to prevent other female Cuckoos laying eggs in suitable nests within the same territory. The predation of nestlings supports the second of these reasons. Cuckoo B probably took the young so that the warblers would build a repeat-nest suitable for her own egg which was laid on 29th June. The fact that two female Cuckoos were heard at the nest-site suggests that both had designs on this particular pair of Reed Warblers, especially as we know that a young Cuckoo was reared here in 1973. Again, further research is needed to elucidate the reasons for nest-predation by Cuckoos. Future research One of the greatest disadvantages in the field study of Cuckoos is that the observer cannot positively distinguish between one bird and another. Their secretive habits enable the birds to evade observation for long periods and the observer can rarely be certain of the sex of a particular individual. .Although there is much evidence to suggest that only the male calls ‘cuckoo’ and that only the female ‘bubbles’, it is by no means conclusive. By marking Cuckoos from our breeding site over a period of years and in such a way that an individual could be recognised in the field, it is hoped to investigate the following: (i) the calls used by the sexes; (ii) the incidence of polygamy, polyandry' or promiscuity; (iii) the size and maintenance of territories for each sex; (iv) egg- o^g Cuckoos and Reed Warblers laying by the female unaccompanied by the male, at similar sites each season; (v) the sex involved in egg-robbing and the reasons behind such behaviour; (vi) adult Cuckoos’ interest in their own offspring; (vii) possible return by first-year birds to breed where they were born and to parasitise the host species by which they were reared; (viii) the longevity and breeding capacity of individual Cuckoos; (ix) the duration of time spent at the breeding site, especially in relation to food supply and egg-laying; (x) inheritance of egg-colour ; (xi) survival rates of young Cuckoos; (xii) the length of time that the young remain dependent upon the host species and the food taken by the young after reaching independence. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work would almost certainly not have been undertaken but for the enthusiasm of M. R. Tibbies and I am grateful to him for keeping notes on his observations at crucial times when I was unable to visit the site. I am also indebted to J. L. F. Parslow for his constructive criticism of an earlier draft of this paper. SUMMARY The paper reports observations on breeding Cuckoos Cuculus canorus in 1974 during the making of a wildlife film on the species. The study site of about 150 hectares in Cambridgeshire consists of a number of small reed-beds where 22 of 54 Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus pairs proved to be the main hosts. At least two male and six female Cuckoos were found in the area between 28th April and 14th July, and 27 eggs were laid between 22nd May and nth July. The maximum number of eggs laid by one female was twelve, the distance between the sites of laying of first and last eggs being a little under 1 km. The eggs tended to be laid at two-day intervals in the afternoons in nests with one, two or three eggs but occasionally in nests with no eggs and once in a nest containing four incubated eggs. Only one Cuckoo egg was laid in the nest of a different host species— a Sedge Warbler A. schoenobaenus ; this was possibly a forced departure from the preferred host, resulting from territorial interference by another female Cuckoo. Of 136 Reed Warbler nests found, 25 were cuckolded and at least 25/0 were predated by Cuckoos, including one nest containing young Reed Warblers. It was thought that the main reason for host-nest predation was to provide a con- tinuity of suitable nests for the Cuckoos to use, although repeat-nests of warblers known to have been previously predated by Cuckoos were not always cuckolded. Cuckoos were filmed at the nest on three occasions, all of which can be seen in the film The Private Life of the Cuckoo. Several still photographs were also obtained of Cuckoos at Reed Warbler nests. The making of the film has stimulated father research at the site and it is hoped that more information can be obtained by studying experimentally marked Cuckoos over a number of years. REFERENCES Chance, E. P. 1922. The Cuckoo s Secret. London. 1940. The Truth about the Cuckoo. London. Lack, D. 1963. ‘Cuckoo hosts in England’. Bird Study, 10: 185-202. Seel, D. C. 1973. ‘Egg-laying by the Cuckoo’. Brit. Birds, 66: 520-535- Ian Wyllie, The Institute of Terrestrial Ecology , Monks Wood Experi- mental Station, Abbots Ripton, Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire PE17 2ls Viewpoint Derek Barber Formerly head of the Ministry of Agriculture' s farm advisory service in Gloucester and now an environmental consultant , Derek Barber is a keen amateur ornithologist. He is a founder member of the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group, a member of the Council of the Gloucester Trust for Nature Conservation and has just completed five years on the Council of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the last three years as chairman of its Conservation and Education Committee. Attitudes which influence bird protection and conservation The uncle who engendered in me, at a tender age, his own lifelong passion for all things ornithological spanned the turn of the century. A contemporary and friend of Richard and Cherry Kearton, Edgar Chance, Oliver Pike and, later on, T. A. Coward (to my own enrichment), he was primarily an oologist with a deep sense of scientific purpose. For fifty or more springtimes, he disappeared into the Spain of Abel Chapman, Lapland or the Polish marshes. Being a civilised person, he deplored the wanton destruction of birds but, to him, bird protection was a matter for middle-aged and preferably rich ladies. Conservation, similarly, made little impact on his imagination. He was akin to the present-day country dweller who is not a member of any society like the RSPB because he sees no need; wilderness is still at the bottom of his garden. In my uncle’s case, his garden was surrounded by moors and Merlins, Golden Plovers and Ring Ouzels. They remained there in much the same state and numbers from his cradle time to his grave. I dwell on memory of this man to illustrate the point that his was a simple age requiring only simplistic attitudes. Today, it is not only the bulldozers and buzz saws, pesticides and too many pairs of feet that provide the complexity. In addition, it is difficult to imagine anything more complex than the attitudes and postures of the multitude of groups that influence, directly and indirectly, the welfare of birds. Mine is a wholly subjective, superficial and perhaps irritating analysis of these attitudes. My justification for authorship is the laudable desire to encourage someone to make a deeper study. Farmers. Let us start with, arguably, the most important element in the jigsaw. As we are told to the point of tedium, farmers occupy most of our land. There are vast numbers of them; they are hetero- geneous in the extreme. I believe that about 15% of farmers are aware of conservation needs and are doing something positive about them ; about 70% would do more if they knew how and the message 379 gg0 Viewpoint could be got to them; at the bottom end are some 15% ‘cash register’ farmers who are concerned with maximising profits to the exclusion of all else. But the message is getting through and there are now the early signs of a new vogue of protecting and managing as something which is right and proper for farmers to undertake. A curious a.nd very relevant issue is the quite remarkable ignorance of the farming community about birds; the number who can distinguish between a Yellowhammer and a Greenfinch is minute. But a vital concomitant is that, once a farmer’s attention can be caught, his subsequent accession to the conservation camp can be a dramatic one. An afternoon with one farmer explaining that the bird he professed he had never seen was a Whitethroat, which undertook trans-Saharan journeys, resulted in 600 acres being treated with a much more sensitive touch. Farmers need, as a priority, to be encouraged to take an interest by gentle but persistent overtures. Landowners. Owning land, particularly unto the fifth or sixth generation, is not conducive to a state of humility. There are naturalists here but the preoccupation tends to revolve around Pheasants, Partridges and Sparrowhawks. There is, too, the presence very often of an arrogance syndrome that manifests itself in the belief that a knowledge of Pheasant rearing results, inevitably, in a knowledge of all things ecological. But great influence is exercised by this group and they must be treated with generous circumspection if birds are to prosper. Whilst the communications o-ap between a fox-hunting landowner and a local Nature Conser- vancy Council officer, perhaps heavily hirsute and fresh from a redbrick university, is a wide one, the latter is the one to adjust himself if he has his birds properly at heart. . . Gamekeepers. The battle for more tolerant attitudes makes minimal progress. Subject only to the influences of their shooting and fishing employers who do less than nothing, more often than not, to discourage an implacable front towards all predators, there seems little immediate hope for advancement of conservation principles. There is a steady recruitment of younger, more ecologically minded men but the replacement of the ‘Victorians’ is slow and, alas, many of the young entry are cast in the old, primitive mould. Research sponsored jointly by the British Field Sports Society, the Game Conservancy, the RSPB and the Wildfowlers’ Association of Great Britain and Ireland is helpful to better understanding (currently, the work on Pheasant release pens is promising), but pole traps and poisons appear with depressing regularity. Althoug 1 no species seems actually at risk, the range of many is being 1 e- stricted: Hen Harriers in north Wales and Buzzards in the Midlanc s are but two examples. Landscape architects and planners. Too many architects have difficul y Viewpoint 381 in seeing the wood for the trees — of accepting the integral part that wildlife must play in their schemes — because of blinkering them- selves too tightly within their own discipline. The widespread lack of appreciation of other than the skyline and the buildings-trees relationship is extraordinary. As it is a young discipline, experience may evolve wiser concepts. Planners try very hard, with varying degrees of persistence, to break out of the straightjacket, in which so many have placed themselves, of regarding wildlife as wholly secondary to accommodating the maximum number of water skiers and caravans. But the idea that the Redshanks will nest happily in that minute corner of the yachting marina reserved for them dies hard. Scientists. Ornithology is fortunate in having the majority of its scientists wholeheartedly devoted to protecting and conserving. True, there are some who have only drifted in by accident and give the impression that vivisection experiments might, if the need arose, provide an acceptable alternative to taxonomic work among the museum skins. But, in acknowledging the splendid work being done, there is one feature which does call for criticism. Why do a few of their kind fail to understand the often politically un- desirable effects of blundering into public controversy on the basis of studies carried out on the narrowest of fronts? County trust members. Nurtured originally by enthusiasts and local dignitaries, membership lists now cover a wide spectrum. But county trusts, with the exception of Norfolk and one or two more, are still firmly based on botany and entomology, bats and Badgers. This is partly due to the constraints on the size of reserve falling into their hands and partly because birds are catered for most effectively elsewhere. The stronger county trusts are now influential in planning and similar activities but their weakness lies in the small, hard core of ‘doers’ and the large outer fringe of ‘non-doers’ with only a peripheral and passive interest. RSPB members. No one knows the precise attitude of the average of the 187,000 membership. But he or she lives in the south-east, has an urban background and becomes more actively and emotion- ally involved the longer the connection with the society. It is a fair guess that he or she joined because of an interest in birds per se and not necessarily, or even at all, in Pipistrelles and Pasque Flowers — a road block indeed to those who earnestly believe that a coalescing of the main bodies is needed to promote wider influence. Undoubtedly, the most encouraging feature on this RSPB front has been the growth of members’ groups leading to the active individual involvement of many thousands in pursuing the society’s objectives. There is insufficient space in which to discuss the other and many gQ2 Viewpoint pieces of the conservation mosaic but they must be listed, however briefly, in order to fill in the background to the arguments. There are the staffs of the voluntary bodies (a rich field for analysis), the falconers (anxiously seeking the mantle of total respectability), the egg collectors (scientists and casual pilferer alike glumly accepting the mantle of Bill Sykes), the bird garden operators and captive breeders (the less reputable wondering if they are strong enough to discard the need for conservation alibis), WAGBI (good conservationists here but a little too anxious to regard the wild as a site for a type of Regent’s Park breeding programme on the Anseri formes), the Wildfowl Trust (brilliant researching and conserving but, for the purists, a bit heavy handed at the feed troughs on reserves), the British Trust for Ornithology (a happy niche for the senior common room amateur), the Young Ornithologists’ Club (needing to prevent significant fall out at puberty), the National Trust (splendid stately home landlords but their best friends would hardly accuse them of being dynamic land and habitat managers), the Countryside Com- mission (now finding the subject of ecology — not too late one hopes- buried beneath the recreation pamphlets), the Ramblers’ Association (overtones of Keir Hardie a mite too evident), the Forestry Commission (living down the planting philistinism of the past), the Council for the Protection of Rural England (fossilising villages out, provision of scrub cover in), and so on. ( What lessons are to be learned from this review? From my ‘View- point’ there are three. First is the need for the purposive sections of the conservation camp to try very, very much harder to under- stand the motivations, attitudes and problems of the groups, private and public, whose activities impinge on birds— the land- owners, the falconers, the CPRE members and the rest. Only by doing so is it going to be possible to exert — in the right places and at the right time — steadily increasing pressure on behalf of conservation. Second must be the need to resist the siren voices who call for fewer and bigger organisations and to accept that, strange though it may seem, people want to ‘do their own thing : otherwise there would not be such an eccentric assortment of voluntary bodies on any list, would there? The tribal instinct is still a potent factor and men and women do not want to be dragooned into monolithic amalgamations where the purposes of the original components become obscured. Political muscle (the conventional argument for joining together), can be fashioned very effectively by sensible liaison and what matters it, for example, that great stretches of the Norfolk coast are in the hands of goodness knows how many different conservation authorities? The important thing is that stretches aie not in the hands of Bungaloid Developments Incorporated. The third embraces a sensitive issue. In a vast fragmented move- Viewpoint 383 merit such as described, the scope for the human frailties of pique, pettiness, vanity, jealousy, irritation, obsessive amateur ambition and excessive professional careerism to raise their ugly heads is considerable. They must be put down ruthlessly in the interests of the birds. When I feel an attack of human frailties coming on, I try to think of what is at stake and conjure up an image of a cock Gieenshank doing his nuptial flight over a Sutherland flow which I am sure no one else knows about. It works sometimes. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds Notes Purple Gallinule up-ending Jacques Vielliard stated, in his interesting paper (Brit. Birds , 67: 230-236), that the Purple Gallinule / orphyrio porphyrio seeks its food on foot. Thus an observation sug- gesting a different method of feeding may be worth recording. On 29th July 1974, from a tall observation tower on the Coto Dofiana reserve in Spain, David Sadler and I saw an adult Purple Gallinule swimming in an adjacent lagoon and up-ending in the manner of a Coot Fulica atra. After our attention had been taken by a second bird nearby, we watched the first, still swimming, eat a Typha stem in the way described by Vielliard. It had probably obtained this from under water. Purple Gallinules at another lagoon were walking around the base of the Typha beds and were not seen to swim. R. A. Frost 66 St Lawrence Road , North Wingfield, Chesterfield, Derbyshire S42 5LL Aerial plunge-diving and submerging by auks In my previous notes (Brit. Birds, 65: 480-481; 67: 77) I described the practice of Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis and Manx Shearwaters Pt/ffinus pujfinus of aerial plunge-diving over shoals of fish in the Isles of Scilly and Cornwall. Rather similar performances have frequently been witnessed in these areas involving individual, or small parties of, Razorbills Alca torda and Guillemots Uria aalge, which sometimes submerge for about 15 seconds. It seems likely that they may obtain fish by plunge-diving in this way, although I have been unable to confirm this. Puffins Fratercula arctica also perform aerial plunge- diving but the literature on the subject appears scant. However, A. G. Bent (1919, Life Histories of North American Diving Birds) saw Puffins ‘come out of the water flying, only to plunge down into the water and continue the flight below the surface’, j. P. Paige (Brit. Notes 384 Birds, 41: 127) observed at St Albans, Dorset, on 18th June 1947 what may have been a pair of Razorbills plunge from a height into the water, then reappear and swim normally ; he took this to be a form of display. S. Cramp et al. (1974, The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland ) stated (page 169) that ‘Razorbills can only dive from the surface of the sea in their hunt for food’, which is not strictly true. It would be of considerable interest to learn of other observa- tions of aerial plunge-diving by auks and to know which species particularly favour this habit. Bernard King Gull Cry, 9 Park Road, Newlyn, Cornwall Night Herons fishing in deep water During late May 1975, parties of up to twelve Night Herons Nycticorax nycticorax and three Great White Egrets Egretta alba were regularly observed feeding in daylight over deep water at Lake Erie, Ontario, Canada. The birds, mainly immatures, primarily hovered or circled immediately above the surface of the water, rather in the manner of nearby gulls. On 28th May P. D. Hyde and I observed two Night Herons actually settle on the water about 500 metres offshore. Each arose a few seconds later carrying a fish, which was devoured in flight. Large numbers of dead fish, ten to 15 centimetres in length, were to be found along the shores of the lake and it was not clear whether the fish taken by the herons were normal, healthy specimens or not. However, the regularity of the behaviour in May suggests that deep- water fishing is an established feeding technique, at least in this area. Similar behaviour has been described for Grey Herons Ardea cinerea in Britain ( Brit . Birds, 60: 49'5°> 21 5)* Alan R. Dean 2 Charingworth Road, Solihull, West Midlands Bg2 8ht Reviews The Changing Flora and Fauna of Britain. Edited by D. L. Hawksworth. Published for the Systematics Association by Academic Press, London, 1974. 461 pages; maps and fine drawings. £9*20. This collection of papers, given at a Symposium of the Systematics Association in April 1973, reviews the available information on changes in the major groups of plants and animals in Britain an Ireland. As the 21 papers average little more than 20 pages each, many of the contributors faced an almost impossible task in trying to compress the data, which would often merit a full-size boo'. Nevertheless, this is a valuable compilation, affording an opportunity to compare the pattern of change in many groups in recent years, Reviews 385 and so to assess more accurately the possible factors involved. In some groups, the picture is obscured by inadequate data or taxo- nomic problems, but for most, not surprisingly, man seems to have played the major part, especially by destroying old habitats and creating new ones, though climatic changes seem to have affected some, though not all, groups. Birds are given two papers. Dr J. T. R. Sharrock, outlining the changes in breeding species, shows that the number nesting regularly in Britain and Ireland was fairly static at 175-181 from 1800 to 1949, but since then has risen to at least 192. This is attributed largely to increased protection. Links with climatic change are not clear-cut because of the many factors operating. K. Williamson reviews the new species added to the British and Irish List since 1800 and shows that, after a lull for most of the period 1870-1949, there was a big leap from 1950-69, with 50 new species. Among these were many from America and here he considers that the change in the path of the Atlantic storm- track has probably been a factor. Stanley Cramp The Titmice of the British Isles. By John A. G. Barnes. David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1975. 212 pages; 12 black- and-white photographs; 5 line drawings. £5.25. This is a straightforward account of the current state of knowledge on all aspects of the seven species of tits breeding in Britain (ex- cluding the Bearded Tit). The use of the old-fashioned term ‘titmice’ in the title is clearly at the publisher’s behest as after two or three mentions early in the book the author sticks to just ‘tits’. The author has clearly done a competent job of selecting and compressing (his own words) from the considerable volume of published data that is available. His list of references is compre- hensive and includes the more important continental studies as well as those in Britain. Not unnaturally the Great and Blue Tits figure more prominently than other species, reflecting the proportionately greater amount of research done on them, but the other tits are never forgotten and more is known about the Crested and Willow Tits, for example, than many people might imagine. The only skimpily treated subject is distribution, which is covered in a few sentences for each species with no attempt at mapping. Perhaps because of all the sifting and compressing that has gone on, I found the book difficult to read. It does not flow. All the facts are there but they are hard to extract from the somewhat wooden style. Another bar to easy reading is the constant interrupting of the text by the names of the various workers whose studies are being reported. The references themselves are indicated in the text by small numbers (an excellent and unobtrusive method) but despite this the names are virtually always mentioned as well. In many of Reviews 386 the chapters a majority of the paragraphs include phrases such as: ‘This has been studied by Professor Hinde.’, or ‘Dr Monica Betts found that’, and so on. Although both the blurb and the preface lay emphasis on the inclusion of the author’s personal observations, these in fact form a minute fraction of the book. There are a number of references to work the author has done or collaborated in around the Lake District where he lives, including nest-box studies which provide interesting comparisons with the published work from Oxfoidshiie, the Brecks, or the Netherlands. But actual observations by the author are limited to a few brief paragraphs in any one chapter. A more personalised approach would have added to the interest for the general reader. , The book is well produced, if rather expensive even by today s standards, with a dozen good black-and-white photographs. The colour picture on the dust-jacket is less successful. The author rightly points out that there is enormous interest shown in the tits by people with gardens and bird tables who probably would not even claim to be birdwatchers let alone ornithologists. He has clearly set out to write a book that would cater for both the lattei groups and for as much of the first as possible. I fear that the wiiting style and the price are against him. M. A. Ogxlvie Animals of Europe, the Ecology of the Wildlife. By Maurice Burton. Animals of Asia, the Ecology of the Oriental Region. By J. and K. Mackinnan. Peter Lowe and Eurobook Ltd, London. Each 172 pages; illustrated throughout with colour photographs, plates and diagrams. Each £3*25* The pattern of treatment in these two glossy compendiums is very similar. A brief introduction and first chapter deal generally with the natural and human history of the subject region. Several long chapters then discuss the character of its main ecosystems and their alterations to the natural scene concentrating mainly on the risks to Wildlife that stem directly or indirectly from Man’s increasing needs. The text is continuously illustrated with — one might almost say profusely interrupted by — splendid photographs of all the main orders of life, notably of mammals and birds. In the European volume, the ecosystems discussed are the tundra and taiga, the deciduous forest, the Steppes, the Mediterranean maquis, freshwater lakes and rivers, the Wilderness and the sea. In the Asian book, those selected are the forests, the Savanna, the deserts, the high mountains and several smaller habitats, such as limestone caves and mangrove swamps. The canvas in both is therefore wide and the content span equally great. Knowing little of Asia, I made an eager bid at reading the second Reviews 387 volume as a whole but I have to report that my progress soon became erratic. I ended up straying rather hopelessly between the main ecological themes and the many discussions and brief mentions of individual animals. Such tendency to describe hastily rather than illuminate steadily is a frequent fault of the genre but it is increased in these instances by the total dominance of the authors’ industry by the incessant pictorial images. After several other attempts at both volumes, I remain unconvinced of the efficiency of tabloid ecology in the writ of Science. To be fair, however, these examples caught the eyes of my children more than, for example, the similar issue of the Life Nature Library published a decade ago. Un- doubtedly the books have much educational value and those who approve of their kind (by now presumably equipped with more than one coffee table) will find them very attractive. Considering the beauty and originality of most of the illustrations, the price of the volumes is not excessive. D. I. M. Wallace Letter Records from the national census of breeding birds 1969-70 I wish to report that copies of the summaries of records for each species made during the preparation of the book The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland (Cramp, Bourne & Saunders, 1974) have been deposited with the following organizations: The Seabird Group; The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds; The British Trust for Ornithology; The Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Oxford University; The Science Library, Aberdeen University; The Nature Conservancy Council in London and Edinburgh (Britain); and The Irish Wildbird Conservancy (Ireland). There are two exceptions to the above statement: (1) The data for the Manx Shearwater Pufinus puffinus, Leach’s Petrel Oceanodroma leucorrhoa and Gannet Sula bassana are all incorporated in the book; (2) The records for the terns, which the Seabird Group considers to be particularly sensitive to disturbance, are being kept confidential. Anyone wishing to consult this material must apply to the Seabird Group. I should like to place on record the Group’s thanks to Mrs Sheila Bourne for undertaking the arduous task of photocopying all the extensive data; without her help it would not have been possible to provide so many copies. C. M. Perrins Chairman , Seabird Group Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, South Parks Road , Oxford ox 1 3PS News and comment Robert Hudson Grants for nature conservation The Nature Conservancy Council announced on nth August that it had just awarded 90 grants, totalling £50,000, to encourage nature conservation by voluntary bodies, local authorities and private individua s. The largest grant (£4,500) went to Hampshire County Council towards the construction of 14 acres of shallow pools or ‘scrapes’ at Titchfield Haven natuie reserve. The next largest sums (£2,500) went towards the cost of setting up interpretative centres at Ranworth Broad in Norfolk and Woods Mill in Sussex, while the Wiltshire and Glamorgan Naturalists’ Trusts received smaller grants towards the cost of mobile exhibition units. Some 20 grants, totalling £10,000, were given for fencing— in some cases to keep grazing animals out of reserves, but in other cases to keep them in! In certain circumstances herbivores are needed to control scrub and tree growth but it is becoming cheaper to control vegetation mechanically and several grants were for the purchase of machinery. About £2 250 was awarded to various organisations to provide public observation hides. Grants of a purely ornithological nature included £100 to the Worcestershire Trust for Nature Conservation to safeguard a Marsh Warbler breeding site an £225 to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds for aerial surveys of Common Scoters wintering in Carmarthen Bay and Black-throated Divers breeding in north Scotland. It is good to know that in these days of financial stringency the NCC is still able to support voluntary work, though some eyebrows may be raised at grants to certain large and relatively affluent bodies which could (pre- sumably) have raised the money elsewhere. I cannot help feeling that grants irom public funds are most appreciated by groups not in a position to help themselves. For long dark evenings— Tim Sharrock has produced a novelty in the shape of The Birdwatchers' Quiz and Puzzle Book. This comprises 72 pages of crosswords, word games and puzzles of an arithmetical nature, revolving around 1 alearctic (mainly British and Irish) birds, and can fill many a long (if frustrating) evening when GMT returns. Under each item an expert solving time is given ; most ol them took me rather longer! But never despair— solutions are given at the back. 1 he booklet can be obtained from its compiler at 59 Curlew Crescent, Bedloi MK41 7HY, price 95P. Spare a falcon? Falconry is a glamorous activity which constantly attracts uncritical publicity of a kind that is difficult to justify seriously. One of its devotees more successful gambits has concerned the use of falcons to scare other birds away from airfields, notably at the military air station at Lossiemouth in Grampian and at US bases and Madrid airport in Spain (Animals, June 1969 and Decembei 1 070) . It seems that the regrettable world-wide decline in raptors, the Arabs bidding up the price for them, and the selfish restrictions that conservationists have had placed on the taking of native birds or the import of foreign ones, are together conspiring to give these public servants a hard time. The (Aberdeen) Press and Journal for 12 th July reports that Sean Greaves, who has recently moved from Madrid to Lossiemouth, has lost a couple of birds and is appealing for more, being now down to his last four instead of the eight to ten he would like. It is sad to see the RAF, whose firemen used to be able to manage perfectly well (and still do elsewhere) with more economical methods of bird-scaring, supporting t us disreputable activity, whose efficacy has never been proved scientifically. It seems time the Ministry of Defence swung its economy axe at Lossiemouth. Birdine in Sweden A Guide to Bird-watching in Sweden in spring, summer and autumn is the title of a new 48-page guide compiled by J. Sanders (text) and K. Berg (maps), published in Sweden but written in the English language. This com- 388 News and comment 3% mendable booklet begins with advice for the prospective visitor: how to get to Sweden (car ferries are the most economic) ; travel within Sweden (public transport is absent from some rural areas, and hitch-hiking is difficult) ; where to stay (some useful tips on camping) ; how to save money (food is expensive, so bring as much as customs will allow) ; and pests (beware of mosquitoes!). The rest of the booklet is concerned with birdwatching localities of importance and for each one the visitor is advised how to get there, the best time of year for that locality, accommodation, and (of course) the more interesting birds to look for. I have not yet visited Sweden, but when I do I shall certainly take this guide with me. Copies can be obtained, price £1.50 post paid, from J. Tidy, 32 Pleydell Avenue, London, w6 oxx. Warden-shuffling In the latest issue of Birds, the RSPB reports changes in the wardenships at two of its most important wetland reserves. Bert Axell, who has been warden of Minsmere in Suffolk for twelve years and also had a long stint at Dungeness (Kent) before that, has now retired and plans to write a book on his experiences. The new Minsmere warden is Jeremy Sorensen, who for the last seven years has been developing the Ouse Washes reserve in Cambridgeshire. The Ouse Washes post has been filled by Cliff Carson, who has latterly been in charge of the RSPB’s Northern Ireland office. We wish them well, and especially hope that Bert Axell has a long and prolific literary retirement. Sheffield birdlife Local avifaunas traditionally follow county boundaries, though during the last decade there have been several based on a city and its surrounding countryside. To the latter genus belongs The Birds of the Sheffield Area, edited by A. H. V. Smith and published earlier this year. It covers the area within a 20-miles radius of Sheffield City Museum, and therefore extends outwards to Barnsley, Doncaster, Chesterfield and Mansfield. This is a paperback book of 190 pages, of which 26 are of an introductory nature (including habitat notes), 140 are devoted to a systematic list, five to ringing recoveries, and the rest to a bibliography, gazetteer, index and a postscript of recent records. Vagrants with five records or less arc restricted to a three-page table, leaving room for residents and regular visitors to be written up in some detail; small-scale 10-km square grid maps are used freely to illustrate species’ distributions. This book contains a wealth of information; at £1.20 post paid for 190 pages, it is inexpensive by any modern standard, no doubt partly due to the omission of irrelevant photographs. I heartily recommend this format for local avifaunas. The book is available from the Sorby Natural History Society, c/o City Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds May reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records May was generally a cold, wet month, with an interesting period between 8th and nth as a depression moved east across Britain bringing rain and low cloud with east and north-east winds. Many migrants grounded on the east coast during this period included several rarities. The last week was dominated by strong NNE winds with more low cloud. 39° May reports SHEARWATERS TO WILDFOWL During spring passage at Portland Bill (Dorset) four Balearic Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus mauretanicus passed east on ioth May and two Cory’s Calonectris diomedea east on 25th. On 27th two Little Shearwaters P. assimilis were seen with Manx P. puffinus passing Sand Point (Somerset). Purple Herons Ardea purpurea were found at seven places: Stodmarsh (Kent) on 4th; Oxwich (West Glamorgan) on 7th and 8th and a different bird there from 20th to 4th June; Walberswick (Suffolk) on ioth; Sheringham (Norfolk) and Beaumaris (Gwynedd), both on nth; Jersey on 17th and 18th; and Mmsmere (Suffolk) on 1 8th. There was, however, only one Little Egret Egretta garzetta, at Witcombe Reservoir (Gloucestershire) on nth. An adult Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax stayed at Newburgh (Grampian) from 3rd to 8th, and male Little Bitterns Ixobrychus minutus appeared at Lodmoor (Dorset) on 18th and at Stod- marsh from 25th to 27th. White Storks Ciconia ciconia were reported flying east over Fair Isle (Shetland) on 25th, in the Gwaun Valley (Dyfed) on 26th and near Lewes (East Sussex) from 26th to 1st June. A Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia was seen on six dates from 9th to 23rd at Minsmere. . A drake Green-winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis was seen in Scilly from 1st to ioth and on 14th, while an American Wigeon A. americana at Formby (Merseyside) on 27th may have been an escape. There were eight reports of Long- tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis, all on the east coast but for one inland at Bittell (Worcestershire) on 17th. In Shetland a drake Surf Scoter Melamtta perspicillata stayed at Ronas Voe from 20th to 25th. RAPTORS TO TERNS A single Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus remained at Worth (Kent) up to 3rd and others were seen on Westwood marshes (Suffolk) on 18th and on Fa-irJslj on 31st, though at Winterton (Norfolk) seven were found together on 4th. A Red Kite Milvus milvus appeared in Wiltshire at the junction of the M4 and A.429 on ioth and one was identified on the north Devon coast on 26th. Black Kites M. migrans occurred on Eday (Orkney) on 3rd, near Kepwick (North Yorkshire) on 1 2th and at Porthgwarra (Cornwall) on 17th; all were presumed to be genuine vagrants. Away from known breeding sites the only report of a Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus came, surprisingly, from east Berkshire on 3rd. Five Montagu s Harriers Circus pygargus were seen, in Kent (two), Suffolk, Norfolk and Mersey- side, and nine Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were scattered from Fair Isle to Cornwall. Four Red-footed Falcons Falco vespertinus reached Britain in May, singles at Portland Bill on 3rd, at Holme (Norfolk) on 19th, at Skokholm (Dyfed) on 27th and at St Ann’s Head (also Dyfed) on 29th. , In Cambridgeshire a Crane Grus grus was noted at Woodwalton Fen on 9 1 and 1 2th and at Wicken Fen on nth, while two were at Cottenham on 16th; in addition one flew south low over Monkseaton (Northumberland) on ibth. A Spotted Crake Porzana porzana arrived on Fair Isle on 9th and another was hear at Stodmarsh the following day. Corncrakes Crex crex occurred on Fair isle on 6th and 7th with another on 15th, while one found on 8th had been dead fo several days; one was at Dungeness (Kent) on ioth and a further bird found stunned outside a fire station in Hartlepool (Cleveland) on 21st was revived with oxygen before being released on 22nd. , . . , .... ■ Kentish Plovers Charadrius alexandrinus were found at just four localities England, at Ferrybridge (Dorset) (three), Keyhaven (Hampshire) Sandwich Bay (Kent) and Cley (Norfolk). Dotterels Eudromias monnellus were also few, a total of twelve in Kent, Devon, Suffolk, Tyne & Wear, Cumbria and Shetland, with a maximum of five at Cliffe (Kent) on 27th. A Great Snipe Galhnago media was reported on Fetlar (Shetland) on 25th. 39 1 May reports About 52 Wood Sandpipers Tringa glareola was rather more than the average for May and included a party of five at Stodmarsh on 25th. A total of 25 or so Little Stints Calidris minuta, six of them inland (in Kent, Buckinghamshire, Essex and Leicestershire), was reported; and there were 22 Temminck’s Stints C. temminckii from Kent to Shetland and inland in Somerset, Buckinghamshire and Worcestershire (three). Twenty-five or more Curlew Sandpipers C. ferruginea passed through Britain during May, including singles inland at Eye Brook Reser- voir (Leicestershire) on 4th and at Belvide Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 6th. Away from East Anglia Avocets Recurvirostra avoselta turned up at Sandwich Bay on 1st and 24th to 26th, Sevenoaks (inland Kent) on 2nd, Chelmarsh (Salop) on 9th (three), Elvaston quarry (Derbyshire) from 11th to 15th (two) and Farlington marshes (Hampshire) on 19th (three). Red-necked Phalaropes Phalaropus lobatus were seen at Formby Point on 25th, Sandwich Bay from 26th to 30th and Minsmere on 27th and 28th; a Grey Phala- rope P. fulicarius was at Cley on 8th and 9th ; and a Wilson’s Phalarope P. tricolor arrived at Strand Loch (Shetland) on 9th. Other rarities were a Broad- billed Sandpiper Lirnicola falcinellus at Herbury Gore, Fleet (Dorset), on 18th and a Pectoral Sandpiper C. melanotos at Teesmouth (Cleveland) on 31st. One Long-tailed Skua Stercorarius longicaudus was reported, at Fetlar on 25th, while on 2nd a Sabine’s Gull Lams sabini passed Portland Bill. The only rare terns reported were a Gull-billed Gelochelidon nilotica at Hill Head (Hampshire) on 15th and a White-winged Black Chlidonias leucopterus at Jersey from 19th to 2 1st. NEAR-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES Only nine Hoopoes Upupa epops were recorded, in Dorset (three), Kent (two), Buckinghamshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk and Staffordshire. Wrynecks Jynx torqailla fared much better: over 43 were found, all but two of them on the east coast; many occurred during a ‘fall’ between 8th and 1 ith and there was another small influx a week later; the highest numbers were six on Fair Isle on 9th with five there on 17 th and five in the Hauxley area of Northumberland during 8th- 1 1 th. A Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea was also on Fair Isle from 4th to 9th. Red-rumped Swallows Hirundo daurica were identified at Dungeness on 3rd, Stodmarsh on 1 1 th and Radipole Lake (Dorset) on 22nd. All the Golden Orioles Oriolus oriolus reported were in south-east England, singles in Kent at Ramsgate on 4th, Margate on 10th, Dungeness on 17th and 18th and Sandwich Bay on 20th, in Essex at Thorndon Park on 30th, and in East Sussex at Bcachy Head on 16th; five were males. A male Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica was reported at Cley on 13th. An unusual migrant on Fair Isle was a Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos found dead on 16th, while on St Kilda (Outer Hebrides) a Thrush Nightingale L. luscinia occurred on 29th and 30th (trapped). There was an excellent passage of Bluethroats L. svecica, at least 57 individuals all on the east coast apart from one at Beachy Head on 18th and one on Skokholm on 21st; a large ‘fall’ took place during 8th- 1 ith when there were six on Holy Island (Northumberland), eight on Out Skerries (Shetland) and as many as 17 on Fair Isle (on 9th). A Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti at Beachy Head on 3rd was trapped, as was a Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus which stayed at Red Rocks (Merseyside) from 17th to 19th, while a Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides was at Nlarazion marsh (Cornwall) on 18th. A Reed Warbler A. scirpaceus was an unusual migrant at Spurn (Humberside) on 21st. Marsh Warblers A. palustris were reported from four places in Kent, including three birds at Dungeness on 1 8th. On the previous day two Icterine Warblers Hippolais icterina had been trapped at Dungeness, and singles were seen elsewhere at Holy Island on 10th and at Wells (Norfolk) on 18th. Three more Subalpine Warblers Sylvia cantillans 392 May reports followed the April arrival (Brit. Birds, 68: 346), at Hartlepool on 8th, trapped on Fair Isle on 9th and at Porthgwarra on 18th; all were males. A Bonelli s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli was reported on St Mary’s (Scilly) on 7th, but the rarest bird of the month was a male Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis on Out Skerries on 13th, the seventh British record if accepted. Red-breasted Flycatchers F. parva appeared at Forvie (Grampian) on 5th, on Fair Isle and at Sandwich Bay on 17th and on the Calf of Man on 29th. A Richard’s Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae, another very scarce spring migrant, was found at Sumburgh (Shetland) on 6th, and on 8th a Tawny Pipit A. campestns turned up at Donna Nook (Lincolnshire), followed by another on 17th. A Red- throated Pipit A. cervinus was at Tobermory, Isle of Mull (Strathclyde), on 7 th, while a minimum of three individuals occurred on Fair Isle between 24th and the end of the month. Wax wings Bombycilla garrulus were still in evidence, being reported from nine localities from Co. Durham northwards; as many as ten were at Newburgh (Grampian) on nth. Two Woodchat Shrikes Lanius senator were recorded, at Portland Bill on 19th and on Skomer Island (Dyfed) on 24th and 25th. Migrant Hawfinches Coccothraustes coccothraustes, unusual at the coastal stations, stopped off on Fetlar on 3rd, Fair Isle on 16th and at Spurn on 25th. A small number of Serins Serinus serinus arrived, singles at Beachy Head on 3rd, 10th and nth, at Dungeness on nth, at Holme on 15th, and two at Portland on Ioth‘ A Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus was on Lundy (Devon) on 19th and 20th and a male Pine Grosbeak Pinicola enucleator on Holy Island on nth and 12th was reported to be very tame. Other northern passerines were well represented with no fewer than five Rustic Buntings Emberiza rustica and two Little Buntings E. pusilla: of the former singles were found at Redcar (Cleveland) on 9th an 10th, Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire) on nth, on Fair Isle from 26th to 29th, Out Skerries on 27th and Fetlar on 27th and 28th; both Little Buntings occurred on Fair Isle, on 4th and 5th and on 17th. Migrant Lapland Buntings Calcanus lapponicus were also seen on Fair Isle, on 6th and 18th and 19th as well as at Teesmouth on 3rd, Holy Island on nth and Spurn from 31st to 3rd June. A male Black-headed Bunting E. melanocephala arrived at Portland on 26th. To conclude an interesting month, there were Ortolan Buntings E. hortulana at four sites: a male and female at Holy Island on nth with two males there on nth; a male on Fair Isle from 14th to 20th followed by a female on 27th which was found dead on 29th; a female at Dungeness on 16th and two birds there on 19th; and a singleton at Spurn on 2gth. stop press The most recent rarities brought to our notice are: Red-tailed Wheatear (first for Britain) on the Isle of May (Fife) during 30th August-6th September; Lesser Golden Plover near Bempton (Humberside) on 2nd September ; Booted Eagle (first for Britain) in off sea at Porthgwarra on 5th; Rufous-sided Towhee at Spurn on 5th; Great Snipe in Humber estuary on 6th; Tennessee Warbler on Fair Isle on 7th (again first for Britain) ; Greater Yellowlegs at Breydon Water (Norfolk) on 8th and 9th; and Bonelli’s Warbler at Holkham west wood (Norfolk) on 9th. rt* . 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Lennoxvale Belfast BT9 5EQ Annual subscription £1 post paid ("nAI I L NATURALISTS’ AND BIRD WATCHERS’ WINTER HOLIDAYS with TONY SOPER and BRUCE CAMPBELL on THE SOUTH CORNISH COAST 4 days inclusive price £45. Write or telephone for brochure: TALLAND BAY HOTEL TALLAND-BY-LOOE CORNWALL Tel: Polperro (05039) } I ) 228 | n Volume 68 Number io October 1975 The spread of Cetti’s Warbler in north-west Europe P. F. Bonham and J. C. M. Robertson Seventy years ago Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetli was practically con- fined in Europe to the Mediterranean littoral, being found in France only in Provence and the department of Pyrenees Atlantiques (Yeat- man 1971). It was considered to be essentially sedentary. A north- ward progression in western France began to make itself noticed during the 1920’s: by 1924 the species had reached Anjou and by 1927 the Loire basin in southern Brittany (Douaud 1945). Similarly, in eastern France it appeared to be pushing farther and farther up the Rhone valley. This paper summarises its spectacular progress since that time and provides a background to the recent account by Hollyer (1975) of the small population which has established itself in Kent since 1971. There has also been a noticeable expansion of range in south-east France and Switzerland, but we consider this beyond the scope of the present paper. France and Channel Islands Boutinot (1964) and Ferguson-Lees (1964) described the extension of the range in France from the 1930’s up to about 1961. Boutinot quoted Mayaud (1929) to the effect that in the late 1920’s Cetti’s Warbler was widespread only south of a sinuous line extending from the department of Gharente through Indre and Allier to Rhone and Ain. Mayaud had also stated that it appeared to nest in Vendee and Deux Sevres and in the south of Loire-Inferieure (= Loire Atlantique) and Maine et Loire (see figs 1 and 2). It is clear that a rapid northward expansion was already taking place in the central 393 CettVs Warbler in Europe Loire basin: breeding was confirmed in Deux Sevres in 1930, near Saumur (Maine et Loire) in 1932, in Vienne and Indre et Loire in 1934, in central Loire Atlantique and in Loir et Chei by 193 > near Meung-sur-Loire (Loiret) in 1937, and at two other localities in this area in 1939. In September 1932 a Cetti’s Warbler was found at Chartrette, near Fontainebleau (Seine et Marne), the first evidence of its penetration of the Seine valley, a not inconsiderable milestone in the advance; breeding was eventually proved in this area in 1946 and clearly a flourishing population had become established (Blot 1952). During the ig^o’s and early 1950’s there were apparently few significant extensions of range, and thus by Cetti’s Warbler in Europe 395 1952 the northern limits were still in Loire Atlantique, Seine et Marne and Saone et Loire (fig. 1) (Mayaud 1953). Following this temporary hiatus, the spread began to accelerate once more, having now split into two distinct arms. In the west the species continued to advance slowly north through the low-lying, marshy plain of the Loire: not surprisingly, Ille et Vilaine was being colonised by 1957-58 and Morbihan by 1961. The north coast had been reached by spring i960 when birds were found possibly breeding at Penvenan (Cotes du Nord) ; this dynamic phase was also vividly marked by the first records for the Channel Islands (Jersey) in autumn i960 and for England (Hampshire) in spring 1961 (see below). In the east the Seine valley above Paris became the nucleus, and during 1959-63 Cetti’s Warblers dispersed north- west into Seine et Oise; north into Oise, Somme and Aisne, perhaps reaching the Douai region in the south of Nord/Pas de Calais (Kerautret 1969); north-east into Ardennes, Marne and Meuse; and even east into Haute-Marne (fig. 2). As in the west, there were also more distant records, from Belgium and (most surprising of all) from Germany; details are given below under the respective country headings. This, then, was the situation summarised by Boutinot (1964) and Ferguson-Lees (1964). Since that time Cetti’s Warbler has spread into practically all the low-lying parts of northern and western France. The expansion along the south coast of Brittany has been slow, though a substantial population has built up in Morbihan. Farther west, in Finistere, there have been many records of migrants and probable breeders, including one on the islet of Keller, north of Ushant, on 26th July 1968 and one trapped on Ushant on 28th October 1969, though breeding had not been proved up to at least 1974. Cotes du Nord and Ille et Vilaine both hold established breeding populations. To give some idea of abundance, Brien (1973) estimated that in 1971 there were 2,500- 10,000 breeding pairs in the whole of Brittany (Loire Atlantique and the four departments already mentioned) ; while Guermeur et al. (1975) received no fewer than 96 records of the species in Brittany between 16th March and 15th July 1973 (42 of them from new localities), compared with, for example, 18 of Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides, 44 of Melodious Hippolais polyglotta, 58 of Dartford Sylvia undata and 54 of Fan-tailed Cisticola juncidis. Monnat (1971) provided a full summary of the expansion in Brittany up to that time, and discussed possible factors affecting the spread. Normandy (Manche and Orne to Seine Maritime) consists very largely of high ground, which tends to be avoided by Cetti’s Warblers in western Europe; also many suitable localities have not been covered, owing to a lack of observers in this region. The first Fig. 2. Districts with known records of Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti (north of the 1952 breeding limits) from 1957 *972 (north France) and 1975 (Channel Islands). The dot size shows the period during which the first recoid occurred, one dot may cover several localities in the immediate area. Undated French Cetti’s Warbler in Europe 397 records were not until 1965 when song was heard at Ver (Calvados) in March and near Barfleur (Manche) in May and two were trapped near the River Orne at Amfreville (Calvados) in September. There were no more until 1968 when a further three birds were found in coastal localities in the spring. No marked increase was noted until autumn 1 97 1 when no fewer than twelve were trapped at the reed- beds at Amfreville between 25th September and 13th November; 27 were ringed in Normandy that year, compared with eleven during The following autumn 20 were ringed in the Orne reed- beds. Breeding has been proved in these low-lying coastal parts of Manche and Calvados, and also inland in the lower Seine valley in Eure (where the species was first found in 1969 near Evreux). Farther east in trance there has been much expansion and consolidation, especially in the numerous valleys north and east of Paris (the Marne, Aisne, Oise and Somme), and it is very probably these birds that have colonised Belgium and the Netherlands during the last ten years. A strong NNE dispersion in the early 1960’s led in 1964 to the establishment of breeding in the north-west of Aisne and over the Belgian border in Hainaut, and by then the species had become common in the Sensee marshes south of Douai. There were non-breeding records from four places in the north of Pas de Calais (including Cap Gris Nez and Calais itself) during 1966-68, and from four in Nord in 1967- The species is now widespread in both departments (see the postscript on page 405). In Jersey regular observations have been made for many years at the bird observatory in St Ouen’s Bay and more recently at Grouville Marsh in the east of the island (Societe Jersiaise 1961-75). The first record of Cetti’s Warbler dates from 16th October i960 when one was trapped at the bird observatory. There were four more records there during 1961-67 before the first birds were found at Grouville in 1968; since then occurrences have been annual and 34 full-grown birds had been ringed in the Channel Islands up to the end of 1 974, mostly juveniles in autumn. Breeding was not proved until 1973 when a pair reared three young near St Ouen’s Pond; this pair nested again in 1974 the same site. A number of birds have been retrapped where ringed: the most interesting sequence involved a first-year female ringed at Grouville on 8th November 1970 and retrapped on 22nd November and 13th December that year; it was not seen again until it was twice more retrapped where ringed on 7th and 28th November 1971. On Sark, a Cetti’s Warbler was ringed on 21st September 1971 and another on 2nd May 1972 (Rountree 1974) ; there have been several subsequent records on the island. The monthly distribution of the full-grown birds ringed in Jersey and Sark is given in table 2, and some 1975 developments are summarised on page 406. 39^ Cettis Warbler in Europe Belgium The first record of Cetti’s Warbler in Belgium was of one at St-Denis (Hainaut) on 8th May 1962, during a dynamic phase of expansion in central northern France. This was soon followed by the fiist proved breeding at St-Denis in 1984? when five young hatched, though none survived. In 1965 there were records of single birds from two new localities, Harchies (also Hainaut) in May and Woumen (West Vlaanderen) in November. In 1966 two juveniles Cetti’s Warbler in Europe 399 were trapped, in July and September, at Brasschaat, Ekeren (Antwerpen), a mere 10 km from the Dutch border, a considerable advance. Breeding was proved in 1967 at Harchies-Hensies, where the species was increasing fast, and in 1968 at a new locality, St- Irond (Limburg). The latter year, too, saw the first record from the Belgian coast — one trapped at Zwin in May — and the first Dutch record (see below). Since then Cetti’s Warbler has been found in at least 28 other localities (fig. 3) and proved to breed in at least two of these — Ravels (Antwerpen) and Genk (Limburg) (fig. r). By the end of 1973 no fewer than 104 had been ringed at Harchies, and a survey there in spring 1974 revealed 38 singing males (Societe d’fitudes Ornithologiques Aves 1975). The Norwich ringing recovery (see below) was of a bird ringed at Harchies in 1970; and a juvenile ringed at Lokeren (Oost Vlaanderen) on 16th July 1973 was recovered 90 km north-east in the Biesbosch polders (Noord Brabant), Netherlands, on 28th October of the same year (Tekke 1974, 1975). Netherlands The Dutch spread, summarised by Tekke (1974, 1975 and in lilt.), has been simply a continuation of the Belgian. The first record was on 6th October 1968 at Budel (Noord Brabant), very near the Belgian border, and up to the end of 1974 the species had been found at 27 other places (fig. 3). Breeding has not been proved, though it is surely only a matter of time before a breeding popula- tion is established. The monthly pattern of the records is given in table 2. A ringing recovery has already been mentioned under Belgium. West Germany The first record is of a singing male near Bad Kripp, Ahrweilcr (Rheinland- Pfalz), from 30th April to 14th May 1961, trapped on 1st May (Krauter 1962). This quite remarkable record (which predates any in Belgium) occurred during the pronounced north to north-east expansion from the Seine basin described above, but if the bird had flown straight from or via the Aisne-Ardennes region of France it must have crossed a plateau well over 500 metres high. Next, less unexpected, was a bird near Nennig (Saarland) from 24th March to 4th April 1971 (Heyne 1973), and that was all until the events of May 1975 described in the postscript. England, Wales and Ireland Until 1961 there was no acceptable record of Cetti’s Warbler in Britain and Ireland. The species featured in The Handbook (2: 27-29) only as a result of three records among the Hastings Rarities ^qo Cetti’s Warbler in Europe which were later rejected (Nicholson and Ferguson-Lees 1962). The first two English records were of a singing male at Titchfield Haven (Hampshire) from 4th March to at least 8th April 1961 (trapped on 19th March), and of one trapped near Eastbourne (East Sussex) on 9th October 1962 (Suffern and Ferguson-Lees 1964, Harber 1964). In retrospect these two records, though sur- prising at the time, may be seen merely as further extensions of the marked northerly advance occurring in France at this period. Table 1. Annual totals of Cetti’s Warblers Cettia cetti in Britain and Ireland, 1961-74, including fledged nestlings The figures here do not allow for possible duplication of records from place to place, so that three birds at one site in spring, two of which move to another locality in autumn, are counted as five; nothing is known about movements within Britain. The table does, however, reflect the very rapid increase since 1971 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 Kent — — — — — — — 1 — — 3-4 *0+ 18+24 + Elsewhere 1 1 _ — — — 1 3 — — 26 I2+ 24 + totals i ! — 1 4 — — 5-6 16+ 30+48 + There were no more until 1967, when a Cetti’s Warbler was found to be resident at an undisclosed locality in southern England duiing the summer. Next year single birds were trapped in Kent, East Sussex and Somerset, and one was identified on Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork) on 24th August, still the only Irish record and perhaps the most extraordinary of all, being some 600 km north-west of the nearest known breeding site. (Interestingly, this Irish bird turned up only four weeks after the discovery of the Cetti’s Warbler on Keller, Ushant, already mentioned; Keller is on exactly the same line from the Morbihan coast.) Another gap followed, and then in 1971 began the present phase of vigorous expansion in Britain, with a singing male at Minsmere (Suffolk) from March to June and birds overwintering into 1972 at Stodmarsh in the Stour valley east of Canterbury (Kent) and well inland at Thatcham Marsh, Newbury (Berkshire). In 1972 there was strong (though not conclusive) evidence of breeding by single pairs at two sites in the Stodmarsh area, and a male was singing in April and May in a gravel pit area near Chilham, west of Canterbury; at a third Kentish site, near Deal, one was singing in late May and among autumn lecoids two were trapped on 19th November. New localities with records of single birds in autumn 1972 were Radipole Lake (Dorset), Farling- 40i Cetti’s Warbler in Europe ton Marshes and Timsbury (Hampshire) and Hornsea (Humber- side), the last being the most northerly point yet reached in Europe. In 1973 came the first (and so far only) indisputable evidence of the origin of British immigrants, when a bird was found dead in Norwich (Norfolk) on 28th June wearing a Belgian ring, having been ringed as a juvenile at Harchies-Hensies on 23rd August 1970. At two sites in the eastern part of the Stour valley, up to twelve birds were counted, including three fledged juveniles (from one pair), and it was clear that this area of flooded reed-marsh in an old coalmining subsidence was becoming another focus compar- able with Harchies-Hensies in Belgium. West of Canterbury four were singing at two sites, and there were singles at two places near Deal and at one near Maidstone. As well as the Norfolk bird, there were two other distant occurrences — a singing male at Par (Corn- wall) in spring and one on Bardsey (Gwynedd) in late October — and it seemed that Minsmere was harbouring a small resident population, though there was no evidence of breeding. There was a further major advance in 1974, when four singing males were found in spring at three sites in the Yare valley (Norfolk) and four young were raised at one. In Kent there were over 20 birds at six sites in the Stour valley, including three or more breeding pairs, and one singing near Ashford; the two sites near Deal occupied in 1973 had apparently been deserted. Elsewhere a total of 15 birds Table 2. Numbers of full-grown Cetti’s Warblers Cettia cetti newly dis- covered each month in Britain and Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Netherlands, 1960-74, excluding those in the Stour valley, Kent, during *972-74 The same comments regarding duplication apply as for table I. The Channel Islands figures cover only birds ringed Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Britain and Ireland — 25341 1 161561 Channel Islands 3-141--24658 Netherlands --5572-24 14-1 TOTALS 3 2 11 12 12 3 1 5 14 35 n were found at eleven localities, in Cornwall, Devon (three), Dorset, Hampshire, East Sussex (two), Suffolk (two) and Norfolk. Table i shows the annual totals in Britain and Ireland during 1961-74, table 2 the monthly distribution, and table 3 the totals of singing males holding breeding season territories in Kent since 1972. Fig. 4 plots the British and Irish records, from the annual reports of the Rarities Committee and (for Kent) from Hollyer (1975) and P. J. Grant (in litt.); see the postscript for important 1975 data. 402 CettVs Warbler in Europe Table 3. Singing male Cetti’s Warblers Cettia cetti holding breeding season territories in Kent during 1972-75 i972 J973 J974 *975 Stour valley east (Canterbury to Grove Ferry) 3 Stour valley west (Chilham to Chartham) x Between Deal and Eastry 1 Near Maidstone - Near Ashford - 8 13-15 47-49 4 1 9 x - - 1 — - — 1 — TOTALS 5 14 1 5~! 7 56-58 403 Cetti’s Warbler in Europe DISCUSSION Unless obviously linked with external factors, such as climate or habitat, range expansions and contractions of essentially non- migratory species are still a mystery. Genetic changes have been suggested to account for the spread of the Collared Dove Streptopclia decaocto (Mayr 1952) and Serin Serinus serinus (Olsson 1971), but we remain ignorant of their nature. It is possible, however, to draw conclusions and to speculate about the mechanism of the spread. The Collared Dove and Serin have already been mentioned as examples of colonising species; two others are the Fan-tailed Warbler Cisticola juncidis (Sharrock 1972) and Penduline Tit Remiz pendulinus (Tricot 1967, I. J. Ferguson-Lees in Raines and Bell 1967). The main directions of colonisation in recent decades have been north to NNE for Cetti’s Warbler, north-west for the Collared Dove, NNE to north-east for the Serin, and west or even WSW for the Penduline Tit; that for the Fan-tailed Warbler is difficult to judge, since the range is so broken. The nearest parallel with Cetti’s Warbler seems to be the Serin, though of course the Serin’s range in Europe is vastly wider. In both cases movement is mainly in early spring and autumn. Table 2 shows that 70% of all new records of Cetti’s Warblers in Britain and Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Netherlands have been in September- October and March-May, in each case followed by a fall-off. Cetti’s Warbler is a skulking species often discovered by its song, which is uttered throughout the year but most often from February to June and in September and October (Ferguson-Lees 1970, Hollyer 1975). This may suggest that these peaks are apparent rather than real, but this is refuted by evidence from regular ringing stations where song is not normally a factor in discovery: a glance at the monthly pattern of ringing dates in the Channel Islands (table 2) shows this, and it is confirmed by evidence from several ringing stations in Britain and on the Continent. Similarly, 62% of all Serin records in Britain and Ireland up to 1970 were during April-May and October-November, in each case followed by a rapid decrease (fig. 3 in Olsson 1971), though in this case there were a few more spring records than autumn ones. The autumn movements thus occur on average roughly a month later than those of Cetti’s Warbler, and one may speculate whether this is because Cetti’s fledge up to early July (Ferguson-Lees 1970) whereas young Serins do so up to early August (Olsson 1971). Although we are aware of when Cetti’s Warblers move, it is still hard to define the nature of the movements. The only ringing recoveries we have traced are the two already quoted in Norfolk and Noord Brabant (Netherlands). The first was after an interval of three years and is inconclusive, the second was a straightforward 4°4 CettVs Warbler in Europe case of post-juvenile dispersal north-east. This probably accounts for a great part of the spread of Cetti’s Warbler, though the evidence is incomplete and deserves further study. It is logical to conclude from the records that many juveniles (and some adults?) dispeise in the autumn in a basically northerly direction and seek out lowland riverain habitats where they may or may not succeed in over- wintering. Some, at least, do not return to their natal area, but there appear to be definite spring movements which may involve first-year birds or adults, or both. These are on a far smaller scale than the autumn dispersal ; unfortunately, our knowledge of them is obscured by the likelihood of first-year birds overwintering in new sites undetected. The net result is that new concentrations build up in the most favourable habitats during periods of mild winters and, in time, breeding colonies evolve in these places. Dispersal thence Cetti’s Warbler in Europe 405 takes birds yet farther and so the progression continues in a series of waves. Monnat ( 1 97 1 ) and others have discussed the effect of hard winters, such as those of 1939/40, 1946/47 and 1962/63. These seem to have merely held up the advance for a few years by causing heavy mortality among the pioneers (see, e.g., L. Loarer in Lucas 1963, Thiollay 1963) while having less effect on established breeding populations (Yeatman 1971). Certainly the most rapid advances have occurred after a run of mild winters, such as during the i93o’s, late 1950’s up to 1961, and from about 1967 to the present; these are reflected in the British records as well as those on the Continent. Cetti’s Warbler is well able to withstand moderate winter cold: Hollyer (1975) stated that recent observations in Kent suggest that it can survive short periods of frost with temperatures down to — 3°C. Hard winters have not almost wiped out the northern French population (as has sometimes been claimed) ; they have thinned it out somewhat and prevented it from expanding for a few years. Olsson (1971) said of the Serin that ‘post-juvenile dispersal in late summer has been proved on several occasions’, but also listed overshooting, abbreviated spring migration and drift as causes of its advance north and east; the scatter of distant records is far wider in this very mobile species than in Cetti’s Warbler and it seems that its spread is more complex. He wrote: ‘During its initial occupation of any new region, the Serin seems particular in selecting its habitat : hence colonisation has often been characterised by sudden appear- ances in good localities at advanced and isolated points, followed by a more gradual filling of intervening and presumably less attractive areas. Lowlands and river valleys have made the spread easier; open seas and highlands have slowed it down. The limits of a species expanding in this way are difficult to define and it is probably best to treat the edge of the range as a ‘border zone’ . . . For a decade or two up to that time [i960] the rate of expansion seemed to have slowed down: on the whole front from the French coast to the Baltic the advance was surprisingly moderate. Towards the end of the 1950’s, however, and above all in the 1960’s, the situation altered considerably.’ Many of these words could apply equally to Cetti’s Warbler. postscript — 1 975 No systematic attempt has been made to include 1975 data in this paper, but the following deserve mention. (It is perhaps significant that the winter of 1974/75 was one of the mildest on record.) One pair has bred in south Devon, where four birds were trapped in autumn 1974. A thorough census of the Stour valley in Kent, by 406 Cetti’s Warbler in Europe G. Bignal, M. Davenport, W. G. Harvey and D. B. Rosair, revealed 56-58 singing males in spring 1975, eleven of which were in dry sites where the ground is never normally under water. In Jersey there were four or five breeding pairs at St Ouen’s and at least one at Grouville ; elsewhere in the Channel Islands an adult male and a newly fledged juvenile were ringed on Alderney on 1 6th July, and single birds were found on Guernsey and Herm in early spring. Counts by P. J. Grant and others in eight areas from Amiens (Somme) to Calais where Cetti’s Warbler has become established produced a total of 29 singing males; PJG estimates that there may have been 65-140 occupied territories in all the suitable habitat at these places. In West Germany a male and a female were ringed near Blickweiler (Saarland) and one bird near Hameln (Niedersachsen) in May; and a pair raised two broods in the latter province some 40 km south-east of Hannover-the first German breeding record, 350 km ENE of Limburg. Clearly the expansion is still in full swing. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are most grateful to the following people who freely supplied much information . B. Braillon, C. £rard, J.-Y. Monnat and L. Yeatman (France); J. Tricot and J. L. Dambiermont (Belgium) ; M. J. Tekke (Netherlands) ; Dr R. Ringleben (West Germany) ; and R. Long (Jersey). D. A. Christie and I. J. Ferguson-Lees assisted JCMR in the early stages of writing this paper. P. J. Grant made several useful comments on the manuscript, provided a breakdown of the Kent records and the *975 census, and supplied details of his counts in Pas de Calais and Somme in I975- SUMMARY In western Europe since the turn of the century, Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti has spread from its original Mediterranean range northwards through France and into Belgium, the Netherlands and England. It reached Anjou by 1924, southern Brittany by 1927 and the Seine basin by 1932, and during the i94o’s and 1950’s became widespread and numerous in the Loire valley. The north coast of Brittany and the Channel Islands were reached in i960, England in 1961, Belgium in 1962, and the Netherlands in 1968. Breeding was first proved in Picardy and Belgium in 1964 and in England in 1973. It is now resident in suitable habitat all over northern France, has been recorded at 35 places in Belgium and 28 places in the Netherlands, and in England has bred at least in Devon, Kent and Noifolk, in Kent there were 56-58 singing males in the Stour valley in 1975. There are also records of single birds in Ireland in 1968 and Wales in 1973* In West Germany there were singles in 1961 and 1971 and several records in 1975, with a first case of breeding, as far north as the Hannover region. There have been two ringing recoveries: a bird ringed as a juvenile in Belgium in August 1970 was found dead in Norfolk in June 1973; and another juvenile ringed in Belgium in July 1973 was retrapped 90 km north-east in the Netherlands in the October of the same year. ...... , The general direction of the advance appears to have been north to NNE, and the greatest progress has been made during a run of mild winters. Seventy percent of new records occur in September-October and March-May, in each case followed by a substantial fall-off. Forty percent of new records are in September and October, and it is suggested that these result largely from post-juvenile 407 Cetti’s Warbler in Europe dispersal from established breeding areas. Barring really severe winters, which take a toll of these pioneers, the displaced birds become concentrated in the most favourable new sites (lowland river valleys with lush vegetation). There they eventually breed, providing a staging-post for further advances; intervening and less attractive sites are colonised more gradually. Parallels are drawn with the spread of the Serin Serinus serinus across Europe. REFERENCES Blot, A. 1952. ‘La Bouscarle dans le bassin de la Seine et dans la valine de la Seille’. Alauda, 20: 113-117. Boutinot, S. 1964. ‘Nidification de la Bouscarle de Cetti dans le Nord du d^partement de l’Aisne’. Alauda, 32: 1 72-1 75. Brien, Y. 1973. Avifaune de Bretagne. Brest, pp 155, 166. Douaud, J. 1945. ‘La Bouscarle Cettia cetti dans l’estuaire de la Loire’. Alauda, 13: 90-93- Ferouson-Lees, I. J. 1964. ‘Studies of less familiar birds. 129. Cetti’s Warbler’. Brit. Birds, 57: 357*359. Plates 54‘57- 1970- ‘Cetti’s Warbler’. Birds of the World: 2080-2081. Guermeur, Y., Hays, C., L’Her, M., Monnat, J.-Y., and Thomas, A. 1975. ‘Actualit6s ornithologiques du 16 mars au 15 juillet 1973’. Ar Vran, 6: 63-136 (123-124). Harber, D. D. 1964. ‘Cetti’s Warbler in Sussex’. Brit. Birds, 57: 366. Heyne, K.-H. 1973. ‘Die Vogelwelt des Baggerweihergebictes bci Nennig.’ Emberiza, 2: 153-164. Hollyer, J. N. 1975. ‘The Cetti’s Warbler in Kent’. Kent Bird Rep., 22: 84-95. K£rautret, L. 1969. ‘Evolution de l’aire de repartition de la Bouscarle de Cetti ( Cettia cetti ) dans le Nord de la France’. Aves, 6: 126-128. Krauter, K. 1962. ‘Seidensangcr ( Cettia cetti) im Rheinland’. J. Om., 103: 297. Lucas, A. 1963. ‘Les consequences du froid sur la faune dans le Massif armoricain’. Penn Ar Bed, 4: 1-22 (12). Mayaud, N. 1929. Alauda (1929): 249-254. J953- ‘Liste des oiseaux de France’. Alauda, 21 : 1-63 (42). Mayr, E. 1951. ‘Speciation in birds’. Bit. Om. Congr., 10: 91-131 ( 1 1 8) . Monnat, J.-Y. 1971. ‘Mise au point sur l’cxtension de la Bouscarle ( Cettia cetti) cn Bretagne’. Ar Vran, 4: 163-173. Nicholson, E. M., and Ferguson- Lees, I. J. 1962. ‘The Hastings Rarities’. Brit. Birds, 55: 229-384 (342, 366). Olsson, V. 1971. ‘Studies of less familiar birds. 165. Serin’. Brit. Birds, 64: 213-223, plates 29-34. Raines, R. J., and Bell, A. A. 1967. ‘Penduline Tit in Yorkshire: a species new to Britain and Ireland’. Brit. Birds, 60: 517-520. Rountree, F. R. G. 1974. Birds of Sark. Sark Ornithological Committee, p 43. Sharrock, J. T. R. 1972. ‘Fan-tailed Warbler in Co. Cork: a species new to Britain and Ireland’. Brit. Birds, 65: 501-5 10. Society d’ Etudes Ornithologiques Aves. 1975. ‘Operation “Bouscarle de Cetti” ( Cettia cetti) reserve d’ Harchies’. Feuille de Contact (1975): 60-62. Society Jersiaise. 1961-75. Ornithological Section Annual Reports. In Bull. Soc. Jers., vols 18-21. Suffern, C., and Ferguson-Lees, I. J. 1964. ‘Cetti’s Warbler in Hampshire’. Brit. Birds, 57: 365-366. Tekke, M. J. 1974. ‘Het voorkomen van de Cettis Zanger, Cettia cetti, in Nederland van 1968 t/m 1973’. Vogeljaar, 22: 780-781. 1975. ‘Ornithologie van Nederland 1973’. Limosa, 48: 100-115 (113). 408 CettVs Warbler in Europe Thiollay, J. M. 1963. ‘L’extension de la Bouscarle Cettia cetti'. Oiseau, 33: 285-286. Tricot, J. 1967. ‘Expansion actuelle de la Mesange r£miz ( Remiz pendulinus) en Europe’. Aves, 4: 3-14. Yeatman, L. 1971. Histoire des Oiseaux d’ Europe. Paris. P. F. Bonham, 11 Rope Walk , Rye, East Sussex TN31 7NA J. C. M. Robertson, La Societe Jersiaise, The Museum, g Pier Road, St Helier, Jersey, C. I. \ 1 A study of the Garrion/Hooded Crow in north-east Scotland A. Picozzi Carrion/ Hooded Crows Corvus c. coronejcomix* were unmolested on my study area from January 1966 to April 1969 as part of a long- term study of Crow predation on eggs of Red Grouse Lagopus l. scoticus. This gave me an unusual opportunity to study Crow numbers, breeding performance, dispersal and roosting behaviour on and adjacent to a grouse moor, and, from 1969 when control measures were resumed, to examine Crows of known sex and age. STUDY AREA This was part of the Red Grouse study area at Kerloch Moor, Grampian Region (formerly Kincardineshire) (Jenkins et al. 1967), together with adjacent farmland. The main area, which was thoroughly searched for pairs and nests every year, was 1,900 hectares; 1,200 hectares was dominated by ling heather Calluna vulgaris, and the remaining 700 hectares comprised woods and farmland. In 1967 and 1968, neighbouring land was also visited to increase the sample of nests found. Farms were managed for hill sheep and cattle, with permanent pasture and leys on rotation with roots and cereals. The woods were mostly plantations of conifers, the oldest and largest of which was a 52 -hectare stand of Scots pine Pinus sylvestris planted in 1897. It was the only nest wood adjacent to the moor; all other woods were separated from the moor by a belt of farmland 1 to 2 km wide. METHODS Numbers As the Crows were extremely wary, breeding pairs were located by a combination of direct observation from roads and tracks and searches for calling birds. Particular emphasis was placed on finding nests. An estimate of non-breeders was obtained from the maximum count of Crows at the communal roost on the study area in late March and April as breeders were then roosting on their territories. This count was checked during control measures in 1969, when the number roosting just before the kill was 42, com- pared with a minimum of 34 later found or reported dead. ♦Because the study area is within the hybrid zone (Picozzi, in press), no distinc- tion is made in this paper between the two subspecies of Corvus corone and for simplicity the species is hereafter given the vernacular name of ‘Crow’ 409 Crows in north-east Scotland 410 Nest-finding and inspection The woods were searched in winter for old nests which were usually found in traditional sites. Nest trees were marked with paint so that new nests at these sites could be more readily detected each year. Further searches in spring ensured that new sites were unlikely to be overlooked and at least two further searches were made of the woods during the summer for the very vocal fledged young. Nests were examined by climbing to them because they were invariably in a position which made the use of a pole and mirror impracticable. Trapping and colour marking I used a conventional cage trap with a funnel entrance in the top (Rowley 1968). Many carrion baits were tried in the trap, but none encouraged birds to enter unless a decoy Crow was present. The trap was of limited use as the same few Crows were caught repeatedly even though each new bird caught was retained and the previous decoy released. Trapped Crows and fully feathered young within ten days of leaving the nest were ringed and marked with patagial wing tags. No young were deserted or left the nest prematurely as a result of tagging. Some tags were lost and many became illegible when the printing ink faded; only by the end of the study had a reliable tag been developed (Picozzi 1971), but, nonetheless, some useful information was obtained. Coloured rings made of Darvic (semi-rigid PVC) were more satisfactory than celluloid rings sealed with acetone (Coulson 1963). RESULTS Numbers In 1966-69, the number of breeding pairs increased from 19 to 23 on the main study area. There were few suitable nest sites on the moor so that most pairs nested in the 700 hectares of woods and farmland where there were 16, 18, 19 and 21 pairs in each of the four years respectively, giving a density of one pair to 44j 39> 37 and 33 hectares. One pair found in 1967 had probably been overlooked in 1966. The number of non-breeders as determined from the highest roost count in late March and April was very similar in 1966, 1968 and 1969 (47, 51 and 42 respectively) but in 1967 there were twice as many (98). In 1966 there were two counts, on 30th March (47) and 2nd April (44) ; in 1967 three, on 29th March (90), 3rd April (86) and 10th April (98) ; in 1968 one, on 5th April (51); and in 1969 three, on 13th April (42), 14th April (34) and 16th April (36). Nests Building began in mid-March, normally by the female accompanied Crows in north-east Scotland 4i 1 by the male. The nest base was a rigid structure; in woods it was made of dead twigs up to 2 cm in diameter, and on moorland of coarse dead heather stems. Finer twigs around the cup of nests in woods were mainly fresh larch Larix japonica which is readily snapped from the tree by Crows with their beaks. All nests were lined with sheep’s wool, sometimes mixed with paper, string and dry fibrous vegetation. Each year’s nest was built close to that of the previous year, and as nests were long-lasting (5-10 years) it was usual to find them in groups. These groups were mainly within 100 metres of the woodland edge and often in a corner; those further in the wood were always close to a ride or clearing. Of 98 nests (including two repeats) found between 1966 and 1969, only three were used in more than one year. One of these in an isolated pine on the moorland was used three times in four years. In the third year, a new nest was built in the same tree, but collapsed under the weight of the young, which were then deserted. Most nests (79) were in Scots pines, the most abundant tree, compared with nine in Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis, five in larch, two in birch Betula spp, two in alder Alnus glutinosa and one in Norway spruce Picea abies. Four were built far out on limbs of pines, but all others were high in the crown and inconspicuous from the ground; all provided a clear view. Breeding performance Data for all nests found on and adjacent to the main study area are given in table 1. The mean clutch size for 49 nests was 4.12 and varied little between years, from 4.09 to 4.21. Hatching success between years for a sample of 45 nests for which full data were obtained varied from 65% to 83%, and the fledging success ex- pressed as a proportion of the number of eggs laid varied from 50% to 70%. In this sample, young fledged from 76%, 64% and 70% of nests in the three years. Details of the proportion of nests in which all young fledged, and which were partial failures or complete failures (no young fledged), are given in table 1. The proportion of all nests from which young fledged each year, including those for which full data were not obtained, was lower than that of the sample (7°% 59% and 56%). Over the three seasons the mean number of fledged young per successful pair was 2.94 and per pair present in spring was 1.64. The main causes of nest failure were desertion and predation (table 2). Young which were deserted or disappeared from the nest had been in very poor condition when last examined and may have been eaten by the parents or other Crows (Charles 1972). Many nestlings wheezed as if they had a respiratory ailment. In 1967 I subjectively classified nestlings as good, fair and poor on this Crows in north-east Scotland 412 Table 1. Summary of Carrion/Hooded Crow Corvus c. corone\cornix numbers and breeding performance at the Kerloch, Grampian, main study area and adjacent farmland ■"Excludes a repeat clutch (a) ALL DATA Number of pairs Total number of nests found Unsuccessful repeat nests Number (proportion) of nests from which young fledged Total young fledged Mean young per successful nest Mean young per pair in spring 1966 1967 1968 20 31 33 18 27 33 1 o 1 13 (76%)* 16 (59%) 18 (56%)* 36 49 53 2.77(41.01 SD) 3.06(41.24 SD) 2.94(4 1.16 SD) 1.80 1.58 1.61 (b) DATA FOR NESTS, WHERE CLUTCH SIZE, NUMBER OF YOUNG HATCHED AND FLEDGED KNOWN 1966 1967 1968 Number of eggs 3° 58 98 Number hatched (% of eggs laid) 25 (83%) 38 (66%) 66 (67%) Number young flew (% of eggs laid) 21 (70%) 29 (50%) 49 (50%) Nests in sample 8 14 23 Nests with hatched young (proportion) 7 (88%) 11 (79%) 19 (83%) Nests all young flew (proportion) 5 (63%) 8 (57%) 11 (48%) Nests some young flew (proportion) 1 (13%) 1 (7%) 5 (22%) Nests no young flew (proportion) 2 (25%) 5 (36%) 7 (30%) (c) CLUTCH SIZE 1966 1967 1968 Number of nests in sample 1 1 14 24 Number with 2 eggs 0 I 2 >5 >> 3 >> 4 2 3 >> » 4 >> 2 5 8* >> »> 5 j> 5 6 10 0 0 0 I Mean clutch 4.09(40.94 SD) 4.14(40.95 SD) 4.21(41.02 SD) feature: those classed good made no sound, those classed poor breathed very noisily. Half ( 1 7 of 36) classed as good and fair were later seen away from the nest, but the seven classed as poor were not seen again. The cause of the wheezing was unknown. In 1966, 1967 and 1968, totals of 36, 49 and 51 young were ringed and tagged when full-grown. Of these, 25 (64%), 22 (45%) anc^ 32 (63%) were seen as fledged young, all but four within four months of fledging. As these four were seen for the first time up to two years later, a very small proportion of those not seen again, and therefore presumed dead, may have survived undetected. The only dead Crows found were five recently fledged young which were within 100 metres of nest trees. Crows in north-east Scotland 413 Table 2. Causes of Carrion/Hooded Crow Corvus c. coronejcornix nest failures at Kerloch, Grampian Some figures include one (*) or two (**) repeat nests Cause of failure 1966 1967 1968 Total Incomplete nest deserted 0 I 3 4 Clutch deserted or disappeared 2 4 5 1 1 Brood deserted or disappeared O 4 4* 8* Nest destroyed in gale 1* I 0 2* Nest collapsed 0 0 I 1 Nest shot I I 1 3 Unknown I 0 1 2 Total failed 5* I I 15* 31** Total found 18* 27 33* 78** % failed 28% 4i% 45% 4°% Dispersal The pattern of post-fledging dispersal was irregular each year. By September, half the broods were completely independent and seen in flocks with other Crows, often near cattle on the farmland. Other broods were seen either in the flock or with their parents in any one month while others remained with their parents until the following breeding season. It was usual for all the young of a brood to behave in the same way. In one territory, young of three successive years were feeding in the same field as their parents on 13th September 1968; no other Crows were present. A total of 136 Crows were tagged as nestlings, and a further eight immatures (i.e. less than one-year old, with faded brown flight and tail feathers) and ten adults which were trapped were also tagged. Four of the adults were territorial at the time of capture, and a further four later held territories at Kerloch (one of these was caught in March, seen 17 km WSW in April but had returned by May). Of the 29 tagged Crows sighted or recovered away from Kerloch, the most distant was a bird reared at Kerloch which was shot 23 km west two years later. Fig. 1 shows a general pattern of dispersal, although most Crows appear to have followed valleys through agricultural land. Twenty-eight of these Crows were of known age: eight (29%) were one year old, 13 (46%) were two years old, four (14%) were three years old, one (4%) was in its fourth year, one in its fifth year and one in its sixth year. There were few data on the age at which Crows first held a territory at Kerloch. Three were known to be in their second year, two in their third and one in its fourth year. Examination of dead Crows Every year since 1969, Crows have been killed on the study area in Fig. i. Sightings and recoveries of Carrion/Hooded Crows Corvus c. coronet comix marked at Kerloch, Grampian. The circles are drawn at 5 km intervals 414 Crows in north-east Scotland April and May to prevent predation of grouse eggs. In 1969 and 1970, I measured these Crows and examined their crop contents. Some additional data were also available from live Crows of known sex trapped during 1966 and 1967. The bill was measured along the culmen from the tip to the base of the crown feathers. Wing lengths were chord measurements, which are approximately 3 mm less than flat measurements for the Crow. Weights were the least satisfactory measurement, but comparable as those used refer to the same time of year. Males had significantly longer beaks and wings and were heavier than females, and adults of one sex weie signi- ficantly bigger than first-year birds of the same sex for all but bill length (males only) and weight (females only). First-yeai males had longer bills and were heavier than adult females (table 3)* I examined the gizzards of 38 Crows killed in April and May. Grain was present in 34 (89%), and insects, mainly beetles, in 13 (34%). Other items were incidental to these (table 4). Earthworms may have been under-recorded as I did not look foi chaetae. Insects were more prevalent in 197° than in 19695 but not signi- ficantly so. Plat l. j'J. Hobby Falco subbuteo Hying towards camera. Devon. August 1973: fiercely staring eyes, set off by moustaches, front bullet body and angled, banking wings (photo: D. C. Tucker). Below, White Wagtail Motacilla a. alba food-searching on somnolent pig, Germany [photo: Fritz Polking ) (page 420 Plate 53. Swallow Hirundo rustica collecting horse hairs from barbed wire to line nest, Netherlands, June 1971 {photo: Frits van Daalen). Below, Red- necked Phalaropes Phalaropus lobatus mating on water, as is normal, Shet- land, June 1971; note female’s bolder colour pattern {photo: Hans Schoulen) Platk 54. Male Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla eating iv\ berries Hedera helix. Cornwall, December 1969: berries arc staple food for the winter population (photo: J. B. and S. Bottomley). Below, rare view of .Jack Snipe l.ymmxrvptes Plate 55. Gannets Sula bassana fighting in flight, Ailsa Craig, August 1973 (photo: Michael W. Richards). Below, dark-phase Arctic Skua Stercorarius para- siticus chasing Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus, Orkney, August 1972; terns and the smaller gulls are more usual victims (photo: Piet Munsterman ) Crows in north-east Scotland 4i5 Table 3. Comparisons of bill length, wing length and weight of adult and immature (first-year) Carrion/Hooded Crows Corvus c. corone/comix at Kerloch, Grampian ADULT IMMATURE Male Female Male Female BILL LENGTH Mean 55-15 49-78 53-o8 49-45 SD ± "-57 i-5> 2-15 2.62 N 20 23 12 1 1 WING LENGTH Mean 327-I9 3i3-6i 312.69 300.36 SD ± 10.05 7.02 6.90 9-30 N 21 23 13 1 1 WEIGHT Mean 587.18 530.29 5695 488.25 SD ± 53-92 36-7* 30.0 27-79 N 17 21 8 8 Level of Significance Comparison Bill length Wing length Weight Ad cJ > Ad $ 0.00 1 0.001 0.001 Imm > Imm $ 0.005 0.005 0.001 Ad c? > Imm c? 0.005 0.001 n.s. Imm > Ad $ 0.001 n.s. 0.025 Ad $ > Imm $ n.s. 0.001 0.0 1 Roost behaviour There was one communal roost on the study area in the 52-hectare stand of Scots pine, and Crows using it were monitored to indicate changes in numbers on the study area. However, counts during the winter were inconsistent, and there may have been interchange Table 4. Number and percentage of gizzards of adult Carrion/ Hooded Crows Corvus c. corone/cornix containing various food items at Kerloch, Grampian, in 1969 and 1970 1969 1970 Total Item Number 0/ /o Number % Number % Grain 25 89 9 90 34 89 Insects (mainly beetles) 5 18 8 80 13 34 Vegetation 4 14 2 20 6 16 Hair 2 7 2 20 4 I I Egg shell (not poultry) I 4 I 10 2 5 Feather 1 4 0 0 I 3 Earthworms 1 4 0 0 1 3 Carrion meat 0 0 1 10 1 3 Total number of gizzards 28 10 38 Crows in north-east Scotland 416 between this roost and another 4 km west. Counts of non-breeders in late March and April were more consistent. The Crows gathered in a field on the edge of the moor during the hour before sunset and appeared to feed actively. As the light faded, they preened on the ground or fenceposts from which one bird would often displace another. They usually rose simultaneously and flew directly to the roost, and, once over the trees, roosted imme- diately or circled and dived at one another for two to 28 minutes. Circling and diving was most frequent from October to March. Individuals were very difficult to follow, but it appeared that some were dived at by more than one bird. The flock gradually depleted as individuals roosted, then the remainder landed together. The final roosting times in relation to sunset are shown in fig. 2. In winter, territorial pairs occasionally joined the pre-roost gathering but left for their territories as the flock (which may have included other territorial birds) flew to the roost. Charles (1972) has shown that there is much seasonal and individual variation in the roosting behaviour of territorial birds. In April and May, Crows either gathered near the roost in a flock or arrived in twos (presumably pairs from the flock), or a combination of both. DISCUSSION The small increase in the number of nesting pairs on the main study area from 19 in 1966 to 23 at the start of the nesting season in 1969 may have resulted from the relaxation of control measures over this period. All known traditional sites (i.e. sites at which there were groups of old nests) were occupied each year, and the additional pairs nested between these sites or, in one case, occupied and successfully nested in a young conifer plantation in which the trees Fig. 2. Time in relation to sunset that Carrion/Hooded Crows Corvus c. coronel cornix flew into a communal roost at Kerloch, Grampian Crows in north-east Scotland 417 were 4 to 5 metres high but which had not previously been used by Crows. Individual home ranges were not measured at Kerlocn, but the mean area per pair each year (33-49 hectares) on the 700 hectares of woods and farmland was large compared to the home ranges of individual nesting pairs (16-41 hectares) at Newburgh, Grampian (formerly Aberdeenshire), 50 km north-east of Kerloch (Charles 1972). The territory sizes for nesting pairs in north Germany given by Wittenburg (1968) were similar to those at Newburgh (14-49 hectares) although Charles (1972) suspected that these figures referred to sizes of home range rather than defended territory. The number of non-breeders in 1967 was almost double that of 1966, 1968 or 1969. This may have been due to a series of experi- ments on the moor, begun in 1966, which used large numbers of poultry eggs (Picozzi 1975). Crows learned to find these eggs and in 1967 were provided with additional food during May and June amounting to 768 eggs, of which 716 were taken. The experiments in 1966 and 1968 did not provide much food. More males than females were killed among the non-breeders in 1969 and 1970 (20 males, 12 females) although the difference was not significant. Houston (1974) found significantly more males in the non-breeding flock on his study area near Oban, Strathclyde (formerly Argyll), and attributed this to the dominance and greater survival of the male over the female when food was scarce. In particular, he drew attention to Charles’ (1972) finding that birds with larger bills were dominant over smaller individuals at com- petition over feeding sites. As my data showed that birds up to one year tended to be smaller than older birds of the same sex, they are even more likely to be at a disadvantage when competing for food. Young males may have counteracted this to some extent as they were heavier and longer-billed than adult females in my sample. Crows eat a wide range of food, but both Holyoak (1968) and Houston (1974) have shown the importance of grain, particularly in winter. Those birds examined at Kerloch in April and May had a high proportion of grain (89%) in their gizzards, although Holyoak (1968) found grain in only 60% of 35 gizzards in May /June and, like Houston (1974), a greater proportion of insects at that time of year. The proportion of gizzards containing insects at Kerloch was much lower in 1970 than in 1969 (table 4). Although my samples were small, this may have reflected a different availability of insects in the two years at the time of killing. The mean number of young which fledged per pair present in spring each year at Kerloch varied from 1.58 to 1.80. These low figures were similar to those of 1.48 to 1.63 at Newburgh from 1969 to 1971 (Charles 1972). Recoveries of marked individuals showed that Crows did not move far, and that the majority of emigrants 418 Crows in north-east Scotland were in their first or second year. This compares with the results of Holyoak’s (1971) analysis of national ringing recoveries which gave similar results for age and showed that only five British Crows (1.5%) had been recovered more than 32 km from where they had been ringed. Some Crows may have left Kerloch in their first year and returned in their second autumn. In spring 1969, Crows were killed so effectively that very few were known to be alive on the study area by June, and none of those alive was tagged. On 9th October, however, nine Crows tagged as nestlings the previous year were present, which showed that some emigrants returned to the study area. Certainly not all returned as other emigrants were shot at nests up to 18 km from Kerloch. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful to Dr D. Jenkins and Dr I. Newton for their helpful comments on a draft of this paper, and to Sir William Gladstone for permission to work on the Glen Dye Estate. SUMMARY An undisturbed population of Carrion/Hooded Crows Corvus c. coronej cornix was studied at Kerloch, Grampian (formerly Kincardineshire), from 1966 to spring 1 969, when control measures were resumed. The number of breeding pairs in- creased from 19 in 1966 to 23 in 1969. The maximum number of non-breeders in a local roost varied from 42 to 51 in 1966, 1967 and 1969, but 98 were present in 1967. Nests were usually in Scots pine Pinus sylvestris, the most abundant tree. The proportion of nests from which young fledged was 76%, 59% and 56% in 1966-68 respectively. Fledging success per egg laid declined from 70% in 1966 to 50% in 1968. The mean number of young fledged was 2.94 (±1.13 SD, N = 47) per successful nest, and per pair present in spring was 1.64 (N = 84). The furthest recovery of a marked bird was 23 km west. Males had longer bills and wings and were heavier than females. Adult males had longer wings and were heavier than first-year males; adult females had longer beaks and wings than first-year females. Grain and insects were the main foods in 38 birds killed in April and May. REFERENCES Charles, J. K. 1972. ‘Territorial behaviour and the limitation of population size in crows Corvus corone and C. cornix’. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Aberdeen. Coulson, J. C. 1963. ‘Improved coloured-rings’. Bird Study, 10: 109-m. Holyoak, D. 1968. ‘Food of British Corvidae’. Bird Study, 15: 147-153. 1971. ‘Movements and mortality in Corvidae’. Bird Study, 18: 97-106. Houston, D. C. 1974. ‘Report on Hooded crows and hill sheep farming in Argyll’. Unpublished report, Dept, of For. and Nat. Resources, Edinburgh University. Jenkins, D., Watson, A., and Miller, G. R. 1967. ‘Population fluctuations in the red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus' . J . Anim. Ecol., 36: 97' 1 22. Picozzi, N. 1971. ‘Wing tags for raptors’. The Ring, 68-69: 169-170. 1975- ‘Crow predation on marked nests’. J. Wildl. Alanag., 39: i5I_I55- (in press). ‘Hybridization of the Carrion and Hooded Crow ( Corvus c. corone and Corvus c. cornix ) in N.E. Scotland’. Ibis. Crows in north-east Scotland 4*9 Rowley, I. 1968. ‘The ABC of Crow catching’. The Australian Bird Bander, 6: 47-55- Wittenburg, J. 1968. ‘Frieland Untersuchungen zur Brutbiologie und Verhalten der Rabenkrahe ( Corvus c. corone)’. Z°ol. Jb. Sjyst. 95: 16-146. N. Picozzi, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Blackhall, Banchory, Grampian AB3 3PS Birds in action Plates 52-55 Bird photographs used to consist mainly of rather static studies at the nest. Then there developed the technique of ‘wait and see’ photography from hides at likely feeding and drinking places. Now more powerful lenses and more adventurous techniques have led to a new style of photography of birds in action. On the debit side, so far as we are concerned, many photographers have turned away from black-and-white and now use colour only, but in this issue we publish a selection of eight pictures by eight different photographers (four British, three Dutch and a German) illustrating this modern approach. The themes shown are attack (of both man and bird), feeding, fighting, collecting nest material, and copulating. The Hobby Falco subbuteo (plate 52a) epitomises the aggressiveness of a falcon with young, and the Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus (plate 55b) the fierceness of an attacking food-pirate. More homely studies are provided by the White Wagtail APotaci lla a. alba and the pig (plate 52b), the berry-eating Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla (plate 54a)> an(i the unusual study of a seed-eating Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus out in the open (plate 54b), but each is a masterpiece in its own way. There are many spectacular shots of Gannets Sula bassana in flight and many others showing aggression at the colony, but conflict in the air (plate 55a) is more rarely photographed. Where and how birds collect nest material has, except in a few specific studies, received little attention and so it is interesting to note that a Swallow Hirundo rustica will turn to hairs caught on barbed wire (plate 53a) > incidentally, hair is much less commonly used as nest lining by this species than are dry grasses and feathers. Finally, Red-necked Phalaropes Phalaropus lobatus are together as a pair for such a short part of the breeding cycle, compared with other waders, that the delightful study of copulation (plate 53b) provides a refreshing variation from the usual shots of swimming phalaropes, coition has been recorded on the nest (see The Handbook ), but it normally takes place on water, following a ceremonial flight and wing-rattling display, with the female usually much more nearly submerged than shown here. • We should like to publish other selections of photographs of this kind and we appeal to photographers to look through their prints to see what they can produce. We hope, too, that they will try to obtain more such photographs in black-and-white. I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Eric Hosking 420 Behaviour of an incubating Woodcock G. des Forges INTRODUCTION In his well-known paper on the breeding habits of the Woodcock Scolopax rusticola, Steinfatt (1938) records: ‘The brooding female only rarely changes her position during the day; she lies for hours on the nest motionless. There seems to be a sort of rigidity, which overcomes the female. It obviously serves the purpose to reduce smell and so the possibility of being observed. Only twice a day, in morning and evening twilight, the female leaves the nest, in order to find food, for a total time of an hour’. A report on the European Woodcock (Shorten 1974) states that ‘Steinfatt’s description of behaviour at the nest seems to have been the basis for many subse- quent accounts’. Also Vesey-Fitzgerald (1946), writing of his own experience in Surrey, says, ‘I do not think that, unless disturbed, a sitting Woodcock leaves the nest during the day’. As circumstantial evidence had led me to believe that a sitting Woodcock did leave the nest and feed by day, I decided to attempt a prolonged watch on an incubating bird. THE NEST SITE The nest was in woodland, about 5 km north of Haywards Heath, West Sussex, on a hill-side sloping down from the main London to Brighton railway line to a stream at the bottom of the valley. The section of the wood concerned had been cleared of undergrowth and mature ash Fraxinus excelsior in 1972/73 leaving only standard oaks Quercus. Re-planting with mixed conifers had taken place in 1 973/74 in the open areas but not immediately round the nest, which was under the canopy of a group of six mature oaks, the lowest branches being 5 or 6 metres from the ground which here carried a thin growth of brambles Rubus fruticosus and bracken Pteridium aquilinum : but around the small conifers were only short grasses and a variety of perennials which had not made much growth by the end of March. Along the stream, which was some 35 metres from the nest, was a broad ride in which were patches of bare earth, short grass and, in the wetter parts, tufts o £ J uncus. From the hide looking downhill towards the nest, I could see part of the ride and a considerable area of re-planted ground to the right. To the left, the fall of the ground obscured the view both of the ride and the re-planted areas. THE NEST The nest, with four eggs, was found during the afternoon of 5th March 1975. As the eggs hatched during 23rd/24th March, and 421 422 Behaviour of incubating Woodcock presuming an incubation period of 22.3 days, which Morgan and Shorten (1974) give as an average, the clutch was probably com- pleted on 2nd March, which is an unusually early date. Roding also began early. Witherby et al. (1940) gave 26th February as the earliest date but I started watching for the beginning of roding on 1st February, about 175 metres from the site of the nest, and on 3rd February I noted six flights in eleven minutes; it was not until 6th February, however, that I heard the croak as well as the ‘tis sik’ call. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE Although it is well known that an incubating Woodcock will accept a hide placed close to the nest and Steinfatt (1938) built a hide only two metres from the nest he watched, it does not follow that the bird is behaving naturally merely because it continues to incubate. I judged it better to erect the hide some 9 metres from the nest. The bird could be adequately seen without removing any vegetation, but after three days I removed three stalks of bramble about 5 metres from the nest and, on 22nd March, two more sprays of bramble a metre in front of the nest in anticipation of hatching. After finding the nest, we did not flush the bird again nor was it approached closer than 9 metres. There was some evidence to suggest that the bird’s natural activities were inhibited even by looking at it through binoculars over the top of the hide. The hide could be entered and vacated without the occupant being visible to the bird. The structure was made of stout canvas which did not flap in the wind and also muffled slight noises within. Binoculars were used to see details of the bird and the lenses were held well back from the opening to avoid catching the bird’s attention. THE WATCH Watches were kept on a shift basis by W. H. Lambert and myself and were restricted almost entirely to the daylight hours affording reasonable visibility. Each group of three consecutive days of observation was followed by a day on which no watch was kept. From 19th to 23rd March I undertook the watching alone, and was able to check that the established pattern of daytime activity continued unchanged. On the afternoon of 23rd March T. W. Parmenter kept watch and on 24th March, the last day, W. H. Lambert and I took turns in the hide. A total of about 125 hours was covered and details appear in table 1 . THE OBSERVATIONS Absences from the nest Table 1 shows the times at which the bird left the nest and the duration of its absence. In some cases extraneous circumstances most Behaviour of incubating Woodcock 423 Table 1. Incubating behaviour of Woodcock Scolopax rusticola All times are GMT. Times marked with a asterisk were influenced by extraneous events Date Hide Bird Period of Hide (March occupied left nest absence vacated 1975) at at (mins) at Remarks 7 08.10 ”•45 23 18.30 hide not occupied 13.30-14.00 8 08.35 14.42 23 18.15 bird absent when hide first 17.30 24 occupied 08.35, returned 09.45. 9 08.35 i5-!7 16.30 hide not occupied 12.45-14.00, bird had not returned at 16.30 1 1 05-35 08.52 58* 18.10 change over at hide, whilst 13.24 30 bird absent, at 09.10 17.30 30 12 06.50 08.55 40 18. 10 u-55 30 14.22 25 16.40 38* bird back on nest before being noticed 13 06.52 08.37 26 18.10 10.45 25 13.10 25 16.40 30 15 06.50 08.06 40 18.10 11.25 25 13-00 22 14.42 39 17.16 22 16 06.45 07-51 3i 18.10 10-35 33 13-23 46* someone near nest 17.10 28 17 07.00 08.23 46* 1 8.00 Stoat near nest at 09.08 n-55 32 14.16 25 16.35 34 >9 08.30 ii-54 — 12.00 hide vacated before bird re- turned 20 08.30 08.45 22 16.25 hide not occupied 11. 50-13.00 1 1.22 22 13-50 23 15-03 14 22 07.50 08.16 25 16.40 hide not occupied 11. 00- 12. 40 10.56 hide vacated before bird returned 23 08.47 11.50 17.20 hide not occupied 12.00-12.55, bird off nest at 08.47, returned at 09.27 424 Behaviour of incubating Woodcock probably affected the length of absence, such as people walking through the wood or a change of occupant in the hide. These are noted in the last column of the table. The times of departure from the nest may have been similarly affected but this was not obvious except perhaps during the first three days of the watch when we may not have been sufficiently cautious when looking at the bird from outside the hide and also the bird itself was not fully used to the presence of the hide. On the last day, 24th March, when the eggs were hatching, and up to the time of departure of the chicks, the bird’s behaviour changed and it left the nest more frequently and for shorter periods. This is set out under ‘ Hatching and departure of the young from the nest ’ and is not included in the table. Ignoring those periods of absence from the nest when the bird was assumed not to have returned as soon as usual because of some extraneous event (marked with an asterisk in the table), 28 fully observed periods of absence averaged 27.4 minutes (range 14-40). The normal daily pattern, during hours of full daylight, appeared to be four absences from the nest at average intervals of about 2 hours 35 minutes. On one occasion there were five absences but these were not of shorter duration. On the two days before hatching absences were less frequent; the bird sat throughout each afternoon. Behaviour off the nest The bird left the nest to feed and this occupied nearly all its attention when off the nest. Before actually leaving the nest it would turn its head quietly from side to side with an interval of up to several seconds between each turn. At first the head would not be raised to its full extent but before the bird stood up and walked away the neck was usually fully extended and the head turned two or three times more quickly. The bird then stood up and walked about 30 cm towards the hide before turning to left or right and continuing on foot to the edge of the open ground where it began to feed. It was not seen to travel more than 30 metres from the nest. On four occasions the bird walked only a short distance, from 0.5-4.0 metres, and flew to its feeding ground. Twice the bird continued on towards the hide after leaving the nest and came within a metre or so of it. Almost all feeding was done in the open, that is either on the ride by the stream or among the small conifers, so that it was quite often easily visible. The bird mostly probed at an angle, not pushing its bill vertically, and, after three or four probes, the bill was fully withdrawn and the bird could be seen to be swallowing something. The head was rapidly moved back and forth to assist in transferring the food to the gape, the action resembling that of a feeding Snipe Gallinago gallinago. It was sometimes possible to see that the food consisted of a worm which on occasion was so large as to take some Behaviour of incubating Woodcock 425 effort to pull from the ground. Apart from worms, other food items taken were too small and too rapidly ingested to identify. Although probing was rapid and more or less continuous, the bird seldom covered a large area and might spend ten minutes in a few square metres. Now and again it impaled an oak leaf which was brushed off the bill with its foot. The bird preened infrequently when off the nest. On one occasion it stood for at least five minutes preening its breast, tail and wings and rubbing the crown of its head on its back. Most preening took place on the nest. Only once was a second Woodcock seen on the ground near the nest. At 08.53 hours on 13th March, the sitting bird had left the nest and was out of sight. A Woodcock flew up the ride, close to the ground and alighted opposite the hide. It raised its tail and there was a flash of white from the tips of the tail feathers. At this moment a second bird followed it and alighted as the first flew off. It stood about for three minutes before feeding, then walked back down the ride the way it had come, until out of sight. It is likely that this was the incubating bird, which returned to the nest from that direction within six minutes. As the feeding period drew to an end the bird would begin to walk in the direction of the nest, feeding as it went until reaching the brambles and bracken within a radius of 5 or 10 metres of the nest. Then it normally walked quickly forward and sat down without pausing. Once it flew back to the nest area and landed and almost immediately a Stoat Mustela erminea was seen emerging from the immediate vicinity of the nest. The Stoat moved away and the bird quickly went on to the eggs. When the Woodcock settled on the eggs there was always a certain amount of shuffling. Sometimes the bill was poked down- wards and at times partly under the body. This was also done whilst sitting, and it was difficult to decide whether this was to turn the eggs or not. " One curious trait when off the nest may be mentioned. Now and again the bird bobbed vertically up and down as if on springs. At first one likened this to the action of a Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos but that bird rocks more as if pivoting on its legs. Pettingill (1936) refers to this at some length in his book on the American Woodcock Philohela minor and exactly describes the motion we saw. He dismisses the idea that ‘the bird first located the worms feeling, through its feet, and then followed this by probing with its bill’ as suggested by another American writer. He himself believed it to be ‘a nervous action resulting from fear or suspicion’. In the bird I watched I did not feel either explanation was valid. It bobbed and then as often as not walked on without probing; it bobbed several 426 Behaviour of incubating Woodcock times during a period when it was watched feeding for perhaps ten minutes and nothing seemed to have occurred to make it suspicious. On the other hand, if it was alarmed, it immediately ‘froze’. Behaviour on the nest Far from remaining immobile on the nest, the bird changed position, usually by go°, every hour or so. Sometimes only ten minutes elapsed and now and then, having changed position and settled down, the bird immediately changed again. A change was normally preceded by some head movements comparable to its activity before leaving the nest, but on a smaller scale. Each change was followed by shuffling and often the bill was poked downwards in front of the breast as on returning from a feeding trip. After the first shuffling, the head would sink lower and then perhaps more shuffling until it appeared fully relaxed. At this point the bill was usually buried in the scapulars and entirely hidden; the eye visible from the hide would be at least half closed, and now and then appeared fully closed. Quite often the bird preened the tail, back and breast feathers, probing vigorously. Occasionally it appeared to be alerted by possible danger, in which case the head was fully raised and the eye wide open. It so remained for a few seconds before relaxing. Hatching and departure of the young from the nest Hatching was completed during 24th March. On 22nd March the bird was not seen to leave the nest after 10.56 hours, although it left then and once earlier at 08.16 hours. On 23rd March it was off the nest when the hide was first manned at 08.47 hours and it went off again at 11.50 hours but not during the after- noon. Unfortunately the hide was not occupied on 24th March until 12.30 hours when WHL noted that it quickly became apparent that the bird was ‘very fidgety’ and evidently hatching was well under way if not complete. The bird left the nest to feed at 13.37 hours when it could be seen that two young were hatched and the third either hatched or finally struggling out of the shell. Only three eggs hatched. The bird was absent only six minutes. At 14.15 hours the bird left the nest and, despite a change-over at the hide whilst it was away, it was back on the nest in 14 minutes. At 15.00 hours it was off the nest again and feeding towards the hide, but was back within 1 1 minutes, collecting one chick that had scrambled out of the nest cup and covering it in the nest with the other two. At 15.43 hours the bird left the nest but went only a metre or so and in two minutes was back; this time two chicks were out of the nest. At 16.27 hours the bird again left the nest and immediately began Behaviour of incubating Woodcock 427 feeding itself, and the three young followed. How far they went could not be seen. As the last one stood on the rim of the nest it seemed to be calling as the bill opened repeatedly, but at this time, and indeed throughout the entire period 7th-24th March, no sound was heard from the adult or the chicks. I saw the adult again 23 minutes later feeding about 3 metres from the nest and, four minutes after that, I saw her brood the three chicks. The bird moved on again at 17.06 hours, she feeding, the young following, but in another two minutes she was lost to my view in a thicker patch of undergrowth. I did not see them again in the next half hour and I assumed they were moving away in a direction where it would be impossible to see anything from the hide, so I left it without searching for them. I returned the following morning to examine the shells and quite unexpectedly flushed the adult from the three young no more than 2 or 3 metres from where they were last seen the previous night. They were thus still within 10 metres of the nest nearly 24 hours after hatching. The fourth unhatched egg proved to be damaged. The adult was not seen to touch the hatched shells at any time. C. and D. Nethersole-Thompson ( 1 942) state that shells are normally allowed to remain in the nest but give records of one or more shells being removed. The shells of two of the eggs plainly showed that in hatching they had split along the long axis; but at another nest three eggs opened in the more usual way and one along the long axis. Lengthwise splitting of shells at hatching is reported as a characteristic of the American Woodcock but there are not enough records to show that it occurs as frequently in the case of the European Woodcock (see Shorten 1974, p 43). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Monica Shorten greatly encouraged this study throughout and kindly spent much time and effort on my original draft. Without the help of W. H. Lambert, who shared the observation of the nest with me, this study would not have been possible. He has also read this paper and agrees with the descriptions of behaviour which I have condensed from our notes. I am also grateful to T. W. Parmenter, who undertook one watch. I gratefully acknowledge the facilities to study \\ ood- cock on their land which have been afforded me by Mr and Mrs Greenwood of Stone Hall, Balcombe. SUMMARY To test a widely held belief that an incubating Woodcock Scolopax rusticola does not leave its eggs during the day, a nest was studied from a hide over a period of 18 days until the young left the nest. Observation was confined to daylight hours. The bird was seen to leave the nest on, usually, four occasions each day for an average of 27.4 minutes (range 14-40). On one day it was off the nest five times but on the two days before hatching it left only twice. Incubation seemed to be undertaken wholly by one bird. A second Woodcock was seen on the ground only 428 Behaviour of incubating Woodcock once and then at a distance of about 30 metres from the nest. The incubating bird was watched for much of the total time it was off the nest. It was not seen to travel more than about 30 metres from the nest and nearly all its time was spent feeding in short grass, though occasionally it preened. Feeding behaviour, food taken, activity on the nest and the departure of the young are described. Emphasis is placed on watching the nest in such a manner as to cause as little disturbance to the bird as possible. REFERENCES Morgan, R., and Shorten, M. 1974. ‘Breeding of the Woodcock in Britain’. Bird Study, 21: 193- 199. Nethersole-Thompson, C. and D. 1942. ‘Egg-shell Disposal by Birds’. Brit. Birds, 35: 242. Pettingill, O. S. 1936. The American Woodcock Philohela minor ( Gmelin ). Boston. Shorten, M. 1974. ‘The European Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticola L.)’. Game Conservancy Report 21. Fordingbridge. Steinfatt, O. 1938. ‘Das Brutleben der Waldschnepfe’. J. Orn., 86: 399-424. Vesey-Fitzgerald, B. 1946. British Game. London. Witherby, H. F., et al. 1940. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 4. G. des Forges , Bowders Farmhouse, Balcombe, Haywards Heath, West Sussex Notes Cormorants roosting on spire In the late summer and autumn of 1973 Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo regularly roosted on Chiches- ter Cathedral, West Sussex. When this habit was first noted in mid- August only two birds were involved, but numbers gradually increased to a maximum of eight in October and then declined slowly, the last birds being seen at the end of November. The birds arrived one hour before sunset and took up positions on top of the pinnacles at the base of the spire. After preening, wing-flapping and much fidgeting of the feet they assumed their characteristic upright posture with beaks slightly raised. There- after they remained almost motionless, in the full glare of the floodlights illuminating the spire, except for occasional neck and head movements. In the morning, preening and stretching began approximately one hour after sunrise, this activity culminat- ing in two or three brief circuits around the spire before the birds departed south-eastwards to Chichester gravel pits. All the birds involved were immatures. Cormorants were again seen on the spire on a few occasions in late August and early September 1974 but failed to re-appear in 1975. R. S. R. Fitter (1949, London's Birds , page 57) mentions single birds sitting on top of the steeple of a church at Ludgate Hill in July 1973 and on the summit of St Paul’s Cathedral in August 1931. Two birds also frequented the top of Big Ben in June 1928. The Handbook also records the occasional use of other elevated positions such as chimneys. It would seem, however, that the numbers involved at Chichester, and the persistence of the habit for more than twelve weeks, are particularly unusual. I am indebted to Mrs M. Marsden for drawing my attention to this behaviour and to Mrs J. Crawshaw for assistance in maintaining regular observations in 1973. S. W. M. Hughes 6 West Way, Slinford, Horsham, West Sussex RH13 75B Rafting behaviour of Redshank At high tide on 30th December 1974 at Collister Pill on the Severn estuary near Newport, Gwent, I was watching a flock of about 600 Redshank Tringa tot anus and 8,000 Dunlin Calidris alpina roosting on a grass bank near the sea wall. The arrival of two birdwatchers caused the flock to take to the air and during the disturbance, which lasted for half an hour, the Dunlin remained on the wing but a few Redshank settled on the sea, which was calm at the time. At 07.00 hours on the following morning, there was an extremely high tide and the sea was choppy. The birds seemed even more reluctant to land at the roost site even though the initial disturbance 429 Notes 430 quickly passed. The Dunlin remained on the wing for at least 70 minutes but again some Redshank began to settle on the sea, 200 to 400 metres offshore, in compact rafts of between six and 50 birds, the commonest group size being about 15 individuals. The rafts, which formed amongst small packs of Mallard Anas platyrhynchos and Wigeon A. penelope, remained on the water for anything up to 20 minutes but the choppy seas caused most of the birds to behave restlessly. This behaviour continued for about an hour and the maximum number settled on the sea at any one time was about 200 individuals. The birds floated on the water in a hunched attitude with the neck retracted and they landed in much the same way as they do on land, that is by hovering in the air a metre or two above the landing site and then dropping almost vertically, one or two individuals at a time. Conditions were similar on the following day but this time the Redshank headed inland without making any attempt to form rafts. They were subsequently seen at an inland roost site. Most wader species are occasionally observed swimming but offshore rafting, except amongst phalaropes phalaropus sp, seems to be rather unusual. Peter N. Ferns Zoology Department, University College, Cardiff, South Glamorgan Pomarine Skua taking Starling The notes by A. D. K. Ramsay and C. A. E. Kirtland {Brit. Birds, 66: 168, 495-496) on the preda- tion of various passerines by Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus prompt me to record the following observation. At Warden Point, Sheppey, Kent, on 31st October 1974, my son and I saw a Pomarine Skua S. pomarinus close in beneath the cliffs. As we were watching, it flew a short distance out to sea to chase an incoming Starling Sturnus vulgaris. After about 20 seconds the Starling, which seemed to be an exhausted straggler detached from one of many im- migrant flocks, was forced into the sea. For three or four minutes it tried to free itself and once succeeded in flying up a short distance from the water, only to be immediately recaptured. The skua then began to eat its prey, gradually drifting with it in the current. L. F. WoOLLARD lTrelights\ 14b Lennox Road, Gravesend, Kent daii oep Pomarine Skua taking Black-headed. Gulls On 9th September 1974, at Steart, Somerset, I watched an immature Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus kill a Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus. The gull was only briefly pursued before being struck down. Due to the distance involved (some 700 metres), the method of killing was not seen but the skua was observed at that range devouring Notes 43i its prey for the following 30 minutes. On 15th September, at the same locality, D. Lucas observed at long range a skua (on plumage characteristics almost certainly the bird recorded on 9th) which took another Black-headed Gull. This particular Pomarine Skua was obviously taking advantage of an abundant food supply but not by the usual methods. Brian Rabbitts 13 Hippisley Drive, Axbridge, Somerset BS26 2DE Unusual display flight of Great Spotted Woodpecker In early April 1974, in oak woods near the RSPB’s Gwenffrwd reserve, Dyfed, I frequently saw Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major. On 6th April my attention was drawn to what I am fairly sure was a male bird calling frequently about 50 metres away and flying from tree to tree. After drumming and calling for about 15 minutes it flew towards me and then banked as it was joined by another bird of unknown sex. Both birds flew up the valley in the usual bounding fashion, the leading bird calling frequently. After some distance, however, the leading bird, at the crest of one of its ‘bounds’, gave two or three ‘stiff’ wingbeats, raising its wings in the manner of a Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus but not nearly so high (about 450 to the body). It repeated this once or twice before disappearing from view. The second bird followed it into the wood but both birds were seen again shortly afterwards, flying a short distance back down the valley, when the leading bird repeated this stiff wingbeat action. I could only conclude that this deliberate flight manoeuvre was some form of display but certainly not one which I had seen before. Raymond H. Hogg Schoolhouse, Crosshill, Maybole, Strathclyde KA19 7RH Unusual song of Lesser Whitethroat On 21st June 1972, whilst walking by a lake near Oberammergau, Germany, I heard an unfamiliar gabbling song coming from a group of nearby firs and was surprised to find that it came from a Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca. It regularly uttered this song which was longer than, and perhaps twice as fast as, the normal rattle. Lesser Whitethroats seemed to be fairly common in parts of the Alps and I heard many singing normally. Later that month, however, I saw two others, in the Dolomites of Italy and the Austrian Alps, singing in the acceler- ated manner described above. I have not heard this form of song in Britain or elsewhere in Europe and can find no published reference to it. R. A. Frost 66 St Lawrence Road, North Wingfield, Chesterfield, Derbyshire S42 5LL News and comment Robert Hudson Mammals on islands In an article in New Scientist for 2 ist August, Dr W. R. P. Bourne expresses concern about damage to the vegetation of small outlying islands by introduced herbivores. He contrasts the vigorous policy of the New Zealand Wildlife Service in removing goats, sheep and pigs from their small islands (so that natural vegetation can regenerate) with attitudes elsewhere; in particular, he criticises the (British) Universities Federation for Animal Welfare for its role in delaying essential rabbit clearance of Round Island, Mauritius (the last com- paratively unmodified community of endemic plants in the Mascarenes, and the only Indian Ocean breeding site of the petrel Pterodroma arminjoniana) , and the Nature Conservancy Council for not removing sheep from the larger islands of our own St Kilda group. Dr Bourne believes that sheltered parts of St Kilda may originally have been covered with scrub and thick tussock grass, burrowed and manured by Puffins, shearwaters and petrels; and he regrets that, though evacu- ated by man 45 years ago, continued overgrazing by sheep on Hirta and Boreray has prevented the desired return to a natural state. However, he acknowledges that there is a good case for leaving the ancient flock of Soay sheep on the island of that name. While there is no firm evidence that bird populations on St Kilda have been limited by the sheep and their effect on the environment, the uncon- trolled presence of flocks of sheep in a major national nature reserve does seem incongruous. It is known that certain scientific staff of the Agricultural Research Council have particular interests in St Kildan strains of sheep, but this seems a weak argument against relocating them. Middle Thames cleavage The Middle Thames Natural History Society, covering Buckinghamshire and eastern Berkshire, is one of the slowly dwindling number of local societies concerned with all branches of natural history, and (as elsewhere) birds now form a majority interest of the membership. During the last year or so a cleavage of interests has been apparent within the Middle Thames NHS, and this has now been aired publicly by R. E. Youngman, the bird recorder, in his monthly Bulletin. Mr Youngman comments that the problem is basically one of money shortage, aggravated by what he feels is an unrealistically low membership subscription, and this has culminated in a serious proposal that the Society should suspend publication of its annual report (which birds have domi- nated for some years). Finding these attitudes unacceptable, Mr Youngman is investigating how much support there would be for an independent ornithological society covering the Middle Thames area, which would take over responsibility for producing an annual bird report. In order for a new society to publish a 1975 report, it would have to establish a firm financial base by early 1976. Provided the response is favourable, an inaugural meeting will be called to elect officers. Interested birdwatchers are invited to contact Mr Youngman at 53 Seymour Park Road, Marlow, Buckinghamshire. Wildfowling in Denmark Denmark’s leading ornithological society, the Dansk Ornithologisk Forening, is calling for new laws to conserve wildfowl and waders around the Danish coastline. The proposals are contained in their recently pub- lished book, Kystfuglejagt og Kystfugle Beskyttelse (‘Wildfowling and Wildfowl Protection’), a 77-page survey of wildfowl and wader concentrations in Denmark and the impact of wildfowling in that country. It argues that shooting pressure in Denmark is heavier than in any other European region of comparable size; and that the shooting of certain species (for example, Grey Heron and most dabbling ducks) is so excessive that population levels in recent years are giving rise to concern among ornithologists. In a twelve-point plan, the DOF calls for wildfowling only 432 News and comment 433 between ist September and 31st December for most species; and total protection for the Grey Heron, all divers, Great Crested Grebe, Razorbill and Guillemot, and all waders except Curlew, Whimbrel, Snipe and Woodcock. At present it is legal for any wildfowler in Denmark to shoot any wader, diver or auk. The DOF is also asking for a restricted shooting season (October to December) for Teal, Wigeon, Pintail and Shoveler, which have small Danish breeding populations; and an open season for goose shooting from 15th September to 15th November only, aimed at reducing the hunting pressure on the declining European population of the Bean Goose. Other recommendations include a complete ban on shooting on publicly-owned land, a ban on wildfowling from motorboats within a kilometre of the shore, more wildfowl refuges and wader sanctuaries, and at some sites the creation of facilities for the public to watch the birds. The DOF lists 28 sites where they want to see full protection, and most of these hold internationally significant autumn and winter concentrations of certain species. However, the task of getting even part of these proposals accepted by the Danish government is going to be difficult. With so many wildfowlers in Denmark, their lobby is influential and they are unlikely to accept restrictions without a fight. Nevertheless, the DOF proposals are reasonable, and their efforts deserve our support. (Contributed by Richard Wells.) Some foreign snippets Thanks to bird protection measures by private organisa- tions in West Germany, two species have bred again this year in the north: Eagle Owls nested in the Harz and Eifel Mountains, and Gull-billed Terns on the coast of Schleswig-Holstein. With an eye to the projected 1976 international wetlands campaign, the Netherlands government is studying the feasibility of protecting the last intertidal section of the Scheldt delta, a 35,000-hectare area known as the ‘Drowned Country of Saeftingen’. In Cyprus, 800 workers are involved in restoring (by reafforestation) 21,400 hectares of the Paphos Forest, which was burned by bombing during the summer 1974 conflict. Conservation has reached the Canary Islands, too, with the creation of the Timanfaya National Park on the island of Lanzarote. The government of Liechtenstein has vetoed a plan to build a helicopter airport since its usefulness would in no way compensate for the nuisance caused; while in neighbouring Switzerland, where nature conservation is taken very seriously indeed, plant protection legislation in some cantons is now extended to mushrooms! ( Council of Europe Newsletter 75/7-8.) A north-eastern checklist The Birds of Berwick-upon-Tweed and District is the title of a new 26-page checklist by Frank Brady. The area covered extends from St Abb’s in the north to Budle Bay and the Fame Islands in the south, and inland to the Cheviot and Lammermuir Hills. With the exception of a few birds which seem to have captured the author’s imagination (e.g. Eider, Peregrine, Dunlin), the species accounts are very brief — generally two to five lines each; it is the author’s stated intention to provide a list of species that birdwatchers are likely to encounter, and vagrants are therefore omitted. First-time visitors may find a use for this booklet, but it would have been of more abiding interest if more precise distributional data had been given. For example, a southerner wanting to see a Red Grouse will not feel helped by the cryptic entry ‘Fairly common on most moors’. This publication is available (price 45p) from Frank Brady, at Tweed Close, East Ord, Berwick-upon-Tweed. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds June reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records The beginning of June was exceptional with snow and northerly gales, but a long anticyclonic spell which followed brought dry, warm conditions to most parts. DIVERS TO CRAKES A Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata stayed at Hornsea Mere (Humberside) from 5th to 2 1 st. Shearwater passage at Portland Bill (Dorset) continued to be ex- citing: Cory’s Calonectris diomedea were recorded on four dates, singles on 7th, 8th and 21st, and six on 28th; Balearics Puffinus puffinus mauretanicus were noted during the last ten days when up to three were seen offshore; and single birds on 14th and 29th were identified as belonging to the race P. p. ydkouensis. Great Shearwaters P. gravis were reported from Suffolk, ten being seen at West Bexington, and one was reported off Anglesey on 19th. A very early Sooty Shearwater P. griseus passed north at Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) on 28th. A Purple Heron Ardea purpurea appeared at Huttoft Pits (Lincolnshire) from 4th to 6th, one arrived at Teesmouth (Cleveland) on 10th and a third remained at Oxwich (West Glamorgan) from 26th to 28th. Little Egrets Egretta garzetta were seen on the River North Esk (Grampian) on 4th and at Leighton Moss (Lancashire) for a few days from 15th. A male Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus was at Goonhilly Downs, Lizard (Cornwall), on 21st. Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia were reported from four places: singles at Sidlesham Ferry (West Sussex) on 10th, at Oxwich about 20th and at Cley (Norfolk) on 20th and 27th, while at Minsmere (Suffolk) there was one from 20th to 23rd, three on 24th, one on 27th and two from 28th. Two Velvet Scoters Melanitta fusca were at Teesmouth on 21st and one was seen frequently off Hill Head (Hampshire) during the early weeks of the month. An unusual record for June was that of a Brent Goose Branta bernicla flying south at Berwick (Northumberland) on 7th. On 5th a Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus was seen at Walberswick (Suffolk), on the same day as a Red Kite Milvus milvus appeared on the north Devon coast (the second there this spring) . A Black Kite M. migrans was noted at Hermaness, Unst (Shetland), in the first week. Two Honey Buzzards Pernis apivorus were on Jersey on 7th and, away from breeding sites in Britain, two were found at Walberswick at the very beginning of the month and singles appeared at Hornsea Mere on 13th and in Lancashire at Anglezarke Reservoir on 20th and at Abbeystead the next day. Montagu’s Harriers Circus pygargus were found in Kent at Westbere on 14th and at Stodmarsh on 15th, while birds were seen also in Somerset on several dates. Eight Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were reported, at Buckenham Broad (Norfolk) about 1st with another at Holme (also Norfolk) on 2nd, at Stapleford (Lincolnshire) on 3rd, on the Calf of Man on 6th, in the North Yell/South Unst area of Shetland from 6th to 10th, flying north over Holywell (Northumberland) on 21st, at Livermere (Suffolk) on 23rd and in the Tyneside area from 25th into July. There were three Red-footed Falcons Falco vespertinus, at Holme on 6th, on Skomer (Dyfed) from 8th to nth and at Crimond and Buchan (Grampian) on 20th. Quails Coturnix coturnix were seen or heard in Avon, Somerset, Kent, Norfolk and Warwickshire, and Corncrakes Crex crex were reported in England in Somer- set and north Nottinghamshire, while in Devon a crane Grus sp was seen at Stickle- path on 17th. WADERS TO TERNS The only Kentish Plovers Charadrius alexandrinus in June were in East Anglia, in Norfolk at Breydon Water from 2nd to 4th and Cley until 7th (two) and in 434 435 June reports Suffolk at Lcvington on 23rd. A most unusual report concerned two Jack Snipes Lymnocryptes minimus near Holystone (Northumberland) on 8th. The end of the spring passage of northern waders, taking birds recorded during the second half of the month to be early autumn returns, was marked with a total of 19 Wood Sandpipers Tringa glareola at eight sites, including a maximum of six at Cley on 1 st; 20 or more Little Stints Calidris minuta at five sites (maximum of nine, again at Cley, on 8th); just one Temminck’s Stint C. temminckii, on Fetlar (Shetland) on 6th; six or so Curlew Sandpipers C. ferruginea at five sites; seven Avocets Recurvirostra avosetta (excluding East Anglian records) at three sites, including two inland at Hoveringham (Nottinghamshire) on 8th; and one Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus, at Wath Ings (South Yorkshire) on 13th and 14th. Rare waders were a Great Snipe Gallinago media reported at Teesmouth on 1st; Terek Sandpipers Xenus cinereus at Breydon Water on 1st and on Whalsay (Shetland) on 20th and 21st; a Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis at Ladywalk (Warwickshire) on 6th; a Pectoral Sandpiper C. melanotos at Minsmere from 26th to 28th; a Wilson’s Phalarope P. tricolor at Wisbech sewage farm (Cam- bridgeshire/Norfolk) from 7th to 10th; and a pratincole Glareola sp near Tilly- coultry (Central) on the last day of the month. A Long-tailed Skua Stercorarius longicaudus, a rare spring migrant, was seen off Unst early in the month. Rare gulls seen during June were a Ring-billed Larus delawarensis, this time a first-summer bird (thus a new individual), at Blackpill (West Glamorgan) from 23rd until 22nd July, this being the fifth of this species to be found at the same locality, the only place where this Nearctic gull has yet been recorded in Britain (see also Brit. Birds, 66: 1 15-1 18, 509-517) ; and a Bonaparte’s L. Philadelphia at Loch Indaal, Islay (Strathclyde), on 26th. A White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus appeared at Martin Mere (Lancashire) on 1st, and further individuals were found at Wath Ings on 19th and at Shotton Pools (Clwyd) on 29th ; and a Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia was at Rcculver (Kent) on 1st, while the same or another was seen at various points along the Essex coast from 29th until 5th July. NEAR-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES An Alpine Swift Apus melba was noted at Dover (Kent) on 7th and one was reported at Salthouse Heath (Norfolk) on 19th. A Roller Coracias garrulus appeared at Ac Forest (Dumfries and Galloway) on 18th, but, surprisingly, only two reports of Hoopoes Upupa epops were received, singles at Caesar s Camp (Buckingham- shire) on an unspecified date and flying across the Mi at Scratchwood (Hertford- shire) on 26th. The three Wrynecks Jynx torquilla reported were at Dungeness (Kent) on 1st, Aldringham (Suffolk) on 6th and Selifirth (Shetland) on 18th. A Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica was watched in \\ anstead 1 ark (Greater London) on 4th. Six Golden Orioles Oriolus oriolus were brought to our notice, singles at Docker Wood (Cumbria), Smalcsmouth (Northumberland), Belvide Reservoir (Staffordshire) and \V alberswick, all on 5th, in the Stour valley (Kent) on 7th, and at Minsmere on 29th. On 2nd a Hermit Thrush Hylocichla guttata was identified on Fair Isle; if accepted, this will be the first British and Irish record of this American species. Two Black-eared Wheatears Oenanthe hispanica arrived during the month, the first at Holme on 2nd which stayed for several weeks and the second at Portland on 14th. A Bluethroat Luscinia svecica appeared at Bempton cliffs (Humberside) during the first week and another which was discovered on Fair Isle on 22nd, when it was unable to fly, was still present on 25th July. We heard also of one at Titchwell (Norfolk) on 1st. What was probably a Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus was on Unst on 8th, while two days earlier a migrant Reed Warbler A. scirpaceus appeared at Spurn (Humberside). Two unusual records for June concerned a Melodious 436 June reports Warbler Hippolais polyglotta in the New Forest (Hampshire) on 8th and an Icterine Warbler H. icterina at Whitstable (Kent) on 15th, the latter in song. A male and a female Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans arrived on Fair Isle on 8th, the male staying until 10th; both were trapped and are the second and third on the island this spring, bringing the total for Britain in 1975 to six. Greenish Warblers Phylloscopus trochiloides also found their way to Britain, singing males being dis- covered at Dungeness and at Bempton on 6th and on the Calf of Man on 7th. A Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva was trapped on the Calf of Man on 12 th and one appeared at Dunrossness (Shetland) on 15th. A Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus was found at Hornsea Mere on 1st and a Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator on Skomer on 7th. A Serin Serinus serinus was reported singing at an un- disclosed site in Kent on 1st. Three more Rustic Buntings Emberiza rustica were recorded, males on Fair Isle from 3rd to 6th and on Skokholm (Dyfed) on 6th and 7th, and one on the Isle of Rhum (Inner Hebrides) on 30th. A male Lapland Bunting Calcarius lapponicus was on Fetlar on 10th and, to complete another very interesting month, a Yellow-breasted Bunting E. aureola put in an appearance at Spurn on 14th and 15th. stop press The most interesting of a veritable flood of rarities during the second half of September include the following: drake Surf Scoter at Murcar (Grampian) from 23rd; Sociable Plover near Langton Herring (Dorset) from 28th into October; Killdeer at Eye Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire) from 28th into October; Upland Sandpiper on F air Isle on 25th ; Black-billed Cuckoo trapped at Redcar ( Cleveland) on 23rd; Nighthawk at Newlyn (Cornwall) late September; Yellow-bellied Sapsucker on Tresco (Scilly) from 26th into October; Crested Lark at Dungeness from 28th into October; Short-toed Lark on Fair Isle from 21st to 27th; Greenish Warbler at Dungeness on 21st; Tawny Pipit at Rye Harbour (East Sussex) on 4th October; Red-throated Pipits (three) on Fair Isle during 8th-26th September; Red-eyed Vireos in Gwynedd at Aberdaron on 25th and 26th and on Bardsey on 26th and 27th; Black and White Warbler on St Mary’s (Scilly) from 27th to 30th; a second Tennessee Warbler on Fair Isle on 24th; Bobolink on Out Skerries (Shetland) on 1 8th ; Scarlet Tanager on Tresco from 27th into October; Little Bunting on Fair Isle on 29th and 30th; Cetti’s Warbler on Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork) in second week of October. BINOCULARS of QUALITY from Barr & Stroud ROSS Green Vat iecfr SWIFT PENTAX 2EISS DIRECT TO YOU AT ENORMOUS DISCOUNTS All makes available: send s.a.e. for binocular and telescope price list Swift Audubon 8.5 X 44, retail £75.00, our price £47.65* Saratoga 8 X 40, retail £55.00, our price £35.00. Perl 9 x 35, retail £24.38 our price £19.50. Zeiss 10 X 40 B Dialyt, retail £219.69, our price £146.60. Nickel Supra telescope 15 X 60 X 60, retail £124.88, our price £84.00. Heron 8 X 40, retail approx. £31.00, our price £21.30 (approved by Nature Con- servancy). All including case and lanyard. 14-day approval service (payment with order please add 30p part p. and p.). Callers welcome. All prices correct when going to press. HERON OPTICAL COMPANY (bbio/75) 23/25 Kings Road, Brentwood, Essex. Tel: (STD 0277 ) 22 1 259/2 1 94 1 8 Books on Birds An extensive collection of ornithological material is available at all times for research, reference and investment. 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Name Address Postal Code Registered No: 785998 England Registered Office: 4 Little Essex St., London WC2R 3LF 111 THE BIOLOGY OF PENGUINS Edited by Bernard Stonehouse This book presents up-to-date review articles and new research papers on the various aspects of the penguin by an international team of con- tributors, many of them well-known in the field of penguin research. It ranges in scope from the Galapagos islands to Antarctica, and among the topics covered there is a contribution on the seldom-studied Little penguin. Seventy photographs illustrate this comprehensive and highly readable account of a fascinating group of birds which has long been of interest to amateur and professional ornithologists alike. £18.50 For further details, please write to Anne Calcott, The Macmillan Press, Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF tv Mr Frank promises perfect alignment Our reputation as binocular specialists is due, in no small measure, to the fact that since the turn of the century we have never lost sight of the importance of binocular align- ment, and we have always maintained a well-equipped workshop staffed by technicians qualified to test every binocular we sell. We stock binoculars by the world’s best makers, and particularly recommend the range of FRANK- NIPOLE binoculars as representing best value available today. Tests show they are comparable in performance to others costing two or three times as much. From the range we select the most popular models — 30% DISCOUNT Although we are rather better known for quality than for price reductions, we are nevertheless happy to offer Zeiss, Leitz, Ross, Swift, Barr & Stroud and Russian binoculars at a 30% discount. Our only requirement is that remit tance should accompany order, with 60p included for post pkg. ins. Our booklet about binoculars: ‘Tell Me Mr Frank’— usually 20p — is free on request, together with catalogue. Excellent discounts can also be offered on many other new items. 8x30 (wt 1 8oz) £ 1 9.25 10x50 (wt 36oz) £27.50 8 x 40 (wt 25oz) £37.76 Complete with case and straps Send for any model on 7 days free trial — naturally without obligation Famous for fine instruments since the turn of the century CHARLES FRANK LTD 144 Ingram Street, Glasgow Gl Tel: 041-221 6666 Write, phone or call Volume 68 Number 10 October 1975 393 The spread of Cetti's Warbler in north-west Europe P. F. Bonham and J. C. M. Robertson 409 A study of the Carrion/Hooded Crow in north-east Scotland N. Picozzi 420 Birds in action I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Eric Hosking Plates 52-55 421 Behaviour of an incubating Woodcock G. des Forges Notes 429 Cormorants roosting on spire S. W. M. Hughes 429 Rafting behaviour of Redshank Peter N. Ferns 430 Pomarine Skua taking Starling L. F. Woollard 430 Pomarine Skua taking Black-headed Gulls Brian Rabbitts 431 Unusual display flight of Great Spotted Woodpecker Raymond H. Hogg 431 Unusual song of Lesser Whitethroat R. A. Frost 432 News and comment Robert Hudson 434 June reports D. A. Christie Hilary Burn drew the Cetti’s Warbler (page 408), the Hooded Crows (page 419) and the Woodcock (page 428) Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 11 November 1975 MORTALITY IN BLACK-HEADED GULL BIRD PHOTOGRAPHERS: R. J. C. BLEWITT OVENBIRD IN SHETLAND SPRING PASSAGE OF POMARINE SKUA FOOD-HIDING OF JACKDAWS AND MAGPIES Editorial Address British Birds, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone 01-836 6633) Editors Stanley Cramp, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee J. N. Dymond, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2dl © The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633). ISSN 0007-0335 Annual Subscription £ 8.00 including index (Orders must be accompanied by remittance. 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Both English and scientific names of birds, and the sequence, follow A Species List of British and Irish Birds (BTO Guide 13, 1971)- A11 scientific names should be under- lined immediately after the first mention of the English name, though it is some- times more convenient instead to list them in an appendix. Subspecific names should not be used except where relevant to the discussion. Dates should always take the form ‘ 1st January 1974’, except in tables where they may be abbreviated. Conventions concerning references, including their use in the text and the form of citation used in reference lists, should follow the examples in this issue. Tables should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. They must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All tables should be self-explanatory. Figures should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. 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It deals com- paratively with the pine- feeding Scottish birds, the common crossbills of the English Breckland, and other related species. A product of forty years field observation and re- search, the book details the life style, numbers and distribution of the cross- bills, and the author con- cludes that the Scottish birds are relics of an original pine crossbill stock. With a Preface by Dr Ian Newton and drawings by Donald Watson, a colour plate and 16 pages of photographs. 256 pages plus 18 plates £ 5-00 net T. & A. D. POYSER 281 High St, Berkhamsted, Herts. | NA1 NATURALISTS’ AND BIRD WATCHERS’ WINTER HOLIDAYS with TONY SOPER and BRUCE CAMPBELL on THE SOUTH CORNISH COAST 4 days inclusive price £45. Write or telephone for brochure: TALLAND BAY HOTEL TALLAND-BY-LOOE CORNWALL Tel: Polperro (05039) WANTED BRITISH BIRDS Vols. 9; 10/nos. 10-12; 19/nos. 6, 12; 20/nos. 8, 10, 12; 21/nos. 1, 3; 22; 23; 24; 25/nos. 3, 5, 8; 26; 27/nos. 2, 6, 9, 10; 28/nos. 1, 2, 5, 8; 30/nos. 7, 12; 31/no. 4; 32/nos. 3, 4, 8; 33/nos. 4, 10, 12; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 46/nos. 9, 10, 12; 64/no. 8. YOUR OFFER FOR ANY OTHER ORNITHOLOGICAL BOOKS AND JOURNALS IS ALSO WELCOME. KRAUS PERIODICALS FL-9491 NENDELN LIECHTENSTEIN i 11 Volume 68 Number 11 November 1975 Mortality in the Black-headed Gull J. J. M. Flegg and C. J. Cox Details of the dispersal of Black-headed Gulls Lotus ridibundus ringed as nestlings in colonies in Britain and Ireland were given in Flegg and Cox (1972). That paper compared the results from an intensive study at colonies on the Rivers Medway and Swale in Kent during 1956-65 with those gathered by the national ringing scheme, now run by the British Trust for Ornithology, during 1908-69. The same comparison forms the basis of this paper, using recoveries from the study in Kent to 1974 and from the national scheme to 1972. There are intrinsic problems in a study based on the recoveries of a nidifugous species ringed at a variety of ages between hatching and fledging. In the Black-headed Gull, nesting colonies are largely associated with estuarine or freshwater habitats and an unknown and variable proportion of the young die before fledging. There is an inevitable bias in the association of Man with any recovery: those birds dying directly or indirectly at the hand of Man, or from other causes in close proximity to him, are clearly much more likely to be reported than those dying in remote areas, for example well out to sea or at moorland colonies. Biases of this nature cannot be eliminated, and should not be forgotten, but meaningful indications of change in many recovery circumstances can be derived from comparative studies, of area with area, or of one time period with another. Of course, it is quite possible that recoveries are representa- tive of the population as a whole despite their association with Man, and this assumption has been made here. Field observations show that many Black-headed Gulls are positively associated with Man [Brit. Birds, 68: 437-449, November 1975] 437 43^ Mortality in the Black-headed Gull 300. J ASONDJ FMAMJ recovery month Fig. x. Monthly totals of recoveries of Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus (top figure first-year, centre second-year, bottom adults), comparing those from the Kent study during 1956-74 (broken lines, sample sizes on left) with those from Britain and Ireland as a whole during 1969-72 (solid lines, sample sizes on right) throughout the year — on farmland, in towns, at sewerage outfalls, on refuse tips and, during the breeding season, at colonies on industrialised rivers or estuaries or close to recreational activities such as sailing. 439 Mortality in the Black-headed. Gull With a long-lived bird, additional factors assume importance: for example, the life-span of the ring may be shorter than that of the bird (Harris 1964, Coulson and White 1955). For much of the study in Kent, abrasion-resistant molybdenum/nickel alloy rings were in use, although some may have suffered more corrosion than the lighter alloys previously used. Unlike those of the Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla , the normal life style and colony situation of the Black-headed Gull are not considered to cause excessive ring wear. An examination of returned rings indicates that, even with alu- minium alloys, wear is usually minor until about eight years have elapsed and becomes serious only after 14 or 15 years. WHEN DO THEY DIE? Fig. i compares the months of death of nestlings from the Kent study area with a 1969-72 sample of the national recoveries. The ‘year’ starts with July — the peak month for fledging — and ends in June. The majority of Black-headed Gulls do not breed in their second year (Flegg and Cox 1972), so first-year, second-year and adult or potential breeding birds are considered separately. Although the number of second-year recoveries is small, and little reliable pattern emerges, the Kent study is closely similar to the sample of national recoveries in the other age groups. The patterns of first- year birds and adults differ greatly. As expected, mortality in the first year is high immediately after fledging, due to a variety of causes (table 2) doubtless often associated with the birds’ inex- perience. After September, mortality remains surprisingly low, especially in the Kent birds, many of which endured the 1961/62 and 1962/63 severe winters. In this connection, it seems probable that many of the dead Black-headed Gulls reported by Dobinson and Richards (1964) in their assessment of the effects of the 1962/63 winter were of Continental origin. There is more winter mortality in the adults, perhaps associated with their lesser range of movement at that season (Flegg and Cox 1972), but here the peak is in the breeding months of May-July. Table 1 indicates the proportion of recoveries reported as ‘dead in colony’, many of these being ‘egg-bound’ or ‘dead on nest’. If this peak represents a disproportionate female mortality in the breeding season, it is interesting to speculate on that of the males: is it uni- form throughout the year, or is it also influenced by the rigours of obtaining and holding territory, and later of feeding the young? Harris (1962, 1964) found that the peak first-year mortality of Herring Gulls L. argentatus was during August-October and of Lesser Black-backed Gulls L. fuscus during September-November. These later peaks may be partly due to the larger sizes (and thus increased incubation, fledging and dependent periods) of these 440 Mortality in the Black-headed, Gull species and partly also, in the case of the Lesser Black-backed Gull, to its migratory pattern delaying the breeding season and exposing the population to hunting pressure on the Continental coast. Harris also found a slightly later mortality peak among older Herring Gulls, in July-August, than is apparent in adult Black- headed Gulls. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of recoveries from the Kent study by years of life, including all recoveries reported up to December 1974 of birds ringed during 1956-65 (it has been assumed that the great majority of recoveries from these nestlings will have occurred by then). The high first-year rate is to be expected, but there are Table 1. Reported causes of deaths of Black-headed Gulls Lams ridibundus as percentages of the total recoveries in each of four periods All ringed as nestlings in colonies in Britain and Ireland and recovered during 1908-72. * Includes some taken under licence by the Department of Trade and Industry, f Includes some (perhaps as many as half) trapped and subsequently killed by Man 1908-24 1946-52 1953-68 1968-72 Found dead 29-1% 56-5% 60.0% 68.1% Shot 37-2% 7-2% 6.0% 4-4% Trapped/killed by Man 8.6% 0.5% 0.6% x.8%* Injured/died later 8.1% 13-7% 6.8% 3-9% Dead under wires 2.1% 3-6% 3-9% 3-!% Dead on road — i-4% 2.6% 4-6% Killed by train 0.6% 1.0% 1.1% 0.3% Killed by aircraft — 0.2% 0.3% 0.6% Killed by predator i-7% 1-2% 2-9% 2.2% Dead in colony 4-4% 3-6% 2.4% 3-5% Found oiled — 0.2% 0.7% 0.8% Other causes i-3% 1 .0% 14% 0.8% Found alive 7-!%t 9-6% 10.4% 5-9% SAMPLE SIZES 520 416 1,801 649 also indications of adult mortality peaks at five to six years and again at about nine years. It could be suggested that the nine-year peak represents some sort of physiological end-point of reproductive life, with only increasingly exceptional individuals breeding beyond their eleventh or twelfth year. The hump at five and six years is more difficult to explain, but again could be due to a physiological cause, perhaps affecting only one sex. Known females are to be found in colonies, and at least laying eggs, in most year classes up to and beyond ten. Much remains to be discovered from a study ol mortality of known males. 44i Mortality in the Black-headed. Gull % Fig. 2. Percentage distribution, by year of life, of 351 recoveries of Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus from the Kent study during 1956-74 HOW DO THEY DIE? When considering as wide a time span as 1908-72 in table 1, changing human attitudes to, for example, the shooting of non-game species should be remembered. These may account for a little of the altered proportions of birds reported as ‘shot’ compared with those ‘found dead’. It is thought that many finders of ringed birds, especially in highly literate and conservation-conscious countries such as Britain and Ireland, do consider and remark on possible causes of death when reporting the ring. Clearly the most striking change is in the number of birds found shot, which in 1908-24 was the major reported recovery cause. With the cessation of this adverse pressure exerted by man, it is presumed that other, more natural factors assumed the dominant role. Jennings (1955, 1958), Jennings and Soulsby (1956, 1957) and Macdonald (1963) all reported on post-mortem examinations of Black-headed Gulls sent to them by members of the BTO. Of 31 cases, one died due to adverse weather, two to trauma, five to poisons, and five from unknown causes, while diseases claimed 18. Jennings and Soulsby (1958) examined young from a Norfolk colony and suggested that infectious disease and especially parasite burden would have had a considerable adverse effect on their survival. The impact of parasites may not, of course, become fatal until after dispersal from the breeding colony. Conditions such as these are exceedingly unlikely to be noted by the public, but some more easily recognised causes are reported. Contrasting the four time periods in table 1, a fall in the proportion trapped and killed by Man towards the present day (parallel to the drop in numbers shot) is clear. There are rises in the proportions of victims of road and air traffic, which are to be expected in the 442 Mortality in the Black-headed Gull Table 2. Reported causes of deaths of juvenile Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibtmdus as percentages of the total recoveries in the first six months of life contrasted with those of adults aged at least two years, all during July-December All ringed as nestlings in colonies in Britain and Ireland and recovered during 1967-74 Found Shot or ‘Acci- Wires Road Rail Aircraft Found Pred- sample dead taken dent’ etc victim victim victim oiled ators sizes Juveniles 71 .3% 5.7% 1.9% 5.7% 10.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.3% 3.1% 317 Adults 72-7% 9-4% 3-6% 4-5% 5-°% °-8% i-i% 0.3% 2.5% 359 light of our dramatically increased use of these forms of transport. It could be argued that the differences between ‘found oiled’ and ‘dead under wires’ are a reflection of finder bias but, with the increasingly rural rather than marine habits of the Black-headed Gull, these may be a fair representation of the situation. The hand- ful of birds killed by falling sods of earth while following the plough supports this view. Nevertheless, the Black-headed Gull does of course still frequent coastal waters and there the increase in oiling is the expected situation today, however sad, though some of the birds in this category may have been cast ashore and fouled with oil after death. The proportions of ‘dead in colony’ and ‘killed by predator’ remain consistently quite high and these deaths are reflected in the peak breeding season mortality shown in fig. 1 . Harris (1962) found that approximately 50% of Lesser Black- backed Gulls were ‘found dead’, some 40% shot or killed by Man (three-quarters of these overseas) and only 3% killed by collision with wires or vehicles. Within Britain and Ireland the proportion of Lesser Black-backs ‘shot’ fell from 57% in 1910-19 to 6% in 1 950-59, while about 60% of overseas recoveries were ‘killed’, indicating the penalty paid by migration to foreign waters. MORTALITY Studies of mortality (or survival) based on recoveries are subject to the same biases as investigations of the causes or whereabouts of the deaths concerned. Lack (1951) considered, with stated exceptions, that little serious error would emerge from assuming that the recovered proportion was typical, and produced a simple calculation procedure with minimal assumptions. Haldane (1955) amplified Lack’s techniques, but Eberhardt (1972) considered that ‘the Chapman-Robson (Lack) equation for estimating survival from banding recoveries is clearly the best of those studied’. The following calculations are based on Lack’s technique, accepting that a small bias will occur as a very small proportion of birds ringed in recent years have yet to be recovered. It has been possible to compare recoveries from well-defined groups of gulleries. In fig. 3, the results NUMBERS OF BIRDS Mortality in the Black-headed. Gull 443 Fig. 3. ‘Extinction curves’ showing mortality rates of a nominal 100 Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus from various regions of Britain and Ireland. ‘Southeast’ and ‘northwest’ refer to England, the latter comparing the years from 1945 (1945-72) with those to 1924 (1908-24) 444 Mortality in the Black-headed. Gull are presented as ‘extinction curves’ starting from a nominal ioo birds and assuming no recruitment. Most of the regions considered con- form well with one another, but Yorkshire colonies show a lower rate of mortality during the first four years. In general, the Black-headed Gull is an expanding species (Gribble 1962 and in press), by some 25% between the censuses of 1938 and 1958 and by over 100% between 1958 and 1973. With an average annual mortality of about 24% over the first five years of reproductive life, the doubling in 15 years recorded by Gribble would be achieved if every 100 pairs of Black-headed Gulls produced 50.5 young each year that subsequently survived to breeding age. As the mean clutch size falls between two and three eggs, and as at least two replacement clutches can be produced, this seems easily achievable. The number of ‘successful eggs’ per 100 pairs to maintain a steady population over the whole of Britain and Ireland is 48.2, indicating just what a difference results if this figure is increased by less than 5%. The rate of expansion in Hampshire is considerably greater. Cohen and Taverner (1972) described an increase in the number of pairs at Needs Oar, the major colony in that county, from 75 in 1938 to 1,130 in 1957 , 6,516 in 1965. 10,500 in 1968 and about 20,000 in 1971, this despite regular collection of eggs until early in May. This rate of expansion characterises several other colonies in that area. Regrettably, the sample of recoveries from Hampshire colonies is small, but shows indications of an unusually high first- year mortality. A 17-fold increase over 14 years would necessitate the production of rather more than 60% ‘successful eggs’ additional to the norm, assuming the same rates of adult mortality. Whether (locally) this success rate is achieved or mortality rates differ considerably, or whether (unusually) recruitment occurs from outside the area, remains to be determined by an intensive study: as yet there is insufficient evidence one way or the other. Comparable figures are available for the Kittiwake (Coulson 1974), a similar-sized but maritime gull. During 1959-69 numbers of nesting Kittiwakes (based on a large sample of colonies) increased by 49%. Coulson and White (1959) calculated adult mortality at about 12.4% and first-year mortality at 21%, though problems of ring wear caused them to use sight records of colour-ringed birds in these calculations. The nest site and chick behaviour of the Kittiwake are better suited than those of the Black-headed Gull to a study of pre-fledging mortality, and Cullen (1957) found an average of 1 . 1 8 young fledging from the normal clutch of two eggs. This is probably considerably in excess of the figure for Black-headed Gulls, and certainly higher than the 0.51 or less reported for the Herring Gull (Paynter 1949) and Lesser Black-backed Gull (Paludan 445 Mortality in the Black-headed Gull 1951). If Cullen’s figure is representative of all Kittiwake colonies, then there is more than enough productivity to produce the increase documented by Coulson. Fig. 3 also compares mortality rates from colonies in north-west England of birds ringed during 1908-24 and 1945-72. The pre-1924 curve differs considerably from the post- 1945 picture, which is close to the national norm. Lack (1943) showed that before 1940 shooting was a material mortality factor in this area, and that the effects were greatest on first-year birds, possibly biasing the mortality figures. Reference ta table 1 gives some indication of the reduction in birds ‘shot’, and it may be that this plays a major role in the changed pattern. In Lack’s analysis, 44% of the recoveries were of birds shot, but table 3 shows clearly that at present first-year birds suffer, if anything, less than adults from shooting. Estimates of mortality rates in various years of life from regions of Britain and Ireland are given in table 3. ‘Year’ 1 here is the first six months of life, July-December, while subsequent years are January-December. Beyond ten years (and in some cases earlier) sample sizes are too small for percentage mortality figures to be meaningful. The overall mortality is high in the first ‘year’ of life, the rate falling to a low point in the third, fourth and fifth years before rising again in the sixth and eighth to tenth years, when the rate is about twice that in the first three years of breeding life (few breed at one year old, i.e. in their second year). For the last four years of the intensive study in Kent, recoveries ‘yet to come’ were calculated from the results of the first six years, ible 3. Annual rates of mortality of Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus from various regions and periods All ringed as nestlings in Britain and Ireland and recovered during 1908-72 Total NVV NW Britain/ SF. England England Ireland '‘.Year England Yorkshire 1908-24 1945-72 Wales Scotland Ireland 1945-72 I 35-0% 28.4% 59-9% 35-5% 38.3% 47-4% 4i-2% 38-3% 2 25-5% 20.4% 34-2% 3i-4% 42-9% 28.1% 20.8% 27-5% 3 24.8% 16.0% 35-6% 19-2% 29.2% i5-o% 22.3% 2i-5% 4 18.5% 18.3% 40.6% 1 9-i% 26.4% 18.9% 35-0% 21.8% 5 23-5% 27-3% 43-2% 18.7% 30-7% 8-4% 34-7% 22.8% 6 3i-4% 15-3% 28.0% 34-o% 36.9% 14-5% 44-2% 28.0% 7 27.8% 24.6% 38-9% 27-4% 1 41% 1 4-9% 36.8% 26.5% 8 34-6% 26.2% 54-5% 37-5% — 30.0% 5°-o% 36-1% 9 5°-°% 26.3% — 23-3% — 25-0% — 33-8% 10 47-o% 39-3% — 39- 1 % — 38.1% — 44-3% MPLES 458 253 434 425 136 230 221 1 >855 j^6 Mortality in the Black-headed Gull for which it could be said with reasonable certainty that all but the most exceptionally aged birds had been recovered by 1974. Table 4 thus gives an indication of the productivity over the ten-year period. Apart from 1956, when the study was single-handed, ringing effort was directed at marking all available young and was probably reasonably uniform, so that totals of nestlings ringed should be indicative of those produced. Unfortunately, no means existed of assessing the proportion of nestlings of ringable age that actually fledged. Over the ten-year period productivity varied considerably, with peaks in 1956, 1957 and 1965. Recovery rates also varied markedly from year to year, and the lower figures (e.g. 1959) probably reflected a high pre-fledging mortality. With the strong colony-faithfulness shown by Black-headed Gulls (Flegg and Cox 1972), it can be postulated that this irregular productivity, coupled with a long breeding life-span, was adequate to support a breeding population of about 2,000 pairs in 1955, doubling by 1961 (Hum- phreys 1963) and staying at approximately that level until at least 1966 (Humphreys 1967), while a census in 1972 showed a further increase to nearly 7,000 pairs in all (Harrison et al. 1973). Thus it can be argued that the highly productive years, 1956 and 1957, contributed to the rise recorded in the 1961 census; and that, after some relatively lean years, the most successful season of all, 1965, may have contributed largely to the striking rise reported in the 1972 census. Table 3 also shows mean life-span calculated fiom the ages in months of freshly-dead birds. Inexperience will take greatest toll before six months, and 21 months is the normal age of first breeding. Table 4. Results to 1974 of ringing Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus in the Kent study area during 1956-65 Totals in brackets include calculated future recoveries MEAN TOTAL LIFE-SPAN RINGED RECOVERED EXPECTATION (MONTHS) AT Year Total Total Rate (a) Fledging (b) 6 months (c) 21 months I956 490 30 6.1% 34 51 6l 1957 1,857 104 5-6% 41 53 DO 1958 4U 14 3-4% 44 47 53 1959 890 13 ••5% 37 52 02 1060 538 18 3-4% 63 7i 103 ^61 755 26 3-4% 46 59 84 1962 695 (21) 3-°% 41 64 89 1963 279 (9) 3-2% 50 63 63 1964 422 (U) 4-°% 3i 50 64 1965 3,24° (99) 3-i% 35 59 74 TOTALS 9>583 (35i) — — — — MEANS — 3-7% 42-1 ± 9-4 56.9 ± 7.6 72 •1 ± 15-4 447 Mortality in the Black-headed. Gull hie 5. Annual variations in percentage recovery rates to 1967 of Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus ringed in the Kent study area during 1956-65 ire letters under the annual columns grade ‘productivity’, measured by the number of young ringed, as good (G), moderate (M) or poor (P). No young were ringed in 1966-67 1956 1957 >95a '959 !96° i96‘ i962 *963 i964 >965 '966 1967 means year 37% 25% 7% 31% u% 23% 38% 22% 4*% 43% — — 27.8 ± 12.4% lUlt - - 13% 21% 19% 15% 25% 26% 18% 30% 17% 16% 20.0 ± 5-4% i ages 37% 24% I Q°/ /o 22% •6% 18% 28% 28% 21% 36% >7% 16% 23-5 ± 7-3% G G p M P M M P P G If productivity in a relatively long-lived bird can be as irregular as this, what of mortality? Does this remain more or less uniform year by year, or are there striking variations? Table 5 examines this possibility, considering for each year the percentage of recoveries of first-year, adult, and all ages, reported from those ‘at risk’. Particularly in first-year birds there are considerable differences, but the extremes tend to be associated with years when recovery numbers are either very low or very high. If the various years are graded for their ‘productivity’ (measured by the number of young ringed) as good, moderate or poor, then there are some indications of an association between the good years and high rates of mortality. This may be related to the fact that peak adult mortality tends to occur during the breeding season, and that in a highly productive year the stresses of raising young to fledging may be much greater than if eggs or small young are lost. As a counter to this, it could equally well be argued that the drain on resources of attempting second or third broods after the failure of the first would be greater than that involved in a successful rearing of the first brood. Without more detailed knowledge of the energetics of these situations, this intriguing question cannot be resolved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are indebted to many friends, especially David Musson and the Mid-Kent Ringing Group, for assistance with the detailed study in Kent. Catching young Black-headed Gulls can be both dangerous and exhausting, and our gratitude must be extended to all those ringers who, in Britain and Ireland as a whole over a period of 65 years, have marked the nestlings on which this comparison depends. Robert Morgan and C. J. Mead extended considerable practical help with the analysis, and discussions with Frank Gribble, John Taverner, Norman Pullen and Martin Davies have clarified both our thoughts and the text, for which we are particularly grateful. Finally, we arc indebted to the BTO Ringing and Migration Committee for access to the recoveries. SUMMARY Nearly 3,400 recoveries of Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus ringed as nestlings at colonies in Britain and Ireland are available for analysis of causes of death and rates of mortality. For first-year birds, mortality is at its peak in July and August; otherwise it is uniformly low' in the first year, with little indication of hard weather 4.4.8 Mortality in the Black-headed Gull deaths in the winter months. For adults, mortality is greatest during May-August, presumably associated with the rigours of territory-holding and reproduction; it is low in the remaining months of the year, with a slight suggestion of a winter peak in January and February. If Kent recoveries are examined by year of life, there are indications of peaks in the fifth and sixth years, and again at about the ninth year. After the tenth year, recoveries are considerably fewer, the oldest being two in their sixteenth year. Pre-Hedging mortality in the Black-headed Gull is very difficult to assess, but the indications are that it is often considerable. Changing human attitudes are reflected in the sharp decrease in the numbers reported shot from 37% in 1908-24 to just over 4% in 1969-72. Since 1924, birds reported as ‘found dead’ have predominated, and currently nearly 70% of recoveries fall in this category. Among other reported causes, there has been a four-fold increase in victims of collisions with overhead wires and various vehicles since 1908. An indication of the largely terrestrial habits of the Black-headed Gull can be gathered from the fact that more than five times as many were reported as road victims as were found oiled on the coastline. Mortality rates can be estimated from six regions of Britain and Ireland, and are broadly similar. For the whole area, mean first-year mortality is 3^-3%> second- year 27.5%, and average annual adult mortality about 24%. In north-west England there has been a considerable change from the 1908-24 pattern (where first-year mortality reached nearly 60% if possible bias is ignored) to that of the present-day (35-5%)- With mortality rates of this nature, a doubling of the breeding population of Black-headed Gulls in 1 5 years is apparently not difficult to achieve, requiring only two or three extra eggs per 100 pairs (over and above maintenance levels) to succeed as far as breeding. In the Kent study area, the few and irregularly spaced years of highly successful breeding could be associated with stepped increases in the breeding population that followed about two years later. Total lifespan expectations calculated from the intensive study in Kent range from 42.1 ± 9.4 months at fledging to 56.9 ± 7.6 months at six months (after the heavy post-fledging mortality) and 72.1 i 15.4 months at 21 months (the age ol first breeding). REFERENCES Cohen, E., and Taverner, J. 1972. A Revised List of Hampshire and Isle of Wight Birds. Oxford. Coulson J. C. 1974. ‘Kittiwake’. In Cramp, S., Bourne, W. R. P., and Saunders, D., The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland. London. and White, E. 1959. ‘The post-fledging mortality of the Kittiwake’. Bird Study , 6: 97-102. Cullen, E. 1957. ‘Adaptations of the Kittiwake to cliff-nesting’. Ibis, 99: 275-302. Dobinson, H. M., and Richards, A. J. 1964. ‘The effects of the severe winter of 1962/63 on birds in Britain’. Brit. Birds, 57: 373-434- Eberhardt, L. L. 1972. ‘Some problems in estimating survival from banding data . In Population Ecology of Migratory Birds, U.S.D.I. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Report, 2: 153- 1 71. Flegg, J. J. M., and Cox, C. J. 1972. ‘Movement of Black-headed Gulls from colonies in England and Wales’. Bird Study, 19: 228-240. Gribble, F. C. 1962. ‘Census of Black-headed Gull colonies in England and Wales, 1958’. Bird Study, 9: 56-71. Haldane, J. B. S. 1955. ‘The calculation of mortality rates from ringing data’. Int. Orn. Congr., 1 1 : 454-458. Harris, M. P. 1962. ‘Migration of the British Lesser Black-backed Gull as shown by ringing data’. Bird Study, 9: 174-182. 1964. ‘Recoveries of ringed Herring Gulls’. Bird Study, 1 1 : 183-191. Mortality in the Black-headed. Gull 449 Harrison, J., Humphreys, J. N., and Graves, G. 1973. ‘Breeding birds of the Medway estuary’. Kent Bird Rep., 1972: suppl. Humphreys, J. N. 1963. ‘Report of the Medway islands census 1961’. Kent Bird Rep., 1961 : 42-51. 1967- ‘The third census of birds nesting on the Medway and Swale islands’. Kent Bird Rep., 1966: 79-98. Jennings, A. R. 1955. ‘Diseases in wild birds’. Bird Study, 2 : 69-72. 1958. ‘Diseases of wild birds, fifth report’. Bird Study, 6: 19-22. and Soulsby, E. J. L. 1956. ‘Diseases of wild birds, third report’. Bird Study, 3: 270-272. >957- ‘Diseases of wild birds, fourth report’. Bird Study, 4: 216-220. 1958. ‘Disease in a colony of Black-headed Gulls Lams ridibundus' . Ibis, 100: 305-312. Lack, D. 1943. ‘The age of some more British birds’. Brit. Birds, 36: 2 14-221. 1951* ‘Population ecology in birds: a review’. Int. Orn. Congr., 10: 409-448. Macdonald, J. W. 1963. ‘Mortality in wild birds’. Bird Study, 10: 91-108. Paludan, K. 1951. ‘Contributions to the breeding biology of Larus argentatus and Larus fuscus'. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk Naturh. Foren., 114: 1-128. Paynter, R. A. 1949. ‘Clutch-size and the egg and chick mortality of Kent Island Herring Gulls’. Ecology, 30: 146-166. Dr J. J. M. Flegg, British Trust for Ornithology , Beech Grove, Trirtg, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR C. J. Cox, Kake Cottage, Kake Street, Waltham, Canterbury, Kent British bird-photographers 1 8 R. J. C. Blewitt Plates 56-63 Roy Blewitt’s interest in photography began during National Service with the Royal Air Force in 1949-51. Although trained as a wireless mechanic, he spent much of his spare time taking photographs of general subjects with an inexpensive camera which he believes was made largely of plastic, even to the lens. After returning to civilian life, he bought a 2f-inch Microcord II camera and joined his local photographic club. He made such progress that he was encouraged to show prints at many societies’ exhibitions in the Midlands. He had long had an interest in wild birds, but in 1 955 also started to breed Budgerigars Melopsit- tacus undulatus and later to specialise in rearing foreign finches. It was not long before he became a champion breeder and exhibitor, particularly of Zebra Finches Taeniopygia castanotis. Gradually these two interests in birds and photography led him to the challenge of studying and photographing birds in the wild. In i960 he gave up aviculture and by then had switched to 35 mm photography with an Edixa Reflex which, with a 150 mm telephoto lens, became the basis of his equipment for bird photography. Over the years this built up and he now has two Pentax cameras and a variety of telephoto lenses, but he uses these mainly for colour. For the highest quality, particularly with black-and-white, he regards a large negative as essential and, therefore, much of his work for the past four years has been done with a 2^-inch Mamiya. Roy Blewitt’s photographic knowledge was self-taught and acquired the hard way, mainly by trial and error. This meant a long apprenticeship but the best possible grounding. These days things are far easier for the beginner, with the availability of high quality equipment and many good courses and textbooks. He considers it his duty to help and advise the less experienced and, with the pressures on wildlife from overpersistent photo- graphers, always insists that the bird is more important than the photograph. Photography for Roy is only a hobby. Although he confesses to not being too excited by his job as an estimator in the engineering industry and sometimes thinks that he would like to devote his whole time to natural history photography, he believes that his enjoyment of limited free time for this pursuit is enhanced by the element of escapism. In 1966 Roy Blewitt became a member of the Zoological Photo- graphic Club and he considers that this was when his work really began to improve. He was able to compare his results with those 450 Bird-photographers : R. J. C. Blewitt 45 1 of some of the best natural history photographers in Britain and their helpful criticism and advice urged him *to still greater efforts. He also joined the Royal Photographic Society and in October 1974 gained his Associateship. He feels that this is his best achievement to date and regards it as a reward for all the hard work he has put into bird photography. The more difficulties he has to surmount in order to obtain a successful picture, the greater is his satisfaction. This applies just as much to common species as it does to rare ones. Indeed, he is not a rarity hunter and rather deplores the idea of chasing around the country after disoriented vagrants that are unlikely ever to return to their homelands. Roy Blewitt generally prefers to work in a limited area and most of his photography has been done in the West Midlands, particularly in the Wyre Forest on the border of Salop and Hereford & Worcester. He has become something of an authority on this region and often gives illustrated talks about its birds. Therefore, it is appropriate that four of the first six photographs in the present selection should have been taken there (plates 56, 57a, 57b and 59). Where possible, he likes to work away from the nest. He has had particular success with the wait-and-see technique at a Forestry Commission water tank in the Wyre Forest, where he has watched and photographed twelve species coming to bathe: the Woodpigeon Columba palumbus (plate 57a) was one of the most regular, while another visitor was a Green Woodpecker Picus viridis (plate 57b) which appeared twice a day, at about 10.30 and 15.00 hours, in September 1971. He sometimes sets up wait-and-see hides at such places as sewage farms and wader roosts. The Ruff Philomachus pugnax (plate 58a) at Wisbech sewage farm, Lincoln/Norfolk, and the Ovstercatchers Haematopus ostralegus (plate 58b) on the Little Eye, Hilbre, Mersey- side, are two examples of the results. On the other hand, a Dotterel Eudromias morinellus (plate 62a) at Chasewater, a reservoir in Staffordshire, in August 1971 was so tame that it needed no hide and, indeed, fed around Roy’s feet. He also puts down bait at suitable places near a hide and the hen Pheasant Phasianus colchicus with four young (plate 60a) and the Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rtifa (plate 62b) were photographed in this way. The technique is particularly effective in winter: the Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major (plate 56) came regularly to suet placed in the hole in the tree. In the same manner, Roy Blewitt has succeeded in obtaining some excellent photographs of Water Rails Rallus aquaticus that were attracted to maggots which he put down regularly at a site in Hereford & Worcester, again in December 1974. Although we reproduced one of these earlier this year in our ‘More examples of the best recent work by British bird-photographers’ (Brit. 452 Bird-photographers : R. J. C. Blewitt Birds, 68: plate 27b), we have since realised that that was only the second occasion on which the species had been illustrated in this journal. Indeed, the first occasion was as long ago as 1909 (Brit. Birds, 3 : plates 3-10), so we feel more than justified in including another of Roy’s now (plate 60b). Roy Blewitt does do a certain amount of photography at nests. The Tawny Owl Strix aluco (plate 59) was one of a pair with young in a nest box; he fitted the perch in front and this was used regularly by the adults as they left. In June 1972 he put up a hide at a nest of Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus with young and was surprised to find that a Robin Erithacus rubecula came frequently over several days to feed the nestlings (plate 61 a) without the parents’ taking any notice. The Woodcock Scolopax rusticola (plate 61b) was very tame when its eggs were due to hatch. The Buzzard Buteo buteo (plate 63a) often arrived with fresh nesting material; the single chick was fed mainly on frogs and small rodents, but on one occasion it was provided with a Trout Salmo trutta. It seems appropriate to conclude with Roy Blewitt’s favourite bird, the Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus. He has spent much time photographing this species at the nest and, more unusually, at the Forestry Commission water tank. We have already published a remarkable selection of the results (Brit. Birds, 66: plates I and 37-44). One story will give some idea of his enthusiasm and patience. Having photographed a female Sparrowhawk at the tank, he particularly wanted a shot of a male. He entered his hide deter- mined to wait until one came, but after seven hours in this solitary confinement (dimensions 75 cm by 85 cm by 135 cm) he felt that it was hopeless. He moved his eye from the peep-hole for a moment and then, as he looked up again, a male alighted on the perch and allowed him to take the picture that completed the series. The photograph now published (plate 63b) is of a male at a plucking post, another rare shot; this bird regularly brought its prey here in May 1973 and stayed for up to 30 minutes, pulling off the feathers before taking it on to the nest. To cope with both colour and black-and-white, Roy Blewitt has two cameras mounted on a single tripod with a twin release. He finds this invaluable because there is often just one chance to photograph a bird before it moves out of range. Roy feels that the only way to appreciate the full beauty of birds is to be close enough to see the colour of their eyes without having to use binoculars. He likes to capture them on film not only for his own satisfaction but for the pleasure of others who are not so fortunate. Eric Hosking and I. J. Ferguson-Lees Ovenbird in Shetland: a species new to Britain and Ireland Iain S. Robertson On the afternoon of 7th October 1973, while looking for migrants on Out Skerries, Shetland, I saw an unfamiliar bird run behind a dry-stone wall. I crept up, peered over and saw it searching for insects ten metres away at the base of the wall. It seemed to be of the waterthrush genus Seiurus and, as it had no supercilium, I thought it probably an Ovenbird S. aurocapillus. It ran among the fallen stones at great speed and hopped through gaps in the wall with surprising agility. It was about the size of a Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos and its stance, with tail erect and wings droop- ing on either side, was also reminiscent of that species. In colour, however, it was similar to a Goldcrest Regulus regulus, and the main field-marks of a pale eye-ring and dark crown-stripes were very conspicuous. I took a few brief notes, then set up a mist-net through a gap in the wall and began to drive the bird towards it. It ran at great speed straight under the net, despite the fact that the bottom shelf was weighted down with stones. On the second drive I flushed it at the last moment and it flew into the net. I took it back to my house where my wife and I were able to confirm the initial identification from Peterson (1941). After taking a detailed description and measurements I photo- graphed the bird, unfortunately in poor light, and released it in a nearby cabbage patch. As the light was going fast, we left it to find shelter undisturbed. The following is a summary of the description, from which we concluded that it was in first-year plumage: Head and upperparts: crown warm olive-brown (the feathers being orange-tan completely obscured by greenish tips), edged on either side by dark, wavy stripes from base of upper mandible to nape; lores mottled dusky; conspicuous orbital ring cream, tinged slightly buff around outer border; sides of face darker olive- brown than crown, bordered by broad, creamy stripe from base of bill to below eye; black moustachial stripe from base of bill to just below this white border; rest of upperparts warm olive-green, brighter on rump and upper tail-coverts. Underparts: throat creamy-white; breast heavily spotted with black tips to white feathers, the spots forming lines of streaks on upper breast and becoming scattered below; belly white; flanks huffish with long dark streaks; undertail-coverts white, reaching to within 16 mm of tip of tail, central feathers with dark brown bases. 1 Vings: lesser coverts as mantle; median coverts same, but writh golden-olive outer webs; greater coverts olive on outer webs, greyish on inner; bastard wing and primary coverts olive with outer fringes golden; primaries greyish-brown, with narrow olive margins to outer webs becoming broader on secondaries; tertials similar but inner webs more olive; bend of wing golden; underwing buffish-grey; axillaries lemon-yellow. Tail : feathers with broad olive outer webs and greyish inner webs, central pair olive on both webs, outer pair slightly paler than rest, and [Brit. Birds, 68: 453-455. November 1975] 453 Ovenbird in Shetland 454 all feathers with small hooks at the tips. Bare parts : upper mandible dark horn with flesh-coloured cutting edge; lower mandible pinky horn, pale yellowish- flesh at base; gape pink; iris very dark brown; legs and feet bright flesh-pink, slightly yellowish at rear of tarsus and darker on upper surface of feet; rictal bristles five, very weak. Wing-formula : ist and 2nd primaries equal longest, 3rd — 0.5 mm, 4th —4.5 mm, 5th —8.5 mm, 6th —1 1.0 mm, 7th —14.5 mm, 8th — 15.5 mm, 9th — 17.0 mm, 10th — 18.0 mm; 2nd and 3rd emarginated on outer web, 4th slightly. Measurements', wing 78 mm; bill (from skull) 15.5mm; tarsus 23 mm; tail 51.5 mm; total length 135 mm; wing point to tip of tail 26 mm; wing point to longest secondary 12.5 mm; weight 20.4 gm. The following day, 8th October, D. Coutts, J. H. Simpson and R. J. Tulloch came to the Skerries to see the bird. After a long search, it was found feeding along a grassy bank on the shore-line, but it quickly flew off to a point about 500 metres away on a rocky, open hillside. It continued to feed in this area and was seen well by all of us. After about an hour it went behind a small hillock and we were unable to relocate it. All observers commented on the resemblances to a Nightingale and a giant Goldcrest. It was a striking bird in the field, the bright green upperparts contrasting with the very heavy black streaking on the otherwise white underparts. The head pattern, with the tan crown-stripe bordered by two black lines, was conspicuous despite the fact that in the hand the tan feathers were obscured by greenish tips. The huge pale eye-ring gave it a slightly comical look. It was far brighter than depicted in Peterson (1941) and Godfrey (1966). These guides also state that the species is more often heard than seen, though this was certainly not the case with the Skerries bird, which was not heard to call. An interesting sequel to this record took place on 12th October. I had not seen the bird since 8th, despite searching, and I had assumed that it had left the isles. On the night of 1 1 th October , however, a Whalsay fishing boat stayed at the Skerries pier, and on leaving the following morning the crew noticed an unusual bird in a fish basket on the deck; later the skipper of the boat, the M/B Heather Bell , described the bird to JHS and his description left no doubt that it had been an Ovenbird. Unfortunately the crew did not notice if it was wearing a ring, and it left the boat some distance from Fetlar. The record was accepted as the first fully authenticated for Britain and Ireland by both the Records Committee of the British Ornithologists’ Union and the Rarities Committee; indeed, it was the first for Europe. It must be added, however, that the species had previously been included in category D on the strength of a wing found on the tideline at Formby, Merseyside, on 4th January 1969 by R. Wagstaffe (Smith et al. i97°j B.O.U. Recoids Committee 197 1 ) : category D of the British and Irish list is a holding Ovenbird in Shetland 455 category intended as a means of collecting together records of species which are not yet full additions because it is considered that they need further proof of natural occurrence, and tideline corpses (or parts) are included in it. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE SPECIES (I am grateful to D. A. Christie for providing this section.) The three species in the genus Seiurus belong to the large New World family of wood warblers (Parulidae). They differ from other members of the family primarily in their ground-frequenting habits, and this adds to their superficial resemblance to the thrushes (Turdidae). The Northern and Louisiana Waterthrushes S. noveboracensis and S. motacilla present certain identification problems which will be discussed in a forthcoming paper in this journal, but the Ovenbird is unmistakable. It breeds from southern Canada south to Okla- homa, northern Georgia and eastern Colorado, and winters in the West Indies, Central America and the northern parts of South America. The northward migration takes place in April and May and the return south from August to November. On the breeding territory the habitat is normally thick under- growth in woods, where much time is spent walking about in the leaf-litter in search of ants, spiders, beetles and the like, though slugs, snails, worms and caterpillars are also taken and occasionally locusts, grasshoppers and flying insects. The nest, which gives the bird its vernacular name, is made of dry grasses, leaves, stalks, bark and moss and lined with plant fibres and hair, the whole forming a dome-shaped structure with a side entrance. Where pine needles are available they are used to a large extent in the construction. It is usually well concealed in a slight depression on the ground. The clutch consists of three to six eggs, usually four; these are white with spots and speckles of reddish-brown and purple-grey. The female alone incubates, on average for about twelve days; when disturbed she has an injury-feigning display in which she flutters along the ground with the body feathers fluffed out. The young fledge after about ten days but are fed by the parents for another five weeks before becoming independent. The species is single-brooded. REFERENCES B.O.U. Records Committee. 1971. ‘Records Committee: sixth report (February 1971)’. Ibis, 1 13: 420-423 (422). Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The Birds of Canada. Ottawa. Peterson, R. T. 1941. A Field Guide to Western Birds. Boston, Mass. Smith, F. R. et at. 1970. ‘Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1969 (with i960 and 1968 additions)’. Brit. Birds, 63: 267-293 (289). Iain S. Robertson , Portland Bird Observatory and Field Centre , Old Lower Light, Portland, Dorset The spring passage of the Pomarine Skua on British and Irish coasts D. L. Davenport This paper describes the present status of the Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus in Britain and Ireland in spring. The status of this species has apparently changed in the last decade; once a rarity in spring, it now occurs regularly in good numbers at Cape Clear Island, Co. Cork, and at various localities along the Channel coast of England. The Pomarine Skua does not breed as far south as the other skuas and Bannerman (1963) described it as only a rare breeder in the Old World from Spitsbergen and Bear Island. Otherwise it breeds on most of the arctic coasts and islands of Russia and Siberia, and in arctic America from Alaska to the west coast of Greenland. Professor V. C. Wynne-Edwards (in Bannerman 1963) described the main wintering area in the Atlantic as the west coast of Africa but especially between 8°N and i7°N where it is one of the most numerous species at sea. MOVEMENTS IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL There are three main localities which regularly record good numbers of this species in spring, namely Dungeness (Kent), Beachy Head (East Sussex) and Portland Bill (Dorset). The first significant numbers at Dungeness occurred on nth May 1959 when three flock of five, six and 16 flew east. At the time such numbers were unprecedented and the Kent Records Committee was prepared to accept only those which were seen to have full tails. Between i960 and 1966 the spring records conformed to the previous pattern with only singles recorded in 1962 and 1966 but larger movements were again observed on 30th April 1967 when flocks of 13, four, eleven and nine were seen at Dungeness and presumably the same flocks of four and eleven at Beachy Head and Selsey Bill (West Sussex) respectively on the same day. Originally, the flock of 13 was identified as Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus and the flock of nine remained unidentified, but from later evidence of relative flock sizes (see table 3) these two flocks are now assumed to have been Pomarine Skuas. Since then large flocks have occurred in the Channel in most years and as observers came to expect both species there has been little difficulty in separating them. The spring records for Dungeness, Beachy Head and Portland Bill between 1967 and 1974 are summarised in ten-day periods in table 1. A total of 525 was seen in the eight years, the records from Port- land Bill accounting for 128 of these. There was obviously a lot of 456 [Brit. Birds, 68: 456-462, November 1975] Spring passage of Pomarine Skua 457 Table i. Average annual totals of Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus in ten-day periods in the English Channel (Dungeness, Beachy Head and Portland Bill) and at Cape Clear Island, Co. Cork APRIL MAY JUNE 6-15 16-25 26-5 6-15 16-25 26-4 English Channel 1967-74 0. 1 1. 1 23.8 36.8 2-3 1.6 Cape Clear 1963-73 0.7 2.2 i-3 13-5 3-3 5-6 duplication at Dungeness and Beachy Head; at least eleven flocks were known to have been seen at both localities on the same dates. Passage was recorded between 8th April and 3rd June but 92% of the total and all the records of more than four birds in a day occurred within the very short period between 30th April and 14th May. The weather maps at the time of the 23 largest Channel move- ments since 1967 were obtained and wind directions and speeds are summarised in table 2. This shows that movements have occurred with the wind in all directions except north-west, and the average wind strength was only force 2. Thus these spring movements have little connection with sudden changes in the weather and strong winds, climatic features with which autumn skua movements are normally associated. The main feature of the weather is the large area of calm, settled conditions surrounding the Channel at the time. The weather map for 5th May 1971, for example, when 65 flew east at Beachy Head, showed a fast-moving depression that had only just reached Biscay; the birds in this particular movement, therefore, must have been travelling in calm weather at least a day ahead of the depression. In several movements the skuas seem to be entering the Channel around the south-east edge of Atlantic depressions but this is probably a coincidence rather than the birds avoiding what are generally not very vigorous depressions. The movement of 9th- 12th May 1974 is the only one associated with gales in the Channel, and apparently only because the birds involved were overtaken by an active front during the night of 9th/ioth (see tables 4 and 5). Table 2. Numbers of spring movements of Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus in winds from different directions, 1967-74 Station and time Calm N NE E SE SW W NW Mean direction and force English Channel London 06.00 3 1324432 - SSE 2 Cape Clear Valentia 06.00 - — -1341 — - SSE 4 458 Spring passage of Pomarine Skua MOVEMENTS AT CAPE CLEAR ISLAND Pomarine Skuas were first recorded at Cape Clear in 1962 and the first significant spring movement involved 15 birds on 22nd-23rd April 1963. Since then, however, all records of more than four have occurred between 6th May and 1st June. From table 1 it can be seen that the main passage at Cape Clear in May is more evenly spread than that in the Channel although the extreme dates of 9th April and 2nd June are almost identical. A total of 187 was recorded in the eleven years 1963-73, which, after allowing for discontinuous manning, gives an average total per year of 27. It is difficult to understand why the passage in May is more prolonged than that in the Channel but it could easily be due to observer bias. Cape Clear is primarily a seawatching observatory and is close to a number of large seabird colonies, whereas there is little incentive to carry out any serious seawatching in the Channel in late May as all the significant movements of the most numerous passage migrants, such as divers Gavia spp, Common Scoters Melanitta nigra, Arctic Skuas and terns Sterna spp, finish in the middle of the month. The weather maps at the time of the nine largest Cape Clear movements since 1967 were obtained and wind directions and speeds are summarised in table 2. Most of these movements were closely associated with the passage of an active trough or front, which is in direct contrast with the movements in the Channel. Except in one case, the wind speed and direction was consistently force 3-5 between south-west and south-east. FURTHER OBSERVATIONS AT DUNGENESS AND BEACHY HEAD Flock sizes The flock sizes of 377 birds seen at Dungeness and/or Beachy Head within the peak period 30th April- 14th May are shown in table 3. The average flock size of 4.5 and the regular occurrence of much larger flocks is in marked contrast with the spring passage of Table 3. Flock sizes of Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus and Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus at Dungeness, Kent, and Beachy Head, East Sussex, in spring Pomarine Skuas (mean flock size 4.54) at either locality or both between 30th April and 14th May 1967-74; Arctic (mean flock size 1.55) at Beachy Head in April and May 1969-74 (data supplied by M. J. Rogers) FLOCK SIZE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 13 14 15 16 18 23 28 Pomarine Arctic 30 10 12 6 2 5 1 1621 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 160 59 20 10 1 1— ----------- Female Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major feeding upon Forest. December 1974 (photo: R. J. C. Blewitt ) (pages 450-452) Pi.ates 57 and 58. Upper left, Woodpigeon Columba palumbus drinking, September 1972; lower, Green Woodpecker Pkus nr id is at water tank, September 1971; both Wyre Forest. Above, Ruff Philomachus pugnax, Lincoln 'Norfolk, September 1975; below, Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus assuming white throat bands of winter, Merseyside, October 1971 ( photos : R. J. C. Hlewitt Hi Ifffj 4\J A'J ppp®* ‘ Kt j* fy ^9 71 Plate 59. Tawny Owl Strix aluco perching, after feeding young, on branch put in front of nest box, Wyre Forest, May 1971 {photo: R. J. C. Bleuitt) Plate 6o. Above, female Pheasant Phasianus cole hicvs and young feeding on corn, Staffordshire, June 1974. Below, Water Rail Rallus aquatints walking towards maggots put out as bait. Hereford & Worcester. December 1974; thi> secretive species is not very often photographed photos : R. J. (.. Blewitt Plate 63. Above, female Buzzard Buteo buteo bringing leafy twig to nest six metres up in silver birch, Powys, July 1974; there was only a single chick. Below, male Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus with prey at regular plucking post, Staffordshire, May 1973; note morsel in his bill ( photos : R. J. C. Bleivitl ) 459 Spring passage of Pomarine Skua Arctic Skuas (also summarised in table 3); the latter almost invariably occur in ones and twos, although groups of three and four also appear annually. On a good day Arctic Skuas normally pass at the rate of two per hour throughout the day in a steady trickle, whilst for an equivalent total of Pomarine Skuas one could expect to see only five flocks at the rate of one sighting every two hours. Sometimes the rate of passage is much faster but then move- ment will stop for the day, the best example of this being 26 in six flocks in two and a half hours behind a cold front on 10th May 1974. There have been only four larger movements than this, the maximum being 65 in twelve flocks at Beachy Head on 5th May 1971. Not surprisingly, this was also the only occurrence of more than six flocks in a day. Table 4. Major movements of Pomarine Skuas Slercorarius pomarinus and Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus at Dungeness, Kent, and Beachy Head, East Sussex, in spring, 1972-74 Year Dates Pomarine Skua Arctic Skua 1972 29-4- 2.5 17 85 1972 6.5- 8.5 38 82 1 973 28.4-30.4 I 43 1974 2-5- 4-5 — 49 1974 9-5-J2-5 83 68 Normal spring passage Large flocks of Pomarine Skuas have been recorded at Dungeness and Beachy Head in six of the eight years since 1967 and good numbers were recorded at Portland Bill in 1 973 j this leaves 1969 as the only poor year in the Channel as a whole. The most intensive coverage of these spring skua movements occurred in the years 1972-74 when M. J. Rogers watched at Bcachv Head and I covered Dungeness. The pattern established in most recent years and confirmed between 1972 and 1974 is that there are usually two movements each year between the last week in April and the second week in May. The major movements in 1972-74 are shown in table 4. The first movement sometimes involves only Arctic Skuas (see table 4) but it is more usual for both movements, if they both occur, to be mixed; moreover, the later they are the more likely it is that Pomarine Skuas will predominate, e.g. 35 Pomarine and one Arctic Skua on 12th- 13th May 1971. The vast majority of these spring Pomarine Skuas are light-phase adults with complete tails. At Dungeness the closest flocks pass 300-400 metres from the beach as they always go round the seaward side of the offshore rig which was built as the cooling system intake for the atomic power station ; Arctic Skuas, however, 460 Spring passage of Pomarine Skua sometimes come much closer inshore, occasionally even coasting along the beach in an onshore wind. Flight speed At the suggestion of M. J. Rogers, flock times were kept at Dungeness and Beachy Head from 1972 onwards and the results for seven flocks are shown in table 5. The time taken to travel the 56 km from Beachy Head to Dungeness varied between 60 and 95 minutes, which gives an average speed of 35-56 km per hour. Note that the times on 10th May 1974 in fresh winds are consistently faster than those in light winds. Table 5. Flight times and speeds of Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus between Beachy Head, East Sussex, and Dungeness, Kent (56 km) Time Average speed Wind direction Date Flock size (minutes) (km/hour) and force 1.5.72 8 65 8.5.72 15 95 10.5.74 5 75 10.5.74 3 60 10.5.74 10 70 12.5.74 6 90 12.5.74 10 95 means 79 43 RECORDS FROM OTHER AREAS The records from other areas on the south and west coasts of the British Isles give the impression that the Pomarine Skua is a great rarity in spring although there is evidence that these movements have not gone completely unnoticed in the past. For instance, Moore (1969) cited a record of Pomarine Skuas in ‘great abundance’ off the Devon coast on 16th May 1918. It was also said to have been frequent in some years on spring passage in the Western Isles (Hartert et al. 1912). The only large numbers recorded away from the four main localities in recent years involved a movement of 89 at Balranald, North Uist, Western Isles, between 17th and 19th May 1971 . Apart from confirming that, in common with Cape Clear, the passage on the west coast lasts throughout May, this record also suggests that if sufficient coverage were available then a regular passage would be discovered off the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland. It must also be obvious that sufficient observations from any prominent headland or other suitable site between Portland Bill and Dungeness would confirm a regular passage throughout the length of the Channel. The amount of available coverage was obviously an important 52 S 2 35 E 2 45 S 6 56 S 6 48 S 6 37 SE 2 35 SE 2 Spring passage of Pomarine Skua 461 factor in discovering the movements off Dungeness and a look at the old observatory logs shows that, although a lot of seawatching used to be carried out in April, virtually none was done in May. This was partly due to the much greater interest shown in falls of passerine night migrants, and partly due to the lack of interest in the sea once the first tern movements of the spring had taken place. Apart from the skuas we now know that most of the major movements of Common/Arctic Terns Sterna hirundojparadisaea and those of certain rarer species, such as Velvet Scoter M.fusca, Little Gull Larus minutus and Black Tern Chlidonias niger, also take place in the first half of May. There was an unusual number of midsummer records in 1971, with a total of five at Porthgwarra and 13 at Cape Clear between 20th June and 3rd July. These records are unique in recent years and probably relate to birds summering in British and Irish waters. GENERAL DISCUSSION In terms of the total population of Pomarine Skuas the importance of the movements described above must be very' small indeed and presumably the major part of the spring migration, like the autumn migration, takes place out in the Atlantic Ocean. On days when a few flocks have been seen flying up the Channel it might be expected that they were an offshoot of a larger movement taking place in the Atlantic on the same day. So far the records from Cape Clear have not been sufficient to confirm or deny this theory although during the largest movement yet recorded there, involving 64 birds between 7th and 10th May 1971 (a weekend), a combined total of only three was seen at the three main localities in the Channel. The occurrence of large flocks suggests that the birds involved are attempting to fly great distances during a short period, and presumably these flocks would break up if they stopped to feed. Arctic Skuas regularly chase gulls and terns at Dungeness in the spring but Pomarine Skuas have never been seen to do so; they have, however, been observed sitting on the sea on three occasions. The extreme rarity of this species in spring on the heavily watched east coast between Norfolk and Northumberland seems to confirm that it does not feed in the North Sea at this time of year. It is interesting to speculate why Pomarine Skuas come up the Channel at all in spring. There is no reason to suppose that in fine w'eather they would leave Biscay and mistakenly enter the Channel but having done so they have no option but to follow the coast or go overland. They may indeed be potential overland migrants taking a route which bypasses Scandinavia and heads straight for arctic Russia. Spring passage of Pomarine Skua 462 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful to F. R. Clafton and K. Preston for supplying me with informa- tion from the observatories at Portland Bill and Cape Clear respectively and in particular to M. J. Rogers for his detailed personal notes from Beachy Head. SUMMARY Since 1 959 the Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus has become a regular spring migrant in the English Channel and at Cape Clear Island, Co. Cork. Migration normally takes place between the second week in April and the first week in June, with the bulk of the passage in the first half of May. It is suggested that the scarcity of records before 1959 was due to lack of observation. The movements in the Channel normally take place in fine weather and light winds from a southerly or easterly direction. Observations from Dungeness and Beachy Head show that in spring Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus travel in small parties of one to four birds whereas the Pomarines mostly occur in flocks of five or more. The flight speed of Pomarine Skua flocks was timed at between 35 and 56 km per hour. It is suggested that they are long-distance migrants, especially as observations suggest that they do not stop to feed on the way. REFERENCES Bannerman, D. A. 1963. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London, vol 12. Hartert, E., et al. 1912. A Hand-List of British Birds. London. Moore, R. 1969. The Birds of Devon. Newton Abbot. D. L. Davenport, gc>4 Sidcup Road, London sej Feeding and food-hiding responses of Jackdaws and Magpies C. J. Henty In early March 1973 I was trying to train wild Jackdaws Corvus monedula and Magpies Pica pica to come to an area of sandy pasture close to the research buildings of the Estacion Biologica de Donana, southern Spain, so that I could perform experiments on their searching behaviour. This general training period presented a good opportunity to investigate in detail the birds’ responses to food items of different sizes. T,en successful tests were performed between 5th and 13th March. Usually six large and 40 small pieces of bread were scattered over an area about 6 metres square. Several variations were tried involving mixed or separate areas but these did not affect the results. The pieces of bread were cut from slices 0.5 cm thick, the large pieces being 2 cm square (weight 0.7 gm) and the small pieces 0.5 cm square (weight 0.044 gm)- In the first four days a few tests were also carried out with bread crumbs and with pieces 1 cm square. I watched from a first-floor veranda some 3 metres above ground level and 20 to 50 metres from the experimental area, using 8.5X and tripod-mounted 20X binoculars. The Jackdaws and Magpies fed over the sandy pasture and in small clumps of palmetto bushes and could be seen to catch craneflies and beetles, turn over dung or dig in sand exposed by the nocturnal rooting of Wild Boar Sus scrofa. Sometimes the birds would appear soon after a test had been set out; more often there were delays of up to several hours. As many as eight Jackdaws (median six) and six Magpies (median two) were present during the course of a test and I esti- mated that at least six individual Jackdaws and four or five Magpies were actually involved in taking bread. As I got to know some individuals by plumage or behaviour during later experiments it became clear that particular birds returned from day to day over a period of several weeks. The main observations concerned whether a food item was eaten on the feeding area or taken away and, if the latter, whether it was finally hidden or eaten. As an item might be carried off in several flights each of 30 metres, its final fate was often not seen. Only data based on clear and unequivocal records have been included for analysis. When several birds were feeding at the same time I concentrated on birds that had left the area with food as this information was more difficult to collect. Table 1 shows, for each species, the relative numbers of large and small items among those eaten on the spot and those carried 463 [Bril. Birds, 68: 463-466. November 1975] 464 Food-hiding of Jackdaws and Magpies Table 1. Numbers of large and small food items eaten immediately or carried away by Magpies Pica pica and Jackdaws Conus monedula Differences between food items highly significant (chi-square test) Magpie Jackdaw Size 0.5 cm 2.0 cm 0.5 cm 2.0 cm Eaten on area 148 3(J) 52 2 Carried away o 37(i) 1 *4 away. Jackdaws and Magpies were similar in that most of the items eaten on the spot were the small pieces whilst those carried away were almost invariably the large pieces. Owing to the observation method, table 1 probably underestimates the total number of items eaten on the spot but, with the close and excellent observation conditions, there was no problem in identifying the size of an item when found by a bird nor in observing whether it was swallowed immediately or removed. The half score refers to a large item that was half eaten on the experimental area, the remainder being carried away. Table 2 records the observations on large pieces of bread that were carried away and for which I could be sure of the final result, namely hiding or breaking up and eating. Within the range of observation it is clear that the Magpies hid most of the pieces they carried away whereas the Jackdaws eventually ate them. The few tests on items of intermediate size (1 cm square) suggested that the birds were equally likely to eat them immediately or to carry them away, whilst of five carried to a visible fate only one was hidden, by a Magpie. Crumbs were usually pecked and swallowed, a median peck rate being 48 per minute; on at least one occasion, however, a Magpie stored crumbs in the bill and eventually walked a few metres and apparently hid them in the sand. Magpies are well known to carry off and hide food (Hayman 1958, Butlin 1971). On three occasions I was able to pinpoint where a Magpie had hidden an item so that I could go out and unearth it: Table 2. Fate of large items carried away by Magpies Pica pica and Jackdaws Conus monedula Difference between species highly significant (Fisher’s p less than 0.0 1, two tailed) Magpie Jackdaw Hidden Eaten 15 2 o 5 Food-hiding of Jackdaws and Magpies 465 once under deer dung, once in a sand heap by an insect burrow and once in loose sand by a Boar furrow. All the pieces were completely hidden and the last two situations resemble those recorded by Simmons (1968). I also saw a Magpie unearth some bread that another bird had hidden shortly before. These records confirm the visual impression that the Magpies were actively hiding food, not just dropping it, and on one occasion when individual identifica- tion was certain a bird carried pieces of bread in succession to widely separated localities. The burying sites of the Donana Magpies are within the range of sites used by Rooks C.frugilegus (Simmons 1968, 1970, Robson 1974 and editorial note). Simmons’ papers also summarise work on a variety of corvids. Like myself, Goodwin (in press) has been unable to observe wild Jackdaws hiding food under conditions that seemed suitable, although it has been recorded at least once (Simmons 1968). Lorenz (1970, p 288) noted that his hand-reared birds usually concealed food in the deepest and darkest corners and holes. The editorial note following Robson (1974) quoted P. R. Richards whose captive Jackdaws hid food in their nest boxes, an action which he contrasted with the hiding-by-burying behaviour of his Magpies and four other species of corvid. It is possible that wild Jackdaws differ from Magpies in that they tend to break up and eat food close to a discovery site but only hide items in other localities. Thus on several occasions in my tests a Jackdaw flew out of sight whilst carrying bread, perhaps to a hole in a tree or building. During the later types of experiment, however, one individual sometimes carried away the small tiles which I used to conceal cubes of bread. This bird usually dropped the tiles within a hundred metres whilst still flying and it alone could conceivably have performed the longer flights with bread that are described above. It is, therefore, still possible that most wild Jackdaws very rarely hide food or do so only if deep crevices are available close to where they find it. The rapid return of any bird to a feeding area is not proof that a previous item has been hidden since my impression is that there is no striking difference between the time taken by Magpies to bury and the time that both they and Jackdaws take to break up and eat large squares of bread. Another possibility is that Jackdaws are much more furtive than Magpies when dealing with food but I have no positive indications of this and the observations of Lorenz (1970) on hiding in hand-reared birds suggest that this is not the case. Finally it is worth noting that although the pieces of bread were often very dry and hard neither species ever carried them to dip into nearby pools of water. This supports the conclusion of Goodwin (in press) that in corvids dipping relates to sticky items rather than to hard ones. Food-hiding of Jackdaws and Magpies 466 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS These results were gathered during sabbatical leave from the University of Stirling, Department of Psychology. I gratefully acknowledge the hospitality of Dr J. A. Valverde, Director of the Estacion Biologica de Donana, and the helpful friendship extended by all the staff of the Estacion. SUMMARY In 1973, tests carried out in southern Spain showed that Magpies Pica pica and Jackdaws Corvas monedula finding food on open sandy pastures usually carried away large items of food that could not be instantly swallowed. Only Magpies were seen to bury food. Jackdaws regularly broke up and ate large items and if they were ever concealing food it could only have been in types of site found after longer flights that ended out of range of observation. There is a clear difference in food-hiding between wild Magpies and Jackdaws but it remains uncertain whether this is due to an overall behaviour difference or a difference in the type of hiding place that the species select. REFERENCES Butlin, S. M. 1971. ‘Food-hiding by Magpie’. Brit. Birds, 64: 422. Goodwin, D. (in press) Crows of the World. London. Hayman, R. W. 1958. ‘Magpie burying and recovering food’. Brit. Birds, 51 : 275. Lorenz, K. Z. 1970. Studies in Animal and Human Behaviour. London, vol x. Robson, R. W. 1974. ‘Food-burying and recovery by Rook’. Brit. Birds, 67: 2x4-215. Simmons, K. E. L. 1968. ‘Food-hiding by Rooks and other crows’. Brit Birds, 61 : 228-229. 1970- ‘Further observations on food-hiding in the Corvidae’. Brit. Birds, 63: I75-I77- Dr C. J. Henty, Department of Psychology , University of Stirling, Stirling FKQ 4LA Notes Greenshank taking fish During the late afternoon of 14th July 1 974 we were watching several species of waders feeding at North Point gravel pit near Rye, East Sussex. Among the group was a Greenshank Tringa nebularia and, using a telescope, we could see that it was eating fish. In the space of five minutes three fish were taken, each about one third the length of the Greenshank’s bill (about 15-20 mm). The bird apparently experienced great difficulty in swallowing the fish, taking approximately one minute to mani- pulate each one before swallowing it head first. As soon as a fish had been eaten the bird set out on another sortie. It made a short rapid dash, followed by a quick lunge in which the fish was taken between the mandibles. It was always successful at each attempt. The water level in the feeding area varied between 20 and 80 cm and much of the area was colonised by fennel pondweed Polamogeton pectinatus and algae which lay matted on, or just below, the surface. Some areas of deeper water were free of vegetation, leaving clear, open pools. There were small fish close to the surface in these pools and they dashed for the cover of the weed only when the water was disturbed. It seems that the Greenshank’s technique was to run across the mat of vegetation to the edge of an open pool and then lunge at a fish before it had time to take cover. No other birds were availing themselves of this food supply although Herring Gulls Lartis argentatus, Black-headed Gulls L. ridibundus and Common Terns Sterna hirundo were present. It is likely that the fish, being in the vicinity of weed cover, were safe from aerial attack but vulnerable to the concealed lateral approach of the Greenshank. Nick Riddiford Dungeness Bird Observatory , Romney Marsh , Kent Raymond E. Turley 38 York Road, Ilford, Essex Feral pigeon swimming On 31st October 1974 my son and I were walking by the lake in Regent’s Park, London, when we saw a feral pigeon Columba livia behaving in a most unexpected manner. At first it was bathing vigorously, standing in about 8 cm of water on a ledge which projected several centimetres from the bank before dropping away vertically into deep water. As we approached, the bird suddenly spread its wings and tail and swam about a metre out into the lake. We had the impression that its wings and tail were ‘cupped’ to trap a cushion of air, for, whilst the main spread was above the surface of the water, the leading and trailing edges of each wing and the sides and tip of the tail were submerged. The bird seemed to be propelling itself slowly but smoothly with its feet and 467 Motes 468 did not show the jerky head movements of a Coot Fulica atra or Moorhen Gallinulci chloropus. It then turned through a semicircle and returned to the ledge a metre or two from where we had first seen it. During the next seven or eight minutes it repeated this swim twice and then flew away across the lake. It turned back, however, landed in the deep water about a metre from the bank and then swam ashore as before. J. R. Ogle 27 Highfield. Close, Amersham, Buckinghamshire hp6 6hg Racing pigeons have been known to alight on deep water if they are very thirsty and are for some reason prevented from settling on the bank. The bird described above, however, is unusual in that its posture resembled that of a bird which involuntarily finds itself in deep water and cannot rise from the surface. Birds in this predica- ment, however, try to fly and progress in a series of forward plunges, not by the paddling action which the Regent’s Park bird seemed to adopt. There is a record (Nicolai, J. Orn. 103: 125- 139) of bathing Ruddy Ground Doves Columbina talpacoti deliberately going out of their depth and even taking apparently deliberate short circular ‘swims’, though, unlike the bird above, sitting gull-like on the water. Eds Some instances of nest predation by Great Spotted Wood- peckers on House Martins and other species The Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major is the one serious avian predator on small passerines in wooden nest boxes (197b Nestboxes, BTO Guide no 3). The extent of damage caused by the woodpecker varies considerably; it may be small or almost non-existent. For instance, an extensive programme undertaken at five localities in the New Forest, Hampshire, woodlands during the 1960’s with an annual maximum of 125 nest boxes in position resulted in only slight damage to boxes and the loss of three nest contents, those of a Blue Tit Parus caeruleus, a Great Tit P. major and a Redstart Phoeni- curus phoenicurus (N. D. Pullen, verbally). In contrast, two smaller schemes operating at Nursling, also Hampshire, during 1963-65 and Englefield Green, Surrey, during 1966-68 encountered sub- stantial damage: over the two three-year periods, when an annual maximum of 28 and 45 wooden boxes were in position, 40% of the boxes were either slightly or extensively damaged by Great Spotted Woodpeckers. The eggs, more commonly young, were destroyed in twelve cases, the victims being Blue Tits (six), Great lits (three), Coal Tits Parus ater (one), Nuthatches Sitta europaea (one) and Tree Sparrows Passer montanus (one). The woodpeckers gained access to the nest either by enlarging the nest box entrance or by drilling through the side of the box on a level with the nest contents. During Notes 469 June and early July 1971 I was surprised to find similar attacks made at a House Martin Delichon urbica colony of approximately 30 nests situated beneath the eaves of Forestry Commission houses at Burley in the New Forest. At each of seven nests the Great Spotted Woodpecker reached the nest contents by clinging to the side of the inverted mud dome and chipping away a hole. Attention was drawn to the woodpecker’s activities by the panic behaviour of the parent House Martins. Empty, blood-stained egg-shells beneath several of the nests were evidence that the woodpecker was successful in securing the contents. Although the woodpecker was not seen to take nestlings, this activity was described vividly in earlier observa- tions by C. J. Pring near Yeovil, Somerset (Brit. Birds, 23: 1 29-1 31). In view of such observations one wonders whether ‘rogue’ individuals are involved or whether small nestlings may form a regular food of the Great Spotted Woodpecker during the breeding season. David E. Glue British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Great Tit probably killing Blue Tit at the nest On 1 1 th May 1974 a nest box in a wood near Brecon, Powys, was found to contain the presumed egg of a Blue Tit Parus caeruleus. On 15th May the box was empty but on 18th May another egg was seen and there was a dead Blue Tit, its skull crushed, depressed into the side of the nest. Five days later a Great Tit P. major was sitting and hissed and darted aggressively as I peered in. This bird eventually reared six young which were ready to fly on 23rd June. When the nest was removed it was found to be covering three eggs of Blue Tit size and one of Great Tit size, all undeveloped. It is possible that the Great Tit took the nest over after the Blue Tit had been killed by a predator but it is unlikely that a predator would have left three eggs and a corpse unconsumed. A more probable explanation is that the Great Tit attacked and killed the Blue Tit on 13th or 14th May, when the latter would have had at least three eggs. The dead bird and the eggs would then have been pushed to one side for the intruder to proceed with her own laying. Though a certain amount of competition between the two species seems to be common, I have seen no reference to its going this far. Duncan J. Brown 16 Dorlangoch, Brecon, Pouys The role of male Blue Tits and Great Tits in nest-building In the Popular Handbook of British Birds (1968, 4th edition), P. A. D. Hollom stated that nest-building is carried out by both sexes among Blue Tits Parus caeruleus and Great Tits P. major. For several years I have made close observations on nest-building by Blue Tits and Motes 470 I have watched the construction of three nests by Great Tits. The former species occupies nest boxes annually in our garden and the Great Tits have nested in a large overturned flower pot placed with- in eight metres of the Blue Tit nest boxes. At no time was the male Great Tit seen to play any part in nest- building; indeed, once the flower pot had been investigated and apparently accepted by the pair, the male showed little inclination to enter it. The female seemed to be entirely responsible for nest- building while the male spent much time feeding or sitting singing in a nearby bush. He would, however, occasionally present the female with food. I have sometimes found it difficult to distinguish between the sexes of Blue Tits, except by their display, although slight colour differences could sometimes be detected. In all cases it seemed to be the female only who was involved in the actual accumulation of nesting materials. The male Blue Tit was always a very regular visitor to the chosen nest box but was usually extremely cautious about entering. Whenever he did enter he usually left very abruptly when his mate appeared. Nevertheless, the male Blue Tit certainly spent considerably more time within the nest cavity than did the male Great Tit but whether it was ever engaged on nest construction within the box is not known. My own observations, therefore, tend to confirm the accuracy of those made by Yarrell (1843, A History of British Birds, vol. 1). P. G. Morris 241 Commonside East, Mitcham, Surrey This note draws attention to an apparent error which occurs in several places throughout the literature, including the Handbook. Replying to our request for an appraisal of this note Dr C. M. Perrins wrote ‘With the exception of the Long-tailed Tit [ Aegithalos caudatus], where both sexes certainly build, it is my impression that the male takes little part in building and that this is true for all the British Parus species. The male very frequently accom- panies the female while she is collecting material but rather rarely does any of the actual work’. Eds Review The Life of Birds. By J. Dorst; translated by I. C. J. Galbraith. Weidenfield & Nicolson, London, 1974* 2 volumes; 717 pages; 32 black-and-white photographs; numerous line drawings, graphs, etc. £15.00. With the exception of the colour plates, which appeared in the Review 471 original Trench version, these two volumes are respectively rendi- tions of La \ ie des Oiseaux and Les Oiseaux dans leur Milieu published in 197* • ^T°t since A. J. Marshall’s Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds (1960-61), now out of print, has an eminent ornithologist attempted to cover so comprehensive a field; notwithstanding more recent additions to knowledge, Professor Dorst has provided us with a most valuable review of avian biology. The first volume presents a grounding in anatomy and physiology, particularly where these relate to flight, and goes on to deal with territory, courtship, nesting details, populations, evolution and classification. Volume 2 illustrates the worldwide expression of the adaptability alluded to in the first book; chapters 1-10 are devoted to a survey of major habitat types, their characteristics, the demands they place on birds and the adaptations evolved to meet them. This well-balanced appraisal, embracing freshwater, marine, and terrestrial habitats, is richly illustrated with examples of adaptation to prevailing climatic and feeding conditions and may deservedly prove to be the section most appreciated by many readers. This survey is rounded off by a wider examination of the role birds play in ecosystems, and is followed, somewhat discontinuously, by two chapters on migration. Finally there are two brief concluding chapters on the relationships of birds to man, with a strong plea for conservation. As a translation, the two volumes read well and only occasionally is the English rendering conspicuously stilted. There is the odd quirk of word translation, such as ‘brooding success’ for breeding success, and the strange predilection for ‘autochthonous’ where ‘endemic’ or ‘native’ would have done nicely. These, however, are minor criticisms of a highly sensitive translation. More serious criticism concerns the visual and bibliographic aids. The figure legends (e.g. to figs 50, 55) are not always as explicit as they should be. Some of the figures are not referred to in the text and two others (figs 82, 88) appear in the wrong chapters. The black and white plates serve the current expectation for illus- trated books and though helpful they are by no means indispensable to a work of this kind. Although major references are listed in the bibliography, many authors are quoted in the text by name only with no backing up reference, and while this certainly makes for lighter reading it will frustrate those who want to use the book as a springboard for further reading. Given these shortcomings the real strength of these volumes lie in their acceptability to a wide audience; they will neither perplex the layman nor patronise the experienced ornithologist, and should serve both well until someone with Professor Dorst’s ability to synthesise rewrites the story. Euan Dunn Letters Who took the birds out of British ornithology? I suspect that Colin Bibby’s plea for a return to the enjoyment of birds {Brit. Birds , 68: 1 00-102) is a reflection on current ornithological literature rather than on the attitudes of ornithologists. Birdwatching could not have become so popular a national pastime unless it provided a genuine source of pleasure. Even the most hard-boiled scientific ornithologist, whose academic training has instilled a strict avoidance of sentiment in his published work, would deny that he has lost the capacity to enjoy the living bird. Nevertheless, it is sadly true that today’s highly factual ornithological literature can rarely be read for enjoyment. Yet even scientific books need not be uninspiring. If anyone doubts this, let him re-read Eliot Howard’s Introduction to the Study of Bird Behaviour or Konrad Lorenz’s King Solomon's Ring, both of which, though scientific works, bear comparison with Gilbert White’s Selborne in their evidence of what Colin Bibby calls ‘pure delight in the way birds live’. In contemporary ornithological literature a few authors such as Bruce Campbell demonstrate that it is still possible to write with elegance and charm without im- pairing scientific integrity, while Max Nicholson enlivens many a weighty scientific journal with a style and wit which everyone can enjoy. In David Bannerman’s books one can also find many delightfully written little essays neatly interposed among his more factual material, to remind us of the bygone days of literary in- spiration. One may deplore the decline in the enjoyment of bird literature, but there are compelling economic factors which contribute to this. While the number of scientifically qualified authors seeking publica- tion of their work has increased greatly, the few appropriate journals cannot expand because of tripled printing costs. Scientific journals such as The Ibis now have a waiting list of anything up to two years. Authors unwilling to wait are obliged to seek acceptance in periodi- cals of a less exclusively scientific nature. While this eases the publication problem for the scientist, it also gives the amateur an increased opportunity to interest himself in the methods and terminology of his scientific colleagues. To some this is welcome. To others it leads to the doubts expressed by Colin Bibby. But with the standards of British amateur ornithology steadily rising, it is a development which editors may find difficult to resist. The evidence of wide support for the technicalities involved in many of the field studies now organized by the British Trust for Ornithology suggest that the trend will be maintained. Remembering the late Sir Julian Huxley’s tribute to the major contribution by amateur ornithologists to the science of animal behaviour, one cannot accept 472 Letters 473 the inference that they are engaged in ‘mindless pursuits’. Nor does this provide, as Colin Bibby asserts, evidence of any diminishment in the individual enjoyment of birds. The effects of the economic blizzard which buried many of the periodicals catering for the countryman and nature lover undoubtedly play their part in preventing British Birds from pleasing everyone. However, the recent questionnaire asking readers of this publication to indicate their preferences for its contents is a heartening indication that it is not suffering from any hardening of editorial arteries. If readers really want a change such as Colin Bibby suggests, they will doubt- less obtain it. Guy Mountfort Plovers Meadow , Possingworth Park, Blackboys, East Sussex TN22 5NA C. J. Bibby asks ‘Who took the birds out of British ornithology ?’ ; he can discover where 74 Willow Warblers Phylloscopus trochilus went in a recent issue of the Journal of Z oology (1975, 175 , 299). There, a young man from Durham University describes how he caught the juvenile birds in mist nets and killed them for analysis of their flight muscles, in order to study the relationship between flight muscle hypertrophy, moult and pre-migration lipid deposition. After some abstruse statistical work he came to much less definite conclusions than did the Willow Warblers, but doubtless got his PhD. Those who see zoological journals know that this unpleasant aspect of the PhD industry is not uncommon. Somebody in the Nature Conservancy presumably issued a licence to collect the birds, some professor of zoology supporting the application, a body called the Science Research Council gave a grant, the Zoological Society of London published the paper, goodness knows why, and we taxpayers provided the money. What have we got for it? More paper on a library shelf and some fewer Willow Warblers. P. A. Kingsbury 6 Castle Hill, Berkhamstcd, Hertfordshire HP4 ihe C. J. Bibby’s question, ‘where has the love of birds among orni- thologists gone?’, prompts another along the same general lines: where are the efforts of bird-study groups and conservation societies leading? The attitude currently shown by a large and growing section of the British public towards birds is part of a very recent phenomenon; and the efforts of conservationists in the British scene are needed for well-known reasons, most of which stem from the expansion of the human population and the pressures so created upon all our finite natural resources. Granted that in Britain today much leisure time exists, and it is understandable that a great deal of that time will be spent by some Letters 474 people in following outdoor activities, of which birdwatching is a popular example. This has been of some help to professional orni- thologists by providing a large body of observers from whom much useful information has been obtained — and the laymen have felt, perhaps, that their piece of the jigsaw helped to complete the overall picture. But what really is the aim of all this activity, and for what purpose are all these data being collected ? To give us a datum- line from which to argue ? To protect a species or an area ? Why have a datum-line if economic pressures can cause it to be ignored whenever it is thought to be in the greater interests to do so? Is it right to protect a species or an area if this can be done only at the expense of whatever happened before the ‘protectionists’ took over ? Should the rats Rattus sp and the Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus be ‘removed’ so that a relative rarity may live unmolested? Why not ask, instead, ‘what if that relative rarity does become extinct?’ If every Song Thrush Turdus philomelos in the world died tomorrow, many of us would feel a sharp pang of regret; but on our grand- children the fate of that species would have as little effect as does the fate of the Dodo on me now, here in Britain today. More species of animal have become extinct than are alive at present today; there must be a time for extinction, just as there is a time for flourishing. If it is conditional that, in his spreading, Man makes the ecosystem untenable for many species which are now prolific, then might that not be the intended order of things, and why should attempts be made to prick the conscience of modern Man by making him feel guilty of his own success ? The influence we exert upon our natural surroundings today differs only in its degree, not in its intent, from the changes Man started to impose when he first planted seeds for a future food-crop. Without that move having been made we would not be here as we are today. Why does it suddenly matter that we try to preserve our countryside with its non-human inhabitants when, especially for us in Britain, that countryside itself is wholly artificial and man-made? Can we not just take the birds as we find them : give to those who can adapt to the changing scene the credit for adapting, and simply admire, enjoy or study them for what they are? Until quite recently, human beings had relatively few reasons for being interested in birds, but they were all practical reasons. Now, with so much time, money and effort being channelled into ‘birds’, very few people have anything of practical use in mind at all. As the pursuit of birds as we know it is of neither practical nor creative interest, it might be thought remarkable that the subject has so many devotees. Are we all in some way trying to offset the damage done by the rest of our way of life — the times when we are not just birdwatching ? Or are we all, through membership of these groups and societies, merely in the Letters 475 last resort the willing victims of the ad-men, yielding to their piessuies to buy books, binoculars and bird-seed without stopping to think what is really at stake? David G. P. Chatfield 3 Lyric oed Close , Dunvant, Swansea SA2 7RS We also received several other letters prompted by C. J. Bibby’s Viewpoint and we thank those who wrote for their interest. Eds ‘News and comment’ has had to be held over to the next issue. July reports and spring summary D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records July, particularly the beginning and end, was generally dry and warm everywhere with southerly airstreams, and occasional thunderstorms to punctuate the weather. As stated previously (Brit. Birds, 67: 175) the commoner species, and those for which monthly statements of occurrences would be of limited value, will be summarised at seasonal intervals. A Great Shearwater Puffinus gravis was seen six km off Sunderland (Tyne & Wear) on 25th, an early date. Two days later, a Cory’s Calonectris diomedea was reported off Sker Point (Mid Glamorgan). At Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) 16 Sooty Shearwaters P. griseus passed north during the month, with a peak of eleven on 4th. About 27th a Bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii was identified off Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork), and another was seen at the same place on 3rd August. An adult Purple Heron Ardea purpurea was at Oxwich (West Glamorgan) on 6th, the second individual there this year, and another was at Weir Wood Reservoir (East/West Sussex) on 8th. Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia were reported from four places: three on the north Norfolk coast early in the month; singles at Rainham (Kent) on 5th and at Hornsea Mere (Humberside) on 13th; and at Minsmere (Suffolk) where there were three until 12th, as many as nine for the following two days, four from 15th to 18th, six on 19th and 20th, four again on 21st and 22nd. six from 23rd to 26th and four from 27th. Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula returned to four places, and included six together at Colt Crag Reservoir (Northumberland) on 12th. A Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus appeared near Southport (Lancashire) on 27th and a Red Kite Milvus milvus flew over Ashlett (Hampshire) on 31st. Ospreys Pandion haliaetus turned up at several places in England: singles were found at Bewdley (Hereford & Worcester) on an unspecified date, in Durham at Hurworth Burn Reservoir on 3rd and Crookfoot Reservoir on 4th, at Blithfield Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 8th, at Minsmere from 7th to 9th, and off Sunderland on 15th. An immature Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus was reported at Church VVilne Reservoir (Derbyshire) from 6th to 9th. Further to those mentioned in the June summary (Brit. Birds, 68: 434), Quails Cotumix cotumix were heard in Leicestershire also in July. A Spotted Crake Porzana porzana was at Chew Valley 4y5 Jub reports and spring summary Lake (Avon) on 17 th, and Corncrakes Crex crex were recorded in the Tyneside and Bristol areas. The bird of the month was undoubtedly the White-tailed Plover Vanellus leucurus which arrived at Packington gravel pits (Warwickshire) on 12th and was observed by many hundreds of birdwatchers during its stay until 18th; the fact that this was the first time that this Asiatic plover had visited Britain obviously accounted for the real interest shown by observers. A more frequent visitor, but nevertheless a true rarity, a Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus was at Cley (Norfolk) from 2nd to 4th, eluding those who attempted to find it on the Saturday; this was the third individual for the year. A White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis appeared in the Humber estuary at Welton Waters (North Humberside) on 13th and 14th; and Pectoral Sandpipers C. melanotos in the Teesmouth area (Cleve- land) from 8th to 14th, with a second there from 15th to 23rd and yet another different bird from 17th to 20th; at Cley on 9th; and at Minsmere fiom 25th into August. Two Avocets Recurvirostra avosetta well inland at Attenborough (Notting- hamshire) on 5th were very unusual, particularly in July. An immature Sabine’s Gull Larus sabini was seen on several occasions between 7th and 30th in the Seaton Sluice/Tynemouth area. Rare terns were conspicuously absent, just a Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia at Bodymoor Heath (Waiwick- shire) from 6th to 9th. . Three Alpine Swifts Apus melba were recorded, at Cholsey (Oxfordshire) on 14th, at Kingsgate (Kent) on 19th and 20th and at Donna Nook (Lincolnshire) on 20th. The first Bee-eater Merops apiaster of the year was seen at Spurn (Humber- side) on 1 oth, while, as in J une, Hoopoes Upupa epops failed to make any impact, a single bird at Chew Stoke (Avon) on 22nd being the only report (cf Brit. Birds, 68: 435). Two Stonechats Saxicola torquata were on Fair Isle (Shetland) on 6th, one of them staying to 1 ith, the species being most unusual there in summer. An Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis trapped at Titchwell (Norfolk) on 5th was abnormally early, August and September being the usual months for this vagrant. A summer-plumaged Water Pipit Anthus spinoletta spinoletta which was found at Ham sewage farm (Berkshire) on 8th was also on a very unexpected date. Perhaps the occurrence of five Rose-coloured Starlings Sturnus roseus was rather sur- prising, though how many might have escaped it is of course impossible to know , the records came from East Boldon (Tyne & Wear) on 12 th, Purley, Reading (Berkshire), on 16th, Ystumtuen, near Devil’s Bridge (Dyfed), on 25th and 26th, Fair Isle from 28th to 16th August, and Treginnis, near Ramsey Island (also Dyfed), on 29th. Spring Summary The weather during the spring was in many ways unusual: early April was ab- normally cold and dominated by northerly winds until nth, when they became southerly; ‘falls’ occurred on 1 8th/ 19th; during 8th- 1 ith May a depression moving east over Britain caused further falls on the east coast of Continental migrants. Overall, visitors were late in arriving in any numbers. Gatherings in Shetland of divers and grebes included 32 Great Northern Divers Gavia immer in the Whiteness/ Weisdale area on 16th April and 21 at Fetlar on 3rd May; and at least 71 Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus in the whole Shetland group about the same time. Eastward passage of Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus on the south coast was good, particularly at Portland Bill (Dorset) where in April the maximum was 1 150 on 7th, in May 2,141 on 25th, and in June a record 2,400 on 7th. Smaller numbers were reported from several other stations. Highest numbers of Gannets Sula bassana reported to us were at Seaton Sluice, 552 north during 24th-25th May, though we received no news from the west of England. Common Scoters 477 July reports and spring summary Melanitta nigra were most in evidence at Dungeness (Kent), where movements east in April included maxima of 1,893 on 6th, 1,930 on 13th and 3,900 on 14th. No large passages of Great Skuas Stercorarius skua were apparent, but Pomarine Skuas S. pomarinus were seen in good numbers: again the south-east of England was the most prominent place, particularly Beachy Head (East Sussex) where 76 flew east and maxima were 37 on 28th April, 19 on 10th May and five on 14th; maximum at Dungeness was eight on 10th May. Also at Beachy Head, 163 Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus flew east, with peaks on 28th April (29) and 10th May (24), while at Dungeness 30 east on 10th May was the highest count. Glaucous Gulls Larus hyperboreus were widely reported from all parts of the coast and at six inland sites; records continued through to the end of May and even into June and the highest numbers were, predictably, in Scotland with eight at Fraserburgh (Grampian) on 1st March and six (with one hybrid Glaucous x Herring Gull L. argentatus) in Troon Harbour (Strathclyde) on 2nd May; at Seaton Sluice about eleven passed between 22nd and 30th March and on 29th two flew north and five were feeding at the sewage outlet. There were far fewer Iceland Gulls L. glaucoides, mostly singles though four immatures were at Seaton Sluice on 29th March with Glaucous Gulls; a late bird was at Sand Point (Avon) on 30th May. A good passage of Mediterranean Gulls L. melanocephalus was noted at Dungeness from March, over ten birds being recorded with four or five together on 30th March; in the YVeymouth/Radipole Lake area of Dorset birds were present continuously from the end of March with six immatures together on 6th May. Passage of Little Gulls L. minutus was disappointing, the only figures of any note coming from Beachy Head where 136 passed east, peaks being 55 on 28th April, 46 on 10th May and ten on 12th May ( cf skuas). The only reports of Kittiwakes Rissa tridaclyla moving were from Seaton Sluice where northward passage included up to 800 per hour in March and up to 1,000 per hour during 2ist-3ist May; inland, however, there were at least 39, all adults, at Chasewater (Staffordshire) on 5th March, 37 of which departed north-cast. We received complete details of tern movements only from Beachy Head, with fewer data from Dungeness. At the former locality totals moving east were 49 Black Chlidonias niger, 10,691 Common/Arctic Sterna hir undo j par adisaea, 295 Little S. albifrons and 3,488 Sandwich S. sandvicensis ; a large movement took place on 10th May, with 23 Black Terns, 2,990 ‘commie’, 50 Little and 384 Sandwich; other peaks occured on 28th April, with 97 Little and 796 Sandwich, and on 1st, 9th, 12th, 15th and 18th May. At Dungeness the maxima were 15 Black on 15th May, 2,200 ‘commie’ on 9th May and 2,000 on 10th, 238 Little on 14th April, 274 on 26th, 250 on 27th and 260 on 28th. Elsewhere, 24 Black Terns passed through Attenborough (Nottinghamshire) on 4th May. Late April movements east of Bar-tailed Godwits Limosa lapponica were strongest during 26th-28th: on 26th 1,500 passed Portland Bill, 416 Beachy Head and 609 Dungeness, and on 27th 1,015 flew east at Portland. 1,133 at Beachy Head and 592 at Dungeness ; at Pennington (Hampshire) a total of 4,626 passed between mid-April and mid-May, including 4.440 during the last week of April. Spring gatherings of waders on the Ribble estuary (Lancashire/Merseyside) included 950 Grey Plovers Pluvialis squatarola on 11th May and 7,000 Sanderlings Calidris alba on 25th and 26th. Spring passage of Jack Snipes Lymnocryptes minimus was witnessed at various sites both inland and on the coast; there were several counts of double figures, the highest being 19 at Rumworth (Lancashire) on 16th March and 21 at Swanscombe (Kent) on 7th April; very few stayed into May but a very late bird was found at Stodmarsh (Kent) on 27th. A very early Shore Lark Eremophila alpestris arrived at Walls (Shetland) on 8th March, otherwise spring passage of this species in Scotland was poor and the last was seen on Fair Isle on nth May. Returning Fieldfares Turdus pilaris flocked in Scotland at several places, the maximum being 5,000 on Fair Isle on 478 July reports and spring summary 20th and 21st April; in England over 3,000 were at Homage (Berkshire) on 4th April; May records were not uncommon and in June there were several sightings away from Scotland, with the last found dead near Rothbury (Northumberland) on 29th. Fewer Redwings T. iliacus delayed their northward journey, a dozen or so in May and singles in June on Fetlar to 4th and at Earsdon (Tyne & Wear) on 8th. Migrating Blackbirds T. merula were evident in the middle of April with 1,400 on Whalsay (Shetland) on 14th and over 1,000 on Fetlar the next day, and 1,000 on Fair Isle on 20th and 21st. Northward migration of Chaffinches Fringilla coelebs was noted in Kent, where on 23rd March 2,150 moved past Allhallows in two hours and 2,300 flew north/north-east at Sandwich Bay. A late Brambling F. montifringilla was in Epping Forest (Essex) on 26th May and the last were seen at Spurn and in Shetland on 27th. Almost all the Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis had departed by the end of April and only in Shetland were they present up to the first week of June. A fall of Continental migrants occurred between 8th and 1 ith May on the east coast; it was most marked in north Northumberland, and particularly on Holy Island where during that period there were 200 Wheatears Oenanthe oenanthe, 75 Whinchats Saxicola rubetra, at least 50 Redstarts Phoenicurus phoenicurus, over 200 Willow Warblers, 25 Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca and 50 Tree Pipits Anthus trivialis; elsewhere there were 40 Whinchats at Hauxley, and on 9th on Fair Isle 30 Whinchats, 50 Redstarts and 15 Pied Flycatchers. A record 15 Stonechats arrived on Fair Isle on 2nd March. Black Redstarts P. ochruros occurred in fairly good numbers, particularly in April : coastal passage was strongest on the east coast and the maximum was 20 at Dungeness on 19th, though groups of eight were recorded elsewhere. Dungeness also reported more Firecrests Regulus ignicapillus than elsewhere with maxima of 25 on 23rd March, 15 on 2nd and 3rd April and 10 on 4th; at least 20 individuals passed through Portland between 10th March and 22nd April with a maximum of six on 30th March. The highest concentration of Goldcrests R. regulus was on Bardsey (Gwynedd) on 16th April when 120 were present, and two days later 100 were at Dungeness; smaller peaks occurred at Spurn on 17th April (60) and 19th (50), and on the Calf of Man on 4th May (50). ARRIVALS OF SOME MIGRANTS AND SUMMER VISITORS Garganey Anas querquedula An early single at Sidlesham Ferry (West Sussex) on 1 st March, otherwise few and slowly through second half of the month and April. One on Fair Isle on 25th May. Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosas Very many reports from all parts, with hint of influxes in late April and late May. Hobby Falco subbuteo Unusual first report of two at Wyggeston School (Leicester- shire) on the early date of 18th April, otherwise very few indeed until mid- to late May. Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius Very early arrivals at Smestow sandpits (Warwickshire) and at Girton (Nottinghamshire) on 2nd March, and at Rutland Water (Leicestershire) on 8th; 20 or so more up to end of month, including five at Ham sewage farm on 29th, and a steady arrival through April with no obvious pattern. Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus Generally a late arrival, though at Seaton Sluice four north on 8th March, followed by one on 22nd, seven on 23rd and twelve on 30th (all flying north) , were most unusual ; extremely few in early April and a slight passage until last ten days; maximum at Steart (Avon) roost 1,000 on 3rd May. Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos No real numbers until after mid-April; influx during 1 6th- 19th when ten at Cliffe (Kent), 18 at Cheddar Reservoir (Somerset), 13 at Chew Valley Lake (Avon); thereafter, 21 at Cheddar Reservoii on 2 1st, 16 at Holme Pierrepont (Nottinghamshire) on 1st May (after rain), July reports and spring summary 479 influx on nth when 38 at Cheddar and ten at Foxcote (Buckinghamshire), and 16 at Sandwich Bay on 31st. Greenshank T. nebularia Early inland record of one at Clay Mills (Derbyshire) on 1 6th March, then small passage through April, particularly from 19th. Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Only report of first one in Suffolk on 5th April. Black Tern Chlidonias niger Only five in April (from 19th) and small numbers in May. Common Tern Sterna hirundo Very few until May (only 40 back at Minsmere by end of April). Arctic Tern S. paradi.saea Few reports. Inland, 16 at Church VVilne Reservoir on 4th May and 24 on 18th; at Eye Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire) ten on 18th. Roseate Tern .S', dougallii Very few reported. One north at Walberswick (Suffolk) on 22nd April and more in mid-May on south coast. Little Tern .S', albifrons Main arrival from mid-April but small numbers until May. Sandwich Tern .S', sandvicensis Small arrival late March, steady arrival in April though small numbers (only 400 at Minsmere by 30th). Turtle Dove Slreptopelia turtur Very early bird at Shalstone, near Buckingham, on 20th March. Main arrival from i8th-igth April with influx from 23rd. Cuckoo Cuculus canorus From 1 ilh April, definite influx 18th- 19th. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus Two very early birds near Windsor (Berkshire) on 22nd April; small arrival May. Swift Apus apus Generally a late arrival: one at North Wootton (Somerset) on 1 8th April but scarce until end of month, though 15 at West Denton (Durham) on 25th; first main arrival 27th-2gth; in May huge arrival 1 ith-i6th. Swallow Hirundo rustica Early arrival at Portland on 1st March, rest there from 1 1 th April; influxes 1 1 th- 1 5th, iflth-igth, but most came in during May. House Martin Delichon urbica Early birds at Axbridge (Somerset) on 9th March and in east Norfolk about 12th; generally late; influxes during I3th-20th April but main arrival in May (1,000+ per hour Sandwich Bay on 1 1 th). Sand Martin Riparia riparia First at Marazion (Cornwall) on 1st March but few others until April, when influxes 12th- 15th, i8th-22nd. Late. Ring Ousel Turdus torquatus Very early individual at Derwent Edge (Derbyshire) on 9th March; few more until major influx on igth-20th April; influx Fair Isle of 1 7 on 9th May. Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe Apart from February birds (see Brit. Birth, 68: 254), two near Eastry (Kent) on early date of 1st March; generally very late, from 30th March with most in April/May; first birds in most parts in April (e.g., 9th April Minsmere); 100 Portland 6th April. Whinchat Saxicola rubetra Early bird at Pennington (Hampshire) on 22nd March, and one on Isle of Tiree (Strathclyde) on 29th very early for Scotland : in April influxes during igth-27th, and in May 30 Fair Isle on 9th and 30 Beachy Head on 1 8th. Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus Very late; one in March in Buckinghamshire but extremely scarce until iSth/igth April when stronger passage; 50 Fair Isle on 9th May. Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos Small arrival last ten days April. Grasshopper Warbler hocustella naevia Small artival -April with influxes 19th, 23rd, 26th-27th. Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus Late; first at Warsash (Hampshire) on nth April but no more until 19th; minor influx 26th; 43 Sandwich Bay on 18th May. Sedge Warbler A. schoenobaenus Extremely few until mid-April; arrivals 18th- 20th and from 25th ; 57 at Oxwich 26th ; influx mid-May when 50 on Calf of Man and 62 Sandwich Bay. Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla Main arrivals from 16th April; in May 20 at Beachy Head and 30 at Dungeness on 18th. 480 July reports and spring summary Garden Warbler S. borin Late; five or so in first half April, a few more until influx 26th-27th; in May 38 at Beachy Head on 1 ith, and on 18th 35 there and 70 at Dungeness. Whitethroat S. communis Very early bird at Titchfield Haven (Hampshire) on 23rd March; small influx 20th April, more to 26th-27th when larger influx; in May 100 at Beachy Head on nth, and large ‘fall’ on 18th ( cf other warblers) when 200 at Dungeness and 170 at Beachy Head. Lesser Whitethroat S. curruca None until 18th April; slow arrival through to May. Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus Early one in Winchester (Hampshire) on nth March; good numbers in April with major ‘falls’ on south and south-east coasts on 28th and 1 ith and 18th May. Chiffchaff P. collybita Six arrived at Portland on 1st March; from then steady arrival with suggestion of small influx during 2ist-24th; many still arriving well into April and May. Wood Warbler P. sibilatrix Arrival from 19th April with influx 26th-27th. Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata One at Knettishall (Suffolk) on 1 6th April; very few more in April; several influxes in May, and 300 on 18th at Dungen- ess unprecedented. Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Very early bird on Alderney on 30th March; next on 17th April but few until May; 15 on Fair Isle on 9th May. Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis Very late: first not until 5th April at Old Winchester Hill (Hampshire); general arrival from 17th. White Wagtail Motacilla alba alba Average arrival in March and April; 24 Teesmouth on 19th April, 15 Berrow (Somerset) on 20th, 15 Blaydon (Tyne & Wear) on 24th. Yellow Wagtail M.flava One at Purston (Northamptonshire) on 10th March, a few more until April, when influxes from 1 ith; large passage 20th April and large arrival end of month. One at Staveley sewage farm (Derbyshire) on 21st February omitted from earlier reports. Widespread reports of Blue-headed M. f. Jlava from 19th April, and many Grey-headed thunbergi; Ashy-headed cinereocapilla at Tees- mouth on 1st and 22nd May. Red-backed Shrike Lanins collurio Only April record at Kirton Priors (Notting- hamshire) on 22nd; small arrival May, with six different birds at Spurn 25th-3ist; numbers generally low. stop press An exceptional autumn for rarities means that we have to be selective and the following is just a percentage of what has occurred in October. Little Bustard on St Agnes (Scilly) on 29th; at least six Short-toed Larks in Scilly in the first half of that month; Bimaculated Lark on St Mary’s (Scilly) from 24th; Black-throated Thrush at Holkham (Norfolk) on 21st and 22nd; White’s Thrush on Whalsay (Shetland) on unspecified date; total of four Lanceolated Warblers on Fair Isle during October; Blyth’s Reed Warbler on Tresco (Scilly) from 9th to 12th ; Desert Warbler at Spurn on 20th and 21st; Greenish Warblers on Tresco on 14th and St Mary’s on 15th; Pallas’s Warblers on St Agnes during 1 1 th- 1 8th, at Holkham on 19th, and at least three at Spurn on 21st; Radde’s Warbler and Dusky Warbler at Holkham in second half of month; Pechora Pipit on Fair Isle on unspecified date; Blackpoll Warbler on St Agnes during 1 1 th- 1 8th ; Bobolink on St Mary’s on 9th. THE BIOLOGY OF PENGUINS Edited by Bernard Stonehouse This book presents up-to-date review articles and new research papers on the various aspects of the penguin by an international team of con- tributors, many of them well-known in the field of penguin research. It ranges in scope from the Galapagos islands to Antarctica, and among the topics covered there is a contribution on the seldom-studied Little penguin. Seventy photographs illustrate this comprehensive and highly readable account of a fascinating group of birds which has long been of interest to amateur and professional ornithologists alike. £18.50 For further details, please write to Anne Calcott, The Macmillan Press. Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF m MACMILLAN PRESS Binding ‘British Birds’ The comprehensive index for 1975 will be published in December 1975. There will be no short index to British Birds in future and all subscribers will receive a copy of the comprehensive index automatically. 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Excellent discounts can also be offered on many other new items. 8x30 (wt l8oz) £19.25 10x50 (wt 36oz) £27.50 8x 40 (wt 25oz) £37.76 Complete with case and straps Send for any model on 7 days free trial — naturally without obligation Famous for fine instruments since the turn of the century CHARLES FRANK LTD 144 Ingram Street, Glasgow Gl Tel: 041-221 6666 Write, phone or call Volume 68 Number n November 1975 437 Mortality in the Black-headed Gull Dr J. J. M. Flegg and C. J. Cox 450 British bird-photographers 18 R. J. C. Blewitt Plates 56-63 453 Ovenbird in Shetland: a species new to Britain and Ireland Iain S. Robertson 456 The spring passage of the Pomarine Skua on British and Irish coasts D. L. Davenport 463 Feeding and food-hiding responses of Jackdaws and Magpies Dr C. J. Henty Notes 467 Greenshank taking fish Nick Riddiford and Raymond E. Turley 467 Feral pigeon swimming J. R. Ogle 468 Some instances of nest predation by Great Spotted Woodpeckers on House Martins and other species David E. Glue 469 Great Tit probably killing Blue Tit at the nest Duncan J. Brown 469 The role of male Blue Tits and Great Tits in nest-building Dr P. G. Morris Review 470 The Life of Birds by J. Dorst Euan Dunn Letters 472 Who took the birds out of British ornithology? Guy Mountfort, P. A. Kings- bury, and David G. P. Chatfield 475 July reports and spring summary D. A. Christie P. J. Grant drew the Pomarine Skuas (page 462) Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF Volume 68 Number 12 December 1975 EDITORIAL AZURE-WINGED MAGPIE STUDIES RARE BREEDING BIRDS IN 1974 CENSUS COUNTING OF AUKS Editorial Address British Birds, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone 01-836 6633 ) Editors Stanley Cramp, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR Rarities Committee J. N. Dymond, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2dl © The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd British Birds is published monthly by Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633). ISSN 0007-0335 Annual Subscription £8.00 including index (Orders must be accompanied by remittance. Prices applicable only to orders received before 31st December 1975) Cheques should be made payable to Macmillan Journals Limited: Subscription Department, Brunei Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG2 i 2xs, England Enquiries concerning advertising space and rates should be addressed to: Advertisement Department, Macmillan Journals Limited, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF ( telephone : 01-836 6633) British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of the west Palearctic or, where appropriate, on the species of this area as observed in other parts of their range. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted only on condition that the material is not being offered in whole or in part to any other journal. Photographs and sketches are welcomed. After publication, 25 reprints of each paper are sent free to the author (two co-authors receive 15 each and three or more co-authors ten each); additional copies, for which a charge is made, should be ordered in advance of publication. Reprints of notes and other short items have to be specially ordered and are charged for. Papers should be typewritten with double spacing and wide margins, and on one side of the sheet only. Shorter contributions, if not typed, must be clearly written and well spaced, and notes should be worded as concisely as possible. Authors of papers and notes, especially of those containing systematic lists, reference lists, tables, etc., should consult the ones in this issue as a guide to general presentation. English names of birds and other animals should have capital initials for each word, except after a hyphen, but group terms and names of plants should not. Both English and scientific names of birds, and the sequence, follow A Species List of British and Irish Birds (BTO Guide 13, 1971). All scientific names should be under- lined immediately after the first mention of the English name, though it is some- times more convenient instead to list them in an appendix. Subspecific names should not be used except where relevant to the discussion. Dates should always take the form Tst January 1974’, except in tables where they may be abbreviated. Conventions concerning references, including their use in the text and the form of citation used in reference lists, should follow the examples in this issue. Tables should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the title typed above in the style used in this issue. They must either fit into the width of a page, or be designed to fit a whole page lengthways. All tables should be self-explanatory. Figures should be numbered with arabic numerals, and the captions typed on a separate sheet. All line-drawings should be in Indian ink on good quality tracing paper, drawing paper or board (not of an absorbent nature) or, where necessary, on light blue or very pale grey graph paper. It is important to consider how each drawing will fit into the page when reduced. Any lettering or numbering that is an integral part of a text-figure should be inserted lightly in pencil. Pine Crossbills by Desmond Nether sole- Thompson This authoritative and immensely readable study is the author’s fourth monograph. It deals com- paratively with the pine- feeding Scottish birds, the common crossbills of the English Breckland, and other related species. A product of forty years field observation and re- search, the book details the life style, numbers and distribution of the cross- bills, and the author con- cludes that the Scottish birds are relics of an original pine crossbill stock. With a Preface by Dr Ian Newton and drawings by Donald Watson, a colour plate and 16 pages of photographs. 256 pages plus 18 plates £ 5.00 net Orkney Seabirds Research Biologist required by the RSPB for a 27 month contract starting February/ March 1976 to carry out sea- bird surveys in Orkney. Ap- plicants should be competent ornithologists and have the use of a car. A degree or degree equivalent is desirable. Salary starting at £2,175 with an accommodation allowance. For further details and appli- cation form send s.a.e. to Miss J. Robertson, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Beds. Closing date for applications 5th January 1976. WANTED BRITISH BIRDS Vols. 9; 10/nos. 10-12; 19/nos. 6, 12; 20/nos. 8, 10, 12; 21/nos. 1, 3; 22; 23; 24; 25/nos. 3, 5, 8; 26; 27/nos. 2, 6, 9, 10; 28/nos. 1, 2, 5, 8; 30/nos. 7, 12; 31 /no. 4; 32/nos. 3, 4, 8; 33/nos. 4, 10, 12; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 46/nos. 9, 10, 12; 64/no. 8. YOUR OFFER FOR ANY OTHER ORNITHOLOGICAL BOOKS AND JOURNALS IS ALSO WELCOME. KRAUS PERIODICALS FL-9491 NENDELN LIECHTENSTEIN T. & A. D. POYSER 281 High St, Berkhamsted, Herts. 1 Threatened Birds of Europe Edited by Robert Hudson A Introduction by Stanley Cramp This beautiful book features 59 bird species currently in danger of extinction in Europe. Each bird is presented as a separate case history with a distribution map and in most cases, a full-page colour photograph. Full indentification details and noteworthy behavioural characteristics are given in each case, and the present status, causes of decline and possible means of protection are outlined. The introduction by Stanley Cramp, chief editor of Birds of the Western Palearctic, discusses the causes of change and decline in bird populations, the history and future of protection, and in particular the main groups of birds threatened and the reasons for this. 56 colour plates; bibliography; index; £4.95 V BINOCULARS of QUALITY from Barr & Stroud „ ^?SS Greenkat icifa SWIFT PENTAX 2EISS DIRECT TO YOU AT ENORMOUS DISCOUNTS All makes available: send s.a.e. for binocular and telescope price list. Swift Audubon 8.5 X 44, retail £68.00, our price £58.25. Saratoga 8 x 40, retail £46.00, our price £39.39. Perl 9 x 35, retail £24.37 our price £19.50. Zeiss 10 X 40B Dialyt, retail £252.44, our price £168.30. Nickel Supra telescope 15 X 60 X 60, retail £124.88, our price £84.00. Heron 8 x 40, retail approx. £31.50, our price £21.30 (approved by Nature Con- servancy). All including case and lanyard. 14-day approval service (payment with order please add 30p part p. and p.). Callers welcome. All prices correct when going to press. HERON OPTICAL COMPANY (BB12'75> 23/25 Kings Road, Brentwood, Essex. Tel: (STD 0277) 22 1 259/2 194 1 8 11 Volume 68 Number 12 December 1975 Editorial Birds of prey — time for action In Britain some restrained satisfaction may be felt over recent trends in bird of prey populations. After 150 years in which human per- secution caused massive declines in numbers and ranges in most of our predators, protection had begun to lead to some improvements when, in the 1950’s, the new threat of persistent pesticides appeared. Marked decreases occurred in some species, especially the Pere- grine Falco peregrinus and the Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, and widespread reductions in breeding success led to fears for the survival of the former (indeed it vanished from eastern North America before the danger was fully realised). In recent years, increasingly severe restrictions on the use of the persistent organo- chlorines, after bitter debates with some of the commercial interests, have led to welcome recoveries in the species affected, although even now Peregrine numbers are only some 60% of the pre-war level. Under protection the Osprey Pandion haliaetus has returned, the Red Kite Milvus milvus is increasing and the Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca maintains a precarious foothold, but the Merlin Falco columbarius and Barn Owl Fyto alba also suffered declines due to pesti- cides, while the Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus is virtually extinct here. Moreover, although all species enjoy full legal pro- tection, the law is frequently ignored, most importantly by game preservers (some using the illegal and barbarous pole-trap), while egg-collectors and some falconers menace the rarer species. There is less cause for satisfaction when the global picture is examined, as became abundandy clear during the first World 481 Editorial 482 Conference on Birds of Prey, organised by the International Council for Bird Preservation (supported by the international organisations representing hunters and falconers, as well as by international governmental agencies and international conservation bodies) and held in Vienna from 1st to 3rd October 1975. Where adequate information is available (and in large areas of tropical Africa, Asia and South America there is little) the outlook still appears gloomy, especially for the larger birds of prey. For example, in Europe, desperate struggles continue to save the remnants of the Peregrine and White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla in Sweden and Finland; habitat destruction threatens many species including the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus and Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Spain, and the slaughter of migrating raptors goes on in central Europe as well as the Mediterranean area. In North America, though rigorous restrictions on persistent chemicals are now in force, some populations of the Osprey and the Bald Eagle H. leucocephalus are still depressed, while the Peregrines of arctic Canada and Alaska (except for the non-migratory population of the Aleu- tians) are seriously threatened. Only from East Africa came a moderately reassuring picture, as human persecution still appears to be a minor factor there. The threats facing birds of prey are the same all over the world, although their precise impact varies with different countries and with different species. The threats can be summed up in one word — Man. Man persecutes them because he believes, all too often wrongly, that they are a serious threat to his interests, whether chickens, sheep, or gamebirds. Then, in far too many countries, hunters, often ignoring the outlook of their responsible international organisation as well as the local law, shoot them for ‘sport’, for many predators make large and tempting targets, afterwards to be stuffed or merely left to rot. Man pollutes the environment and so affects especially species at the tops of food chains, and although some of the richer countries have begun to control pollutants (especially the organochlorines and mercury), such controls are often inade- quate, while over large areas of the undeveloped world (often recipients of products now banned or restricted in their country of origin) restrictions are non-existent. Last among the major factors is the continuing destruction of habitat, above all forests and wet- lands, the almost inevitable concomitant of the human population explosion. Other human activities are usually of lesser importance, though any one of them could deal the final blow to a species al- ready at a low ebb in a particular country. They include the delibe- rate use of poisons (such as strychnine to kill large mammalian predators, as in the Balkans, and thallium sulphate as a rodenticide in Israel) ; the world trade in predators for zoos, falconers and pet Editorial 483 shops; egg-collectors; improved hygiene resulting in fewer animal carcasses for vultures to scavenge; electric power-lines; road traffic; and the invasion of remoter areas by an increasingly mobile popu- lation whose activities, whether as tourists, birdwatchers or photo- graphers, may cause more sensitive species to depart. Those present in Vienna, whether conservationists, hunters or falconers, achieved a heartening unanimity on the steps which must be taken now if further disastrous declines in many species are to be avoided. First, they called for the total protection of all birds of prey (even in Europe where there has been considerable progress since the Caen Conference in 1964, 16 countries still give only partial protection and Malta none at all, whilst over large areas elsewhere such legislation is unknown) with more efficient enforcement and stronger penalties. Secondly, they pressed for the conservation of habitats and the control of pollutants, both especially vital in tropical areas, where these probably represent the most serious threats. Thirdly, they urged controls on the world trade in birds of prey and especially the early ratification (by Britain among others) of the Washington convention on the trade in endangered species. Fourthly, they stressed the need for more scientific research, including regular surveys of population trends (for many Europeans perhaps the major surprise of the conference was the evidence of the recent decline of the Montagu’s Harrier in many western countries for reasons largely obscure) and of ecologi- cal studies which could lead to the appreciation of the causes behind such trends, a fuller understanding of predator-prey relationships, and improved management techniques. It is not possible to detail all the other resolutions, but they included control of captive breeding, the licensing of all birds of prey in captivity, measures to render power-lines safe, the establishment of special reserves, and the control of poison baits. Most important, perhaps, was the stress on the need for further education to be carried out by governments and conservation organisations: this must be aimed at game pre- servers, hunters and falconers, who still all too often ignore existing laws and the advice of their international organisations, and also at the general public, to ensure both that their voice makes govern- ments take more effective action and that the laws made are generally obeyed, besides avoiding unnecessary disturbance them- selves. Such education must bring home more clearly to those who feel their special interests are threatened the scientific evidence that predators do not normally control the numbers of their prey and, indeed, do much to ensure a healthier prey population and, on a wider plane, try to show to all that ecological diversity is to be welcomed in every kind of habitat and that these w'inged aristocrats are a key, as well as a noble and exciting, part of such diversity. Studies of less familiar birds ij8 Azure-winged Magpie Derek Goodwin Photographs by A. N. H. Peach , Eric Hosking and P. F. Bonham Plates 64-66 The Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cyanus is remarkable both for the delicate beauty of its appearance and its extremely disjunct range. It is found only in Iberia and eastern Asia. It has often been suggested that the Iberian population might be a feral one and owe its origin to escaped or liberated captives that had been brought back by early Portuguese or Spanish traders with the Far East. In view of the amount of geographic differentiation known to have taken place in the House Sparrow Passer domesticus in less than a hundred years since its introduction into North America (Johnston and Selander 1964), the racial differences between the Iberian and Far Eastern forms cannot be held completely to invalidate this theory. A more cogent objection is that, contrary to popular opinion, successful introductions of birds to new areas, though often attempted, seem seldom to have been successful except where quite large numbers of healthy individuals were liberated together. It is unlikely that large numbers of Azure-winged Magpies were formerly brought to Iberia and allowed to escape or that the escape of only a few individuals would have led to their establishment. That the Azure-winged Magpie may be a declining species that once in- habited a much larger area is suggested by the fact that, within its present range, it is absent from many areas that appear, to orni- thologists, to be suitable. At least in eastern Asia it seems unlikely that this has been caused by human persecution and, although in Iberia its recent decrease may have been due to killing by Man, its patchy distribution is thought to reflect rather rigid habitat and/or temperature requirements (Dos Santos 1968). Similar in shape to a Magpie Pica pica except for its proportionately smaller bill and feet, the Azure-winged Magpie is a much less bulky bird, its body size being about that of a Song Thrush Turdus philomelos. The general coloration is a soft greyish fawn with a slightly pinkish tinge, glossy black head, white throat and light azure or powder blue wings and tail. This description applies to the Iberian form. Far Eastern birds differ in being slightly larger with proportionately longer tails and paler and greyer body colour. They also have broad white tips to the central tail feathers and often narrow white tips to some or all of the others, whereas the Iberian 484 [Brit. Birds, 68: 484-488, December 1975] Azure-winged. Magpie studies 485 form only exceptionally retains white tips to the tail feathers when adult. Many slightly differentiated and usually intergrading races have been described but, in general, these tend to blur rather than emphasise the main differences, which are between the Iberian and Asian forms. In all Azure-winged Magpies the upperparts tend to be browner in worn plumage, unless much bleached, in which case they become very pale. These differences, which are due to wear, seem usually more marked in the Iberian than in Far Eastern forms. The juvenile is darker and browner with huffish tips to its dull black head feathers, greyish-brown to brownish-blue wing coverts and white-tipped tail feathers even in the Iberian race. The two central tail feathers of the juvenile plumage are relatively narrow and weak in texture and grow to only about half the length of the next pair, instead of being longer as in subsequent plumages. Stegmann (1931) seems to have been the first to describe this phenomenon. Some, and possibly all, juveniles renew their wing and tail quills at the first moult. In Europe the long blue tail is a diagnostic field character, possessed by no other bird. In the Far East its black bill and white throat at once distinguish it from the Red-billed Blue Magpie Cissa erythrorhyncha, which is also much larger and longer-tailed. In western Europe it is confined to the western, central and southern parts of Spain and Portugal. In eastern Asia it occurs in eastern, central and northern China, northward to Transbaicalia and Mongolia, the Amur Basin, Korea and Japan. It is found in open woodland, both coniferous and deciduous, cultivated or open country with groves of trees, thickets, orchards, hedges or other cover, riparian woodlands, gardens and parks. In its European range Dos Santos (1968) found that it is essentially a bird of the warmer valleys and that local populations are often widely separate from one another. In the Far East, however, it occurs in some areas which have cold winters and heavy snowfall (Hosono 1967). It is largely resident but evidently indulges in some local migrations or wanderings as it may be absent from its breeding areas during the w'inter. The Azure-winged Magpie feeds both in trees and on the ground (plate 64b), where it hops and sometimes polka-steps but, unlike the Magpie, does not also walk. The food consists largely of insects and their larvae, especially beetles (and including the Colorado Beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata) , soft fruits and berries. It is said (\ alverde, in Turcek and Kelso 1968) also to feed on and store seeds of stone pine Pinus pinea, acorns and olives. In captivity it hides food in the usual manner of most other corvids. Large objects are held under one foot and torn or dissected with the bill. It readily learns to take 486 Azure-winged Magpie studies human foods when given the opportunity and sometimes, at least in the Far Eastern parts of its range, scavenges around houses and garbage tips. The Azure-winged Magpie is usually found in small parties, even in the breeding season. Although there appear to be no records of more than one pair attendant on a nest the possibility that, as in some of the social American jays, birds other than their parents may assist in feeding the young should be borne in mind and watched for. The species appears often to nest in loose colonies, with the individual nests usually in separate trees or bushes and often up to ioo metres apart. The nest is open and cup-shaped, built of twigs and sticks with an inner wall of plant roots, fibres and similar materials and with a lining of fine roots, vegetable fibres, wool or hair. Usually, perhaps always, mud is used in the foundation of the nest. Both sexes build but more information is needed as to the extent to which each participates. I watched a pair in a zoo that were trying to build in an unsuitable site, as they had no other: the male, after taking up (separately) one or two sticks to the site, tore up stems and roots of grass until he had a bundle and then, keeping them in his mouth, picked up damp sand (since no mud was available) from the shaded part of the floor by partly opening and stabbing in his bill until he had both wet sand and grass; he then took the billful to the site and tried to plaster it down. The collecting procedure was very similar to that of the Swallow Hirundo rustica and, under natural conditions, doubtless serves to secure mud bound with roots or similar materials as a foundation. The five to nine buffish, greyish, whitish or greenish eggs are spotted with dark or olive brown and have underlying grey or purplish markings. Nests with eggs have been found most often in May or June throughout most of the species’ range, but sometimes as early as March or as late as July. Incubation and brooding appear to be, as is usual in corvids other than nutcrackers Caryo- catactes spp, by the female only, who is fed by the male (plate 65b) . Both sexes feed the young. In captivity in England, eggs of the Chinese form took 15 days to hatch, the hatching dates suggesting that true incubation began with the third egg (Porter 1941). Porter’s birds were double-brooded and continued to feed the young of the first brood during incubation of the second clutch. It appears not to be known how many broods are usual in the wild. Attempts to transcribe bird calls are admittedly fallible but as I think they are better than nothing I make the following attempts. ‘Krarraah ! kwink-kwink-kwink’, the first note very loud, harsh and upward-inflected, the ‘kwinks’ quick, metallic-sounding and also upward-inflected, appears to be an alarm call and may correspond to the chattering of the Magpie. I have heard it from captive birds Azure-winged Magpie studies 487 when I showed them some object such as the stuffed head of an Eagle Owl Bubo bubo , which appeared to arouse both fear and curiosity. I have also heard ‘wee-we-wee-u’, sometimes ‘wee-we-we- wee-u’, a soft, sweet but high-pitched whistling call with the final ‘u’ sharply upward-inflected. This was given to me by a tame male, I think in self-assertion or threat. It was usually accompanied by the tail-tilting and wing-fluttering display. ‘K’we’ or ‘k’we(it)’, a soft note, very like some of the softer variants of the appeal call of the Jay Garrulus glandarius but upwardly inflected, is given in various situations, especially when the bird is carrying food in its gullet and seems undecided where to hide it. ‘Tschreeeeeh’, a long- drawn, rather husky and sibilant call, is uttered, with apparent effort, in an upright posture with the bill raised a little above the horizontal and a very slight opening and sometimes quivering of the folded wings. When this call was given, twice on different occasions, by a captive female out of sight of her mate he at once flew into the shelter to her. This is probably the same call that Mountfort (1958) described as ‘a hoarse, rising “shree” ’ and found to be the most characteristic call of wild Azure-winged Magpies in Spain during the breeding season. I have also heard soft, high- pitched chattering calls from a male displaying to a female and a series of sharp, chirruping notes from the same male when he was in his nest site making building movements. The above calls were heard from captive birds in zoos. Most descriptions that I have read of the voice of wild birds appear to refer to the same calls except that Eric Simms recorded a predator- mobbing call, from Spanish Azure-winged Magpies shown a stuffed Eagle Owl, which began with a metallic guttural rattle and continued into a nasal screech. Swinhoe (1861) described an apparently similar, perhaps identical, call from the Chinese form. The displays of the Azure-winged Magpie appear to be rather similar to and probably homologous with those of the Magpie, but I have seen displays from only a few captive individuals and much further information is needed. In apparently self-assertive or threatening display to me a captive male on the other side of wire tilted his body towards me, w'ith the folded wings slightly lifted, and fluttered, the far wing being raised more than the near wing. The tail was partly spread but, in contrast to the Magpie, on both sides, not only on the side nearest to me. In what was possibly a sexual version of this display the same male hopped around his mate, just after feeding her, with his head slightly lowered, his tail only a little tilted towards her and his wings partly open and fluttering. Allopreening probably occurs, as a human-imprinted Azure-winged Magpie belonging to Dr C. J. O. Harrison would solicit substitute attempts from its owner’s fingers by elongating its 4^8 Azure-winged Magpie studies neck and erecting its head and neck feathers. Feeding of the female by the male occurs, as in most corvids. REFERENCES Dos Santos, J. R. 1968. ‘The colony of Azure-winged Magpies in the Barca d’Alava region.’ Cyanopica, 1: 1-28. Hosono, T. 1967. ‘A life history study of the Blue Magpie.’ Misc. Rep. Yamash. Inst. Orn., 5: 34-47, 1 77-193. 1969. ‘A life history study of the Blue Magpie.’ Misc. Rep. Yamash. Inst. Orn., 5= 659-675. Johnston, R. F., and Selander, R. K. 1964. ‘House Sparrows: rapid evolution of races in North America.’ Science, 144, no. 3618: 548-550. Mountfort, G. 1958. Portrait of a Wilderness. London. Porter, S. 3-8- I94I- ‘Breeding the Chinese Azure-winged Magpie.’ A vie. Mag., (5) 6: Stegmann, B. 1931. ‘Die Vogel des dauro-mandschurischen Uebergangegebietes.’ J. Orn., 79: 142-144. Swinhoe, R. 1861. Notes on ornithology between Takoo and Peking, north China.’ Ibis, (1) 3: 336. Turcek, R. J., and Kelso, L. 1968. ‘Ecological aspects of food transportation and storage in the Corvidae.’ Comm. Behav. Biol., Pt. A, 1 : 277-297. Derek Goodwin , 40 Frankfurt Road , Herne Hill, London SE24 9NY Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 1974 J. T. R. Sharrock and the Rare Breeding Birds Panel This is the second report of the Rare Breeding Birds Panel. The functions and mode of operation were identical to those described in detail in the first report (Brit. Birds, 68: 5-23). The members of the panel in 1974, as in 1973, were A. W. Colling, Peter Conder, R. H. Dennis, I. J. Ferguson-Lees and Dr J. T. R. Sharrock. There were no staggering new developments during 1974, though the presence of Sanderlings in the breeding season for the second year running prompts interesting speculation. Some recent colonists maintained or improved their positions, notably Goldeneye, Osprey, Temminck’s Stint, Golden Oriole, Fieldfare and Cetti’s Warbler. This last species, together with Dartford Warbler and Firecrest, no doubt benefited from another in our recent series of mild winters. Hobbies appeared to have had a successful breeding season. On the debit side, Wood Sandpiper and Redwing numbers were again low, though this may perhaps partly result from reduced coverage of Scotland after the end oi the 1968-72 fieldwork for the British Trust for Ornithology/Irish Wildbird Conservancy Atlas Project. Montagu’s Flarrier now seems but one step from extinction as a British breeding species, while Wryneck had apparently reached that stage in England in 1974. The biggest single disappointment was perhaps the exceptionally low breeding success of the Avocets on Havergate Island. It is encouraging to note that only three counties failed to supply- records in 1974 (see fig. 1), compared with 15 in 1 973 • T^ie panel recognises that it may well take several more years before complete trust is established and the benefits of submitting all records (so that the annual report gives a full picture for the United Kingdom) are fully understood in all quarters. Even now, although 73 county recorders supplied records, we do not have a complete picture for all of these counties. Several recorders commented that they had heard rumours of records in their areas which had not been sub- mitted to them and which, in consequence, they could not send to us. The panel’s safeguards are such, however, that we hope such over-cautious observers will in time be willing to submit their records. Most records reached us via the county recorders (listed in Brit. Birds, 68: 255-260). In the few cases where observers by- passed their county recorder, we sought permission to inform him or her, and in all but a few cases this was granted. We wish to thank all those who supplied records to the panel. Since, in some cases, the observer’s or reporter’s name could give a clue to the birds exact 489 [Brit. Birds, 68: 489-506, December 1975] 490 Rare breeding birds in ig"/4 Fig. i. Areas covered by this report. Records (or a negative return) were sup- plied to the panel by the recorders for all of the areas shown black. In some cases individual ob- servers supplied data for the counties left white, but records were not received from the local editor, so the picture is very incom- plete for these three areas. The panel does not collect records from the Republic of Ireland location, we continue our practice of not naming our correspondents. The counties under which records are listed are those by which they were submitted to us. They mostly follow the boundaries which were in existence before the changes made in April 1974. Where it has been necessary to omit a county name in order to protect the birds from disturbance, we have again used the device of calling them ‘County A’, ‘County B’, etc., and these letters are the same as those used in the 1973 report. Thus, the history in each county may be traced even though the locations are concealed. As is our practice, we have never listed the name of a locality or of a county unless we have been given specific permission to do so. The comprehensive background information which accompanied each species entry in the 1973 report is not repeated this year. The brief comments mostly compare the situation in 1974 with that in 1973. We hope that these comparisons will become increasingly valuable (and valid) over the years. This report is appearing considerably later than we had hoped. Data were received from 43 counties by the end of February, but those from 20 counties were still outstanding by the end of July. 49 1 Rare breeding birds in 1974 The report would be more useful if it appeared in spring or early summer, so that increases or decreases could be followed up by observers in the subsequent year. We (and the county recorders) are in observers’ hands in this matter. If records were submitted immediately after the end of the breeding season, these reports could appear much earlier. Therefore, we appeal to observers to submit their 1975 records to their county recorder now, if they have not already done so. The county recorders will pass them on to us on the panel’s special forms , which are obtainable from Dr J. T. R. Sharrock, 59 Curlew Crescent, Bedford, MK41 7HY, on request. Observers wishing to inform the panel, but not their county recorder, of a record are also asked to use these special forms; but we hope such instances will continue to be the exception. Systematic list of 1974 records Great Northern Diver Gavia immer No records received. There was also none in 1973, but a pair with two young was seen in 1970, and the following year a hybrid Great Northern X Black-throated G. arctica paired with a Black-throated was seen with young at the same site. Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus Present at 24 sites, with a total of 57-62 Pairs- Aberdeen : one pair and one young seen. Caithness: two pairs with three and five young on 30th June; at least four probably survived. Inverness: 47-51 pairs on 19 lochs; at least 16 young from 18-20 pairs in north and 29 young from 28-30 pairs south of Great Glen; one pair with one or two young in Strathspey. Moray: five or six pairs reared at least three young at one site. Perth: a pair at the first 1973 site, and another nearby site, possibly attempted to breed, but had no success. The second 1973 she was a8a*n occupied and the single pair successfully fledged two young. The number of fledged young remains low, but 1974 was a better season than any of the previous three years. Tire colonisation of Perth in 1973 and 1974 is a considerable shift southwards. Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis About 15 pairs, rearing at least 11 young. County A: about six pairs, but poor season and only two young seen. County B: nine pairs and three single birds present at the first 1973 she, and on 9th July three pairs had single well-fledged young, one pair had two well- 492 Rare breeding birds in 1974 fledged young, two pairs had at least two well-fledged young, and three pairs appeared to have no young. No birds were seen at the second 1973 site. There were three or four fewer breeding pairs than in 1973, but about the same number of young were reared. Pintail Anas acuta Only ten pairs reported. Antrim/Derry: nest with eight eggs found in May. Cambridge/Norfolk: three pairs bred and at least two young reared. Kent: single pairs at two sites; one bred successfully and the other possibly nested. Orkney: at least three pairs nested; success unknown. Perth: a female seen with five or six small young. Even with late additions (see page 504), only three to five pairs were reported in 1973. Scaup Aythya marila No records received. There was also none in 1973, the last instances of recorded breeding being in 1970 (three nests at one site in Perth) and 1967-71 (infertile clutches laid by a female in Suffolk). Goldeneye Bucephala clangula Three pairs nested successfully, hatching a total of 19 young. Inverness : three pairs nested in nest boxes at two sites, hatching broods of nine, five and five young. Immediately after hatching, the females move the broods up to several km and they are then very difficult to census. After nesting by single pairs in 1970-72, there were three pairs in both 1973 and 1974. Fledging success was good and increasing numbers of non-breeders were recorded in summer. Common Scoter Melanitta nigra Probably about 140 pairs. Argyll: single female seen on 15th July. Caithness: broods of seven and three young seen on 6th July; other pairs present. Dunbarton/Stirling: at two sites in Loch Lomond, pair seen 25th May and three males and two females in early June. Fermanagh: 1 10 pairs and eleven males and six females unpaired, but very poor breeding success and only one brood of five seen. Inverness: three sites. Single females at two lochs in late June; about 15 pairs and six nests found (four clutches of seven eggs and two of six) at the third site on 22nd June. Perth: one pair, at same site as in 1973, had nest with seven eggs on 10th June and four large young on 20th July. Shetland: a total of four or five pairs at four sites, but breeding not proved. Though nearly 80% of the pairs are in Fermanagh, the breeding success at this major site has been very poor in recent years. The Rare breeding birds in 1974 493 Loch Lomond birds follow on the rearing of at least one young by one pair there in 1971 and the establishment of territories by three pairs in 1972 (perhaps due only to lack of coverage, none was seen there in 1973). Goshawk Accipiter gentilis At least 13 pairs, of which at least three nested successfully. Inverness: one or more pairs at one site, displaying and mobbing observer. County C: two pairs nested, one successfully (though number of young reared was not reported) and one failed, due to storm damage. County D: three sites with at least four pairs. One reared three young, but success of other three not known. County E: one seen displaying, but no nest found. County F : three pairs present, but no details reported to us. County G: one pair present and flying young seen in late summer. County H: one pair seen in one area. Though the number reported was higher than in 1973 (10-11 sites: four pairs proved breeding), there are still some sites which are known to us individually, but which were not officially reported to the panel. Red Kite Milvus milvus Of 32-33 pairs, 27 nested; only nine pairs successful, rearing 12 young. County A: two single birds in April, but no breeding attempts known. County B: two pairs, both unsuccessful. One pair failed to hatch eggs and the other only partly built a nest. County C: 23 pairs, eight successful. Six pairs reared one young and two pairs reared two young; four pairs hatched eggs but then failed; five pairs failed at egg stage (in one case, eggs were robbed by collector); one pair failed at unspecified stage; five pairs or apparent pairs (plus several unattached non-breeders) made no breeding attempts. County D: five pairs, one successful. One pair reared two young; three pairs failed to hatch eggs; nest of one pair collapsed at egg stage. County E: two or more pairs, none successful. Two pairs nested but both failed, one after hatching. At least four additional birds, two of them possibly paired. There was one more nesting pair than in 1 973j number of young successfully reared dropped by two. Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus Four to six pairs were reported. Hampshire: single pairs at two sites; neither disturbed during breeding season, but large nest found at one site in November was probably Honey Buzzard s. Full details of the New Forest population were not reported to the county recorder. Norfolk: one pair reared three young to flying stage. 494 Rare breeding birds in 1974 County As one pair present at regular site but did not breed: this was attributed to disturbance by birdwatchers, including coach-parties. Observers who know of the location of this pair are asked not to pass on their knowledge and not to visit the area. One pair (perhaps the same birds, displaced from the regular site) reared at least one young at a new site. County B: one or two present on several June/July dates at one locality. We are beginning to show a more truthful picture of Honey Buzzards in Britain than the single report in 1973 (see page 504), but the data supplied to the panel are still fewer than are known to us individually. Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus Five males and six females reared a total of ten young. Suffolk: three sites. At Minsmere, two males, one with two females; one nest of bigamous male produced three young; both other nesting attempts failed. At two other sites, single pairs reared three and one young. County A: one pair successfully reared three young. All records were from the same sites as in 1973. Though one extra adult male was present in 1974, the number of young success- fully reared dropped from 16 to ten. (A late 1973 record is listed on page 504.) Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus Only one pair, which may not have bred. County A: one pair seen irregularly in May /June. After one pair and an apparently unmated female failed to rear young in 1973, the 1974 situation appears to have been even more bleak. Osprey Pandion haliaetus Fourteen or more pairs present, ten successfully rearing at least 20 young. Inverness: one pair reared three young at Loch Garten. Perth: one pair reared two young at Loch of Lowes. County A: one pair reared one young. County B: six pairs. One reared three young; one reared two young; one reared one young from three eggs; one reared at least one young from two eggs; one laid one egg but failed to rear young; the nest of the sixth pair, with two eggs, collapsed. County C: single pairs at two sites, but both failed to rear young. County D: two sites occupied by single pairs, successfully rearing three and two young. County E: one pair reared two young from three eggs. County F: single birds seen at several places and breeding suspected but not proved. The situation was very similar to that in 1973, when there were 1 6 or more sites and ten pairs reared 2 1 young. 495 Rare breeding birds in 1974 Hobby Falco subbuteo Present at about 90 sites, with at least 35 pairs proved breeding; at least 24 of them successful, rearing at least 48 young. Avon: possible breeding at two sites; pairs seen in display flight in mid-June, and on dates in mid-May and August. Bedford: records from three sites (gth June, ist- 15th July, and 15th July and 5th September), but no evidence of breeding. Berkshire: pairs at three sites. Three young known to have fledged at one; and nests at other two contained one and two young with half-grown primaries in early August. Probably at least three other pairs in the county. Buckingham: single pairs reported from four sites. Seen regularly through season at one site, on the only visit to a regular site, and on single dates at sites near Bedford and Berkshire borders. None proved to breed; recorder comments that the species is under-recorded in the county. Devon: pairs at eight sites and at least nine young fledged, but several nests believed to have been robbed by Carrion Crows Corvus corone. Dorset: present at about 15 sites, with three pairs proved breeding (all success- ful, one rearing two young, others not known precisely) and another two probably breeding. Hampshire: 13-15 pairs were located, but this was considered to represent less than 50% of the actual county total; two pairs reared at least two young each; other details not reported. Huntingdon: one pair reared at least one young. Leicester: one pair reared two young. Lincolnshire/south Humberside: up to three seen at one site in first half of June. Northampton: one pair reared two young; perhaps three other pairs in the county. Oxford: two pairs proved breeding (success not reported), two more probably bred and a further two or more possibly bred. Somerset: single birds seen in an area where breeding suspected in previous years. Surrey: 17 sites. Three pairs at one of these, single pairs at 12 and only single birds recorded at four: 15 pairs probably bred, of which ten were proved. A good year, with high breeding success and no evidence of human interference: the ten proved pairs reared at least 24 (and possibly 29) young. Warwick: three pairs proved breeding and another two probably bred, but full details not supplied to the recorder. Wiltshire: one pair reared at least one young. Once again, Sussex records were not supplied to the panel , nor do we have 1973 Hampshire data. Outside Hampshire and Sussex, however, there was a 28% increase in the number of sites at which Hobbies w'ere reported in 1974 compared with 1973, and the number of proved breeding records, the number of pairs known to have been successful, and the number of young known to have been reared all doubled, so 1974 was clearly a successful year. (Late 1973 records are listed on page 5°4-^ Rare breeding birds in 1974. 496 Spotted Crake Porzatia porzana Present at four sites, but no records of proved breeding. Aberdeen: at one site, heard on 29th April, 6th May (at least two birds), 1 6th May and some other unspecified dates. Argyll: one heard on ist-2nd July. Inverness: one heard from 20th June to 9th July. Perth: at least one and possibly a pair heard in June/July. None was reported in 1973. More than half of the records of summering Spotted Crakes supplied to the British Trust for Orni- thology/Irish Wildbird Conservancy Atlas Project in 1968-72 were in Scotland and the four 1974 records continue this trend. Dotterel Eudromias morinellus Data very incomplete. Aberdeen: present, but no details available. Angus: reported from two sites, at least seven adults and four young at one site and one adult and three young (thought to be two broods) at the other. Banff: at one site, one pair bred (nest with four eggs) and up to ten others possibly bred (flock of ten females and a male, and one pair seen). Inverness: present, but no details available. As in 1973, there was no detailed information available for the main counties and it is impossible to comment on trends. (1973 addition and corrections are given on page 504.) Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa Present at nine sites, 51-55 pairs rearing 47-66 young. Cambridge/Norfolk: 42-45 pairs reared 40-55 young to fledging on the Ouse Washes. Cumbria: two pairs nested at regular site. One pair reared two young from clutch of four eggs, but the other pair’s clutch of three eggs was lost to predators, probably gulls Larus sp. Kent: one pair reared two young to fledging at same site as in 1973. Lincolnshire/south Humberside: single pairs at two sites. One reared one young, and the other probably bred: after display and defence of territory in May-June, three adults and three juveniles seen on 21st July. Somerset: present at same two sites as in 1973. Two pairs acted as if they had small young at one site, and one pair with nest and one egg at the other. County B: one pair reared two young. County C: one pair established territory but there was no proof of breeding. A very similar situation to 1973, when 55-61 pairs nested at nine sites. (A late 1973 record is listed on page 505.) Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola At least one pair nested. Caithness: single birds at two sites on ist-2nd June. Rare breeding birds in 1974 497 Inverness: at one site, two males displaying and singing igth-22nd May and nest with four eggs found on 2nd July, but probably failed. Compared with seven or eight pairs in Scotland in 1972, two sightings of single birds in 1973 and the above records in 1974 appear to be a disappointing reverse. Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii One or two pairs probably bred. County A: display first seen on 23rd May and at least three birds present in June; at least one and probably two pairs probably attempted to breed. County B: two birds at one site on 22nd June, but no proof of breeding. One or two pairs have been present at the site in County A in every year since 1969, with breeding proved there in 1971. Sanderling Calidris alba One pair seen. County B: a pair seen on a mountain top on gth June, but not found on 15th June. This interesting record follows one the previous year of a pair seen displaying over another mountain (see page 505). Though there is still no evidence that these were other than late migrants, it seems worth putting them on record at this time. Ruff Philomachus pugnax Reported from only one site. Cambridge/Norfolk: probably twelve females nested, possibly rearing at least five young. This compares with about eight nesting Reeves in 1973. Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta 125 pairs nested, but only 64 young reared. Suffolk: at Minsmcre, 40 pairs in April but only 35 pairs actually nested, rearing at least 58 young. At Havergatc Island, 86 pairs produced g8 nests, but only six young reared, due to poor weather and feeding conditions. County A: two sites. Three pairs at one site, success not known; one pair failed at the other. This was a disastrous year at Havergate Island, with the smallest number of pairs for seven years and abysmal breeding success. The number of pairs at Minsmere equalled the highest e\ er, though fewer young were reared than in 1973* Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus Fewer than 20 pairs reported. Outer Hebrides: about four sites. One pair attempted breeding but no young seen; one or two birds at lochs nearby; perhaps one or two pairs at other sites, but details not known. Rare breeding birds in igjp 493 Shetland: nine to 14 pairs at four sites. County A: one bird seen on one date. The details received in 1973 and 1974 are so incomplete that an accurate assessment of changes is impossible. (Late 1973 records are given on page 505.) Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Over 50 pairs reported, but data very incomplete. Berkshire: one pair and two juveniles seen at one site on 21st July. Cambridge: only one pair proved breeding (pair with one juvenile), but a total of ten or more pairs possibly bred at seven sites. Dorset: one or two pairs probably bred. Essex: four pairs at one site, but success unknown. Hampshire : no details were reported to the county recorder. Norfolk: ‘present in some numbers but no accurate figures available, due to birds breeding in forest rides and/or agricultural land’. Norfolk/Suffolk: 25 nests found in Breckland and, with at least 22 young seen, about 30 young thought to have been reared. (Note overlap to unknown extent with separate Norfolk and Suffolk entries.) Oxford: three pairs nested but, to avoid disturbance, nests were not visited and the outcome is therefore unknown. Suffolk: data are known to be incomplete, but four pairs in coastal belt and 12-15 pairs in Breckland were reported. Wiltshire: at least 14 sites with single pairs probably breeding at each. Eight pairs proved breeding. With incomplete coverage and no reports from Hampshire or Sussex where they were certainly present, it is impossible to assess the current situation. (An additional 1973 record is given on page 5<>50 Mediterranean Gull Lams melanocephalus No records received. None was present at the Hampshire site where one pair bred in 1968 and mixed Mediterranean x Black-headed Gull L. ridibundus pairs nested then and in subsequent years. Black Tern Chlidonias niger No records received. The only breeding records this century were a few pairs in Cambridge/Norfolk in 1966 and 1969, and one pair in Ireland in 1967. Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca Records from only the traditional site. Shetland: male with two females on Fetlar. The established pairing resulted in two young being fledged from five eggs, but one died soon afterwards; the other Rare breeding birds in IQ74 499 was later found injured but was released after treatment. The second nest, with only one egg, failed at an early stage. As in 1973, one male and two females succeeded in rearing only one young Hoopoe Upupa epops No records received. The only instances of confirmed breeding in the past seven years were in Cornwall in 1968 and 1969 and in Sussex in 1971 . Wryneck Jynx torquilla Reported from five sites, but no successful breeding. Inverness: singing birds at three sites (i5th-22nd May, 23rd May and 1st June). Ross: two sites. At one, singing heard from beginning of June and pair entering nest-box; male found dead nearby on 27th June and other bird left soon after- wards; no eggs in box. At other site, song heard on one date in late June. After only one pair in southern England in 1973, in Kent, there was none in 1974, for the first time since ornithological recording began. After only one in Scotland in 1973 (see page 505), the slight resurgence there seems now to be the main hope for this species continuation as a British breeder. Shore Lark Eremophila alpestris No records received. After presence in summer in 1972 and 1973, with probable breeding in the latter year, none was reported to us this year. Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus Two pairs confirmed breeding and others present. Fife: one pair reared two young. Female seen on 3rd June and pair feeding two fledged young on 17th July. The site was about 600 metres from the location ol the 1973 Fife record (see page 505). Norfolk: male heard singing on 9th July. Suffolk: more than one pair present, and one pair seen with young. This species has been breeding here annually in recent years and appears to be becoming firmly established in Suffolk, though still in small numbers. Fieldfare Turdus pilaris Seven or eight sites: three pairs certainly bred and three more probably did so. Derby: one pair present in June; probable used nest found later. 500 Rare breeding birds in igyj. Midlothian: at one site, a male singing on 13th June and seen again on 15th June; one giving alarm calls 3 km away on 17th June. Orkney: one pair feeding two young in mid-June. Ross: one pair feeding at least one fledgling on 1 ith July. Stafford: two sites. One pair reared four young; second pair probably bred. Shetland: scolding birds at usual site on 9th June, but breeding not proved. After the first British breeding record in Orkney in 1967, this species has increased in numbers annually. We suspect that other records were not reported to us. Redwing Turdus iliacus A total of 25 sites, with about 19 pairs probably breeding. Banff: one singing male on 14th April at site where nest with four young was found in May 1971. Inverness : singing birds at three sites, but no proof of breeding. Moray: one singing male on 14th April, not relocated two weeks later. Perth: a pair summered at one site, but apparently did not nest successfully; a singing bird at a second site on 12 th May. Ross: 13 pairs reported in Wester Ross and one pair (rearing three young) in Easter Ross. Sutherland: two sites. One pair nesting 1 6th June; one of second pair found dead on 23rd May. Shetland: summering birds on Unst and Mainland, but no proof of breeding. Even if every singing bird represented a breeding pair, the 1973 and 1974 totals were only eleven and 25, a considerable decrease compared with 1969-72, and birds were absent in 1974 from areas occupied in that period. (A late 1973 record is given on page 505.) Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros Present at 46 sites, with at least 47 pairs confirmed breeding, another nine probably breeding and 13 more possibly breeding. Bedford: one pair at the site discovered in 1973 reared two broods of three each in March/April and June, and male seen carrying food on 10th July. Berkshire: two sites. One pair reared three young from clutch of four eggs at one site; a male sang for about ten days from 1 ith April at the other. Cheshire: two sites. Nest with four eggs (destroyed on the day it was found) and female at one; activity of pair at the other suggested breeding in inaccessible position in June/July, but site vandalised. Essex: seven sites, with single pairs or single males at each. Two pairs reared young; one pair and one male seen carrying food throughout breeding season; one pair present but no breeding proved; and single singing males, throughout June and on 1st June. Hertford: one pair reared three young at one site; at another site two males and a female were seen on 4th April and breeding possibly occurred. Huntingdon: one heard singing in April for the third successive year at one site. Rare breeding birds in ig74 501 Kent: 13-14 pairs and a singing male at ten sites (five or six at one site); 12-13 pairs bred, rearing more than 41 young (at least one pair double-brooded). Leicester: one pair reared two broods, of two and three young. Lincoln/south Humberside: one pair reared five young. London: eight pairs nested at seven sites, at least seven pairs successfully rearing more than 18 young. Middlesex: one pair breeding. Norfolk: three sites. Nine singing males, two pairs breeding successfully, at one site; at the other two sites there were single pairs, one of which certainly bred and the other probably did so. Stafford: one pair at traditional site, but breeding not proved. Suffolk: ten pairs proved breeding and another three probably bred at three sites; one pair double-brooded, two others known to be successful. Surrey: a single female at one site; no confirmed breeding. Warwick: two sites. One pair reared three young at a new site; one pair present at a traditional site, but breeding not proved. Worcester: one pair, with broods of four and five, was only second county breeding record. Though present at eleven more sites than in 1973, breeding numbers were similar, with 47-69 pairs compared with 46-68. (Late 1973 records are listed on page 505.) Bluethroat Luscinia svecica No records received. The only previous record relates to a female with nest and eggs in Inverness in 1968. Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti Seven sites: five pairs proved breeding and another five possibly bred. Devon: none in breeding season, but recorded at three sites in late autumn/ winter. Kent: four sites. Four pairs proved breeding and five more possibly bred. Site totals as follows: six singing, three pairs definitely bred; five birds (two pairs), one pair feeding young; two pairs; two males singing May- August. Norfolk: four singing males at three sites and one pair reared four young. This was the first year in which more than one pair was proved to breed in Britain. The number of singing males was approximately the same as in 1973. The spread of Cetti’s Warblers in north-west Europe has recently been documented by P. F. Bonham and J. C. M. Robertson (Brit. Birds, 68: 393-408). Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides Five sites: eight singing males and one pair confirmed breeding. Devon: at the 1973 site, one from 20th May to early July, but again no evidence of breeding. 502 Rare breeding birds in igj4 Kent: two pairs present at one site, one of them seen carrying food for young. Norfolk: one singing on 1 4th- 1 6th June. Suffolk: two sites. Three pairs and one pair, but success not known. There were smaller numbers at all three regular sites than in !973> when there was a total of 13 (including the late report given on page 506). Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris 44-78 pairs probably bred. Gloucester: five sites. Single pairs probably bred at two sites ; two birds (presumed pair) at a third; and single singing males at two further sites (perhaps two males at one of these). Kent : two pairs thought to have bred at one site. Worcester: no change from 1973, with 40-70 pairs probably breeding. Total numbers were approximately the same in 1973 and 1974. Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata About 560 pairs probably bred. Devon: present at three sites, but no evidence of breeding. Dorset: about 286 pairs, 282 in east Dorset and four in west Dorset. Hampshire: no details were reported to the county recorder, but C. J. Bibby and C. R. Tubbs (Brit. Birds, 68: 177-195) gave a total of 250 pairs in the New Forest. Isle of Wight: records were not submitted to the panel, but Bibby and Tubbs (see Hampshire) gave a total of six pairs. Surrey: none at the first 1973 site, due to habitat destruction; one pair again at the second site, raising three broods. Sussex: records were not submitted to the panel, but Bibby and Tubbs (see Hampshire) gave a total of 15 pairs. County A: four or five birds at the same site as in 1972-73. The total of about 560 pairs in 1974 compares with about 460 pairs in 1960-61 and 1 1 pairs in 1963, immediately before and after the hard winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63. Firecrest Regulus ignicapillus Over 30 singing males reported. Bedford: one pair, success not known. Berkshire: one pair probably bred at one site. One bird seen on 1st April, one in song on three dates during 1 ith-22nd June and a probable family party on 1 6th September. Buckingham: a total of 24 singing males at the same site as 1971-73; one at a second site. Dorset: one pair probably bred. Hampshire: the New Forest population is presumably still extant, but no details were reported to the county recorder, and no census has been undertaken recently. Plate (34. Above, Azure-winged Magpie Cvanopica May 1975 (photo: Eric Hosking). Below, carrying 1 1972; like the Jay Garrulus glandarius, it cl ten holds side of the tail when on the ground (pages 484 rl> Sm <1/ , f V -J ^ < T; ' ■V /la A q1 Plate 65. Above, Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cyanus approaching nest, Spain, 1957 {photo: Eric Hosking). Below, male Azure-winged Magpie bringing food to incubating female, north-cast Portugal, June 1975 {photo: A. N. H. Peach) \ HI 1 UttfW . J rwa. I t/ A Plate 66. Above, female Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cumin with last egg- shell in bill, which she crushed up and swallowed while brooding, Portugal, June 1 975 (photo: A. N. H. Peach). Below, unusual nest site of Raven ( .onus corax on top of the 50-metre tower of Swansea ( iuildhall. West Glamorgan, large young are just visible in the nest (page 515) (photo: P. A. Hume f Plate 67. Two of several Cuckoos Cuculus canorus which fed regularly on an infestation of larvae of the Magpie Moth Abraxas grossulariata, Cornwall, May !975- The bird above is holding a wriggling caterpillar, while the other is shown foraging in the blackthorn (page 514) ( photos : J. B. and S. Bottomley ) Rare breeding birds in ig?4 503 Northampton: two singing at same site as 1973, from I2th-i8th May, but not found subsequently. Suffolk: a male paired with a female Goldcrest R. regulus reared seven young. Yet another increase at the main Buckingham site (n males in 1973) and reports from more counties than in any previous year. Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio Fewer than 50 pairs reported. Bedford: one pair at an established site on 18th May, but no evidence of breeding. Essex: a pair at one site and a female at a second site, but no breeding proved. Hampshire: three or four pairs located, only one of which was proved breeding; total population is thought to be not more than six pairs. Hertford: one pair stayed for two weeks and breeding possibly occurred, but was not proved. Kent: single pairs at two sites, one rearing at least two young. Norfolk: three sites, with single pairs at two of these and five pairs (only six young reared) at the third. Norfolk/Suffolk: 28 pairs found in Breckland, making 38 nesting attempts due to predation: at least 83 young fledged. (Note overlap to unknown extent with separate Norfolk and Suffolk entries.) Suffolk: 12 pairs in the coastal belt and at least 16 pairs in Breckland, but success not known. Surrey: up to two males at the first 1973 site but no evidence of cither being paired or having bred. Even though the data are not complete, it seems likely that the 1973 and 1974 totals were both lower than the 81 pairs recorded in 1971 (sec C. J. Bibby in Bird Study, 20: 103-110). (Late 1973 records are given on page 506.) Serin Sermus serinus No records received. The expected colonisation of Britain, following breeding in Dorset in 1967 and Sussex in 1969, appears not to have occurred yet. The pattern of records up to 1970 and the European spread were summarised by V. Olsson (Brit. Birds, 64. 213-223). Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis Seven to 1 1 pairs. Aberdeen Banff Inverness: three sites. Probably about six pairs at one, with nest and six eggs found; two males and one female in June at the second; male in song in June at the third. Perth : a first-year male and a female at one site, but no proof of breeding. Sutherland: two sites. Pair with four eggs on about 10th June at one site; single male on 30th May at the other. The numbers reported were almost identical to those in 1973. ( 1 973 addition and corrections are listed on page 506.) 504 Rare breeding birds in igyp Additions and corrections for 1973 (cf Brit. Birds, 68: 5-23) Pintail Anas acuta Cumberland: a female seen with seven small young. Kent: pair on 4th June and male on several subsequent dates at one site, but no other indication of breeding. These records bring the 1973 total to three to five pairs breeding. Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus County A: apparently only a single bird present at a regular site. This is the only report for 1973, which gives a completely false impression of the actual situation in Britain. Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosas County A: one pair successfully reared two young. This increases the 1973 totals to four sites with four males and six females, and 16 young reared. Hobby Falco subbuteo Surrey: the following revised summary includes the seven pairs at six sites noted in last year’s report. Noted in breeding season at 13 sites, including two pairs at one of these. Of 14 pairs that possibly bred, 1 1 probably bred and seven pairs were proved breeding. Five successful pairs reared 12 young, immature birds were seen at another site and only one of the proved breeding pairs was unsuccessful. Yorkshire: seen singly at one site on several dates between 2nd June and 24th August, where two were seen together in August 1972 and where a local informant states that ‘they breed every year’, though this has yet to be verified by an orni- thologist. These records raise the 1973 total to about 60 pairs present, with 16 of them proved breeding, eleven rearing at least 23 young. No details have been supplied for two of this species’ main counties: Hampshire and Sussex. Dotterel Eudromias morinellus County A: single bird seen on 30th June at a site where Dotterels have bred in the past. The comment made last year, that the population has remained fairly steady at 1950-60 estimates of 60-80 pairs, and that there has been a recent decrease in the Cairngorms, probably due to human disturbance, may be incorrect. Dr Adam Watson (in litt.) points out that D. Nethersole-Thompson’s The Dotterel (1973) gave evidence for a recent increase, and that there is also no sign of any decrease in areas where there are many people. 505 Rare breeding birds in igy4 Black-tailed Godwit Lirnosa limosa Kent: one pair reared four young to fledging. This increases the 1973 totals to nine sites with 55 pairs proved breeding, one more probably breeding and five more possibly breeding. Sanderling Calidris alba County A: pair display-flighting over a mountain top in June. This was the first ever indication of the possibility of a breeding attempt in Britain. Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus Outer Hebrides (extra records) : single pairs at two sites, one of them rearing three young, the other not watched. (The site with the successful pair was occupied every year during 1968-73, with breeding there in every year except 1972.) Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Dorset: one or two pairs probably bred. Wryneck Jynx torquilla Inverness: one singing on 18th June. This record and one pair in Kent were the only reports. Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus Fife: singing heard during May at one site, but no other evidence of nesting. Redwing 7 urdus iliacus Shetland: pair with nest and four young ready to fledge on 20th July. This record brings the 1973 totals to ten sites (two pairs at one) and four pairs confirmed breeding. Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros Cheshire: one pair. Male first seen in May, and nest with four eggs and female incubating on 3rd July; subsequently deserted and eggs found to contain well- grown embryos. The first county breeding record. Huntingdon: one heard singing in April at a site where also heard in 1972. Surrey: present at seven sites. One pair proved breeding, rearing three young; pairs at two other sites and single singing males at the other four sites (one ol which may have wandered from one of the London sites) . These records bring the 1973 totals to 35 sites, with 46 pairs confirmed breeding, a further ten probably breeding and another twelve possibly breeding. Rare breeding birds in 1974 5°6 Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides Devon: one from 27th May to 24th June, but no other evidence of breeding. This raises the 1973 total to 13 singing males, with at least nine pairs probably breeding. Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio Kent: the second pair mentioned in the last report reared four young. Surrey: two sites. Pair nested successfully at one, two young being seen on 2nd August; and a single male was present during April-June at the other, though breeding was considered to be probable. This brings the total to over 40, but details are still incomplete. Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis Angus: a pair on 31st May and a singing male at the same site in early June. Perth (deletion) : the record listed in last year’s report is erroneous. Aberdeen/BanfF/Invemess (correction) : the records attributed to Inverness in last year’s report should be listed under these three counties. Additions and corrections to the 1973 and this 1974 report will be greatly welcomed by the panel, and will form an addendum to the 1975 report. They should be sent to the address below. 1975 records should be submitted to the relevant county or regional recorder (see Brit. Birds, 68: 255-260), who will then pass on all his county’s records on the panel’s special forms. Dr J. T. R. Sharrock, 59 Curlew Crescent, Bedford MK41 7HY Timing and frequency of census counts of cliff-nesting auks Clare Lloyd INTRODUCTION Following the national census of coastal seabird colonies (Operation Seafarer) in 1969-70, a census has been carried out annually, as a population monitoring scheme, at about 50 colonies throughout Britain and Ireland. The species counted at these sites include the Razorbill Alca torda and the Guillemot Uria aalge. At most colonies the annual census is obtained from a single count, although counts on as many occasions as possible throughout the breeding season are specifically requested. Regular counts at a colony give information on attendance patterns, which is of vital importance to the timing and frequency of future census work. This is especially true of the auks, for which census counts involve the individual birds on ledges in a colony (‘head counts’) rather than the number of occupied nest sites. In this paper the results of regular counts of Razorbills and Guillemots at breeding colonies are presented and discussed with reference to population census techniques. Counts made regularly throughout the day at a breeding colony on Skokholm Island, Dyfed (Lloyd 1973), showed that numbers increased after dawn to a peak attendance between about 08.00 and 10.00 hours; similar patterns of attendance have since been recorded at other colonies. Comparison of different days’ counts from Skokholm showed that the actual level of attendance was less variable at this time than during the rest of the day. In the present study, therefore, most counts were conducted between 08.00 and 12.00 hours. RESULTS Fig. 1 shows the pattern of attendance of Razorbills and Guillemots at one of the study colonies, at Handa Island, Sutherland, where a resident warden was able to visit the cliffs each day. For all colonies counted throughout the season, the amount by which attendance varied during the different parts of the breeding cycle was calculated (table 1 and appendix). The variation in attendance during the nestling period was used to estimate the error of the mean that could be expected if either one, five or ten counts had been carried out. These errors are shown in table 2 for colonies where more than ten nestling period counts were available. Fig. 2 shows the order of error to be expected from successive numbers of Razorbill counts during the nestling period. [Bril. Birds, 68: 507-513, December 1975I 507 5°8 Census counting of auks PRE-L AYISjG^ INCUBATION y (NESTLING ; ^ FLEDGING Fig. i. Daily counts of Razorbills Alca torda and Guillemots Uria aalge on Little Stack, Handa, Sutherland, April-July 1973. Dotted lines cover 48-hour periods DISCUSSION (1) Timing of counts Attendance of Razorbills and Guillemots at the colony on Handa followed the same basic seasonal pattern as that at other colonies for which similar information was available; it also agreed well with published observations for the species (Tuck i960, Harris 1965, Bedard 1969, Lloyd 1973, Birkhead and Ashcroft in press). The number of birds in the colony fluctuated from day to day throughout the season. Daily attendance became less variable as Census counting of auks 509 Table I. Variation in counts of Razorbills Alca torda and Guillemots LJria aalge at different stages of the breeding season, at Bartlett Nab, Bempton, Humberside, in 1973 X = Mean count during each period; SD = Standard deviation of mean; N = Sample size ; C = Coefficient of variation, or SD expressed as percentage of X. Similar data for Bempton in 1972, 1974 and 1975, and for seven other colonies, are given in the appendix on pages 5 12-5 13 RAZORBILL GUILLEMOT X SD N C X SD N C Pre-laying 27.7 9-8 >5 35-5% 222.3 1 10.2 15 49-6% Incubation 22.1 8.7 21 39-4% 302.8 53-2 21 *7-6°o Nestling 25.8 5-6 *4 a 1. 5% 288.4 35-7 »5 n*4% Fledging 25.2 9.0 26 35-6% 210.0 67.6 26 32-2% June 27.7 7-4 21 26.9% 271. 1 32-4 21 12.0% incubation progressed and appeared to be most stable during the nestling period (from when the eggs were starting to hatch until the first chicks left the ledges, a period of 18-20 days). After this, numbers decreased steadily and daily fluctuations became large. A comparison of the coefficients of variation of mean counts at different stages of the breeding cycle also showed that counts tended to vary least in the nestling period. Ideally, therefore, census counts should be made during the nestling period when attendance is most stable. The timing of breeding can, however, vary considerably from one year to the next (Lloyd in prep.), so that planning counts to coincide with the nestling period can be difficult. The month of June usually covers the late incubation, nestling and early fledging periods at most colonies. The coefficient of variation of mean counts during the month of June showred that attendance varied little more than during the nestling period alone. Hence, although census counts late in the breeding season should be avoided, counts made during June usually coincide with a period of relatively stable attendance. (2) Numbers of counts Even during the nestling period, attendance changes from day to day and a single visit to a colony can produce Razorbill and Guillemot counts as much as 46% and 26% respectively away from the mean number in the colony during the 18-20 day period. If further counts are undertaken, the estimate obtained can be considerably more accurate (table 2). The error is greatly reduced by conducting between five and ten counts, although the improvement resulting from more than ten hardly justifies the extra effort. Estimated 510 Census counting of auks errors for different numbers of counts during June are similar to those for the nestling period. Data collected so far have shown that the order of error from different frequency of counting varies from one colony to another, although it tends to be similar in successive years at any one colony; this was true both for counts during the nestling period and for those in June as a whole. This suggests that one season of regular counting (at least ten visits) may be necessary to determine the pattern of attendance during the nestling period or the month of June. The order of error to be expected from fewer counts can then be estab- Table 2. Estimated percentage error (95% confidence limits) of the means of different numbers of counts of Razorbills Alca torda and Guillemots Uria aalge in 1973, comparing the nestling period (NP) and the month of June as a whole RAZORBILL GUILLEMOT 1 count 5 counts 10 counts 1 count 5 counts 1 0 counts Handa (Sutherland) NP June 43-9% 40.8% 19-5% 18.1% 13-7% 12.7% 19-2% 20.2% 8.6% 9-o% 6.0% 6-3% Bempton (Humberside) NP June 46.1% 55-9% 20.5% 24.8% 14.4% •7-5% 26.4% 24-9% u-7% 1 1.1% 8.2% 7-8% Skokholm (Dyfed) NP June 17-2% 24.2% 7-6% 10.8% 5-4% 7-7% 23-2% 21.6% 10.3% 9-7% 7-2% 6.8% Skomer (Dyfed) NP June 19.8% 48.0% 8.8% 21-3% 6.2% 15-0% •2.9% 13-7% 5-7% 6.1% 4-o% 4-3% 51 1 Census counting of auks lished for the colony and used in subsequent years to interpret figures collected during less frequent visits. It must be emphasised, however, that at least five and preferably ten visits are essential for a census of acceptable accuracy. These findings enable a quantitative assessment of the accuracy of previous census counts. Those made during the national survey of 433 Razorbill and 490 Guillemot colonies in 1969 and 1970 (Cramp et al. 1975) were, almost without exception, based on one head count at each colony. Therefore, these counts can be considered to be accurate to within only 46% for Razorbills and 26% for Guille- mots. Furthermore, 9% of the counts in 1969-70 were carried out as early as May and 24% as late as July. (The breeding seasons in these years appeared ‘normal’ in their timing.) Mean attendance in the present study was nearly twice as variable in the incubation period (May) as in the nestling period (June) and nearly three times more variable in the fledging period (July and August). Thus the especially early or late counts in the Operation Seafarer survey cannot be expected to be truly representative of numbers. Similarly, though the annual counts at the sample of colonies since 1969 have usually been carried out during the nestling season, or at least at some time during June, at more than half the colonies, single visits are still used to provide a census figure. Only relatively large population changes are detectable at these colonies. Finally, although some information is now available on how the accuracy of census counts in the Razorbill and the Guillemot can be improved, little is known of how the counts may be interpreted in terms of actual changes in the breeding population. For example, comparison of the numbers of incubating or brooding birds and apparently non-breeding birds in part of one of the colonies in the present study has shown that average numbers can vary by as much as 2.1 to 3.3 Guillemots or 1.8 to 3.3 Razorbills per occupied site in three successive seasons. These differences were not apparently related to the overall 27% increase in Guillemots and the stability of the Razorbill population during this time. Similar orders of variation were recorded at some of the other colonies. To what extent a change in number of non-breeding birds can be expected to affect the nestling period head count, and hence the census figure for the colony, urgently needs further consideration. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am very grateful to T. R. Birkhead, R. A. Broad, C. J. Evans, A Grieve, S. C Madge, D. Mower and Miss Ethel Young who collected the data for the annual seabird census organised by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and the Seabird Group. Data for Skokholmwere collected whilst I was supported b> a gra from the Natural Environment Research Council. I am also indebted to Dr C. J. Cadbury, Dr M. P. Harris and Dr C. M. Perrins for criticism of the manuscript. Census counting of auks 5i2 SUMMARY Regular counts of the numbers of Razorbills Alca torda and Guillemots Uria aalge in a colony throughout the breeding season give valuable information on the variation in attendance. Counts of this kind were made at six of the colonies covered by the annual population monitoring scheme. Most counts were made between 08.00 and 12.00 hours to avoid variation due to diurnal attendance patterns. Counts were least variable during the nestling period and only slightly more variable at other times during the month of June. Providing this month coincides with the nestling period for most birds in the colony, census counts can most conveniently be carried out in June. An error of 17% to 46% in Razorbills and 13% to 26% in Guillemots must be expected if only a single count is made at a colony; with five or ten counts this error is considerably reduced (5% to 17% for Razoi bills and 4% to 8% for Guillemots with ten counts). The accuracy of counts made during Operation Seafarer in 1969-70 and the annual census at a sample of colonies since are assessed. REFERENCES Bedard, J. 1969. ‘Histoire naturelle du Gode Alca torda dans le Golfe St Laurent, province de Quebec, Canada’. Can. Wildl. Serv. Rep., 7: 1-79. Birkhead, T. R., and Ashcroft, R. (in press). Nature in Wales. Cramp, S., Bourne, W. R. P., and Saunders, D. 1974. The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland. London. Harris, M. P. 1965. ‘Observations on a small Guillemot colony’. Nature in Wales, 9: I39'14I- Lloyd, G. S. 1973. ‘Attendance at auk colonies during the breeding season’. Skokholm Bird Obs. Rep., 1972: 15-23. Tuck, L. M. i960. The Murres. Ottawa. Appendix. Coefficients of variation of mean counts of Razorbills Alca torda and Guillemots Uria aalge at eight colonies at different stages in the breeding season PL = Pre-laying period; IP = Incubation period; NP = Nestling period; and FP = Fledging period. Coefficients of means from samples where N < 5 are shown in brackets RAZORBILL GUILLEMOT PL IP NP FP PL IP NP FP Fair Isle (Shetland) (0 1972 179 36 18 (114) 19 18 9 1 18 1973 38 37 (18) (24) 65 25 (7) 58 Fair Isle (Shetland) (2) 1972 - - - - - 27 (9) (60) 1973 — — — — 73 33 (10) 65 Fair Isle (Shetland) (3) 1973 - - - - 137 21 (8) (88) Yettna Geo (Orkney) 1974 (in) 21 (16) - (84) 13 (8) - r i Census counting of auks 513 RAZORBILL GUILLEMOT PL IP NP FP PL IP NP FP Hantla 1973 97 34 21 53 65 36 9 12 (Sutherland) 1974 - - 1 1 - - - >4 - 1975 - >9 12 - - 1 1 12 Bcmpton 1972 35 24 54 >4 I I 56 (Humberside) 1973 35 39 22 36 50 18 12 32 1974 3> 28 29 23 33 8 12 10 1975 97 18 >7 - 82 12 10 — Skokholm 1972 78 16 9 __ 99 >4 9 27 (Dyfed) >973 81 20 8 22 79 12 I I >4 Skomer >973 96 22 9 >5 _ 6 — (Dyfed) >974 - 22 - - - - - - Miss Clare Lloyd, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL Notes Partridge calling from elevated perch On the evening of 3rd March 1961, near Gorsham, Wiltshire, I saw a Partridge Perdix perdix calling from the apex of some stables approximately five metres from the ground. The bird continued to utter the typical ‘kar-wit, kar-wit’ call for about two minutes before flying off. Whilst The Handbook states that Partridges do rarely perch off the ground, it makes no mention of their calling from such raised positions. Julian G. Rolls 12 Wadswick Lane , Neston, Corsham, Wiltshire Cuckoos photographed feeding on Magpie Moth caterpillars In the second week of May 1975, we were told by T. O. Darke that a number of Cuckoos Cuculus canorus were feeding regularly on a particularly heavy infestation of caterpillars of the Magpie Moth Abraxas grossulariata in blackthorn Prunus spinosa on the cliff near his home at Porthcothan Bay, Cornwall. Although The Handbook mentions the larvae of this species as an identified food of the Cuckoo, we thought that an attempt to photograph the birds feeding would be worthwhile and we were successful in this on 15th and 1 8th May. The two photographs on plate 67 show one of the Cuckoos with a caterpillar in its bill and another searching in the blackthorn. The moth larvae were apparently confined to a narrow strip of blackthorn about 100 metres long across a steep, grass-covered slope overlooking the sea. On the 15th two male Cuckoos foraged for the caterpillars intermittently throughout the day, scrambling about clumsily among the blackthorn twigs and gulping down the larvae almost continuously. On the 18th we found up to four male Cuckoos feeding in this way, as had TOD on other days about this time; he also noted a female eating the caterpillars on the 19th. He considered that the birds’ activity was greatest before noon and in the evenings; and also during warm and sunny weather, which were the conditions prevailing when we were there on the 15th and 1 8th. The Cuckoos were last seen feeding on the caterpillars on 23rd May. J. B. and S. Bottomley Venwyn Cottage, Hellesveor Place, St Ives, Cornwall TR.26 3aq_ Parasitic flies in House Martin nests In the winter of 1973/74, at my house at Great Horkesley, Essex, I was removing a pair of ‘semi-detached’ nests of House Martins Delichon urbica which had been used the previous summer when I noticed a number of what seemed to be small, smooth and shiny black seeds. I placed them in a small aluminium tube for later identification. I did not look at Notes 5*5 them again until the spring when I discovered that they had become a crawling mass of the spiderlike louse-fly Stenepteryx hirundinis. They had only recently begun to emerge and many of the puparia (for that is what these black seeds were) had not yet hatched. I killed them all and counted the corpses and intact puparia. There were 1 18 in all, from 56 of which the adult flies had emerged. I had originally been careful to remove every puparium from the nests and I am therefore reasonably certain that this was the exact total present. B. H. Harley Martins , Great Horkesley, Colchester, Essex co6 4AH D. M. Burn comments that the life cycle of Stenepteryx hirundinis, which is more or less specific to the House Martin, is reasonably well known. The flies live on adults and nestlings throughout the breeding season, which lasts from May to October, and they deposit puparia in the nest at regular intervals (one every three or four days has been recorded in another species of passerine louse-fly). The species survives the winter in the puparial stage and emergence is synchronised to coincide with the birds’ reoccupation of the nests in the following spring. There is not much information, however, on the size of the overwintering population and the above record is of interest in that it gives details of the numbers involved. Though the infestation seems high, the fly’s fecundity is such that perhaps as few as four females were involved but it is possible that there were more as records of up to six flies on a single House Martin are not unusual. Eds Successful breeding of Ravens on city building In recent years the Raven Corvus corax has been noted with increasing frequency in the south-eastern part of the Gower peninsula, West Glamorgan (see, for example, Gower Birds : vol 1, no. 3 and vol 2, no. 1) with regular records of birds over urban areas, especially since about 1970. In 1973 a pair bred successfully on the tower of Swansea Guild- hall. In 1974 a single bird was noted in the area on 24th January and by 13th February a pair was adding material to the previous year’s nest. The birds seemed to roost on the tower but horn the beginning of March they were inconspicuous and were seen on y infrequently. On 31st March, about the time of hatching, both birds were on the tower and calling loudly. By 24th April young bir s were easily visible from below as they exercised their wings (see plate 66b) and their first flight was on 6th May, when seven Ravens (apparently including both adults) were standing at various points on the building. Subsequently only one or two were seen at the tower, except when the whole family returned on occasional evenings. 5j6 Motes The Guildhall stands close to the built-up area of the city, about i 2 km from the central area and 250 metres from the beach, with built-up land on three sides and roads and a small park on the fourth. Except for the town parks and the foreshore, the nearest large open area is a partly wooded valley about 3 km to the west. A group of trees in gardens about 250 metres away was used by the birds as a source of nesting material. The adults regularly flew off in the direction of the docks where they were probably able to forage for food. There is no mention of Ravens nesting on buildings in The Handbook which refers only to tree and cliff sites. R. A. Hume 31 Lime Grove, Burntwood, Walsall, West Midlands WS7 oha Whitethroat feeding on thistle seeds On 19th August 1974, at Beachy Head, East Sussex, I was watching Linnets Acanthis cannabina and Goldfinches Carduelis carduelis feeding on thistle heads when I noticed a Whitethroat Sylvia communis in the party. I watched it for about three minutes through binoculars at a range of some twelve metres before it flew off after being disturbed by passers-by. A close watch revealed that it was feeding on the thistle seeds in a manner not unlike that adopted by the other two species. At first I thought that it might have been searching for insects but I clearly saw seeds taken in the bill and eaten, though it was not possible to tell whether the bird was husking them in the way that finches do. I can find no reference in the literature to Whitethroats eating the seeds of thistles or any other plant. G. Summers 23 West Close, Stafford sti6 3TG House Sparrow feeding bean flowers to nestlings Referring to recent notes on birds feeding vegetation to juveniles {Brit. Birds, 66: 231 ; 67: 440), the following observation seems worth recording. On 5th August 1974 at Frocester, Gloucestershire, about 14 House Sparrows Passer domesticus were scattered along a row of runner beans Phaseolus multijlorus, and I noticed that a female was repeatedly carrying beakfuls of the red flowers to a nest of young under a tile of our house about 25 metres away. I put up large mesh nylon netting, glitter tops and paper bags but the bird went through or between the obstacles and continued to collect the flowers, though the other sparrows were not seen on the row again. Sometimes the female sidled up a stalk to pick the blooms, when often the stem broke with her weight as she reached for the further buds; once I counted nine pecks before she had collected her beak- ful. When I stood near the row she waited in a bush until I left, then continued her depredations. She was collecting flowers daily until the afternoon of 9th August when I covered most of the row with Notes 5i7 small mesh netting. This defeated her. The bean flowers were examined carefully but I could see no sign of insect infestation. The nestlings must have been fed an extraordinary proportion of vegetable matter as it is likely that the hen bird alone was feeding them. The only time I saw a male attempt to feed them he could not get under the tile but kept slipping with outstretched wings down the valley between the gable and the main roof of the house. I have seen several House Sparrows feeding on the fresh growth of spinach beet Beta vulgaris in April but I have no other record of vegetation being fed to young in the nest. Sybil M. Butlin Frncester Cottage , Frocester, Stonehouse, Gloucestershire glio 3TE Reviews Threatened Birds of Europe. Edited by Robert Hudson with introduction by Stanley Cramp. Macmillan, London, I975* 128 pages; 56 coloured and 3 black-and-white plates; 9 line drawings; 59 maps. £4.95. Profound is my hope that no reviewer will have the impertinence to label this as a coffee table book, despite its shape and pictorial wealth. For here is a publication to inform rather than to decorate; it is a working dossier into which coloured photographs have been injected to widen the sales appeal. From the conservation angle this is a most worthy objective; there has been a significant awaken- ing of British and Irish public interest in events across the English Channel and the more this particular fire can be stoked the better for the birds. The book’s genesis lies in a Council of Europe commission to I GBP to study endangered species in Europe — outside Russia which are in need of special protection, and the subsequent report, based on this study, was adopted in 1 973- Stanley Cramp, in a model of lucid compaction, has written the introduction outlining the threats and the necessary action, and Robert Hudson has edited the case histories of the 59 species. The lay-out is admirable, with four exceptions, each species has a page of text and a map, with a facing page of illustration ; the text is divided between background , covering range and breeding data, and detailed notes some very detailed indeed — on European status. The maps are simple and effective with colour used to define breeding and wintering areas and, where appropriate, migration routes. Only the Andalusian Hemipode, Ivory Gull and White-rumped Swift lack a photograph, and only Cory’s Shearwater and Saker Falcon one in colour. The selection 5 1 8 Reviews of a few ‘captive’ photos can be forgiven when set against the magnificence of the new (to me) Sabine’s Gull and Egyptian Vulture portraits. The species list (17 raptors and almost 30 ‘wetland’ birds) is provocative. Included are Great Northern Diver and Barrow’s Goldeneye which, although localised, are not directly endangered, whereas Gyr Falcon and Montagu’s Harrier are omitted. Listed too, is Terek Sandpiper, which, moving west out of relatively well stocked Russia into a Baltic breeding foothold, is not being pre- judiced by man’s activities; by this token, other species, including a small passerine or two, spring to mind. Readers with an insular eye may sometimes be puzzled; those knowing Ireland, Islay and Caerlaverock will be suprised to find the Barnacle Goose here but, of the three populations, most birds come out of Novaya Zemlya to coastal wintering grounds which are under pressure. And to add another dimension to conservation strategy, the Roseate Tern (listed) may become influenced more by West African traps than by French disturbance at nesting sites. This is an important book of fact and assessment, and those who brought the news from Strasbourg to a wider public deserve our thanks. Here, on IUCN lines, could be a first step towards a Red Data Book for Europe’s birds, with regular revisions and a system of starring the urgency relating to each species so as to concentrate our — and European — minds the more powerfully. Derek Barber Window into a Nest. By Geraldine Lux Flanagan and Sean Morris. Kestrel Books, Harmondsworth, 1975. 96 pages; many black-and-white and colour photographs. £3.25. This is the story of two Blue Tits from late winter, when they paired, until early summer, when their brood of nine safely fledged. In between, the two authors, using a special nest box fitted with a glass back, spent hours watching and photographing every detail of their lives in the nest. The results of their labours have already made a successful television film; now they are given a more permanent form. The photographs, many in colour, are quite superb and the text almost surpasses them, describing and explaining the many intricate behaviour patterns and adaptations which are essential for successful breeding. Common though Blue Tits are, many details of their behaviour, as with all hole-nesting species, are largely unknown or, at best, only inferred. Few birdwatchers will fail to gain a new insight from this lucidly and scientifically accurate record, or to feel a sense of wonder at this annual miracle. A small gem of a book, which cannot be too highly recommended. Stanley Cramp [Letters The origin of British Aquatic Warblers In his letter (Brit. Birds, 67: 443-444), Dr J. T. R. Sharrock made the hypothesis that the autumn records of Acrocephalus paludicola in Britain and Ireland are probably to be explained by a reverse migration of birds from Italy. On 14th September 1972, I found a dead example of this species on board the Belgian research ship Mechelen in the middle of the southern bight of the North Sea (510 56'N, 02° 3i'E). The bird has been deposited in the collections of the Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles, Brussels. It seems to me that this record is more consistent with the ‘old’ hypothesis of a displacement of birds migrating south-west from the northern part of their breeding range (Sharrock, Brit. Birds, 66: 46-64). Anyway, in the frame of this hypothesis, Aquatic War- blers can be expected principally in the very south of Britain, with breeding grounds situated to the east rather than the north-east of this region. C. Joiris Labo. voor Ekologie en Systematiek, Vrije Universiteit, Brussels, Belgium As I am particularly keen that every single piece of evidence regarding Aquatic Warbler vagrancy be put on record, I am grate- ful to Dr Joiris for bringing this record to our attention. In answer to him, however, I think it would be fair to say that this one occur- rence is no less consistent with reverse migration from the south- east than south-westwards movement from the northern part of the breeding range. In his letter Dr Joiris changes my emphasis to some extent. 1 did not state that Aquatic Warbler vagrancy to Britain and Ireland is probably to be explained by a reverse migration of birds from Italy. Indeed, I was careful not to. My exact words were: ‘the pattern now suggests an alternative explanation . . . Perhaps a recovery 01 control . . may one day suggest which of the alternative explana- tions is correct.’ Thus I merely put up a second possibility lor consideration. I also regard it as significant that the various other species which come from the same area as north European Aquatic Warblers all have a vagrancy pattern in Britain and Ireland which has an easterly bias, with most on the British east coast. The Aquatic Warbler seems to be unique in having its main concentration on the British south coast. Vagrancy from the north EuJ°Pean seems so much more likely; ye. the pattern 0t Bnnsh^Insh records just does not fit it. J • 5P Curlew Crescent, Bedford MK41 7HY 5'9 520 Letters High flight of House Martins Recent letters by D. D. Lees ( Brit. Birds , 68: 216-217) and E. J. M. Buxton {Brit. Birds, 68: 299- 300) have drawn attention to the high flight of House Mai tins Delichon urbica. Mr Lees maintains that it occurs regularly in both summer and winter quarters, and both letters give evidence to refute, to some extent, the late R. E. Moreau’s suggestion in The Palaearctic- African Bird Migration Systems (1972) that high flying occurs rarely or not at all in northern breeding quarters. Moreau also mentioned that in autumn breeders in south Yugoslavia are seen in the vicinity of the nests only when they are returning to roost at dusk after remote and high altitude foraging. During three years in Gibraltar, where there exists a colony of 15 to 20 pairs of House Martins, I rarely saw birds during daytime after the young had fledged in mid-July. Between this time and mid- September, however, they roost regularly in the old nests, arriving at dusk. No observations were made at dawn. Mr Lees is therefore probably correct in saying that there is no change in habits between summer and winter. The infrequency of observations appears to be linked to the breeding cycle, in which the incubation and the feeding of young in the nest are the only periods which preclude distant or high-level foraging. N. Elkins 10 Oakbank Place, Elgin, Grampian IV30 2LZ News and comment Robert Hudson Woodcock research Late in 1974 the International Waterfowl Research Bureau set up a Woodcock Research Group, at the request of the International Council f°r Hunting and Wildlife Preservation. The Woodcock is secretive, a partial migrant, and poorly researched; there is a real need to check the accuracy of our basic assumptions about its biology, behaviour, ecology and movements. Attempts to manage and conserve the species must be based on sound facts, and (as a game species) its status particularly requires to be known and understood in depth. Thus the new International Woodcock Research Group aims to set up national sections, each with at least one active research biologist, in all countries where Woodcocks occur. The British section organiser is G. des Forges (Bowders Farmhouse, Bal- combe, Haywards Heath, West Sussex), who has just issued The UK Woodcock Group Newsletter no. 1 . This bulletin explains the setting up of the I WRG, reviews past British work on the species, and makes suggestions for future investigations by means of ringing and field observation. Future bulletins will appear at irregular intervals, as and when sufficient material accumulates. Mr des Forges would like to hear from any ringers or other ornithologists with a practical interest in Wood- cocks, whether currently working on the species or keen to start. News and comment 52i Conservation in Greece Greece is one of the most important European countries in terms of wetland breeding birds ; and, as it is the Balkan country most readily accessible to western visitors, conservation measures there are of special interest to us. Several years ago the Greek side of Lake Mikra Prespa was declared a national park, and a biological station is now to be built there. Further, as the Greek contribution to the 1976 European Wetlands Year, plans have been mooted to protect four other major sites: Lake Mitrikou (500 hectares), Lake Kerkini (10,000 hectares), the Gulf of Arta (25,000 hectares) and the lagoons of Agiasma and Vassova (1,200 hectares). Between them, these wetlands house important breeding colonies of, among others. Pygmy Cormorant, White and Dalmatian Pelicans, Spoonbill, Glossy Ibis and Great White Egret. Belgian wildfowling restrictions A Belgian Ministerial Decree of 2nd July 1975 authorises the shooting of only eleven aquatic bird species during the 1975/76 open season, compared with 24 species in 1968 and 20 in 1972. The shooting of the Bean Goose and Great Snipe (both declining seriously in western Europe), and also of all gull species, has been banned; while the open season for Greylag and White-fronted Geese has been shortened to close on 15th December instead ot 31st January. In five Belgian provinces no permits will be issued to hunters for duck-stalking after sunset, though this will still be allowed in Wallonia. ( Council of Europe Newsletter 75-9.) BTO directorship It has recently been made known that Dr J. J. M. Flegg, who has been director of the BTO since 1968, has resigned and will depart at the end of December. The position will be advertised early in 1976; full details can be obtained from the Administrator, BTO, Beech Grove, 1 ring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR. Dr Flegg has guided the Trust through a difficult period and has been influential in widening the scope of its research in recent years; he will be much missed at Beech Grove. We wish him well in his new job as senior nematologist at the East Mailing Research Station in Kent. Middle Thames NHS In the October ‘News and comment’ I referred to conflicts within the Middle Thames NHS (Brit. Birds, 68: 432) which had led to a call for an independent ornithological society covering Buckinghamshire and eastern Berkshire. However, R. E. Youngman tells me that since that paragraph was written there has been a reconciliation of personalities and policies, and the idea of a separate ornithological body has now been dropped. Another field guide This autumn has seen the publication of the RSPB Guide^ to British Birds by David Saunders, 128 pp, published by Hamlyn (London) at £ i-50; and one thing that can be said immediately is that it will not compete with the three major European field guides which have appeared previously. The present one is intended for beginners; it covers only 218 species, because rarities whose descriptions all too often confuse the beginner’ are omitted. This concept is \ahd but, sadlv, the book falls short of what might have been expected. I give this verdict chieflv because the illustrations are of a wall-chart standard, and therefore below the quality expected of a modern identification guide; while a book aimed at novices should have given better coverage of tricky immature plumages. I ee , too, that the omission of thumb-nail distribution maps is regrettable; beginners in particular want to know whether their identifications of localised species are plausible on geographical grounds, and the brief sentence on range species’ paragraph (otherwise mainly concerned with appearance and character- istic habits) does not adequately meet dais requirement. Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds August reports D. A. Christie These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records The first half of August was very hot and settled and only in the last week did conditions really change, although thunderstorms were not infrequent in southern Britain from mid-month. The last week was the most interesting, particularly the final two days when a depression moving into the North Sea produced strong north-east winds. SEABIRDS TO WILDFOWL An adult Black-browed Albatross Diomedia melanophris was noted at Scapa Flow (Orkney) on 21st, possibly the bird which was present in the gannetry at Hermaness (Shetland) during the summer. A single Balearic Shearwater Puffinus puffinus mauretanicus flew south off Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) on 30th, and on the next day as many as eleven were reported flying east at Holme (Norfolk). Just one Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea was brought to our notice, a bird at Machrihanish (Strathclyde) on 14th. A Great Shear- water P . gravis passed Filey (North Yorkshire) on 24th, while singles were seen about 6 km off Sunderland (Tyne & Wear) on 12th and about 13 km off the same place on 20th. Sooty Shearwaters P. griseus were more widely recorded off the east coast: maximum numbers were seen off Seaton Sluice where a total of 66 moving north during the month included 16 on 17th and 30th; elsewhere more than 70 were reported with an obvious peak at the end of the month, e.g. 16 off Spurn (Humberside) on 31st. An interesting record concerns Leach’s Petrels Oceanodroma leucorhoa at Fair Isle (Shetland) where singles were trapped on 4th, 9th, 1 1 th and 30th by using tape-recordings ; at least three were seen over the tape- recorder at night on 9th, although never more than singles had been seen on the island previously. A Purple Heron Ardea purpurea found at Teesmouth (Cleveland) on 1st died the next day; one was at Hauxton gravel pits (Cambridgeshire) on 3rd and 22nd; one was reported at Halvergate (Norfolk) from 17th to 30th; and in Derbyshire one was seen at Langley Mill Flashes on 21st and at Sawley on 27th. The sole Little Egret Egretta garzetta in August was found at Potteric Carr, Doncaster (South Yorkshire), on 21st. The now much rarer Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides turned up near Stanton Harcourt (Oxfordshire) and stayed for several weeks until 2 1st. Two reports were received of Black Storks Ciconia nigra, at Woodwalton Fen (Cambridgeshire) on 20th and in Langstone Harbour (Hampshire) two days later. Five Spoonbills Plalalea leucorodia were on the River Blyth (Suffolk) from 24th and at Minsmere (also Suffolk) up to six were present all month; the only other report was of one at Wath Ings (South Yorkshire) on 2nd, but no doubt others have not been brought to our notice. A drake Blue-winged Teal Anas discors was found at Tarradale in the Beauly Firth (Grampian) on 31st, while there was an unusually early report of a Brent Goose Branta bernicla at Spurn on 21st. RAPTORS TO CRAKES A Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus was reported at Reculver (Kent) on the surprising date of 18th. Wandering Red Kites Milvus milvus were found inland in England at Frieth (Buckinghamshire) on 4th and at Elmton (Derbyshire) on 23rd and 24th, and a Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus appeared at Spurn on 25th. The only report of Montagu’s Harriers Circus pygargus, now extremely rare in Britain, was from Cooling (Kent) on 13th, while a Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus on Lundy (Devon) on 27th and 28th was also the only one during the month. 522 August reports 523 1 Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were found at seven localities in England, mostly coastal. As many as eight Quail Coturnix coturnix were noted near Marshfield (Avon) on 6th. Spotted Crakes Porzana porzana were more numerous than usual: of several reports the most interesting were of up to three at Cley (Norfolk) from 28th, and of three (possibly five) together at Newton Ings, Fairburn (North Yorkshire), for some weeks up to the end of the month. WADERS TO TERNS Vagrant waders were not lacking. A Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii was at Aberlady Bay (Lothian) on nth and 12th and one was reported at Barassie (Strathclyde) on 27th, while a Lesser Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica was present at Stithians Reservoir (Cornwall) on 28th and 29th. About seven Pectoral Sandpipers C. melanotos were fairly widely scattered: at Minsmere until 4th, Monks House Pool (Tyne & Wear) on 2nd, Cley from 5th to 12th, Blakeney Point (also Norfolk) from 8th to 12th, Washington (Tyne & Wear) on 24th and 25th, Pett Level (East Sussex) from 28th to 5th September, and Gunthorpe gravel pits (Norfolk) on 29th. There was, however, only one White- rumped Sandpiper C. fuscicollis reported, at Teesmouth on 17th and 18th, but this was offset by the arrival of a Sharp-tailed Sandpiper C. acuminata at Manor Farm sewage farm, Reading (Berkshire), on 15th which stayed until 22nd. A Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla was found near Tring (Hertfordshire) on 26th and 27th. A Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis was reported at Hamford Water (Essex) on 16th. A notable arrival of Buff-breasted Sandpipers T ryngitcs subruficollis at the end of the month will be treated in the September summary. A pratincole Glareola sp arrived at Spurn on 2nd and an immature Black-winged Pratincole G. nordmanni stayed at Wanlip gravel pits (Leicestershire) from 10th to 13th, while another Black-wingcd Pratincole was reported at Covehithe (Suffolk) on 22nd. From Church Wilne Reservoir (Derbyshire) came a very early sighting of a Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius on 30th. Two Avocets Rccurvirostra avosttta inland at Livermere Lake (Suffolk) on 28th, one remaining to 1st September, were rather unusual. An adult Long-tailed Skua Stercorarius longicaudus was at Fair Isle on 3rd and another at Bempton (Humberside) on 17th; then at the end of the month one was at Flamborough (also Humberside) and two flew south off Seaton Sluice on 30th, and singles were noted at Hartlepool (Cleveland), Spurn and Cley on 3isu At Hauxley (Northumberland) there was the strange sight on 30th of two Laughing Gulls Larus atricilla sitting on the beach. A Sabine’s Gull L. sabini was off Hartle- pool on 17th and two or three flew north there on 31st, while one passed Spurn on oAth Whit^-win^d Black Terns Chlidonias leucopUrus were reported at Queen FASSERINES SSorgan™ SI Bay (SoLrs.0, Marion (Corn-11) (Urn*, including two 524 August reports trapped, on 26th), Poppleford (Devon) and Litlington (East Sussex); the total number reported to us was about 28 individuals. On the last day of the month a Booted Warbler Hippolats caligata was trapped on the Isle of May. A Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli was at Manor Farm sewage farm on 23rd. Icterine Warblers H. icterina were reported from nine places: Fair Isle on 9th and 10th, 13th (two), and 26th and 27th; Hartlepool on 9th; the Weaver estuary (Cheshire) on or about 10th; Blakeney Point on 10th (two), 12th and from 30th to 1st September; Spurn on 1 ith; Holme on 12th and 13th and 31st; the Calf of Man on 13th and 1 8th ; Bardsey on 18th and 26th; and Sandwich Bay from 23rd to 25th (three together). Barred Warblers Sylvia nisoria were also much in evidence, particularly in the last few days of the month: on Fair Isle the first one arrived on 8th, and the species was present daily with maxima of eight on 1 8th- 1 9th and 24th-26th; reports came from ten other sites on the east coast and one inland, Wintersett Reservoir (West Yorkshire) on 25th (trapped); on Holy Island (Northumberland) eight were present on 30-3 1st; a total of 50 or more was recorded. Seven reports were received of Red-breasted Flycatchers Ficedula parva : most were on the east coast but singles appeared on Skokholm (Dyfed) on 30th and at Old Winchester Hill (Hampshire) on the early date of 18th; another inland record, and also the earliest for the autumn, was from Bough Beech Reservoir (Kent) on 1 2th; in all only eight individuals were reported. Following the July record {Brit. Birds, 68: 476), another Water Pipit Anthus spinoletta turned up in August, at Seasalter (Kent) on 17th. Single Tawny Pipits A. campestris appeared at Dungeness on 16th and at Beachy Head (East Sussex), a favoured locality for the species, on 27th and 31st. A Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea was an unusual migrant on Fair Isle on 30th and 3 1 sb and the only Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator was also found there, from 13th to 20th. There were two further records of Rose-coloured Starlings Sturms roseus, at Fortwilliam (Grampian) on 28th and 29th and at Hutton Rudby (Cleveland) on 31st. The first Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus arrived early on Fair Isle, on 13th, and another was there on 31st; one was reported at Holkham Meals (Norfolk) on 29th; and on Out Skerries (Shetland) there were four on 24th. Also on Out Skerries, a Black-headed Bunt- ing Emberiza melanocephala was present from 22nd to 29th. Three sites were host to Ortolan Buntings E. hortulana : one was on Skokholm on 25th and another at Blakeney Point on 30th, but perhaps the most unexpected was one in a garden at Maidstone (Kent) on 10th. THE BIOLOGY OF PENGUINS Edited by Bernard Stonehouse This book presents up-to-date review articles and new research papers on the various aspects of the penguin by an international team of con- tributors, many of them well-known in the field of penguin research. It ranges in scope from the Galapagos islands to Antarctica, and among the topics covered there is a contribution on the seldom-studied Little Penguin. Seventy photographs illustrate this comprehensive and highly readable account of a fascinating group of birds which has long been of interest to amateur and professional ornithologists alike. For further details, please wrh- to Anne Calcott, The Macmillan Press. Little Essex Street. London WC- R 3LF £18.50 Binding ‘British Birds’ The comprehensive index for 1975 will be published in December 1975. There will be no short index to British Birds in future and all subscribers will receive a copy of the comprehensive index automatically. Volumes for binding (with the form on the back cover of the index filled in) should be posted, not to the publishers, but direct to the binders : P. G. Chapman & Co. Ltd. Kent House Lane Beckenham Kent BR3 1LD the charge is £3*65 per volume, which includes the cost of packing and return postage. The binding will be in the same style as in previous years and earlier volumes can also be bound at this rate. 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The activities of the Trust include the co-operative study of such animals as birds and seals and the recording of their distribution and habits. publications (post free): Skomer Island, 25p; Plant List of Pembroke- shire, 60p; The Birds of Cardiganshire, 60p; Plant List of Carmarthen- shire, 60p; Skokholm Bird Observatory and Skomer National Nature Reserve Report, 1974, 43p; Nature in Wales back numbers, 60p THE WEST WALES NATURALISTS’ TRUST LTD 4 Victoria Place, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire iv Mr Frank promises perfect alignment Our reputation as binocular specialists is due, in no small measure, to the fact that since the turn of the century we have never lost sight of the importance of binocular align- ment, and we have always maintained a well-equipped workshop staffed by technicians qualified to test every binocular we sell. We stock binoculars by the world s best makers, and particularly recommend the range of NIPOLE binoculars as representing best value available today. Tests show they are comparable in performance to others costing two or three times as much. From the range we select the most popular models — I II | C c S n f r Famous for fine instruments since the turn of the century Write, phone or call Volume 68 Number 12 December 1975 481 Editorial: Birds of prey — time for action 484 Studies of less familiar birds ij8 Azure-winged Magpie Derek Goodwin, Dr A. N. H. Peach, Eric Hosking and P. F. Bonham Plates 64-66a 489 Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 1974 Dr J. T. R. Sharrock and the Rare Breeding Birds Panel 507 Timing and frequency of census counts of cliff-nesting auks Miss Clare Lloyd Notes 514 Partridge calling from elevated perch Julian C. Rolls 514 Cuckoos photographed feeding on Magpie Moth caterpillars J. B. and S. Bottomley Plate 67 514 Parasitic flies in House Martin nests B. H. Harley 515 Successful breeding of Ravens on city building R. A. Hume Plate 66b 516 Whitethroat feeding on thistle seeds G. Summers 516 House Sparrow feeding bean flowers to nestlings Miss Sybil M. Bullin Reviews 517 Threatened Birds of Europe edited by Robert Hudson with introduction by Stanley Cramp Derek Barber 518 Window into a Nest by Geraldine Lux Flanagan and Sean Morris Stanley Cramp Letters 519 The origin of British Aquatic Warblers Dr C. Joiris, and Dr J. T. R. Sharrock 520 High flight of House Martins N. Elkins 520 News and comment Robert Hudson 522 August reports D. A. Christie D. I. M. Wallace drew the Azure-winged Magpie (page 488) and the Guillemots (page 513) Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF INDEX TO VOLUME 68 1975 LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN VOLUME 68 Binding Volumes for binding should be sent not to the publishers but direct to the binders, P. G. Chapman & Go Ltd. The charge is £3*65 per volume, which includes the cost of packing and return postage. The binding will be in the same style as in previous years and earlier volumes can also be bound at this rate. Please complete the form on the back cover and send it with all the parts and the correct money to: P. G. Chapman & Co Ltd Kent House Lane Beckenham Kent BR3 ild Please complete the binding form on the back cover and note that orders for binding are not to be sent to the publishers Index to volume 68 Compiled by Mrs N. D. Blamire Entries are in a single list with references to: (1) every significant mention of each species, not only in titles, but also within the text of papers, notes and letters, including all those appearing in such lists as the ‘Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1973’, but excluding those in the reports summaries, ‘News and comment’, requests for information, and reviews; (2) scientific nomenclature under generic names only and following A Species I.ist of British and Irish Birds (BTO Guide 13, 1971); (3) authors of all papers, notes, reviews and letters, and photographers; papers are referred to by their titles, other contributions as ‘note on’, ‘review of’, etc.; (4) a few subject headings, i.e. ‘Breeding’, ‘Display’, ‘Editorial’, ‘Field characters’, ‘Food’, ‘Migration’, ‘News and comment’, ‘Obituaries’, ‘Rarities Committee’, ‘Recorders’, ‘Reports’, ‘Requests for information’ and ‘Voice’; (5) ‘Reviews’, which are listed together under this heading in alphabetical order of authors reviewed. Acanthis cannabina, see Linnet flammea, see Redpoll flavirostris, see Twite Accipiter genlilis, see Goshawk nisus, see Sparrowhawk Acrocephalus agricola , see \N arbler, Paddyfield melanopogon, see Warbler, Moustached paludicola , see Warbler, Aquatic palustris, see Warbler, Marsh schoenobaenus, see Warbler, Sedge scirpaceus, see Warbler, Reed Aegithalos caudatus, see Tit, Long-tailed Aegvpius monachus, see Vulture, Black ,-li.v sponsa, see Duck, Wood Alauda arvensis, see Skylark Alca torda, see Razorbill Albatross, Black-browed, accepted records 1974, 309, plate 47b Alcedo atthisy see Kingfisher Alectoris rufa, see Partridge, Red-legged Anas acuta, see Pintail americana, see Wigeon, American clypeata , see Shoveler crecca, see Teal carolinensis, see Teal, Green- winged Anas discors, sec Teal, Blue-winged penelope, see Wigeon platyrhynchos, see Mallard strepera, see Gadwall A nous stolidus, see Noddy, Brown Anser albifrons, see Goose, White- fronted anser, see Goose, Greylag, brachyrhynchus, see Goose, Pink- footed erytlnopus, see Goose, Lesser White- fronted fabalis, see Goose, Bean Anthus campestris, see Pipit, Tawny cervinus, see Pipit, Red-throated gustavi, see Pipit, Pechora hodgsoni, see Pipit, Olive-backed pratensis, see Pipit, Meadow spinoletla petrosus, see Pipit, Rock spinoletta, see Pipit, Water trivialis, see Pipit, Tree Apus apus, see Swift melba, see Swift, Alpine Aqtiila chrysaetos, see Eagle, Golden heliaca, see Eagle, Imperial rapax, see Eagle, Tawny Ardea cinerea, see Heron, Grey purpurea, see Heron, Purple 525 Index to volume 68 526 Ardeola ralloides, see Heron, Squacco Arenaria interpres, see Turnstone Asia Jlammeus, see Owl, Short-eared otus, see Owl, Long-eared Athene noctua, see Owl, Little Auk, Great, former breeding site in Orkney, 264-5, 269 , Little, wintering off Orkney, 272 Auks, effect of oil on plumage, 216 Avocet, British breeding records 1973, 15; British breeding records 1974, 497 Aythya collaris, see Duck, Ring-necked ferina, see Pochard fuligula , see Duck, Tufted marila, see Scaup Backhurst, G. C., and Reynolds, J. F., letters on Palearctic birds in East Africa: corrections, 80 Barber, Derek, review of Bijleveld: Birds of Prey in Europe, 21 1-2; view- point : attitudes which influence bird protection and conservation, 379-83; review of Hudson: Threatened Birds of Europe, 517-8 Bartramia longicauda, see Sandpiper, Upland Bee-eater, nesting in Sand Martin colony, 91; accepted records 1974, 323 Bibby, C. J., viewpoint: who took the birds out of British ornithology, 100-2 , , and Tubbs, C. R., status, habitats and conservation of the Dartford Warbler in England, 177- 95 , , see Lloyd, C. S. Bittern, American, accepted record I973> 334 Blackbird, nesting in Sand Martin colony, 92; old nest used by Song Thrush, 160; breeding on Dorset heathland 1958-60, 196; breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 274, 282 Blackburn, Frank V., photograph of Nightjar feeding chicks, plate 31b Blackcap, territory size, 189; status in Orkney, 264; eating ivy berries, plate 54a Blewitt, R. J. C., photograph of Water Rail, plate 27b; study of photo- graphic work, 450-2, plates 56-63 Bluethroat, breeding history in Britain, 20 Bonham, P. F., note on Yellow-browed Warbler feeding on the ground, 249-50; photograph of Azure-winged Magpie, plate 64b , , and Robertson, J. C. M., the spread of Cetti’s Warbler in north-west Europe, 393-408 Boswall, Jeffery, underwing pattern of Storm Petrels, 56, plate 1 1 ; review ofWilmore: Swans of the World, 162-3 , , and Dawson, Rodney, letter on the best recent work by British bird-photographers, 80-1 Botaurus lentiginosus, see Bittern, American Bottomley, J. B. and S., note on Cuckoos photographed feeding on Magpie Moth caterpillars, 514, plate 67; photographs of Barred Warbler, plates 12, 13a; of Snow Bunting, plate 25b; of Purple Sandpipers, plate 43; of Blackcap eating ivy berries, plate 54a Bourne, W. R. P., letter on birds and oil, 216 , , see Lea, David Brambling, photograph, plate 25a Breeding: Sandwich Tern, 142-56, plates 16-23; Carrion/Hooded Crow, 409-19. Nests: Cuckoo, 369-78, plates 48-51; Swallow, 247; Raven, 515-6; Carrion Crow, 342; Great Tit, 469-70; Blue Tit, 469-70; Long- tailed Tit, 1 18. Incubation: Wood- cock, 421-8 Brown, Duncan J., note on Great Tit probably killing Blue Tit at the nest, 469 Bubulcus ibis, see Egret, Cattle Bucephala clangula, see Goldeneye Budgerigar, ‘scaly face’ in, 106; prey of Hobby, 242 Bulbul, White-vented, feeding on acacia gum, 46 Bullfinch, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 Bundy, Graham, note on Swift wing- clapping, 76; on Reed Warblers breeding in Shetland, 210-1 Index to volume 68 Bunting, Black-hcaded, accepted records 1974, 331; accepted record 1970, 333 , Corn, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 275, 282 , Little, accepted records 1974, 332 , Reed, breeding in Shetland, 263 ; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 274, 282 , Rustic, accepted records 1974, 332 , Snow, British breeding records 1973, 22-3, 506; wintering in Orkney, 282; British breeding records 1974, 503; photograph, plate 25b , Yellow, see Yellowhammer , Yellow-breasted, accepted records 1974. 33* Burhinus oedicnemus, see Curlew, Stone Bustard, Great, accepted record 1973, 334 Buleo buteo, see Buzzard jamaicensis, see Hawk, Red-tailed Butlin, Sybil M., note on House Sparrow feeding bean flowers to nestlings, 516-7 Buxton, E. J. M., letter on high flight of House Martins, 299-300 Buzzard, predation at Sand Martin colony, 94; social behaviour, 125-41 ; breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 274, 281; bringing twig to nest, plate 63a , Honey, breeding history in Britain, 10, 504; British breeding records 1974. 493-4 Calandrella cinerea, see Lark, Short-toed rufescens, see Lark, Lesser Short- toed Calidris acuminata, see Sandpiper. Sharp- tailed alba, see Sanderling alpina, see Dunlin bairdii, see Sandpiper, Baird's canutus , see Knot fuscicollis, see Sandpiper, White- rumped marilima, see Sandpiper, Purple melanotos, sec Sandpiper, Pectoral ptilocnemis, see Sandpiper, Rock pusilla , see Sandpiper, Serni- palmated temminckii , see Stint. Temminck’s 527 Calonectris diomedea, see Shearwater, Cory’s Campbell, Bruce, viewpoint: how wild is our wildlife? 37-40 Cantelo, J., and Gregory, P. A., note on feeding association between Common Tern and Razorbill, 296-7 Capercaillie, possibility of re-intro- duction in England, 39 Caprimulgus europaeus, see Nightjar Carduelis chloris, see Greenfinch spinus, see Siskin Carlson, K. J., photograph of Moustached Warbler, plate 33 Carlson, R. G., photograph of Purple Sandpiper, plate 42a Carpodacus erythrinus, see Rosefinch, Scarlet Cepphus grylle, see Guillemot, Black Certhia familiaris, see Treecrecper Cettia cetti, see Warbler, Cetti’s Chaflinch, knemidokoptic mange, 103- 7; breeding status in Orkney, 263, 282 Charadrius dubius, see Plover, Little Ringed hiaticula, see Plover, Ringed vociferus, sec Killdeer C.hatfield, David G. P., letter on ‘Who took the birds out of British orni- thology?’ 473-5 Cheke, R. A., and Coles, J. A., note on ‘freezing’ behaviour of Pheasants on tree branches, 207-8 ChifTchafr, feeding on acacia gum, 45-7 Chlidonias hybnda, sec Tern, Whiskered leucopterus , see Tern, White- winged Black niger, see Tern, Black Chough, feeding on blow fly larvae from carcass, 159-60 Christie, D. A., studies of less familiar birds, 176 — Barred Warbler, 108- 14, plates 12-15; recent reports, see Reports Ciconia ciconia, see Stork, White nigra, see Stork, Black Cinclus cinclus, see Dipper Circus aeruginosas, see Harrier, Marsh cyaneus, see Harrier, Hen pygarg,LS, see Harrier, Montagu’s Cisticola juncidis, see Warbler, Fan- tailed Clangula hyemalis, see Duck, Long-tailed Coles, J. A., see Cheke, R. A. Colinus virginianus, see Quail, Bob-white 528 Collar, Nigel, note on Golden Orioles diving into water, 245-6 Columba livia, see Dove, Rock oenas, see Dove, Stock palumbus, see Woodpigeon Colurnbina talpacoti, see Dove, Ruddy Ground Common Birds Census, announcement, 82 Coomber, Richard, note on contrasting predator-reactions of two Oyster- catcher chicks, 157 Coot, relations with Crested Coots in Morocco in winter, 1 1 7 ; breeding status in Orkney, 262-4, 281; feeding association with Dusky Moor- hen, 294; fighting, plate 27a , Crested, behaviour in winter, 1 16-8 Coracias garrulus, see Roller Cormorant, breeding status in Orkney, 265, 267-8, 271-2, 280; roosting on cathedral spire, 429 Corncrake, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 275, 281 Corvus corax, see Raven corone, see Crow, Carrion/Hooded frugilegus, see Rook monedula, see Jackdaw Coturnix coturnix, see Quail Crake, Little, accepted record 1974, 315 , Spotted, breeding history in Britain, 13; British summering records 1974, 496 Cramp, Stanley, review of Hawks- worth: The Changing Flora and Fauna of Britain, 384-5 ; review of Flanagan and Morris: Window into a Nest, 518 Crex crex, see Corncrake Crow, Carrion, predation at Sand Martin colonies, 96; preying on terns, 233; taking House Martin, 342; two pairs nesting in same tree, 342 , Carrion/Hooded, breeding study in north-east Scotland, 409-19 , Hooded, breeding status in Orkney, 269, 274, 281 Cuckoo, prey of Hobby, 242 ; breeding status in Orkney, 281; study of egg- laying in Reed Warblers’ nests, 369-78, plates 48-51; predation of Reed Warblers’ nests, 374-5; feeding Index to volume 68 on Magpie Moth caterpillars, 514, plate 67 Cuculus canorus, see Cuckoo Curlew, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 273-6, 281 , Stone, British breeding records 1973) 15-6. 5°5! British breeding records 1974, 498 Cyanopica cyanus, see Magpie, Azure- winged Cygnus cygnus, see Swan, Whooper olor , see Swan, Mute Cyrus, Digby P., note on breeding success of Red-throated Divers on Fetlar, 75-6 Daalen, Frits van, photograph of Swallow collecting horse hairs, plate 53a Dalton, Stephen, photograph of Great Spotted Woodpecker, plate 29a; of Starling, plate 29b Date, Graham F., photograph of Dipper, plate 28a Davenport, D. L., the spring passage of the Pomarine Skua on British and Irish coasts, 456-62 Davis, P. G., note on probable bigamy- in Nightingale, 77-8 Dawson, Rodney, note on Choughs feeding on blow fly larvae at cow carcass, 159-60; on Marsh Sand- pipers associating with feeding Avo- cets and other species, 294-5; photo- graph of Rock Dove, plate 31a , , see Boswall, Jeffery Dean, Alan R., note on Night Herons fishing in deep water, 384 Delichon urbica, see Martin, House Dendrocopos major, see Woodpecker, Great Spotted Dennis, R. H., photographs of Short- toed Lark, plate 36 , , and Wallace, D. I. M., field identification of Short-toed and Lesser Short-toed Larks, 238-41, plates 36-7 Des Forges, G., behaviour of an incubating Woodcock, 421-8 Diomedea melanophris, see Albatross, Black-browed Dipper, breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 276; photograph, plate 28a Index to volume 68 Display: Buzzard, 125-41; Sandwich Tern, 143-7, plates 16- 19a; Great Spotted Woodpecker, 431 Diver, Black-throated, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 , Great Northern, breeding history in Britain, 7; wintering in Orkney, 273 , Red-throated, breeding success on Fetlar, 75-6; breeding status in Orkney, 264, '272, 274, 280 , White ‘Tiled, accepted records ■974- 3°9 Dotterel, Briti h breeding records 1973, 13, 504; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; British breeding records 1974, 496; photographs, plates 26b, 62a Dove, Collared, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 281 ; possible cause of range expansion, 403 — , Rock, breeding status in Orkney, 269, 274, 281 ; photograph, plate 31a — , Ruddy Ground, swimming, 468 , Rufous Turtle, accepted record 1974,322 , Stock, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 91-2 Dowitcher, Long-billed, accepted records 1974, 316 Duck, Long-tailed, status in Orkney, 264, 272-3, 282 , Ring-necked, accepted records ■974- 3*3 , Tufted, breeding in Shetland, 262; status in Orkney, 276, 280 , Wood, information on feral populations requested, 300 Dunlin, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 273-4, 276> 281; feeding on waste cockles, 339; photograph, plate 3a Dunn, Euan, review of Dorst: The Life of Birds , 470- 1 Dunnock. killing another, 1 18-9; breed- ing status in Orkney, 263, 282 Dymond, J. N., note on possible con- fusion between Red-breasted and Orange-gorgeted Flycatchers, 342-3 Eagle, Bald, taking Fulmars, 293; continued threat to populations, 482 529 Eagle, Golden, eating Fulmars, 262, 274, 293; breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 274 , Imperial, threatened by habitat destruction, 482 , Tawny, photograph, plate 5b , White-tailed, no longer breeding in Orkney, 264, 270; taking Fulmars, 293; continued threat to populations, 482 Editorials: the new counties and regions, 1-4; what results from bird- ringing? 53-6; birds of prey — time for action, 481-3 Egret, Cattle, photograph, plate 4 , Great White, accepted records ■974- 3' ■ , Little, accepted records 1974. 310-1; accepted records 1973, 334 Egretta alba , see Egret, Great White garzetta, sec Egret, Little Eider, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 273-4, 280 , King, accepted records 1974, 314 , Steller’s, accepted records 1974, 313-4 Elkins, N., note on voice of the Fan- tailed Warbler, 45; letter on high flight of House Martins, 520 Emberiza aureola , see Bunting, Yellow- breasted calandra, see Bunting, Corn citrinella, see Yellowhammer melanocephala , see Bunting, Black- headed pusilla, see Bunting, Little rustica, see Bunting. Rustic schoeniclus, see Bunting, Reed Eremophila alpestris, see Lark, Shore Erithacus rubecula, see Robin Eudromias morinellus, see Dotterel Everett, Michael J., and Hammond, Nicholas, note on Dunnock killing Dunnock, 1 18-9 , , see Lloyd, C. S. Ewing, A. W., and L. S., note on Com- mon and Black-headed Gulls flight- feeding over ragwort, 44-5 Falco coltimbarius, see Merlin mexicanus, see Falcon, Prairie natimanni, see Kestrel, Lesser peregrinus, see Peregrine rusticolus, see Gyrfalcon Index to volume 68 530 Falco sparverius, see Kestrel, American subbuteo, see Hobby vespertinus, see Falcon, Red-footed Falcon, Prairie, predation at Sand Martin colony, 95 — — — , Red-footed, accepted records 1974, 3i5i accepted records 1973, 334 Ferguson- Lees, I. J., and Hosking, Eric, birds in action, 420, plates 52-5 , , and Sharrock, j. T. R., letter on feral populations of Ring- necked Parakeets, 300 , , see Hosking, Eric , , see Sharrock, J. T. R. Ferns, Peter N., note on rafting be- haviour of Redshank, 429-30 Ficedula hypoleuca, see Flycatcher, Pied parva, see Flycatcher, Red-breasted strophiata, see Flycatcher, Orange- gorgeted Field-characters: Storm Petrel, 56, plate 1 1 ; Greylag Goose, 61-67; White-fronted Goose, 59-66; Lesser White-fronted Goose, 59-66; Bean Goose, 58-65; Pink-footed Goose, 58-65; Glaucous Gull, 24-37; Iceland Gull, 24-37; Audouin’s Gull, 297-8; Short-toed Lark, 238-41, plate 36; Lesser Short-toed Lark, 238-41, plate 37 Fieldfare, British breeding records 1973, 18; breeding in Shetland, 263; status in Orkney, 264, 282; British breeding records 1974, 499-500 Firecrest, British breeding records 1973, 21-2; British breeding records 1974, 502-3 Flegg> J- J- M., and Cox> c- J-> mor- tality in the Black-headed Gull, 437-49 Flumm, D. S., note on aberrant or hybrid Swallow, 246-7 Flycatcher, Brown, photographic study, 68-79, plates 8-10 , Brown-breasted, distribution, 69 , Chocolate, distribution, 69 , Ferruginous, distribution, 69 , Grey-spotted, distribution, 68-70 , Orange-gorgeted, similarity with Red-breasted Flycatcher, 342-3 , Pied, photograph, plate 32a — — , Red-breasted, feeding on ground, 250; possible confusion with Orange- gorgeted Flycatcher, 342-3; photo- graphs, plate 9c, d Flycatcher, Rufous-tailed, distribution, 69 , Sooty, distribution, 68-70 , Spotted, nesting in Sand Martin colony, 93; breeding status in Orkney, 263, 282 ; photographs, plate 10 , Sumba, distribution, 69 Food: Squacco Heron, 76; Golden Eagle, 262, 274, 293; Hobby, 242; Peregrine, 242; Kestrel, 157, 242; American Kestrel, 242; Turnstone, 339-41; Greenshank, 243-5, 467, plates 38-9; Pomarine Skua, 430-1; Common Gull, 44-5; Black-headed Gull, 44-5; Kittiwake, 245; Cuckoo, 514, plate 67; Great Spotted Wood- pecker, 468-9; Swallow, 248; Chough, 159-60; Coal Tit, 248-9; Whitethroat, 516; Chiffchaff, 45-7; Red-breasted Flycatcher, 250; Linnet, 49; House Sparrow, 516-7; White-vented Bulbul, 46 Fratercula arctica, see Puffin French, Phyllis, note on Long-tailed Tits using willow catkins as nest material, 1 18 Fringilla coelehs, see Chaffinch montifringilla, see Brambling Frost, R. A., note on Purple Gallinule up-ending, 383; on unusual song of Lesser Whitethroat, 431 Fulica atra, see Coot cristata, see Coot, Crested Fulmar, occupying Raven’s nest, 115; contaminating sheep with oil, 1 15-6; sitting on egg and two dead passerine nestlings, 1 1 6 ; food of Golden Eagle, 262, 274, 293; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 267-8, 271-2, 280 Ftilmarus glacialis, see Fulmar Gabriel, Keith R., note on Swallows feeding wasps to young, 248 Gadwall, status in Orkney, 264 Gallinago gallinago, see Snipe media, see Snipe, Great Gallinula chloropus, see Moorhen Gallinule, Purple, up-ending, 383 Gannet, feeding in dense fish shoal, 119-20; breeding status in Orkney, 263, 267-8, 271, 280; location of Index to volume 68 census records, 387; fighting in flight, plate 55a Garrulus glandarius, see J ay Gavia adamsii, see Diver, White-billed arctica, see Diver, Black-throated immer, see Diver, Great Northern stellata, see Diver, Red-throated Gelochelidon nilotica, see Tern, Gull- billed Gerrard, A. J., note on Black-headed Gulls associating with feeding Goldeneyes, 295-6 Gilbert, D. C., note on Coal Tits feeding wasps to young, 248-9 Gilpin, Arthur, photograph of Pied Flycatcher, plate 32a Glareola nordmanni, see Pratincole, Black- winged pratincola, see Pratincole, Collared Glue, David E., note on some instances of nest predation by Great Spotted Woodpeckers on House Martins and other species, 468-9 Godwit, Bar-tailed, status in Orkney, 273, 282 , Black-tailed, British breeding records 1973, 13-4, 505; breeding in Shetland, 263; status in Orkney, 264, 276; British breeding records '974. 49r> Goldcrest, breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 2^2 Goldeneye, British breeding records '973. 9> numbers wintering in Orkney, 276, 282; British breeding records 1974, 492 Goodwin, Derek, studies of less familiar birds, 178 — Azure-winged Magpie, 484-8, plates 64-66 Goosander, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 Goose, Bean, field-characters and distribution of Russian race, 58-65; field-characters and distribution of Western race, 58-65 , Greylag, field-characters and distribution of Western race, 61-67; field-characters and distribution of Eastern race, 62-7; breeding in Caithness, Sutherland and Faeroe, 263; numbers wintering in Orkney, 276 , Lesser White-fronted, field- characters and distribution, 59-66; accepted records 1974, 314 531 Goose, Pink-footed, field-characters and distribution, 58-65 , White-fronted, field-characters and distribution of European race, 59-66; field-characters and distri- bution of Greenland race, 59-66 ; wintering in Orkney, 282 Goshawk, British breeding records '973. 9* *o; British breeding records '974. 493 Grebe, Black-necked, British breeding records 1973, 8; British breeding records 1974, 491-2 , Black-throated Little, feeding association with Australian Black Duck, 294 , Little, breeding status in Orkney, 262- 3, 280; feeding association with domestic ducks and other species, 293-4 , Slavonian, British breeding records 1973, 7-8; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; British breeding records 1974, 491 Green, Dennis, photograph of Golden Plover, plate 26a; of Jack Snipe picking seeds off mud, plate 54b Greenfinch, breeding status in Orkney, 263- 4, 282 Greenshank, summer food and feeding habitats, 243-5, plates 38-9; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; status in Orkney, 264; taking fish, 467 Gregory, P. A., see Cantelo, J. Grenfell, Harold E., photograph of Wheatear, plate 24 Grouse, Black, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 , Red, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 274, 281 Guillemot, swimming on back under water, 159; breeding status in Orkney, 267-8, 281 ; aerial plunge- diving, 383-4; timing and frequency of census counts, 507-13 , Black, breeding status in Orkney, 267-9. 272, 281 Gull, Audouin’s, field-characters, 297-8 , Black-headed, flight-feeding over ragwort, 44-5; predation at Sand Martin colonies, 96; Sandwich Terns nesting in association with, 143; kleptoparasitism on terns, 150-1, plate 20; breeding association with 532 Index to volume 68 terns, 233; breeding status in Orkney, 267, 274, 281; feeding association with Goldeneyes, 295-6; study of mortality, 437-49 Gull, Bonaparte’s, accepted record 1969, 333 , Common, flight-feeding over ragwort, 44-5; breeding association with Sandwich Terns, 233; breeding status in Orkney, 267-8, 274, 281 , Glaucous, identification and ageing, 24-37; problem of hybrids X Herring Gulls, 35 , Glaucous-winged, inter-breeding, 35 , Great Black-backed, feeding in dense fish shoal, 119; displacing breeding terns, 233 ; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 267-8, 274, 281 , Herring, confusion of aberrant forms with Glaucous or Iceland Gulls, 33-4; feeding in dense fish shoal, 1 19; displacing breeding terns, 233; breeding status in Orkney, 267-8, 274, 281 ; comparison with Audouin’s Gull, 297-8; fledging rate, 444 - — — , Iceland, identification and age- ing, 24-37 , Kumlien’s, eye-colour, 35 , Laughing, in Co. Cork, 158-9; accepted records 1974, 320 , Lesser Black-backed, change in status due to rubbish tips, 38; dis- placing breeding terns, 233 ; breeding status in Orkney, 267-8, 272, 274, 281; causes of mortality, 442; fledging rate, 444; chased by Arctic Skua, plate 55b , Mediterranean, breeding history in Britain, 16 , Ring-billed, accepted records !974> 320 , Ross’s, accepted records 1974, 320 , Thayer’s, eye-colour, 35 , Western, inter-breeding, 35 Gush, Geoffrey H., note on two pairs of Carrion Crows nesting in the same tree, 342 , , see Macdonald, J. W. Gyrfalcon, accepted record 1974, 315 Haemalopus ostralegus, see Oystercatcher Haliaeetus albicilla, see Eagle, White- tailed Haliaeetus leucocephalus, see Eagle, Bald Harley, B. H., note on parasitic flies in House Martin nests, 514-5 Harrier, Hen, breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 274, 281 , Marsh, British breeding records 1973, 11, 504; reaction of Crested Coots to, 1 1 7 ; British breeding records 1974, 494 , Montagu’s, British breeding records 1973, 1 1 ; continued threat to populations, 481-2; British breeding record 1974, 494 Harrison, Pamela, photograph of Dot- terel, plate 26b Hawk, Red-tailed, social behaviour compared with Buzzard, 125, 131, 1 34-5 j use °f high perches in breed- ing territories, 135 Hawker, David M., note on Golden Eagle eating Fulmars, 293 Hawthorn, I., and Mead, C. J., Wren movements and survival, 349-58 Hemipode, Andalusian, photographs needed, 81 Henty, C. J., feeding and food-hiding responses of Jackdaws and Magpies, 463-6 Heron, Grey, breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 280; fishing in deep water, 384 , Night, accepted records 1974, 3 1 1 ; fishing in deep water, 384 , Purple, accepted records 1974, 310 , Squacco, feeding in dry habitats, 76 Himantopus himantopus, see Stilt, Black- winged Hippolais olivetorum, see Warbler, Olive- tree Hirundo daurica, see Swallow, Red- rumped rustica, see Swallow Hobby, British breeding records 1973, 12-3, 504; predation at Sand Martin colonies, 95; feeding on bats, 242; British breeding records ig74> 495! in flight, plate 52a Hogg, Raymond H., note on unusual display flight of Great Spotted Woodpecker, 431 Holland, Maurice G., see Insley, Hugh Holliday, M., photograph of Rook, plate 35b Index to volume 68 Homes, R. C, review of Perrins: Birds, 50-1 Hoopoe, breeding history in Britain, 17; ‘freezing’ behaviour, 208 Hope Jones, P., review of Saunders: A Guide to the Birds of Wales, 49-50 Hosking, Eric, British bird-photo- graphers, 17— J. F. Reynolds, 40-2, plates 1-7; letter on the best recent work by British bird-photographers, 81-2; more examples of the best recent work by British bird-photo- graphers, 204-7, plates 24-35; photographs of Spotted Flycatcher, plate 10; of Lesser Short-toed Lark, plate 37; of Azure-winged Magpie, plates 64a, 65a , , and Ferguson- Lees, I. J., British bird-photographers, 18 — R. J. C. Blewitt, 450-2, plates 56-63 , , see Fcrguson-Lees, I. J. Hudson, Robert, letter on collecting of Ipswich Sparrows, 168-9 Hughes, S. W. M., note on Cormorants roosting on spire, 429 Hume, R. A., identification and ageing of Glaucous and Iceland Gulls, 24- 37; note on Fulmar sitting on egg and two dead passerine nestlings, 1 1 6 ; on Red-breasted Flycatchers feeding on the ground, 250; on successful breeding of Ravens on city building, 515-6, plate 66b Hydro bates pelagicus, see Petrel, Storm Hvdroprogne caspia, see Tern, Caspian Ibis, Glossy, accepted record 1974, 312; photograph of juvenile, plate 6a Icterus galbula, see Oriole, Baltimore Insley, Hugh, and Holland, Maurice G„ note on Hobbies feeding on bats and notes on other prey, 242 Jackdaw, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 92; predation at colonies, 96; breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 269, 281 ; feeding and food-hiding responses, 463-6 Janes, E. A., photograph ot Brambling. plate 25a Jay, predation at Sand Martin colony, 96; killing Wren, 354; predation of Reed Warblers’ nests, 374 533 Joiris, C., letter on the origin of British Aquatic Warblers, 519 Jones, R. E., food of Turnstones in the Wash, 339-41 Jones, W. E., letter on Manx Shear- waters plunge-diving, 119-20; note on Kittiwakes associating with feed- ing Razorbills, 296 Jynx torquilla, see Wryneck Kam, Jan van de, photographs of breeding Sandwich Terns, plates 16-23 Kestrel, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 91 ; predation at colonies, 95; trying to catch goldfish, 157; feeding on bats, 242 ; breeding status in Orkney, 262-3, 274, 281; killing Wren, 354; photograph, plate 5a , American, feeding on bats, 242 , Lesser, accepted record 1974, 315 Keymer, 1. F., note on Linnets feeding from floating vegetation, 49 Killdeer, accepted record 1974. 315-6 King, Bernard, note on vagrant Squacco Heron feeding in dry habitats, 76; on Guillemot swimming on its back when under water, 159; on aerial plunge-diving and sub- merging by auks, 383-4 Kingfisher, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 92 Kingsbury, P. A., letter on ‘\\ ho took the birds out of British ornithology?’, 473 t Kington, B. L., note on Kittiwake taking bread from hand, 245 Kite, Black, accepted record 1974, 315 , Red, British breeding records 1973, 10; continued threSt to populations. 481-2: British breeding records 1974, 493 Kittiwake, taking bread from hand, 245 ; breeding status in Orkney, 264. 267-8, 271-2, 281; associating with feeding Razorbills, 296; mortality rates, 444 Knights, C. R.. photographs of Purple Sandpiper, plates 40, 41b Knot, status in Orkney, 273, 282; feeding on waste cockles, 339 Lagopus lagopus, see Grouse, Red mutus, see Ptarmigan Index to volume 68 534 Lanius collurio, see Shrike, Red-backed minor, see Shrike, Lesser Grey senator, see Shrike, Woodchat Lapwing, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 274-6, 281 Lark, Black, photographs needed, 81 , Lesser Short-toed, field characters, 238-41, plate 37 , Shore, British breeding record 1973, 17-8 , Short-toed, field-characters, 238- 41, plate 36; accepted records 1974, 323; accepted record 1972, 334 Larus argentatus, see Gull, Herring atricilla, see Gull, Laughing audouinii, see Gull, Audouin’s cams, see Gull, Common — — ■ delawarensis, see Gull, Ring-billed fuscus, see Gull, Lesser Black- backed glaucescens, see Gull, Glaucous- winged glaucoides, see Gull, Iceland kumlieni, see Gull, Kumlien’s hyperboreus, see Gull, Glaucous marinus, see Gull, Great Black- backed melanocephalus, see Gull, Medi- terranean occidentalis, see Gull, Western Philadelphia, see Gull, Bonaparte’s ridibundus, see Gull, Black-headed thayeri, see Gull, Thayer’s Lea, David, and Bourne, W. R. P., the birds of Orkney, 261-83 Lees, D. D., letter on high flight of House Martins, 216-7 Limicola falcineltus, see Sandpiper, Broad-billed Limnoiromus scolopaceus, see Dowitcher, Long-billed Limosa lapponica, see Godwit, Bar-tailed limosa, see Godwit, Black-tailed Linnet, feeding on floating vegetation, 49; breeding on Dorset heathland 1959-60, 196; breeding status in Orkney, 263, 282 Lloyd, Clare, S., timing and frequency of census counts of cliff-nesting auks, 507-13 , , Bibby, G. J., and Everett, M. J., breeding terns in Britain and Ireland in 1969-74, 221-37 Locustella certhiola, see Warbler, Savi’s naevia, see Warbler, Grasshopper Luscinia luscinia, see Nightingale, Thrush Luscinia megarhynchos, see Nightingale svecica, see Bluethroat Lymnocryptes minimus, see Snipe, Jack Lyrurus tetrix, see Grouse, Black Macdonald, J. W., and Gush, G. H., knemidokoptic mange in Chaf- finches, 103-7 Magpie, predation at Sand Martin colonies, 96; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; feeding and food hiding responses, 463-6 , Azure-winged, photographic study, 484-8, plates 64-6 Male, Alan E., note on bigamy in Redstart, 77 Mallard, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 273-4, 276, 280 Marmaronetta angustirostris, see Teal, Marbled Martin, House, roosting in Sand Martin colonies, 94; specific ectoparasites found on Sand Martins, 120; flying at great height, 216-7, 299-300, 520; prey of Hobby, 242; breeding in Caithness, Sutherland and Shetland, 263; status in Orkney, 264; nest predation by Great Spotted Wood- pecker, 469; parasitic flies in nests, 5H-5 , Sand, failure to study ringing data, 55; other species nesting in colonies, 89-99 ; study of ectoparasites, 120; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 Mead, C. J., and Pepler, G. R. M., birds and other animals at Sand Martin colonies, 89-99 , , see Hawthorn, I. Melanitta fusca, see Scoter, Velvet — — - nigra, see Scoter, Common perspicillata, see Scoter, Surf Melanocorypha yeltoniensis, see Lark, Black Melopsittacus undulatus, see Budgerigar Merganser, Red-breasted, interest in escaping Oystercatcher chick, 157-8; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 273- 4, 281 Mergus merganser, see Goosander senator, see Merganser, Red- breasted Merlin, predation at Sand Martin colony, 95 ; breeding status in Orkney , Index to volume 68 535 264, 274, 281; continued threat to populations, 481-2 Merops apiaster, see Bee-eater Merrie, David, note on unusual tame- ness of Robins, 79 Migration: Pomarine Skua, 456-62; Wren, 349-58; Aquatic Warbler, 5i9 Mills, Eric L., letter on collecting of Ipswich Sparrows, 167-8 Milvus migrans, see Kite, Black milvus, see Kite, Red Monticola saxatilis, see Thrush, Rock Moore, N. W., status and habitats of the Dartford Warbler, Whitethroat and Stoncchat in Dorset in 1959-60, 196-202 Moorhen, breeding status in Orkney, 263, 281 Morris, P. G., note on the rdlc of male Blue Tits and Great Tits in nest- building, 469-10 Motacilla alba alba, see Wagtail, White yarrellii , see Wagtail, Pied cinerea, see Wagtail, Grey citreola, see Wagtail, Citrine flava, see Wagtail, Yellow feldegg, see Wagtail, Black- headed Mountfort, Guy, note on Kestrel apparently attempting to catch goldfish, 157; letter on ‘Who took the birds out of British ornithology?’, 472-3 Munsterman, Piet, photograph of Arctic Skua chasing Lesser Black- backed Gull, plate 55b Muscicapa ferruginea , see Flycatcher, Ferruginous griseisticta, see Flycatcher, Grey- Spotted latirostris, see Flycatcher, Brown muttui , see Flycatcher, Brown- breasted ruficauda, see Flycatcher, Rufous- tailed segregala, see Flycatcher, Sumba sibirica, see Flycatcher, Sooty striata, see Flycatcher, Spotted williamsoni, see Flycatcher, Chocolate Nelson, Bryan, review of Lockley: Ocean Wanderers, 161-2 Nethersole-Thompson, Desmond, note on summer food and feeding habitats of the Greenshank, 243-5 Neufeldt, Irene, photographs of Brown Flycatcher, plates 8, 9a, b , , see Nisbet, Ian C. T. News and comment: changing American attitudes to collecting. International Conference on the Conservation of Wetlands and Waterfowl, Greylag Geese poisoned by pesticide, new Nature Reserves at Leigh, Swanton Novers and Lizard, Oystercatcher cull in Burry Inlet ended, 83-4; proposed Great Crested Grebe census, future of estuarine counts, South West Regional Office for RSPB, Taimyr tundra reserve, Saltholm threatened by airport, changes in Seabird Group, New Year Honours for Stanley Cramp, Robert Chestney and David Wingate, new JVorth-Fast Scotland Bird Report, 1 2 1 -2 ; successful protest over proposed bye- law of Severn-Trent Water Authority, Danish taxidermy scandal, reintroduction of Lam- mergeier in Alps, BTO conference on ‘Birds and climatic change’. 169-70; Empingham Reservoir near- ing completion, RSPB appeal, new Durham Bird Club, first issue of Louth Bird Report, new ICBP magazine, Birds International, Greek biological station in Evros delta, obituary of Lt.-Col. C. F. Scroope, 217-8; WWF/IUCN programme, RSPB publication on avicultural trade, records of avian longevity, death of David Frost in clifT fall. Birds of Islay, 252-3; cliff-climbing hazards, egg-collecting and distur- bance at tern colonies, new Sussex NNR, fishing line hazards, white Stork increasing in east of range, Oystercatchers nesting on roofs in Aberdeen, 301-2; protests on timing of oil slick experiments, botulism outbreaks, International Wetland Year, fires and nature reserves. White-tailed Eagles on Rhum, de- velopment of Camargue National Reserve, growth of Wiltshire Orni- thological Society and Manx Orni- thological Society, 343-4; grants for Index to volume 68 536 nature conservation, The Birdwatchers' Quiz and Puzzle Book , spare a falcon ?, new guide to bird-watching in Sweden, new wardens for Minsmere and Ouse Washes, The Birds of the Sheffield Area, 388-9; concern about damage to vegetation of small islands by introduced herbivores, proposal to form Middle Thames ornithological society, call for stricter wildfowling laws in Denmark, some foreign snippets, The Birds of Berwick upon Tweed and District, 432-3; Woodcock research, conservation in Greece, Belgian wildfowling restrictions, BTO directorship vacant, conflicts within Middle Thames NHS settled, RSPB Guide to British Birds, 520-1 Newton, I., review of Tubbs: The Buzzard, 213-5 Nicholson, E. M., note on field characters of Audouin’s Gull, 297-8 Nightingale, probable bigamy, 77-8; singing, plate 32b , Thrush, accepted records 1974, 324 Nightjar, feeding chicks, plate 31b Nisbet, Ian C. T., photograph of Brown Flycatcher, plate ge , , and Neufeldt, Irene, studies of less familiar birds, 175 — Brown Flycatcher, 68-75, plates 8-10 Noddy, Brown, threat of oil pollution to breeding colony, 234 Numenius arquata, see Curlew phaeopus, see Whimbrel hudsonicus, see Whimbrel, Hudsonian Nuthatch, possibility of re-introduction in Scotland, 39; nest predation by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 468 Nyctea scandiaca, see Owl, Snowy Nycticorax nycticorax, see Heron, Night Obituary: Ft. -Col. C. F. Scroope, 218 Oceanodroma leucorhoa, see Petrel, Leach’s Oenanlhe deserti, see Wheatear, Desert hispanica, see Wheatear, Black- eared — — oenanthe, see Wheatear pleschanka, see Wheatear, Pied Ogilvie, M. A., studies of less familiar birds, 177 — Purple Sandpiper, 284- 8, plate 41a; review of Barnes: The Titmice of the British Isles, 385-6 , , and Wallace, D. I. M., field identification of grey geese, 57-67 Ogle, J. R., note on Feral Pigeon swimming, 467-8 Oriole, Baltimore, accepted record !974> 330 , Golden, British breeding records 1973, 18, 505; bathing behaviour, 245-6; British breeding records 1974, 499 Oriolus oriolus, see Oriole, Golden Osprey, British breeding records 1973, 1 1 -2; continued threat to popula- tions, 481-2; British breeding records 1974, 494 Otis tarda, see Bustard, Great Ouzel, Ring, breeding status in Orkney, 263, 282 Ovenbird, in Shetland, 453-5 Owl, Barn, predation at Sand Martin colonies, 96; continued threat to populations, 481-2; with Short- tailed Vole, plate 30 , Little, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 92 ; predation at Sand Martin colony, 96 , Long-eared, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 281 , Short-eared, preying on terns, 233; breeding status in Orkney, 263, 274, 281 , Snowy, British breeding records 1 973, !7; breeding in Shetland, 263; accepted records 1974, 322; con- tinued threat to populations, 481-2; British breeding records 1974, 49^*9 , Tawny, predation at Sand Martin colony, 96; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; at nest, plate 59 Oystercatcher, predator-reactions of chicks, 157-8; preying on terns, 233; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 274, 281; assuming winter plumage, plate 58b Pandion haliaetus, see Osprey Parrakeet, Ringneck, spread in London defended, 40; status in Britain, 300 Index to volume 68 Parker, Alan, note on young male Peregrines passing vegetation frag- ments to each other, 242-3 Parrinder, E. R., and E. D., Little Ringed Plovers in Britain in 1968-73, 359-68 Partridge, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; calling from ele- vated perch, 514 , Red-legged, nesting habitats at new gravel-pits, 366; photograph, plate 62b Parus ater, see Tit, Coal caeruleus, see Tit, Blue cristatus, see Tit, Crested major, see l it, Great Passer domesticus, see Sparrow, House montanus, see Sparrow, Tree Passerculus sandwichensis princeps , see Sparrow, Ipswich Peach, A. N. H., photographs of Barred Warbler, plates 13b, 14-15; photo- graphs of Azure-winged Magpie, plates 65b, 66a Pepler, G. R. M., see Mead, C. J. Perdix perdix, see Partridge Peregrine, feeding on bats, 242; young passing ivy fragments to each other, 242-3; breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 269-70, 281; taking Fulmars, 293; continued threat to populations, 48 1 -2 Pernis apivoris , see Buzzard, Honey Perrins, C. M., review of World Atlas of Birds, 163-4; letter on records from the national census of breeding birds 1969-70. 387 Petrel, Leach’s, possible breeding in Orkney, 263, 267-9, 283; location of census records, 387 , Storm, underwit. g pattern. 56, plate 1 1 ; breeding status in Orkney, 267, 269, 280 Pettet, Antony, note on Chiflfchaff feeding on acacia gum, 45-7: on Marsh Sandpipers associating with feeding Teal, 295 Phalacrocorax carbo, see Cormorant Phalarope, Red-necked, British breed- ing records 1973, 15. 505; breeding in Shetland, 263 ; no longer breeding in Orkney, 264; British breeding records 1974, 497-8: mating on water, plate 53b 537 Phalarope, Wilson’s, accepted records '974. 3 1 9 ; accepted record 1973- 335 Phalaropus lobatus, see Phalarope, Red- necked tricolor, see Phalarope, Wilson’s Phasianus colchicus, see Pheasant Pheasant, ‘freezing’ on tree branches, 207-8; breeding status in Orkney, 281 ; hen with young, plate 60a , Reeve’s, information on feral populations requested, 300 Phillips, N. J., and Wood, V. E., note on Yellow-browed Warbler feeding on the ground, 249 Philomachus pugnax, see Ruff Phoenicurus ochruros, see Redstart. Black phoenicurus, see Redstart Phylloscopus borealis, see Warbler, Arctic collybita, see Chifichaff fuscatus, see Warbler, Dusky inornatus, see Warbler, Yellow- browed prorcgulus, see Warbler, Pallas s schwarzi . see Warbler, Radde’s sibilatrix, see Warbler, Wood trochiloides, see Warbler, Greenish trochilus . see Warbler, Willow Pica pica, see Magpie Picozzi. N., a study of the Carrion / Hooded Crow in north-east Scotland. 409-19 , , see Weir. D. Pints viridis, sec Woodpecker, Green Pigeon, Feral, swimming, 467-8 Pinguinus impennis , see Auk, Great Pintail, British breeding records 1973. 8, 504; breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 276. 280; British breeding records 1974, 492 Pipit, Meadow, breeding on Dorset heathland, 196; breeding status in Orkney, 274, 282 , Olive-backed, accepted record >974. 328-9 , Pechora, photographs needed, 81 , Red-throated, habitats in Kenya. 80; accepted record 1974, 329 , Rock, breeding status in Orkney, 282 , Tawny, accepted records 1974, 328; accepted record 1973: correc- tion. 333; accepted record 1974, 335 , Tree, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland. 263: photograph, plate 28b Index to volume 68 538 Pipit, Water, wintering on Hampshire watercress beds, 47-8 Plautus alle, see Auk, Little Plectrophenax nivalis, see Bunting, Snow Plegadis falcinellus, see Ibis, Glossy Plover, Golden, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 273-5, 281; photo- graphs, plates 7a, 26a — — , Lesser Golden, accepted record x974> 3 16 5 accepted record 1973, 335 , Little Ringed, numbers summer- ing in Britain 1968-73, 359-68 , Ringed, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 274, 281; competition for nest-sites with Little Ringed Plover, 365 Pluvialis apricaria, see Plover, Golden dominica, see Plover, Lesser Golden Pochard, status in Orkney, 264, 276, 282 Podiceps auritus, see Grebe, Slavonian nigricollis, see Grebe, Black-necked Polking, Fritz, photograph of White Wagtail food-searching on pig, plate 52b Polysticta stelleri, see Eider, Steller’s Porphyrio porphyrio, see Gallinule, Purple Porzana parva, see Crake, Little porzana, see Crake, Spotted Prater, A. J., review of Kumari: Estonian Wetlands and their Life, 1 64-5 Pratincole, Black-winged, accepted records 1974, 320 , Collared, accepted record 1974, 3X9 Preston, K., note on Laughing Gull in Co. Cork, 158-9 Prunella modularis, see Dunnock Psittacula krameri, see Parakeet, Ring- neck Ptarmigan, breeding in Caithness, Sutherland and Faeroe, 263; no longer breeding in Orkney, 264 Puffin, breeding status in Orkney, 267- 9, 272, 281; aerial plunge-diving, 383-4 Puffinus assimilis, see Shearwater, Little puffinus, see Shearwater, Manx Pycnonotus barbatus, see Bulbul, White- vented Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, see Chough Pyrrhula pyrrhula, see Bullfinch Quail, status in Orkney, 264 , Bob-white, information on feral populations requested, 300 Rabbitts, Brian, note on Pomarine Skua taking Black-headed Gulls, 430-1 Radford, A. P., note on unusual pre- copulatory display by Song Thrush, 210 Rail, Water, breeding status in Orkney, 263-4; photographs, plates 27b, 60a Rallus aquaticus, see Rail, Water Rare Breeding Birds Panel, see Shar- rock, J. T. R. Rarities Committee: announcement of Committee changes, 42-3; address of new secretary, 169; announcement, 305; report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1974 (with additions for 1961 and 1968-73), 306-38, plates 44-7 Raven, nest occupied by Fulmar, 115; breeding status in Orkney, 269, 274, 28 1 ; breeding on city building, 5 1 5-6 ; at nest, plate 34 Razorbill, breeding status in Orkney, 267-8, 272, 281; aerial plunge- diving, 383-4; timing and frequency of census counts, 507-13 Recorders, list of county and regional, 255-60 Recurvirostra avosetta, see Avocet Redpoll, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 Redshank, breeding status in Orkney, 273-4, 281 ; feeding on waste cockles, 339; rafting behaviour, 429-30; photograph, plate 7b Spotted, photograph, plate 1 Redstart, bigamy, 77; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 — — , Black, British breeding records J973> I9» 505; status in Orkney, 264; British breeding records 1974, 5 00-1 Redwing, British breeding records 1973, 1 8-9, 505; breeding in Caith- ness, Sutherland and Faeroe, 263; wintering in Orkney, 282 ; British breeding records 1974, 500 Register of Ornithological Sites, appeal for assistance with, 251 Regulus ignicapillus, see Firecrest regulus, see Goldcrest Remiz pendulinus, see Tit, Penduline Reports: breeding season summary, 51-2; October, 85-8; November, 123- Index to volume 68 4; December and autumn summary, 1 7 1 -6 ; January, 219-20; February, 253-4; March, 303-4; April and winter summary, 345-8; May, 389- 92; June, 434-6; July and spring summary, 475-80; August, 522-4 Requests for information: checklist of the birds of The Gambia, 82; status of Audouin’s Gull, birds of Crete, 304 Reviews : Barnes: The Titmice of the British Isles, 385-6 Bcazley: The World Atlas oj Birds, 163-4 Bijleveld : Birds of Prey in Europe, 211- 2 Burton: Animals of Europe, 386-7 Dorst : The Life of Birds, 470- 1 Flanagan and Morris: Window into a Nest, 518 Hawksworth: The Changing Flora and Fauna of Britain, 384-5 Hudson: Threatened Birds of Europe, 517-8 Ingram: The Migration of the Swallow, 212-3 Kumari: Estonian Wetlands and their Life, 164-5 Lockley: Ocean Wanderers, 161-2 Mackinnon: Animals of Asia, 386-7 Perrins: Birds, 50-1 Saunders: A Guide to the Birds of Wales, 49-50 Schmidt and Brehm: Vogelleben zwis- cheri Nord-und Ostsee, 2 1 5 Tubbs: The Buzzard, 213-5 Wilmore: Swans of the World, 162-3 Reynolds, J. F., study of photographic work, 40-2, plates 1-7; photograph of Roller bringing up pellet, plate 35a , , see Backhurst, G. C. Rhodostethia rosea, see Gull, Ross’s Richards, Michael \\\, photograph of Coots fighting, plate 27a; of Gannets fighting in flight, plate 55a Riddiford, Nick, and Turley, Ray- mond E., note on Greenshank taking fish, 467 Riparia riparia, see Martin, Sand Rissa tridaclyla, see Kittiwake Robertson, Iain S., note on Fulmar occupying Raven’s nest, 1 1 5 ; on sheep contaminated by Fulmar oil, 115-6: Ovenbird in Shetland: a 539 species new to Britain and Ireland, 453-5 Robertson, J. C. M., see Bonham, P. F. Robin, unusual tameness in severe weather, 79; nesting in Sand Martin colony, 93; Swallow nesting in old nest, 247; breeding status in Orkney, 263, 274, 282; feeding Willow Warbler nestlings, plate 61 a Robson, R. W., note on Swallow sing- ing from the ground, 77; on feeding association between Little Grebes and feral domestic ducks, 293-4 Roller, accepted records 1974, 323; bringing up pellet, plate 35a Rolls, Julian C., note on Partridge calling from elevated perch, 514 Rook, feeding at Sand Martin colonics, 96; breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 277. 281 ; photograph, plate 35b Rosair, D. B., note on Swallows chasing bats, 248 Rosefinch, Scarlet, accepted records *974' 33 » Ruff, British breeding records 1973, 14-5; British breeding records 1974. 497; photograph, plate 58a Russell, J., photograph of Tree Pipit, plate 28b Sanderling, summering in Britain 1974, 497; summering in Britain 1973, 505 Sandpiper, Baird’s, accepted records "974, 318 , Broad-billed, accepted records •974, 3i9 , Buff-breasted, accepted records 1974. 3 "8-9 , Common, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 281 , Marsh, feeding association with Avocets and other species, 294-5; associating with feeding Teal, 295; accepted record 1974, 317; photo- graph, plate 2a , Pectoral, photograph, plate 44b , Purple, breeding in Faeroe, 263; status in Orkney, 273, 282; photo- graphic study, 284-8, plates 40-3 , Rock, breeding range, 285 , Semipalmated, accepted record 1974. 3"8 , Semipalmated or Western, accepted record 1973, 335 Index to volume 68 540 Sandpiper, Sharp-tailed, accepted record 1974, 318, plate 44 , Solitary, accepted records 1974, 316- 7 — — , Spotted, accepted records 1974, 317; accepted record 1973, 335 -, Terek, accepted records 1974, 317- 8 , Upland, accepted record 1974, 316 , White-rumped, accepted records 1974, 318; accepted record 1973, 335 , Wood, British breeding records 1973, 14; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; British breeding records 1974, 496-7 Saxicola rubetra, see Whinchat torquata, see Stonechat Scaup, breeding history in Britain, 8-9; status in Orkney, 264, 276, 282 Schouten, Hans, photograph of Red- necked Phalaropes mating on water, plate 53b Scolopax rusticola, see Woodcock Scoter, Common, British breeding records 1973, 9; breeding in Caith- ness, Sutherland and Shetland, 263; no longer breeding in Orkney, 264; British breeding records 1974, 492-3 , Surf, accepted records 1974, 313 , Velvet, wintering in Orkney, 273, 282 Scott, Derick, note on Long-eared Owls attacking Foxes, Hare and man, 208-10 Scroope, Lt.-Col. R. F., obituary, 218 Seiurus aurocapillus, see Ovenbird Serin, breeding history in Britain, 22; accepted records 1974, 330-1; accepted record 1973, 335; range- expansion, 403, 405 Serinus serinus, see Serin Sharrock, J. T. R., rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 1974, 489-506; letter on the origin of British Aquatic Warblers, 519 , , Ferguson-Lees, I. J., and Rare Breeding Birds Panel, rare breeding birds in the United King- dom in 1973, 5-23 , , see Ferguson-Lees, I. J. Shearwater, Cory’s, accepted records 1974, 309-10; accepted record 1973, 334 , Little, accepted records 1974, 310 Shearwater, Manx, plunge-diving, 119-20; breeding status in Orkney, 263-7, 269, 280; location of census records, 387 Shelduck, breeding status in Orkney, 281 Shoveler, breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 276, 280 Shrike, Lesser Grey, accepted records 1974, 329; accepted record 1969, 333 , Red-backed, British breeding records 1973, 22, 506; nesting association with Barred Warbler, 1 1 1 -2 ; egg-collecting a factor in decline, 191 ; British breeding records •974. 503 , Woodchat, accepted records 1974.329-30 Shrubb, M., letter on effects of agri- cultural change on birds, 165-7; note on Swallows nesting in old nest of Robins, 247; viewpoint: conserva- tion on the farm — where next?, 289-92 Siskin, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 Sitta europaea, see Nuthatch Skua, Arctic, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 267, 274-5, 281; spring passage at Dungeness and Beachy Head, 458-9; chasing Lesser Black-backed Gull, plate 55b , Great, breeding status in Orkney, 264, 274-5, 281 , Pomarine, taking Starling, 430; taking Black-headed Gulls, 430-1; spring passage on British and Irish coasts, 456-62 Skylark, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 274, 281; nesting habitats at new gravel- pits, 366 Smith, Alistair J. M., studies of breed- ing Sandwich Terns, 142-56, plates 16-23 Smith, Donald A., photograph of Barn Owl with Short- tailed Vole, plate 30 Smith, F. R., report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1974 (with additions for 1961 and 1968-73), 306-38, plates 44-7 Snipe, breeding status in Orkney, 274, 281 , Great, accepted record 1974, 316; accepted record 1973, 335 Index to volume 68 541 Snipe, Jack, picking seeds off mud, plate 54b Somateria mollissima, see Eider spectabilis, see Eider, King Sparrow, Hedge, see Dunnock , House, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 93; breeding status in Orkney, 282 ; feeding bean flowers to nestlings, 516-7 , Ipswich, ethics of collecting, 167-9 , Tree, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 93; breeding status in Orkney, 264, 277, 282 ; nest predation by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 468 Sparrowhawk, predation at Sand Martin colonics, 94-5; preying on terns, 233 ; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; no longer breeding in Orkney, 264; continued threat to populations, 481-2; male at plucking post, plate 63b Starling, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 93; juvenile feeding second brood, 1 6 1 ; prey of Hobby, 242 ; breeding status in Orkney, 274, 282; drop in recovery reporting rate, 357; photograph, plate 29b , Rose-coloured, accepted records •974. 33° Stercorarius parasiticus , see Skua, Arctic pomarinus, see Skua, Pomarine skua, see Skua, Great Sterna albifrons, see Tern, Little dougallii, see Tern, Roseate fuscata, see Tern, Sooty hirundo, see Tern, Common maxima, see Tern, Royal paradisaea, see Tern, Arctic sandvicensis, see Tern, Sandwich Stilt, Black-winged, accepted record 1974, 319; photograph, plate 2b Stint, Temminck’s, British breeding records 1973, 14: British breeding records 1974, 497 Stonechat, status and habitats in Dorset 1959-60, 196-202; breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 274, 282 , Siberian, accepted records 1974, 324; accepted record 1961, 333 Stork, Black, photograph, plate 6b , White, accepted records 1974. 311-2 Streptopelia decaocto, see Dove, Collared orientalis, see Dove, Rufous Turtle Strix aluco, see Owl, Tawny Sturnus roseus, see Starling, Rose- coloured vulgaris, see Starling Sula bass ana, see Gannet Summers, G., note on Whitethroat feeding on thistle seeds, 516 Swallow, singing from ground, 77; roosting in Sand Martin colonies, 94; study of ectoparasites, 120; aberrant or hybrid specimen, 246-7; nesting in old Robin's nest, 247; chasing bats, 248; feeding wasps to young, 248; breeding status in Orkney, 281 ; collecting horse hairs, plate 53a , Red-rumped, accepted record •974. 323 Swan, Mute, breeding in Faeroe, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 263-4. 281 , Whooper, status in Orkney, 264, 282 Swift, wing-clapping, 76; study of ectoparasites, 120; breeding in Caith- ness and Sutherland, 263 , Alpine, accepted records 1974. 322; accepted record 1972, 334 Sylvia atricapilla, see Blackcap borin, see Warbler, Garden cantillans, sec Warbler, Subalpine communis, see Whitethroat curruca, see Whitethroat, Lesser nisoria, see Warbler. Barred sarda, see Warbler, Marmora's undata, see Warbler, Dartford Svrmaticus reevesi. see Pheasant. Reeves Tachybaptus novaehollandiae. see Grebe. Black-throated Little rujicollis, see Grebe, Little Tadorna tadorna, see Shclduck Taverner, J. H., note on Water Pipits at Hampshire watercress beds, 47-8 Teal, status in Orkney, 273-4, 276, 280 , Blue-winged, accepted records •974. 312 , Green-winged, accepted records •974. 312 , Marbled, photographs needed, 81 Tern, Arctic, bill colour of juveniles, 79-80; breeding numbers in Britain and Ireland 1969-74, 227-9, 232-5; Index to volume 68 542 breeding status in Orkney, 267, 269, 281 Tern, Black, breeding history in Britain, 16 , Caspian, accepted records i974> 32i , Caspian or Royal, accepted record 1974, 322 , Common, breeding numbers in Britain and Ireland 1969-74, 225-7, 232-5; breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 267, 281 ; feeding association with Razorbill, 296-7; competition for nest-sites with Little Ringed Plover, 365 , Gull-billed, accepted records 1974. 32i , Little, breeding numbers in Britain and Ireland 1969-74, 229-35; breeding in Caithness and Suther- land, 263 , Roseate, breeding numbers in Britain and Ireland 1969-74, 221-3, 232-5 , Royal, egg recognition, 149; breeding behaviour, 152-4 , Sandwich, breeding behaviour, 142-56, plates 16-23; breeding affected by kleptoparasitism by Black-headed Gulls, 1 50- 1 ; breeding numbers in Britain and Ireland 1969- 74, 223-5, 232-5; breeding status in Orkney, 262-3, 267, 281 , Sooty, effects of pollution on breeding, 234 , Whiskered, accepted records >974. 32i , White-winged Black, accepted records 1974, 320-1, plate 47a Tetrao urogallus, see Capercaillie Thomas, D. K., note on Song Thrushes using old nest of Blackbirds, 160 Thompson, Gordon B., letter on ecto- parasites from other birds at Sand Martin colonies, 120 Thrush, Black-throated, accepted record 1974, 323, plate 45b , Rock, accepted record 1974, 323-4; accepted record 1969, 333 , Mistle, status in Orkney, 264 , Song, using old Blackbird’s nest, 160; unusual pre-copulatory display 210; breeding status in Orkney, 263, 274, 281 Tit, Blue, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 92; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; nest preda- tion by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 468; probably killed by Great Tit at nest, 469; role of male in nest- building, 469-70 Tit, Coal, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 92 ; feeding wasps to young, 248-9; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; nest predation by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 468 , Crested, possibility of intro- duction in East Anglia, 39 , Great, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 92; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 ; nest predation by Great Spotted Woodpecker, 468; probably killing Blue Tit at nest, 469; role of male in nest-building, 469-70 , Long-tailed, using willow catkins as nest material, 1 1 8 ; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 , Penduline, range-expansion, 403 Treecreeper, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263 Tringa erythropus, see Redshank, Spotted jlavipes, see Yellowlegs, Lesser glareola, see Sandpiper, Wood hypoleucos, see Sandpiper, Common maculana, see Sandpiper, Spotted nebularia, see Greenshank solitaria, see Sandpiper, Solitary stagnatilis, see Sandpiper, Marsh totanus, see Redshank Troglodytes troglodytes , see Wren Tryngites subrujicollis, see Sandpiper, Buff-breasted Tubbs, C. R., see Bibby, C. J. Tucker, D. C., photograph of Hobby in flight, plate 52a Tucker, Victor R., letter on bill colour of juvenile Arctic Terns, 79-8° Turdus iliacus, see Redwing merula, see Blackbird - — - philomelos, see Thrush, Song pilaris, see Fieldfare ruficollis, see Thrush, Black- throated torquatus, see Ouzel, Ring viscivorus , see Thrush, Mistle Turley, Raymond E., see Riddiford, Nick Turnix sylvatica , see Hemipode, Anda- lusian Index to volume 68 Turnstone, status in Orkney, 272, 282; food in Wash, 339-41 Twite, breeding status in Orkney, 274, 282 Tyto alba, see Owl, Barn Upupa epops, see Hoopoe Uria aalge, see Guillemot Vanellus vanellus, see Lapwing Viewpoint: D. Barber: attitudes which influence bird protection and conservation, 379-H3 C. .J. Bibby : who took the birds out of British ornithology?, 100-2 Bruce Campbell: How wild is our wildlife?, 37-40 M. Shrubb: conservation on the farm — where next?, 289-92 D. I. M. Wallace: migration in the doldrums, 202-3 Vinicombe, K. E., note on ‘freezing’ attitudes of Hoopoes when approached by man, 208 Voice: Lesser Whitethroat, 431; Fan- tailed Warbler, 45 Vulture, Black, threatened by habitat destruction, 482 Wagtail, Black-headed, accepted records 1974, 329 , Citrine, accepted records 1974, 3a9 , Grey, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; status in Orkney, 264, 276 , Pied, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 93; breeding status in Orkney, 282 , White, breeding in Faeroe, 263; food-searching on pig, plate 52b , Yellow, ringing recoveries, 80; nesting habitats at new gravel-pits, 366; photograph, plate 3b W allace, D. I. M., viewpoint: migration in the doldrums, 202-3; review of Burton : Animals of Europe, and Mackinnon: Animals of Asia, 386-7; photographs of Red-breasted Fly- catcher, plate 9c, d , , see Dennis, R. H. , , see Ogilvie, M. A. 543 Warbler, Aquatic, accepted records 1974, 326; accepted record 1973, 335; origin of British vagrants, 519 , Arctic, accepted record 1974, 327 , Barred, photographic study, 108-14, plates 12-15 , Bonelli’s, accepted records 1974, 327 , Cetti’s, British breeding records 1973, 20; spread in north-west Europe, 393-408; accepted records 1974, 325; accepted records 1973, 335; British breeding records 1974, 501 , Dartford, British breeding records 1973, 21 ; management of population in hard winter advocated, 38; status, habitats and conservation in England, 177-95; status and habitats in Dorset 1959-60, 196-202; British breeding records 1974, 502 , Dusky, accepted records 1974. 327-8, plate 45a , Fan-tailed, range-expansion, 395, 4°3 , Garden, territory size, 189; status in Orkney, 264 , Grasshopper, breeding in Caith- ness and Sutherland, 263 , Greenish, accepted records 1974, 326 , Marmora's, territory size, 189 , Marsh, British breeding records 1973, 21; British breeding records I974» 502 , Moustached, photograph, plate 33 , Olive-tree, photographs needed, 81 , Paddyfield, accepted record 1974, 325-6 , Pallas’s, accepted records 1974, 327 , Radde’s, accepted record 1974, 328, plate 46 , Reed, study of parasitisation by Cuckoo. 369-78. plates 48-51 ; breed- ing in Shetland, 210-1 , Savi’s, British breeding records 1973, 20, 506; accepted records 1974, 325; accepted record 1973, 335; British breeding records 1974, 501-2 , Sedge, breeding status in Orkney, 263, 274, 282; parasitisation by Cuckoo, 373 544 Index to volume 68 Warbler, Subalpine, accepted records •974, 326 - — — , Willow, breeding status in Orkney, 263, 282; juveniles killed for scientific analysis, 473 ; Robin feeding nestlings, plate 61a -, Wood, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; status in Orkney, 264 , Yellow-browed, feeding on ground, 249-50 Warden, D., note on probable feeding of young Starlings of second brood by fledged juvenile, 16 1 Watson, A. Barrie, letter on results from bird-ringing, 298-9 Weaving, P. D. V., photograph of Nightingale, plate 32b Weir, D., and Picozzi, N., aspects of social behaviour in the Buzzard, 125-41 Wheatear, breeding status in Orkney, 274, 282; photograph, plate 24 , Black-eared, accepted records !974> 324 , Desert, accepted record 1974, 324 , Pied, photographs needed, 81 Whimbrel, breeding in Shetland, 263; status in Orkney, 264-5 -, Hudsonian, accepted record I974» 3i6 Whinchat, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; status in Orkney, 264 Whitethroat, possible territorial com- petition with Dartford Warbler, 186; territory size, 189; status and habitats in Dorset 1959-60, 196-202; breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; status in Orkney, 264 , Lesser, territory size, 189; unusual song, 431 Wigeon, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 273, 276, 280 — — , American, accepted records 1974, 3 1 3 Williams, Keri, photographs of Green- shank catching eel, plates 38-9; of Purple Sandpiper, plate 42b Wood, Nicholas A., note on habitat preference and behaviour of Crested Coots in winter, 116-8 Wood, V. E., see Phillips, N. J. Woodcock, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; incubating be- haviour, 421-8; photograph, plate 61b Woodpecker, Great Spotted, breeding in Caithness and Sutherland, 263; unusual display flight, 43 1 ; nest predation on other species, 468-9; carrying faecal sac, plate 29a ; feeding on suet, plate 56 , Green, at water tank, plate 57b Woodpigeon, breeding in Shetland, 263; breeding status in Orkney, 262, 264, 274, 281; drinking, plate 57a Woollard, L. F., note on Pomarine Skua taking Starling, 430 Wren, nesting in Sand Martin colonies, 92; breeding status in Orkney, 269, 274, 281; movements and survival, 349-58 Wryneck, British breeding records 1973; O; 505; British breeding records 1974, 499 Wyllie, Ian, study of Cuckoos and Reed Warblers, 369-78, plates 48-51 Xenus cinereus, see Sandpiper, Terek Yapp, W. B., note on Carrion Crow taking House Martin, 342 Yellowhammer, breeding status in Orkney, 263-4, 282 Yellowlegs, Lesser, accepted records 1974; 31 7 Young, G. H. E., photograph of Raven at nest, plate 34 BOOKS — Handle with Care Name Address If undelivered, please return to P. G. Chapman & Co Ltd, Kent House Lane, Beckenham, Kent BR.3 ild To P. G. Chapman & Co Ltd, Kent House Lane, Beckenham, Kent BR.3 ild I enclose cheque/P.O. for for binding (The rate for binding is £3-65 per volume ) Please Jill in your name and address in both spaces on this page Failure to do this may cause delay. The lower half of this sheet will be sent back to you as a receipt; the upper is the label for the return of your bound volume Name Address Please complete the binding form overleaf Receipt for British Birds binding From P. G. Chapman & Co Ltd, Kent House Lane, Beckenham, Kent BR.3 ild We acknowledge with thanks receipt of your issues of British Birds for binding , and your cheque (P.O. for £ Date P. 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