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British Birds Volume 98 • Number 7 • July 2005 338 Urban gulls: problems and solutions Peter Rock 356 The Fair Isle sandpiper: a review Martin Garner Regular features 365 BOU News Guy Anderson 368 Conservation research news Jared Wilson and Jeremy Lindsell 369 Notes Which subspecies of Shag occurs in Galicia? Pierre Yesou, Andreas Buchheim and Andres Bermejo Ageing and sexing Short-toed Eagles Massimo Campora and Guido Cattaneo Mallard diving for fish Alan Harris Piratical feeding and unusual diet of Grey Herons Steve Cooper Osprey migrating with fish Tim Sykes Feeding habits of the Syrian Woodpecker Jerzy and Monika Michalczuk Mimicry by Blackbirds K. W. S. Kane and H. M. R. Kane Foot and leg colour of Goldcrest Martin Woodcock Eurasian Nuthatch flycatching Mike Archer Eurasian Nuthatches foraging on stonework R. A. Frost Short-toed Treecreeper foraging on ground Nigel Cleere 381 Reviews RSPB Children’s Guide to Birdwatching Life in the Wild: a photographer’s year 382 Obituaries Tony Norris 1 91 7-2005 Miriam Louisa Rothschild 1908-2005 385 News and comment Adrian Pitches 390 Recent reports Barry Nightingale and Anthony McGeehan © British Birds 2005 Urban gulls: problems and solutions Peter Rock ABSTRACT Urban-nesting by Herring Larus argentatus and Lesser Black- backed Gulls L fuscus in Britain began in the 1940s, but became established as a national phenomenon in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Since that time, numbers have grown exponentially, fuelled by ample food, high breeding success and apparently limitless habitat. Many towns and cities in Britain & Ireland now support growing colonies and it is estimated that, in 2004, the total population of roof-nesting gulls exceeded 120,000 pairs. Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls are opportunistic and omnivorous, taking advantage of a wide range of feeding situations. The urban breeding population in the Severn Estuary Region has increased from an estimated 2,632 pairs in 1994 to 23,930 pairs in 2004. Further increases on this scale would see the population in this region exceed 200,000 pairs by 2014 and a national population of more than one million pairs of urban-nesting gulls. The total costs to the community associ- ated with the problems of urban-nesting gulls in Britain are already considerable, and look set to multiply. Owing to their noisy and aggressive nature, urban gulls are already a major concern for residents, businesses, visitors and those who have to address the problems. Increasing media attention continues to high- light the problems and there is a growing demand for solutions. Lethal methods of deter- ring gulls from nesting in urban environments are regarded as socially unacceptable, while most non-lethal means have proved largely ineffective. Egg-oiling, a relatively benign but long-term form of management, can improve the situation in terms of noise and aggression within the immediate vicinity of the areas treated, but will not reduce breeding numbers and may simply cause the problem to shift else- where. Further research, centred on the well- studied urban populations in Bristol and the Severn Estuary Region, and coupled with studies at feeding sites, is essential to finding effective solutions which are both affordable and socially acceptable. This issue is inevitably going to get worse before it gets better. Roof-nesting by gulls in Britain A brief history Roof-nesting by large gulls in Britain was virtu- ally unknown before the 1940s. Although there were occasional and isolated records of gulls nesting on rooftops before 1940, colonisation began between the early 1940s and the mid 1960s, chiefly in coastal towns (Parslow 1967). It was not until ‘Operation Seafarer' (1969-70) that significant numbers of Herring Larus argentatus and Lesser Black-backed Gulls L. fuscus were discovered breeding at 60 urban locations (Cramp 1971). Gull populations in traditional (i.e. non-urban) colonies also increased rapidly between 1953 and 1972. Although helped by a post-war reduction in persecution, the increase was due mainly to a massive expansion in food availability, mostly from new landfill sites created to dispose of the increasing waste produced by humans in the post-war consumer boom (Parslow 1967; Spaans 1971; Hagemeijer & Blair 1997). Prior to the 1940s, most household waste was burnt at home, composted, or disposed of as pigswill. Consequently, landfills received a large proportion of inert waste, mostly ash, 338 © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Urban gulls: problems and solutions c while any organic waste was burnt on site (Institute of Wastes Management in lift.). With little food on offer, munic- ipal tips did not attract gulls. The rise of the ‘throw-away society’ in the early 1950s saw the opening of many new land- fills, to dispose of ever- increasing amounts of household waste, in particular organic waste. Due, in large part, to the sheer quantity of food available at landfills, previ- ously small gull populations began to rise dramatically. However, the Clean Air Act of 1956 was pivotal; it forbade the burning of refuse on site and required that refuse tips be covered with inert material at the end of each day’s tipping. Gulls were quick to take advan- tage of this new, enhanced feeding opportunity (Parslow 1967). In the Severn Estuary Region (SER), the large-gull populations increased 15-fold between the 1940s and the early 1970s (Mudge & Ferns 1980). The dramatic increase in gull populations between the late 1950s and early 1970s was, in turn, matched by an equally dramatic decline during the remainder of the 1970s (and, possibly, into the early 1990s), perhaps due to botulism (Mudge & Ferns 1980). Interestingly, black plastic bags, which are ideal for the prolif- eration of the poisonous bacterium Clostridium botulinum, were introduced as a method of waste disposal in 1972 (Institute of Wastes Management in lift.). Traditional gull colonies in the SER, such as Steep Holm in the Bristol Channel, were badly affected by botulism during this period, with numbers plummeting from c. 8,000 pairs in the early 1970s to just 800 pairs by the early 1990s (A. Parsons pers. comm.). In contrast, urban colonies appeared to be less affected by botulism, and continued to grow uninterrupted throughout this period, slowly at first, then more rapidly as colonies expanded and spread (pers. obs.). For example, in Bristol, the population grew from c. 100 pairs II III 185. Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus, Bristol, July 1998. Large gulls do not strike intruders with their beak but instead deliver a raking blow from behind with their claws. Although the claws of urban gulls are slightly less sharp than those of gulls in non-urban colonies (owing to abrasion on concrete and other man-made surfaces), they are still capable of inflicting serious wounds when the victim is hit at approximately 40 mph. Nonetheless, gull attacks in towns are less common than portrayed in the media and are the last resort of four possible threats. The first stage (seldom recognised by humans) is the ‘gag call’, warning intruders to move away. This is generally followed swiftly by the ‘low pass’, during which gulls swoop at intruders, but come no closer than a metre or two. The penultimate stage is to defecate, or regurgitate, over intruders; this is delivered with surprising accuracy and is a compelling deterrent. The direct attack is a risky manoeuvre for the gull because if it were to be injured, the breeding attempt would fail. in 1980 to c. 1,000 pairs by the early 1990s. Although some apparently botulitic gulls were recorded in Bristol at this time, numbers were low compared with those at traditional colonies (pers. obs.). Since the mid 1990s, with botulism stabilised at low levels, numbers of Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls at traditional colonies in the Bristol Channel have recovered, with c. 2,000 pairs now breeding on Steep Holm (A. Parsons pers. comm.) and c. 3,500 pairs on Flat Holm (Bailey 2001), although neither colony has recovered to its pre-botulism level. Before the incidence of botulism, and as a result of dra- matic population growth, it seems that tradi- tional colonies were outgrown and prospective breeders sought alternative sites. In short, gulls began to colonise towns and cities and found British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 339 Peter Rock Peter Rock Urban gulls: problems and solutions c > Expansion since Operation Seafarer Within the SER, urban breeding by large gulls was first recorded in Merthyr Tydfil, South Wales, in 1958 (Morrey Salmon 1958), when 45 pairs bred; this was fol- lowed by 15-20 pairs breeding in 1 87. Butetown, in Cardiff, has the highest breeding density of all large-gull colonies assessed in the Severn Estuary Region. This large roof (over 70 m long) supported I 10 pairs of large gulls (mainly Lesser Black-backed Larus fuscus but also Herring Gulls L argentatus) in 2004 and is typical of roofs in many industrial areas, being of asbestos construction, with a gentle slope and much lichen and moss growth. I 86. Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus, Worcester, April 2003. This male was ringed as a nestling in Bristol in 1994, and first discovered breeding in Worcester (85 km distant) in 2003. It is unusual for males to disperse this far, and it is possible that this bird may have relocated, perhaps following eviction or disturbance from its original breeding site. distinct advantages over traditional colonies: there are no predators; disturbance is minimal; ambient temperatures in towns are c. 2-6°C warmer than the surrounding countryside, which permits earlier breeding; and street lighting allows gulls to feed at night as well as during the day. Operation Seafarer revealed a total of 1,310 pairs nesting on buildings in 1969-70 (Cramp 1971) and the potential threat caused by increasing urban gull populations was seized upon by the headline writers of the day (Hey 1972). Cardiff in 1962 (Cramp 1971). Both colonies were well established when discovered, and were probably occupied before these dates. Further urban colonies became established during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with breeding noted in Gloucester in 1967 (Owen 1967) and Bristol in 1972 (P. Chadwick pers. comm.). Following a nationwide survey in 1976, Monaghan & Coulson (1977) concluded that both the numbers of gulls nesting on buildings and the numbers of breeding sites had grown significantly since the 1969-70 survey, with a total of 3,291 pairs of Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls breeding on rooftops in Britain & Ireland. Expansion continued throughout the 1980s and, in the 1994 survey, Raven & Coulson (1997) recorded 13,591 pairs of the two species (a ten-fold increase since 1970), although they acknowledged that numbers might have been as high as 20,100 pairs. Subsequently, the rate of increase has accelerated and, by 2004, it was estimated that over 100,000 pairs of gulls were nesting on buildings in Britain & Ireland ( P. Rock unpubl.). Urban gulls in the Severn Estuary Region The Severn Estuary Region (SER) is defined roughly as an area encompassing Birmingham in the north, South Wales in the west, Somerset in the south and Wiltshire in the east (fig. 1). 340 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Peter Rock Urban gulls: problems and solutions c > Population growth in the SER In 1994, Raven & Coulson (1997) established that the number of pairs of urban-nesting Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls in the SER was 1,780. In 2004, counts and estimates for just 22 colonies from a possible 60 amounted to 11,957 pairs (Appendix 1). At least five colonies with estimated populations of c. 1.000 pairs each and at least eight with c. 500 pairs each remained uncounted. It seems likely, therefore, that the total urban-nesting popula- tion in the SER in 2004 was of the order of 24.000 pairs. Since Raven & Coulson suggested that their figure was an underestimate, a correc- tion factor may be applied to their totals to show more realistic regional levels. Based upon the ratio between their actual (13,591 pairs) and estimated (20,100 pairs) populations in Britain & Ireland, this correction factor is taken to be 1.48, so the corrected total number of breeding pairs in the SER in 1994 was approximately 2,632 pairs. Using this correction factor, popu- lation estimates for 1994-2004 can be derived (table 1). Survey work during ‘Seabird 2000’ (1998- 2002) found 5,769 AON (apparently occupied nests) of Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls on roofs in the SER (Mitchell et al. 2004). This figure not only highlights how many colonies were not included in the survey (see table 1), but also underlines the difficul- ties in making accurate assessments in a complex urban envir- onment. For example, in 2002, a roof-nesting population of 1,345 pairs was counted in Gloucester during a land-based survey (Rock 2002); before the survey, local birders had believed it to be c. 800 pairs, a shortfall of 41%. Interestingly, an aerial survey of Gloucester later in 2001 (Durham 2003) pro- duced a total of 1,299 pairs by counting AON shown on photographs, just 3% lower than the total for the land-based survey. Driving the exponential population growth in the SER is the startlingly high breeding success enjoyed by urban gulls. In Bristol, for example, most pairs fledge 2-3 offspring per year (pers. obs.), and breeding success is pre- sumably similar in other urban colonies in the region. Annual population increases of over 25% were noted in Gloucester and in Bridgend, South Wales, of 23.5% in Worcester, but of only 13.8% in Cardiff (Rock 2003a, 2004a, b,c). As colonies expand, annual population growth rates may slow down (Raven & Coulson 1997). This process is, however, complicated by urban redevelopment, especially when certain key buildings are demolished, or where ongoing/extensive maintenance on key roofs occurs early in the breeding season. For example, in Cardiff, one roof holding almost 300 pairs of gulls was demolished during the breeding season in 2003, major maintenance was carried out on another quite important Table I. Theoretical growth in numbers of breeding pairs of urban-nesting Herring Larus argentatus and Lesser Black-backed Gulls L.fuscus in the Severn Estuary Region, 1 994-2004. These estimates have been derived by applying a correction factor of 1.48 to the actual count in 1994 (Raven & Coulson 1997), and assume an annual growth rate of 24.7%. Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2,632 3,282 4,093 5,104 6,364 7,936 9,897 12,341 15,389 19,190 23,930 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 341 Urban gulls: problems and solutions c ) roof at the same time, and two less important roofs were demolished. The resulting distur- bance suppressed the city’s gull population growth rate and this reduced the annual growth rate, with many birds possibly relocating to other sites within the SER. Small numbers of Great Black-backed Gulls L. marinus also breed on rooftops in various parts of Britain (Raven & Coulson 1997; Mitchell et al. 2004). Although up to 30 regu- larly frequent Gloucester landfill (J. Sanders pers. comm.), only one urban-breeding pair has been recorded in the SER, in Bridgend (Rock 2003b). Another pair was suspected to have bred in Bristol in 2003 (pers. obs.). There are no records of any other gull species breeding on rooftops in the SER. Breeding success and composition of colonies The high breeding success observed in Bristol contrasts markedly with that at some tradi- tional colonies, such as on Skomer, Pem- brokeshire, where productivity has been as low as 0.07 fledged young per pair per year (Perrins & Smith 2000). The main reason for such low productivity is probably poor food supply, in turn stemming largely from changes in fishing practices. Small inshore fishing boats, which discarded offal in regular and predictable pat- terns, have been replaced by much larger vessels, and discards have become unpredictable and often unavailable. The closure of the Haver- fordwest landfill site and the difficulties gulls have had in foraging for invertebrates during recent dry summers have also contributed to high chick mortality. Despite poor breeding success, the Skomer gull population is unlikely to decline significantly for some years, owing to high adult survival rates. Nonetheless, con- tinued poor breeding success, coupled with poor recruitment of first-time breeders, will accelerate population decline as adults reach the end of their breeding careers (Dunn 1993), and some evidence of decline on Skomer is already apparent (Brown & Morgan 2004). Gulls breeding in Bristol clearly manage to obtain sufficient food to fledge their offspring, and birds which lay a clutch of three eggs typi- cally fledge three young successfully (pers. obs.). Little interspecific and intraspecific predation has been noted in Bristol, and aggression by adults towards chicks straying between ter- ritories appears to be less prevalent than in tra- ditional colonies, especially those where food is scarce (Spaans 1971). The key to successful breeding is, however, a food supply which is not just ample but dependable (e.g. Belant et al. 1998). Gulls breeding in Gloucester, Bristol and Bath show a high degree of awareness of viable and predictable feeding sites, but can also adapt quickly to changes in food availability (Rock 2004d). For example, in a recent study, Gloucester landfill (the largest in the region) was made unavailable to gulls (c. 80% of which were urban gulls; Rock 2004d) for two weeks in the spring of 2004 by using falcons and other methods to deter feeding. It was found that two-thirds of deterred gulls utilised the nearest viable landfill, while the remainder relied on other food sources elsewhere, such as fields, farmland, mudflats, suburban gardens and city streets. But in general, urban gulls enjoy a surfeit of food, in particular the high-quality food necessary for successful breeding, which in turn has fuelled population growth. Urban- nesting gulls now outnumber gulls at non- urban sites by a factor of 4: 1 in the SER. Urban colonies in the SER are dominated by Lesser Black-backed Gulls (Rock 2004a). Of 22 colonies assessed in 2004, only those at Chep- stow, Monmouthshire (pers. obs.), and at Aberthaw, South Wales (M. Lobb pers. comm.), had larger numbers of breeding Herring Gulls (although these are both small colonies, with just 60 and 79 pairs of both species respectively). The ratio of Lesser Black- backed:Herring varies among colonies, ranging from parity in Bridgend (Rock 2004a) to 9:1 in Barry, South Wales (pers. obs.), with a regional mean of 3.3:1 (Appendix 1). In the Bristol Channel, Flat Holm is dominated by Lesser Black-backed Gulls (Bailey 2001), but on Steep Holm, Herring Gulls are still more common (A. J. Parsons pers. comm.). Prior to the incidence of botulism, gull colonies in the SER were dominated by Herring Gulls, with an estimated total population of over 9,000 pairs in 1975, compared with c. 4,500 pairs of Lesser Black-backed Gulls (Mudge & Ferns 1980). Declines in Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls in the SER during 1975-80, as a result of botulism, were 66.9% and 29.9% respectively (Mudge & Ferns 1980). Subsequently, Herring Gull numbers have recovered, but not yet reached pre-botulism levels, while numbers of Lesser Black-backs have risen sharply. 342 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Urban gulls: problems and solutions ( Expanding urban gull populations Increases in Britain & Ireland Urban-nesting by gulls is now widespread; Seabird 2000 (S2000) found 31,044 pairs of Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls (and 83 pairs of Great Black-backed Gulls) nesting on rooftops in Britain & Ireland (Mitchell et al. 2004). Clearly, this is a conservative figure. For example, the S2000 estimate for Wales was 2,220 pairs, but 2004 counts (Appendix 1) from just seven colonies in South Wales alone amounted to 5,048 pairs, and several large colonies in South Wales were not assessed in 2004. Evidently, many colonies were missed, or not surveyed, during S2000, and of those that were counted, numbers were mostly underesti- mated. If Raven & Coulson’s 1994 actual figures for each region are accepted, and a nine-fold increase assumed, then the national population is c. 120,000 pairs. If, however, Raven & Coulson’s corrected figures are treated in the same way, then the national population is c. 190,000 pairs breeding on rooftops in Britain & Ireland. In the SER, it is the corrected figure which provides the more acceptable picture of the actual situation (table 2). The S2000 figure for the SER in 2002 was 5,769 pairs, compared with my estimate of 15,389 (table 1). Assuming that a similar shortfall applies nationally, then the S2000 figure of 31,044 pairs of urban- nesting gulls in Britain & Ireland should be cor- rected to 82,825 pairs and, with an annual growth rate of 24.7% (as observed in the SER), to 128,794 pairs in 2004 (cf. table 2). No adjust- ment for under-recording has been made here, but this will be discussed later. >- Unfortunately, few accurate assessments from regions other than the Severn Estuary are available. A total of 3,500 pairs was found in Aberdeen in 2002 (R. Duncan pers. comm.), but only 154 AONs are listed in S2000; while there were 887 pairs in Felixstowe in 2004 (Rock 2004e), the latter colony having increased by 41.3% since 2003. While the population esti- mates and annual increases discussed above are, of course, open to critical comment, this does not detract from the fact that the issue of urban-nesting gulls has become one of national concern, with an increasingly high profile in the media. Increases in Europe and elsewhere Britain is not alone in supporting urban gull populations. It is believed that roof-nesting by large gulls first occurred in Bulgaria between 1890 and 1893 (Nankinov 1992). As in Britain, major colonisation of urban environments in France did not start until the 1970s (Cadiou 1997), and throughout much of continental Europe roof-nesting was recorded for the first time during the 1980s, e.g. in Denmark (Lilleor 2000) and Italy (Benussi et al. 1994). In Belgium, urban breeding was not recorded until 1998 (Francois 2002). Roof-nesting now extends along the western seaboard of continental Europe from Tromso, northern Norway (M. Heiberg pers. comm.), to Porto, northern Portugal (pers. obs.). All coastal countries between Norway and Portugal now support roof-nesting populations of varying sizes. To the east, roof-nesting also occurs regu- larly in many coastal countries, including Finland (A. Lindholm pers. comm.), Estonia (K. Rattiste pers. comm.), Latvia (Viksne 1989) and Bulgaria (Nankinov 1992), while Croatia supports a few pairs on the Istrian Peninsula (J. Kralj pers. comm.). Until recently, small numbers bred on an abandoned fortress in Serbia 8c Montenegro but it has now been reoccupied by the military (A. Zuljevic pers. comm.). Within a European context, there are few recent national estimates, and populations are Table 2. Seven regions in Britain & Ireland, as defined by Raven & Coulson ( 1 997), with actual counts ( 1 994 actual) and estimates ( 1 994 max), derived using a correction factor of 1.48 (see text), from the 1994 survey.The nine- fold increase observed in the Severn Estuary Region is applied to both columns to derive the estimated number of pairs breeding in each region in 2004. Region 1994 actual 1994 max 2004 estimate 2004 estimate max East Britain 2,825 4,178 25,425 37,602 SE England 1,620 2,396 14,580 21,564 SW England 1,500 3,718 13,500 33,462 Severn Estuary 1,780 2,632 16,020 23,688 West Britain 2,342 3,464 21,078 31,176 NE Scotland 3,233 4,781 29,097 43,029 Subtotal Britain 13,300 21,169 119,700 190,521 Ireland 154 228 1,386 2,052 Total Britain & Ireland 13,454 21,397 121,086 192,573 British Birds 98 • July 2005 * 338-355 343 Peter Rock Peter Rock Urban gulls: problems and solutions c 188. In residential areas, gulls will utilise the space available among groups of chimney pots on older houses. 1 89. Herring Gull Larus argentatus nest in a trailer park at Felixstowe, Suffolk, May 2002. Several urban colonies have ground-nesting pairs, some of them in public areas, and these pairs are generally highly aggressive to passers-by. ) believed to be small in comparison with those in Britain & Ireland. France is believed to have a total population of approximately 11,700 urban pairs (Cadiou et al. 2004), and Spain has more than 50 urban colonies, although no estimates of population size are available (Marti & Del Moral 2003). All urban populations are, however, increasing. As in Britain, Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls are the most fre- quently recorded urban-nesting gulls elsewhere in Europe. There are, however, small urban populations of Great Black-backed and Yellow- legged Gulls L. cachinnans of both the nominate form and L. c. michahellis, while Common Gulls L. canus now breed regularly on buildings in Norway (N-H. Lorentzen pers. comm.) and Sweden (K. Bengtsson pers. comm.). Farther afield, ‘American Herring Gulls’ L. a. smithsoni- anus and Ring-billed Gulls L. delawarensis have bred on rooftops around the Great Lakes, USA, since 1978, and in Ontario, Canada, since the early 1970s (Dwyer et al. 1996). Similarly, in British Columbia, Canada, Glaucous-winged Gulls L. glaucescens have been recorded nesting on rooftops since 1986 (Vermeer 1992). In Aus- tralia, Silver Gulls L. novaehollandiae nest regu- larly on rooftops (Temby 2000). Preferred breeding sites The vast majority of urban-nesting gulls in the SER (and probably nationally) breed in indus- trial areas, where roofing is flat or gently sloping, and corrugated (pers. obs.). Commer- cial and residential areas are also colonised where roofs are suitable. Asbestos roofing is particularly favoured, especially when it has been colonised by lichens and then successively by mosses and other plants, while roof sections joined with bolts which project up to 40 mm above the roof surface provide secure anchorage for nests. In recent years, particularly where established colonies have expanded, pressed- steel roofing has also become increasingly favoured. The latter was originally thought to be unsuitable for gulls owing to high daytime surface temperatures and being slippery when wet, but this has proved not to be the case. Expansion into commercial districts in towns and cities has accompanied the growing industrial roof-nesting habit. Here, buildings are typified by large, often flat roofs, usually supporting air-conditioning systems, ducting, stink pipes, etc. and often with substantial para- pets surrounding the perimeter. Large roofs of 344 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Urban gulls: problems and solutions C > I 90. During the ringing operation, the nestlings remain calm in heavy cotton bank bags. The high parapets of this commercial roof prevent nestlings from jumping and make it an ideal site for ringing. Bristol-scheme colour rings are large, always on the right leg and show two engraved letters (latterly separated by a colon). These Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus were ringed in Cheltenham in July 2002. this nature can, especially where disturbance is low, support many breeding pairs in close prox- imity, with Bristol’s largest such colony exceeding 60 pairs. Breeding in residential areas in the SER is still uncommon, mainly because of a lack of suitable nesting surfaces. In Bath, however, chimney stacks on Georgian houses are large, sometimes with up to 12 chimney pots. With enough space between pots to locate nests, it is not unusual for three young per pair to be reared in these situations (Rock 1995). In the Grangetown, Riverside and Canton districts in Cardiff, where housing is mostly terraced, 83 pairs nested on residential roofs in 2004, amounting to 2.7% of the urban population. Nest locations in urban situations often reflect the two species’ preferences in non- urban colonies, where Herring Gulls tend to prefer rocky, cliff-like situations, while Lesser Black-backed Gulls tend to prefer dunes or veg- etated areas (as on Steep Holm and Flat Holm, as mentioned earlier; these islands’ topography reflects their name). In urban colonies, it is not unusual to see Herring Gulls nesting between chimney pots, or in complex roof structures, and Lesser Black-backed Gulls nesting on flat, or sloping, roofs. This is not always the case, however, and some pairs of both species will hide their nests in cramped spaces between buildings and under, or even inside, industrial plant. The Bristol scheme Colour-ringing of urban gulls started in Bristol in 1980. Since 2001, other sites (Bath, Chel- tenham, Worcester, Cardiff and Bridgend) have been included in this scheme to help us to gain a better understanding of recruitment patterns. In total, some 5,000 Herring and Lesser Black- backed Gull nestlings have been colour-ringed using large (37 mm high), brightly coloured plastic rings showing a two-letter code. These colour rings can be read at distances of up to 500 m using a telescope. The colours of Bristol- scheme rings are changed annually, enabling all birds to be aged by their cohort ring (Appendix 2). Through resightings of birds, colour-ringing allows recovery rates of over 70%, compared with 3-5% using metal rings alone (Rock 1999), and over 30,000 post-fledging records of Bristol-scheme birds have been generated. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 345 Peter Rock Urban gulls: problems and solutions c ) Colour-ringing is thus a powerful tool for investigating the lives of gulls, and many Bristol gulls have documented life histories of more than 50 events, with the most frequently seen bird notching up over 300 events. Bristol- scheme gulls have provided many data relevant to the issue of urban-nesting by large gulls, some of which are summarised below. 1. Urban gulls rarely recruit into traditional colonies. Less than 1% of Bristol-ringed gulls are known to have recruited into non- urban colonies when old enough to breed. It also appears that few birds from traditional colonies recruit into urban colonies any more. During 24 surveys at various urban colonies in the SER between 1995 and 2004, only 14 colour-ringed birds from traditional colonies were observed. In particular, the Cardiff surveys in 2003 and 2004 revealed just three ringed birds from Flat Holm breeding in the city, despite the fact that Flat Holm is just 13 km distant and 100 gulls have been colour-ringed there annually since 1989 (B. Bailey pers. comm.). Although the original recruits to urban sites between the 1940s and 1970 certainly originated from traditional colonies, urban populations in the SER (and probably the majority of urban populations in Britain) appear to be self-sus- taining. 2. Measurements of Bristol-scheme nestlings (head + bill length, bill depth and wing length) have been taken since 1992. The 1993 and 1994 cohorts were sexed using DNA samples (Griffiths 1991) and, using multivariate analysis, a formula was devised which would enable all measured birds to be sexed (J. Cobby pers. comm.). Some 3,000 birds have been sexed in this way, and this study has confirmed that male Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls typically return to their natal colonies (and often to the same roof) while females disperse to other urban colonies to breed for the first time (P. Rock unpubl.). Bristol-ringed birds now breed in almost all other urban colonies within the SER (and possibly beyond), and the vast majority of these are females (pers. obs.). 3. In colonies at or near carrying capacity, immatures (those showing any brown plumage) find it difficult to obtain a terri- tory (Coulson et al. 1982) and are actively prevented from breeding by adults (pers. obs.). When opportunities do arise, however, such as during the Isle of May, Fife, post-cull period (Duncan 1978), the percentage of third-summer birds breeding for the first time rises sharply. In the SER, where space is plentiful and there is no serious competition for nest-sites, third-summer birds breed commonly in urban colonies (pers. obs.), and a small number of second-summer birds also breed. This suggests that most of these urban colonies are probably well below carrying capacity. First-time breeders tend to be less successful than more experienced birds, possibly owing to competition for nest-sites and food, but this appears not to be true of third-summer breeders in Bristol (P. Rock unpubl. data). 4. Disruption to breeding in urban areas (such as demolition of breeding sites) forces gulls to relocate. Such relocations are poorly understood, but one key building in Bristol, supporting 130 breeding pairs, was demol- ished in 1997. The site supported 43 colour- ringed breeders, which enabled some of the birds’ post-demolition wanderings to be fol- lowed. Only five displaced birds were relo- cated breeding on buildings in the immediate vicinity (although few suitable roofs were available). A further 14 relocated to other parts of Bristol, at distances of 1-6 km from the original site. Six colour-ringed birds have not been seen subsequently, while the remaining 18 (42%) were never seen again in Bristol (though they were recorded elsewhere). In 2003, the first of these birds to be located at a breeding colony (a male Lesser Black-backed Gull) was found in Chippenham, Wiltshire, some 32 km from Bristol (Rock 2003c). If this bird had bred in Chippenham in 1998, it would have been one of the town’s first colonists; it may be that such forced relocations contribute to the establishment of new colonies. 5. Prior to the 1940s, all British Lesser Black- backed Gulls spent the winter in Iberia and North Africa and, even in the early 1950s, few were recorded in Britain in winter (Barnes 1952). The most recent estimate of the wintering population, in 1993, was 60,830 (Burton et al. 2003), but numbers are believed to have increased substantially since then. Bristol-ringed Lesser Black-backed Gulls have been recorded in Britain each 346 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Peter Rock Urban gulls: problems and solutions c > winter since 1986, although it was not until the mid 1990s that larger numbers were observed. During the winters of 2002/03 and 2003/04, considerable extra effort was made to locate Bristol-ringed Lesser Black-backed Gulls. It is clear that a significant and increasing percentage of adults (estimated at 22%) is either returning extremely early or not migrating at all and, from preliminary analyses, it appears that overwintering may be more prevalent among urban gulls (Rock in prep.). Small numbers of Lesser Black- backed Gulls are often seen on rooftops in Bristol in winter, especially on fine days. These birds are not particularly territorial but their presence nonetheless signals their claim to preferred territories, and they can occupy territories earlier in the season than migrants (pers. obs.). 6. Intermittent breeding among several longer- lived species is known to occur (e.g. Wooller et al. 1992), and is well documented among Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls on the Isle of May (Calladine & Harris 1997). The factors involved may include food avail- ability, breeding experience and breeding success in the previous season. With urban gull numbers growing exponentially, these factors would be expected not to apply to urban breeders, yet intermittent breeding does apparently occur in Bristol. There is little direct evidence of experienced Bristol- scheme gulls remaining in the wintering areas, but some birds do appear to be inter- mittent breeders. For example, Herring Gull white2 SJ, having wintered in Britain, was at Gloucester landfill on 19th March 2003, at Tampere, Finland, on 16th- 17th May 2003, and back in Bristol on 1st July 2003. This is a most interesting case, not only because of the bird’s anomalous movement, but also because arriving back in Bristol on 1st July, it was too late to attempt breeding in the 2003 breeding season. It began breeding in Bristol in 1995, but has not been recorded in every season since and is suspected (along with other individuals) to be an intermittent breeder. The urban gull issue The perceived problems associated with roof- nesting gulls are noise, mess and aggression, in that order, as shown by the increasing levels of complaints to local authorities (S. Harwood pers. comm.). Gull droppings can be costly to remove from windows and masonry, particu- larly if not removed quickly, and will pit car paintwork if not attended to promptly. Dis- placement behaviour in an urban setting is not confined to grass pulling (Tinbergen 1953), but may involve the destruction of insulating mate- rial on roofs, or even lead flashing, while rain- washed nests create blockages in gutters. Less tangible are the indirect losses when gulls domi- 191 & 192. Displacement behaviour in towns results in damage not only to insulation material but also to roofing felt and even lead flashing. This kind of damage is seen commonly on many rooftops in urban colonies and is sometimes extensive (Worcester, April 2003). All urban colonies are liberally spattered with gull droppings, which are strongly alkaline. Large-scale cleaning of windows, masonry and pavements can be costly (Bristol, July 2003). British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 347 Peter Rock Peter Rock Peter Rock Peter Rock Urban gulls: problems and solutions c > -J"— _ 193 & 194. Roof-netting can be effective in preventing large gulls from nesting, but it is also extremely expensive (the netting for the roof shown in plate 193 cost £60,000). Furthermore, preventing gulls from breeding on a particular roof forces them to relocate and, although forced relocations are imperfectly understood, it is clear that some birds will move considerable distances to resume breeding. Note that one Lesser Black- backed Gull Larus fuscus is trapped inside, but was subsequently freed (Bristol, June 1999). Mesh size is critical and, as can be seen in plate 1 94, birds may become trapped by their carpal joints, and probably take several days to die. This situation ir, unfortunately, all too common, and the netting used on the majority of roofs to deter gulls has clearly not been specifically designed for this use (Worcester, April 2004). nate a town - if shoppers and tourists actively avoid areas where gulls are aggressive and noisy. It has long been established that gull drop- pings affect water supplies (e.g. Jones et al. 1977, Gould & Fletcher 1978) and that gulls may be agents for the transmission of Salmonella to livestock (e.g. Coulson et al. 1983). These findings may have encouraged some of the pest control agencies to claim that urban gulls are carriers of disease, but the facts are less clear. Monaghan et al. (1985) demonstrated that Salmonella carriage rates among Herring Gulls in the Clyde region of Scotland were less than 10% and that the highest rates were found in birds which habit- ually fed at sewage outfalls. The study con- cluded that the proportion of gulls carrying salmonellae and the incidence of salmonel- losis in the local human population were pos- itively correlated, and that carriage rates in gulls reflected the level of contamination in the environment. In Sweden, Palmgren et al. (2002) showed that Salmonella carriage rates among Black-headed Gulls L. ridibundus were 2.7% and also that carriage rates reflected environmental contamination. It is more likely that humans are infecting gulls, rather than vice versa. In both studies, gulls carrying salmonellae appeared not to be affected by the bacterium. Furthermore, Girdwood et al. 195. Plastic owls are seen commonly in urban colonies, the theory being that they will deter breeding gulls. Several companies are still recommending and selling these items (Bridgend, April 2003). (1985) established that carriage lasted 2-4 days; therefore the chances of contracting sal- monellosis, or other diseases, from gulls are, in reality, extremely low. 348 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Urban gulls: problems and solutions c Gull control measures Non-lethal methods The pest control industry provides a wide range of equipment and services for counteracting perceived threats and nuisance from urban gulls. None of these techniques is particularly effective, however, and some are patently ludi- crous; for example, those large plastic owls which often adorn the rooftops in all but the smallest colonies, or helium-filled balloons showing roundels purporting to replicate the eye of a Great Black-backed Gull! Tensioned wires, waving wires, spikes and other fixed equipment are designed to prevent birds from landing on roofs. These techniques may be effective in deterring Feral Pigeons Columba livia, but have been adapted for gulls by pest control companies without much thought, and most are simply ignored by the gulls. At airports and, to a lesser extent, at landfills, distress calls and loud noises (in conjunction with other methods) are effective in deterring gulls (e.g. Baxter 2000, Civil Aviation Authority 2002). In residential areas, these methods are, at best, ineffective and often generate further com- plaints from residents about the extra noise (M. Gillies, Worcester City Council, pers. comm.). Distress calls do create mayhem among gulls when first employed, but the birds soon habit- uate (pers. obs.). A typical problem is that far- too-frequently copied tapes simply produce an unrecognisable cacophony, or that static posi- tioning of speakers enables gulls to get used to even the best recordings. Even where best prac- tice is followed, using high-quality recordings, varying the speaker positions and changing the frequency and duration of broadcasts, gulls still learn quickly to ignore what is, in effect, no real threat. Nests located next to speakers are not uncommon. The use of trained falcons, and other raptors, has been claimed to be effective in reducing or removing breeding gulls from par- ticular urban areas. Independent evidence for such claims suggests otherwise. The assumption that the gulls’ fear of large falcons will result in breeding attempts being abandoned may be true for some pairs, but aggressive behaviour by colonial-breeding Herring and Lesser Black- backed Gulls can be overwhelming. Away from breeding sites, the use of falcons at Gloucester landfill during the spring of 2004 was highly effective in deterring gulls from feeding (Rock 2004d). On at least two occasions, however, > falcons were attacked, brought down and injured by Lesser Black-backed Gulls. Aggres- sion of this severity is unusual at feeding locali- ties (pers. obs.) but, in this case, the closest breeding roofs were less than 500 m from the landfill site. Roof-netting (the most expensive option available) can prevent gulls nesting on a partic- ular roof, if it is well designed and correctly installed. If the netting chosen is inappropriate, or installed incorrectly, however, it can result in deaths. For example, a netted roof in Cardiff was found to hold 13 dead gulls, although five nests were active, either under or on top of the same netting (Rock 2004c). The most common problem with netting is that the mesh size has not been adapted to suit gulls, which can lead to birds becoming trapped by their carpal joints and unable to escape. Roof- netting is typically out of sight and gulls caught in it face a lin- gering death over several days. Furthermore, roof-netting forces gulls to relocate, and this may exacerbate existing problems, or create new ones, elsewhere. The use of roof-netting does not require a licence and appears to be unregu- lated, and this situation needs urgent review. More generally, there is little or no regulation within the pest control industry as a whole, and the necessary equipment can be purchased from suppliers with little difficulty and with no understanding of the problems involved, in par- ticular those relating to animal welfare. Lethal deterrents The use of poisons to kill birds has long been illegal. Until recently, the stupefying bait Seconal (in combination with Alphachloralose) could be used under licence to control gulls. In North Yorkshire, between 1978 and 1990, stu- pefying baits were used in Scarborough, Whitby and Staithes and populations fell by 65% (T. Fenter, Scarborough Council, in lift.). Four further licence applications made in 1994-97 were refused, largely owing to a deter- mined and articulate lobby pressurising the council. Since 2002, however, the use of Seconal for this purpose has been withdrawn. If the law should ever be revised, similar lobby groups would doubtless be formed quickly, since the potential dangers to human health of using poisons in an urban setting (if, for example, a moribund gull was picked up) are all too clear. Some councils (e.g. Gloucester and Bath) have already declared that lethal methods within British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 349 Urban gulls: problems and solutions c ) their areas are out of the question. Apart from isolated incidents involving air rifles, it is known that contracted shooting has taken place at some urban colonies with, on at least one occasion, more than 1,000 gulls claimed to have been culled (although details are curiously hard to confirm). Dealing with a large colony (comprised of breeding and non- breeding birds) by shooting would require an army of marksmen, and the risks of damage to property, or even human life, in an urban environment is generally agreed to be prohibi- tive. It is extraordinary that some pest control agencies are still advocating shooting. Egg-oiling Perhaps the most effective means of manage- ment involves egg-oiling. Large gulls are partic- ularly noisy and aggressive during chick- rearing, and the vast majority of complaints to local authorities arrive after chicks hatch (S. Harwood pers. comm.). During incubation, however, urban gulls are distinctly quieter and often rather secretive (pers. obs.). In situations where roof-nesting gulls create persistent prob- lems, egg-oiling appears to help not only by preventing eggs from hatching, but also in pro- longing incubation slightly before the breeding attempt is abandoned, while the noise and aggression associated with chick-rearing are avoided. In Brest, France, large-scale egg sterilisation, of between 800 and 2,000 eggs per year, had an immediate effect, significantly reducing noise pollution in certain parts of the town (Cadiou et al. 2003). In the ten years since the process began, these areas have also seen a 75% reduc- tion in the number of breeding pairs. Unsuc- cessful pairs appear to have occupied other sites in the town, however, and the overall popula- tion has not declined (B. Cadiou pers. comm.), and it is not known how many of these dis- placed pairs have contributed to swelling popu- lations elsewhere in Brittany. Nonetheless, while the urban gull population of Brest did not decline, it has not maintained the expected 15% per annum rate of increase (B. Cadiou pers. comm.). At present, egg-oiling is thought to be the best way forward by those who have espoused it. It requires long-term commitment, however, and is not cheap; in Brest, the programme costs around £30,000 per year, or approximately £12.50 per egg (Cadiou et al. 2003). Predicting future population trends Existing urban colonies are nowhere near their maximum carrying capacity and many suitable roofs within even the largest have yet to be colonised. Those towns and cities which, so far, have not been colonised present even more opportunities, and it seems unlikely that future populations will be limited by habitat shortage, at least for the foreseeable future. Given that the mean annual growth rate of urban gull popula- tions in the SER has been 24.7% during the past decade, and that the population in 2004 was estimated to be approximately 24,000 pairs, numbers could reach 218,000 pairs by 2014. Extrapolating the same logic, and rates of growth, to the national situation, it is possible to predict a national urban-nesting gull popula- tion of more than one million pairs by 2014 (based on the figures in table 2). What seems clear is that some truly massive urban gull colonies will develop, and that many new ones will become established. The key question is whether or not sufficient food sup- plies will be available to sustain such phenom- enal annual growth rates of 20-25%; but it seems likely that they will. At present, the growth rates reflect more than adequate food availability during the last ten years (and may also be a major contributory factor in overwin- tering by Lesser Black-backed Gulls). Such levels of increase will not be maintained if demand for food exceeds supply in the next ten years. With both breeding success and survival rates having been high during the last four years, however, and assuming that first breeding generally occurs at four years old, population growth rates should not change significantly before 2009, since the next four generations are already in the population and heading towards maturity. With no reason to suppose that breeding success will alter drastically in the next four years, annual growth rates are likely to remain similar to those currently observed for the next decade, unless limits on food supplies are encountered. Feeding requirements It has often been suggested that gulls have moved into towns and cities because there is so much litter on the streets, with discarded take- away meals in particular providing an easy living. But while food of this nature is readily available, it tends to appear sporadically, and mostly at weekends. Its significance is, there- 350 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Urban gulls: problems and solutions C fore, believed to be low. Gulls are opportunistic feeders and can be found foraging in towns and suburbs, both during the day and at night. Opportunistic feeding is believed to be a sen- sible strategy for identifying all potential (and dependable) food resources in their home range. The vast majority of urban-breeding gulls, however, move out of towns to forage and some move considerable distances (pers. obs.). Spaans (1971) proposed that captive Herring Gulls require 100-200 g of food per day, depending upon the quality, in order to main- tain their body weight. Different individuals (especially wild birds), require different daily quantities of food depending upon their condi- tion and energy expenditure. Baxter & Flack (2003) found that wild Black-headed Gulls could survive on a daily food intake of 43 g (or approximately 15% of body weight). Using this information, and taking 900 g as the mean weight of a Herring Gull (Cramp & Simmons 1983), then the minimum daily requirement per bird would be about 135 g. Gloucester landfill accepts around 1,000 tonnes of organic waste daily (G. Ricketts, Cory Environmental, in litt.). Waste compaction is continuous throughout the day and it is believed that foraging gulls, despite their speed and daring, will be prevented from taking advantage of much of the food potentially avail- able. Nonetheless, even if gulls were capable of retrieving 1% of organic waste (c. 10 tonnes), this would be enough to support over 70,000 birds with a daily requirement of 140 g. Baxter & Flack (2003) established that Black-headed Gulls were able to fulfil their daily feeding requirements at landfills in only 20 minutes. Gull counts at Gloucester landfill vary sea- sonally, ranging between 2,000 and 10,000 birds (J. Sanders pers. comm.). Of course, spot counts do not reveal the actual numbers utilising the site daily; at Gloucester landfill, the total number of birds using the site is thought to be at least three times higher than spot counts suggest (pers. obs.). During the breeding season, spot counts at Gloucester landfill range between 3,000 and 5,000 birds. Even if, in reality, 15,000 birds are using the site daily, the potential exists for at least four times as many birds to fulfil their daily requirements here. This suggests that landfills alone could support at least a quadrupling of the present population (and this assumes that gulls are taking just 1% of the organic waste dumped). 196. Gloucester landfill is the most important landfill in the Severn Estuary Region with counts frequently as high as 10,000 large gulls. Working at landfills necessitates high-visibility clothing, a hard hat and safety boots, together with an awareness of vehicle movements, as well as the necessary ornithological skills. This photograph shows John Sanders, perhaps the most prolific ring-reader in Britain, hard at work in March 2004. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 351 Peter Rock Urban gulls: problems and solutions c ) Are landfills essential to urban gulls ? Although landfills have long been known to be food sources for breeding and migrant gulls (Cramp & Simmons 1983), their importance to breeding gulls has been questioned. Belant et al. (1993) considered them to be of minimal benefit where alternative, higher-quality food (e.g. fish) was available. Conversely, Bertellotti & Yorio (1999) suggested that, although the consumption of garbage by Kelp Gulls L. dominicanus differed significantly in various locations, a higher proportion appeared in the diets of gulls nesting closer to landfills. Sibly & McCleery (1983) demonstrated that, when deprived of access to landfills, Herring Gulls did not breed at Walney Island, Cumbria. Following the closure of a landfill in Brittany, France, breeding success in the local Herring Gull pop- ulation fell by 61% and the number of breeding pairs fell by 11.5%, although there was no decrease in adult survival rates (Pons 1992; Pons & Migot 1995). Landfill closures in the old county of Avon (seven since 1980) do not appear to have affected the breeding gull population in Bristol, which increased from c. 100 pairs to almost 2,000 pairs in the same period, although growth rates may have been higher if those landfills had remained open. Clearly, Bristol gulls are highly mobile when foraging, and their knowledge of feeding opportunities within a radius of approx- imately 100 km is considerable (Rock 2004d). Movements between landfills as far apart as 85 km are more frequent than was suspected and birds may alternate between landfills on dif- ferent days and, sometimes, on the same day (J. Sanders, M. Coller and P. Stewart pers. comm.). In stark contrast to the situation in Britain, there are several landfills (with no avian deter- rents) in Portugal which accept large quantities of household organic waste, located near impor- tant gull migration staging and wintering areas, but which do not support gulls. Three of these sites, in the provinces of Douro Litoral, Beira Litoral and Algarve, have been visited by the author at times when numbers of Lesser Black- backed Gulls within 10 km have exceeded the RAMSAR 1% level of 5,300 (Delaney & Scott 2002), and numbers of Yellow-legged Gulls were also high (pers. obs.). These particular landfills have been positively rejected as feeding sites; for example, the landfill at Vila Nova de Gaia (Sul- douro) is within 7 km of Portugal’s most impor- tant fishing port, at Matosinhos, and just 3 km from the massive low-tide roost at Afurada, which can hold up to 25,000 gulls. Clearly, if some of these Portuguese landfills do not hold any attraction for gulls, understanding the reasons would undoubtedly have considerable implications for British landfills, and might present a sensible and sensitive solution to the problems faced by British landfills. In a climate of care for our wild birds, benign management would appear to be preferable to more aggres- sive methods of control. In conclusion, it seems likely that food sup- plies in Britain are likely to remain adequate for the foreseeable future and that annual growth rates will not change significantly. If, however, circumstances were to change dramatically in the next ten years, the projected figures for the predicted increase would require revision. Even if growth rates were reduced by 50%, we would still be left with a population of over 500,000 pairs of urban gulls (still enough to see urban gulls outnumbering those at traditional colonies by at least 2:1). Whatever the scenario, it is clear that without research we will not even begin to be able to manage the issue of roof- nesting gulls in Britain. The necessity for further research While we know a great deal about the biology of Herring and Lesser Black-backed Gulls, almost all of this information has been derived from studies at traditional colonies, and sheds little light on the issue of roof-nesting. There are few relevant and current published studies dis- cussing the ecology of urban gulls, and addressing this is an urgent priority. This paper proposes much larger estimates for regional and national populations of urban- nesting gulls than were previously thought pos- sible. It is quite dear that urban gulls are easily obtaining sufficient food in order to be able to breed successfully and although it has been shown that landfills do play an important role, there are obviously many other food sources which gulls take advantage of. Precise knowl- edge of the feeding regimes and home ranges of urban gulls, in conjunction with food-type analysis, is essential if we are to arrive at a secure understanding. Bristol (with 25 years of observation) is the most-studied urban colony in the world and has the highest proportion of individually marked birds within its population. Other urban colonies in the SER also have many indi- 352 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Urban gulls: problems and solutions c > 1 97. Be warned - roof-nesting is not confined to buildings! This Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus nest, in Gloucester in May 2004, was constructed between 7.00 and 9.00 am, and by 10.00 am contained one egg. vidually marked birds (mostly Bristol-ringed) in their populations. This is the obvious popu- lation for further research because the number of marked birds (and their life histories) will contribute immensely to an understanding of how urban gulls function on a daily and sea- sonal basis. Proper research is the only way to develop sensible management strategies, and until we understand the ecology of urban gulls more fully, pushing ahead with concerted control measures appears to be premature. Acknowledgments In building the platform for this paper I would like to thank various councils and local authorities for their foi^vard- looking stance on the issue of urban gulls: Bath (Simon Harwood), Bridgend (Steve Moon), Bristol (Richard Bevan), Cardiff (Will Lane), Cheltenham (Phil Judge and George Rowlinson), Gloucester (Meyrick Brentnall) and Worcester (Martin Gillies). Thanks also go to the many owners of tall buildings who have been so helpful in allowing access to their roofs. Additionally, thanks go to all of the landfill companies for allowing unhindered access, especially to Cory Environmental (Glynn Ricketts), and to Gloucestershire Gull Action Group for sponsoring the study of gull movements in the region. For much help in collecting information on roof-nesting gulls in Europe, where little existed, thanks go to Kenneth Bengtsson, Enrico Benussi, Bernard Cadiou and Ole Lilleor Much of the information in this paper has relied upon observations of birds I have colour-ringed. For these, I would like to thank all observers, but in particular Mark Coller and Peter Stewart and, most of all, John Sanders. Finally, thanks go to Innes Cuthill for checking over my first drafts. References Bailey, B. 200 1 , Flat Holm Gull Numbers 1 957-200 1 . Unpublished report to Flat Holm Trust. Barnes, J. A. G. l952.The status of the Lesser Black-backed Gull. Brit. Birds 45: 3-17. Baxter A. 2000. Use of distress calls to deter birds from landfill sites near airports. Proc. 25th Conference of the International Bird Strike Committee. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. — & Flack, M. 2003.Time Budgets of Foraging Black- headed Gulls on Parkland, Pasture and Landfill. Unpublished CSL report. Belant, J. L, Ickes, S. 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Numbers and behaviour of roof-nesting Herring Gulls Larus argentatus and Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus in Belgium. Notuur. Oriolus 68(3): 1 23- 126. Girdwood, R. W., Fricker C. R., Munro, D„ Shedden, C. B„ & Monaghan, F 1 985. The incidence and significance of Salmonella carriage by gulls ( Larus spp) in Scotland. J. Hyg. Lond. 95: 229-24 1 . Gould, D.J., & Fletcher M. R. 1978. Gull droppings and their effects on water quality. Water Res. 1 2: 665-672. Griffiths, R., 1991. Sex-biased mortality in the Lesser Black- backed Gull at the nestling stage. Ibis 1 34: 237-244. Hagemeijer.W.J. M„ & Blair M. J. 1997. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds. Poyser London. HeyT 1 972. The growing menace of the landlubber gulls. The Times 27th May 1 972. Jones, F., Smith, F, & Watson, D. C. 1977. Pollution of a water supply catchment by breeding gulls and the potential Environmental Health implications.). Inst Water Engrs Sci. 32: 469-482. LiHear, 0. 2000. Roof-top breeding gulls in Arhus city and Denmark. Dansk. Orn. Foren. Tidsskr. 94: 149-156. Marti) R„ & Del Moral, J. C. (eds.) 2003. Atlas de lasAves Reproductoras de Espaha. Direccion General de la Conservacion de la Naturaleza-Sociedad Espanola de Ornitologfa, Madrid. Mitchell, I. F, Newton, S. F„ Ratcliffe, N., & Dunn.T E. 2004. Seabird Populations of Britain & Ireland. Poyser London. Monaghan, P, & Coulson.J. C. 1 977.The status of large gulls nesting on buildings. Bird Study 24: 89- 1 04. — , Shedden, C. B., Ensor K., Fricker C. R., & Girdwood, R. W. A. 1 985. Salmonella carriage by Herring Gulls in the Clyde area of Scotland in relation to their feeding ecology. J.Appl. Ecol. 22: 669-680, MorreySalmon, H. 1958. Lesser Black-backed and Herring Gulls nesting on a factory roof inland in Glamorgan. Brit. Birds 51:399-401. Mudge, G., & Ferns, R 1 980. A census of breeding gulls in the inner Bristol Channel. Cardiff University. Nankinov, D. N. l992.The nesting by the Herring Gull (Larus argentatus ) in the towns and villages of Bulgaria. Avocetta 1 6(2): 93-94. Owen, B.A. 1967. Lesser Black-backed Gulls nesting on warehouse roofs inland. Brit. Birds 60: 4 1 6. Palmgren, H.,Aspan, A„ Bengtsson, K„ Broman.T, Blomquist, L„ Bergstrom, S., Sellin, M., Wollin, R„ & Olsen, B. 2002. Salmonella carriage in European Black-headed Gulls (Larus ridibundus) in Sweden. In: Palmgren, H. (ed.), Importance of Wild Birds in the Spread of Salmonella. New Series No. 795, UMEA University Medical Dissertations. Parslow, J. L. F. 1 967. Changes in status among breeding birds in Britain & Ireland: part 3. Brit. Birds 60: 177-202. Perrins, C. M„ & Smith, S. B. 2000.The breeding Larus gulls Peter Rock, 7 Parkside Avenue, Winterbourne, Bristol on Skomer Island National Nature Reserve, Pembrokeshire. Atlantic Seabirds 2: 1 95-2 1 0. Pons,J-M. 1 992. Effects of changes in the availability of human refuse on breeding parameters in a Herring Gull Larus argentatus population in Brittany, France. Ardea 80: 143-150. — & Migot, R 1 995. Life-history strategy of the Herring Gull: changes in survival and fecundity in a population subjected to various feeding conditions. J.Anim. Ecol. 64: 592-599. Raven, S. J., & Coulson, J. C. 1 997.The distribution and abundance of Larus gulls nesting on buildings in Britain & Ireland. Bird Study 44: 1 3-34. Rock, R 1 995. Roof-nesting Gulls in Bath. Report to Bath City Council. — 1 999. The Efficacy of the colour-ringing system used for Herring Larus argentatus and Lesser Black-backed Gulls L. fuscus in Bristol, 1 980- 1 997. Ringing & Migration 1 9: 306-3 1 0. — 2002. Roof-nesting Gulls in Gloucester Survey conducted in May 2002. Report to the Planning Department, Gloucester City Council. — 2003a. Roof-nesting Gulls in Gloucester Follow-up survey conducted in May 2003. Report to the Planning Department, Gloucester City Council. — 2003b. Roof-nesting Gulls in Bridgend. Survey conducted in April 2003. Report to Bridgend County Borough Council. — 2003c. Roof-nesting Gulls in Wiltshire. Survey conducted in June 2003. Report to Wiltshire Ornithological Society. — 2004a. Roof-nesting Gulls in Bridgend. Follow-up survey conducted in April 2004. Report to Bridgend County Borough Council. — 2004b. Roof-nesting Gulls in Worcester Follow-up survey conducted in May 2004. Report to Worcester City Council. — 2004c. Roof-nesting Gulls in Cardiff. Follow-up survey conducted in May 2004. Report to Cardiff County Council. — 2004d. A Study of the Effects of Deterring Gulls from Gloucester Landfill for a Period ofTwo Weeks in March 2004. Report to Gloucestershire Gull Action Group. — 2004e. Roof-nesting Gulls at the Port of Felixstowe. Follow-up survey conducted in May 2004 and summarising surveys from 2000-2004. Report to the Facilities Department of the Port of Felixstowe. Sibly, R. M„ & McCleery, R. H. 1 983. Increase in weight of Herring Gulls while feeding .J.Anim. Ecol. 52: 35-50. Spaans, A. L. 1971. On the feeding ecology of the Herring Gull Larus argentatus in the northern part ofThe Netherlands. Ardea 59: 73- 1 88. Temby, I. D. 2000. Pieces of Silver: examples of the economic impact and management of the Silver Gull (Larus novaehollandiae) in Melbourne, Australia. In: Clark, L. (ed.), Proceedings of the 3rd NWRC Special Symposium (Human conflicts with wildlife: economic considerations), August 2000. Fort Collins, CO. Tinbergen, N. 1 953. The Herring Gull's World. Collins, London. Vermeer K. 1 992. Population growth of the Glaucous- winged Gull Larus glaucescens in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, Canada. Ardea 80: 1 8 1 - 1 85. Viksne.J. (ed.) 1989. Latvian Breeding Bird Atlas. Riga Zinatne. Woollen R. D„ Bradley, J. S., & Croxall, J. R 1 992. Long-term population studies of seabirds. Trends Evol. Ecol. 7: I I I - I 14. 354 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 Urban gulls: problems and solutions c Appendix ! . Details of the number of Herring Larus argentatus and Lesser Black-backed Gu lls L fuscus breeding at 22 of c. 60 urban colonies in the Severn Estuary Region in 2004 (^denotes 2003 count). Colony slo. pairs LB HG Colony No. pairs LB HG Melksham 39 33 6 Cheltenham 151* 124 27 Chippenham 50 41 9 Avonmouth 320 192 128 Hereford 50 49 1 Worcester 342 295 47 Maesteg 52 37 15 Barry 400 360 40 Chepstow 60 11 49 Bath 536 363 173 Devizes 73 60 13 Bridgend 554 274 280 Aberthaw 79 10 69 Newport 800 600 200 Westbury 84 60 24 Quedgeley 1,000+ 820 180 Swindon 87 65 22 Bristol 1,933 1,329 604 Yate 100 84 16 Gloucester 1,996 1,663 333 Trowbridge 148 125 23 Cardiff 3,103 2,594 509 Totals 11,957+ 9,189 2,768 Appendix 2. Details of colour rings used on nestling Herring Larus argentatus and Lesser Black-backed Gulls L fuscus in Bristol (and elsewhere) since 1 980. Nestlings have also been colour-ringed in Bath since 2001, in Cheltenham since 2002, and in Worcester, Cardiff and Bridgend since 2003. Bristol-scheme colour rings are 37 mm tall and always on the right leg (metal ring on left leg). They show two engraved letters, latterly with a colon between letters. Please send any sightings of colour-ringed birds to: Peter Rock, 7 Parkside Avenue, Winterbourne, Bristol BS36 I LU; e-mail: pete.rock@blueyonder.co.uk Year Ring Letter Note colour colour 1980 yellow black - 1981 orange black - 1982 white black - 1983 sky blue black - 1984 green white - 1985 mauve white - 1986 black white - 1987 red white - 1988 pale green black - 1989 mid blue white - 1990 brown white - 1991 orange white - 1992 white red - 1993 yellow black - 1994 black yellow - 1995 orange black - 1996 green white - 1997 white blue - 1998 dark blue white - 1999 red white Stop . between letters 2000 orange green Colon : between letters 2001 yellow black Colon : between letters 2002 pale green black Colon : between letters 2003 white green Colon : between letters 2004 blue orange Colon : between letters British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 338-355 355 The Fair Isle sandpiper: a review Martin Garner In the early 1980s, during research for a pub- lication about my then local patch (Frod- sham Marsh, in Cheshire), 1 began reviewing records of claimed Western Sand- pipers Calidris mauri in Cheshire. I managed to obtain a photograph of a putative Western Sandpiper from Frodsham, a record which had never been submitted, and it appeared to show an adult Sanderling C. alba\ With my curiosity aroused, I looked up the single accepted record of Western Sandpiper in Cheshire, at Elton Hall Flash, Sandbach, in September 1975 (Brit. Birds 70: 447). The description of this bird seemed brief and unconvincing and, following a subse- quent review by BBRC, this record is no longer considered acceptable (Brit. Birds 87: 526). I also saw the ‘Felixstowe stint’ in 1982/83 and contributed a little to the debate on that indi- vidual (Brit. Birds 82: 378); like many, I found stint identification a fascinating, if taxing subject. At about the same time, Sharrock & Grant ( 1982) reprinted Ian Nisbet’s analysis of a stint present on Fair Isle, Shetland, in late May and early June 1956. Although originally identi- fied (when trapped) as Scotland’s first Semi- palmated Sandpiper C. pusilla , Nisbet concluded that the bird was a short-billed Western Sandpiper, and it became the first record for Britain. After reading this analysis, I felt that the case for it being Western Sandpiper was not as clear-cut as would have been expected for a ‘first’ for Britain. Many features described appeared anomalous for Western Sandpiper, and seemed consistent with a bright Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla. Many years later, I decided to pursue my long-held suspicions about the Fair Isle bird, and obtained a copy of the more thorough, original description published in The Scottish Naturalist (Williamson & Alexander 1957), which convinced me that the bird really was Scotland’s first Semipalmated Sandpiper. The authors of Birds of Shetland (Pennington et al. 2004, then in press) agreed with this conclu- sion, and BBRC was asked to review the record. History of the record The saga began when Kenneth Williamson and H. G. Alexander reported the occurrence of a Semipalmated Sandpiper on Fair Isle from 28th May to 3rd June 1956 (Williamson & Alexander 1957). Their account is reproduced here in full: SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER AT FAIR ISLE: A BIRD NEW TO SCOTLAND Ken Williamson and H. G. Alexander A small wader, which had been seen but not identified on the previous day, was located by HGA on the morning of 29th May 1956 on Midgeo beach at the south end of Fair Isle. Searching the seaweed through binoculars, he found it feeding among seven or eight Dunlins Calidris alpina , five Turnstones Arenaria interpres and a Purple Sandpiper C. maritima. It was a pale and greyish-looking bird, smaller than the Dunlins, at least an inch less in length, and the colour pattern was not unlike a Sanderling C. alba beginning to change from winter into summer plumage. For ten minutes he watched the bird closely at a range of from 15 to 20 yards, and then, believing it must be an American species, summoned KW by telephone. Other visitors to the Bird Observatory who joined in watching it then and on subsequent days were Mr and Mrs T. V. Smith, Mr and Mrs M. Hartley, Misses H. Critchley and N. and M. Goom, and Messrs. V. F. Hancock and G. Stansfield. The bird had a markedly grey-and-white appear- ance, and dark or blackish centres on the mantle feathers gave the plumage of the upperparts a ‘scaly’ pattern which suggested the possibility of a Baird’s Sandpiper C. bairdii - an opinion with which we were not entirely satisfied, however, as the bird seemed much too small. The crown and nape were similar to the mantle but with the black markings much reduced in size. A russet patch on the ear-coverts and similar colouring at the sides of the crown were espe- cially noticeable features. An indistinct narrow wing- bar was apparent when the bird flew, and the centre of the tail was then seen to be blackish, with the outer feathers pale but not white. The legs appeared to be blackish-brown even at a distance, but close views through a telescope showed that they were really a dark olive-green. They were longer in proportion to body-size than those of the Dunlin, so that when the two species stood side by side the smaller bird looked 356 © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 The Fair Isle sandpiper c > as tall. The black bill, slightly decurved at the tip, was slender and rather long for a stint, and just about as long as the head. HGA once noted an unfamiliar, musical ‘chirr-rr-rr’ as the bird flew up. At one point, while KW was watching with a 40x telescope, the bird gave a useful clue to its identity by walking over a large, sea-smoothed boulder; for it was then seen that the toes were partially webbed, indi- cating either a Western Sandpiper (C. maurii [sic]) or a Semipalmated Sandpiper (C. pusillus [sic]). In view of the great difficulty in separating these two closely allied species in the field, it was felt that the only chance of securing a satisfactory identification lay in capturing the bird. So in the afternoon, a Japanese nylon ‘mist-net’ was set up on the wrack by KW and GS: the group of waders soon returned and gradually approached, and when we judged the moment was right we ‘rushed’ the net and missed everything except the American bird! Its identification as a Semi- palmated Sandpiper, the first for Scotland and third for the British Isles, was confirmed in the laboratory. There has been one other occurrence in Europe, in France in 1930. The specimen was in moult from winter to summer plumage, and the wing was almost com- pletely unchanged except for the tertiaries. The pri- maries and their coverts were dark brown, the outer webs of the inner primaries having a white mark. The primary and greater coverts were tipped with white and formed an indistinct white alar bar. Median and lesser coverts were greyish-brown. The longest ter- tiaries were dark brown with some sepia and worn whitish edges, the new feathers being black edged with orange-brown and tipped with white. There were similar new feathers in the scapulars and mantle, forming a scaly pattern on the back, and the old scapulars were grey-brown with black mesial streaks. The rump and uppertail-coverts were blackish with brownish and greyish tips, and most of these and the mantle feathers were apparently new. The lores were greyish-brown, the ear-coverts reddish-brown, and above these markings ran an indistinct white stripe. The crown-feathers were blackish-brown edged with grey, more rufous on the sides of crown and nape. Chin and throat were white, and also the belly, flanks and vent, but the breast was mottled with greyish- brown, most noticeable on the sides. The rectrices were greyish-brown with the middle pair darker. There was a pronounced webbing linking the 2nd-3rd and 3rd-4th toes. Measurements: wing (chord) 97 mm, tail 40 mm, bill (from feathers) 19.5 mm, tarsus 23 mm. Weight 26 g. Wing formula: 2nd primary longest, the 3rd to 8th primaries being shorter by 1 mm, 4 mm, 12 mm, 19 mm, 27 mm and 33 mm respectively. Legs dark olive-green. Some Mallophaga [bird lice] were col- lected; these have been identified by Miss Theresa Clay of the British Museum (Natural History) as Car- duiceps pusillus Carriker 1956 (Family Philopteridae). The bird stayed for a week, being last seen on 3rd June. The composition of the wader flock varied from day to day, and the bird showed a rather loose associa- tion only with the Dunlins. It may, of course, have arrived before 28th May, the day on which it was first seen, but this seems unlikely as the southern beaches were well watched at that period. It is interesting to know that an American passerine, the Olive-backed [Swainson’s] Thrush Catharus ustulatus was found dead at Blackrock Light, Co. Mayo, on 26th May (R. F. Ruttledge, pers. comm.), and perhaps both birds were the victims of an ocean-wide westerly airstream which had covered the Atlantic on the northern perimeter of the Azores anticyclone for several days previously. We are grateful to R. P. Bagnall-Oakeley for sending to Fair Isle a splendid set of prints of the Norfolk bird (Cley, 19th luly 1953 - see Brit. Birds 47: 131-132, plates 27-28) and to R. A. Richardson for a detailed description of it. It was very interesting to study these documents in relation to our own notes. The record was subsequently reviewed by I. C. T. Nisbet, who came to the conclusion that the bird was, in fact, a Western Sandpiper. His con- clusions were published in British Birds (Nisbet 1963), and subsequently appeared in Sharrock & Grant (1982). Until now, this has remained the undisputed first record of Western Sand- piper for Britain and the Western Palearctic. Review ofWilliamson and Alexander’s account It is important to stress that the original description by Williamson and Alexander is short but clear and meticulous, with, for example, the observers describing the exact dark olive-green colour of the legs. Given their attention to detail, both in the field and when the bird was trapped, it is hard to imagine that obvious plumage features pertinent to either species were overlooked, or that the observers failed to describe them. We know that the bird would not have been ‘in moult to breeding plumage’ (Nisbet 1963; and as stated in the finders’ account), but in its full summer plumage following a partial pre-breeding moult (although such information, on the partial pre-breeding moult of Semipalmated Sandpiper, was then available, in the 1943 edition of Witherby et ai). In the case of Western Sandpiper, moult is completed by March (occasionally April), and in the case of Semipalmated by April (Cramp & Simmons 1983). What is recorded in the description is presumably the mix of new and old feathers British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 357 Martin Gamer, © NHM.Tring Martin Garner, © NHM.Tring The Fair Isle sandpiper ( } 1 99. Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri (upper), California, USA, 4th June; Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla (centre), 28th May, Toronto, Canada; and Western Sandpiper (lower), California, USA, I 3th May. Both Westerns show distinct, rich orange internal markings on the scapulars, while the Semipalmated shows only warm fringes, as described for the Fair Isle bird. 198. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla (upper), 28th May, Toronto, Canada, and Western Sandpiper C. mauri (lower), California, USA, 4th June. There is little difference in the way that overall plumage tones would be described between these two breeding-plumaged birds, a bright Semipalmated and typical or slightly dull Western, collected at around the same time of year as the Fair Isle sandpiper occurred. 200. Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri (upper), California, USA, 4th June; Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla (centre), 28th May, Toronto, Canada; and Western Sandpiper (lower), California, USA, I 3th May (same birds as in plate 1 99). This particular Semipalmated shows rather heavier streaking on the underparts than is typical, but it is still considerably less well marked than the two Westerns, which display extensive arrowhead- shaped marks along the flanks. The description of the underparts of the Fair Isle bird is typical of Semi- palmated, and there is no mention of the classic Western arrowheads. typically present on both adult and first- summer stints in breeding plumage, and not feathers being actively replaced. The following points summarise why I consider the bird to have been a Semipalmated rather than a Western Sandpiper: I . Upperparts The description of the upper- parts makes no mention, in the field or in the hand, of the diagnostic orange or chestnut bases to the scapulars which should be found on all breeding-plumaged Westerns at this time of year. These brightly coloured feather bases 358 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 Martin Garner,© NHM.Tring The Fair Isle sandpiper C > are apparent from the pre-breeding moult through until late summer (approximately April to August). On Western Sandpiper, these scapulars also appear longer and more obvious than on Semipalmated and, therefore, the bright internal markings at the feather bases should be conspicuous. Conversely, the scapu- lars of Semipalmated Sandpiper in breeding plumage show large blackish centres, each with a paler fringe of variable colour, ranging from dull straw to warm brown. Based upon the description provided, the upperparts are typical of Semipalmated Sandpiper, but not of Western. 2. Underparts The belly, flanks and vent were described in the hand as white. This is what would be expected of a breeding-plumaged Semipalmated Sandpiper, but would be incom- patible with the corresponding plumage of Western, which should have shown at least some dark arrowheads or streaks down the flanks (these often extend to the undertail- coverts). Similarly, the description of greyish- brown mottling across the breast is typical of Semipalmated, whereas Western would be expected to show fairly well-defined dark arrowheads or streaks, smaller than, but other- wise similar to, those on the flanks. Note that, at this point, the basic plumage features of breeding Western are already missing, whereas the overall description sounds normal for Semi- palmated. See, for example, Lars Jonsson’s illustrations in Jonsson & Grant (1984). Jonsson’s portrayal of summer-plumaged Semipalmated closely matches the descrip- tion of retained and replaced upperpart feathers, of individual feather detail of mantle, scapular and tertial feathers, and of the underparts in Williamson and Alexander’s account. 3. Rufous on the sides of crown and nape In his assessment, Nisbet considered these features to be diagnostic of Western. Examination of three comparable May/June records of Semipalmated in the UK, of which photographs and illustra- tions have been published (Brit. Birds 86: 479, 88: 196-200 and Birding World 9: 210), shows these to have had rufescent colouring on the crown-sides and ear-coverts and it is not unusual for bright Semipalmated Sandpipers in breeding plumage to match the colour tones described for the Fair Isle bird. Veit & Jonsson (1987) say that ‘some Semipalmated attain an unusually bright rufescent cast to the upper- parts, most intense on sides of the crown, auric- ulars [ear-coverts], nape and scapulars’, while Sibley (2000) provides a further example of this variation. Examination of specimens at the British Museum (Natural History) in September 2003 revealed that, on head pattern alone, some Western and Semipalmated Sandpipers in breeding plumage were almost indistinguish- able, but could be readily separated using a range of other features, including upperpart and underpart plumage as described above. 4. Bill shape This is arguably the only pro- Western feature of the Fair Isle sandpiper. The 20 1 . Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, Fair Isle, Shetland, I 3th- 1 5th May 1 992. This individual, the first Semipalmated to be recorded in Shetland after the 1956 bird (and thus accepted at the time as the first for Shetland and the second for Scotland), arrived two weeks earlier in the year than the 1956 individual. The warm tones in the crown and ear-coverts, described in the write-up of the 1956 bird, can be clearly seen on this later bird too. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 359 Paul Harvey The Fair Isle sandpiper C > bird was described as having a ‘black bill, slightly decurved at the tip... slender and rather long for a stint, and just about as long as the head’. There is, however, much confusion sur- rounding the structure and bill shape of these two species, and Kaufman (1990) stated that ‘many individuals will be too close to call on this character’. Similar problems have occurred in Britain, and in the case of the above-men- tioned ‘Felixstowe stint’, debate raged for years after its departure. This long-billed individual, in first-winter plumage, was confidently identi- fied as a Western Sandpiper at the time, based upon the bill shape and leg length. Doubts set in when good photographs revealed anomalies in bill structure that were at odds with typical Western. When the existence of long-billed Semipalmated in North America became known (remember that stint identification was still in its infancy in the early 1980s), the pen- dulum swung back towards Semipalmated. A detailed analysis of this bird by Peter Grant {Brit. Birds 79: 609-621) presented the argu- ment supporting its identification as a Semi- palmated Sandpiper (see also Millington & Vinicombe 1992), although this was subse- quently disputed by Graham Catley (Brit. Birds 82: 375-377) and Simon Harrap (Brit. Birds 82: 378-380), who felt that the case for acceptance as Semipalmated Sandpiper was not fully proven. In light of such debate, combined with the lack of understanding of the importance of bill structure, as well as bill shape, in the 1950s, it is hard to attach too much importance to this feature. Nevertheless, Alexander clearly felt that the shape of the bill was important, as described in Seventy Years of Birdwatching (Alexander 1974): ‘the first British Western Sandpiper. . . That bird caused a lot of trouble as its beak was unusually short, so that on measurement it appeared to be a Semipalmated Sandpiper. At the time I was surprised at this, for the shape of the beak made me suspect that it was a Western before it was caught. So, when Ian Nisbet pointed out that the colour of the back’1' made it a Western and that the bill length was possible for either species, I was grateful to find my original field identification was vindicated.’ (*The original description reads ‘new feathers [tertials] being black edged with orange-brown and tipped with white. There were similar new feathers in the scapulars and mantle...’ Nisbet then changes the way the feathers are described, stating that ‘these orange-brown feathers on the back are also diagnostic of maurf. However, the description makes it clear that, in comparing tertials with scapulars, these were black feathers with orange-brown fringes, and not orange- brown feathers edged with black. This makes a significant difference in understanding the ensuing argument.) 5. Biometrics When compared with those pub- lished in Cramp & Simmons (1983), all the bio- metrics of the Fair Isle bird could fit either species (for wing length of Semipalmated see variations section in Cramp & Simmons), apart from the bill length. At 19.5 mm, measured from the nasal feathering, the bill is more than 2 mm shorter than that given for any Western; the shortest comparable bill measurement on Western is 21.7 mm. Female Semipalmated from the central Canadian Arctic have a mean wing length of 97.1 mm (Fair Isle bird 97 mm), and a mean bill length of 19.5 mm (Fair Isle bird 19.5 mm). Generally, females have slightly longer tarsi than males, up to 23.5 mm (Fair Isle bird 23 mm). Although not too much emphasis should be placed on it, the wing formula of the Fair Isle sandpiper falls within the range of overlap between Western and Semipalmated, except for the length of P8, which lies just outside the published range of Western (table 1). In summary, as I have long suspected, the original description of the Fair Isle bird fits a Table I . Wing formula of Western Calidris mauri and Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla, taken from Cramp & Simmons ( 1 983), together with that of the Fair Isle sandpiper. Primaries numbered descendantly and measurements in mm. P10 P9 P8 P7 P6 P5 P4 Western longest 0-2 5-6 11-14 19-22 26-29 32-35 Semipalmated longest 0-2 3-8 11-15 18-23 25-31 [no data] Fair Isle longest 1 4 12 19 27 33 360 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 The Fair Isle sandpiper c > typical Semipalmated Sandpiper in late May/early June, with the shape of the bill as described in the field being the only slightly anomalous feature. Conversely, the typical fea- tures of Western Sandpiper at this time of year, including the orange-chestnut bases to the scapulars and arrowheads/streaking on at least the flanks, normally extending to the vent/undertail-coverts, were clearly not present. Furthermore, the bill appears to have been too short for any Western Sandpiper. Full credit should be given to the finders, whose original assessment of the bird’s identity as a Semi- palmated Sandpiper can, in my view, be fully vindicated. Acknowledgments My thanks go to Julian Hough for his comments on the paper. The extract from The Scottish Naturalist is repro- duced here by kind permission of the editor, Dr J. A. Gibson. References Alexander H. G. 1974. Seventy Years of B irdwatching. Poyser Berkhamsted. Cramp, S., & Simmons, K. E. L. (eds.) 1 983. Birds of the Western Palearcticd ol. 3. OUR Oxford. Jonsson, L, & Grant, RJ. 1 984. Identification of stints and peeps. Brit Birds 77: 293-3 1 5. Kaufman, K. 1990. Advanced Birding. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Millington, R, & Vinicombe, K. 1 992. The New Approach in action: Felixstowe '82 revisited. Birding World 5: 433-437. Nisbet, I. C.T 1 963. Western Sandpiper on Fair Isle, Shetland ( 1 956). Brit Birds 56: 55-58. Pennington, M., Osborn, K., Harvey, RV., Riddington, R„ Ellis, R, Heubeck, M., & Okill, J. D. 2004. The Birds of Shetland. Christopher Helm, London. Sharrock.J.TjT, & Grant, RJ. 1 982. Birds New to Britain and Ireland. Poyser Calton. Sibley, D. 2000. The North American Bird Guide. Pica Press, Mountfield. Viet R. R„ & Jonsson, L. 1 984. Field identification of the small sandpipers within the genus Calidris. American Birds 38:853-876. Williamson, K., & Alexander H. G 1 957. Semipalmated Sandpiper at Fair Isle: a bird new to Scotland. Scot Nat. 69: 145-147. Witherby, H. F.Jourdain, F. C. R.,Ticehurst, N. F„ & Tucker B.W. 1943. The Handbook of British Birds. Witherby, London. Martin Garner, 66 St Thomas Road, Crookes, Sheffield S10 1 UX EDITORIAL COMMENT jn the written comments made by BBRC/BOURC members during the original circulations of this record, current members of BBRC were surprised to find reference to Kodachrome slides taken of this bird and examined by I. C. T. Nisbet. Nisbet claimed that the slides clearly con- firmed the identification as Western Sandpiper. It seems inappropriate to undertake a forma! review of this record, following Martin Garner’s analysis, without this important source of information. Unfor- tunately, locating these photographs has, so far, proved impossible. BBRC has searched the BOURC and BB archives, and contacted Fair Isle Bird Observatory, the National Museums of Scotland, the British Museum (Natural History) and even Ken Williamson’s family, all to no avail. It seems highly unlikely that these photographs have been thrown away and this paragraph is by way of an appeal. If you have any idea where the photographs might be, please contact Colin Bradshaw (see below) or the BB editorial office. As things stand, this terrific record is in danger of not being fully acceptable either as a Semipalmated Sandpiper (potentially the first Scottish record) or as Britain’s first Western Sand- piper. Colin Bradshaw (Chairman of BBRC) and Eric Meek (Chairman of BOURC), c/o 9 Tynemouth Place, Tynemouth, Tyne & Wear NE30 4BJ British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 361 Richard Chandler Richard Chandler The Fair Isle sandpiper c > 202. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, Texas, USA, 1 2th April 1 994. This bird is in completely fresh breeding plumage, with black-centred mantle and scapular feathers. It shows some pale rufous in the crown and ear-coverts; this is typical of Semipalmated, which has far less bright crown and ear-coverts than Western Sandpiper C. mauri in comparable plumage. Legs black. 203. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, Florida, USA, 20th May 2004. Also in breeding plumage, but more worn than the Texas bird (plate 202, which was photographed five weeks earlier), with white scapular fringes missing on most feathers. Dark olive-green legs (as for Fair Isle bird), slightly rusty buff on ear-coverts and above supercilium behind eye. The degree of brightness may vary, but some colour here is common to most, if not all, Semipalmated. Note also the classic Semipalmated bill, and the lack of chevrons on the flanks. 362 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 Richard Chandler The Fair Isle sandpiper C ) 204. Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri, California, USA, 1 2th April 1 992. Note long, red-based scapulars and very bright crown and ear-coverts, and arrowheads on breast/flanks. This is a typical breeding-plumage Western, much brighter than Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla. Chevrons on the flanks are diagnostic for Western in this plumage. The bright rufous at base of several scapulars reaches the feather edge (note variation in scapular pattern shown by a minority of Semipalmated, as illustrated in plate 207). The bill is shortish (for Western), but still decurved and tapering over its full length. 205 & 206. Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri, Florida, USA, 23rd June 2003. A presumed first-summer, in non- breeding plumage (and a bird which probably summered in Florida, given the late date). This bird might be controversial due to its apparently short, blunt bill (in plate 205; note head held towards photographer), but note restricted fine streaking across upper breast. This streaking is similar to that seen on Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla in breeding plumage, and lacks the ‘arrowhead streaking’ of a breeding-plumaged adult Western. However, the bill is slightly more decurved than on Semipalmated, and is probably very slightly open, giving a blunt-tipped effect. Plate 206 shows the same bird, and confirms a shortish but classic decurved and tapered Western bill. These two photographs illustrate the difficulties of assessing bill shape. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 363 Richard Chandler Richard Chandler Richard Chandler Richard Chandler The Fair Isle sandpiper ) 207. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, Florida, USA, 20th May 2004. Adult breeding, unusual in having a lower scapular which has a buff centre, but with classic Semipalmated bill; also lacks flank chevrons, has dark olive legs, and buff ear-coverts. InWestern Sandpiper C. mauri the bright rufous bases to the scapulars reach the feather edge, and the feather is not 'hollow centred', as shown here. 208. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, Florida, USA, May 2004, showing slight bill curvature, typical of longer-billed (female) birds. Nonetheless, the bill is blunt-tipped, lacking the uniform tapering of even short-billed Western Sandpipers. The combination of fresh and very worn (pointed) wing-coverts suggests that this may be a first-summer. 364 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 356-364 BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION BOU News Wind, Fire and Water - Renewable Energy and Birds In April 2005, the British Ornithologists’ Union hosted a timely and well-attended conference on renewable energy and birds, at the Univer- sity of Leicester. Recently expressed views on the conservation impacts of renewable energy developments, especially wind energy, in the media have been polarised, highly emotive and rarely based on good evidence, so the opportu- nity for rational and objective consideration of the issues and problems was extremely valuable. The meeting brought together conservationists, ecologists, environmental consultants, policy- makers and representatives from a wide range of renewable energy industry bodies and com- panies. The talks and posters presented at the con- ference dealt with four main topics: 1. The background on climate change and its likely effects - why do we need renewable energy? 2. What renewable energy technologies are/will be available, either now or in the near future? How, when and where could these be deployed in the UK? 3. What do we know about the direct effects of these technologies on bird populations and habitats? 4. How do we predict what these effects might be in the future? What information do we need to do this? What information do we lack? In his opening address, Elliot Morley, UK Minister for Environment and Agri-Environ- ment, offered encouraging words, recognising the urgent need to tackle human-induced global climate change but also that existing wildlife interest and designated nature conser- vation areas should not be compromised in pursuit of this. He and other speakers made it clear that a rapid increase of renewable energy production would be essential, along with major improvements in energy efficiency and development of carbon sequestration technolo- gies, if UK (and global) efforts to reduce green- house gas emissions are to be effective. Brian Huntley of Durham University set the scene for. the conference by describing how Europe’s breeding birds might respond to climate change. This sobering study suggested that, by 2100, given average predictions of climate change, around a quarter of all species currently breeding in Europe could be under greatly increased threat on the continent, owing to habitat loss and/or large shifts in areas of cli- matic suitability. By then, birds such as Ptarmigan Lagopus muta and Dotterel Charadrius morinellus are likely to be long gone as UK breeders, while species restricted to iso- lated areas of habitat, such as Scottish Crossbill Loxia scotica , could be globally extinct. The conference covered four main types of renewable energy, with industry experts describing their current technological state and potential for future development: wind, wave, tidal and bioenergy. These, along with solar, are the renewable technologies most likely to con- tribute significantly to the UK’s energy produc- tion in the near to medium future. Wind power The technology associated with wind power is presently far more advanced than for other renewable energy sources and wind energy alone will make a significant contribution to total UK energy production by 2010. In the UK, raptors, wildfowl and waders are usually con- sidered most at risk of disturbance or direct mortality from wind turbines. There is little evi- dence to date of serious bird collision problems at UK windfarms. Nonetheless, the potential for collision problems does exist, as two often- quoted examples from Spain and California show; here, poor location and poor design of turbines and turbine arrays has led to signifi- cant numbers of raptor casualties. Much effort has been devoted to predicting the chances of birds colliding with turbines, often as part of the pre-construction Environmental Impact © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 365-367 365 BOU News c Assessment (EIA) process. Mike Madders of Natural Research presented a thorough example of such a study, on Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos and other raptors in Scotland. Other presentations showed how EIA work associated with offshore windfarm developments has greatly increased our knowledge of the distribu- tion and behaviour of seabirds around our coasts, with examples including Little Terns Sterna albifrons on the east Norfolk coast and Common Scoters Melanitta nigra in Liverpool Bay, Merseyside. Collision risk prediction is still a difficult task, largely because there is little knowledge of the extent to which birds will avoid turbines by changing flight direction and/or altitude. One of the leading European groups plugging this knowledge gap is the Danish National Environ- mental Research Institute. Their radar studies have shown how most migrating Common Eiders Somateria mollissima in the Baltic avoid flying near offshore windfarms, or carefully pick straight-line routes between rows of tur- bines. NERI are also using infrared cameras to interpret the nocturnal world of bird migration revealed by radar, producing detailed images of birds (even passerines) flying through wind- farm areas. Increasing our knowledge of bird responses to turbines will be impossible unless more of these studies, monitoring existing developments, are carried out. Such post-con- struction monitoring could (and many at the conference argued should) be made a condition of any planning licence granted for wind tur- bines. Bioenergy After wind power, bioenergy is the most likely renewable technology to play a major role in energy production in the near future. Plant material can be used directly as combustible fuel, or converted into gas or liquid fuels. Oil- producing crops can also provide liquid fuels directly. The most likely large-scale bioenergy developments in the near future are as follows: 1. Growing oilseed crops (e.g. oilseed rape Brassica napus and Linseed Linum usitatis- simum) to produce liquid fuels (biodiesel) for the transport sector. 2. Using wood and brash from forestry and straw from arable crops for direct combus- tion to produce electricity and/or heat. 3. The development of dedicated fast-growing } crops: trees grown as coppice (e.g. willows Salix and poplars Populus) and perennial grass crops (e.g. elephant grass Miscanthus) for directly combustible material. 4. Importation of biomass material from other countries, e.g. sugar-cane pulp or palm-oil husk. 5. Growing crops with a high carbohydrate content (e.g. wheat, sugar beet, potatoes) for fermentation to produce liquid alcohol fuels. Although most of the oilseed and carbohy- drate crops are already grown on UK farmland, large-scale development of tree coppice or grass energy crops would result in a major habitat change, with the potential for significant effects on farmland biodiversity. Rufus Sage of the Game Conservancy Trust showed that short- rotation willow coppice can attract a range of bird species not typically found in arable crops, and more similar to the avifauna of young woodland. In the first year after harvest, the short vegetation is even attractive to open-field- nesting species such as Sky Lark Alauda arvensis and Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, although it is unlikely that crops in the second or third years of the rotation will provide suit- able nest-sites for such species. There is some evidence that the relatively high abundance and diversity of insects in plantations of native willows grown as short-rotation coppice may provide better foraging opportunities for insec- tivorous birds than exotic-grass energy crops such as Miscanthus spp. As with all agricultural systems, however, the devil will be in the detail, and the relative costs and benefits of biomass crops to birds will depend to a great extent on: 1. The location and scale of the crops - small areas increasing land-use diversity are likely to be more beneficial than large monocul- tures. 2. What land-use types the crops replace - replacement of intensively managed arable or grassland might be beneficial, but replace- ment of wet meadows, or set-aside land pro- viding valuable overwinter stubbles and other similarly valuable habitats would not. 3. How the crops are managed - agro-chemical use will influence the availability of seed and insect food for birds, and harvesting times may affect nest survival. The possibility of importing cheap biofuel 366 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 365-367 BOU News c > material raises the spectre of encouraging extremely environmentally damaging develop- ments elsewhere in the world. For example, importing palm-oil husks for burning in UK power stations is likely to encourage the develop- ment of oil-palm plantations in Southeast Asia, at the expense of what little lowland rainforest remains. It must be remembered that the impacts of this on global biodiversity will be orders of magnitude worse than any changes we might see on our already impoverished farmland. Wave and tidal energy Wave and tidal technologies are still some way from being available on a commercial scale, but both look promising for the future: there are substantial power resources available, and few immediately obvious impacts on wildlife. The idea of building tidal barrages across estuaries to turn tidal flow into electricity has largely been abandoned in the UK, owing to major environmental problems. Instead, slow-rotating underwater turbines placed in fast-flowing tidal currents represent a much lower risk to wildlife, and can harness a completely reliable energy source. Conclusions Rapid development of renewable energy will have to be a key part of any successful strategy to reduce UK greenhouse gas emissions, but will have to sit alongside major reductions in demand through increased energy efficiency. Development of renewable energy in a way that minimises impacts on existing biodiversity is currently being hampered by: (i) poor commu- nication of EIA and research results, often due to language barriers and a failure to publish results perceived as commercially confidential; (ii) the lack of a strategic UK plan for renewable energy, with developments being piecemeal and market-led; and (iii) a limited number of good pre- and post-construction monitoring and research projects. Recommendations for improvement, along with all the papers pre- sented at the conference, are expected to be published in Ibis online by the end of 2005. Although there are still many unknowns as to the effects of renewable energy technologies on birds and other wildlife, and indeed some known potential problems, it is clear that the priority must be to assess and resolve these rapidly, as far as it is possible to do so. Failure to tackle the ever-worsening issue of human- induced global climate disruption is a much more serious threat to life on this planet. Guy Anderson British Ornithologists’ Union President Prof. Christopher Perrins Administrator Steve Dudley • Administrative Assistant Graeme Green Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford 0X1 3PS tel/fax: 01865 281842; e-mail: bou@bou.org.uk; website: www.bou.org.uk For more information on the BOU programme of conferences, other conference proceedings, publications and more, visit www.bou.org.uk or contact the BOU Office. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 365-367 367 Conservation research news Compiled by Jared Wilson and Jeremy Lindsell Gurney’s Pitta - a case for genuine hope? The rediscovery of a species long thought to be extinct or eliminated from a region is an exciting and dramatic event. Gurney’s Pitta Pitta gurneyi has managed to pull off two such ‘rediscoveries’ in the last 20 years. The first, in 1986, is well-known and the continued plight of the species in Thailand has been a major con- servation issue in recent years. In spite of the high profile of Gurney’s Pitta, numbers in Thai- land have continued to decline, from the initial estimate of 40 pairs to the dozen or so pairs now thought to survive. Although there has been real progress in Thailand for the conserva- tion of this species in the last few years, the rediscovery of a substantial population per- sisting in Myanmar (formerly Burma) in 2003, the country where Gurney’s Pitta was first dis- covered in 1875, has been startling. In southeast Myanmar, Jonathan Eames and his BirdLife colleagues found 10-12 pairs of Gurney’s Pittas, effectively doubling the last published global-population estimate. Birds were found in four of the five sites surveyed and, given that only around 1% of suitable habitat was searched, it is likely that the true population in this region is not just 100% larger, but 100 times larger than that latest esti- mate. Using published density estimates for Gurney’s Pitta from Thailand, extrapolation from these survey sites to the surrounding forested area with equivalent altitude and topography suggests a total population of between 5,100 and 8,500 pairs. As in southern Thailand, the Myanmar pittas occupy secondary and logged primary forest. The abandonment of logging activity probably allowed the area of suitable habitat to expand, so the authors note (with irony) that the pitta’s population may well have been at its strongest here in the late 1980s and 1990s, just as conservation efforts were intensifying for the Thailand population. Despite the bird’s fondness for modified forest and the large population estimate, there is no complacency among the authors, however. First, it is known from work in Thailand that Gurney’s Pittas can be absent from apparently suitable habitat. This might be attributed to competition from other species, or to the habitat being in some way unsuitable. Given the relatively small number of sites surveyed, simple extrapolation into unsurveyed areas may produce over-generous total estimates. Second, if the estimated densities in those survey areas were unrepresentatively high (and there are reasons why this may be the case), that would invalidate the authors’ population estimate. Third, and most importantly, as the pho- tographs published with the article show, pres- sure from logging and conversion to oil-palm in the region is intense. Eames et al. used satellite imagery to estimate changes in forest cover between 1990 and 2000, and the trend is not encouraging. One patch of 423 km2 in 1990 was reduced by 37% in just ten years. The remaining forest area is fragmented and vulner- able to further modification. We can only hope that the Myanmar popula- tion will not follow the same discouraging path as the Thailand population after the initial euphoria of rediscovery. There has been talk of new national parks being established in the region which could incorporate substantial areas of suitable forest. For the time being, however, these forested areas are earmarked for conversion to oil-palm under state development plans, a level of habitat modification that even Gurney’s Pittas cannot tolerate. Eames, J. C„ Hla, H., Leimgruber; R, Kelly, D. S., Aung, S. M„ Moses, S„ &Tin, U. S. N. 2005.The rediscovery of Gurney's Pitta Pitta gurneyi in Myanmar and an estimate of its population size based on remaining forest cover 8/rd Conservation International 1 5: 3-26. 368 © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 368 Andreas Buchheim Notes All Notes submitted to British Birds are subject to independent review, either by the Notes Panel or by the 88 Editorial Board. Those considered appropriate for 88 will be published either here or on our website (www.britishbirds.co.uk) subject to the availability of space. Which subspecies of Shag occurs in Galicia ? Juvenile Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis with whitish underparts and pale legs, characteristics typically attributed to the Mediterranean sub- species P. a. desmarestii , may occur within the range of nominate aristotelis (BWP). Such pale individuals are extremely rare in Britain, however, and account for only a small propor- tion of the Shags breeding in Brittany, western France (Brown 2004; pers. obs.). In October 2004, we visited western Galicia, northwest Spain, close to the Parque Nacional Islas Atlantica, where c. 2,000 pairs of Shags breed (Velando et al. 1999; Alvarez et al. 2003; Velando & Alvarez 2004). By boat, we approached tens of juvenile Shags at close range while they were resting on rocks; most of these birds were extremely pale-looking. Although much individual variation was apparent, all showed at least a pale collar on the upper breast, a pale vertical central breast-band and a pale belly. The darkest birds were probably within the normal range of variation found in British Shags. Most, however, were much paler and, although many had retained brown- washed flanks, some showed entirely off-white underparts. These juveniles were thus far paler than is mentioned in a typical description of nominate aristotelis in the literature, with a minority appearing as pale as desmarestii. Most, if not all, juveniles had pale legs and feet, either flesh-coloured or distinctly yellow-tinged, while a minority of adults showed yellowish feet with dark webs, and all adults had a mostly yellow bill with only the culmen and tip dark (which BWP cites as characteristic of desmarestii). These Galician Shags were thus quite different from typical aristotelis , and we pondered their taxonomic affinities, particularly with regard to the poorly known Moroccan form riggenbachi (first described by Hartert in 1923). Alberto Velando (pers. comm.) provided us with the measurements of 28 individuals ( 1 1 males, 17 females) from five breeding localities in Galicia (table 1). These birds do not differ markedly from aristotelis from northern Europe in terms of wing length, but show a markedly larger bill, even compared with Shags from Scotland and Norway (which in turn tend to show larger bills than birds from southern England - up to 63 mm long and 12.5 mm deep; BWP). The biometrics of Galician Shags do not fit riggenbachi , however, since this form is said to combine the body size of desmarestii and the bill dimensions of aristotelis (and thus 209 & 2 1 0. Adult and juvenile Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis, off Galicia, Spain, October 2004 (see text). © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 369 Andreas Buchheim Notes C > Table 1 . Wing length, bill length and bill depth of Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis. For nominate aristotelis, wing length combines data from Britain, Brittany and The Netherlands; bill measurements are from southwest England and Brittany. Data for aristotelis and desmarestii are from BWP, for Galician birds from Alberto Velando (see text). Figures show mean (range, sample size); all data in mm. aristotelis (northern Europe) Galicia desmarestii Wing length (male) 271 (261-278, 12) 273.5 (262-280, 11) 258 (243-271, 12) Wing length (female) 258 (251-269, 11) 260 (252-275, 17) 249 (240-265, 11) Bill length (male) 55.7 (53-58,6) 65.3 (62.2-72.1, 11) 60.9 (58-65,6) Bill length (female) 56.2 (55-58,5) 63.9 (60.5-70.1, 17) 63.2 (61-65,5) Bill depth (male) 10.5 (10.2-11.0,5) 16.5 (15.2-17.7, 10) 10 (9.7-10.6,5) Bill depth (female) 9.2 (8.3-10.4, 14) 14.4 (12.8-16.1, 16) 8.7 (8. 2-9. 3, 5) should have a much shorter wing and a far less stout bill than Galician birds). The peculiarities of these Galician Shags suggest that they might deserve a taxonomic reappraisal, since both their biometrics and their coloration appear to depart significantly from those of described forms. We suggest that this species’ variability is worth a detailed study throughout its range, since a better under- standing of phenotypic variation, particularly in adult birds, is surely a prerequisite for modi- fying subspecies boundaries. Acknowledgments We are grateful to Alberto Velando, from the University of Vigo, who kindly shared the biometric data he collected from breeding sites in Galicia and helped with our litera- ture search. References Alvarez, D„ MuntanerJ., & Velando, A. 2003. Cormoran rnohudo Phalocrocorox aristotelis. In: Marti, R„ & del Moral, J. C. (eds.), Atlas de lasAves Reproductoras de Espaha. Madrid. Brown, J. G. 2004. Juvenile Shag on Skomer showing characteristics of Mediterranean race. Brit. Birds 97: 96- 97. Velando. A., & Alvarez, D. 2004. El cormoran rnohudo, Phalacrocorax aristotelis. El Libro Rojo de las Aves de Espaha. Madrid. — , Docampo, F„ & Alvarez, D. 1 999. The status of the European Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis population on the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula. Atlantic Seabirds I: 105-1 14. Pierre Yeson ONCFS, 53 rue Russeil, 44000 Nantes, France Andreas Buchheim Eichenstr. 1, 45711 Datteln, Germany Andres Bermejo Urb. Sn. Sadurnino M3 1°C, 15894 Teo, A Coruna, Spain Ageing and sexing It has long been recognised that Short-toed Eagles Circaetus gallicus show considerable indi- vidual plumage variation. Most breeding adults show a dark brown head and upper breast, but a minority of birds in Europe appear distinctly paler, and have been variably described as ‘white’, ‘pale’ and ‘intermediate’ types. Currently, no parameters exist by which individual birds can be assigned to a particular type (or colour phase or morph). Three of the most frequently observed plumage types of ‘pale’ Short-toed Eagle are described as follows: • Mantle ashy-grey, with white throat, breast and belly. Sparse grey-brown spotting on the underwing. • Mantle pale grey, with white head, throat and breast. Completely white underwing. Short-toed Eagles • Mantle brown, with white throat, breast and belly. Sparse brown spotting on the under- wing. Factors such as distance, weather and light conditions, and background colour combine to affect observers’ perception of plumage patterns and colours in the field. So that terms such as ‘pale phase’ or ‘dark morph’ can be quantified, it is essential that parameters are established by which individuals can be assigned clearly to one particular plumage class, and are not subject to the vagaries of individual perception. Several authors have attempted to clarify and quantify the extent of this variability, but all have done so without demonstrating that their conclusions are based upon specific observa- tions. For example, Martorelli (1895) described 370 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 Notes C Short-toed Eagle plumages and noted that males were paler; Boudoint et al. (1953) stated that pale coloration is typical of very old indi- viduals; while Porter et al. (1976) speculated that pale individuals may be immatures, but added that there were no data available (at that time) to confirm this. Cattaneo & Petretti (1992) suggested that these paler birds might originate from eastern populations, while Cramp & Simmons (1980) stated; ‘sexes similar, no seasonal variation, juveniles apparently unidentifiable in the field, plumage variation poorly understood but probably age-related’. More recently, following studies on populations in northwest Italy, Cattaneo (2001) and Campora (2002) established that the various colour phases are, in fact, distinct plumages related directly to age as well as to the sex of the birds. These conclusions are supported by the use of photographs and reference to museum specimens. Study area and methods Short-toed Eagles were studied at breeding sites in the western Alps and the Apennines, two dis- tinct and widely separated regions of Italy which differ in their climate, altitude and habitat types. In total, 38 breeding pairs of Short-toed Eagles were studied over a period of 23 years. These observations were supported by assessment of over 400 photographs of birds taken at or near nests over a period of several years, enabling plumage changes in individual birds to be monitored. In addition, over 80 museum specimens in collections in Genoa, Turin and Milan were examined, along with those in the Natural History Museum, Tring (NHM). This enabled the plumage variation among age classes to be examined in detail; par- ticular attention was given to establishing the age of each specimen. Each specimen was pho- tographed to assist comparison of specimens among collections, while other data (including measurements, date and location) were also col- lected. Observations of pale birds during the breeding season In breeding pairs, adult females invariably show darker and more uniform breast feathering, while males have paler and more streaked breasts (Campora 1998, 2002). However, the proportion of pale individuals (as described above) in the breeding population is extremely low (Cattaneo 1998, 2001). In France, M. Belaud (in lift.) found no pale birds among breeding pairs in Provence, while Joubert (2001) found only one such individual among 13 pairs in the Upper Loire region (over an unspecified time period). In northwest Italy, only two such pale birds, plus one further case involving a probable breeding pair, were recorded in over 150 broods studied. It should also be stressed that the few observations of pale individuals within breeding pairs were always limited to a single year; in all cases, both parents at the same nest-site showed typical col- oration in the following year. In Italy, records of Short-toed Eagles showing pale breast feathering generally relate to unpaired or wandering individuals (Campora 1998; Cattaneo 1998, pers. obs.). These paler individuals tend to appear later in the season, typically in April and May, and never in March, when established breeding pairs return to nesting territories (Campora unpubl). This is further confirmed by observa- tions at spring migration watchpoints, where pale individuals are generally observed after mid April only (Baghino pers. comm.; Toffoli pers. comm.). Spring migration in mainland Italy has received little attention, and the only regular watchpoint is at Arenzano, in the Lig- urian Apennines, near Genoa. Unfortunately, the plumage patterns of migrating Short-toed Eagles are only occasionally recorded here. Baghino (pers. comm.) reported that, in April and May at Arenzano (when breeding pairs have already settled into their territories), there is a noticeable migration of ‘very pale’ Short- toed Eagles, with 40 of 65 birds observed there on 11th April 2003, 2 of 2 on 5th May 1993, and 6 of 7 on 25th April 1992 classed as this plumage-type. Supporting evidence that reinforces the view that the palest birds are immature comes from personal observations of numerous breeding pairs in Italy, many of which we have pho- tographed, over several years. Some of these individuals used the same perches over a period of years, suggesting that they were the same returning birds. Photographs of these individ- uals reveal a gradual but continuous change in plumage, progressively darkening over the years. Furthermore, a captive individual at a raptor recovery centre showed a rufous throat and breast, with white longitudinal streaks in 1999; by 2002, following a series of moults, this British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 371 Massimo Campora Notes > same individual exhibited typical female plumage (MC pers. obs.). Although these obser- vations cannot be considered as absolute proof that plumage darkness is age-related, they support the view that pale birds are in imma- ture plumage. Pale birds in the wintering areas Not all immatures return to Europe in spring, with some remaining in their wintering areas throughout the year; others do return but later than adults. Examination of museum speci- mens revealed that the proportion of pale indi- viduals increases in Africa (fig. 1), reinforcing the view that immatures have paler underparts. In fact, the palest individuals among the speci- mens examined were the only birds collected in Africa in March and April, when breeding pairs have already reached breeding territories in Europe and Asia. Many of these specimens retained rufous juvenile breast feathers, con- firming their age as second-calendar-year birds. Plumage variation due to the effects of moult In juvenile plumage, all Short-toed Eagles are broadly similar, with a well-defined, uniform reddish-brown head and breast, and spots on 211. Juvenile Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, Natural History Museum of Genoa. At this age, the head and breast are uniform reddish-brown in both sexes. 100 80 c 60 o 8 40 20 0 =±= * Europe Africa Fig. I . Ranking of underpart colour ( I = palest, 77 = darkest) of 77 Short-toed Eagles Circaetus gallicus collected in Europe and Africa, and housed in the Genoa Museum and the NHM.Tring.The average ranking of European specimens is 47.2; that of African specimens is 33. 8. This difference is statistically significant (Mann-Witney U-Test, P = 0.01). the underparts and underwings that usually, but not always, appear paler and less well-defined than those of adults (plate 211). These birds can closely resemble some adults, and may be sepa- rable only at close range, and often only when seen directly alongside. By their third or, in some cases, fourth 2 1 2. Third- or fourth-calendar-year Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, Natural History Museum of Genoa. At this age, the uniform reddish-brown head and breast of juvenile plumage is replaced by paler feathering with dark shaft-streaks. The sexes remain inseparable at this age. 372 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 Massimo Campora Massimo Campora Massimo Campora Notes 2 1 3. Male Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, between four and six calendar-years of age, Natural History Museum of Genoa. Brown streaks appear on the paler head and breast, but are generally less extensive than those of females of a similar age. 2 1 5. Adult male Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, Natural History Museum of Genoa. In this plumage, acquired in the eighth or ninth calendar-year, the head is distinctly brown and the breast is heavily streaked. Confusion with younger females is possible. 2 1 4. Female Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, between four and six calendar-years of age, Natural History Museum of Genoa.The female appears notice- ably darker than males of the same age, but the heavily blotched and streaked breast separate it from adult females. 2 1 6. Adult female Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, Natural History Museum of Genoa. As with males, this plumage is attained in the eighth or ninth- calendar-year, but only adult females appear as dark and uniform on the head and breast as this individual. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 373 Massimo Campora Massimo Campora Notes calendar-year, Short-toed Eagles acquire a paler plumage in which the juvenile head, breast and upper mantle plumage is replaced with wholly pale feathering with darker shafts (plate 212). Although the dynamics and frequency of moults in juveniles and adults are still unclear (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Forsman 1999), immature Short-toed Eagles gradually acquire the darker head and streaked breast typical of older birds through subsequent moults in their fourth to sixth calendar-years. At this age, although the darker head and streaked breast become increasingly apparent in both sexes, on the female these are darker and generally better defined, making separation of the sexes possible in most instances (plates 213 & 214). Finally, as birds mature further, the plumage differences between the sexes become better defined, and dark colours more saturated, leading to the ‘definitive adult plumage’ (Campora 2002). This occurs typically in the eighth or ninth calendar- year. Plates 215 & 216 illustrate the extent of sexual dimorphism which Short-toed Eagles can exhibit in adult plumage. In Europe, moult commences shortly after arrival from the wintering quarters, as demon- strated by the abundant feathers found beneath nests, and continues until September (Zebe 1935, 1936; Campora 1998; pers. obs.). Exami- nation of specimens collected during the summer months confirmed that all birds had been in active moult. Birds collected during spring migration were not in active moult, but many showed signs of suspended or arrested primary moult, with new feathers, usually reaching to between P4 and P6 (measured descendantly), contrasting with retained old, worn primaries. Conclusions Brown & Amadon ( 1968) were correct to assume that all Short-toed Eagles undergo a series of moults which lead eventually to full adult plumage. It has now been established that Short-toed Eagles go through a transitional or ‘white phase’, in their third or possibly fourth calendar-year, when the sexes are inseparable in the field. Subsequently, as birds gradually acquire a darker coloration between their fourth and sixth calendar-year, sexual dimor- phism becomes more evident: males tend to remain rather pale, especially on the throat and breast, while females acquire their characteristic brown breast. > During this transitional phase, Short-toed Eagles are still considered to be immature and incapable of breeding. Occasionally, for example upon the death of one member of a breeding pair, these paler individuals (which do not hold territories and have probably not yet reached sexual maturity) can take the unoccu- pied place (Campora pers. obs.). Such individ- uals occur more frequently in northern Italy, where immatures are expanding and estab- lishing territories beyond the traditional range, and where a significant increase in Short-toed Eagle numbers is occurring. In France, fol- lowing range expansion in the 1970s, the popu- lation is now considered stable, and pale individuals are observed less frequently. In summary, our studies have established that the various plumage types of Short-toed Eagle are directly related to age, with the palest being immature birds in their third and fourth calendar-years. Many birds of this age remain in wintering areas during the northern breeding season, which accounts for their relative scarcity in Europe. Acknowledgments We would like to thank all those who contributed to our work, and especially Mark Adams at the Natural History Museum, Tring, for his generous assistance. We are grateful to Giuseppe Bogliani at the Department of Biology, Pavia University, for his suggestions and for having monitored each phase of our research, and also to Enrico Borgo and Andrea Doria of the Genoa Natural History Museum. Thanks also go to Roberto Toffoli and Luca Baghino for supplying us with details of their unpublished migration data, to Ottavio Janni for translating the manuscript into English, and finally to Sabrina Carolfi for her help and support during our short visit to Tring. References Boudoint, Y, Brosset, A., Bureau, L., & Guichard, G. 1 953. Biologie de Circaetus gallicus (Gm.). Alauda 2: 86- 1 27. Brown, L., & Amadon, D. 1 968. Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. Country Life Books, Feltham. Campora, M. 1 998. II Biancone nell'Appennlno ligure - plemontese. Ente di Gestione Parco Naturale delle Capanne di Marcarolo. — 2002. Sexual dimorphism and juvenile plumage in the Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin, 1 788). Riv. ital. Orn. 72: 35-45. Cattaneo, G. 1 998. II Biancone Circaetus gallicus nelle Alpi occidental italiane. Riv. ital. Orn. 68: 39-49. — 200 1 . Ulteriori notizie sul Biancone Circaetus gallicus sulle Alpi occidentali. Riv. ital. Orn. 7 1 : 205-207. — & Petretti, F. 1 992. Biancone, Circaetus gallicus. In: Brichetti, R, De Franceschi, R, e Baccetti, N. (a cura di), Fauna d'ltalia, XIX. Aves 1: 520-526. Calderini, Bologna. Cramp, S„ & Simmons, K. E. L. (eds.) 1 980. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. OUR Oxford. Forsman, D. 1 999. The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East. Poyser London. Joubert, B. 200 1 . Le Circaete Jean-le-blanc. Eveil nature, 374 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 Notes C > S.Y rieix-sur-Charente. Martorelli, G. 1 895. Circaetus gallicus. In: Monografia illustrate degli uccelli di rapina In Italia. Mem. Soc. it So. not. e Aius. civ. St not. Milano: 35-38. Porter R. F., Willis, I., Christensen. S.p & Nielsen, B. R 1 976. Flight identification of European Raptors. Poyser, Massimo Campora Strada Valmassini 6, 15066 Gavi, Alessandria, Italy Guido Cattaneo Via Mussatti 2 , 10080 Rivara, Torino, Italy Berkhamsted. Zebe.V. l935.Weiteres von Schlangenadler, Her. Ver. Schl, Orn. 20: 28-33. 1 936. Zur biologie des Schlangenadler ( Circaetus gallicus). Ber. Ver. Schl. Orn. 2 1 : 33-82. 2 1 7. Juvenile Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, Ligurian Apennines, Italy, July 1 995. This individual is about to fledge and shows typical reddish-brown plumage. 2 1 8. Female Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, Ligurian Apennines, Italy, July 200 1 .This bird, probably over eight years old, was photographed bringing a viper Vipera aspis to the young (which shows similar plumage to the adult female). British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 375 Massimo Campora Massimo Campora Massimo Campora Mass/mo Campora Massimo Campora Notes C 2 1 9. Pale, unmated immature Short-toed Eagle Circaetu s gallicus, Ligurian Apennines, Italy, July 2002. 220. Short-toed Eagles Circaetus gallicus, Ligurian Apennines, Italy, August 2003. This adult male (right), probably over seven years old, is shown bringing prey to a fledged youngster. 221. Juvenile Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus, Ligurian Apennines, Italy, August 2003, showing heavy markings on the underwings. 376 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 Notes C } Mallard diving for fish One day in November 2003, while I was bird- watching at the Bittern watchpoint, Cheshunt gravel-pits, Essex, a birder informed me that he had been watching a male Mallard Anas platyrhynchos diving and catching fish. I greeted this information with cautious scepticism. On 25th November, however, at the same site, I saw a male Mallard doing just that. It made as if to up-end in the usual way (within 1 m of the bank) but, in a fluid movement, continued to immerse. As it did so, it opened its wings in the manner of an auk and ‘oared’ itself to a depth of at least 30 cm. It resurfaced within three seconds. From five consecutive dives (separated by short gaps of ten seconds or less) it caught three silver fish (probably Roach Rutilus rutilus ), each about 40 mm long, which it swallowed quickly and with minimal manipulation. The bird then bathed and preened. Several other Alan Harris 60 East Park, Harlow, Essex CM 17 OSE species were also preying on the fish shoal, including Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, Common Coot Fulica atra and Black-headed Gull Earns ridibundus , but no other Mallards joined in and it seems that only this one indi- vidual had learnt to catch fish in this way. On 19th December 2003, three Mallards (one male and two females) were fishing in a similar manner, close to the bank, along with seven Tufted Ducks Aythya fnligula and a Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus. Moments earlier, three Great Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo had been fishing in the channel and had evidently herded a shoal of fish into the bank- side vegetation. The male Mallard at least was successful, catching two fish. John Barber described 16 Mallards diving for small fish at Chew Valley Lake, Avon (Brit. Birds 70: 164), but it seems that this is still an unusual behaviour. Piratical feeding and unusual diet of Grey Herons In February 2004, a newly created shallow pool at Long Drove, Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, was attracting many gulls from an adjacent landfill to bathe and roost. Occasionally, odd food items ended up in the pool, either inadver- tently by way of aerial food-fights or brought in by gulls to be washed before consumption. Although the pool was understandably attrac- tive to gulls and Carrion Crows Corvus corone , it was surprising to me that it attracted the atten- tion of Grey Herons Ardea cinerea too. My first observation was of an immature Grey Heron which moved quickly to secure an item of food being contested by two Carrion Crows Corvus corone. It almost sprinted towards the corvids, some 10 nr away, with both wings spread, neck outstretched and crown feathers raised; such was the speed and aggression of the attack that both corvids immediately beat a hasty retreat and the heron devoured the item, which looked like part of a Sunday roast. On subsequent visits, (what was presumably) Steve Cooper 24 Palmer’s Way, Melbourn, Cambridgeshire SG8 6JE the same heron was present and each time it repeated this behaviour, although not always suc- cessfully. Not surprisingly, no other species chal- lenged the heron once it had possession of the food, which included a chunk of bread on one occasion. This individual had clearly resorted to a piratical approach to obtaining food, even to the extent of making short, fairly agile pursuit flights. These chases were triggered by gulls already involved in aerial squabbles; the Heron’s intervention was never particularly persistent, and it was reluctant to gain much height, but it was successful on at least one occasion, forcing a Common Gull Larus canus to drop its catch. Two adult Grey Herons were often also present at the pool, and during my early visits did not engage in this behaviour. On 1st March, however, both adults as well as the immature all actively pursued this method of obtaining food. Particu- larly of note is my observation of an adult making a 25-m dash on foot across dry ground to obtain food from a group of five Carrion Crows. EDITORIAL COMMENT Although food piracy in Grey Herons is well recorded (e.g. Brit. Birds 84: 58- 59; 85: 238), the repeated nature of the behaviour described here, and the fact that a wide range of scraps was taken, makes this series of observations worthy of note. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 377 Notes C > Osprey migrating with fish In late March 2003, a friend and I were enjoying raptor passage in southern Spain, in the area between Gibraltar and Los Barrios, a few miles to the north. By midday, large parties of Black Kites Milvus migrans were taking full advantage of the thermals along the hillsides, accompanied by several other raptor species in small numbers. A group of 50 or so Black Kites drew our particular attention, however, as a bird in their midst was a curious shape; it proved to be an Osprey Pandion haliaetus fully laden with a fish which we estimated to be Tim Sykes Isle ofNoss, Bressay, Shetland around 2 kg in weight. The flock of raptors thermalled upwards from about 150 m to 1,000 m, before rapidly moving northwards, the Osprey apparently unhindered by its piscine burden. After con- sulting a map, it was clear that there were no nearby freshwater bodies in the area, and it seemed likely that the bird had thus crossed the Straits of Gibraltar with the fish in its talons. Blincow {Brit. Birds 87: 335) described an Osprey apparently setting off on migration with a partly eaten trout Salmo in its talons. Feeding habits of the Syrian Woodpecker On 29th June 2003, in Radostow, Zamosc province, Poland, we observed two Syrian Woodpeckers Dendrocopos syriacus feeding young (c. 20 days old); the nest hole was in a Walnut Juglans regia tree in an old orchard. Near the nest tree was a dilapidated barn, and on this date we saw the male enter the barn through a hole in the wall to collect (mainly) spiders (Araneae). We were able to observe it within the building, and this seems to be the first record of the species actively feeding within a building (e.g. BWP , Glutz von Blotzheim & Bauer 1980, Winkler et al. 1995). On 24th November 2003, in an orchard in Zerniki, Zamosc province, JM saw a male Syrian Woodpecker remove a larch Larix cone and fly to a nearby pear Pyrus tree, wedge the cone into an 'anvil’ (a crevice in the branch) and feed on the seeds for at least one minute. Shortly after- wards, the woodpecker flew back to the larch, and this time appeared to be feeding on the trunk. There appears to be no previous record in the literature of Syrian Woodpecker feeding on larch cones. References Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N„ & Bauer; K. M. 1 980. Hondbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas.Vol. 9. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft (AVG), Wiesbaden. Winkler; H„ Christie, D. A„ & Nurney, D. 1995. Woodpeckers: a guide to the woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks of the world. Pica Press, Sussex. Jerzy and Monika Michalczuk Department of Biology and Environmental Protection, University ofRzeszow, Rejtana 16C, 35-959 Rzeszow , Poland; e-mail: jurmich@univ.rzeszow.pl Mimicry by Blackbirds Dr H. Glyn Young’s letter recording mimicry of the calls of four exotic birds in the song of a male Blackbird Turdus merula, and your editor- ial comment thereon (Brit. Birds 97: 250), prompts us to record further mimicry and make further comment. For 1 1 years, from summer 1980, HMRK frequently used a disyl- labic fluting whistle to call our dog. In 1987 or 1988, we were intrigued to hear this whistle incorporated as a loud medial phrase in the song of the resident male Blackbird, who regu- larly sang from a nearby tree. Following the death of the dog in autumn 1991, the whistle was no longer used, but continued to be included in the song of the Blackbird for the next two years. A couple of years later, the resident Black- bird, singing from the same tree, incorporated as a loud medial phrase a distinctive trisyllabic whistle used constantly by a local family of chil- dren to hail one another. The song containing this phrase was then heard for four or five con- 378 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 Notes C > secutive years. In 2003, still using the same tree as a songpost, the Blackbird incorporated the sound of an electronic burglar alarm as the final phrase of his song. This was so loud and real- istic that, initially, we did not realise that the sound was coming from a bird. The song con- taining the loud alarm phrase continued in 2004. The source from which the bird copied the notes is a nearby alarm, frequently triggered accidentally. Thompson (1849) recorded the mimicry, by wild Blackbirds, of the crowing of a cock Domestic Fowl Gallus gallus and Thorburn (1925) that of the notes of a captive ‘Australian Piping Crow’, while Watters (1853) recorded the ability of captive Blackbirds to learn the ‘first notes of tunes’. Your editorial comment that K. W. S. Kane and H. M. R. Kane Castlebellingham , Co. Louth, Ireland such mimicry ‘is typically delivered “sotto voce and passes unnoticed” ( BWP )’ is somewhat misleading as what BWP actually states is that ‘Much mimicry is delivered sotto voce and passes unnoticed, but human whistles often sung loudly in initial or medial figures...’. Our experience of the songs of at least three genera- tions of our local Blackbirds agrees with BWP and is contrary to your above-mentioned editorial comment. References Thompson, W, 1 849. The Natural History of Ireland.V ol. I . Reeve, Berfham & Reeve, London. Thorburn, A. 1 925, British Birds.V ol. I . Longmans, Green & Co., London, Watters, J.J. 1 853. The Natural History of the Birds of Ireland. James McGlashan, Dublin. Foot and leg colour of Goldcrest In November 2004, while watching two Gold- crests Regulus regulus feeding close outside my kitchen window, I noticed that the feet were conspicuously different in colour from the tarsi. The latter were dull brown, whereas the feet and the very lowest part of the tarsi were quite a bright yellowy-brown. The effect was reminis- cent of the legs and feet of Little Egret Egretta garzetta, though the yellow was not as bright. I asked Moss Taylor to examine the feet of the Goldcrests that he was trapping in his garden in nearby Sheringham, and he confirmed my observation, adding that the soles of the feet were bright yellow. This feature is poorly described in the litera- ture. For example, Yarrell (1856) described the legs, toes and claws as brown, while both The Martin Woodcock Furlongs, Long Lane, Wiveton, Norfolk NR25 7DD Handbook and BWP give the leg and foot colour as brown, or brown to grey-brown; although Glutz von Blotzheim (1991) stated ‘foot dull yellow to horn coloured’. Forbush (1929) described and illustrated the feature accurately for the closely related Ruby- R. calendula and Golden-crowned Kinglets R. satrapa, while BWP states, incorrectly, that the leg and foot colour of the former is dark brown. References Forbush, E. H. 1 929. Birds of Massachusetts and Other New England States. V ol. 3. Norwood Press, Mass, Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N. (ed.) 1991. Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas.Vol. 1 2/2. AULA- Verlag, Wiesbaden. Yarrell, W. 1856. A History of British Birds. Van Voorst, London. EDITORIAL COMMENT Bob McGowan kindly checked specimens in the National Museums of Scot- land, and reports that the feet on Goldcrest specimens do not look yellow at all, but rather appear ‘dull horn’. Perhaps the discrepancy which Martin Woodcock highlights has arisen from the use of skins to compile detailed descriptions of soft-part coloration for use in handbooks, as the colours of these areas are subject to post-mortem fading. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 379 Notes C > Eurasian Nuthatch flycatching On 16th May 2002, at Tideswell Dale, Der- byshire, I noticed a Eurasian Nuthatch Sitta europaea about 10 m above the ground in an Ash Fraxinus excelsior tree which was in bud but not yet in leaf. The Nuthatch was taking small blackish insects by making flycatcher-like sallies of up to several metres into the open sunlit areas of the upper branches. At times it hopped through the branches to a different part of the canopy. I did not see it hover and it did not seek any food on the trunk or branches of the tree. Ward (Brit. Birds 75: 537) observed a Eurasian Nuthatch hovering, while BWP men- Mike Archer 14 The Elms, Chesterwood Drive, Sheffield S10 5DU tions the taking of winged prey in the air (pre- sumably in continental Europe). Harrap & Quinn (Tits, Nuthatches & Treecreepers, Christopher Helm, 1996) state ‘May flycatch, and able to hover.’ Local entomologists suggested that the insects could, at that time of year, be St Mark’s Fly Bibio marci or a mass emergence of small black mayflies (Ephemeroptera) from the nearby river. The behaviour that I observed, which seems virtually unrecorded in Britain, appears to have been a prompt reaction to an abundant food source. Eurasian Nuthatches I read with interest the note concerning a Eurasian Nuthatch Sitta europaea foraging on brickwork (Brit. Birds 96: 256). On several occa- sions during the past 20 years, I have watched this species on the walls and tower of the chapel in Clumber Park, Nottinghamshire. The building is of sandstone and limestone, and rises to some 55 m. I have not seen any evidence of hoarding and the birds have clearly been taking food but, owing to the distance involved, I have been unable to identify the prey. Brian foraging on stonework Wilde, former head gardener at the site, has confirmed that this is quite common behaviour here, and is particularly associated with sunny days and sunlit areas of the chapel, where insects are likely to be most active. In 2001 and 2003, a pair of Eurasian Nuthatches nested in a hole about 4 m high on the stone wall of the parish church at Sutton Scarsdale, Derbyshire, sealing up the lower part of the hole as they would if it had been in a tree. R. A. Frost 66 St Lawrence Road, North Wingfield, Chesterfield, Derbyshire S42 5LL Short-toed Treecreeper foraging on ground On 29th March 2003, I was birding in mixed woodland at Sportfeld, near Frankfurt, Germany, when I observed a Short-toed Treecreeper Certhia brachydactyla fly down to the base of a mature Beech Fagus sylvatica tree and then onto the ground. It remained on the ground for only a few seconds, during which time it foraged by making three or four short hops and probing among the leaf litter, clearly moving aside dead leaves with its bill. It then flew back to the base of the Beech and pro- ceeded up the trunk, foraging in typical fashion. Ground-foraging is not documented for this species by BWP, although it is recorded for Eurasian Treecreeper C. familiaris, which has been noted foraging on fallen conifer needles and roots sticking out of the ground. Nigel Cleere The Bird Group, Department of Zoology, The Natural LListory Museum, Tring, Herfordshire HP23 6AP 380 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 369-380 Reviews RSPB CHILDREN’S GUIDE TO B I RDWATCHING By David Chandler and Mike Unwin. A&C Black, London, 2005. 128 pages, photographs and illustrations. ISBN 0-7136- 7157-2. Paperback, £9.99. This book provides an informative, lavishly illustrated and well- presented introduction to birdwatching. The first part covers just about everything a youngster would want to know to get started, and includes sections on identification, binoculars, note- taking, habitats and fieldcraft, along with a birder’s calendar. This is followed by a field guide devoting half a page to each of the 132 species most likely to be encountered across Britain & Ireland. The illustrations, by well- known artists, are of a high standard and show different plumages and appropriate poses. Brief notes on identification (key features helpfully in bold), behaviour, voice, habitat/location and confusion species are infor- mative, while one-line summaries are spot on for most species, for example ‘this high speed daredevil hardly leaves the air’ for Common Swift Apus apus. Interesting text boxes and useful ‘top tips’ (e.g. cupping hands behind ears to detect where sounds are coming from) are scattered throughout, as are sensible safety notes. Younger readers hungry for facts might have wanted more information. For example, only the length of each species is stated, and consideration should be given to squeezing additional facts into future editions, including weight, lifespan, speed of flight and furthest ringing recovery, as well as some more species! Neither European Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus nor Woodcock Scolopax rusticola feature, despite readers being encouraged to visit a heathland at dusk to look and listen for them in May, but this is a minor disappointment in what is an excellent book. It is primarily aimed at 8-12 year olds and has rekindled an interest in Joshua (aged 11), who gave it 9/10. Richard & Joshua Fairbatik LIFE IN THE WILD: A PHOTOGRAPHER’S YEAR By Andy Rouse. Guild of Master Craftsmen Publications, 2005. 194 pages; colour photographs. ISBN 1-86108-420-X. Paperback, £16.95. Andy Rouse is one of the UK’s most well-known wildlife photographers. Recently, he has established a high profile presenting Channel 5’s Wildlife Photographer , in which you see him going about his business. Attentive viewers may even have seen him making a couple of appearances on BBCl’s Countryfile programme. It comes as no surprise, therefore, to a see a book depicting some of his finest work. Life in the Wild : a photographer’s year is a sumptuous ‘coffee table’ book, saturated with glossy images of animals taken in many exotic locations around the world. Most of the photographs are high impact, and provide an insight into some interesting behaviour or action sequence, and usually depict charismatic mega-fauna such as Tiger Panthera tigris, Common Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, and various dolphins (Delphinidae), but some equally amazing shots of British wildlife have also been included. Throughout the book, the author’s cheeky-banter style shines through, in particular when discussing the practicalities of getting into a position to get close to the wildlife. And close he certainly gets. The shot of him under the nose of the White Rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum would seem foolhardy but, perhaps after all, they are just ‘docile cows’ with horns - most of the time. But the Polar Bear Ursus maritimus must have been close, and footage from his TV programme shows him within sniffing range of a bull African Elephant Loxodonta africana, and within spitting distance of a lumbering Hippo- potamus Hippopotamus amphibius. Throughout the text, there is a peppering of handy hints discussing the technical aspects of how each shot was taken, making this a useful tool for all budding wildlife photographers. The photographs in this book are almost all taken from transparencies, so he has an obsession with getting the exposure of each shot right. Now that most photographers have switched over to digital format, this information is of less relevance. From the photographic side, some of his bird photographs do not make the same impact as the rest of his work. But these are very minor quibbles. Anyone with an interest in wildlife will enjoy flicking through this book, and the stories behind each shot will be avidly digested by anyone who likes to photograph wildlife. Robin Chittenden © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 38 1 381 John Bush Obituaries Cuthbert Anthony (Tony) Norris (191 7-2005) society outside London. He served successively as Secretary, Chairman and finally as President from 1977 to 1999. He published Notes on the Birds of Warwickshire in 1947, and A West Mid- lands Bird Distribution Survey in 1950. He also, among many other activities, organised a census of the Common Starlings Sturnus vulgaris roosting in trees and on buildings in the centre of Birmingham. From then on, he became much involved with the major national bird societies. He was, for instance, largely responsible, along with Malcolm Stewart, for the RSPB’s removal from its historic office in Ecclestone Square to the present one at Sandy, in Bedfordshire. He did indeed actually own the estate of The Lodge for one day, which enabled the Society to become the largest voluntary wildlife conservation body in Europe. He served for four years as Chairman of its finance and general purposes committee, and was awarded its Gold Medal in 1964. Tony was also for several years Honorary Secretary of the BTO and its President from 1961 to 1964, earning a Bernard Tucker Medal in 1959 and a Jubilee Medal in 1994. Later on, he also helped to persuade the Trust to move from Tring, Hertfordshire, to roomier offices at Thetford, Norfolk, which have fine, bird-rich grounds. In 1953, he was a leading figure in founding the Bardsey Bird and Field Observatory, off the North Wales coast, and wrote an account of The Birds of Bardsey in 1952. In addition, he was both a founder and the first Chairman of the Worcestershire Wildlife Trust, and Chairman of the county branch of the Council for the Pro- tection of Rural England. Tony Norris was born at Cradley, Worcestershire, where his father was the vicar, on 9th January 1917. He attended first Monkton Combe School near Bath, and then the London School of Printing, before joining his grandfather’s printing firm, Hudson & Son, in Birmingham. Here he stayed for many years, until his retirement as Tony was the last of my pre-war birdwatching friends. I well remember him arriving in the London Natural History Society as a keen and vigorous young birdwatcher. And it was he who, in March 1939, introduced me to a very muddy farmyard at Slimbridge, on the Severn estuary in Gloucestershire, which adjoined a marsh with a fine flock of White-fronted Geese Anser albifrons. After the war, these marshes became famous for Peter Scott’s identification of the rare Lesser White-fronted Goose A. erythropus , while the muddy farmyard became the head- quarters of the infant Severn Wildfowl Trust (now the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust). Tony was one of those who helped in the Trust’s founda- tion. His major pre-war effort was to organise the first national survey, in 1938-39, of the Corn Crake Crex crex , which was by then virtually extinct in Britain away from western Scotland. Because of the war, the results could not be published until 1945-47, in British Birds (Brit. Birds 38: 142-148, 162-168; 40: 226-244). Tony’s war service was in West Africa, India and Burma (now Myanmar); he ended it as a major with a mention in despatches. After the war, Tony became very active in the affairs of the Birmingham Bird Club, now the West Midland Bird Club, and the largest bird 222. Tony Norris in 1999. 382 © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 382-384 Obituaries C head of the firm. This, incidentally, enabled him to pioneer the small pocket lists of British birds which are now standard equipment for many birdwatchers. In 1940, he married Cicely Hurcomb, and had two daughters, who both survive him. His father-in-law, Lord Hurcomb, later became Chairman of the RSPB’s council. Living at first at Clent, he later moved to Welland (both in Worcestershire), and also served for eight years on Hereford & Worcester County Council. Cicely died in 1976 and he later married Barbara Dean, who also predeceased him, in 1998. As a keen gardener, he created fine gardens at his two Worcestershire homes and ran a local nursery that specialised in his favourite Nerine lilies, for which he became a recognised authority and won several awards. He also joined the council of the Royal Horticultural Society, which later awarded him a gold medal. He died at Worcester on 25th February 2005. Richard Fitter Miriam Louisa Rothschild ( 1 908-2005) '' ) With the death, at her lifetime home at Ashton Wold, Northamptonshire, of Dame Miriam Rothschild on 20th January 2005, the UK has lost a fine scientific naturalist and a stalwart nature conservationist. Although primarily an entomologist, she was deeply interested in all wildlife, including birds. 1 cannot claim to have known her well, but my memories extend back to 1948 when, at the age of 17, I attended my first meeting of the Royal Entomological Society (RES), in South Kensington, London. My attention was soon arrested by this lively, flamboyantly dressed lady, who took a very active part in the proceed- ings, asking thoughtful and searching questions of the speaker. Although I cannot recall the precise details of the flowery dress she wore that evening, I do remember that it was set off by a colourful silk neckerchief on which butterflies and other insects were depicted. In later years, she often wore white Wellington boots in summer (even when meeting the Queen and attending Prince Charles’s 40th-birthday ball at Buckingham Palace) and moon boots in winter. During the five years I spent on the staff of the Natural History Museum’s Department of Entomology, in South Kensington, I saw her there occasionally when she visited her friend Dr Theresa Clay, a world authority on bird lice, and with whom she wrote the outstanding Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos (New Naturalist, 1952). This fascinating book on bird parasites was actually written by Miriam, in her lucid style, with Theresa providing advice and infor- mation. A delightful account by Miriam of how, in 1947, in the midst of war-devastated Calais, she wrote the first few chapters while holed up for a week in an isolated inn, owing to a raging storm in the English Channel, surviving only on boiled potatoes, was reprinted in The New Nat- uralists (Marren, 1995). Fleas Flukes and Cuckoos received rave reviews, not only as a work of science, but of literature too, and became required reading for many students of biology. Miriam Rothschild was born on 5th August 1908 at Ashton Wold, into a renowned and weathly family, the daughter of the naturalist and pioneer nature conservationist the Hon. N. Charles Rothschild, who had a great influence on her life in spite of his early death. He cam- paigned, in the early part of the twentieth century, for the establishment of national nature reserves, and founded the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves (the forerunner of the Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts). By the time of his death, in 1923, aged 46, he had com- piled a shortlist of 182 especially important wildlife sites. The first of these, parts of Wicken Fen, in Cambridgeshire, he and George H. Verrall purchased out of their own pockets, and donated to the National Trust. In 1997, Miriam collaborated with Peter Marren to write Rothschild’s Reserves: time and fragile nature , a book documenting all of these proposed sites; a largely sad story. Characteris- tically, it stimulated Miriam to propose restoration of some of the most degraded sites, by employing the latest techniques of habitat restoration (the development of which she had been much involved in). Such dramatic pro- jects as the reconversion of arable land and conifer plantations to heathland, and the cre- ation of a huge area of fenland in Cam- bridgeshire are already meeting with success, and gave her much satisfaction in her last years. These projects depended to a consider- able extent upon her influence with politicians British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 382-384 383 Obituaries < ) and other influential people. Miriam was educated at home and although she subsequently studied zoology at Chelsea Polytechnic, she did not go on to take a degree. It was from her father that inevitably she devel- oped her enthusiasm for nature conservation and fleas (he had the largest collection in the world), as well as for the wildlife in and around Ashton Wold and her grandfather’s estate, Tring Park. After her father died, her eccentric Uncle Walter, the second Lord Rothschild, continued to encourage her fascination with natural history. He had established a large private museum at Tring, and here the Rothschild flea collection was housed. In 1913, the collection was transferred to the Natural History Museum at South Kensington, and there Miriam, with G. H. E. Hopkins, took on the immense task of cataloguing it (the results were published in six weighty volumes between 1953 and 1983). The majority of Dame Rothschild’s 300+ sci- entific papers were concerned with her entomo- logical and chemical ecology researches. The latter included the take-up by aposematic (warningly coloured) Lepidoptera of toxic com- pounds from plants and the reactions of birds to them. I recall that one of her earlier experi- ments with the red-and-black-coloured burnet moths (Zygaenidae) involved injecting herself in the arm with toxins from the crushed tissues of these insects; not surprisingly, the conse- quences were most unpleasant. Among her early publications were papers on the ectopara- sites of captive birds and notes on the distribu- tion and host preferences of fleas collected from British birds. She also played a key role in the study into how fleas spread the myxomatosis virus among Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus. Myxomatosis reached epidemic proportions in 1954 and had serious effects on Common Buz- zards Buteo buteo and other piredators of rabbits. Miriam’s discovery that the reproduc- tive lifecycle of the rabbit flea is dependent upon that of its host was a highly important one. One of her last publications was Insect and Bird Interactions (2004), which she edited with Professor Helmut van Emden. Miriam took much interest in the variety and populations of birds and other fauna inhabiting her extensive estate at Ashton Wold. In 1998, for instance, she reported that dra- matic declines in various species had taken place, including the House Sparrow Passer domesticus, which used to nest in profusion. while the great Common Starling Sturnus vul- garis roost of around 75,000 birds had gone. Nonetheless, it was insects and wild plants that absorbed most of Miriam’s time. Her books The Butterfly Gardener (with Clive Farrell, 1985) and Butterfly Cooing like a Dove (1991) reveal her passion for them and the joy that they gave her. She was one of those who pioneered the sowing of wildflower meadows in Britain, rebelling against the modern conversion of flowery fields into a ‘countryside reminiscent of a snooker table’. She sowed her first wildflower meadow at Ashton Wold in 1970, and began the commercial production on her estate of wild- flower seed-mixes, dubbed ‘Farmer’s Night- mare’. She also promoted the planting of roadside verges with primroses, cowslips and other attractive wild plants. Miriam Rothschild accumulated many honours in spite of her lack of a formal educa- tion. These included at least eight Honorary Doctorates from various universities (Cam- bridge and Oxford among them); an Honorary Fellowship of the RES (she was the Society’s only woman president so far); an Honorary Fel- lowship of St Hugh’s College Oxford; the Vic- toria Medal of the Royal Horticultural Society; and a Trusteeship of London’s Natural History Museum. She was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1985, appointed a CBE in 1982 and a DBE in 2000. Dame Rothschild was a strong and confident personality who enjoyed lively discussions, and she had an impish sense of humour. She was also extremely generous, as those of us who attended her large lunch parties at Ashton Wold will readily attest. Miriam married Captain George Lane in 1943, although they divorced in 1957; the couple had a son and three daughters. Unfortunately, as a result of a car accident, Miriam spent much of the last decade or so of her life in a wheelchair but, as I saw for myself at one of her luncheons in 2002, she could propel herself around with remarkable speed and dexterity. She was indeed a marvellous woman, with a brilliant intellect. Her passing is not only a great loss for Britain but also for international biological science. The above tribute was compiled with the assistance of various published obituaries of Miriam Rothschild, and I am also indebted to Mrs Tina Adams at the RES library. John F. Burton 384 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 382-384 News and comment Compiled by Adrian Pitches Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of British Birds European ban on sandeel fishery too late to save 2005 season ? Although it is still too early to say for certain, the signs are that breeding success at seabird colonies in northeast England and Scotland in 2005 might be considerably better than that in 2004. Nonetheless, a belated shutdown of the North Sea sandeel fishery will probably be a case of closing the dockyard gate after the fish have bolted. Last year, seabirds nesting on North Sea coasts from Shetland to Yorkshire suffered their worst breeding season on record (e.g. Brit. Birds 97: 425, 484- 485). A chronic shortage of sandeels Ammodytes was blamed for the dis- aster. The European Commission looks set to close the North Sea sandeel fishery completely this year. This will be particularly rele- vant for seabirds in East Yorkshire and Northumberland, since the Danish sandeel fleet traditionally concentrates much of its fishing on the Dogger Bank and the Fame Deep, both of which are within striking distance of seabirds breeding on the east coast of England (and because colonies in eastern Scotland are already pro- tected by an area closed to sandeel fishing offshore). Dr Euan Dunn, Head of Marine Policy at the RSPB said: ‘The decision to close the sandeel fishery is hugely welcome but... the chances of seabird chicks sur- viving this year do not look good. Seabirds have delayed their breeding this year, so what sandeel peak there is this summer will have passed when many seabirds and their chicks most need the food. Climate change and the rise in North Sea temperatures may well be the major cause of the sandeel decline and, if so, [the decline] will take years to reverse. Because of that, we need to make sure that other human action, notably fishing, doesn’t make things worse for sandeels and seabirds in the short term.’ Surveys in April and early May showed that North Sea sandeel numbers were just half of the 300,000 million fish required to permit fishing to continue. In addi- tion to closing the fishery this yearT the Commission will for the first time either close or scale down the fishery every year depending on need. Given the environmental pressure on the stock, the RSPB has repeatedly pointed out the absur- dity of setting huge TACs (total allowable catch) for North Sea sandeels: 826,200 tonnes in 2004 and 660,960 tonnes in 2005. The Danish industrial fleet is respon- sible for more than 90% of the total North Sea catch but sandeel declines are now so great that the Danes have caught just a third of their allowed total in the past two years. Climate change has caused North Sea temperatures to rise by 1°C in the last 25 years, which has enormous implications for a marine ecosystem. This is thought to have reduced the sur- vival rate of newly hatched sandeels because of the effects on the plankton upon which the sandeel larvae feed. In particular, the species composition of the plankton has altered, and there is now a higher propor- tion of species which occur later in the season; these changes in timing and abun- dance have had a major effect on sandeels, and hence on seabirds. Many species, among them Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla, terns Sterna, Common Guillemots Uria aalge and Puffins Fratercula arctica, are largely dependent on sandeels to attain good breeding condition and feed their young. N&c contacted two of Britain’s foremost seabird ecologists, Mike Harris and Martin Heubeck, for an update at two of the key seabird areas in Scotland, the Isle of May (Fife) and southern Shetland. Here’s what they reported: Isle of May The breeding of many of the seabirds on the Isle of May has been extremely late in 2005. This was particularly marked for Kitti- wakes; the first egg was not seen until 30th May, five days later than the previous latest year. This con- tinues the recent trend for later laying, which is now about three weeks later than it was in the 1980s. The first Common Guillemot and Razorbill Aka torda eggs were laid on 4th May, 12 and 8 days respectively later than normal. 223. A Common Guillemot Uric aalge lays its egg on the Isle of May this spring; like the majority of east-coast seabirds. Guillemots have been late in breeding this year. © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 385-389 385 Mike Harris News and comment > All the signs are that Puffins were also late. However, breeding seems more highly synchronised than normal, at least among the auks, so the overall breeding seasons for the various species will be less delayed than suggested by the first-egg dates. In contrast. Fulmars Ful- marus glacialis and Common Eiders Somateria mollissima were slightly early. To date, the most striking thing about 2005 is the shortage of Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis. Some females are still laying but there are unlikely to be more than 200-300 pairs (compared with 700 in 2004, and almost 2,000 in 1987). This latest decline was expected fol- lowing the wreck of Shags in northeast Britain in the late winter of 2004/05, during which almost 140 Shags that had been ringed on the Isle of May were reported dead, at least half of which were of breeding age. There is a suggestion that numbers of Guillemots are slightly lower than in 2004 but it is still unclear whether this is because some pairs are not breeding this year or because of some excep- tional mortality. Usually, the male Guillemot remains at the nest-site while the female is away, presum- ably feeding at sea, for the few days prior to the egg being laid, and hence the male is present at laying. Unusually high numbers of females laid at nest-sites unattended by males in 2005, suggesting the pos- sibility that food might have been short so that males too had to spend longer feeding. It is too early to assess population changes let alone breeding success for most species. Mike Harris, Mark Newell, Francis Daunt and Sue Lewis (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Banchory) Shetland The 2005 season has been another extremely late one. The Fulmar pre-laying exodus seemed both extensive and extended, while early Shag nests often went ‘backwards’, i.e. from AON to trace, or disap- peared completely. Guillemot attendance at Sumburgh Head through April and early May was either erratic or non-existent; the first egg seen was found predated on 10th May and the first was laid in the breeding success plot on 11th (13th last year). During the following two weeks, 30-40% of pairs laid eggs but losses were heavy (over 50%), with eggs being predated by gulls or just disap- pearing, especially during strong easterlies on 19th-20th May. There was a dramatic change for the better around 26th-27th May, when Kittiwakes started fran- tically gathering nest material. Atrocious weather followed, with northeast gales and heavy rain, and I expected the birds in the Guillemot plot to be virtually wiped out. Not so. They stuck it out and since then laying has con- tinued to date, with higher colony attendance than last year, few egg losses and good numbers of re- lays; the first chick hatched yes- terday, 13th June. This upturn has been reflected in other species; Shags have now mostly settled down and the majority of Kittiwakes are incu- bating, in similar numbers to 2004 and with few early failures. The first counts of Guillemots and Razorbills in population plots show a marked increase in atten- dance compared with 2004, but changes in Fulmar numbers are variable. Although not monitored. Puffins have been around Sum- burgh Head in large numbers this past week and some have been seen carrying 0-group sandeels (Guille- mots have also been using tiny sandeels as display fish). Arctic Terns have occupied all their tradi- tional colonies in south Mainland Shetland, albeit not at peak levels, and many birds are incubating at the time of writing. This all points to a scarcity of 1-group or older sandeels during April and May, leading to late breeding, but a flush of 0-group fish becoming available at the end of May that really kicked things off. This scenario is similar to that observed in 1991. Despite the weather (very much a woolly hat and survival suit ‘summer’ so far), things are holding up at the moment, so fingers crossed. . . Martin Heubeck (SOTEAG, Shetland) Offshore windfarms ‘pose low risk to birds’ Staying offshore - and with the Danes - the long-term (since 1999) radar studies of wildfowl move- ments in the vicinity of the 72- turbine Nysted windfarm in the Baltic Sea, by Mark Desholm and his colleague Johnny Kahlert, suggest that less than 1% of birds are flying close enough to the tur- bines to risk collision. Desholm, from the Danish National Environ- mental Research Institute (NERI), reported his findings at the BOU’s Wind, Fire & Water conference in April (see pp. 365-367). And, writing in the Royal Society’s journal Biology Letters in June, he says previous estimates of collision risk have been ‘over-inflated’. The radar studies have plotted the paths of ducks and geese on spring and autumn migration, and the results clearly show that most of the birds just fly around the Nysted farm; and most of those which do go through the windfarm appear to thread a path between the turbines. Dr David Gibbons, Head of Conservation Science at the RSPB, commented that this study sug- gested the risks to birds were smaller than had been feared; ‘It’s a nice, clear piece of research; there’s always been concern about turbines as “mincers”, but this study is sug- gesting that the birds fly around or go through. So on the face of it, this is pretty good news for windfarms; but there are other issues when you look at the much larger farms which are coming, and different ways in which they could affect birds. The proposed London Array windfarm in the Thames Estuary would, for example, cover more 386 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 385-389 c News and comment > than 200 km2. This is a very impor- tant feeding area for the Red- throated Diver Gavia stellata , which could suffer from being displaced.’ Indeed, Prof. Tony Fox - also from NERI - told the BOU confer- ence that just such displacement behaviour had been noted among Red-throated Divers in the Baltic. Mark Desholm postulated that birds avoid the Nysted windfarnt because they can see it, even at night, when the turbines are marked by red lights. But, he says, there are still many questions to be answered, such as whether the birds are deterred more by flashing lights than by still ones, whether they can sense the wind turbulence created by the windfarm - and whether they will become habitu- ated to the windfarm. The Centre for Evidence- Based Conservation at Birmingham Uni- versity suggests that birds will not habituate to windfarms. It reviewed all published studies of the impact of windfarms on birds ( New Scientist 7th May 2005) and found that birds do not seem to ‘get used’ to windfarms. In fact, the longer windfarms are in operation, the worse the decline of certain bird species appears to become. Yet most Environmental Impact Assessments monitor birds for no more than a year before and a year after windfarms are built. Nonetheless, the wind-energy industry will be heartened by the Danish study as the next genera- tion of offshore windfarms in the UK - so-called Round Two devel- opments - are now reaching fruition. The planning application for the massive London Array windfarm was submitted by devel- opers on 7th June, outlining a pro- posed windfarm of 270 turbines, each 100 m in height, constructed over 245 km2, 20 km off the Kent coast. The proposals were sub- mitted by a consortium formed by the energy companies Shell, E.On Renewables and an Anglo-Danish company. Core. It would be the world’s biggest windfarm, with an electricity output of 1,000 MW (equivalent to that of a medium- sized coal-fired or nuclear power station) - enough to supply a quarter of London’s homes. The plan was enthusiastically endorsed by Friends of the Earth but - as David Gibbons indicated - the RSPB is rather more circumspect. Hebridean windfarm plans challenged Research commissioned by the RSPB into the potential impact of the 234-turbine monster windfarm proposed for Lewis, in the Western Isles, suggests that it could be far more damaging than already feared (Brit. Birds 98: 222). Concern focused initially on the interna- tionally important breeding popu- lations of Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos and Greenshank Tringa nebularia in the Lewis Peatlands Special Protection Area (SPA). Yet the global impact of the industrial operation to construct the Lewis windfarm could be even greater than was first thought, because of the huge amounts of the green- house gas carbon dioxide that would be released from the peat if the windfarm was built. The report by renowned peat- land expert Richard Lindsay, Flead of Conservation at the University of East London, claims that the developers - Lewis Wind Power Ltd - have consistently under- valued the quality of the habitat at risk and hugely underestimated the area of carbon-rich peatland which could be affected. Lindsay suggests that the impact of the proposed windfarm could be up to 30 times greater than that predicted in the company’s own environmental statement for the site: ‘We build windfarms in order to reduce carbon emissions; we then build our windfarms on peat. Yet peat- lands represent the one land-based habitat that is a major long-term carbon store. By building the wind- farm on peat, we release this carbon store as carbon emissions to the atmosphere.’ He also points out that peat contains fewer solids than milk. If it is built upon and disrupted, it can lead to catastrophic ‘bog slides’ such as the recent one at a wind- farm in Co. Galway, where 2 km of peat hillside poured down across the landscape for a distance of more than 20 km. In February, RSPB Scotland submitted its formal objection to the Lewis windfarm on the grounds of its likely impact on birds and the environment. Com- menting on Mr Lindsay’s findings, RSPB Planning & Development Manager Anne McCall said: ‘The findings of this report provide the final nail in the coffin for the Lewis Wind Power proposal. The RSPB strongly supports the need to tackle climate change and recog- nises that renewable energy devel- opments will play a critical role in doing so. But it makes no sense to allow a development on a site which is highly valued by local people, internationally important for birds and made up of a highly sensitive peatland habitat.’ Coincidentally, on the same day that this report was published (26th May), The Scotsman reported that another controversial proposal for the Hebrides - the 27-turbine Edinbane windfarm on Skye - had also suffered a setback. Although Edinbane was granted planning permission nearly three years ago, it is to be reconsidered from scratch because of fears of a legal challenge. Highland Council voted in favour of Amec Wind’s planned windfarm in November 2002, despite a protest campaign. However, John Rennilson, the council’s director of planning and development, told the council’s planning committee that there was a ‘significant risk’ of the decision being challenged because of ‘new information about environmental dangers and a possible threat to Golden Eagles’. The application will now be considered afresh at a future meeting. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 385-389 387 News and comment ) Golden Eagles nest in Ireland There is happier news for Golden Eagles on the other side of the North Channel, namely that the first pair to breed anywhere in Ireland since at least 1910 has nested in Co. Donegal. The birds are part of a reintroduction scheme which began at Glenveagh National Park with six birds in 2001; 35 birds have now been released. Manager of the Golden Eagle Reintroduction Project, Lorcan O’Toole, said: ‘It is extremely encouraging that two of these six birds have paired up and attempted to breed at the earliest possible stage.’ Chicks for the project have been collected from Scottish nests under licence from Scottish Natural Heritage. Research suggests that Donegal could eventually hold 7-10 pairs of these magnificent raptors, and Ireland may eventually have 50-100 pairs if the project is successful. John Cromie, of the Irish Raptor Study Group, said: ‘This breeding attempt, within just four years of the first chick arriving from Scotland, has raised everyone’s hopes that before long we will once again have native eagles gracing their ancient haunts in the mountains of Donegal.’ Unfortunately the single egg in this first nesting attempt failed to hatch. Golden Eagle Reintroduction Project: www.goldeneagle.ie Raptors perish in Cumbria The RSPB has expressed its outrage at the news that three birds of prey found dead near the Society’s Geltsdale reserve in Cumbria had been poisoned by a banned pesti- cide. The body of an adult male Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus was found on the southern boundary of the reserve at the end of March, and post-mortem analysis has revealed that the bird died as a result of poisoning by the banned agricultural pesticide car- bofuran. The Peregrine was one of a pair that was known to be holding territory on the reserve earlier in the year and looked likely to nest. In a second incident, expert analysis has confirmed that a Common Buzzard Buteo buteo, one of two found dead in April close to the reserve, also died from carbo- furan poisoning. The birds were found next to a dead rabbit which was laced with carbofuran and had apparently been used as ‘bait’. The Geltsdale reserve covers an area of more than 5,000 ha in the North Pennines between Carlisle and Haltwhistle and is dominated by moorland with a fringe of farm- land and woodland. Its raptor pop- ulations, particularly its Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus , have suf- fered a shocking catalogue of per- secution {Brit. Birds 98: 328), although the harriers that were prospecting the reserve this spring were on eggs as we went to press. 2,000 bird species at risk BirdLife International’s annual evaluation of how the world’s bird species are faring shows that the total number considered to be threatened with extinction is now 1,212, which, when combined with the number of near- threatened species, gives a total of exactly 2,000 in trouble - more than a fifth of the planet’s remaining 9,775 species. Of the species currently in trouble, 179 are now categorised as Critically Endangered, the highest level of threat. These include the Azores Bullfinch Pyrrhula murina, arguably the rarest breeding passerine in the Western Palearctic, which has been in decline since the early 1990s and now numbers fewer than 300 individuals. The entire home range of the species has recently been declared a Special Protection Area by the Portuguese Government, affording it some much-needed protection under European Union legislation. Several species from Europe appear in the list for the first time, such as European Roller Coracias garrulus, for which key populations in Turkey and European Russia have declined markedly; KrUper’s Nuthatch Sitta krueperi , a mainly Turkish species that has declined because of tourism development of its key habitats; and Red Kite Milvus milvus, which has suf- fered large declines across Europe, despite a highly successful reintroduc- tion programme in the UK. All three move from the Least Concern category to Near Threatened. One notable success story in Europe concerns the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla, one of the continent’s largest birds of prey, which has increased roughly two-fold during the 1990s, moving it from Near Threat- ened to Least Concern. BirdLife Red List: www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html OSME summer meeting The Ornithological Society of the Middle East (www.osme.org) summer meeting and AGM will be held on Saturday 30th July at The Association of British Travel Agents, 68-71 Newman Street, London WIT 3AH. Doors will open at 10.30 hrs and all birdwatchers are welcome. There is an excellent line-up of speakers and topics, including updates on the Syrian Bald Ibis Geronticus eremita and Yemen. Major talks will be on Caucasian Black Grouse Tetrao mlokosiewiczi (Jose Tavares), Oman (Andrew Grieve) and Jordan in autumn (Tim Loseby). OSME will be selling a range of Middle East-related literature and will be fundraising for future projects in the region. Wildsounds will have a stand selling books and audio material. (Contributed by Dawn Balmer) 388 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 385-389 c News and comment > The RSPB has boldly taken the bull by the horns, or rather the cat by the collar, and is advising on the best way to stop kitty polishing off even more biodiversity than a forest of wind turbines. According to new RSPB research, a correctly fitted collar and bell can reduce the strike rate of the average cat by one-third. The study, undertaken by volunteer cat owners from across the UK, tested the effects of different collar-mounted warning devices in reducing cat predation within gardens. The results show that cats Its a Collared... cat equipped with a bell returned 41% fewer birds and 34% fewer mammals than those with a plain collar. Those equipped with an electronic sonic device returned 51% fewer birds and 38% fewer mammals compared with cats wearing a plain collar. Andy Evans, of the RSPB, said: ‘Cats are cer- tainly an emotive subject, and one thing that distresses many people, cat-lovers, bird-lovers or devotees to both, is cats killing garden birds. Along with the Feline Advisory Bureau (FAB), the RSPB is happy to endorse correctly fitted quick- release collars mounted with bells as an effective way of reducing wildlife kill rates.’ Claire Bessant, chief executive of FAB, added: ‘Only a small pro- portion of cats develop the 3-D skills necessary to catch adult birds. Giving these cats a collar with a bell to wear will help to save birds but, for the safety of the cat, make sure that it is a quick-release collar that snaps open if it gets caught on a branch.’ Then again, don’t feel that you have to... BTO slogo is no-go No, that’s not a misprint. A ‘slogo’ is a mission state- ment that sits alongside a logo. The RSPB has one (‘for birds, for people, for ever’) and now the forward- thinking BTO has commissioned image consultants to draw up a shortlist for its slogan. Well, it’s more of a long list: nine variations on what the BTO and its members do. The Gannet logo is retained and with it come the suggested slogos: ‘Counting birds for conser- vation’; ‘Dedicated to understanding birds’; ‘Researching Britain’s birds’; 'Taking count of birds’; ‘Understanding Britain’s birds’; ‘Watching over Britain’s birds’; ‘Watching over the nation’s birds’; ‘Watching over our wild birds’. BTO members were invited to vote, and the top three went to BTO Council at its June meeting. But it may not be too late to nominate your own slogo. How about ‘Surveys census wild’? Or perhaps ‘Proud to be a Gannet’? (Well, you need to eat a lot of sandwiches after a WeBS count in the rain! ) County Recorders: changes for your diary Please note the following new address for the Bedford- shire County Recorder, Dave Odell: 43 Tyne Crescent, Brickhill, Bedfordshire MK41 7UN; tel: (01234) 346640; e-mail: daveodell@tiscali.co.uk John Hobson, County Recorder for Sussex, has handed over his responsibilities to Christian W. Melgar, who may be contacted at: 36 Victoria Road, Worthing, West Sussex BN11 1XB; tel: (01903) 200064; e-mail: cwmelgar@yahoo.com Bernie draws a birthdate blank Cornwall-based BB reader Bernie Webb rose to the challenge of uncovering a significant birding event that coincided with his birthdate (Brit. Birds 98: 330). ‘Having accepted Adrian Pitches’ invitation to discover if any rarities occurred on the day of my birth, and after diligently ploughing through thousands of records in Keith Naylor’s A Reference Manual of Birds in Great Britain and Ireland (1996), my laborious research revealed that on Sunday, 4th September 1932, the total amounted to a large, fat zero. Many thanks, Adrian, for preventing me from decorating the main bedroom on a wet weekend.’ Happy to be of service, Bernie. Twitchers priced off the road? The Transport Secretary’s announcement that pay-as- you-go road pricing could be introduced within a decade set me thinking. Car-borne twitchers burn up many miles (year-lister Adrian Riley apparently covered 78,000 miles in 2002!), so road pricing could have a severe impact. The maximum charge suggested for the rush hour on our busiest motorways is £1.34 per mile but let’s do a calculation at just 20p/mile. For London- based birders who drove to the Ythan Estuary in Northeast Scotland to see the drake Barrow’s Gold- eneye Bucephala islandica this spring - a round trip of 1,100 miles - that would add £220 to the cost of the trip! Maybe birding by bike is a better option - but allow a week to get to the bird. OBE for BB stalwart We were delighted to find out that Peter Oliver, one of the original directors of BB 2000 Ltd, and still a trustee of the British Birds Charitable Trust, was recognised in the recent Birthday Honours list. Peter was awarded an OBE for his services to wildlife, through his chairmanship of the Woodland Trust. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 385-389 389 Hugh Harrop Ian Butler Recent reports Compiled by Barry Nightingale and Anthony McCeehan This summary of unchecked reports covers mid May to mid June 2005. Blue-winged Teal Anas discors Broadgar (Orkney), 27th May to 1st June. Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis Kingsbury Water Park (Warwick- shire), 21st May; Monkmoor Pool (Shropshire), 6th- 12th June. King Eider Somateria spectabilis Collafirth (Shetland), 31st May to 11th June. Barrow’s Goldeneye Bucephala islandica Long- stayer Ythan Estuary area from 13th May, then Loch of Strathbeg (both Northeast Scotland), 22nd May to 12th lune. White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii North Ronaldsay (Orkney), 1st June. Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax Nanquidno Valley (Cornwall), 28th May; Santon Downham 224. Male Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis, Monkmoor Pool, Shropshire, June 2005. 225. Male King Eider Somateria spectabilis (with male Common Eider S. mollissima), Collafirth, Shetland, June 2005. 390 © British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 390-394 Recent reports C } (Norfolk), 29th May; Brading Marsh (Isle of Wight), 8th-9th June. Squacco Heron Ardeola ratloides Kilconquhar Loch, 22nd May, same Peppermill Dam (both Fife), 24th May. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Sandwich Bay (Kent), 24th May; Southease (East Sussex), 24th-25th May. Great White Egret Ardea alba Kiloughter (Co. Wicklow), 15th-27th May; Minsmere (Suffolk), 17th May. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Stanpit Marsh (Dorset), 17th May; Runham (Norfolk), 17th May; Cley (Norfolk), 21st May to 4th June; Coatham Marsh (Cleveland), 27th-28th May; Mins- mere, 7th - 9th June; Killingholme Haven (Lincolnshire), 8th June; Moreton-in-the- Marsh (Gloucestershire), 12th June; Tophill Low (East Yorkshire), 12th June. Black Kite Milvus migrans Leiston Abbey (Suffolk), 16th May; Moore NR, 20th- 21st May, perhaps same near Widnes, 24th May and near Rostherne Mere (all Cheshire), 24th May; near Sheringham (Norfolk), 21st May; Blackdog (Northeast Scotland), 27th May; Colch- ester (Essex), 27th-28th May; Talken Tarn, 29th May, same Castle Carrock (both Cumbria), 29th May; in Cornwall, at Crean Bottom 4th June, St Just 4th and 6th June, Polgigga 7th June, and 227. Female Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans, Fair Isle, Shetland. June 2005. White Stork Ciconia ciconia In addition to those mentioned last month, the following were reported, which may include some broad movement and duplication. In Kent, 226. singles at Cliffe 16th May, Dungeness 18th May, perhaps same Elmley Marshes 25th May and near Ashford 27th May, with two at Walmer 8th June, and one at Ash 9th June; Hickling Broad (Norfolk), 18th May; Oulton (Suffolk), 29th May; Eastington (Gloucestershire), 31st May; various locations along the north Norfolk coast between Cley and Titchwell 1st June, and perhaps same at Blackborough Tip (Norfolk), 4th June; Saltburn (Cleveland), 9th June; near Southease, two, 10th June; Huttoft (Lin- colnshire), 11th June; Hordle Cliff (Hamp- shire), two, 11th June; St Margaret’s-at-Cliffe (Kent), 12th June. Black Kite Milvus migrans, Moore, Cheshire, May 2005. Crows An Wra then Land’s End 8th June, all presumed same; Pinwherry Station (Ayrshire), 7th June; near Bowling Green Marsh (Devon), 8th June. White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla Scampton (Lincolnshire), 6th June. Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Breydon Water (Norfolk), 27th May; Near Dunbar (Lothian), 28th May; Hickling Broad (Norfolk), 3rd June, with two 4th June, one staying to 12th June; Great Yarmouth (Norfolk), 11th June; Bispham Marsh (Lancashire), 12th June. British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 390-394 391 Rebecca Nason Steve Young/Birdwatch Cary Thoburn Stef McElwee Recent reports C > 228. Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus, Unst, Shetland, May 2005. Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus St Mary’s (Scilly), 10th- 12th lune. Collared Prat- incole Glareola pratincola Near Freckleton (Lan- cashire), 23rd May; Wicken Fen (Cambridgeshire), 28th May, same Cley and Blakeney (Norfolk), 28th May to 9th ]une. Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus Stanpit Marsh (Dorset), 25th May. American Golden PI over Pluvialis dominica Cemlyn Bay (Anglesey), 22nd-26th May. White-rumped Sandpiper Catidris fuscicollis Bowling Green Marsh (Devon), 3rd-5th lune. Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus Watergrove Reser- voir (Greater Manchester), 21st May; Tiree (Argyll), 31st May to 1st lune. Lesser Yel- lowlegs Tringa flavipe s Tacumshin (Co. Wexford), 5th June. Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus Cliffe (Kent), 24th-27th May; Fetlar (Shetland), 1 0th- 11th June. Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularius Belvide Reservoir (Stafford- 229 & 230. Good numbers ofWoodchat Shrikes Lanius senator have been reported in Britain in spring 2005. Left: male at Slapton Ley, Devon, and right: the first-summer bird at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, in Somerset, which shows characteristics of the west Mediterranean subspecies L s. badius (see Brit. Birds 98: 32-42). 392 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 390-394 Paul Bowyer Recent reports C 231 & 232. No fewer than fourTrumpeter Finches Bucanetes githagineus had been reported in Britain by the time we went to press (see text), part of an unprecedented influx into western Europe. Upper: Landguard, Suffolk, May 2005, lower: Dungeness, Kent, June 2005. shire), 30th-3 1 st May; Stanpit Marsh (Dorset), 5th-6th June. Audouin’s Gull Larus audouinii Spurn (East York- shire), 1st June. 'American Herring Gull’ Larus argentatus smithsonianus Dingle (Co. Kerry), present throughout. Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica Widewater Lagoon, 21st May, Selsey Bill (both West Sussex), 22nd May, Titchfield Haven (Hampshire), 23rd May then Shoreham-by-Sea (West Sussex) area until 8th June, all presum- ably referring to the same individual; undis- closed location, Co. Galway, 6th June. Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida Ashton’s Flash (Cheshire), four, 1 9th- 20th May, pre- sumed same Keele (Staffordshire), 20th May; Titchfield Haven, 20th May, same Fleet (Hamp- shire), 20th May, same Moor Green Lakes British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 390-394 393 George Reszeter Bill Boston Mike Pennington Recent reports C ) (Berkshire), 21st-22nd May and again 27th May, same Staines Reservoir/King George VI Reservoir (Surrey), 22nd-25th May; near Acle (Norfolk), 23rd May; Cotswold Water Park (Gloucestershire/Wiltshire), 24th-26th May. Alpine Swift Apus melba Cranfield Point (Co. Down), 20th May; Spurn, 20th and 29th May; Oundle (Northamptonshire), 11th June. Euro- pean Bee-eater Merops apiaster Holme (Norfolk), 17th May; Carnesore Point, 20th May; Spurn, 21st May; Gibraltar Point (Lin- colnshire), 22nd May; Portland (Dorset), 25th May; Shapinsay (Orkney), 26th May; Bryher (Scilly), 27th May; Shoreham-by-Sea, 27th May, two, lst-2nd June, perhaps the same Titchfield Haven, 3rd June and Plummers Plain (West Sussex), 11th June; Durleston Country Park (Dorset), three, 27th May; St Mary’s, 27th-28th May; Tresco (Scilly), 28th May. Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica St Mary’s, 18th- 19th May; Spurn, 20th and 22nd May; Sennen Cove (Cornwall), 27th May; Portland, three, 27th May; Birling Gap (East Sussex), 30th May; Whalsay (Shetland), 4th )une; Fair Isle (Shet- land), 5th-6th June. Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti Five Mile Point (Co. Wicklow), 20th May (the second for Ireland). Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus Dungeness, 18th May; long-stayer Willington Gravel-pits (Bedfordshire), to 9th June; Conwy RSPB reserve (Conwy), 10th June. Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans St Agnes (Scilly), 20th- 23rd May; Collieston (Northeast Scotland), 20th May; Marazion (Cornwall), 20th May; Fair Isle, 1 st- 5th June; Durleston, 3rd June; Toab (Shetland), 6th June. Sardinian Warbler Sylvia melanocephala Lerwick (Shetland), 2nd-4th June. Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides Flamborough Head (East Yorkshire), 27th May. Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator Cromer (Norfolk), 21st-25th May; Spurn, 26th May; Lundy (Devon), 27th-28th May; Brading Marsh (Isle of Wight), 27th May; Portland, 29th May to 3rd June; St Mary’s, 31st May to 4th June; Covesea (Moray), 2nd June; Slapton Ley (Devon), 3rd-7th June; Cliffe, 4th-8th June; Tresco, 6th June; Rimac (Lincolnshire), 9th June; Weston-super-Mare (Somerset), 11th- 13th June; Richmond Park (Greater London), 12th June. Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus Tregonce (Cornwall), 20th-26th May; Flamborough Head, 29th May to 6th June; Whitburn (Co. Durham), 2nd June; East Prawle (Devon), 7th- 1 1 th June; Spurn (East Yorkshire), 7th June. Trumpeter Finch Bucanetes githagineus Landguard (Suffolk), 21st-26th May; Tankerton (Kent), 24th-25th May; North Foreland (Kent), 9th June; Dunge- ness, 1 1th- 1 3th June. Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica Fair Isle (Shet- land), 19th and 25th May; Unst (Shetland), 22nd May; Auchmithie (Angus), 28th-29th May. Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala The Mounts (Devon), 26th May. 233. Male Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica, Unst, Shetland, May 2005. 394 British Birds 98 • July 2005 • 390-394 Kay Optical (1962) UNRIVALLED EXPERTISE, EXPERIENCE AND SERVICE ' Sales & Repairs * Binoculars ® Telescopes * Tripods, etc • Mail order 8 www.kayoptical.co.uk and • same day www.biebiuoculars.co.uk despatch • Pan exchange g9(B) London Road, Morden, Surrey SM4 5HP -Used items Te|. 020 8648 8822 Fax: 020 8687 2021 • Package deals . . . . . . • credit available Email I: mfo@kayoptical.cQ.UK Open: Mon-Sat 9-5 (lunch 1-2) Location: Southern edge of Greater London. 1 5 mins drive from M25 (for example via the A3, then take the A298 Wimbledon/Merton slip-toad) ot 2 mins walk horn Morden underground (turn right). See out website for o mop. Porking: 50 yards post out premises - first left Alternative venues to Morden at which you can try and buy our equipment in the field are given below. We aim to show our full range of equipment but it helps us to help you if you let us know your interests before each Field Day. Repairs can also be handed in/collected. 10.00 am to 4.00 pm usually. ■ evenooks Wildfowl ieserve On the A25 between iverhead and Sevenoaks ot and Boll Station on I July, 7 Aug, Sept & 2 Oct agham Harbour LNR tn the B2145 into Selsey, fet Sussex II July, 28 Aug, 25 Sept l 30 Oct linton Pastures Country ’ark Neot deeding (M4, 329(M) Woodley turnoff) ten A329 to Winnersh and I, '/innersh Station (B3030) 4 Aug & 9 Oct The Kent Wildlife Trust, The Tyland Born, Sondling, Neor Maidstone, Kent 24 July & 23 Nov Bough Beech Nature Reserve/Reservoir About 4 miles south of the A25/A2I junction (access from B2042 or B2027) near Ide Hill, Kent. Info centre north of reservoir. 1 1 July, 21 Aug, 18 Sept & 16 Oct College Lake Wildlife Centre On the B488 neor Bulboutne, Tiing, Herts. 1 0 July, 11 Sept & 13 Nov Canon, Helios, Kowa, Leica, Manfrotto, Miyauchi, Nikon, Opticron, Optolyth, Sentinel, Swarovski, Zeiss, etc. Used items also on our web site- For subsequent Field Day dates, phone or see our web site Sri Lanka No one knows it like we do Deepal Warakagoda (Serendib Scops Owl discoverer) together with the country's best known birding & wildlife guides Uditha Hettige, Lester Perera, Chinthaka de Silva, etc., work exclusively with Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne’s team at, Eco Holidays Contact eco@jetwing.lk www.jetwingeco.com Tel: 0094-11-238 1201 Jetwing Hotels (with naturalists) Hotel - Hunas Falls Hotel - The Beach Seashells Hotel - The Blue Water Lighthouse Hotel & Spa - Tropical Villas 14i56UlEaiS!x y/alnevls. 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Guidelines for contributors British Birds publishes material dealing with original observations on the birds of the Western Palearctic. Except for records of rarities, papers and notes are normally accepted for publication only on condition that the material is not being offered in whole or in part to any other journal or magazine. Photographs and drawings are welcomed. Referees are used where appropriate, and all submissions are reviewed by the 88 Editorial Board or Notes Panel. Papers should be concise and factual, taking full account of previous literature and avoiding repetition as much as possible. Opinions should be based on adequate evidence. Authors are encouraged to submit their work to other ornithologists for critical assessment and comment prior to submission. Such help received should be acknowledged in a separate section. For main papers, an abstract summarising the key results and conclusions should be included, but should not exceed 5% of the total length. 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Dean and Lars Svensson 4 1 I Red Kites and rodenticides - a feeding experiment Dionysios Ntampakis and Ian Carter 4 1 7 Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 Richard Chandler, Tim Appleton and David Hosking Regular features 427 Letters Population composition of wintering Common Chiffchaffs in southern England Greg Conway Declining woodland birds Phil Palmer Recent declines in woodland birds Ron Youngman English names Ernest Garcia English names of Western Palearctic birds, and the role of the IOC F. M. Gauntlett Possibly and probably - what’s the difference? Richard Thomas 433 Notes Abnormal Reed Warbler chicks Malcolm Calvert and Katrina Cook Reed Warbler with abnormal body- feathers Michal Ciach Garden Warblers moulting in autumn Paul Herroelen Food-induced erythrism in House Sparrows Alan Vittery Blue Chaffinch eating meat Barry Lancaster 436 Reviews Birds in England DVD Guide to British Birds Digital Wildlife Photography Reed Warblers at Rostherne Mere Wissenschaftler in Turbulenten Zeiten 439 Obituaries Derek Ratcliffe 1929-2005 Vladimir Flint 1924-2004 444 News and comment Adrian Pitches 448 Recent reports Barry Nightingale and Anthony McGeehan © British Birds 2005 Siberian Chiffchaff’ revisited Alan R. Dean and Lars Svensson ABSTRACT The systematics and morphology of Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita of the Siberian subspecies tristis are much debated. Many putative tristis in Britain are distinctly pale and frequently attributed to ‘ fulvescens' , a form initially described by Severtzov in 1873 from a series collected in Central Asia. Treatment of the taxonomy and appearance of1 fulvescens' is inconsistent. It is frequently presented as an ‘intergrade’ population resulting from unrestricted gene-flow between tristis and the North Fenno-Scandian and Russian race abietinus but this may not be the most appropriate interpretation. This article reviews the variable treatment of 'fulvescens in the literature, its differences from abietinus and east Siberian tristis and the conflicting results of research into its taxonomic status. Based on the information presented, the provenance and appearance of the pale,‘grey-and-white’ tristis- like chiffchaffs reported in Britain are considered. The Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita has a broad distribution across Europe and east to Siberia, with six sub- species currently recognised by most authori- ties. Broadly speaking, the nominate form collybita of western Europe is replaced by abie- tinus in eastern Europe and by tristis in Siberia. From further south in Europe, in Turkey and in Central Asia, brevirostris, caucasicus and menz- bieri have been described. The ‘chiffchaff complex’ is completed by three further closely related species of southerly distribution: Iberian Chiffchaff Ph. ibericus, Canary Islands Chiff- chaff Ph. canariensis and Mountain Chiffchaff Ph. sindianus. The taxonomy and identification of the ‘chiffchaff complex’ was discussed by Clement et al. (1998). The form tristis is frequently referred to as ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ but, even following mito- chondrial-DNA studies, its taxonomic status and whether it warrants recognition as a sepa- rate species remain unclear (Helbig et al. 1996). The taxonomy and diagnosis of ‘Siberian Chiff- chaff’ have long been beset by confusion and divided opinion, and controversy still sur- rounds both its systematic and its morpholog- ical limits. Few reports of tristis in Britain are incontrovertible and there is perennial discus- sion about whether particular plumage charac- ters or vocalisations are compatible with tristis. The following notes provide a review of the issues, including the historical context, the con- flicting results of ongoing research, and the dis- tinguishing characters of ‘Siberian Chiffchaffs’. It must be emphasised from the start that much more research is required in the breeding areas before there can be any prospect of resolving all the issues. The objectives of this review are to provide a clearer perspective and to dispel some commonly held misconceptions. A universal consensus remains some way off. Plumage variation in Common Chiffchaff The races of Common Chiffchaff display varying degrees of olive and yellow in their plumage but this variation is to a large extent clinal, while there is also considerable indi- vidual variation. Thus, the appearance of the forms overlaps to a significant extent and in practice it can be very difficult, sometimes 396 © British Birds 98 'August 2005 • 396-410 ‘Siberian Ch iffchaff ’ revisited C > impossible, to assign a given indi- vidual to a particular race on the basis of plumage colour. There is a cline of decreasing colour saturation running from northern Norway eastwards across north Eurasia. A reduction in lipochrome pigment from west to east (which also affects the southern subspecies brevirostris , caucasicus and menzbieri to some extent) results in decreasing olive and yellow in the plumage. Williamson (1962) described abie- tinus as: Paler and greyer, less deep olive above than the typical race; buff and yellow on the breast is reduced so that the underparts, including undertail- coverts, appear whiter (see Appendix 1 for a more detailed diagnosis of abietinus compared with collybita ) while tristis has: Upperparts brownish to greyish-brown without olive except on the edges to wing and tail feathers, wing-coverts, and usually the rump... no yellow in the supercilium, eye-ring and cheeks, this being replaced by buff... sides of breast and flanks ‘macintosh’ buff, the only yellow being at the bend of the wing and under the wing. 234. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita abietinus, Eilat, Israel, March. A fresh spring abietinus with quite prominent olive in the upperparts. Yellow is restricted on the underparts compared with most nominate collybita, but still quite discernible on the sides of the breast, the rear of the flanks, and on the supercilium. 235. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita tristis (‘Siberian Chiffchaff’), Astana, Kazakhstan, May. Note that the features listed for diagnosing tristis involve the distribution of olive, yellow and buff. The basic colour of the upperparts (degree of ‘greyness’ or ‘brownness’) and the overall ‘paleness’ are not part of the diagnosis. Distinctions between tristis and greyer examples of abietinus are sometimes masked by use of the terms ‘Northern Chiffchaff’ or ‘Eastern Chiffchaff’ to embrace any individual with significantly reduced olive and yellow in the plumage and, frequently, the semblance of a wing-bar produced by diffuse paler tips (and edges) to the greater-coverts (see Dean 1985). Variation in appearance among true tristis is discussed below, but the plumage of typical individuals is rather similar to that of Mountain Chiffchaff although, unlike that species, it has olive fringes to the flight feathers and an olive tinge on the lower back and rump. 236. Mountain Chiffchaff Phylloscopus sindianus sindianus (left; from Ladakh, northern India, in late July) and Common Chiffchaff Ph. collybita tristis (from the Siberian Altai, in autumn). Note olive fringes to the flight feathers of tristis which distinguish it from the otherwise rather similar Mountain Chiffchaff. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 397 Lars Svensson, ©AM NH Lars Svensson Lars Svensson A. R. Dean,© NHM.Tring ‘Siberian Chiffchaff ’ revisited > ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ At its northerly boundary, the range of tristis extends from the Pechora basin and the Urals eastwards beyond the Lena River and discontin- uously perhaps as far as the Anadyr River (Clement et al. 1998; fig. 1). ‘Siberian Chiff- chaffs’ are reported in Britain every autumn and winter, sometimes in numbers which are sur- prising for a taxon originating east of the Pechora and largely wintering in India. These British birds have appeared, in the field, to lack yellow except at the bend of the wing, while the only obvious olive has been to the fringes of the wing feathers, the tail feathers and the rump. Thus, they have appeared to possess key charac- ters of tristis as described in the literature. Yet, many ‘Siberian Chiffchaffs’ reported in Britain are described as being ‘noticeably pale’, with limited brown and a strong grey compo- nent in the upperparts, and the underparts basically whitish with little evident buff. The olive fringes to the flight feathers are frequently quite well defined, generating a clear contrast with the otherwise rather ‘colourless’ appear- ance. Although possessing a much stronger face-pattern, their appearance draws compar- isons with either Western Ph. bonelli or Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler Ph. orientalis, rather than with Mountain Chiffchaff. Rather few are noted as more drab, brown and buff, and thus closer to the common image of ‘classic’ tristis. Much discussion and controversy surround the appearance and provenance of these ‘grey- and-white’ individuals. One school of thought is that they are ‘true’ tristis from the paler end of the range of variation. Others suggest that such birds are ‘intergrades’ between abietinus and tristis. The term ‘ fulvescens ’ is frequently applied to both of these interpretations. A third opinion is that such ‘grey-and-white’ individuals are merely pale examples of abietinus. Clearly, the morphology and provenance of ‘ fulvescens ’ is central to the discussion of plumage limits in ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’. What is ‘fulvescens? Although mentioned in several recent publica- tions (e.g. Baker 1997), discussion of ‘fulvescens’ in the British literature is often rudimentary. Somewhat more extensive treatment was pro- vided by Vaurie (1959) in The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna , by Williamson (1962) in his Identification for Ringers: The Genus Phyllo- scopus, by LS in his Identification Guide to Euro- pean Passerines (4th edition, 1992), and in the paragraphs on ‘Geographical variation’ in BWP 237. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita tristis (‘Siberian Chiffchaff’), Irkutsk, Siberia, May. A ‘classic’ specimen of tristis in spring, from eastern part of the range. Note the quite saturated brown upperparts, the buff suffusion to underparts (especially the throat, breast and flanks) and the absence of yellow (apart from at the bend of the wing). 398 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ revisited c > Fig. I . Map showing the range of the forms abietinus, tristis and 'fulvescens', based mainly on Marova & Leonovich (1 993). The approximate eastern limit of abietinus is indicated by the red dashed line, and the eastern and western limits of ‘fulvescens by the orange dashed lines; the blue-hatched area shows overlap between these two forms. Vol. 6 (C. S. Roselaar, in Cramp 1992). Percep- tions of ‘fulvescens among British observers are based largely on these sources. Vaurie described ‘ fulvescens ’ as: Much greyer above than abietinus, olive pigments reduced to a greenish-yellow tinge on the lower back, rump, and uppertail-coverts and wings, underparts lighter, whitish or buff. Williamson quoted Vaurie but went on to say that birds of this description could be found at the type locality of tristis (Calcutta) and among spring migrants through Iran and the Persian Gulf, while the ‘Northern Chiffchaffs’ which occur regularly in autumn in Britain were also similar. He noted a wide variation in the colour of the upperparts and that on some individuals the underparts were ‘entirely devoid of yellow streaking’. His conclusion was that: There is no doubt that over the wide geographical ranges of ‘ fulvescens ’ the species [Common Chiff- chaff] is unstable as regards the tone of the upper- parts and the amount of buff suffusion and yellow streaking beneath, and the name [‘fulvescens’} is best synonymized with tristis, as recommended by Tice- hurst ( 1938). Thus, while Vaurie described ‘ fulvescens ’ as relatively ‘grey and white’, Williamson acknowl- edged variation in the tone of the upperparts of 1 fulvescens ’ and noted that some individuals showed yellow streaking below while on others this was absent. He interpreted this variation as arising from secondary intergradation between tristis and abietinus. It is important to note that both Vaurie and Williamson included in ‘ful- vescens’ birds from the region from northeast Iran to southwest Transcaspia. Chiffchaffs breeding in this area are now recognised as belonging to a separate race, menzbieri. Hence, the variation in upperparts colour and yellow streaking below commented upon by Williamson was at least partly influenced by individuals now considered to be from outside the distribution of ‘fulvescens’. A somewhat different perspective on ‘ful- vescens’ is apparent in the paragraphs on ‘Geo- graphical variation’ in BWP. Here, the plumages of tristis are portrayed in two groups. A paler, ‘fulvescens’ type is described as having ( inter alia): Upperparts brown to greyish-brown, with distinct olive tinge on rump and uppertail-coverts and some- times slightly on mantle; underparts whitish, washed buff; tail-feathers, flight-feathers and tertials brown, outer edges olive-green. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 399 Fluke Art ‘Siberian C h iffchaff ’ revisited c A second type, regarded as the ‘classic' or ‘typical’ tristis , is described thus: Rather darker brown with no or only very slight olive tinge on mantle, rump and uppertail-coverts; under- parts with more distinct buff suffusion, appearing less white; edges to tail- and wing-feathers, tertials, and bastard wing more brownish, less greenish. In this treatment, there is no mention of ‘extra- neous’ yellow (i.e. yellow away from the bend of the wing and the underwing). Rather, it suggests a darker and browner ‘classic’ form of tristis, more intensely buff on the breast and flanks, and a rather paler and greyer ‘ fulvescens ’ form, with brighter olive fringes to feathers of the tail and wings and somewhat whiter on the under- parts. While acknowledging that considerable taxonomic confusion exists (see below), both Williamson and BWP advocated that 1 fulvescens’ be included within tristis. The original designation of‘ fulvescens’ The form 'fulvescens’ was first described by Sev- ertzov in 1873, based on a ‘type series’ of over 100 migrants taken ‘in Turkestan’. Thus, it was not described from birds on the breeding grounds, which Severtzov supposed to be western Siberia (although, rather confusingly, he adds ‘possibly near Irkutsk’, a locality which is hardly in western Siberia). We have not had the opportunity to examine the type series and it is a matter of assumption that the ‘type series’ actually consists of a single subspecies (see later comments on a ‘variant’ portrayed within the ‘type description’). Birds breeding from the Urals to the Yenisey are now generally equated with 'fulvescens'. There appear to be few, if any, detailed accounts in English of Severtzov’s original description. Clearly, the original description based on the ‘type series’ is important in estab- lishing the correct use of the name 'fulvescens’ and its implications in terms of appearance. Severtzov’s description (kindly provided and translated by Dr Vladimir Loskot, Curator of the Ornithological Department, Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg) was as follows: Ficedula (Phyllopneuste) fulvescens, nob. - ( Ph . tristis ? Gould). Upperparts, from forehead to uppertail- coverts and small wing-coverts rusty-grey with olive tint, olive-brown in autumn; supercilium and under- parts rather pale rufous-yellowish, brighter in autumn; cheeks not pure rusty; wings and tail feathers blackish, with olive fringes which, on coverts, cover blackish middle of feathers; small underwing- coverts sulphur yellow; first primary twice as long as its coverts; 3=4=5>6>7>2>8. Male and female do not differ from each other; in juvenile birds, differing in general only in looser texture of feathers, sometimes unclear longitudinal stripes of pale sulphur-yellow colour are present on the breast; in others, the breast stripes are similar but greyish (var. naevia ), and then all the plumage is more greyish than usual. Bill and legs black; bill is relatively small even for a leaf warbler, and claws are large, especially on the hind and mid toes. In comparing the basic description with modern interpretations of tristis, ‘ fulvescens ’ would appear to have more extensive olive in the upperparts and wing feathers and the pres- ence of yellow in the supercilium and on the underparts. These features would today be regarded by many as indicating ‘intergrade’ characters. Overall, there is little in the basic description to indicate a match with the ‘pale- and-grey’ individuals reported in Britain. A variant ‘ naevia ’ in Severtzov’s diagnosis is described as lacking yellow streaking on the breast, at least in juvenile plumage, and being greyer overall. This perhaps comes closer. However, the location of the type specimen of ‘naevia is unknown (Vladimir Loskot in lift.), so its precise characters cannot be confirmed. Variation and plumage limits in abietinus and tristis Examination of skins confirms that birds from the Urals and the Ob basin are often slightly different from more easterly tristis, being slightly yellow beneath, with thin yellow streaks on the lower throat, and a faint yellow tinge on the fore-supercilium and/or eye-ring. Such yellow tinges are absent on other birds in this area, and on all birds breeding farther east in Siberia. Such individuals with limited yellow have been equated with the form ‘ fulvescens ’, notwithstanding the inconsistent descriptions in the literature (see above). Following this con- vention, the term ‘ fulvescens ' is used hereafter to signify the yellow-streaked birds breeding in the region from the Urals to the Yenisey. From specimens, no consistent difference is evident between birds breeding in western and in eastern Siberia in the general hue of the upperparts (‘greyness’), though there is a slight degree of individual variation and also a sugges- 400 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 ‘Siberian Chiffchaff revisited — ( tion that birds in fresh plumage and in winter are on average a little paler and greyer than birds in summer. Among the specimens available at the Natural History Museum (NHM), Tring, it is not possible to detect a grouping of individuals from one part of the range of tristis ( sensu lato) that is conspicuously ‘greyer and whiter’ than the remainder, and similar conclusions have been drawn when visiting other large museum collections. It is perhaps insufficiently appreciated in Britain how signifi- cant may be the reduction in olive and yellow in the least colourful abietinus. At an intensive ringing site in southern Sweden, all abiet- inus trapped have displayed at least some yellow streaking below, yellow on the upper eye-ring, and a tinge of olive in the upperparts (Bo Petersson in lift.). On most individuals these colours remain evident in the field but extreme examples (probably restricted to the east of the range of abietinus) reportedly lack these hues almost entirely, apart from olive fringes to the wings, tail and rump. The col- lection of specimens at Ams- terdam includes examples of such individuals from the lower Volga region of European Russia (C. S. Roselaar in lift.). Extreme examples of abietinus seemingly display no more yellow - indeed, conceivably less - than some examples of ‘ fulvescens It follows that differences between tristis (including 1 fulvescens ’) and such examples of abietinus can be rather subtle. In a working memo for a planned fifth edition of his Identification Guide to European Passerines (Svensson in prep.), LS refined the criteria for diagnosing tristis thus: ( 1 ) whole supercilium ( including eye- ring) buff-white or pale ochrous- buff, without any pure yellow; (2) underparts, including vent and 238. Two specimens of Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita tristis (‘Siberian Chiffchaff’), both from Krasnoyarsk, Siberia; upper: May, lower: September. Apart from the effects of wear and bleaching, there is little seasonal variation in the plumage of ‘true’ tristis; some autumn and winter individuals are arguably a little brighter and paler but this is marginal and largely masked by individual variation. 239. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita tristis (‘Siberian Chiffchaff’), India, January. Some specimens collected in the winter quarters are slightly paler and greyer than tristis collected in the breeding season in Siberia. Note, however, that the ‘provenance’ of wintering birds is not certain. 240. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita abietinus, Stockholm, Sweden, September. Note the much greyer and ‘colourless’ appearance of this autumn individual compared with that of the fresh spring bird in plate 234. Olive and yellow streaking is still present but is very subdued. British Birds 98 "August 2005 • 396-410 401 Lars Svensson A. R. Dean,© NHM, Tring A. R. Dean,© NHM, Tring ‘Siberian Ch iffchaff ’ revisited > undertail-coverts, buffish-white without any yellow, breast and lower throat being strongest buff; (3) crown and mantle - at least upper mantle - greyish-brown lacking any olive tinge; (4) a slight olive tinge on back, rump and scapulars; (5) remiges, greater- coverts and rectrices narrowly edged olive-green (if not heavily worn); (6) black or blackish tarsi; (7) small, dark bill; (8) wing-bend and axillaries bright lemon-yellow; (9) feathered ‘knee’ (ankle) usually buff-white, or at most faintly yellowish-white (not bright yellow); (10) PI (outermost primary) comparatively short and narrow, usually 4-8 mm > PC; (11) P2 usually =7/8 or =8, but sometimes a little shorter (i.e. =8/9); ( 12) distance PI < P2 rather long, 21-30.5 mm ( m 24.4, n 57). [abbreviations; PC refers to primary coverts, m is mean, n is sample size] An additional but variably evident feature of classic tristis concerns the ear-coverts, which are frequently buff-brown or even rufous-tinged (sometimes described as ‘rusty’), whereas the ear-coverts of abie- tinus are generally paler and mottled with buff and olive. These guidelines are sometimes misunder- stood in terms of the presence or absence of yellow. The guidelines are intended to include only incontrovertible tristis and to avoid the inclusion of abietinus with particularly restricted yellow. They are not designed to define the full plumage limits of tristis. Traces of yellow may be, in fact, a feature of a minority of genuine tristis and such individuals will be excluded by the guidelines. However, until the discrimina- tion between such birds and abietinus with least yellow is better understood, this approach is considered preferable. It should be noted that the German handbook (Glutz von Blotzheim & Bauer 1991) misunderstood the similar guide- lines in the third edition of Identification Guide to European Passerines (Svensson 1984a), and interpreted them to mean that the presence of traces of yellow below ruled out tristis entirely, but this was never intended. It is only east of the Yenisey that apparently all Chiffchaffs lack any yellow below, away from the underwing. The exact subspecies composition of the birds found between the Pechora and the Yenisey (where traces of yellow are commonly found on the underparts), the true status of ‘ fulvescens ’, and the plumage limits of tristis are still the subjects of much research (and conjecture). The ‘yellow-tinged’ chiffchaffs from the Urals and the Ob basin The presence of extraneous yellow in chiffchaffs from the Urals and Ob basin is popularly inter- preted as ‘intergradation’, resulting from unre- stricted gene-flow between abietinus and tristis (a so-called ‘hybrid swarm’). However, this interpretation is not universally accepted. Alter- native explanations for traces of yellow include the hypothesis that they are a feature of a west- erly population of tristis (‘fulvescens’), in which gene-flow with abietinus is evident but already restricted by a degree of assortive mating (see below). Various studies have been made of tristis and ‘fulvescens’, while others are still in progress, primarily using vocalisations as an indicator of ‘subspecies integrity’ and reproduc- tive isolation. Vocalisations as taxonomic indicators Vocalisations are a key means of separating taxa and are important in establishing reproductive barriers. The songs of collybita and abietinus are similar, the familiar and eponymous ‘chiff-chaff chiff-chaff chaff-chaff chiff-chaff’; rather dry, rhythmic and repetitive in character and some- times preceded by a low, slightly churred ‘tret’, especially on the breeding territory. The song of tristis is quite different, being much more varied and rising and falling in pitch. There is a sug- gestion of the timbre of collybita in some notes but each is enhanced with a terminal flourish and each series of notes has much greater flu- idity. The notes tend to cascade into one another and the delivery (though not the timbre of the notes) can recall the ‘cadence’ of the song of Willow Warbler Ph. trochilus. There is also - rather surprisingly - a similarity to the slightly jerky lilt of the song of Greenish Warbler Ph. trochiloides, though the song of that species will be less familiar to many British observers. Lis- tening to recordings of the song (e.g. Svensson 1984b, Mild 1987) is far better than any tran- scription but, to British ears, the transcription proffered by Heard (1989) is as good as any: ‘chivy-chooee chivy-chooee djiff’. Generally, however, there are several more ‘chivy-chooee’ components in each series. Conflicting research findings A number of bio-acoustical studies have investi- gated the songs of abietinus, tristis and ‘ful- vescens’. On the basis of detailed experiments, Martens & Meincke (1989) concluded that, 402 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-4 1 0 ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ revisited ( across the whole range occupied by tristis and ‘ fulvescens’ , song was consistent and lacked com- ponents characteristic of abietinus. They recorded songs from Jekaterinburg to Irkutsk and used these in ‘playback’ experiments. This demonstrated limited reaction by each form to the other’s song, supporting the view that assortive mating might be underway and that tristis (including similarly singing ‘ fulvescens ’) might already be best treated as a separate species in relation to neighbouring abietinus. They concluded that there was no evidence for a zone of extensive hybridisation nor for main- taining the distinction of ‘fulvescens’ from tristis. Following research in the area of overlap between abietinus and tristis , Russian ornitholo- gists have resurrected the idea that ‘ fulvescens ’ results from extensive intergradation (‘hybridis- ation’) between these two races (Marova & Leonovich 1993). Their research reported a wide area of overlap in the breeding areas of abietinus and tristis, from the Kanin Peninsula to the southern Urals and Bashkiria. ‘Mixed’ songs were recorded in various parts of this zone of sympatry. Together with the existence of specimens deemed to show ‘hybrid’ characters, the conclusion of Marova & Leonovich was that extensive ‘hybridisation’ occurs across the whole area of sympatry. The different conclusions of Martens & Meincke were considered invalid by Marova & Leonovich, as the former based their experi- ments on the whole range of tristis rather than on the zone of sympatry. Thus, ‘the recordings used for analysis were taken considerably to the east of the distribution of fulvescens’ (Irina Marova-Kleinbub in litt.). In fact, Martens & Meincke used the Yenisey as a dividing line between ‘ fulvescens ’ and tristis, and compared recordings from both sides of the divide, so this objection is probably unfounded. More recently, Antero Lindholm has made a preliminary study of the vocalisations of birds from the region of Syktyvkar, Komi (c. 62°N 51°E; fig. 1). This is research ‘in progress’ but appears to indicate that so-called intermediate song occurs in a region on the western fringes of the known range of ‘ fulvescens ’, and side by side with abietinus song. The appearance and song of most ‘intermediate singers’ are tristis- like but a variable amount of abietinus- like ele- ments are present in the song (Antero Lindholm in litt.). At this stage, the results are deemed to support the idea that ‘ fulvescens ’ is a ‘hybrid’ population, as advocated by Marova & Leonovich. However, Lindholm does not as yet draw any firm conclusions, as these findings need to be confirmed on a larger sample, and a detailed comparison with eastern tristis is yet to be carried out. Furthermore, a certain amount of ‘mixed’ singing can result from one species adopting part of the song of another species which is present at high density in its natal area, and is not necessarily proof of hybridisation (Clement et al. 1998). An alternative scenario LS has suggested that the situation with tristis and abietinus may be similar to that with colly- bita and ibericus. It is now known that collybita and ibericus still hybridise in the contact zone in southwest France and northern Spain and that mixed singers are produced (see above for an outline of vocalisation studies). However, hybrids are less frequent than would be expected if the two interbred freely and unhin- dered, and they are not as successful as pure off- spring (Salomon et al. 1997). A similar situation might exist in the contact zone between tristis and abietinus. In a preliminary text for the forthcoming Geographical Variation and Distribution of Palearctic Birds (Roselaar & Shirihai in prep.), Kees Roselaar has independently suggested a similar hypothesis: In the west of the range, from the Severnaya Dvina and the Pechora basins east to the Urals, [ tristis \ over- laps with Ph. collybita abietinus. In this overlap zone, the situation is apparently comparable with that of Ph. ibericus and Ph. c. collybita in N Spain and SW France: locally, both taxa overlap without apparent interbreeding (e.g. in the southern Urals, where both are common), but elsewhere birds with mixed song or mixed plumage characters occur (Marova & Leonovich 1993). These latter birds are found mainly at the extreme western end of the range of tristis, where mixing apparently occurs because favoured partners are scarce or unavailable (mixed song may also be due to the fact that pure tristis adopts part of the song of the more common abietinus). Thus, mating in the overlap area is likely to be assortive, as in the ibericus/ collybita case, preventing extensive gene-flow between both, a reason to consider tristis to be a separate species, an action supported by the fair difference in mitochondrial DNA between both (see Helbig et al. 1996). If vocalisations are already establishing bar- riers to interbreeding between abietinus and British Birds 98 'August 2005 • 396-410 403 ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ revisited c > westerly tristis , then tristis might be better treated as a separate species. In the eventuality that tristis were accorded species status, then it might also be preferable to formally recognise the extreme end of its morphological variation, represented by ‘ fulvescens ’. It is interesting to note at this point that some Russian authors who have recognised ‘ fulvescens ’ as a valid race have further considered that chiffchaffs occu- pying the Southern Urals result from ‘hybridisa- tion’ between ‘ fulvescens ’ and abietinus (Buturlin & Dementiev 1937, per Irina Marova- Kleinbub). Confirmation of the true taxonomic relationships throughout this region must await more extensive studies, using trapping, DNA and bioacoustic ‘playback’ techniques. Much clarification would surely result from a pro- gramme to trap singing or calling birds and, from known vocalisation, build up a knowledge of morphology and DNA. Calls The typical call of collybita and western abie- tinus is a plaintive, soft, modulated and ascending ‘hooeet’ or ‘huit’. It has a discernibly disyllabic structure, though less distinctly so than the comparable call of Willow Warbler. In general, the emphasis lies on the second syllable in Common Chiffchaff, but more evenly on both in Willow Warbler. The principal call associated with tristis is a nearly monosyllabic note, often rendered as ‘peef or similar in English texts but perhaps more accurately transcribed as ‘iiihp’ (Jannes 2002). It is clearly higher-pitched than the typical call of collybita , is rather shrill (‘squeaky’) and just perceptibly descending towards the end. It is often likened to the dis- tress call of a young chicken, or to the call of Coal Tit Parus ater. The call of ‘fulvescens’ -type birds is reported to be very similar to, if not identical with, the typical call of tristis. From late summer in Britain, a rather shriller and clipped ‘sweeu’ is uttered by colly- bita (particularly, if not exclusively, by first- autumn birds). A variant call reported from autumn migrants in western Europe is similarly described, as ‘a slightly higher-pitched, faster, and more compressed version of the normal call (‘chreep’, ‘treeu’)’, but has been attributed to eastern populations of abietinus (Jannes 2002). There is some evidence that migrant and win- tering populations, assumed to be from dif- ferent parts of the breeding range, utter slightly different calls (Copete & Armada 2004). All these variants still lack the shrilly monosyllabic quality of the classic tristis call but can be con- fused when heard in isolation or by those not fully familiar with the ‘classic’ call. The characteristic note is a good indicator of tristis and some observers believe that tristis never utters calls significantly different from this. Variant calls are sometimes ascribed to tristis, as in BWP (‘Voice’, section 4a) and in Clement et al. (1998), for example. However, a great deal of ambiguity is evident in the descriptions of ‘alternative’ calls, which no doubt arises as much from difficulties of tran- scription as from true variation in the calls. Furthermore, it is likely that some variant calls were reported from individuals whose racial identification was questionable. Until an unequivocal exposition of variant calls is forthcoming, the identity of any tristis- like individual which is not heard to utter the ‘classic’ call should be regarded as suspect. What are the ‘grey-and-white’ tristis-like chiffchaffs reported in Britain ? It is clear from the preceding account that much research remains to be done before a clear picture emerges of morphological, vocal and taxonomic limits in chiffchaffs east of the Pechora basin. On current information, it is not possible to equate a distinctively pale, ‘grey- and-white’ plumage with ‘ fulvescens ’. Both the type description and the specimens from the designated breeding area indicate that this form is distinguished from ‘classic’ tristis primarily by the presence of limited yellow streaking on the underparts, the eye-ring and the supercilium. Although some features of ‘grey-and-white’ chiffchaffs appear intermediate between those of abietinus and tristis, and may result from intergradation between these two subspecies, the appearance of these birds is not typical of ‘ fulvescens ’. With regard to reports of ‘ tristis-\ike chiff- chaffs in Britain, the following three factors are all likely to be involved in the high incidence of distinctively ‘grey-and-white’ individuals: (1) ‘Paler and greyer’ individuals include ‘inter- grades’ between abietinus and tristis. (2) Some ‘paler and greyer’ individuals are pale extremes of abietinus. (3) There is a range of variation in the colour of upperparts and underparts in all races of 404 British Birds 98 'August 2005 • 396-410 ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ revisited C chiffchaff, and some perceived ‘paler and greyer’ individuals fall within this range of variation and do not represent a ‘disconti- nuity’ in appearance (i.e. there is a certain amount of ‘wishful grouping’). Additionally, it is conceivable that: (4)A paler and greyer type comes from a little- studied part of the tristis range, and is poorly documented in the literature and under-rep- resented in collections. It is perhaps worth recalling here that Severtzov’s designation of ‘ fulvescens included a variant ‘naevia which purportedly lacked yellow and was greyer overall. The approach to identification must address the full suite of plumage and vocal characteris- tics, aided at a minimum by high-quality pho- tographs and preferably by trapping (the latter also providing subsidiary if not conclusive bio- metric data). The criteria as prescribed in the forthcoming edition of Identification Guide to European Passerines (Svensson in prep.), and transcribed above, remain the most reliable guide to segregating certain tristis, though some genuine tristis may be excluded in the process. Unless and until clarification of variant calls is forthcoming, any tristis- like individual that does not utter the classic, shrill, almost mono- syllabic ‘iiihp’ should be regarded as question- able. The identity of some individuals will remain speculative; knowledge of the mor- phology (and taxonomy) of chiffchaffs from European Russia east to the Yenisey is far from complete. Case studies Examples of ‘grey-and-white’ tristis-Uke chiffchaffs were recorded in England at Upton- on-Severn, Worcestershire, and at Coleshill, Warwickshire, during winter 2004/05. Both frequented the vicinity of sewage works, an increasingly common habitat for reports of ‘Siberian Chiffchaffs’. The Worcestershire bird was trapped and examined in the hand. Good photographs were obtained of both, and these provide useful illustration of some of the points made above. Although both were rather ‘grey and white’ the two individuals were somewhat different in appearance in important characters. The Upton-on-Severn bird This individual was trapped in December 2004 and found to possess a good suite of characters for tristis. Although quite ‘grey and white’, it was less pale than the Warwickshire bird and also displayed evident, if limited, buff on the breast and flanks (plates 241 & 242). In plate 241, note the obvious deep buff on the ear-coverts, upper eye-ring and on the supercilium. There is no yellow away from the bend of the wing, while olive is absent or very limited on the crown and mantle. These are all good indicators of tristis. There is olive streaking in the scapulars, while the fringes to the flight feathers are prominent and rather yellowish-olive, more so than is typical in ‘classic’ tristis. In plate 242, note the buff wash to the sides of the throat and on the flanks; this is fairly restricted, however, and the centre of the throat is much whiter. It is unlikely, however, that abietinus would ever show no yellow at all away from the underwing in com- bination with a distinct buff suffusion to the supercilium and underparts. The general hue of the upperparts is quite grey, enhancing the contrast of the olive fringes in the plumage. In these respects it differs quite significantly from classic tristis, which has much more saturated brown or grey-brown upper- parts, more prominent buff on the cheeks and throat, and less bright olive fringes, producing a much more subdued appearance overall. The bill of the Upton-on-Severn individual also appears rather more robust than is typical of ‘classic’ tristis , which has a relatively small, dark bill. Compare this individual with the tristis in plates 235 & 237 and the abietinus in plate 240. The Upton-on-Severn individual may well have originated from the region of sympatry and ‘intergrading’ of tristis and abietinus. However, 24 1 . Purported 'Siberian Chiffchaff Phylloscopus coliybita tristis. Worcestershire, December 2004. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 405 Andy Warr Steve Seal AndyWarr ‘Siberian Chiffchaff' revisited c 242. Purported ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ Phylloscopu s collybita tristis, Worcestershire, December 2004. it is greyer than is typical of ‘ fulvescens and lacks the yellow streaking which characterises that form. It is tempting to speculate that its characters recall those which Severtzov ascribed to the variant ‘ naevia but, unfortunately, precise data on the characters and provenance of 'naevia are lacking. The call was described as ‘like that of tristis’. Supplied descriptions and transcriptions included ‘monosyllabic “seee”, not dissimilar to call of Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula, but higher-pitched and weaker in tone’ but also ‘almost disyllabic’ and ‘pseeoo’. The last at least suggests one of the supposed ‘variant’ calls of tristis or the call ascribed to eastern abietinus rather than the virtually monosyllabic and shrill ‘peet’ or ‘iiihp’ of classic tristis (see above). A rather similar-looking indi- vidual, judging from a published photograph, was observed in Lincolnshire during 1 1th— 15th March 1989 (Catley 2000). That bird was heard singing and calling, and the description of its vocalisations shows clear affinities with tristis. The Coleshili bird The Coleshili bird was especially pale, with markedly grey-looking upperparts and ‘clean’ whitish underparts (plate 243). Several observers commented that its general hues recalled a Bonelli’s warbler while, at a distance when flycatching, the whiteness of the under- parts even prompted comparisons with Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata. This individual was a prime example of the divergence in opinion over tristis characteristics, with views strongly divided between those who regarded it as a ‘good tristis’ and those who deemed it to be an ‘intergrade’ or a pale abietinus. Several early and more distant photographs suggested a tinge of yellow on the fore-super- cilium and this encouraged speculation that the bird was an ‘intergrade’. It was clear, however, that many such photographs were not ‘colour neutral’. In some, although admirably sharp, the bird looked too brown above and the olive fringes to the flight feathers, quite clear in the field, were suppressed. Thanks to the persistence of one or two pho- tographers, photographs of high fidelity were eventually obtained. The colour balance of these pictures (reproduced here) is clearly accu- rate, matching impressions in the field and also spanning the full range of hues through white, buff, yellow and olive. These photographs demonstrate that the supercilium was in fact light buff above the lores (and not yellow). It is clear from this experience that ‘buff’ may be translated into a ‘tinge of yellow' in digital pho- tographs, particularly if the image size is rather small. At face value, there are several characters visible in the photo- graph of the Coleshili bird which suggest tristis. Olive is confined to the scapulars, back, rump and edges to the flight feathers. There is no olive on the crown or upper part of the mantle. The only yellow is at the bend of the wing and a limited amount on the underwing coverts (plate 244). All these fea- tures are good tristis characters. Although buff is present in the 243. Purported ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ Phylloscopus collybita tristis. Warwickshire, February 2005. 406 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-4 1 0 Brian McGeough ‘Siberian Ch iffchaff ’ revisited } 244. Purported ‘Siberian Chiffchaff ’ Phylloscopus collybita tristis, Warwickshire, February 2005. supercilium, it is confined to the front of the eye. To the rear of the eye the supercilium is white and, together with the ear-coverts, is less extensively buff than in ‘classic’ tristis. The fringes of the flight feathers are again a little more yellowish-olive than is typical in tristis. The bare parts are also an area of concern. The cutting edges to the bill are arguably rather extensively pale for tristis. More importantly, the legs and especially the upper surface of the feet are less intensely black than on the majority of ‘classic’ tristis The most pronounced features of this indi- vidual were its paleness and generally grey-and- white appearance. Above all else, its paleness and white underparts led many observers to conclude that ‘it must be something different’. This was certainly an extremely pale chiffchaff but such a degree of paleness is not character- istic of tristis, certainly not ‘classic’ individuals from east of the Yenisey. There is none of the saturated colour of the upperparts which char- acterises ‘classic’ tristis, nor the buff wash on the breast and flanks. Various descriptions of its call were forthcoming but, again, these did not include the almost monosyllabic ‘peet’ or ‘iiihp’ of classic tristis and at least some observers reported a clearly disyllabic call which they regarded as ‘not that different from collybita. While the absence of yellow (apart from on the underwing) and the lack of olive in the crown and upper mantle suggest tristis intro- gression, the appearance of this individual does not correspond with 1 fulvescens ’ as defined and discussed above. Even among the experts con- sulted there was no unanimity of opinion on the identity of this individual. It remains a pos- sibility that individuals like this are abietinus from the easternmost part of the range. The bird’s appearance cannot be matched by speci- mens in the collection at NHM, Tring (pers. obs.), but the specimen collection at Ams- terdam apparently includes examples of abiet- inus from European Russia (south Volga) which are not dissimilar to the Warwickshire indi- vidual (C. S. Roselaar in litt.). One final item of interest is that a number of tristis and tristis-like individuals in Britain have been reported as calling relatively infrequently compared with collybita and abietinus associ- ating with them. This infrequent calling was noted for both the Worcestershire bird and the Warwickshire individual. Summary • Considerable confusion surrounds the sys- tematic and morphological limits of Common Chiffchaff of the Siberian sub- species tristis. • The plumage of typical tristis from east of the Yenisey is predominantly brown or greyish- brown on the upperparts; the underparts are suffused with buff, particularly across the breast and lower throat; and yellow is lacking 245. Purported ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ Phylloscopus collybita tristis, Warwickshire, February 2005. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 407 Steve Seal ‘Siberian Chiffchaff revisited c ) in the plumage, apart from at the bend of the wing and on the underwing-coverts. It is rather similar to Mountain Chiffchaff although, unlike that species, it has olive fringes to the flight feathers and an olive tinge on the lower back and rump. In contrast, many tristis- like individuals reported in Britain are decidedly pale and grey, often with conspicuously white under- parts. Such individuals are frequently attrib- uted to the form ‘ fulvescens ’, which is generally regarded as a westerly component of tristis, breeding between the Pechora basin and the Yenisey. The form ‘ fulvescens ’ was originally described by Severtzov in 1873, from a series of migrants taken in Central Asia. Both the basic description from the ‘type series’ and the more recent examinations of specimens from western Siberia indicate that 1 fulvescens ’ is not, however, noticeably greyer or whiter than more easterly tristis. Rather, it differs pri- marily in the presence of limited yellow streaking at the sides of the breast, in the supercilium and on the upper part of the eye- ring. This additional yellow has been inter- preted by some researchers as indicative of intergradation between tristis and abietinus. Research within the breeding range has pro- duced conflicting conclusions about the status of 'fulvescens1. Opinion remains divided as to whether ‘ fulvescens ’ results from wide- spread and unhindered interbreeding between tristis and abietinus in a zone of sympatry (a ‘hybrid swarm’) or whether it is simply a westerly component of tristis. An alternative scenario is that limited inter- breeding occurs between tristis and abietinus but that reproductive barriers are already developing, based primarily on vocal differ- ences, and that breeding is to some extent assortive. Under this scenario, tristis may be better treated as a separate species and 'ful- vescens perhaps should be regarded as a sub- species of tristis. From specimens, it is not possible to detect a grouping of individuals from one part of the range of tristis (including 'fulvescens) which is conspicuously greyer and whiter’ than the remainder. Although some ‘grey-and-white’ chiffchaffs may involve intergrades, their appearance does not match typical ‘ fulvescens ’. A variant ‘naevia’ included by Severtzov in the ‘type description’ was noted as lacking yellow, at least in juvenile plumage, and being greyer overall. However, the location of the type specimen of ‘ naevia' is currently unknown, so its precise characters are uncertain. • Other reports of ‘grey-and-white’ chiffchaffs almost certainly include pale extremes of abietinus from European Russia, which may be surprisingly deficient in both olive and yellow. It is also conceivable that a paler and greyer type exists in a little-studied part of the tristis range, and is poorly documented in the literature and little represented in collec- tions. Finally, the extent of individual varia- tion among the westerly races of chiffchaff must not be underestimated. • The full plumage limits of tristis and abie- tinus, and the extent of their overlap, remain to be determined. The most reliable criteria for segregating certain tristis are presented above (and will be published in the forth- coming edition of Identification Guide to European Passerines), although they may exclude some genuine tristis. Plumage and biometric criteria should be supported by precise interpretation of vocalisations. Acknowledgments For clarification of research findings within the breeding range of 'fulvescens' we are indebted to Dr Irina Marova- Kleinbub. Comments on 'fulvescens' and a translation of Severtzov's type description were kindly provided by Dr Vladimir Loskot. Further comments on the type descrip- tion were offered by Dr Pavel Tomkovich. Antero Lindholm supplied details of his vocalisation studies from the region of Komi, while Kees Roselaar provided information on both tristis and abietinus, and kindly consented to the inclu- sion of an extract from his forthcoming book, written with Hadoram Shirihai. For useful discussion of tristis and tristis- like chiffchaffs in general, or the Warwickshire and Worces- tershire individuals in particular we are grateful to Lee Evans, Martin Garner PA. Lassey, Killian Mullarney, Andrew Warr and S, M. Whitehouse. Bo Petersson kindly com- mented upon the plumage variation of abietinus trapped in southern Sweden. Excellent photographs of the Warwick- shire and Worcestershire chiffchaffs featured here were provided by John Harris, Brian McGeough.Jim Milne, Steve Seal and Andrew Warr Although only a few of the images could be published, all the photographs provided invalu- able reference material. Mark Adams kindly arranged access to the skin collection at NHM.Tring, and provided valuable assistance on site. Help with contacts and refer- ences was provided by Per Alstrom, Martin Collinson and George Sangster. Finally, for assistance in a variety of ways, we thank Steve Cawthray, Dave Clifton and John Galletly. References Baker K. 1997. Warblers of Europe. Asia and North Africa. Christopher Helm, London. Buturlin, S. A., & Dementiev, G. R 1 937. [Identification Guide to the Birds of the USSR. Vol. 4. Passeriformes .] Moscow- 408 British Birds 98 “August 2005 • 396-410 ‘Siberian Chiffchaff ’ revisited c > Leningrad. (In Russian) Catley, G. R 2000. Song and call of a ‘Siberian Chiffchaff'. Brit. Birds 93: 456. Clement, R, Helbig.A.J., & Small, B. 1 998. Taxonomy and identification of chiffchaffs in the Western Palearctic, Brit Birds 91:361-376. Copete.J. L, & Armada, R. 2004. Unusual calls of Chiffchaffs Phyiloscopus collybita in NE Spain in autumn-winter: an alert to Spanish observers. Rare Birds in Spain (website http://www.rarebirdspain.net/arbsi026.htm). Cramp, S. (ed.). 1 992. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 6. OUR Oxford. Dean, A. R. 1985. Review of British status and identification of Greenish Warbler. Brit. Birds 78: 437-45 I . Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N„ & Bauer K. M. 1991. Handbuch derVogel Mitteleuropas.Vol. 1 2. AULA-Verlag, Wiesbaden. (In German) Heard, C. D. R. 1 989. Racial identification of wintering chiffchaffs. Birding World 2: 60-65. Helbig.A.J., Martens, J., Seibold, I., Henning, F„ Schottler B„ &Wink, M. 1996. Phylogeny and species limits in the Palearctic Chiffchaff Phyiloscopus collybita complex: mitochondrial genetic differentiation and bioacoustic evidence. Ibis 1 38: 650-666. Jannes, H. 2002. Calls of Eastern Vagrants (CD and booklet). Hannu Jannes/EARLYBIRD Tours, Helsinki. Marova, I. M„ & Leonovich, V.V. 1 993. [Hybridisation of Siberian and European Chiffchaffs in the zone of sympatry.] Proc. Zool. Mus. Moscow University 30: 147-164. (In Russian) Martens, J., & Meincke, C. 1989. [The Siberian Chiffchaff Phyiloscopus collybita tristis : song and reaction of a central European population in field tests.] J. Orn. I 30: 455M73. (In German) Mild, K. 1987. Soviet Bird Songs (two cassettes and booklet). Privately published, Stockholm. Roselaar C. S., & Shirihai, H. In prep. Geographical Variation and Distribution of Palearctic Birds. Salomon, M„ Bried.A.J., Helbig, A. J„ & Riofrio.J. 1997. Morphometric differentiation between male Common Chiffchaffs Phyiloscopus [c.] collybita Vieillot, 1817, and Iberian Chiffchaffs P. [c.] brehmii Homeyer, 1 87 1 , in a secondary contact zone (Aves: Syllviidae), Zool.Anzeiger 236: 25-36. Severtzov, N. A. 1 873. [Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of Turkestan Wildlife.] Turkestan. (In Russian) Svensson, L. 1984a. Identification Guide to European Passerines. 3rd edn. Privately published, Stockholm. — 1 984b. Soviet Birds (cassette and leaflet). Privately published, Stockholm. — 1 992. Identification Guide to European Passerines. 4th edn. Privately published, Stockholm. — In prep. Identifcation Guide to European Passerines. 5th edn. Ticehurst, C. 1 938. A Systematic Review of the Genus Phyiloscopus ( Willow-warblers or Leaf-warblers). BMNH, London. Vaurie, C. 1959. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna - Order Passeriformes. Witherby, London. Williamson, K. 1 967. Identification for Ringers, 2. The Genus Phyiloscopus. 2nd edn. BTO.Tring. Alan R. Dean, 2 Charingworth Road, Solihull, West Midlands B92 8HT Lars Svensson, S:ta Toras vag 28, S-260 93 Torekov, Sweden Appendix I : Identification of Phyiloscopus collybita abietinus (Nilsson 1819) Taken from Svensson (in prep.). Ssp. collybita and abietinus are extremely similar. When long and com- parable series (same season, similar wear, etc.) are examined, the following characteristics emerge (all measurements in mm unless stated, primaries numbered ascendantly): (1) Ssp. abietinus is slightly larger; wing-length on skins up to 68 mm, whereas collybita has a maximum of 63 mm. In more detail; abietinus cfcf 59.5-68, m 63.77, n 35; $$ 57-64, m 60.08, n 12; collybita cfcT 55.5-63, m 60.08, n 77; 99 52.5-60, m 55.87, n 43. For live birds, an additional 1 mm to all measurements should be allowed. (2) Ssp. abietinus has, on average, subtly paler upperparts, which are a little purer greyish-green; whereas collybita is a trifle darker and slightly tinged brown, primarily on mantle and crown. With increasing wear in late May, some collybita attain a darker, more brown-grey crown than the more greenish mantle, producing a contrast which is rarely as pronounced on abietinus (usually no more than a slight suggestion). The darker crown in (some) collybita is partly due to darker feather-bases being exposed (perhaps due to somewhat earlier and heavier wear), but also to a slightly darker ground colour. (3) The tarsi in abietinus are, on average, slightly darker than in collybita, blackish-brown (sometimes described as ‘dark flesh’) rather than medium to dark brown. (4) The distance between first and second primaries (PI < P2), is on average slightly shorter in collybita than in abietinus: in collybita 19-26, m 23.13, n 118, in abietinus 22.5-29.5, m 25.88, n 51. (5) The distances between tip of wing (P4) and outermost secondary (SI), tenth primary (P10), and tip of primary-coverts (PC) differ as follows: P4 > SI in abietinus 11.5-15, in collybita 9-12.5; P4 > P10 in abietinus 10-13, in collybita 8.5-1 1; P4 > PC in abietinus 35-41, in collybita 31-39. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 409 ‘Siberian Chiffchaff ’ revisited c > (6) Ssp. collybita has marginally longer bill (to skull) but shorter wing. The ratios between these (Bs/W x 100) are as follows: abietinus 16.4-19.1 (n 45), although some females with wing shorter than 60 mm may be up to 19.7 ( n 3); collybita 17.9-22.4 [n 1 11). (7) By using a more elaborate formula, more birds can be separated: (P4 > P10) + (P4 > SI ) + (P2 > PI ) - tarsus - (Bs/W x 100) = MCV If MCV ( Multiple Character Value) is greater than 10.0, the bird is most likely an abietinus; if less than 10.0 it is probably a collybita. The variation in the two taxa is 8.0-19.9 in abietinus, and 10.7 or less in collybita (including negative values). Only 12 out of 125 (9.6%) fell in the overlap zone 8.0-10.7. Furthermore, 85% of all abietinus ( n 40) had a value greater than 10.0, 93% of all collybita (n 85) had a value lower than 10.0. The MCV is partly a function of an average slight difference in wing formula, abietinus having a slightly more pointed wing than collybita (for instance, male abietinus much more often having P2 = 6/7 than male collybita). There is, however, much overlap and little guidance from the position of P2 alone. The above guidelines are aimed primarily at ringers and museum researchers, but should be of some use in the field. Apart from those listed, subtle and average differences exist in structure and pro- portions, e.g. collybita often appears larger-headed and/or shorter-necked, and abietinus somewhat more elongated and long-winged. However, these characters are more variable and ‘personal’ and should be applied with caution; they also depend significantly on the general size of each bird. Descriptions often mention that abietinus has, on average, whiter underparts than those of collybita. It is true that an average difference exists, but the underparts coloration is more variable than often perceived, with near-total overlap between the two taxa when the very pale birds in the extreme northeast of the range are excluded. For these pale birds, though, the near-total lack of yellow beneath (except on the underwing) becomes an additional character for abietinus as opposed to collybita. Editorial Abbreviation of scientific names The English language contains many words derived from Greek beginning with ‘ph’, invariably pro- nounced as ‘f’. In fact, the combination of ‘p’ and ‘h’ in transcribed Greek, and in any word derived from the Greek language, renders the single Greek letter <}>. Hence, the two letters are not separated or ‘abbreviated’ to a simple ‘p’, since this could imply a different derivation and pronunciation. To a similar category belong words beginning with one of two diphthongs which are pronounced distinctly from just the isolated first letter. Words beginning with ‘Ae’ or ‘Oe’ should be pronounced as if they were spelt with an ‘e’ (as in the first ‘e’ in ‘egret’). For both these diphthongs, words should be abbreviated with both first letters. In the past they were often written with a ligature (ae, oe) to signal their special close connection and to avoid a separation. Starting with this issue, we propose a slightly modified rule for the way in which some scientific names are abbreviated. Words in scientific names will henceforth be abbreviated to one letter and a full stop as before except in the following cases, in which the two first letters will be used: 1. words beginning with ph ( Phylloscopus , phoenicurus, etc.) are abbreviated as Ph. or ph. 2. words beginning with ae ( Aegypius , Aethia, aedon, etc.) are abbreviated as Ae. or ae.; words beginning with oe (Oenanthe, oenas, etc.) are abbreviated as Oe. or oe. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (4th edn, 1999) allows a certain freedom here. It specifies (in ‘Recommendation 25A’) only that any abbreviation should be ‘unambiguous’. We believe that these changes enable BB to meet with this requirement. Eds 410 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 396-410 Red Kites and rodentscides - a feeding experiment Dionysios Ntampakis and Ian Carter ABSTRACT Scavengers such as the Red Kite Milvus milvus are at risk of secondary poisoning by feeding on dead or dying rodents in areas where poison bait has been used. Red Kites from the reintroduced populations in Britain are regularly found dead as a result of ingesting modern anticoagulant rodenticides, and future population increase and range expansion could be affected by the continued extensive application of these poisons in the British countryside. A feeding experiment carried out in the Chilterns, in southern England, has highlighted the vulnerability of the Red Kite to this threat. It has confirmed that Brown Rats Rattus norvegicus are an ideal source of food for Red Kites and that dead rats are frequently taken from close to farm buildings, where poison baits are often used. Measures are suggested to minimise the risk to Red Kites and other species vulnerable to this threat. Introduction There is considerable evidence to show that some birds of prey and predatory mammals are vulnerable to secondary poisoning by the highly toxic anticoagulant rodenticides that are now widely used in Britain (e.g. Shore et al. 1995, Newton et al. 1999, Burn et al. 2002). Poisoning occurs when predators and scavengers feed on rodents which have themselves been poisoned. It has been suggested that the Red Kite Milvus milvus may be especially vulnerable to this threat because of its scavenging habits and ten- dency to feed close to human settlements where rodent poisoning campaigns are often carried out, and it is known that Red Kites are regular victims of secondary rodenticide poisoning (e.g. Carter et al. 2003). Red Kites have become a common sight over villages and the edges of towns in the Chilterns, in southern England. Many people put out food in village gardens and have succeeded in attracting regular visits from Red Kites. These raptors have even become a familiar sight in the centre of large cities, such as Reading, Berk- shire, on the edge of the Chilterns, a reminder that in medieval times they were common scav- engers in London and other urban areas (Carter 2001). This short paper describes a study carried out in the Chilterns to test the food preferences of the Red Kite by providing ‘field restaurants’ which offered a range of animal carcases of dif- ferent types and size. A further aspect of this study was to determine how readily Red Kites would come down to take food close to build- ings, where rodenticide poisons are often used and rodents containing poison are likely to be encountered regularly. The results of the study are used to discuss the vulnerability of the Red Kite to secondary poisoning owing to its food preferences and foraging habits, and to suggest measures by which the risk of secondary poi- soning may be reduced. Study area and methods Fieldwork was carried out during June and July, when many Red Kite nests contain young and the demand for food is at its highest. The feeding experiments took place at Shirburn Farm, a mixed grassland and arable farm near 41 1 © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 41 1-416 Red Kites and rodenticides £ > Watlington, Oxfordshire. Animal carcases were placed in two adjacent fields of stubble, which allowed birds passing overhead a good view of the food items and did not restrict foraging kites from landing in order to feed. A total of 180 dead animals of four different species was used for 16 diet-preference experi- ments during the period 1 1 th— 27th lune 2003. Food items consisted of large, medium and small Brown (or Common) Rats Rattus norvegicus (approx 450 g, 150 g, 50 g respec- tively), House Mice Mus domesticus (25-30 g), Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus (1. 2-2.0 kg) and birds, mainly Rooks Corvus frugilegus (250-350 g). Batches of between 40 and 50 mice and rats of different sizes were supplied on a weekly basis by the School of Animal and Microbial Sciences at the University of Reading. Initial experiments showed that dark-coloured rats were apparently preferred to white or pale brown individuals by foraging kites and so pale rats were used only when no dark animals were available. Rabbit and Rook carcases were pro- vided by local gamekeepers and farmers. Depending on the number of food items avail- able, one or two feeding stations were set out each day (plates 248 & 249). Each feeding station typically consisted of four Brown Rats (two medium and two small), two House Mice, two Rabbits, and two Rooks. The specific loca- tion of food items within the feeding areas was randomised. One experiment involved large numbers of Brown Rats and House Mice without the other species, and in two experi- ments each carcase taken was immediately replaced with a fresh one of the same species and size. Observations were carried out from a hide on a small hill overlooking the fields. The second part of the study involved placing a total of 24 medium-sized Brown Rats within 12-20 m of farm buildings between 12th June and 21st July 2003 to assess whether Red Kites would forage in close proximity to build- ings. Seven farm buildings on several different estates around Watlington were used so that individual Red Kites did not habituate to a single location where food was provided regu- larly. In the first series of experiments, carcases were left from 08.00 to 20.00 hrs around build- ings but removed overnight. In a second series of experiments, carcases were left overnight on a bed of soft sand in order to determine whether they were removed by nocturnal scavengers. Results Foraging behaviour and numbers Foraging started extensively after 09.00-10.00 hrs, and tended to reach a peak in the middle of the day (see fig. 1). Weather conditions affected foraging activity and fewer birds were observed during rain and strong winds. The feeding trials attracted a maximum of 28 Red Kites at any one time (though average numbers were much lower), so it is unlikely that the results were unduly influenced by the food preferences of a few individuals. Most carcases were taken in a steep dive on folded wings, following an often prolonged period of circling over the area. Birds would either land briefly to pick up the carcase or snatch it up in flight. Only occasionally would birds land on the ground to tackle the larger carcases, which were too heavy for them to pick up intact. Birds seemed reluctant to fly down to carcases when only a small number of kites were present and feeding on the ground occurred mainly at times when large numbers of foraging birds were in the area. This behaviour is common in other scavenging birds of prey, notably various species of vulture Fig. I. Variation in numbers of foraging Red Kites Mi/vus milvus during the day; observations at study site in Oxfordshire, June-July 2003. 412 British Birds 98 ‘August 2005 • 41 1-416 Red Kites and rodenticides c 246. As this photograph demonstrates. Red Kites Milvus milvus will take food from confined spaces, close to buildings, which makes them particularly vulnerable to rodenticide poisoning. where ground predators are a constant threat at carcases. The presence of large numbers of birds in the area seems to provide reassurance that it is safe to come down to feed (Snyder & Snyder 2000). Red Kites which fed on the ground would often fly away with manageable parts of a carcase once it had been sufficiently broken up. A considerable amount of food was taken by Red Kites on some of the trial days. On 27th June, for example, 23 carcases, mostly of Brown Rats, were put out at 08.00 hrs. By 18.00 hrs, all these food items had been picked up by Red Kites. On this day, the peak number of birds was recorded at 13.00 hrs, when 20 Red Kites were present in the air above the fields. Several of the Brown Rat carcases were dropped by birds that found them difficult to carry away in flight. One rat landed in the field and was retrieved by the same bird but the others fell in thick vegetation where they were inaccessible to foraging Red Kites. During all observations the Red Kite was, perhaps surprisingly, the only species recorded taking food put out for the feeding trials. Corvids of various species and Common Buz- zards Buteo buteo were seen regularly in the area Table I. Food preferences of Red Kites Milvus milvus recorded during feeding trials on 16 days between I Ith and 27th June 2003, Oxfordshire. Lower mean rank values indicate the more preferred food items. For each trial, ranks from I to 10 were given to each carcase. The most preferred food item was given the rank of I, the second choice rank 2, and so on, with the least preferred given the rank 10. Mean of ranks Food item (n); weight Feeding station A Feeding station B Overall mean Rabbit (32); 1.2-2 kg 7.8 7.6 7.7 Large rat (6); approx. 450 g 7.3 7.0 7.1 Rook (29); 250-350 g 9.2 8.7 8.9 Medium rat (35); approx. 150 g 2.1 3.4 2.7 Small rat (41); approx. 50 g 3.4 3.1 3.2 House Mouse (37); 25-30 g 4.3 4.0 4.2 British Birds 98 • August 2005 * 411-416 413 Gerry Whitlow Ian Carter Red Kites and rodenticides c } and the Buzzards circled directly above the food on several occasions but did not drop down to feed. Diet preferences Carcase size was a significant factor influencing choice by Red Kites (table 1); medium and small Brown Rat carcases and those of House Mice were generally preferred, usually snatched from the ground in flight to be consumed else- where, or perhaps taken back to the nest. Medium-sized rats (around 150 g) were the most preferred food item, while Rabbits, Rooks and large rats were the least preferred items, being too heavy to be picked up and carried away whole. During almost all of the feeding trials, Red Kites landed on the ground to feed at Rabbit, Rook and large Brown Rat carcases only when no smaller food items were available. Carcases near buildings Brown Rats placed close to farm buildings were taken regularly by Red Kites, often within a few hours of being left out and almost always within two days. The mean time for carcases to be taken was approximately 12 daylight hours (i.e. not including the hours of darkness, when Red Kites are not able to forage), based on a sample of 24 carcases. The mean time increased significantly to almost 20 daylight hours when carcases were placed in long vegetation or in proximity to dense vegetation, fences or trees. This probably reflected reduced visibility from the air and perhaps a reluctance to take carcases from areas where thicker cover may have con- cealed ground predators. The Red Kite was the only species recorded taking carcases, at least during daylight hours. Several carcases left out overnight were removed by Red Foxes Vulpes vnlpes. Discussion The Red Kite is a highly adaptable, generalist scavenger, taking a wide range of food items depending on local availability (Carter 2001). This study has, however, shown that Red Kites in the Chilterns have a clear preference for animal carcases within a certain size range, at least in the breeding season. Kites were reluc- tant to land on the ground to feed at large car- cases, preferring instead to pick up and carry away small and medium-sized carcases; Brown Rats were most preferred in this trial. Carcases of this size are likely to be especially important during the breeding season when food is in demand for growing young but must be suit- able for carrying back to the nest-site. Larger items, such as Rabbits, were too heavy for the adults to carry and were generally taken only when smaller prey was not available. In some 247. Red Kite Milvus milvus - a victim of rodenticide poisoning, Oxfordshire, January 1996. 414 British Birds 98 • August 2005 * 411-416 Dionysios Ntampakis Red Kites and rodenticides c 248 & 249. ‘Field restaurant’, Shirburn Farm, Oxfordshire, June 2003. cases, the kites flew off with parts of large items once these had been partly dismembered. Our results showed that Red Kites took car- cases left near buildings readily, often within a few hours of being left out and almost always within two days. This highlights the extreme vulnerability of the Red Kite to secondary poi- soning by rodenticides. Other birds of prey, including Barn Owl Tyto alba (Newton et al. 1990), Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (Shore et al. 2001) and Common Buzzard (Burn et al. 2002), are also at risk from sec- ondary poisoning, as dead birds subject to analysis have been found to contain rodenticide residues. Nonetheless, no other species shares the Red Kite’s combination of being primarily a scavenger, favouring food items as large as the Brown Rat, and foraging regularly around human settlements. It was notable that, in feeding trials involving well over 100 food items, the Red Kite was the only bird recorded taking carcases, even though Carrion Crows Corvus corone and Common Buzzards were common in the area. Other studies have confirmed that Brown Rats can account for a significant proportion of the diet of Red Kites in Britain (Wildman et al. 1998; Carter & Grice 2002), and that a high proportion (around 70%) of dead Red Kites in England and Scotland contain rodenticide residues (Sharp & Hunter 1999; Shore et al. 2000). While it is clear that many birds had residue levels that were sub-lethal, it is also known from post-mortem examination that some birds are killed by the anticoagulant effects of rodenticide poisons. During 1998-2000, when reintroduced populations in England and Scotland were still small and vul- nerable, intensive studies revealed that at least seven birds in England and eight in Scotland were killed by rodenticide poisons (see Carter et al. 2003); clearly, many more that were not analysed may have been similarly affected. In order to reduce the threat to Red Kites and other species, alternative forms of rodent control should be considered where infestations occur. It is the so-called ‘second-generation’ rodenticides that are the most highly toxic and present the greatest threat of secondary poi- soning. First-generation poisons, such as those based on warfarin and coumatetralyl, are still effective in many areas (though resistance is a problem in some parts of the country, including parts of the Chilterns) and should be used in preference to more toxic products where pos- sible. Trapping also offers an alternative, safer form of control. In situations where the highly toxic rodenti- cides must be used, it is vital that the manufac- turer’s (legally binding) instructions are British Birds 98 • August 2005 * 411-416 415 Red Kites and rodenticides c ) followed. These include a requirement to undertake ‘regular’ searches for dead rodents so that they may be disposed of safely, by burning or burying, and do not pose a risk to scav- engers. The term ‘regular’ is not defined on rodenticide label instructions but this study suggests that, as a minimum, daily searches are necessary if the risks to the Red Kite are to be minimised. Further advice on the safe use of rodenti- cides and alternative forms of rodent control is available in a leaflet published by English Nature and RSPB (go to www.english-nature. org.uk/pubs/publication/PDF/RatPoison Birds Lf 1 1 . pdf or contact the English Nature Enquiry Service on 01733 455100). (See also p. 446 of this month’s News & comment.) Acknowledgments Fieldwork was undertaken by DN as part of an MSc project supervised by Colin Prescott at the University of Reading. Colin is thanked for his help and guidance during the project. Special thanks are due to Nigel and Margaret Lawrence for allowing the feeding trials to take place on their estate. We would also like to thank Pam Rummings at the University of Reading for the weekly provisioning of rodents, and the residents ofWatlington and Shirburn area for their enthusiasm and help during this study. Finally, we would like to thank all the individuals and organisations, too numerous to mention, who have played a role in the Red Kite Reintroduction Programme since it started in 1989. References Burn, A. J„ Carter; I., & Shore, R. F. 2002. The threat to birds of prey in the United Kingdom from second-generation rodenticides. In; Aspects of Applied Biology 67, Birds and Agriculture, 203-2 1 2. Association of Applied Biologists, Wellesbourne. Carter I. 200 1 . The Red Kite. Arlequin Press, Chelmsford. — & Grice, R 2002. The Red Kite Reintroduction Programme in England. English Nature Research Report No. 45 1 , Peterborough. — , Cross, A.V, Douse, A., Duffy, K„ Etheridge, B„ Grice, RV„ Newbery, R, Orr-Ewing, D. C„ O'Toole, L, Simpson, D„ & Snell, N. 2003. Re-introduction and conservation of the Red Kite in Britain: current threats and prospects for future range expansion. In: Birds of Prey in a Changing Environment, 407-H 1 6. Scottish Natural Heritage, Edinburgh. Newton, I , Wyllie, I., & Freestone, R 1 990. Rodenticides in British Barn Owls. Environmental Pollution 68; 1 01- 1 17. — , Shore, R. F„ Wyilie, I., Birks.J. D. S„ & Dale, L. 1999. Empirical evidence of side-effects of rodenticides on some predatory birds and mammals. In: Advances in Vertebrate Pest Management. FilanderVerlag, Furth. Sharp, E.A., & Hunter K. 1 999. The occurrence of second- generation anticoagulant rodenticide residues in Red Kites in Scotland. Scottish Agricultural Science Agency, unpubl. report. Shore, R. F„ Birks.J. D. S., Freestone, R, & Kitchener A. C. 1 995. Second-generation rodenticides and Polecats in Britain. Environmental Pollution 9 1 : 279-282. — . Afsar A., Horne, J. A., & Wright, J. 2000. Rodenticide and lead concentrations in Red Kites. Unpubl. report to English Nature by Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. — , Malcolm, H. M„ Horne, J. A., Turner S., & Weinburg, C. L. 200 1 . Rodenticide residues in the Kestrel. Unpubl. report to English Nature by Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. Snyder N„ & Snyder H. 2000. The California Condor: a saga of natural history and conservation. Academic Press, London, Wildman, L., O'Toole, L., & Summers, R. W. 1 998. The diet and foraging behaviour of the Red Kite in Scotland. Scott. Birds 19: 134-140. Dionysios Ntampakis, Agias Aikaterinis 2, Katerini 60100, Greece Ian Carter, English Nature, Northminster House, Peterborough PEI 1 UA 416 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 41 1-416 Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 Year after year we say it, but the judging of this competition does continue to be as enjoyable and as interesting as ever, with many extraordinarily high-quality images to admire. The overall aim of the competition also remained unchanged, irrespective of the format used, which is to produce the best and/or the most scientifically interesting photograph of a Western Palearctic species. Shots which illus- trate interesting behaviour, those which mani- festly require a skilful approach on behalf of the Sponsored by: CHRISTOPHER HELM smart thinking HarperCollins Publishers j0 sprayway for an adventure called life The Eric Hosking Charitable Trust photographer, or which are in other ways unusual or new to the judging panel, will always be highly rated. The judging procedure also remains the same; all entries were viewed twice, using both slide and digital projectors, after which they were reduced to a final shortlist, this year a total of 18, the details of which are given in the table below. Each judge independently placed the final 18 in their preferred order, with the cumulative score of each image determining its place in the final list. In the past, this system has produced a ‘composite winner’ which may not have been the first choice of any one of the judges; this year, however, two of the three judges gave the eventual winner their highest mark. No photographer managed to get all of their three permitted images in the final short- list, but we applaud the consistent high quality of the four men who this year managed to get two photographs shortlisted - Edmund Fel- lowes, Tony Hamblin, Hugh Harrop and Gordon Langsbury - with Tony and Gordon both managing to finish with two in the top seven. Last year, we received our first digital pho- tographs for this competition, which made up about 15% of entries. As we predicted last year (see Brit. Birds 97: 385), digital entries have continued to increase, with no fewer than 65% of the photographs submitted being in this format, and we will be most surprised if the proportion is not significantly higher again next year. This year, nine of the top 12 images were in digital format. Entrants of digital pho- tographs were asked to provide not only the processed file that they wished to be judged, but also the original file captured by the camera, so that the judges could see what modifications, if any, had been made to the entries. Not all pho- tographers complied with this requirement; please read the rules! We were confident, however, that no entrant did more than the minor manipulation of the image that is allowed. Both last year and this year, we were inter- ested to see if we would receive any digiscoped © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 417-426 417 Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 ( ) 1st Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus and Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis (T) (plate 250) Edmund Fellowes 2nd Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis (D) (plate 251) Tony Hamblin 3rd Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus (D) (plate 252) Wayne Richardson 4th Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos (T) (plate 253) Phil Ward 5th Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius (D) (plate 254) Gordon Langsbury 6th Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus (D) (plate 255) Tony Hamblin 7th Garden Warblers Sylvia borin (D) (plate 256) Gordon Langsbury 8th Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus (D) (plate 257) Chris Knights 9th= White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla (T) (plate 258) Mike Lane 9th= Little Egret Egretta garzetta (D) (plate 259) Phil Holloway 11th Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus (D) (plate 260) Jens Eriksen 12th Black- winged Stilts Himantopus himantopus (D) (plate 261) Barry Yates 13th= Corn Crake Crex crex Yvonne Benting 13th= Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra Alan Petty 15th Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Edmund Fellowes 16th Little Gull Larus minutus Steve Young 17 th Dipper Cinclus cinclus Hugh Harrop 18th Pygmy Owl Glaucidium passerinum (D = digital, T = transparency) Hugh Harrop entries, and for the first time in this competi- tion we did. We were impressed by the standard of some of the entries and, in fact, when pro- jected for judging we were unable to distinguish some digiscoped images from those taken using traditional single-lens-reflex digital cameras and matching lenses. If we have a comment, it would be that digiscoped images were often particularly large in the frame. In spite of the gathering dominance of digital images, the overall winner was a trans- parency, a fine study of a Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus being mobbed by a Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis, taken by Edmund Fel- lowes (who was placed fourth last year, and who was the winner of this competition way back in 1979). He reports: ‘I have watched Cuckoos and tried to photograph them without success over several springs. Early in the year, I put up a perch to serve as a song-post when the evening light (after work!) would be right, and where the adjacent forest, a kilometre away, would make a background. When the Cuckoo arrived on 20th April, I heard him in the morning and fortunately the evening was sunny. After I got into the hide, the pipit came and sang from the perch. I played a very brief (ten seconds) tape and within three minutes the Cuckoo was on the perch, to the annoyance of the resident pipit. I got only one picture of the two on the perch. Other pictures have a flying pipit — inevitably out of focus.’ The prizes for our winner this year include a Commanche GORE- TEX jacket from leading outdoor clothing spe- cialists Sprayway, together with books of his choice from Britain’s two leading natural- history book publishers, HarperCollins and A&C Black, as well as the traditional inscribed salver and cash prize. In second place is a superb shot of a bathing Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis taken by Tony Hamblin; the vigorous splashing of the bird throwing water droplets everywhere highlighted by the dark background. We particularly enjoyed the systematic patterns produced by the bird simultaneously splashing both wings into the water. Tony tells us that he took the picture at a local lake (Salford Priors, in Warwickshire) created from gravel workings, while he was using his car as a hide to photograph Great Crested Grebes Podiceps cristatus. ‘A pair of Little Grebes was way over on my far left, bathing. I watched for a while then thought that 1 might be able to turn the lens through 90 degrees to get onto them. I did so with difficulty and the manoeuvre damaged my neck! Not sure that it was worth it for the pain and the subse- quent visits to physiotherapy. It was fortuitous that the backlighting has shown up the water droplets so well.’ Prizes for second and third place this year comprise a selection of books chosen by the award winners from Harper- continued on page 422 418 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 417-426 Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 c > British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 417-426 419 250. BIRD PHOTOGRAPH OF THE YEAR 2005. Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus and Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis, Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, April 2004 (Canon EOS 5; Canon 300-mm lens, with 2x converter; I/I 25, f8, Fuji Sensia 100). Edmund Fellowes Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 C ) 420 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 4 1 7-426 25 I . SECOND. Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, Salford Priors, Warwickshire, October 2004 (Canon EOD- 1 D Mark II; 500-mm lens, with 1 .4x converter; I MOO, f9, ISO 250). Tony Hamblin Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 417-426 421 252. THIRD. Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus, Upper Teesdale, April 2004 (Nikon D 1 00; Sigma 300-mm lens, with 2x teleconverter; 1/1000, f5.6, ISO 200, 2/3 stop). Wayne Richardson Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 c > Collins and A&C Black, in addition to a cash prize. Furthermore, with the highest-placed digital entry this year, Tony Hamblin also wins a Craghoppers Nosquito Gilet (which, sadly for him, doesn’t come with additional neck support!). Third place went to Wayne Richardson and his evocative photograph of a Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus in flight. Many flight shots show little of the habitat of the bird in question, but this is a good example which not only shows the bird in its habitat, but also is so char- acteristic of Red Grouse, the bird flying low over the moor. Wayne describes the situation: ‘I had arranged to meet up with a fellow photog- rapher one evening after work. While waiting for him to arrive, I took the opportunity... to try to take some photographs. Unfortunately the grouse were not at all co-operative, and this was the only image obtained before my friend’s arrival. Manual, rather than automatic focus was used, enabling the positioning of the bird away from the centre of the frame, adding con- siderably to the attractiveness of the shot.' Placed fourth was a classic shot of a feeding wader; many waders will feed on insects when the opportunity arises, but Phil Ward has caught the essence of this hunting juvenile Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos superbly, its attention fixed on a fly. Was it caught? We don’t know! The picture was taken using a car as a hide. Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martins appears in this feature for the first time. Gordon Langsbury’s fine shot of a female leaving its nest hole in the Spanish Pyrenees was placed fifth in this competition. Gordon explains that: ‘Having found the nest in a public picnic site, I used my car as a hide to avoid attention.’ Sixth place went to another shot by Tony Hamblin. He writes: ‘Taken at the same location as the bathing Little Grebe (plate 255). A Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus called, and flew across the lake. I quickly picked up my 500-mm lens and camera, and panned with him. I got two shots, of which this was the better. I could not believe my luck when I played the image back that the pose was perfect. It was not a shooting day, so 1 wonder why he chose to fly. Maybe a Red Fox Vulpes vulpes was in the area, for I saw one nearby later in the day.’ The photograph placed seventh is a charming shot of a pair (presumably) of Garden Warblers Sylvia borin , one with a dam- selfly (Zygoptera). It is always difficult to get two birds both in focus, and Gordon Langsbury has succeeded in doing this, and in getting a fine composition of a species that is not often 253. FOURTH. Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos, Staffordshire, August 2004 (Olympus OM IN; Sigma 500-mm f4. 5 lens, with 2x converter; I / 1 25, f8, Kodachrome 200). Phil Ward Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 c } photographed. Gordon was sitting in one of the public hides at Rutland Water, Rutland, when this pair of warblers appeared on top of some bramble Rubus fructicosus agg. bushes in front of him. Eighth place is a superb study of a Lam- mergeier Gypaetus barbatus taken by Chris Knights from a hide at about 2,000 m in the Spanish Pyrenees. He put out bait, and after a three-hour wait the first Lammergeier appeared, with up to four birds attending the bait by the end of the day. We particularly liked the dark blue background of the opposite hillside in shade, and the scattering of snow, which add so much to the atmosphere created by the picture. Some excellent digiscoped images were also submitted, and of these we particularly enjoyed Barry Yates’s Black-winged Stilts Himantopus himantopus, placed 12th in the overall competi- tion. He photographed these mating birds from a public hide at the Albufera Reserve, Mallorca, Spain, and describes the situation as follows: ‘There was so much activity in front of the hide it was hard to know where to look. Lots of passage waders and Little Egrets Egretta garzetta fishing. But several pairs of Black-winged Stilts were setting up territories and there were lots of photo opportunities with some lovely reflec- tions. This shot was my favourite; I can’t believe how all the important bits were in focus.’ In 2005, the Eric Hosking Award, which has tradi- tionally been presented to the best-placed pho- tograph by a young person, is to be presented for the best-placed digiscoped image, and we are delighted that Barry’s composition of Black- winged Stilts is such a worthy winner. Barry will receive a cheque for £100 from the Eric Hosking Charitable Trust. The prizes for the winners, second and third place will be presented at this year’s British Birdwatching Fair at Rutland Water, in August. We wish to take this opportunity to thank our sponsors, Sprayway (www.sprayway.com), HarperCollins (www.harpercollins.com), A&C Black (www.acblack.com), Craghoppers (www.craghoppers.com) and the Eric Hosking Charitable Trust, once again for their support, without which this competition would not con- tinue. Next year’s competition will assess pho- tographs taken during 2005, and the rules will be announced in the January 2006 issue of BB, and on our website (www.britishbirds.co.uk). Prof. Richard Chandler, Tim Appleton and David Hosking do 4 Kings Road , Oundle, Peterborough PE8 4AX 254. FIFTH. Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius, Spain, May 2004 (Nikon D2X;Nikkor 500-mm f4AFS lens, with 2x converter; 1/640, f4, ISO 400). Gordon Langsbury 255. SIXTH. Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicu s, Warwickshire, October 2004 (Canon EOD-ID Mark ll;500-mm lens, with l.4x converter; I / 1 600, f5. 6, ISO 320). Tony Hamblin 256. SEVENTH. Garden Warblers Sylvia borin, Rutland, June 2004 (Nikon D2X; Nikkor 500-mm f4AFS lens, with 2x converter; 1/320, f8, ISO 400). Gordon Langsbury 257. EIGHTH. Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, Spain, November 2004 (Canon ID Mark ll;500-mm lens; I/I 000, f8, ISO 400). Chris Knights 258. NINTH EQUAL. White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla, Japan, 2004 (Canon EOS IV; 600-mm f4; Fuji Sensia 1 00). Mike Lane Bird Photograph of the Year 2005 -C > 259. (left) NINTH EQUAL Little Egret Egretta garzetta, Norfolk, March 2004 (Canon EOS- 1 0D; Sigma 500-mm lens, with l.4x converter; 1/800, f6. 3, ISO 400). Phil Holloway 260. (above) ELEVENTH. Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus, Oman, April 2004 (Canon EOS- 1 0D; Canon EF IS 600-mm f4, with l.4x converter; l/500,fl I, ISO 200). Jens E rlksen 26 1 . (below) TWELFTH. Black-winged Stilts Himantopus himantopus, Mallorca, Spain, March 2004 (Sony PI 50; hand-held to KowaTSN3 x30 telescope; I / 1 250, f5.6). Barry Yates 426 British Birds 98 ‘August 2005 • 417-426 Letters Population composition of wintering Common Chiffchaffs in southern England Since the winter of 1999/00, I have been trap- ping and colour-ringing Common Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus collybita as part of a PhD investi- gating the wintering ecology of Chiffchaffs in the UK. To date, 694 individuals have been trapped and ringed, mainly in southwest England. All birds caught were classified as one of three main forms: (1) Ph. c. collybita ; (2) Pit. c. abietinus ; and (3) Ph. c. tristis. Two further classes were employed for birds showing fea- tures intermediate between the three main types. Classification was based on plumage characteristics, particularly colour, along with published descriptive criteria (i.e. Svensson 1992) and reference material, including skins held at the Natural History Museum, Tring, and published photographs. A breakdown of the composition of these classes for the 694 individuals trapped is shown below: ( 1 ) Ph. c. collybita: 86.5% (2) Ph. c. abietinus: 6.3% (3) Ph. c. tristis: 0.3% (4) collybita/ abietinus: 3.0% (5) abietinus/ tristis: 3.9% At least seven individuals in group 5 were heard to call after release and all seven gave Greg Conway BTO, The Nunnery , Thetford , Norfolk IP24 2PU what would be typical of a ‘tristis’ -type call, based on published transcriptions. One of these seven birds (plates 263 & 264) was caught at the same time as a tristis (plate 262), and both birds called on release (within five minutes of each other). Both gave a broadly similar, abrupt, monosyllabic call, although the group-5 bird’s call was slightly higher-pitched. Having taken an interest in wintering Chiff- chaffs since the early 1990s, I was initially sur- prised by the number of ‘ tristis’ -type birds that 1 was observing in the field; I had recorded about 100 ‘tristis’ -types in a total of around 2,000 individuals. At some sites, up to six birds were showing characteristics which appeared typical for tristis, in both appearance and call. Even in recent winters, virtually all the obvi- ously grey’ individuals observed in the field at close quarters show a suite of features which would put them in the near-classic tristis cat- egory. It is only when these are examined in the hand that the more subtle features, such as the presence of small amounts of green in the upperparts (mantle, scapulars, crown, etc.) and yellow in the supercilium, become evident. Reference Svensson, L. 1 992. Identification Guide to European Passerines. 4th edn. Privately published, Stockholm. 262. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita tristis, St Columb, Cornwall, January 2005. Note the predominantly grey-brown upperparts, buff underparts, especially pronounced on ear-coverts, and lack of yellow in the underparts. The photo has a slight 'warm overtone’ as a result of the prevailing light conditions. © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 427-432 427 Greg Conway Greg Conway Letters C > 263 & 264. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita abietinus/tristis, St Columb, Cornwall, January 2005. The plumage of this individual is instructive on several counts. The bird's general appearance is rather 'brown and buff' and lacking in yellow on the underparts. In the field it could be taken for tristis. However, photographs of this individual in the hand reveal clear traces of yellow in the upper eye-ring and traces of olive in the mantle, while the edges to the wing feathers are also slightly too vividly yellowish-green for tristis. Although tristis have green- tinged edges to their flight feathers, the green is typically darker and more subdued. The characters of this individual thus fall into the overlap zone of abietinus and westerly tristis. EDITORIAL COMMENT Alan Dean and Lars Svensson, authors of the paper on chiffchaffs in this issue (see pp. 396-410), have commented as follows: ‘Greg Conway’s sample of nearly 700 trapped individ- uals provides useful statistical information on plumage variation and perceived subspecific composi- tion of Common Chiffchaffs wintering in southern England. Points to note include that fewer than 1 in 300 Chiffchaffs examined in the hand proved to match fully the diagnosis for “classic” tristis, sup- porting the view that “classic” tristis are relatively rare in the UK. Such individuals were outnumbered 13:1 by Chiffchaffs which suggested tristis in the field but which, when trapped, revealed traces of olive in the mantle, scapulars and crown, and yellow in the supercilium. These characters led to their cat- egorisation as abietinus/tristis" intergrades” though, as noted in our paper, (a) the presence of limited yellow in the supercilium may not necessarily exclude tristis from the region associated with “ fulvescens (b) the true status of “fulvescens” has yet to be ascertained; and (c) the differentiation of westerly tristis (including “fulvescens") from eastern abietinus with severely reduced olive and yellow remains problematic. It would be useful to know the extent of variation and overlap in other plumage characters and whether there was any consistent difference in perceived “paleness” and “greyness”. We would urge anyone trapping Chiffchaffs to take digital photographs of any individuals which are not clearly attributable to the western races.’ Declining woodland birds 1 read the recent paper on declines in woodland birds (Fuller et al. 2005) with interest, and noticed that the only reasons the authors could find to explain the loss of Lesser Spotted Wood- peckers Dendrocopos minor was interactions with Great Spotted Woodpeckers D. major (competition for nest-sites and predation) and changes in dead wood and dead-wood inverte- brates. I presume that this work may influence conservationists in the drawing up of manage- ment plans, so it may be worth mentioning that, before their decline, Lesser Spotted Wood- peckers in my local area (north Notting- hamshire) particularly favoured old orchards, both for nesting and for feeding. In autumn, the birds moved out of wood- lands to join tit flocks and were frequently seen in hedgerow trees and orchards. In spring, some birds nested in old apple trees, particularly in the fruit-growing region around the villages of Wheatly and Clayworth. Orchard trees were all ‘small-diameter’ branched trees, many con- taining old and dead wood. The provision of rotting fruit also attracted an abundance of insects. The amount of this habitat remaining has been reduced drastically in the last two decades, as many orchards were adjacent to houses and farmhouses (so not in green-belt areas) and they have been sold off as building plots. Many hedges containing old trees have either gone or had their trees removed. Some trees fell natu- rally (but were not allowed to be replaced), while the use of mechanical flails meant that some were damaged, and were later lost, and others were deliberately removed. I believe that old orchards were an extremely important habitat for Lesser Spotted Wood- peckers, particularly in autumn and winter. I saw far more in this habitat than I ever did in 428 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 427-432 Greg Conway Letters the woodlands themselves. I suggest that if any nature reserve has an area which is not so crucial for retaining natural plants, particularly adjacent to existing woodland, it would be ben- eficial to plant a small orchard. As well as pro- viding a habitat for Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers, the fruit is the perfect way to attract numerous other species to supplemen- Phil Palmer 72 Grove Road, Retford, Nottinghamshire DN22 7JN J tary food in winter and bring the birds closer to the public for viewing. Reference Fuller; R.J., Noble, D. G„ Smith, K.W., & Vanhinsbergh, D. 2005. Recent declines in populations of woodland birds in Britain: a review of possible causes. Brit Birds 98: I 16-143. Recent declines in woodland birds The recent paper in BB (Fuller et al. 2005) pre- sented a comprehensive review of woodland bird populations in the UK, but with one sur- prising omission. The authors considered predation to be the largest cause of nest failure in most birds, with the potential to suppress or reduce breeding populations in some species. They drew atten- tion to the increased numbers of Grey Squirrels Sciurus carolinensis in Britain and the sugges- tion that they are potentially major predators of nesting songbirds. They argued that a system- atic study of Grey Squirrel predation is required, and mentioned that two other mam- malian predators, the Red Fox Vulpes vulpes and the Badger Meles meles, did not appear to have increased significantly. Reference to another mammalian predator, the Pine Marten Martes martes, which has shown a dramatic increase in both numbers and range during the last three decades, was omitted completely from the paper. Pine Martens are once again widespread in Scotland and may now be colonising woodlands in northern England. Where it occurs, this species can have a severe impact on nesting birds. As long ago as 1989, nestboxes at the RSPB’s Inver- snaid reserve, by Loch Lomond, had their lids ripped off and showed teeth marks and claw rakes. In the following year, of 56 occupied boxes, 25 were predated and a further 14 deserted after similar attacks (M. Trubridge, Scottish Bird News , No. 29, March 1993). In a memorable phrase, Trubridge concluded that nestboxes had become lunchboxes. Later, he reported that 17 ‘woodcrete’ boxes had been used instead of wooden boxes and that none had been predated (M. Trubridge, Scottish Bird News, No. 40, December 1995). One of Scot- land’s largest concentrations of nestboxes, at Loch Katrine (Stirling), has also suffered heavy predation by Pine Martens (Henry Robb pers. comm.), and he recalled predation of boxes at Loch Awe (Argyll & Bute) too. I would suggest that Pine Martens are having a significant impact in many woodland areas in Scotland. Ground-nesting and above-ground- nesting species in natural sites, as well as birds in boxes, will be targeted. Likely species to suffer might include Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis. Wren Troglodytes troglodytes, Common Redstart Phoenicians phoenicurus. Wood Phylloscopus sibilatrix and Willow Warblers P. trochilus. Spotted Muscicapa striata and Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca, tits Parus and Common Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs. Pine Martens forage widely and are also likely to be impacting species outside woods, e.g. waders on loch shores adjacent to woodland. Pine Martens have recently had their protected status confirmed. Quantification of their impact on bird popula- tions might prompt reconsideration. Reference Fuller, R.J., Noble, D. G., Smith, K.W., & Vanhinsbergh, D. 2005. Recent declines in populations of woodland birds in Britain: a review of possible causes. Brit. Birds 98: I 16-143. Ron Youngman Blairchroisk Cottage, Ballinlidg, Perth & Kinross PH9 ONE British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 427-432 429 Letters C > English I have always thought that the quest for stan- dardised English names is a forlorn one; indi- vidual preferences and local usage will always prevail. It is also unnecessary, since the scientific nomenclature serves to avoid ambiguity. If, however, the Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus is to be renamed (Brit. Birds 98: 210), I suggest that those proposing ‘Short-toed Snake-eagle’ as names a replacement should think again. All six Cir- caetus eagles are ‘short-toed’ (the better to grasp reptiles), so the new name is no improvement on the unsatisfactory old one. This is one instance where Eurasian Snake-eagle would be appropriate; C. gallicus has a Eurasian breeding distribution and all its congeners are African. Dr Ernest Garcia Woodpecker House, Pine View Close, Chilworth, Guildford, Surrey GU4 8RS English names ofWestern Palearctic birds, and the role of the IOC The letter from James Ferguson-Lees and David Christie (Brit. Birds 98: 207-210) is a timely reprimand to the BB Editorial Board to stop dithering, make up its mind on the usage of English bird names and then stick with it. They rightly accuse BB of inconsistencies but their letter itself has many inconsistencies. They advocate dropping unnecessary modifiers in a local or regional context, yet they propose expanding the long-established European usage of Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus to Short- toed Snake-eagle because that is what is used for its congeners in Africa. To be consistent, we should also expand Bonelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus and Booted Eagle H. pennatus to Bonelli’s Hawk-eagle and Booted Hawk-eagle respectively for exactly the same reason. What exactly do they mean by ‘not a true eagle’? Such a criticism can be levelled at many other English group-names. Do they imply that all English group-names should be an exact equivalent of the binomial generic name? If so, we should abandon them altogether and have a wholesale adoption of generic names such as Cisticola, Prinia, Eremomela, Batis, Hemispingus and many others which have become ‘English’ names. The danger of this strategy is that we have to learn a lot of new names every time some budding PhD student has a taxonomic brainwave. Despite the current debate, the English names have proved far more stable than the Linnaean binomials. The debate on hyphenation of Stone Curlew/Stone-curlew for Burhinus oedicnemus can be kicked into touch by adopting the inter- national ‘thick-knee’ (the hyphen is for gram- matical not ornithological reasons), which is used for its relatives elsewhere (except in South Africa where they are called ‘dikkop’). If, in addition to being simple, concise, unique and accurate, the English name should also indicate relationships (or lack of them), it may well be beyond even the robust ingenuity of the English language to do all simultane- ously. If all English names were to be con- structed under such rules, why do we have names such as Redwing for Turdus iliacus which is inaccurate and gives no indication of its rela- tionship? That such names should be con- structed for the benefit of the uninitiated is yet another burden, and in my opinion unneces- sary. When English-speaking settlers found themselves among a strange avifauna, they did not bother with taxonomic niceties but pro- ceeded on the basis of ‘Well, it looks a bit like a sparrow/blackbird/oriole, we will call it that.’ The argument for a hyphen in names such as Honey-buzzard/Honey Buzzard for Pernis apivorus only makes sense if the word ‘buzzard’ is restricted to a narrow alternative of buteo. That it is also used for Kaupifalco and Butastur clearly indicates that it is not so restricted. The claim by Ferguson-Lees and Christie that the Honey-buzzard and Common Buzzard Buteo buteo ‘are entirely unrelated’ is not strictly true. They may not be in the same genus but are still in the same order. The relationship is a matter of degree and I doubt if the uninitiated loose much sleep over it. I am pleased to see that the editors do not share the letter-writers’ dislike of the word ‘Eurasian’. I agree that it is not a particularly elegant word, but, unlike our transatlantic friends who have the convenient ‘American’ as a zoogeographical alternative to ‘Nearctic’, we have nothing better than ‘Eurasian’ for the Palearctic. If words with more than one meaning should not be used, perhaps Ferguson- 430 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 427-432 Letters -C Lees and Christie should address the much over-used word ‘common’. Their concern over the inaccuracies of geographical epithets is entirely unfounded because they will seldom be entirely accurate. The name of this journal is an example. Either one introduces grossly excessive additional modifiers for clarity or relies on insider knowledge for understanding. So far as I am aware, no-one has raised serious objection to the name Dartford Warbler for Sylvia undata just because it is not restricted to Dartford, or because it is no longer found there. One only has to look at the systematic binomials to find some very dodgy geography. I find the whole idea of local and regional variations inconsistent with the concept of an agreed standard list. We had a British List in the first place to overcome the mutually incompre- hensible local dialect names. I know it is not F. M. Gauntlett 55 Larkfield Avenue , Harrow, Middlesex HA3 8NQ ) quite the same as what Ferguson-Lees and Christie are intending, but if local variations are accepted, where does it end? When (if?) the IOC-approved list finally arrives, there may well be furrowed brows and wrinkled noses at some of the IOC selections but, after a while, we will have got used to them and wonder what all the fuss was about. I hope most strongly that the IOC reverses the entirely retrograde step of the BB Editorial Board of going back to Shore Lark for Ere- mophila alpestris when only a tiny fraction of the population has anything to do with shores as a winter habitat and the rest of the world knows it as Horned Lark. Finally, is it appro- priate for BB to change its English-name usage yet again when an agreed IOC list is on the horizon? EDITORIAL COMMENT We understand that the IOC list is to be published within 12 months. As a con- sequence, we shall make no further changes to English names in the BB List, and also close the corre- spondence on this topic, until the IOC’s recommendations are published. Eds Possibly and probably I would appreciate some clarification from BBRC on how it decides whether or not rarities should be included within the cumulative annual totals published in their annual report. In the 2003 report, and referring to Sardinian Warbler Sylvia melanocephala records (Brit. Birds 97: 608), it was stated that ‘Owing to the lack of chronological overlap and the occur- rence in the same geographical area, it is tempting to suggest that some of these records relate to the same wandering individual. The evidence is, however, wholly circumstantial and, given that the Skegness male was joined by a female from November into 2004, we know that multiple occurrences of this species can happen. We have opted to treat such records as no more than “possibly” the same, which means that they are counted independently for statis- tical purposes.’ In their previous report, however, I found that my own record of an American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica at Smithey Fen, Cam- bridgeshire, in October 2002, was considered by BBRC to be ‘presumably’ one of the returning what’s the difference? birds from Swaffham Prior Fen (a quite dif- ferent location) from 2001 (Brit. Birds 96: 567). This was despite the later record meeting the above-stated criteria: no geographical or chronological overlap of records; known mul- tiple occurrence of the species in the county. Why? The Smithey Fen bird clearly met the BBRC criteria for being no more than ‘possibly’ the same individual (as defined above), while it is hard to imagine stronger circumstantial evi- dence that it had just completed a transatlantic crossing. It appeared in a well-watched flock of European Golden Plovers P. apricaria following three days of intense westerly storms in the middle of a six-day period (26th— 3 1st October) when four other American Golden Plovers recorded in Britain & Ireland during October 2002 were first discovered. Moreover, this indi- vidual was apparently moulting out of first- summer plumage, making it impossible that it was either of the Swaffham Prior birds (aged as adult and first-summer respectively in 2001). To confuse the situation further, in autumn 2003 an adult American Golden Plover was dis- British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 427-432 431 Letters ( > covered at a third location in Cambridgeshire (Kneesworth). Despite there being no circum- stantial evidence of a recent transatlantic crossing, and the age of the bird being consis- tent with it being an individual returning from a previous year, the BBRC evidently considered this a ‘new’ arrival and included the record within the cumulative annual totals (Brit. Birds 97: 577). In autumn 2004, an adult American Golden Plover was again present at Kneesworth. My guess is that the BBRC will presume this to be the bird from 2003. If so, will they now con- sider the 2003 bird to be an individual returning from 2001 or 2002? Can the BBRC please set out their criteria for considering records to be ‘possibly’ and ‘prob- ably’ the same/different individuals and how these rules are applied, particularly with refer- ence to the above records? I, for one, am extremely confused by it all. Richard Thomas BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, Girton, Cambridge CB3 ONA EDITORIAL COMMENT Colin Bradshaw, Chairman of the British Birds Rarities Committee, com- mented: ‘It is not surprising that Richard is confused! Nonetheless, although it appears at first sight that we may have made an error with his American Golden Plover in 2002, 1 am concerned about how certain we can be that a single vagrant in late October can be aged accurately as a first-summer (rather than an older bird) moulting into winter plumage. As stated in the 2003 report (Brit. Birds 97: 578), there is still some doubt as to whether American Golden Plovers in their second calendar-year can be aged definitively (see also Byrkjedal & Thompson 1998, Tundra Plovers , Poyser). Consequently, we do not routinely distinguish between first-summer and adult American Golden Plovers in late autumn, merely between juvenile/first-winter birds (those in their first calendar-year) and “adults” (second cal- endar-year or older). The statement in the report that the 2002 bird was an “adult” was meant simply to denote that this bird was in the latter category. Therefore, when the record was assessed, we consid- ered that the balance of probability lay with the Smithey Fen bird being a returning individual from 2001 - a well-known pattern of occurrence in this and some other species - and this view was sup- ported by the Cambridgeshire Recorder. 1 am, however, unable to say why we did not consider the 2003 individual to (probably) be a returning bird. As a result of Richard’s enquiry, both records are now being re-examined. ‘More generally, the Committee as a whole is less well-equipped to assess the precise nature of local areas, and the likely interchange of birds between these areas, than local recorders and observers. Con- sequently, we rely heavily upon the local/county recorders and committees who will often forward records with helpful comments such as “Believe all these records are of just one individual” or “The returning bird of last year”, and we almost invariably support the local view. ‘Why did we consider the various Sardinian Warbler records in 2003 to be only “possibly the same” while the American Golden Plover in question in 2002 was “probably the same”? I would be the first to admit that there is no exact science in our deliberations over whether two records are adjudged “pos- sibly” the same (and thus counted as separate individuals in our statistics) or “probably” the same (thus considered to be the same individual). There is, however, a well-established pattern of Nearctic waders returning to the same or nearby sites in successive years; the Hudsonian Godwit Limosa haemastica at Blacktoft Sands, East Yorkshire, in 1981 and 1983 is perhaps the best-known example, but many American Golden Plovers have shown a similar pattern. There is no known instance of a Sardinian Warbler slowly working its way along the coast, being seen at several localities. We did, however, know that in 2003 there was at least one. multiple arrival of Sardinian Warblers, with a male and female seen together at Skegness. We took the decision that, because of this, the various Sardinian Warbler records were “possibly” rather than “probably” the same, while we decided that the opposite was more likely for Richard’s American Golden Plover.’ 432 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 427-432 Notes All Notes submitted to British Birds are subject to independent review, either by the Notes Panel or by the 88 Editorial Board. Those considered appropriate for 88 will be published either here or on our website (www.britishbirds.co.uk) subject to the availability of space. Abnormal Reed Warbler chicks On 30th July 2004, at Rostherne Mere NNR, Cheshire, MC located a Reed Warbler Acro- cephalus scirpaceus nest containing two nestlings which, from their size and degree of feathering, were estimated to be nine days old. Both birds were of identical size and were clearly Reed Warblers, but whereas one chick had a typical appearance, its sibling looked most unusual. The strange chick sat awkwardly in the nest with bill pointing upwards. It was partially sighted, with bright orange skin, legs and feet, and had a dull orange bill. Its entire upperparts were uniform pale grey, while the underparts were white, unlike those of the normal chick, which were cream. MC returned two hours later to find the normal chick safely within the refuge of the nest but the strange bird had fallen and drowned in the water below. Reed Warbler chicks should be capable of reacting to a fall by climbing the nearest reed stem, but this bird had failed to do so, presumably owing to its sight impairment, despite the calm weather conditions. The abnormal pigmentation and impairment to the bird’s eyesight could have been the result of reduced production of melanin. This condition is known as schizochroism: the lack of one melanin type, leaving the remaining underlying pigmentation unaffected. It is likely that this would affect the retina and skin as described, as well as the plumage of the bird. Abnormal pig- mentation is usually associated with genetic factors, but ingested toxins may also have been implicated. The gene for schizochroism is sex- linked, and in the wild manifests itself only in females, which may explain why one chick was affected and not its sibling. Since 1996, MC has been aware of weakness in some legs of nestling Reed Warblers. The affected legs have been soft and uncalcified; sometimes the legs have been bent. In all observed cases, the bird was ringed on the opposite leg and upon catching two of these birds as fledged juveniles, when 24 and 64 days old, the ankle joint on the afflicted leg was found to be wide and seemingly arthritic. One bird with a bent leg was caught as an adult one year and four years later. Its leg had healed and straightened but a scar remained as though the leg had been broken. No defects were found during a study of nestlings at this site from 1973 to 1995, and we are unable to explain the cause of defect in the warblers’ legs. Malcolm Calvert Hilbre, 12 Hill Drive , Handforth, Wilmslow, Cheshire SK9 3AR Katrina Cook Zoology Department, The Natural History Museum, Akeman Street, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 6AP Reed Warbler with abnormal body-feathers A first-year Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scir- paceus with abnormal body-feathers was caught on 9th October 2004 near Diyarbakir, south- eastern Turkey (37°54’N 40°15’E). At the lower part of the back, one single feather was growing which was similar to the size, shape and colour of the rectrices, while an adjacent feather looked like an undertail-covert (plate 265). Both feathers were somewhat more delicate in structure and with slightly less pigment than a typical rectrix and undertail-covert. They both grew from a small, reddish-coloured protuber- ance which looked somewhat like an oil-gland but smaller (plate 266). Around this formation, the skin had developed normally. The bird was in good condition, and none of the biometric data taken were unusual. The same bird was trapped again on 12th October, by which time its weight had increased from 10.2 g to 1 1.1 g. Clench (1970) concluded that pterylosis (the arrangement of contour feathers into orderly groupings - feather tracts - on the skin) is a constant anatomical feature. Additional remiges and rectrices have occasionally been reported in © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 433-435 433 Michal Ciach Notes C > 265 & 266. First-year Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus with abnormal body-feathers, near Diyarbakir, southeastern Turkey, October 2004. both passerine and non-passerine species (e.g. Goc 1996, Roper & Grantham 2005), but this case involves a more significant anomaly within the contour feathers. It is difficult to explain, but may have been caused by a perturbation during embryonic development or by some local mutation, and it appears to be exceptional. Acknowledgments This Note was made possible thanks to the Southeast European Bird Migration Network. I also wish to acknowl- edge Przemyslaw Busse and Michal Goc for valuable com- ments. References Clench, M. H. 1 970. Variability in body pterylosis, with special references to the genus Passer. Auk 87: 650-69 1 . Goc, M. 1 996. A Dunlin and Barred Warbler with additional primaries. Not Orn. 37, 3-4: 327-329. (In Polish with English summary) Roper R, & Grantham, M. 2005. Garden Warblers: autumn moulting in the UK and birds with extra rectrices. Brit. Birds 98: 266-267. Michal Ciach Department of Forest Zoology and Wildlife Management, Agricultural University of Cracow, Faculty of Forestry, al. 29 Listopada 46, 31 - 425 Crakow, Poland; e-mail: mciach@ar.krakow.pl Garden Warblers moulting in autumn Recently, Roper & Grantham (Brit. Birds 98: 266-267) described two adult Garden Warblers in primary moult in the UK. In 1969, T. W. Gladwin reported seven Garden Warblers in primary moult in the UK, and two further birds in Spain ( Bird Study 16: 131-132). In Belgium, a Garden Warbler in primary moult was recorded on 28th August 1964 in Flemish Brabant, and Paul Herroelen Mensenrechtenlaan 22, B-1070 Anderlecht-Brussels six other Garden Warblers were listed as moulting primary feathers in a note by M. Dehaen and myself in 1971 ( Gerfaut 61: 105-106). Subsequently, another seven moulting birds were found and the details pub- lished (Ornis Flandriae 1: 15-17; 1988, 7: 4) and supplementary records were sent to me by other ringers. Food-induced erythrism in House Sparrows In late August 2004, an all-red seedeater, associ- ating with House Sparrows Passer domesticus, began making regular visits to a garden bird feeder in Kinlochbervie, Sutherland. A second bird, shyer and slightly smaller, and with red restricted to the upperparts, visited the garden less frequently. The householders, Mr and Mrs f. Larter, were unable to identify the all-red bird, and phoned me for advice. On 7th September, I had prolonged views of the all-red bird, which was fairly uniform vinous red, with a few brownish feathers on the crown and mantle, pinker margins to some of the wing feathers, brownish rectrices edged reddish, and brown primaries. Although the bird was slightly larger than the accompanying House Sparrows, the shape of the bill and tail were identical. The pale supercilium was rose- 434 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 433-435 Michal Ciach Notes -C pink, but the facial pattern was similar to that of female House Sparrow; the legs were pink and the bill colour normal (plate 267). Although it was clearly not a hurricane-blown Summer Tanager Piranga rubra or an exotic rosefinch Carpodacus, it was not easy to see how a House Sparrow might have developed such vivid plumage. The second individual was seen later that afternoon and, despite the deep, rose-red colour of the upperwings and mantle, was clearly a juvenile male House Sparrow. Although the two birds were at opposite ends of the species’ size range, this finally confirmed my suspicion that both were aberrant House Spar- rows. Three red, sparrow-like birds were reported from nearby Oldshoremore at about the same time. Knowing that true erythrism is a rare condi- tion, I began to seek possible explanations. Mr Larter, a fisherman, mentioned that salmon feed was stored at Kinlochbervie harbour to supply the local fish farm. Enquiries of the company concerned revealed that the food mix contained ground prawn shell to make the salmon flesh pink. The food mix is kept under nets at the fish farm, and is occasionally scavenged by Black- birds Turdus merula , Common Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, gulls (Laridae) and crows (Corvidae). Similar storage arrangements exist elsewhere and it is perhaps curious that, so far as I am aware, no other ‘red sparrows’ have been reported from salmon-farming areas. Perhaps the Kinlochbervie birds may somehow have accumulated an especially high concentration of ground prawn shell. Local recorders should perhaps be aware of the possibility of similar occurrences in fish-farming areas, as such birds present a real potential for misidentification. Denis Summers-Smith (pers. comm.) com- Alan Vittery 164 West Clyrie, Brora, Sutherland KW9 6NH > 267. Erythristic House Sparrow Passer domesticus, Kinlochbervie, Sutherland, September 2004. mented that diet-induced changes in captive seedeaters are quite easily achieved during moult, when new feathers readily absorb pigment. He is aware of no instances of captive House Sparrows being treated in this way, or of any instance of true (genetic) erythrism in this species, although Nichols (1935) described a male with exagger- ated chestnut markings and reddish legs. Since House Sparrows undergo a complete moult not long after fledging, and have rufous tones in the plumage naturally, they would perhaps be more prone to ‘reddening’ than the other species observed taking salmon food. Reference Nichols, J.T 1 935. Seasonal and individual variation in House Sparrows. 8/rd Banding 6: I I — 15. Blue Chaffinch eating meat Further to Philip Radford’s note [Brit. Birds 96: 91), concerning a Common Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs feeding on a dead Blackbird Turdus merula, I saw a female Blue Chaffinch F. teydea pecking at strands of dried meat on a bone thrown out for dogs in the Las Lajas recreation Barry Lancaster 42 School Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 1 TB area, Tenerife, on 16th January 2004. Several bird species in this area are habituated to humans and their detritus, and with the common use of barbeques it is perhaps inevitable that meat particles in one form or another will be encountered by scavenging birds. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 433-435 435 Alan Vittery Reviews BIRDS IN ENGLAND By Andy Brown and Phil Grice, with illustrations by Dave Nurney. Sponsored by English Nature. T. & A. D. Poyser, A&C Black, London, 2005. 694 pages; 50 habitat colour plates; maps, graphs, charts, tables and line-drawings. ISBN 0-7136-6530-0. Hardback, £40.00. When this book thudded through my letterbox, I anticipated a long and turgid read. Within minutes of opening it, however, it was obvious that this was a monumental piece of work, extremely thoroughly researched and, indeed, a much- needed account of the history and current status of all of England’s birds - and written in a style that is easy to read. It is a valuable refer- ence document against which the future fortunes of England’s birds can be compared. The main sources of informa- tion include historical documents from the pre- 1500s, the writings of Gilbert White, Witherby’s Hand- book:, multiple journals (including BB), county bird reports, the BTO’s Common Birds Census and Atlases, WeBS counts, the Rare Birds Breeding Panel reports, and many more. The references section runs to no fewer than 48 pages; the list of acknowledgments shows how widely the net was cast; and a formidable list of qualified proof- readers meticulously checked every species account. It is not surprising that it was eight years in the making. The introductory chapters include ‘The composition and character of the English avifauna’. Refreshingly, there is good news as well as bad. Though England has lost 11 breeding species since 1600, it has gained 15. A chapter titled ‘Bird habitats in England’ is delightfully illustrated by 50 well- chosen colour photographs which capture what this green and pleasant land is all about. Following a comprehensive introduction, the 543 species accounts, starting with Red- throated Diver Gavia stellata and ending with Baltimore Oriole Icterus galbula, range from just two lines for many single-record vagrants to more than four pages in the case of some breeding species. Many accounts are intro- duced with a pen-and-ink drawing of the species. It is explained that the depth of treatment depended as much as anything on the extent to which a particular bird’s for- tunes were changing. Where avail- able, WeBS counts, CBC indices and many other survey results are presented in tabular, graph or chart form. Racial forms that occur in England are all included. Some species accounts are rather long as a monolithic piece of text and might have benefited from some sub-headings. The species accounts include a fascinating story of the periodic irruptions of Pallas’s Sandgrouse Syrrhaptes paradoxus in the nine- teenth century, the Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis account acknowledges the controversy sur- rounding this species, while the demise of the Red Kite Milvus milvus and its subsequent recovery is given full treatment. The ups and downs of England’s birds include such dynamic examples as Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius , Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti, Col- lared Dove Streptopelia decaocto, Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio and Wryneck Jynx torquilla , and all are discussed here. The uncertainty surrounding the taxonomy of large white-headed gulls in Britain has not got in the way of an adequate treatment of American Herring, Yellow-legged and Caspian Gulls, all subsumed within the Herring Gull Larus argentatus account. Although the cut-off date for inclusion of records was 31st December 2000, we are brought up to date with a section covering the period to 31st August 2004. By any measure, this is an out- standing piece of work, a fasci- nating read, and a book that anyone interested in the changing fortunes of England’s birds should own. English Nature and the authors are to be congratulated. Dick Newell DVD GUIDE TO BRITISH BIRDS Filmed and narrated by Paul Doherty. Bird Images, Sherburn in Elmet, 2004. Three-DVD set, running time 6 hours 30 minutes. £19.95. This DVD set is primarily an iden- tification guide to the 280 species that regularly occur in Britain. The species are arranged in the familiar Voous Order, making it easy for most users to locate species on each DVD. It is pitched at the level of novice/intermediate bird- watchers. Each species receives up to two minutes of running time, featuring the commonly encoun- tered plumages. While Paul Doherty is no David Attenbor- ough, his commentary is concise and pleasant, and he describes the status and main habitats of each 436 © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 436-438 Reviews C species briefly, followed by a description of the main identifica- tion features as shown on screen. The videos and soundtrack are of good quality, a pleasure to watch, and it is possible to turn the narration soundtrack off and retain the natural background audio. By using the DVD menu on Photography has never been more popular, or as much fun, as it is now, thanks to the digital camera. Digital camera technology, although still very much in its infancy, is advancing rapidly. For wildlife photographers, new skills have had to be learnt, primarily in how to deal with captured images once downloaded into the com- puter. So, with all this new gadgetry, and a confusing new vocabulary of bytes, megabytes, megapixels, and so on, has come a plethora of books on the subject. This title is one of many covering similar ground, from choosing gear, taking pictures and then how to process them. From my experience of leading wildlife-photography holi- days, it is this last section, on how to deal with an image once in the computer, that is currently the hot topic requiring advice. This is well explained by Chris Weston, who takes the reader step-by-step through various processes in Adobe Photoshop (the processing software used by most photogra- phers). These processes are very basic and, once mastered, you are your TV or personal computer, it is possible to view an entire DVD sequentially, or to skip to any- where on each disk to view an individual species. A useful feature is the option of including a basic set of subtitle labels which can be toggled on or off, describing the age or plumage state of the bird on likely to want to expand your knowledge to have even greater control over the finished image; nonetheless, his coverage is sound and aimed squarely at the beginner needing help to get started. The rest of the book is very much aimed at the novice too and most aspects are well explained, with the jargon that plagues digital photography put in context. While reading the book, however, there were occasions when 1 found myself raising my eyebrows at some asser- tions. For instance, Weston suggests that when using a telephoto lens on a tripod, the photographer should use a remote release to prevent camera shake. This might be sen- sible advice on some occasions when digiscoping, but it is defi- nitely not good advice when pho- tographing an active subject (such as a bird) with a telephoto lens, when you are likely to be using a fast shutter speed anyway. My two big gripes with this book are the design, which to my eye looks cluttered, and the author’s photographs. Weston fails to mention anywhere in the book that the vast majority of the pictures screen. For potentially problematic species pairs, such as Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis and Tree Pipit A. trivialis , direct split-screen comparisons are sometimes fea- tured. Martin Collinson (more than 70%) are of captive animals, not wild animals at all. Indeed, a large percentage of the pictures have been taken at a North American game farm; these are facilities like zoos which have trained wild animals to be used by the film industry, and they are much visited by photographers. Indeed, if you were not aware of this fact, then you might well assume that the animals were photographed in the wild. The quality of the pictures also lets this book down. They are far from inspirational, with the odd exception such as the photograph of the leaping fox on the cover (which, incidentally, is captive). Some of the worst examples are of birds, such as the image of an African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer on page 130, which is not only a poorly executed picture, but is also of a well-known captive bird in Britain! So, do I recommend this book? If you ignore the pictures and are looking for a book that will explain the basics, and give advice so that you can make an informed deci- sion on which gear to buy, then it is not a bad place to start, but if you are already a digital photogra- pher with a basic grounding, or are more experienced, then you might find that this book fails to add much to your knowledge. David Tipling DIGITAL WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY By Chris Weston. Guild of Master Craftsmen Publications, Lewes, 2005. 176 pages, 250 photographs. ISBN 1-86108-480-3. Hardback, £19.95. REED WARBLERS AT ROSTHERNE MERE By Malcolm Calvert. English Nature, Shrewsbury, 2005. 144 pages; 23 colour photographs, numerous text figures and vignettes. ISBN 1-85716-871-2. Paperback, £10.00. It is now almost 60 years since Brown & Davies (Reed Warblers: an introduction to their breeding- biology and behaviour , Foray Publi- cations, 1949) wrote their monograph on the Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus , based on a study of a small population over a period of three years. In compar- ison, this work summarises the results of a long-term study of a population at Rostherne Mere National Nature Reserve, Cheshire, which varied from 25 to 85 pairs, over a period of more than 30 years! In the introduction, the author describes his early interest in Ros- British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 436-438 437 Reviews C } therne Mere. With his growing awareness came the realisation that charting the progress of the breeding Reed Warblers would lead to many discoveries. This led to the establishment of a long-term ringing programme on the site, which forms the basis for this study. The bulk of the text brings the Reed Warbler sharply into focus, with individual sections discussing various aspects of the species’ ecology and lifestyle. These include arrival, territorial establishment, song, food and feeding, nest con- struction, egg-laying, incubation, feeding and growth of the young, survival, post-fledging dispersal, causes of nest failure, and para- sitism by Common Cuckoos Cuculus canorus. It also charts the habitat changes and the associated effects upon the Reed Warbler pop- ulation. These are discussed in the context of land management at the Mere and on adjoining farmland, which has led to expansion in the area of reedbeds. The book concludes with some diary-style entries giving a flavour of the author’s time spent at the Mere, and is illustrated throughout with his own colour photographs, giving an idea of the geography of Rostherne Mere and adjoining areas. There is a detailed bibliog- raphy with over 150 entries cov- ering both British and continental literature. This attractively pro- duced book is a tribute to the efforts of a dedicated observer, and the result is an outstanding achievement, especially when one appreciates that this study was made in the author’s spare time. I can recommend this book to anyone having an interest in Reed Warblers, and as a blueprint for what is achievable given a tolerant wife and the determination to use time to the best advantage. David Warden WISSENSCHAFTLER IN TURBULENTEN ZEITEN By Eugeniusz Nowak. Stock & Stein GmbH, Schwerin, Germany, 2005. 432 pages; 110 black-and-white photographs. ISBN 3-937447-16-4. Hardback, € 24.50. This collection of 50 brief biogra- phies and reminiscences is subti- tled recollections of ornithologists, conservationists and other natural- ists, and is an expanded version of a series of articles that Dr Nowak has published over recent years in a variety of German-language and Polish journals. The main title translates as Scientists in Turbulent Times, which turns out to be pretty much of an understatement. In the English-speaking world we are fond of the idea that the professional ornithologist leads, on the whole, a quiet life, far from pol- itics and state interference. Not so in Eastern and Central Europe during much of the twentieth century, when biological ideas were thrust into the centre of political ideologies (Lysenkoism in the USSR, race madness in Nazi Germany) and lives were ruined by war, persecution, and exile. By examining the careers of scientists (some heroic, others despicable) caught up in these deadly mecha- nisms, Nowak documents how such political catastrophes shaped their lives, work, and characters. There is no space here to relate any of the harrowing, moving, or shocking narratives presented in this collection. Many BB readers will be familiar with the names of G. P. Dementiev, N. A. Gladkov, H. Kumerloeve, K. Lorenz, W. Makatsch, G. Niethammer, B. Stegmann and N. V. Timofeeff- Ressovsky. The lives of Salim Ali, Jean Delacour, Richard Mein- ertzhagen, and Charles Vaurie are also touched on. Included in the 50 are (for example) 15 Germans, 14 Russians, and 8 Poles, and it is more than appropriate that the first and longest entry (34 pages) is devoted to Erwin Stresemann, the greatest scientific ornithologist of them all and Nowak’s own PhD supervisor. His fate can stand symbolically for the others (which for many of them was much more tragic) in this fascinating work. A conserva- tive patriot who nevertheless always maintained the closest contact with Russian colleagues, he saw active service in both world wars. But at the end of his life he was caught between East and West, since his Zoological Museum in Berlin, where he had worked since 1921, lay in what became East Berlin while his home was in the West, an almost impossible situa- tion following the building of the Wall in 1961. He makes an appear- ance in around half of these biographies, and was effectively the keystone in the bridge linking the two halves of European ornithology. For anyone wishing to research the careers of Central European ornithologists, this book, with its excellent 11 -page bibliography, would be the first place to start. Brian Hillcoat 438 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 436-438 Obituaries Derek Almey Ratcliffe ( i 929-2005) When Derek Ratcliffe died, aged 75, on 23rd May 2005, Britain lost one of its most formi- dably gifted, sensitive, articulate and passionate champions of birds and the natural world during the second half of the twentieth century. His achievements were in several interlocking spheres. Many BB readers know him as the author of The Peregrine Falcon (1980 and 1993) and The Raven (1997). By themselves, these would have been a notable triumph, given that the first is widely regarded as the classic model for a single-species monograph. Yet, during his 40 years working for the Nature Conservancy (later Nature Conservancy Council and now English Nature), Derek became the organisation’s Chief Scientist and, amidst a suite of other taxing duties, he edited the Nature Conservation Review (1977), a mon- umental two-volume synthesis of information on the nation’s outstanding habitats and wildlife sites. It expressed not only Derek’s encyclopedic knowledge of our environment, which was probably unequalled by any other single Briton then or since, but it also served as a blueprint and bible for much of the conserva- tion in Britain during the ensuing decades. Despite the scope of these professional achievements, Derek will probably best be remembered for one relatively small aspect of his work. Yet in itself it was among the finest pieces of nature detection in the twentieth century, arising from a boyhood passion for a single upland bird and conducted in the very best traditions of the amateur naturalist sleuth. In the 1960s, Derek, together with several colleagues, proved incontrovertibly that the widely used pesticide compound DDT was having a deeply negative impact on Pere- grine Falcons Falco peregrinus by causing the thinning of their eggshells. His relentless pursuit of the issue resulted in DDT and then other organochlorine pesticides being withdrawn from agricultural use. Derek’s exposure of the chemi- cals’ hidden but insidious impact had consequences well beyond the world of birds. Beautifully contained in this one story was a message about the way human beings, either deliberately or inadvertently, had acquired the capacity to destroy their entire natural environment. In our own age of ever- increasing Peregrine numbers, it is hard to believe that the species was then thought at risk of global extinction. Equally, it is difficult for us to recapture the sense of international crisis surrounding the issue of toxic agrochemicals. But in many ways, the bird-poisoning story exposed by Derek propelled the environment centre-stage and in turn brought the subject before a mass audience for the first time. It would never have been such a defining moment in environmental history had it not involved one of the most charismatic of all birds. Equally, Derek would never have been able to establish the facts had he not had an abiding passion for the species since earliest childhood. The only son of a cinema pianist and a language teacher, he was born in London in 1929 but spent most of his childhood in Cumbria. A rather intense and, outwardly, rather taciturn figure, Derek found huge satis- faction in the solitary pursuit of the region’s birds. A key personality in his early development was the curator of Carlisle’s museum, Ernest Blezard, to whom Derek dedicated the most personal of his books, In Search of Nature (2000). There he describes how Blezard’s all- 268. Derek Ratcliffe in southern Scotland in 1999, about to check a Common Raven’s Corvus corax nest. © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 439-443 439 Des Thompson Obituaries C round approach to natural history was the model for his own; similarly, Blezard and his coterie of northern birdmen had a deep obses- sion with climbing, often with ropes, to the nests of two of the region’s rarest birds, the Common Raven Corvus corax and the Pere- grine. This approach was fully fledged in the young Ratcliffe by the time he was in his late teens and his sense of mission is perfectly encapsulated in his account of an excursion to the hill country east of his hometown. In the course of the day, Derek cycled 90 miles and walked 12 more to inspect several well-known nest-sites. It was this hard-won expertise which formed the background to his later Peregrine work, but when it came to choice of subjects at university, Derek opted for botany before zoology, largely because the teachers of the latter course were judged to be so boring. He emerged from Sheffield University with a first and then com- pleted a PhD at Bangor on the plant communi- ties of Snowdonia during 1951-53. This pioneering study paved the way for him to join the relatively young Nature Conservancy in Edinburgh, where he took up a post surveying the vegetation of the Scottish Highlands. This work was deeply congenial to the young professional, and not just because it maintained opportunities to study his favourite bird. It eventually resulted in two more books. Plant Communities of the Scottish Highlands (1962, with Donald McVean) and Highland Flora (1977), and also saw the beginning of a friend- ship with the charismatic Desmond Nethersole- Thompson. It was Derek who located the wader-rich bogs beneath Cranstackie in north- ernmost Sutherland that would eventually become the study area for the Nethersole- Thompsons’ famous books on the Greenshank Tringa nebularia. In return, it was Desmond Nethersole-Thompson who urged Ratcliffe to pursue his theory that eggshell thinning in Peregrines was a result of pesticide poisoning. To test the hypothesis, Derek needed to weigh eggs taken during the years of widespread DDT usage and also eggs taken before it had been invented. It was the former egg-collector Nethersole-Thompson who 'opened the doors of the underworld’ for Derek and enabled him to visit collectors’ homes to inspect their ‘mahogany drawers with their cherished loot’ of stolen eggs. Ratcliffe’s unravelling of the pesticide story, together with his other outstanding achieve- ments, won him the Order of the Golden Ark from Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, the Bernard Tucker medal from the BTO, and The RSPB medal, while the Zoological Society of London honoured him with the Marsh Award. A commemorative bronze from the Raptor Research Foundation of North America is a further measure of Derek’s international standing as a conservationist. However, many of his friends and colleagues were disappointed that he was never made a Fellow of the Royal Society, a distinction that was surely no more than his due. In his later professional life, Derek faced the dilemma common to many passionate natural- ists: maintain contact with the landscapes and wildlife he loved, or exercise influence in the debating chambers where policy was decided. He eventually chose the latter and spent many years working in London, Huntingdon and Peterborough, although his essentially shy per- sonality gave him an outward veneer of protec- tive silence and made him often less effective as a professional conservationist than he would have wished. Richard Mabey, who was on the council of the NCC during Derek’s final years, recalls the air of silent, apoplectic rage that sometimes sur- rounded its Chief Scientist as he was forced to endure the worst environmental excesses of his political masters in the 1980s. He felt nothing but contempt for those who had no genuine respect for the natural world. Typically, Nicholas Ridley, surely the worst environment secretary in the history of the post, was summed up by Derek as a ‘poisonous specimen’. By the time of his retirement, in 1989, he was widely regarded as the keeper of the conscience for the organisation he had served for nearly 40 years. As part of a personal catharsis of this dif- ficult period, Derek wrote an uncompromising account of the failings of conservation. I can think of few better tributes to his own unflag- ging efforts as a champion of British nature than finally placing this unpublished manu- script in print. Retirement brought a fresh lease of life and, with the help of his devoted life partner, com- panion, and collaborator, Jeannette, Derek pro- duced a string of outstanding publications including the under-rated Birdlife of Mountain and Upland (CUP 1990), the autobiographical In Search of Nature (2000), and Lakeland in the 440 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 439-443 Obituaries -C HarperColIins New Naturalist series. Just a week before he died, he had providentially lodged with HarperColIins the completed man- uscript of his New Naturalist Galloway and the Scottish Borders. Mercifully, he had just com- pleted the proofreading of Lapland: a natural history, which will be published in summer 2005 by Christopher Helm. Derek’s recently acquired love for the Arctic tundra grew partly out of disillusionment with the treatment of our own uplands. He felt that through mismanagement of some important sites, particularly the needless afforestation of the Flow Country (a term he coined, inciden- tally), we were squandering some of our most important natural treasures. Yet his annual > odyssey to Scandinavia with Jeannette in their camper van, which had become his summer routine for the last 12 years, expressed his ongoing commitment to wide, open, largely unpeopled landscapes where nature still had free rein. Explaining once what Lapland meant to him, Derek said ‘1 go there to be renewed.’ In that one sentence he captured the spiritual journey towards wilderness which had been at the very core of his being for the whole of his 75 years. Derek, Jeannette and his sister-in-law Veronika were all on their way to Lapland on the night that he passed away quietly in his sleep. Mark Cocker Vladimir Evgen'evich Flint ( 1 924-2004) Vladimir Flint, internationally renowned ornithologist and, above all, pioneering conser- vationist, died following a short illness at home in Moscow on 23rd March 2004. I first met Vladimir in 1974, the year which also marked the beginning of Operation ‘Siberian White Crane’, which Vladimir himself was to call ‘perhaps the brightest page in my life-story’. This was a brilliantly conceived and boldly executed plan to save an extremely rare bird, involving international co-operation during the difficult period of the Cold War between a [Soviet] Russian team led by Vladimir and George Archibald and colleagues at the International Crane Foundation (ICF) in Baraboo (Wisconsin, USA). The plan was first implemented in 1977, when the Russian team collected eggs of the endangered Siberian Crane Grus leucogeranus on the Indigirka tundra (northern Yakutia) and these were then trans- ported via Moscow and London to the ICF for incubation. Two chicks hatched and thrived from the four eggs, the first to emerge being appropriately named ‘Vladimir’. A further egg-collecting expedition followed in 1978, while eggs brought back from the tundra in 1979 were destined not for Baraboo, but for a newly established crane nursery in the Oka Nature Reserve in European Russia. This impressive conservation programme continues. Vladimir Flint was born on 14th March 1924, in Moscow. Both his father, a professor of crystallography, but also a keen naturalist, angler and hunter, and the riches of the family library made the young Vladimir aware of wildlife and a natural world to be explored outside the home. In 1942, he joined the Red Army, serving with distinction and finishing the War in Czechoslovakia, where he met up with American troops on the River Elbe. Vladimir completed his secondary education by working during the day and studying long hours at a ‘School for Young Workers’ in the evenings. He began his studies (Vertebrate Zoology) in the Faculty of Biology and Pedology at Moscow State University (MSU) in September 1948. The circle of outstanding academics at MSU, 269. Siberian Cranes Grus leucogeranus in northeast Yakutia. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 439-443 441 Eugene Potapov Vladimir Bogdanov Obituaries C } some almost legendary figures, inspired Vladimir to undertake and write up his own studies and he immediately showed himself to be a knowledgeable ornithologist, writing, jointly with V. G. Krivosheev, Birds of the Izmaylovskiy Park , which is considered to be an important primary source on the Moscow avi- fauna and is still cited today. Vladimir’s degree thesis was on ‘Eider biology and eider-farming on the White Sea’, and this gave him the chance to mount his first independent expedition. After graduating from MSU in 1953, Vladimir took up a post at Moscow’s elite Gamaleya Institute of Epidemiology & Microbi- ology. From work on rodents in Northern Kaza- khstan (1954-57) came Vladimir’s ‘Candidate’ (PhD) dissertation, ‘The zoological foundations of epidemiological research’ (1959). There fol- lowed even more interesting and challenging expeditions - to Ussuriland, Tyva [Tuva] , Trans- baykalia, Armenia, Turkmenistan and other Central Asian republics. Then, in 1963, the focus shifted to the North: the Murmansk coast of the Barents Sea, Wrangel Island, the tundra of Yakutia and Taymyr. The year 1969 marked Vladimir’s return to birds. His new post was Senior Research Assis- tant, under Dr A. M. Sudilovskaya, in the Department of Ornithology at Moscow Univer- sity’s Zoological Museum. During eight fruitful years there, Vladimir elected to work on iso- lating mechanisms in the large and ecologically varied group of Calidris sandpipers. In December 1972, Vladimir successfully defended his doctoral dissertation (for the degree of DSc), ‘The spatial structure of small-mammal populations’, and its separate publication as a book by the Academic Publishing House, ‘Nauka’ [Science], in 1977 was a considerable accolade. Later in his career, he himself was to supervise more than 50 young scientists working for Candidate and DSc degrees. Against a background of burgeoning public interest, particularly from the 1970s, in interna- tional questions concerning nature conserva- tion and, especially, in the protection of rare animals and plants, Vladimir too came gradu- ally to the idea of devoting himself entirely to conservation. Once the decision was made, he began the most productive period of his life. From 1976, he worked for more than 25 years, initially as Head of the Laboratory (then Department) of Animal Conservation, in the Central Laboratory for Nature Conservation at the Soviet Ministry of Agriculture. This later bore the title ‘All-Union Science Research Insti- tute for Nature Conservation and Nature Reserves’, and Vladimir’s position there was Head of the Department of Biodiversity. Widely recognised as a leader in the field of protecting and restoring populations of rare and endan- gered animals, Vladimir focused on three main priorities: 1) Drawing up an inventory of rare species by preparing and publishing national and regional Red Data Books; 2) Creating a legal framework for animal protection throughout the country; 3) Establishing captive breeding stations (nurseries) as the principal method of preserving the gene pool and cre- ating a captive population of animals for later release into the wild. Vladimir’s role in all these was fundamental, but he was an especially con- vinced and enthusiastic supporter, then creator and scientific director, of a network of nurseries in the former USSR: for rare cranes (Oka Nature Reserve); the Russian Falcon Centre in Moscow and other raptor stations; several centres for bustard research and captive breeding (Great Bustard Otis tarda and Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax in the Saratov Region, Macqueen’s Bustard Chlamydotis [ undulata ] macqueenii in Uzbekistan); centres for the Goitered Gazelle Gazella subgutturosa in Central Asia and Georgia. One of Vladimir’s last books, A Strategy for the Conserva- tion of Endangered Wildlife Species in Russia: theory and practice (2000) summarises the monumental work 270. Vladimir Flint (right) with colleagues from the Russian Bird Conservation Union (left to right, Olga Sukhanova, Valeriy Nikolaev, Vladimir Bogdanov and Lena Lebedeva); Moscow, February 1996. 442 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 439-443 Obituaries r V carried out during these years. The foundation of The Russian Bird Conser- vation Union (RBCU) in 1993 must rank as one of Vladimir’s finest achievements. He served as its President up to 2001, then as Honorary Pres- ident. In just over ten years, the Union has gone from strength to strength, bringing together for a common cause professional ornithologists and amateurs of all ages, and it has become part of the global bird-conservation movement as BirdLife Partner for the Russian Federation. The plan to amend RBCU’s name to honour Vladimir Flint’s memory will be a fitting tribute. Close co-operation between the USSR and international government and non-government organisations concerned with nature conserva- tion began to develop in the second half of the twentieth century and again, Vladimir Flint’s role was crucial. As an official delegate, he lec- tured at international congresses and other forums. He was an elected IUCN Regional Councillor for Eastern Europe (from 1990 to 1994) and a member of the IUCN Bureau (from 1991 to 1994). He also served as a regional Vice-Chairman of the IUCN’s Species Survival Commission (from November 1990 to January 1993). Vladimir was a member of the International Ornithological Committee, National Co-ordinator for Co-operation between Russia and WWT, and a member of the Scientific Council of ICF. Honorary life-mem- bership of the National Geographic Society came in 1989, and of the BOU in 1992. Vladimir was an important member of a Soviet/Russian team who did so much, often in difficult circumstances, to support the BWP project. Among foreign awards received by Vladimir were ‘The Order of the Golden Ark’ (an honour bestowed by Prince Bernhard of The Nether- lands, 1985), the National Audubon Society Medal (USA, 1987), and the ‘Global 500 Award’ of the UN Environment Programme (1987). Vladimir’s accomplishments were, of course, also recognised in his own country, through his being elected as an Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences and given the title Honoured Ecologist of the Russian Federation. Vladimir Flint was the author of more than 650 publications, ranging from scientific monographs and papers on a wide variety of topics to enchanting books for children. The Soviet Union’s first field guides on mammals and birds produced by Vladimir and co- authors were undoubtedly landmarks in natural-history publishing. That on birds, first published in Russian in 1968, was translated into English and brought out by Princeton UP in 1984; it has since become very popular and has probably done more than anything else to make Flint’s name widely known. Vladimir always had a strong interest in ‘avifaunistics’ and his discovery of a Grey Hypocolius Hypocolius ampelinus population in Turk- menistan in 1960, unique in the former Soviet Union, was an exciting event. He told me also that he was becoming more and more of a birdwatcher with advancing age. Vladimir was grateful, as always, for A Field Guide to the Birds of China (MacKinnon & Phillipps, OUP, 2000), which I sent him in 2002, prior to his departure for the 23rd IOC in Beijing, but he was sadly hampered by eye-trouble in his last years. Together with V. D. Il’ichev, Vladimir was Senior Editor of the projected ten-volume handbook series Ptitsy SSSR [The Birds of the USSR], the first volume of which appeared in 1982. After the appearance of five volumes in Russian (1982-93) and the translation of four into German (1985-94), the project seemed to have gone into hibernation, but happily, it has been reactivated in recent months (Viktor Zubakin and Mikhail Kalyakin pers. comm.). Vladimir Flint’s contribution to zoology and ornithology in the former Soviet Union/Russia and to the conservation of nature there and internationally was immense and history will surely recognise the outstanding role he played. Vladimir’s wife, Tatyana L’vovna, their sons, Mikhail and Alexander, and Alexander’s three daughters survive him, their only grandson (Mikhail’s son) having died tragically at the age of 20. For me, it was a great privilege to have known Vladimir and I shall always admire his achievements and remember him with affection and gratitude as a kind and courteous friend who deepened my love of Russia, her people, language, and wildlife. I thank in particular Vladimir Galushin and Alexander Mishchenko, also Viktor Belik, Nigel Collar; and Marie- Christine Labernardiere (IUCN), for providing some of the material on which this tribute is based and answering some of my many questions. Vladimir Bog- danov and Eugene Potapov kindly sent in a splendid selection of photographs. Michael G. Wilson British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 439-443 443 News and comment Compiled by Adrian Pitches Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of British Birds Giant Hebridean windfarm approved Highly controversial plans to build the biggest onshore windfarm in Europe on the Isle of Lewis were approved by the Western Isles Council (WIC) on 29th June. The application by Lewis Wind Power for a 209-turbine windfarm costing £400m was passed by 19 votes to eight, despite nearly 5,000 objec- tions. The Lewis Peatlands Special Protection Area supports globally important breeding populations of Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica. Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos and Greenshank Tringa nebularia , and RSPB Scotland lodged its formal objection in February (Brit. Birds 98: 222) followed by a detailed report into the global-warming implications of this development ( Brit. Birds 98: 387). Following the council’s deci- sion, Martin Scott, RSPB Scotland’s Western Isles conservation officer, said: ‘RSPB Scotland is disap- pointed at the council’s decision but this issue is far from dead and buried. It is now a matter for the Scottish Executive to make its deci- sion. Ultimately, the endgame in all this could be taking the matter to Europe - and that is something we would certainly consider doing. But before that, we wait to see what the decision of the Scottish Execu- tive will be. We hope they apply common sense, bearing in mind the impact a windfarm of this scale would undoubtedly have on iconic birds such as Golden Eagles - and the important peatland environ- ment as a whole.’ As Martin says, although the WIC has given its permission for the development, the power to grant planning permission rests with the Scottish Executive and the executive may well decide to hold a public inquiry. Lewis Wind Power is a consortium of engineering giant Amec and the nuclear gener- ator British Energy. Their applica- tion was scaled down from 234 to 209 turbines at the request of the WIC to reduce the impact on homes in northwest Lewis. The council also approved another giant windfarm at the same meeting: an application by Beinn Mhor Power for 130 turbines on the 40,000-acre Eishken estate on Lewis. There were a further 1,000 objections to this scheme, but councillors would not be swayed. Councillor Anne Macdonald said: ‘The Government has given our area a title of outstanding beauty. It is beautiful, but beauty does not put food on the table. The economy of the Western Isles is in trouble. We are on our knees. Renewable energy can be a vital part of our economy and it is the only sector that offers the prospect of a substantial number of jobs. Let us seize this opportunity and use the resources at our disposal.’ Lewis Wind Power says that the construction phase of its windfarm would see the provision of more than 300 full-time jobs, while the Beinn Mhor scheme would create 95 construction jobs. Furthermore, the financial spin-offs of electricity sales by Lewis Wind Power could be substantial. The company has promised that the community- owned Stornoway Trust Estate would receive £2.1m per annum for the landowners - and the same amount for crofters. And, if the Stornoway Trust took up the offer of a 20% stake in the ownership of the turbines, a total of £25. 75m could be brought in each year. Nonetheless, there is substantial opposition to the 339 wind tur- bines that would dominate the island. According to Moorlands Without Turbines (www.mwtlewis. org.uk), more than 3,000 objec- tions came from Lewis residents alone. Dutch windmills not so lethal Wind turbines kill far fewer birds than previously thought and pose less of a threat to avian life than cars, according to recent research by Vogeibescherming Nederland (the Dutch BirdLife partner) and power utility Nuon. The study was based on results from three wind- farms, and showed that each turbine killed an average of 28 birds per year, a third of what had been assumed on the basis of research conducted in the 1980s. ‘The mathematical model which was used up until now seems to predict too many collision victims for modern wind turbines in the Netherlands,’ the report’s authors claimed. The new study suggests that the Netherlands’ 1,700 wind turbines kill about 50,000 birds a year, while about two million birds perish each year on Dutch roads. The study showed that large wind tur- bines producing more than 1.5 MW of power killed slightly more birds than smaller, older windmills, but Vogeibescherming Nederland noted that the bigger windmills produce five to ten times more electricity: ‘In contrast to what might be expected, it seems that the number of bird victims has almost no relationship with the size of the wind turbine.’ 444 © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 444-447 c News and comment > All the Bird Facts at your fingertips The information to answer almost all the questions that you might ever wish to ask about British and Irish breeding birds is now avail- able on the internet, courtesy of an excellent new resource on the BTO website. The BirdFacts pages (www.bto.org/birdfacts) cover all the species which have officially occurred in a wild state in Britain & Ireland, along with a few that escape regularly from bird collec- tions. Where possible, the accounts derive from information from BTO surveys, and links are given to the relevant survey pages for each species. Full accounts are provided for the 258 commonest species, i.e. those which breed here, or occur regularly in winter or on passage. Shorter accounts are provided for the remaining species, which are mostly rare visitors to Britain, or encountered only as escapees from bird collections. The A-Z of species takes you from Aleutian Tern Sterna aleutica (one record, on the Fame Islands, Northumberland, May 1979) to Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira (technically no records, although there have been more than 30 records of Fea’s P. feael Zino’s Petrel). If you click on a more familiar species, for example Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava Increasing grazing pressure from sheep in Britain’s uplands could be responsible for the decline of some native birds according to research published in the June edition of the journal Biology Letters (www.pubs. royalsoc.ac.uk/biologyletters. shtml). A paper entitled 'Livestock grazing affects the egg size of an insectivorous passerine’, by Darren Evans from the Centre for Ecology 8t Hydrology in Banchory, provides the first hard evidence of a link between increased sheep grazing and the breeding success of the Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis , 27 1 . Male Blackbird Turdus merula, West Mailing, Kent, February 2004. Did you know that there are some 38-79 million pairs of Blackbirds in Europe in summer, about 8% of which (some 4.9 million pairs) breed in Britain? Or that birds live for around three years, the survival rate of adults is about 67%, the oldest known bird in Britain was 14 years and two months, that over 28,000 are ringed each year and that a Blackbird egg weighs on average 7.2 g of which 6% is the shell? All this, and a great deal more, is available on the BTO’s BirdFacts website www.bto.org/birdfacts.The links to the BTO surveys reveal that Blackbird abundance in Britain has shown a long-term decline, but that recent increases suggest that the population is starting to recover. The moderate-decline criteria for amber listing and for BTO alerts are no longer met, and the species is listed as green. CBC results indicate that the decline began in the mid 1970s, and it seems likely that changes in survival drove the decline. Agricultural intensification is likely to have contributed, but since numbers in woodland fell as well as numbers on farmland, additional factors were probably important. flavissima, there is a vast range of information, including biometric data, alternative names in other European languages, ringing data, nest record data, maps from both breeding Atlases, population trends from the Common Birds Census/Breeding Bird Survey from 1966-2003 and the link to BirdTrack which shows that the first Yellow Wagtail logged in Britain & Ireland in 2005 was in the West Midlands on 19th March. It’s very impressive, and well worth a look. Overgrazed and over here Britain’s most common upland bird. Researchers examined the effects of sheep grazing on the egg size of these ground-nesting passerines. They manipulated sheep numbers in an upland field experiment and found that those areas with high sheep numbers had Meadow Pipit nests with the smallest eggs, and that areas with low sheep numbers had nests with the largest eggs. Dr Evans explained: ‘Egg size is important for many bird species as chicks that hatch from large eggs tend to grow faster and have a better chance of survival than those that hatch from small eggs. We believe that high sheep numbers reduce food sup- plies and, with less food around, adult birds are unable to produce the large eggs necessary for well- nourished, healthy chicks.’ He added that: ‘Livestock grazing is important for maintaining the character and biodiversity in upland areas, but sheep numbers in Britain have more than doubled in the last 50 years. Our results suggest that intensive livestock grazing appears to be bad for birds, British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 444-447 445 Tim Loseby c whereas smaller numbers of sheep could be good for them. Eggs laid in ungrazed areas were also small, indicating that either too many or the complete removal of sheep in upland areas might have a detri- News and comment mental effect on pipit breeding performance. We need to get the balance right.’ The study was carried out at Glen Finglas in Central Scotland during 2002 and 2003. It could D help to explain the observed link between increased grazing and declines in grassland birds in both Europe and North America. All the fun of the Birdfair It’s that time of year again. The 17th British Birdwatching Fair (www.birdfair.org.uk) takes place at Rutland Water over the weekend of 1 9th— 2 1 st August. 'Helping save Gurney’s Pittas and their forest home’ will raise funds for lowland forest conservation in Myanmar, where the pro- posed Lenya National Park could support as many as 1,000 pairs of Gurney’s Pitta Pitta gurneyi. The choice of an international pariah state as Bird- fair beneficiary has been adequately debated within these pages (Brit. Birds 98: 164, 261-262) and we’ll leave the last word to BB reader John Chester: ‘All regimes fall eventually and, in a natural timescale, are tiny blips on the world’s history. If the lowland rainforest is lost, it is lost forever.’ So come along to the Birdfair and have an enjoyable day - or weekend - meeting old friends and participating in the largest gathering of birders on Earth. The lecture programme includes talks on Mada- gascar, Mongolia - and Myanmar (U Uga and Dr Htin Hla from the Biodiversity And Nature Conservation Association (BANCA), who are working with BirdLife, will give an overview of this year’s project). Those familiar panel games Just a Linnet, Call My Ruff and Bird Brain of Britain all make a welcome return - as does the Oriental Bird Club’s ferocious five-a-side foot- ball tournament for the Forktail Cup. Do stop by the British Birds stand to say hello, and see the full display of the final shortlist of the Bird Pho- tograph of the Year competition (see pp. 417-426). We’re in Marquee 3, stands 23/24. For some equally stunning images of Gurney’s Pitta, go to www.savepitta.org Toy birds raise funds to the tune of £70,000 One product it’s always difficult to leave the Birdfair without is yet another soft toy from the RSPB stand. Half a million soft toy birds have been sold in the UK since the launch of 12 familiar-garden-bird toys in 2002. To date, the toys (which produce a more or less authentic recording of the bird’s call when squeezed) have raised more than £70,000 for bird conservation. And they’ve proved so popular that a further 18 species have been added to the range. As Doug Christie, licensing manager for the RSPB, says: ‘They are ideal for the young - and young at heart - and an excellent way of learning the birds’ colouring and the songs and calls they make.’ In the N&c household, we now know the calls of Blue Tit Parus caeruleus. Bee-eater Merops apiaster. Snowy Owl Bubo scandiacus and Red Kite Milvus milvus off by heart! RSPB and English Nature support Campaign for Responsible Rodenticide Use The launch of an industry-backed campaign to promote responsible use of rat poison has been hailed by English Nature and the RSPB as a welcome initiative to protect raptors. Farmers and those working in rural areas are being encouraged to use rodenticides respon- sibly to minimise the risk of accidentally poisoning birds of prey, including the Red Kite Milvus milvus, Barn Owl Tyto alba and Common Kestrel Falco tinnun- culus. The Campaign for Responsible Rodenticide Use (CRRU, http://thinkwildlife.org.uk/) advocates moni- toring bait stations, disposing of rodent corpses quickly and removing bait at the end of the treatment. Red Kites are particularly vulnerable to poisoning through their habitual scavenging of carcases. Ian Carter, senior ornithologist for English Nature, said: ‘The type of rat poison and the methods landowners, farmers and pest controllers use to control rodents can make the difference between life and death for some of our most spectacular birds of prey. We would encourage smallholders to consider trapping to remove small infestations before resorting to poisons. If the local rat population is not resistant to first-gener- ation rodenticides, such as warfarin, then that is also a better option as there is less chance that birds of prey will be affected.’ Controlling and preventing infestations of rats and mice are important jobs on farms and other business premises in our working countryside, and the CRRU seven-point code urges rodenticide users to always: • have a planned approach • record quantity of bait used and where it is placed • use enough baiting points • collect and dispose of rodent bodies and to never: • leave bait exposed to non-target animals and birds • fail to inspect bait regularly • leave bait down at the end of the treatment Between 1998 and 2005, around 40 incidents were reported involving birds of prey, especially Red Kites and Common Buzzards Buteo buteo, where it is likely that rodenticides were the cause of death. Other surveys have found around 70% of Red Kites and Common Kestrels, and 40% of Barn Owls with detectable levels of rodenticide residues (see pp. 411-416). 446 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 444-447 News and comment From nuffin to Puffin A Puffin Fratercula arctica chick has been seen for the first time in over 30 years (since 1972, in fact) on Lundy, in the Bristol Channel. The chick was seen in mid July by Ben Sampson, the island warden, who had camped overnight to start watching the birds at first light. He said: ‘Four of the six nesting burrows I knew about still appeared to be occupied and I saw a total of nine adults land together. Then, just before 7.00 am, a juvenile appeared in the entrance of one of the burrows, closely watched by its parent. The young- ster had very little, if any, down left and I’m sure it was close to fledging.’ Puffins occur at only a handful of sites in southwest England, and Lundy is potentially one of the most important sites. Seabirds have been declining on the island for decades with Puffins down to only ten pairs in 2000, from 3,500 pairs in 1939. There were only 166 pairs of Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus recorded in 2001, far fewer than expected. Lundy means ‘Puffin island’ in Old Norse. A Seabird Recovery' Project run by English Nature, the RSPB, the Landmark Trust and the National Trust has been working on the island since 2002. Project manager David Appleton, from English Nature, said: ‘We are delighted, but unfortunately it is too early to tell for sure if it is as a direct result of the work we did over the winters of 2002 and 2003 but we sincerely hope that it is. A great deal of hard work was done to improve the island to give the birds every chance of breeding suc- cessfully, including eradicating the rats and improving the island’s waste management.’ RSPB local conservation manager, Leigh Lock, said: ‘We’re delighted at this news. It may take decades for their numbers to rise substantially, but hopefully it is the first step to securing the long-term future of Puffins on Lundy.’ Bobby Tulloch memorial unveiled On 2nd July, a sizeable gathering assembled to remember the late Bobby Tulloch, with the unveiling of a memorial outside the Old Haa Museum in Burravoe on his home Shetland island of Yell. Depicting one of Bobby’s favourite birds, the memorial of a life-size Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla feeding its young on a rocky ledge set atop a circular stone cairn was unveiled by Bobby’s long-time friend and well- known bird photographer, Dennis Coutts. ( Contributed by Wendy Dickson ) Golden Eagles nest in Ireland In last month’s item (Brit. Birds 98: 388), we stated incorrectly that ‘the first pair [of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos] to breed anywhere in Ireland since at least 1910 has nested in Co. Donegal’. William McDowell has pointed out that breeding was re-established at Fair Head (Co. Antrim) between 1953 and 1960 (unsuccessfully in 1956) and that eagles remained in the area until 1962. We apologise for the error. Big Brother targets birders The Guardian has noted a worrying trend across the Atlantic where US security agents are targeting birders in their battle against terrorism. It reports that, in certain areas, birders are being forced to provide photo- graphic identification, to submit themselves to background checks, and even to pay for a police escort. Law enforcement officials say that because birders have equipment such as binoculars, telescopes and cameras, they have the potential to commit acts of espionage. The areas they use are sometimes close to military bases, dams and sewage plants. ‘They have sophisticated gear and are looking at things not normally photographed by the common citizen in this area, so they may be stopped and asked a few questions,’ said Lieutenant Jamie Rickerson, of the US coastguard service. Gull-watchers wanting to visit the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in Virginia used to need an annual permit obtained over the phone, and sent by post or fax. There are four islands, one of which was open to the public. To visit any of the other three, to the north, they needed to provide photo ID and their car registration number as well as a birdwatching permit. Earlier this year, the three northernmost islands were closed by Virginia’s department of transportation, but after protests from birders, they reopened with greater restrictions. Now, groups of no more than 15 people can visit and they must notify the authorities in advance, pay $50 an hour to be escorted by an off-duty police officer, and submit to random searches. ‘We discovered that we had areas of concern,’ said Clement Pruitt, the area’s chief of police. ‘If you can get into the ventilation buildings, you have direct access to the tunnel and can inflict serious damage to the tunnel.’ US birders are not convinced. ‘These sorts of national security issues seem to be intruding in ways one would never have expected,’ said Perry Plumart, director of conservation advocacy for the American Bird Conser- vancy. ‘You expected airline security; you don’t expect it when you go birding. Who knew you’d have a police escort?’ Donald Dann, the president of the Bird Conservation Network, which represents a number of ornitho- logical groups in the Chicago area, was more blunt: ‘Someone can lob a grenade from the street if they wanted to. I’m not sure they’re achieving any great national security objective.’ Heightened security following the London bombings last month may mean that birders at some sites in the UK could also come under increased scrutiny in future. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 444-447 447 Marc Read Recent reports Compiled by Barry Nightingale and Anthony McGeehan This summary of unchecked reports covers mid June to mid July 2005. Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis Vane Farm (Perth & Kinross), 3rd-4th July. Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork), 2nd July. Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea 1,800, Cape Clear Island, 2nd July, with 20 Great Shearwaters Puffmus gravis the same day. Wilson’s Storm-petrel 272. Great White Egret Ardea alba, Scalloway, Shetland, June 2005. 274. Dotterel Charadrius morirtellus, Spurn, East Yorkshire, June 2005. 273. White Stork Ciconia ciconia, Nether Moor/Othery area, Somerset, June 2005. 448 © British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 448-452 John Hewitt Hugh Harrop Recent reports C > 275. Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva (left), with European Golden Plovers P. apricaria, Newbiggin, Northumberland, June 2005. Oceanites oceanicus Four, 5 km SW of Bishop’s Rock (Scilly), 14th June; two, 10 km S of St Mary’s (Scilly), 18th June; four, 16 km S of St Mary’s, 2nd July; two, 18 km NE of St Mary’s, 5th July; two, 16 km NW of Tresco (Scilly), 8th July; two, 1 1 km S of St Mary’s, 10th July. Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax St Mary’s, 20th June to 5th July; Minsmere (Suffolk), 23rd June; Cowpen Marsh (Cleveland), 4th-7th July. Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides Catcott Lows (Somerset), 19th June. Great White Egret Ardea alba Scalloway (Shetland), 18th June; Breydon Water (Norfolk), 25th June. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Minsmere (Suffolk), presumed long-stayer seen again 18th June; Tophill Low (East Yorkshire), 26th June. White Stork Ciconia ciconia Luncarty (Perth & Kinross), 14th June; two, Nether Moor/Othery area (Som- erset), 14th— 18th June; Laken- heath Fen (Norfolk/Suffolk), 18th June; Elunston (West Sussex), 24th June; Titchfield (Hampshire), 25th June; South Nutfield (Surrey), 2nd July; Sandwich (Kent), 3rd July; Pannel Valley (East Sussex), 6th July. Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus Hickling Broad area (Norfolk), 11th and 14th June; Rye Harbour (East Sussex), 9th July. Black Kite Milvus migrans Umberleigh (Devon), 16th June; South Uist (Western Isles), 29th June. Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Lin- lithgow (Lothian), 16th June; St Levan (Corn- wall), 18th June; Martin Down (Hampshire), 18th June; Heysham (Lancashire), 21st June; Goyt Valley (Derbyshire), 23rd June. Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Pen- nington Marsh (Hampshire), 21st June; Dunge- 276. Adult Sabine's Gull Larus sabini, Knottingley.West Yorkshire, July 2005. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 448-452 449 Roy Harvey Stef McElwee Chris Calvin Steve Young Chris Batty Recent reports C ness (Kent), 22nd-23rd June. Note that the long-staying (resident) individual at Titchwell (Norfolk) has not been reported since late May. Collared Pratincole Glareota pratincola Llanelli National Wetlands Centre (Carmarthenshire), 14th June to 6th July, possibly same as Llyn Maelog (Anglesey), 29th June; Rainham Marshes (Essex), 2nd-5th July. Kentish Plover Charadr- ius alexandrinus Breydon Water, lst-2nd and 5th-9th July, also seen at Great Yarmouth (Norfolk) on 9th-10th July. Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva Newbiggin (Northum- berland), 25th-27th June; Port Carlisle/ Bowness-on-Solway area (Cumbria), 2nd- 8th July. White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fusci- collis Titchwell (Norfolk), 3rd July; Isle of Sheppey (Kent), 4th July. Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stag- natilis Bowling Green Marsh (Devon), 28th June to 3rd July. Terek Sandpiper Xenus ciner- eus Unst (Shetland), 17th June; Cemlyn Lagoon (Anglesey), 21st-23rd June. Laughing Gull Larus atri- cilla Cobh and Cork City (Co. Cork), 26th June to 9th July; Burray (Orkney), 1st July; Clonakilty (Co. Cork), 2nd-9th July. Sabine’s Gull Larus sabini Knot- tingley (West York- 277-279. SootyTern Sterna fuscata, The Skerries, Anglesey, July 2005. shire), 2nd— 7th July. 450 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 448-452 Recent reports C 280. Snowy Owl Bubo scandiacus. South Uist, Western Isles, June 2005. Bonaparte’s Gull Larus Philadelphia Skerries (Co. Dublin), 9th-12th July. Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica Landguard (Suffolk), 14th June. Caspian Tern Sterna caspia Horsey, 19th June, same Hickling Broad (both Norfolk), 21st June. Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata Rhosneigr (Anglesey), 5th July, same 4 km off Carmel Head, on The Skerries (Anglesey), 7th-10th July, also visiting Cemlyn Bay (Anglesey), 10th July. Same bird, Skerries (Co. Dublin), 12th July. Eurasian Scops Owl Otus scops North Ronaldsay (Orkney), 19th June. Snowy Owl Bubo scandiacus Arran- more Island (Co. Donegal), 6th June. Alpine Swift Apus melba Dunwich Cliffs, then Dingle/ Walberswick Marshes (all Suffolk), 14th June; Edinburgh (Lothian), 15th June. Pallid Swift Apus pallidus Bryher (Scilly), 20th June; Porthgwarra (Cornwall), 26th June; Whalsay (Shetland), 3rd July. Pacific Swift Apus pacificus Spurn (East Yorkshire), 1st July. European Bee-eater Merops apiaster Two, Sand- wich Bay (Kent), 13th June; Kelling/Salt- house/Cley (Norfolk), 14th June; Wilnecote (Staffordshire), 15th June; Portland (Dorset), 1 7th— 1 8th June; Landguard (Suffolk), 20th June; Buckenham Marshes (Norfolk), 23rd June; Penmon Point (Anglesey), 27th June. Red- rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Crimond (Northeast Scotland), 28th June. Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus Carn Green (Cornwall), 13th June. Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola Unst, 22nd-23rd June. Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acro- cephalus dumetorum Fair Isle (Shetland), 16th June. Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis Fair Isle, 22nd-23rd June. Woodchat Shrike Laniu s senator Brading Marsh (Isle of Wight), 23rd June. Rose-coloured Star- ling Sturnus roseus Horden (Co. Durham), 13th June; Grimsby (Lincolnshire), 20th June; Barrock (Highland), 24th June to 2nd July; Dyffrn Ardudwy (Gwynedd), 25th June; Mid Ardlaw (Northeast Scotland), 25th June; Flam- borough Head (East Yorkshire), 27th-28th June; Annagh Head (Co. Mayo), 29th June to 1st July; Hedge End (Hampshire), 30th June; North Cave Wetlands (East Yorkshire), 3rd July. Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica Fair Isle, 13th June. 28 1 . Male ‘Black-headed Wagtail' Motacilla flava feldegg, West Charleton Marsh, Devon, June 2005. British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 448-452 451 Mike Longman Simon Rowlands Hugh Harrop Recent reports C ) 282. Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola, Skaw, Unst, Shetland, June 2005. 283. Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum, Fair Isle, Shetland, June 2005. 284. Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis, Fair Isle, Shetland, June 2005. 452 British Birds 98 • August 2005 • 448-452 BIRDING WORLD an essential journal for all birdwatchers Respected for its accuracy, reliability and readability, Birding World is offering British Birds readers a free sample copy of this respected monthly journal. Birding World publishes material on the following key topics: rare and scarce birds • lavishly illustrated • Britain & Europe • identification status & distribution • taxonomy To request your free sample copy and subscription information contact: azel Millington, Birding World, Stonerunner, Coast Road, Cley next the Sea, Holt, Norfolk NR25 7RZ 'Tel: 01263 741139 Fax: 01263 741173 Email: sales@birdingworld.co.uk Website: www.birdingworld.co.uk Kay Optical (1962) UNRIVALLED EXPERTISE, EXPERIENCE AND SERVICE * Soles & Repairs * Binoculars * Telescopes * Tripods, eti • Mail order • Same day despatch • Part exchange • Used items • Package deals • Credit available www.kayoptical.co.uk and www.bigbinoculars.co.uk 89(B) London Road, Morden, Surrey SM4 5HP Tel: 020 8648 8822 Fax: 020 8687 2021 Email: info@kayoplical.co.uk Open: Mon-Sat 9-5 (lunch 1-2) Location: Southern edge of Greater London. 1 5 mins drive from M25 (for example vio the A3, then take the A298 Wimbledon/Merlon slip-rood) or 2 mins wolk from Morden underground (turn right). See our website for o mop. Parking: 50 yoids past our premises - first left Alternative venues to Morden at which you can try and buy our equipment in the field are given below. We aim to show our full range of equipment but it helps us to help you if you let us know your interests before each Field Day. Repairs can also be handed in/collected. 10.00 am to 4.00 pm usually. Sevenooks Wildfowl Reserve On the A25 between Riverheod ond Sevenooks Bnt nnd Ball Station on 7 Aug, 4 Sept, 2 Oct & 6 Nov Pagham Harbour LNR Onlhe B2145 intoSelsey, West Sussex 31 July, 28 Aug, 25 Sept, 30 Oct & 27 Nov Dinton Pastures Country Pork Near Reading (M4, A329(M) Woodley turnoff) then A329 to Winnersh ond Winnersh Station (B3030) 14 Aug & 9 Oct The Kent Wildlife Trust, The Tylond Bom, Sondling, Neor Maidstone, Kent 23 Nov Bough Beech Nature Reserve/Reservoir About 4 miles south of the A25/A21 junction (access from B2042 or B2027) neor Ide hill, Kent. Info centre north of reservoir. 21 Aug, 18 Sept, 16 Oct & 20 Nov College Lake Wildlife Centre On the B488 neor Bulbourne, Tring, Herts. 1 1 Sept & 13 Nov Canon, Helios, Kowa, Leica, Manfrotto, Miyauchi, Nikon, Opticron, Optolyth, Sentinel, Swarovski, Zeiss, etc. Used items also on our web site. For subsequent Field Day dates, phone or see our web site 'lie event of Si© year you love birds,, then yoy're in far a treat Hundreds of stands selling binoculars, wildlife books, magazines, clothing, videos, camera gear and holidays. Once you're in, all the entertainments are free. Enjoy Rutland's wildlife. See the best wildlife art and meet the artists. t All the money raised at Birdfair 2005 goes to this year's project: 'Helping save Gurney's pittas and their forest home'. Anglian Water Birdwatching Centre, Egleton Nature Reserve, Rutland Water Friday 19 to Sunday 21 August 2005 9 am-5.30 pm daily, adults £10, children FREE }| Special price for RSPB and Wildlife Trust members on Sunday -.£8 F more information please visit tflnmw.birdfair.org.uk r ) THE BRITISH BIRDWATCHING FAIR focus Also sponsored by v_nv (TJf Wildlife ■£ SWAROVSKI Nlkon We make It vi k) charities All proOto fiom I l\o British Bltdwjtd'ing Fair will bo doomed by imeeilot shite VVilrtlifo ! 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HISTORY MUSEUM | -7 SEP 2005 PBESEMTED TRii )S3 UBRARY Birds, landscape and land use Wintering Little Egrets in France Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia British Birds Established 1907, incorporating The Zoologist, established 1843 Published by BB 2000 Limited, trading as ‘British Birds’ ISSN 0007-0335 Registered Office: 4 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8SF British Birds is owned and published by BB 2000 Limited, the directors of which are Richard Chandler (Chairman), John Eyre, Jeremy Greenwood, Ian Packer, Richard Porter, Bob Scott and Terry Smeeton. BB 2000 Limited is wholly owned by The British Birds Charitable Trust (registered charity No. 1089422), whose trustees are Richard Chandler, Jeremy Greenwood, Peter Oliver and Bob Scott. 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ZEISS FL - high-performance optics with fluoride glass Seeing is believing: brighter, crisper, more brilliant. Never before have you seen nature in all its glory - until now. ZEISS FL binoculars and spotting scopes deliver unparalleled image quality: the result of many innovations - special lenses featuring fluori- de glass, in particular. ZEISS FL binoculars feature minimal colour fringes, maximum edge definition and image quality. This transparency, colour rendi- tion, resolution and contrast will amaze even the most discerning experts. FL - the seal of maximum optical quality. For more information, please visit www.zeiss.co.uk ........ We make it visible i . British Birds HISTORY MUSEUM S - 7 SEP 2005 PRESbO'.o Volume 98 • Number 9 • September 2005 454 Birds, landscape and land use Christopher F. Mason 468 Status and behaviour of Little Egrets wintering in western France Claire Voisin, Jose Godin and Alain Fleury 476 The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia: what does the future hold? Viktor P. Belik Regular features 486 Conservation research news Little Stints with aberrant leg Derek Gruar and Mark Bolton coloration Lorenzo Vanni 488 Letters 498 Reviews Breeding Honey-buzzards in Britain: Handbook of the Birds of the World. fact, fiction and wishful thinking Vol. 9. Cotingas to Pipits and Wagtails Pete Combridge, David A. Christie and Where to Watch Birds in Peru I. J. Ferguson-Lees Shorebirds of North America: the Honey-buzzards in Britain photographic guide Malcolm Harvey A Birder’s Guide to Southeastern Acknowledging records Giles Dunmore Arizona Black and White-winged Larks in The Good Bird Guide Europe, and the museum tradition Ospreys: flying home to Rutland Water Guy M. Kirwan The Birds of Dartmoor Meinertzhagen right or wrong N. J. Collar 502 News and comment Adrian Pitches 493 Obituary Roger Penhallurick 1940-2004 506 (§) Monthly Marathon Steve Rooke 494 Notes Diagnostic differences in the calls of 507 Recent reports Honey-buzzard and Common Buzzard Barry Nightingale and Anthony Simon T. Elliott McGeehan Ongoing research on Sociable Lapwings - an update Will Cresswell, Paul Donald and Valery Khrokov © British Birds 2005 Birds, landscape and land use Christopher F. Mason ABSTRACT This paper provides an overview of studies carried out during the past 20 years examining the relationship between both landscape and land use and bird populations in northeast Essex. Habitats considered include farmland, woodland, river valleys and the urban environment. Ways of modifying landscape and land use in these habitats to improve conditions for birds are examined. Essex has one of the largest human popula- tions of any county in the UK, with some 1.6 million people living in an area of about 3,700 km2, although much of the popula- tion is concentrated in the urban south. Other- wise, agriculture, predominantly arable, dominates the landscape, with farmland cov- ering some 70% of the county. The topography is that of a gently rolling countryside, dissected by river valleys. The majority of birdwatchers in Essex spend their time on the coast or at reservoirs. Few birdwatch in farmland, but this is hardly sur- prising because there are so few farmland birds to watch nowadays. Nationally, bird losses on farmland have been estimated at some ten million individuals of ten species over the last two decades or so (see review in Newton 2004), while there have also been significant declines in woodland birds (Eaton eta/. 2004). This paper summarises work conducted on the impact of both landscape and land use on birds in Essex, primarily in the Tendring district in the northeast of the county, an area lying east of Colchester and extending to the coastal towns of Harwich and Clacton-on-Sea. Studies have examined farmland, woodland, riverine and urban habitats. Changes in landscape and land use Humans began modifying the landscape of Essex when they first colonised the area, about 5,000 years ago, and the pattern of settlements, farmland and woodland which we recognise today was broadly in place 1,000 years ago. Farmland The system of farming practised even 50 years ago supported a high biodiversity - most farms were mixed, with livestock and arable crops under rotation, in relatively small fields sur- rounded by hedgerows (Shrubb 2003). Since then, however, government initiatives towards self-sufficiency in food and a range of agricul- tural subsidies have transformed the landscape and land use in lowland England. What live- stock farming remains in Essex is much more productive on a much smaller area of grassland, while yields of cereals per unit area have tripled on a much larger crop acreage. The most signif- icant changes to agriculture in Essex in the past half-century have included: • mechanisation; • removal of hedgerows to enable large machinery to operate efficiently; • selective breeding of animals and plants to improve yields, with the likelihood of geneti- cally modified crops in the future; • increased use of fertilisers on crops and grassland, the latter now supporting just a few, vigorous grass species, which out- compete and smother most herbaceous species; • greater use of herbicides and insecticides, removing the food base on which most farmland birds depend; • cultivation of marginal land which, without subsidies, was previously uneconomical to farm and has led, for example, to the destruction of woods, heaths and wet grass- lands; 454 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 Birds, landscape and land use c > Table I. Hedgerow length and total number of hedgerow trees in five parishes in northeast Essex, 1874-1990. * denotes survey of only part of parish. Hedgerow length (m/ha) No. of hedgerow trees 1874 1960 1980 1990 1874 1990 Wivenhoe 82 69 58 N/A 1,893 753 Little Bromley 110 93 69 68 1,862 287 Ardleigh 149 66 49 40 650* 365* Dedham 174 148 129 128 468* 134* Frating 113 66 47 42 1,679 75 • under-drainage of fields so that they dry out more quickly; • extensive planting of winter cereals, thus leaving no stubbles over winter for birds. While all of these factors have had a negative impact on farmland bird populations, it would appear to be the expansion of winter cereals which has been the most significant cause of major declines. Table 1 shows the loss of hedgerows over time in five parishes in northeast Essex (Mason et al. 1987 and unpubl. data). For example, between 1874 and 1990, some 73% of hedgerows were removed from Ardleigh and 63% from Frating. Hedgerow loss was least in Dedham (26%), lying as it does in protected ‘Constable Country’, with a generally affluent populace, many of whom have horse paddocks with hedges. Similar losses have been measured in southeast Essex (Conyers 1986). The loss of hedgerow trees has been even more severe, ranging from 44% (Ardleigh) to 96% (Frating). While Dutch elm disease has played an impor- tant role in this, the removal of trees along with their hedges has also been significant. The majority of bird species nesting on farmland do so along field boundaries. While it would be oversimplistic to link the loss of farm- land breeding birds directly with the removal of hedgerows, table 1 indicates that there must have been a substantial decline in hedgerow habitat and hence bird numbers before bird population surveys began in the 1960s. As well as providing breeding habitat, hedgerows act as safe corridors for dispersal, and are also impor- tant habitats for small mammals (Kotzageorgis & Mason 1997), on which farmland owls and raptors depend. Another key landscape feature, the farm pond, has also been badly affected by modern agriculture, some 69% having been lost from the Essex countryside between 1870 and 1989 (Heath & Whitehead 1992). The changes in land use which have had most effect on bird populations began in the early 1960s. The development of herbicides and fertilisers meant that it was no longer necessary Fig. I. Seasonal changes in land use on farmland. This illustrates land use during a typical year (2002), in randomly selected fields, totalling 735 ha, in theTendring district of Essex. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 455 Christopher Mason Birds, landscape and land use c to include grassland and livestock in rotations for the purpose of controlling weeds and manuring the land. The mixed farm became a rarity and farmers in Essex were encouraged (by subsidies) to move out of dairying to alleviate a milk surplus. The arable farm system itself became simplified and many large fields are now under a continuous cereal regime. In the early 1970s, spring tillage dominated arable agriculture. The development of grass herbi- cides and new cereal varieties heralded a shift to autumn-sown cereals such that, by the mid 1990s, 80% of tillage was autumn-sown, with consequently little stubble and fallow land on which weeds could grow and birds could feed. The overall trend has been towards uniformity and simplification of farmland habitats (Shrubb 2003). These major and rapid changes in both landscape and land use have been encouraged by state subsidies to the farming industry. As well as these long-term trends, the sea- sonal changes in the farming year are also crit- ical for birds. Fig. 1 illustrates these in 2002, a typical year, in Tendring district. Grass com- prised only 3.6% of land cover, on average, with a smaller amount of set-aside. Note how the percentage of stubble peaks in August, fol- lowing harvest, and that little is left in winter. Ploughing of harvested land begins in July with a peak in bare ground (ploughed and harrowed land) in September. The only month without any cover of winter cereals is September and for much of the year they occupy over 50% of the farmed area. Other crops - mainly oilseed rape and sugar beet, with some peas and potatoes, and less than 1% spring cereals - peaked at 34% land cover in June. Woodland In the distant past, Essex would have been clad in virgin forest, but much of this was destroyed before the end of the Roman period, with little woodland left by the time of the Norman Con- quest (Rackham 1986). Nonetheless, compared with neighbouring counties, Essex is compara- tively well wooded. The forests of Epping and Hatfield contribute to a total area of semi- natural woodland of over 7,200 ha, though this is less than 2% of the total land area of the county. Some 24% of ancient semi-natural woodland was lost in the 50 years prior to a woodland inventory in 1983 (NCC 1984), either through total destruction or conversion to plantation. River valleys In prehistoric times, the river valleys of Essex would also have been forested, with swamps in the wetter parts. The lower reaches would have contained large reed-swamps, grading into salt- marshes as salinity increased nearer the sea. This landscape was cleared long ago but the grazing marshes that replaced it were rich in wildlife. Over the last 40 years or so, many of these marshes have been drained and converted to arable with cropping up to the riverbank, especially in the upper reaches of our rivers. The rapid run-off from these crops leads to flooding problems downstream, which the authorities attempt to mitigate by dredging, straightening and embanking watercourses. The irrigation of arable crops, erosion of soil from bare fields in winter, and leaching of pesticides and especially fertilisers lead to low river flow, decreased water quality and increased eutrophi- cation, which in turn affects the invertebrate 456 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 Birds, landscape and land use ( populations of rivers on which many birds depend (Parr & Mason 2003). This nutrient enrichment also affects the ditches in the remaining grazing marshes towards the coast (Samuels 8c Mason 1997). Remnant riverine woodland generally con- sisted of a row of trees lining the riverbank, but most of these had been removed as early as the nineteenth century, especially along the navig- able Stour. The rivers of Essex have, on average, fewer than 25 mature bank-side trees per km, compared with, for example, more than 100 trees per km on many Welsh rivers, where man- agement has been much less intensive (Mason & Macdonald 1990). The human environment In 1801, the population of Essex was just 200,000. A century later it had doubled, and by 2001 there were some 1.6 million inhabitants (including those in the unitary authorities of Southend and Thurrock). To accommodate the increasing population, over 5,000 new dwellings a year are now being built, while the county structure plan has a requirement for a further 250,000 houses. As will be shown below, the built environment can provide better habitat for some birds than arable monocultures, but there are hazards to life in towns and villages. Every year in the UK, some 27 million birds are estimated to fall victim to the cat Felis catus population of 9 million (Woods et al. 2003), while a further 33 million are thought to die following collisions with windows and some 30-60 million birds a year are killed in road traffic accidents (Mead 2000). Of course, one accident is another bird’s meal. Over a 27- month period, Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus and Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus roadkills were noted during journeys across eastern England (Mason 8c Macdonald 1995). Rabbit fatalities peaked in the summer and Common Pheasant fatalities in spring. Of those species observed feeding on carcases, Magpies Pica pica were the commonest, followed by Carrion Crows Corvus corone. Magpies fed mainly from Rabbit carcases, while Carrion Crows ate both Rabbits and Pheasants. The increased avail- ability of carrion may be one reason for the burgeoning corvid populations. Added to these large-scale changes in land- scape and land use, there is also the potential future impact of global warming (Crick 2004). There is already evidence of climate change in Essex, as in many parts of the UK, with earlier flowering and leafing of plants, and a trend towards earlier arrival of some summer migrants (Sparks et al. 2000; Sparks 8c Mason 2001, 2004). Coastal areas will be prone to rising sea levels and there could be loss of salt- marsh and intertidal habitat. General warming may encourage more species to breed, as southern birds spread north, but the breeding cycles of some birds may lose their synchrony with food supply, while drought could have a major impact on breeding success and survival of young once they become independent. Breeding birds on farmland To study the relationship between landscape and land use and the distribution of breeding birds, ten tetrads (40 km2 in total) were sur- veyed during 1994-96 (1994-98 in the case of Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra ), in the Ten- 286. A set-aside field with an abundance of arable weeds, northeast Essex, June. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 457 Christopher Mason Birds, landscape and land use c dring district. Twelve species were studied, of which Sky Lark Alauda arvensis. Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava and, to a lesser extent, Corn Bunting nested in fields, the other species being associated mainly with boundary habitats (Mason & Macdonald 2000a). Northern Lapwing A total of only 49-54 pairs of Northern Lap- wings Vanellus vanellus was located during 1994-96, in nine areas, all but one of them coastal (Mason & Macdonald 1999a). Some 80% of territories were in grazing marshes and less than 10% in arable crops, the remainder being associated with the grassy environs of water-filled pits. This species has clearly suf- fered a major decline; Cox (1984) reported 53 pairs in the vicinity of St Osyth alone in 1968. Turtle Dove Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur territories were associated mostly with peripheral habitats in the study area, with more than half of all birds associated with the immediate area around farms and/or with large rural gardens. Scrub was also a favoured habitat, although it occu- pied only 0.2% of the study area. Hedgerows occurred much less frequently in territories than their availability suggested. There was a strong preference for grass, but for no other agricultural land-use type within territories, probably because of the feeding opportunities provided by grassland. Sky Lark Sky Lark densities averaged nine territories per km- in autumn-sown crops, though more than half of all larks nested here, and 12 territories per km2 in spring-sown crops. Densities were low in pasture. Some 24 territories per km2 were recorded in set-aside and 62 territories per km2 in conservation grassland managed under the Countryside Stewardship Scheme. The latter was cut in late July, enabling many young larks to fledge successfully, but much set-aside was mown in June and again in early July, resulting in the destruction of most nests. The conserva- tion grassland occupied only 0.5% of the farmed area in the study but held 3% of all Sky Lark territories. Yellow Wagtail Yellow Wagtails were much scarcer than Sky Larks, generally nesting in the largest fields and ) avoiding autumn-sown crops. Some 73% of ter- ritories were in spring-sown crops, with the highest densities in potatoes and peas, and few nested in grassland of any type. This desertion of lowland grasslands, considered to be the species’ traditional habitat (Newton 2004), has also been noted elsewhere (Nelson et al. 2003). A preference for potato fields has its risks, as harvesting begins much earlier for potatoes than it does for other crops, typically in early June, with many fields being treated with sul- phuric acid to kill the haulms prior to lifting. Clutches and broods in potatoes harvested in June and July are unlikely to survive. Song Thrush Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos largely avoided farmland; only 3.5% of territories were found there (Mason 1998). Some 72% of terri- tories were in gardens, though they made up only 2% of the study area, with the remainder in small patches of woodland. In a later study in the Harwich area (Mason 2000), no Song Thrushes and only 4% of Blackbirds T. merula were located in farmland, the built environment being particularly important to both species (see below). Drought may have played a major role in the low density of Song Thrushes in the 1990s. Snails are eaten extensively by thrushes in dry weather, when earthworms become unavailable, and snails may be especially impor- tant as a food for inexperienced first-year birds. Snails themselves may, however, succumb to prolonged drought, and the impact is likely to be greatest in farmland, where feeding opportu- nities for birds are limited and the under- drainage of fields quickly dries out the land. Severe drought also affects woodland, as evi- denced by the many dry woodland ponds in 1994-96. The impact of drought is likely to be least in gardens, where householders protect their vegetables, flowerbeds and lawns with regular watering. Densities of Song Thrushes in the three-year study averaged 51 territories per km2 in gardens, compared with 32 in wood- lands and less than one per km2 in farmland. Rook While many species associated with farmland have shown marked declines, the Rook Corvus frugilegus appears to be holding its own. The distribution of rookeries was examined during 2001-03 in Tendring (Mason & Macdonald 2004). Overall, 1,561 nests were located in 49 458 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 Birds, landscape and land use c > Fig. 2. Relationship between colony size (main colonies with satellites) of Rooks Corvus frugilegus and the area of grassland (ha) within I km, in theTendring district of Essex, 2003. rookeries in 2001. This had increased to 1,637 nests in 50 rookeries in 2002, while four new rookeries were founded in 2003 and one was destroyed, giving a total of 1,700 nests. The mean rookery size was constant at 32 nests in each of the study years, while the largest rookery comprised 128 nests. There were con- sidered to be 24 main rookeries, the rest being satellites of these, and the size of these rookery groups was strongly associated with the area of grass lying within a radius of 1 km (fig. 2). All rookeries were sited within 50 m of grassland and all rookery groups had at least 20 ha of grass- land within 1 km. It was estimated that a colony (with satellites) of 100 nests would require 122 ha of grass within 1 km (39% of the total area). Although only 3.6% of the study area was under grass, 48% of all Rooks foraged here in April, rising to 62% in May and 84% in June. Rooks also foraged extensively in spring cereals during a short period of availability in April and May. Corn Bunting A complete survey of Corn Buntings was carried out in Ten- ding in 1997-98. A total of 278 singing males was located, amounting to some 2-3% of the entire UK population (Mason & Macdonald 2000b). With other large populations further down the Essex coast, the county is highly important for this rapidly declining species. A repeat survey of the main ten study tetrads in Tendring in 2004, however, revealed a worrying 39% decline since 1998. Singing male Corn Buntings occurred at an overall density of 1.2 per km2, but some individual tetrads held 7.5 singing males per km2, among the highest densities recorded in Europe. Corn Buntings were unevenly distributed, with a highly clumped distribution of singing males. Most were in the southeast of the district, on the flatlands either side of Clacton-on-Sea, and along a northwest to southeast axis on a low- lying plateau of large arable fields. Although over half of all territories were associated with autumn-sown crops, there was no preference for any particular crop. There was, however, a strong preference for field boundaries without hedges, and a distinct avoidance of field bound- 287. Essex is an extremely important county for Corn Buntings Emberiza calandra, now a rapidly declining species in the UK. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 459 Rebecca Nason Birds, landscape and land use c > aries with tall hedges; a strikingly different situa- tion from that for the majority of farmland passerines. Weedy tracks and/or water-filled ditches were also important features. The prefer- ence for intensively cultivated land with low crop diversity contrasts with the findings of other studies; for example in the Lincolnshire fens, where territories were associated with areas that were less intensively farmed and with greater crop diversity than the surrounding area (Gillings & Watts 1997). Local Corn Bunting populations may develop ‘cultural’ preferences for particular landscape types over time, and such important local differences in habitat pref- erence may be lost as statistical noise in large- scale surveys. At the same time, it may be highly misleading to develop a national conservation action plan based on a detailed ecological study of the species from a single study area. Other species Some 36% of Linnet Carduelis cannabina terri- tories were associated with the small amount of scrub, with low hedges also being preferred, while there was a strong preference for oilseed rape within territories. Linnet densities were low, with less than one pair per km2. Lesser Whitethroats Sylvia curruca were predomi- nantly found in tall hedges, whereas Common Whitethroats S. communis were more catholic in choice of habitat, although they also showed a preference for tall hedges, as did Yellowham- mers Emberiza citrinella. All three species showed some association with grass within ter- ritories. Only 14 Reed Bunting E. schoeniclus territories were located over the three years, 71% of which were associated with water. Birds on farmland in winter The period immediately after fledging is consid- ered critical for Rooks, because dry weather renders soil invertebrates inaccessible, while the grain harvest has not yet started. From June to September, Rooks were observed foraging on saltmarshes and mudflats, in flocks of up to 50 individuals. Grassland remained the preferred feeding habitat outside the breeding season, while weedy stubbles were utilised in the autumn, as was harrowed land. Although many Rooks fed on non-weedy stubbles, ploughed land and winter cereals, these habitats were used much less than expected from their avail- ability (Mason & Macdonald 2004). Lapwings and European Golden Plovers Plu- vialis apricaria are typical winter birds of Essex farmland, often occurring in large flocks. Their use of the agricultural landscape was studied in Tendring district over three winters (Mason & Macdonald 1999a). Lapwings, presumably birds which had bred relatively locally, began forming small flocks from mid June, and were joined by small numbers of Golden Plovers in July. At this time, harvested potato fields were the most fre- quently used habitat, with stubbles and plough used as they became available. Numbers rose steadily through the autumn to peak in late November, while most birds had departed by March. Both species were most numerous during the first winter (1993/94) of the study, and both preferred foraging in fields larger than 30 ha. Most Lapwings in September were on stubble and plough, with newly emerging cereals and plough used in October. Most birds fed on cereal crops from November to February, while those remaining in March utilised mainly permanent grassland. By contrast, most Golden Plovers used cereal fields throughout. Lapwings used cereal fields in relation to their availability (i.e. they showed no preference for this habitat), except in late winter when they avoided cereals and showed a strong preference for grass. Golden Plovers showed a greater preference than Lapwings for cereals in most months, avoiding most other cultivations. In other parts of the country, grassland is widely used for for- aging (Fuller & Lloyd 1981), and the strong association both species have with cereals in Tendring is most likely a reflection of the extreme scarcity of grassland, which occupies only 6% of the area. The relatively small numbers of Lapwings and Golden Plovers found in 1994/95 and 1995/96 was probably the result of mild autumn weather encouraging rapid growth of winter cereals. Golden Plovers avoided cereal fields where the crop was taller than 90 mm, while Northern Lapwings avoided crops taller than 110 mm. These heights were exceeded in cereal fields by late November in both 1994 and 1995, but crops were shorter in 1993. If rapid growth in autumn becomes the norm, birds may be forced either to feed on estuaries, where they are likely to compete with other species, or to move south to continental Europe, where they face additional hazards such as hunting. Observations at the head of the Stour estuary in 1995 and 1996 showed that both species foraged regularly in the intertidal 460 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 -c Birds, landscape and land use zone, with all members of a mixed flock feeding Sitta europaea, Marsh Tit Parus palustris. Coal _±la-£atio^dl urum.J. lU.mn Xr MarrloLcald 71ULjita:j,n3ALsss£Y.KcdDMd3aMiAdis cabaret, lal disturbance ♦ english nature * british ornithologists ' union * birds & recreational ce * english nature ♦ british ornithologists ' union ♦ birds & recreational disturbance W BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION British Ornithologists’ Union Autumn Scientific Meeting 16 November 2005 at The Great Northern Hotel Peterborough supported by English Nature £60.00 Birds & Recreational Disturbance using novel research to reconcile access and conservation Further details and a booking form available online at www.bou.org.uk BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION Dept, of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford 0X1 3PS, UK Tel & Fax +44 (0) 1 865 281 842 Email admin@bou.org.uk Conference Office Direct Tel +44 (0) 1 733 844 820 Et Email steve.dudley@bou.org.uk The BOU is a Registered Charity in the UK, no. 249877 >> over >> British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 BOU Birds & Recreational Disturbance British Ornithologists’ Union English 16 November 2005 NATURE This one-day meeting will include the following presentations: Opening of conference: why study disturbance? Bill Sutherland (University of East Anglia) The political and social drivers for applied research into recreational effects Graham Bathe (English Nature) Approaches to measuring the effects of disturbance Jennifer Gill (University of East Anglia) How perception and density-dependence affect breeding Woodlarks John Mallord (RSPB) Effects on the timing and success of breeding Dartford Warblers Giselle Murison (University of East Anglia) Effects of access on foot on breeding Nightjars on heathland Rowena Langston (RSPB) Effects of disturbance on the distribution and behaviour of Stone-curlews Elisabeth Taylor (University of Cambridge) Effects of footpath managment on two upland breeding waders James Pearce-Higgins (RSPB) An experimental assessment of disturbance effects on Black Grouse David Baines (Game Conservancy Trust) Impacts on ground-nesting meadow birds caused by walkers Thomas Eske Holm (Natural Environment Research Institute, Denmark) Modelling disturbance to waterbirds Mark O’Connell (Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust) Usung individual behaviour to predict the response of coastal bird populations Richard Stillman (Centre for Ecology and Hydrology) Determining population level effects on Ringed Plover Durwyn Liley (Footprint Ecology) Landscape approaches to studying disturbance of estuarine birds Niall Burton (British Trust for Ornithology) Interaction between waterbirds and human activities - a large scale approach Karsten Laursen (Natural Environment Research Institute, Denmark) Managing visitor access to seabird colonies Colin Beale (University of Glasgow) Patterns of access John Day (RSPB) Plenary discussion i) assessment of recreational effects and research required ii) reconciling access and conservation - what techniques are available for managing access and monitoring changes in bird populations? Further details and booking form availble from BOU or online at www.bou.org.uk UbCU 111UG1I ICOO mail uv/m uxvxi utuxi — O' ability (Mason & Macdonald 2004). Stour estuary in 1995 and 1996 showed that Lapwings and European Golden Plovers Plu- both species foraged regularly in the intertidal 460 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 Birds, landscape and land use (I zone, with all members of a mixed flock feeding there during a cold spell (Mason & Macdonald 1999b). To examine habitat use and preferences of birds on Essex farmland in winter, transects 1,000 m in length were walked (40 in October-December 1997, 30 in January-Feb- ruary 1998). A total of 32 species was recorded, although eight transects (11%) produced no birds at all (Mason & Macdonald 1999c). The maximum number of species per transect was nine but most transects held three species or fewer. Sky Larks were the most widespread and abundant species but flock sizes were generally small, most consisting of fewer than ten birds. The species assemblage as a whole showed no strong foraging preferences in October- December, but grass, stubble and harrow were preferred in January-February. No species showed any preference for the most widespread crop-type (cereals), although 37% of all birds were foraging here. Sky Larks showed a strong preference for stubble throughout the winter. Some 96% of finches and buntings were recorded on stubbles, though these comprised only 3.5% of the farmed area by January. Corn Buntings in winter in Tendring were studied over five years. Most groups were of five birds or less, but some large flocks were recorded, including one of 133 birds (Mason & Macdonald 2000b). Flocks of up to 90 were recorded as late as May, emphasising the late breeding season of this species. Corn Buntings showed strong foraging preferences for plough in early winter, and grass and stubble in late winter. Winter cereals were generally avoided. Woodland birds The fragmentation of woodland in Essex has had potentially severe consequences for its bird communities, especially for those species restricted to forest habi- tats. A total of 35 woods in Ten- dring district was surveyed over four springs to examine the rela- tionship between bird species richness and stability in relation to woodland size and structure (Mason 2001). A total of 46 species was found holding terri- tories, with notable absentees including Eurasian Nuthatch ) Sitta europaea , Marsh Tit Pants palustris, Coal Tit P. ater and Lesser Redpoll Carduelis cabaret , all of which are rare or absent in the district. The relationship between number of species and woodland area is shown in fig. 3. There was a rapid increase in the number of species present up to a woodland size of 10 ha, after which the species number increased only slowly with area. The only other feature measured which influ- enced the number of bird species significantly was habitat richness, reflecting the presence of features such as ponds, streams, managed coppice, etc. The smallest woodland fragments, mostly field-corner plantations, held an extremely limited avifauna: Wood Pigeon Columba palumbus, Wren Troglodytes troglodytes , Dunnock Prunella modularis , Black- bird, Blue Tit P. caeruleus and Common Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs. Mature field-corner plantations generally have little habitat struc- ture, while the ground flora consists primarily of weed species, which largely disappear with canopy closure (Hughes-Clarke & Mason 1992). There was a strong relationship between rel- ative species turnover and woodland area; bird populations are unstable in small woods, with repeated local extinctions and colonisations. For four summer visitors whose territories were mapped - Common Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos, Common Whitethroat, Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita and Willow Warbler Ph. trochilus - the number of woods occupied increased as overall population size increased. For the resident Wren, Song Fig. 3. The relationship between the number of breeding bird species and woodland area for 35 woods in the Tendring district of Essex, 1994-97. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 461 Birds, landscape and land use c > Thrush and Chaffinch, and the migratory Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla , an increase in popu- lation size between years was accommodated by increasing density within already occupied woods. Willow Warblers were once widespread in Essex, but have declined significantly in recent years. They were found in 12 of the study woods in the first year of the study (1994) but by 1998 were present in only seven and were absent even from some of the larger woods. Willow Warbler territories were associated with areas having greater frequencies of birch Betula , though this tree was generally a minor compo- nent of the woody vegetation (Mason 1997). Smaller woods with no birch did not support Willow Warblers. River birds in winter A great deal is known about the numbers of waterbirds wintering on reservoirs and estu- aries, but the birds utilising rivers have received relatively little attention. To establish whether rivers hold significant waterbird populations, 22 1-km-stretches of river (including parts of the Chelmer, Blackwater, Colne, Stour and the Gipping in Suffolk) were surveyed on three occasions during the winter of 1999/2000. Fourteen waterbird species were recorded, of which five were feral or escapes from captivity (Mason & Macdonald 2000c). Only five species occurred with any regularity, with Mallard Anas platyrhynchos being most numerous, followed by Moorhen Gallinula chloropus. Five reaches associated with villages, where waterfowl are fed, held 85% of Mallards, 54% of Mute Swans Cygnus olor and 36% of Moorhens. Common Coot Fulica atra and Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis were the other two frequent species. Statistical analysis showed that Mallard and Mute Swan occurred in greater numbers on wider reaches with dense marginal vegetation, whereas width alone was correlated with numbers of Moorhen, Common Coot and Little Grebe. To assess the possible importance of rivers for wintering waterbirds, an estimate was made of the total number of each species within the 803 km of river in the catchments surveyed, based on the counts conducted. These totals were compared with the numbers using reser- voirs and estuaries within the same catchment areas in the winter of 1997/98. Rivers appear to be particularly important for four species, holding 42% more Mute Swans than the com- bined reservoirs and estuaries, 33% more Mal- lards, three times the number of Little Grebes and eleven times the number of Moorhens. Rivers, of course, provide a corridor of semi- natural habitat through an often birdless arable hinterland. The trees, bushes and emergent veg- etation may provide fruitful foraging sites for a range of species of the wider countryside, and especially so in cold weather when the wetted edges of rivers may remain unfrozen. Further surveys were thus carried out during the winters of 2003/04 and 2004/05 to establish which features of river-corridor habitat might influence the distribution of a wider range of species. Surveys of 50 reaches of 1 km, from the headwaters to the point where the tidal river broadens into the estuary, were conducted in the catchments of the rivers Stour, Colne and Blackwater, each site being visited three times. A total of 81 species was recorded. Species rich- ness was significantly greater on tidal stretches of rivers, followed by urban/amenity sites (amenity sites were those with car parks imme- diately adjacent to the river, allowing easy access to the public), with lowest richness on rural stretches. Little Grebes were significantly more numerous on tidal reaches of rivers. Some 86% of Mute Swans, 91% of Mallards and 71% of Moorhens were found on urban/amenity stretches of rivers, though these comprised only 38% of survey sites, confirming the importance of urban waterways to these species. Black- headed Gulls Larus ridibundus , Collared Doves Streptopelia decaocto , Great Tits Parus major and Goldfinches Carduelis carduelis were also significantly more numerous on urban/amenity sites. No species was significantly more numerous on rural sites. Typical waterbirds were infrequent on headwater reaches. A multi- variate analysis identified width, presence or absence of flood banks (associated primarily with tidal reaches), tree cover and the amount of thick marginal vegetation as the most impor- tant habitat factors explaining bird distribution along rivers (Mason & Macdonald in prep.). Birds in the urban environment As stated above, Song Thrushes in Tendring largely avoid farmland (Mason 1998). This finding was followed up with a survey of thrushes that focused more on the contrast between urban and rural habitats, using a study area of 2,636 ha encompassing the town of 462 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 Birds, landscape and land use c Harwich (Mason 2000; table 2). Farmland com- prised 67% of the study area but had no Song Thrushes and few Blackbirds. The larger Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus held territories which included a little farmland, mostly of grass. The small amount of woodland and scrub, both rural and urban, held more territories than would be expected from the area it occupied, especially of Song Thrushes. Villages comprised only 3.5% of the study area but held more than 20% of territories of all three species. The urban environment held almost 60% of Black- birds and more than 33% of Song and Mistle Thrush territories, though it covered only a little over 20% of the study area. The highest densities of Blackbirds were in villages, urban scrub and the urban built environment (199, 106 and 84 territories per km2 respectively). The highest densities of Song Thrushes were in urban scrub and villages (61 and 25 pairs per km2 respectively), while Mistle Thrushes reached their highest density in villages (19 pairs per km2). The built environment, both in town and country, and especially residential and adjacent scrub-covered, brown-field sites, held substantial populations of thrushes and may be considered as a habitat refuge. The lawns and shrubberies of the typical garden offer ideal feeding conditions for these birds, which forage primarily on the ground and on berries. Dense shrubberies also provide good nesting sites, while, apart from cats, there may be fewer predators in the urban environment. A more detailed examination of the distribu- tion of Blackbirds within Harwich was made by Mason (2003). This established that the lowest densities occurred in town-centre and Vic- torian-terrace developments, while the highest average densities were in 1980s/90s develop- ments. Blackbird densities were found to be positively correlated with the proportion of garden plus open green space (primarily areas of mown grass with scattered shrubs and trees), until this reaches 80% of the total area, above which densities become variable, possibly a reflection of local management within develop- ments. Blackbird densities were negatively cor- related with house density. Harwich became the focus of a further study in 2003, which compared the numbers of birds in different types of housing developments with numbers in village sites, farmland and urban green corridors (Mason in press). Transects were walked on three occasions in spring, in two examples of each habitat type. The number of species recorded was highest in village sites (21-28 species) and urban green corridors (23-24 species). Within the town, 13-18 species were recorded, similar to the numbers on farm- land transects. Farmland had the lowest number of birds per transect (26-31 individuals per km), while villages had the highest ( 123-158 individuals per km). The most numerous species within the town were House Sparrow Passer domesticus. Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris , Blackbird, Collared Dove and Wood Pigeon. This last species comprised 15-57% of the avian biomass in different devel- opments. Flouse Sparrows were most numerous in interwar and 1960s/70s developments, and in villages, with fewest in 1990s developments. The numbers of Common Starlings were less clearly associated with development type. Common Swifts Apus apus and Feral Pigeons Columba livia were associated primarily with town-centre and historic/Victorian sites. House Martins Delichon urbicum were most numerous in vil- lages, as were Wood Pigeons and Collared Doves, although they occurred in all develop- ment types. The urban green corridors held Table 2. Distribution of Blackbird Turdus merula, Song Thrush I philomelos and Mistle Thrush T. viscivorus by habitat in study site covering 2,636 ha in northeast Essex. For each species, the number of territories in each habitat is shown as a percentage of the total. Habitat as percentage Blackbird Song Mistle of total area of study site Thrush Thrush Farmland 67.6 4.6 0 21.9 Rural woodland and scrub 5.2 10.0 21.9 10.1 Village 3.5 21.6 24.0 28.7 Urban woodland and scrub 1.3 4.4 19.4 5.6 Urban built environment 22.5 59.4 34.6 33.7 Total no. of territories 826 85 28 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 463 Reston Kitgour Birds, landscape and land use c nine species which were not recorded elsewhere in the town. For each development type, the proportion of land occupied by gardens and open green space was calculated, and house density was determined. Neither the number of species nor the total number of birds was significantly influenced by the area of gardens associated with different development types. There was, however, a significant association between the number of species and the area of open space, while the total number of birds present was positively related to both the area of open green space and the combined amount of green space plus garden, while it was negatively related to house density. Common Starling numbers were positively associated with the area of green space, but no similar relationship was found for FFouse Sparrow. Conclusions Farmland birds in Essex have suffered major declines over the last three decades in line with farmland birds in the rest of lowland England. Can such trends be reversed? There have been a number of agri-environment initiatives across the European Union since 1994 (e.g. Environ- mentally Sensitive Areas, Countryside Steward- ship), at a cost of more than €25 billion. Apart from programmes targeted at particular species, such as Cirl Bunting Emberiza cirlus in Devon, there is little evidence that this money has been well spent in promoting biodiversity (Kleijn et al. 2003; Kleijn & Sutherland 2003). Prescrip- tions may be too general or too small-scale to have a measurable impact, either on birds or on their food supply. For example, the sowing and management prescriptions of Countryside Stewardship field margins have proved to be of little benefit to butterflies and, pre- sumably, other insects (Field & Mason 2004a, b; Field et al. 2005). The mechanisms which may reverse the trend of decline in farmland bird species focus on extensification of agricultural practices, producing less from a given area of land but reducing costs, with fewer inputs of pesti- cides, fertilisers, etc. In other words, a reversal of the trend towards intensification over the last four decades. The benefits to birds of merely converting to a less intensive or organic farming system may have little impact unless significant improvements to the habitat ‘infrastructure’ are also made. While much of the recent debate on the decline of birds in farmland has concentrated on the effects of pesticides in reducing food supplies, the importance of semi-natural habitats and hedgerows within the farmland landscape must be emphasised. Mason & Macdonald (2000a) found that the small area of grass- land under the Countryside Stew- ardship Scheme held a density of Sky Larks six times greater than that in cereal fields, while the birds’ breeding success was undoubtedly high, despite disturbance from a 288. Song Thrushes Turdus philomelos in the study area avoided farmland, and most were found in urban scrub and villages. The built environment, both in town and country, and especially residential and adjacent scrub-covered, brown-field sites, holds a substantial population of this species and acts as a habitat refuge. 464 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 Birds, landscape and land use ( well-used public footpath across the site. Man- aging 10% of agricultural land with wildlife rather than production as the priority could go a long way in redressing the decline in bird numbers caused by agricultural intensification. Blocks of land could be contiguous between farms, and agricultural subsidies given for man- aging these rather than conventional farming. Together with proper management of hedge- rows and the development of scrub in field corners, this would encourage a number of other species described here (e.g. Turtle Dove, Linnet and Yellowhammer). There is already suf- ficient detailed information available to ‘engi- neer’ hedgerows for individual bird species (Macdonald & Johnson 1995; Sparks et al. 1996). The targeting of agricultural subsidies to land managed in precise ways to benefit wildlife may well be the best way forward in the short term, while waiting for the concept of large-scale, low input, sustainable agriculture to gain accept- ability within the political and farming commu- nities. It remains to be seen whether the changes in farm payments, introduced in 2005 to provide environmental benefits, will be sufficiently precise to reverse the loss of farmland wildlife. How might the results described above for woodland be used to influence the acquisition of nature reserves, or the planting of new wood- lands to conserve diverse bird communities? ) This study, and earlier ones (e.g. Moore & Hooper 1975), has shown that the largest sites hold the most species. But in the Tendring study, just four woods, with a total area of only 16.5 ha, held the same number of species (28) as the largest wood (57 ha). Above 10 ha, species accumulate with area only slowly. Future woodland strategies for Essex, in addition to the preservation of the larger semi-natural woods, should aim to increase the size of the many small woods in the landscape to an area of at least 10 ha. Most of the woods in this study were ancient semi-natural fragments of 1-10 ha. Planting arable land adjacent to these small woods with mixed deciduous woodland, so ulti- mately increasing their size, would increase individual bird populations and reduce the risk of random extinction. It would have similar effects on other groups whose species richness is area dependent, for example butterflies (Shreeve & Mason 1980). Indeed, since we have far more land than we need for food produc- tion, the linking of small woodlands to provide a forest for the future would be an eminently feasible possibility. Effort must be directed at restoring riparian habitats and river floodplains. This would not only aid the future of birds such as the Lapwing, but would also benefit floodplain biodiversity as a whole. It would also lead to many economic 289. Perhaps surprisingly, no less than 86% of Mute Swans Cygnus olor were found on ‘urban’ stretches of rivers in the study area, even though these formed just 38% of survey sites. A reliable food supply provided by the public is likely to be the reason. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 465 Simon Stirrup Simon Stirrup Birds, landscape and land use c benefits, one of these being a reduced risk of flooding, as water would be retained for longer in the system. Longer retention time would allow the replenishment of groundwaters, and new wetlands would retain and transform nutrients and pollutants, and stabilise sedi- ments, reducing both eutrophication and pollu- tion within rivers, and thus reducing the costs of water treatment (Mason 2002; Pretty et al. 2003). Within-river maintenance costs would also be substantially reduced. There is no doubt that a large area of Essex countryside will be covered with housing over the next few decades. In Harwich, the number of bird species and individuals were strongly associated with the area of communal green space within developments, green space being apparently more important than the area of gardens (Mason in press). New housing devel- opments in the UK are built at an average density of 22 dwellings per ha. One 1990s devel- opment in the Harwich study, with a housing density of 2 1 dwellings/ha, is likely to be fairly typical of future developments. It had 17 species of birds and a relatively high total number of individuals, both of which may increase as the development matures. This plot is characterised by green space areas of com- munal mown grass, shrubberies and trees. A housing density of 22 dwellings/ha, combined with green space of at least 20% (excluding road surface area), should result in good numbers of a typical range of some 16-18 bird species, which will not be unduly influenced by the current propensity for small gardens. The two areas of green corridors in Harwich added species to the bird community which did not occur in built developments. These sites are often seen as ideal for development and one in Harwich has already been partly cleared of scrub. Such sites need to be evaluated for their nature conservation potential as development plans are formulated, and any natural habitats should be retained. Site-specific actions can provide diverse habitats which will increase bird diversity. New and large housing developments are inevitable but the built environment has the potential to hold greater biodiversity than the arable farmland it will largely replace in Essex. To achieve this diversity, wildlife conservation- ists must insist on being involved from the ear- liest stages of planning so that valuable sites are retained and new ones are created within the housing matrix. Essex has the good fortune of a long, bird- rich coastline but inland there are far fewer birds than there were 50 years ago. Conserva- tionists should fight their corner at every opportunity and they should not be afraid to think big. If they succeed, then despite the development threats, future Essex should be a better place for wildlife and its people. References ConyersT 1 986. Hedgerow and ditch removal in south- east Essex, England, 1 838-1984. Biol. Conserv. 38: 233-242. 290. Although numbers of Common Starlings Sturnus vulgaris were positively associated with the area of green space, no similar relationship was found for House Sparrow Passer domesticus. 466 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 Birds, landscape and land use c Cox, S. 1 984. A New Guide to the Birds of Essex. Essex Birdwatching and Preservation Society, Chelmsford. Crick, H. Q. R 2004.The impact of climate change on birds, Ibis 146 (Suppl. I ): 48-56. Eaton, M. A., Noble, D. G„ Cranswick, RA., Carter N„ Wotton, S„ Ratdiffe, N„ Wilson, A., Hilton, G. M„ & Gregory, R. D. 2004. The State of the UK’s Birds 2003. BTO, RSPB and WWf Sandy. Field. R. G„ & Mason, C. F. 2004a.The utilization of two- metre Countryside Stewardship field scheme grass margins by Meadow Brown Maniolo jurtina (L.) (Lep.: Nymphalidae). Ent. Record I 1 6: 6 1 -67. — & — 2004b.The utilization of six-metre Countryside Stewardship Scheme grass margins by the Gatekeeper Pyronia tithonus (L.) (Lep.: Nymphalidae). Ent. Record 116: 107-1 12. — , GardinerT, Mason, C. F„ & Hill, J. 2005. Agri- environment schemes and butterflies: the utilisation of 6-m grass margins, Biodiv. Conserv. 14: 1969-1976. Fuller R. J., & Lloyd, D. 1981 .The distribution and habitats of wintering Golden Plovers in Britain. Bird Study 28: 169-185. Gillings, S., & Watts, R N. 1 997. Habitat selection and breeding ecology of Corn Buntings Miliaria calandra in the Lincolnshire Fens. Pp. 1 39- 1 50, In: Donald, R F„ & Aebischer, N.J. (eds.). The Ecology and Conservation of Corn Buntings Miliaria calandra. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough. Heath, D.J., & Whitehead, A. 1992. A survey of pond loss in Essex, south-east England. Aquatic Conserv. 2: 267-273. Hughes-Clarke, S. A„ & Mason, C. F, 1 992. Ecological development of field-corner tree plantations on arable land. Landscape Urban Plann. 22: 59-72. Kleijn, D„ & Sutherland, W. J. 2003. How effective are European agri-environment schemes in conserving and promoting biodiversity? J.Appl. Ecol. 40: 947-969. — , Berendse, H„ Smit, R„ Gilissen, N„ Smit, J., Brak, B., & Groenveld, R. 2003. Ecological effectiveness of agri- environment schemes in different agricultural landscapes in The Netherlands. Conserv. Biol. 1 8: 775-786. Kotzageorgis, G, C„ & Mason, C. F. 1 997. Small mammal populations in relation to hedgerow structure in an arable landscape. J. Zool. 242: 425-434. Macdonald, D.W., & Johnson, RJ. 1 995. The relationship between bird distribution and the botanical and struc- tural characteristics of hedges. J.Appl. Ecol. 32: 492-505. Mason, C. F. 1 997. Association between Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilu s territories and birch in woodlands in southeastern England. Ibis 139:41 1-412. — 1998. Habitats of the Song Thrush Turdus philomelos in a largely arable landscape./ Zool. 244: 89-93. — 2000. Thrushes now largely restricted to the built environment in eastern England. Divers. Distrib. 6: 1 89- 1 94. — 2001 .Woodland area, species turnover and the conservation of bird assemblages in lowland England. Biodiv. Conserv. 1 0: 495-5 1 0. — 2002. Biology of Freshwater Pollution. 4th edition. Prentice Hall, Harlow. — 2003. Some correlates of density in an urban Blackbird Turdus merula population. Bird Study 50: 1 85-188. — In press. Avian species richness and numbers in the built environment: can new housing developments be good for birds? Biodiv. Conserv. — & Macdonald, S. M. 1 990. The riparian woody plant community of regulated rivers in eastern England. Reg ul. Rivers 5: 159-166. — & — 1 995. Corvids feeding on carrion. Bird Study 42: 255-256. — & — 1 999a. Habitat use by Lapwings and Golden Plovers in a largely arable landscape. Bird Study 46: 89-99. — & — 1 999b. Estuarine feeding by Lapwings Vanellus vanellus and Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria. Wildfowl 50: 205-207. — & — 1 999c. Winter bird numbers and land-use preferences in an arable landscape in eastern England. Bird Conserv. Internatn. 9: I 1 9-127. — & — 2000a. Influence of landscape and land-use on the distribution of breeding birds in farmland in eastern England./ Zool. 25 1 : 339-348. — & — 2000b. Corn Bunting Miliaria calandra populations, landscape and land-use in an arable district of eastern England. Bird Conserv. Internatn. 1 0: 1 69- 1 86. — & — 2000cr Numbers of wintering waterbirds on rivers in eastern England. Wildfowl 51:21 5-2 1 9. — & — 2004. Distribution of foraging rooks, Corvus frugilegus, and rookeries in a landscape in eastern England dominated by winter cereals. Folia Zool. 53: 179-188. — , Elliot, K. L, & Clelland, S. 1 987. Landscape changes in a parish in Essex, eastern England, since 1 838. Landscape Urban Plann. 1 4: 20 1 -209. Mead, C. 2000. The State of the Nations’ Birds. Whittet Books, Stowmarket. Moore, N.W., & Hooper, M. D. 1975. On the number of bird species in British woods. Biol. Conserv. 8: 239-250. NCC. 1984. Nature Conservation in Great Britain. NCC, Peterborough. Nelson, S. H„ Court, I., Vickery, J. A., Watts, R N„ & Bradbury, R, B. 2003. The status and ecology of the Yellow Wagtail in Britain. Brit Wildlife 14:270-274. Newton, I. 2004.The recent declines of farmland bird populations in Britain: an appraisal of causal factors and conservation actions. Ibis 1 46: 579-600. Parr L. B., & Mason, C. F. 2003. Long-term trends in water quality and their impact on macroinvertebrate assemblages in eutrophic lowland rivers. Water Res. 37: 2969-2979. Pretty, J. N., Mason, C. F., Nedwell, D. B„ Hine, R. E„ Leaf, S., & Dils, R. 2003. The environmental costs of freshwater eutrophication in England and Wales. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37: 201-208. Rackham, O. 1 986. The Woods of South-east Essex. Rochford District Council, Rochford. Samuels, A. J„ & Mason, C. F. 1 997. Ecology of eutrophic waterbodies in a coastal grazing marsh. F-lydrobiologia 346:203-214. Shreeve.T G„ & Mason, C. F. 1 980.The number of butterfly species in woodlands. Oecologia 45: 4 1 4-4 1 8. Shrubb, M. 2003. Birds, Scythes and Combines. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Sparks, T H., & Mason, C. F. 200 1 . Dates of arrivals and departures of spring migrants taken from Essex Bird Reports 1950-1998. Essex Bird Report 1 999: 1 54- 1 64. — & — 2004. Can we detect change in the phenology of winter migrant birds in the UK? Ibis 1 46 (Suppl. I ): 57-60. — , Parish, T„ & Hinsley, S. A. 1 996. Breeding birds in field boundaries in an agricultural landscape. Agric. Ecosyst Environ. 60: 1-8. — , Roy D„ & Mason, C. F. 2000. Phenology in Essex: lessons from the past and examples of recent trends. Essex Nat. 17:31-37. Woods, M„ McDonald, R. A., & Harris, S. 2003. Predation of wildlife by domestic cats Felis catus in Great Britain. Mammal Rev. 33: 174—188. Prof. Christopher F. Mason, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester C04 3SQ British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 454-467 467 Status and behaviour of Little Egrets wintering in western France Claire Voisin, Jose Godin and Alain Fleury ABSTRACT A largely sedentary population of Little Egrets Egretta garzetta has become established throughout the coastal regions of western and northern France. This population is still increasing, but numbers are temporarily reduced by periods of severe winter weather. Cold-weather mortality results in fewer breeding birds in the following spring, but the impact has been insufficient to stall the long-term population growth. Only those birds feeding at saltpans appear able to carry sufficient reserves to last them through cold periods. No significant movements of Little Egrets have been noted at these times, and it is suggested that displaced birds disperse widely into the surrounding area, in search of alternative feeding sites. Wintering Little Egrets Egretta garzetta were first observed in western France during the winter of 1974/75, when a few individuals remained in Aquitaine, in the southwest of the country. Subsequently, a regular wintering range has extended progres- sively northwards along the coast, reaching Nord-Pas-de-Calais in 1995. During prolonged periods of hard weather, when coastal waters freeze, Little Egrets suffer badly. Most leave their local area and many never return; and following a cold winter, the number of nesting Little Egrets is reduced. During the last 25 years, the population in western France has increased substantially, but erratically, numbering at least 8,078 individuals during the winter 2000/01. In this paper, we review the increase in the win- tering population and discuss the possible fate of those birds affected by severe winters. The colonisation of western France In spring, Little Egrets returning to breeding colonies may ‘overshoot’ and appear well to the north of their main breeding range. If condi- tions are suitable, and sufficient food is avail- able, such birds may remain throughout the spring and summer, but return to regular win- tering areas later in the year. When the popula- tion is increasing, more and more of these pio- neers will be found in new summering areas, together with, in due course, juveniles raised earlier in the year in established colonies, these young birds dispersing after the breeding season in August and September. The establishment of new overwintering sites occurs only when over- 468 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 Wintering Little Egrets in western France ) summering has become well established, usually several years after the initial appearance at a site. Once a wintering population becomes established, breeding often takes place in the same area, typically soon after the first birds overwinter successfully. When the number of nests is small, they may be difficult to find, and early breeders may remain undiscovered until the colony increases in size. Musgrove (2002) provided a detailed description of this pattern of events in southern England. In France, it has also been well docu- mented in Normandy and Picardy by Debout (1998) and Sueur & Triplet (1999). In Nor- mandy, a few Little Egrets were seen from 1968 to 1980, mostly in spring. During 1981-86, summering birds became more numerous, and were joined by dispersing juveniles in August and September. Little Egrets began to over- winter in 1990/91 and, in 1993, nine nests were discovered on one of the small islets of Saint- Marcouf, off the coast of Cotentin (Debout 1998). In Picardy, Little Egrets were first seen during the spring of 1965, but were rarely noted during the following years. From 1995 onwards, they became more numerous in spring and were also seen in August, during post-breeding dispersal. Small numbers wintered in various places during 1978-82, but the habit did not become firmly established, and there were no reports of wintering birds from 1983 to 1987. Little Egrets were seen again in winter in 1988, and have been observed each winter since. Nesting was first recorded in 1978, and one pair then nested annually until 1981, but it was not until 1988 that breeding numbers began to increase (Sueur & Triplet 1999). The wintering population in western France In order to establish the number of Little Egrets wintering along the coastline of western France, a series of regular and co-ordinated counts at roost sites has been initiated. Additional counts made on feeding grounds in January have been used to support the roost counts, and to estab- lish the extent to which feeding birds disperse during the day. The total wintering population of Little Egrets along the western coast of France in January 2001 was estimated to be at least 8,078 individuals. No counts have been available from Loire- Atlantique and Bretagne since 1999, so the 1999 figures for these two regions were combined with 2001 counts from other regions to derive this estimate. The numbers wintering in each province are summarised below: Aquitaine Little Egrets began to winter in Aquitaine in 1974/75. In subsequent years, numbers nearly doubled each winter and, by late November 1981, 530 individuals were counted in several roosts in the Arcachon basin, the most important wintering area in Aquitaine (Barande 1984). By January 1993, counts revealed 1,600 Little Egrets wintering in the Gironde region (Fleury 1993), which increased to 2,168 in January 2001, of which 1,906 were in the Arcachon basin and 188 at Les Landes (Fleury 2001). Numbers wintering in the Arcachon basin have fallen slightly since then, with 1,745 in December 2001, and 1,500 in January 2003. Charente-Maritime Wintering Little Egrets have been counted at roosts in the lie de Re area since January 1995. Although numbers have fluctuated, the overall trend has been upward, with 821 in 1995, 600 in 1996, 651 in 1998, 582 in 1999, 728 in 2000, 743 in 2001, 458 in 2002 and 1,014 in 2003 (Lemesle in litt.). These totals exclude the population win- tering on the lie d’Oleron, which has not been counted. Vendee Overwintering Little Egrets were first observed in 1979/80 (Rousseaux 1980) and, by 1988, this behaviour was well established (Gonin 1989). Numbers roosting on the island of Noirmoutier reached 974 in December 2000 and 831 in January 2001 (J.-C. Lemesle in lift.). Loire-Atlantique The first count of wintering Little Egrets was made in January 1983, by which time 403 individuals were already present (Joannis 1983), and by December 1984 numbers had increased to 1,050 (Recorbet 1985). The population generally increased from 1993 to 1999, with a decline during the cold winter of 1996/97; numbers at roost sites reached 2,052 in 1999 (table 1). Table I . Counts of Little Egrets Egretta garzetta at roosts and on foraging areas in Loire-Atlantique during winters 1 993-99 (data from Pourreau 1994, 1 996; Dufland 1 998; Gentric 200 1 ). No. in foraging areas Roost count 1993 1,663 1,659 1994 1,649 1,379 1995 2,547 2,365 1996 2,237 2,027 1997 550 522 1998 1,594 1,471 1999 2,228 2,052 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 469 Wintering Little Egrets in western France Bretagne (administrative region) Little Egrets were first noted along the coast during winter 1987/88 (Gelinaud 1990) and, by the following winter, numbers exceeded 100 (Gelinaud 1991). This population has continued to increase, reaching 489 in 1994 and 627 in January 1999 (Maout 1998; Le Mao & Maout 1999; Maout et al. 2000; Ballot et al. 2003), although numbers declined to just 421 in January 1997, owing to the exceptionally cold winter, which also affected numbers wintering in Loire- Atlantique (Maout et al. 2001). Normandy Small numbers of Little Egrets began to winter in Normandy during 1990/91, and subsequent winters saw this population increase rapidly. Counts took place each winter during 1990-96 (Debout 1998) and 1999-2001 (F. Salmon in lift.) (see tables 2 and 3). Little Egrets now nest and, in spring, summer and autumn, roost on one of the Saint-Marcouf islets, off the coast of Cotentin, but it is uncertain whether any egrets occur here in winter (and thus the numbers of wintering Little Egrets in Normandy shown in tables 2 and 3 are minimum numbers). As in Bretagne and Loire- Atlantique, the harsh winter of 1996/97 reduced the wintering population, but numbers have sub- sequently increased. Picardy The only roost of the region occurs in the Mar- quenterre reserve, where Little Egrets have been counted since 1989 (table 4). Nord-Pas-de-Calais Wintering Little Egrets were first observed in January 1995, when 18 individuals were found Table 2. Counts of Little Egrets Egretta garzetta at roosts in Normandy during winters from 1 990 to 1 996 (data from Debout 1 998). 1990/91 10-20 1991/92 20-40 1992/93 50-70 1993/94 130-200 1994/95 400-500 1995/96 1,100 Table 3. Counts of Little Egrets Egretta garzetta at roosts in Normandy during winter 1999/00 and 2000/0 1 , based on data supplied by F. Salmon (in litt.). December January February 1999/00 739 717 609 2000/01 1,003 738 590 (Godeau et al. 2000). From 1996 to 1999, only a few birds overwintered but, in January 2001, a small roost discovered the preceding year held 49 Little Egrets (G. Terrasse in lift.). Establishment of winter roost sites and roosting behaviour Winter roosts of Little Egrets are often located close to their feeding grounds - primarily salt- marshes behind the shoreline, drainage ditches and tidal mudflats. In some areas, wintering Little Egrets also take advantage of the extensive saline lagoons and saltpans created by the salt industry (see below). Roosts are thus typically within a few kilometres of the coast, though may be up to 80 km inland if the feeding opportunities are particularly good. So far, win- tering Little Egrets have colonised only coastal areas in western France; no regular winter roosts have formed inland, probably because of the lack of salt or brackish water, which freezes less readily than fresh water. The choice of the roost site depends not only on nearby feeding areas but also, to a large extent, on site security and lack of disturbance. In Normandy, Little Egrets roost on one of the Saint-Marcouf islands, a small uninhabited island in the open sea. At this secure site, birds roost in low vegetation near the ground. On the adjacent mainland, or on larger islands, where disturbance is more likely, they choose trees of Table 4. Counts of Little Egrets Egretta garzetta in December and January at a winter roost in the Parc Ornithologique du Marquenterre, Baie de Somme, Picardy, from 1988 to 2001 (data from Sueur 1 996a, b,c; Sueur 1 997a, b; Sueur 1998; Sueur et al. 1 998; Sueur & Triplet 1 999; Sueur et al. 1 999a, b.c; Sueur et al. 200 1 a,b; Sueur et al. 2002). The highest count for each month has been included. December January 1988/89 N/A 7 1989/90 10 10 1990/91 10 10 1991/92 12 16 1992/93 41 16 1993/94 67 78 1994/95 146 135 1995/96 137 224 1996/97 164 21 1997/98 124 108 1998/99 65 135 1999/00 312 286 2000/01 514 506 470 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 c Wintering Little Egrets in western France 5-20 m in height, and roost in the upper branches. All types of trees, both coniferous and deciduous, may be used for roosting, and the presence of water at the roost is not essen- tial. Habitat surrounding the roosts varies considerably; some may be close to human habita- tion, provided there is no distur- bance. Those roosts, which are occupied annually, are mostly situated either in marshes, where deep-water channels restrict accessibility, or on islands, many on private land or nature reserves, which means that human disturbance is min- imised. Winter roosts may form in the same trees used for breeding (as at the Mar- quenterre reserve, in Picardy), but roosts are often smaller (and more numerous) than breeding colonies, and proximity to feeding areas is more important (for example, egrets on the island of Noirmoutier, in Vendee, nest on the adjacent mainland in a large heronry but form several smaller winter roost sites on the island). As dusk approaches, Little Egrets return to their roosts either singly or in small parties. The first returning birds do not fly directly to the roost, but usually land nearby, often in a flooded area, where they remain until the light fails, when they fly to the roost. Only the latest groups to arrive fly directly to the roost. Feeding behaviour Little Egrets disperse over a wide area when for- aging, and feeding groups are formed only when a large concentration of prey is discov- ered, which seldom happens in winter. This behaviour distinguishes Little Egrets from Cattle Egrets Bubulcus ibis and feral Sacred Ibises Threskiornis aethiopicus, which tend to form groups when feeding, and sometimes use the same foraging grounds in France. There is no evidence to suggest that Little Egrets fish at night, and all appear to return to the roost in the evening. This is an important factor deter- 291 . Overwintering by Little Egrets Egretta garzetta was first observed in western France in 1 974/75; breeding was recorded soon after, but it was not until the late 1 980s that breeding numbers began to increase. mining winter survival, when the time available for feeding is greatly reduced. Our observations show that Little Egrets specialise in catching prey exclusively in shallow water, from a few millimetres up to about 50 cm deep, and we have not recorded them taking food items on land, as Cattle Egrets and Sacred Ibises do frequently. Typically, Little Egrets walk slowly in the water, often ‘foot-stirring’ and striking at prey items which dart away from the disturbance; hence they are more specialised feeders than the two other species mentioned. Saltpans Winter feeding areas which include saltpans, such as the lie de Noirmoutier, are highly favoured by Little Egrets. Saltpans are shallow, man-made lakes where food is concentrated and abundant, and the birds obtain shelter from British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 471 Robin Chittenden (www.harlequinpictures.co.uk) Rebecca Nason Wintering Little Egrets in western France > cold winter winds. Little Egrets feeding on salt- pans often rest and preen quietly, having already fed sufficiently well, just two hours after sunrise. They catch mostly worms (Annelida) and shrimps Palaemonetes varians , which are abundant and not harvested by fishermen. One Little Egret, killed by a car, had 171 shrimps in its stomach (M. Vaslin pers. comm.). In the winter, seawater does not enter the saltpans, which are fed by seepage and rainwater. At times, they may dry out, which leads to prey becoming concentrated in the remaining pools of deeper water, and this often triggers a con- centration of feeding egrets (Voisin 1978, 1991). Although Little Egrets will feed in sea pools at low tide and at oyster beds, these are relatively unimportant sources of food; we carried out winter transect counts of egrets feeding on salt- pans, and no variation in numbers with tide was found. In spring, the external basins of the saltpans are filled with seawater. As tempera- tures increase, the sluices are closed and the salt concentration in the water increases. Little Egrets will continue to use saltpans provided the salinity of the water does not increase to a level where fish and shrimps cannot survive. Other feeding sites In areas where saltpans are not available, Little Egrets feed on intertidal mudflats uncovered by the falling tide in estuaries, and also in small seawater pools left at low tide, or along the tide- line when the tide floods. They also frequent oyster beds at low tide, but during the coldest months, most are found in more protected coastal areas such as saltmarshes and drainage channels. Small numbers also feed inland, on freshwater marshes and small lakes (Godin 2002) and some may even frequent flooded gravel-pits, inundated grassland and water- treatment facilities. Sueur & Triplet (1999) found that during the winter months the most commonly taken prey items were grey mullet Liza sp., Brown Shrimps Crangon crangon , European Green Crabs Carcinus maenas, a variety of water insects and leeches (Hirudinea). 292. Little Egrets Egretta garzetta desert wintering sites in northern and western France during spells of cold weather and it is thought that they move short distances inland in search of unfrozen rivers and streams. Once conditions improve, birds quickly return to coastal sites, but numbers are much reduced after prolonged periods of sub-zero temperatures and it seems likely that many die during such conditions. 472 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 Wintering Little Egrets in western France c The effect of cold weather on wintering populations Consecutive days of sub-zero temperatures occur with sufficient frequency, even along the coast, to affect wintering Little Egret popula- tions. The first observations of the effects of severe weather on wintering Little Egrets in France are those of Recorbert (1985). During winter 1984/85, when temperatures fell below freezing over an 18-day period (minimum tem- perature -13°C, at Nantes in January 1985), counts were made at two Little Egret roosts, before and after the cold spell. The roost at La Turballe, on the Guerande peninsula, Loire- Atlantique, held 575 Little Egrets on 29th December 1984, but only 50 on 18th January 1985, after the end of the cold spell. Although exact numbers were not established, Little Egrets feeding at the nearby saltpans were known to have remained in the area as no fewer than 67 dead egrets were found under the roost trees. The roost at Moutier, in the Bourgneuf Bay, Charente-Maritime, held 412 Little Egrets on 30th December 1984, but all had disap- peared on 19th January 1985. By the end of February 1985, 50% of the December popula- tion had returned to La Turballe but a compa- rable figure of only 1% was present at Moutier. Maillard 8c Rabouin (2001) documented the impact of another period of freezing tempera- tures on wintering Little Egrets in Loire-Atlan- tique. From late December 1996 to about 10th January 1997, the minimum temperature fell to -10°C. This had a devastating effect on Little Egrets throughout the region, with numbers counted at roost falling from 2,319 to 522 and many birds found dead. The effect of this cold spell was also observed at the Marquenterre roost, in Picardy. On 13th December 1996, 164 Little Egrets were counted here, and 1 16 were still present on 25th December. The first casual- ties were noted on 31st December, when four birds were found dead; by 4th January 1997, only 21 birds were roosting, and all had disap- peared by 12th January. When temperatures returned to normal, only 25 birds had reap- peared by 18th February (Carruette 1997, 1998). We studied the effect of cold weather in December 2001 on Little Egrets in the Parc ornithologique du Teich, in the Arcachon basin, in great detail. During the second half of the month, temperatures fell below freezing on 12 days between 14th and 25th December, with a minimum of -8°C recorded. During this period, all water was frozen from 16th December, with the exception of a few holes created and main- tained by the presence of ducks (Anatidae), Great Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo and Common Coots Fulica atra. Roosting Little Egrets numbered 610 before the onset of the cold spell, but most left the area when the water froze, although a small number remained and fed where the water was still open (ten remained on 16th and six on 26th). On 28th December, at the start of the thaw, 40 Little Egrets were already back at the roost, and numbers increased to 80 on 6th January 2002 and to 342 by mid January. Only four were found dead. This was mirrored throughout the entire Arcachon basin, which held 1,745 roosting Little Egrets in mid December 2001, but only 684 in mid January 2002. Here, as in the Camargue, on the Mediterranean coast of France (Hafner et al. 1994), fewer breeding birds were found the following spring: 780 pairs bred in the Arcachon basin in 2001 but only 380 in 2002, which suggests that breeding birds are largely sedentary. Cold weather during the following winter (2002/03) was less prolonged and less intense, lasting from 5th to 15th January 2003, when temperatures fell to a minimum of -7°C. In the Teich reserve, the water froze, except for a few holes, after 7th January and even water remaining on the mudflats at low tide in the Arcachon basin froze over for three days. The total number of Little Egrets in the area in mid December was 1,020, but only 794 were counted at the end of January. In spring 2003, 583 breeding pairs were counted, showing that this shorter cold spell had not prevented a slow increase of the population. The impact of cold weather in January 1993 was also monitored at the roost in the Mullem- bourg reserve, on the island of Noirmoutier (D. Desmot pers. comm.). All the basins and salt- pans which held suitable prey for Little Egrets froze; even seawater froze at low tide. Neverthe- less, most Little Egrets remained at the site, and spent much of the day at the roost, where they could sit in the sun and shelter from the wind, minimising energy losses by roosting for much of the day. In late November, the roost num- bered 425 Little Egrets, falling slightly to 399 on 9th January during the cold spell, and then increasing to 493 in early February, when tem- peratures had returned to normal. Only two British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 473 David Tipling/ Windrush Wintering Little Egrets in western France Little Egrets were found dead, and both were in an emaciated condition. At this site, Little Egrets feed mostly in saltpans, where food is abundant, and the birds are well fed throughout the winter. It seems that they remained in the area throughout the cold spell, being able to survive on their fat reserves. This strategy is only pos- sible when freezing temperatures do not last too long, but suggests that Little Egrets feeding in saltpans have a greater chance of surviving a brief cold snap than those in less rich habitats. Birds in the latter tend to abandon the area in severe weather, as described in Moutier in 1985, in Marquenterre in 1997 and in the Arcachon basin in 2001 and 2002 (see above). It seems likely that many Little Egrets succumb while dispersing in search of alternative, unfrozen, feeding areas. During periods of cold weather, when Little Egrets desert the northern wintering sites, there has been no corresponding increase at coastal sites to the south (AF pers. obs.). It seems unlikely that these Little Egrets affected by the cold disperse over great distances, and most would lack the necessary fat reserves needed for such journeys. Furthermore, any large-scale movements towards southern Europe and Africa would surely be noted at coastal sites in southwestern France. In addition, many Little Egrets reappear at their regular roosts as soon as the cold spell is over. It seems likely that most simply fly inland in search of unfrozen rivers and streams. In conclusion, the establishment of a seden- tary population of Little Egrets in the northern- most coastal areas of western France shows that mortality during severe winter weather is not sufficient to prevent their population increasing. The protection of Little Egrets since 1962 in France (Voisin 1995) has made possible the colonisation (or perhaps recolonisation?) of this part of Europe. Acknowledgments We thank the members of the Groupe Ornithologique Nord and the Groupe Ornithologique Normand for allowing us to use their data and, in particular F. Salmon for co-ordinating the observations and counts. We also thank J.-C. Lemesle, G.Terrasse and M.Vaslin for providing per- sonal observations, and D. Desmots for having warmly received one of us in the lie de Noirmoutier. We also thank Dr Clemency Fisher, National Museums Liverpool, for commenting on an earlier draft of this paper References Ballot, J.-N., Iliou, B„ Maout, J„ & Mauvieux, S. 2003. Synthese des observations ornithologiques bretonnes 293. For a comprehensive account of the non-breeding status of the Little Egret Egretta garzetta in Britain, see the paper by Andy Musgrove in British Birds (Vol. 95: 62-80). 47-4 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 Wintering Little Egrets in western France > entre les 16/7 1998 et 15/7 1 999. Premiere partie. Ar Vran 14: 19-68. Barande, S. 1984. 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Groupe ornithologique de Loire Atlontique 1:6-12. Le Mao, P, & Maout, J. 1 999. Syntheses des observations ornithologiques bretonnes entre les 1 6/07 1 994 et les 15/07 1 995. ArVran 10(1): 19-66. Maillard. M„ & Rabouin, D. 200 1 . Recensements aux dortoirs des Aigrettes: synthese 1 983-2000. Spatule 9: 33-37. Maout, J. 1995. Syntheses des observations ornithologiques bretonnes entre les 1 6/07 1 990 et les 1 5/07 1991. ArVran 6 (l):2-44. — 1 998. Syntheses des observations ornithologiques bretonnes entre les 16/07 1993 et les 15/07 1994. ArVran 9(1): 8-60. — , Le Mao, R, & Garoche, J. 2000. Syntheses des observations ornithologiques bretonnes entre les 1 6/07 1995 etles 15/07 1 996. ArVran I I (I): 5-55. — , — , & — 200 1 . Syntheses des observations ornithologiques bretonnes entre les 1 6/07 1 996 et les 15/07 1 997. ArVran 12(1): 14-63. Musgrove, A. J. 2002.The non-breeding status of the Little Egret in Britain. Brit. Birds 95: 62-80. Pourreau, J. 1994. Denombrement des oiseaux des zones humides hivernant en Loire-Atlantique. Spatule I : 1 27-200. — 1996. Denombrement des oiseaux des zones humides hivernant en Loire-Atlantique. Spatule 2: 63-93. Recorbet, B. 1 985. Synthese des observations transmises aux flchiers: postnuptial, hivernage. Groupe ornithologique de Loire Atlantique 5:7-14. Rousseaux, E. 1 980. Synthese des observations de I'hiver 1 979- 1 980. La Gorgebleue 3: 24-28. Sueur; F. l996a.Actes ornithologiques 1989 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde I: 1-25. l996b.Actes ornithologiques 1990 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 2: 1-23. — 1 996c. Actes ornithologiques 1991 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 2: 24-49. — 1 997a. Actes ornithologiques I992de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 3: 41-68. — 1 997b. Actes ornithologiques 1993 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 4: 51-74. — 1 998. Actes ornithologiques 1 994 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 5: 49-74. — & Triplet, R 1999. Les Oiseaux de la Baie de Somme. SMACOPI, Groupe ornithologique Picard. — , Carruette, Ph., & Triplet, R 1998. Actes ornithologiques 1995 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 6: 51-74. — , — , & — 1 999a. Actes ornithologiques 1996 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 7: 1—31. — , — , & — 1 999b. Actes ornithologiques 1997 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 7: 33-60. — , — , & — 1 999c. Actes ornithologiques 1998 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 7: 6 1-9 1 . — , — , — , & Violet, F. 200 1 a. Actes ornithologiques 1 999 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifmne Picarde 9: 1-31. — , — , — , & — 200 1 b. Actes ornithologiques 2000 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde I I: 1-29. — , — , — , & — 2002. Actes ornithologiques 200 1 de la reserve Naturelle de la Baie de Somme. Avifaune Picarde 13: 1-30. Voisin, C. 1978. Utilisation des zones humides du delta rhodanien par les Ardeides. L'Oiseau et R.F.O. 48: 217-261 & 329-380. — 1991. The Herons of Europe. Poyser London. — 1 995. La protection des herons en France: les resultats. Le Courrier de la Nature 151:1 8-23. Claire Voisin, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Departement d’ecologie et de gestion de la biodiversite, Ums 305, CP 51, 57 rue Cuvier, F-75231 Paris cedex 05, France Jose Godin, Universite des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, UFR de Biologie, Laboratoire de Genetique et Evolution des Populations Vegetales, URA CNRS 1185. Bat. SN2, 1 etage. F-59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq cedex, France Alain Fleury, Parc Ornithologique du Teich, 33470 Gujan-Mestras, France British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 468-475 475 The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia: what does the future hold? Viktor P. Belik ABSTRACT Since the 1970s, the breeding population of the Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius has experienced a catastrophic decline, and the species is now globally threatened. Observations from the steppes of southern Russia and Western Kazakhstan, together with a literature survey, suggest that this sharp decline is probably due to a number of factors, and possible causes are discussed in this paper. In the increasingly moist and humid climate characteristic of recent decades, the traditional habitats of the species have become overgrown with dense and unsuitable vegetation. A decline in numbers of sheep and cattle, and the concentration of these animals near human settlements may also have contributed. In addition, the planting of shelter-belts on the steppe grasslands has encouraged a dramatic increase in corvid numbers since the 1970s, which is probably the most significant factor affecting the Sociable Lapwing. Intensive predation by corvids (primarily Rooks Corvus frugilegus ) on Sociable Lapwing eggs and chicks has resulted in low productivity in recent decades. In recent decades, the Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius has undergone a marked contraction of its range which, combined with a massive decline in population, has brought it to the brink of extinction. It is now globally threatened, while the small European population was recently categorised as Critically Endangered (Eichhorn & Khrokov 2002; Bur- field & van Bommel 2004). To a large extent, the plight of the Sociable Lapwing has gone almost unnoticed, but the species has finally attracted the close attention of ornithologists (Tomkovich & Lebedeva 2004). The reasons for this decline are not yet fully understood (although several factors may be involved) and until they are, the development of a conserva- tion strategy for the species will remain diffi- cult. This paper explores the possible causes of the decline. Field observations, backed up by an extensive literature search, are presented to support the hypotheses outlined. The argu- ments put forward are speculative, and have not been fully tested and verified, but they may, nonetheless, help to bring us closer to solving the problems faced by the Sociable Lapwing. Observations Observations of Sociable Lapwings were made in Western Kazakhstan from 17th April to 23rd May 1996, during an expedition organised by the Russian Bird Conservation Union to search for the breeding grounds of the Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris (Morozov 1997). The locations surveyed in April were concen- trated in the Volga-Ural interfluve region, while in May attention turned to areas east of the Ural River (for details, see Appendix 1 ). During the expedition, counts of birds were made from a moving car, covering a distance of 2,100 km, while a further 430 km were surveyed on foot. Throughout this period, Sociable Lap- wings were noted on three occasions only: on 20th April, a single bird was seen in flight in the Mukhor river valley, 15 km southeast of the 476 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia c > 294. Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius on nest in area of short-grass pasture on saline steppe [solonets], Orenburg Region, Russia, May 1 986. village of Novaya Kazanka; on 5th May, a roving individual was observed in the Solyanka river valley, 25 km southwest of Lake Shalkar; and on 12th May, the only nest was located, in undu- lating sandy steppe on the southern edge of the extensive Akkumy sand dunes. This nest was attended by a single bird and contained a well- incubated clutch of four eggs. These birds were noted only during transects on foot in survey strips about 100 m wide. Sociable Lap- wings nesting solitarily are much less conspicuous than colonial breeders, and it appears that counts from a moving vehicle are not effective for locating breeding birds. For example, the Sociable Lapwing attending the nest on 12th May was extremely wary, and maintained a distance of at least 50 m from observers. Even when the location of the nest was known, and despite it being just 50 m from the road, it was impossible to detect the incubating bird from the car. Based on the data collected, Sociable Lapwing density in the steppes of Western Kazakhstan in 1996 did not exceed one individual per 15 km2, or one nest per 45 km2. In reality, however, the population density was probably lower. With Slender-billed Curlew in mind, the selection of transect routes would have taken us through favourable habitat, and perhaps resulted in more encounters with Sociable Lapwings than during random tran- Fig. I. Locations visited in Western Kazakhstan during the 1996 Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris expedition. The numbers on the map correspond with the locations listed in Appendix I (p. 485). British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 477 Fluke Art S. Kornev ©Fluke Art Viktor Belik c The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia > 295. Nest of Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius next to cow-pats on sandy pasture, Western Kazakhstan, May 1996. sects; Belik (1994b) proposed that the breeding grounds of the Slender-billed Curlew should be sought in the least-developed steppe areas of easternmost Europe and Western Kazakhstan, not in the (forest-zone) peat-bogs of Western Siberia, and the 1996 expedition was testing this hypothesis; see also Danilenko etal. (1996). The impact of an increasing Rook population The marked population decline of the Sociable Lapwing in Kazakhstan began in the 1970s (e.g. Shevchenko 1998). At about the same time, a sharp increase in the number of Rooks Corvus frugilegus breeding within the range of Sociable Lap- wings took place (Debelo 1989; Shevchenko 1989). hollowing a directive from the government of the USSR in 1948, a network of shelter-belts was planted in the steppe zone from the 1950s onwards. These shelter-belts enabled Rooks to establish large colonies and to spread widely into previously unsuitable regions, and corvid pre- dation of both eggs and chicks of Sociable Lapwings may have become a key factor in the wader’s decline. Based upon observations in the area north of the Caucasus (‘Ciscaucasia’), the peak of the Rook’s expansion into the steppe zone came in the 1970s (Belik & Sidel’nikov 1989). In the Ural’sk Region (now Western Kazakhstan), Rooks had colonised almost all human settle- ments and shelter-belt plantations in both Fig. 2. Map to show breeding sites/areas of the Sociable Lapwing in Russia (1970-2000) and Kazakhstan ( 1 975-200 1 ). Blue markers show confirmed breeding, with year of last known breeding; red shows non-breeding records, with year of most recent sighting given. Source: Tomkovich & Lebedeva (2004). 478 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia c > 296. Small rookery in poplars Populus (planted in the mid twentieth century) in a gully in the steppes near a sheep farm, Manych-Gudilo valley, Rostov Region, Russia, April 2002. steppe and semi-desert zones by the end of the twentieth century, with a particularly high density in the Volga-Ural interfluve. Census data from the region between these two rivers in 1996 showed that, on average, Rooks were nesting in the southern semi-desert areas at densities of 60 pairs per km, and up to 200 pairs per km in areas of steppe further north. Rook numbers were slightly lower to the east of the Ural River: on average about 80 breeding pairs per km of roadside plantations. This slightly lower density may have enabled Sociable Lap- wings to survive there as breeding birds. Large-scale predation by Rooks may also be responsible for the disappearance of Sociable Lapwings from the European steppes. Rooks habitually forage on the short-grass steppes near settlements and farms, the Sociable Lapwing’s favoured nesting habitat (Gordienko 1991), and the corvids apparently expanded into the steppes of southeastern Europe in the nineteenth century, when areas to the north of British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 479 P. Korenev Viktor Belik Viktor Belik S. Kornev The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia c > 298. Black-winged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni on nest in area of saline soil [solonchak] with Sea-milkwort Glaux maritima in flower, Suluk-Kul’ lake, Western Kazakhstan, June 1 992. The short-legged pratincole can quite easily ‘lose its way’ in such tall and dense vegetation. the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov were incorporated into Russia. There followed a period of intensive colonisation of these areas by Slav peoples, who planted trees in and around their settlements, creating tradi- tional gardens, parks and ceme- teries in towns and villages, which in turn provided ideal nesting habitat for Rooks (e.g. Sarandinaki 1909). A marked contraction of the Sociable Lapwing's European breeding range is presumed to have taken place in that same period (Belik 1994a). Observations at the Sociable Lapwing nest found in May 1996 revealed that the lapwing became highly agitated when- ever Rooks entered the breeding territory, and attempted to attack them. Rather than driving them away, however, the lapwing’s behaviour served only to draw the Rooks’ atten- tion to the nesting area, and the corvids pur- posefully and methodically searched the area for eggs. Similar behaviour by Rooks occurred at a colony of Black-winged Pratincoles Glareola nordmanni nesting on the Solyanka River near Lake Shalkar. Further evidence of the heavy predation pressure exerted by corvids on the nests of steppe-breeding waders can be found in Molodan ( 1980). 299. This solitary nest of Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius (foreground), photographed in May 1 996, is perhaps one of the last in Western Kazakhstan. The nest is sited in sandy steppe amid sparse feather-grass Stipa pasture. Visible on the horizon are the huge sand dunes of the Akkumy [‘White Sands’] Desert. The impact of increasing rainfall Shevchenko (1998) argued that Sociable Lap- wings had been forced to move into intrazonal sandy landscapes as a result of the increasing aridity of the climate and the consequent drying-out and withering of grassy vegetation on the clay steppes. Two of the three birds observed in 1996 were in undulating sandy steppe on the edge of sandhills, and the single nest was in the same habitat. However, increasing aridity and desertification of the steppes reached a peak in Kazakhstan in the 1930s and 1940s, when there was a noticeable decline in Sociable Lapwing numbers (Dol- gushin 1962). Subsequently, rainfall has increased. In the Aktyubinsk Steppes, for example, 14 dry and four wet years were recorded in the period 1925-44, whereas the period 1945-64 included eight dry years and 480 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia C 300. Typical habitat of Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius - dry saline steppe [solonets] with wormwood Artemisia paucifiora and numerous suslik (ground squirrel) mounds by the burrows of Little Ground Squirrel Spermophilus pygmaeus - llek River valley, Orenburg Region, Russia, June 1 989. There was a large colony of Sociable Lapwings here in 1 989, but not a single bird remained in the area by 200 1 . eight wet years. Data are also available for the semi-deserts around the River Emba, where 12 dry and six wet years were recorded in the first period, followed by five dry and 12 wet years in the second (Varshavskiy 1965). In the steppes of Southern Russia, the area of increasing aridity had decreased in 1961-81 approximately 3-5 times compared with the situation in 1940-61 (Voronina 2000). In Southern Russia, the final two decades of the twentieth century were char- acterised by increased precipitation, leading to a proliferation of mixed herbaceous vegetation throughout. The fact that Sociable Lapwings appear to have shifted into sandy habitats can probably be linked, not so much to increasing aridity, but to increasing rainfall on the steppes. During the breeding season, the Sociable Lapwing is invari- ably associated with dry, short-grass steppes, with sparse vegetation and patches of bare ground between lusher growth of grasses and other mixed herbaceous plants (e.g. Gladkov 1951, Kozlova 1961, Dolgushin 1962). These habitats are most characteristic of steppe solonets (formerly saline soil from which salts have leached, leaving surface salt on the soil) and solonchak (saline soil) or their equivalents in the form of well-trampled grazing land. An increasingly moist climate resulted in taller and denser vegetation becoming established on these pastures, which then became less suitable as nesting habitat for Sociable Lapwings and other desert-steppe breeding waders, including Stone-curlew Burhinus oedicnemus , Caspian Plover Charadrius asiaticus and Black-winged Pratincole. As the vegetation changed within the core breeding range, these species would have become confined to regions with poor sandy soils, since the vegetation always remains sparse, even where there is limited low-intensity grazing, although feeding opportunities in such sandy habitats appear to be far from optimal. The nest discovered in the Akkumy Sands was in primary feather-grass Stipa sabidosa steppe on sandy soil, overgrazed and trampled, with vegetation at a height of 5-10 cm, and an overall grass-cover of c. 30%. Increasingly frequent downpours during the breeding season result in the mass mortality of eggs and chicks of all steppe-grassland birds (Minoranskiy 1967; Gubkin 1973; Kostin 1983). Such downpours have become more frequent in the recent ‘pluvial’ decades, and have brought about a decline in many species. This has even affected some ground-nesting woodland species, including Wood Lark Lullula arborea, Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia, Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix and Ortolan Bunting Emberiza hortulana (Belik 2000a). Heavy rain showers are especially dangerous to ground-nesting birds using solonets and solon- chak, where rainwater collects in hollows and remains for long periods, being unable to soak into the swollen soil, which is saturated with colloids. Sociable Lapwings nesting on loose sand are presumably not affected to the same British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 481 A. Davygora Viktor Belik Viktor B elik The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia c 30 1 . A herd of sheep on steppe pasture, Manych-Gudilo valley, Rostov Region, Russia, May 200 1 . Sheep are one of the main threats to ground-nesting birds, but at the same time they create the low, sparse plant cover in the steppe that Sociable Lapwings Vanellu s gregarius and pratincoles Glareola need for nesting. extent as those on clay. The breeding success in sandy habitats remains low, however, because of heavy predation pressure (Shevchenko 1998), and, perhaps, the poor food supply. Although these birds may be slightly more successful than those breeding elsewhere, the number of young reared cannot balance the population losses due to the natural mortality of adults. Conse- quently, the overall population continues to decline. 302. Typical nest of Black-winged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni on saline soil [solonchak] with sparse, low growth of saltworts Petrosimonia oppositifolia and the withered spring ephemeral Oval Purse Hymenolobus procumbens, Manych-Gudilo valley, Rostov Region, Russia, June 2003. The nest is an almost completely unlined depression (a cow’s hoof-print) in clay soil, which is dry and cracked from the heat of the sun. Decline of livestock grazing Owing to the economic crisis affecting the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in the 1 990s, the number of livestock kept on the steppe grasslands declined sharply, which in turn reduced grazing pressures. This enabled dense, grassy vegetation to thrive in regions where the grasslands had previously been grazed, and numbers of breeding Sociable Lap- wings declined. It is interesting that a similar situation occurred in southern European Russia during the mid nineteenth century, when reor- ganisation of agriculture saw the conversion of land from sheep farming to arable, and the pro- duction of marketable grain (Formozov 1962; Kirikov 1966). Throughout this vast region, the steppes were subjected to ploughing for wheat cultivation, which proved unsuitable for breeding Sociable Lapwings. At the same time, the concentration of domestic livestock on the remaining grazing land led to the trampling of wader nests, which can result in up to 84-95% of clutches in colonies of wetland birds being destroyed (Elkin 1981). Together with the increasing predation by Rooks, which had colonised farmsteads in the steppes, and the increasingly moist climate, these factors became possibly the main reasons for the disappearance of the Sociable Lapwing from the steppes of Southern Russia in the nineteenth century. What we appear to be witnessing now is a repe- tition of this dire situation in the continental steppes of Kazakhstan. 482 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia The impact of climate change on other species Examples of a simultaneous decline in several other, ecologically similar, bird species may be cited as additional support for the idea that climate change has played a major role in the disappearance of the Sociable Lapwing. In the 1980s and 1990s, for example, there was a marked contraction of the western part of the range (i.e. the part most affected by Atlantic depressions) of a typical desert species, the Caspian Plover. The same was true for Black Lark Melanocorypha yeltoniensis, a semi-desert species found in the same areas and habitat as Sociable Lapwing, and also Black-winged Prat- incole, Calandra Lark M. calandra , Short-toed Lark Calandrella brachydactyla and Lesser Short-toed Lark C. rufescens (e.g. Galushin et al. 1994, Belik 2000a, b). It is important to empha- sise that fluctuations in the range of many of these species also occurred synchronously in the past, which can probably be taken as evidence for common limiting factors on a large scale exerting an influence on the species concerned (e.g Formozov 1959, Belik & Lebedeva 2004, Belik unpubl.). The fate of the Stone-curlew may help us to understand how certain negative factors affect the Sociable Lapwing population and those of other waders inhabiting steppe grasslands. The Stone-curlew has penetrated north, well into the steppe zone and even into the forest zone, almost exclusively by way of sandy river terraces or riparian sand dunes, where there was for- merly a sparser vegetation-cover and heavy summer downpours evidently had little effect. In the desert zone, however, the Stone-curlew also nests regularly on clay soils, including patches of solonchak (Dolgushin 1962). With the reduction in grazing by domestic livestock in sandy steppe grasslands, however, and their becoming overgrown with tall dense herbage and scrub, Stone-curlews have tended to con- centrate mainly around settlements and stock- rearing farms (just like the Sociable Lapwing in Kazakhstan: e.g. Gordienko 1991), where patches of bare, well-trampled sand remain. And now, also like the Sociable Lapwing, Stone- curlews are being driven out of their last refuges on sand in the steppes by a predator, the Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (which is actively expanding its range south by way of pinewoods growing on sand and riverine forests, and now even plantation belts in the steppe; Belik 2003a, b). Is there a future for the Sociable Lapwing ? Sociable Lapwing is a critically endangered wader that has experienced one of the most rapid declines of any species. This decline has accelerated in recent decades and it is highly probable that it will be extinct in the near future. Urgent research and conservation mea- sures must be undertaken immediately to 303. Nest of Stone-curlew Burhinus oedicnemus amid cow dung on sandy pasture trampled by cattle, near Kamysh-Samarskiye Lakes, Western Kazakhstan, May 1 996. The sandy soil has a sparse cover of cinquefoil Potentilla bifurca, whose creeping habit makes it low enough not to hinder the birds when they are moving about by the nest. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 483 Viktor Belik The Sociable Lapwing in Eurasia c ) prevent this happening, or at least to slow the rate of decline until effective measures can be found to reverse this alarming trend. Our present understanding of the requirements and threats to the Sociable Lapwing is far from being adequate to prevent numbers decreasing further. Although it is not yet established beyond doubt that the effects of corvid preda- tion, habitat change and abnormal weather are the principal causes behind this decline, obser- vations have not revealed other obvious causes. It is recognised that other influences may be at work, and turther fieldwork is required to determine if these exist. In the short term, the establishment of a captive population may be the only means available to save the Sociable Lapwing from extinction. This can be done on a temporary basis until a suitable site can be found for its translocation, as was undertaken to save the Kakapo Strigops habroptilus in New Zealand (Helton 1989; Pain 1990). Acknowledgments I extend my warm thanks to Dr Pavel Tomkovich for his help and, in particular; for offering much valuable advice and expert comment during the preparation of this paper I am similarly grateful to the Russian Bird Conservation Union for allowing me to take part in the 1996 Slender- billed Curlew expedition, which enabled me to collect essential data in Kazakhstan. Mike Wilson kindly translated the article into English and helped greatly with the editing. References Belik, V. R 1 994a. Sociable Plover Chettusia gregario. In: Tucker; G. M., & Heath, M. F. (eds.), Birds in Europe: their conservation status: 258-259. BirdLife International, Cambridge. — 1 994b. Where does the Slender-billed Curlew (Numenius tenuirostris ) breed? Inf Mat. Raboch. Gr. po Kulikam 7: 30-32. — 2000a. Ptitsy stepnogo Pridon'yo: formirovanie fauny, ee antropogennaya transformatsiya i voprosy okhrany [Birds of the Don Valley Steppes: the formation of the avifauna, anthropogenic changes and conservation questions], Rostov State Pedagogical University Press, Rostov-on- Don. (In Russian) — 2000b. [Some special features of the formation of the summer lark population in the meadowland and steppe landscapes of southeastern Europe]. Berkut 9 ( I -2): 86-101. (In Russian) — 2003a. [The Northern Goshawk in the Don Valley steppes: its distribution and ecology]. In: Belik, V. R (ed.), Yastreb-teterevyatnik mesto v ekosistemakh Rossii. Mat IV Konf. po khishchn. ptitsam Sev. Evrazii [The Northern Goshawk its place in the ecosystems of Russia. Papers from the 4th Conference on Raptors of Northern Eurasia ]: 15-48. Penza and Rostov Pedagogical Universities, Penza-Rostov. (In Russian) — 2003b. [Predation by the Northern Goshawk and its role in biocoenoses]. In: Belik, V. R (ed.), Yastreb- teterevyatnik mesto v ekosistemakh Rossii. Mat. IV Konf. po khishchn. ptitsam Sev. Evrazii [The Northern Goshawk its place in the ecosystems of Russia. Papers from the 4th Conference on Raptors of Northern Eurasia]: 1 46- 1 68. Penza and Rostov Pedagogical Universities, Penza- Rostov. (In Russian) — & Lebedeva, E. A. (compilers) 2004. International Single Species Anion Plan for the Conservation of the Black- winged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni. UNEP/AEWA Secretariat: Technical Series No. 4, The Netherlands. — & Sidel'nikov.V.V. 1 989. [An experiment to assess Rook numbers in the Rostov Region based on data from questionnaires]. In: Vranovye ptitsy v estestvennykh i antropogennykh landshaftakh. Mat 2 Vsesoyuz. Soveshch. [Crows in Natural and Man-made Landscapes. Papers from the 2nd All-Union Conference, part 2]: 68-70. Lipetsk (In Russian) Burfield, I., & van Bommel, F. (compilers) 2004. Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status. BirdLife International, Cambridge. Chibilev.A. 1998. [Key questions of regional eco-politics in the steppe zone of Russia and neighbouring states]. Stepn. Byull. 2: 3-5. (In Russian) Danilenko, A. K„ Boere, G. C.. & Lebedeva, E. A. 1 996. Looking for the recent breeding grounds of Slender- billed Curlew: a habitat-based approach. Wader Study Group Bull. 81:71-78. Debelo, RV. 1 989. [Distribution and population of the Rook in the Uralsk Region], In: Vsesoyuz. Soveshch. po probleme kadostra i ucheta zhivotnogo mira:Tez. Dokl. [All-Union Conference on Mapping and Censusing Animals: abstracts of papers, part 3]: 72-73. Bashkir Book Publishers, Ufa. (In Russian) Dolgushin, I. A. 1 962. [Order waders - Limicolae]. In: Dolgushin, I. A. (ed.), Ptitsy Kozakhstana [The Birds of Kazakhstan], V ol. 2: 40-245. Acad. Sci. Kazakh SSR Press, Alma-Ata. (In Russian) Eichhorn, G„ & Khrokov.V.V. 2002. Decline in breeding Sociable Plover Chettusia gregario in the steppes of Naurzum and Korgalzhyn, Kazakhstan. Sandgrouse 24 ( I ): 22-27. Elkin, K. F. 1981. [Grazing by cattle and the security of breeding grounds of wetland birds in Northern Kazakhstan], In: Nauchnye osnovy obsledovaniya kolonial'nykh gnezdoviy okolovodnykh ptits [The Scientific Basis for Studying Breeding Colonies of Wetland Birds]: 49—5 1 . Nauka, Moscow. (In Russian) Formozov, A, N. 1 959. On shifts and fluctuations in the distribution limits of mammals and birds. In: Population Geography ofTerrestrial Animals and Methods for Studying it: 1 72- 1 94. Acad. Sci. USSR Press, Moscow. — 1962. (Changes in natural conditions in the steppes of the southern European part of the USSR over the last 1 00 years and some characteristic features of the current steppe fauna]. 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[On the biology of the Black-winged Pratincole and Black-winged Stilt in the Dnepropetrovsk Region], In: Flint, V. E. (ed.), Fauna i Ekologiya Kulikov [Fauna and Ecology of Waders], Part 2: 37-38. Moscow University Press, Moscow. (In Russian) Helton, D. 1 989. May the Kakapo for ever boom. BBC Wildlife 7(10): 687. Kirikov, S.V. 1 966. Promyslovye Zhivotnye, Prirodnaya Sreda i Chelovek [ Wildlife Resources, the Natural Environment and Man], Nauka, Moscow. (In Russian) Kostin, Yu. V. 1983. Ptitsy Kryma [Birds of the Crimea ]. Nauka, Moscow. (In Russian) Kozlova, E.V. 1961. Fauna SSSR, Ptitsy: Charadriiformes, Podotryad kuliki [Fauna of the USSR. Birds: Charadriiformes, Suborder Limicolae].Vol. 2(1), part 2. Acad. Sci. USSR Press, Moscow. (In Russian) Minoranskiy.V. A. 1967. [The effect of hail on nesting birds], Ornitologiya 8: 374. (In Russian) Molodan, G. N. 1 980. [On the nesting of the Collared Pratincole (Aves, Limicolae) in the northeastern Sea of Azov Lowlands], Vestnik Zoo!. (4): 96-97. (In Russian) Morozov, V.V. 1 997. [Some results of work on the Russian Bird Conservation Union project 'Search for the breeding grounds of the Slender-billed Curlew']. Inf. Mat. Raboch. Gr. po Kulikam 10: 38-39. (In Russian) Pain, S. 1990. Last days of the old night bird. New Scientist 126 (1721): 37-41. Sarandinaki, G. 1909. [Some data for an ornithology of the Rostov-on-Don District of the Don Region], Sbor. Stud. Biol. Kruzhka Novoross. Univ. (4): 1-75. (In Russian) Shevchenko, V. L. 1 989. [Current distribution and population of crows in the Northern Caspian Lowlands], In: Vranovye ptitsy v estestvennykh i antropogennykh landshaftakh. Mat. 2 Vsesoyuz. Soveshch. [Crows in Natural and Man-made Landscapes. Papers from the 2nd All-Union Conference, part 2]: 38-40. Lipetsk. (In Russian) — 1 998. [The status of the Sociable Lapwing in the Northern Caspian Lowlands]. Inf Mat. Raboch. Gr. po Kulikam I 1 : 45-47. (In Russian) Tomkovich, R S., & Lebedeva, E. A, (compilers) 2004. International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius. UNEP/AEWA Secretariat, Technical Series No. 2, The Netherlands. Varshavskiy, S. N. 1 965. [Landscapes and faunal communities of terrestrial vertebrates in the Northern Aral Sea Lowlands in connection with natural nidality of plague infection]. [A lecture delivered for the academic degree of Doctor of Biological Sciences based on all the candidate's published papers]. Saratov. (In Russian) Vingradov, B. 1 999. [Desertification - a problem for the steppe zone of Russia], Stepn, Byull. (3—4): 55-58. (In Russian) Voronina, V. R2000. [Climate and agriculture in conflict in the Russian sector of the Caspian Lowlands], In: Problemy Prirodopol'zovaniya i Sokhraneniya Bioraznoobraziya v Usloviyakh Opustynivaniya. Mat mezhregion. nauch.-prakt. Ko nf. [Problems of Natural Resource Management and the Conservation of Biodiversity in Conditions of Desertification. Papers from an interregional conference on scientific and practical aspects ]: 5-8. Volgograd. (In Russian) Dr Viktor P. Belik, Department of Zoology, Rostov State Pedagogical University, Dneprovskiy Pereulok, 116, 344065 Rostov-on-Don, Russia Appendix 1. Dates and locations visited in Western Kazakhstan during the expedition, organised by the Russian Bird Conservation Union, to locate the breeding grounds of Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris, in April and May 1996 (see also fig. 1). No. Date Location 1 17th-20th April Kamysh-Samarskiye lakes near village of Novaya Kazanka, Dzhangala District 2 21st-26th April Uzen’ floodlands at village of Furmanovo, Furmanovo District 3 27th-28th April Bol’shoy Liman on the border with the Russian Saratov Region 4 29th April— 1st May Chizha floodlands at the mouth of Chizha Vtoraya river 5 3rd-7th and 10th May basin of Lake Shalkar (Chelkar) 6 8th-9th May Ural Valley between Ural’sk and Chapayevo settlement 7 12th- 15th May Akkumy Sands on upper reaches of the Kaldygayty River in the eastern part of the Western Kazakhstan Region, close to the border with the Orenburg Region of Russia 1 17th- 19th May Kamysh-Samarskiye lakes near village of Novaya Kazanka, Dzhangala District 8 21st May Uzen’ floodlands at Kaztalovka (now dry) 9 22nd-23rd May Ural Valley at Chapayevo 10 23rd May Ural Valley at Uralsk Footnote: For an update of ongoing research on the Sociable Lapwing in Central Kazakhstan, by a team of researchers from the University of St Andrews, RSPB and the Association for the Conservation of Biodiversity in Kazakhstan (ACBK, the BirdLife International Affiliate in Kazakhstan), see pp. 496-497. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 476-485 485 Tim Loseby Conservation research news Compiled by Derek Gruar and Mark Bolton Reactions of nesting Fieldfares to predators The Fieldfare Turdus pilaris is a familiar and widespread winter visitor to the UK, with around 750,000 birds arriving here in the winter months, but an extremely rare breeding bird. Fewer than 25 pairs breed in the north of Scotland, so the details of its nesting behaviour in the UK are not well known. As part of a long- term study into the passerine community of mountain birch Betula forests in Norway, Olav Hogstad investigated the different ways in which Fieldfares respond to predation pressure, from both birds and mammals. Fieldfares (rather like Mistle Thrushes T. vis- civorous in the UK) build an open cup nest, which is typically situated in the fork of a tree several metres above the ground. They may nest solitarily (with over 100 m between nesting pairs) or in loose colonies where nests are less than 35 nr apart. They defend their nests partic- ularly vigorously against avian predators (mainly Hooded Crows Corvus cornix and Common Ravens C. corax) by both mobbing and defecating on the predator, in a manner not unlike that of breeding terns Sterna. This type of defence, in particular the defecation, is used much less frequently against mammalian preda- tors such as Stoat Mustela erminea and Weasel M. nivalis. This difference in the Fieldfare’s response may be because soiling with faeces is more detrimental to birds, causing the plumage to become oiled’ and lose its insulating proper- ties, when compared with the effects on mammal fur. Fieldfares nesting in colonies were less sus- ceptible to avian predation, but suffered increased predation in years when the densities of mammalian predators were higher. One factor which affects the predation of Fieldfares by mustelids is the population of the Norway Lemming Lemmas lemmas. As in other parts of Fennoscandia, the lemming population is cyclical, and when the lemming numbers crash, mustelids have to switch to alternative prey sources, primarily the eggs and chicks of nesting birds. In such years, mam- malian predation of Field- fare nests, particularly those in colonies, increases markedly and colonial nesting is less evident. Hogstad investigated the reactions of nesting Field- fares experimentally by observing their response to the presence of introduced dummy predators (a stuffed Hooded Crow and a stuffed Stoat, mounted on 1-m poles). When placed 10 m away from the nest, the dummy crow was mobbed by 80% of Fieldfares but 304. Fieldfare Turdus pilaris. West Mailing, Kent, February 2004. 486 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 486-487 Conservation research news > only 30% attacked the dummy Stoat. Instead, 40% of the birds left the nest silently and remained more than 40 m away, presumably in order not to advertise the location of the nest to the perceived predator when it was still some distance away. At 1 m from the nest, the dummy crow elicited the same high-level mobbing response and at this distance the dummy Stoat was also actively mobbed. It was assumed that this increased level of defence is used to confuse the mustelid by switching its attention onto the parent birds (to which, unlike the crow, it is a lethal threat) rather than the nest itself. The time taken for adults to return to the nest after these experiments also differed, with nests exposed to a dummy stoat being left unattended longer than those exposed to a dummy crow. This is most likely due to the cryptic nature and behaviour of the Stoat in comparison with the more obvious presence of a crow. This research confirms that Fieldfares appear to be able to adopt different approaches to potential predation threats. As well as varying the ways in which they respond to the presence of a predator, the birds favour solitary (and more inconspicuous) nesting in years when lemmings are scarce and nrustelids are a greater threat, whereas they are more likely to be found nesting colonially in years when lemmings are abundant. Hogstad, O. 2004. Nest defence strategies in the Fieldfare Turdus pilaris: the responses on an avian and mammalian predator Ardea 92 (1): 79-84. Does organic farming yield biodiversity benefits? The benefits of organic farming, in which crops and livestock are raised without the use of syn- thetic chemicals to enhance growth, are often viewed in terms of a healthier, tastier farm product. It is clear, however, that the absence of herbicides and pesticides to control ‘weeds’ and eliminate invertebrates may have considerable biodiversity benefits as well. Instead of chemi- cals, organic (or ‘ecological’) farming systems rely on biological or mechanical methods of weed and pest control, together with crop rota- tions, natural means of nitrogen fixing and farmyard manure to maintain soil fertility. Within the UK, several studies (including those by the BTO and Oxford University) have shown that organic farms can provide favourable conditions for a range of farmland birds (such as Sky Lark Alauda arvensis ) but that most of the benefits can be attributed to particular components of the organic system, such as reduced synthetic inputs or a better quality of non-crop features such as hedges. Numerous other scientific studies have been conducted, on a wide range of plant and animal groups, to examine whether such organic farming systems are associated with higher bio- diversity in comparison with conventional agri- culture. To determine what overall conclusions can be drawn from this body of scientific litera- ture, Swedish researchers have recently under- taken a meta-analysis of all such studies published up to December 2002. Biodiversity was assessed in terms of both species richness and the abundance of organ- isms in each taxonomic group. They found that, overall, organic farming was associated with levels of species richness around 30% higher than those found in conventional agricultural systems (this difference was statistically signifi- cant). However, they found that not all plant and animal groups showed the same level of response to organic farming. While there were increases in species richness of plants, carabid beetles and birds, they found no differences for organisms within the soil. Similarly, organic systems were associated with levels of organism abundance 50% higher than for conventional systems, with significant increases in the abun- dance of plants, soil organisms, spiders and birds. The authors emphasised the importance of non-cropped areas such as field margins, hedgerows, ditches and ponds, which con- tribute substantially to biodiversity at a farm scale. The impact of organic systems on biodi- versity levels at the farm scale will therefore consequently depend on the extent to which such features are present. Biodiversity gains will be greatest in intensively managed agricultural landscapes, where such features are generally lacking. In such situations, organically pro- duced crops are not only good for the con- sumer, but for wildlife too! Bengtsson.J., Ahnstrom.J., & Weibull,A-C. 2005. The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis. J.Appl. E col. 42: 26 1 -269. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 486-487 487 Letters Breeding Honey-buzzards in Britain: fact , fiction and wishful thinking It is widely known that information on Honey- buzzards Pernis apivorus in Britain was with- held from both the 1968-72 and the 1988-91 national breeding atlases and, until recently, also from the Rare Breeding Birds Panel (RBBP). Consequently, there is a regrettable dearth of published data on numbers and pop- ulation trends over the second half of the twen- tieth century. We find it no less regrettable that, like Roberts et al. (1999) and Roberts & Lewis (2003) before him, Clements (2005) apparently chose to ignore what few solid details do exist, not even giving totals for those pairs which he has himself found on ‘several occasions in recent years... in upland locations’. Instead, he went on to quote verbal comments from ‘the relevant authorities’ to the effect that Honey- buzzards had been seen in the same places ‘10, 20 or more years ago, but that no-one had sub- sequently visited to check on progress’ even though they were ‘typically professional staff working for conservation organisations’. As they stand, anonymous generalisations of this kind are, of course, worthless. We also question Clements’s use, in describing the population of Wales, of the imprecise term ‘significant breeding numbers’, and his lack of acknowledg- ment that ten pairs (five breeding) were found in the principality during the survey of 2000 (Ogilvie 2003). And what exactly did his use of this same term mean in the context of Cumbria? Such loose statements are open to varying interpretations, and could imply popu- lations larger than do, in fact, exist. Combridge et al. (2003) discussed various weaknesses in the postulation by Roberts et al. (1999) and Roberts & Lewis (2003) that Honey- buzzards ‘undoubtedly’ increased in both numbers and range in Britain during the last three decades of the twentieth century, and that the population is now in the ‘low hundreds’ and still growing. That Clements (2005) overlooked our contribution is significant - and ironic, in that he concluded his letter by criticising Mummery et al. (2004) for ignoring Roberts & Lewis. Wiseman (2004) provided a population summary for the New Forest, Hampshire, which showed marked periodic fluctuations in the annual totals there during the 50 years 1954-2003: numbers were at higher levels during 1961-80 (given as six to nine pairs in Clark & Eyre 1993) and 1993-2002, but roughly only half as many were present during 1954—60, 1981-92 and, interestingly, 2003. This detail in Wiseman’s letter was also ignored by Clements. Perhaps it might have suggested that the numbers of Honey-buzzards in Britain as a whole could similarly have fluctuated, in con- trast to Clements’s insistence that the ‘total pop- ulation has... grown’ since the 1970s? Against the background of Wiseman’s figures, it may be significant that Roberts et al. began their field- work only in 1989. Could their views, and those of Clements, have been influenced by the fact that they had not been studying Honey-buz- zards for long enough to have seen anything other than a generally larger population? Roberts et al. wished to ‘encourage... respon- sible research into the species’ status’, in which case evidence collected over a 50-year period should not have been ignored. Although unconvinced by some of the content of Mummery et al, we were intrigued by their reference to multiple arrivals having brought ‘five new pairs to Inverness-shire in 1972’. Thom ( 1986) was able to list just one case of possible breeding in Scotland in the twen- tieth century and that was as long ago as 1949. Any in 1972 could suggest that (re?)colonisa- tion of upland Britain is not necessarily a recent event, which leads us to wonder whether long- term population data for Inverness-shire may exist; if so, publication of a summary, similar to Wiseman’s for the New Forest, would be invalu- able. It is interesting to note that the Honey- buzzard maps in both BTO national breeding atlases and in Hagemeijer 8c Blair (1997) depict a small summer presence in the Scottish high- lands. Our earlier letter appealed for previously withheld information to be deposited with the RBBP for analysis and, where possible, cautious summarised publication. Fuller knowledge of the Honey-buzzard’s recent history in Britain will soon become even more essential, as field- work for a combined breeding and winter atlas of British and Irish birds is to begin in 2007 (e.g. Brit. Birds 97: 673). It will clearly be important for this, as a conservation tool, to be interpretable against accurate backgrounds of 488 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 488-493 Letters C > population trends. Some recent reference works, such as Wernham et al. (2002) and Brown & Grice (2005), have uncritically repeated the claims of a ‘real increase’ in the British Honey-buzzard population during the last third of the twentieth century. It would be a pity if the 2007-1 1 atlas were to do the same. References Brown, A., & Grice, R 2005. Birds in England. Poyser; London. Clark, J.M., & Eyre.J. E. 1 993. Birds of Hampshire. Hampshire Ornithological Society. Clements, R 2005. Honey-buzzards in Britain. Brit Birds 98: 153-155. Combridge, R, Christie, D.A., & Ferguson-Lees, I.J. 2003. Breeding European Honey-buzzards in Britain. Brit. Birds 96: 258-260. HagemeijerW.J. M.,& Blair M.J. (eds.) 1 997. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds. Poyser; London. Mummery, L„ Gulliver; J„ & Emmett, R. E. 2004. Honey- buzzards in Britain. Brit. Birds 97: 476-477. Ogilvie, M. A. 2003. European Honey-buzzards in the UK correction to breeding totals. Brit. Birds 96: 1 45. Roberts, S.J., & Lewis, J. M. S. 2003. Observations of European Honey-buzzard breeding density in Britain. Brit. Birds 96: 37-39. — , — , & Williams, I.T 1 999. Breeding European Honey- buzzards in Britain. Brit Birds 92: 326-345. Thom.V. M. 1 986. Birds in Scotland. Poyser; Calton. Wernham, C.V.,Toms, M. R, MarchantJ. H„ Clark, J. A., Siriwardena, G. M., & Baillie, S. R. (eds.) 2002. The Migration Atlas; movements of the birds of Britain and Ireland. Poyser; London. Wiseman, E. J. 2004. Breeding Honey-buzzards in Britain. Brit. Birds 97: 4 1 7. Pete Combridge 16 Green Close, Whiteparish, Salisbury SP5 2SB David A. Christie 119 Thornhill Park Road, Thornhill Park, Southampton SO 18 5TT I. J. Ferguson-Lees 4 Walnut Close, Rode, Frome BA11 6QA EDITORIAL COMMENT While the above letter was in press, the following letter was received and accepted for publication. Eds Honey-buzzards in Britain Rob Clements’s letter concerning the status of Honey-buzzards Pernis apivorus in Britain ( Brit Birds 98: 153-155) prompts me to place on record my own experience of the species in northern Scotland. In July 1973, after coming across Honey-buzzards in an extensive, mature conifer plantation in a glen in northern Scot- land, I found birds at a further four sites during a search of plantations of similar age in the area. At most of these sites, Honey-buzzards were conspicuous, spending much time in the air, displaying. Birds were equally obvious in 1974 and 1975, but in subsequent years became much more unobtrusive. I reported my observations to Roy Dennis, then Highland Officer of the RSPB, who, in addition to offering encouragement and subse- quently taking part in some of the fieldwork, put me in touch with observers with experience of breeding Honey-buzzards in Britain and abroad. These observers subsequently visited the area most years to assist with fieldwork. It was decided to attempt to establish the species’ status, and over the following years to 1986, all potentially suitable sites in a study area of approximately 800 km2 were checked. The study area consisted of moorland intersected with valleys, the sides of which were predominantly covered by mature conifer plantations and to a lesser extent birch Betula woodland and crofting land. The principal methodology used was a series of watches at sites throughout the area, usually of four hours’ duration, starting from the second half of May, with a more inten- sive effort from the last two weeks of July until the end of August. Other types of habitat were also checked and Honey-buzzards were found in two areas of deciduous woodland. In addi- tion, rumours that birds were breeding in native pine Pinus woodland outside the study area were followed up but no breeding birds were ever seen by myself in this particular habitat. By 1976, felling of the plantations had com- menced, and by 1986 large sections of some forests in the area were considered no longer suitable for Honey-buzzards, given the assump- tion that the birds required extensive tracts of mature woodland. This assumption was sup- ported by checking some recently felled areas and confirming that they were no longer occu- pied. Most sites were checked annually, with others every 2-3 years, and successful breeding British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 488-493 489 Letters C > was first proved in 1976. It was considered that, during the period 1973-86, the population in the study area peaked at 13 occupied sites: at least nine on a regular basis, and up to four irregularly. In 2000 and 2001, as part of a national Honey-buzzard survey, and with the knowledge that elsewhere in Britain birds were known to use marginal sites such as small clumps of trees and even hedgerow trees, the 13 sites were revis- ited. The same methodology was employed but, owing to the fact that birds were not seen, more time was spent ranging over some sites to ensure that they were in fact unoccupied, and checking more marginal habitats. Honey-buz- zards were seen only at four sites, with suc- cessful nesting taking place at just one, a substantial decline since 1973-86. None was located in two apparently suitable adjacent areas, nor in three tracts of native pine forest (the latter were checked during the 1973-86 survey). The Honey-buzzard is easily over- looked, but I have no doubt that the decrease in the study area is real. The main reason for the decline appears to be habitat change, as a result of extensive felling in the forests where the birds occurred origi- nally. Almost all the abandoned sites have been subject to felling to varying extent. At one site outwith my study area, a pair whose nest con- taining young was destroyed by felling opera- tions did not use the site again in following years, despite the young fledging eventually from a hastily erected prefabricated nest built nearby (R. H. Dennis pers. comm.). Nonethe- less, the fact that one site in unaltered decid- uous woodland is no longer occupied may suggest that other factors could be involved. There is no evidence that birds in the study area or areas adjacent to it are using isolated copses or hedgerow trees. One reason for this may be that the birds which colonised northern Scot- land are possibly of north European stock, while those elsewhere in Britain may have colonised from southern Europe; and that the two groups react differently to habitat change for some reason. R. H. Dennis (pers. comm.) has suggested that young reared in the north of Scotland may be subject to higher mortality because their first autumn migration involves longer sea-crossings en route to Africa. This hypothesis, the result of initial satellite-tracking studies, assumes that migratory orientation is inherited from Scandinavian parents, and also means that recruitment will be poor. Other factors may be involved in the bird’s decline in this region, and instances of predation of eggs or young by Pine Martens Martes martes on three occasions in the past suggest that preda- tion by this mammal may be one of them. It is also possible that birds have been displaced to other areas, which could account for increases elsewhere or the colonisation of new sites, although I am not aware of any evidence to suggest that this is the case in northern Scot- land. During 1973-86, other areas in northern Scotland were searched, and Honey-buzzards were seen at other sites. There were also casual sightings during the course of fieldwork in con- nection with other raptors. Searches of suitable- looking sites have been carried out since 2000 without finding birds, and this, together with the reduced number of casual sightings, sug- gests that the decline in numbers extends beyond my study area; this is also the opinion of other observers (R. H. Dennis pers. comm.). My experience of Honey-buzzards is con- fined to one area of Britain, and I am not in a position to question Rob Clements’s encour- aging assessment of trends in the British popu- lation as a whole. However, the habitat changes which have taken place in my study area are not unique and the possibility that Honey-buzzard populations elsewhere have reacted similarly should be taken into account when assessing the population as a whole. Everything points to the fact that Honey-buzzards in the north of Scotland are extremely vulnerable and all nests should be protected from forestry operations. Malcolm Harvey Clack Bhan, Loaneckheim, Kiltarlity, Beauly, Inverness-shire IV4 7JQ; e-mail: malcolmi.harvey@btinternet.com EDITORIAL COMMENT The extensive correspondence on this subject in recent months has highlighted the problems with monitoring Honey-buzzards in the UK. We hope that at least some of these can be addressed in future (notably for the next national atlas project) with co-ordinated survey work and improved co-operation and communication among fieldworkers. Eds 490 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 488-493 Letters C } Acknowledging records May I please offer a counter view to the com- ments made by P. J. Oliver (Brit. Birds 98: 211) and Moss Taylor (Brit. Birds 98: 262). While, in an ideal world, it would be desirable to acknowledge all submitted records, both time and cost prevent me from doing so. In Norfolk, I encourage as many observers as possible to submit their records on a monthly basis - and 50-60 usually do so, with surpris- ingly more than half of these still sending records by post. Some observers submit their records quarterly or half-yearly, but the majority still send them in at the end of the year, which amounts to several hundred sub- missions. Fortunately, I have a willing band of volun- teers (not least my wife, who generously helps with the computer side of bird recording) to assist me with the inputting of records, drafting sections of the Systematic List, etc., but the general reader is probably not aware of the huge number of tasks undertaken by a County Recorder, especially in a popular birding county like Norfolk. These include chasing up descrip- tions of both county and national rarities and circulating such records; dealing with numerous queries and occasional valid records from the public (often diverted by the BTO and RSPB); requests for information from public/private bodies; and, increasingly, requests for records in association with environmental assessments. I also annotate records to be input by others onto our computer system and write large sections of the annual county report; even compiling the list of contributors (usually around 400) takes a good many hours! Among all the tasks listed above, I do like to get out in the field occasionally and also to spend quality time with my wife. Although I always reply to any correspondence when a response is required, if I had to acknowledge all records submitted, it would be the straw that broke the camel’s back. The position of County Recorder is entirely voluntary and unpaid, and surely most people would agree that there is a limit to the amount of time and effort that it is reasonable to devote to the role. Giles Dunmore Norfolk County Recorder, 49 Nelson Road, Sheringham, Norfolk NR26 8DA EDITORIAL COMMENT Clearly, there are two sides to the argument about acknowledging records and, since the proponents of both sides have now put their views, we shall close the correspondence here. Eds Black and White-winged Larks in How fascinating to read the quite different accounts and circumstances surrounding the first two Black Larks Melanocorypha yeltoniensis in Britain (Degnan 8c Croft 2005). However, with reference to previous records of the species in Europe and the apparent lack of overlap with occurrences of its equally exciting congeneric, White-winged Lark M. leucoptera , the following is pertinent. Simultaneous European records of the two species are not limited to a single event (relating to different countries), as stated in the recent article, and neither did Koistinen (2002) claim as much. In fact, the latter stated that ‘the two species seldom [my emphasis] stray simul- taneously’ and went on to report the Swedish Black Lark and Polish White-winged Lark of May 1993 as the only at all recent example of such. However, neither Lindroos 8c Tenovou (2000, 2002) nor Degnan 8c Croft (2005) seem Europe, and the museum tradition aware of the most striking example of the two species being recorded simultaneously in Europe (albeit only just), literally ‘side by side’. Mathey-Dupraz (1922) reported a female Black Lark shot at Kii<;ukcekmece, Istanbul (Turkey), on 14th October 1914, along with two White- winged Larks on the same day, all of which were held in the Robert’s College, Istanbul, collec- tion. The Black Lark specimen could not be found in the mid 1980s (M. Kasparek in lift. 1996), but the male White-winged Lark was still present in 1996 (Kirwan 1997). The loss of the M. yeltoniensis specimen is quite easily explained by the several moves and lack of care devoted to this collection of Turkish birds, arguably the most important held in Turkey. Which brings me neatly to Bill Bourne’s comments (Brit. Birds 98: 324) concerning Why Museums Matter: avian archives in an age of British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 488-493 491 Letters C > extinction. As a mere birdwatcher with no scien- tific training and unquestionably lacking the long experience in, and contributions to, the world of ornithology that Bourne can boast, I have been regularly welcomed into museums the world over, enjoying the assistance and wisdom of many members of staff, sometimes stretching to hospitality well beyond the mere call of duty. I have never encountered the ‘off- hand’ attitudes from members of staff, junior or senior, that he mentions. More importantly, some of Bourne’s other comments breed misin- formation or are somewhat economical with the truth. He lists some of the main problems with the museums of today that he claims were not addressed by the conference proceedings under review. One of these, fees for artwork, was, in point of fact, tackled by two contribu- tions in Why Museums Matter (namely by Andrew Richford and Martin Woodcock). The principal personalities guilty (according to Bourne) of dancing on Meinertzhagen’s grave in this publication are Pam Rasmussen and Robert Prys-Jones. 1 defy anyone, even Bill Bourne, to suggest that these particular critics have not made very substantial contributions to ornithology within their still far from finished careers. Collision casualties, says Bourne, are of great value (true) and a preferable means of accumulating new material than shooting (actually most currently active collectors are probably more likely to use mist-nets but, of course, such undramatic methods do not suit the sentimentalists). Unfortunately, many of the most important gaps in collections, in terms of under- or unrepresented taxa/plumages, are Guy M. Kirwan 74 Waddington Street, Norwich NR2 4JS unlikely to fly into car bumpers or strategically placed windows in areas where there are neither roads nor settlements! Which is why the collec- tors (Remsen 1995) and their conservationist supporters (Collar 2000) started to put this house into order by laying down sensible guide- lines for the acquisition of new material. Finally, Bourne takes exception to the collection of over 650 Great Grey Shrikes Lanius excubitor in Slo- vakia, but fails to mention that these birds were taken over a 26-year period (i.e. an average of 25 individuals per year) and that the ‘limited area’ in which they were taken is, in fact, rather larger than most English counties (hence well within the limits separately suggested by Remsen and Collar in their debate on this issue). References Collar N.J. 2000. Collecting and conservation: cause and effect. Bird Conserv. Intern. 10: 1-15. Degnan, L„ & Croft, K. 2005. Black Lark: new to Britain. Brit Birds 98: 306-3 1 3. Kirwan, G. M. I 997. A list of bird specimens held in the Robert's College, Bebek (Istanbul, Turkey) collection, with some comments on Mathey-Dupraz ( 1 920-24). Sandgrouse 1 9: 30-38. Koistinen.J. 2002. Vagrancy and weather Alula 8: 28. Lindroos.T, &Tenovuo, O. 2000. White-winged Lark - field identification and European distribution. Alula 4: 170-177. Lindroos.T, &Tenovuo, 0. 2002. Black Lark - its identification in the field and distribution in Europe. Alula 6: 22-28. Mathey-Dupraz, A. 1 922. Notes ornithologiques de la region du Bosphore. Orn. Beob. 19: I 16-1 19. Remsen, J.V. 1 995. The importance of continued collecting of bird specimens to ornithology and bird conservation. Bird Conserv. Intern. 5: 1 45- 1 80. Meinertzhagen right or wrong May I register my dismay at Bill Bourne’s choice of language and target in one part of his review of Why Museums Matter {Brit. Birds 98: 324)? ‘The usual people dance on Colonel Mein- ertzhagen’s grave,’ he wrote, ‘with no comment that... he and Gregory Mathews... did more good work than most of their critics put together.’ An injustice is done here. Dr Pamela Rasmussen and Dr Robert Prys-Jones, authors of the paper which deals with Meinertzhagen, have, as time has allowed, worked on his spec- imen frauds at the Natural History Museum for almost a decade, and their painstaking detective work has been crucial in identifying the scale and scope of the problem and how it affects both the collection and the published record. To ‘dance on someone’s grave’ is to take satisfac- tion in the news or fact of a death; such a notion might be allowed as harmless, if heart- less, humour were it not for the remark to which it leads. The unfairness of this is not least because the authors of the paper went to such trouble to indicate how and when Mein- ertzhagen’s material can be trusted and made 492 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 488-493 Letters ( use of (‘we disagree with the former NHM curator... who stated that the entire collection [of Meinertzhagen’s] should be destroyed’). In this way they have rescued the man from the general mistrust in which he has been held, and for which he alone is responsible, since long before their investigations began. Whatever the respective contributions of Meinertzhagen, Ras- mussen and Pr)5-Jones, the good work by the ) two last on the bad work of the first is some- thing to which our community should pay tribute; and, ironically, if Meinertzhagen’s repu- tation does, somehow, survive with some honour in the annals of ornithology, it will actually be as much because of, as in spite of, the efforts of the two people Bill Bourne so effortlessly misprises. N. J. Collar BirdLife International, Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge CB3 ONA Obituary Roger David Penhallurick ( 1 940-2004) Roger David Penhallurick was born in Cardiff in 1940, attended university there and received a degree in geology. He joined the Cornwall Bird Watching and Preservation Society in 1960 and moved to Cornwall four years later, where he joined the staff of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, first as Assistant Curator and eventu- ally as Head Curator. He lived in Cornwall for the rest of his life. His interests were eclectic, encompassing geology, mining and mineralogy, butterflies, turtles and ancient coins. His interest in ornithology, however, was his earliest and probably his strongest. His first book on birds, published in 1969, was Birds of the Cornish Coast. This was fol- lowed in 1976 by A Check-list of the Birds of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. His best-known book was undoubtedly The Birds of Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly , which, after much delay, appeared in 1978, financed by subscription and by the author. This allowed him to produce the book he really wanted, rather than one reduced in size by publisher’s costs. It followed the classic tradition of solid county avifaunas. The book received extremely favourable reviews and is still the major reference for Cornish ornithology. At the time of his death, he was working on a history of Cornish ornithology, a book he was eminently qualified to write. Over the years, he contributed a number of notes to BB and to the Annual Reports of the Cornwall Bird Watching and Preservation Society. Roger’s publications made an important and lasting contribution to Cornish ornithology. His acute mind, ready curiosity and scholarly gen- erosity will always be remembered by all those who knew him. He died on 6 September 2004, aged 64. Michael Whetman © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 488-493 493 Notes All Notes submitted to British Birds are subject to independent review, either by the Notes Panel or by the 88 Editorial Board. Those considered appropriate for 88 will be published either here or on our website (www.britishbirds.co.uk) subject to the availability of space. Diagnostic differences in the calls of Honey-buzzard and Common Buzzard In Britain, the breeding populations of both Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus and Common Buzzard Buteo buteo have increased in recent years (e.g. Mead 2000, Ogilvie et al. 2004). The differentiation of the two species in the field can be difficult in certain circumstances, both visu- ally and acoustically, and it is widely appreci- ated that breeding Honey-buzzards are elusive and can be confused with Common Buzzards (Forsman 1999). In spite of their size, Honey- buzzards can be easily overlooked, particularly in view of their short display period and rela- tively undemonstrative habits, and as a result their true breeding status in Britain may be inadequately documented. The calls of Honey- buzzard are described as highly variable (BWP) and phonetic renderings of such vocalisations can provide only a limited aid to species identi- fication. Consequently, the possibility of using a quantitative method for differentiating the calls of Honey-buzzard and Common Buzzard was investigated. Methods High-quality sound recordings only from posi- tively visually identified adult birds were used for computer analysis. For Common Buzzard, 53 flight calls were analysed from four individuals in three different locations (Isle of Mull, Argyll, and Kielder Forest and Rothley Lakes, both Northumberland). For Honey-buzzard, 57 calls were analysed from five individuals in five dif- ferent locations (in Denmark, France, Spain and Scotland). Owing to lack of accurate documen- tation for recordings not in the author’s own collection, no distinction could be made between Honey-buzzard alarm and display calls, or between calls of flying and perched birds. Computer analysis was performed using PRAAT v4.1.21 software (Boersma & Weenink, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands). For each call, two parameters were measured: 1. pkINT: the time in milliseconds (ms) from the start of the call to the peak of the inten- sity curve (i.e. maximum loudness); 2. pkFREQ: the time in milliseconds from the start of the call to the peak of the funda- mental frequency (i.e. maximum pitch). In addition, the time difference between these two peaks was measured. Results Common Buzzard The relationship between pkINT and pkFREQ for the 53 Common Buzzard calls is shown in fig la. All spectrograms from these recordings showed a waveform with a steep initial upstroke followed by a descending slope of varying length and complexity, as shown in fig. 2a. Honey-buzzard All spectrograms from these recordings showed an ‘arch’ type of waveform, much more sym- metrical across the time axis than those of Common Buzzard. Monosyllabic (fig. 2b) and trisyllabic patterns were also identified. Trisyl- labic calls were of two types: Type A (central portion of arch at higher frequency than edges, fig. 2c), and Type B (central portion of arch at lower frequency than edges, fig. 2d). Since the Type B waveform maintained the symmetrical arch pattern, measurement of pkFREQ for these calls was made from the start of the call to the peak of the central arch. Neither of these distinctive trisyllabic patterns occurred in any of the Common Buzzard spec- Common Buzzard Honey-buzzard Mean pkINT 48 ms ± 3* (range 30-88) 205 ms ± 14 (range 124-400) Mean pkFREQ 84 ms ± 4 (range 50-120) 196 ms ± 10 (range 120-360) Mean difference between peaks *95% confidence limits 36 ms ± 3 -8 ms ± 11 The median of the difference between peaks was as follows: Common Buzzard 37 ms, Honey-buzzard 0 ms. 494 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 494-497 Notes C } a Common Buzzard: pkINT and pkFREQ 140-r-- 1 90 20 0 b 450 Honey-buzzard: pkINT and pkFREQ 400' O 350 ds o o ••»■■■ O § 250 ■M 200 E 150 O* O • ■ J <>■■■ om° > l °° ' 0 Cn o O O O Fig. I. Graphs to show pkINT and pkFREQ in Common Buzzard Buteo buteo (53 individual calls, fig. la) and Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus (57 individual calls, fig. lb). In figs, la and lb, pkINT is represented by open diamonds, pkFREQ by filled triangles; in figs. Ic and Id, Common Buzzard is represented by open circles, Honey-buzzard by filled squares. In summary, pkINT is the time from the start of the call to the peak of the intensity curve (i.e. maximum loudness), while pkFREQ is the time from the start of the call to the peak of the fundamental frequency (i.e. highest pitch). Fig. 2. Typical Common Buzzard Buteo buteo (2a) and Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus (2b— 2d) calls, showing Waveform pane (A) and Spectrogram pane (B). For the Honey-buzzard calls, fig. 2b shows a monosyllabic-type call, fig. 2c shows a trisyllabic Type A call and fig. 2d shows a trisyllabic Type B call (see text). Intensity curve (arrowhead in 2a) is plotted within the Spectrogram pane. The dotted lines in pane B intersect at the point of peak intensity. In summary, the Waveform pane and the intensity curve indicate the loudness of the call; the Spectrogram pane indicates the pitch of the call. The same spectrogram scale is used for figs. 2a-2d: y-axis (frequency), 0-5,000 Hz; y-axis (intensity), 50- 100 dB; x-axis = I second. Computer analysis was carried out using PRAAT v4. 1 .2 1 software. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 494-497 495 Notes C > trograms. The relationship between pkINT and pkFREQ for the 57 Honey-buzzard calls is shown in fig lb. Discussion The main calls of both species, particularly Honey-buzzard, are frequently described as being highly variable. For Honey-buzzard, calls have been described as mono-, di- or trisyllabic, with the emphasis on the middle syllable (BWP). Descriptions such as ‘whEEoo', ‘ slwee-er and ‘ whi-whee-uo not only reflect this middle- syllable emphasis, but also the slow ‘attack', i.e. the time to peak intensity of this call. It has been suggested that transcriptions preceded by a consonant ‘p’ or ‘k’, for instance ‘peee-lu (Svensson et al. 1999), 'piha ( The Handbook ), are misleading (BWP). For Common Buzzard, examples of phonetic renderings include ’pee- ya\ ‘ ca...ow\ ‘ piiiyay . The initial consonant in these descriptions reflects the short time to peak intensity, i.e. more ‘explosive’ than Honey- buzzard. Sound spectrogram analysis has confirmed these differences in call structure between the two species. Honey-buzzard calls show a mono- syllabic or trisyllabic waveform in the shape of an arch, in which the peak amplitude and peak frequency components coincide. The spectro- grams of Common Buzzard calls show a rapid rise in frequency, and this is consistently pre- ceded by a more rapid rise in intensity, so that the intensity and frequency peaks do not coin- cide. There was no overlap between the pkINT for each species (fig. lc). Only one Common Buzzard call showed a pkFREQ within the Honey-buzzard range, with a value of 120 ms (fig. Id). More data for Honey-buzzard are required. Observers in Britain are reluctant to reveal the location of breeding pairs (Gibbons et al. 1993) but the species is numerous in other parts of its range, and efforts should be directed towards acquiring more high-quality sound recordings, accompanied by behavioural information. If such recordings support the analysis presented here, the accuracy of assessment of the British breeding population may be improved. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Richard Ranft, Curator of the Wildlife Section, British Library Sound Archive, for help in supplying recordings of Honey-buzzard from the archive, and David Jardine of Forest Enterprise, Inverness, for his invaluable assistance with my efforts to record raptor vocalisations, and for his comments on the script. References Forsman, D. 1999. The Raptors of Europe and the Middle East. Poyser London. Gibbons, D. W., Reid, J. B., & Chapman, R. A. 1 993. The New Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland: 1 988-199 1 . Poyser; London. Mead, C. 2000. The State of the Nations’ Birds. Whittet Books, Stowmarket. Ogilvie, M., and the Rare Breeding Birds Panel. 2004. Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2002. Brit Birds 97:492-536. Svensson, L., Grant, PJ„ Mullarney, K„ & Zetterstrom, D. 1 999. Collins Bird Guide. HarperCollins, London. Dr Simon T. Elliott 103 Kenton Road, Gosforth, Newcastle upon Tyne NE3 4NL Ongoing research on Sociable Lapwings - an update The article by Viktor Belik in this issue of British Birds (see pp. 476-485) clearly indicates the need for further research on the rapidly declining Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius. Without a detailed programme of research, any assessment of the cause(s) of decline, such as those outlined in Belik’s article, must, in our view, remain speculative. However, a compre- hensive research programme is currently underway, so that clear conservation manage- ment recommendations can be developed. In 2004, the University of St Andrews and the Association for the Conservation of Biodiversity in Kazakhstan (ACBK, the BirdLife Interna- tional Affiliate in Kazakhstan) began intensive research on the species at the only known breeding sites in central Kazakhstan. The work involved finding and monitoring nests, assessing chick survival rates, colour-ringing chicks and adults and assessing population size, distribution and habitat use. ACBK and the RSPB’s International Research Team are contin- uing this work in 2005, and further work is planned for next year. Over 130 nests have so far been found and monitored, and around the same number of birds colour-ringed. Early indications are that productivity is low, whether or not Rooks Corvus frugilegus are present, but it is too early to say why, or indeed whether this is the main cause of recent decline. Miniature 496 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 494-497 Notes C cameras are being used to identify causes of nest failure. In addition to this intensive ecolog- ical research, ACBK and the Russian Bird Con- servation Union are undertaking extensive surveys throughout northern Kazakhstan and southern Russia, revisiting old breeding- sites and looking for new ones, to try to assess the importance of the study population (currently around 150 individuals) and get some idea of what the overall population size and distribu- tion might be. This work will be supplemented by surveys of the wintering grounds in the ) Middle East and India, and counts of birds at known passage sites in Turkey. The results of the 2004 research will be published later this year; these suggest that the causes of decline are related to overgrazing and trampling of nests, but more research is needed to investigate adult and juvenile survival and the relative impor- tance of predation. Once the reasons for the decline have been identified, RSPB and other partners will continue to work closely with ACBK to develop and implement effective con- servation solutions. Dr Will Cresswell (University of St Andrews), Dr Paul Donald (RSPB), and Dr Valery Khrokov (ACBK) c/o School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Bute Building, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS Little Stints with aberrant leg coloration On 10th August 2004, at Orti-Bottagone marsh, Piombino, Italy, I observed a Little Stint Calidris minuta with bright yellow legs (plate 305). During the following days (until 15th August), I repeatedly observed up to six Little Stints (both adults and juveniles) with the same feature, together with individuals with typical dark legs. Although the possibility that the legs and feet were coated with a uniform yellowish mud could not be excluded completely, I do not believe that this was the cause of the yellow colour, and all other aspects of the birds’ appearance, including the bill, appeared normal. BWP acknowledges a single record of Little Stint with legs ‘yellow in tone’, so a group of six such birds seems to be extraordinary. Lorenzo Vanni Via della Pace 10, 57029 Venturina, LI, Italy EDITORIAL COMMENT John Marchant has commented; ‘This individual may represent an extreme in the leg colour variation of Little Stints. The presence of six such individuals, some adult (like the bird in the photograph) and some juvenile, is a puzzle, however. It is most unlikely that they were a single family, since adults normally depart the breeding grounds earlier than their offspring. Perhaps genes promoting pale legs have a relatively high frequency in the particular source area of these birds. Alter- natively, and perhaps most likely, mud may have soiled the legs of some of the stints present at this site. It is unfortunate that the observer was unable to exclude the possibility of discoloration.’ 305. Adult Little Stint Calidris minuta with bright yellow legs, Orti-Bottagone marsh, Tuscany, Italy, August 2004. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 494-497 497 Lorenzo Vanni Reviews HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD. VOL. 9. COTINGAS TO PIPITS AND WAGTAILS Edited by Josep del Hoyo, Andrew Elliott & David A. Christie. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, 2004. 864 pages; 78 colour plates; 440 photographs; 809 distribution maps. ISBN 84-87334-69-5. Hardback, £120.00. This is the fourth volume of HBW to appear since 2001, and the ninth in the 13 years since 1992, when the first volume was published. With the pre-publication-offer leaflets for Vol. 10 (due in September 2005) appearing on the doormat long before I had got round to writing this review, the publication schedule of HBW is almost as impressive as the quality of the work. Successive reviewers in BB and every other ornithological publication I can think of have lauded this series and drained the barrel of superlatives almost dry, so that, for a reviewer, there is an element of ‘what else is there to say?’ This volume, the second of the series to cover passerines, covers the cotingas (Cotingidae), man- akins (Pipridae), tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannidae), New Zealand wrens (Acanthisittidae), scrub-birds ( Atrichornithidae), lyrebirds (Menuridae), larks (Alaudidae), swallows and martins (Hirun- dinidae), and pipits and wagtails (Motacillidae). The format remains steadfastly familiar, with an intro- ductory essay preceding the treat- ment of each family in turn, these family sections consisting of a lengthy introduction illustrated with photographs, followed by the individual species accounts and their accompanying colour plates. Richard Banks has provided an authoritative, balanced and read- able text on Ornithological Nomenclature for the introductory essay; perhaps not a subject guar- anteed to ignite the enthusiasm of every prospective reader, but one which is particularly timely in these days of taxonomic upheaval. The family and species accounts seem to me to maintain the high standards set by, and now expected from, the series (and have been written by well-known and well- respected authorities such as Per Alstrom, Mike Brooke, David Snow and Angela Turner). The pho- tographs which illustrate the essays introducing each family are simply stunning, and I have to confess that they are my favourite part of the book. Most of the ‘big, serious’ books in my office are there to be dragged off the shelves only in response to a specific query or (occasionally) when I cannot face the long trek to the gym and need some exercise. You can do both of these with HBW\ but you can also simply take down each volume and browse, let the photographs trans- port you to foreign lands, and, well, quite simply be inspired afresh with birds. The reproduction quality of the photographs and plates (and the book as a whole) is excellent but, to me at least, the standard of the plates is more variable than that of the photographs, ranging from simply good to breathtaking (Chris Rose’s cotingas, for example). HBW has reached a stage where almost everyone who already owns Vols. 1-8 will have ordered Vol. 9 automatically; and they will not be disappointed. Have we also reached a point where those who, for what- ever reason, decided in 1992 against testing their bookshelves to the limit, now feel that the cost of ‘catching up’ is beyond them? Almost £1,000 (£980 for the first ten volumes if you take advantage of the latest special offer) for a set of books that’s not yet complete? Pricey yes, of course; but less than the price of a decent telescope, and arguably much better value. It may not be too late... Roger Riddington WHERE TO WATCH BIRDS IN PERU By Thomas Valqui. Grafica Nanez, Lima, Peru, 2004. 382 pages; numerous photographs, maps and line-drawings. ISBN 9972-33-092-3. Paperback, £19.99. One of the biggest developments in neotropical ornithology over the last 25 years has been the emer- gence of capable South American birders. Ornithologists were once virtually restricted to a handful of museum professionals, but there are now a significant number of active local birders, adding consid- erably to our knowledge of the ‘Bird Continent’. Thomas Valqui is one of these industrious and tal- ented field ornithologists, sharing his great knowledge of Peruvian birds in this invaluable book. Peru has everything a visiting birder could wish for. Many fabu- lous birds occur among a huge range of habitats, often in stunning scenery. The country now boasts a modern field guide, and the infra- structure is improving at a phe- nomenal rate, enabling birders to visit almost all areas of this won- derful country without having to organise a major expedition, as was the case in the recent past. Does this book provide the information that will enable the visitor to get the most from a birding trip? The answer is an emphatic ‘yes’. For example, where can White- winged Guan Penelope albipennis be found? What are the best places to bird along the Central Highway? Where can you stay on the Manu Road? Whatever the question, the answer will be found here. This book should ensure that any trip can be properly planned, and there will be clues to finding even the 498 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 498-50 1 Reviews C toughest birds. Succinctly written and well laid out, with a plethora of useful maps and a complete index, this book is easy to use, whether in the field or when planning at home. If there is a weakness, it is in the bird lists provided for each site. The categorising of species at a site (into common, uncommon and rare) does not always tally with my experience. For Amazonian sites, where usually over 500 species can be found, it is understandable that only a few are listed. I would like to have seen all the specialities of these sites included, and some of the more widespread species ignored. This would help the keen visitor to decide which lodge would suit their needs best. With the country having an area of nearly half a million square miles and holding almost 20% of the world’s bird species, it is a brave man who would attempt a bird-finding guide to Peru. Valqui is not only brave but also well qual- ified for this mammoth task. This book was nine years in the making, and his familiarity with both the sites and their birds is apparent on every page. This ‘where to watch' guide is indispensable to anyone visiting this fabulous country. Richard Schofield SHOREBIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA: THE PHOTOGRAPHIC GUIDE By Dennis Paulson. Christopher Helm, A&C Black, London, 2005. 361 pages; 534 colour photographs. ISBN 0-7136-7377-X. Softback, £24.99. Without looking beyond the title, many birders will underestimate this book. It contains up-to-date texts, with accompanying colour photographs, on the two American dowitchers Limnodromus , all eight curlews Numenius (think about that - all eight!), both tattlers Het- eroscelus, the seven stints Calidris and a further 75 shorebirds/ waders. Many shorebird species are among the world’s longest-dis- tance migrants, which makes them prime candidates for vagrancy. On this side of the Atlantic, while we are familiar with the concept of out-of-range waders turning up in Europe, we are generally less aware of the number and variety of European and Asian shorebirds which have occurred in North America. All of the 94 species recorded on the North American continent are included in this book. The 534 colour photographs and the texts together cover 333 pages. As far as numbers of pho- tographs and lengths of texts are concerned, the author has treated rare and common species alike, thus enabling the reader to compare on equal terms pairs and groups of species seldom covered in such depth in a single publica- tion. For most species, high-quality frame-filling photographs show breeding adults, including both sexes where separable, non- breeding adults and juveniles, as well as individuals in flight. There are seven photographs illustrating two or three spread wings to indi- cate differences between closely related species or between sub- species. The informative captions include discussion on each species’ seasonal, age-related and subspe- cific variations where relevant and pointers to features which distin- guish between species; in addition, most importantly, the locality and month of each photograph are given. Each species account starts with a short introduction and con- tinues under at least eight head- ings: size, plumages, identification, in flight, voice, behaviour, habitat and range, with subspecies and hybrids as extra headings where appropriate. The sections covering plumages, subspecies and identifi- cation are particularly detailed: the first of these contains the species’ description while the other two are full of useful points of separation. The introduction presents an interesting overview of anatomy, plumage variation, moult, identifi- cation, behaviour, vocalisations, distribution and conservation, and contains explanatory paragraphs concerning the species accounts, photographs and captions. Readers may be surprised, as I was, to dis- cover which species is estimated to be the most numerous breeding and migrant shorebird in Canada and the USA. Of the introduction’s ten photographs, four are marked with a host of topographical pointers; two show Ieucistic indi- viduals; and four portray hybrids. The book finishes with a references section and a species index. Shorebirds of North America is the size of a field guide and could easily be used as such. Given its limited range of species and its thorough treatment of each, however, it seems most likely to be used as a work of reference, a niche into which it fits with distinction. The number and quality of the photographs, the wealth of detail in the species accounts and cap- tions and the overall scope of the book make it equally useful on both sides of the Atlantic. Peter Lansdown British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 498-501 499 Reviews C A BIRDER’S GUIDE TO SOUTHEASTERN ARI ZONA By Richard Cachor Taylor. ABA/Lane Bird Finding Guides, Colorado Springs, 2005. 384 pages; 42 route maps; 21 photographs; 22 line-drawings. ISBN 1-878788-13-2. Paperback, £19.95. This is the fifth edition of the guide originally written in 1965 by the late James A. Lane, and the third update by Richard Cachor Taylor. It comes hot on the heels of the 2004 edition of Finding Birds in Southeast Arizona , the equivalent publication from the Tucson Audubon Society (TAS). Both books cover the best birding sites in an area of more than 15,000 square miles (roughly twice the size of Wales), and summarise the status of over 500 species. The guides are undoubtedly similar with much overlap of sites, but there are important differences. At almost 400 pages, the ABA/Lane guide is longer and adopts a smaller font with fewer blank areas than the TAS guide. This is to accommodate Taylor’s more talka- tive style, which is often enter- taining and occasionally verges on the flowery - my favourite example depicts the American (Buff-bellied) Pipits Anthus rubescens at Cochise College that ‘strut around the well- groomed grass like so many chickens!’ The majority of local birders have both books, but use the TAS guide in the field. Not only were many involved in writing it, but the format and content are more prac- tical for the resident birder. The ABA/Lane guide is, however, prob- ably of greater value to out-of-state visitors. The sites are presented in day, or half-day, trips which, together, can form the foundation for a comprehensive tour of this iconic land of saguaro desert and bird-rich wooded canyons. The format can be mildly frustrating if you are not taking one of the set tours. The sites blend in somewhat and are difficult to locate by flicking through the pages. Many of the directions to a site are explained on leaving the previous site, so be prepared for some minor navigation work if deviating from the itinerary. D Rick is a keen-eyed observer with an opinion, and his intimate love and knowledge of the area are evident throughout. The more expansive environmental and political histories as well as consid- eration of other wildlife make it far more readable than the TAS guide, while that guide’s short, concise directions could be seen as being more practical. An obvious phys- ical difference from the TAS guide, and previous editions of the ABA/Lane guide, is the departure from spiral binding. This sturdy paperback may last longer, but I’ve found spiral binding to have a dis- tinct advantage in the field. Both books have evolved over the decades into near-perfect examples of this genre, and visitors would be well served by getting both. But if it’s one or the other, Taylor’s style and format ultimately offer the travelling birder a little more. Postscript: Be aware that the voice- mail number for reporting inter- esting sightings to the Tucson RBA line has changed since the publica- tion of both recent editions: it is now (520) 480-8348. Richard Fray THE GOOD BIRD GUIDE: A SPECIES-BY-SPECIES GUIDE TO FINDING EUROPE’S BEST BIRDS By Keith Marsh. Christopher Helm, A8cC Black, London, 2005. 608 pages; black-and- white vignettes and maps. ISBN 0-7136-6848-2. Paperback, £16.99. This book purports to be an essen- tial guide for those birding in Europe and the Western Palearctic, providing the reader with informa- tion on how and where to find the most sought-after species of the region. It is essentially split into two sections - a systematic list cov- ering some 366 pages and a site guide covering 218 pages. The sys- tematic list covers no fewer than 435 species. For each, it gives brief details of range, subspecies, a few tips to assist the reader in locating the species and then a list of sites, grouped by country, where the species can be found. The site guide then covers the 550 sites mentioned in the systematic section, again grouped by country. Some of these accounts appear/are rather surprisingly outdated. For example, we learn that Snowy Owl Bubo scandiacus is an almost annual visitor to Unst in Shetland, whereas in fact the species has been recorded there only once in the last 13 years. While the layout is clear, the book easy to navigate, and the use of vignettes helps to break up the text, this is really just another vari- ation on the popular 'where to watch birds’ theme. In my view, the book covers too many species to make it genuinely useful for many birders. This inevitably reduces the space available per species and for those which are the most difficult to encounter, the information given will be of limited value in helping to find them. If you are rel- atively new to European birding, or looking to escape for a few hours during a family holiday, then this book may help you to plan and make the best use of your time, but if you have already travelled widely in Europe, then save your money. This book is certainly no substitute for a thorough trip report or a dis- cussion with those who have already successfully sought out those species that are top of your wish-list. Paid Harvey 500 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 498-501 Reviews C } OSPREYS: FLYING HOME TO RUTLAND WATER Filmed by Martin Hayward- Smith, narrated by David Attenborough. Lighthouse Films Production for Anglian Water. One DVD-ROM disc, running time 50 minutes. £12.99. This DVD describes the establish- ment of breeding Ospreys Pandion haliaetus at Rutland Water. The story, brilliantly narrated by David Attenborough, begins when the Leicestershire & Rutland Wildlife Trust Reserve Manager, Tim Appleton, wonders whether nest platforms might encourage passing Ospreys to stop and nest. From those early musings evolved a full- blown introduction programme with surplus young birds from Scotland being reared at Rutland Water prior to release. The excite- ment builds with footage from Africa, where the released birds are followed using radio- and satellite- tracking. We share the trials and tribulations of young birds making their first migration. The story continues with the elation caused by the first birds returning, the early disappointment of males failing to entice females, and the ultimate joy of Tim finding the first nesting birds, in 2001. There is a cynical minority of birdwatchers who dismiss the project as irrelevant and who, incredibly, do not think that these birds are worth seeing let alone ‘counting’ on their various lists. Frankly, their view is irrelevant - the film confirms the knowledge that birds now colonising Wales are from the Rutland project and are giving enormous joy to thousands of people. The project and this DVD can best be summed up by two quotes late on in the film. A local fly fisherman says unexpect- edly: T love the Ospreys being here. They add to a day’s fishing and they regularly show how much better at it they are than me.’ Later, a boy from a visiting primary school, on seeing his first Osprey, simply says, ‘Cool!’ The latter is quite some endorsement. This is a beautifully filmed story, and the final shot of an Osprey shaking water off its plumage as it leaves the water is riveting. Anglian Water have really excelled with this and, since all proceeds will go to Osprey conser- vation, I urge you to buy a copy of this DVD as a record of what can be done to redress the loss of our wildlife heritage. Derek Moore THE B I RDS OF DARTM OOR By Roger Smaldon. Isabelline Books, Falmouth, 2005. 246 pages; line-drawings and a colour frontispiece; maps. Hardback: ISBN 0-9542955-7-9; £39.95. Paperback: ISBN 0-9542955-8-7; £18.95. Dartmoor is a place apart, richly deserving its own avifauna, which it has never before received. It is, after all, more than twice the size of Rutland. The vast mass of granite has little to do with the chocolate-boxy cob cottages and subtropicality of the warm valleys to the south; from the north, on an autumn morning, it rises like an island along the horizon, from Haytor Rocks to High Willhays, Mull or Malaita above the mid Devon pastures. It is the only real wilderness in southern England, a place to send French prisoners-of- war or native criminals, to exercise soldiers, to invent gigantic hounds, and to pack one’s GPS as standard kit. This is a highly readable book, in a personal style which needs no reinforcement from statistics and histograms. It deals with an area slightly larger than the National Park, sensibly including some habitats that were excluded from it for political reasons. It is not a finding guide, but a scholarly account of Dartmoor’s birds from the early days of ornithology to the present, incorporating the results of large-scale professional studies and also many unpublished records from local observers and the Dartmoor Study Group, formed in 1991. For the Postbridge area it draws on the lifetime’s work of Peter Dare. Above all, one senses the author’s dedication to his moors, the thousands of miles walked in all weathers, for which his encounter with a summer- plumaged Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis was clearly a divine reward. Yet this is not twitchers’ country. It has no coastline and its waters are unimportant, even in a county context. Its fascination lies especially in the species for whose range it is the southern limit, or almost so: European Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria , Dunlin Calidris alpitia. Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus , and the introduced Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus. These are all endangered, and could easily disappear, as the Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata seems about to do. More cheerful are the long sec- tions on four chats - Common Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus , Whinchat Saxicola rubetra, Common Stonechat S. torquatus and Northern Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe - whose numbers may surprise the reader. This is now probably the only place where Dartford Warblers Sylvia undata could encounter Ring Ouzels in summer. There are some pleasant draw- ings by Mike Langman, but few of them have a local feel. The maps are adequate, though the heights are still quoted in feet, and the promised woodland has not been printed on one of the maps. There is a full bibliography. David Ballance British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 498-501 501 News and comment Compiled by Adrian Pitches Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of British Birds Will bird flu migrate to Europe? As autumn migration gathers momentum, so has speculation about the arrival of bird flu in Europe. The disease, which has killed more than 50 people in southeast Asia, had been restricted to that region - and had been largely limited to domesticated wildfowl and poultry. However, the deaths of 6,000 wild birds at Qinghai Lake, in China, in May and June, has raised the stakes. Bird flu was subsequently found across the Russian border at Novosibirsk in Siberia in late July, and widespread slaughter of poultry was ordered. On 5th August, the chief veterinary surgeon in the region, Sergei Dankvert, told the Tass News Agency: ‘Specialists are surprised at bird flu cases among Rooks Corvus frugilegus and upland fowl, including Black Tetrao tetrix and Hazel Grouse Bonasa bonasia. It seems that the bird flu virus carried by wild geese has mutated. There have been no upland fowl and Rook deaths, but bird flu may spread into the territory of any country now that the virus has affected wildlife. Bird migration goes through many countries, including Russia, Europe and India, and bird flu cases are now possible anywhere.’ The deadly strain of bird flu is called H5N1 and principally affects birds. It has devastated the inten- sive poultry industry of southeast Asia but has also killed people in rural areas who live in close prox- imity to their domestic ducks, geese and chickens. So far, there are no recorded cases of human-to- human infection, but the fear among epidemiologists is that the H5N1 virus will infect a person carrying a human flu virus and the resultant combined strain could be sufficiently virulent to cause a global pandemic. Substantial populations of migratory waterbirds summer at Qinghai Lake and the bird flu out- break is reported to have killed Bar-headed Geese Anser indicus , Ruddy Shelducks Tadorna ferrug- inea. Great Cormorants Phalacro- corax carbo , Great Black-headed Larus ichthyaetus and Brown- headed Gulls L. brunnicephalus. The wildfowl tend to migrate south to India for the winter but it is likely that they will mingle with species heading to the Middle East and eastern Europe at stopovers in Central Asia. Wild birds have been impli- cated as vectors of the disease since it first flared up in Asia two years ago. Indeed, they have provided useful scapegoats for governments keen to distract attention from the reservoir of disease on industrial poultry farms. In Thailand, inten- sively reared chicken is a billion- do 1 1 a r industry and the Thai Government proposed a cull of wild birds such as Asian Openbills Anastomus oscitans to halt the spread of the disease. BirdLife was quick to cry foul (fowl) and the Thai authorities retreated, claiming that the ‘war’ on bird flu had been won. That was a year ago - and the disease continues to infect poultry flocks across Asia. If cases of bird flu are found on poultry farms farther west than Siberia (and Kazakhstan), then hysteria about the threat to human health posed by migrant birds may spread west too. Government- backed culls of wintering flocks of waterfowl and waders are clearly impractical, but we should be alert to any such proposals if and when bird flu is identified in Europe. The bird flu outbreak is a fast-moving story: for daily updates see the Reuters environmental news service Planet Ark: www. planetark.com Barbed wire barrier to harriers This gruesome picture of a juvenile Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus impaled on a barbed-wire fence was taken by Graham Catley in north Lincolnshire. It graphically illustrates the threat that barbed wire can pose to birds. Here’s Graham’s account: ‘On 18th July 2005, I was checking on the productivity of a number of Marsh Harrier nests, in conjunction with the National Survey, on the south bank of the Humber. At 05.00 hrs, the brood of four young from one nest were all on the wing, with a newly fledged juvenile from an adjacent nest nearby. Having checked on some other nests, I returned to the area at 10.00 hrs to find only three juveniles in the area with the adult male, which was distress-calling. A further search located a juvenile hanging by its right wing from a barbed-wire fence. I assumed that the bird was dead, but as 1 approached it fluttered, revealing that the wing was skewered at the carpal joint. There was no way that the bird could escape from this lethal fencing as the barbs went right through the skin of the wing. The bird was clearly in huge dis- tress and had been pecking at the wound, with blood over its bill and feet. I could not remove the wire, which was embedded in the wing, but managed to break one end of the wire and, after extricating the bird’s claw from my finger, I walked the mile back to the nearest house and managed to borrow some wire cutters and a shopping bag. The bird was cut free, leaving part of the wire in the wing, and 502 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 502-505 306. Juvenile Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus impaled on barbed-wire fence in north Lincolnshire, July 2005. delivered to the nearest vet. Obvi- ously it was fortunate that I was in the area at the time; a day or so later and the harrier would have died a lingering death from starva- tion and heat exhaustion on this lethal fencing. ‘The dangers of barbed wire to birds are seldom highlighted, but I have previously found dead owls, Common Redshanks Tringa totanus and Northern Lapwings Vanellus vanellus hanging on, or killed by flying into, barbed-wire fencing. The danger posed by deer fencing to Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix and Capercaillie T. urogallus has led to its removal from reserves in Scotland - but in England the proliferation of the lethal cocktail of barbed-wire fences and conve- nient posts for perching birds has spread to large numbers of nature reserves where birds at risk include owls, raptors and waders. Surely, on nature reserves at least, there are better, less lethal methods of fencing? ‘This is the third juvenile Marsh Harrier to have been found killed by human artefacts in the area in two years, with the previous two having hit overhead power lines. These incidents, which may well be the tip of the iceberg as relatively few dead birds are ever found, throw into focus the stupidity of placing windfarms within areas where raptors breed and juveniles are at great risk of collisions.’ Besides the damage that deer fences have done to grouse popula- tions in Scotland, the Great Bustard Otis tarda reintroduction project on Salisbury Plain in Wilt- shire has also suffered setbacks from birds killed or injured through collisions with fences on the Plain (Brit. Birds 98: 304-305). Happier harriers Happier harrier news came from Cumbria in late July, where five Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus chicks fledged from the heavily guarded nest on the RSPB Geltsdale reserve. This is an excellent result after a litany of persecution in the North Pennines in recent years (Brit. Birds 98: 328) and was achieved by employing four full-time harrier wardens, supported by local volunteers, in a round-the-clock vigil for two months. Elsewhere in Cumbria, the pair of Ospreys Pandion haliaetus nested beside Bassenth- waite Lake for the fifth year in succession and fledged two young. Bee-eaters eaten Less welcome news comes from Herefordshire, where the third nesting attempt by European Bee-eaters Merops apiaster in Britain in 50 years came to an unhappy end. The nest-site, along the River Wye at Hampton Bishop, near Hereford, was publi- cised by the RSPB in mid July under its Aren’t Birds Brilliant! banner. But a week later, the nest was raided by Red Foxes Vulpes vulpes and the young Bee-eaters were predated. Bee- eaters are brilliant but clearly foxes are not. In the week of public viewing, 3,000 people came to see the Hereford Bee- eaters. The last successful nesting of Bee-eaters was at Bishop Middleham, Co. Durham, in 2002, when a pair fledged two young and attracted an estimated 15,000 visitors; a possible breeding attempt was reported in Yorkshire that same year (Brit. Birds 97: 527). The first successful breeding attempt by Bee- eaters in England was in East Sussex in 1955. Middle East updates Richard Porter has contributed the following news items: ‘When I became involved with BirdLife’s Middle East programme, one of the first people I met was Khaled Irani. Fresh- faced and looking like a teenager, he was in charge of the nature reserves managed in Jordan by the Royal Society for the Conserva- tion of Nature (RSCN). By the late 1990s, Khaled had become the Chief Executive of RSCN and had also joined the world council of BirdLife. In April, Khaled took another step up the ladder when he was appointed Jordan’s Minister for the Environment. His experience with the voluntary movement - and birds in particular - will mean good news for conser- vation in Jordan and the Arab World. ‘Another bit of good news for Middle East conservation is that Important Bird Areas in the Middle East (edited by Mike Evans) - the BirdLife directory of the 391 sites of prime importance for birds in the region - has just been published in Arabic. The production of this seminal conservation work was master- minded by the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD), the BirdLife Affiliate in Saudi Arabia.’ British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 502-505 503 Graham Catley News and comment > Puffins suffer on St Kilda... Puffins Fratercula arctica on St Kilda, in the Western Isles, have suffered their worst breeding season on record. St Kilda has the biggest Puffin colony in Britain, with over 140,000 Apparently Occupied Burrows during the Seabird 2000 survey, but 2005 has been a disastrous year. The National Trust for Scot- land says that substantial numbers of chicks starved to death this year, a sadly familiar story of severe lack of sandeels Ammodytes. It is thought that around only 26% of hatched chicks survived in 2005, com- pared with a normal survival rate of about 70% (mean fledging weights were found to be 157 g, compared with normal fledging weights in the region of 250 g). ...but thrive on the Fame Islands In England, however, the National Trust reports that seabirds on the Fame Islands, in Northumberland, have had their best season ever. For the first time, the number of pairs of breeding seabirds has broken the 100,000 barrier - almost five times the total of 22,500 pairs in 1970. Among the success stories were record numbers of auks, including 55,674 pairs of Puffins, 46,915 individual Guillemots Uria aalge and 277 pairs of Razorbills Alca torda. Four species of tern bred, all in increased numbers, including the first nesting pair of Roseate Terns Sterna dougallii for three years. For both Arctic S. paradisaea (2,380 pairs) and Common Terns S. hirundo (160 pairs) these were the highest totals since the late 1990s. Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla also increased, to 5,375 pairs. On the negative side, there was a sharp decline in the Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis population, to 937 pairs, a 34% drop on the 2004 figure, and reflecting the 'wrecks’ of Shags in the North Sea in the winter of 2004/05. David Steel, head warden on the Fames, con- cluded: 'The breeding season on the islands has been a huge success, with no concerns over sandeel short- ages or poor weather hampering the breeding success. Despite a protracted season, large numbers of fledglings of all species are successfully leaving the islands at the time of writing (mid July).’ ...and hold their own in Shetland In Shetland, the story is somewhere between the two extremes described above. In general, seabirds have had a far better season than the ‘meltdown’ of 2004, and for some species, for example Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata and Arctic Tern, the 2005 season was probably the best in the last five years. For most seabirds, including Puffins, 2005 was by no means a record year, but the overall outcome was something approximating to an 'average’ season. Most species were unusually late in nesting, yet food availability for chicks was clearly better than during the previous two seasons. Shetland Ringing Group’s Dave Okill confirmed that virtually no Red-throated Divers were feeding on Lesser Sandeels A. marinus in 2005, yet seemed to be rearing broods successfully on alterna- tive prey species. Guillemots and Arctic Terns showed a similar pattern; and all species were characterised by great variation in timing and success among dif- ferent colonies within the islands. Clearly, the for- tunes of Britain’s breeding seabirds have been extremely variable in 2005 but, overall, the outcome seems to be appreciably better than last year. Super-size mice eat Happily, British seabirds do not have to contend with the menace stalking the most important seabird colony in the world, Gough Island, in the South Atlantic (home to more than ten million birds), where metre- high albatross chicks are being eaten alive by House Mice Mus musculusl The mice, three times the size of those in the UK, attack at night and are devouring more than one million petrel, shearwater and albatross chicks on Gough Island, in the Tristan da Cunha group, every year. Gruesome video footage recorded up to 15 mice attacking a seabird chick at one time. Dr Geoff Hilton, a Senior Research Biologist with RSPB said: ‘Gough Island hosts an astonishing commu- nity of seabirds and this catastrophe could make many extinct within decades. We think there are about 700,000 mice, which have somehow learnt to eat chicks alive - much like Blue Tits Parus caeruleus learnt to peck milk bottle tops. The albatross chicks weigh up to 10 kg and, ironically, albatrosses evolved to nest on Gough because it had no mammal predators — that is one million seabirds why they are so vulnerable. The mice weigh just 35 g; it is like a tabby cat attacking a hippopotamus.’ The island holds 20 breeding seabird species, including 99% of the world population of the 'Tristan Albatross’ (the nominate subspecies of Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans ) and Atlantic Petrel Ptero- droma incerta populations - the petrels are the species most often attacked. There are 1.8 million pairs of petrels but just 2,000 pairs of Tristan Albatrosses remain. The predatory behaviour of the mice was sus- pected, and then confirmed, by the RSPB’s Dr Richard Cuthbert and Ross Wanless, a PhD student from the Percy FitzPatrick Institute, in Cape Town. Wanless recorded dramatic video footage of the attacks last year. Richard Cuthbert said: ‘The albatross chicks spend eight months sitting waiting for food from their parents. They are nearly a metre tall and 250 times the weight of the mice but are largely immobile and cannot defend themselves. Without predators this 504 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 502-505 < would not be a problem but for a carnivorous mouse population on one of the wettest and windiest places on earth it is an easy meal of almost unimaginable quality. The result is carnage.’ Ross Wanless added: ‘There are mice on other South Atlantic islands but Gough is the only site where this is known to be happening. Once one mouse has attacked a chick, the blood seems to attract others. They gnaw into the chick’s body, create a gaping wound and the News and comment chick weakens then dies over several days.’ It is suspected that the mice are also eating the eggs and chicks of the rare, ground-nesting Gough Island Finch Rowettia goughensis, a small finch endemic to the island, which may already have been forced from the best nesting sites into less suitable upland areas. The mice on Gough could be killing far more than one million chicks each year. About 1,000 Tristan Albatross chicks are killed D annually by mice and, in 2000 and 2001, 60% of Atlantic Petrel chicks (700,000 birds) died before fledging, probably because of the mice. Many of the chicks of the one million Great Shearwaters Puffinus gravis nesting on Gough are also predated by mice. The RSPB has been awarded £62,000 by the UK Government’s Overseas Territories Environment Programme to fund additional research on the Gough Island mice and a feasibility study of how best to deal with them. Ascension seabirds on the rise Farther north in the South Atlantic there is better news, of an upsurge in seabird numbers on Ascension Island as a result of control of feral cats. Indeed, a series of stamps has been issued to celebrate the work of the Ascension Seabird Restoration Project, which, by June 2005, has encour- aged 348 pairs of five species of seabird to return and nest on the main island. At the time of its colonisation by Europeans in 1815, Ascension Island was thought to support 20 million individual seabirds. However, nesting birds were subsequently devastated by feral cats, introduced onto the island to control introduced rats and mice, and the seabird popula- tion of this tropical UK Overseas Territory now numbers around 400,000 individuals, mostly confined to offshore stacks and inaccessible cliffs. Ascension Frigatebirds Fregata aquila, a globally threatened species whose presence on the British List was confirmed recently (Brit. Birds 96: 58-73), currently nests only on the inaccessible offshore sanctuary of Boatswainbird Islet. The Ascension Seabird Restoration Project, assisted by the RSPB ( BirdLife in the UK) and £500,000 funding from the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, has been removing feral cats from Ascension Island since 2001. No feral cats have been seen since February 2004, and the species to have recolonised the main island are White-tailed Phaethon lepturus and Red-billed Tropicbirds Ph. aetherus , Brown Sula leucogaster and Masked Boobies S. dactylatra and Brown Noddy Anous stolidus. Tall story ofTyneside Kittiwakes Another seabird recolonising its former haunts is the Kittiwake on Tyne- side. The most inland colony in the world, 15 km from the sea, was estab- lished on the window ledges of the Baltic Flour Mills on the Gateshead bank of the River Tyne in the 1950s; the birds were unceremoniously evicted in the 1990s when the old flour mill became the new Baltic art gallery. The Kittiwakes crossed the river and now nest on the Newcastle quayside and beneath the famous Tyne Bridge, where a new display panel alerts passers-by to the seabird colony above their heads. Full marks to David Hirst at the local RSPB office for putting the local Kittiwakes on the tourist map. Of course, the gathering of 100 sailing ships in the Tyne at the end of July for the Tall Ships Race put the river on the world map and sharp-eyed TV viewers would have seen the Kittiwakes flying between the ships. It also gladdened my heart to see that at least four nests had been rebuilt on the smart new art gallery’s window ledges in a Kittiwake display of defiance (‘Tarrocks!’) to the snobs. [For the uniniti- ated, a ‘tarrock’ is a young Kittiwake before its first moult. Eds.) Bulgarian wind farm BirdLife has warned that more than half a million birds will be at risk as they migrate along Bulgaria’s northern Black Sea coast after the Bulgarian environment minister gave the go- ahead for three windfarm develop- ments at Cape Kaliakra. The Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds (BSPB) and other conservation NGOs had lodged an appeal against approval of the projects, but the minister over- ruled it, allowing at least 80 wind turbines, each 120 m tall, to be con- structed at Cape Kaliakra. Dr Nikolai Petkov, BSPB’s Director of Conserva- tion, said: ‘More than 500,000 soaring birds - pelicans, cranes, buzzards, eagles, and storks - will be at risk when they face a whirling wall of death. This is Europe’s second-largest soaring-bird migration route and these birds come from all over northern Europe; Bulgaria has an international obliga- tion to protect them.’ African and Oriental Bird Images The wonderful photographic resource that is the Oriental Bird Images website www.orientalbirdimages.org is set to be replicated for the birds of Africa. The African Bird Image Data- base http://birdquest.net/afbid has just been launched with photos of 200 of the 2,400 species recorded in Africa and its islands. Meanwhile, the Ori- ental version now has 80% of Asia’s bird species ‘photodocumented’ including very rare species like the newly rediscovered Forest Owlet Heteroglaux blewitti. British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 502-505 505 Monthly Marathon } 307. Crag Martin Ptyonoprogne rupestris, Sierra de Gredos, Spain, June 2003. Photo no. 2 1 5: Crag Martin In Monthly Marathon photo number 215 (Brit. Birds 98: plate 115, repeated here as plate 307), we can see a small bird perched at the edge of a pool or puddle, but the overall brownish coloration of its plumage means that it does not really stand out against the muddy background; as a result, it is difficult to pick out much detail about its appearance. What we can see pretty clearly, however, is that it is a very long-winged, short-legged, and long-bodied bird and I think that many birdwatchers would recognise it immediately as a hirundine - doing what I’m sure we have all wit- nessed before, collecting mud at the water’s edge for its nest. I think we can safely say that we are dealing with one of the brown martins and thereby narrow the field even further without too much trouble: down to Plain Martin Riparia palit- dicola , Sand Martin R. riparia, Banded Martin R. cincta , Rock Martin Ptyonoprogne fuligula or Crag Martin P. rupestris, since this competition covers species which have occurred only within the Western Palearctic. None of the other swallows or martins which occur in the Western Palearctic show such a uniform brownish plumage. I have stared at this photograph for some time but cannot really find anything to focus on in terms of the bird’s appearance which would give us a pointer. It looks to my eye like a largish, chunky bird, but that is purely subjective. Of the group of martins listed above. Crag and Banded are the largest, with Plain the smallest. The form of Rock Martin, a widespread species throughout Africa, that occurs in our region used to be called ‘Pale Rock Martin’, and I think that the uniform brownish-grey of the back and rump of this bird might rule out that species, since I would expect these parts to be noticeably paler grey-brown. Sand Martin has a white throat which extends around the back of the ear- coverts and it’s possible that this would be visible in this photo - but then again, perhaps not! We can also see that the pale edges to the pri- maries almost form a pale wing panel, which contrasts with the dark primary tips, something that I think would be seen on Crag Martin alone. It then occurred to me that, unusually for Monthly Marathon challenges, the bird’s behaviour was important, collecting mud for a nest. Of the five species in question, only the two members of the genus Ptyonoprogne construct a nest of mud pellets, while those in the genus Riparia line the nesting chamber of their tunnels with dry material such as grass, leaves and feathers. Having ruled out three more species, I am now pretty confident that, from the pointers outlined above, the mystery bird is a Crag Martin rather than a Rock Martin; and indeed it was a Crag Martin, photographed by Colin Bradshaw in central Spain in June 2003. Steve Rooke Almost three-quarters (74%) of entrants were on the right track with photo no. 215, and identified it cor- rectly as a Crag Martin. Almost all of the remainder plumped for Sand Martin, although there was a single vote for Tree Swallow Tachycineta bicolor as well (this American species is another hole-nester which does not use mud in the nest construc- tion, however). None of the current leaders of the thirteenth ‘Marathon’ slipped up, so Mark Edgeller, Jon Holt, Andy Rhodes, Jakob Sunesen and Peter Sunesen remain as joint leaders, each with a series of seven correct answers. Eds For a free brochure, write to SUNBIRD (MM), PO Box 76, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG 1 9 I DF, or telephone 01767 682969 Sunbird The best of birdwatching tours 308. ‘Monthly Marathon’. Photo no. 217. Fifteenth stage in thirteenth ‘Marathon’. Identify the species. Read the rules (see page 54), then send in your answer on a postcard to Monthly Marathon, c/oThe Banks, Mountfield, Robertsbridge, East Sussex TN32 5JY, or by e-mail to editor@britishbirds.co.uk, to arrive by 31st October 2005. 506 © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 506 Colin Bradshaw Paul Hackett Recent reports Compiled by Barry Nightingale and Anthony McCeehan This summary of unchecked reports covers mid July to mid August 2005. Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea Sightings included three on Harris (Western Isles) on 22nd July, one past Galley Head (Co. Cork) on 24th July, with another at Belfast Harbour (Co. Down), on 2nd August. One or two Ruddy Shelducks were also reported in Iceland in late July - perhaps a genuine influx? Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca Leighton Moss (Lan- cashire), 11th July; Fen Drayton (Cam- bridgeshire), 16th July to 7th August. Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis Cleasby Gravel-pits (North Yorkshire), 21st-23rd July. White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii Ham Sound/Holm Sound (Orkney), 13th July to at least 5th August. Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea A major southwards movement occurred along the entire western seaboard of Ireland from 2nd to 4th August. The peak count was 4,200 off Brandon Point (Co. Kerry) in five hours on 2nd August, while the combined total for seawatches from Fanad Head (Co. Donegal), Kilcummin Head and Annagh Head (both Co. Mayo), and Bridges of Ross (Co. Clare) on 3rd and 4th August was close to 2,000 individuals. Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae One flew past Filey Brigg (North Yorkshire) on 20th July, with presum- ably the same bird seen off Atwick (East York- shire) the same day. Little Shearwater Puffinus assimilis One north past Hartlepool (Cleveland) on 7th August with perhaps the same past Whitburn (Co. Durham) later the same day. Wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus Singles were seen 11 km S of St Mary’s (Scilly) on 14th July, 16 km S of St Mary’s on 25th July, and 10 km S of St Mary’s on 2nd August, with two 10 km S of St Mary’s on 5th August. Else- where, there were three off Bridges of Ross on 23rd July and a single off Lewis (Western Isles) on 3rd August. Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel Ocean- odroma monorhis 1 1 km S of St Mary’s, 21st July. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Colyford Common (Devon), 1 3th— 1 8th July; Abbotsbury (Dorset), 15th July; near Hinchinbrooke Country Park and Brampton area (Cambridgeshire), 28th July to 1st August; near Wareham (Dorset), 31st July to 3rd August; Otter estuary (Devon), 31st July to 8th August. Great White Egret Ardea alba 309. White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii, Orkney, August 2005. © British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 507-5 1 0 507 Jim Lawrence GaryThoburn Recent reports C > (all Lancashire), 24th July; Wet Moor (Som- erset), 28th July; Pevensey Levels (East Sussex), 31st July; near Titchwell (Norfolk), 1st August; Eastbourne (East Sussex), 3rd August; Much Hoole (Lancashire), 5th August; Wadebridge (Cornwall), 8th August. Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus Isle of Doagh (Co. Donegal), 23rd July. 3 1 0. Wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus, off St Mary’s, Scilly, July 2005. Minsmere (Suffolk), 1 5th— 17th July; various localities in Dorset, including Studland 15th July, Bournemouth 16th July, Sturminster Mar- shall Gravel-pits 24th-25th July and Wint- bourne Minster 25th July (all presumably referring to the same individual); Ibsley (Hampshire), 6th-7th August. Purple Heron Ardeo purpurea Felixstowe (Suffolk), 31st July. White Stork Ciconia ciconia Sandwich Bay (Kent), 12th July; Rovenden (Kent), 12th— 13th July; Hamden Park (East Sussex), 21st July; Flamborough Head (East Yorkshire), 21st-23rd July; two, Hanworth (Greater London), 22nd July; Burnham-on-Sea (Somerset), 23rd July; Keer Estuary, Bolton-le-Sands and Lancaster Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinu s Pegwell (Kent), 17th July; Minsmere (Suffolk), 1 7th— 1 8th July; Hickling Broad (Norfolk), 27th July. Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva Tacumshin (Co. Wexford), 2nd August. White- rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis Breydon Water (Norfolk), 1 8th— 20th July; Skippool Creek (Lancashire), 26th July to 3rd August; Farlington Marsh (Hampshire), 27th July. Long- billed Dowitcher Limnodromu s scolopaceus One, later joined by a second, at Shannon Airport Lagoon (Co. Clare), 30th July to 4th August. Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis Minsmere, 1 6th— 1 8th July, then North Warren (both Suffolk), 2 1 st— 25th July; Holland Haven (Essex), 28th July. Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereu s Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire), 17th July. Laughing Gull Larus atricilla Scalby Lodge (North Yorkshire), 22nd July; Nimmo’s Pier (Co. Galway), throughout late July to 5th August; Burray (Orkney), long- stayer to 8th August. Bonaparte’s Gull Larus Philadelphia Skerries (Co. Dublin), 1 1th— 1 9th July; Veensgarth (Shetland), 19th July. 311. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis, Brampton, Cambridgeshire, July 2005. Gull-billed Tern Sterna nilotica Tacumshin, 16th July; perhaps same, Por- trane (Co. Dublin), 26th July. Caspian Tern Sterna caspia Leighton Moss (Lancashire), 16th July; Spurn (East Yorkshire), 5th August. Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis Cromer (Norfolk), then various localities along the 508 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 507-5 1 0 Recent reports C > 3 I 2. Laughing Gull Larus atricilla with Common L. canus and Black-headed Gulls L ridibundus, Burray, Orkney, August 2005. north Norfolk coast to Blakeney, 16th-20th July; same Breydon Water 20th July, Minsmere 20th-21st July and Bawdsey (Suffolk), 22nd July. Elegant Tern Sterna elegans Gormanstown (Co. Meath), 19th July. Sooty Tern Sterna fuscata The long-stayer from early July was at Cemlyn Bay (Anglesey), until 26th July, visiting Rockabill and Skerries (both Co. Dublin) on 1 2th July and again on 7th August, and between times was seen at Groomsport (Co. Down) on 3rd-6th August. White-winged Black Tern Chli- donias leucopterus Sherkin Island (Co. Cork), 313. Caspian Tern Sterna caspia, Leighton Moss, Lancashire, July 2005, British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 507-510 509 Paul Hackett Paul Hackett Recent reports } 3 1 4. Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis, Happisburgh, Norfolk, July 2005. 19th-20th July; Sizewell (Suffolk), 29th July; Dosthill (Warwickshire), 1st August. Alpine Swift Apus melba Fowlmere (Cam- bridgeshire), 12th July. European Bee-eater Merops apiaster Nesting pair at Hampton Bishop (Herefordshire), nest predated in late July, with adults in area until 3rd August (see also p. 503); Spurn, 12th July; Dingle Marshes (Suffolk), 15th July; Dungeness (Kent), 16th July; Hayling Island (Hampshire), 3rd August. Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola Radi- pole (Dorset), 6th August; two, Farlington Marsh, 7th August. Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator Raffin (Highland), 2 1st— 26th July. Rose- coloured Starling Sturnus roseus Two, Carnoustie (Angus), 13th July, one remaining to 20th July; Freswick Bay (Highland), 1 9th— 25th July; Galway City (Co. Galway), 21st July; Coll (Argyll), 26th July. Sammy the stilt R.I.P. ‘Sammy’, the famous Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus which graced the RSPB’s Titchwell reserve in Norfolk for more than 1 1 years, is missing, pre- sumed dead. Britain’s most-watched wild bird first turned up at the RSPB’s Snettisham reserve in west Norfolk on 18th August 1993. He stayed a few days and then was relocated a month later at Titchwell, remaining for more than 4,000 days until last seen on 21st May 2005. Since 1993, it is estimated that at least half a million people saw ‘Sammy’ at Titchwell, with year-listers his particular fans. After his arrival at Titchwell, Sammy never encountered another stilt, earning him the title of the nation’s loneliest bird. Instead, he unsuccessfully attempted to court Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus (it’s from his behaviour on these occasions that he was known to be a male). 3 15. Sammy the stilt in his final months at Titchwell, March 2005. 510 British Birds 98 • September 2005 • 507-510 Robin Chittenden (www.harlequinpictures.co.uk) NEW WORLD CLASS! MINOX The MINOX BD8-14x40 variable from 8x to 14x • aluminium body rubber armouring • ED/ fluoride glass • Argon gas filling stops internal corrosion and fogging of the optical system • waterproof 5 m • lightweight approx. 895 g with variable magnification MINOX UK Phone: +44 (0)1367 www.mino Mexico’s Baja California Birds have waited millennia for you to visit! Please do not disappoint them! Each year birds of North America's Pacific flyway , travel the length of Baja’s Pacific side, while birds of the Central Flyway migrate down the eastern side of the peninsula. Many species stage at land’s end. Here they mix with native desert and sea species. 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Info centre north of reservoir. 1 8 Sept, 1 6 Oct, 20 Nov & 18 Dec College Lake Wildlife Centre On die B488 neor Bulbourne, Tring, Herts. 11 Sept & 13 Nov Canon, Helios, Kowa, Leica, Manfrotto, Miyauchi, Nikon, Opticron, Optolyth, Sentinel, Swarovski, Zeiss, etc. Used items also on our web site. ’ A’''" subsequent Field . one or see our web site *FOR DETAILS VISIT: WWW.DUTCHBIRDING.NL • high quality production and lay-out with superb photographic quality • top-quality papers on identification, taxonomy and system at ics • papers documenting rare and scarce birds in the Netherlands, Belgium and the WP • papers and notes on birding trips, vocalizations, distribution and behaviour • recent reports (WP, Belgium and the Netherlands) and latest news • annual report of the Dutch rarities committee • papers in English or, when in Dutch, with extensive English summary • six issues per year (c 450 pages and more than 500 colour photographs) Sri Lanka No one knows it like we do Deepal Warakagoda (Serendib Scops Owl discoverer) together with the country's best known birding & wildlife guides Uditha Hettige, Lester Perera, Chinthaka de Silva, etc., work exclusively with Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne’s team at, Sorendib Scops Owl M Eco Holidays Contact eco@jetwing.lk www.jetwingeco.com Tel: 0094-11-238 1201 Jetwing Hotels (with naturalists) Hotel - Hunas Falls Hotel - The Beach Seashells Hotel - The Blue Water Lighthouse Hotel & Spa - Tropical Villas (*]eco-watch wildlife surveillance Tel 01726 843744 WWW.eCO-watch.COm Nest box camera kits infrared or colour with audio Tough, submersible, colour to infrared Interactive displays visitor interpretation Infrared illuminators Professional nightvision cameras remote recording Portable, waterproof kits cameras, illuminators recorders, PIR detection wireless systems Phone for your info pack & free nesting birds booklet •r Wildlife surveillance systems designed for homes, reserves schools & research FIND OUT WHAT'S ABOUT ...ANYTIME...FROM ANYWHERE Use your mobile phone or PDA^ • Now from only £1 • No subscription needed For more information plus a week's free trial visit: www.birdguides.com/anywhere BIRDGUIDES^f 2004 14£613!£S1UL WalneyJS. \ x^zWaxvrttBSU Classified advertising Payment for all classified advertisements must be made in advance by VISA, Mastercard or by cheque payable to British Birds. 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British Birds aims to be the leading journal for the modern birder in the Western Palearctic We aim to: <> provide a forum for contributions of interest to all birdwatchers in the Western Palearctic; •> publish material on behaviour, conservation, distribution, ecology, identification, movements, status and taxonomy; embrace new ideas and research; »> maintain our position as the respected journal of record; and ♦> interpret good scientific research on birds for the interested non-scientist. British Birds Notes Panel Editor Roger Riddington Will Cresswell, Ian Dawson, Jim Flegg, Ian Newton FRS, Assistant Editors Caroline Dudley & Peter Kennerley Malcolm Ogilvie, Angela Turner (Co-ordinator) Editorial Board Dawn Balmer, Ian Carter, Richard Chandler, Martin Collinson, Chris Kehoe, Annual subscription rates Robin Prytherch, Nigel Redman, Roger Riddington Libraries and agencies - £85.00 Art Consultants Robert Gillmor 8c Alan Harris Individual subscriptions: UK - £46.00 Photographic Consultants Robin Chittenden Overseas surface mail - £52.00 8: David Tipling Back issues Design Mark Corliss Rarities Committee Single back issues - £6.50 Available from British Birds, The Banks, Mountfield, Robertsbridge, East Sussex TN32 5JY Chairman Cohn Bradshaw, Secretary Mike Rogers Rarities Issue - £12 (available as above) Phil Bristow, Lance Degnan, Paul Harvey, Please make all cheques payable to British Birds James Lidster, )ohn McLoughlin, John Martin, Adam Rowlands, Brian Small, Guidelines for Contributors Jimmy Steele, John Sweeney Full details are available on the BB website. www.britishbirds.co.uk EDITORIAL CIRCULATION & PRODUCTION spindrift, Eastshore, Virkie, The Banks, Mountfield, Shetland ZE3 9JS Robertsbridge, East Sussex TN32 5JY Tel: 01 950 460080 Tel: 01580 882039 Fax: 01 580 882038 Papers , notes, letters , illustrations, etc. Roger Riddington Subscriptions & Circulation E-mail: editor@britishbirds.co.uk Vivienne Hunter ‘News 8c comment’ information E-mail: subscriptions@britishbirds.co.uk Design & Production Adrian Pitches, 22 Dene Road, Philippa Leegood Tynemouth, Tyne 8c Wear NE30 2JW E-mail: design@britishbirds.co.uk E-mail: adrianpitches@blueyonder.co.uk Accounts & Administration Rarity descriptions Hazel Jenner M. J. Rogers, 2 Churchtown Cottages, E-mail: accounts@helm-information.co.uk Towednack, Cornwall TR26 3AZ Printed by Hastings Printing Company Ltd ADVERTISING: for all advertising matters, please contact: Ian Lycett, Solo Publishing Ltd, B403A The Chocolate Factory, 5 Clarendon Road, London N22 6XJ Tel: 020 8881 0550 Fax: 020 8881 0990 E-mail: ian.lycett@birdwatch.co.uk Front-cover photograph: Red-backed Shrike Lanins collurio. Spurn, East Yorkshire, September 2005. Chris Galvin Win the ultimate birding software with Bill Oddie’s n sale 22 September Ask your newsagent or call 01778 392027 to subscribe NE The home of birding ideas for AUTUMN The places to go and the birds to see this month So near, so Loire The amazing riches of central France Tales of the oil birds Extreme birding in the North Sea Issue 160 • October 2005 • E3.40 ID problems solved ■ Long-eared and Short-eared Owls ■ Siberian Stonechat □ 3 iscover the wonders of Nature, sing the wonders of Technology. ZEISS FL - high-performance optics with fluoride glass Seeing is believing: brighter, crisper, more brilliant. Never before have you seen nature in all its glory - until now, ZEISS FL binoculars and spotting scopes deliver unparalleled image quality: the result of many innovations - special lenses featuring fluori- de glass, in particular. ZEISS FL binoculars feature minimal colour fringes, maximum edge definition and image quality. This transparency, colour rendi- tion, resolution and contrast will amaze even the most discerning experts. FL - the seal of maximum optical quality. For more information, please visit www.zeiss.co.uk ZEISS We make it visible. British Birds I PRESENTED Volume 98 • Number 10 • October 2005 trimg LIBRARY THE WAiDiv”-™ HISTORY MUSEUM - /t OCT 2005 5 1 2 Taxonomy for birders: a beginner’s guide to DNA and species problems Norman Maclean, Martin Collinson and Richard G. Newell 538 Species limits in the Red-breasted Flycatcher Lars Svensson, Martin Collinson, Alan G. Knox, David T. Parkin and George Sangster 542 Taiga Flycatcher in East Yorkshire: new to Britain P. Andrew Lassey 547 Taiga Flycatcher in Shetland Mark Chapman Regular features 546 S3 Rarities Committee news Request for extralimital Pied/White Wagtail records 55 1 Letters The Ailsa Craig gannetry in 2004 Bernard Zonfrillo Gulls on Skomer Juan G. Brown More Tadcaster rarities? Andy Brown 555 Reviews The Stone Curlew The Grebes The Wheatears of the Palearctic: ecology, behaviour and evolution of the genus Oenanthe The Birds of Azerbaijan Ducks, Geese and Swans 559 News and comment Adrian Pitches 564 Recent reports Barry Nightingale and Anthony McGeehan © British Birds 2005 Taxonomy for birders: a beginner’s guide to DNA and species problems Norman Maclean, Martin Collinson and Richard G. Newell 3 1 6. Male ‘Black-headed Wagtail' Motacilla flava feldegg, Greece, May. Although it seems that many birders regard this form as a ‘split in waiting’, there is little or no genetic evidence to support its separation from other ‘western’ yellow wagtails. David Tipling/Windrush ABSTRACT The use of molecular data has revolutionised taxonomy. As a result, there is upheaval within national and regional bird lists, with new species splits and lumps and, perhaps more disruptively, alterations to the sequence in which families and species are listed. These changes, sometimes based on esoteric genetic or mathematical data, affect ornithologists and birders. In this paper, some of the basics of modern taxonomic practice are explained, and we show how these principles may be applied to genetic data to generate molecular phylogenies. Examples are used to illustrate how genetic data may resolve complex taxonomic problems, and also to show some of the reasons why DNA does not offer a simple resolution to the ‘species problem’. There are no simple rules to determine species boundaries, and the use of molecular data does not yet change this. There are cases where different DNA sequences tell different stories, which can be different again from phylogenies based on morphological data. 512 © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 Taxonomy for birders c Taxonomy allocates all birds to hierar- chical groupings (e.g. orders, families, genera, species and subspecies) on the basis of the perceived evolutionary relationships between them (see reviews in Greenwood 1997 and Newton 2003). Conventionally, taxono- mists have to draw conclusions on the basis of what, at some level of analysis, birds or other organisms 'look like’, not only with respect to their morphology, but also how they sound and behave. It is tempting to assume that birds which look, behave or sound most similar are closely related. This is usually valid - but one problem is that distantly related animals or plants might look like each other because they live in similar environments. One simple example might be cetaceans, penguins and fish; they are all pointed at the front end and have smooth contours because they face the same environmental problem - moving through water without too much drag. Ignoring the pos- sibility of so-called 'convergent evolution' may give false impressions of close relationships. Modern taxonomy arranges organisms into groups - clades - largely on the basis of the presence of ‘shared-derived characters’ (or ‘synapomorphies’) (see Ridley 1986 for review). These are characters that several (but not all) members of a species group have inherited from a common ancestor during the evolution of the group. For example, if a group of six closely related species (A-F) is thought to have evolved from a single red-legged ancestral species, and four of these species (A— D) have red legs, whereas two (E and F) have yellow legs, the yellow legs would be a shared-derived char- acter - i.e. a new characteristic that has evolved by mutation from the red-legged ancestors (see fig. 1). In a cladistic classification, and in the absence of contrary information, it would be assumed that yellow legs evolved only once, in a common ancestor of E and F, and hence that both E and F are more closely related to each other than to any of species A-D. Of course, leg colour by itself does not prove anything, but if E and F also share other characters which the others do not (perhaps they both have a wing- bar while the other species do not), then bit by bit the evidence mounts that they really have evolved from a recent common ancestor. To understand how cladistic taxonomy works, it is also necessary to understand the concept ot monophyly. Any taxonomic clade (species, genus, family, etc.) should convention- ally be monophyletic, which means that all members of the group should be descended from a single common ancestor, and should contain all the descendants of that ancestor (see Collinson 2001). For example, the six species in fig. 1 form a monophyletic clade. In contrast, a taxonomic grouping is said to be paraphyletic if some of the descendants of the common 3 I 7. Scottish Crossbill Loxia scot/co, Abernethy, Highland, April 1 999. As Britain’s only currently recognised endemic bird, the Scottish Crossbill is a signature species for its habitat and attracts major conservation funding for the Caledonian Pine Pinus sylvestris forests. Genetically, however, it appears to be indistinguishable from Common L curvirostra and Parrot Crossbills L pytyopsittacus. At the present time, when conservation effort is increasingly concentrated in the protection of genetic biodiversity, where does Scottish Crossbill stand? British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 513 Frederic Desmette/Windrush Taxonomy for birders c ) TIME legs Fig. la evolved Fig. I a. Phylogenetic figure adapted from Baldauf (2003), showing the relationships among six hypothetical species of bird, A-F (see also text). It postulates that a single ancestral species split into two separate species over evolutionary time. One of these species was the ancestor of A-C, the other was the ancestor of D-F.The A-C group and the D-F group may be regarded as separate clades (see text for definition). In the A-C clade, the ancestor of A-C split into two further species, one of which went on to become present-day species A, while the other subsequently underwent a further split to become species B and C.An identical process of evolution occurred in the D-F clade. Every branching point on the figure represents (in this case) a speciation event, and is called a node. The branches are internodes. Some methods of resolving the phylogeny (but not all) may allow the lengths of the branches to represent the evolutionary distance between the species (i.e. a rough measure of the length of time they have been separated). The yellow legs of species E and F are a shared-derived character (synapomorphy), as explained in the text. This is evidence that they are sister species and they should be treated as such in the construction of the tree. If one of the taxa, say B, had green legs, this would be a unique-derived character (autapomorphy), but this is phylogenetically rather uninformative as it gives no clue as to which of the other taxa are its closest relatives. The red legs of A-D are a retained ancestral character (symplesiomorphy) and are also phylogenetically uninformative (within this species group). Figs. I b-d. Note that the exact shape of the branches is of no consequence, such that figs. I b and I d present exactly the same qualitative phylogenetic information as fig. la. It is also possible to rotate branches around the nodes without changing the phylogeny at all; fig. Ic carries identical information to fig. la. All the trees in this figure have a root - the single earliest branch representing the common ancestor of species A-F. Roots can only be indicated if an outgroup (a taxon that is only distantly related to species A-F) has been included in the analysis (but not, in the cases above, explicitly shown on the tree). For example, if A-F were species of tit Parus, the outgroup taxon might be a species of flycatcher Ficedula. If an outgroup has not been included, it is not possible to indicate a root for the tree, but it is perfectly acceptable to construct and display an unrooted tree. 514 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 Dick Newell Taxonomy for birders c > 3 1 8 & 3 I 9. If ‘Herring Gull' was really a ring species, as proposed by Mayr ( 1 963), then ‘American Herring Gull’ Larus (argentatus) smithsonianus (both photos) would be closely related to the European Herring Gull L a. argentatus/ argenteus. In fact, this seems not to be the case. Although smithsonianus is difficult to distinguish from argentatus/ argenteus in adult or near-adult plumage, the Glaucous Gull L hyperboreus- like appearance and demeanour of immatures is perhaps a better indicator of a more-distant relationship than the adult morphology might suggest. On the basis of mtDNA, smithsonianus is closely related to the group of Siberian gulls and is genetically distinct from European Herring Gulls. It could perhaps be lumped with Lesser Black-backed Gull L fuscus! Above, Florida, December 2003; left, Matosinhos, Porto, Portugal, March 2001. ancestor are now excluded from the grouping. If species A, C, D, E and F in fig. 1 were in one genus (X), and species B was classified as belonging to another genus (Y), then genus X would be paraphyletic, because one of the known descendants of the common ancestor of the genus would now be excluded. By conven- tion, paraphyletic groupings are not allowed. Nor, conventionally, are polyphyletic group- ings, where all the different members of a genus or higher taxonomic rank have evolved from a number of more distantly related ancestors. To a first approximation, polyphyletic groupings are a mishmash of distantly related animals, grouped together to the exclusion of more closely related animals. An example would be if we attempted to group cetaceans, penguins and fish together in an Order of ‘swimming things’ - in effect an extreme version of paraphyly. Many superficial characters, such as leg colour or wing length, may change rapidly - indeed too rapidly and too often to tell us any- thing useful about the evolutionary history of the birds. Experienced ‘conventional’ phylo- geneticists are generally able to recognise which morphological or behavioural characters are likely to be phylogenetically useful. Nonethe- less, the potential for physical characters to mislead phylogeneticists never really goes away. The use of molecular evidence (proteins and, especially now, DNA-sequence data) helps to get round this by offering an array of data that are closer to the underlying genetic base of the birds. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 515 Richard Chandler Roger Tidman/ Windrush Taxonomy for birders ( ) Species concepts and phylogenetic trees Species concepts, as they apply to birds, have been reviewed extensively (Cracraft 1997; Collinson 2001; Helbig et al. 2002; Newton 2003; Parkin 2003) and we do not intend to repeat the arguments here. In broad terms, these can be divided into: ‘biological’ species concepts, in which species are defined primarily on the basis of present-day reproductive behav- iour (a tendency not to hybridise); and ‘phylo- genetic’ or ‘evolutionary’ species concepts, in which species are defined according to their evolutionary history. Phylogenetic trees, such as those presented in fig. 1, are reconstructions of the perceived evolutionary history of the taxa involved, based on evidence which can normally be obtained only from the present day. Whatever the species concept used, any speciation event where one species evolves into two species which no longer breed with each other can be repre- sented by a node (‘branching point’) in a phy- logenetic tree. Speciation may be due to range fragmentation (see Tokeshi 1999 for review). For example, many remote islands have endemic bird species, probably resulting from the chance arrival of vagrants and the subse- quent evolution and divergence of these ‘founders’ away from their ancestral stock, with which they no longer breed. The separation of two species into different evolutionary lineages in a phylogenetic tree does not necessarily pre- clude the possibility of ongoing hybridisation. Over 10% of bird species have been known to hybridise with at least one other species in the wild (Grant & Grant 1992). Sometimes, espe- cially when related species are fortuitously (or unwittingly) brought together, this hybridisa- tion may be quite extensive. For example, Ruddy Ducks Oxyura jamaicensis breed freely with White-headed Ducks O. leucocephala. Hybridisation between Hawaiian Ducks Anas wyvilliana and Mallards Anas platyrhynchos , following the introduction of the latter, is apparently leading to the virtual extinction of the original form of Hawaiian Duck (US Fish & Wildlife Service 1999). These are extreme cases, where the species pairs did not meet in the past and have done so now only through human intervention. Nonetheless, the possibility for gene flow (hybridisation) between different species is ever-present, and may confuse genetic analysis of species boundaries. The rest of this paper deals with the analysis of the genetic structure within and between species. First, it is necessary to introduce the genetic material - DNA. An introduction to DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the heritable genetic material. Every cell in our bodies carries copies of the DNA we inherited from our parents. It is the ‘instruction manual’ for the cells, known as the genome, the so-called ‘book of life’, which is written with a code using only four letters - the chemical bases adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine (A, T, C and G). Hanging off a repetitive sugar-phosphate ‘washing line’ is the ‘laundry’ of As, Ts, Cs and Gs; the order in which these letters occur along the line underlies the genetic code and makes us what we are. The sequence of letters - genes - can be read by molec- ular machinery in the cell that tracks along them and puts proteins together on the basis of the instructions it sees in the DNA (see the extensive review text in Lewin 2002). The familiar double helix of DNA consists of two comple- mentary ‘washing lines’ of bases, bonded to one another across the strands, such 320. Western Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli, Spain, August. It is possible, though unlikely, that the differences in call between Western and Eastern Bonelli’s Warblers PI i. orientali s would have been sufficient in themselves to warrant a widely adopted split. Genetically, however, these two sister species are almost as different from each other as they are from Wood Warbler Ph. sibilatrix. 516 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 Taxonomy for birders c 321. Male Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola, of nominate form citreola, Lesbos, Greece, April. On the basis of mitochondrial DNA alone, the calcarata (dark-backed) race of Citrine Wagtail would be a straightforward split from the northern and western races citreola and werae. Nuclear DNA, however, repairs the phylogeny, and places calcarata as a sister taxon, very closely related to the nominate form. The wagtails serve as a caution against overactive splitting based solely on mtDNA. that T always bonds with A and G always bonds with C. Although DNA is generally extremely stable, sometimes these A, T, C and G bases may fall off, or be chemically changed, or new bases may be added, or big chunks of DNA may break off, or turn round - these are the processes of mutation (reviewed in Majerus et al. 1996). Mutation usually arises as a result of accidental damage or mistakes in replication of DNA, sometimes due to radiation or exposure to environmental chemicals. Mutations occur ran- domly in all our cells all the time, but as described below, may cause disadvantageous changes. Usually our cellular repair proteins spot mutations and correct them. In the time it takes you to read this paper, over 20 potentially lethal mutations will occur somewhere in the cells of your body, and you have to hope that they are repaired. Proteins carry out all the important jobs required to keep body cells working, and are clearly critical to survival. If the coding regions of DNA, which provide the template for these proteins, are defective, as a result of mutation, then the proteins may not work. If that happens, there is a good chance that the mutant animal will not survive so, over evolutionary time, these DNA sequences do not change much. There are also regulatory regions of DNA that do not themselves make proteins, but control where and when different proteins are made in which different cells of the body, for example building bone cells or brain cells in the right places. Regulatory regions are critical too. Nonetheless, mutations in regulatory or coding regions of DNA can still occur because not all changes are necessarily bad. So, over evolu- tionary time, mutations may build up in and around genes that enable us to distinguish dif- ferent individuals and species. The DNA in a typical vertebrate cell includes about six billion base pairs, enough to provide for about one million genes, but vertebrates typically may have only about 20,000-30,000 genes. Therefore, the bulk of DNA in higher organisms appears not to do anything. Many of these bits of DNA may have had functions in the past - the minority are recognisable as genes that are no longer functional. Some are, or were, viral sequences that were integrated into the DNA and never left, and are now inactive. Other, very similar bits of DNA may occasion- ally replicate and move about within the DNA (‘jumping’ elements), with or without causing any harm. Some are strings of repeated sequences that are the product of mistakes during DNA replication. For example, molec- ular studies of bird taxa are frequently carried out by exploiting repetitive DNA sequences called microsatellites. These are non-coding and consist of a repeated series of short (usually two to six bases) motifs (Majerus et al. 1996). British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 517 David Tipling/ Windrush Arthur Morris/ Windrush Taxonomy for birders C > Many different microsatellites are spread throughout the genome of most organisms and may be used as indicators of variation between individuals or populations. Being non-coding, they also evolve quickly, typically by gaining or losing repeat units. Whatever their origin, areas of repetitive DNA comprise vast strings of ‘non- sense’. These apparently non-functional ‘neutral’ sequences of DNA can mutate freely, because mutation of nonsense, to make more nonsense, has no adverse effect (Kimura 1983). For genes that encode proteins which affect key metabolic processes like respiration, muta- tions that change the proteins are likely to be lethal and are soon eliminated from the popula- tion - these areas of DNA change relatively slowly. They are said to be highly conserved. Bits of DNA that have no apparent function may be free to acquire mutations very rapidly. This is an important consideration; if a phylo- geneticist is studying closely related taxa that diverged from each other only recently, there is little point in looking at slowly evolving, highly conserved parts of DNA - they will be too similar in the different taxa to tell us anything useful about their evolution. Conversely, when studying old evolutionary events, it is better to use these highly conserved stretches of DNA, for which informative mutations are likely to have built up over millions of years. The non- conserved, variable bits of DNA will have mutated so much that it is impossible to compare them among the relevant taxa. It soon becomes clear that DNA-based approaches to taxonomy are potentially extremely complex. The mechanics of molecular evolution Most mutations are repaired. Some, however, are not repaired, and persist. Mutations in sperm or egg cells may be passed on to the next generation, meaning that different individuals in a single species are genetically different. For example, humans may have red, blond or black hair, and blue, brown or green eyes - these are genetic differences within a single species. Although we all carry the same genes, there are many slightly different versions (alleles) of these genes in the population as a whole, thanks to mutations. All animals carry pigment genes, but because individuals may have different alleles of these genes, they are differently pig- mented, e.g. dark- and light-phase Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus. Mendel’s famous peas (Mendel 1866) were selected on the basis of having different alleles of the same gene giving, say, wrinkled or smooth coats on the seeds. When scientists talk about the genetic variation within a population or a species, they are refer- ring to the number and proportion of different alleles they can find for any single gene or other stretch of DNA. There are several forces that can change the 322. Male Green-winged Teal Anas carolinensis, Jamaica Bay, New York, USA. The plumage similarities between Eurasian A. crecca and Green-winged Teal outweigh their differences. It is possible that the last common ancestor of these two species, and the Speckled Teal A. flavirostris of South America, looked quite like a Green-winged Teal. While the plumage of Eurasian and Green-winged Teal has perhaps not changed much in their northern temperate environments, Speckled Teal diverged rapidly in the southern hemisphere. 518 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 Taxonomy for birders C genetic structure of a species. Mutations are ultimately the source of all genetic variation, and the occurrence of different mutations in different populations of a single species is the raw material of speciation. Mutations persist or are eliminated partly as a result of natural selec- tion, which changes the genetic structure of a population either by allowing the survival ot a newly arisen mutation that confers a survival advantage to the bearer, or by eliminating indi- viduals that are disadvantaged. Because the environment plays a major role in natural selec- tion, populations of one species which lives in different environments may, through natural selection, evolve to look or behave differently. Random processes can also change the genetic structure of a population; for example, when a cow treads on a lark’s nest, the nestlings will perish irrespective of genetic traits (whether ‘fit’ or ‘unfit’). Such random mortality is inevitable, and may lead ultimately to genetic differences between different populations of a single species, or it may lead to the accidental loss of useful mutations purely by chance (genetic drift). Random dispersal of individuals between populations may slow down divergence; the permanent movement of individuals from one population to another is called ‘migration’ by population biologists (distinct from the sea- sonal movement of individuals between breeding and wintering areas more familiar to birders). Dispersive ‘migration’ may often work against speciation (but not always; see the study of Great Tits Parus major by Garant et al. 2005). Perhaps counterintuitively, sex may also work against speciation. Sexual reproduction pro- vides a mechanism for new gene alleles or gene combinations which arose in one population of a species to spread through other populations of the same species, and is a great homogenising factor. Sex also allows for hybridisation, by which gene sequences may be shared between different species. At the level of a single DNA base pair, it can be seen that there are several forces at work, either increasing or reducing divergence between individuals within a species. When the necessary mathematics are performed, the homogenising forces (e.g. sex, dispersal) tend to win (Dover 1982). Thus, unless there are special natural or sexual selective circumstances that maintain unusually high diversity, individuals of a species in an interbreeding population tend to have very > 323. Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus, off Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia, January 1 996. The Pomarine Skua looks more like a ‘small’ skua but, on the basis of mtDNA, forms a sister group to the ‘large skua’ clade. There are several possible explanations for this, but it seems likely that there have been ancient episodes of hybridisation. similar (but not usually identical) DNA. So, if there are large fixed (consistent) DNA differences between two populations or sub- species of a single species, it indicates that there has been little or no interbreeding. When two or more taxa no longer interbreed, gene flow between them can no longer occur. So the DNA sequences of reproductively isolated popula- tions are free to diverge, by mutation, with respect to each other. Taxa that stopped inter- breeding only recently will have very similar DNA sequences; taxa that have been reproduc- tively isolated for many millions of years will have very different DNA sequences. The ability of scientists to read the same bits of DNA sequence in individuals of different taxa, to analyse how similar they are and decide, on the basis of sequence comparisons, which taxa are most closely related to which others, is the basis of DNA-based molecular phylogeny. While the mathematics are complicated, the principles are not dissimilar to classical morphology-based attempts to reconstruct phylogeny - those taxa that are closely related will tend to look most similar, and can be arranged into clades on the basis of shared-derived mutations in their DNA. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 519 Taxonomy for birders c > Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA The vast majority of the DNA that all animals, plants and fungi carry in their cells occurs in the cell nucleus. At fertilisation, the nucleus of the sperm, carrying one complete ‘set’ of DNA (chromosomes), fuses with the nucleus of the egg, carrying another complete set of DNA, to form an embryo that is diploid, i.e. it carries two complete sets of chromosomal DNA - one from each parent. This means that every cell in our bodies has two copies (alleles) of every single gene and every bit of non-coding or ‘junk’ DNA. Normally, both alleles of any par- ticular gene will be functional. However, a benefit of being diploid is that if one allele of the gene, say the one inherited from the father, is mutated and not working, the other copy, from the mother, is likely to be functional - there is back-up. Note also that, while an indi- vidual may possess two variant alleles of any one nuclear gene, within a population there may be a large number of different alleles of the same gene. This is what is meant by the term ‘gene pool’. Some DNA resides outside the nucleus in structures such as chloroplasts (responsible for photosynthetic processes in plants) or mito- chondria (the ‘batteries’ of the cell, responsible for producing energy). Mitochon- drial DNA (mtDNA) is a rela- tively small circular molecule (the ends are connected), and carries a small number of genes, not directly related to external mor- phology, but to energy produc- tion (see Lewin 2002). Although both sperm and eggs carry mitochondria, the sperm mitochondria do not enter the egg at fertilisation, and are quickly broken down. This means that for birds (and all other animals), mitochondria are inher- ited only down the female line. That is, although all the cells in our bodies contain nuclear DNA from both our parents, we have only our mother’s mitochondrial DNA, whether we are male or female. Mitochondrial DNA is subject to random mutation just like nuclear DNA but the mutation rate of the mtDNA is substantially higher, not least because muta- tions are not efficiently repaired. Mutations may be passed from mother to offspring and hence, over time, different taxa that no longer interbreed develop sequence differences in their mtDNA. The use of mtDNA for building evolutionary trees is so widespread, at least in part, because: 1) It is an abundant, fairly small molecule that is easy to isolate. Every cell has many mitochon- COII CO' Fig. 2. Diagram of the mitochondrial DNA of a bird. This is the most common form, found in the domestic chicken Gallus gallus and most other birds. A slightly different form is found in some bird groups such as falcons (Falconidae) and woodpeckers (Picidae); see Mindell et al. (1 998). The mitochondrial-DNA molecule consists of a closed circle, consisting of about 17,000 base pairs (compared with about 3,000 million base pairs in the nuclear DNA). In the diagram, the genetically significant parts are labelled. I2S and I6S are genes coding for ribosomal RNA; NDI-ND6 are genes coding for subunits of a large protein called NADH dehydrogenase; cytochrome b is a gene coding for the enzyme cytochrome b; and CO I, II, and III are genes coding for cytochrome oxidases. ATP6 and ATP8 are genes coding for subunits of the protein adenosine triphosphate. CR is the control region containing the sequences where DNA replication is initiated - the origin of replication. Any of these regions of DNA may be used to extract phylogenetic information - some mutate slowly and are of use for determining ancient phylogenetic events, whereas others, such as the control region, have very quickly mutating (hypervariable) sequences that can be used to resolve recent evolutionary events, such as the radiation of the large white-headed gulls Larus spp. [NB ‘RNA’ is ribonucleic acid - a nucleic acid found in all living cells that is essential for the manufacture of proteins according to the instructions carried by genes; a ‘ribosome’ is a subcellular particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins concerned with the manufacture of proteins.] 520 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 Taxonomy for birders c > dria, each with several or many copies of (usually) identical nrtDNA. 2) It carries mutations only through the female line with virtually none of the mixing (recombination) of maternal and paternal chromosomes that complicates analysis of nuclear DNA. 3) It has genes for respiratory enzymes (e.g. cytochrome b ) that are highly conserved and which mutate fairly slowly. It also has regula- tory regions, e.g. certain parts of the control region, which mutate very quickly. Conse- quently, different bits of the mitochondrial genome can be analysed to determine evolu- tionary patterns between recently diverged (closely related) or distantly related species (fig. 2). What rates of divergence in mitochondrial DNA should we expect? Calibration of the amount of divergence expected over, say, one million years can be achieved by looking at the percentage DNA differences between taxa whose divergence can be dated to known geo- logical events. For example, Hawaiian honey- creepers (Drepanididae) are believed to have speciated by occupying and diversifying on new islands as these appeared following undersea volcanic activity (Fleischer & McIntosh 2001). The times of appearance of the different islands in the chain is known, thus allowing determina- tion of when new honeycreeper species evolved. The estimates are that in one million years of evolution, the mitochondrial cytochrome b sequence has diverged by about 1.6% on average, and the whole mitochondrial sequence has diverged by about 2%. Most of the latter variation is, of course, concentrated in the faster evolving bits. As discussed by Newton (2003), different subspecies of a single species do not usually show more than about 2.5% divergence in the sequences of their mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, whereas different sister species may show up to 10% divergence or more in this sequence. Similar calculations would apply to some other mitochondrial gene sequences (examples in Helbig et al. 1995). But, as emphasised by Newton (2003), not all species fit in with these expectations. Some populations of birds that display good species separation on other grounds may show <1% divergence in sequence (e.g. Blue-winged Teal Anas discors and Cin- namon Teal A. cyanoptera), and some sub- species may have more than 2.5% divergence (e.g. Mountain Chickadee subspecies Parus gambeli gambeli and P. g. baileyae). So, it is of little value to say, in isolation, that ‘DNA studies indicate a 3% difference’ either in support of or against a proposed species split, and such argu- ments based on percentage divergence are dan- gerously circular anyway. 324. ‘White Wagtail’ Motacilla a. alba, Cyprus, April 2005. In pristine spring plumage. White Wagtail is clearly different from Pied Wagtail M. a. yarrelli, but currently known differences in their DNA do not strongly support a split. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 521 Dick Newell Taxonomy for birders < > The mechanics of molecular analysis DNA can be extracted from tiny amounts of fresh tissue (e.g. blood, muscle, feathers, faeces) and is even recoverable from museum speci- mens. To perform a molecular analysis, DNA is isolated from individuals of all the taxa under study, and either directly sequenced or sub- jected to some other chemical procedure which cuts up (restricts) or makes copies of (amplifies) sections of it using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Genes such as cytochrome b are best analysed by direct sequencing of the series of As, Ts, Cs and Gs. Various pieces of non-coding repetitive sequence, such as microsatellites, are usually analysed indirectly by restriction or amplification, producing a series of DNA bands of different sizes that are characteristic of the taxon. Once the DNA has been sequenced, cut or amplified by PCR into an analysable form, the actual processes of analysis are not in principle much different from those employed for con- ventional morphological or behavioural analyses. Taxonomists look for informative mutations - shared-derived characters (synapo- morphies) that can be used to link taxa together. For example, if there are six species A-F, and at position 123 of their cytochrome b gene, all of them have a thymine base (‘T’), this does not help to resolve their phylogeny. If however, A-D have a ‘T’, but E and F have a guanine base ‘G’, this may be taken as evidence that E and F are closely related. By itself, this is not strong evidence, but if several different parts of the cytochrome b gene tell the same story, then the evidence gets stronger. Mathe- matical algorithms are used to determine, on the basis of DNA sequences, which species are most similar, and to build evolutionary trees. Different methodologies determine those trees requiring the minimum amount of mutation (maximum parsimony), or those trees that are most likely on the basis of prior knowledge about how DNA mutates (maximum likelihood), or those that progressively clump together the most similar species (neighbour- joining) (full review in Nei 1987). These tech- niques are described more fully in Appendix 1 . Sibley and Ahlquist exploited DNA-DNA hybridisation to classify the bird families of the world (Sibley et al. 1988; Sibley & Ahlquist 1990). Their method did not analyse the genome sequences in detail. Instead, it was assumed that if the DNAs of two different species of bird are very similar, they will bind very tightly together because of complementary pairing of the As with Ts, and Cs with Gs, as described earlier. Conversely, if two species are only distantly related, their DNAs will be more divergent, so when mixed together they will not bind very tightly (rather like a zip-fastener with a lot of missing teeth). Sibley and Ahlquist’s technique measured the melting temperature (the temperature at which the two complemen- tary strands fall apart) of the hybridised DNA. The more similar the sequences in the com- pared samples, the more tightly they will combine and the higher the temperature needed to induce separation. The technique showed, for example, that New World barbets (Capitonidae) have closer molecular affinities to toucans (Ramphastidae) than to the barbets of the Old World (Megalaimidae and Lybiidae). The technique is at best only suited to broad- based taxonomic studies. Problems with DNA If DNA methods are so powerful, we should ask why answers to all of the outstanding taxo- nomic questions are not quickly forthcoming. DNA analysis is in practice possibly no more objective than other analyses. Determining a phylogenetic tree from a DNA sequence is not simple. The same mutation may occur indepen- dently in distantly related species, giving a false impression of a close relationship. Similarly, over time, a mutated DNA base may randomly mutate back to its original state, giving a false impression of no mutation. The assembly and alignment of DNA sequences from several species of bird may require some heavy-duty computer work. Mistakes here seriously bias the data. Subsequent treatment of the data, whether by different analyses (neighbour-joining, maximum parsimony, etc.), compounded by uncertain assumptions about frequencies of dif- ferent sorts of mutations, may result in several plausible-looking phylogenies from one dataset. On the other hand, if different treatments of the DNA data produce the same, or very similar, phylogenetic trees, we can have more confi- dence that the correct picture is emerging. Analysis of any gene or other sequence from mitochondrial or nuclear DNA of a group of species produces only a phylogeny of the gene (or whatever part of the DNA was analysed), for which each node in the tree is a point at which a mutation occurred. It is usual to assume that 522 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 Taxonomy for birders c ) Box I . Can a DNA sequence serve as a bar-code for species identity ? The idea of using a short DNA sequence as a ‘bar-code’ to allow molecular categorisation of every species was originally proposed by Hebert et al. (2003), using a 650-base-long sequence of the mito- chondrial COl gene. This idea has now been applied to a study of 260 species of North American birds by these authors (Hebert et al. 2004). All species had a different bar-code (some had more than one), and differences between related species were about 18 times higher than those within species. Some interesting anomalies were revealed, all of which serve to support the idea of using this sequence as a species bar-code. In four exceptional cases (Solitary Sandpiper Tringa solitaria , Eastern Meadowlark Sturnella magna , Marsh Wren Cistothorus palustris and Warbling Vireo Vireo gilvus), there were deep sequence divergences within a species. Interestingly, all bar the sandpiper have been proposed for possible splitting by some taxonomists, so these species may well include other cryptic molecular species. Thirteen species within four genera revealed rather low levels of molecular differentiation. These included seven species of large white-headed gulls Larus, the two North American oystercatchers Haematopus bachmani and H. palliatus, Mallard Anas platyrhynchos and Black Duck A. rubripes, and American Corvus brachyrhynchos and Northwestern Crow C. caur- inus, all of these being species with known levels ol hybridisation or recent allopatric divergence. the phylogeny of the gene in these different species accurately reflects the evolution of the species that carry the gene. This is probably normally a reasonable assumption, but it need not necessarily be the case, especially for groups of species (or subspecies) that have separated only recently. More than one mtDNA lineage may exist within one species population. Trees inferred from various parts of the nuclear genome will not necessarily be congruent to trees from the mtDNA. Using any of these trees, based on a single gene or other DNA sequence as a dependable guide for the species tree, can be dangerous. Discrepancies between morphological and genetic divergence. New species may evolve rapidly over compara- tively short time spans (Fryer & lies 1972). The best-known avian examples are Darwin’s finches (Emberizidae) on the Galapagos and Hawaiian honeycreepers, which must have evolved over thousands rather than millions of years because geological evidence shows that the volcanic archipelagos on which they live were created only recently - see Sato et al (1999). Conversely, some organisms, e.g. ginkgo trees (Ginkgoaceae) and coelacanths (Latimeri- idae), have remained morphologically almost unchanged for about 300 million years. Ospreys Pandion haliaetus look morphologically remarkably uniform across a virtual world range, while Common Chaffinches Fringilla coelebs and Wrens Troglodytes troglodytes have many described subspecies, with local song variations even within the UK, as well as clinal plumage variations across continents and dis- crete isolated or island forms (Vaurie 1959; Catchpole & Rowell 1993). The morphology of a species is determined largely by its genes. Morphology is also influ- enced by the environment, however, and when the environment changes rapidly, morphology may change rapidly. On the other hand, animals or plants that live in constant, unchanging environments, such as the deep ocean, may show very little morphological change over geo- logical timescales, even though mutations in their DNA are inevitably piling up. This has implications for genetic analysis. Groups of species which have evolved rapidly and recently may all be genetically uniform; their evolution may be difficult to resolve using DNA. Yet single species with a large and long-standing world range may show high intraspecific genetic vari- ation; for example, all Barn Owls Tyto alba have a similar appearance but they exhibit a fairly complex genetic structure, so they must have spread across the planet some considerable time ago (Konig et al. 1999). The strongest reason for the frequent lack of concordance between molecular and morpho- logical approaches to taxonomy is that the mol- ecular data are almost never drawn from the genes controlling aspects of morphology that are conventionally used to delimit species. The normal analyses of fast-evolving and selectively neutral non-coding sequences, or of slowly mutating metabolic or respiratory enzymes like cytochrome b, are fine for measuring the time elapsed since the divergence of two taxa, but give no indication of the often rapid changes in British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 523 Steve Voung/Birdwatch lain Leach Taxonomy for birders < > morphology and reproductive behaviour which may drive speciation. Thus, while the Barnacle Goose Branta leucopsis is, on the basis of the molecular sequences analysed, closely related to the Lesser Canada Goose B. hutchinsii , its mor- phology and plumage have changed quite dra- matically (Paxinos et al. 2002; see discussion below). Although this may appear to be a bad thing, it is in fact the strength of genetic analysis - DNA mutation allows a direct analysis of evo- lution without the complications that result from the influence of the physical and biolog- ical environment on external morphology. Mol- ecular analyses could be based on genes which are involved in morphological evolution impor- tant to speciation, but relatively few of these sequences have been characterised and none have been studied sufficiently to confirm that they give reliable phylogenetic data. Some examples of the use of DNA While advising caution for birders in the inter- pretation and application of DNA data, we do not want to paint an unnecessarily bleak picture. The rest of this paper demonstrates how DNA has contributed to our under- standing of some interesting species issues, describing cases where it has provided a clear phylogenetic signal, and cases where it has not. Phylogenies based solely on DNA sequences may reveal species boundaries that were not obvious solely on the basis of mor- phology. For example, it is now largely accepted that Western Phyllo- scopus bonelli and Eastern Bonelli’s War- blers Ph. orientalis are separate species, based largely on differences in their calls, and also on the DNA evidence, which showed that they may have diverged several million years ago. The species have remained separate in spite of continued occa- sional opportunities to hybridise (Helbig et al. 1995). More recently, DNA evidence has sug- gested other splits, based both on the absolute genetic distance between taxa that were previously assumed to be closely related, and on the rela- tionship of those taxa with other species. Bearing in mind that any taxonomic grouping (species, genus, family, etc.) should be mono- 325 & 326. Lesser Canada Goose Branta h. hutchinsii (‘Richardson's’ Canada Goose) with Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus, Holkham, Norfolk, February 1 999 (above); Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis, Caerlaverock, Dumfries & Galloway, November 1993. Like the teals, where it is thought that some species have retained an ancestral plumage type while others have rapidly diverged in new habitats. Greater B. canadensis and Lesser Canada Goose B. hutchinsii perhaps retain an ancestral 'Branta' plumage while their closest living relatives, Hawaiian B. sandvicensis and Barnacle Goose B. leucopsis respectively, have diverged rapidly. 524 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 Taxonomy for birders c Fig. 3. Relationships among the black geese Branta, adapted from Paxinos et al. (2002), based on mtDNA sequences. The tree suggests that Hawaiian Goose is the sister taxon of the large Canada Geese (‘Dusky’ and ‘Giant’) and that Barnacle Goose is the sister species of small Canada Geese (‘Cackling’, ‘Richardson’s’ and ‘Taverner’s’). The last common ancestor of the ‘traditional’ Canada Goose (marked as a red node here) also gave rise to Hawaiian Goose (and other extinct Hawaiian taxa not shown here) and Barnacle Goose, which are both different species. The traditional Canada Goose assemblage is, therefore, paraphyletic. Splitting large and small Canada Geese recreates ‘acceptable’ monophyly, wherein each species is descended from one common ancestral taxon, and all the descendants of that taxon are included in the modern species. Note that this figure is diagrammatic only, and that branch lengths have been altered slightly. phyletic, one of the arguments for split- ting Eurasian Anas crecca and Green- winged Teals A. caro- linensis was that, on the basis of mtDNA, carolinensis appeared to be genetically closer to a South American species, Speckled Teal A.flavi- rostris , than to crecca (Johnson & Sorenson 1999). There were two possible taxo- nomic arrangements that could satisfy the requirement for monophyly in the taxonomic arrange- ment of these teals, both different from the traditional arrangement: either lump all three taxa into one species (which would be bizarre, given the highly divergent plumage of flavirostris) or split them into three species (Sangster et al. 2001). It was suggested that, at some stage, there was a single Holarctic ancestral teal with separate populations which diverged into Palearctic and Nearctic species. This may have been followed by range expan- sion of the Nearctic species into South America. The North American carolinensis maintained an appearance close to the Palearctic crecca but, in isolation and under its own selective pressures, the South American flavirostris evolved into something that looked superficially quite dif- ferent. On the other hand, is it a mere coinci- dence that the Yellow-billed Pintail Anas georgica, sympatric with Speckled Teal, shares traits with flavirostris not present in the other teals? Has hybridisation caused flavirostris to look quite different from crecca and carolinensis ? Canada Geese A similar situation may exist with respect to the Canada Geese Branta canadensis. Morphologi- cally, these may be divided into ‘small’ and ‘large’ subspecies. Paxinos et al. (2002) pub- lished a phylogeny based on mtDNA sequences of two large subspecies (‘Dusky’ B. c. occiden- talis and ‘Giant’ Canada Goose B. c. maxima) and three small subspecies (‘Cackling’ B. c. minima , ‘Richardson’s’ B. c. hutchinsii and ‘Tav- erner’s’ Canada Goose B. c. taverneri), and also included other Branta species in the analysis (see fig. 3). They showed that the traditional ‘Canada Goose’ species was paraphyletic - Bar- nacle Goose B. leucopsis appeared to be closely related to the small Canada Geese while the Hawaiian Goose B. sandvicensis (with other extinct Hawaiian geese) was suggested to be closely related to the large Canada Geese. In contrast, small and large Canada Geese were more distantly related to each other. Barnacle and Hawaiian Geese are clearly different species from Canada Goose, so the requirement to maintain monophyly demands that Canada Goose should be split into two species, Greater B. canadensis and Lesser Canada Goose B. hutchinsii (Banks et al. 2004). It is possible that, assuming that the mtDNA data represent the true phylogeny of these goose taxa, their last British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 525 Taxonomy for birders c > common ancestor had plumage resembling modern-day Canada Geese, but that two iso- lated ancestral populations at the extreme edges of the range, Hawaiian and Barnacle Goose, evolved rapidly into different species with quite different plumage patterns. Situations where molecular data do not accord with phylogenies based on morphology or plumage are, however, hard to interpret. Ideally, each line of enquiry - nuclear and mtDNA and morphology - should give the same result. Fig. 4. Different interpretations of skua Stercorarius taxonomy - see text for details and discussion. Skuas The skuas Stercorarius provide a good example of the difficulties that taxonomists face in trying to unravel evolutionary history. Morphological analysis produces an unambiguous phylo- genetic tree with two well-separated clades, consistent with the separation of skuas into two genera, Catharacta and Stercorarius (fig. 4a; Furness 1987), representing the ‘large’ and ‘small’ skuas respectively. On the other hand, Cohen et al. (1997) reported the results of several independent studies which analysed nuclear DNA, mtDNA and ectoparasites, with supporting evidence from behaviour and struc- ture. These data implied that Pomarine S. pomarinus and Great Skuas S. skua are more closely related to each other than either is to its congeners. A phylogenetic tree, based solely on the analysis of mtDNA, grouped Pomarine and Great Skuas together, forming a sister clade to the ‘austral’ skuas: South Polar S. maccormicki, Chilean S. chilensis and Brown Skuas S. antarcticus (fig. 4b). This tree is inconsistent with the traditional grouping of two genera for the large and small skuas, because both genera would be paraphyletic. But there is a difficulty with the Cohen et al. (1997) tree because, depending upon the assumptions made about the morphology of the original ancestral skua, either the Targe skua’ (‘ Catharacta ’) morphology (of Great, South Polar, Brown and Chilean Skuas) or the ‘small skua’ morphology (of Pomarine, Arctic S. parasiticus and Long-tailed Skuas S. longicaudus) must have evolved independently twice, something which is believed to be highly unlikely. They explored several hypotheses to explain this, though popular attention settled on the possibility that Pomarine Skua is a result of past hybridisation between a large ‘ Cathar- acta' skua species and a small Stercorarius skua population. Braun & Brumfield (1998) reanalysed the data of Cohen et al. (1997). They looked at the results from nuclear DNA, which suggested that Great Skua is closer to South Polar Skua than it is to Pomarine Skua, and proposed an alterna- tive tree, with Pomarine basal to the ‘ Catharacta ’ clade. This tree has a much more plausible explanation, which is that the ances- tral skua species split into two lineages, one of which evolved into Arctic and Long-tailed Skuas while the other evolved into Pomarine Skua and all the large ‘Catharacta’ skuas (fig. 526 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 Taxonomy for birders c } 327. Tristan Skua’ Stercorarius antarcticus hamiltoni, Gough Island, South Atlantic, April 2004. Since Tristan Skua’ is (with ‘Falkland Skua’ S. a. antarcticus) more similar in appearance to Great Skua S. skua than are the other austral skuas, could these be the Great Skua ancestors that may have mated with female Pomarine Skuas S. pomarinu s? 4c). The Braun & Brumfield tree implies that the ancestral skua had small-skua-type mor- phology; it is attractive because it does not rely on ‘far-fetched’ explanations such as inter- generic hybridisation to explain skua evolution. However, it does not really explain why Poma- rine and Great Skuas have such similar mtDNA and ectoparasites. Andersson (1999) calculated a phylogenetic tree based upon the ectoparasite species found on skuas, used as a taxonomic indicator of their hosts, and this tree was similar to that generated from mtDNA. It is highly unlikely that this concordance between the two trees could occur fortuitously, or by convergent evolution, so Andersson concluded the most likely explanation was that hybridisation had occurred. The evidence indicates that Great Skua perhaps evolved from a (presumably very small) population of migrant male austral skuas that lingered in the north and could not find mates of the same species and so, in despera- tion, took the best mates that they could find - female Pomarine Skuas! Given the uncertainty about skua evolution, the best solution at present seems to be to place all skuas, large and small, in a single genus, Stercorarius. In any case, there is no protocol to deal with the constraint of monophyly when a taxon derived by hybridi- sation is interposed between two otherwise per- fectly good monophyletic groupings. Greenish Warblers Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides shows a clinal gradation from northwest Europe through Central Asia, forming (notwith- standing a 1,000-km gap in China) a ‘ring’ around the Himalayas (Irwin 2000, 2001, 2005; reviewed in Collinson 2001, Collinson et al. 2003). In the area of overlap they behave as two species: ‘Two-barred Greenish Warbler’ P. t. plumbeitarsus does not interbreed with P. t. viri- danus. On vocal and morphological grounds, there is no point in the ring at which one can say where a Greenish Warbler turns into a Two- barred Greenish Warbler, so they are classified as one species (see further detail in Newton 2003). DNA analysis demonstrates that there are eastern and western genetic clades, but that these genetic clades do not correspond with any morphological or other biological distinction between any of the taxa. This is perhaps the best avian example of a ring species, where classi- fying P. t. viridanus and P. t. plumbeitarsus as either subspecies on one hand, or separate species on the other, does not in either case fully describe the subtlety of the evolving biological scenario — a case of a rigid nomenclature being unable to describe what is going on in the real world. It would appear that the ancestral ‘greenish warbler’ evolved along the southern British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 527 Dick Newell Taxonomy for birders C 0 rim of the Himalayas, and moved north during interglacial periods, undergoing selection pres- sure for more complex songs as it did so. On top of this, it is possible that periodic range fragmentation allowed for development of clearly separate eastern and western genetic clades. Large white-headed gulls On the other hand, the best available DNA evi- dence has probably torn apart another erstwhile example of an avian ring species, that involving the large white-headed gulls. The circumpolar distribution of northern Herring Larus argen- tatus and Lesser Black-backed Gull L. fuscus taxa was interpreted as an example of a ring species, based on an apparent dine in mantle and wing coloration of adults; from the darkest birds (Lesser Black-backed), east through Heuglin’s L. ?/. heuglini, Taimyr L. ?/. taimyrensis , Vega L. ?a. vegae/birulai and Amer- ican Herring Gull L. ?a. smithsonianus to the palest birds, European Herring Gulls L. a. argentatus/argenteus (Mayr 1963; Grant 1986). Early attempts to determine the evolutionary relation- ships among these gulls, and the more southern ‘yellow- legged’ taxa atlantis , micha- hellis , cachinnans , barabensis and mongolicus, were diffi- cult to interpret because the DNA sequences analysed did not mutate fast enough to resolve their apparently rapid evolution. Crochet et al. (2002, 2003) and Liebers et al. (2001, 2004) analysed DNA sequences from both the cytochrome b gene and the fast-mutating hypervari- able region of mtDNA from ‘Herring Gull’ and other white-winged and Siberian/Pacific taxa. It was found that the deepest genetic split divided gulls broadly into a ‘North Atlantic’ clade (containing well-differentiated groups of DNA sequences from indi- viduals of michahellis , armenicus , argentatus but also containing a group of DNA sequences from Great Black-backed Gulls L. marinus and European individuals of Glau- cous Gull L. hyperboreus ) and an ‘Aralo- Caspian’ clade, containing everything else (see fig. 5). If the mtDNA evidence truly reflects the evolution of these gulls, then the Herring Gull is not monophyletic, but has both Aralo-Caspian and North Atlantic origins. The large white-headed gulls probably evolved against a background of periodic glaciations which restricted northern birds to isolated refugia, splitting once-widespread species into smaller subpopulations where they then evolved in isolation. During warmer inter- glacial periods, their ranges would expand again (see Collinson 2001). Birds from the North Atlantic refugium, the possible ancestors of the subspecies atlantis, expanded into the Mediter- ranean and along both the European and the American Atlantic coasts, and differentiated to form Armenian Gull I. armenicus, Yellow- legged Gull L. m. michahellis/ atlantis, European Herring Gull and Great Black-backed Gull. Birds from the Aralo-Caspian refugium Siberian/American taxa North Atlantic clade Aralo-Caspian clade Fig. 5. Pictorial representation of the genetic relationships among ‘large white-headed gulls’. The lines represent genetic distance, the lengths of the lines being roughly proportional to the number of DNA mutations differentiating among the taxa. The filled circles represent a cluster of individual gulls with very similar or identical mtDNA sequences. The orange circle representing ‘Siberian/American’ taxa contains individuals of Iceland Gull Larus glaucoides, Glaucous-winged Gull L glaucescens, American individuals of Glaucous Gull L hyperboreus, Slaty-backed Gull L schistisagus, as well as individuals of smithsonianus, taimyrensis, mongolicus, vegae and heuglini. The figure is based on Liebers et al. (2004), but very much simplified and with several anomalies removed. The occurrence of European and British Herring Gulls (argentatus/argenteus) with mtDNA sequences that fall within either clade may be due either to past hybridisation or to retention of ancient DNA sequences that were present in the ancestors of all the gulls. 528 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 Taxonomy for birders c ) 328. This enigmatic gull, sometimes called ‘Steppe Gull' Larus (?) barabensis (photographed here at Barka, Oman, in March 2002), has been classified as a race of both Heuglin’s (or Siberian) Gull L Pfuscus heuglini and Caspian Gull L. argentatus cachinnans. More-recent mtDNA analysis would indicate that it may be closer to heuglini. migrated north and west, where they evolved into heuglini and the Lesser Black-backed taxa; and east, where they evolved into other Siberian and Pacific taxa. Several interesting points emerged from the analysis. In particular that the American Herring Gull smithsonianus is not closely related to European Herring Gulls argentatus/ argenteus, but is a member of the Siberian group of gulls descended from the Aralo-Caspian refugium. This suggests that the original interpretation of a ring species was wrong, because if ‘Herring Gull’ was a ring species, argentatus/argenteus and smithsonianus would have to be closely related. Similarly Caspian Gull L. a. cachinnans and Yellow-legged Gull are apparently not closely related - they have also evolved from different refugial popu- lations. Another interesting point was that the ‘herring gull’ phylogeny contained other non- controversial ‘good’ species embedded within it, such as Great Black-backed Gull, but also (within the ‘Siberian’ group) individuals of Glaucous-winged Gull L. glaucescens , Iceland Gull L. glaucoides and Slaty-backed Gull L. schistisagus. This suggests that the rapid evolu- tion of morphology and reproductive isolation in gull taxa is not well correlated with genetic distance between the taxa - new species may be 329. Gene flow between large white-headed gulls continues to this day. This ringed bird, looking fairly typical of a second-calendar-year Caspian Gull L argentatus cachinnans, apart from an odd-shaped bill, was raised by a male Herring Gull Larus a. argentatus and a female Caspian Gull. The bird originated from Poland and was photographed in Cambridgeshire in June 2005. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 529 Dick Newell Taxonomy for birders > able to evolve very rapidly in the absence of much genetic change (even in the highly vari- able bits of their rntDNA). This was rather counterintuitive, since one might expect that if these gulls were well-formed species, then the clades of similar DNA would correspond to morphologically recognisable species or sub- species; but this was not always the case. Among the Siberian/American group, for example, individuals from nine different taxa repre- senting five uncontroversial species had virtu- ally identical rntDNA. The concept of a ring species of northern ‘herring gulls’ is not entirely dead, but it now excludes European Herring Gull L. argentatusl The pattern of DNA divergence of the ‘Aralo- Caspian’-derived clade is consistent with a ‘broken ring’, from Lesser Black-backed Gulls in northwest Europe, with no undisputed species boundaries along the (stepped) cline of fuscus-heuglini-taimyrensis-vegae-smithsoni- anus. If Lesser Black-backed Gulls L. f. graellsii continue their colonisation of northeast North America and breed alongside smithsonianus, then some sort of ring-like species scenario may once again be completed. Lots of other interesting and as yet unre- solved hypotheses about gull taxa can be postu- lated on the basis of recent genetic data. These gulls demonstrate that any simplistic approach to analysing their DNA is not going to reveal their true phylogeny. Much more work needs to be done, perhaps with nuclear DNA, before there is any chance of uncovering the whole story. Wagtails It is perhaps not a coincidence that another group of closely related taxa, the wagtails Motacilla , which share some aspects of their glacial evolutionary history with the gulls (i.e. recent interglacial expansion from southern refugia), also share a confusing rntDNA phy- logeny. Furthermore, their rntDNA, nuclear DNA and morphology all tell different stories, though results from morphological studies are closer to those from nuclear DNA (Voelker 2002; Pavlova 2003; Odeen & Bjorklund 2003; reviewed in Alstrom et al. 2003). Analysis of both nuclear and rntDNA suggested that there is a genetic divide between the eastern and western forms of Yellow Wagtail M. flava , which mostly correlates with marked differences in their vocalisations. In terms of their genetics, ‘eastern’ yellow wagtails include M. f. tschutschensis , taivana and macronyx, whereas ‘western’ sub- species are flava , flavissima, iberiae, cinereocapilla, pygmaea, feldegg, lutea, leucocephala and probably thunbergi (although eastern populations of ‘Grey- headed Wagtail’ M. f. thunbergi may fall within the eastern clade). Furthermore, the phy- logeny derived from rntDNA shows that the conventional ‘Yellow Wagtail’ species turns out to be paraphyletic, because sub- species of Citrine Wagtail M. cit- reola, Grey Wagtail M. cinerea and the White Wagtails M. alba , and possibly other taxa, are nested within and between the eastern and western clades of M. flava. Interestingly, there is little if any genetic evidence for split- ting ‘Black-headed Wagtail’ M. /. feldegg from other ‘western’ yellow wagtails. A case could be made for splitting at least the 330. Although the males of the many forms of Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava are fairly well defined, indeterminate birds occur in some regions, such as this individual, which appears intermediate between flava and feldegg, photographed at Hortobagy, Hungary, in May 2004. Individuals of this type (which essentially resemble flava, but with darker ear-coverts, and slightly darker crown and nape) are sometimes given the label ‘dombrowskii’. 530 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 512-537 Taxonomy for birders ( eastern and western M. flava clades, even though each group has forms with morphology similar to the other. This has been done by the American Ornithologists’ Union (Banks et al. 2004), but Alstrom et al. (2003) considered that more research is needed before taking such a step. It is suggested that the Yellow Wagtails evolved their bewildering variety of male plumages, in the absence of much genetic change, as a result of unpredictable forces of sexual selection as pioneer birds advanced northwards during interglacials (Voelker 2002; Odeen & Bjorklund 2003). Under these condi- tions of low population density and perhaps reduced natural selective forces, male plumage evolution was driven rapidly by the sexual ‘whims’ of the females. DNA-sequence data from the control region, 12S ribosomal and the ND2 gene suggested that the citreola and calcarata subspecies of Citrine Wagtail were not closely related (Odeen & Bjorklund 2003), and if we acted on this evi- dence, they would have to be split. However, nuclear DNA (from the CHD1Z gene) pro- duced a more ‘sensible’ phylogenetic tree, which placed these two taxa next to each other, as close relatives. This illustrates how cautious we have to be when interpreting genetic studies; major taxonomic changes can be adopted safely only when supported by multiple lines of evi- dence. Birds may carry the ‘wrong’ mitochon- drial DNA as a result of previous hybridisation with other taxa. If wagtails and gulls demonstrate how plumage variation and reproductive isolation may evolve rapidly without leaving a clear, or even particularly meaningful, genetic paper- trail, then perhaps even more extreme examples may ultimately rewrite the speciation textbooks. Galapagos finches and Crossbills The species cluster of ‘Darwin’s finches’ Geospiza, Camarhynchus , Certhidea and Pinaroloxias has been regarded for many years as a classic example of island species evolution (see Grant 1986 for a general account). The cluster consists of 14 well-described species, of which 13 live on the Galapagos Island archi- pelago and one on Cocos Island, almost 800 km to the northeast. They are all apparent descen- dants of a single ancestral mainland species, presumed to be a relative of the Dull-coloured Grassquit Tiaris obscurus. Sato et al. (1999) published the results of a Fig. 6. Molecular phylogeny of Galapagos and Cocos Island finches, simplified from Sato et al. ( 1 999). substantial study of all of these birds using two distinct mitochondrial sequences for compar- ison, the cytochrome b region and the control region. They confirmed that the Cocos Island Finch Pinaroloxias inornata belongs with the Galapagos finch grouping, supporting a line of descent from a common ancestor with the Dull- coloured Grassquit; and they identified the Warbler-Finch Certhidea olivacea and Vege- tarian Finch Camarhynchus crassirostris as being slightly distant from the main group of tree finches. Indeed, the Warbler-Finch seems on molecular grounds to be basal to the Darwin’s finch assemblage (fig. 6). In contrast, the six species of ground finch Geospiza continue to hybridise frequently, and are not well separated genetically. This was something of a surprise, although an earlier study based on protein allozyme (allozymes are differing forms of an enzyme encoded by dif- ferent alleles at the same locus) variation had also suggested this (Yang & Patton 1981 ). The different species of ground finch differ in body size and bill depth, and are presumably adapted for different food items. However, long-term research has suggested that in most years there may be such an abundance of easily accessible food that selection in this respect may be weak, and that virtually all birds may survive, whatever their bill size or shape. In these conditions, there may be little or no selec- British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 531 David Tiplingl Windrush Taxonomy for birders c > tion against hybrids, and even relatively rare hybridisation would allow for gene flow between species, obscuring their molecular phy- logenies. In years of drought, however, when food is scarce, strong selection pressure may act to eliminate birds with suboptimal bill sizes. The Medium Ground Finch Geospiza fortis recently gave a dramatic demonstration of just how fast a population can evolve. When, in 1977, a serious drought caused plants yielding smaller seeds (the food supply of smaller indi- viduals) to fail, on Daphne Island the mean body size and bill size of the population increased significantly within one year (Boag & Grant 1981). Most of the smaller birds died as they could not cope with larger and tougher seeds. In subsequent seasons, however, with the return of the small-seed food supply, mean body size slowly decreased again. Had the drought lasted sufficiently long, then alleles for small size could have been eliminated com- pletely and the mean size would not have decreased again so quickly, if at all. The situation of this finch, where the processes driving speciation occur rapidly, all the time, may give some insights into the evolu- tionary relationships among the crossbills Loxia. Based on nuclear microsatellite DNA and mitochondrial control regions, there are no clear differences among the DNA of any of the three currently recognised west European species. Parrot L. pytyopsittacus, Scottish L. scotica and Common Crossbill L. curvirostra (Piertney et al. 2001), somewhat similar to the lack of genetic differentiation among Geospiza finches. These three crossbills are diagnosable only by mean body size, bill shape and call. As in the case of the bills of Galapagos ground finches, the three mean bill sizes of these cross- bill taxa may be optimal for different sizes of cone, but this does not restrict their feeding most of the time, when cones are abundant. It is possible that bill size is selected strongly only when cones are scarce or if the environment is particularly harsh. Their preferences for dif- ferent-sized cones are sufficient to restrict, but not eliminate, the gene flow between them. A comparable lack of genetic differentiation was reported among redpoll Carduelis taxa (Ottvall et al. 2002). For redpolls, in common with crossbills, it may be that the different species have evolved recently. Furthermore, their nomadic lifestyles (which allow for gene flow across large geographic distances), com- bined with generally large populations (which make it difficult for new mutations to spread throughout the populations), and occasional hybridisation, prevent very much genetic differ- entiation becoming established, even between good morphological species. 331 & 332. Small Ground Finch Geospiza fuliginosa (left) and Large Cactus Finch G.conirostris (right), Galapagos Islands. Although these two finches, along with other currently recognised species in the genus Geospiza, are morphologically distinct, they are not well separated genetically. In fact, genetic variation within and among the six species of Geospiza is similar to that expected within a single species. 532 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 Barry Wright/Windrush Taxonomy for birders c Cuckoos There are other avian examples where geneti- cally distinguishable forms are not necessarily different species. One fascinating example of this is the female Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus. Female Common Cuckoos are geneti- cally distinguishable according to their host species (Gibbs et al. 2000); however, males are not similarly distinguishable, and they will mate with a female of any kind. The different host- specific females are known as gentes (singular gens). Present evidence suggests that the gene which determines egg colour is in the female- specific W-chromosome. The ability to lay eggs in nests of the right host is learned behaviour (imprinting). Apart from the W-chromosome, a Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis Cuckoo female can pass its nuclear genes to a Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus Cuckoo granddaughter via a male son. For a full account of the cuckoos, see Davies (2000). Where does the future lie ? Most of the easy taxonomic decisions in ornithology have probably already been made. It is a fact that more significance is given to the rank of species than to any other rank, whether by birdwatchers, professional ornithologists, or government environmental ministries. This is a pity, as the importance of each classifiable form should be assessed independently of whether current taxonomy considers them species or not (Collinson 1999). Bird taxonomy is in perpetual flux. This is normal and perhaps desirable, if it is a symptom of discovery of new relevant facts by continuing research. Ornithologists in the Western Palearctic have perhaps forgotten this, having been spoilt by the stability engendered by the Voous List of Holarctic birds. Stability becomes stagnation when it stifles the applica- tion of relevant research. While there are perhaps some arguments for managing the pace of taxonomic change for practical reasons, sta- bility per se is not a good thing. We would argue that, while unnecessary change is to be avoided, unnecessary stability may be equally harmful to ornithology. Nor is it always ‘safer’ to lump than to split, for the same reasons. Furthermore, tax- onomic decisions are hypotheses - it is not nec- essary to wait until the evidence becomes overwhelming before proposing a taxonomic change; it is sufficient that the proposal is justi- fied after taking into account all the relevant known facts or, alternatively, to await more facts > when the conclusion looks improbable. What we hope we have shown in this paper is that, although the advent of DNA studies and other molecular techniques has enabled enor- mous strides in determining the inter-relation- ships between species and higher- level categories, DNA is not a panacea. There are some sets of species that have indistinguishable DNA, at least on the basis of the sequences so far analysed, for example the crossbills, as well as single species which have highly diverse DNA in their gene pools. Thus it is necessary to apply the same standards of critical evaluation to molecular evidence as for evidence based on aspects of morphology, vocalisations, behav- iour, ecology and physiology. Taxonomy is a science; but it is performed by humans and its end-product, classification, is, at least in part, for humans. The challenge for taxonomists is to get their science and their judgements right, in a climate of political pres- sure. When Fea’s Pterodroma feae and Zino’s Petrels P. madeira were split (Bourne 1983), the scientific underpinnings of the decision were perhaps of less immediate significance than the subsequent attention directed to the plight of these two relict populations. More recently, pro- posed splits of albatross species (e.g. Shirihai 2002) may well attract attention for the same reason. And what would be the consequences of lumping Scottish Crossbill (Britain’s only endemic bird species) with Common Crossbill (or even with both the other west European species) on the conservation status of the forests in which they live? We are not advo- cating political taxonomy, but the political con- sequences of taxonomic decisions are sometimes far-reaching. Acknowledgments We thank Richard Porter for encouraging us to start this review, and both Prof. Ian Newton and Dr Stephen Votier for helpful comments and suggestions. We would like to thank the many people whose ideas have influenced the text. We especially thank a forthright colleague who wished to retain anonymity. References Alstrom, R, Mild, K., & Zetterstrom, D. 2003. Pipits and Wagtails of Europe.Asia and North America. Christopher Helm, London. Andersson, M. 1999. Hybridisation and skua phylogeny. 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Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. Alula Press, Finland. Sibley C. G., & Ahlquist.J. E. 1 990. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds. Yale University Press, New Haven, — , — ,& Monroe, B. L. 1 988. A classification of the living birds of the world based on DNA-DNA hybridization studies. Auk JJ05: 409-423. Tokeshi, M. 1 999. Species Coexistence: ecological and evolutionary perspectives. Blackwell, Oxford. US Fish & Wildlife Service. 1 999. Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Waterbirds, Second Revision. Portland, Oregon (http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plans/ 1 999/ 990709.pdf). Vaurie, C. 1 959. The Birds of the Pa/earctic Fauna. Witherby, London. Voelker, G. 2002. Systematics and historical biogeography of wagtails: dispersal versus vicariance revisited. Condor 104: 725-739. Yang, S.Y, & Patton, J. L. 1981. Genic variability and differentiation in the Galapagos finches. Auk 98: 230-242. Yesou, R 2002. Systematics of Larus argentatus-cachinnans- fiuscus complex revisited. Dutch Birding 24: 27 1 -298. Prof. Norman Maclean, School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southatnpton, Hampshire SO 16 7PX; e-mail: nm4@soton.ac.uk Dr Martin Collinson, School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD; e-mail: m.collinson@abdn.ac.uk Dr Richard G. Newell, Old Beach Farm, Green End, Landbeach, Cambridge CB4 8ED; e-mail: dick.newell@zen.co.uk Appendix I. A ‘cheat-sheet’ for those trying to understand the primary literature. Constructing phylogenetic trees from DNA-sequence data. This appendix describes the basics of phylo- genetic analysis, based on direct sequencing of DNA, to reveal the sequence of As, Ts, Cs and Gs, as described in the text. Many of the princi- ples described here are, however, also applicable to other methods that analyse the lengths of DNA fragments without identifying the exact sequences. (i) Sequence the same region of DNA in individ- uals of all the taxa you wish to include in the analysis There are, at the first level of analysis, two prob- lems here. The first is to ensure that you are really sequencing the same (orthologous) bit of DNA in all taxa. During evolution, DNA dupli- cation events have led to extra copies of genes being created. Sometimes, these extra genes remain functional (gene families), with dif- ferent members accumulating different muta- tions. Sometimes the extra genes may become non-functional and accumulate new mutations rapidly - they look somewhat like functional genes, but have no role fpseudogenes’). Some mitochondrial genes may have lookalike copies in the cell nucleus. At the molecular level, it is possible to get all these variants confused, and if the same single gene is sequenced in, say, five taxa, but by accident a mutant pseudogene is sequenced in a sixth closely related taxon, the molecular analysis is going to suggest, erro- neously, that this sixth species is only distantly related to the other five. For this reason, phylo- genetic papers will often describe the precau- tions taken to ensure that orthologous sequences were compared, usually by looking British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 535 Taxonomy for birders c } hard for non-orthologous copies and making sure that, if they were present, they were found and identified. The second problem is that, as explained in the text, different individuals from the same taxon will often have slightly different DNA sequences (different alleles). The scientist needs ideally to sample several individuals from the same species or subspecies to quantify the intra- taxon variation. It may be necessary to produce a ‘consensus’ (average) sequence for each taxon. Ideally, the intra-taxon variation should be small compared with the variation among the taxa to be analysed. (ii) Line up of DNA sequences ready for analysis If one has a DNA sequence from one taxon (for example ten bases ATCGATCGAG), then the power of phylogenetic analysis is maximised only when it is possible to be confident that each base can be compared with the equivalent base in other taxa. This would be easy if no bases were ever gained or lost. If there were only ever going to be ten bases in the orthologous sequence in other taxa, then if a sequence from another species or subspecies of ATCGATGGAG was derived, we would know that there had been one mutation in the second taxon (a C to G substitution at position 7). As described in the main text, however, it is also possible, within the normal range of mutations, to lose bases (deletions) or gain them (inser- tions). If, in a third taxon, the C at position 7 has been deleted, we get a sequence of ATCGATGAG. Lining that up simply against the first sequence gives the impression that in fact four mutations (40% divergence!) have occurred - three base substitutions and a dele- tion, i.e. ATCGATCGAG ATCGATGAG- The phylogeneticist, or his computer, has to spot that, in fact, it is more parsimonious to assume that only one mutation has occurred, the deletion at position 7 (a 10% divergence), and line up the sequences accordingly. ATCGATCGAG ATCGAT-GAG This is the process of sequence alignment, and is critical to the process of obtaining reliable phylogenetic information. While this may seem obvious, it has to be mentioned here because sequence alignment can be extremely tricky when more than about five sequences are com- pared. Furthermore, the last step in this largely computerised process remains to check them and adjust by eye. If the sequence alignment produces an unexpected phylogenetic tree, it may be necessary to go back and realign the sequences. This is an obvious source of subjec- tivity and potential error. Insertions or deletions, leading to gaps in sequences, are a biological big deal. They often lead to a gene becoming completely inactive, so conceptually the creation of a new gap is rarer than a simple swapping of one base for another in the DNA. So, although sequence compar- isons may ignore sites with gaps (see below), the presence or absence of different gaps in dif- ferent taxa is a valuable source of phylogenetic information; if two taxa in a family share a derived gap in sequence that is not shown by their other relatives, it is extremely strong evi- dence that they are sister taxa. Indeed, it is pos- sible to create large phylogenies based on the presence or absence of gaps (Fain & Houde 2004). For the purpose of sequence analysis, however, gaps and the bases immediately adja- cent to them are normally ignored. (Hi) Analysis of the sequence homology If the sequence alignment has been performed correctly, the phylogeneticist should ideally be left with complete orthologous sequences of the same length from all the taxa to be examined. These sequences can now be fed into a com- puter to determine which are the most similar, and/or what phylogenetic tree linking the taxa can best explain the observed pattern of muta- tions in the DNA. The mathematics are compli- cated, and the details of no interest to the average birder, but the methods can be classified broadly into two groups (Nei 1983). Analyses that link the most closely related sequences together and piece by piece build up a tree of ‘sister groups’ are called distance- matrix methods - they appear in papers as ‘Unweighted Paired-group Means Analysis’ (UPGMA), ‘Fitch-Margoliash method’, or ‘neighbour-joining’. Put simply, they measure the genetic divergence between different sequences and put the most similar ones together. The second set of analyses, discrete data 536 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 Taxonomy for birders c methods, regard each position in a set of sequences from the different taxa as a small piece of information about the evolutionary history of the taxa, and build a tree on the basis of a consensus of sum total of all these little pieces of information from all the orthologous positions in the sequence. They make certain assumptions about the nature of mutation - which mutations are rarer than others, for example - and reconstruct a tree based on the minimum amount of evolution required to explain the observed sequences ('maximum parsimony’), or which phylogenetic tree is most likely, given what we think we know about the processes of molecular change (‘maximum like- lihood’). If analyses of the same data by two or more methods, from both classes of analysis described above, give the same results, this increases our confidence in the conclusions. (iv) Testing the phylogenetic tree Once the computers have done their work, the resulting tree is meant to reflect the relation- ships among the taxa included in the DNA analysis. But how do we know whether the tree is reliable? Were the molecular data clear-cut, such that the computer could really reconstruct only one plausible tree; or were the DNA sequences so confusing that the computer could not really sort them out, and has just made the best of a bad job? Each phylogenetic tree needs testing for reliability, and the most universal way of doing this is by a technique known as ‘bootstrapping’, so called because it can obtain reliable statistical information out of almost any dataset, hence ‘pulling it up by its bootstraps’. If 100 bases of DNA sequence have been compared among, say, four taxa, then in fact there are 100 independent pieces of informa- ) tion, each suggesting a phylogeny. The con- sensus phylogenetic tree is the combined ‘voice’ of these 100 parts. For example, the preferred phylogenetic tree may suggest that two species, A and B, are sister taxa, more closely related to each other than to any other taxa. If this result is clear-cut and obvious from the 100-base-pair sequence comparison, then it is argued that it should also be quite obvious from a subset of the data - so if, instead of taking 100 pieces of information, we take 50, then A and B should still emerge as sister taxa. This is essentially what bootstrapping does. For a 100-bp sequence, the computer would pick 100 random numbers between 1 and 100 (note that, like rolling a dice six times, some numbers might come up more than once, and some not at all). The phylogeny would then be reconstructed using only the DNA bases at those randomly selected positions. The process might be repeated 100 or 1,000 times, and the percentage of times that A and B emerge as sister taxa on the basis of these random subsets of the data is calculated. This percentage can be presented unmodified as ‘bootstrap support’ and shown on the consensus phylogenetic tree at the node (branch point) between A and B. If the relation- ship between A and B is robust, we would expect bootstrap support of 90-100%, and cer- tainly more than 70%. Anything less than 70% has to be looked at critically; it suggests that there are other arrangements of taxa in the phylogenetic tree that might equally be plausible. Ideally, in published molecular phylogenetic trees using methods that are open to bootstrap- ping, the bootstrap support for each node will be shown. The closer the number is to 100, the more you can believe it. This appendix is based loosely on Baldauf (2003). British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 5 1 2-537 537 A paper from the BOURC Taxonomic Sub-committee Species limits in the Red-breasted Flycatcher Lars Svensson, Martin Collinson,Alan G. Knox, David T. Parkin and George Songster ABSTRACT Traditionally, the Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva has been treated as a polytypic species with two subspecies: the western parva and the eastern albicilla. These taxa show clear differences in morphology and vocalisations and are diagnosably distinct, probably in both sexes and at all ages. There are striking differences in moult patterns between the two forms, and DNA-sequence data indicate that they are genetically divergent. It is clear that parva and albicilla are independent evolutionary lineages that are genetically distinct and fulfil the criteria for species recognition. It is recommended that they are treated as separate species. Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva and Taiga Flycatcher F. albicilla. The Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva has traditionally been treated as a polytypic species with two subspecies: the western form parva and the eastern form albicilla (e.g. Watson et al. 1986, Svensson 1992, Cramp & Perrins 1993). Previously, the Kashmir Flycatcher F. subrubra was also regarded as a subspecies of F. parva (e.g. Dement’ev & Gladkov 1954, Stresemann et al. 1967, Voous 1977), but its distinctness as a sep- arate species has been acknowledged for some time by most modern authors (e.g. Ali & Ripley 1972, Inskipp & Inskipp 1985, Watson et al. 1986, Inskipp et al. 1996). Hereafter, we will refer to the two Red- breasted Flycatcher taxa as parva and albicilla respectively. The western form parva breeds from southern Scandinavia, across central and eastern Europe, thinly in the Balkans and into eastern Russia, especially Ukraine and the Cau- casus, while albicilla breeds from Kamchatka in the east, across the deciduous and mixed taiga forests of Siberia into eastern Russia (Vaurie 1959). The two forms breed largely in Europe and Asia, respectively. Their distribution in the zone of supposed contact is, however, still poorly known (e.g. Cederroth et al. 1999), so it cannot be determined whether they are allopatric, parapatric or sympatric. The two forms seem to winter in separate areas too, albeit with quite extensive overlap in India: parva occurs predominantly in Pakistan and India, albicilla farther east, from central India and southern Nepal through eastern India and Bangladesh to southern China and Indochina. It has long been known that these two taxa show differences in morphology and vocalisa- tions; indeed, the latter are so profound that over 20 years ago it was suggested that they might be specifically distinct (Svensson 1984). The recent accumulation of data, including DNA sequences (Li & Zhang 2004), has led the BOURC Taxonomic Sub-committee to recom- mend that they be treated as separate species English names In the past, Ficedula parva has variously been called Red-breasted Flycatcher and Red-throated Fly- catcher. The latter name has not been reserved exclusively for the eastern form albicilla , now regarded as a separate species. To avoid confusion between these two similar names, and to steer clear of the dubious way that ‘Red- throated’ has been applied, the recently coined (Cederroth et al. 1999) and more distinct name Taiga Flycatcher is preferred for F. albicilla. It is also highly appropriate, indicating the favoured breeding habitat. 538 © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 538-541 Species limits in Red-breasted Flycatcher (Sangster et al. 2004). The evidence is based upon data from plumage, vocalisations, moult, biometrics and DNA; these data are only sum- marised here, since they are reported extensively elsewhere (e.g. Cramp & Perrins 1993, Ceder- roth et al. 1999, Chapman 2003, Lassey 2003; see also pp. 542-550). The two forms are diagnosably distinct, probably in both sexes and at all ages. Adult males are clearly different, with albicilla having a smaller reddish-orange throat patch that is surrounded below and at the sides by a broad grey border. In comparison, the throat patch of parva is more extensive, and merges directly into the white belly. The crown and nape of male parva are greyish, more or less concol- orous with the rest of the head, while male albi- cilla shows a distinctly more brownish crown, giving a ‘capped’ appearance (see plates 333-336). Another difference is that both male and female albicilla invariably have uppertail- coverts which are blacker than the uppertail, whereas in parva these are concolorous at most, and in many plumages paler grey-brown. There is also a difference in bill colour; parva has a reddish-brown lower mandible, tipped darker, whereas albicilla has a much darker bill, which is nearly all black. The very few exceptions from this rule might represent hybrids, or just aber- rations. Further, the underparts of females and immatures differ between the two forms: albi- cilla is a duller, more grey-tinged, buff-brown colour below, often with a more restricted and defined whitish throat-patch, whereas parva is warmer, cream-coloured buff below with a larger and more diffuse whitish throat. First- winter parva have ochrous-buff (bleaching to whitish) tips to the tertials and greater coverts, often in the shape of small spots or ‘thorns’ at the very tip of the feather, whereas in albicilla, first-winters frequently have both tip and outer web of these feathers edged cream-white (bleaching to white), rather like the tertials of an immature Pied Flycatcher F. hypoleuca. There are striking differences in moult pat- terns between the two forms. All second-cal- endar-year male parva are female-like in plumage, lacking the red upper breast (having at most a little orange on the chin). Males in this plumage frequently sing, hold territory and pair. Examination of skins (by LS) showed that albicilla males attain full (or nearly full) adult plumage in their second calendar-year, and have thus developed a red throat when one year old. Furthermore, when male parva moult at the end of the breeding season, they retain the red- orange bib through the winter. Male albicilla, on the other hand, moidt into a female-like plumage, with the red throat either lost entirely or reduced to a small patch on the chin, until regained by a further moult in late winter. In terms of biometrics, albicilla is longer in the wing (by 1.5-2%) and has a deeper bill (by c. 6%) than parva, but tarsus and tail length, bill length and width are similar. Also, it is much more common for albicilla to have emargina- tion on the outer web of the sixth primary (43%; P6 counted ascendantly) than parva (19%). These differences are statistically signifi- cant, but there is extensive overlap. The picture is complicated because there are differences between the sexes and the age-classes within each species. Consequently, biometric data are of little value for identification purposes; they do, however, show that small but significant biometric differences have evolved in the two forms, which appear to vary independently of other traits. The song of parva (fig. la) has an opening of a few rhythmic notes, not unlike that of Pied Flycatcher F. hypoleuca, finishing with a charac- teristic series of clear, straight, descending notes, which may slow down slightly at the end. The song of albicilla is entirely different (fig. lb), recalling the song of a pipit Anthus or a bunting Emberiza. It is a fast, rather ‘rugged’ phrase ot trilling or whistling notes, each being repeated a few times, changing pitch noticeably and ending rather abruptly, never with the descending notes of parva. The trilling notes, with V sounds, are characteristic. The best- known call of parva (fig. 2a) is the slurred rattle ‘serrrt’, softer and shorter than the similar call of Wren Troglodytes troglodytes ; the albicilla counterpart of this call (fig. 2b) is a fast series of dry clicking or trilling notes, ‘trrrrr’, which may sound like a branch of a forest tree creaking in the wind. A recent study of the mitochondrial DNA has revealed clear differences in sequence between parva and albicilla (Li & Zhang 2004). Of 1,143 base pairs (bp) of the cytochrome b gene examined, c. 70 bp were found to differ between the two forms, corresponding to a genetic divergence of c. 6.5%. Only 1 or 2 bp differences (c. 0.2%) were found among four individuals of albicilla , comparable with the degree of differentiation reported by Saetre et British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 538-541 539 Species limits in Red-breasted Flycatcher > F. semitorquata and Atlas Flycatchers F. speculigera (2.93-3.52%) reported by Saetre et al. (2001), and implies that there has been a long period of isola- tion between parva and albicilla. The genetic difference between them is greater than among other members of Fig. la. Red-breasted Flycatcher F/cedu/a parva, song, Vallentuna, Ficedula that are regarded as full Uppland, Sweden, June 1 963 (Wahlstrom 1 995). X-axis - time species. (seconds), Y-axis - frequency (kHz), Fig. I b. Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla, song, Bratsk, Siberia, June 1983 (Svensson 1 984). X-axis - time (seconds), Y-axis - frequency (kHz). al. (2001) for a more extensive sequence (which included cytochrome b ) within taxa of the ‘Pied Flycatcher’ complex. Li & Zhang’s value of 6.5% for the difference between parva and albicilla is similar to the 6.9% obtained by Urban Olsson (pers. comm.) and reported by Cederroth et al. (1999). This is larger than the differences among Pied, Collared F. albicollis , Semi-collared Discussion There can be little doubt that albicilla and parva are independent evolu- tionary lineages. They are diagnosably different in plumage, probably at all ages, and, although they cannot be identified on size alone, there are sta- tistical differences in wing length and in the depth of the bill. The DNA- sequence data indicate that the two taxa are genetically divergent. Pied, Collared, Semi-collared and Atlas Flycatchers are now all regarded as distinct and separate species (e.g. Saetre et al. 2001), and the genetic divergence among these is slightly less than that found by Li & Zhang (2004) for albicilla and parva. These data indicate that albicilla and parva have been evolving with limited or no gene flow for a very long time. The vocalisation data are equally strong and provide further evidence of independent evolutionary trajectories for parva and albicilla. The songs and call notes are quite different, and, although playback experiments have not been undertaken, the songs are so different that inter-taxon recognition seems unlikely. Finally, there are two profound differences in moult strategy. Firstly, male parva attain reproductive maturity at one year of age while still in subadult/immature plumage; conversely, one-year-old albicilla males possess the red throat of ‘adult’ birds. The moult pattern of male parva is not unique among fly- catchers: male Mugimaki Flycatchers F. mugimaki also have a one-year-old plumage which is distinct from that of a full adult (Svensson 1992). Secondly, male parva regain the adult plumage after the post-breeding moult, whereas male albicilla develop a female-like plumage. These are both striking dif- Fig. 2a. Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva, rattle call, Goa, India, November 2000 (Jannes 2003). Comment in sleeve notes: ‘Characteristic rattling drrrrrrrr, recalling Wren Troglodytes troglodytes. This call is quite similar to that of [Taiga Flycatcher], but clearly slower and softer.’ X-axis - time (seconds), Y-axis - frequency (kHz). Fig. 2b. Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla, rattle call, Hebei, China, May 1999 (Jannes 2003). Comment in sleeve notes: ‘Compare with the call of Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva, and note that this rattle is clearly drier and faster (the length of the call is about the same, but number of notes is doubled.’ X-axis - time (seconds), Y-axis - frequency (kHz). 540 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 538-541 Species limits in Red-breasted Flycatcher ferences in moult patterns that must be under genetic control, and are further examples of the genetic differences between the two taxa. The BOU ‘Guidelines’ for assessing species rank (Helbig et al. 2002) have different criteria for allopatric and sympatric taxa. Since we do not know for certain which of these holds for parva and albicilla , we take the more rigorous alternative: allopatric taxa will be regarded as separate species if they are ‘fully diagnosable in each of several discrete or continuously varying characters related to different functional con- texts, and the sum of the character differences corresponds to or exceeds the level of diver- gence seen in related species that coexist in sympatry’. It is clear that albicilla and parva are fully diagnosable in adult male plumage on throat and breast coloration, and in all plumages on uppertail-covert and bill colour. Nearly all females and immatures can also be separated on plumage characteristics. The two forms are also fully diagnosable on song and call. The differentiation that they show in DNA exceeds that of the congeneric, and in some regions sympatric, Collared, Pied and Semi-col- lared Flycatchers. Although the moult patterns are not really ‘diagnosable’, they are clearly dis- tinct. On the strength of all of this evidence, it is clear that parva and albicilla comprise evolu- tionary lineages that are genetically distinct and fulfil the criteria for species recognition ( sensu Helbig et al. 2002). The BOURC TSC recom- mended treating them as separate species, Red- breasted Flycatcher F. parva and Taiga Flycatcher F. albicilla (Sangster et al. 2004). Both these species are monotypic. There is little information about the distrib- ution of these two species in the supposed area of contact. Since the criteria have been estab- lished to identify both males and females, and above all the two songs differ so clearly, it should be possible to determine whether Taiga and Red-breasted Flycatchers are sympatric in eastern Russia and the Ural Mountains, and, if they do coexist, whether pairing is random, or assortive as with Pied and Collared Flycatchers. We urge observers visiting these areas to remember this, and to report their observa- tions. Acknowledgments Per Alstrom and Urban Olsson are thanked for fruitful dis- cussions and for generously sharing their knowledge of the subject. Urban Olsson also analysed the mtDNA of the Swedish Taiga Flycatcher and compared it with that of other individuals. We also thank Keith Vinicombe for helpful comments on an earlier draft. Vladimir Arkhipov helped us to try to locate an area of sympatry between the two species in the Ural region. References Ali, S., & Ripley, S. D. 1 972. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylo aVol. 6. OUR Bombay, Cederroth, C., Johansson, C„ & Svensson, L. 1 999. Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla in Sweden: the first record in western Europe. Birding World 1 2: 460-468. Chapman, M. 2003,The Taiga Flycatcher in Shetland. Birding World 1 6: 429-A32. Cramp, S„ & Perrins, C. M, (eds.) 1 993. The Birds of the Western Palearctic.V ol. 7. OUR Oxford. Dement1 ev, G. R, & Gladkov, N. A. 1 954. Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuzad ol. 6. Sovetskaya Nauka, Moscow. [English translation: Birds of the Soviet Union. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1 968.] Helbig, A., Knox, A. G„ Parkin, D.T, Sangster G„ & Collinson, M. 2002. Guidelines for assigning species rank. Ibis 1 44: 5 I 8-525; http://www.bou.org.uk/sppguidelines.pdf Inskipp, C., & Inskipp.T 1 985. A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. CroOm Helm, London. Inskipp.T, Lindsey, N., & Duckworth, W. 1996. An Annotated Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region. Oriental Bird Club, Sandy Jannes, H. 2003. Calls of Eastern Vagrants. [Compact disc and booklet.] Earlybird BirdingTours, Helsinki, Finland. Lassey.A. 2003.TheTaiga Flycatcher in East Yorkshire: a new British bird. Birding World 16: 153-155. Li, W„ & Zhang, Y-Y 2004. Subspecific taxonomy of Ficedula parva based on sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Zool. Res. 25: 1 27- 131. Saetre, G. R, BorgeT, Lindell, J„ Mourn, T, Primmer, C, R„ Sheldon, B. C., Haavie, J.Johnsen, A., & Ellegren, H. 200 1 . Speciation, introgressive hybridisation and nonlinear rate of molecular evolution in flycatchers. Mo/. E col. 1 0: 737-749. Sangster G„ Collinson, J. M„ Helbig, A. J., Knox, A. G., & Parkin, D.T 2004.Taxonomic recommendations for British birds: second report. Ibis 146: 153-157. Stresemann, E„ Portenko, L. A., & Mauersberger G. (eds.) 1 967. Atlas der Verbreitung palaearktischer Vogel. Vol. 2. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin. Svensson, L. 1 984. Soviet Birds. [Cassette and booklet.] Privately published, Stockholm. 1 992. Identification Guide to European Passerines. 4th edn. Privately published, Stockholm. Vaurie, C. 1 959. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Passeriformes. Witherby, London. Voous, K. H. 1 977. List of Recent Holarctic Bird Species. BOU, London. Wahlstrom, S. 1 995. Fuglesang. Lydene til 1 97 nordiske arter. [2 CDs and booklet.] Naturvernforbundet, Oslo. Watson, G. E„Traylor M. A., & Mayr E. 1 986. Family Muscicapidae. In: Mayr E., & Cottrell, G. E. (eds.), Check- list of Birds of the World, I 1 : 295-375. Cambridge, Mass. Dr Lars Svensson (corresponding author), Dr Martin Collinson, Dr Alan G. Knox, Prof. David T. Parkin and George Sangster c/o S:ta Toras vdg28, S-260 93 Torekov, Sweden; e-mail: lars.svensson-lullula@telia.com British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 538-541 541 Andrew Lassey Taiga Flycatcher in East Yorks hi re: new to Britain P. Andrew Lassey ABSTRACT A first-summer male Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla at Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, on 26th April 2003 represented the first record for Britain and only the third or fourth in Europe to the west of the breeding range. A second bird, in first-winter plumage, was discovered at Sandgarth, Shetland, on 12th October 2003. This individual was trapped and the identification confirmed in the hand; an account of the Shetland bird is presented in a subsequent article. The occurrence of two individuals in Britain in 2003 suggests that others may have been overlooked in the past, when Taiga Flycatcher was treated as a subspecies of Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva, which it closely resembles. A brief review of identification criteria likely to be of use in the separation of these two species is presented. Following a night of light rain and south- easterly winds, the morning of 26th April 2003 started dry with strong sunshine. I decided to forego my normal early morning seawatch and concentrate my efforts on the bushes in the hope of finding newly arrived migrants. I began searching the hedgerows on the southern side of Flamborough FFead, East Yorkshire, and, at 06.55 hrs, discovered an apparent adult male Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva. While enjoying close views, down to 10 m, using lOx binoculars, I became rather puzzled by the odd appearance of this individual. The most striking feature of the bird 333 & 334. First-summer male Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla, Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, April 2003. Unlike Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva, which moults into an adult-male plumage in its third calendar-year, Taiga Flycatcher shows a red throat with grey surround following the pre-breeding body moult in its second calendar-year. 542 © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 542-546 Andrew Lassey c Taiga Flycatcher in East Yorkshire: new to Britain ) was the limited extent of red, it being restricted to just the throat area, unlike on male Red- breasted Flycatcher in which it typically extends onto the upper breast. Other features which caught my eye were an obvious brown cap to the head, conspicuous pale tips to the greater- coverts and fairly broad fringes to the tertials; none of these features were consistent with my experience of adult male Red-breasted Fly- catcher. The flycatcher generally showed well, as it frequently perched halfway up the 5-m-high Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna bushes, and periodically dropped to the ground to feed. It struck me as a somewhat clumsy bird, lacking the finesse of Red-breasted Flycatcher. It never made aerial sallies, as most flycatchers typically do, and tail-cocking and -flicking were kept to a minimum. I took several digital photographs for record purposes and, after some 20 minutes, lan Mar- shall approached me to enquire what I was pho- tographing. After a short discussion outlining my concerns over the bird, I suggested that he telephone Mike Pearson and ask him to bring mist-nets so that we could try to catch it. It was quickly caught and subsequent examination in the hand revealed the full extent of the grey sur- round to the throat, a feature that was surpris- ingly difficult to confirm in the field. The bill was wholly dark and the uppertail-coverts were black. At this stage I was totally convinced that we had a Taiga Flycatcher F. albicilla. The bird was ringed, measured, pho- tographed and a full description was taken. Brett Richards and others were informed, and arrangements were made to release it in an area with open public access before notifying the pager and bird- information services. It was agreed by all present to release the flycatcher in nearby South Landing, the most suitable area in terms of habitat and feeding potential. Upon release, it flew into thick cover and, for three hours, proved extremely elusive, but it eventually showed well in the late afternoon and evening to the increasingly large gathering of observers. It remained loyal to this area, where it was last seen on 29th April. Description Structure Gave a distinct impression of being stouter than parva and overall more substantial, lacking the delicate appearance so often noticed in parva. The bill looked rather short for parva , and thicker. Upperparts Forehead, crown and nape medium brown, in sun- light suggesting the colour of the cap of a female Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla. An eye-stripe effect was caused by the extension of the blue-grey sides to the breast and sides of neck onto the lores and over the eye to form a paler supercilium. Ear-coverts pale brown, encircled with grey. Mantle and back colder brown than the cap, merging into the pale brown- grey rump. Greater coverts brown, tipped paler, giving the effect of an indistinct wing-bar, which was visible at distance. Flight feathers dark brown with paler fringes. Tertials blackish-brown with neat, pale grey fringes to the outer webs ending in a blob on the feather tip. Uppertail-coverts black, with several feathers showing a small pale tip. Central and distal portion of the tail was blackish with paler tips to the feathers. Basal area of the outer four rectrices white, this extending to just over half the length of the tail. Underparts Chin and throat rich orange-red, narrowly bordered dark grey, the entire throat area being encircled by a broad blue-grey band. This band was broadest at the centre of the lower throat and extended onto the breast, where it was equivalent in width to the orange- red throat. The grey gave way to cold, pale grey-white belly, flanks and undertail-coverts. Bare parts Both mandibles were blackish, and even in the hand there was no indication of a paler base to the lower mandible. Legs dark. 335. First-summer male Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla. Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, April 2003. One of the highlights of the exceptional spring of 2003. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 542-546 543 George Reszeter Graham Catley Taiga Flycatcher in East Yorkshire: new to Britain Biometrics and wing formula wing 70 mm tail 50.5 mm bill length 12.0 mm (from skull) bill width 4.8 mm (measured at the distal edge of the nostrils) bill depth 3.5 mm (measured at the distal edge of the nostrils) weight 11.3 g the outer feathers were worn and broken). This apparent ageing anomaly was resolved by reference to Cederroth et al. (1999), who stated that albicilla assumes advanced plumage more quickly than parva and that, unlike male parva, male albicilla are in superficially adult appearance in their second calendar-year. It can be safely concluded, therefore, that the Flamborough bird was a first-summer male. PI = PC +6.5 mm P2 = WP -6.5 mm P3 = WP P4 = WP P5 = WP -1.5 mm P6 = WP -4.0 mm P10 = WP -16.5 mm primary projection (from tips of secondaries) 17.0 mm emarginated primaries P3, P4, P5, P6 (slightly) [Note: PC = longest primary covert WP = wing point (i.e. longest primary) primaries numbered ascendantly] Ageing of the Flamborough bird At the time of its discovery, limited literature on the criteria used to age albicilla was available. Based upon criteria valid for Red-breasted Flycatcher, which 1 am familiar with in the hand, the bright red throat and grey surround initially suggested that the bird was an adult male. However, other features, including the pale tips to the greater coverts and the clear pale fringes to the tertials, pointed towards it being an immature. Examination of the tail showed that the central feathers were sharply pointed, a feature also suggesting that the bird was an immature (the tips to Discussion I had seen nine Red-breasted Flycatchers during the spring in East Yorkshire over the previous 20 years, and none had shown any indication of male plumage. Furthermore, all spring Red- breasted Flycatchers I had seen had occurred in the last two weeks of May, so by comparison this bird was virtually three weeks early. It has long been appreciated that ‘red- breasted flycatchers’ breeding to the east of the Ural Mountains, Russia, differ consistently in their appearance from birds breeding in Europe. In the early 1980s, it was established that the songs and calls of the two forms were quite different. Studies in recent years have shown that the two forms - parva in the west and albicilla in the east - are best treated as full species, and this treatment was adopted by BOURC in December 2003 (see also pp. 538-541). It has been proposed that the eastern bird be known as Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albi- cilla, a name reflecting its preferred breeding habitat. Given that the breeding range of Taiga Fly- catcher extends west to the Ural Mountains, the likeli- hood of vagrancy to western Europe seems high. Although only a few birds were recorded in western Europe prior to the Flamborough bird, all referred to first- winter birds in mid to late autumn. It is, therefore, remarkable that the first example to occur in Britain should be a male in spring. This was, however, quickly followed by a first-winter bird that appeared in Shetland in October 2003 (see pp. 547-550). As the field charac- ters that define these similar species become better known, more occurrences can be expected. 336. First-summer male Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla, Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, April 2003. Note the head pattern, with brown tones to the crown and ear-coverts contrasting with the grey supercilium and throat surround. These features appear unique to Taiga Flycatcher, and are apparently not found in adult male Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva. 544 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 542-546 Taiga Flycatcher in East Yorkshire: new to Britain Distribution The breeding range of Taiga Flycatcher encom- passes much of Siberia, extending into the northern taiga along the lower Indigirka, Anadyrland and east to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk and Kamchatka. The southern limit reaches to the Altai Mountains, northern Mon- golia, the Lake Baikal region and the Amur River catchment. The western limit of the range is poorly defined, but it appears to breed to approximately 50°E (Dement’ev & Gladkov 1954), occurring, at least occasionally, in the Ural Mountains of eastern Russia, and possibly within the boundaries of Europe and the Western Palearctic, although this is by no means firmly established. Towards the western limit, it may breed sympatrically with Red-breasted Fly- catcher. The main wintering range extends from eastern India to Thailand and Indochina, and south to northern Malaysia. In addition, small numbers winter in northwestern India, along the southern fringe of the Himalayas to northern Punjab, and south to Bombay and the Goa region. record for Europe to the west of the breeding grounds, at Segerstad on the Baltic island of Oland, Sweden, on 26th October 1998, there has been a report of one at Sein Island, Fin- istere, France, on 5th October 2000 ( Birding World 14: 41), followed by a first-winter that was trapped, ringed and photographed at Kly- desoreservatet, Amager, Denmark, on 16th Sep- tember 2002 ( Birding World 16: 35). lust beyond the Western Palearctic, three were recorded in Abu Dhabi on 1 0th— 1 4th December 2003, representing the first records for the UAE ( Birding World 17: 41). Since the first British record of Taiga Fly- catcher unexpectedly involved a spring male in first-summer plumage, and was closely followed by a bird in October of the same year, sporting the more-expected first-winter plumage, details of this second record are given in the short paper which follows. It is hoped that these arti- cles will encourage observers to pay careful attention to all Red-breasted Flycatchers, partic- ularly any seen in October. Perseverance may pay off, and the true status of Taiga Flycatcher may be established in the coming years. Records in the Western Palearctic Given that its breeding range extends to the eastern boundary of Europe, it is perhaps sur- prising that Taiga Flycatcher has not occurred in Britain previously. Its similarity to Red- breasted Flycatcher, lack of observer awareness and, until recently, its status as a race of Red- breasted Flycatcher undoubtedly all con- tributed to it being overlooked. It took a group of experienced and determined birders in Sweden to establish that it does occur in Europe (Cederroth et al. 1999). Will this unlock the floodgates? Since the discovery of the first Acknowledgments I am grateful to Ian Marshall and Mike Pearson for their assistance in trapping the bird, and to other members of the Observatory at Flamborough. Dave Britton and Brett Richards kindly drew my attention to literature I was unaware of. Finally, thanks go to Lars Svensson for his advice and useful discussion. References Cederroth, C., Johansson, C., & Svensson L. 1 999. Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla in Sweden: the first record in western Europe. Birding World 1 2: 460-468. Dement'ev, G. R, & Gladkov, N. A. 1 954. Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza. Vol. 6. Sovetskaya Nauka, Moscow. [English translation: Birds of the Soviet Union. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1 968.] P. Andrew Lassey, 21 Southsea Avenue, Flamborough, East Yorkshire YO!5 1BW EDITORIAL COMMENT Colin Bradshaw, Chairman of the British Birds Rarities Committee, commented: ‘Interest in the identification of Taiga Flycatcher seemed to start with the Christian Cederroth article and gathered pace with the elevation of albicilla to specific status. In any plumage, a suite of characters that include an all-black bill, different call and contrast between the longest uppertail-coverts and central rec- trices should distinguish it from Red-breasted Flycatcher, although no one feature may be regarded as 100% conclusive. The uppertail-coverts are jet-black, although they may have brown fringes in fresh plumage, and the black is so intense that the coverts stand out against the blackish central tail feathers. ‘In full-plumaged males with red throats, the restricted throat pattern described by Andrew Lassey is distinctive. However, some parva (perhaps only younger males) can show a similarly restricted red throat-patch, although such birds would not show a conspicuous grey gorget below this. A proportion of albicilla, again mainly full-plumaged males, show a subtly distinctive head pattern with a combina- tion of warm brown crown contrasting with grey sides to the head. The grey extends onto the malar British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 542-546 545 Taiga Flycatcher in East Yorkshire: new to Britain region, across the lores, and over and behind the eye. In contrast, the ear-coverts or “cheeks” are warm brown, similar in tone to the cap. Although BBRC has been unable to find any evidence that parva can show this pattern too, it seems that this feature is also missing in a significant number of albicilla , in autumn at least. Thus its presence may support the identification, but its absence does not really help either way. 'First-year birds have overall colder plumage and lack the huffy tones on the throat and upper breast shown by parva , and also usually display a less obvious eye-ring. BBRC is less convinced of the usefulness of tertial patterns as a means of separation. A photo search revealed that both species can show the “tooth” mark at the tip of the feather, although it is considerably more common in parva. BBRC had no hesitation in accepting both of these records but would not be surprised if earlier British examples of this species exist.’ Eric Meek, Chairman of the British Ornithologists’ Union Records Committee, commented: ‘As the identification criteria for Taiga Flycatcher became clearer, and as observers’ interest grew as a result of its elevation to species status, it was only a matter of time before the first British record of this Siberian breeder came along. The odds were that it would be a first-winter bird in autumn, like the only two previous (accepted) Western Palearctic records, in Sweden and in Denmark. That the Flamborough bird turned out to be a spring male, albeit in first-summer plumage, was an added bonus and a large number of people were able to enjoy this immaculate bird during its four-day stay. Debate over the origins of Siberian vagrants in spring has, at times, been heated with one body of thought believing that their appearance may be linked with an increasing number of escapes from captivity. However, the advice received by BOURC was that this was most unlikely to be the case with Taiga Flycatcher. Being in first-summer plumage perhaps suggests that the Flamborough bird had been displaced west- wards during its first autumn and had successfully overwintered somewhere on the western side of the Eurasian landmass or possibly in western Africa. Whatever its exact origins, BOURC members were unanimous in their belief that Taiga Flycatcher should be admitted to Category A of the British List.’ Rarities Committee news Request for extralimital Pied/White Wagtail records Following the recent report of a White Wagtail Motacilla alba of the Far Eastern subspecies leucopsis at Seaham, Co. Durham, in April 2005, it has emerged that there may be earlier candidates worthy of consideration by BBRC. We are keen to see documentation (detailed field notes, photographs, etc.) on any potential leucopsis in Britain, but are especially inter- ested in receiving information on the following individuals: • St Mary’s, Scilly, on at least 19th October 1981 • St Mary’s, Scilly, date uncertain, October 1986 Photographs and notes, prefer- ably in electronic format, may be sent to Chris Kehoe at: 53 Kitch- ener Terrace, North Shields, Tyne & Wear NE30 2HH; e-mail: ck 1 965@blueyonder.co.uk Regarding the Durham leu- copsis, this is the first time that BBRC has been called upon to assess a report of an extralimital race from the Pied/White Wagtail complex. Several distinctive sub- species could potentially occur as vagrants in the UK; indeed, some seem more likely to do so than leu- copsis, for example the Central Asian race M. a. personata, which has been reported elsewhere in western Europe. All of the recognised extralim- ital races have been examined in detail recently by Per Alstrom and Krister Mild in their excellent Pipits and Wagtails (Christopher Helm, 2003) and many are now well covered in field guides to the Ori- ental region. Images of all races and most plumages are also avail- able on the internet, though not always correctly labelled there. Detailed notes and, ideally, pho- tographs, will be required to allow meaningful assessment of claims. ZEISS The British Birds Rarities Committee is sponsored by Carl Zeiss Ltd. Chairman: Colin Bradshaw, 9 Tynemouth Place, Tynemouth, Tyne &Wear NE30 4BJ Secretary: M.J. Rogers, 2 Churchtown Cottages, Towed nack, St Ives, Cornwall TR26 3AZ 546 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 542-546 Taiga Flycatcher in Shetland Mark Chapman On Sunday, 12th October 2003, I visited Sandgarth, north of Voe, Shetland, to check an area of small bushes and trees, planted by crofters Tony (TG) and Beth Gerrard (BG), specifically to attract birds. It was a warm and sunny day with a light southeasterly wind that was gradually picking up in strength. Shortly after I arrived, I came across a small fly- catcher that closely resembled a Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva , but differed from that species in a number of subtle aspects. The bill was entirely black, and it showed a broad but indistinct grey supercilium and grey lores, slightly warmer brown cap, pale eye-ring and a brown patch on the cheeks, while below, the throat appeared whitish, there was a slight grey wash to the breast and it showed faint darker streaks to the sides of the upper breast. Being aware that an all-black bill and lack of buff on the throat and breast were features mooted as indicative of Taiga Flycatcher F. albicilla in first- winter plumage, I began to take a particular interest. It soon began to call, a loud buzzing, often uttered in a double sequence, and quite distinct from the usual call of Red-breasted Fly- catcher. This really suggested that this bird was something good. Although it spent much time skulking in willows Salix and Sycamores Acer psendopla- tanus , it occasionally performed energetic fly- catching sorties. I now concentrated on trying to get a view of the uppertail-coverts, which I knew were important in the identification of Taiga Flycatcher. After several brief views, I saw a small crescent of jet-black feathering above the tail, apparently on the lower uppertail- coverts. Being as certain as I could be of the bird’s identity, I decided to inform TG and BG, both keen birders, that they had a possible Taiga Flycatcher in their garden. Together, we watched the bird for over two hours, usually getting brief views down to 5 m. We were able to confirm the presence of some black on the lower or longest uppertail-coverts, although in the strengthening breeze and with the bird rarely remaining still, the extent of this was hard to quantify. Other features supporting Taiga Flycatcher were a gen- erally cold, grey-brown appearance to the upperparts, a buff wash on the rear flanks and a narrow buffy-white wing-bar formed by the paler tips to the greater coverts, indicating first- winter plumage. In the late afternoon, I decided to return home to check the literature. En route, I met Dave Okill and Pete Ellis, and informed them of the bird. They headed off to try to see it, but managed only inconclusive views in the fading light. Reference to Svensson ( 1992) confirmed that the entirely black bill with no visible trace of a pale area at the base, and the jet-black area on the uppertail-coverts were features associated 337. First-winter Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla, Sandgarth, Shetland, October 2003. The pale tips to the greater coverts and tertials enable this bird to be aged as a first-winter. Differences from Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva in this plumage include the dark base to the lower mandible, narrower and less contrasting eye-ring, and grey wash to the supercilium. © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 547-550 547 Hugh Harrop Hugh Harrop Hugh Harrop Taiga Flycatcher in Shetland C ) 338. First-winter Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla, Sandgarth, Shetland, October 2003. First-winter Taiga Flycatcher differs from Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva of the same age in several respects. These include the narrow, crisp and whitish fringe to the outer web of each tertial, culminating in a small white spot at the tip by the feather shaft, resembling the pattern shown by Pied Flycatcher F. hypoleuca, and also the jet-black uppertail-coverts. In contrast, the tertials of Red-breasted Flycatcher display a conspicuous buff spot at the tip, which extends along the feather shaft, forming a thorn or triangular shape, but the feather fringe is narrow, diffuse and inconspicuous. Although some Red-breasted Flycatchers show dark uppertail-coverts, these are never blacker than the central tail feathers. with Taiga Flycatcher. An article discussing the occurrence of a possible Taiga (Red-throated) Flycatcher on St Agnes, Isles of Scilly, in October 1999 appeared in the December 1999 issue of Birdwatch magazine. This article also confirmed that we had been checking the correct features, and included discussion on the variation found in Red-breasted Flycatcher, but did not totally clarify the separation of the two forms. I phoned several people, including Steve Minton (SJM), to discuss the bird further and suggested that its features seemed to indicate Taiga Flycatcher. In particular, I wanted to check whether SIM could find the article by Cederroth et al. (1999), which discussed the first-winter Taiga Flycatcher trapped in Sweden in 1998. Although he did not immediately have this article to hand, he, among others, expressed the intention to go and try to see the bird the next day. The following day, I was unable to get back to Sandgarth until midday, but SJM phoned at 09.00 hrs to say that he was with Dave Hall at Sandgarth and that my description of the pre- vious night matched the details of the trapped Swedish bird in Cederroth et al. (1999) on every detail, even down to the distinctive call. Shortly afterwards, they located the bird, which showed well, and SJM phoned again to confirm that they agreed with the identification. Further- more, they noted one additional feature that I had not been aware of the previous day: the tertial pattern, which was quite different from that of Red-breasted Flycatcher. The tertials of Taiga Flycatcher show a whitish outer fringe culminating in a small white spot, similar to the tertial pattern of Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler Locustella certhiola , rather than the broad buff tip shown by Red-breasted Flycatcher. We agreed that the bird definitely was a Taiga Fly- catcher and decided to put the news out. Soon, about 25 observers had gathered and were watching the bird, as well as a Pallas’s Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus which had appeared in the same garden. Although the identification seemed pretty clear-cut in the field, discussion now turned to the question of in-hand confirmation. Given that this was, potentially, the first immature Taiga Flycatcher recorded in Britain, it seemed prudent to examine the key identification characters in the hand. A member of Shetland 339 & 340. First-winter Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla, Sandgarth, Shetland, October 2003. Features useful in the separation of this species from first-winter Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva include the whitish throat, grey breast, indistinct streaking to the sides of the neck and upper breast, and buff wash restricted to the rear flanks. 548 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 547-550 Hugh Harrop Taiga Flycatcher in Shetland c Ringing Group contacted the BTO Ringing Unit for authorisation to trap the bird for identification purposes, which was given. With the consent of TG and BG, the bird was caught in a mist-net. The features previously noted were all confirmed in the hand, and the bird was quickly released. It remained in the area until 15th October. Description in the field A small flycatcher, very similar to Red-breasted Fly- catcher in size, shape, basic coloration and behaviour, although the bill appeared slightly heavier than that of a typical Red-breasted Flycatcher. Upperparts The bird appeared quite grey in the field with cold, grey-brown upperparts, including rump and shorter uppertail-coverts. The longest uppertail-coverts appeared jet-black, with some showing narrow, pale buffy-white tips, and forming a small black crescent above the tail, with some overlaying the uppertail. Head pattern Appeared to show a slightly warmer brown cap (owing to the contrast in tone between the crown feathers and the rest of the upperparts), and similarly coloured ear-coverts. Lores, ‘face’, supercilium and nape dull grey with obvious buffy-white eye-ring, giving a pattern quite distinct from the more brown- and-buff pattern on Red-breasted Flycatcher. Wings Primaries and secondaries dark with paler grey- brown edgings. Greater coverts with buffy tips forming narrow wing-bar. Tertials dark with distinc- tive whitish fringe on the outer web, broadening at tip to form a white spot, reminiscent of that found on the tertials of Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler. Tail Dull black with white patches at base on either side as in Red-breasted Flycatcher, although these were pos- sibly slightly less extensive. Underparts Throat whitish with grey wash across breast, slightly tinged buff in some lights, also faint streaks visible on sides of throat and breast. Flanks warmer, particularly at rear, where noticeably washed buff. Vent and undertail-coverts whiter. Bare parts Bill appeared entirely black in the field, with no dis- cernible pale patch at the base of the lower mandible, even at very close range. Legs dark. Call A loud and angry sounding ‘buzz’, about the same length as call of Red-breasted Flycatcher, and with a ) slight rattle effect, but faster, harder toned and usually given twice in quick succession, described by most as a ‘double buzz’. Occasionally, two or three single hard ‘chic’ calls, as in Red-breasted Flycatcher. Description in the hand The following details were supplied by Paul Harvey and Roger Riddington: Upperparts Lhriform cold grey-brown, slightly paler brown on crown (accounting for slightly capped appearance in the field). Clean buff eye-ring - wider above than below the eye. Lores and supercilium area slightly paler than crown. Ear-coverts as crown. Rump as mantle, shortest uppertail-coverts greyer, longest uppertail-coverts black with obvious buff tips. The last were slightly glossier and darker than tail. Tail black with brownish hue. Wings Coverts and remiges showed dark brownish-black centres with paler grey-brown edges. Greater coverts with pale ‘thorn’ extending from the tip along the feather shaft on outer seven unmoulted juvenile feathers; inner two greater coverts had been replaced and appeared fresher, with just a pale fringe, but no ‘thorn’. Primaries and secondaries with narrow olive- brown fringes. Tertials with pale whitish-buff fringe to outer web, which broadened and became whiter at the feather tip - something akin to tertial pattern of first-winter Pied Flycatcher F. hypoleuca. Inner web of the two longest tertials unmarked, but the fringe con- tinued onto the inner web (slightly) on the innermost tertial. Primaries fresh, inner primaries retained spikes. Tail Feathers pointed but slightly worn, black with brownish hue. On outer four pairs, the white extended to about 60% the length of the feather, mea- sured from the base, the remainder was black. The three outermost (pairs of) tail feathers had white across the whole of the inner and outer web, but the fourth had a lozenge of white on the inner web only. Underparts Admixed white, brown and buff. Chin and throat whitish with grey-brown mottling. Breast with com- plete grey wash extending across it, but with some buff admixed. Flanks, especially rear flanks, showed more extensive buff, and were the warmest part of the underparts. Throat looked slightly whiter than rest of underparts. Undertail white. Bare parts Upper mandible black, lower mandible black with diffuse pinkish base in centre, extending for c. 1 mm. Marginally paler on lower mandible towards the bill base, but barely discernible (certainly would not be in the field). Legs black, soles olive-buff. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 547-550 549 Taiga Flycatcher in Shetland ) Biometrics and wing formula wing 68.5 mm bill depth 3.4 mm (measured at the distal edge of the nostrils) Note that the bill depth is the only one of these two measurements that may indicate albicilla , it being equal to the maximum for parva. This is, no doubt, the reason why the bird did look quite heavy-billed in the field. P2 = P6/P7 WP = P3 & P4 P10 = WP -15.5 mm emarginated primaries P3, P4, P5, P6 (slightly) [Note: WP = wing point (i.e. longest primary) primaries numbered ascendantly] The bird was aged as a first-winter on the basis of the patterning on the greater coverts and tertials. Separation of first-winter Taiga and Red-breasted Flycatchers There seem to be six key identification criteria that can be used to separate these similar fly- catchers in autumn: ■ Face pattern A typical first-winter Red- breasted Flycatcher shows a brownish head, with dark huffy-brown lores and face running into the warmer buff throat and upper breast. Only the pale eye-ring contrasts with an other- wise, rather featureless expression. In contrast, Taiga Flycatcher shows a brown cap, and the grey lores, supercilium and sides to the neck surround the warmer brown ear-coverts. Addi- tionally, the eye-ring is whiter (though note that that of the Sandgarth bird was quite buff-toned, both in the field and especially in the hand) but, because it is narrower, appears less contrasting than that of Red-breasted. In combination, these features create a very different impression. • Uppertail-coverts The lower uppertail-coverts are jet-black, some overlaying the upper tail and are clearly blacker than the tail. Some uppertail- coverts may be dark on Red-breasted Flycatcher but they are never blacker than the tail (Ceder- roth et al. 1999). • Tertials Cederroth et al. (1999) drew attention to the diagnostic patterning on the tertials. On Taiga Flycatcher, there is a narrow, crisp, whitish fringe to the outer web of each tertial, culmi- Mark Chapman, 55 Leaside, Firth, Shetland ZE2 9TF nating in a small white spot at the tip by the feather shaft. In contrast, Red-breasted Fly- catcher shows a narrow, diffuse and inconspic- uous fringe to the outer web of the tertials, and a conspicuous buff spot at the tip of each tertial that extends up the feather shaft in a ‘thorn’ or triangular shape. • Underparts On Taiga Flycatcher, the whitish throat, grey breast, indistinct streaking to the sides of the neck and upper breast, and buff wash restricted to the rear flanks give the underparts a quite different appearance from those of Red-breasted Flycatcher, which shows a more uniform warm buff wash to the throat and upper breast, becoming slightly duller on the lower breast and flanks. • Bill In Taiga Flycatcher, the bill appears entirely black in the field, while Red-breasted Flycatcher usually shows a conspicuous pale area at the base. • Call A loud ‘buzz’ with a slight rattle effect, but faster and harder toned than the call of Red-breasted Flycatcher, and usually given twice in quick succession, described by most as a ‘double buzz’. In contrast, Red-breasted Fly- catcher gives a soft rattle. Recordings of the calls, taken from lannes (2003), can be found at www.britishbirds.co.uk/sounds Acknowledgments My thanks go to Tony and Beth Gerrard, who created an attractive patch of habitat that has proved to be a magnet for migrant birds, and for allowing free access to all who visited. Thanks also go to Steve Minton and Dave Hall for putting the effort in and confirming the important features of the bird, some of which proved difficult to see during the first two days of its stay. I am also grateful to the Shet- land Ringing Group for their responsible trapping of the bird and concern for its welfare and the habitat, and finally to Paul Harvey and Roger Riddington for providing the in- hand description and contacting the BTO for their approval to trap the bird. Hannu Jannes kindly agreed to British Birds using his recordings of Red-breasted and Taiga Flycatchers from his CD Calls of Eastern Vagrants and placing these on the BB website. References Cederroth, C, Johansson, C„ & Svensson, L. 1 999. Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla in Sweden: the first record for Western Europe. Birding World 12:460-468. Jannes, H. 2003. Colls of Eastern Vagrants. [Compact disc and booklet.] Earlybird Birding Tours, Helsinki, Finland. Svensson, L. 1 992. Identification Guide to European Passerines. 4th edn. Privately published, Stockholm. 550 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 547-550 Bernard Zonfrillo Letters The Ailsa Craig gannetry in 2004 Wanless et al. (2005) reported an aerial survey of the Northern Gannet Morus bassanus colony on Ailsa Craig, Kyle & Carrick, carried out on 6th June 2004, which revealed a count of 27,130 AOS (Apparently Occupied Sites). Compared with previous counts, this meant a decline in breeding numbers of around 2% per annum. This is somewhat at odds with my own findings and observations, which show that the gannetry has been increasing by around 4-7% per annum in the past decade. My impressions are drawn from the fact that a continued spread on the upper slopes has been monitored on an annual basis since 1990, and that a distinct shift in breeding regime has been apparent over the past five or six years. In winter 1990, I knocked some short posts into the earth at the topmost nest-sites along a fairly even stretch of cliff. Since then, the distance from the posts to the newest, uppermost nests involves a band of nests 10 or 12 deep along the clifftop. Gannets occupy around 3 km of clifftop on Ailsa Craig and there is little to impede their further expansion. Around 1,000 new nests are added to the colony each season. Furthermore, photographic surveys, made in July or August, of certain parts of the colony confirm an annual increase in breeding numbers. So how can we explain the discrepancy between my observations and the count made by Wanless et al.'< The authors note the apparent expansion of the gannetry, but explain that the falling numbers are perhaps accounted for by a decline in density. In fact, the main discrepancy appears to be the gap of two months between the different counts. Gannet chicks have been ringed on Ailsa Craig since at least 1923, and my involvement dates back to the late 1960s. The best time to ring Gannet chicks is when they are 3-4 weeks old. Before that age, the leg is not sufficiently developed to hold the ring, while older chicks become mobile and wander from the nest pedestal when approached by the ringer (which then creates an unacceptable level of distur- bance within the colony). A fixed date is set for chick ringing, and in the past over 1,200 pulli have been ringed in a single morning. No repeat visits are ever made in any given year, in order to avoid disturbance. Since 2000, the ‘season' has shunted forward by around 3-4 weeks with regard to chicks of the right size for ringing. This indicates that nesting is now much later, with most or all eggs laid by late June or early July. This later breeding may be a response to the reduction in local fishing effort over the same period, with 75% of trawlers now missing from the waters around the Clyde and beyond, compared with the situation in the mid 1990s. Plate 341 shows a breeding Gannet at a cliff-edge site with a recently hatched chick on 7th August 2004. This nest would not have been built on 6th June 2004, when the aerial survey was made. It is in an otherwise dense area of nests and was not excep- tional. Many other nests still had eggs or naked young. Perhaps 40% or more of the colony was in this state of breeding. The same situation has prevailed in 2005. Counting Gannets on Ailsa Craig, and probably elsewhere, in June may seriously underesti- mate actual breeding numbers. A date in late July, when most nests are at an advanced stage of 341. Northern Gannet Morus bassanus, Ailsa Craig, Kyle & Carrick, August 2004. © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 55 1 -555 551 Letters C incubation or have young a few weeks old, will be best. Counting before that period will under- estimate a species that is not now reliant on human marine activities to facilitate catching its prey. Reference Wanless, S., Murray, S.p & Harris, M. R 2005. The status of Northern Gannet in Britain & Ireland in 2003/04. Brit Birds 98: 280-294. Bernard Zonfrillo Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ EDITORIAL COMMENT The authors of the Northern Gannet paper referred to above have commented as follows: 'Bernard Zonfrillo casts doubt on our estimate of 27,130 AOS on Ailsa Craig, made from an aerial survey on 6th June 2004, arguing that a count on that date will seriously underestimate breeding numbers. We agree that variations in survey dates are a recurring problem in interpreting counts of seabird colonies, but think that a fuller evaluation of the problem is needed before the recommended count date for gannetries is put later in the season. The photographic evidence provided by Dr Zon- frillo is unconvincing. The site with the newly hatched chick on 7th August shown in plate 341 would almost certainly have been occupied by one or both adults on 6th June, when the aerial survey was carried out, as Gannets occupy their breeding site for months before laying. It is quite possible that the chick came from a relay, given that it was in a dense group of nests. 'There is, however, a valid point to be addressed. Our paper aimed to give a concise summary of the current status of the Northern Gannet in Britain & Ireland. It was not the place to go into detail about individual colonies, though the fact that we allocated more space to Ailsa Craig shows that we were well aware that this was an unexpectedly low count. If Dr Zonfrillo had consulted the quoted source for this count (Wanless et al. 2005), he would have seen that the colony was counted in 18 sections, and that two counts of AOS were made by S. Murray (26,905 and 25,017) and one by S. Evans (28,298). In our view, the late date of the count in 1995 (5th August) was potentially a problem as more non-breeders were likely to have been present; i.e. a count of AOS in early August could poten- tially seriously overestimate the breeding population. Like Dr Zonfrillo, we noted some increases along the upper limit of the colony, specifically in the combined sections 9/10/11. However, the most striking finding was that colony extent was relatively little changed whereas there were fewer sites in most of the sections - i.e. density had decreased. 'Since we realised that our findings would attract comment, we went back and recounted the 1995 images using the same observer and methods. This highlighted the fact that totals for some sections in 1995 seemed to be on the high side but this in no way changed our conclusion that overall numbers had declined. Clearly this is at odds with Dr Zonfrillo’s view that the colony ‘has been increasing by around 4-7% per annum in the past decade’. If this was the case, then it would have resulted in a 42-84% overall increase in numbers between 1995 and 2004. Comparison of the aerial photos gives no support for such a dramatic change, which should be apparent irrespective of when in the season the photos were taken. However, as stated in our original BB article, a repeat census is urgently required to confirm the status of this colony, preferably with a concurrent ground survey to check the breeding limits of each subsection. 'Carrying out a large-scale survey is a juggling act to bring together a skilled team of photogra- phers, an experienced pilot with an appropriate plane, the right weather conditions and, in many colonies (but not Ailsa Craig), clearance from the military to fly near sensitive areas. Ideally, one would try to get several counts for each colony spaced throughout the season to get a check on the seasonal pattern and make ground checks where aerial surveys could be compromised, as was done for St Kilda because of its size and complexity, and on the Bass Rock and Grassholm because of the high numbers of non-breeding birds present. However, the logistics of making just one count of the major British and Irish colonies in a single season is formidable. Finding the resources to do repeat surveys (and then counting, collating and archiving the resulting images) would be beyond the current funding budgets and would jeopardise the survey being carried out at all. As in so many biodiversity issues today, compromise and pragmatism are needed. ‘Currently the recommended time window for counting Northern Gannets is from mid May to mid June, when birds that are going to make a breeding attempt should be present at the colony. If the timing of the breeding season shifts substantially, then the timing of counts should be adjusted accord- 552 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 551-555 Letters C } ingly. However, while breeding of some North Sea seabirds seems to be getting later, to our knowledge this is the first published suggestion of a similar trend in Gannets. Hopefully, Dr Zonfrillo will soon make his findings on both phenology and population status available in the refereed literature; the former will prompt a thorough review of the available evidence from other colonies to clarify whether a change in the recommended count date for this species is justified.’ Reference Wanless, S., Murray, S., Harris, M. R, & Evans, S. 2005. Scottish Gannet Survey 2004. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report FO4AC30 1. Sarah Wanless and Mike Harris Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Banchory Research Station, Hill ofBrathens, Banchory AB31 4BW; e-mail: swanl@ceh.ac.uk Stuart Murray Murray Consultancy, Easter Craigie Dhu, Cardney, Dunkeld, Perthshire PEIS OEY Culls on Skomer The comments made by Peter Rock (Rock 2005) referring to the Skomer gull population are somewhat misleading. Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus (to which it is assumed the author is referring, though this is not stated explicitly) have suffered very low productivity since 1987 (see Perrins & Smith 2000), and so it is incorrect to assume that the population is ‘unlikely to decline significantly for some years’. In fact, the population crashed from an estimated 20,000 pairs in 1993 to 12,000 pairs by 1998. It has fluctuated somewhat since, despite continuously low breeding success (fig. 1). As for the other large gulls on Skomer, Herring Gulls L. argen- tatus have recovered from their low point in 1998, and the population is now around 500. AOT (Appar- ently Occupied Territories; fig. 2). Their population crashed from 2,940 AOT in 1979 following the demise of the Milford Haven fish- docks and subsequent botulism Clostridium botulinum outbreaks from landfills (Perrins & Smith 2000). Great Black-backed Gulls L. marinus declined from a peak of 283 AOT in 1961, to below 30 in the 1980s (fig. 3). This was largely attributable to control measures in the 1960s and 1970s, carried out in response to the perceived impact of predation on other seabirds, and then an outbreak of botulism in the early 1980s (Sutcliffe 1997). The species has increased annually since 2000, and currently enjoys high breeding success, exploiting thriving seabird and Rabbit Oryc- tolagus cuniculus populations (Brown & Morgan 2004). Fig. I. Estimated number of breeding pairs of Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus on Skomer, Pembrokeshire, 1 980-2005 (counts by eye, multiplied by a correction factor based on ground searches at sample plots; see Brown & Morgan 2004). Fig. 2. Number of Herring Gull Larus argentatus Apparently Occupied Territories (mostly occupied nests) on Skomer Island, Pembrokeshire, 1 960-2005. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 551-555 553 Letters > References Brown, J. G., & Morgan, L. H. 2004. ‘Seabird monitoring on Skomer Island in 2004.' Report to JNCC by The Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales. Perrins, C. M„ & Smith, S. B. 2000. The breeding Lorus gulls on Skomer Island National Nature Reserve, Pembrokeshire. Atlantic Seabirds 2: 195-210. Rock, R 2005. Urban gulls: problems and solutions. Brit. Birds 98: 338-355. Sutcliffe, S. J. 1 997. Populations of breeding Larus gulls on Welsh islands. In: Rhind, R M„ Blackstock,T H„ & Parr S.J. (eds.), Welsh Islands: ecology, Fig. 3. Number of Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus Apparently conservation and land use. CCW: Occupied Territories (mostly occupied nests) on Skomer Island, Pembrokeshire, 1960-2005. Juan G. Brown Skomer Island, Marloes, Pembrokeshire SA62 3BJ More Tadcaster rarities? Tim Melling and BOURC are to be congratu- lated on their fascinating investigation into the finding circumstances of several ‘firsts’ for Britain associated with the taxidermist David Graham (Brit. Birds 98: 230-237). Although not immediately apparent from this account, I was struck by the close proximity of several of the inland places mentioned in the text. Specifically, Green Hammerton (Lesser Kestrel Falco nau- manni , 1867) is about 20 km, in a direct line, from Aberford (the most distant of the possible sites for the 1846/47 Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea). Wetherby (Orphean Warbler Sylvia hort- ensis, 1848) is some 5 km west of the mid-point of this line, and about equidistant between Aberford and Green Hammerton. Tadcaster ( Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes, 1858) is about 5 km to the southeast of this mid-point, Upper Poppleton (Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus, 1860) about 13 km to the northeast and Nun Appleton, the home of Sir William Milner, some 13 km to the southeast. Intrigued, I conducted a brief perusal of Naylor’s (1996) listings of rare-bird records. Within a 13-km radius of the mid-point, I found records of two further ‘firsts’ for Britain: a Eurasian Scops Owl Otus scops shot at Wetherby in spring 1805, and a Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera shot on an unknown date at Plompton, near Knaresborough, in 1826. I also found an impressive ‘supporting cast’, with records of Cream-coloured Courser Cur- sorius cursor near Wetherby in 1816; Rose- coloured Starling Sturnus roseus at Wetherby in about 1855; Great Snipe Gallinago media at Askham Bog, near York, in September 1857; Great Bustard Otis tarda on Rufforth Moor, near York, in February 1861; and a Little Crake Porzana parva at Green Hammerton in October 1892. The next record I traced concerned a Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus, found nearly 60 years later near Knaresbor- ough, in September 1952. Sir William Milner and David Graham must have considered themselves fortunate indeed to have lived so close to so many rare birds! While it may appear highly improbable that so many exceptionally rare birds should be found in such close proximity in a small inland area, we now know that rare birds do venture inland. For example, the many rare birds found in the area since the foundation of the Knares- borough Ringing Station in the 1950s (including Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax in 1967, Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus and Alpine Swift Apus melba in 1973, Long-billed Dowitcher Lymnodromus scolopaceus in 1976, Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularius in 1977, Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus in 1984, Arctic Redpoll Carduelis hornemanni, Little Emberiza pusilla and Pine Bunting E. leu- cocephalos in 1985, Dark-throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis atrogularis in 1989, Penduline Tit Remiz pendulinus in 1992 and American Wigeon Anas americana in 1997) illustrate this with particular relevance. 554 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 551-555 Letters C > With the earlier series, however, we have cir- cumstantial evidence that fraud was involved in some of the records and further investigation, to include the full suite of potential Tadcaster rarities, is surely warranted. An appropriate investigation might include a formal statistical comparison with records from other inland areas in the same period and with records from the area since. It will also, of course, need to Andy Brown 2 Bernard Crescent, Hunstanton, Norfolk PE36 6ER take into account such factors as changes in both the numbers and the activities of bird- finders and ot the relative attractiveness to birds of the habitats in the area. Reference Naylor; K.A. 1996. A Reference Manual of Rare Birds in Great Britain and Ireland.V ol. I . Privately published, Nottingham. Reviews THE STONE CURLEW By Richard Vaughan and Nancy Vaughan Jennings. Isabelline Books, Falmouth, 2005. 345 pages; 19 colour and nine black-and-white photographs; maps; line-drawings and tables. ISBN 0-9542955-6-0. Hardback, £35.00. This is the first monograph on the Stone-curlew Burhinus oedicnemus, and is the product of father and daughter collaboration. Much of the work is based on their previ- ously unpublished field observa- tions (mostly in France) and an extensive literature search. The dust jacket states that it provides detailed and comprehensive infor- mation about the Stone-curlew and is aimed at any reader with a serious interest in birds, whether professional or amateur. Despite considerable professional and per- sonal interest in this species, I am afraid that I had serious trouble in fighting my way through to the end. Following an introduction to the Burhinidae family, chapters cover the Stone-curlew in ornitho- logical literature, voice, choice of habitat, population studies, migra- tion, social life, breeding biology, diet, Stone-curlews in captivity, declining populations and conser- vation. For me, the strong points are the sections covering early writings on Stone-curlews, and the compre- hensive list of references, including many papers from studies throughout the bird’s range. I was also interested in the section on captive-breeding, including the results of the author’s question- naire survey of modern zoos, though this left several questions unanswered. The presentation of informa- tion was unimaginative, with an over-reliance on tables, 75 in all. Illustrating ringing recoveries in a series of maps would have been more reader-friendly and informa- tive than being presented with five pages of tables. Furthermore, it would have been better to replace most of the 22 pages discussing vocalisations, which include sono- grams and even a table of written descriptions of the same call in dif- ferent languages, with a CD with recordings of the main calls. As the authors acknowledge, ‘attempts to render a bird’s vocalisations into words are doomed to failure’! The quality of the maps and pho- tographs is generally poor and it is a shame that some of the quality images of this bird, for example from Chris Knights, were not included. In contrast, I felt that the line-drawings by Juan M. Verala were evocative and enhanced the publication. While it is good that this book features the results of work from much of the species’ range, too little has been made of the pub- lished results of the detailed research carried out in the UK. For example, there is only brief mention of an impact on distribu- tion from main roads. Research in southern England has shown that the population of Stone-curlews on farmland is about half what it could be because of traffic distur- bance. This is one of the biggest impacts of roads recorded for any bird species and is surely of interest to the general reader, as well as being important in terms of Stone- curlew conservation efforts. The challenge in any mono- graph is to summarise all the avail- able information in a clear and digestible way. In doing so, it is important to identify what makes the bird stand out from the crowd. Sadly, I felt that this book fell short of this challenge. Robin Wynde © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 555-558 555 Reviews C > THEJ5REBES Written and illustrated by Jon Fjeldsa. OUP, Oxford, 2004. 246 pages; 8 colour plates; numerous line- drawings and figures. ISBN 0-19-850064-5. Hardback £95.00. This latest volume in the OUP ‘Bird Families of the World’ series sets out to describe the 22 species of grebes (Podicipedidae) that have been known to occur in the world, their taxonomy, ecology and con- servation. The aim of the series is to commission world experts to synthesise the current knowledge for ‘their’ group of birds. These experts are usually enthusiasts for their subject and this is certainly the case with Jon Fjeldsa. His infec- tious enthusiasm for grebes comes through strongly in the text. Not only does he know a lot about grebes, he clearly loves them too. The text is in three parts. The first covers the morphology of grebes, their adaptations and rela- tions to divers (Gaviidae). The second includes chapters on the biogeography and ecological distri- bution of grebes around the world, feeding ecology, behaviour, breeding, threats and conservation. This is followed by part 3: accounts for each of the 22 known species. All this is backed up with appen- dices and an extremely good bibli- ography. Part 2 is excellent, providing a good basic introduction to the ecology and needs of grebes. It also contains many clues as to why we have such an impoverished breeding assemblage of grebes in the UK. Why do we have only two widespread species, with Black- necked Podiceps nigricollis and Slavonian Grebes P. auritus found at only a few sites? Grebes are one of the most threatened groups of bird in the world with two, possibly three, of the 22 species already extinct and a further two critically endangered. Their high levels of endemism (some of the now-extinct species were found at only single sites) have made them particularly vul- nerable, but they have also suffered from changes at wetland sites and persecution at times. In the past they were much prized for their ‘fur’ and were hunted almost to extinction in many areas. Overall, Jon Fjeldsa should be congratulated for producing an excellent book. It is the chapters on the ecology of grebes and their conservation which are the most valuable and deserve to be read widely. Grebes clearly need more friends. Ken W. Smith THE WHEATEARS OF THE PALEARCTIC: ECOLOGY, BEHAVIOUR AND EVOLUTION OF THE GENUS OENANTHE By Evgeniy N. Panov. Pensoft, Sofia-Moscow, 2005. 439 pages; 133 photographs. ISBN 954-642-226-6. Hardback, £63.00. Evgeniy Panov has spent much of his adult life studying wheatears in some of the most remote regions in the Palearctic, and this book is clearly a culmination of this research, written for both scientific and lay audiences. There are some nice photographs of habitats, although those of the birds them- selves are of variable quality. The text has been edited by Michael G. Wilson, and is as good as you would expect with such assistance. This proved to be a hard book to review for British Birds readers. It includes a lot of original data and observations on wheatears, but it is a complex and difficult read. The main part of the book comprises chapters on all the Palearctic wheatear species: Isabelline Oenanthe isabellina , Northern Oe. oenanthe , Pied Oe. pleschanka (here including Cyprus Oe. cypriaca as a race of Oe. pleschanka ), Black-eared Oe. hispanica (treating races his- panica and melanoleuca as conspe- cific), Desert Oe. deserti , Finsch’s Oe. finschii , Red-rumped Oe. moesta, Red-tailed Oe. xantho- prymna (including races xantho- prymna and chrysopygia - which Panov treats as separate species), Variable (Eastern Pied) Oe. picata, Mourning Oe. lugens (treated as a single polytypic species, rather than three or even four species as in some recent literature), Hooded Oe. monacha , Hume’s Oe. alboniger, White-crowned Black Oe. leucopyga and Black Oe. leucura. There is a further chapter discussing hybrid populations of Black-eared and Pied. Each chapter follows a fairly standard format and structure, with sections on distribution and habitat, social behaviour, vocalisa- tions, breeding ecology, biometrics, and moult and migration. Many of these are similar to sections of BWP , and include sonograms and some attractive line-drawings of courtship behaviour. As the title suggests, there is relatively little on identification. The sections dealing with hybrid populations are particularly interesting, and based upon a great deal of detailed field observation. Panov argues a case for the Variable (Eastern Pied) Wheatear being a complex of two (or more likely three) taxa ( picata , opistholeuca and capistrata) that evolved in iso- lation but are now in a state of flux through past or ongoing introgres- sive hybridisation. He draws atten- tion to the parallels in ecology and behaviour among these supposedly ancestral taxa and Finsch’s and Mourning Wheatears. It is a fiendishly complicated, but fasci- nating overview. He also reviews much original data relating to the hybrid zones between Pied and Black-eared Wheatears, concluding that, despite extensive inter- breeding, they should still be con- sidered separate species. He is, however, firmly convinced that the eastern and western forms of Black-eared are conspecific. Panov speculates extensively about the evolution and relation- 556 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 555-558 Reviews C ships of these wheatears. His ideas on what constitutes a species are not clear, but he stresses the weaknesses of using purely museum collections, and the importance of making direct observations of what the birds are actually doing in the field. In this, he is surely correct; it is becoming increasingly evident that such field observations can often tell us whether taxa are evolving inde- pendently and help to point us towards their taxonomic status. His conclusions regarding the relation- ships of the Palearctic wheatears are many and varied, and not all will be widely accepted. However, he makes several recommendations or predic- tions that could be relatively easily tested by DNA-sequence analysis. For example, that wheatears are a young (i.e. recently diverged) group, probably originating in Africa; that Desert Wheatear is not particularly THE BIRDS OF AZERBAIJAN By Michael Patrikeev, edited by Geoffrey H. Harper. Pensoft, Sofia-Moscow, 2004. 380 pages; 78 colour and two black-and- white photographs; distribution maps; tables. ISBN 954-642-207-X. Hardback, £65.00. Situated on the far eastern fringe of the Western Palearctic, Azerbaijan is a country of great contrasts, with habitats ranging from the montane wildernesses of the Greater Cau- casus to semi-desert lowlands, fab- ulous wetlands and the almost subtropical forest remnants of the far south. Despite all these attrac- tions, the country is seldom explored by western birders and much remains to be discovered. There are, perhaps, two main reasons for this lack of attention. Firstly, political instability has, until recently, made Azerbaijan a difficult country to visit. The break-up of the Soviet Union in 1990, followed by years of unrest, acted as a deterrent to visitors and, more importantly, made condi- tions extremely difficult for resi- dent ornithologists. War with Armenia and the resulting loss of the Nagorno-Karabakh region still create problems in that part of the country, but elsewhere travel is unrestricted (although one still has to contend with bureaucratic details such as an official invitation to visit the country and pre- arranged permits to enter reserves). Secondly, there has not, until now, been a good publication (at least in English!) on the birds of the country. Shelton’s Where to Watch Birds in Azerbaijan (2001) has been a useful introduction for visiting birders but would never claim to be a comprehensive hand- book. Now, however, we have Michael Patrikeev’s authoritative tome. The author lived and worked in Azerbaijan between 1970 and 1991, heading the Wildlife Section of the Ecological Centre of Azerbaijan from 1988 to 1991. It was during this latter period that he conducted intensive fieldwork in many parts of the country. Fieldwork ceased in 1991 because of the political difficulties, but work on the book continued, with a first draft being completed in 1993. The book begins with intro- ductory chapters that provide essential and interesting informa- tion on, for example, the geog- raphy of the country and bird conservation, but it is perhaps the section on past ornithological studies in Azerbaijan that readers will find most fascinating, as iconic names such as Gmelin, Menetries and Radde keep appearing in the text. The species accounts occupy 253 of the 380 pages, each com- prising sections on status, distribu- tion, movement, population size, breeding, diet and mortality. A dis- tribution map is included for all regular breeding and wintering species, and it is certainly these maps to which the reader’s eye will immediately be drawn. They utilise symbols to indicate proved, prob- able and former breeding, shading to show main, subsidiary and former wintering areas, and arrows to give an impression of spring closely related to other Palearctic wheatears; that the Cyprus taxon is not only conspecific with Pied, but may actually be its ancestral form; and that the two forms of Red- tailed Wheatear are specifically dis- tinct, but the two forms of Black-eared are not. If ever a genus was crying out for a molecular analysis, this is it! David Parkin and autumn passage. How 1 wish we had had such information available when, in 2003, I spent a month in the country with the primary aim of locating Caucasian Black Grouse Tetrao mlokosiewiczi leks! It is, however, the maps that also indicate just how much work there is still to do in Azerbaijan with the use of many question marks and the presence of many inexplicable gaps in distribution. This publication will provide an essential starting point for anyone with an interest in the birds of the country and wishing to pin- point subjects and areas that could usefully be investigated. Another starting point would be the fledg- ling Azerbaijan Ornithological Society led by Dr Elchin Sultanov, which, with a tiny staff and the support of BirdLife International, is making sterling efforts to improve both the knowledge and conservation of the country’s birds. If any criticism at all is to be made of this pioneering work, it is that it is not as up to date as it might have been. The interlude of a decade between the first and final drafts has seen more fieldwork undertaken than is alluded to here, and a few of the gaps in knowledge have been filled, although, perhaps, without being widely published. This is a relatively minor quibble, however, and this work will become an essential companion on any birding trip to this fascinating country - although its size may preclude it being backpacked into Caucasian Snowcock Tetraogallus caucasicus territory! Eric Meek British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 555-558 557 Reviews C DUCKS, GEESE AND SWANS Edited by Janet Kear. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005. Two volumes, 908 pages; 30 colour plates; line-drawings and maps. ISBN 0-19-854635-9. Hardback, £150.00. The considerable task of bringing together 165 species accounts, cov- ering the screamers (Anhimidae) and the wildfowl (Anatidae), from 73 dif- ferent contributors, for this latest work in the ‘Bird Families of the World’ series published by Oxford University Press, was undertaken by Janet Kear, who sadly died last year shortly after she had seen the task through to com- pletion. As one of the contributors (of two species accounts), I can attest to her powers of persuasion, ability to nag dilatory contributors (!) and her skill as an editor. Despite Janet’s very best efforts, this project took over eight years from conception to publication, which does mean that the accounts vary in how up to date they are. There is also another, important consideration to bear in mind when reading the species accounts, which is that they are not intended to be completely uniform in treatment, as is explained in the Intro- duction. Contributors were allowed, indeed encouraged, to give different emphasis to the various sections, enabling them to expand on those aspects of the species’ biology with which they were most familiar and, therefore, for which they probably had access to recent or unpublished infor- mation. This approach means that the scope of the text under the various sub-headings of each species account is more variable than would be found in, say, a typical ‘handbook’. In addi- tion, information that is well known and readily accessible is not automati- cally repeated for the sake of com- pleteness, but is replaced by the necessary reference(s). In sum, though, allowing for the long gesta- tion period, the species accounts com- prise a highly authoritative account of the world’s wildfowl, bringing together into the single work a great deal of previously unpublished or obscure material. The book commences with a series of general chapters covering the overall biology of the wildfowl. The Introduction, written by Janet Kear, covers the close relationship between wildfowl and wetlands, before exploring the millennia-old relation- ship between wildfowl and Man, a particular interest of Janet’s, including domestication, aviculture and culture. The next chapter, on Taxonomy and systematics, compares the different approaches of, for example, Delacour, Johnsgard and Sibley and Monroe, before settling on a modified version of Livesey’s classification. The next five chapters cover wildfowl life history: Feeding ecology, Ecology of social behaviour, Breeding strategies and biology, Movements and migration, and Population dynamics. The final chapter deals with Conservation and management, which includes the depressing information that 33 species of goose or duck and one screamer are threatened with extinction, with five Critically Endangered, though two or even three of these are probably already extinct. Overall, I found all these chapters informative, well written and together providing an excellent overview of the Anseri- formes. The species accounts have the sub- headings of Description, Field charac- ters, Voice, Range and status, Habitat and general habits, Displays and breeding behaviour. Breeding and life cycle, and Conservation and threats. As already stated, the treatment is deliberately not uniform and thus there are accounts of little more than one page (c. 650 words) while a few extend to ten pages, usually species with several identifiable subspecies. Indeed, Bewick’s Swan Cygnus columbianus has been awarded sepa- rate accounts for each of its two sub- species, nominate columbianus and bewickii, as both have been studied so fully. Conversely, Eurasian Anas crecca and Green-winged Teals A. caroli- nensis are treated as a single species, since the BOU’s pronouncement of the split came too late, although few, if any, differences are apparent in their biology. Every species account is illustrated with a map. Somewhat confusingly, a number of different base maps have D been used, even for species with similar ranges; for example, Long- tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis is shown on a Mercator projection and Common Scoter Melanitta nigra on an oblique Hammer projection (using Britain as the centre-point). Both, of course, distort the true land shapes, but the latter, in particular, makes dis- cerning detail in, say, western North America, extremely difficult. The details of distribution, both on the maps and in the text, often differ from other published information. Some of the species accounts in The Birds of North America seem to me to be more accurate. If the variation in the accounts is duly noted, and good use is made of the bibliography, which extends to over 3,500 entries, these two volumes present a noteworthy contribution to wildfowl literature and a reference work which is unlikely to be replaced for many years to come. And, finally, I must praise the colour plates. Very few artists have attempted to paint the entire family of wildfowl and, in my view, only one or two have succeeded in capturing the essence of the full range of species. I am delighted to say that Mark Hulme has triumphed. His paintings are not only highly accurate in feather detail, but manage to capture not just the typical stance of the bird, standing or swimming, but also the sometimes indefinable expression on the birds’ faces, for example that mild, even friendly, look of a female Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, or the rather more aggressive ‘don’t mess with me’ stare of the Cape Barren Goose Cereopsis novaehollandiae. Each plate illustrates from three to nine species and, apart from a seemingly random choice of a single downy young on each plate, only adult plumages, and not always the full range of racial variation for species such as Canada Goose (recently split by the BOU to become Greater Branta canadensis and Lesser Canada Goose B. hutchinsii ). They are, nevertheless, a delight to look at and add considerably to the value of this fine account of the world’s wildfowl, which is a fitting memorial to its editor. Malcolm Ogilvie 558 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 555-558 - News and comment Compiled by Adrian Pitches Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of British Birds Bird flu update Despite growing hysteria elsewhere in the world, the British Govern- ment has agreed with the major bird and conservation groups that migrant birds pose a low risk ot spreading bird flu. The Chief Vet- erinary Officer met representatives of the BTO, JNCC, RSPB and WWT on 25th August and all those present agreed that, although a risk of the introduction of highly path- ogenic avian influenza by migrating birds exists, this risk is low. The meeting agreed to estab- lish an ad-hoc working group to monitor developments and liaise internationally. On the international scene, the latest outbreak of bird flu in south- east Asia claimed its 63rd human victim that same week. The death in Vietnam - where the human death toll has been highest - took that country’s total of fatalities to 44, with 23 of the victims dying since the virus returned in December 2004, after sweeping through much of Asia in late 2003. Bird flu has also killed at least 12 people in Thailand, four in Cam- bodia and three in Indonesia. All the victims lived in close proximity to domestic poultry and waterfowl; to date, no-one has been infected by a wild bird. The intensive poultry-rearing industry in southeast Asia has been a reservoir for the deadly H5N1 strain of bird flu since at least 1999, when it was identified in geese at a bird market in Hong Kong. Although there are no recorded cases of human-to-human trans- mission, the fear among epidemi- ologists is that the virulent bird flu virus could combine with a human flu virus and cause a pandemic. ‘Spanish flu’ - the origin of which was unknown, although the virus was thought to have come from wild birds - broke out in 1918 and killed 40 million people worldwide. The last major flu pandemic killed some four million people in the 1960s and another is overdue. Bird flu has caused substantial economic damage to the Asian poultry industry, with the slaughter of 100 million birds in infected flocks. Closer to home, the financial impact of bird flu has also been felt. The Netherlands, home to some of Europe’s most intensive farming and one of the world’s biggest meat exporters, suffered an outbreak of the milder H7N7 strain of bird flu in 2003, which resulted in the culling of 30 million birds at a direct cost of more than 150 million. More than 80 people suf- fered flu-like symptoms and there was one fatality: a vet who inspected an infected poultry flock. As a result, the Dutch Government has acted unilaterally in the face of the latest bird flu threat and has insisted that all poultry is kept indoors to minimise contact with wild birds, while the German poultry industry has been instructed to keep all fowl penned in. The European Commission has banned imports of poultry meat and birds from Asia and Russia and has called for increased monitoring of wild birds. It said that while the risk of migratory birds carrying the virus to Europe was low, they were likely to fly to countries bordering the Black Sea and possibly to Romania and Bulgaria. The Com- mission said that member states did not need to follow the Dutch and lock up all poultry, but did urge them to boost drug stockpiles. If Britain were to follow the Dutch example, free range and organic poultry farmers would lose their markets at a stroke - unless they were given a derogation to keep poultry indoors and still label them as ‘free range’. On 1st September, the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) fanned the flames when it claimed that wild birds flying from Siberia (where bird flu was first confirmed in domestic fowl in late July) could carry the disease to the Caspian and Black Sea regions, which, along with the Balkans, would form the ‘gateway to central Europe for the virus’; and that bird migration routes also ran across Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Georgia, Ukraine and some Mediterranean countries, where outbreaks were possible. The FAO has urged coun- tries at risk, particularly those along migration routes, to increase surveillance of domestic poultry and wild birds, and to prepare national emergency plans. The FAO has expressed concern that poor countries in southeast Europe, where wild birds mingle with those from northern Europe, may lack the capacity to detect and deal with outbreaks of bird flu. Back in northern Europe, the French are busily stockpiling anti- viral medicines and protective face masks and have not missed the opportunity to revive memories of the (British) BSE crisis and subse- quent deaths from variant CJD. ‘Would our citizens forgive us, after the mad cow crisis, if we did not learn the lessons from that painful experience...?’ said French Foreign Minister Philippe Douste-Blazy. The British authorities are showing more sang-froid. The main response from the Department of Health has been to send a 50-page booklet about the symptoms and treatment of bird flu to all doctors’ surgeries. Meanwhile, the RSPB has seized the opportunity to lobby for a halt to the cage-bird trade, arguing that continued transit of wild-caught birds from Asia to Europe risks spreading bird flu. Julian Hughes, the RSPB’s Head of Species Con- servation said: ‘The focus so far has been on migrant waterbirds arriving from Russia during the winter, when in fact there are many other bird flu transmission routes © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 559-563 559 Tim Loseby News and comment > 342. Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus, Baratpur, India, January 1991. The outbreak of avian influenza, or bird flu, at Qinghai Lake in western China, in spring 2005, may have wiped out no less than 10% of the world population of this attractive goose. that seem far more likely: people, poultry and the cage-bird trade. Millions of wild-caught birds are imported into the EU every year, including dozens of already glob- ally threatened species. The USA banned wild-bird imports in 1992 - infectious diseases in captive birds dropped dramatically, and it instantly removed a major market for brightly coloured birds that most birdwatchers would rather see in rainforests. The benefits of importing wild-caught birds seem negligible, yet bird flu highlights the risk to native birds, people and farming. If the bird trade can’t be done without risking the conserva- tion status of wildlife, the health of native biodiversity and raising serious animal welfare concerns, it’s time for EU governments to step in and stop it.’ BB reader Dr Robin Cox has suggested another safeguard for human health: ‘In view of concerns that migrating wildfowl might spread avian flu, a sensible measure would be to ban the shooting of all wildfowl in Europe, thereby preventing human contact with potential avian car- riers. However, no doubt by the time the various government agen- cies could get their acts together to make a decision it will be too late.’ In conservation terms, the most serious aspect of the latest bird flu outbreak is the risk it poses to wildfowl populations. The out- break at Qinghai Lake in western China in late spring may have killed up to 10% of the world pop- ulation of Bar-headed Geese Anser indicus. In Alaska, American scien- tists have been checking Steller’s Eiders Polysticta stelleri for signs of infection by bird flu. Wildfowl and waders from northeast Asia which mingle with birds on the North American coast of the Pacific could provide a route for infection into the USA: Alaska is likely to be the front line’ according to Hon Ip, a virologist at the US Geological Survey, although California, Oregon and Washington may also be vulnerable to virus transmission via birds that fly directly across the Pacific from southeast Asia. Species tested in Alaska for the H5N1 virus include ‘Black Brant’ Branta ber- nicla nigricans , Emperor Goose Anser canagicus, Pintail Anas acuta. Bar-tailed Godwit Lirnosa lap- ponica and Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata. The prospect of wild birds bringing bird flu to America prompted a hysterical response in the normally staid Wall Street Journal: ‘The worst-case scenario is that these birds - which can travel thousands of miles, from Scandi- navia to Senegal for instance - will become the epidemiologic equiva- lent of intercontinental ballistic missiles, capable of eluding even the strictest quarantine measures on the ground’ (8th August). For birders in Britain and Europe the worst-case scenario is that bird flu hysteria prompts calls for a cull of migrant wildfowl and waders when it is wild birds that seem to be the victims rather than the vectors of this disease. Joint statement www.birdlife.org/news/pr/2005/08/ avian_flu_position.html RSPB position www.rspb.org.uk/policy/ avianinfluenza.asp Dead Ducks Don’t Fly www.drmartinwilliams.com/ birdflu/birdfluintro.html Avian influenza: a statement from BTO/JNCC/RSPB/WWT In recent weeks, many bird- watchers will have become aware of considerable media interest in the subject of avian influenza or ‘bird flu’, following outbreaks in central Asia of the highly pathogenic type ot the H5N1 virus strain, which developed within poultry. Repre- sentatives from BTO, INCC, RSPB and WWT have been involved in discussions with the relevant gov- ernment agencies, principally to advise on the latest knowledge of the origins of birds wintering in the UK, migration routes and timing, and bird distributions within the UK. Such information is derived in large part from the hard work of volunteers working on schemes such as the BTO Ringing Scheme and the BTO/WWT/RSPB/ JNCC Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS). The overall assessment is that the chance of this strain of the virus being carried to the UK by a migrating bird is currently very low (and perhaps much less than the chance of transmission via illegally imported poultry). This is based 560 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 559-563 c on several pieces of evidence. Avail- able data indicate that, while some birds of a few species may arrive in the UK directly from the infected area, the numbers involved are likely to be low. Furthermore, although the available information is still somewhat limited, it appears that the virus is rapidly fatal to those wild birds contracting it. This further reduces the likelihood of infected birds being able to complete an arduous migration of over 3,000 km to the UK directly from an infected area. In addition, even if the highly pathogenic form of H5N1 avian influenza did make it to the UK, it is important to note that there are no known cases of transmission from wild birds to humans; in southeast Asia, the virus has spread (infrequently) to humans as a result of people coming into close contact with infected poultry in the confined proximity of poultry farms. Consequently, the risk to human health from wild birds car- rying avian influenza would cur- rently appear to be extremely low. Nevertheless, it is clearly sen- sible to keep the situation under review. A number of organisations are working to deliver a national News and comment surveillance programme for wild birds on behalf of Defra. This will include enhanced monitoring for sick or dead birds, coupled with a programme of faecal sampling from live, apparently healthy birds. As part of this process, we would ask birdwatchers to keep an eye out for any suspicious cases of large- scale mortality or sickness among wild birds. Wildfowl are potentially among the most vulnerable wild birds. Obviously, all birdwatchers- encounter dead birds occasionally, so common sense needs to be applied. However, if you should come across an incident that seems unusual, this should be reported to the authorities; the precise reporting route is being finalised as we go to press, but will be widely publicised via the organisational websites’*'. Government representatives will come to collect any bodies and, if appropriate, pass these on to the relevant laboratory for testing. Although there have been no proven cases of humans catching the disease from wild birds, the virus is spread through nasal secre- tions and faeces, so do not touch sick birds or corpses if this route of transmission is confirmed. Note D- that separate guidelines have been provided to ringers and these will be made available to anyone else who regularly handles wild birds. In general, however, to guard against a wide variety of illness including avian influenza it is always prudent to exercise basic hygiene (e.g. washing hands with soap, especially before eating) after coming into close contact with wild animals. We reiterate that, to the best of our current knowledge, we con- sider the chance of wild birds bringing highly pathogenic H5N1 to the UK to be very low and the potential for onwards transmission from wild birds to people to be very low. We are continuing to monitor the situation and any further developments will be com- municated widely, in the first instance via organisational web- sites. [*In the meantime, since bird flu is a ‘notifiable disease’, anyone finding the corpse of a wild bird that they suspect has died from bird flu should contact the nearest Defra Animal Health divisional office (see www.defra.gov.uk/ corporate/contacts/ahdo.htm or listings in the phone book). Eds ] Climate change impact confirmed The impact of climate change on British bird populations has been confirmed by The State of the UK’s Birds 2004. The report, by a coali- tion of conservation organisations, shows that there are both winners and losers in a warmer Britain. Most notably, 2004 was the worst breeding season on record for many seabirds, including Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla and Common Guillemots Uria aalge. The poor performance of seabirds around the North Sea has been blamed on the lack of sandeels Ammodytes , whose distrib- ution may be affected by sea tem- peratures. The cumulative population of wintering wildfowl and waders has dropped to its lowest level since the winter of 1993/94. Since the mid 1980s, the distributions of seven out of nine common species of wading bird have shifted their UK wintering distributions from the warmer west coast to the colder east coast, largely in response to milder winters. There is a contrac- tion in the range of birds restricted to high altitudes (such as Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis and Ptarmigan Lagopus muta) or high latitudes (such as Greenshank Tringa nebularia). Furthermore, a report published last year showed that Britain’s only endemic bird, the Scottish Crossbill Loxia scotica, is likely to see suitable climatic conditions move from the High- lands to Iceland - and this non- migratory finch is unlikely to move. Woodland birds, such as Lesser Spotted Woodpecker Den- drocopos minor and Willow Tit Parus montanus , continue to decline, especially in southern England. Research into their plight is investigating the potential impact of climate change in rela- tion to factors such as changes in woodland structure and quality. However, some formerly rare species are (metaphorically) coming out of the woods; the breeding ranges of the Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata , Wood Lark Lullula arborea and Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius are all spreading northwards. Warmer summer tem- peratures are also likely to lead to new colonists. This report tips Black Kite Milvus migrans, Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis , Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus and Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidis as potential breeding birds. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 559-563 561 News and comment Cormorant cull threatens British (sub)species The Government is issuing up to 3,000 licences per year for the control of Great Cormorants Pha- lacrocorax carbo in England and Wales - but what are the implica- tions for our native subspecies? Two forms of Cormorant occur in the UK, the continental sinensis (which breeds mainly in Europe, although many spend the winter here) and the native carbo. While these subspecies look quite similar, genetic work has shown that they are as genetically distinct as Carrion Corvus corone and Hooded Crows C. cornix , forms that are now classified as separate species. While the inland, tree-nesting sinensis has increased in numbers, heralding the calls for control, the cliff- nesting carbo has, like many seabirds in the UK, experienced a decrease in numbers. The effect of the proposed cull on the two dif- ferent forms is currently unknown. Stuart Newson, a population biologist at the BTO, said: ‘We know that the numbers of birds breeding at many traditional coastal colonies are in long-term decline and it is vital that we have a reliable census of wintering and breeding numbers, against which any change can be monitored.’ The only long-term data available for wintering Cormorants comes from WeBS counts, for which an unknown proportion of Cor- morant wintering sites are covered each year. These counts have been used to develop population models to assess the impact of the pro- posed cull, which suggest that the overall Cormorant population will not be adversely affected by these measures. However, there has been no distinction between the two forms in the computer models. A comprehensive survey is needed before the effect of the control measures on native carbo can be ascertained. Stuart adds: ‘Prelimi- nary investigation has shown that controlling the inland sinensis pop- ulation is unlikely to reduce their numbers, whereas controlling our native carbo Cormorants may lead to a major decline in their breeding population.’ Traditionally, Cormorants are coastal breeders on cliffs and islands, with just under 3,000 pairs in England and Wales. Since 1981, however, inland tree-nesting has increased in England and there are now several colonies comprising some 1,500 pairs, mostly sinensis. Unfortunately for native coastal birds, some of which move inland for the winter, it is extremely diffi- cult to tell the difference between the two forms in the field. Even researchers working on Cor- morants cannot identify every individual to subspecies. This added problem makes it virtually impossible to selectively control continental birds and so we need a proper understanding of the numbers and distribution of both forms across the UK. Field-guide pioneer dies When Richard Fitter died last month, aged 92, the Telegraph obit- uarist observed: ‘There can be few nature-watchers who have not, at some time or other, had the plea- sure of carrying a Richard Fitter book on their outings.’ Contrary to popular myth, it was not Roger Tory Peterson who produced the first field guide to the birds of Britain (and Europe), in 1954; Richard Fitter, together with the legendary Richard Richardson, produced the Collins Pocket Guide to British Birds in 1952. For many BB readers, this will have been their first proper bird book and is no doubt still treasured by those who possess a copy. My birding career started 20 years later and I remain eternally grateful to Herman Heinzel, Richard Fitter and John Parslow that, as a nine-year-old, the very first field guide that 1 picked up in WH Smith was not Peterson but instead the brand-new Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East or ‘Heinzel, Fitter & Parslow’ (HFP). It spoilt me from the start. Alongside Common Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus , my atten- tion was immediately distracted by Moussier’s Redstart P. moussieri and Giildenstadt’s Redstart P. ery- throgaster, and I’ve been distracted ever since. My horizons expanded to the boundaries of the Western Palearctic, five years before that term became a familiar one with the publication of the first volume of BWP. But rather than BWP , it is HFP that 1 still turn to more than 30 years later. Richard Fitter’s final interview - by Rob Hume - appears in the latest issue of the RSPB’s Birds magazine. It’s a fascinating profile of a wonderful all-round natur- alist. A full obituary will appear in BB in due course. English Hen Harriers in 2005 Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus have had one of their best breeding seasons for several years. English Nature’s Hen Harrier Recovery Project has reported that 19 breeding attempts resulted in 15 successful harrier nests, which pro- duced a total of 36 young. This is the highest number of successful nests and fledglings recorded since the project began, in 2002. The English breeding popula- tion of Hen Harriers remains extremely low, however, and is still more or less confined to the Bowland Fells in Lancashire, which contained some 80% of successful nests. Five young fledged from a nest on the RSPB’s Geltsdale reserve in Cumbria (Brit. Birds 98: 503) and there was also a successful nesting attempt in southern England. In the Bowland Fells, the harriers nest on the United Utilities estate, where they are monitored by the RSPB, and on the surrounding 562 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 559-563 News and comment > grouse moors, notably the Abbeystead Estate. This year, three of the four successful grouse-moor nests were in the Bowland Fells. Andy Brown, English Nature’s Chief Ornithologist said: 'We are very grateful for the co-operation of the Abbeystead Estate and their gamekeepers throughout this project. This estate is the only grouse moor to have breeding Hen Harriers recorded by the project every year. We owe them a great deal for showing how shooting and raptor conservation can coexist.’ Let us hope that other grouse- moor managers in the northern English uplands take note. The shameful persecution of Hen Har- riers remains the major barrier to their spread, as the 50+ pairs breeding on the (non-keepered) moors in the Isle of Man testifies. BirdLife makes Maltese cross BirdLife International and BirdLife Malta have turned up the heat on the Maltese Government with a formal complaint to the EU Com- mission about the Maltese failure to implement the EU Birds Direc- tive in relation to the island’s rampant bird hunting and trap- ping. It is well documented that thousands of migrating birds are shot illegally in Malta every year, including raptors such as Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus and Honey-buzzard Pertiis apivorus-, but to make matters worse, an esti- mated 100,000 Turtle Doves Strep- topelia turtur and other species with declining populations in Europe are shot each year, mostly on their spring migration, in com- plete conformity with national laws. BirdLife has asked the EU Commissioner, Stavros Dimas, to investigate and take the appro- priate steps to ensure that Malta, as a Member State, complies with the existing binding EU legislation. The complaint focuses on Malta’s failure to integrate and then imple- ment the Birds Directive’s provi- sions on hunting and trapping into national laws. Malta is breaching the Birds Directive because it allows hunting of Turtle Dove and Common Quail Coturnix coturnix in spring. Several other Maltese laws are not in line with the EU Birds Directive. For example, Malta also allows the hunting at sea of 12 species of waterfowl during their spring migration, and trapping of Turtle Dove, Quail, Song Thrush Turdus philornelos and European Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria with nets. Eagle-eyed rename eagle after I 75 years One Western Palearctic species that can reliably be encountered only in Jordan is Verreaux’s Eagle Aquila verreauxii. Except that it is not really Ver- reaux’s Eagle at all - it’s Verreauxs’ Eagle. Rogue apostrophes are a constant headache for BB’s vigilant subeditors but here’s one that has apparently evaded detection in all publications for 175 years - until now. In South Africa, where A. verreauxii is better known as the Black Eagle, the editors of the regional handbook (known simply as Roberts after its first compiler) have referred back to the original descriptions of ‘their’ birds to double- check the nomenclature. The name Verreaux has been applied to birds in seven different genera. In every case bar one, the birds were named after Jules Pierre Verreaux, the eldest of three brothers. However, when Rene Lesson named the eagle in 1830 after the type specimen was obtained in Cape Province, he apparently honoured both Jules and his brother Edouard; so it commemorates two Verreauxs and should correctly be named Verreauxs’ Eagle. For more about the brothers Verreaux see Biogra- phies for Birdwatchers by Barbara and Richard Mearns (Academic Press, 1988). Bernard Tucker Memorial Lecture The Bernard Tucker Memorial Lecture, organised by Oxford Ornitholog- ical Society together with the Ashmolean Natural History Society, and sponsored by British Birds , will be held at the University Museum of Natural History, Parks Road, Oxford, at 7.45 pm on Tuesday 1st November. The speaker this year will be Pat Monaghan, and her talk is entitled ‘Grow now, pay later: long-term consequences of conditions during early life in birds’. The entrance fee is a steal at £2.00 for what will surely be one of the highlights in this marvellous series. Contact David Hawkins (tel: 01993 880027) or Ivor Rhymes (tel: 01865 372620; e-mail: secretary@oos. org.uk). New Editorial Board member We are delighted to announce that Chris Kehoe has accepted our invitation to join the BB Editorial Board, from 1st September. Chris, who acts as Sec- retary of the BBRC sub-committee R1ACT and who regularly leads bird tours to parts of Asia and Africa, has a wealth of knowledge about bird identification and distribution, and we are certain that he will be a signifi- cant addition to the breadth of expertise on the board. We welcome Chris onto the BB team. Eds 1 00 years of BB With our centenary not too far away, we are considering making the first 100 volumes of BB available on DVD. All the text, figures, illustrations and photographs will be included, and. the text will be fully searchable. Before we pursue this project further, we wish to canvass readers’ opinions. The likely price will be in the region of £30.00-£50.00. Would you be interested? Please e-mail your views, positive or negative, to editor@britishbirds.co.uk British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 559-563 563 Sean Cronin Recent reports Compiled by Barry Nightingale and Anthony McGeehan This summary of unchecked reports covers mid August to early September 2005. Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca Chew Valley Lake (Somerset), 6th September; Vane Farm (Perth & Kinross), 7th-8th September. Zino’s/Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira/feae Filey (North Yorkshire), 11th August; Carnesore Point (Co. Wexford), 28th August; Galley Head (Co. Cork), 31st August. Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea 1,002, Annagh Head (Co. Mayo), 18th August. Great Shearwater Puffinus gravis 300, Bridges of Ross (Co. Clare), 29th August. Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus 247, Sumburgh Head (Shetland), 24th August. Little Shearwater Puffinus assimilis Galley Head, 28th August; Brandon Point (Co. Kerry), 29th August; Bridges of Ross, 31st August. Wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus 16 km SE of St Mary’s (Scilly), 13th August; 12 km S of St Mary’s, 15th August; 10 km S of St Mary’s, 17th August; 6 km SE of St Mary’s, 27th August; two, Bridges of Ross, 29th August. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Nanjizal (Cornwall), 12th and 17th August; Bowling Green Marsh (Devon), 16th August; Seaton (Devon), 17th August; Lodmoor (Dorset), 20th-28th August; Hinchinbrooke Country Park (Cam- bridgeshire), long-stayer to 8th September. 343. Juvenile Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla, Ballycotton, Co. Cork, September 2005. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Doxey Marshes (Staffordshire), 1 4th— 2 1 st August; Beddington Sewage-farm (Greater London), 18th August; Bacton (Norfolk), 21st August; Shapwick Heath (Somerset), 29th August; Frosterly (Co. Durham), 6th September. Black Stork Ciconia nigra Hulver Street (Suffolk), 13th August; St Mary’s, 27th August. Black Kite Milvus migrans Margate (Kent), 22nd August; Wells-next-the-Sea (Norfolk), 3rd Sep- tember; Borehamwood (Hertfordshire), 7th September. Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus Ferry- bridge (Dorset), 15th August; Dawlish Warren (Devon), 18th-22nd August; Coalhouse Fort (Essex), 5th-8th September; Cliffe (Kent), 5th September. American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica Near Anthorn (Cumbria), 14th August to 7th September; Broad Lough (Co. Wicklow), 31st August; Mull (Argyll), 3rd-7th September; Lewis (Western Isles), 3rd September; Fair Isle (Shetland), 8th September. Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva Campfield Marsh, 11th August, same, Drumburgh (both Cumbria), 12th August; Levington Creek (Suffolk), 23rd-29th August; Trimley Marshes (Suffolk), 6th September. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla Belfast 344. Adult Least Sandpiper Calidris minutilla, South Milton Ley, Devon, August 2005. 564 © British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 564-568 John Carter Recent reports C 345. Juvenile Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subrupcollis, Blakeney Point, Norfolk, September 2005. Harbour (Co. Down), 31st August to 7th September; Blennerville (Co. Kerry), 5th Sep- tember; Ballycotton, (Co. Cork), 6th-8th September. Least Sandpiper Calidri s minutilla South Milton Ley, 28th August, same, Thurleston Marsh (both Devon), 29th August to 7th September. White- rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis Cley (Norfolk), 1 1th— 1 2th August; Blackrock (Co. Kerry), 4th Sep- tember; Salthouse (Norfolk), 6th Sep- tember. Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii Slim- bridge (Gloucestershire), 11th and 21st August; Tacumshin (Co. Wexford), 26th August to 3rd September; St Agnes, 1st September, presumed same, St Mary’s, 1 st— 3 rd September, Tresco, 4th-5th September and Bryher (all Scilly), 8th September; Hayle Estuary (Cornwall), 1st Sep- tember; Saltholme Pool (Cleveland), 2nd-8th September; Lewis, 3rd-5th September; Black- rock Strand (Co. Kerry), 5th September; Newport Wetlands (Gwent), 6th September. Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis Two, St Mary’s, 22nd August, same, St Martin’s (Scilly), 23rd August; North Ronaldsay (Orkney), 23rd-26th August; Tyninghame Country Park (Lothian), 25th-29th August; Dungeness (Kent), 25th-26th August and 1st September; up to four, Tacumshin, 26th August to 8th September; Snettisham (Norfolk), 27th August to 3rd Sep- tember; Tresco, 29th August to 4th September; Ballycotton, 31st August, with two there on 1st Sep- tember; Broad Lough, 31st August; up to three, South Uist (Western Isles), 1 st— 8th September; up to four, Colliford Lake (Cornwall), 1 st— 8 1 h September; St Kilda (Western Isles), 1st September; one or two, Lewis, 2nd-7th September; Stithians Reservoir (Cornwall), 2nd-4th September; Prawle Point (Devon), 3rd September; Blakeney Point (Norfolk), 3rd-6th September; up to three, Tiree (Argyll), 3rd-8th September; three, Berneray (Western Isles), 3rd September; South Ronaldsay (Orkney), 5th September; Spurn (East Yorkshire), 7th Sep- tember; Arisaig (Highland), 8th September. Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus Rutland Water (Leicestershire), 9th August; Shannon Airport (Co. Clare), 2nd-7th Sep- tember. Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa favipes South Uist, 13th August to 8th September; Stiffkey Fen (Norfolk), 18th August; Tophill Low (East York- shire), 25th-29th August; Broad Lough, 30th August; Colliford Lake, 1st September. Spotted 346. Juvenile Wilson’s Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor with Black-headed Gulls Larus ridibundus, Farlington Marshes, Hampshire, August 2005. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 564-568 565 Rafael Armada John Carter Hugh Harrop George Reszeter Recent reports } 347. Adult Sabine’s Gull Larus sabini, Farmoor Reservoir, Oxfordshire, August 2005. Sandpiper Actitis macularius Doonbeg (Co. Clare), 27th-29th August. Wilson’s Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor Bowling Green Marsh, 1 8th— 2 1 st August, probably same Farlington Marshes (Hampshire), 2 1 st— 25th August; Bann Estuary (Co. Derry), 20th-28th August; Amble Braid (Northumberland), 2nd September. Laughing Gull Larus atricilla Waterside (Co. Galway), throughout August to at least 4th Sep- tember. White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leu- copterus Dun’s Dish (Angus), 14th— 15th August; Abberton Reservoir (Essex), 21st, 25th and 28th August; Draycote Water (Warwickshire), 24th August; Rutland Water, 28th— 3 1st August then three, 8th September; Wilstone Reservoir (Hert- fordshire), 31st August; Swords Estuary (Co. Dublin), 3rd September; Oare Marshes (Kent), 3rd September; Tacumshin, 3rd-8th September; Weston-super-Mare (Somerset), 7th-8th Sep- tember. European Bee-eater Merops apiaster Great Yarmouth (Norfolk), 18th August; Carnesore Point, 27th August; Toab, 28th August to 1st September then Lerwick (both Shetland), 5th-8th September. Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris St Mary’s, 5th-6th September. Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola Cley, 22nd August. Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia Fair Isle, 5th-6th September; Unst (Shetland), 6th September; Brae (Shetland), 8th September. Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata Foula (Shetland), 5th-6th September. Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola Lodmoor (Dorset), 21st August. Booted Warbler Hippo- lais caligata Inner Fame (Northumberland), 17th August; Bardsey (Gwynedd), 30th August; Winterton (Norfolk), 1st September; Noss (Shetland), 2nd September; Easter Quarff (Shetland), 2nd-3rd September; Fair Isle, 4th-6th September. Greenish Warbler Phyllo- scopus trochiloides Unst, 1 3th— 15th August; Thornham Point (Norfolk), 1st September; Noss, 31st August to 5th September; Filey, 3rd-5th September; up to two, Whitburn (Co. Durham), 5th-8th September; Flamborough 348. European Bee-eater Merops apiaster, Toab, Shetland, August 2005. 566 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 564-568 Recent reports C (East Yorkshire), 5th-8th September; Quendale (Shetland), 5th-6th September; Dursey Island (Co. Cork), 7th— 8th Sep- tember. Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus bore- alis Unst, 2nd September; Bressay (Shetland), 2nd-6th September; Foula, 3rd-4th September; South Ronaldsay, 4th September; St Mary’s, 6th-8th September; St Agnes, 8th September. Western Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli St Agnes, 29th August and 2nd September, presumably same St Mary’s, 30th August to 8th September; Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork), 4th-8th September. Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor Spurn, 2nd-3rd September. Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator St Mary’s, 29th August to 1st September; Warham Greens (Norfolk), 6th September. Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus Spurn/Kilnsea (East Yorkshire), 1 2th— 1 5th August, another 3rd-7th September; Stornoway, Lewis, 16th August; Friockheim (Angus), 20th-24th August; Blakeney Point, lst-2nd September; Out Skerries (Shet- land), 2nd-4th September; Carnyorth (Cornwall), 3rd September; Trewellard (Cornwall), 5th September; Bardsey, 5th September; Lewis, 5th September; Flam- borough, 6th-8th September; Landguard (Suffolk), 7th-8th September. European Serin Serinus serinus Hayling Island (Hampshire), 11th August. 349. Wryneck Jynx torquilla, Horwich, Lancashire, September 2005. 350. Thrush Nightingale L usclnla luscinia. Fair Isle, Shetland, September 2005. British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 564-568 567 Rory Tallack Chris Galvin Bill Boston Hugh Harrop Recent reports C > 352. Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis, Unst, Shetland, September 2005. 351. Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides, Quendale, Shetland, September 2005. 354. First-winter Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor Spurn, East Yorkshire, September 2005. 353. Juvenile Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio, Stiffkey, Norfolk, September 2005. 568 British Birds 98 • October 2005 • 564-568 John Hewitt Mike Pennington London Camera Exchange Winchester SL300RT* Carl Ziess Vario-Tessar T* 38-1 15mm Zoom Lens. 3.17 Mega Pixels. 1/2000sec-1sec, 2sec, 4sec & 8 second shutter speeds. Up to 3.5 frames per second in highest quality, c/w 28mm Filter Adapter. I Call for latest price /^D©@ ZteoDgM® New U4R 4 Mega Pixel version. 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See out website fot o mop. Forking: 50 yards post out premises • first left Field .Days Alternative venues to Morden at which you an try and buy our equipment in the field are given below. We aim to show our full range of equipment but it helps us to help you if you let us know your interests before each Field Day. Repain an also be handed in/colleaed. 10.00 am to 4.00 pm usually. Sevenooks Wildfowl Reserve On the A25 between Riverhead ond Sevenooks Bat ond 8oll Station on 2 Oct, 6 Nov, 4 Dec & 8 Jan Pagham Harbour LNR On the B2145 into Selsey, West Sussex 30 Oct, 27 Nov, 18 Dec & 29 Jan Dinton Pastures Country Park Neat Reading (M4, A329(M) Woodley turnoff) then A329 to Winnersh ond Winnetsh Station (63030) 9 Oct The Kent Wildlife Trust, The Tylond Bom, Sondling, Neat Maidstone, Kent 23 Oct Bough Beech Nature Reserve/Reservoir About 4 miles south of the A25/A21 junction (access from B2042 or 62027) neat Ide Hill, Kent. Info centre north of reservoir. 16 Oct, 20 Nov, 18 Dec & 22 Jan College lake Wildlife Centre On the B488 neot Bulbourne, Tring, Herts. 13 Nov Canon, Helios, Kowa, Leica, Monfrotto, Miyauchi, Nikon, Opticron, Optolyth, Sentinel, Swarovski, Zeiss, etc. Used items also on our web site. 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McGhie and Dmitri Vi Logunov 600 S3 The Carl Zeiss Award 2005 Colin Bradshaw, Chris Bradshaw, Chris Kehoe and Roger Riddington Regular features 604 Conservation research news Colin Beale and Len Campbell 606 SQ Rarities Committee news BBRC seeks two new members 607 Notes Common Cuckoo parasitising Barn Swallow Stephen Bowden Short and variable incubation period of the Sky Lark Paul F. Donald 609 Reviews Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide Pelican Blood The New Birds of the West Midlands Birds Britannica In a Natural Light: the wildlife art of Chris Rose Bird Photography 6 1 4 News and comment Adrian Pitches 618 @ Monthly Marathon David Fisher 6 1 9 Recent reports Barry Nightingale and Anthony McGeehan © British Birds 2005 Saving the Sky Lark: new solutions for a declining farmland bird Paul F. Donald and Tony J. Morris ABSTRACT Research on the Sky Lark Alauda arvensis has revealed a great deal about the causes of this species’ sustained population decline in recent decades. Of the many changes in its farmland habitats, the most important, though not the only, cause of this decline is the switch from spring- to autumn-planting of cereals. The productivity of pairs in autumn-sown cereals may be as low as half that of birds in spring-sown crops, because the taller, denser crop becomes unsuitable for nesting and feeding earlier in the breeding season. Cereals support a high proportion of breeding Sky Larks in the UK, and these changes in productivity probably explain much of the observed national population decline. Identifying the mechanisms of decline has led to the development of a targeted solution. Leaving small, rectangular patches of bare ground (‘Sky Lark plots’) within autumn-sown cereals appears to provide many of the benefits of spring-sown cereals at very low cost. Sky Larks in fields with these plots raise more chicks in a season than those in fields without plots and often strongly select those parts of fields in which they have been created. On one farm, Sky Lark numbers more than doubled after the introduction of Sky Lark plots. Funding is now available to pay farmers in England to create these plots, which is cause for hope that Sky Lark populations will show signs of recovery in the near future. The collapse of farmland bird populations over the last 30 years is widely regarded as one of the most pressing issues in UK bird conservation. Formerly abundant species such as House Sparrow Passer domesticus, Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris and Sky Lark Alauda arvensis now find themselves on the UK Red List of Birds of Conservation Concern fol- lowing decades of severe and sustained decline (Gregory et al. 2002). Some species have declined in truly spectacular fashion; the Tree Sparrow Passer montanus population, for example, has decreased by over 90% since 1970. Such rapid rates of decline in wild bird popula- tions are rare, and show that huge areas of our countryside have suffered massive and relatively sudden environmental degradation. A similar situation prevails in a number of other western European countries (BirdLife International 2004; Gregory et al. 2005), particularly those with intensively managed agriculture. This general pattern of severe decline appears to be unique to farmland birds and has occurred during a period of unprecedented change in farming methods (Chamberlain et al. 2000), suggesting that the main causes are agri- cultural, rather than factors that might also affect birds in other habitats. It has been diffi- cult to prove the links between agriculture and bird population trends because of the difficul- ties of identifying which of the many changes in farming are responsible, and of determining which stage of each species’ life cycle is affected and how. However, after a decade of intensive 570 © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 Saving the Sky Lark c research, it is now clear that changes in agricul- ture are the main, and possibly the sole, cause of farmland bird declines. The exact mechanisms differ among species (Newton 2004); for example, decreasing productivity is the root cause in some species, while increased adult mortality is important in others. Some species are declining through changes in grassland management, some through changes in arable agriculture and some through changes in non- farmed habitats, such as hedgerows. Some species have been adversely affected by pesti- cides, others apparently not. For most species, a strong link can now be drawn between some measure of agricultural change and population decline. A number of potential non-agricultural factors, particularly increased numbers of predators such as Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus and Magpies Pica pica , continue to be implicated in certain quarters, but there is currently little scientific evidence to support this. Of all the birds that have disappeared from huge areas of our countryside during the last quarter of a century, few can have been more sorely missed than the Sky Lark. Its towering song flight is no longer the ubiquitous sight and sound it once was, and the species has become something of a figurehead in the fight to restore farmland bird populations. It has also become one of the most intensively studied species in Europe. This research started in Switzerland in the 1980s with the pioneering work of Alex Schlapfer and Markus Jenny, and continues in many countries to this day. A recent summary of this enormous body of research shows that certain results are being produced consistently by independent projects, and that the cause of the decline is becoming clear (Donald 2004). Since cereal crops (mainly wheat and barley) hold a high proportion of the UK’s (and western Europe’s) breeding Sky Larks (Donald 2004), any changes in their management could potentially bring about significant population changes. As a result, much recent research has focused on the (often unexpectedly complex) interaction between Sky Larks and cereals, and has shown that subtle changes in the physical structure of cereal crops have had a profound impact on the Sky Lark. The causes of decline Results from different research projects consis- tently point to the importance of changes in the ) 355. Sky Larks Alauda arvensis are still widespread in the UK, but no longer ubiquitous; their numbers have more than halved during the past 30 years, with a particularly steep decline in the early 1980s. timing of planting and harvesting of cereal crops. In 1970, around 75% of the UK’s cereals were spring-sown, i.e. the cereals were planted in the spring, would develop and grow during the summer and then would be harvested in late summer or early autumn. After harvest, the stubble would often be left through the winter until ploughing and replanting was carried out in the following spring. Now, spring-sown cereals (or ’spring cereals’) have been largely replaced by autumn-sown cereals (also called ‘winter cereals’), which presently comprise around 80% of the UK’s cereal acreage. These higher-yielding and more drought-tolerant varieties are planted in the autumn, grow through the winter and the following spring and summer, and are harvested as early as mid July. The stubble is ploughed in soon after harvest and the following season’s crop planted as early as September. Several research projects have confirmed that Sky Lark densities are higher in spring- sown than in autumn-sown cereals, suggesting British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 571 Mike McKovett/RSPB-images.com Paul Donald Saving the Sky Lark c } 356. Sky Lark Alauda arvensls nest on a 'tramline' in late June. From June onwards, there are few alternative nest-sites for Sky Larks in increasingly tall and dense winter cereals. Fig. I. Changes in nest placement in relation to tramlines in winter and spring cereals, as calculated by statistical models. As the breeding season progresses, the proportion of nests built immediately adjacent to tramlines increases in both crop-types, but more rapidly so in winter cereals. From data in Donald et al. 2002. Nests next to tramlines are more than twice as likely to fail as nests built further into the crop. that the former offer some advantages to the birds. Further investigation has revealed exactly what these advantages are. Most important is the physical structure of the crops. Because they have been growing for a longer period, autumn- sown cereals are taller and denser than spring- sown crops by the time the Sky Lark’s breeding season reaches its peak. This means that Sky Larks have difficulty penetrating the crop to feed and nest, whereas in the lower, more open spring-sown cereals, Sky Larks have a sward structure that allows both access to feeding and nesting sites and cover from predators. A clear demonstration of this can be found by looking at how Sky Larks use the one part of the crop that never has any vegetation, the so-called ‘tramlines’ left for tractors that create such striking geometric patterns in modern cereal fields. In autumn-sown cereals, Sky Larks start the breeding season by placing their nests away from these tramlines but, as the season pro- gresses and the crop becomes increasingly dense and impenetrable, an increasing proportion of birds are forced to build their nests right next to such tramlines (plate 356). By contrast, in more open, spring cereals, a lower proportion of all the season’s nests are placed directly adjacent to these tramlines (fig. 1). This has a profound impact on the outcome of these nests, since predators as well as tractors use tramlines as an access route through the crop. Nests built adja- cent to tramlines are, in fact, around twice as likely to fail as nests sited further into the crop (Donald eta/. 2002). Furthermore, birds nesting in winter cereals are increasingly forced either to feed solely along the tramlines, where food is scarce, or to fly to other habitats to feed, with the associated costs of energy expenditure and exposure to predation. In spring-sown cereals, birds get more of their food from the crop they nest in. So, the more rapid development and denser swards of winter cereals effectively force birds out of the crop and into habitats which are unsuitable for both nesting and feeding. The switch from spring to autumn planting has had further impacts on Sky Lark popula- tions. The early harvesting of winter cereals not only curtails the species’ breeding season, but may also lead to the destruction of active nests. Consequently, birds settling in autumn-sown cereals face increasing problems of nest failure and food shortage as the breeding season pro- gresses, and from the middle of June, when breeding conditions reach their optimum else- where, many birds in autumn-sown cereals have already ceased nesting. Many pairs may have time for only one nesting attempt, which, in a species like the Sky Lark that relies on multiple nesting attempts to offset high nest-predation rates, is insufficient to maintain population levels (Donald 2004). In spring-sown cereals, however, the habitat structure probably approaches its optimum at this time and, as a result, birds in spring-sown cereals may rear twice as many chicks in a season as their neigh- bours in autumn-sown crops. This difference is probably sufficient to explain the decline in the UK population in arable areas. This is borne out by historical data, and there is a remarkably strong relationship between the area of spring- 572 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 Saving the Sky Lark C > UK area of spring-sown cereals (ha x 1 ,000) Fig. 2. The relationship between the area of spring- sown cereals planted each year (1968-96) and the population index of Sky Larks Alauda arvensis in the UK, as recorded by the BTO Common Birds Census. Each point represents a different year. Sky Lark populations were higher in years with more spring- sown cereals. From Donald & Vickery (2000). sown cereals planted in each year and the UK Sky Lark population (fig. 2). It would be a mistake, however, to assume that changes in cereal management are the sole cause of declines in Sky Lark populations. Although a smaller proportion of Sky Larks nest in grassland, changes in the management of this habitat have been just as great as those in cereals, and birds in grassland have suffered as a result. In particular, the conversion of low-input hay meadows to high-input silage fields has led to a huge increase in nest losses. Traditional grass meadows were often cut just once, at the end of the breeding season, providing Sky Larks and other ground-nesting birds with good nesting cover throughout the summer. In con- trast, modern grass crops are cut more fre- quently, sometimes as often as once every four weeks, giving nesting birds insufficient time to raise their chicks. Nests that survive the cutter become exposed to predators and usually do not last long. One study in Switzerland found that harvesting destroyed virtually all Sky Lark nests in grass crops, and similar results have been reported elsewhere (Donald 2004). Declines have also been noted in upland habi- tats, such as marginal upland agricultural land and moorland (Hancock & Avery 1998; Fuller et al. 2002), for reasons that are still poorly under- stood. However, because a higher proportion of the UK’s Sky Larks nest in cereals than in any other habitat, more effort has gone into researching the species in this crop-type than in any other, and so the often subtle changes in habitat management that drive population trends are most clearly understood in the low- lands. Reversing the decline The discovery of the importance of crop struc- ture to Sky Larks and other species (Wilson et al. 2005), and in particular the unfavourable 357. Although the majority of research on the Sky Lark’s Alauda arvensis decline in farmland in the UK has focused on cereals, it is clear that significant changes in grassland management (in particular the fact that modern-day grassland is cut more frequently than traditional meadows, sometimes as often as once a month during the growing season) have seriously affected Sky Lark populations too. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 573 David Kjaerl RSPB-images.com Roger Buisson Saving the Sky Lark c > 358. Aerial view of ‘Sky Lark plots' in a field of winter-sown cereals at the RSPB’s Grange Farm, in Cambridgeshire. nature of the sward structure of winter cereals, suggested to researchers at the RSPB that mea- sures to open up the sward of winter cereals might produce some of the benefits of spring- sown cereals while still maintaining the high yields of the winter crops. Research in several European countries has independently demon- strated the Sky Lark’s requirement for short, sparse vegetation for successful breeding (Schlapfer 1988; Odderskaer et al. 1997; Donald 2004). This finding led to the idea of deliber- ately creating such areas within winter cereals, although it was clear that bare patches within or adjacent to the crop provide no guarantee of suitable nesting or foraging areas - as described above, tramlines make poor nesting habitat for Sky Larks because of the high rates of nest failure (Donald et al. 2002). Consequently, in designing measures to open up sward structure to nesting or foraging birds, it was important to consider all aspects of their habitat use and ecology. A second, crucially important consideration was the practicality and acceptability to farmers of creating alternative habitats within inten- sively managed and financially important winter cereals. In order to reverse the popula- tion decline of a species as widespread as the Sky Lark, any prescriptive measures would need to be widely adopted. This means that they need to be easy to create and to manage, and to have minimal negative impact on profitability. If there are associated costs in terms of labour, materials or loss of yield, then compensation pay- ments are necessary, for example through agri-envir- onment schemes (payments made to farmers through the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy to make environ- mental improvements to their land). A final consider- ation was that solutions were likely to differ in their effectiveness among crop- types and regions. Having thus identified the extent of the problem, the likely mechanisms causing the birds’ decline, and the various potential pitfalls (for both birds and farmers) in reversing it, research effort has now switched away from diagnosing the causes of the problem to piloting and testing practical solutions. Options to encourage farmers to return to spring cropping would be the ideal solution for the Sky Lark, but given that in many areas (par- ticularly in southern and eastern England) spring cultivations are now regarded as high risk or difficult to accommodate within the core work schedule, this is impractical. An alterna- tive, low-cost solution is to manipulate the sward structure of existing winter cereals to mimic some of the advantages of spring-sown crops. To this end, RSPB and the Sustainable Arable Farming For an Improved Environment (SAFFIE) project have developed the concept of undrilled (i.e. unplanted) patches, also known as ‘Sky Lark plots’ (plate 358). These patches, approximately 4 m by 4 m, are created at a density of two per hectare by briefly turning off the seed drill during sowing. Patches are posi- tioned away from tramlines to minimise access by the wide range of mammalian predators that move through the crop. The resulting plots are then treated in exactly the same way as the sur- rounding cereal crop, including pesticide use to control potential weed infestations in the patches. Although herbicide use generally restricts the growth of pernicious weeds, the lack of crop competition, together with a trickle-off effect from shutting off the seed drill (giving the edges of the patches an intermediate 574 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 Alice Davey Saving the Sky Lark c > 359 & 360. ‘Sky Lark plots’ in winter-sown cereals, in April (left) and again in June (right). These photographs show the development of ground vegetation that offers nesting and feeding opportunities for Sky Larks Alauda arvensis later in the breeding season. In England, Environmental Stewardship payments are available to farmers who create Sky Lark plots. structure of low-density cereal plants), results in most patches developing a low, sparse vegeta- tion cover of grass, broadleaved arable weeds and crop, ideal for nesting and feeding Sky Larks (plates 359 & 360). Early results from 15 English farms in the SAFFIE project indicate that the provision of these undrilled patches has a remarkable effect on Sky Lark reproduction. Sky Larks are able to breed more successfully, and for longer, in winter wheat with undrilled patches compared with a conventional winter crop. At the height of the breeding season, in June, fields with undrilled patches hold 30% more Sky Larks and twice the density of nests compared with fields without patches. During the early part of the breeding season, while conditions in winter cereals are still suitable, there appears to be almost no difference in Sky Lark breeding per- formance between fields with and without Sky Lark plots. However, in the all-important period from June onwards, when the great majority of Sky Lark nesting attempts are made, birds nesting in cereal crops with patches did considerably better than those in crops without (fig. 3). Across the whole breeding season, nests in crops with patches raise an average of 0.5 more chicks per breeding attempt (and 1.5 more later in the breeding season) than those in conventional crops. These data suggest that pro- viding patches in winter wheat could increase the number of chicks reared by nearly 50%, a massive increase in productivity and one cer- tainly capable of reversing recent declines. Since the introduction of Sky Lark plots at the RSPB’s demonstration farm in Cambridgeshire, the population has more than trebled (fig. 4). At this site, there is also evidence that Sky Larks have largely deserted wheat crops without plots in favour of those which have them (fig. 5). Pre- liminary results suggest that the main benefit of Sky Lark plots relates to feeding, as birds are able to find insect food more easily in these sparsely vegetated areas (Morris et al. 2004). Further research within the SAFFIE project continues until 2006, and will focus on the effects of the provision of sown-grass and flower field margins in addition to the patches. Although the striking success of the undrilled patches in our trials suggested that, if widely adopted, they could bring huge benefits to Sky Lark populations, the problem of how to compensate farmers for the extra work and loss of yield that the wider deployment of these patches would inevitably incur still had to be addressed. Thankfully, the solution was at hand in England in the form of agri-environment schemes. Following successful demonstrations of the effectiveness of Sky Lark plots, they were rapidly included in the new Department of the Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs (Defra) Entry Level Environmental Stewardship Scheme in England as ELS option EF8 (‘Sky Lark plots’). Owing to the relatively small areas of winter cereals grown in the other parts of the UK, Sky Lark plots are not currently available as an agri-environment measure in Northern Ireland, Scotland or Wales. In England, however, farmers wishing to introduce Sky Lark plots to their winter cereals can now receive the funding to do so. The option is easily created and maintained during existing farming opera- British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 575 Tony Morris Saving the Sky Lark c > 2.0 Fig. 3. The number of Sky Lark Alauda arvensis nests per 1 0 ha (blue bars) and number of chicks produced per nest (yellow bars) in fields of winter wheat, with and without undrilled patches ('Sky Lark plots’) in 2002-03. Results are from a number of different farms. Standard error bars are shown. The calculation of the number of chicks produced per nest takes into account nests that were predated or failed for other reasons and so produced no chicks. tions and is likely to be profitable for farmers, with costs estimated to be between £2.00 and £5.00 per hectare in loss of yield (depending on the price of wheat and size of the plots), com- pared with £ 10.00/ha available in subsidy. If widely adopted in winter cereals, Sky Lark plots have the potential to help to reverse the decline of the Sky Lark in the arable areas of eastern England, a region where the population con- tinues to decline (Raven et al. 2005). This is likely to be particularly effective if steps are also taken to improve conditions in winter through the provision of winter stubbles (Gillings et al. 2005). In those regions where winter cereals are less widespread, research on solutions for reversing Sky Lark declines has been more limited. Within Europe, pro- jects investigating breeding success in mixed (and gen- erally less intensive) farmed environments are ongoing in Germany and Switzer- land. These include mea- sures similar to those on trial in the UK, and other initiatives such as no-input and non-harvested cereal strips and ‘Buntbrachen’ (wildflower strips). Results suggest that unsprayed and unfertilised cereal strips (sown at double the normal drill spacing) and wild- flower strips both have posi- tive effects on Sky Lark numbers. Both of these options also create sparsely vegetated swards, which in turn improve access for nesting and foraging ( Jenny 1990, 2004; Illner et al. 2004). Further studies are at the pilot stage, or being planned, in a number of other European countries. The study by Milsom et al. (2000) of grazing marshes, a habitat that can hold higher densities of breeding Sky Larks than just about any other (Browne et al. 2000; Donald 2004), identified large, unenclosed marshes with tussocky grass swards, situated away from roads and power lines, as the most preferred. These requirements have also been reported from other habitats and the maintenance of open, lightly grazed and rel- Fig. 4. Sky Lark Alauda arvensis population trend at the RSPB’s Grange Farm, in Cambridgeshire. Among the Sky Lark-friendly measures introduced here, ‘Sky Lark plots’ (see text) were first introduced in 2001, 6-m field margins in 2003 and experimental set-aside in 2004. 576 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 Saving the Sky Lark c > Fig- 5. The distribution of Sky Lark Alauda arvensis nests in a field at the RSPB’s demonstration farm, in Cambridgeshire, The blue dots show the distribution of nests in 2002, a year in which no 'Sky Lark plots’ (see text) were available. The green dots show the distribution in 2004, a year in which plots (shown in black) were present in half the fields. This shows that nesting activity tends to concentrate around the plots when they are present. atively undisturbed landscapes should be pri- oritised in areas where substantial non-arable populations are present. Wakeham-Dawson & Aebischer (2001) provided guidelines for how Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) manage- ment prescriptions can be modified to increase Sky Lark populations on downland. Measures introduced into ESA management include revi- sions of mowing dates, grass management and the inclusion of undersown spring barley. As no results on population trends in the ESAs have been published since adoption of the revisions, it is impossible to say how effective they have been. Regrettably, there is still little published research on the important breeding populations in upland and marginal upland areas. These habitats have seen some of the greatest declines in Sky Lark populations in recent years (Raven etal. 2005). The successful development and trialling of Sky Lark plots, and their subsequent integration into national agricultural policy, raises hopes that conditions for this species during the breeding season will improve. Rough calcula- tions suggest that the population decline in arable areas of England could be stabilised if as few as 15% of winter cereal crops contain Sky Lark plots. The whole process, from initial research through development and testing to adoption into national policy, represents a rare example of a targeted and practicable conserva- tion initiative that could protect the population of a widespread species throughout large parts of its range. Attempts to protect such wide- spread species through, for example, the cre- ation of nature reserves could not protect any- thing more than a tiny proportion of their pop- ulation. Similar schemes now need to be developed, tested and implemented for other declining farmland species. The development and deployment of such ‘smart’ research -based schemes represents the only practical way that the UK Government can reach its 2020 target to reverse farmland bird declines (Vickery et al. 2004). The example of the Sky Lark shows that such an approach can be both practical and economical, and that the 2020 target can be achieved. The continued financial support of agri-environment schemes is likely to be an essential part of this process. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the many landowners and researchers whose dedicated work is described in this article. SAFFIE is a Sustainable Arable Link project funded by conservation groups, farming and crop-protection indus- tries, supermarkets and Government sponsors. For full details of research and the partners involved, see http://www.saffie.info/. Chris Bailey provided details of population trends at the RSPB farm. All the photographs of Sky Larks for this paper including the image on the front cover of this issue, were sponsored by SAFFIE partner Jonathan Tipples, to whom we are extremely grateful. References BirdLife International 2004. Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status. BirdLife International, Cambridge. Browne, S. J., Vickery, J. A., & Chamberlain, D. E. 2000. Densities and population estimates of breeding Skylarks Alauda arvensis in Britain in 1 997. Bird Study 47: 52-65. Chamberlain, D. E„ Fuller, R.J., Bunce, R. G. H„ Duckworth. J. C„ & Shrubb, M. 2000. Changes in the abundance of farmland birds in relation to the timing of agricultural British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 577 Saving the Sky Lark c > intensification in England and Wales .J.Appl. Ecol. 37:771-788. Donald, R F. 2004. The Skylark. Poyser London, — & Vickery, J. A. 2000.The importance of cereal fields to breeding and wintering Skylarks Alauda arvensis in the UK. ln:Aebischer; N.J., Evans, A. D„ Grice, RV., & Vickery J.A. (eds.), Ecology and Conservation of Lowland Farmland Birds: 1 40- 1 50. BOU.Tring. — , Evans, A. D„ Muirhead, L. B„ Buckingham, D. L, Kirby, W. B„ & Schmitt, S. I, A. 2002. Survival rates, causes of failure and productivity of Skylark Alauda arvensis nests on lowland farmland. Ibis 144: 652-664. Fuller R. J.,Ward, E„ Hird, D„ & Brown, A. F. 2002. Declines of ground-nesting birds in two areas of upland farmland in the south Pennines of England. Bird Study 49: 1 46- 1 52. Gillings, S., Newson, S. E., Noble, D. G., &Vickery, J.A. 2005. Winter availability of cereal stubbles attracts declining farmland birds and positively influences breeding population trends. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 272: 733-739. Gregory R, D„ van Strien, A.J.,Vorisek, R, Gmelig Meyling, A.W., Noble, D. G„ Foppen, R. R B., & Gibbons, D. W. 2005. Developing indicators for European birds. Phil.Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 360: 269-288. — .Wilkinson, N. I., Noble, D. G., Robinson, J. A., Brown, A. F., Hughes, J„ Procter D. A., Gibbons, D. W„ & Galbraith, C. A. 2002.The population status of birds in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man: an analysis of conservation concern 2002-2007. Brit. Birds 95: 4I0-H48. Hancock, M„ & Avery, M. 1 998. Changes in breeding bird populations in peatlands and young forestry in northeast Sutherland and Caithness between 1988 and 1995 .Scott. Birds 19: 195-205, Miner H., Salm, R, & Braband, D, 2004. Modellvorhaben ‘Extensivierte Ackerstreifen im Kreis Soest’. LOBF-Mitteilungen 2: 33-38. Jenny, M. 1 990.Territorialitat und Brutbiologie der Feldlerche Alauda arvensis in einer intensiv genutzten AgrarlandschaftJ. Orn. 1 3 1 : 24 1 -265. — 2004. Wildtierfreundlicher Getreideanbau - Die IP-SUISSE fordert die Feldlerche. Information sheet, SchweizerischeVogelwarte, Sempach, & IP-SUISSE. Milsom,T R, Langton, S, D„ Parkin, W. K., Peel, S„ Bishop, J. D., Hart, J. D„ & Moore, N. R 2000. Habitat models of species' distribution: an aid to the management of coastal grazing marshes .J.Appl. Ecol. 37: 706-727. Morris, A. J., Holland, J. M„ Smith, B„ & Jones, N. E. 2004. Sustainable Arable Farming For an Improved Environment (SAFFIE): managing winter wheat sward structure for Skylarks Alauda arvensis. Ibis 1 46 (S2): 155-162. Newton, I. 2004. The recent declines of farmland bird populations in Britain: an appraisal of causal factors and conservation actions. Ibis 1 46: 579-600. Odderskaer; R, Prang, A., Poulsen, J. G., Andersen, R N„ & Elmegaard, N. 1 997. Skylark Alauda arvensis utilisation of micro-habitats in spring barley fields. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 62: 21-29. Raven, M.J., Noble, D. G., & Baillie, S. R, 2005. The Breeding Bird Survey 2004. BTO Research Report 403,Thetford. SchlapferA. 1988. Populationsokologie der Feldlerche 36 I . Winter-sown cereals are occupied by Sky Larks Alauda arvensis at a much lower density than traditional, spring-sown crops, particularly later in the breeding season. From the middle of June, when breeding conditions reach their optimum elsewhere, many birds in autumn-sown cereals have already ceased nesting.This paper describes a solution, which has the potential to be effective at a national scale, to the problems caused by the density of winter cereals at this time of year. Alauda arvensis in der intensiv genutzten Agrarlandschaft. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 85: 309-371. Vickery, J. A., Bradbury, R. B., Henderson, I. G„ Eaton, M.A., & Grice, RV. 2004.The role of agri-environment schemes and farm management practices in reversing the decline of farmland birds in England. Biol. Conserv. 119:1 9-39. Wakeham-Dawson, A., & Aebischen N.J. 2001 . Management of grassland for Skylarks Alauda arvensis in downland Environmentally Sensitive Areas in southern England. In: Donald, R F„ & Vickery J. A. (eds.), The Ecology and Conservation of Skylarks Alauda arvensis: 1 89-202. RSPB, Sandy. Wilson, J. D.,Whittingham, M.J., & Bradbury, R. B. 2005. The management of crop structure: a general approach to reversing the impacts of agricultural intensification on birds? Ibis 147:453^63. Dr Paul F. Donald and Tony J. Morris, RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL 578 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 570-578 David Kjaer/RSPB-images.com Population size, breeding biology and origins of Scottish Purple Sandpipers Rik D. Smith and Ron W. Summers ABSTRACT The tiny population of Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima breeding in the central Highlands of Scotland fluctuated between one and five pairs between 1978, when first discovered, and 2001. A detailed study was carried out between 1987 and 1993 and the mean arrival date was 19th May.There were between one and three pairs in the main study area (c. 4 km2). Clutch size was four eggs in each of five nests monitored and the median hatch date was 27th June. All five clutches hatched, though two eggs failed (hatchability of 90%). A conservative estimate for productivity was about 0.9 fledged young per pair. In most cases, only the male attended the brood, though a female attended one brood while the male remained elsewhere in the territory. Adults, fledged young and broods were associated mainly with Three-leaved Rush Juncus trifidus , Stiff Sedge Carex bigelowii, and Rhacomitrium lanuginosum heaths and margins of streams, pools and flushes. The return rate for adults was 64.7% (se = I 1.6%), but only one bird marked as a chick returned. Although based on small samples, the demographic parameters appear typical for small sandpipers, and the population has persisted for 25 years. The small area of Arctic/alpine habitat is perhaps restricting the size of the population. In the long term, climate change is a threat to montane birds in Scotland, including breeding Purple Sandpipers. Comparisons of measurements of adults and eggs with those for other breeding populations of Purple Sandpipers indicate that the Scottish birds originated from Norway. The Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima breeds mainly in the Arctic, from Canada in the west to the Taimyr Penin- sula in Russia in the east. However, the breeding range also extends south to islands in Hudson Bay (56°N), Iceland (64-66°N), the mountains of southern Norway (60°N) (Cramp & Simmons 1983) and to the central Highlands of Scotland (57°N), where a tiny group of birds exists. Breeding was first recorded in 1978 (Dennis 1983) and a small population has persisted since then. Apart from data collected on numbers, no information has been published about this isolated group. This paper describes aspects of the habitat use, breeding biology and survival of Scottish Purple Sandpipers. It is likely that the Scottish population was derived from one of the groups of wintering birds in the UK. These have been attributed to two main breeding populations, characterised by differences in bill length (Atkinson et al. 1981; Nicoll et al. 1988). Short-billed birds orig- inate from southern Norway (Rae et al 1986), while long-billed individuals may originate from Canada. Given the geographical variation in body size among Purple Sandpiper popula- tions (Engelmoer & Roselaar 1998), data on biometrics of Scottish breeders were used to identify their likely origin. © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 579 Scottish Purple Sandpipers c > Methods The long-term data on numbers of breeding pairs were obtained primarily from the records of the Rare Breeding Birds Panel (Spencer et al. 1991; Ogilvie et al 2002, 2003). Observations of breeding Purple Sandpipers were made at three montane sites at an altitude of over 1,000 nr in the central Scottish High- lands, between 1987 and 1993. Visits to the three sites varied from several times per week between May and mid August for area A (c. 4 km2) to only once or twice over the course of each season for areas B and C (c. 2 knr2 and 8 km2). Probably all breeding pairs in area A were seen, but pairs could have been missed in areas B and C, especially those which failed to produce chicks. Purple Sandpipers generally occur at low breeding densities (Tonrkovich 1985; Summers & Nicoll 2004) and are inconspicuous. Incubating adults are cryptic, sit for long spells (Swanberg 1945; Cresswell & Summers 1988) and crouch when approached, often allowing humans to within 1-2 m before flushing (Bengtson 1970). Consequently, little attempt was made to locate all nests. Instead, nests were searched for in loca- tions where pairs had been seen frequently, or where nests or nest-scrapes had been found pre- viously. However, all pairs that hatched chicks in area A are likely to have been located, because adults usually gave alarm calls when humans approached within c. 50 m of chicks. After locating a nest, the length and breadth of eggs was measured with dial callipers to 0.1 mm, and egg volume determined from the equation used by Vaisanen et al. (1972) for Dunlins C. alpina, a species with similarly shaped eggs. Eggs were also floated in water to give an indication of the stage of incubation (fresh eggs sink in water whereas well- incubated eggs float). Visits were then made every few days (without necessarily flushing the incu- bating adult), with increased frequency when hatching was expected. Some adults were trapped, either at the nest or when accompa- nied by a brood of chicks, and were given a unique combination of colour rings. Chicks were usually ringed when a few days old in area A, but some may have escaped detection in areas B and C. The following measurements were taken from adults: maximum wing length, bill length (exposed culmen), head length (nape to bill tip) and foot length (tarsus plus longest toe; Anderson 1975), all with a stopped rule to 0.5 mm or 1 mm; and mass with a Pesola balance to 1 g. The total head length of growing chicks of known age was used to derive a growth curve, and this was used to calculate the age of chicks whose nests had not been discov- ered. Adult males were distinguished from 362. A pair of Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima on their breeding grounds in the central Highlands of Scotland, May 2004. Derek McGinn Scottish Purple Sandpipers C > Fig. I. Numbers of breeding pairs of Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima in Scotland. Black line shows data from Dennis ( 1 983), Spencer et ol. (1991) and Ogilvie et al. (2002, 2003); blue line shows data from this study. females by their shorter bill lengths (Cramp & Simmons 1983). The vegetation community, as characterised by McVean & Ratcliffe (1962), and physical fea- tures were recorded within a 1-m radius of both full-grown birds (adults and fledged young) and broods throughout the breeding season. Only the dominant and up to two co-dominant habitat features were noted per sighting. At two nests, the percentage cover of habitat features within 1 m was estimated. Results Arrival on the breeding grounds During the detailed study, one colour-ringed bird was seen at an altitude of 920 m on 9th May, some 130 nr elevation below, and 1 km from, its breeding territory. Otherwise, the ear- liest birds were recorded between 13th and 31st May in each of the seven summers (mean = 19th May). In at least five years, birds were already paired when first seen. Numbers The maximum number of breeding pairs per season fluctuated between one and four between 1978, when breeding was first recorded, and 2001, as reported to the Rare Breeding Birds Panel (fig. 1). During the inten- sive study (1987-93), between one and five pairs were discovered each year. In some years, more were reported to the RBBP than were recorded in the intensive study. Between one and three pairs were present in the main study area (A) of c. 4 km2 (table 1). In addition, single unpaired adult males were identified in two summers and they displayed over large areas. Known (colour-ringed) pairs remained together prior to laying, and ranged over areas of between 100 and 150 ha. Table 1 . Number of breeding pairs and breeding success of Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima on the Scottish breeding areas from 987 to 1993. All counts especially in study areas B and C, and of broods. are minima. Values in parentheses indicate that no young were seen but were assumed to be present by the behaviour of the attendant male Broods more than 20 days old had fledged * denotes colour-ringed chicks. 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 411 years Area A Number of pairs 3 2-3 3 2 1 1 1 13-14 Broods hatched 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 12 Broods >10 days old 2 2 2 1 1 0 1 9 Broods >20 days old 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 6 Areas B and C Number of pairs 0 1 0 3 1-2 0 1 6-7 Broods hatched 0 * 1 0 3 1 0 1 6 Broods >10 days old 0 (1) 0 3 0 0 1 4-5 Broods >20 days old 0 (1) 0 3 0 0 1 4-5 Number of chicks rin ged 1 2* 7 4 4* 4 1 23 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 581 Scottish Purple Sandpipers c > Laying and incubation One nest was found before laying commenced. The clutch of four eggs was laid between 25th and 30th May and hatched on 22nd June (incu- bation period of 23 days). In the following summer, the same female laid her fourth (last) egg on 1st June and the clutch hatched 22 days later. In total, five nests were located, all of which produced young (no failures in a total of 102 days of observation). A sixth nest with at least two broken eggs was located post-failure near a well-used footpath. The pair concerned re-nested on 26th or 27th June and the male was subsequently located with a brood late in the season. There were four eggs in all five extant clutches. The mean egg dimensions were 34.57 mm (sd = 0.94, range = 32.9-36.5 mm) x 25.94 mm (sd = 0.62, range = 25.0-27.3 mm; n = 20) and mean volume was 10.61 cm3. The percentage cover of plants and boulders within 1 m of two nests was as follows: nest 1, 70% Three-leaved Rush Juncus trifidus , 20% boulders, 10% Dwarf Willow Salix herbacea ; nest 2, 50% Mat-grass Nardus stricta , 30% Dwarf Willow, 10% moss and 10% Stiff Sedge Carex bigelowii. Hatching dates and chick survival The first nests hatched on 18th June, and the peak of hatching occurred soon afterwards (median date = 27th June, fig. 2). Two late nests hatched on approximately 20th and 28th July and may have been relays after previous failures. Pairs incubated through snowfalls of 10-15 cm that caused many neighbouring Dotterels Charadrius morinellus and Snow Buntings Plec- trophenax nivalis to fail (Smith 8t Marquiss 1994). The five monitored clutches (20 eggs) pro- duced 18 hatched chicks (90% hatching success), giving a mean brood size at hatching of 3.6. Although no systematic observations of brood survival were made, the alarm calls of adults attending broods signalled when chicks were still alive. However, some adults were less demonstrative and broods moved over large dis- tances (observations up to 2 km apart), so the estimate of brood survival was conservative. In area A, 12 of 14 pairs were seen with hatched chicks. Of ten broods that were first seen when less than five days old, at least eight survived to ten days old and at least five reached 20 days old. One chick could fly when 19 days old, so young fledged successfully from at least five broods. Including all study areas, 19-21 pairs produced fledged young from at least 10-11 broods (table 1). The average brood size decreased from 2.3 chicks (n = 14 broods) in the first week after hatching, to 1.5 (n = 8 broods) in the second week, and 1.7 (n = 6 broods) in the third week. These values for brood sizes are probably under- estimates because the chicks became widely dis- persed and difficult to count. Therefore, a conservative estimate for productivity was 0.81-0.98 fledged young per pair. The oldest fledgling known to have a parent in attendance was 26 days old, and the last date on which an adult was seen with a brood was 2nd August. Solitary chicks younger than 25 days old were not observed, though such chicks would have been difficult to detect if the adult had deserted them. Fledged chicks were also inconspicuous and were rarely seen more than once after fledging. Independent chicks from six broods were seen when between 27 and 37 days old, and apparently vacated the breeding grounds in late July or early August. Brood-rearing was undertaken mostly by males (10 of 11 broods). However, one female was seen attending chicks and this unusual behaviour requires a full descrip- tion. In May and June 1989, a previously colour- ringed male Purple Sand- piper was seen with an unringed female on the same territory that he had occupied the pre- Fig. 2. Hatching dates of Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima clutches on the Scottish breeding areas between 1987 and 1993. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 582 Scottish Purple Sandpipers c > vious summer. The unringed female was located with a two-day-old brood in the same area on 24th June and she was trapped and colour-ringed. Subsequently, she was seen with her brood on four occasions until they were 19 days old, at which time they could probably fly. Her mate was never seen with the brood, although he was seen in the territory when the young were five days old. The male was origi- nally colour-ringed in 1987, and in both this year and 1988 he was seen alone attending broods on six occasions when the chicks were between five and 15 days old. Furthermore, in the summer following the female’s unusual behaviour (1990), the same pair nested together again, and on this occasion, only the male attended the chicks (on three occasions when they were between two and ten days old). In 1991, the female, but not the male, returned to breed. Only her new mate (ringed on the nest) was seen with the brood, on three occasions when they were 10-18 days old. Adult return rates Seven adults (five males and two females) were colour-ringed (all but one in area A) and five returned in the following summer(s). The overall return rate between summers was 64.7% (se = 11.6%, n = 17 possible returns). All 12 returns of ringed birds (including one reported in 1996) were to the same territory where the bird was ringed. The oldest bird was ringed as an adult in 1991 and was still breeding on the same territory in 1996. Individuals that failed to return in one summer were not seen subse- quently, indicating permanent emigration or death. One female was found long dead on the study area two summers after it was ringed. On another occasion, freshly plucked breast feathers were found, suggesting raptor predation. Only one ringed chick out of 22 ringed up to the penultimate year of the study is known to have returned to breed. It was ringed in 1987, and recorded as a male with a fledged brood in area B in 1990 (c. 3 km from its natal nest). It bred in the same area in 1991. Habitat use Full-grown Purple Sandpipers were most fre- quently associated with Juncus trifidus heaths (table 2). They were also found on dry ridges dominated by Carex bigelowii , Rhacomitrium lanuginosum heaths, or in wet, mossy flushes and by streams or pools. Adults with broods had similar habitat associations (table 2). The only significant difference between the two groups of birds was in their frequencies of occurrence with Rhacomitrium (%2 = 4.6, P = 0.03). Almost all birds (94% of 63 observations) were on flat or gently sloping ground. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 583 Derek McGinn Scottish Purple Sandpipers c ) Table 2. Habitat characteristics associated with Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima breeding in Scotland, both full-grown birds (pairs, single adults and fledged young) and broods. Totals exceed 100% because more than one habitat characteristic may occur at a site. Habitat feature Full-grown birds ( n = 48) Broods (n = 26) All birds Juncus trifidus 56.3% 53.8% 55.4% Carex bigelowii 27.1% 7.7% 20.3% Rhacomitrium lanuginosum 20.8% 0.0 13.5% Nardns stricta 4.2% 7.7% 5.4% Empetrum sp. 2.1% 0.0 1.4% Deschampsia flexuosa 2.1% 0.0 1.4% Snow-bed community 4.2% 7.7% 5.4% Boulders 2.1% 0.0 1.4% Flush 8.3% 11.5% 9.5% Pool 0.0 7.7% 2.7% Stream 4.2% 15.4% 8.1% Adult biometrics and origin Females were larger than males, especially for bill length (by 16.1% and 3.3-10.9% for other linear measurements; table 3). Most birds retained some winter feathers on the head and mantle. No moult of flight feathers was recorded in the six adults trapped with young chicks. A comparison of the bill lengths of different breeding populations clearly shows that the mean length for Scottish birds closely matches that of birds from southern Norway (fig. 3). This is also the origin of one of the main win- tering groups in the UK (Summers 2002). Egg size also varies among Purple Sandpiper popu- lations, and the Scottish eggs had similar pro- portions to Norwegian eggs (mean length 36.16 mm, breadth 25.78 mm and volume 10.93 cm3; Innes 1979; Summers & Nicoll 2004). There- fore, it is most likely that the Scottish breeding population originated from Norway. Discussion Occupancy and habitat use One observation indicated that birds arrive on lower ground before occupying breeding terri- tories. Few of such arrivals would have been detected, however, because the lower slopes were not searched systematically. In most summers, large tracts of snow-free ground (including previous nest-sites) were available long before the birds returned, indicating that spring arrival was probably not dictated by snow conditions. Any snowfall in late May could have delayed breeding temporarily, but once the birds were nesting, moderate falls of snow did not prevent incubation. Although the number of territories counted in area A was probably accurate, 1-2 pairs per year may have gone undetected in areas B and C, especially if these failed to hatch chicks. Therefore, only the breeding density in area A (0.25-0.75 pairs per km-) is regarded as accurate. This density is less than that reported for southern Norway (2-3 pairs per km2; Cane 1979), but not as low as in some parts of the Arctic (Tomkovich 1985; Summers & Nicoll 2004). Colour-ringed birds were not known to move to other parts of the study area, and both sexes returned to their original territory, even if a partner did not return. There were two recorded instances of unmated birds (both males). This is perhaps not surprising in such a small Sandpipers Calidris maritima from different breeding populations, arranged from west to east. Vertical lines show 95% confidence limits. The data are from Summers et al. ( 1 988), Nicoll et al. ( 1 99 1 ) and Engelmoer & Roselaar (1998). 584 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 Scottish Purple Sandpipers > Table 3. Biometrics of breeding Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima in Scotland. Values in parentheses represent measurements of the same male in two different summers. Males (n = 5) Measurements Mean Wing length (mm) 122, 124, 124, 128, 131 125.8 Bill length (mm) 23, 24, 24, 26, 27 24.8 Head length (mm) 47,49,48.5,49.5,54 49.6 Foot length (mm) 46, 46.5,47, 49,51 47.9 Mass (g) 50,58,60,64,(48, 66) 57.8 Females (n = 2) Wing length (mm) 130, 137 133.5 Bill length (mm) 28.5,29 28.8 Head length (mm) 54,56 55.0 Foot length (mm) 47,52 49.5 Mass (g) 71 71.0 and thus potentially sex-biased population. The only Scottish chick known to return and breed was not seen in its first and second summers. It is likely to have bred for the first time as a one- year-old bird (Summers 8c Nicoll 2004), however, and escaped detection in two summers. Adults and broods were both found pre- dominantly in Arctic/alpine habitats (Juncus tri- fidus and Carex bigelowii heaths), which are restricted in Britain to northern montane areas (McVean 8c Ratcliffe 1962). Here, the vegetated areas form a mosaic with areas of bare ground or boulders. Boulder areas are common to other breeding areas in the Arctic and perhaps provide some shelter for the chicks. The birds were also found by water or in flushes. Breeding and population dynamics Given a laying period of five days, an incuba- tion period of 22-23 days (similar to values given by Cramp & Simmons 1983 and Pierce 1997), and a median hatching date of 27th June, most clutches would have been initiated in late May/early June, approximately 1-2 weeks after the birds were first seen on the breeding grounds. Therefore, breeding commenced at a similar time to that in southern Norway (Innes 1979). Hatching success was high and about half the pairs reared broods, with a mean size of 1 .7 chicks, giving an overall productivity of around 0.9 fledged young per pair. Comparable data from Svalbard showed that a mean clutch size of 3.84 gave rise to 3.77 hatched chicks per suc- cessful nest. Nest survival was 49% so that the number of chicks hatched per pair was 1.85. Further losses of 33-50% before fledging brought the productivity to 0.93-1.24 fledged young per pair (Payne 8c Pierce 2002). Thus, pro- ductivity in Scotland was not dis- similar to that on Svalbard, and was better than that for other calidrid sandpipers: 0.7 fledged young per adult for Temminck’s Stints C. tem- minckii, where the male and female have a clutch each (Hilden 1978); 0.52 fledged young per pair for Dunlins (Soikkeli 1967); and 0.26-0.30 fledged young per pair for a declining population of Dunlins (Jonsson 1988). The return rate (probably close to annual survival) of the Scottish breeding Purple Sandpipers was 64.7% (se = 11.6%). This return rate is similar to that for Purple Sandpipers in Svalbard (54% of females and 60% of males; Payne 8c Pierce 2002) and lies in the middle of values for other small monoga- mous calidrid sandpipers: 50% and 47% for male and female Semipalmated Sandpipers C. pusilla; 58% and 49% for Western Sandpipers C. mauri ; 65% and 38% for Least Sandpipers C. minutilla ; 77 and 71% for Dunlins; and 74% for Rock Sandpipers C. ptilocnemis (Oring 8c Lank 1984; Gill et al. 2002). It was, however, smaller than that recorded during a study of wintering Purple Sandpipers in Scotland, including Nor- wegian birds (79.5%, Summers et al. 2001). Other studies of wintering Purple Sandpipers estimated annual survival at 75% and 57% in two years (Burton 8c Evans 1997), and 36% and 80% for first-years and adults respectively (Dierschke 1998). There was a very low return rate of birds marked as chicks. Only one chick (4.5%) was found out of 22 marked up to 1992, although the small number colour-ringed made detection difficult. Natal philopatry is typically low in sandpipers, however (3.1% for Semi- palmated Sandpiper, 3.7% for Western Sand- piper, 8.1% for Temminck’s Stint and 3.6-11.2% for Dunlin; Oring 8c Lank 1984). Therefore, although based on small sample sizes, the different components of the demog- raphy of Scottish Purple Sandpipers are not dis- similar to those of other small sandpipers, and may be adequate to maintain the small popula- tion. The counts derived from Rare Breeding Birds Panel data (fig. 1) suggest repeated fluctu- ations between one and four pairs. This insta- bility could have been due to differences in British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 585 Robin Chittenden (www.harlequinpictures.co.uk) Scottish Purple Sandpipers > survey effort between years, though even in our study area A, which was consistently well-sur- veyed, there were losses of up to two pairs. Despite these erratic changes, the population has persisted, but not expanded, in the main area. Purple Sandpipers have been recorded on other Scottish mountains, so it is possible that the Scottish breeding population is larger than the number recorded for the main area. Never- theless, the area of Arctic/alpine habitat is small in Scotland and it is unlikely that the popula- tion of Purple Sandpipers will ever be large. Parental care In most monogamous single-clutch waders, the parents share incubation. However, males often assume a greater role towards hatching and play a greater part in brood care (reviewed by Miller 1985). In some species, both parents remain with the brood for a week or more after hatching, before one parent, usually the female, leaves the brood in the care of the male until the chicks fledge (e.g. Dunlin, Soikkeli 1967; Serni- palmated Sandpiper, Gratto-Trevor 1991). In the closely related Rock Sandpiper, the male usually attends the chicks (68-81% of observa- tions) and on some occasions both parents attend, at least until the chicks are 8-9 days old (Gill et al. 2002). Initially, it was thought that only male Purple Sandpipers cared for the chicks (Swanberg 1945), but later observations showed that some females occasionally did so (5-10% of broods; Pierce 1997; Summers & Nicoll 2004). A possible explanation for the early departure of the female is that, by the end of incubation, she is in a poorer condition than the male, having laid the clutch and participated in incubation, which restricts feeding (Ashkenazie & Safriel 1979; Holt et al. 2002). Until this study, there was no information about the behaviour of the male when the female did attend the brood. In the case of the one brood in our study attended by the female, the male was still present in the terri- tory. Moreover, he was known to have reared broods alone in both of the previous and following summers. The retention of brood-rearing behaviour in female Purple Sand- pipers would presumably be advan- tageous if they lost their mate during incubation or at hatching, but in this case, the male was available and apparently capable of attending the brood. Therefore, it is unknown why the female took on brood-rearing duties in this case. In the Rock Sand- piper, a female was seen persistently chasing her mate after the chicks hatched, and she alone attended the chicks (P. Tomkovich in litt.). Females were rarely seen after the brood hatched, and males left quickly after the chicks reached indepen- dence. None of the trapped adults had begun wing moult (birds trapped with chicks up to nine days old). Young departed within two to three weeks of fledging, having lost the majority of their chick down. These 364. Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritime wintering in the UK have been linked with two main breeding populations, in Norway and Canada. Those from Norway comprise about a quarter of the British wintering population, and the majority occur on the east coast, between Kincardineshire and Yorkshire (Summers 2002). The Norwegian breeding population is likely to be the source of the birds breeding in the Scottish Highlands. 586 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 Scottish Purple Sandpipers ( birds may have departed immediately for the wintering areas, as found for Purple Sandpipers that breed in the mountains of Norway (Atkinson et al. 1981; Cresswell & Summers 1988). Population origins Comparisons of biometrics of adults and eggs indicated that the most likely origin of the Scot- tish population is Norway. In Britain during winter, Norwegian birds occur mainly on the east coast, between Kincardineshire and York- shire, with smaller numbers elsewhere (Nicoll et al. 1988). It is conceivable that the colonisation of the Highlands may not have been from the main wintering areas on the east coast, but from the relatively few wintering birds on the west coast, as they flew across Scotland on spring migration. Threats The small size of the breeding population means that it could easily die out through chance events or suffer inbreeding. Nonetheless, the population has persisted for 25 years, so several generations of birds have been involved. Purple Sandpipers are tolerant of people passing by, so hill-walkers should not disturb them unduly. Unfortunately, the breeding area is known to egg-collectors, who pose a greater threat. In addition, corvids Corvus spp. and gulls Lams spp. are common predators of nests in the Scottish mountains. Purple Sandpiper nests are difficult to find, however, because the sitting bird does not flush easily, so few clutches appear to be lost to collectors or natural preda- tors. During this study, nest predation was not recorded. One nest with broken eggs was found, although it is not known why this nest failed. It appears that adults are occasionally lost to predators. Climate change is regarded as a threat to montane birds in Scotland and it is likely that their numbers will decline as the climate becomes warmer (Hill et al. 1999). This process is likely to affect Scotland’s small population of breeding Purple Sandpipers. Acknowledgments Fieldwork for this study was carried out while RDS received support from Scottish Natural Heritage's Moun- tain Plateau Ecology Project. The drafts were kindly com- mented upon by Keith Duncan, Mark Hancock, Pavel Tomkovich and Jeremy Wilson. References Anderson, A. 1 975. A method of sexing Moorhens. Wildfowl 26: 77-82. Ashkenazie, S., & Safriel, U. N, 1 979. Time-energy budget of the Semipalmated Sandpiper Caldris pusi/la at Barrow, Alaska. Ecology 60: 783-799. Atkinson, N. K., Summers, R. W., Nicoll, M„ & Greenwood, J. J. D. 1981. Population, movements and biometrics of the Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima in eastern Scotland. Ornis Scand. 1 2: 1 8-27. Bengtson, S.-A. 1 970. Breeding behaviour of the Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima in West Spitsbergen. Ornis Scand. I: 17-25. Burton, N. H. K., & Evans, R R. 1 997, Survival and winter site-fidelity of Turnstones Arenaria interpre s and Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima in northeast England. Bird Study 44: 35-44. Cane, C. 1 979. Observations on the behaviour of the Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima during incubation and hatching. In: Innes, J. L. (ed.), Cambridge Norwegian Expedition 1978 Report: 59-66, Cambridge. Cramp, S., & Simmons, K. E. L. (eds.) 1 983. 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Summers, Lismore, Mill Crescent, North Kessock, Inverness IV1 3XY 588 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 579-588 Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull: 1 00 years on Henry A. McGhie and Dmitri V. Logunov 366. Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea, near the Indigirka River, northeast Siberia, June 1 999. Chris Schenk ABSTRACT June 2005 marked the centenary of one of the most notable events of twentieth-century ornithology: the discovery of the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea, in northeast Siberia, by Russian ornithologist Sergei Buturlin. News of the discovery was announced in Britain to a meeting of the British Ornithologists’ Club on 13th December 1905 by Henry Dresser, Buturlin’s long-term correspondent.This article provides details on Buturlin’s famous discovery and investigates the relationship between Buturlin and Dresser. Previously unpublished photographs of Buturlin and his expedition are presented, together with new information extracted from correspondence between Dresser and Buturlin that is preserved at the Museum of Local Lore, History and Economy in Ulyanovsk, Russia, which houses the largest surviving archive on Buturlin. © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 589 © The Museum of Local Lore, History and Economy in Ulyanovsk, Russia c Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull > Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea is surely one of the world’s most beautiful gulls. Following its discovery in June 1823, it became surrounded by an almost mystical aura; its extreme rarity and ethereal beauty combined with the harsh and remote environment where it occurred to make it one of the most highly prized trophies of the nineteenth century natur- alist-collectors. It was named in honour of the famous Arctic explorer, James Clark Ross (1800-62), who shot the first specimens on the tiny island of Igloolik, in the Fury and Hecla Strait (separating the Melville Peninsula and Baffin Island, in Canada), while on an exped- ition in search of the Northwest Passage under the command of Captain W. E. Parry. Following its discovery, and until the end of the nine- teenth century, the species was encountered only occasionally by polar explorers, and was represented in museum collections by fewer than half a dozen specimens. Inevitably, it became an object of fascination and desire for naturalists and collectors alike. Romantic stories of exploration and hardship ensured that the species’ reputation remained aristocratic (Densley 1999). When De Long’s ship Jeanette sank after two years drifting in the ice on a quest to reach the North Pole, Raymond New- combe, the ship’s naturalist, displayed uncommon valour in saving three skins of this rare bird under his shirt. Parts of the Jeanette were later discovered 3,000 km away on the 367. Sergei Buturlin, photographed in 1906, when serving as a High Court Judge in Wesenberg. coast of southern Greenland. This inspired the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen to embark on an incredible journey with his ship, the Fram, which was deliberately allowed to become ice-bound during his attempt to reach the North Pole. During this epic journey, Nansen encountered Ross’s Gulls flying north near the New Siberian Islands, Russia, and noted: This rare and mysterious inhabitant of the unknown north, which is only occasionally seen, and of which no one knows whence it came or whither it goeth, which belongs exclusively to the world to which the imagi- nation aspires, is that I have always longed to discover (see Potapov 1 990) Buturlin and his expeditions Sergei Alexandrovich Buturlin (plate 367) was one of the most eminent and influential Russian ornithologists, whose scientific achieve- ments ‘go far beyond the limits of what a scholar is usually able to succeed' (Dement’ev 1938). Buturlin was born in 1872 in Montreaux, Switzerland, into a distinguished and noble family. His father, the son of a general and rich landlord, was well educated and a close friend of Leo Tolstoy for over 30 years (Kozlova 2001 ), while his mother was descended from a Polish family (Borodina & Gromova 2002). Buturlin graduated with a Diploma in Law from the Higher School of Jurisprudence, St Petersburg, in 1895, then went on to become a Justice of the Peace in Wesenberg (now Rakvere), Estonia. After the October Revolution in 1917, he moved to Moscow, where he worked in various govern- ment commissions on natural resources and agriculture (Sudilovskaya 1973). Here he remained until his death in 1938. Although he did not receive any formal training in the biological sciences, Buturlin was an extraordinarily talented ornithologist and left a tremendous scientific legacy. During the period from 1888 until 1936, he published some 2,000 papers, articles and notes, and over 20 books covering a range of subjects including zoology, ballistics and hunting practice (Kozlova 2003). According to Potapov (1990), some 40% of the content of the journal Mes- sager Ornithologique, published in Moscow between 1910 and 1927, consisted of Buturlin’s contributions, including numerous papers and comments. During his scientific career, Buturlin described 202 new species and subspecies, 15 genera and subgenera and two subfamilies ot 590 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 The Manchester Museum (ZDHI21 1 15) c Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull > birds (Dement’ev 1938). His most significant contribution was his four-volume Complete Identification Guide to the Birds of the USSR , published in stages between 1934 and 1941, which was jointly written with his student G. P. Dement’ev (Ruzskii 1938; Kozlova 1996). Buturlin combined interests in ornithology, col- lecting and hunting, which resulted in seven monographs on ballistics (Buturlin 1985), of which two are especially well-known: the two- volume monograph Firing with Bullet (1912-13) and Fowling-piece and Firing It (1915). Buturlin’s interest in ornithology inspired him to explore the vast regions of Russia, resulting in at least eight collecting expeditions. The first of these took him to the Volga basin and the Baltic Sea in the 1880s, while still sur- prisingly young for such ventures. In 1900 and 1902, he travelled to the remote islands of Kolguev and Novaya Zemlya in the Barents Sea. These expeditions were followed, in 1905-06, by one that took him to Yakutia and the Kolyma in northeastern Siberia, which was to result in his most celebrated achievement. He made later expeditions to the cis-Altaian steppes of western Siberia in 1909, to the Chukchi Peninsula in 1925 and, last of all, to the Archangel Region in 1936, only two years before his death (for detailed accounts of these expeditions, see Dement’ev 1938 and 1948, Kozlova 2001, and Borodina & Gromova 2002). The Kolyma expedition of 1905-06, during which the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull were discov- ered, earned Buturlin worldwide acclaim, although few realise that this discovery was an accident. Buturlin had been commissioned by the Russian government to set up a state supply system to the Kolyma region, where the pre- vious system had been destroyed during the Russian-Japanese war. Buturlin was, at this time, a High Court Judge and not a professional ornithologist. Before his journey, he contacted the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St Peters- burg and requested materials with which to form natural history collections. His request was favourably received, and his supplies were sent to the remote Kolyma region ahead of him so that they were ready to be collected on his arrival in the summer of 1905. The 1 905-06 expedition Buturlin departed from St Petersburg on 20th January 1905, accompanied by two assistants, I. A. Shul’ga and E. P. Rozhnovskii (Buturlin 1906b). The party travelled via Irkutsk, which they left on 22nd February, and arrived at Yakutsk, 2,500 km away, on 9th March. It took them a further month to travel from Yakutsk to Srednekolymsk on the Kolyma River, a distance of over 3,000 km, using teams of horses and dogs (Uspenskii 1973). Buturlin subsequently described his journey to the Kolyma in three short papers (Buturlin 1906a), of which the first was written when Buturlin was still staying in the Kolyma, full of the excitement and atmos- phere of his trip: I crossed and re-crossed the delta by means of dogs during the first half of May, when it was in the depth of winter from a European point of view; heavy snowstorms then occurred daily and lasted all day long. Buturlin set up camp on 8th May in the small village of Pokhodsk, by the Kolyma River, a settlement founded by orthodox Old Believers (plates 368 & 369) in the time before Peter the 368. Pokhodsk village, with the Kolyma River in the background, photographed during Buturlin’s 1905-06 expedition. 369. ‘NE Siberia, tundra E from the mouth of Kolyma, a Chukchi's family', photographed during Buturlin's 1905-06 expedition. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 591 Peter Kennerley c Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull Great (Potapov 1990). He also spent a week at the remote Sukharnoe village, studying the techniques used by the local seal hunters. The temperature at the time ranged between — 10°C and — 18°C, although at times the ice melted during the day and froze again at night, so that the party was forced to travel at night. In 1905, the ice began breaking up on the Kolyma River on 25th May, and continued to flow for over a week. Some of Buturlin’s companions also spent time collecting elsewhere, on the nearby Ola and Alazeya Rivers (Buturlin 1906b). Densley (1999), in his excellent monograph on Ross’s Gull, quotes part of a beautiful passage from Buturlin, describing how he first saw the birds on the Kolyma: I went to the river - where the fathom- thick ice was still quite safe — and came across several dozens [of Ross's Gulls]. The sun was shining brightly, and in the distance each pair appeared like so many roseate points on the bluish ice of the great stream... The place was full of life when undisturbed; plenty of geese, some swans, flocks of Scaup [Aythya marila], and Long- tailed Duck [ Clangula hyemalis ], pairs of Baikal Teal [Anas formosa], clouds of both species of phalarope [ Phalaropus lobatus and Ph. fulicarius], mixed parties of Bar-tailed Godwit [L/mosa lapponica] and Grey Plover [ Pluvialis squatarola ], Spotted Redshank [ Tringa erythropus ], Broad-billed Sandpiper [ Limicola falcinellus], Temminck's Stint [ Calidris temminckii], Curlew Sandpiper [C. ferruginea], Dunlin [C. a/pina ], Pectoral Sandpiper [C. melanotos ], and Sharp-tailed Sandpiper [C. acuminata ] were constantly to be seen at or near it, in company with lively Black-capped Terns [Arctic Terns Sterna par- adisaea ] and flocks - mournful and silent - of Sabine's Gulls [Larus sabini ]. (Buturlin 1 906a) In the boggy alder scrub and tundra, Buturlin discovered three breeding colonies of Ross’s Gull. He thus earned himself the great honour of being the first person to observe and describe the breeding habits, habitats and some aspects of migration of this most beautiful bird. Many ornithologists had expected the nesting grounds of Ross’s Gull to be found in the barren, high Arctic tundra, so Buturlin’s dis- covery of the first nests in the southern tundra zone, among thickets of willow Salix, birch Betula and alder Alnus, came as a complete sur- prise. Densley (1991) provided a detailed account of a well-studied breeding colony on the tundra of the lower Kolyma River, c. 140 km to the northwest of Cherskiy. In this region, Ross’s Gulls nested in small, scattered colonies, often alongside Arctic Terns, which provided protection from marauding Vega Gulls Larus ?argentatus vegae. Other predators in the nesting area included Arctic Stercorarius para- siticus and Long-tailed Skuas S. longicaudus , Peregrine Falcons Falco peregrinus and Arctic Foxes Vulpes lagopus. The study colony was located in a marsh on 370. Adult Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea near the settlement of Chokurdakh, on the lower Indigirka River, northeast Siberia, June 1994. 592 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull open tundra, approximately 1.0-1. 5 km in diameter, and comprised numerous water-filled polygons (the surface of periglacial areas is often characterised by the presence of ground materials arranged in a variety of symmetrical geometric shapes, such as polygons) and a small elliptical-shaped lake, 200 m in length and 100 m wide. The dominant vegetation was Water Sedge Carex aquatilis , which grew on ridges formed by ice polygons, while towards the edges and on the drier ridges, various grasses (Poaceae), willows including Tealeaf Willow Salix pulchra. Dwarf Birch Betulci nana , Marsh Cinquefoil Potentilla pahistris and the lousewort Pedicularis sudetica grew. Within the marsh and, in particular, in the wet sedge preferred by Ross’s Gulls, numerous waders were also nesting, including Pectoral Sandpiper, Ruff Philomachus pugnax , Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus. Spotted Redshank, Wood Sandpiper T. glareola and Red-necked Phalarope. In 1990, the study colony comprised 23 pairs, which were breeding in small discrete groups throughout the marsh, although in pre- vious years, numbers here varied between 10 and 17 pairs. This compares with colony sizes of 10-12 pairs noted by Buturlin (1906a). Adult Ross’s Gulls return to the breeding colonies in late May, and the first eggs are usually laid between 4th and 9th June (earlier in warm springs, later if the weather is particularly inclement). The preferred nest-sites are either on small islands in water-filled ice polygons, or in damp areas of marsh within 1.5 m of the margin of a lake or pool. Two or three eggs are laid in a nest, which is merely a shallow hollow in the Sphagnum lined with dead leaves and stems of Water Sedge. Hatching occurs in late June, typically 19-20 days after laying, and by the time the eggs hatch, the surrounding vegeta- tion has grown high enough for the chicks to be able to hide in it. Two weeks after hatching, chicks achieve their maximum weight of c. 170 g, when they exceed the weight of the adults. Chicks remain in the vicinity of the breeding colony for up to four weeks after hatching, during which time the juvenile plumage replaces the hatching down. Chick mortality is heavy, with many lost to predators, while cold and wet conditions also take a heavy toll. Densley estimated that, in 1978, a climati- cally favourable year, chick mortality was 63%. In cold springs, such as that of 1979, many © 371. Henry Dresser, photographed around 1880-90. adults do not even lay eggs (and only seven young fledged from 29 eggs laid that year). Dis- persal from the breeding colonies takes place from late July, with the first birds appearing at Point Barrow, Alaska, in mid August. Collaboration with Henry Dresser Dresser was one of the most prominent of the wealthy nineteenth-century ornithologist-col- lectors, and had led a most adventurous life (plate 371). He could speak many of the major European languages (although not Russian). Like Buturlin, he produced an enormous body of work, most notably the History of the Birds of Europe , issued in 84 parts over a decade (1871-81). Dresser also had an extensive network of ornithological correspondents throughout Europe and the British Empire, built up largely through his business as a timber and iron merchant. Buturlin and Dresser first met in 1903 at Buturlin’s home at Wesenberg, although they had been in correspondence since the 1890s. Dresser wrote to Buturlin from London in Feb- ruary 1903: ... is there a chance to get a carriage or a horse as I am a lame man: I used to sleep outside without a duvet quite often. At that time I got cold legs and can't walk quickly. But as I used to be a good rider in the past. I ride on four legs better than walk on two. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 593 The Manchester Museum The Manchester Museum (ZDHI2III4) c Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull I am very keen to meet with you and become acquainted with you. Dresser and Buturlin collected eggs together on some islands in the Gulf of Finland, and visited Baron Harald Loudon, a pioneer in migration studies. They maintained a stream of correspondence between 1903 and 1911, dis- cussing questions of taxonomy and distribu- tion. At Buturlin’s request, Dresser inspected bird specimens held in the collection at the British Museum (Natural History), London, and provided him with taxonomic assessments on various specimens, especially pheasants (Phasianidae), ducks (Anatidae) and wood- peckers (Picidae), in which Buturlin was partic- ularly interested. Buturlin became Dresser’s main correspon- dent in Russia in the early twentieth century, and he provided Dresser with unique notes on the distribution of birds within Russia, many of which were incorporated in the Eggs of the Birds of Europe (Dresser 1909-10). These notes, amounting to c.100 sheets in total, are deposited in the Dresser Archive in the Man- chester Museum. Publication Buturlin returned to Moscow after the Kolyma expedition in January 1906, the journey back having taken three months, during which he lost two toes through frostbite. He had written to Dresser from Pokhodsk, informing him of the discovery of the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull, and providing notes on the area. Dresser announced Buturlin’s discovery at a meeting of the British Ornithologists’ Club (BOC), held at the Restaurant Frascati in Oxford Street, London, on 13th December 1905, confirming that Buturlin had sent full particulars of his dis- covery, which would be published in the Ibis. The first instalment of this three-part paper was already published by the time Buturlin reached Moscow. The second part appeared in April 1906, followed by a short correction, and the final part was published in July 1906. As a result of his observations and discoveries, particularly those of Ross’s Gull, Buturlin was elected as a Foreign Member of the BOU in May 1906. Although Dresser had announced the dis- covery in December 1905, it was not until April 1906 that Buturlin received his first eggs from Siberia. These he sent to Dresser to be exhibited to the avaricious members of the BOC, many of whom were egg-collectors. Dresser wrote a short paper in the Ibis (Dresser 1906), in which he described the eggs of Ross’s Gull as ‘undoubtedly the first authentic eggs of this species that have yet arrived in Europe’. Details of the breeding habits were also published in the Ibis (Buturlin 1907a), and included an illus- tration of the chick. Buturlin subsequently republished his main paper in German and Swiss journals (Buturlin 1908, 1912), the 1912 paper being accompa- nied by photographs. Buturlin also sent a number of specimens of other species to Dresser, which he believed repre- sented undescribed races, to be exhibited to the BOC. These were rejected as representing new forms by Ernst Hartert, then curator of the Walter Rothschild collection at Tring, so he described them in the German journal Ornithologische Monats- berichte (Buturlin 1907b). He also sent specimens of several rare, little-known and 372. Photograph of the inside of Buturlin’s hut in the Kolyma delta, 1 905, showing, on the table and windowsill, the birds collected on his trip; marked on reverse by Buturlin ‘NE Siberia, Kolyma’s delta, vil. Pokhodskoe, 69°7’N, a room, where we prepared bird skins. Near the window four skins of adult Rhodost. Rosea, and four of their pulli.’The photograph shows stuffing material and preserving spirits. 594 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 c Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull > interesting forms to Dresser, details of which were published in Ibis. These included Specta- cled Eider Somateria fischeri (Dresser 1908), Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus (Buturlin 1909, Dresser 1909a), and even Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris (Dresser 1909b). In spite of being associated mainly with birds, Buturlin later published a book on the mammals he had seen on the Kolyma expedition (Buturlin 1913). Specimens The collections made on the Kolyma expedition were enormous; 2,000 bird skins, 500 clutches of eggs, over 4,000 insects, 2,000 herbarium sheets and some ethnographic collections were brought back (Kozlova 2001). Buturlin and his collaborators worked in a small hut, preserving skins; a photograph taken inside the hut and showing some of the specimens collected on the trip is preserved in the Manchester Museum (plate 372). Buturlin (1906b) recorded that he had collected no fewer than 38 skins and 36 eggs of Ross’s Gull up to 23rd June 1905, and he undoubtedly collected more. The majority of Buturlin’s Ross’s Gull specimens went to the Zoological Museum of Moscow University, which still retains 24 skins. Of the remainder, most of the specimens and eggs were sent to Dresser in London, who sold them on Buturlin’s behalf to his fellow collectors. Skins and eggs were sold for £5.00 each (around £300.00 at today’s prices). There was a rumour (based upon a note in the R. Hay Fenton collec- tion, held at Aberdeen University) that a bounty of £100.00 had been offered by the Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, for specimens. Although unfounded, this story serves to illus- trate the mystery which surrounded Ross’s Gull at that time. Many of these specimens did, however, end up in well-known collections: the Royal Scottish Museum (now National Museums Scotland) in Edinburgh purchased one skin from Dresser; Aberdeen University bought two; the Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, has three; and Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, has one. In addition, the Museum of Local Lore, History and Economy in Ulyanovsk, Russia, contains four Ross’s Gull skins from Buturlin’s collec- tion. Other collectors evidently continued to desire specimens of Ross’s Gull, as Dresser asked Buturlin, in 1907 and 1909, whether he could obtain any more specimens. Eggs from Buturlin are currently found in Aberdeen Uni- versity, World Museum Liverpool, Cambridge (UK), NHM (Tring), Oxfordshire Museums, the Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stock- holm, the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Cambridge, Massachusetts. There are no eggs in the Manchester Museum, and it is unclear whether they were dealt away by Dresser or removed from the collections some- time prior to 1975. Buturlin’s main ornithological collections and archives were lost during the Russian October Revolution in 1917 and subsequent civil war. Some are still in existence, however, shared between the Ulyanovsk Museum of Local Lore, History and Economy, which holds 421 of his bird study skins and his main archive containing c. 6,500 items (Borodina & Gromova 2002), and the Zoological Museum of Moscow University, which holds 6,420 bird study skins, mostly from Yakutia (Sudilovskaya 1973; Borodina 8c Gromova 2002). A small col- lection of birds, some books and manuscripts are kept in the University of Tartu, Estonia (Kozlova 2001). The Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, and the University of Amsterdam Museum both have small collec- tions of specimens from Buturlin, including some type specimens, and Bergen Museum, Norway, has a small number of specimens. The Manchester Museum appears to have the largest collection of specimens from Buturlin in Britain, holding approximately 65 specimens collected by Buturlin himself, mainly on the Kolyma expedition, and a small number of additional specimens received through Buturlin. The century since discovery Since the discovery of the first nest, additional colonies of Ross’s Gulls have been discovered in Arctic Siberia, along the Alazeya, Indigirka, Yana and Lena Rivers (Dement’ev & Gladkov 1969; Degtyarev et al. 1987; Densley 1991), and the breeding population is estimated to be in the region of 45,000-55,000 adults (Degtyarev 1991). Occasional breeding has occurred west to the Taimyr Peninsula (Pavlov & Dorogov 1976; Yesou 1994) and east to the Chaun River delta (Pearce et al 1998), but these attempts seem to have been erratic and opportunistic. More surprisingly, there have been breeding attempts beyond Siberia, at Isfjorden, Spits- British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 595 Peter Kermerley Peter Kennerley c Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull 373. Water-filled ice polygons and thaw lakes on the lower Kolyma River, northeast Siberia, June 1 994. Ice polygons are formed by the continuous freezing and melting of the Arctic ice, and form the marshes that are the preferred habitat of Ross's Gulls Rhodostethia rosea. Although small breeding colonies of up to 30 pairs are widespread throughout this region, the remote nature of the Arctic tundra renders them largely inaccessible. bergen, in 1955 (Lovenskiold 1964), at Disko Bay on the west coast of Greenland in 1979 (Kampp & Kristensen 1980), and at Peary Land, Greenland, in 1980 (Hjort 1980). Three pairs were discovered near Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada, in 1976, and increased to six pairs in 1978 (MacDonald 1978). In summer 1980, three pairs were found at Churchill, Manitoba, the first documented breeding on the North American mainland (Chartier 8t Cooke 1980). Most recently, a breeding pair was discovered on Prince Charles Island, Nunuvak, in July 1997, only about 200 km from the spot where Ross shot the type specimen in June 1823 (Bechet et al. 2000). Where Ross’s Gulls disappear to when they leave the breeding sites remains almost as much of a mystery today as it was 100 years ago. An annual passage of adults and juveniles passes Point Barrow, Alaska, in September and 374. In the breeding season, Ross’s Gulls Rhodostethia rosea require freshwater marshes formed by numerous water-filled ice polygons and small lakes that still remain partially frozen in mid June. The dominant vegetation here is Water Sedge Carex aquatilis, which grows on the damp ridges formed by ice polygons, while towards the edges of the marsh, and on the drier ridges, various grasses (Poaceae), willows including Salix pulchra and Dwarf Birch Betula nana predominate. Lower Kolyma River, northeast Siberia, June 1994. 596 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 Peter Kennerley Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull 375. The nest of Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea comprises a shallow hollow in the Sphagnum, lined with dead leaves and grass or sedge stems. Two or three eggs are laid, which differ from those of other gulls in being more rounded and with a darker olive-green background colour (Dresser 1 906; Densley 1991). Northeast Siberia, June 1 994. October as they depart from their northeast Siberian breeding areas and migrate east to unknown wintering grounds (Densley 1979). It appears that a substantial population of non- breeding birds, both adults and first-summers, spend the summer among the pack ice between north Greenland and Franz Josef Land. During a transect on the Swedish ice-breaker HMS Ymer , from northern Svalbard to Franz Josef Land in July-August 1980, Meltofte et al. (1981) observed a total of 1,326 Ross’s Gulls in pack ice, with the largest concentrations being found north of Nordaustlandet, eastern Svalbard, and off northernmost Franz Josef Land. A transect between Svalbard and North Greenland in August and early September 1980 revealed the presence of at least 116 birds, while a second transect from Svalbard to Franz Josef Land in mid September produced 482 records of at least 1 16 individuals. Whether this region also repre- sents the main wintering area remains unknown. Elsewhere, single birds are occasion- ally recorded off the northern coastline of Hokkaido, Japan, but a flock of about 100 at Shari, northeastern Hokkaido, on 23rd-27th February 1985 was exceptional (Brazil 1991). 376 & 377. Adult Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea on nest in a small marsh near the settlement of Chukotschya. 200 km to the northwest of Cherskiy, lower Kolyma River, northeast Siberia, June 1994 (left); adult feeding over thaw lake adjacent to same nesting colony, June 1994. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 597 Peter Kennerley Peter Kennerley c Discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull > This does, however, suggest that a population spends the winter in the pack ice off the coast of the northwestern Pacific Ocean. Closer to home, the first British Ross’s Gull was captured by the crew of a fishing boat near Whalsay, Shetland, on 28th April 1936 (Pen- nington 2005). Since 1969, the species has occurred almost annually in Britain, with a total of 83 birds recorded to the end of December 2003 (Rogers 2004). Despite this, it remains one of the most highly sought-after species by today’s generation of birders. In recent years, observing Ross’s Gulls on the breeding grounds has become a realistic possi- bility. Since 1980, the regular breeding by a handful of pairs near Churchill, Canada, attracted many birders to see them at their most accessible breeding site. Although regular breeding no longer occurs here, other possibili- ties remain. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, adventurous (and wealthy) birders have travelled to the Siberian breeding grounds and enjoyed the large nesting colonies on the boggy tundra of the lower Kolyma River. Ross’s Gulls still present us with many unan- swered questions. Undoubtedly the most fasci- nating is the location of the main wintering area. If this really does lie among the Arctic pack ice, the unbelievably harsh conditions and perpetual darkness will ensure that Ross’s Gull retains this final secret for many years to come. Acknowledgments We thank the many museum curators who answered our requests for information: A. Abramov (Zoological Museum of RAS, St Petersburg, Russia), M. de L. Brooke (University of Cambridge), I. Byrkjedal (University of Bergen, Norway), J. Dean (National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C., USA), C. Fisher and T. Parker (World Museum, Liverpool, UK), J, Fjeldsa (University of Copenhagen, Denmark), G. Frisk (Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden), M, Guntert (Natural History Museum, Bern, Switzerland), I. Heynen (Staatliches Museum fur Naturkunde, Stuttgart, Germany), S. Koponen (University ofTurku, Finland), M. Martin (University of Tartu, Estonia), R. McGowan (National Museums of Scot- land, Edinburgh), K. Mikhailov and RTomkovich (Zoological Museum of the Moscow University, Russia), B. Millen (Royal Ontario Museum, Canada), Jiri Mlikovsky (National Museum, Prague, Czech Republic), E. Pasquet (Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France), M. Reilly (Hunterian Museum, Glasgow), K. Roselaar (University of Amsterdam, Netherlands), D. Russell and R, Prys-Jones (Natural History Museum, Tring), F. Steinheimer (Museum fur Naturkunde, Berlin, and Senckenberg Museum, Frank- furt am Main, Germany), G. Stone (Museum ofWellington, New Zealand). Our special thanks go to O. Borodina, Curator of the Museum of Local Lore, History and Economy, Ulyanovsk, Russia, for access to Dresser's letters kept in her museum, and for allowing us to reproduce a rare photograph of Buturlin from his archive. We are also extremely grateful to A. Buturlin (Moscow), son of S. A. Buturlin, for assistance. References Bechet, A., Martin, J.-L, Meister R, & Rabouam, C. 2000. A second breeding site for Ross's Gull (Rhodostethia rosea) in Nunavut, Canada. Arctic 53(3): 234-236. Borodina, O. E„ & Gromova, T A. 2002. [Sergei Alexandrovich Buturlin], Ulyanovsk: KorporatsiyaTekhnologii Prodvizheniya Publ. House, Ulyanovsk. [In Russian] Brazil, M. A. 1991. The Birds of Japan. Christopher Helm, London. Buturlin, A. S. 1985. [National gunsmiths. Arm expert Buturlin], Ruzhie i Snaryazhenie I 1 : 28-29. [In Russian] Buturlin, S. A. 1 906a. The breeding-grounds of the Rosy Gull. Ibis 8(6): Part 1 : 1 3 1- 1 39; Part 2: 333-337; Corrections 400; Part 3: 66 1 -666. — 1 906b: [Brief news. 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Dansk Ornithologisk Forenings Tidsskrift 74(1 -2): 65-74. Kozlova, M. M. 1 996. [S. A. Buturlin's contribution to the development of science]. Bull. MOIP 101 (6): 3-14. [In Russian] — 200 1 . [Sergei Alexandrovich Buturlin ( 1 872- 1 938)]. Nauka, Moscow. [In Russian] — 2003. [A written legacy of S. A. Buturlin], In: Borodina, O. E. & Gromova.TA. (eds.), Buturlinskii sbornik, Ulyanovsk: 49-76. [In Russian] Lovenskiold, H. L. 1964. Avifauna Svalbardensis. Norsk Polarinstitutt Sk rifter 129:460. MacDonald, S. D. 1 978. First breeding of Ross's Gull in Canada. Proc. Colonial Waterbird Group 1978: 16. Meltofte, H„ Edelstam, C., Granstrom, G„ HammarJ., & Hjort, C. 1981. Ross's Gulls in the Arctic pack-ice. Brit Birds 74: 3 1 6-320. Pavlov, B. M., & Dorogov.V. F. 1 976. [The Ross’s Gull (Rhodostethia rosea) in the Taimyr], Ornitologiya 12: 240-241. [In Russian] Pearce, J, M., Esler; D,, & Degtyarev, A, G. 1998. Birds of the Indigirka River delta, Russia: historical and biogeographic comparisons. Arctic 5 1 (4): 36 1 -370. Pennington, M. G. 2005. Additional information on three firsts for Britain recorded from Shetland. Shetland Bird Report 2004: I 19-120. Potapov, E. R, 1 990. Birds and brave men in the Arctic north. Birds Internat. 2(3): 73-83. Rogers, M.J., and the Rarities Committee. 2004. Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2003. Brit. Birds 97: 558-625. Ruzskii, M. D. 1 938. [In memory of the ornithologist S. A. Buturlin], Trudy Biologicheskogo Nil Tomskogo Gosudarsvennogo Univesiteta [Section Zoology. n2] 6: 216-217. Sudilovskaya, A. M. 1 973. [In memory of S. A. Buturlin], Bull. MOIP 78(2): 153-155. [In Russian] Uspenskii, S. 1 973. [S. A. Buturlin as an expert of the North]. Okhota i Okhotnichie Khozyaistvo 7: 6-7. [In Russian] Yesou, R 1994. Contribution a I'etude avifaunistique de la peninsule du Taimyr Alauda 62(4): 247-252. Henry A. McGhie and Dr Dmitri V. Logunov, The Manchester Museum, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester Ml 3 9PL; e-mail henry.mcghie@manchester.ac.uk; e-mail dmitri.logunov@manchester.ac.uk British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 589-599 599 Chris Schenk Bryan Thomas Bryan Thomas The Carl Zeiss Award 2005 ZEISS 600 © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 600-603 Bryan Thomas Tony Collinson The Carl Zeiss Award 2005 c One of the most enjoyable tasks in the working year of the BBRC is judging the Carl Zeiss Award for the most instructive photograph, or series of pho- tographs, of a British rarity assessed during that year. The photographs that we receive as part of rarity submissions are often aesthetically pleasing but, more importantly, almost always a key source of information. In recognition of their importance, Carl Zeiss Ltd, who sponsor BBRC, awards a pair of binoculars to the pho- tographer judged to have taken the most instructive photograph or set of photographs. This year’s judging meeting was unique, for two reasons. As alluded to in last year’s report, the digital revolution is now almost complete, and this year we had only four photographs in traditional format (of two birds, neither of which made the shortlist). Almost all the digital photographs were stored on a series of CDs, packed in a bag to be brought to the meeting; however, like the accompanying BB Editor, the bag had the misfortune to encounter the British Airways dispute at Heathrow in mid August. It took almost two weeks for the bag to resurface, and so we carried out the judging based largely on a trawl of photographs published in maga- zines and on websites. Secondly, we arrived at a top three of which, remarkably, none has yet been accepted as a rarity (and one never will be). Our initial shortlist contained photographs of three birds which narrowly failed to make it to a podium finish. Nonetheless, in each case, the images undoubtedly helped in the accep- tance of the rarity involved and demonstrated key identification features. The adult Semi- palmated Sandpiper Calidris pitsilla at Brock- holes Quarry, Lancashire, on 25th July 2004, was photographed, by Bill Aspin, in difficult conditions, and neither of the two observers was sure of the identification at the time. It was only later, when the photographs were exam- ined closely, that key identification features (including the obvious webbing between the toes) confirmed that this was indeed a ‘Semi-p’, and the first for Lancashire to boot. Richard Campey’s set of photographs of Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus orientalis on Lundy, Devon, on 26th April 2004, showed a suite of characters that BBRC members felt made this non-calling bird acceptable. We now intend to re-examine all photographed Bonelli’s warblers which have not been assigned to species. Finally, Ben Lascelles’ photograph of the Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae, taken from a boat some 15 km west of St Mary’s, Scilly, on 6th September 2004, would perhaps have won in another year. It is possible to see clearly the structural features, especially the thick, stubby bill, that specifically identify this bird as a Fea’s. Of the top three entries this year, third place was awarded to the photographs of the ‘Eastern’ Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca, thought to be of one of the races halimodendri or minula , in Aberdeen, in December 2004. From the file sub- mitted to BBRC, we have selected images by Ian Barnard, Raymond Duncan and Harry Scott. It may be several years before we can decide 382 & 383. Juvenile Common Swift Apus opus, Filey, North Yorkshire, September 2004. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 600-603 601 Tony Collinson Harry Scott Ian Barnard The Carl Zeiss Award 2005 c > exactly what to do with birds such as this, because the taxonomic position is still murky. The race halimodendri is currently regarded as part of the curruca group by some (e.g. Sylvia Warblers , Shirihai et al. 2001 ), but as more likely to be part of the minula group by others. While BBRC believes that minula itself is different enough from curruca for us to consider it as identifiable, whether as a race or as a species, none of the British records of eastern Lesser Whitethroats examined so far have definitely involved minula ; even those which have been trapped and measured fall within the overlap zone between minula and halimodendri. It may be that the sensible approach will be to accept such birds simply as ‘Eastern’ Lesser Whitethroats, for the time being at least. If that does indeed become the case, then photographs like these would be invaluable. Tony Collinson’s photographs of a Common 602 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 600-603 Raymond Duncan Ian Barnard c The Carl Zeiss Award 2005 > Swift Apus apus are the first pictures of a non- rarity to make the final shortlist. Many observers of this bird, at Filey, in North York- shire, on 22nd September 2004, felt that it was a Pallid Swift A. pallidus. However, Tony’s pho- tographs clearly show it to be a juvenile Common Swift with striking pale crescents on the feathers, making it seem perhaps atypically pale. That the juvenile plumage of Common Swift is poorly known is perhaps a pitfall in the identification of Pallid Swift that we had not fully realised previously. Had it not been for these photographs, it is possible that this bird would have been submitted as a Pallid Swift and may even have been accepted as such - even though BBRC does take a hard line with this species. There was a clear winner this year, however: Bryan Thomas’s series of photographs of a putative ‘Scopoli’s Shearwater’ Calonectris diomedea diomedea, taken some 10 km south of Scilly, on 2nd August 2004. This record is cur- rently in circulation with BBRC and, if accepted, will then need to go to BOURC as there has been no previous accepted record of this, the Mediterranean form of Cory’s Shear- water, in Britain. The photographs seem to show the appropriate underwing pattern, slim bill and generally slender shape of Scopoli’s, and they will be fundamental to the decision that must be made about this record. If this bird is accepted as Scopoli’s, it will be almost totally on the basis of these photos; if it is not, then, given the quality of the images, we are effec- tively saying that a bird needs to be measured (i.e. either trapped or a specimen obtained) to 388. Presentation of the Carl Zeiss Award, at the British Birds stand at the British Birdwatching Fair, Rutland Water, August 2005. As described above, Bryan Thomas was hard at work photographing seabirds in August 2005, and his binoculars were accepted on his behalf by fellow resident Scilly birder Will Wagstaff. Presenting the binoculars on behalf of Carl Zeiss Ltd is the TV Wildlife Presenter Simon King (right). categorically exclude small individuals of the Atlantic race C. d. borealis. Bryan is a worthy winner of the Carl Zeiss Award, having come second, third and fourth in this competition in the past five years! When we telephoned him to let him know of our decision, he was, appropriately, on a pelagic trip off Scilly photographing seabirds! Bryan chose as his prize the superb 10x42 Zeiss FL binocular. We are grateful to Carl Zeiss Ltd, as always, for their sponsorship of BBRC and of this competition. Colin Bradshaw, Chris Bradshaw, Chris Kehoe and Roger Riddington do 9 Tynemouth Place, North Shields, Tyne & Wear NE30 4BJ The British Birds Rarities Committee is sponsored by Carl Zeiss Ltd Looking back Fifty years ago: ‘Sardinian Warbler on Lundy. — An adult male Sar- dinian Warbler ( Sylvia melanocephala) was trapped on Lundy at 0905 hrs G.M.T. on 10th May 1955. After being examined, measured and photographed, it was shown to F. W. Gade and then released about mid- day. It was not seen again. . . Barbara Whitaker ‘[This appears to be only the second British record of this Mediterranean species. Full measurements and details of the wing formula were taken, and these figures have been sent to us, together with pho- tographs which dearly show the white in the tail and the area of black on the head. — Eds.]’ (Brit. Birds 48: 515, November 1955) This record is now accepted as the first record for Britain, with an earlier record, in June 1907, now dis- counted as part of the Hastings Rarities affair. Eds British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 600-603 603 Tim Loseby Conservation research news Compiled by Colin Beale and Len Campbell Breeding success and climate change Global climate change is rarely out of the news and its future impact on the natural world is widely predicted to be catastrophic. While climatologists agree that further climate change is inevitable, it may be possible to buffer individual species or habitats against these changes to ensure their long-term protection if we understand how climate change affects the species involved. If, for example, research shows that higher temperatures affect a bird population by reducing the availability of insect prey in its nesting area, then it may be possible to increase invertebrate populations through habitat management, even though the warming continues. In a world where conservation resources are strictly limited, however, it is important to prioritise research and action towards those species most at risk. In an attempt to identify which bird species are declining because of climate change, Ronrain Julliard and his colleagues looked at breeding success in France during the exceptionally warm summer of 2003 ( Julliard et al. 2005). Data from the French constant effort ringing scheme were used to calculate annual productivity at each study site monitored in 2003 and at least one other year. Taking each site in turn, the authors compared the productivity of each species in 2003 with that during an average year and were thus able to estimate the impact of a hot dry year on breeding success. Perhaps unsurprisingly, about two-thirds of the 32 species studied enjoyed above-average breeding success in 2003. These results correspond well with what we know about many individual species. Cold, wet years tend to reduce breeding success for example, because the chicks become chilled or the adults are prevented from foraging. However, Julliard et al. also compared the difference between productivity in 2003 and that in an average year with the French national population trend. This revealed that those species which experienced poor breeding success in 2003 were also most likely to be in long-term decline in France, while those with unusually high productivity in 2003 were more likely to be increasing. Such effects were found across a diverse spread of species, including Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus , Willow Tit Pams montanus. Linnet Carduelis cannabina and Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula , species which are also in decline across wider parts of their European range. The authors suggest that these results may be interpreted as evidence that climatic changes may underlie the population declines of these species in western Europe. Assessing sensitivity to climate change by looking only at productivity is, of course, a simplistic approach. Many populations are far more sensitive to changes in survival than to changes in productivity; and this study does not take survival into account. Moreover, there may be large differences between productivity in a single unusually warm year and productivity during a series of warm years. Nevertheless, this study is a welcome attempt to assess the impact of climate change on birds using real ecological data, and should help to focus further research into this pressing issue. Julliard, R., Jiguet, F„ & Couvet, D. 2005. Evidence for the impact of global warming on the long-term population dynamics of common birds. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 27 1 : S490-S492. 604 © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 604-606 Conservation research news The importance of food quality for breeding seabirds In recent years, concern about the poor breeding success of a wide range of seabird species around the coasts of the UK has become an almost annual event. While seabirds on Shetland and Orkney have been the most frequent focus, as species dependent on sandeels Ammodytes have either failed to breed or produced few or no chicks, similar problems appear to be spreading southwards. Two recent papers, drawing on long-term studies of breeding seabirds on the Isle of May, in the Firth of Forth, throw further light on the complex relationship among seabirds, their prey and the environmental factors affecting the marine environment. In common with other colonies in eastern Scotland, seabirds on the Isle of May had a particularly poor breeding season in 2004, but this at least provided Sarah Wanless and her colleagues with an opportunity to compare and contrast conditions with previous years (Wanless et al. 2005). Common Guillemot Uria aalge , the most abundant bird species in the North Sea, has been studied intensively at this colony for many years and the authors had access to a large quantity of good demographic, dietary and behavioural data. Unlike Guillemots farther north, those in the Forth have access not only to stocks of sandeels, their preferred prey elsewhere, but also to sprats Sprattus sprattus, and thus might be expected to be less susceptible to declines in stocks of the former. The breeding season in 2004 proved to be by far the worst for Guillemots on the May since comparable data were first collected, in 1981. More birds than usual failed to breed, mean laying date was a week later than normal, and both hatching and chick-rearing success were particularly low. Overall, breeding success was much lower than any previously recorded. Among various behavioural irregularities that were noted, the unusually large numbers of chicks that were left unattended was particularly striking. Various measures of both chick and adult condition showed that birds were also in much poorer condition than in previous years. These results all seemed to indicate a major decrease in food availability but, although sprats rather than sandeels were the predominant prey item, suggesting a shortage of the latter, measurements of feeding rates and estimated prey size produced calculated intake rates that were actually slightly higher than the long-term average. So, although adults may have been forced to switch to their alternative food source and also to leave their chicks unattended for longer while away on foraging trips, they still appeared to be delivering food at normal rates. So why was breeding success so low, and chick and adult condition so poor? An analysis of the energy content of the fish brought in by returning adults provided the answer to this question. The energy value of both the sprats and the sandeels fed to chicks was markedly lower in 2004, and the authors calculated that, on average, Guillemot chicks were receiving less that a quarter of their normal daily energy requirement. Thus, although adults were able to maintain a normal rate of delivery of fish of a suitable size, by staying away from the cliffs for longer, chick growth, development and survival were seriously impaired because these fish were of poor quality. Consequently, even in an area where Guillemots had the comparative luxury of an alternative food source to sandeels, reduced quality in that alternative meant that breeding success was still heavily reduced. A further twist to this picture of reduced food quality is revealed by an earlier study, also based on data from the Isle of May, where researchers looked at trends in the size of sandeels brought in by nesting Puffins Fratercula arctica over a 30-year period (Wanless et al. 2004). This was essentially a study of sandeels, where Puffins were simply and (as demonstrated by comparison with ship- based catches) reliably used as a means of sampling the sandeel populations at the mouth of the Firth of Forth. Sandeels dropped by returning Puffins when caught in mist-nets were routinely collected on several (5-24) days in every year but one between 1973 and 2002. Over this 30-year period, 0-group sandeels (those which hatched that year and were caught on a given date) decreased in size by 11.1 mm. Older fish (predominantly 1 -group, which are those in their second year) decreased by 19.4 mm over the same period. For both age groups the change in length corresponded with a 40% decline in energy content of fish available at that time. Although noting that there was no evidence that this decline in size was related to the start of an industrial fishery in the area, the authors were unable to identify what other British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 604-606 605 Conservation research news } environmental factor might be involved. They did, however, observe that such changes in size could adversely affect the viability of the sandeel population through delayed maturity or ability to produce eggs, etc. and perhaps make it more vulnerable to further change. Taken together, these studies help to demonstrate how seabird populations may be adversely affected not just by simple shortages of suitable food, but also more subtly by changes in the quality of that food. In one case, the prey itself was in poor condition, although it appeared to be of normal size; while in the other, lower quality was brought about simply by a decrease in the overall size of suitable prey. The consequences of such changes in quality may be of particular importance to a species like the Guillemot that carries only a single prey item per foraging trip and which thus has limited scope for compensating for reduced prey availability or quality. In both studies, Sarah Wanless and her colleagues are cautious about suggesting what actual factors may have caused these changes in fish size and quality, but it seems clear that those factors must be related to broader environmental changes in this part of the North Sea. Although commercial exploitation of fish stocks may be implicated in some of the problems faced by seabirds over the last few decades, these studies provide further evidence that there are major changes underway in our marine environment. Whether or not these are symptoms of climate change, our seabird populations are clearly facing considerable challenges. Further research to determine what these underlying changes are is needed both to assess and to manage any impacts on stocks of fish and the birds which depend upon them. Wanless. S„ Wright, RJ„ Harris, M. R. & Elston, D. A. 2004. Evidence for decrease in size of Lesser Sandeels Ammodytes marinus in a North Sea aggregation over a 30-year period. Mar. E col. Prog. Ser. 279: 237-246. — , Harris, M. R, Redman, R, & SpeakmanJ. R. 2005. Low energy values offish as a probable cause of major seabird breeding failure in the North Sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 294: 1-8. Rarities Committee news BBRC seeks two new members for April 2006 Owing to the retirement of both John McLoughlin and Jimmy Steele in April 2006, BBRC is seeking to recruit two new members to join the Committee. The prime qualifi- cations required of candidates include: a widely acknowledged expertise in identification; proven reliability in the field; a track record of high-quality rarity submissions; experience of record assessment; the capacity to work quickly and effi- ciently; easy access to and knowl- edge of IT; and regional credibility. BBRC’s nominees are Chris Brad- shaw (no relation to the current chairman) from Kent and Martin Garner, currently living in Sheffield. Chris Bradshaw has served on the Kent County Records Com- mittee for 12 years. He has birded extensively in Europe, North America and, in particular, Asia, where, in addition to visits to several other countries, he has made repeated visits to India, China and central Asia. Chris is particularly interested in migration in the UK and in recent years has developed a keen interest in the birds of the Indian subcontinent. Martin Garner hails from the NW originally but has also lived in London, Bedfordshire and Northern Ireland. He is perhaps best known for his ground- breaking work on large white- headed gulls, but has written a number of pioneering identifica- tion articles for all the major British and Dutch birding maga- zines and was the Identification Editor for the recently produced BWPi. His travels have taken him across Europe and North America and more recently East Africa. The Committee would welcome any alternative nominees. Nominations should be sent to Colin Bradshaw, either by letter or by e-mail (drcolin.bradshaw@ btinternet.com), before 1st January 2006, with details of a proposer and seconder, and the written agreement of the nominee. After this date, a voting slip and list of candidates with relevant details will be sent to all County Recorders and bird-observatory wardens. ZEISS The British Birds Rarities Committee is sponsored by Carl Zeiss Ltd. Chairman: Colin Bradshaw, 9 Tynemouth Place, Tynemouth, Tyne &Wear NE30 4BJ Secretary: M.J. Rogers, 2 Churchtown Cottages, Towednack, St Ives, Cornwall TR26 3AZ 606 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 604-606 Notes All Notes submitted to British Birds are subject to independent review, either by the Notes Panel or by the 88 Editorial Board. Those considered appropriate for 88 will be published either here or on our website (www.britishbirds.co.uk) subject to the availability of space. Common Cuckoo parasitising Bam Swallow The recent Note on this topic (Brit. Birds 98: 320) reminded me of a similar experience, but one with an added twist, from the 2004 breeding season. Barn Swallows Hirundo rustica returned to their nest in my stables in Dodford, Worcestershire, in mid April and duly began incubating their first clutch of (four) eggs. The nest was a ‘classic’ Swallow nest, being sited on a beam close to the roof of the building. My attention was aroused when I found a broken egg beneath the nest, but particularly when, sometime later, a dead chick (about four days old) was found in the same position. As time progressed, two maturing Swallow chicks were observed living precariously on the edge of the nest. Finally, the two chicks moved to an adjacent beam and soon to an adjacent barn where they developed and fledged successfully. The busy parents continued to feed the now- apparent cause of these occurrences, a Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus chick, which - remained in the nest for a short time before taking to the roof beams of the stable. The two young Swallows appeared to have bonded strongly as a result of their experience and rarely left each other’s side for a couple of weeks, often roosting against each other during the day. The parents went on to rear two more broods in 2004, the second of five chicks and the third of three, and have returned as normal in 2005 (incubating their second clutch at the time of writing). Stephen Bowden Dingle View, Whinfield Road, Dodford, Bromsgrove, Worcestershire B61 9BG EDITORIAL COMMENT Prof. Nick Davies, author of Cuckoos, Cowbirds and Other Cheats (Poyser, 2000) has commented: ‘This note is certainly interesting. Swallows are an unusual host, and it is also unusual for host chicks to be raised alongside the Cuckoo, though this can happen when the nest structure/location makes it difficult for the Cuckoo to eject the host eggs or chicks (as in this case). In a recent study of Common Redstarts Phoenicians phoenicurus breeding in nestboxes in Finland, where 20% of the nests were parasitised by Cuckoos, the Cuckoo chicks failed to eject all the host eggs/chicks in about half the cases, and were raised alongside one or more host young (Rutila et al. 2002, /. Avian Biol. 33:414-419).’ Short and variable incubation period of the Sky Lark Variation in incubation period among bird species is known to depend on a number of factors, including relative brain size, latitude, phylogeny, extra-pair paternity, chick growth rates, body size and longevity (e.g. Martin 2002). Correlates of within-species variation in incubation periods are, in contrast, poorly known. Variation in incubation period is likely to be determined at least partly by a trade-off between nest survival, which will decrease with longer incubation periods, and rates of energy expenditure by the incubating birds, which may be limited by food availability. Far from being the passive activity it appears at first sight, incubation actually incurs extremely high energetic costs (Thomson et al. 1998). The shortest incubation period of any individual clutch reported so far is eight days (from a sample with a mean of 9.6 days), in some of the Eremopterix sparrow-larks (Lloyd 2004). Nonetheless, few bird species appear to have incubation periods shorter than 1 1 days. To estimate incubation period in the field requires that the nest be found during egg- laying, that it survives long enough for the first egg to hatch and that the nest is visited on or close to the day of hatching. Of more than 1,000 Sky Lark Alauda arvensis nests found during a study undertaken by the RSPB in southern England between 1996 and 1998 (Donald et al. 2002), only 20 fulfilled all these criteria (these nests were spread throughout the breeding season, and so were likely to be a representative mix of first and subsequent nesting attempts). © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 607-608 607 Notes C > Fig. la. The relationship between incubation period and first-egg date, measured in days from 1st April, for a sample of 20 Sky Lark Alauda arvensis nests in southern England, 1 996-98. The decrease in incubation period with date is statistically significant (rs = -0.59, n = 20, P < 0.0 1 ). Fig. lb. Mean monthly temperatures from the Historical Central England Temperature dataset of the British Atmospheric Data Centre, averaged over 1 996-98. Even within this small sample, however, it is clear that the incubation period of the Sky Lark is both short and variable, the study giving a mean of 11.6 days incubation and a range of 10-13 days (the estimate given in BWP is 1 1 days, based on the work of Juan Delius in the late 1950s and early 1960s). There was a clear seasonal pattern in incubation period, which became shorter as the breeding season progressed (see fig. la). Because clutch sizes show the opposite pattern, increasing as the breeding season progresses, this had the perhaps unexpected result that larger clutches (of four or five eggs) had a significantly shorter incubation period than clutches of three eggs (Mann-Whitney L/-test, P < 0.005). Without more detailed research, it is not possible to do more than speculate on the reasons for these patterns, but it seems unlikely to be purely coincidental that a reduction in the incubation period coincides with rising average air temperatures. The average incubation period declined by around two days between the beginning of May and the end of July (the main breeding season ot the species), over which time average temperatures in southern England increase by around 5°C (see fig. lb). The incubation period of the Sky Lark appears to be short in relation to its body size (the incubation period is only slightly longer than the shortest recorded for any species, another lark (see above), which is only around half the weight of a Sky Lark; Lloyd 2004), and the growth rate of chicks is close to their theoretical maximum (Donald 2004). This suggests that considerable resources are expended in minimising the duration of each nesting attempt and so reducing the likelihood of nest predation. However, greater incubation investment carries a predation risk for the incubating parent, and some species appear to lower this risk by reducing incubation effort, with consequently longer incubation periods (Martin 2002). During hot weather, incubating female Sky Larks spend considerable periods off the nest (Donald 2004), possibly reducing predation and starvation risks to themselves while still allowing embryonic development. Short but variable incubation periods might allow incubating birds to minimise risks to the nest and themselves simultaneously. If there really is a causal link between a shortening in incubation period and air temperature, this raises the intriguing possibility that predicted climate warming might cause incubation periods of wild birds to shorten, so perhaps reducing their likelihood of being predated. Based upon existing estimates of Sky Lark nest survival (Donald et al. 2002), a reduction of the incubation period from 13 to 10 days could increase nest survival rates by over 20%. Further research in this area would clearly be desirable. References Donald, R F. 2004. The Skylark. Poyser; London. — , Evans, A, D., Muirhead, L. B., Buckingham, D. L., Kirby, W. B., & Schmitt, S. I. A. 2002. Survival rates, causes of failure and productivity of Skylark Alauda arvensis nests on lowland farmland. Ibis 144:652-664. Lloyd, R 2004. Eight- to ten-day incubation and nestling periods among Eremopterix sparrow-larks. Ibis 1 46: 347-350. Martin, T E. 2002. A new view of avian life-history evolution tested on an incubation paradox. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 269: 309-3 1 6. Thomson, D. L, Monaghan, R, & Furness, R. W. 1 998. The demands of incubation and avian clutch size. Biological Review 73: 293-304. Dr Paul F. Donald RSPB, The Lodge , Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL; e-mail: paul.donald@rspb.org.uk 608 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 607-608 BIRDS OF SOUTH ASIA - THE RIPLEY GUIDE By Pamela C. Rasmussen and John C. Anderton. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, 2005. Two volumes; 1,061 pages; 180 plates; 1,450 distribution maps, line diagrams, sonograms, etc. ISBN 84-87334-67-9. Hardback, £55.00. In recent years, birders travelling to the Indian subcontinent have had at their disposal two excellent field guides, using largely standardised nomenclature and taxonomy but following different species sequences: Grimmett et al. (1998) adopted that of Inskipp et al. (1996), while Kazmierczak & van Perlo (2000) followed the tradi- tional Peters sequence. With this new work, a third option is avail- able, using the older, Peters-based sequence, but with a considerably altered nomenclature and an even more radically modified taxonomy. The project was conceived and launched by the American ornithol- ogist S. Dillon Ripley, who died in 1996. Long-term illness forced Ripley to enlist two of his associates at the Smithsonian Institution, Pamela Rasmussen and John Anderton, to continue the project. The scope of this work encom- passes India (including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the Lak- shadweep, Maidive and Chagos Islands. Vol. 1 comprises the field guide, while Vol. 2 is subtitled ‘attributes and status’. A total of 1,441 species are included, com- pared with c. 1,300 in the two field guides mentioned above. Although the geographical scope exceeds these earlier works, this increase chiefly reflects around 130 taxo- nomic changes. Almost all are a result of the upgrading of previ- ously recognised races to distinct species, although many have been adopted without reference or justifi- cation. Furthermore, some species Reviews included in the earlier works are excluded here, on the basis that the authors consider the observations to be unproven or unreliable. Scientific names mostly follow Ali 8; Ripley (1983), with some changes adopted by Inskipp et al. (1996). There are other changes though, with many of the laugh- ingthrushes recently grouped in Garrulax being reassigned to several older genera. Each taxo- nomic split introduces at least one new English name; for example, the former Pompadour Green Pigeon Treron pompadora now becomes four species, each with a new English name. Vol. 1 contains 180 plates, 70 of these by John Anderton, including four flight illustrations in blackish/sepia-and-white - surely colour would have been worth- while? A further 11 artists were commissioned to produce the remainder. Inevitably, the styles vary somewhat, though less so than in some comparable guides. Most illustrations are good, but some just do not look right, for example the pipits Anthus on plate 102, which seem to have abnormally small heads, several of the bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) on plate 106, and some of the flycatchers, notably White-gorgetted Flycatcher Ficedula monileger on plate 123 and the male Snowy-browed Fly- catcher F. hyperythra on plate 124. To my eye, there is an inconsistency throughout the plates in the inten- sity of rufous tones, some being too bright and some too reddish. The accompanying texts vary greatly in length and detail, with up to 170 words for each of the harriers Circus but a miserly 30 for some pipits. The 27 words describing Great Black-headed Gull Larus ichthyaetus wrongly imply that all ages have a black subterminal tail-band. Vocalisa- tions are not dealt with, which is a major shortcoming if Vol. 1 is used on its own in the field. The distrib- ution maps are small but easy to interpret, and often include useful snippets on status, habitat and geo- graphical variation. Vol. 2 includes an appreciation of S. Dillon Ripley, followed by introductory sections and acknowl- edgments, the main species accounts and sonograms, along with ten appendices, selected refer- ences and an index. Although both are named as authors, Rasmussen was responsible for the preparation of the bulk of the text, while Anderton co-ordinated the produc- tion of the plates. The introductory pages include sections on coverage, geography and avifauna, moult and plumages, measurements, illustra- tions, identification, vocalisations, taxonomy, maps, records, history of ornithology in South Asia, and con- servation. The content of each of these sections is much as expected but, in places, becomes turgid and hard to grasp in one reading (one sentence on page 12 has 162 words). The section on taxonomy outlines the authors’ thinking behind the substantial changes they have introduced. These include no fewer than 203 species-level changes from Ali & Ripley (1983) and 131 from Grimmett et al. (1998). In some cases, the changes have been widely anticipated and will be warmly welcomed; but there are many instances where the evi- dence to justify the decision remains inconclusive, and a fair few where that evidence is pretty flimsy. All 1,441 species reported within the region are covered. Of these, the occurrence of 1,298 species is established beyond doubt and these are known, or assumed, to occur regularly. A further 58 are vagrants, with at least one con- firmed record each. Unfortunately, the authors considered that records of no fewer than 85 species in the region were ‘hypothetical’ and that all claims remain unproven. In the records section, the authors explain that a large number of published field observations and sight records (presumably appearing in bul- letins, trip reports and site lists as well as respected journals) without © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 609-6 1 3 609 Reviews C full supporting details must be treated as being unreliable, although they have apparently made little effort to track down observers for further information. Doubtless this reflects the fact that the authors are primarily museum workers. They bemoan the fact that Sri Lanka is the only country in the region with an established Records Committee (yet the only claim of White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis for the region came from Sri Lanka; it was rejected by that country’s Records Committee, but it still appears in this book as a ‘hypothetical’ species!). All the so- called ‘hypothetical’ species are included within the main section of the book, complete with a full species account, but on a darker background. Also included, with rather shorter accounts, are a further 67 species which occur close to the boundaries of the region, but which have yet to be found within them. In this respect, many more migrants could equally well have been included. The variety and importance of songs and calls, and the great value of recording them, are discussed at length, while the structure, param- eters and interpretation of sono- grams are explained in great detail. Each species account in Vol. 2 includes detailed written descrip- tions of all or most of the known vocalisations, and one or more sonograms are shown for 886 species. I suspect, however, that few birders can interpret sonograms and also that few who regularly make field recordings onto tape or minidisc have the facilities to convert their recordings to sono- gram. Sonograms are not included for a number of families for which they would surely be useful, such as woodpeckers (Picidae), pipits and rosefinches (Fringillidae). There is no doubt that this work represents a major contribu- tion to South Asian ornithology, but it seems unlikely to displace the established market leaders in the field-guide market. I feel that the two books would have been more commendable if produced as one larger format book, with a larger font size and larger plates and maps, possibly with a spin-off field guide, including notes on vocalisa- tions, to come in the future. lust how widely accepted the wholesale changes to taxonomy will become remains to be seen. In some cases, further studies are clearly needed, and the many changes to nomen- clature and reversion to an older species sequence are likely to cause considerable confusion to field- D workers and birders alike, and perhaps disarray in the various rel- evant journals for the foreseeable future. Despite the authors’ reasons, the wholesale rejection of so many undoubtedly valid recent field observations is unfortunate. This attitude will do nothing to encourage observers to publish their observations, or submit records to the relevant regional or national authorities for review and verification. References AN, S„ & Ripley, S. D. 1968-1974. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. OUR Bombay. — & — 1 983. Handbook of the Birds of Indio and Pakistan. Compact edn. OUR Bombay. — , — . & Dick, J. H. 1 983. A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. OUR New Delhi. Grimmett, R., Inskipp, C., & Inskipp.T 1 998. Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Inskipp.T., Lindsey, N„ &. Duckworth, W 1996. An Annotated Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region. Oriental Bird Club, Sandy Kazmierczak, K„ & van Perlo, B. 2000. A Field Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press, Sussex. Nick Dymotid PELICAN BLOOD By Cris Freddi. Fourth Estate/Harper Collins, London, 2005. 266 pages. ISBN 0-00-718518-9. Paperback, £10.99. With recent books such as Tales of a Tribe , Beguiled by Birds , A Bird in the Bush , Whose Bird ? and Birds Britannica, some of us appear to be taking stock of our birding heritage and almost longing for days gone by. Cris Freddi’s exciting debut novel Pelican Blood adds to this growing list of ornithological ret- rospection. The author was an active twitcher in the 1980s and has transported the characters, mood and ethos of the so-called ‘golden age’ of twitching into a contempor- ary setting. So take donkey jackets, hitch-hiking, far-left political ten- dencies and the irregular use of mild narcotics and imagine them alongside internet birding, ‘cheque book’ twitching, pagers and recent taxonomic amendments. The story revolves around three iconoclastic, super-cool characters that regularly car-share on the way to twitches. At the heart of the novel is a genuinely touching love story, but the bulk of the text is spent describing birds and birding. The author’s underlying message recalls the early writings of Jean- Paul Sartre, in which an individual tries to give meaning to a life that basically has no meaning; in this case the characters attempt to enrich their meaningless lives by obsessively birding and chasing a goal of seeing 500 birds in Britain. If such profound existential pon- derings don’t float your boat, you’ll be glad to know that the story is packed full of murders, sex, drugs and rock n’ roll. So when that Oriental Plover Charadrius veredus is found on Shetland, take Pelican Blood with you because this gripping, moving and thoroughly enjoyable novel will make the hellish journey a lot less painful. Once you’ve read it, do pass it on to a non-birding friend, but just don’t let them know that birders aren’t really as cool as Freddi would like us to believe! Tom McKinney 610 British Birds 98 • November 2005 * 609-6 1 3 Reviews C > THE NEW BIRDS OF THE WEST MIDLANDS By Graham and Janet Harrison. West Midland Bird Club, 2005. 496 pages; 69 colour photographs; charts; maps; gazetteer. ISBN 0-9507881-2-0. Hardback, £39.00. In 1982, the stress of a new central English domicile was much eased by the arrival of The Birds of the West Midlands. As 1 began a new patchwork in Needwood Forest, I had an excellent compendium of local ornithology at my right hand. It has, however, aged. Word of a major updated version came as the new millennium dawned, and here it is. Its size and format are remarkably similar to the original. How have the contents changed? First, the new book moves the ornithological clock smoothly on, dealing chiefly with the period from 1979 to 2001. The specific texts include a few later records, dated up to 2004, but the charts display analyses from only the main 23-year period. The maps show more-recent distributions, from 1997 to 2001. Second, the introductory chapters have multi- plied and now describe separately the history of the West Midland Bird Club (WMBC) from 1929 to 2004, the regional context of climate and weather, bird move- ments into and out of the region and its ‘changing profile’. The last is a much revised description of the region’s faunal areas. Where once there were seven, there are now 11, and the individual essays upon them are greatly interesting, making even sharper sense of the region’s habitats than in the first book. Third, the main systematic list contains updated texts for all the wild birds (in Categories A, B and C) recorded in the four coun- ties (Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire and the West Mid- lands). Of the 345 species, 31 are new. These new species and other true rarities have their records listed in brief but the other, com- moner species are the subjects of full prose essays. These begin usually with early regional history but go on to describe recent status, population density and distribu- tion, ending with movements and signal ringing recoveries. The accompanying charts highlight such themes and also list the best sites for waterbirds. Importantly, the ever-growing WMBC data store has again been interweaved with BTO and other conservation studies. Finally, the region’s Cat- egory D species and escapes are redefined. Altogether, the continuing commitment and competence of the authors and the WMBC’s other long-serving sages shines out. A striking example of their concerted knowledge occurs in the Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis text. According to the Rare Breeding Birds Panel, the West Midlands population is fewer than 120 pairs but in the view of local assessors it is actually not less than 200 pairs. There is other good news in the book. Why then do I experience some disappointment? Never having joined the WMBC, 1 feel nothing for its region of four counties. It is Staffordshire and its birds that attract me and often as I searched for a sharp county focus, it escaped me. Unlike its predecessor, the new book omits a full series of even breeding maps. So, in spite of fre- quent mentions of county shares (of regional record totals) and occurrences at reservoirs and other key sites, the current community of Staffordshire’s farmland birds was largely indecipherable. As a maverick observer, I had better not go on with such comment, but surely it is sad that my ancient county’s last bird book is now over 40 years out of date. Is it such lost connections that have caused the authors to note that against a doubling of regional club mem- bership from 1970 to 2000, the number of fact-contributing observers has grown by only 25% in the last 25 years? The Harrisons also note wistfully that the modern multicast of rare-bird availability has reduced ‘local patch’ recording. Enough of worries, back to the book. Michael Warren’s vibrant cover is actually a morality tale. The 33 Ruddy Ducks Oxyura jamaicensis that swan so boldly on the 1982 cover are reduced to a skulking pair, and ten politically correct Grey Herons Ardea cinerea now take the main stage (the Grey Heron has also replaced the Ruddy Duck in the Club’s new logo). Equally attractive are the charming vignettes by Steve Cale and the telling series of habitat and bird photographs. Indeed, the book’s overall appearance is a real advance on the design of its ancestor, increasing its legibility. I hardly need commend it to the WMBC loyalists, who will have already bought it, but 1 do so to the thousands of other observers interested in English birds. It deserves wide readership. D. I. M. Wallace BIRDS BRITANNICA By Mark Cocker and Richard Mabey. Chatto 8c Windus, London, 2005. 518 pages; over 400 colour images, mainly photographs. ISBN 0-701- 16907-9. Hardback, £35.00. This is without doubt one of the most difficult books I have had to review, although this had more to do with its sheer size, and the scope and complexity of its content than anything else. I realised early on that this is not the sort of book that you read from cover to cover, so I dipped and delved at intervals, as the mood took me, spurred on several times by spotting it on prominent display in bookshops, and by its appearance in newspaper bestseller lists. The end result has been a feeling of some awe; it is a magnificent achievement. I am not at all surprised to learn that it took over eight years to put together. It 61 I British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 609-6 1 3 Reviews C is wonderfully and copiously illus- trated, and by today’s standards very reasonably priced. Despite the stated authorship, it is very much Mark Cocker’s work, although it is important to realise that a lot of other people have been involved too. In his introductory text, Mark pays great and well-deserved tribute not only to the editorial team as a whole but also to the innumerable birders and members of the public who have contributed material to the book. The source notes alone at the end run to 17 pages, with three more listing special acknowledgments. Such enthusiastic participation in com- piling a bird book may not be unique, but it is both impressive and wonderful. The book essentially follows the ideas and the format of the award- winning Flora Britannica by Richard Mabey. Species by species, it gives us an insight into the rich and varied association we have with birds, not just from a birding or ornithological standpoint (though these aspects are well covered) but also in terms of how birds have impinged upon our social history and how they have appeared in art, literature and folk- lore. The 350 species entries which make up the bulk of the text vary considerably in length, content and detail, ranging from several pages down to just a few lines - and I do feel that some of the rarities included here (such as Greater Charadrius leschenaultii and Lesser Sand Plover C. mongolus ) are a bit out of place and could join the others listed in the first Appendix. There is a huge wealth of informa- tion and comment here, and there are so many accounts that I find fascinating; for example, those on Northern Gannet Morus bassanus and Mute Swan Cygnus olor, to name just two. 1 am glad that ‘non- birds’, including Common Pheasant Phasianus colchicus and Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus (and the much maligned Feral Pigeon Colwnba livia), are given such full treatment, but a little disappointed that such a charismatic species as Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata merits only about one page. There are two curious Appendices - a list of bird-related pub names and one of Welsh bird-names; make of these what you will! I suppose no book of this size could be without errors or anom- alies, but I have to say that they seem few and far between. My old Edinburgh birding haunt of Dud- dingston Loch has become ‘Loch Duddingston’ and (another Edin- burgh reference) the famous White Stork Ciconia ciconia breeding record of almost 600 years ago is said in the text to be the only one - while an accompanying photo caption states that there was also an attempt in West Yorkshire in 2004. Perhaps these inaccuracies are both down to sloppy editing. These are minor quibbles, however, as is my purely personal view that our new standardised English bird- names (which head each account) do not sit well with species stories dealing so much with past associa- tions. I have absolutely no hesitation in saying that this is a truly splendid book; you must dip into it yourself, frequently, to find out what I mean. You should buy it too; it will give you endless plea- sure and a much deeper apprecia- tion and understanding of birds and people than you had before. Mike Everett IN A NATURAL LIGHT: THE WILDLIFE ART OF CHRIS ROSE By Chris Rose. Langford Press, Wigtownshire, 2005. 143 pages; 57 colour plates and numerous sketches. ISBN 1-904078-16-8. Hardback, £35.00. Most BB readers will be familiar with the work of Chris Rose. Chris has worked as an artist and illus- trator for more than 20 years and his work has earned him critical acclaim within the pages of this journal on several occasions. For example, reviews of his paintings in Grebes of the World appeared in Brit. Birds 96: 266 and, most recently, his illustrations of cotingas (Cotingidae) in HBWV ol. 9 were described as ‘breathtaking’ (Brit. Birds 98: 498). It is satisfying to note that British Birds recog- nised his talent back in the 1980s when he was chosen as ‘Bird Illus- trator of the Year 1986’ (Brit. Birds 79: 319-325). Two or three years ago, I had a stall opposite Chris Rose’s at the British Birdwatching Fair at Rutland Water, and had a few days to soak up a splendid painting entitled The Greeting. It was a beautifully lit study of two Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis, which captured that short burst of raucousness emanating from the reunion of the pair. I thought it was as good a painting as you get, and seeing it again in this book I am still inclined towards that view. This book requires only a short review. It is everything a good bird art book should be. The produc- tion is high quality, printed on good paper, with excellent colour reproduction and a spacious and elegant design. Of large format, almost every double-page spread features a painting, around 57 in all, each accompanied by the artist’s narrative. It is refreshingly non-mystical, explaining all manner of thoughts on the painting: the concept, inspiration, problems, solutions, techniques, doubts and struggles, delights and surprises - all delivered with honesty and humour. Bird art books increase in interest with the written word. The ins and outs of each plate, coming directly from the artist are, to me at least, fasci- nating. Adding further to this insight is the preparatory design work, coloured field or studio sketchbook pages that appear alongside a number of the paint- ings. I hesitate to launch into a cri- tique of the work of Chris Rose; is that the role of a book reviewer? 612 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 609-6 1 3 Reviews C > Surely not. Nevertheless, the essence of the book IS his paint- ings, so I should give a flavour of what to expect. Chris Rose is clearly fascinated by light (and par- ticularly its effects over and within water) and has developed consider- able skills as he endeavours to get it down on board in acrylic or oil. His (often large) paintings are always bold in design and well observed. Chris delights in contrast and daring use of colour, and many paintings have a richness that is quite sizzling. The more subdued compositions work equally well and are reminiscent of Bob Bateman’s work in style, especially the snow scenes. I daresay that in a collection such as this you will probably not find every one to your taste, but there is no doubt that there are many beautiful paintings here which will delight. I suspect that once you see this book you will realise that you need to have it! Alan Harris BIRD PHOTOGRAPHY: CHOOSING THE BEST DESTINATIONS, PLANNING A TRIP, TAKING GREAT PHOTOGRAPHS By David Tipling. Guild of Master Craftsmen Publications, Lewes, 2005. 190 pages; 170 colour photographs; maps. ISBN 1-86108-302-5. Hardback, £22.95. David Tipling is a name known to many through his high-quality bird and wildlife photographs, pro- duced over a professional career which has now spanned ten years. In this somewhat sumptuous volume, David has combined what might have been two different books, the work incorporating both the technical aspects of bird photography and a section designed to inspire photographers to travel to destinations where he has found great photographic opportunities. Subtitled ‘choosing the best destinations, planning a trip, taking great photographs’, the theme of the book is to offer advice on the practicalities of all three of these components of great photog- raphy. Throughout, the book is illus- trated with superb photographs deservedly printed on high-quality paper. The selection of images used to illustrate the different parts of the book work particularly well, with the majority having captions detailing the equipment used, whether film or digital and camera settings, while some also include additional comments on photo techniques. Such little gems are extremely useful. Photographing birds is one of the fastest growing sectors in our bird-related hobby, aided in no small part by the digi- scoping revolution. Although only five paragraphs are devoted to digi- scoping and there is no in-depth discussion on the technique, digi- scopers will do well to study many of the techniques and tips which are described in the section on taking great pictures. These range from approaching birds, to framing images and understanding the basics of depth of field. Everyone who picks up a camera and tries to photograph birds has something to learn, and this book offers some- thing for all but the hardened pro- fessional who may just know it all! The list of sites quoted is very much a personal choice and not a comprehensive inventory for any continent. There are, for instance, no major sites noted for Spain or Poland, both of which are men- tioned in the additional sites para- graphs. Those included are certainly inspiring, though be warned, a trip to most will make a large dent in your bank balance. The list of British sites is highly skewed towards seabird islands/colonies, with seven out of ten sites mentioned relating to this subject. Treatment of sites varies, with up to four pages and up to five photographs of the place and/or its special birds. Site details include an introductory descrip- tion of the main habitats and prin- cipal attractions for bird photog- raphy, including the light and weather conditions conducive to creating good results. The informa- tion on when to go includes basic timing, while the section on travel and accommodation provides general information, although several websites are listed for further study. Details of places that I know seemed good, and certainly those along Varanger Fjord, Norway, agreed with my recent lune experience. If the success of a book is mea- sured by its effect upon the reader, then this volume scored highly as it has made a real impact on my approach to photography. It has made me look again at all aspects of my own technique and has pro- vided tremendous inspiration; I have even bought a hide! But even if you are not a photographer, there are tales recounted and images displayed which will make you think again about just how fas- cinating the birds which we all admire are, and will show you to what lengths some people will go to get those great images at which we gaze and say ‘I want to go there’ or ‘I want to take a picture like that’. This book sets out to inspire and assist, and in these twin aims it succeeds by showing off the superb work of this talented wildlife pho- tographer. Graham Catley British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 609-6 1 3 613 News and comment Compiled by Adrian Pitches Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of British Birds Windform shutdown to spare the birds Half of the infamous Altamont Pass windfarm near San Francisco, in California, will be shut down for four months from 1st November, at the tail-end of the migration season. The annual birdkill at Alta- mont is almost equivalent to the total number of turbines: 5,400 turbines account for 4,700 bird deaths every year. Now, 2,500 tur- bines will stand idle for a third of the year as a condition of the new operating licence for the windfarm granted by the local authority in Alameda County; the local Audubon Society had called for the entire site to be shut down during the autumn migration period. The shutdown is the first time in its 24-year history that the oper- ators of the world’s largest wind- farm have agreed to switch off some of the wind turbines to protect birds. Since the ridge of Altamont Pass sits on the Pacific flyway, thousands of birds pass through the area on migration. The resident population of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos has suf- fered particularly alarming losses at Altamont, however, with up to 60 eagles killed every year. The design and layout of the Altamont windmills make them lethal. The 20-m-tall towers have a latticework structure that provides convenient perches for the eagles, hawks and owls attracted to the plentiful supply of pocket gophers Thomomys sp. which burrow beneath the turbines. With blades like aircraft propellers that rotate at more than 70 rpm, the windmills are lethal to slow-moving raptors. The extremely high concentration of turbines is a legacy of 1980s Cal- ifornian tax breaks but, with a huge demand for energy, Californians need the windmills even more today (they provide enough elec- tricity for about 120,000 homes). Under the plan, half the tur- bines will be shut down from 1st November to 28th February, while up to 200 of the oldest turbines that are considered to be the most hazardous to birds will be switched off permanently. The windfarm operators said that they were willing to live with the new restric- tions, even though it will cut their revenue by 10% (it would have been a bigger cut except that the chosen shutdown period is during the least windy season at Alta- mont). But environmentalists and state Attorney General Bill Lockyer wanted the county board to go further and shut down all the wind turbines from November to Feb- ruary until they can be replaced by newer models which are less likely to kill birds. For further reading, visit the San Francisco Chronicle’s website (www.sfgate.com). Altamont precedent for Lewis windfarm? Another controversial wind-energy project, which is already halfway through the approval process, is the Lewis windfarm in the Outer Hebrides. If the joint Amec-British Energy development wins planning permission, it will replace Alta- mont Pass as the largest onshore windfarm in the world; the 209 giant turbines would produce more electricity than Altamont’s 5,400 windmills. The plan was approved by the Western Isles Council on 29th June with the proviso that 25 turbines from the original 234-turbine plan be withdrawn. In its original appli- cation for a 700-MW windfarm, Lewis Wind Power claimed that this would meet the electricity needs of 1.1 million people (more than 20% of Scotland’s popula- tion) and achieve 40% of Scot- land’s renewable energy target. The application is now with the Scot- tish Executive, who must decide whether the proposal, on the Lewis Peatlands Special Protection Area, contravenes the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. The RSPB has mounted a vig- orous challenge to the Lewis wind- farm citing the importance of the peatlands for breeding birds, including Golden Eagle, Merlin Falco columbarius , Black-throated Gavia arctica and Red-throated Divers G. stellata. Lewis Wind Power’s own environmental state- ment concludes that at least 50 Golden Eagles would be killed during the windfarm’s 25-year operating period through collisions with the turbines (Brit. Birds 98: 222) and that the territories of 352 pairs of European Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria and 314 pairs of Dunlins Calidris alpina could be displaced during the same period. However, if the Scottish Executive is reassured that the European Commission will not object to the Lewis windfarm, then it will be more favourably disposed towards the plan. So, to strengthen its case with the Scottish Executive before a potential public inquiry next year, Lewis Wind Power invited a dele- gation from the EC’s Environment Directorate to visit Lewis in early October. The RSPB has also highlighted the risk posed to migrating Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus by a forest of 140-m-tall turbines. However, just as half the Altamont windfarm will be shut down during the migration season, Lewis Wind Power has hinted that advances in satellite technology could enable a temporary shut- down of the Lewis windfarm 614 © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 614-617 -c during the periods of Whooper Swan migration to and from Iceland. Tracking flocks of satellite- News and comment tagged swans minute by minute could enable the windfarm oper- ator to shut down the turbines in D- the critical periods when the swans are approaching/departing from Lewis. At least, that’s the theory. . . Reprieve for Hebridean Hedgehogs ? First victim of Smola windfarm? Meanwhile, Eddie Chapman reports that the first dead White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla has been found at the windfarm on the island of Smola, off the west coast of Norway. The Smola eagles are unique in that 16 pairs nest semi-colonially, on the ground in an area of less than 30 km2. Many authorities, including the Council of Europe (administrators of the Bern Convention on biolog- ical diversity), warned against the construction of the Smola wind- farm. The Norwegian government was unmoved, however, and it was the state-owned energy company Statkraft that was granted permis- sion to build the Smola windfarm. The windfarm comprises 72 tur- bines, each 100-m tall, constructed over 1 8 km2 of the island, and gener- ates 1 50 MW of power. In total, Statkraft was given per- mission to build three big wind- farms along the west coast of Norway. The other two are at Stadtlandet, where a 35-turbine windfarm was approved, and at Hitra, where 28 turbines were erected. On 25th September, the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) said that electricity companies are now queuing up to build windfarms along the Norwegian coastline. Plans to shoot Hedgehogs Eri- naceus europaeus as part of a cull to protect breeding waders on the Outer Hebrides have been tem- porarily shelved. Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) is to investigate ‘alternative legal routes’ to see whether dogs can be used to hunt the Hedgehogs on North Uist and Benbecula without the Hedgehogs having to be shot. The Hedgehogs, which were introduced to the islands, where they eat the eggs of waders nesting on the machair, have pre- viously been caught in traps and then given a lethal injection. SNH intends to continue killing the Hedgehogs with lethal injections but will consult legal advisers to see if there are any loopholes in the law which would allow the Hedgehogs to be hunted but not shot. The Protection of Wild Mammals (Scotland) Act 2002 states that if they (or other mammals) are hunted with dogs, they must be shot. The move to shelve the shooting policy for the time being was welcomed by opponents of the cull, who have been rescuing Hedgehogs and relocating them to the Scottish mainland since the cull started in 2003. The cull is carried out by the Uist Wader Project (UWP), a joint partner- ship among SNH, the Scottish Executive and RSPB Scotland. David Maclennan of SNH said: ‘In areas where trapping and lamping efforts have removed the majority of the Hedgehogs, the use of dogs is necessary to locate the last few remaining Hedgehogs in partic- ular sites. Under current legisla- tion, any Hedgehogs located in this way must be shot. And although this method is widely used in relation to the control of other species around the country, we have every sympathy with, and indeed share, the discomfort that many clearly have about this as a means of despatching Hedgehogs.’ Ross Minett, of the Uist Hedgehog Rescue group, said: ‘We are obviously pleased to learn that SNH is no longer planning to blast away healthy Hedgehogs with shotguns. Of course, this scenario would never have been raised if SNH and the other members of UWP would work with us to catch and relocate the Hedgehogs to the mainland.’ About 500 Hedgehogs have been culled on North Uist and Ben- becula since 2003. Bird flu update The Dutch agriculture minister has allowed free-range poultry back outside. In August, poultry farmers were ordered to keep all their birds indoors to prevent potential contact with migrant wildfowl and thereby lower the risk of a bird flu outbreak. Now, the measure will apply only to farms highly exposed to wild waterfowl: ‘The reason for relaxation is that the risk of an out- break is not increasing and the sit- uation in Russia appears to be under control.' Farms will now be divided into low-risk and high-risk categories depending on how close they are to waterbodies that attract migrant birds. Poultry at low-risk farms will be allowed outside under protective netting to prevent direct contact with wild birds. High-risk farms can also use nets but must have a roof as well to prevent domestic fowl coming into contact with wild-bird droppings. Similar arrangements are in place in several provinces of Germany. The 2003 bird flu outbreak in The Netherlands infected 89 people, killed a veterinarian and forced farmers to destroy about 30 million chickens. Meanwhile, the director-general of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is reported to have told a conference in the Middle East that his organisation is putting together a record of all species of migratory birds, the dis- British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 614-617 615 c eases they may be carrying and countries they are travelling to. Dr Bernard Vallat also revealed that OIE experts were taking samples of birds in Siberia, to see whether they carry the bird flu virus. Once a list of species at risk had been com- piled, he said, it would be possible to warn countries on migration routes of the need to establish national detection plans. He stressed that the best way to prevent diseases being spread by birds was to reduce or eliminate the virus at the source, either by News and comment vaccinating animals or killing those infected. He seems to be perpetu- ating the belief that bird flu is transmitted by migratory wild birds, rather than spread between flocks of intensively reared poultry kept in insanitary conditions; the available evidence suggests that wild birds are victims of bird flu, rather than its carriers. One positive spin-off of the current heightened tension in southeast Asia is that the trade in wild-caught cagebirds could be shut down. The Philippines has D banned imports of wild birds as pets from 1 1 other Asian countries to guard against the spread of bird flu. Environment Secretary Michael Defensor said that he had ordered officials not to issue import permits for wild birds and their by-products from Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Pakistan, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. The H5N1 strain of bird flu has now killed 66 people in four Asian nations since late 2003. Sociable Lapwings find new friends Exciting news from Russia: Jeff Gordon reports [on the WestPal- Birds newsgroup] ‘from a very reli- able authority’ that up to 900 Sociable Lapwings Vanellus gre- garius were sighted at the Manych wetland, in Stavropol region, on 1 1th September 2005. One flock of c. 600 Sociable Lapwings was seen at Dovsun Lake near the Cha- graiskia Reservoir, with a (pre- sumed) separate flock of c. 300 at another lake in the same area; the Sociables were accompanied by a lesser number of Northern Lap- wings V. vanellus and the sightings were apparently videoed. This would represent almost five times the estimated world population! As the contributions in the Sep- tember issue of BB made clear, the Sociable Lapwing is one of Eurasia’s most threatened bird species. Its world population size is thought to have declined by approximately 95% within the last 15 years and may now be as small as 200 pairs. The population crash of this steppe-dwelling species coincided with the political break- down of the Soviet LJnion, which brought about considerable changes in land use; yet there is still no clear evidence as to exactly what is causing the bird’s decline. BirdLife’s reaction to Jeff Gordon’s news is ‘Wonderful, if true’ and the video is eagerly awaited. Meanwhile, BirdLife has received a further encouraging report of Sociable Lapwings this autumn: a birder in the US Army is claiming a ‘large flock’ in Iraq. This species certainly knows how to live dangerously... Rolling Stone-curlews The breeding population of Stone-curlews Burhinus oedicnemus in the UK has hit a postwar high with more than 300 nesting pairs in 2005. ‘Norfolk Plovers’ breed predominantly in the Brecks, which straddle the Norfolk/ Suffolk border (187 pairs in 2005), and on and around Salisbury Plain (104 pairs in 2005). There are smaller populations elsewhere in England, taking the total number of pairs to more than 300. Breaking the 300-pairs barrier means that the Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) target for this species has been achieved five years ahead of schedule. A new BAP target will be adopted next year. Before the Second World War there were more than 1,000 breeding pairs in England but the species suffered a dramatic decline as breeding habitat was lost to farming and forestry in the postwar years. Recolonisa- tion of the Brecks and Wessex was achieved through intensive fieldwork by Stone-curlew wardens and the help of farmers and landowners, like the Ministry of Defence on Salisbury Plain. Safeguarding eggs and chicks during farming operations has been the key. Allan Drewitt, Senior Ornithologist at English Nature, said: ‘Doubling the population of this rare and enigmatic bird over the last 20 years has been a great achievement and justly rewards the efforts of landowners, the RSPB, English Nature and others alike. However, with Stone-curlews now declining in many other European countries, it’s becoming even more important that we work to restore them to their former haunts in England.’ Declining farmland birds ‘ not so bright ’ An intriguing new theory for the catastrophic decline of farmland birds over the past half-century suggests that their brain size could be part of the problem. Essentially, birds with bigger brains tend to do better in the survival stakes, according to Dr Susanne Shultz of the University of Liverpool, a former RSPB scientist. Brain size, apparently, helps to determine how well birds adapt to long-term changes in their environment. Those with bigger brains, relative to their size, are able to change their lifestyles as their surround- ings alter. They then fare better than more specialised species. Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra , Tree Sparrow Passer mon- tanus and Grey Partridge Perdix 616 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 614-617 c perdix have all suffered steep popu- lation declines; they also have rela- tively small brains in relation to their body size. Conversely, Great Tit Parus major. Blue Tit P. caeruleus and Magpie Pica pica, all found on farmland (but not farm- land specialists), have much larger brains for their size and have all done relatively well in recent years. Dr Shultz said: ‘Large brains may help birds to solve problems and adapt their behaviour as their environments change... [whereas] BOURC appointments The British Ornithologists’ Union Records Committee (BOURC) has appointed Andrew Lassey to replace retiring member Dr Tony Prater, while Dr Lars Svensson has been appointed to the BOURC’s Taxonomic Sub-committee to replace retiring member Dr Andreas Helbig. Andrew Lassey lives in East Yorkshire, where he spends at least six hours a day around Flambor- ough Head having taken early retirement in 1996. He set up an observatory-style recording system at Flamborough in 1974, estab- lished the Flamborough Ornitho- logical Group, and in 2001 oversaw the accreditation of Flamborough to the bird-observatory network. His account of Britain’s first Taiga Flycatcher Ficedula albicilla - at Flamborough, in April 2003 - appeared in BB last month (Brit. Birds 98: 542-546). Lars Svensson lives in Torekov, south Sweden, and is the renowned author of the Identification Guide to Passerines (originally published in 1970 and with a 5th edition now in preparation) as well as recent papers for BB including the review of ‘Siberian Chiffchaffs’ in the August issue (Brit. Birds 98: 396-410). Lars was a founder of the Swedish Rarities Committee in 1 97 1 , and its chairman for 1 5 years. His expertise in identification and taxonomy are recognised world- wide. News and comment birds with small brains for their size seem to be declining because they are stuck in their ways.’ Many farmland birds are highly specialised in habitat and diet, and the intensification of farming prac- tices has precipitated well-docu- mented declines (see pp. 570-578, for example). But species which have spread to gardens - and learned new skills to overcome loss of natural food sources or changed habitats - have thrived. Examples include Great Tits learning to use D bird feeders or Blue Tits pecking through milk-bottle tops. Dr Richard Gregory, head of moni- toring at the RSPB, said: 'Reversing the declines of farmland birds is one of our greatest challenges, and if farmers provide the habitat char- acteristics for less adaptable birds, we could be well on the way to recovery. This research shows how crucial long-term monitoring is in showing how habitat changes can affect particular species of bird in unexpected ways.’ Birds New to Britain The BOURC has announced that both Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae and Purple Martin Progne subis have been added to Category A of the British List. The first British record of ‘soft-plumaged petrel’ Pterodroma madeira/mollis/feae was more than 20 years ago but photos of the bird seen from the Scillonian pelagic on 12th August 2001 allowed Fea’s to be identi- fied definitively. What may have been the same bird was seen off Scilly on 8th July 2001, but this record is still under consideration by BOURC. If Fea’s Petrel took 20 years to reach the British List, Purple Martin got there far more rapidly. With commendable speed, the BOURC accepted the record of a juvenile seen at the Butt of Lewis, in the Outer Hebrides, on 5th-6th September 2004, just over a year after the bird’s occurrence. The British List now stands at 571 species. You can read about both Fea’s Petrel and Purple Martin in Birds New to Britain, which features accounts of all the firsts for Britain between 1980 and 2004 (Birds New to Britain and Ireland, by Tim Sharrock and Peter Grant (Poyser, 1982), covered ‘firsts’ between 1946 and 1980), many of them based on the original finders’ accounts in BB. The new book was launched at the British Birdwatching Fair, and a photograph of the editors, AP and Tim Cleeves, along with some of the contributors was taken to mark the occasion (see plate 389). 389. Contributors to Birds New to Britain, at the book's launch at the British Birdwatching Fair, in August 2005. From left, Jimmy Steele, Dominic Mitchell, Colin Bradshaw, Tim Cleeves, Tony Marr (not a contributor, just an interloper and incorrigible self-publicist), Adrian Pitches, Dawn Balmer (in front), Roger Riddington, Alan Davies, Steve Young, Rebecca Nason, Susan Hepton and Richard Thomas. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 614-617 617 Tim Loseby Monthly Marathon } 390. Yellow-browed Bunting Emberiza chrysophrys, China, May 1 993. Photo no. 2 1 6:Yellow-browed Bunting Monthly Marathon photo number 216 (Brit. Birds 98: plate 176, repeated here as plate 390) clearly shows a small, well-marked passerine, with conspicuous dark streaking on the mantle and two wing-bars formed by pale tips to the greater and median coverts. The most striking feature is, however, the long but narrow whitish supercilium and the dark ear-covert patch that contains a pale spot towards the rear. These features, combined with its terres- trial behaviour, immediately bring to mind a number of options including larks (Alaudidae), pipits Anthus, and buntings (along with North American sparrows) (Emberizidae). The relatively long tail and comparatively short wings do not fit any lark recorded within the Western Palearctic, enabling us to move on quickly. Several of the smaller pipits appear to share a similar tail length, but the overall proportions of this bird, which is clearly fat-bodied and large- headed, just do not look right for a pipit. This struc- ture fits a bunting or an American sparrow much better. Turning to the North Amer- ican sparrows, one species immedi- ately springs to mind - White- throated Sparrow Zonotrichia albi- collis - but this would lack the pale ear-covert spot and conspicuous flank streaking, and show warm brown fringes to the edges of both the greater coverts and flight feathers. The only other North American sparrow recorded within the Western Palearctic to show a similar pattern is Lark Sparrow Chondestes grammacus but, again, we can readily rule out this species as it has unmarked flanks while those of our mystery bird are heavily streaked. The combination of tail length, wing-bars and distinctive head pattern described above enables us to narrow down the choice to one of the buntings, probably a female or first-winter. Equally, these char- acters enable us to rule out several species in this large genus, many of which lack a conspicuous super- cilium, are darker above or show yellow tones to the underparts. The familiar Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus is an obvious starting point but is darker than our bird and invariably shows rufous- brown fringes to the greater coverts and edges to the secondaries, fea- tures that are clearly missing here. Beware of some of the eastern races, however, in particular E. s. pyrrhulina , as yet unrecorded in Europe, which are paler above and can come close to matching the upperpart tones of our mystery bird, although these invariably retain the rufous-brown fringes to the wing-coverts. Similarly, the absence of chestnut fringes to the greater coverts quickly eliminates Lapland Bunting Calcarius lappon- icus. There are quite a few options to choose from, all of which are scarce or rare in the Western Palearctic. These include Little E. pusilla , Rustic E. rustica , Pallas’s Reed E. pallasi. Yellow-breasted E. aureola and Yellow-browed Buntings E. chrysophrys. The flank streaking looks particularly dark in the photograph, almost black, and this rules out Rustic Bunting, on which the flank streaking is warm rufous-brown. Yellow- breasted Bunting possesses a long and well-defined supercilium and shows a pale but diffuse spot on the rear ear-coverts. Could this be our mystery bird? Looking care- fully at the lower belly, vent and 39 1 . ‘Monthly Marathon’. Photo no. 2 1 8. Sixteenth stage in thirteenth ‘Marathon’. Identify the species. Read the rules (see page 54), then send in your answer on a postcard to Monthly Marathon, c/oThe Banks, Mountfield, Robertsbridge, East Sussex TN32 5JY, or by e-mail to editor@britishbirds.co.uk, to arrive by 31st December 2005. 618 © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 618-619 Colin Bradshaw Monthly Marathon C > undertail-coverts, these are clearly white on the bird in the photo- graph; on Yellow-breasted Bunting, the belly at least would show a yellowish or huffy wash. First-winter Pallas’s Reed is an interesting possibility, being paler and distinctly straw-coloured in its overall appearance, quite unlike Reed Buntings in Europe. In addi- tion, it lacks the warm rufous- brown fringes to the wing-coverts and flight feathers of its larger rel- ative, and young birds in autumn typically show a long, pale super- cilium that extends well behind the eye, making this a likely candi- date. Young birds also show a pale spot on the ear-coverts, although this is rather diffuse and ill- defined, unlike that of our bird, while the upperpart pattern would form broad, parallel lines that extended the length of the mantle, and both the flanks and rump would show pale, diffuse and indistinct streaking. Little Bunting is a little harder to rule out, with the ear-covert spot and dark flank streaking matching particularly well. However, the supercilium on this species is typically pale straw towards the rear, warming to chestnut-buff above the eye, and the mantle feather fringes should appear slightly darker and richer brown. This leaves us with just Yellow-browed Bunting, which would be my first choice. Most of the visible features fit both females and first-winter birds extremely well, with the head pattern being a particularly good match. From this angle, any hint of yellow that may be present in the supercilium is obscured by the blurred foliage in the foreground, although this is rarely obvious behind the eye on first-winter birds. Seen from a better angle, the head would be a complete give- away and allow us to clinch the identification. With its conspic- uous white central crown stripe extending down to the nape, and a yellow wash to the supercilium in front of the eye. Yellow-browed Bunting is a distinctive bird. David Fisher The vast majority of entrants were not fooled by this photograph, and 88% of answers received before deadline day were for Yellow-browed Bunting. Interestingly, all of the remainder voted for Yellow-breasted Bunting. Once again, none of the current leaders of the thirteenth ‘Marathon’ slipped up, so Mark Edgeller, Jon Holt, Andy Rhodes, Jakob Sunesen and Peter Sunesen remain as joint leaders, each with a series of eight correct answers. Eds For a free brochure, write to SUNBIRD (MM), PO Box 76, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG 1 9 I DF, or telephone 01767 682969 Sunbird The best of birdwatching tours Recent reports Compiled by Barry Nightingale and Anthony McGeehan This summary of unchecked reports covers early September to early October 2005. Blue-winged Teal Anas discors Smerwick Harbour (Co. Kerry), 1 7th— 26th September; North Slob (Co. Wexford), 17th September to at least 5th October; North Bull (Co. Dublin), 6th-9th October; Belhaven Bay (Lothian), 8th October. Redhead Aythya americana Kenfig Pool (Glamorgan), 24th September. Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophris Bardsey (Gwynedd), 25th Sep- tember. Zino’s/Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira/ feae Pendeen (Cornwall), 1st October. Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus Large numbers were seen along the northeast coast of England on 16th September including 2,005 past the Fame Islands (Northumberland), 1,000 past Hartle- pool Headland (Cleveland), 456 past Filey Brigg (North Yorkshire), 2,721 past Flamborough Head, 1,520 past Spurn (both East Yorkshire) and 250 past Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire). Little Shearwater Puffinus assimilis Iona (Argyll), 23rd September; Rumps Point (Cornwall), 28th September. Wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus Bridges of Ross (Co. Clare), 25th Sep- tember; St Ives (Cornwall), 1st October. Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloide s Newton Abbot (Devon), 4th-9th October. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Elmley (Kent), 22nd September to 8th October; Burnham Overy (Norfolk), 7th October. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Gugh (Scilly), 5th October. Black Kite Milvus migrans Southwood (Hamp- shire), 10th September. Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus St Mary’s then St Martin’s (Scilly), 16th September; Sumburgh (Shetland), 29th September. Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Capel Fleet (Kent), 13th September. © British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 6 1 9-626 619 John Carter Dods MacFarlane Recent reports C ) 392 & 393. Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophris, with Northern Gannets Morus bassanus, Sula Sgeir, Outer Hebrides, August 2005. All proceeds from the publication of photographs of this bird will be donated to the BirdLife ‘Save the Albatross’ appeal. Sora Porzana Carolina St Mary’s, 23rd September to 9th October. Little Crake Porzana parva Slim- bridge (Gloucestershire), 14th September to 2nd October. American Coot Fulica americana Loch of Benston (Shetland), 24th September to 1st October. Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Gweek (Cornwall), 22nd September to 3rd October. American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica Lewis (Western Isles), 1 0th— 1 1 th and 24th September to 5th October; Foula (Shet- land), 15th September to 9th October; South Uist (Western Isles), 15th September; Frampton Marsh (Lincolnshire), 2nd October; Salthouse (Norfolk), 3rd October. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla Shannon Airport Lagoon (Co. Clare), 1 6th— 1 9th September. White-rumped Sand- piper Calidris fuscicollis North Ronaldsay (Orkney), 1 2th— 1 5th September, with two on 18th and three on 19th-20th September; Tresco (Scilly), 18th September; Welney (Norfolk), 2nd October; Brav- elaw Marsh (Lothian), 3rd-6th October; Grafham Water (Cambridgeshire), 7th-9th October; North Uist, 8th October; South Uist, 8th-9th October; Lewis, 8th October. Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii Bryher (Scilly), 8th— 1 5th and 20th-25th Sep- tember, St Mary’s & St Agnes, 25th-29th September (all pre- sumed same); Boulmer (Northumberland), 1 1 th— 1 3th September; Spurn, 1 1th— 18th September; Murvagh (Co. Donegal), 20th-23rd September; 620 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 619-626 Dods MacFarlane Marc Read Recent reports C 395. Sora Porzana Carolina, St Mary’s, Scilly, October 2005. Kirkby-on-Bain (Lincolnshire), 23rd-27th Sep- tember; Islay (Argyll), 28th September; Key- haven (Hampshire), 29th September to 9th October; Dungeness (Kent), 3rd-9th October; Slimbridge, 6th-9th October. Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea Influx during September, including 64 Titchwell (Norfolk), 9th Sep- tember; 20 Oare Marshes (Kent), 10th Sep- tember; and, inland, 15 Rutland Water (Leicestershire), 9th September. Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis In addition to those reported last month: Foula (Shetland), 8th September; South Uist, 9th Sep- tember, with three on 15th and four on 18th September; two, North Ronaldsay, 9th Sep- 396. Little Crake Porzana parva, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire, September 2005. tember with one on 23rd September; Cemlyn (Anglesey), 1 1 th— 1 3th September; two, North Uist (Western Isles), 11th September; Lulworth Cove (Dorset), 12th— 16th September; Ringstead Bay (Dorset), 13th September; Scatness (Shet- land), 1 4th— 1 5th September; Tyninghame Bay (Lothian), 15th- 18th September; Breydon Water (Norfolk), 16th September; Titchwell, 17th Sep- tember; East Prawle (Devon), 23rd September; at least two, Myroe, Lough Foyle (Co. London- derry), from 25th September (and possibly the same birds elsewhere on Lough Foyle up to early October); Fleck (Shetland), 27th-28th Sep- tember; West Burra (Shetland), 30th September; up to four, Tacumshin Lake (Co. Wexford), from late September into early October. 397. Juvenile Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii, Boulmer, Northumberland, September 2005. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 619-626 621 Stef McElwee Alan Tate Marc Read Marc Read Recent reports C ) 398. Juvenile Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus. Drift Reservoir, Cornwall, October 2005. 399. Juvenile Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularius, St Mary’s, Scilly, October 2005. Great Snipe Gallinago media Blakeney Point (Norfolk), 10th— 1 1 th September. Short- billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus Termoncarragh Lake (Co. Mayo), 7th-8th October. Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus Four were seen in Ireland (one at Clonakilty, Co. Cork; one at Shannon Airport Lagoon; and two at Doonbeg, Co. Clare, on 22nd September), all in late September. In addition. Drift Reservoir (Cornwall), 23rd September to 9th October; Port Carlisle (Cumbria), 23rd September; Old Hall Marshes (Essex), 25th September to 9th October; Kilnsea (North Yorkshire), 2nd October. Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda Nanjizal, 27th Sep- tember, presumed same near Polgigga (both Cornwall), 29th September and 2nd-9th October; Benbecula (Western Isles), 3rd-6th October. Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis Leighton Moss (Lancashire), 1 1th— 12th September. Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes Three arrived in Ireland in late September (one at Carnesore Point, Co. Wexford; one at Swords Estuary, Co. Dublin; and one at Clonakilty), all remaining until at least 7th/8th October. In addition, Kingston Seymour (Som- erset), 25th September; Out Skerries (Shetland), 27th Sep- tember to 7th October; Filey, 28th September; South Uist, 3rd-4th October; Minsmere (Suffolk), 9th October; North Slob, 9th October. Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularius St Mary’s, 27th September to 9th October. Wilson’s Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor South Uist, 19th-23rd September. 622 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 619-626 Recent reports C } 400. Juvenile White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus, Seaforth, Merseyside, September 2005. Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni Fair Isle (Shetland), 25th September. Pechora Pipit Anthus gustavi Scatness, 25th September; North Ronaldsay, 25th September. Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus Land’s End (Cornwall), 18th Sep- tember; Elnrley, 25th Sep- tember; Polgigga, 29th September; Greenabella 401. Juvenile Citrine Wagtail Motacilla c/treo/o, Alnmouth, Northumberland, September 2005. Marsh (Cleveland), 1st October; Burnham Overy, 4th October; St Aldhelm’s Head (Dorset), 5th October; Winterton (Norfolk), 5th October; Fame Islands, 5th-9th October; Porthgwarra (Cornwall), 7th October; Holkham (Norfolk), 9th October. Buff-bellied Pipit Anthus rubescens St Kilda (Western Isles), 20th September. Citrine Wagtail Motacilla cit- reola Alnmouth (Northumberland), 1 0th— 1 3th September; Shannon Airport Lagoon, 16th— 19th September. Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia Holme § Laughing Gull Larus atricilla Anglers Country Park, 2nd-6th October, same Wintersett Reser- voir (both West Yorkshire), 7th October. White- winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus three, Rutland Water, 8th— 1 3th September; Seaforth/Crosby Marine Park (Merseyside), 9th— 13th September; Hickling Broad (Norfolk), 10th September; West Tilbury (Essex), 10th September; Langholm Farm, River Clyde (Clyde), 14th— 18th September. Alpine Swift Apus melba Edith Mead (Som- erset), 16th September. Little Swift Apus affinis South Gare (Cleveland), 13th September. European Bee- eater Merops apiaster Hitchin (Hertfordshire), 9th October. Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Covehithe (Suffolk), 1st October. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 619-626 623 Tony Mainwood Mike Pennington Recent reports ( ) 402. First-winter Veery Catharus fuscescens, Unst, Shetland, September 2005, 403. Female 'Black-throated Thrush’ Turdus ruficollis atrogularis. Geosetter, Shetland, October 2005. (Norfolk), 7th October. ‘Siberian Stonechat’ Saxicola torquatus maurus Porthgwarra, 7th-9th October. Isabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabel- lina Landguard (Suffolk), 4th October. Grey- cheeked Thrush Catharus minimus Old Head of Kinsale (Co. Cork), 8th-9th October. Veery Catharus fuscescens Unst (Shetland), 22nd Sep- tember. ‘Black-throated Thrush’ Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Geosetter (Shetland), 4th October. Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata Out Skerries, 5th-6th October. Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola Seasalter (Kent), 20th Sep- tember. Booted Warbler Hippolais caligata Scar- borough (North Yorkshire), 10th September. Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans Fame Islands, 1 0th September. Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides At least 24 were reported, in addition to the nine 404. Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata, Foula, Shetland, September 2005. reported last month, chiefly in northeastern English counties, with peak arrivals including ten on 10th September and seven on 1 1th. Scar- borough, 9th— 1 2th September; South Gare, 10th September; Blakeney Point, 10th Sep- tember; Spurn area, three, 10th— 12th Sep- tember; Tynemouth (Northumberland), 10th September; Seaham (Co. Durham), 10th Sep- tember; Fame Islands, 1 0th— 1 1th September; Seaton Carew (Cleveland), 1 0th— 11th Sep- tember; Newbiggin (Northumberland), 10th September; Holkham, 1 1 th— 1 2th September; Robin Hood’s Bay (North Yorkshire), 11th Sep- tember; Sumburgh, 11th September; Ravenscar (North Yorkshire), 1 1th September; South Shields (Co. Durham), 1 1 th— 12th September; Hauxley (Northumberland), 1 1 th— 1 2th Sep- tember; Saltfleet (Lincolnshire), 1 1 th— 12th Sep- tember; Holme, 1 2th— 1 3th September; Stiffkey (Norfolk), 12th September; Cape Clear Island 405. Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola, Seasalter, Kent, September 2005. 624 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 619-626 Chris Bradshaw & Jan Pritchard Hugh Harrop Deryk Shaw Hugh Harrop Recent reports catus Spurn, 7th-8th October; Climping (West Sussex), 7th-9th October; Dungeness, 8th October. Western Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli Fair Isle, 10th September; Cape Cear Island, 16th- 18th September. 406. Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides, Wester Quarff, Shetland, September 2005. (Co. Cork), 1 6th— 25th September; Wester Quarff (Shetland), 26th September to 9th October; St Agnes, 28th-5th October; Beachy Head (East Sussex), 9th October. Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis Portland (Dorset), 9th October. Yellow-browed Warbler Phyllo- scopus inornatus There was a widespread influx in late Sep- tember/early October, involving perhaps several hundred indi- viduals, including 15 on Fair Isle, and eight on North Ronaldsay on 25th September, about 20 in the Spurn area 6th October. Radde’s Warbler Phyllo- scopus schwarzi St Margaret’s-at- Cliffe (Kent), 3rd-4th October; Gugh, 5th October; Prawle Point (Devon), 7th October; Sandwich Bay (Kent), 7th-9th October; Bryher, 7th October; Easington (East York- shire), 8th-9th October; North Foreland (Kent), 8th October. Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fus- Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor Cape Clear Island, 18th September; Spurn, 24th September to 1st October. Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator St Martin’s, 1 2th— 1 3th September; Weymouth (Dorset), 16th September. Rose-coloured Star- ling Sturnus roseus Sixteen were reported in the period with five arriving during 5th-7th and four during 9th— 1 2th September. Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus Inisbofin (Co. Galway), 25th-27th September; Lundy (Devon), 29th-30th September; Benbecula (Western Isles), 30th September; Blacksod (Co. Phylloscopus borealis, Bressay, Shetland, September 2005. Mayo), 2nd-8th October; two, St Mary’s, 3rd Octob er with one to 7th October. Yellow Warbler Dendroica petechia Garth’s Ness (Shet- land), 1 5th— 1 7th September. Blackpoll Warbler Dendroica striata St Agnes, 27th-30th Sep- tember; South Uist, 29th September; St Mary’s, 3rd-9th October; Glasnakille, Skye (Highland), 4th October. 407. Arctic Warbler Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica Trusthorpe (Lincolnshire), 8th October. Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala Rossall Point (Lancashire), 9th October. 408. Western Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli Fair Isle, Shetland, September 2005. Rose-breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus Barra (Western Isles), 8th October. Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus Foula, 29th September to 4th October. British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 619-626 625 Hugh Harrop RussellWynn Marc Read Hugh Harrop Recent reports ) 409. Yellow Warbler Dendroica petechia. Garth’s Ness, Shetland, September 2005. 4 1 0. Blackpoll Warbler Dendroica striata, St Mary’s, Scilly, October 2005. 411. Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla, Foula, Shetland, September 2005. 626 British Birds 98 • November 2005 • 619-626 Kay Optical (1962) UNRIVALLED EXPERTISE, EXPERIENCE AND SERVICE » Sales & Repairs • Binoculars * Telescopes • Tripods, etc www.kayoptical.co.uk and www.bigbinoculars.co.uk • Mail order • Same day despatch • Pa« exchange 89(B) London Road, Morden, Surrey SM4 5HP I p'ld '"7 , Tel: 020 8648 8822 Fox: 020 8687 2021 credit”avaiiab!c Email: info@koyaptical.co.uk Open: Mon-Sat 9-5 (lunch 1-2) Location: Southern edge of Greeter London. 1 5 mins drive from M25 (for example vio the A3, then take the A298 Wimbledon/Merton slip-rood) or 2 mins wolk from Morden underground (turn right). See our website for o mop. Parking: 50 yards post our premises - first left XT’ * 1 1 Alternative venues to Morden at which you can try and buy our equipment in r leia the field are given below. We aim to show our full range of equipment but it Dn\/C helps us to help you if you let us know your interests before each Field LLU_y.j_ Day Repairs can also be handed in/collected. 10.00 am to 4.00 pm usually. Sevenoaks Wildfowl Reserve On the A25 between Overhead ond Sevenoaks Bat ond Boll Station on 6 Nov, 4 Dec, 8 Jan & 5 Feb Pagham Harbour LNR On the B21 45 into Selsey, West Sussex 27 Nov, 17 Dec, 29 Jan & 26 Feb Dinton Pastures Country Park Near Reading (M4, A329(M) Woodley turnoff) then A329 to Winnersh and Winnersh Station (B3030) 5 Jan The Kent Wildlife Trust, The Tyland Barn, Sandling, Near Maidstone, Kent 9 Apr Bough Beech Nature Reserve/Reservoir About 4 miles south of the A25/A21 junction (across from B2042 or B2027) near Ide Hill, Kent. Info centre north of reservoir. 20 Nov, 18 Dec, 22 Jan & 19 Feb College Lake Wildlife Centre On the B488 near Bulbourne, Tring, Herts. 13 Nov, 12 Feb Canon, Helios, Kowa, Leica, Manfrotto, Miyauchi, Nikon, Opticron, Opfolyth, Sentinel, Swarovski, Zeiss, etc. Used items also on our web site. For subsequent Field Day dates, phone or see our web site THE BEST PAGER, THE BEST SERVICE AND THE BEST PRICE Use the Motorola Graphix Pager the best pager available and at £197.40 a year 23% less than any other supplier. Or we have an economy pager at £1 19.99 and a phone text service for £59 all inclusive - check out these prices! Ring Birdnet Information on 01 246-59 14 1 5 or 0 1 623-5 I 1 679 now for an information pack or visit our website at: www.birdnetinformation.co.uk (Membership £35 additional) East Cape Bird Tours Baja’s birds have waited millennia for you to visit! Please do not disappoint them! Each year birds of North America's Pacific flyway travel the length of Baja’s Pacific side, while birds of the Central Fly way migrate down the eastern side of the peninsula. Many species stage at land’s end. Here they mix with native desert and sea species. Watch orioles, tropiebirds, Gambel’s Quail, Masked Booby Aplomado Falcon, Harris’s Hawk and cardinals. See the Cordon - the largest succulent plant in the world. A cousin of the Saguaro, they can reach 75” in height, and provide a nesting place for flickers, woodpeckers, owls and American Kestrels. View them from Quad-bikes, Ocean Kayaks and on foot. See desert oases and waterfalls. Study prehistoric Rock Art at ‘Spirit Rock’, which is believed to be between 10,000 and 15,000 years old! Snorkel in Cabo Pulma Coral Reef National Park! Shop in the ‘Old Mexico’ town of Santiago. Contact East Cape Bird Touurs c/o Thomas IV Stephan, 346 Oak St, Ramona, California, USA 92065. Tel: OOl (760) 789 1493 Mobile: OOl (760) 445 2023 Email: tom@air-superiority.com FOR SALE Filey Country Park Cafe A rare chance to take over a thriving birders cafe. The adopted home of Filey Brigg Ornithological Group and scene of many a twitch. For details ring: 07870 341455 Sri Lanka No one knows it like we do The country’s best known birding & wildlife tour leaders work exclusively with Gehan de Silva Wijeyeratne’s team. mM ?! f§Eco Holidays eco@jetwing.lk www.jetwingeco.com Jetwing Hotels (with naturalists) St Andrew’s Hotel - Hunas Falls Hotel - The Beach Seashells Hotel - The Blue Water Lighthouse Hotel & Spa - Tropical Villas International journal on Palearctic birds JOIN NOW! 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Birding World publishes material on the following key topics. • rare and scarce birds • lavishly illustrated • Britain & Europe • identification • status & distribution • taxonomy Hazel Millington, Birding World, Stonerunner, Coast Road, Cley next the Sea, Holt, Norfolk NR25 7RZ Tel: 01263 741139 Fax: 01263 741173 Email: sales@birdingworld.co.uk Website: www.birdingworld.co.uk BB Binders Old Size We will shortly have available binders to hold the old size (A5) British Birds. These are available in brown wirex at £8.95 each. To place your order please contact the 88 office : British Birds. The Banks, Mountfield, Robertsbridge, East SussexTN32 5JY Tel: 01 580 882039 Fax: 0 1 580 882038 Email: accounts@helm-information.co.uk or order from our secure website at: www.britishbirds.co.uk Classified advertising Payment for all classified advertisements must be made in advance by VISA, Mastercard or by cheque payable to British Birds. Copy deadline: 10th or the month. Contact: Ian Lycett, Solo Publishing Ltd., B403A The Chocolate Factory, 5 Clarendon Road, London N22 6XJ Tel: 020 8881 0550. Fax: 020 8881 0990. E-mail: ian.lycett@birdwatch.co.uk HOLIDAY ACCOMMODATION England NORFOLK Owl Cottage A lovely cosy holiday rental This beautifully presented, traditional whitewashed fisherman's cottage is situated in an enviable position just a short stroll from Wells' popular quay and its many amenities. Although I have not seen any Owls the birdwatching between Wells and Brancaster is excellent I am a new member of the RSPB. For further details visit our website - Burnham Market property coming on line shortly http://postcardholidays.com/wells-norfolldowlcottage.html Email: jon.baxter@btinternetcom NORTH NORFOLK - Bed and breakfast, 1.5 miles from Holt. Very peaceful location. Close to Kelling Heath and Cley reserve. Double en- suite rooms. Evening meals and picnic lunches. Early breakfasts no problem. Non smoking. Tel: 01263 7101 16 or 07900 928729. 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Of the world's 9000 bird species, nearly 900 are found in this region, and are all described and illustrated here. #6582 Hbk £105 £49.95 Exclusively distributed by NHBS □ Birds of Kuwait: A Portrait Abdullah Alfadhel Species by species portraits of the birds of Kuwait - for each there are latin and common names. #154567 Hbk £29.95 □ important Bird Areas in Zambia Peter Leonard An essential new resource for conserva- tionists and birders, this book is far more than just a listing #151418 Pbk £14.00 □ Arrivals and Rivals: A Birding Oddity Adrian Riley Traces the competition between the author and Lee Evans to become Birder of the Year 2002. #152005 Pbk £7.99 □ Birds: A Complete Guide to „ all British and European Species Dominic Couzens Lavishly illustrated, large format encyclopedia featuring over 450 species that regularly occur in Europe. #116539 Hbk £30:00 £24.99 (until 31/12/2005) □ Avian Flight J Videler Covers all the main aspects of aerial locomotion. #144658 Hbk £55.00 □ Social Organization of the Rufos Vanga Edited by Satoshi Yamagishi The rufous vanga, a unique species of bird in Madagascar. #144769 Hbk £48.00 Order via this form, or www.nhbs.com/bb-books - every sale benefits British Birds Prices quoted in £ (UK Sterling). 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Compact aluminium body 5<4 Megapixel (DSC-W5) 3x Optical Carl Zeiss ZooM'^^ f.2 Megapixel (DSC-W7) 2.5" hybrid LCD screenS-*^ Optional VAD-WA adaptor Fast start-up and shooting to convert to a 30mm thread lowepro londoncameraexchange Winchester e it M m r i £ *" STEINER SkyHawk High contrast optics For superb vision even in the most difficult light conditions Fast close focus Designed for rapid focusing at close range down to approx. 2m Choose from SkyHawk 10x26 SkyHawk 8x32 SkyHawk 8x42 SkyHawk 10x42 15 The Square, Winchester. S023 9ES Tei:01962 840294 winchester@LCEgroup.co.uk British Birds December 2005 • Vol.98 • 627-694 ZEISS Rare birds in Great Britain 2004 British Birds Established 1907, incorporating The Zoologist, established 1843 Published by BB 2000 Limited, trading as ‘British Birds’ Registered Office: 4 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8SF British Birds is owned and published by BB 2000 Limited, the directors of which are Richard Chandler (Chairman), John Eyre, Jeremy Greenwood, Ian Packer, Richard Porter, Bob Scott and Terry Smeeton. BB 2000 Limited is wholly owned by The British Birds Charitable Trust (registered charity No. 1089422), whose trustees are Richard Chandler, Jeremy Greenwood, Peter Oliver and Bob Scott. British Birds aims to be the leading journal for the modern birder in the Western Palearctic We aim to: ♦> provide a forum for contributions of interest to all birdwatchers in the Western Palearctic; ♦> publish material on behaviour, conservation, distribution, ecology, identification, movements, status and taxonomy; ♦> embrace new ideas and research; ♦> maintain our position as the respected journal of record; and •> interpret good scientific research on birds for the interested non-scientist. 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Simon Stirrup The home of birding magazine Your complete guide to birding holidays Don’t panic! Bird flu: the facts Issue 163 ■ January 2006 . £3.50 farming FOR BIRDS A brighter future for the countryside? New Year birding Northamptonshire, Fife, Kpnt 3nrl ^1... ■ Magnificent Frigatebird Full story of Britain’s first ID advice ■ Common and Black Scoters ■ Whooper and Bewick’s Swans T Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East North Africa HwBWs of Ibc V*»em You need BWP/ 2006 *Plus £1.99 p&p.This special offer does not include a full-size retail box. To order: visit www.birdguides.com/bwpi or call our freephone number 0800 91 93 91 " no B\yp/ 1 TWesternPa,'«'«ic,„ " "ZZT dvd-rom y m BWPi. 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Rogers and the Rarities Committee i NATURAL HISTORY MUSFUM - 7 DEC 2005 PBE6c.N i"£D THING LIBRARY © British Birds 2005 ZEISS Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 M.J. Rogers and the Rarities Committee This is the forty-seventh annual report of the British Birds Rarities Committee and it provides details of accepted records of rare birds in Britain in 2004, along with some additional, outstanding records from earlier years. Some have questioned the continuing importance of this report, suggesting that many good records are not being reported to BBRC, partly as a result of our ‘unreasonably high standards’. In order to examine this assertion further, we worked with BirdGuides , one of the commercial bird information providers, when preparing this year’s report, and compared sightings of rarities reported to their website with records submitted to BBRC. We then investigated those records for which BBRC had received no details, via the County Recorder network. The feedback received from County Recorders was positive, with comments received on some records from almost all areas, and comments on all the missing records from the whole of Wales and some southern and eastern coastal counties. We found that the reasons why sightings of rarities reported to BirdGuides were not submitted to BBRC could be broken down into five groups. Of these, the most frequent responses fell into two categories: • Observations, often a brief encounter or a ‘fly-by’, where identification was not certain at the time of the sighting (or subsequently), but which were felt worth reporting to the birdlines. Most birders, BBRC included, would regard the reporting of such sightings as good practice. It is important that news about probable rarities is shared, preferably quickly, in order that other observers might see the bird; but observers should be applauded for not submitting a record if they simply didn’t get enough detail for the record to be 100% certain. • Records that the Recorder and the majority of local birders were unaware of. With no local knowledge, or a proper submission, these sightings cannot be treated as part of the ornithological record. Other reasons given fell into two, much smaller groups: • Misidentification - for various reasons, local opinion was confident that an error had been made, sometimes because of the observer involved, but more commonly because of birds known to be (for example) escapes, hybrids or atypical examples of common species. • The observer does not submit records of rare birds, even locally, and does not want his records to be assessed by BBRC. There seems little that we can do about the reasons given in these four groups: in the first case because the observer has made an appro- priate decision not to submit the record; in the second because we don’t know who to approach for documentation; in the third because we wouldn’t want to pursue it; and in the final case because it is unlikely that we would be suc- cessful. It is the last category that is of most concern, however. In some cases, County Recorders commented that these observers did not submit records of commoner species to the relevant recorder. Such records are, regrettably, lost forever; without publication, whether they be rarities at the national level or interesting local records, they can have no relevance. They cannot form a part of the scientific record, cannot be used to analyse patterns and trends of occurrence, and cannot be used to further the aims of conservation. Submission of records is vitally important, and we appeal to all observers to submit their records to the relevant County or Local Recorder. The final group in our survey consisted of around 30 records for which photographs had been published, either in magazines or on the 628 © British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 internet, yet the record had not, at the time of undertaking this review, been submitted to BBRC. Although this involved a relatively small number of records, it included some high- profile ones, such as the American Robin Turdus migratorius at Grimsby, Lincolnshire, and Franklin’s Gull Larus pipixcan on Scilly and later in Dorset. These added some weight to the belief that there were 'lots of records which are never submitted to BBRC’. However, we also identified a number of records, such as the White-rumped Calidris fuscicollis and Baird’s Sandpipers C. bairdii that were photographed together at Minsmere, Suffolk, which had been submitted, but had been lost or delayed in the submission system. We were able to arrange last-minute electronic circulations of many of these records and they now appear in this year’s report, making it more complete. As a result of these enquiries, we now have a more accurate picture of how many ‘good records’ are missing; and it is less than 10% of an annual total of 700+ records of rarities each year. Consequently, the belief that there are many records which are not being submitted to BBRC must be correct only if they are also not being reported to birdlines or through local networks. Nonetheless, we should clearly not be complacent, and BBRC is taking steps to intro- duce a system that will allow the easier submis- sion of photographed rarities. From the beginning of 2006, the submission process will be simplified, enabling photographs of rarities uploaded to birding websites to be copied easily to both BBRC and the relevant County Recorders. This will have several advantages: it will allow us to ensure a secure archive of pho- tographed birds; it will enable us to keep a running record of sightings that are missing from our files; and it will help us to become more proactive in chasing up these missing records. Some observers may consider that this is a step too far, and that we are pandering to modernism by allowing the submission of a record which consists simply of a photograph and basic data including location, date, and the observers’ names. However, we recognise that, in order to maintain BBRC’s place as the only credible assessor of British rarities, we need to make this move sooner rather than later. The twentieth century witnessed enormous changes in rarity assessment, with the gun giving way to mist-nets, binoculars and cameras. Now, with advances in photographic technology which allow the capture of images that would previ- ously have been impossible, these alterations to our working practices at the beginning of the twenty-first century are timely. We are now urging County Recorders to submit as many records as possible by e-mail, accompanied by photographs wherever possible. This should accelerate BBRC’s transition to a paperless system, as well as facilitating the smooth flow of records through the county system. Have our standards become too high? We examined the pattern of records that were not accepted over the last ten years, the period during which our records are most detailed. The data show year-to-year variations of only 2.5% either side of a mean acceptance rate of 84.6%. On the basis of up to 1,000 records assessed per year, this represents an entirely rea- sonable, or normal, level of variation. There is also no evidence of a clear trend. Given these statistics, and our pragmatic shift towards easing the submission and assessment of pho- tographed records, we are confident that our standards are consistent and are not becoming too rigorous. The treatment of photographed rarities is not the only change that will occur in 2006. From 1st January, BBRC will no longer consider records of a number of regularly occurring (and well-loved) rarities. This will enable us to manage our workload better and to focus on some of the cutting-edge identification issues, particularly those associated with subspecific identification. After an extensive consultation period with County Recorders and Records Committees, we have decided that all species for which there have been at least 200 records in Britain in total AND at least 100 records during the previous ten years will now be assessed by county or regional committees. This will see the removal of several species from this report, including Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca, Wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus. Great White Egret Ardea alba , American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominion , Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica and Arctic Redpoll Carduelis hornemanni. A full list of these species will be published in the January issue of British Birds. Details of these former rarities will continue to be published in county bird reports, and a summary produced, albeit one year later than the BBRC report, within the format of a revamped Scarce Migrants Report. We are delighted that Ian Wallace has accepted an invi- British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 629 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 tation to prepare comments for all these species for the 2005 BBRC Report, summarising their changing status, both in terms of occurrence and identification criteria. The list of species removed will also include Black Kite Milvus migrans , a species which has given us numerous headaches over the years, particularly in terms of the quality of the descriptions received, and it will be interesting to see whether county committees take a dif- ferent view on submissions of this species from BBRC. County Recorders and their Records Committees have already taken on further work in recent years, including the onerous task of proofreading the final draft of the BBRC report prior to publication, especially with regard to dates, place-names and observer names. We are grateful to them all for accepting this additional workload and hope that some of the systems we are putting in place for submission will reduce the impact on them. We also hope that, by asking for electronic submissions, we will remove the mind-numbing task of printing and sorting records to be submitted to BBRC. Hope- fully, everyone will benefit! And what of the year 2004? The first British records of Purple Martin Progne subis and Masked Shrike Lanins nubicus appear in this report, while both Rufous-tailed Robin Luscinia sibilans and Chestnut-eared Bunting Emberiza fucata , both seen on Fair Isle, Shetland, in October 2004, have been accepted by BBRC and are currently being assessed by BOURC. The ‘Least Tern’ Sterna albifrons antillarum/ athalassos/browni that summered at Rye Harbour, East Sussex, in the 1980s and early 1990s is also featured here for the first time. In addition, 2004 saw the third record of Great Knot C. tenuirostris and the fourth records for Brown Shrike L. cristatus. Yellow Warbler Den- droica petechia and Ovenbird Seiurus auro- capilla for Britain. At the opposite end of the scale, another bumper year for records of ‘Black Brants’ Branta bernicla nigricans , Great White Egrets and Red-rumped Swallows will underline why next year will be the last time that they appear in a BBRC report. The accounts of Wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus and White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii are particu- larly interesting. As a result of pioneering work by the Scilly-based ‘pelagic birders’, we now have a much better understanding of the occur- rence pattern of Wilson’s Storm-petrel, which appears to be a predictable scarce migrant rather than a rarity in the Southwest Approaches (and as a consequence this species will not be a BBRC rarity from January 2006). Although White-billed Diver has been regular for many years in the Northern Isles, the accepted 2004 records, combined with a similar series in both 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 567) and 2005, add further evidence to the theory that it is a predictable rare migrant in spring in the Outer Hebrides. In the autumn, the first Cream-coloured Courser Cursorius cursor for 20 years delighted thousands of observers on Scilly (and removed one of the last of my personal blockers - long may the 1982 Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea hold out). Perhaps just as noteworthy are some records which are not in the list of accepted records. Some readers will be disappointed to see the inclusion of the putative North American ‘Wilson’s Snipe’ Gallinago gallinago delicata at Lower Moors, St Mary’s, Scilly, in October 1998 in the list of records that have not been accepted. A full discussion of this difficult record will be published soon in British Birds. There is no mention in this report of the Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris at Druridge Bay, Northumberland, in 1998, fol- lowing the ‘Minsmere curlew’ incident of early October 2004, which contributed to the ongoing and persistent clamour for the former bird to be reassessed. BBRC published a full and detailed discussion on the criteria used for assessing the Druridge Bay curlew (Brit. Birds 95: 279-299). We are now in the process of gathering as much detail as we can on the Mins- mere bird, so that we can assess the record against the criteria used to identify and accept the Druridge Bay Slender-billed Curlew. If the Minsmere bird is identified as a Eurasian Curlew N. arquata using these criteria, it sug- gests that the criteria are robust and that the Druridge Bay bird does not need to be reassessed. If, however, the criteria do not cor- rectly identify the Minsmere bird as Eurasian Curlew, then not only shall we have to re-eval- uate our criteria, but also the Druridge Bay record. Acknowledgments We wish to thank all the observers and photog- raphers who sent in details of rarities to BBRC. Once again we owe a vote of thanks to the network of County and Regional Recorders, and their Records Committees, who see and 630 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 c Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 comment on many of the descriptions that we receive. Their work is often unacknowledged but is invaluable for BBRC as they provide a detailed local perspective which BBRC simply cannot. We are indebted to BirdGuides , and Russell Slack in particular, for his whole- hearted contribution to the work of BBRC, and for assisting with the development work of rare-bird recording. We would also like to thank Dick Forsman, Martin Garner, Dennis Paulson, Lars Svensson and Keith Vinicombe for their input on difficult records this year. Last, but by no means least, we continue to be enormously grateful to Carl Zeiss Ltd for sponsorship of the Committee’s work, and thank them for sup- porting us over the past 24 years. Colin Bradshaw Systematic list of accepted records The principles and procedures followed in considering records were explained in the 1958 report (Brit. Birds 53: 155-158). The systematic list is set out in the same way as the 2003 report (97: 558-625). The following points show the basis on which the list has been compiled: 1. The details included for each record are (1) county; (2) locality; (3) number of birds if more than one, and age and sex if known (in the case of spring and summer records, however, the age is normally given only where the bird concerned was not in adult plumage); (4) if photographed or tape- recorded (and this evidence assessed by the Committee); (5) if trapped or found dead and where specimen is stored, if known; (6) dates(s); and (7) observer(s), in alphabetical order. 2. In general, this report is confined to records which are regarded as certain, and ‘proba- bles’ are not included. In the cases of the very similar Eastern Phylloscopus orientalis and Western Bonelli’s Warblers Ph. bonelli, however, we publish indeterminate records, and this also applies to those of frigatebirds Fregata , the ‘soft-plumaged petrel’ Ptero- drotna mollis/feae/madeira complex and Booted Hippolais caligata and Sykes’s War- blers H. rama (see also Brit. Birds 94: 395). 3. The sequence of species, English names and scientific nomenclature follow the 'British Birds’ List of Birds of the Western Palearctic (1997), but adopt the modifications set out in Brit. Birds 97: 2-5 and 1 10. This updated list is available on the British Birds website at www.britishbirds.co.uk/bblist 4. The three numbers in parentheses after each species name refer specifically to the total number of individuals recorded in Britain (i) to the end of 1957, (ii) for the period since the formation of the Rarities Com- mittee in 1958, but excluding (iii) those listed here for the current year. The decision as to how many individuals were involved is often difficult, but a consensus view is repre- sented by ‘possibly the same’ (counted as dif- ferent in the totals), ‘probably the same’ (counted as the same in the totals), or ‘the same’ when evidence is certain or over- whelming. An identical approach is applied to records of a particular species recurring at the same, or a nearby, locality after a lapse of time. In considering claims of more than one individual at the same or adjacent locali- ties, the Committee requires firm evidence before more than one is accepted. 5. The breeding and wintering ranges are given in parentheses for each species. Brent Goose Branta bernicla North American and E Siberian race B. b. nigricans, ‘Black Brant’ (I, 149,22) Dorset Stanpit Marsh, 5th January (G. Russell, I. Southworth). Ferrybridge, 24th January to 9th Feb- ruary, photo (D. Walbridge et al). Essex Fleet Head, Great Wakering, 4th January, photo (S. Arlow); same as Paglesham Lagoon, November 2002 (Brit. Birds 96: 554); same, Foulness, 16th October (C. Lewis). Stow Marsh, River Crouch, 4th January (A. W. Shearring); same as River Crouch, South Woodham Ferrers, November 2003 to 2004 (Brit. Birds 97: 561); same, Potton Island, 25th January (C. Lewis); same, Foulness, 16th October, 7th November and 12th December (C. Lewis); same, Paglesham Lagoon, 1 3th— 1 4th November (S. Arlow, N. Chambers); same, Wallasea Island, 5th December ( J. Delve, N. C. Green). Old British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 631 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Hall Marshes, 6th-7th January (per H. Vaughan); one of three since 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 561). Old Hall Marshes, adult 7th January (per H. Vaughan); same as November 2003 to 2004 (Brit. Birds 97: 561); same, Heybridge Gravel-pits, River Blackwater, 13th February (R. Flindall); same, Northey Island, River Blackwater, 27th March, photo; same, 28th December to 10th February 2005 (R. Neave, D. Rhymes). Old Hall Marshes, intermittently, 7th January to 16th March (per H. Vaughan); one of three since 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 561); same, intermittently, 6th November to 25th December (per H. Vaughan). Two Tree Island, Leigh-on-Sea, 28th March to 18th April (S. Arlow et al). Colne Point, adult, 1st April (per H. Vaughan); same, Stour Estuary, 7th-9th April; same, The Naze, 23rd November and 29th December (S. Cox). Paglesham Lagoon, 20th-21st November (S. Arlow, N. Chambers); same, Fleet Head 21st November and Rushley Island, 28th November (S. Arlow). Gower Wernffrwd, since November 2003 to 8th March (Brit. Birds 97: 561). Hampshire Mengham, Hayling Island, 13th March (N. C. Green). Black Point, Hayling Island, 9th December (A. Johnson per J. M. Clark), same as West Wittering, Sussex (below). Northney, Hayling Island, 2 1 st— 26th December (A. Johnson et al., per J. M. Clark); same, Farlington Marshes, 31st December ( J. Crook); same as Thorney Island, West Sussex, below. Kent Lower Halstow, 12th December (B. E. Wright). Lincolnshire Gibraltar Point, adult, 12th February to 8th March, photo (G. P. Catley, K. M. Wilson et al). Kirton Marsh, 15th February (A. H. J. Harrop). Norfolk Terrington Marsh, one since December 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 561), to 6th March (P. M. Wilson); two more, 2nd January to mid February, photo (C. A. Holt, S. J. Turner et al). Holkham, 27th January (P. Morrison). Burnham Overy Staithe, 17th March (P. Morrison). Titchwell, two, 3rd-26th November (P. & S. Morrison et al): presumed same as Titchwell, 2002, 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 561). Wells, at least 4th November, photo ( J. R. McCallunr). Suffolk Kirton, two, 1 st— 17th January; one of same, Levington, 9th— 1 2th February (W. J. Brame, J. A. & P. R. Kennerley, J. Zantboer). Falkenham, 6th January (J. Zantboer). Sussex, West Climping, 2nd-3rd January (C. W. Glanfield). West Wittering, 5th January (M. Snelling); presumed same, 9th January (P. N. Paul), 6th November intermittently to 11th December; same as Hampshire (B. F. Forbes, D. Sadler, D. I. Smith et al). Pagham Harbour, 27th January (P. N. Paul). Thorney Island, 1st, 7th, 20th December; same as Hampshire (C. B. Collins et al). Wight, Isle of Benrbridge, 22nd February; same. Foreland, 23rd-24th February, photo (G. R. Sparshott et al). 1996 Essex South Woodham Ferrers, 14th January (Brit. Birds 90: 461), same. Great Hayes, 7th March ( J. Sutherby). 2002 Hampshire Langstone Harbour, adult, 1st October (J. Crook). Langstone Harbour area, adult, 15th December to 26th February 2003, photo (R. A. Chapman, C. Cockburn, J. Crook); both previ- ously omitted in error. 2003 Dorset Poole Harbour, 10th February to 14th March, photo ( J. Lidster, B. Spencer et al.). 2003 Hampshire See 2002 Hampshire above. 2003 Lincolnshire Gibraltar Point, 12th January to 16th March (Brit. Birds 97: 561), observers should read D. E. Balmer, D. Walker, P. M. Wilson. 2003 Sussex, West East Head, Chichester Harbour, 31st December (B. F. Forbes). Records of Black Brants occurring after 30th June 2005 will not be considered by BBRC (Brit. Birds 98: 336). In recent years, the status of this race has shifted from that of extreme vagrant, prior to the 1980s, to scarce but regular winter visitor today. To some extent, this reflects a wider appreciation of identification features and awareness that birds are out there to be found. It is also likely to be con- nected with the expansion of the breeding range, which now overlaps with that of ‘Dark-bellied’ Brent Goose B. b. bernicla in Siberia. The increase in wintering numbers of its favoured ‘carrier species’ in eastern and southern England over the last 30 years must also be responsible for the increasing number of Black Brants being recorded. Over the last three winters for which data are available, however, the numbers of wintering Brent Geese have declined, and it will still be interesting to follow the fate of Black Brant in the coming years. The Committee has faced various problems with this taxon, not least of which has been trying to compile the annual totals. Returning birds are frequent, but birds also move between sites and within and between counties, making it tricky to work out just how many occur. Some counties have been 632 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 excellent at providing summaries of the local situation, which has been most useful. Because of the high proportion of (presumed) returning birds, the figures for new arrivals represent only a fraction of the record assessment work that this subspecies generates each year, as returning birds still have to be assessed each winter. Providing such detail then becomes a chore for regular observers of Brent Goose flocks. In some cases, descriptions are reduced to a mere list of the few diagnostic identification fea- tures, while other individuals are not reported to BBRC. We believe that county records committees are better placed than BBRC to judge the numbers of individuals occurring in their counties. A good example of this is found in the recently published 2004 Norfolk Bird Report , which lists a minimum of six individuals at 17 locations between January and April and at least five individuals during November and December, all of which may have been returning individuals. Though the identification of typical Black Brants should present no problems for careful observers, intergrades with ‘Dark-bellied’ Brent Geese can present serious ones. Typical Black Brants have a dark, chocolate-brown to blackish body with little or no contrast between the ‘neck sock’ and the belly, a contrastingly bold white patch on the flanks and a usually bold and complete (at the front) white neck collar. A number of other minor features should be regarded only as supportive. Birds that fail to show all three main features might be suspect and should be treated with caution. It may be true that a small minority of Black Brants can show a small gap in the neck collar at the front, but the great majority have a complete collar. Of the small number of known intergrades, some differed from typical Black Brant only in having a small gap in the collar on the foreneck. On the basis that birds like this could either be intergrades or Black Brants, we have not been accepting them as the latter, though as a result some ‘good’ Black Brants have no doubt been rejected. Other known intergrades have shown a com- plete collar on the foreneck but body plumage intermediate between the parent forms. Wynn (2003) suggested that birds with poor neck collars early in the season should be studied through the winter as further moult might reveal a ‘better’ collar. We believe, however, that this is not likely to be a significant identification pitfall. According to BWP , adult Brent Geese have a complete post-breeding moult, being flightless from mid July to mid August, before undergoing body moult prior to autumn migration. The feathers of the head and neck are then apparently renewed again in spring. If this is correct, and holds for Black Brant as well as Dark-bellied Brent Goose, then individual birds should not show a large difference in the extent of the neck collar as the winter progresses. The collar might become a little bolder as worn white feathers are replaced by fresh white ones in spring, but should not change significantly in extent. This was the case with the Norfolk bird described in Martin (2002), for example, which still had a feeble collar in March. Birds which do not conform to the typical Black Brant stereotype should be carefully documented, but we believe that they are best left unidentified on current knowledge. Martin, J. R 2002. Unusual Brent Geese in Norfolk and Hampshire. Brit. Birds 95: 1 29- 1 36. Wynn, R. B. 2003. Further developments in 'Black Brant' identification, including the effects of body moult on the wintering grounds. Brit. Birds 96: 297-30 1 . (Expanding W in Arctic NE Siberia to Lena delta, where overlaps with nominate race. Majority breed in Arctic Alaska and E to Victoria Island, Canada. Migratory, wintering on Pacific coast of North America, S to Baja California. Formerly, large numbers wintered in N China, Korean Peninsula and Japan, but now rare.) Red-breasted Goose Branta ruficollis (14,55, I) Argyll Loch Gruinart, Islay, adult, since November 2003 to 28th March (Brit. Birds 97: 562). Suffolk Southwold, first-winter, 2nd November (B. J. Small). 1996 Essex Holland Haven, adult, 21st February (Brit. Birds 90: 461); same, Steeple, 28th January (D. Wood), 14th February (E. Jackson, J. C. Sutherby, R. Warwick). 2001 Moray & Nairn Redhill, adult, 1 7th— 18th April, and Roseisle 19th April (Brit. Birds 96: 555), now considered not same as Perth & Kinross 2001 (Brit. Birds 95: 484). 2002 Perth & Kinross Findatie and other sites, adult, 15th February to 27th April (Brit. Birds 96: 555), now presumed returning bird, same as Perth & Kinross 2001 (Brit. Birds 95: 484). (Breeds Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia. Migrates SW to winter in coastal regions of W Black Sea in Romania and Bulgaria. Small numbers regularly winter in Netherlands, Greece, Turkey. Some may still use former wintering areas along Caspian Sea.) British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 633 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Black Duck Anas rubripes (0, 27, 3) Northeast Scotland New Pitsligo, cf , 5th December to 1st January 2005 ( J. M. Wills et al). Scilly St Mary’s, C f, 26th-27th November, photo (M. Goodey et al.)', St Mary’s and Tresco, $, 3rd December to at least 18th May 2005 ( J. K. Higginson et al). (Breeds E North America from Labrador S to North Carolina and W to Manitoba. Most are resident or dispersive but N breeders migrate to winter in coastal SE USA.) Blue-winged Teal Anas discors (13,213,2) Northeast Scotland Ythan Estuary, cf , 8th October (S. C. Votier et al). Suffolk Trinrley Marshes, 9 > probably first-summer, 1 3th— 3 1st July (W. J. Brame et al). 2003 Avon Chew Valley Lake, 9, 12th-30th August; published with incorrect month in 2003 report (Brit. Birds 97: 563). (Breeds from S Alaska, across much of temperate Canada to SC USA. Migratory, wintering in S USA, Mexico, Caribbean and N South America.) Canvasback Aythya valisineria (0, 7, 0) 2000 Orkney Loch of Rummie, Sanday, $, 21st-23rd June, photo (I. Dillon, B. Ribbands, E. J. Williams et al). (Breeds from C Alaska S through W Canada to NE California, and E to C USA. Winters from British Columbia to Great Lakes, and S throughout USA to C Mexico.) Redhead Aythya americana (0, 3, 0) Glamorgan Llanilid, cf, 9th, 13th March, photo (P. Bristow, S. J. Moon et al.), same as Glamorgan 2003 and earlier years (Brit. Birds 97: 563); returned, Kenfig Pool, 13th October to 26th December, photo (D. G. Carrington et al). (Breeds from C Alaska S through W Canada to NE California, and E to C USA. Winters from British Columbia to Great Lakes, and S throughout USA to C Mexico.) Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca (c. 1 60, 292, 8) Bedfordshire Elstow, $, December 2003 to at least 25th February (presumed returning individual seen December 2002 to 26th February 2003; Brit. Birds 97: 563); returned 13th November to 22nd February 2005 (per D. J. Odell). Cambridgeshire Kingfisher’s Bridge, cf , 30th March, photo (C. f. Cadbury et al). Cornwall Long Rock Pool, Marazion, § or first-winter, 14th November, photo (M. K. Ahmad, C. Mason). Essex Heybridge Gravel-pits, first-winter cf , 28th December, photo (N. Lindsell, R. Neave et al). Lancashire & North Merseyside Martin Mere, > since November 2003 (see below), to 19th March (A. S. Disley et al). Brockholes Quarry, juvenile, 12th— 17th September, photo ( W. C. Aspin et al). Norfolk Welney, cf, 1 1 th— 26th January (I. Barton, J. B. Kemp, D. Stevens et al), presumed returning individual seen 1 st— 4th November 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 564); first-winter cf, 7th February (J. B. Kemp); first-winter cf, 1st November (J. B. Kemp). Lynford Gravel-pits, cf, 21st February to 7th March, photo (D. P. Appleton). Suffolk Minsmere, cf, since 3rd November 2003, intermittently to 21st March (Brit. Birds 97: 564). Bawdsey, $, 27th November (P. Hobbs), 11th December (J. A. & P. R. Kennerley). 2001 Warwickshire Coombe Abbey, first-winter, 2nd-28th October (Brit. Birds 96: 558), correct dates, 20th October to 4th November (per J. J. Bowley). 2002 Lancashire & North Merseyside Martin Mere, first- winter 9, 13th October to 15th March 2003, photo (A. S. Disley et al). 2002 Shropshire Cole Mere, cf , 4th December (A. Butler, R. Dowley). 2003 Cambridgeshire Paxton Pits NR, cf, 14th September (Brit. Birds 97: 564), no longer considered same as Fen Drayton and Godmanchester 2000/01 (Brit. Birds 96: 558) (per J. Oates). 2003 Derbyshire Willington Gravel-pits, first-winter, 17th October (Brit. Birds 97: 564), correct second-named observer was R. O. Hutchinson. 634 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 — ( Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 ) — 2003 Lancashire & North Merseyside Martin Mere, $, since October 2002 (see above), to 15th March. Presumed same, 20th November to 19th March 2004 (Brit. Birds 97: plate 115); same, Mere Sands Wood, December to February 2004 (per S. J. White). 2003 Northamptonshire Pitsford Reservoir, cf, 13th July to 10th October, photo (E. & N. McMahon etal). (Main breeding range in temperate steppe-forest from Poland and Hungary E through Ukraine to Caspian Sea, but distribution often patchy. Other populations occur in S Spain, Kazakhstan, W Mongolia and Tibetan Plateau. Migratory, most winter in E Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, NE Africa and Indian subcontinent.) Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis (0, 64, I I) Cheshire Sandbach Flashes, cf, 3rd October to 12th November, photo (A. G. Goodwin, M. Stubbs et al.). Devon Exminster Marshes, first-winter cf , 10th January to 23rd April, photo (M. Knott et al). Dorset Little Sea, Studland, cf, since 15th October 2003 to 26th February (Brit. Birds 97: 564) (per J. Lidster). Abbotsbury, first-winter cf, 17th March (S. A. Groves, I. McLean, B. Spencer). Dumfries and Galloway Castle Loch, Lochmaben, cf , since 29th December 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 566), to 27th January, photo; same, Milton Loch, at least 27th February to 10th March. Milton Loch, two Cfcf, 27th February to 10th March, one to 21st; one or other, Lochrutton Loch, 1st March; one or other, Caerlaverock, 16th— 1 7th March; both first noted in 2002 (Brit. Birds 96: 558) (per P. N. Collin). Essex Abberton Reservoir, first- winter cf , 11th December to 1 5th January 2005, photo (A. Kettle et al). Forth Gart Gravel-pits, cf , 19th June (A. W. Lauder, C. McKeever, K. A. & K. D. Shaw). Greater Manchester Pennington Flash, cf, 8th — 1 7th July, photo (A. Makin, I. M. McKerchar et al.) (plate 412). Kent/East Sussex Scotney Gravel-pit, cf , 17th November to at least 28th February 2005, photo (B. Chambers, M. 1. Hoit, D. Walker et al.). Lincolnshire Water’s Edge Country Park, cf, 28th-30th April, photo (G. P. Catley et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 180). Perth & Kinross Loch Leven, cf, 4th December (A. W. Reid et al.): first-winter, 12th— 16th December (W. McBay, J. S. Nadin, K. D. Shaw). Suffolk Bramford Gravel-pit, Ipswich, first-winter cf> 16th March, photo (R. Marsh, L. Woods, J. Zantboer et al.). Sussex, East See Kent/East Sussex above. 2003 Essex Seventy Acres Lake, Fisher’s Green, cf, 23rd-25th March (Brit. Birds 97: 566), now consid- 4 1 2. Male Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis, Pennington Flash, Greater Manchester, July 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 635 Steve Vbung/Birdwatch Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Fig. I. Distribution of accepted records of Lesser Scaup Aythya affmis in Britain (new arrivals only), 1987-2004. ered same as Greater London and Hertfordshire, below. 2003 Greater London Regent’s Park, first-winter O', intermit- tently 3rd March to 9th April, photo (A. Duckett, D. Johnson, D. McKenzie et al.) {Brit. Birds 96: plate 190); same as Brent Reser- voir, Greater London, 14th-23rd February (Brit. Birds 97: 566); same as Essex, Hertfordshire (Brit. Birds 97: 566). 2003 Hertfordshire Stocker’s Lake, first-winter cf> 4th January; same as Essex, Greater London. In total, 11 new birds in 2004, and all drakes, continuing the steady increase in records wit- nessed over the last decade. Lesser Scaup is now well established as an annual transatlantic vagrant. First recorded in 1987, this species has now replaced Ring-necked Duck A. collaris as the target ‘wild- fowl find’ for patch watchers. Despite the surge in records, some counties have still to record their first while others have witnessed multiple occurrences (see fig. 1 ). It is rather ironic that a surge in Western Palearctic records has coincided with a long-term decline of the species in North America. Although still one of the most numerous ducks across the ‘pond’, its numbers are currently 30% below long-term average population levels. This decline appears to be a result of lower breeding success linked to dietary changes on spring migration. Increased observer awareness has doubtless played its part in the increased number of British records; females still cause the most headaches, although many males arrive in first-winter plumage and can also prove tricky to identify (see Brit. Birds 98: 89-95). Perhaps there are reasons other than identification difficulties that account for the pre- dominance of males in the UK? Do first-winter drakes migrate farther from the breeding grounds than females, making them more sus- ceptible to transatlantic vagrancy? In fact, Lesser Scaup is a classic contender for natural vagrancy to Europe, departing the breeding grounds late in the year, typically at the onset of snow or hard Fig. 2. Accepted records of Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis in Britain, 1987-2004. The surge of records from 1 996 onwards has continued until the present day. 636 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 frosts. It also migrates farther than many other waterfowl, with the northernmost populations leap- frogging the southern populations to winter farther south and east. The recent increase in records is probably a genuine reflection of more frequent vagrancy, rather than simply due to an increase in the number of birds being identified. Despite a declining population, current trends suggest that we should expect to see more appearing here in future years. (Breeds from C Alaska through Canada to Hudson Bay, and S to Washington and South Dakota. Isolated populations E of Great Lakes. Winters along both coastlines of USA, in E from New Jersey to Mexico, W Indies, and C America to N Colombia.) King Eider Somateria spectabilis (75, I 12, 3) Ayrshire Troon, cf, 27th May to tlth June (B. D. Kerr), presumed same as Ayrshire 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 566); same, Stevenston Point, 13th June; same, Ballantrae, 1 5th— 1 9th June; same, Maidens, 31st October (per R. H. Hogg). Dumfries & Galloway Loch Ryan, cf, since 29th December 2003 to at least 29th February (Brit. Birds 97: 566). Fife Leven, $, 1st January to 12th April ( ). & M. Eccles, T. Moodie, K. A. & K. D. Shaw et al.)-, same as 2003 and earlier years (Brit. Birds 97: 566). Norfolk Titchwell, first-winter cf. 1 lth-22nd December, photo (D. Hawkins, R. Kintber, H. Maynard). Northeast Scotland Peterhead, second-winter cf , 30th October to 10th March 2005 (M. Innes et al). Shetland Belmont, Unst, $, since December 2003 to 13th April (Brit. Birds 97: plate 116), presumed returning bird of 2002 and 2003 (see also 2003 Shetland, below) (B. H. Thomason et al. per M. A. Maher). Belmont, adult cf , 5th February (C. & M. Cocker, M. A. Maher, B. H. Thomason). Laxfirth, Cat Firth or Wadbister Voe, Mainland, first-winter cf, 20th January to 22nd May (P. V. Harvey, M. Heubeck, R. Riddington et al), returning individual from December 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 566); presumed same, Noss, 15th May (K. Bliss, T. Sykes). Cat Firth, Mainland, cf, 1st— 5th April (S. E. Duffield et al.), returning individual from October 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 566). One or other of the last two again in Cat Firth, 18th— 20th October (A. Graham, N. C. Green). Burwick, Scalloway, Main- land, second-winter cf, 23rd August (P. V. Harvey, M. Heubeck et al.), presumed same as Black Skerry 4th September and Clift Sound 16th October, same as Weisdale Voe, December 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 566). 2003 Argyll Toward, cf, 25th May, same, Inellan, 21st June; given as Clyde Islands in 2003 report in error (Brit. Birds 97: 566). 2003 Shetland Belmont, Unst, $, 12th— 1 3th March; same, Fetlar, 1 8th— 20th March; returning, Belmont, 10th December; all presumed same as March 2002 (Brit. Birds 96: 559) (B. H. Thomason per M. A. Maher). (Breeds from Kanin Peninsula E across Arctic Siberia, including Novaya Zemlya and W Svalbard, Arctic Alaska, N Canada and N Greenland. European population winters along ice-free coasts of White Sea, N Norway and Iceland. Pacific population winters in Bering Sea.) Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus (7,8, I) Outer Hebrides Coll, Lewis, $, mid January to 20th May (M. Hague, B. Rabbitts, A. Walker et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 117; plate 413, p. 638). This bird was the first since a male spent an afternoon close to the south coast of Fair Isle, Shetland, in October 1999. Continuing the Fair Isle link, this becomes the longest-staying Harlequin Duck in Britain, a record previously held by a pair on Fair Isle from 11th January to 2nd February 1965. That pair was later rediscovered near Wick, Caithness, present from 18th April to 1st May 1965. The origin of Harlequin Ducks in Britain has been the subject of frequent speculation, but their tendency to fre- quent the western and northern coasts of Scotland suggests that they are probably wild birds. The dis- covery of the Lewis Harlequin coincided with the arrival of an American Coot Fulica americana in the islands, raising the possibility that it originated from the partially migratory population of eastern Canada rather than the largely resident Icelandic stock. (Atlantic population breeds Iceland, S Greenland, and Canada from S Ellesmere Island to Labrador and Gulf of St Lawrence. Pacific population breeds NE Russia from Lake Baikal E to Kamchatka and S to Sakhalin, and through Alaska and W Canada S to Oregon, USA. Resident Iceland, other populations disperse after breeding to unfrozen coastal seas to S of breeding range.) British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 637 John Carter 4 1 3. Female Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus, Coll, Lewis, Outer Hebrides, May 2004. Black Scoter Melanitta americana (0, 6, 0) Caernarfonshire Llanfairfechan, cf, 28th October to 29th March 2005 (per J. Barnes), same as 2003 and earlier years (Brit. Birds 97: 566). 1992 Moray & Nairn Findhorn Bay, cf, 29th— 3 1 st October (B. Robson et al), now considered returning bird last seen in Highland, 11th December 1991 (Brit. Birds 87: 517-518). Black Scoter has recently been split from Common Scoter M. nigra by BOURC (see Ibis 147: 822). (Breeds on Siberian tundra from Yana River E to Alaska, and N Canada to Newfoundland. In N Atlantic, winters along coasts of E USA, N to South Carolina, and inland on Great Lakes. Elsewhere, winters in ice-free seas along both coasts of N Pacific Ocean, S to N Japan and California.) Bufflehead Bucephala albeola (2, 7, 3) Derbyshire Barrow Gravel-pits, cf, 20th June, photo (R. M. R. James, R. W. Key et al); same as Staffordshire, Warwickshire, West Midlands. Greater Manchester Astley Moss East Pools, cf, 11th April, photo (A. Rowley et al.); same as West Yorkshire. Outer Hebrides Balranald, North Uist, cf, 10th May (M. Darlaston, B. Rabbitts, A. Rennels); same, Loch Branahuie, Lewis, 20th May, photo (C. A. & R. P. Cockbain et al). Staffordshire Croxall, Drayton Bassett & Whitemoor Hay Gravel-pits, cf, intermittently from 24th May to 9th June (per www.birdguides.com ); same as Derbyshire, Warwickshire, West Midlands. Warwickshire Fisher’s Mill Gravel-pit, cf, 4th— 6th June (per www.birdguides.com); same as Derbyshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands. West Midlands Clayhanger, cf, 16th— 19th and 2 1st— 25th June (per www.birdguides.com); same as Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire. Yorkshire, West Pugney’s Country Park, cf > 12th-22nd April, photo (I. Beverage, J. D. Holliday et al.) (Brit. Birds 97 : plate 181); same as Greater Manchester. A little over ten years ago, Bufflehead was one of the most highly sought-after rarities, with only four accepted records in Britain prior to 1994. Since then a further eight have occurred, including the three males published here, which may fuel suspicions that these might be escapes from captivity. While BBRC has been unable to eliminate this possibility, there is no evidence to suggest that it was the case with any of those reported in 2004. On the contrary, it is interesting to speculate that their arrival dates might reflect a small influx in spring, which lends weight to the theory that they were probably of wild origin. Moreover, the recent surge in records of Bufflehead has coincided with a general upward 638 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 trend in the number of Nearctic ducks reported in Britain, the last ten years having seen Redhead Aythya americana and Canvasback A. valisineria added to the British List, Lesser Scaup A. affinis progress from being a major rarity to an annual visitor, and record numbers of American Wigeons Anas americana , Green-winged Teals A. carolinensis and Ring-necked Ducks Aythya collaris (see recent Scarce Migrants reports, for example Brit. Birds 98: 73-88). (Forested regions of North America from C Alaska throughout W and C Canada to Hudson Bay, and S to Montana and NE California. Winters throughout North America from Aleutian Islands and coastal Alaska, S along both seaboards of LISA to N Mexico, with small numbers inland.) White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii (18,236,9) Argyll Sorisdale, Coll, second-summer, 22nd-23rd May (G. Bradford, S. D. Wellock, T. Wormald et al). Highland Loch Linnhe, Ardgour, 24th March (D. Kent et al). Northeast Scotland Cransdale Head, Collieston, age uncertain, 23rd May (P. S. Crockett et al). Northumberland Low Hauxley, 28th April (). L. Doleman, S. Sexton et al.); presumed same, Newbiggin, 28th April (J. G. Steele). Outer Hebrides Skigersta, Lewis, five (four adults, one immature), 15th April to 5th May, photo (M. S. Scott et al.). Shetland Kirkabister, Mainland, adult, since 17th November 2003 to 25th April (Brit. Birds 97: 567); presumed same, Vidlin, 3rd March (M. S. Chapman, T. Gerrard). 2003 Durham Lizard Point, 26th August (M. Newsome et al.). 2003 Fife Elie Ness, adult, 22nd March, found dead, photo (M. A. Wilkinson). 2003 Northeast Scotland Peterhead, adult, 20th October (M. Innes). 2003 Outer Hebrides Skigersta, Lewis, 1 1th May (A. E. & L. A. Battersby). Sound of Harris, 15th May (P. R. Boyer). Port of Ness, Lewis, adult, 8th June (P. Saunders, M. Witherall). 2003 Yorkshire, North Scarborough, adult, 4th February, photo (B. J. Cockerill, I. Massey et al), mori- bund, died later. (In W Palearctic, rare and sporadic breeder along Arctic coasts of European Russia, E from Yamal Peninsula and Novaya Zemlya. Also breeds in coastal regions of Siberia, N Alaska and Canada E to Mackenzie River and Baffin Island. Winters at sea, in E Atlantic, S to S Norway, but distribution poorly known.) Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae (0, 2, I) At sea Sea area Sole, about 16 km W of St Mary’s, Scilly, 6th September, photo (E. A. Fisher, R. L. Flood, B. Lascelles). 2001 At sea Sea area Sole, 49°49’N 06°11W, about 12 km S of St Mary’s, Scilly, 8th July, photo (E. A. Fisher, R. L. Flood, N. Wheatley et al.); previously accepted as indeterminate Zino’s P. madeira or Fea’s Petrel (Brit. Birds 95: 479) but now accepted as the latter. 2001 At sea Sea area Sole, M. V. Scillonian, 49°08’N 06°54’W, about 96 km SW of Scilly, 12th August, photo (S. Rogers et al.); previously accepted as indeterminate Zino’s or Fea’s Petrel (Brit. Birds 96: 548) but now accepted as the latter. Fea’s Petrel has recently been added to the British List on the basis of the well-photographed bird seen from the Scillonian pelagic in August 2001 (above). Consequently, we now have the option of making a decision about whether other photographed birds can be assigned to Fea’s Petrel rather than the rather unsatisfactory ‘Zino’s/Fea’s Petrel’ category that has been used hitherto. Separation of the two species is extremely difficult, leading Harrop (Brit. Birds 97: 6-15) to conclude that the only reliable sep- aration feature so far established is the bill structure, and this is extraordinarily difficult to see, requiring high-quality images. Inevitably, the vast majority are thus likely to remain in the either/or category. Nevertheless, in future reports we will be able to assign individuals to species if there is convincing pho- tographic evidence. The two records from 2004 published here (one as Zino’s/Fea’s Petrel, see below), which might possibly be the same bird, but which the observers believed to be different, were both pho- tographed and the images of the earlier one have enabled us to accept it as Fea’s Petrel. To date, there has not been a record which has suggested Zino’s rather than Fea’s, and where there is evidence from descriptions using direct size comparison, or where the structure is well described, the data all point towards the larger Fea’s Petrel, even though they cannot be accepted as such without bill detail. If you are lucky enough to see one, and can grasp reality and control your emotions during the British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 639 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 short period of observation, we would urge observers to make a really careful estimation of size, including wingspan, by comparison with any adjacent species, particularly shearwaters. While this is extremely unlikely to allow confident identification to species level, it may still provide useful evidence about the likely identity of birds seen in British waters. (Breeds in Madeira archipelago (Bugio) and Cape Verde Islands. Outside breeding season, disperses throughout N Atlantic.) Zino’s/Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira/feae (0, 33, 2) At sea Sea area Sole, 16 km W of St Mary’s, Scilly, 28th August, photo (E. A. Fisher, R. L. Flood, B. Lascelles etal). 2002 Durham Whitburn, 1st September (T. I. Mills); presumed same as Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, same day (Brit. Birds 96: 547). (Zino’s Petrel confined to central mountains of Madeira where breeding population is c. 45 pairs; wintering range unknown. Fea’s Petrel breeds in Madeira archipelago (Bugio) and Cape Verde Islands. Outside breeding season, disperses throughout N Atlantic.) Little Shearwater Puffmus assimilis (4, 56, 0) There have been no accepted records of Little Shearwater since 2000, and even submissions have dried up in recent years. Rather than signifying a population crash, this is much more likely to be due to more experienced observers now having first-hand experience of the species and knowing what to look for, so that Little Shearwater is being eliminated when, in the past, a claim might have been made. There are real pitfalls when identifying this species, which most active seawatchers are now fairly well aware of. To complicate matters further, the established taxonomy is now being questioned, which would add another dimension to the assessment process. BBRC has now begun the Herculean and possibly divisive task of reviewing all previous records, but this will take some time to complete. (N Atlantic range restricted to warmer waters of Madeira, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands and possibly Azores. Outside the breeding season found at sea near breeding sites within N Atlantic. Other races breed S Atlantic and Indian Oceans to S Australia and New Zealand.) Wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus (1,362,29) At sea Sea area Sole, 14 km SW of St Mary’s, Scilly, 4th July, photo (E. A. Fisher et al.); 9 km S of St Mary’s, two, 10th July, photo (R. L Flood et al), another (E. A. Fisher, R. L. Flood et al); 14 km SW of St Mary’s, 11th July, photo (R. L. Flood, E. A. Fisher et al); 9 km SW of St Mary’s, 12th July, photo (J. K. Higginson et al); 12 km S of St Mary’s, two, 13th July, photo (R. L. Flood et al), another (A. Hicks et al), another (R. L. Flood, B. Thomas et al); 16 km NE of St Mary’s, 31st July (R. L. Flood et al); 1 1 km S of St Mary’s, 1st August (J. K. Higginson et al); 16 km S of St Mary’s, 4th August, photo (R. L. Flood et al); 1 1 km SE of St Mary’s, 4th August (E. A. Fisher et al); 1 1 km SE of St Mary’s, 7th August, photo (B. Lascelles et al), another (R. L. Flood et al); 9 km S of St Mary’s, 7th August (E. A. Fisher et al), another (K. Pellow et al); about 20 km WSW of Scilly, two, 8th August (D. Cooper et al); 9 km S of St Mary’s, 9th August, photo (J. K. Higginson et al); 6 km S of St Mary’s, 14th August (B. Lascelles et al); 12 km SE of St Mary’s, 15th August (E. A Fisher, R. L. Flood et al), another (E. A. Fisher et al); 1 1 km SE of St Mary’s, 17th August (R. L. Flood et al); 9 km SE of St Mary’s, 23rd August ( J. Pender et al); 9 km SE of St Mary’s, 24th August, photo (B. Lascelles et al), another (E. A. Fisher et al), another (R. L. Flood et al); 14 km SW of St Mary’s, 6th September (J. K. Higginson etal). 2000 At sea Sea area Sole (Brit. Birds 94: 456), should have included one, 10 km S of St Mary’s, 17th August (P. A. Stancliffe et al). 2002 At sea Sea area Sole (Brit. Birds 96: 548), should have included one, 9 km S of St Mary’s, 11th August (R. L. Flood et al). Establishing the true status of Wilson’s Storm-petrel off the coasts of southwest England has taken a great deal of effort. In recent years, regular trips off Scilly on shark-fishing or chartered boats have produced a glut of sightings, and credit must go to the observers listed above, and to Bob Flood in par- ticular, for the detailed annual submissions to BBRC. Flood 8c Fisher (2005) described Wilson’s Storm- petrel as ‘a scarce but regular passage migrant in Scillonian waters’, with most records in July and August, although it is only in the last four years that this status has become apparent. There may, 640 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 however, be periods when the species is strangely absent; for example, between 13th and 31st July 2004, when none was observed, possibly as a result of a red algal bloom. The above records (and further multiple sightings in 2005) also show that, despite being seen with some regularity in July and August off Scilly, this species remains an extreme rarity in other areas of Britain. Since 1994, during which time a large number of observers have become familiar with its distinctive flight, behaviour and plumage, there have been only 12 records, involving 15 individuals, from other areas of the UK, with most seen either from mainland Cornwall, or from pelagics into the Irish Sea or sea area Lundy, and off the Pembrokeshire coast. Other records come from widely scattered locations including sea area Fair Isle (June 1997), Somerset (October 1999) and sea area Tyne (September 2002). It may seem strange that, given such a restricted distribution pattern, Wilson’s Storm-petrel should be removed from the list of species assessed by BBRC. There are, however, several parallel instances where rare species are observed regularly in certain parts of the UK but remain extremely rare or non- existent in others; for example, some counties may not have recorded Aquatic Warbler Acrocephahis paludicola and yet it has not been assessed as a 'BB rarity’ since 1982. The decision to remove Wilson’s Storm-petrel has been made entirely on the basis of the available statistics. Flood, B., & Fisher, A. 2005. Wilson's Petrels off the Isles of Scilly: a five-year analysis, 2000-2004. Hireling World 1 8: 247-249. (Breeds on rocky coastlines and offshore islands of Antarctic. Migrates N to winter throughout southern oceans, N to C North Atlantic along E seaboard of North America N to Newfoundland, Canada, and E to Bay of Biscay in W Europe.) Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus (269, 196, I) Lincolnshire Messingham, c f , lst-2nd June (G. P. Catley, W. Gillatt et al). (Widespread, patchy and declining in Europe N to 53°N. To E, breeds to 60°N in Russia, and E to Kazakhstan. W Palearctic population migratory, wintering mainly in E Africa from Sudan and Ethiopia. Other populations largely resident or dispersive in N Indian subcontinent, sub-Saharan Africa and Australia.) Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax (184,440,-) 1995 Lancashire & North Merseyside Marton Mere, adult, 30th June (M. J. Ainscough, M. Jones, S. Williams et al). This species was removed from the list of species considered on 31st December 2001. (Local breeder in Morocco and throughout Mediterranean basin to Ukraine and Turkey. Occurs widely throughout France with regular breeding N to Belgium and occasionally Netherlands. Elsewhere, occurs throughout Indian subcontinent and SE Asia, N to Japan, locally within sub-Saharan Africa, and widespread in North and South America.) Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides (78, 52,4) Cornwall Porthmellon, 31st May, photo (R. Lane, B. & S. Ofield et al). Essex Abberton Reservoir, 5th June (N. Ransdale); same as Kent, below. Kent Dungeness, 3rd June, photo (P. G. Akers, D. Walker, C. Westlake et al); same, Minnis Bay, 4th June, photo (T. N. Hodge et al); same as Essex. Northumberland East Chevington, 3rd October to 20th November, photo (D. Elliot, S. Sexton et al) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 383; plate 414). Staffordshire Blithfield Reservoir, 31st May (M. P. Radford et al). There has been a suggestion that Squacco Heron in non-breeding or immature plumages closely resembles Chinese Pond Heron A. Bacchus , and that the latter species may have been overlooked in Britain. This was further fuelled by the report of an adult Chinese Pond Heron in Norfolk and Hamp- shire in October and November 2004. The reality is that, although similar, there are key differences between immature/non-breeding Chinese Pond and Squacco Herons. Most important are the exten- sive and strong black streaking (on a rich buff background) on the crown and hindneck of Chinese Pond Heron (on young birds the ear-coverts are also finely streaked), which creates a capped appear- ance; the deep, warm brown mantle; and quite broad, teardrop-shaped blackish-brown streaks across the breast with sharply contrasting white belly. These features compare with the finer streaking (often appearing huffish on young birds) on the head and breast, and much paler brown mantle of Squacco Heron. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 641 lain Leach Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 > 4 1 4. Squacco Heron Ardeola rallolde s, East Chevington, Northumberland, October 2004. The identity of the 2004 Chinese Pond Heron has never been in doubt, but was it a wild bird? In eastern China, some Chinese Pond Herons are migrants, with birds breeding north to Beidaihe, Hebei Province, departing the breeding areas in October. Other birds winter well to the south of the breeding range, south to central Thailand, so its occurrence in Europe, while unlikely, does fall within the bounds of possibility. Furthermore, this species is rare in captivity, so BBRC had to establish whether adults retain breeding plumage into October, and how likely westward vagrancy would be. To answer the first question we turned to Paul Leader with his experience of the species in Hong Kong. He com- mented: T have never seen a Chinese Pond Heron in breeding plumage in late October or November [and] one in [this plumage in] late September would be highly unusual.’ Because of the atypical plumage, BBRC felt that there was a high probability that it was not of wild origin. The retained breeding plumage may be best explained by the bird being kept in a captive environment, in which the normal moult cycle had been interrupted. Since at least two other European records have been treated as escapes, there is no established vagrancy pattern and this remains an unlikely vagrant to the Western Palearctic. But stranger things have happened! (W Palearctic breeding population small and fragmented, centred on Mediterranean basin, from S Spain to Black Sea and E to Kazakhstan, with large population in Danube delta. W Palearctic population migratory, wintering in N tropical Africa. African population largely resident.) Cattle Egret 8 ubulcus ibis (3, 120, 2) Wiltshire West Winterslow, 9th November to 1 5th December ( J. Carey, P. Combridge, R. Turner et al.). Yorkshire, West Fairburn Ings, 7th— 10th Inly, photo ( J. O’Malley et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 268). (In Europe, common and widespread in S Spain and Portugal with small, expanding populations in France and Italy. N populations disperse outside breeding season. Widespread resident throughout much of Africa, S and SE Asia N to S China and Japan, Australia, S USA, N and C South America.) Great White Egret Ardea alba ( 1 0, 24 1 , 23) Argyll Loch Gruinart, Islay, 16th May, photo ( J. S. Armitage, J. How et al.). Carmarthenshire Penclacwydd, 12th June to 18th September, intermittently (per B. 8t S. Stewart); same as Gower, below. Cleveland Scaling Dam, 26th June (R. C. Taylor et al); same as North Yorkshire, below. 642 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Clyde Baron’s Haugh NR, 31st March, photo ( J. C. Maxwell). Cornwall Marazion Marsh, 24th April (R A. Fraser, J. Hawkey); same, Windmill Farm, The Lizard, 24th April, photo (C. Boyd, A. R. Pay). Land’s End, 28th July (M. D. Warren). Derbyshire Wyver Lane, Belper, 10th June, photo (P. J. Precey, C. Wilbraham et al). Devon Powderham Park, Exe Estuary, 6th April, photo ( J. Barker, T. H. Smith et al). Fife Kilconquhar Loch, 29th April to 1st May (M. & W. Batchelor et al). Gower Llanrhidian and Landimore, Burry Inlet, intermittently from 29th May to 18th October, photo (per R. Taylor); same as Carmarthenshire. Hampshire Mockbeggar and Ivy Lakes, Blashford, since October 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 570) to at least 24th January. Arlebury Park, Alresford, since December 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 570) to 16th February. Allington Gravel-pits, 11th January (D. J. Unsworth); same as Itchen Valley Country Park, December 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 570). Blashford Lakes, 6th November to at least 23rd January 2005, colour-ringed (T. M. J. Doran et al). Kent Bough Beech Reservoir, 31st August, colour-ringed, photo (per www.birdguides.com); same, Cliffe, 1st September (P. Larkin, D. Rood); same as South Yorkshire, below. Lancashire & North Merseyside Oxcliffe, first-summer, 27th May; same, Leighton Moss, 27th-30th, colour-ringed, photo (per S. J. White) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 219). Seaforth, 15th October (P. Kinsella). Northeast Scotland Loch of Strathbeg, 1 8th— 20th May, photo (S. Paterson et al). Meikle Loch, 18th May (P. Gove, R. Payne). Shetland Grunna Water, Mainland, 25th-26th April (G. & V. Blackman et al.); presumed same, Loch of Spiggie, Mainland, 26th-30th April (S. E. Duffield et al.). Suffolk Minsmere, 31st March to 3rd April (R. Drew et al.). Landguard and Trimley Marshes, 4th June (N. Odin, J. Zantboer). Sussex, East Rye Harbour, 9th January (A. J. & B. J. Holcombe et al); another, 25th February, photo (T. Forbes); another, 26th September to at least 9th October, colour-ringed, photo (B. J. Yates et al.). Sussex, West West Chidham, 13th March (N. G. Harris). Dell Quay, Chichester Harbour, 3rd August (G. A. Cockburn). Yorkshire, North Scaling Dam, 26th June (R. C. Taylor et al.); same as Cleveland. Yorkshire, South Old Moor, Wath, 2nd-22nd September, colour-ringed, photo (D. R. & K. Pickering et al); same as Kent (plate 415). 2001 Hertfordshire Wilstone Reservoir, 28th April (Brit. Birds 97: 570); date given as 28th April 2003 in 2003 report, in error (per M. Ilett). 415. Great White Egret Ardea alba, Old Moor, Wath, South Yorkshire, September 2004. This colour-ringed individual originated in northwest France, and was seen in Kent en route to South Yorkshire. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 643 lain Leach Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 2002 Caernarfonshire Meirionydd Pont Croesor Glaslyn Marsh, 8th August (A. lones, D. Lamacraft, R. I. Thorpe et al). 2002 Lothian Musselburgh, 1st December (S. Hunter). 2002 West Midlands Stubbers Green, 1st November, photo (H. Holley, H. King, G. K. Nicholls). 2003 Buckinghamshire West of Wilstone Reservoir, 12th August, photo (S. Wilson, per A. V. Harding); same as Hertfordshire 2003, below. 2003 Cheshire Astmoor Marsh, 17th July (R. Eyres, K. G. Massey). Frodsham, 4th August (R. H. Bonser, J. Williams etal). 2003 Derbyshire Drakelow, 21st August intermittently to 12th October (Brit. Birds 97: 570); original finders were M. & R. Williams (per R. W. Key). 2003 Dorset Stanpit Marsh, 24th January (L. Chappell). 2003 Hertfordshire Wilstone Reservoir, 12th August, photo (D. Bilcock et al.); same as Bucking- hamshire. 2003 Lincolnshire Grainthorpe Marsh, 10th November, photo (G. P. Catley). 2003 Suffolk Minsmere, 24th July (I. Barthorpe, R. Drew, G. R. Welch et al). 2003 Yorkshire, East North Ferriby, 29th March (G. Welch). (Small, but increasing breeding populations in Netherlands and France. Elsewhere in Europe, highly fragmented breeding range from E Austria to Ukraine, but generally rare. W Palearctic population migratory, most wintering in N Africa and E Mediterranean, although recent trend to overwinter in C and NW Europe. Other populations breed across much of Africa, Asia, Australia and the Americas.) Black Stork Ciconia nigra (29, 131, I ) Essex Copt Hall NT and Abbotts Hall Farm, juvenile, 16th August, photo (N. Harvey, W. Stallard). Seen intermittently in Colne/Blackwater Estuary area to 4th September, when again at Copt Hall NT (D. Williams); same, Westcliff-on-Sea, 15th September (H. & H. Carmichael). Kent Bockhill, 1 9th September, photo ( R. Heading et al); probably same as Essex. 2003 Cornwall Goonhilly Downs, The Lizard, 29th May (S. F. Elton et al.). (Breeds from C Iberia and E France through C Europe to Russia and, in small numbers, in N Greece and Turkey. To E, breeds widely in small numbers in forested temperate regions of Russia and Siberia to Russian Far East. Most are migratory, wintering in Africa, S and SE Asia.) Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus (c. 35 1 , 87, 0) Devon Exminster Marshes, juvenile, since October 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 572), to about 29th April (per M. Tyler); presumed same as Essex, Hampshire, Norfolk, Oxfordshire, Suffolk and Wiltshire. Essex Hanningfield Reservoir, 25th June, photo (D. L. Acfield, F. Hall, R. Widgery et al.); see Devon, above. Hampshire Ringwood, 29th April, photo (C. Emm, I. Morgan-Jones et al); see Devon, above. Norfolk Breydon Water, Berney Marshes and Burgh Castle area, 3rd July intermittently to 2005, photo (P. J. Heath, A. Sillett et al.); see Devon, above. Oxfordshire Otmoor, 2nd May to 18th June, photo (A. Nahkola, per I. Lewington); see Devon, above. Suffolk Minsmere, 2nd-3rd July, 3rd August, 8th-9th October, photo (C. Macintyre, J. Zantboer etal); see Devon, above. Wiltshire Charlton-all-Saints, lst-2nd May (A. Goddard, R. Turner et al); see Devon, above. The long-staying individual in Devon first appeared as a juvenile in September 2002. Finally departing the Exe Estuary in spring 2004, this bird was tracked across the country via Hampshire, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, Essex and Suffolk before settling again, this time in Norfolk. It remained in the Yare Valley into early 2005. (European breeding range centred N and W of Black Sea in Ukraine and Romania, with small, declining population in Balkans. Occasionally breeds France and Spain. To E, breeds from Volga River to Kazakhstan. Palearctic population migratory, most wintering in E Africa, small numbers remaining within Mediterranean basin. Resident or dispersive populations occur in Africa, S Asia, Australia, E USA and the Caribbean.) Black Kite Milvus migrans (5, 332, 8) Dorset Sandford, 31st May (M. Thompson). Weston, Portland, 7th June (D. & G. Walbridge). Essex/Greater London Ilford, 25th June (H. T. Vaughan). 644 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Highland Kinbrace, Sutherland, 3rd June to 3rd July (per A. F. McNee), presumed returning individual of 2002 and 2003 {Brit. Birds 96: 560; 97: 572, plate 267). Kent Bockhill, St Margaret’s, 10th May (P. Chantler, J. Russell). Dungeness, 12th May (D. Walker et al). Sussex, East Near Lewes, 18th May (J. Curson). West Midlands Balsall Common, 16th April (M. Fortnum, C. Heyworth). Wight, Isle of Headon Warren, 2nd September (K. B. Gillam, C. J. Meaney, G. R. Sparshott). 2001 Devon Lundy, 24th May (A. Brown, L. Lock, D. Price), previously not accepted {Brit. Birds 97: 624). 2003 Cornwall Predannack, The Lizard, 18th April (S. F. Elton). 2003 Dorset Portland Bill, 30th August, photo ( J. Lidster et al.). 2003 Glamorgan Sker Point and Kenfig, 18th April (C. & N. Clements, D. C. Palmer et al.)-, same as Gower, below. 2003 Gower Margam Moors, 18th April (per P. Bristow); same as Glamorgan. 2003 Greater London Regent’s Park, 30th August (T. Duckett, D. Johnson); same as Surrey, below. 2003 Surrey Barnes, 30th August (N. P. Senior); same as Greater London. (Breeds throughout continental Europe, most in Spain, France and Germany, with smaller populations in all, except maritime NW Europe and Scandinavia. To E, breeds European Russia to Kazakhstan and C Siberia. Nominate race winters Africa and NW Indian subcontinent. Other races resident or dispersive in sub-Saharan Africa, Indian subcontinent, E and SE Asia and Australia.) Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus (3, 16, 2) Scilly Bryher, juvenile, lOth-llth September, photo; same, Tresco, 11th, 14th September; same, St Martin’s, 1 1th— 13th September; same, St Agnes, 14th September ( J. K. Higginson et al.). Shetland Trondra, juvenile, 25th-26th September, photo (J. D. Okill et al.) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 384; plates 416 & 417). 2003 Shetland Haroldswick, Unst, first-summer cf, 23rd-25th May (S. E. Duffield, M. A. Maher et al.). Shetland birders digested their fifth Pallid Harrier in four years in 2004, but the bird discovered on Bryher was the first for Scilly. Of the 21 British records all but three have occurred since 1993, and 11 since 2001. This presumably reflects the westward extension of the breeding range. There has been a large increase in autumn records in Scandinavia in recent years, and pairs bred in Finland in 2003 and 2005 (only the second and third breeding attempts there). The additional record for 2003 brings the total for that year to five, equalling the total for the previous best year, in 1993. Acceptance of the Haroldswick bird was delayed because it showed a plumage unfamiliar to the Committee. Most Pallid Harriers still retain faded juvenile plumage in the spring of their second calendar-year, but this was an advanced individual which had commenced moult and showed a contrast between an orange breast and a whitish lower breast and belly. Following investigation, this combination proved to be diag- nostic. (Fragmented range on steppe grasslands from Ukraine E through Russia to 100°E and S to Kazakhstan. Occasionally breeds to W of main breeding range in Europe. Migratory, wintering throughout much of E and C Africa and the Indian subcontinent.) 4 1 6 & 4 1 7. Juvenile Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus. Trondra, Shetland, September 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 645 Hugh Harrop Rep ort on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 > Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus (86,668, 12) Cleveland Hummersea, cf , 25th April (G. N. Megson). Kent Grove Ferry, d\ 24th April (L. Whittaker, B. E. Wright). Man, Isle of Druidale, First-summer $,8th-15th July, photo, probably since 28th lune (C. Sharpe etal). Norfolk Waxham, first-summer cf> 1st— 1 3th May; same Horsey Mere 2nd and 7th May; same Hickling Broad 1 4th— 1 5th May, photo (P. J. Heath, J. R. Lansdell et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 183). Hickling Broad, adult cf > 2nd May (A. J. L. & E. Smith); first-summer cf , 28th May to 2nd June (M. A. Chipper- field, J. Hampshire, P. J. Heath et al); presumed same Horsey and Winterton 30th May (I. N. Smith). Bacton, first-summer $, 2nd May (A. Eadsdon, B. J. Murphy). Cley, cf, 18th May (A. Bennett). Snettisham, $, 22nd May (C. H. Mills, M. S. Speck). Northumberland Ellington, first-summer cf, 12th May (T. Blake). Suffolk Minsmere, first-summer cf, 31st May to 6th June, photo (P. Noaks, J. Zantboer et al). Sussex, West Cocking Down, $, 27th May (A. J. Hill, P. F. Marten). 2001 Cornwall Goonhilly Downs, The Lizard, first-summer cf , 24th June (G. Cockhill, S. F. Elton et al). 2001 Kent Lydd, cf, 12th May (G. Nicholls). 2003 Essex Old Hall Marshes, first-summer cf, 10th June (P. Charlton). (Breeding range highly fragmented across wooded steppe of E Europe, from E Hungary to temperate Russia, E to Baikal region. Numbers breeding in Europe small and declining. Migratory, wintering in SW Africa.) Gyr Falcon Falco rusticolus (189, 125, I) Outer Hebrides Aird An Runair, North Uist, white-morph, 21st December to 11th January 2005 (B. Lowe, A. MacDonald, B. Rabbitts). 2002 Anglesey South Stack, white-morph, 8th March, photo (R. I. Thorpe, P. Wheeler et al). (Within Europe, most numerous in Iceland and Norway, with smaller populations breeding northern Sweden, Finland and Arctic Russia. To east, breeds across Arctic Siberia, Alaska, northern Canada and Greenland. European birds mostly resident but high Arctic breeders from northern Canada and Greenland strongly migratory, occasionally wintering south to northwest Europe.) Sora Porzana Carolina (4, 8, I ) Nottinghamshire Attenborough, adult, 12th December to 1st January 2005, photo (P. Buxton, T. Davison, R. M. R. James, R. W. Key etal.) (Brit. Birds 98: plates 54, 55 & 418). Just as the birding year of 2004 was fading away, following a hectic autumn of rarities, along came this obliging bird to liven up proceedings and get the New Year off to a flying start. (Breeds North America from C Canada south to C California and Maryland, USA. Migrates to winter from southern USA to C America and northern S America.) 4 1 8. Adult Sora Porzana Carolina, Attenborough, Nottinghamshire, December 2004. 646 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 4 1 9. Juvenile Little Crake Porzana parva, Marazion Marsh, Cornwall, November 2004. Little Crake Porzana parva (74,32, I) Cornwall Marazion Marsh, juvenile, 1 st— 1 2th November, photo (C. C. Barnard, D. Parker et al.) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 385; plate 419). Little Crake is still a top-class rarity, and currently undergoing something of a resur- gence, with four records since 2000. Prior to this, there had been 1 1 in the 1970s, six in the 1980s but only two in the 1990s (fig. 3). This individual proved to be extremely popular, even though its appearance coincided with that of the Masked Shrike Lanius nubicus at the other end of the country. This was, in fact, the first long-staying Little Crake since the bird at Bough Beech Reservoir, Kent, in March 1997. Autumn records of young birds between mid September and November are just as likely as spring adults from mid March to early May. Diligence and persistence often pay off with this species, as in this case, when an observer pursued a momentary sighting. In this species, bare-part colours are helpful in the separation of adults from the even rarer Baillon’s Crake P. pusilla. In immature plumage, structure, primary projection and other less obvious fea- tures, including a broad, buffy stripe extending as a line from the rear of the mantle along the inner borders of the tertials, and differences in upper- part spotting and under- part barring, should be used to separate Little from Baillon’s (see Brit. Five-year totals of accepted records of Little Crake Porzana parva Birds 86" 303—31 1 ) in Britain, 1 950-2004. (Fragmented distribution across temperate steppe of W Palearctic, from Austria through Ukraine and European Russia to W Siberia and C Kazakhstan. Small numbers occasionally breed to N and W, reaching Netherlands, Finland and Spain. Most winter in NE and E Africa, although some occur W to Senegal.) American Coot Fulica americana (0, 3, 2) Dumfries 8t Galloway Castle Loch, Lochmaben, 1 0th— 1 7th February (A. A. Murray, A. White et al). Outer Hebrides West Loch Ollay, South Uist, 25th January to 7th April (A. Stevenson et al). Shetland Loch of Clickimin, Mainland, first-winter, since November 2003 to 5th April (Brit. Birds 97: 575, plates 27 & 336); presumed returning bird, Loch of Benston, Mainland, 13th November to 28th March 2005, photo (S. E. Duffield et al). British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 647 Marc Read Simon Stirrup Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 With only two previous British records, in Kent in 1996 and Cumbria in 1999, the mini-influx into Scotland during the winter of 2003/04 was quite unexpected. Whether the two Shetland records refer to the same individual is still open to debate. Investigations into ageing the species continue, but at present they are treated as the same bird. One also turned up in Iceland, present from 16th October to 10th November 2004; and the coincidence of the departure of that individual with the arrival of the Shetland bird is interesting. The 2003/04 influx was not limited to Scotland either: three were reported from the Azores, and another was found in Spain, all arriving between 31st October 2003 and 5th January 2004. (Breeds across temperate southern Canada and the USA, from Vancouver Island E to New Brunswick, and S throughout much of the USA, Mexico, the West Indies and Central America, with isolated populations in N and C Andes. Northern populations migratory, wintering in southern USA, occasionally N to south Ontario, Canada.) Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus (143, 203, I) Herefordshire Titley, 15th October (P. J. Eldridge, A. T. Foxton). Norfolk Titchwell, since 1993 (Brit. Birds 87: 521; 97: 576), present throughout year (per G. E. Dunmore). (Breeds along Atlantic coast of France and locally throughout Mediterranean basin to Black Sea. To E, breeds from S Siberia and C Asia to NW China. Most European birds winter in sub-Saharan Africa and, increasingly, in SW Iberia. Asian breeders winter across S and SE Asia and S China. Other races occur in Australasia, the Americas and Hawaii.) Cream-coloured Courser Cursorius cursor (37,6, I) Scilly St Agnes, first-winter, 28th-29th September, photo; same, St Martin’s, 29th September to 8th October; same, St Mary’s, 8th-26th October, taken into care, died in Mousehole Bird Hospital, Corn- wall, on 27th (E. A. Fisher, R. L. Flood eta!.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 386; plate 420). Unquestionably one of the autumn’s major crowd-pullers. Initially discovered on St Agnes, this splendid bird moved quickly to St Martin’s before finally settling on St Mary’s, where it favoured the island’s golf course. As this species is better equipped to withstand the arid desert environments of North Africa, the Middle East and southwest Asia, there were initial fears that this bird might succumb 420. First-winter Cream-coloured Courser Cursorius cursor, St Mary’s, Scilly, October 2004. 648 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 to a soaking in severe wet weather or, worse still, to a wayward tee shot. Thankfully, it proved remark- ably resilient to these hazards and remained the star attraction throughout much of the annual ‘Scilly season’. In the last two days of its stay, it shared the limelight with (and sadly, after being taken into care in a weakened state, the same fate as) the islands’ first Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapilla. Although Cream-coloured Courser came as close as the Channel Islands in 1995, the Scilly bird is the first in Britain since the well-watched individual in Essex in 1984 (Brit. Birds 78: 543-544), and only the seventh record since the Committee’s formation in 1958. All have been found in the period from late September to mid October. An entertaining account of the discovery of the Scilly bird can be found in Birding World 17: 426-428. (Breeds Cape Verde and Canary Islands E across deserts of North Africa, S to Chad and Sudan, and through Middle East to Turkmenistan, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Western populations resident, or dispersive to deserts S of breeding range, while eastern breeders migrate to winter from S Iran to deserts of NW India.) Killdeer Charadrius vociferus (5, Outer Hebrides Knockintorran, North Uist, first-winter, 25th December to 8th January 2005, photo (J. & S. Entwhistle-Baker, B. Rabbitts etal.) (Brit. Birds 98: plates 56 & 421). This bird was a welcome Christmas present for its lucky finder, the date and location conforming well to the established pattern of late- autumn and mid-winter occurrences. Killdeer gets no commoner here, having stubbornly maintained an average of exactly one record per annum since 1970, despite the spiralling observer coverage over the same period. (Breeds S Alaska, S Canada and throughout USA to Mexico. Northern breeders migratory, wintering S USA and Mexico to Columbia. Other races resident in Caribbean and South America.) Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus (0, 3, I) Lothian Aberlady Bay, cf C. in. mongolus, 8th-9th July (J. B. Bell et al). Another individual from the northeast Siberian mongolus group. Could it have been the same indi- vidual seen in Hampshire the previous year (Brit. Birds 97: 576)? (Nominate mongolus group breeds in mountains and tundra of Arctic E Siberia, Kamchatka and Kommander Islands. Distinct atrifrons group breeds from C Pamir and Tien Shan ranges across mountains of W China and N Kashmir to Tibetan plateau. Both groups migratory, wintering along tropical coasts of S and E Africa, Persian Gulf, Indian subcontinent, S China, SE Asia and Australia.) Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii (0, 13, I) Norfolk Snettisham, cf, 4th-5th July, photo (A. Missin, J. Scott et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 302); pre- sumed same as East Yorkshire, below. Yorkshire, East Beacon Ponds, Kilnsea, 3rd July (R. Butcher, G. Featherstone, T. McEvoy); presumed same as Norfolk. It is considered that these two records probably involved the same individual moving south between the Humber and the Wash; a pattern mirrored almost exactly by a Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus which, remarkably, was discovered on the same area of mud at Beacon Ponds where the sand plover had been located less than a couple of hours earlier on 3rd July (and was found by birders looking for the sand plover!). The dowitcher was relocated at nearby Spurn later the same 38, I) 42 1 . First-winter Killdeer Charadrius vociferus, Knockintorran, North Uist, Outer Hebrides, December 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 649 Michael McKee Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 day, before taking up residence at Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire; the sand plover made just a brief visit to East Yorkshire, before a two-day soujourn in Norfolk. The Greater Sand Plover’s identity caused some debate initially when it appeared at Snettisham, but this was resolved quickly; the paper by Hirschfeld, Roselaar & Shirihai (Brit. Birds 93: 162-189) remains an essential reference. Fortunately, this breeding-plumaged individual was clearly one of the eastern forms leschenaultii or crassirostris , which are structurally more distinct from Lesser Sand Plover than is the western form columbinus. Past records are currently being reviewed to try to establish whether columbinus has ever actually strayed to the UK. These observations continue the trend which shows July as the peak month, but we can only speculate how many must be overlooked on the estu- arine habitats that this species tends to favour. The final decision on the identity of the sand plover on the Don Estuary, Northeast Scotland (Brit. Birds 85: 525), is still outstanding (see Brit. Birds 97: 576). (Distinctive Western Palearctic race C. /. columbinus breeds locally in C Turkey, Jordan and perhaps Armenia. Main breeding range extends from E Caspian Sea across C Asia to Mongolia and NW China. Winters along tropical coasts of E Africa, Persian Gulf, Indian subcontinent, SE Asia and Australia.) American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica (1,244, 12) Anglesey Alaw Estuary, juvenile, 8th October (K. G. Croft et al). Argyll Sandaig and Middleton, Tiree, adult, 1 3th— 1 4th September ( J. Bowler et al.). Caithness Noss Farm, Wick, juvenile, 15th October (N. Fairney, S. Laybourne). Cambridgeshire Melbourn, adult, 22nd October (S. L. Cooper et al.). Carmarthenshire Garreg Lwyd, adult, 3rd-4th May, photo (per B. & S. Stewart). Essex Old Hall Marshes, adult, 24th July to 4th August, photo (N. Ransdale et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 303) . Norfolk Breydon Water, adult, 1 1th— 12th July, photo (L. V. Gregory, T. Humpage et al.). Orkney Papa Westray, juvenile, 27th September (I. Broadbent, P. S. Crockett, J. R. W. Gordon). Outer Hebrides West Gerinish, South Uist, juvenile, 25th September to 3rd October (J. B. Bell, R. Bonser, B. Rabbitts et al). Scilly Samson, first-summer, 8th— 1 5th June, photo (B. Lascelles et al.). Shetland Funzie, Fetlar, adult, 20th September to 20th October, photo (P. R. French et al.). Yorkshire, North Lingham Lake, Nosterfield, juvenile, 2nd October (M. Bland, R. T. Parrish, S. Worwood). 2001 Cornwall Maer Lake, Bude, 19th November to 28th January 2002 (D. Churchill, R. Doble et al.), previously not accepted (Brit. Birds 97: 624). 2002 Cornwall See 2001 Cornwall above. 2003 Cheshire Leasowe/Meols, Wirral, juvenile, 20th September (A. Conlin, M. G. Turner et al). 2003 Yorkshire, South Edderthorpe Flash, juvenile, 8th October (B. Ernson), same as Old Moor, 20th-22nd September (Brit. Birds 97: 577). (Breeds on coastal tundra from extreme NE Siberia, E across N Alaska and Canada to Baffin Island. Migrates over W Atlantic to wintering grounds in S South America.) Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva (3, 52, 3) Cambridgeshire Fidwell Fen, Stretham, adult, 30th October to 1st November ( J. A. Hanlon, J. Oates et al.). Orkney North Ronaldsay, adult, 30th June (P. A. Brown, P. J. Donnelly). Yorkshire, East Spurn, adult, 1 6th— 1 7th July, photo (J. Grist, M. J. Pilsworth et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 304) . 2003 Cumbria Salker, adult, 3rd August, photo (S. J. Dodgson). This species remains an excellent find, with this year’s records being typical in both timing and location. In contrast to the situation with many shorebirds, the majority of records involve adults and the peak time falls between the last week of June and the end of August, coinciding with that of some other Siberian waders such as Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata and Red-necked Stint C. rufi- collis, although there are a few late-autumn and winter records too. Juvenile Pacific Goldies remain extremely rare, with only seven records in autumn, and a further four spring records of first-summer birds. Given that juveniles are extremely similar in colour to Euro- pean Golden Plovers P. apricaria, some are presumably being overlooked in autumn flocks of Golden 650 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Plovers, since they do not stand out from the crowd in the way that (much greyer) juvenile American Golden Plovers P. dominica usually do, nor is their wing-structure so obviously different. Whatever their age, any simplistic or casual approach that might have been used when identifying ‘Lesser Golden Plovers’ in the past no longer stands up; careful attention to detail is now essential to ensure that the identification is watertight. Pacific Golden Plover is not significantly longer-winged than European and the longer tertials, combined with the consequent shorter primary projection, can make them appear much shorter-winged than their American counterpart (see Brit. Birds 97: 434-443). (Breeds across Siberian tundra from Yamal Peninsula E to Chukotskiy Peninsula, including New Siberian islands, and W Alaska. Small numbers winter regularly in Kenya and Persian Gulf, main wintering range extends from Indian subcontinent to S China and Japan, S through SE Asia to Australia, New Zealand and islands in C Pacific.) Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris (0,2, I) Lancashire & North Merseyside Skippool Creek, River Wyre, adult, 31st July, 16th— 1 7th August (C. G. Batty et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plates 305, 325; plate 422). A great find for a dedicated local patch worker (see Birding World 17: 332-333), and a fantastic record for the northwest coast. The relatively rapid disappearance after the first sighting disappointed many would-be observers, but was followed by a second bite at the cherry, especially welcome for those who had missed out on the infamous ‘great dot' in the Northeast eight years previously. What was quite probably the same individual was seen earlier at the Swords Estuary, Co. Dublin, on 25th July. Following adults in Shetland in September 1989 (Brit. Birds 84: 469; 85: 426-429) and Teeside in October and November 1996 (Brit. Birds 90: 471), the Lancashire individual represents the third con- secutive adult in Britain. This predominance of adults is a feature shared by a number of other east Siberian calidrids, including Red-necked Stint C. ruficollis and Sharp-tailed Sandpiper C. acuminata. Could this be an indication that the birds migrate away from their core range in their first autumn and then subsequently wander further off course to arrive in the UK in subsequent autumns? (Breeds mountains of NE Siberia. Migrates throughout coastal E Asia with most wintering coastal Australia, but small populations overwinter from Persian Gulf east to SE Asia.) 422. Adult Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris. Wyre Estuary, Lancashire, August 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 651 Steve Young/Birdwatch lain Leach John Carter Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 423. Juvenile Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla. Drift Reservoir, Cornwall, September 2004. Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla (1,73,2) Cornwall Drift Reservoir, juvenile, 17th-23rd September, photo (J. F. Ryan et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 387; plate 423). Lancashire & North Mersey- side Brockholes Quarry, adult, 25th July, photo (W. C. Aspin, A. S. Disley). ( Breeds on tundra of W Alaska, E across Arctic Canada to S Baffin Island and coastal Labrador. Has bred in extreme NE Siberia. Migrates across Great Plains and E seaboard of USA to winter in C America and shorelines of tropical South America to Brazil and Peru.) Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri (0, 6, I) Dorset Brownsea Island, Poole Harbour, juvenile/first-winter, 29th September to 15th October, photo (C. Thain, C. Williams et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 388; plate 424). How things have changed. When Grant 8t lohnsson published their ground-breaking paper on stint identification in 1984 (Brit. Birds 77: 293-315), the identification of Western Sandpiper in anything other than adult breeding plumage was regarded as extremely tricky. However, as observers of the sub- sequent juvenile birds in Ireland discovered, most juvenile Western Sandpipers are striking, showing not only the well-known contrast between rich chestnut scapulars and grey upperparts, but also strik- MjMME ; I ■■ 424. Juvenile/first-winter Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri, Brownsea Island, Poole Harbour, Dorset, October 2004. 652 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 ingly white underparts. Although some bright Semipalmated Sandpipers C. pusilla can approach this appearance, none are really like Western Sandpipers. While juveniles (and adults) may be obvious, the real difficulty lies in the identification of winter-plumaged individuals; and first-summer birds can acquire winter plumage from July onwards. Because the Dorset bird had begun to moult into first- winter plumage, it was already losing its distinctive appearance, as some of the juvenile chestnut scapulars were being replaced by uniform, winter feathers. Nonetheless, it remained distinctive, as the photographs show. Surprisingly, this is the first vagrant wader to appear on Brownsea Island since a Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus there in 1974, even though it is a prime wader location, in the largest natural harbour in Europe. Thankfully, with so many of 2004’s ‘big birds’ turning up on far-flung islands, this one chose a much closer island and it was appreciated by over 1,600 birders, who contributed over £3,000 towards conservation work (Breeds Chukotskiy Peninsula, NE Siberia, and coastal tundra of W and N Alaska. Entire population migratory, passing through North America to winter coastal California, Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coast north to North Carolina, USA, and south to C America, Venezuela and Peru.) Least Sandpiper Calidris minutilla (6, 25, 0) 2003 Buckinghamshire Startops End Reservoir, adult, 6th August, photo (M. D. Campbell, P. R. Colston, per A. V. Harding), flew into the county from Hertfordshire; see also Hertfordshire 2003 (Brit. Birds 96: plate 332; 97: 579). (Breeds in C and S Alaska, E across N Canada, to Labrador and Newfoundland. Winters in S USA, C America, the Caribbean and South America, S to Brazil and N Chile.) White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis (24,353,9) Gloucestershire Slimbridge, adult, 15th August (M. J. McGill et al). Man, Isle of Langness, adult, 3rd-4th August, photo (P. Hadfield, C. Wormwell et al). Norfolk Cley and Salthouse, juvenile, 20th September, photo (D. & P. Wileman et al). Hickling, juvenile, 23rd-25th September (P. J. Heath, A. J. Kane et al). Somerset Burnham-on-Sea, adult, 17th August (A. M. Slade et al). Suffolk Trimley Marshes, adult, 15th July, photo (W. J. Brame et al). Minsmere, juvenile, 1 8th— 19th September, photo (D. Fairhurst et al); juvenile, 1 3th— 24th October (R. Drew et al); juvenile, 14th October (N. Odin), with metal ring on left leg. 2002 Cornwall Hayle Estuary, juvenile/first-winter, 15th November, photo (S. M. Christophers). 2002 Essex Old Hall Marshes, adult, 11th August (B. Churches, C. J. Mackenzie-Grieve), not same as 1 8th— 2 1 st July 2002 (Brit. Birds 96: 568); same, 13th August (per RSPB). 2003 Northumberland Cresswell Pond, adult, 8th— 1 2th August, photo (S. Sexton et al). 2003 Outer Hebrides Loch Bee, South Uist, juvenile, 22nd-25th October (A. Stevenson et al). (Breeds in N Alaska and Arctic Canada, from Mackenzie River E to S Baffin Island. Overflies W Atlantic to winter in S South America.) Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii (4, 170, 12) Caernarfonshire Bardsey, juvenile, 20th September, trapped, photo (C. & R. I. Thorpe et al). Cornwall Davidstow Airfield, juvenile, 6th-28th September, photo (N. J. Voaden et al). Marazion, juvenile, 7th— 1 8th September, photo (J. Hawkey et al). Stithians Reservoir, first-winter, 24th-29th September (per P. A. Fraser). Norfolk Titchwell, juvenile, 15th September, photo (D. Hawkins et al). Buckenham Marshes, juvenile, 21st-25th September (J. R. Lansdell et al). Outer Hebrides Butt of Lewis, Lewis, first-winter, 26th September (A. Robinson, M. S. Scott, M. Witherall). Loch Paible, North Uist, juvenile, 1 5th— 24th October (B. Rabbitts et al). Scilly Tresco and St Mary’s, juvenile, 29th August to 10th September, photo (R. L. Flood et al). Tresco, juvenile, 30th August to 9th September ( W. H. Wagstaff et al). Suffolk Minsmere, juvenile, 19th September to 8th October, photo (D. Fairhurst et al). Yorkshire, East Flamborough Head, juvenile, 27th September to 4th October at least, photo (B. Hill, I. Marshall et al.) (plate 425, p. 654). British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 653 lain Leach Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 2003 Lothian Threipmuir Reser- voir, juvenile, 6th- 15th September, photo (C. & E. Hurley et al). (Breeds extreme NE Siberia on Chukotskiy Peninsula and Wrangel Island, E across N Alaska and Arctic Canada, to N Baffin Island and NW Greenland. Migrates through North American interior to winter in South American Andes, from S Ecuador to Tierra del Fuego.) Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata (5,20, I) Cornwall Drift Reservoir, adult, 6th-7th August, photo (R J. Freestone, C. McNaughten, S. Mitchell et al.). One of the exceptional finds of the early autumn, discovered by a band of visiting Yorkshire birders, in Cornwall for the annual Scillonian pelagic trip. Despite being a long-distance migrant, this species remains an extremely rare bird in Britain. This is, in part, a reflection of the relatively small world pop- ulation and a restricted breeding range in northeastern Siberia, although the direction of migration, towards wintering areas in Australia and New Zealand, ensures that most stay well clear of Europe. As with many vagrant shorebirds arriving from this region, late summer and early autumn adults pre- dominate, while juveniles remain the exception. Perhaps this indicates that most records relate to birds that have overshot breeding areas in spring and continued west across Arctic Siberia and into Europe. (Breeding range restricted to small region of Siberian tundra from Yana River to Kolyma River delta, and possibly further east. Migrant through coastal Alaska, China and Japan to winter New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand.) Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus (21, 182,8) Derbyshire Aston-on-Trent, adult, 18th fuly (R. M. R. James, R. W. Key). Devon Bowling Green Marsh, adult, 1 3th— 14th July, photo (M. Knott et al.). Norfolk Holkham, 13th— 14th May (A. I. Bloomfield). Hickling, 14th May, photo (A. J. Kane et al). Snettisham, adult, 10th July, photo (L. V. Gregory, T. Humpage). Cley and Salthouse, juvenile, 13th— 14th August, photo; same, Titchwell, 16th— 20th August (A. M. Stoddart et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 326). Northeast Scotland Ythan Estuary, adult, 29th July (H. E. Maggs et al.). Staffordshire Drayton Bassett, 7th— 1 1 th June (per www.birdguides.com) (Brit. Birds 97; plate 221; plate 426). Broad-billed Sandpiper is a long-distance migrant, wintering to the southeast of Europe, and spring overshoots in favourable winds are responsible for 28 of the 42 records in the last ten years. Although the east coast in general, and Norfolk in particular, remains the best bet for this charis- matic wader, Broad-billed Sandpiper is one of few British rarities of eastern origin which seem to occur almost anywhere in Britain (fig. 4), and indeed in Ireland where a veritable flush of records in the last ten years have included one in the far west, in Co. Clare. With small numbers known to winter in coastal East Africa, it is tempting to speculate whether this wide spread of spring records actually involves some individuals originating from this region, rather than from the Arabian Gulf or west India, as suggested in BWP. A small, but regular, passage occurs through southern France in spring and autumn (BWP), adding support to the idea of an African origin. Departure from Fennoscandian breeding grounds (where the population is estimated to be in the region of 25,000 breeding pairs; Hagemeijer & Blair 1997, The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds) 425. Juvenile Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii. Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, October 2004. 654 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 426. Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus (right), with Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula, Drayton Bassett, Staffordshire, June 2004. typically peaks in July for adults, and August for juveniles, with few birds remaining into September. Inland occurrences, even away from the large estuaries, seem to be becoming more of a feature, with individuals being found in inland Yorkshire in both 2000 and 2002, and at Loch Lomond in 2000. This trend continued in 2004, with two being found at inland sites, and it will be inter- esting to see whether it persists. (Nominate European race breeds in boreal forest bogs of N Norway, Sweden and Finland, and into Arctic Russia, where distribution uncertain. European birds migrate through E Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to winter in Persian Gulf, W India and Sri Lanka, with small numbers in coastal E Africa. E race L. f. sibirica breeds from Taimyr Peninsula to Kolyma River delta, and winters from Bay of Bengal through coastal SE Asia to Australia.) Fig. 4. Distribution of accepted records of Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus in Britain, 1958-2004. * 1-6 • 7-12 • 13-18 • 19-24 • 25-30 • 3 '-36 • 37~42 43-48 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 655 George Reszeter Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Great Snipe Gallinago media (478, 119, I) Northeast Scotland Girdleness, 1 1th August (P. S. Crockett et al). 2003 Shetland Out Skerries, 20th September (P. Sclater). 2003 Suffolk Covehithe, 13th September ( J. A. Brown, A. Easton, R. Wilton et al). (Scarce and local breeder in Norway and Sweden, which hold most of declining European population. Smaller and fragmented population breeds from Poland to Estonia. Also breeds E through European Russia, W and N Siberia to Yenisey River but population trends here unknown. Winters in sub-Saharan Africa.) Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus (7, 160,4) Lincolnshire Gibraltar Point, adult, 5th July to 29th September (per www.birdguides.com ) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 306); same as Kilnsea and Spurn, East York- shire, below. Northumberland Bothal Pond, first-summer, 6th-23rd April, photo (A. D. McLevy, S. Taylor et al.). Orkney Bay of Sandoyne and Loch of Ayre, Holm, adult, 27th-30th April, photo (K. E. Hague et al). Fig. 5. (above) Five-year totals of accepted records of Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus in Britain, 1950-2004 (blue line). For comparison, records of all dowitchers (Long-billed, Short-billed L griseus and unidentified) within the same period are provided (red line). Dowitcher identification remained in its infancy until the mid 1970s, and before that time more birds were unidentified to species level. The late 1970s saw a better understanding of dowitcher identification emerge, and this coincided with an increase in the overall numbers occurring. In comparison, few dowitchers remain unidentified to species level today, but the recent trend suggests that the numbers occurring may be falling. Fig. 6. (right) Distribution of accepted records of Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus in Britain, 1950-2004. # 1-3 # 4-6 • 7-9 • 10-12 • 13-15 • '^8 • l9“21 22-24 656 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Yorkshire, East Beacon Ponds, Kilnsea, and Spurn, adult, 3rd July, photo (J. Grist, A. Roadhouse et al.); same as Lincolnshire. Spurn and Easington, adult, 14th— 16th October, photo (D. P. Boyle, N. Glenn). 2003 Cheshire Inner Marsh Farm, first-winter, 28th January, photo (R. I. Thorpe etal.). Four in one year is a good showing for this species, which had managed only ten records in the pre- vious five years. Up to 1972, 79% of the 112 Limnodromus recorded in Britain & Ireland were uniden- tified to the species level ( BWP ), reflecting both the difficulty involved in obtaining sufficiently good views to determine the plumage and structural details, and the uncertainties as to exactly what key fea- tures would reliably separate Long-billed and Short-billed Dowitchers L. griseus. In recent years, with high-quality optics and a greater understanding of dowitcher identification, far fewer birds go uniden- tified (fig. 5). Fig. 6 shows a wide distributional spread of records across the UK, but few records for inland coun- ties. As might be expected, the southwest receives the majority, suggesting a westerly origin; though it is also interesting to note the general paucity elsewhere in western Britain - notably in Wales and mainland Scotland - and the rarity of Short-billed Dowitcher, which breeds much further east in North America. Conversely, eastern counties, and more specifically those to the south of a line between the Wash and the River Severn, also receive disproportionately high numbers. With most of the breeding range of Long-billed Dowitcher lying across northern Siberia, west to the Lena River, one might speculate that some of our birds originate from the east. If this is the case, let’s hope that one day the conditions that bring Long-billed Dowitchers to Britain from the east will produce an Asian Dowitcher L. semipalmatus. (Breeds primarily in Arctic Siberia, where range is expanding, W to Lena River delta. North American range restricted to coastal tundra of W and N Alaska, and E to Mackenzie River. Migrates through USA to winter from coastal S USA to N Central America.) Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda (9, 29, 2) Cornwall Pendeen, 7th October, photo (D. Adkin). Shetland Foula, 4th-8th May, photo (G. Atherton et al.) (plate 427). Two records this year, both sup- ported by photographs, which are the first since two individuals on Scilly, in 1999. Scilly in particular, but also Cornwall, offers the best chance to connect with this species, the two counties accounting for 13 of the total of 17 British records since 1980 (with three of the remainder on Foula, Shetland). At the opposite end of the country, the third record for Foula surprisingly appeared in May; this was only the second spring record ever, the first having been on St Kilda, Outer Hebrides, in April 1980. (Breeds temperate and subarctic interior North America from SE Alaska through NW and C Canada to mid-west and NE USA. Migrates through interior USA E of Rocky Mountains, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean to winter in South America from S Brazil to Argentina.) Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis (12, I 12, I) Essex Fobbing Marshes, juvenile, 28th July to 14th August, photo (N. Allen, P. Warden et al, per H. Vaughan) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 307). (Occasionally breeds in Finland and Baltic countries to Ukraine and W Russia. To E, breeds commonly across forest-steppe region of Siberia to Mongolia and NE China. Winters commonly throughout sub-Saharan Africa, especially E Africa, and Indian subcontinent E to S China and SE Asia; also Australia.) 427. Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda, Foula, Shetland, May 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 657 Geoff Atherton John Wright Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes (37,218,5) Cornwall Hayle Estuary, first-winter, since October 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 581, plate 54), to 3rd May. Wadebridge, first-winter, 3rd-12th January (C. Selway). Drift Reservoir, 25th September to 5th October (per D. S. Flumm). Leicestershire Rutland Water, juvenile, 25th September to 1st October (R. F. Baker, J. Wright et al.) (fig. 7). Norfolk Stiffkey Fen, juvenile, 14th— 30th September, photo (S. G. Dobson, J. G. Lowen et al.); same, Stiffkey, 10th October to 24th April 2005, photo (B. Stretch et al.) (Brit. Birds 98: plate 89). I Fig. 7. Juvenile Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes, Rutland Water, Leicestershire, September/October 2004. 658 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Pembrokeshire Dale, juvenile/first-winter, 15th February (A. M. & M. A. Taylor); same, 11th April (D. J. Astins); presumed same as 2003 Pembrokeshire, below. Scilly St Mary’s, first-winter, 1 st— 9th November (). K. Higginson et al). 2002 Cornwall Millbrook Lake, juvenile, 30th-31st August (M. P. & R. M. Frost). 2003 Ceredigion Cors Caron, Tregaron, juvenile, 10th October to at least 9th November, photo (A. Polkey, H. W. Roderick). 2003 Pembrokeshire Dale, juvenile, 19th October to 16th November (Brit. Birds 97: 581); Newgale, juvenile, 5th-6th December (Brit. Birds 97: 581), now considered same. See also 2004 Pembrokeshire above. 2003 Scilly St Mary’s, juvenile, 18th September to 8th October, photo (per G. Reszeter et al.). (Breeds throughout much of subarctic Alaska and Canada, E to James Bay. Migrates through USA, where some overwinter, but majority winter from Caribbean and C America to Chile and Argentina.) Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularius (9, 120, 5) Cheshire Elton Hall Flash, 12th June, photo (I. Barber, A. Firth et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 269). Cleveland Saltholme Pools, adult, 1 1th August ( J. B. Dunnett et al.). Scilly Tresco, 31st May, photo (J. K. Higginson etal.). Sussex, East Darwell Reservoir, adult, 19th September to 3rd October, photo (R. G. Harris et al.). West Midlands Berkswell, 19th-20th June, photo (N. P. Barlow, L. & P. Johnson etal.). (Breeds over much of North America from W Alaska to Newfoundland and S to California, Texas and North Carolina. Some winter in coastal USA to S of breeding range but most winter in C America, Caribbean and N South America, S to N Argentina and Chile.) Laughing Gull Larus atricilla (2,96, I) Cornwall Hayle Estuary, adult, 23rd-25th August (L. P. Williams et al). 2003 Scilly St Mary’s, first- winter, 6th-8th November (K. Webb et al.). (Locally common from Nova Scotia, S along E seaboard of USA to Florida and Gulf coast, the Caribbean, and C America to N Venezuela. S populations largely resident but N breeders winter within S breeding range.) Franklin’s Gull Larus pipixcan (0,41, 3) Cheshire Elton Hall Flash, adult, 2nd-3rd September, photo (A. Firth, R. Jones, C. Lythgoe et al.). Dorset Radipole Lake and Weymouth Harbour, first-winter, 16th March to 5th April, photo (C. Patrick etal.) (Brit. Birds 97: plates 146 & 147); same as Scilly, below. Scilly St Mary’s, first-winter, 1 1th— 12th March (per www.scillybirding.co.uk); same as Dorset (plate 428). 428. First-winter Franklin’s Gull Larus pipixcan, St Mary's, Scilly, March 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 659 Bryan Thomas Bob Mitchell Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Shetland Hametoun, Foula, adult, 10th June (S. Bearhop, C. 1. Mclnerny, S. C. Votier). (Breeds locally throughout interior provinces of temperate W Canada E to Great Lakes and S to mid-west USA. Winters along Pacific coast of South America from Guatemala to Chile.) Bonaparte’s Gull Larus Philadelphia (13, 107, I I) Caithness Castlehill and Thurso, adult, 12th September intermittently to 15th January 2005 (S. Laybourne, S. A. M. Manson etal.) (Brit. Birds 98: plate 90). Ceredigion Llanrhystud, first-winter, 10th— 1 2th April, photo (M. Hughes etal.). Cornwall Hayle Estuary, first-winter, 25th February (M. T. Elliot et al). Marazion, first-winter, 1 1th— 14th March, photo (P. A. Fraser et al); adult, 9th April (D. S. Flumm et al.). Devon Bowling Green Marsh, first-summer, 9th— 1 8th June, photo (G. Thomas et al.). Glamorgan Cardiff Bay area, adult, 21st-23rd April, photo (R. Mitchell et al.) (fig. 8). Gower Blackpill, first-summer, 19th April (P. R. & S. L. Murray). Outer Hebrides Peninerine, South Uist, adult, 31st March to 9th April, photo (D. J. Britton). Ardivachar, South Uist, adult, 10th April (A. Stevenson et al). Peninerine and South Bay, South Uist, adult, 18th-24th April (A. Stevenson et al. ), possibly same as one or other of the above. Eleven in a year is the highest annual total ever, beating the previous record, of ten, in 1990. Other than those in Caithness and Devon, all were discovered in late winter and early spring, the well-estab- lished pattern for this species. The southwest of Britain has traditionally proved the most fertile hunting ground for would-be finders of Bonaparte’s Gull, so it is not at all surprising to see the cluster of records from Cornwall and Wales. On the other hand, the three April records on South Uist are unprecedented and help to cement the growing reputation of the Outer Hebrides as an area that pro- duces rarities of considerable quality and quantity. (Breeds widely across N North America from W and C Alaska through Canada to James Bay. Winters locally on ice- free rivers and lakes in N USA, and S along both coasts of USA to Mexico and Caribbean.) Wood aAhlxcL r U/hJbi' cy*~ ., 1 C,/ncoLL cjLuJU. eye- . P ark fvuvrdl^ \ CurCCr- IrtCKjCjC AJexJ- cf hLcLL c ^ b'JJL , Zr«.cJJ-es~ u>- A .CjiM. frircL tb r*- Skwcxy d I (d fes-enou Sbze. frncf skcrucn^ 8th-30th June. 1984 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf , mid May to late June. 1985 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf > mid May to late June. 1986 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf > mid May to late June. 1987 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf , mid May to late June. 1988 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf , mid May to late June. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 661 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 1989 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf, dates uncertain. 1990 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf , 31st May to 24th June, sound-recorded (H. Taffs, B. J. Yates et al). 1991 Essex Colne Point, 29th June to 1st July (J. Clifton et al.); presumed same as Sussex individual. 1992 Sussex, East Rye Harbour, cf, 24th May to 12th July (B. J. Yates et al.). This is the first time that this regularly returning bird has appeared in this report, and it represents the first accepted record of one of the Nearctic races of Little Tern. (Breeds along coasts and inland river systems from New England and S California, USA, S to Mexico, Caribbean and Central America. Northern populations migratory, wintering to S of breeding range.) Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida (24, 107, 6) Lincolnshire Gibraltar Point, adult, 8th August (P. Ball, A. M. Jewels, I. Kendall). Somerset Shapwick Heath, 24th-26th April (J. A. Hazell et al.). Yorkshire, South Lakeside, Doncaster, and Potteric Carr, four, 16th May (C. J. & L. J. Degnan et al.). The four together in Yorkshire are without precedent. Consequently, another flock of four, reported in spring 2005, makes us contemplate whether the same birds might have been involved on both occa- sions. (Opportunistic and erratic breeder through S and E Europe, from Iberia to Poland. Numerous and widespread from N Black Sea E to W Kazakhstan, with Volga/Ural River complex holding most of European population. Winters in tropical W and C Africa and from Nile delta to E Africa. Other populations in Indian subcontinent, E Asia, S Africa and Australia.) White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus (78,735,22) Bedfordshire Brogborough Lake, adult, 27th April, photo (D. J. Odell et al.). Cambridgeshire Grafham Water, juvenile, 9th August (M. L. Hawkes et al.). Devon Northam Burrows, 9th May, photo (K. Prangnell et al.). Pottington, Taw Estuary, adult, 2nd-7th July (R. Jutsum et al.). Dorset Stanpit Marsh, second-summer, 10th August (A. Hayden et al.). Essex Abberton Reservoir, juvenile, 1 7th— 1 9th August (T. J. Mendham, P. & V. Merchant et al). Forth Skinflats, adult, 1 3th— 1 5th August (G. Owens et al.). Kent Cliffe, 24th-28th May, photo (A. Roman et al.). Leicestershire Rutland Water, first-summer, 8th— 1 1 th July, photo (R. G. Bayldon, J. A. Forryan, J. R. Walsh et al). Lincolnshire Covenhanr Reservoir, juvenile/ first- winter, 1st October, photo (G. P. Langan et al). Norfolk Hickling, two, second-summer, 1 8th— 20th, 23rd May, photo (S. Cale, N. Donaghy, P. J. Heath et al); presumed same as West Yorkshire. Northumberland East Chevington, adult, 5th August, photo (M. S. Hodgson, B. D. Kerr et al). Nottinghamshire Girton Gravel-pits, age uncertain, 20th July (R. A. Johnson et al). Outer Hebrides Loch nam Feithean, North Uist, second-summer, 23rd June (B. Rabbitts, A. Venstraeken et al). Shetland Loch of Spiggie, Mainland, second-summer, 1 9th— 2 1 st June, photo (J. N. Dyrnond, P. V. Harvey et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 270). Somerset Brue Estuary and Walrows Gravel-pits, juvenile, 29th— 3 1st August ( J. J. Packer et al). Suffolk Aldringham, 23rd May (D. Thurlow). Surrey Queen Elizabeth II Reservoir, juvenile, 6th September (D. M. Harris). Yorkshire, East Hornsea Mere, adult, 9th— 1 1 th August, photo (A. F. Johnson et al); presumed same, 15th August (G. R. Bennett). Spurn, adult, 10th— 1 1th September (R. Butcher, A. A. Hutt, G. C. Taylor et al). Yorkshire, North Farnham Gravel-pits, second-summer, 4th July, photo (J. E. Atkinson, E. L. Lancaster, J. R. Mather et al); same as Fairburn Ings, West Yorkshire, below. Yorkshire, West Astley Lake, two, second-summer, 21st-22nd May, photo (P. R. Morris et al); see also Norfolk. Fairburn Ings, second-summer, 5th-7th July, photo (per www.birdguides.com) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 271 ); same as North Yorkshire. 2003 Bedfordshire Marston Vale, adult, 4th August (R. Hook, P. Smith et al); presumed same as Northamptonshire 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 587). 2003 Cheshire Hilbre, adult, 9th July (N. & N. Dixon); same, 13th July (G. Broad); same as Hoylake, 662 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 13th July (Brit. Birds 97: 586) and Seaforth, Lancashire & North Merseyside, 1 4th— 1 7th (Brit. Birds 97: 586). (W limit of European range from Poland to Hungary, where local, with sporadic breeding to W. Breeds commonly from Belarus, W Russia and Ukraine E to S Siberia, N Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Russian Far East and NE China, but absent from large areas. Winters throughout sub-Saharan Africa, Indian subcontinent, SE Asia and N Australia.) Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis (2,6,0) Caithness Hill of Ratter area, first-winter S. o. meetia, since 5th December 2003 to at least 24th March (Brit. Birds 97: 587, plate 28), same, St John’s Brough, 23rd February, 6th, 24th March, photo (J. Smith). (Breeds from S Urals, E to Japan and S to Himalayas, C China and Taiwan. Northern populations migratory, wintering in SE Iran, the Indian subcontinent, and from S China to N Thailand and Indochina.) Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus (22,36, I) Scilly St Mary’s, 7th October (P. Marshall et al). The peak time for the arrival of Yellow-billed Cuckoo is late September/early October, although there is a secondary peak towards the end of October; consequently, this record on Scilly falls within the expected pattern in terms of date, as indeed it does of location. Looking at all records (fig. 9), the geographical spread is wide, extending from Shetland, Orkney and Northumberland in the north, through East Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Suffolk in the east, to Hampshire in the south, plus records from a small number of inland counties; but Scilly is the prime site. As the map shows, only the southwestern counties have had more than one record each, but those living in the eastern half of the UK should not despair! Like so many of its kind, this bird did not hang around for long, presumably dying shortly after discovery. It is many years since a long-staying bird has been avail- able to the masses, the last being on Scilly on 1 2th— 20th October 1999. Black-billed Cuckoo C. ery- throphthalmus remains even rarer, the last one being on Scilly back in October 1990. (Breeds across S Canada from British Columbia to New Brunswick, and through USA to C Mexico. Winters throughout South America to Argentina.) Eurasian Scops Owl Otus scops (56, 29, 2) Hampshire Dean, recently dead, 2nd April, photo (P. J. White), specimen now lodged with chairman, Rye Meads Ringing Group, Hertfordshire. At sea Sea area Forties, oil-installation Forties Delta, 57°43’N 00°54’E, taken into care exhausted, 3rd June; released, Loch of Strathbeg, Northeast Scotland, 9th June, photo (per A. W. Thorpe). (Common summer migrant to N Africa and S Europe, from Iberia N to C France and E to Greece. Also breeds in Britain, 1958-2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 663 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 across Ukraine, S Russia and S Siberia to W Mongolia, Kazakhstan and Iran. Most winter in N equatorial Africa, but some remain in S Europe.) Snowy Owl Bubo scandiacus (c. I I 1 , 1 58, I ) Outer Hebrides Loch Bee, South Uist, immature, 22nd October to 3rd December, photo (R. H. Hogg, A. Stevenson et al). (Occasionally breeds in N Scandinavia and Iceland, depending on availability of small mammals. Outside Europe, erratic circumpolar breeder across tundra and N islands of Arctic Russia, Siberia, Alaska, Canada and N Greenland. Most disperse S in winter, but some resident or nomadic if food available.) Alpine Swift Apus melba ( 1 07, 447, I I ) Cornwall Crowlas, 14th March (S. McMahon et al.). Dorset Hengistbury Head, 30th March (I. & J. Southworth). Hampshire Abbots Worthy, 17th-22nd March, photo (G. C. & D. L. Barrett, A. Bennet et al.). Lymington, 3rd May (R Durnell). Farlington Marshes, 12th October (K. Crisp, J. Crook). Herefordshire Hereford, 28th July (C. Wells). Kent Bockhill, St Margaret’s, 7th May (P. Chantler et al.). Norfolk Beeston Regis, 18th April (J. Edelizzi); same, Beeston Bump area, 21st-22nd April, photo (J. V. Bhalerao, G. E. Dunmore et al.). Surrey Wetland Centre, Barnes, 17th October (R. Green, R. Kaye). Yorkshire, North Scarborough, 14th March to 15th April (B. Richards et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 148). Knaresborough, 15th March (S. Curnow). 2000 Derbyshire Littleover, 14th May (I. E. Parrott). 2003 Lincolnshire Gibraltar Point, 27th April (K. M. Wilson, T. Sykes). 2003 Yorkshire, West Otley, 26th April (B. Best). In terms of the timing of occurrences, this is one of the more predictable of British rarities, the great majority turning up between late February and mid May in spring, or between September and mid October in autumn. In addition, Alpine Swifts are prone to weather-related movements in summer, often in the company of other swifts, and this phenomenon is likely to account for the occa- sional midsummer appearance here. This species is seldom seen for more than just one day in Britain, with the majority seen only briefly, as they fly overhead. In this respect, the bird at Scarborough, which remained for a whole month, was most unusual. It was, in fact, the longest stay ever by an Alpine Swift in Britain, the only other protracted visitor being one which remained on Noss, Shetland, from 2nd to 30th July 1994. As this is a gregarious species and colonial breeder, large groups may be seen throughout the year within its range, including on migration and in winter, so perhaps a small ‘flock’ is overdue in Britain. In Ireland, for example, there were groups of three in Co. Wexford in 1986, five in Co. Dublin in 1992 and five in Co. Cork in 2002. (Breeds discontinuously in NW Africa and throughout S Europe, N to C France and Switzerland, to Ukraine. To E, breeds locally through Turkey and Caucasus to Iran, Afghanistan and N Pakistan. Winter range unknown, but assumed to be in Afrotropics or W India where separation of local populations from northern migrants not possible.) Pallid Swift Apus pallidus (0, 39, 6) Dorset Portland, 30th October (N. Hopper et al.). Norfolk Blakeney Point, 20th October (C. Heyworth); 29th October (B. A. E. Marr, A. M. Stoddart). Sheringham, Salthouse and Cley, 29th October (P. R. Colston, G. E. Dunmore et al); same as Blakeney Point. Northeast Scotland Newburgh, 31st October to 1st November, photo (P. A. A. Baxter, S. Morrison). Scilly St Agnes, 25th April (D. Page). St Agnes, 30th— 3 1st October (D. Page, R. Rhigelato); same, St Mary’s, 30th October (per www.scillybirding.co.uk). Suspecting that you have found a Pallid Swift is one thing; proving it is quite another, as the differ- ences from Common Swift A. apus are subtle, dependent on variation in light, and exceptionally diffi- cult to convey in a description. When the first records occurred, between 20 and 30 years ago, there 664 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 was great pressure to prove that any putative autumn Pallid was not a late Common Swift. The recent surge in October and November records, with 12 in both 1999 and 2001, has enabled observers to familiarise themselves with Pallid, and just how variable it can appear, not just in plumage tones, but also in structure. Despite this tendency towards late-autumn occurrences, it should not be assumed that any late swift is a Pallid until proved otherwise. A cautionary tale is provided by a bird in North Yorkshire (see Brit. Birds 98: plates 382 8c 383) which was widely assumed to be a Pallid Swift until detailed examination of photographs revealed that it was, in fact, a juvenile Common Swift. Although anyone who has travelled to the Mediterranean will probably have seen scores of Pallid Swifts, can we really compare the views gathered under a contrasting summer sun with those in the murk of a late October day, particularly as there is rarely any opportunity for comparison with the commoner species in late autumn? Still unconvinced? Try comparing birds seen before dusk on a Mediterranean evening with the same birds the following morning; in the evening most will look like Common Swifts, but the following day, you will probably see only Pallids. Furthermore, it is clear that air temperature affects flight action and pattern; no surprise then that many late swifts look a bit lazy and slow, as well as flying much lower than you are used to seeing a typical summer swift. Spring Pallid Swifts tend to occur in the southwest, indicating probable overshoots from southwest Europe, but there is a distinct easterly bias to late-autumn occurrences, which may suggest that these originate from farther east. BBRC does not underestimate the problems surrounding the identification of Pallid Swift and, for this reason, a significant number of records from 2004 are still being assessed in specific ‘Pallid Swift batches’. Several members have also gained further experience recently in Europe and Africa, and are well aware of the difficulties involved. Submissions of those that have been accepted, and many of those still under consideration, were of a high quality, with many common elements, and left no doubts that the correct identification had been made. (Locally common throughout Mediterranean basin from Iberia to Greece, but rare or absent from many regions. Outside Europe, breeds locally from Mauritania and Canary Islands across NW Africa and Middle East to Arabian Peninsula and coastal S Iran. Winters N African tropics, with some remaining in S Europe throughout winter.) Little Swift Apus affinis (0, 18, I) Cornwall Porthcothan, 2nd June (P. D. Kemp, Y. Sherlock-Hall). (Isolated population in NW Africa, increasing and expanding in Morocco. Breeds locally and discontinuously in Middle East from Israel to SE Iran and N along Euphrates River to SE Turkey. Largely resident, but some Middle East populations migratory. Elsewhere, resident or dispersive throughout sub-Saharan Africa and Indian subcontinent to Sri Lanka.) Calandra Lark Melanocorypha calandra (0, I I, I) Yorkshire, East Spurn, 3rd October (D. P. Boyle, L. J. Degnan et al). (Abundant on steppe grasslands of Iberia and Morocco, but uncommon and local throughout much of Mediterranean basin. To E, breeds in Ukraine, Turkey and SW Russia to Kazakhstan and Afghanistan. European and S Asian populations resident or nomadic, while N Asian populations disperse S of breeding range, to Persian Gulf coast of Iran.) Purple Martin Progne subis (0,0, I) Outer Hebrides Butt of Lewis, Lewis, juvenile, 5th-6th September (S. P. Coyle, T. Grant, M. Witherall et al.) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 327; plates 429 & 430, p. 666). The adrenalin must have been pumping when this was found: a large, strange hirundine on the Outer Hebrides in September! Surely a Purple Martin? So it proved to be, although those not quickly off the mark were left floundering as it left around midday on 6th, having been seen by about 50 birders. As well as being large, Purple Martin has a distinctively chunky, broad-winged and long- headed flight profile, combined with a slow, but strong, flight action. When perched, its strong bill and raised crown feathers add to its ‘odd’ flycatcher-like appearance. The assessment of this record was rel- atively straightforward, and the sooty-brown crown and upperparts, plus pale collar and distinct breast-band, breaking up to form fine, dark streaks extending over the rest of the white underparts, confirmed it as a juvenile. The closely related Caribbean Martin P. dominicensis has an extremely similar structure, and although in juvenile plumage it shares some of the characters of Purple Martin, British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 665 Adrian Webb 429 & 430. Juvenile Purple Martin Progne subis, Butt of Lewis, Lewis, Outer Hebrides, September 2004. it most notably lacks the pale forehead and collar. Furthermore, of the three races of Purple Martin, it was felt that the darkness of the forehead and throat equated most closely with the more northerly and eastern nominate form subis, which would seem to be the most likely form to occur here. This was the first record for the Western Palearctic. Remarkably, the second for the Western Palearctic arrived on the Azores on the day the Lewis bird disappeared. (Widespread breeder throughout E USA, north to SC Canada, and locally in W USA, north to Vancouver, Canada, and south to Mexico. Winters in South America, south to Amazon basin, N Bolivia and N Argentina.) Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica (5,428, 52) Anglesey South Stack, 1 1th May (K. G. Croft). Caernarfonshire Bardsey, 22nd April (S. D. Stansfield). Cambridgeshire Ouse Washes, 6th May (P. E. Harrington). Cornwall near Coverack, The Lizard, 8th— 13th February (R. Bedford). Devon Bowling Green Marsh, 21st April (T. H. Smith, M. S. Wolinksi et ah). Slapton Ley, 29th April (F. Stenck); three, 1st May (R. Behenna), probably including one from 29th. Dorset Radipole Lake, 27th-30th April, photo; same, Lodmoor, 30th April (C. Crailos, A. Neilson et al). Lodmoor, 8th— 1 0th May, photo (A. Neilson et al). Durham Low Barns NR, Witton-le-Wear, 17th April (B. Unwin). Essex Abberton Reservoir, 18th April (K. & N. Harvey et al). Hanningfield Reservoir, two, 29th April (N. Chambers et al.). Gloucestershire Lydney, Forest of Dean, two, 28th-30th April, one to 5th May (N. ). Phillips et al). Kent Northward Hill, 30th April (G. Allison, C. Gibbard et al.). Bockhill, St Margaret’s, 2nd May (R. Heading, N. Jarman et al); another, 15th May (R. Heading, A. Morris et al). Capel-le-Ferne, Abbots Cliff and Samphire, two, 1 2th— 1 3th May, photo (I. A. Roberts et al). Grove Ferry, 12th May ( J. N. Hollyer, J. E. Tilbrook). Lancashire & North Merseyside Marton Mere, 1 8th— 19th April (M. Jones et al). Leicestershire Swithland Reservoir, 22nd-29th March (S. M. Lister et al). Lincolnshire Gibraltar Point, two, 17th April (K. M. Wilson et al); same as Spurn, East Yorkshire. Barton-on-Humber, two, 4th-6th May, one to 9th (G. P. Catley et al). Norfolk Holme, 27th April (M. Saunders). Horsey Mere, 2nd May (M. A. Chipperfield, P. J. Heath et al). Winterton, 3rd May (P. Cawley). Orkney Netherbutton, Holm, at least 26th May (A. Askew, E. R. Meek, D. Shearer et al). Scilly St Martin’s, 25th April to 3rd May (J. K. Higginson, N. Hudson et al). St Mary’s, 26th April (S. H. Mustoe, D. M. Spittle, D. Watson et al); same, Tresco, 26th April to 7th May (per www.scillybirding.co.uk). Shetland Loch of Hillwell, Mainland, 30th April (S. E. Duffield et al). Sumburgh Head, Mainland, 15th May (R. Riddington). 666 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Adrian Webb Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Somerset West Huntspill, Bridgwater Bay, 30th April to 1st May, photo (P. Bowyer et al). Staffordshire Gailey, 29th-30th April (R. Hollis etal.). Blithfield Reservoir, 30th April (M. P. Radford). Suffolk Kingsfleet, three, 1st May (W. J. Brame et al). Sussex, East Cuckmere Haven, 29th-30th April (A. I. Dinsdale, P. J. Wilson etal). Warwickshire Earlswood Lakes, 30th April to 1st May (G. J. Mant et al). Yorkshire, East Spurn, two 17th April (S. Exley, R. Sprakes, R. J. Swales); see also Lincolnshire. Welton Water, 16th April (I. Marshall). Spurn, 2nd May (T. P. Drew, M. A. Wilkinson). Yorkshire, North Knaresborough, two, 7th— 1 0th April, photo (M. Whorley et al.) [Brit. Birds 97: plate 149). Filey, 4th May (J. & T. G. Davies). Yorkshire, South Thrybergh Country Park, 30th April to 1st May (G. & J. Rickers). Yorkshire, West Fairburn Ings, two, 9th May (J. Buxton, J. Glendinning et al). 2003 Cornwall Walmsley Sanctuary, 24th April (C. Selway). Marazion Marsh, 19th— 20th May, photo (C. C. Barnard, D. S. Flumm); presumed same as Sennen area, 1 3th— 19th April (Brit. Birds 97: 590). 2003 Lincolnshire Frieston, 26th April (P. A. Hyde et al). 2003 Scilly St Agnes, 1 1th October (Brit. Birds 97: 591), finders were M. Dowie and H. Jolliffe. 2003 Surrey Staines Reservoirs, 28th April (R. E. Innes, F. J. Maroevic et al). This was a second consecutive year with a major influx of this species, the 52 accepted records in 2004 following 43 in 2003 (and 24 in 2002). The fact that there were no autumn records at all makes the size of the spring arrival even more impressive. The peak of this year’s influx, which stretched from February to the end of May, was in the second half of April, coinciding with a prolonged surge of warm air over Britain. From 2006, BBRC will cease to consider records of Red-rumped Swallow. This has never been a particularly difficult species to assess, although the fly-by nature of many of the records means that views have often been brief. Nonetheless, most observers have experience of the species and in recent years rejection rates have been low. (Widespread and locally common in NW Africa, Iberia, Balkans and Greece but uncommon in C Mediterranean. To E, breeds discontinuously in W and S Turkey and Middle East. Wintering area of European population unknown but assumed to lie in N equatorial Africa. Other populations breed in E Asia from S Siberia to S China and Japan, Indian subcontinent and locally in equatorial Africa.) Blyth’s Pipit Anthus godlewskii (1,11,1) Cornwall Land’s End area, first-winter, 15th November to 20th December at least, trapped, photo (M. T. Elliot et al.) (fig. 10, p. 668). The first British Blyth’s Pipit was found in a museum collection, mislabelled as Richard’s Pipit A. novaeseelandiae, but subsequent examples have been rather more difficult to prove; half of them were either trapped or had the call sound-recorded to confirm their identity. With no fewer than eight birds between 1993 and 1999, it looked at that time as if Blyth’s Pipit was going to become a hard-to- identify, but regular vagrant which had, presumably, been overlooked in the past. However, that assess- ment has had to be tempered by our experience of the last five years: the bird in 2004 was only the second since 1999. Of course, a significant proportion of Richard’s Pipit records are of fly-over birds calling but, given the range of calls given by both species, it is never going to be safe to identify Blyth’s simply on call. In fact, as much critical attention needs to be paid to the call as to the plumage, and unless an exact and detailed description of both are provided, there is little chance of acceptance, even of a well-watched bird on the ground. Ideally the call should be sound-recorded, but if this is not possible, we require both descriptions and transcriptions of all the various different calls given by the putative Blyth’s. Comments such as ‘It went psseeoo-chip-chip’ simply will not suffice! (Breeds from S Transbaikalia and N Mongolia to extreme NE China and S to Tibet. Winters locally throughout Indian subcontinent.) Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni ( 1 , 266, 7) Cornwall Porthgwarra, 1st— 4th November (N. J. & V. E. Phillips etal). Northeast Scotland Cruden Bay, 17th October (P. Shepherd). Scilly St Agnes, 24th October (A. S. Cook et al). British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 667 Martin Elliot Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 t (uMVi : 7 w jt J , *14 / w J jl gia soul- ism \j. - D- V • - f. ~ 9’ $ ?//*>. >. l; . A / ' I s 1 " ■ (c MTt ' Ok- Fig. 10. First-winter Blyth’s Pipit Anthus godlewskii, Land’s End, Cornwall, November/December 2004. Olive-backed Pipit, contd Shetland Virkie, Mainland, 9th May (R. Riddington). Fair Isle, 20th October (D. N. Shaw). Yorkshire, East Spurn, 9th-10th October, photo (G. C. Taylor et al.). Flamborough Head, 16th October, photo (B. Richards et al). 2002 Shetland Out Skerries, 1 2th— 1 7th October (R R. Gordon). (European range restricted to N Urals. Widespread across C and E Siberia to N China, Kamchatka, Kuril Islands and Japan. Winters widely across S China, Taiwan and throughout N and C parts of SE Asia. Population in Himalayas and mountains of west-central China winters throughout Indian subcontinent.) Pechora Pipit Anthus gustavi (7, 62, 2) Shetland Hametoun, Foula, 5th- 12th October ( J. M. & T. P. Drew, K. D. Shaw, M. A. Wilkinson et al). Flam, Foula, 9th-20th October, photo (J. M. & T. P. Drew, A. R. Mainwood, M. A. Wilkinson). (Breeds within narrow region of scrub-tundra and taiga of subarctic Eurasia, from Pechora region of NE Russia across Siberia to Chukotskiy Peninsula and Kamchatka. Migrates through E China and Taiwan to wintering areas in Philippines, N Borneo and N Sulawesi. Isolated population in NE China.) 668 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Roger Riddington Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus (18,402,4) Cornwall Porthgwarra, 31st August (G. Giles, per J. A. Hazell). Norfolk Sheringham, 1 7th— 1 8th October, photo (A. P. Benson, M. J. Saunt et al). Shetland Fair Isle, 31st May, photo (R. Nason et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 223). Yorkshire, East Kilnsea, 1st June (A. J. Stoyle). 2003 Cornwall Bass Point, The Lizard, 11th October, photo (K. B. Gillam, C. J. Meaney, G. R. Sparshott). (Breeds in Arctic Eurasia, from N Norway, Sweden and Finland E to Chukotka peninsula and S to Kamchatka, with small numbers in W Alaska. Winters across N and C equatorial Africa, S China and SE Asia.) Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola (2, 162, 9) Cornwall Windmill Farm, The Lizard, first-summer cf, 16th May, photo (C. Boyd, A. R. Pay). Nanjizal, first-winter, 22nd-24th August (K. A. Wilson). Marazion Marsh, first-winter, 31st August to 16th September, photo (D. S. Flumm et al). Norfolk Salthouse, cf , 24th April ( J. J. Gilroy, A. C. Lees). Shetland Loch of Spiggie, Mainland, adult 9> 30th August to 6th September, photo (P. M. Ellis, A. Fitchett, R. Riddington et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 328; plate 431). Tingwall, Mainland, adult $, 13th September, photo (S. E. Duffield, P. R. French, M. A. Maher et al.) (plate 432). Whalsay, juvenile, 21st-29th September (K. Bliss, S. J. Pinder, T. Sykes et al.). Foula, first-winter, 7th October (K. D. Shaw, M. A. Wilkinson et al.). Suffolk Bawdsey, first-summer $, 9th— 10th May, photo (P. Hobbs et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 224). 1995 Outer Hebrides St Kilda, 21st-22nd October, photo (I. R. Hartley, S. Newey). 2003 Outer Hebrides Castlebay, Barra, first-winter, 26th-30th September, photo (S. R. Green et al.). We have now come to expect multiple arrivals of this once extreme rarity. Typically, Shetland domi- nated events in 2004, with four individuals, but three in Cornwall was exceptional (although two were found there in September 1999). In addition, there was the fifth for Norfolk and the fourth for Suffolk. Two of those in Shetland were adult females and, perhaps surprisingly, both showed an obvious ‘neck- lace’, a feature typically associated with juveniles. However, a museum search confirmed that this feature is often shown by adult females in autumn. This species has undergone a fairly dramatic change in status in recent years, as illustrated in fig. 11a. This is presumably a result of a population increase, along with the westward expansion of the breeding range. Although the first spring record was not until 29th May 1990, there have been a further 17 in spring since then. There has also been a shift towards earlier records in autumn (figs 1 lb— d), with the peak time for finding this species now falling between mid August and late Sep- 431 & 432. Adult female Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola. Loch of Spiggie, Shetland (left), Tingwall, Shetland (right, different bird), September 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 669 Micky Maher Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Fig. I la. Five-year totals of Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola in Britain, 1 950-2004. The number of accepted records has increased greatly over the last 20 years, coinciding with the westward expansion of the breeding range from Russia into the Baltic countries and southern Finland. The first spring record was not until 1 990, but there have now been a further 17 at this season. tember. What is perhaps surprising is that there has been no increase in October arrivals, despite the recent surge in records. Is it possible that some of these old (late) records may, in fact, have involved juvenile Yellow Wagtails M. flava of one of the east Asian forms, which show largely grey-and-white plumage, and have a rather ‘buzzy’ call, quite different from the calls with which we are familiar in western Europe? It is only really since the mid 1980s that there has been a widespread awareness that such birds exist, and their appearance and calls can surprise experienced birders, even today. (Nominate race breeds in N Russia, from E Kola and Kanin Peninsula across N Siberia to Taimyr Peninsula and S to C Siberia. To south, range expanded W during 20th century; small numbers now breed regularly in Belarus, Baltic countries and occasionally S Finland; otherwise from Ukraine and S Russia, E across N Kazakhstan and Mongolia to N China. Another race breeds in S Central Asia. Winters throughout Indian subcontinent, S China and SE Asia to peninsular Thailand.) Figs. I Ib-d. The occurrence of Citrine Wagtails Motacilla citreola in Britain in autumn, in five-day periods from August to November, in three time periods: I lb (1961-75), I Ic (1 976- 1 990), and lid (1 99 1 -2004). The increase in August and September arrivals and trend towards earlier occurrences in recent years suggest that these birds are being drawn from the expanding population breeding in eastern Europe, rather than from the core Asian breeding range. Grey Catbird Dumetella carolinensis (0, 1,0) 2001 Anglesey South Stack, 4th-5th October (Brit. Birds 95: 505), also 6th (P. Antrobus). (Breeds across S Canada from British Columbia to Nova Scotia, S through C and E USA to Texas and Georgia. Winters from S USA through C America to Panama.) Alpine Accentor Prunella collaris (30, 14, I) Norfolk Overstrand, 20th April, photo (S. Chidwick, B. J. Murphy et al). Most Alpine Accentors have occurred to the south of a line between the Humber and the Severn (fig. 12). Although there has been a wide scatter of arrival dates, nearly half have appeared in the spring and this year’s Norfolk bird occurred on a fairly typical date. It represented a welcome find for those lucky enough to have caught up with it on the only evening that it was present, being the first twitchable individual in this well-watched county. Alpine Accentor remains an exciting find and, notwithstanding the comments above, it is still almost impossible to predict a likely date and location. 670 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 (Breeds discontinuously through high mountain ranges of northwest Africa, Spain and C Europe N to S Germany, S Poland and through Balkan countries to Greece. In Asia, breeds in all major ranges from C Turkey across C and S Asia, S to Himalayas and E to Japan and Taiwan. In winter, most European birds descend below snowline near breeding areas but some disperse to lowlands.) Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia (2, 149,4) Fife Isle of May, 9th— 1 0th May, trapped (C. Bergius, J. Graham, M. Martin). Norfolk Titchwell, in song, 11th May, sound-recorded (H. T. Vaughan et al). Northeast Scotland Cruden Bay, 12th August (P. D. Bloor, C. N. Gibbins etal.). Shetland Foula, 7th May (G. & D. Atherton, S. C. Votier). Nightingales are notoriously difficult to get good views of. They skulk deep within the thickest cover and, unless singing, rarely show themselves. Away from the Northern Isles, many migrants at coastal locations surely remain undetected, and those which are seen usually appear only fleetingly, so great care is needed when identifying a potential Thrush Nightingale. Some Common Nightingales L. megarhytichos can show fairly prominent malar stripes and a grey wash to the breast feathers that can manifest itself as ‘apparent’ mottling. This is particularly true in autumn, when pale tips to the tinged breast feathers can give some Common Nightingales the appearance of having a diffusely spotted breast. The absolute clincher in the identification process is the length of the first primary, which is longer than the primary coverts in Common Nightingale and so short as to be almost impos- sible to see in the field in Thrush Nightingale. Unfortunately, you do need exceptionally good views of a nightingale to see any detail at all around the bend of the wing, and this is not normally possible for either of this species pair. Their separation is discussed in greater detail elsewhere (e.g. Brit. Birds 82: 113-115; Birding World 9: 179-189). Like the red-spotted race of Bluethroat L. svecica svecica and many other passerines from north- eastern Europe, Thrush Nightingale is significantly more numerous here in spring than autumn, with the period 1 0th— 27th May being the peak arrival time. In the last ten years (1995-2004), there have been 44 accepted records, 35 of them in spring. However, eight of these were singing males, which arguably may otherwise have escaped detection; perhaps more autumn ‘Sprossers’ are going undetected on our shores than we think. (Widespread throughout E Europe with dramatic population increase in 20th century. Range still expanding NW into W Norway, and locally abundant in S Scandinavia and Baltic countries. C European range from Denmark SE to Romania and Ukraine, and through temperate European Russia to S Siberia. Winters E Africa, from S Kenya to Zimbabwe.) Red-flanked Bluetail Tarsiger cyanurus (3, 30, I) Shetland Fair Isle, cf, 29th September (D. N. Shaw et al). (Small population persists in NE Finland but main range in cool temperate forests of N Eurasia from E Russia and Siberia to Kamchatka, N Japan and NE China. Winters S China, Taiwan and S Japan, through SE Asia to N peninsular Thailand.) British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 671 lain Leach Michael McKee Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 > Common Stonechat Saxicola torquatus Eastern race S. t. maurus, ‘Siberian Stonechat’ ( 1 , 305, 9) Caithness Noss Head, 2 or first- winter, 17th October (N. Fairney, S. Laybourne). Cleveland South Gare, 2 or first- winter, 20th October to 2nd November (A. P. Feeney et al). Northeast Scotland Collieston/ Kirton of Slains, 2 °r first-winter, 17th to at least 22nd October (P. S. Crockett et al). Scilly Tresco, first-winter cf. 18th October, photo (D. L. Acfield). Shetland Out Skerries, first-winter Cf, 30th September to 7th October, photo (P. Forrest, M. J. McKee, C. J. Turner) (plate 433); another first- winter cf, 1 st— 6th October, photo (P. Forrest, M. J. McKee, C. J. Turner). Quendale, Mainland, 2 or first-winter, 1st— 5th October (P. M. Ellis et al). Cullingsburgh, Bressay, first-winter cf. 23rd October (N. Davies, S. E. Duffield). Yorkshire, East Kilnsea, first-winter cf. 22nd-28th October, photo (S. Exley, D. Hursthouse et al). 1990 Yorkshire, East Flamborough Head, cf, 7th May {Brit. Birds 85: 536; 97: 597), now considered inadequately documented. (Breeds widely across N Asia from N Urals S to N Caspian Sea, Mongolia and N China, E to Kolyma basin, Okhotsk coast and N Japan. Winters from N Indian subcontinent to S China and SE Asia.) Ellis, P V. Harvey, M. Heubeck et al). (Small European population restricted to eastern Greece, Bulgaria, Ukraine and SW Russia. In Asia, breeds widely across arid grasslands from Turkey through Kazakhstan, Mongolia and northern China, S to Iran and N Pakistan. Winters northern Sahel zone to E Africa, and throughout Middle East from Arabian Peninsula to S Iran, Pakistan and NW India.) Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka (3, 47, 3) Northumberland Newbiggin, first- winter 2 > 20th-24th October, photo (I. Fisher, A. Priest et al.) (plate 434). Shetland Skaw, Whalsay, first- winter cf, 10th October, photo (B. Marshall et al). Scousburgh, Mainland, 2, 23rd October, photo (A. Graham, G. A. Tyler). Isabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabellina (I, 19, I) Shetland Sumburgh Head, Mainland, 22nd-25th October (P. M. 434. First-winter female Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka, Newbiggin, Northumberland, October 2004. 433. First-winter male ‘Siberian Stonechat' Saxicola torquatus maurus, Out Skerries, Shetland, October 2004. 672 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 2003 Orkney North Ronaldsay, first-winter $, 1 7th— 2 1st, 26th November (H. Bell, A. E. Duncan etal.). (European range centred on Black Sea, reaching E Romania and Bulgaria. To E, small numbers in S and E Ukraine, but occurs widely across S Russia, S Siberia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia to N China, E to Gulf of Bohai. Winters in NE and E Africa, and SW Arabian Peninsula.) Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti ( I 1 , 76, 0) 2003 Shetland Gulberwick, Mainland, cf, 10th November (L. Dalziel). 2003 Sussex, East Climping, first-winter cf, 9th- 10th November (Brit. Birds 97: 599), locality is in West Sussex. 2003 Sussex, West See 2003 East Sussex, above. (Breeds widely but discontinuously across arid and desert regions of N Africa from Morocco to Middle East, N to S Caucasus, and across C Asia from C Iran and N Pakistan to Mongolia and N China. Some N African birds resident, but many winter in Sahara and Sahel region of N Africa from Mauritania E to Ethiopia and Somalia. Asian breeders winter from Arabian Peninsula to NW India.) Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis (6, 20, I) Devon River Erme, cf, 25th May, photo (R. Smaldon et al.). Spring remains the time to find one of these stunning thrushes, and May is further elevated as the best month by this excellent record. This is the second major rarity that Roger Smaldon has found while carrying out a breeding-bird survey; the other was a Spectacled Warbler Sylvia conspicillata in 1999 (Brit. Birds 93: 556). This represents the third record for Devon, all of which have appeared in May. There is a further record from Norfolk still in circulation. If accepted, it will be the fourth for that county, and would bring the total for Norfolk level with that of Scilly, currently the best area for this species in Britain. (Widespread across S Palearctic from Iberian Peninsula, N to S Alps and E through Mediterranean basin to mountains of C Asia, Lake Baikal region, Russia, Mongolia, and across China from Pamirs to northern Tibetan plateau and east to mountains in NE provinces. All populations migratory, wintering across N sub-Saharan Africa.) White’s Thrush Zoothera dauma (3 1 , 27, 6) Outer Hebrides Bru, Lewis, 1 1 th— 12th October (M. S. Scott, M. Witherall et al). Shetland Out Skerries, 1st October (R Forrest, M. J. McKee, C. ). Turner). Voe, Mainland, 2nd October (G. H., W. F. & W. R. H. Peplow et al). Maywick, Mainland, picked up apparently uninjured, 6th October, released Kergord, 7th, photo (H. R. Harrop, G. Robertson et al.) (plates 435-437). Swining, Mainland, 10th-22nd October (P. M. Ellis, J. D. Okill, R. Riddington et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 392). Yorkshire, East Easington, 10th October, photo (S. Addinall, T. M. Melling, R. Taylor et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 391; plate 438). It was an exceptional year for White’s Thrush in 2004, with six records in Britain; the previous best years were 1952 and 1990, each with three records. In addition, five were found in The Netherlands and singles were reported in Denmark and Germany. Quite why there should be such an influx into northwestern Europe is unclear, and illustrates just how much we have yet to learn about vagrancy patterns of eastern species. What has become clear in recent years, though, is that many vagrants of Siberian origin experience a bumper year, or a series of good years, followed by periods when there are few records. Although pure conjecture, it is surely the case that bumper years occur when a good breeding season for the species coincides with optimum weather conditions for bringing a crop of juveniles into western Europe, while a series of good years is likely to reflect a period of sustained high breeding success possibly combined with a westward extension of the breeding range. One wonders just how many White’s Thrushes would have been found in 1952 if observer coverage had been as thorough as it was in 2004. Of the 37 accepted records since 1950, 14 have been in Shetland. The Lewis bird is the third recent record for the Outer Hebrides, and cements the islands’ reputation as a locality not just for Nearctic vagrants, but also for species with an eastern origin. The one in East Yorkshire was the first found alive on the British mainland since one in Highland in 1991. No wonder then, that it proved so popular. (Palearctic race Z. d. aurea widespread in C and S Siberia from Yenisey River to Ussuriland, S to N Mongolia, extreme NE China, Korean Peninsula and Japan. Small (isolated?) population extends W to foothills of European British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 673 Hugh Harrop Hugh Harrop Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 > 43S-438. White’s Thrush Zoothera dauma, Kergord, Shetland (435-437), and Easington, East Yorkshire (438), October 2004. Urals. Winters widely throughout S China, Taiwan and S Japan to Indochina and C Thailand. Nominate race resident or altitudinal migrant in Himalayas, SW China and Taiwan.) Swainson’s Thrush Catharus ustulatus (0,23, I) Scilly Gugh, 26th October (E. Grimwood, M. Kerry et al). (Breeds across S Alaska and Canada to S Labrador and Newfoundland, generally to S of range of Grey-cheeked Thrush C. minimus , S to northern California, New Mexico, Great Lakes and West Virginia. Migrates across E USA to winter from Mexico S to NW Argentina.) Grey-cheeked Thrush Catharus minimus (1,43, I) Norfolk Croxton, 10th November, trapped, photo (B. Griffin, D. Leech et al). Further proof that just about anything is possible. It would have been fascinating to witness the reaction of the incredulous ringers when this was extracted from a mist-net! Unfortunately, it vanished into the dense cover of Thetford Forest, leaving this Norfolk ‘first’ for the lucky few. It recalls the Swainson’s Thrush C. ustulatus trapped in Kent on 27th October 1976 (Brit. Birds 70: 430), but it is only the second Grey-cheeked Thrush recorded in eastern England, following one found dead in County Durham on 17th October 1968 (Brit. Birds 62: 476-477). The advantage of the Norfolk bird being found in a net was that the pitfall of Bicknell’s Thrush C. bicknelli could be excluded confidently. We will never know the proportion of the 45 British records of Grey-cheeked Thrush that actually relate to that species. (Breeds extreme NE Siberia E throughout Alaska and N Canada to Labrador and Newfoundland. Migrates across E USA to winter in N South America.) 674 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Chris Galvin Hugh Harrop Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Dark-throated Thrush Turdus ruficollis (3,51, 0) 2003 Shetland Fair Isle, first-winter $, T. r. atrogularis, 16th October (C. A. Holt, S. J. Turner). (Western, black-throated form T. r. atrogularis breeds in C and N Urals, E across SW Siberia and E Kazakhstan, to NW China. Winters Iraq to N India, E through Himalayan foothills to Bhutan. Nominate red-throated form breeds to E, in C Siberia, wintering in E Himalayas and S fringe of Tibetan plateau from Nepal to SW China, and N to NE China.) American Robin Turdus migratorius (3, 18, I) Cornwall Godrevy, first-winter $, since 14th December 2003, photo (Brit. Birds 97: 602, plates 57 & 355) to 2nd February. Lincolnshire Grimsby, first-winter $, 1st January to 8th March, when killed by Eurasian Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus , photo (per www.birdguides.com) (Brit. Birds 97: plates 58, 59 & 79; plate 439). The Lincolnshire bird, discovered by birders searching for Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus in the suburbs of Grimsby, perfectly illustrates that, come the midwinter months, vagrant Nearctic landbirds lingering in Britain may be stumbled upon in the most unlikely locations, there being little indica- tion that the west coast is preferred. The appearance of this individual, together with those in Cornwall and on Bardsey in 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 602), brings the total of American Robins recorded in the late autumn and winter of 2003/04 to three. An analysis of the reason for this small influx was published in last year’s report (Brit. Birds 97: 602). (Breeds throughout N America from tree line of Alaska and N Canada, S to S Mexico. Winters from S Canada to S USA and C America, S to Guatemala.) Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler Locustella certhiola (2, 27, 3) Shetland Foula, first-winter, 1st October, trapped, photo (A. R. Mainwood et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 393); another first-winter, 1 st— 5th October (K. B. Shepherd, R J. Wright et al.)', another first-winter, 2nd October (J. M. & T. P. Drew, M. A. Wilkinson). (Race rubescens breeds across C and E Siberia, N to 64°N, from Irtysh River E to Yakutia and Sea of Okhotsk. Four other races breed to the S, from NE Kazakhstan E through Mongolia to Ussuriland and N and NE China. Winters from NE India to S China, and S throughout SE Asia.) Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata (9, 93, 2) Shetland Fair Isle, first-winter, 4th October, trapped, photo (D. N. Shaw et al). East Ham, Bressay, 26th October (S. E. Duffield). 2003 Shetland Fair Isle, first-winter, 21st September (D. N. Shaw et al); first-winter, 29th September (K. Holland, D. N. Shaw et al.). (Singing males regular in E Finland. To E, breeds discontinuously from C Urals E across much of Siberia to Kamchatka, Kuril Islands, Hokkaido and NE China. Winters in Indian subcontinent, from Nepal E through NE India into SE Asia and Philippines.) Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides (many, 619, 9) Hampshire Locality withheld, in song, 4th July (observer’s name withheld). , 18, I) 439. First-winter female American Robin Turdus migratorius, Grimsby, Lincolnshire, January 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 675 Reston Kilgour Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Kent Oare Marshes, in song, 14th July (A. Swandale). Grove Ferry, 17th July, photo (C. G. Bradshaw, A. Trent). Norfolk Ranworth Broad, in song, 24th April to 5th June (M. A. Chipperfield, P. J. Heath, B. W. Jarvis). Horsey Mere, in song, 1st May (M. A. Chipperfield, P. J. Heath). Haddiscoe Island, first-winter, 28th August, trapped, photo (A. W. Bowles, K. J. Brett, T. Leggett). Suffolk Orfordness, 27th April, trapped (J. Askins, D. Cormack). Minsmere, in song, 9th— 1 0th June (D. Fairhurst, B. J. Small et al). Warwickshire Brandon Marsh, in song, 21st May (K. Lydster). (Breeds discontinuously in W Europe, from Iberia to Netherlands; range contracting to SE, although expanding NE into Baltic countries. To E, occurs through temperate Russia S through Ukraine to Black Sea coasts. European birds winter in W Africa from Senegal to N Nigeria. Another race, L. 1. fusca , breeds in C Asia from Caspian Sea E across Kazakhstan to NW China, wintering in NE Africa.) Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola (2, 5 1 , 3) Breconshire Llangorse Lake, 1 1th September, trapped, photo (P. Jenkins, J. M. S. Lewis). Cornwall Sennen, 14th October (M. D. Warren etal). Shetland Hametoun, Foula, 13th June, photo (S. Bearhop, C. J. Mclnerny, S. C. Votier et al). The bird in Breconshire is the first for Wales, and an exceptionally good find in a normally rarity- starved inland county. (In Europe, restricted to Black Sea coasts from Bulgaria and Danube delta E to Ukraine. To E, breeds widely across steppes of S Russia and SW Siberia, Kazakhstan and NW China, S to Uzbekistan and N Pakistan. Winters throughout Indian subcontinent.) Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum (9, 57, 4) Dorset Portland Bill, 11th May, trapped, photo (M. Cade et al). Outer Hebrides Barra, 6th-9th October (K. Gillon, C. Scott etal.). Shetland Foula, first-winter, 2nd-7th October, trapped, photo (A. R. & H. T. Mainwood et al). Skaw, Unst, first-winter, 15th October, trapped, photo (M. A. Maher, M. G. Pennington et al). 2003 Orkney North Ronaldsay, 30th September to 1st October, trapped, photo (P. A. Brown, P. J. Donnelly, A. E. Duncan et al). 2003 Outer Hebrides Breibhig, Barra, 26th September, trapped, photo (K. Gillon, S. Green, M. Oksien et al). 2003 Shetland Fair Isle, first-winter, 28th September (A. J. Bull, D. N. Shaw et al). This species now appears annually in the LIK, in small numbers. The records for 2004 are typical of recent years, with a number being identified confidently in the field followed, in some cases, by confir- mation in the hand. Comments made in the 2002 Report (Brit. Birds 96: 593) remain valid - a high level of detail continues to be required for field records and some recent cases have illustrated the importance of seeing individuals in different lights and from different angles to get a full assessment of colour tones. (Breeds in S Finland, Baltic countries and European Russia to 64°N. To E, found across C Siberia to Lake Baikal and upper Lena River, S through Kazakhstan and Tajikistan to N Pakistan. Winters throughout Indian subcontinent S to Sri Lanka and E into NW Myanmar.) Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus (18, 197,4) Devon Dawlish Warren, 18th May, photo (J. E. Fortey, N. Mugan et al). Slapton Ley, in song, 3rd-4th June, photo, sound-recorded (B. Whitehall et al). Essex Abberton Reservoir, in song, 1 7th— 30th May, photo (D. Frost, C. Morrison et al). Orkney North Ronaldsay, 31st May (P. A. Brown et al). (Breeds discontinuously throughout much of Europe from Iberia to Greece, N to S Sweden and Finland, and E across S Russia, Turkey and Caucasus to W Siberia. To E, A. a. zarudnyi breeds in C Asia from Volga to NW China. Winters throughout C and S Africa.) Booted Warbler Hippolais caligata ( 1 , 90, 2) Shetland Baltasound, Unst, 20th-21st September (C. N. Gibbins et al). Fair Isle, first-winter, 5th October, trapped, photo (M. Culshaw, P. A. Harris, D. N. Shaw et al). 676 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Fig. 13. Five-year totals of Booted Warblers Hippolais caligata in Britain, 1 950-2004. Prior to 1975, Booted Warbler was a great rarity, but the number of accepted records has increased dramatically since then, coinciding with the westward expansion of the breeding range across European Russia and into southeastern Finland. This chart excludes birds which were originally accepted as Booted Warbler but have subsequently been re- identified as Sykes’s Warbler H. rama, including records from Fair Isle, Shetland, in 1959 and 1977. 2003 Lincolnshire Donna Nook, 6th September, photo (G. P. Catley, N. Drinkall, C. Nimmick et al). (Expanding W and breeding S Finland. To E, breeds C Russia and W Siberia to Yenisey valley, C and N Kazakhstan to W Mongolia and W Xinjiang province, China. Winters N and peninsular India, S to Karnataka.) Sykes’s Warbler Hippolais rama (0, 9, 0) 2002 Orkney North Ronaldsay, 26th August, trapped, photo (P. A. Brown, M. Gray, J. S. Lees et al.); previously accepted as indeterminate Booted or Sykes’s Warbler {Brit. Birds 97: 606) but now accepted as the latter. (Breeds C and S Kazakhstan to W Xinjiang province, NW China, S locally to Persian Gulf states, Iran, Afghanistan and N Pakistan. Winters N and W India, occasionally S to Sri Lanka.) Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans (9,494, 22) Avon Severn Beach, $, 2nd May ( J. P. Martin et al.). Cornwall Treeve Common, Sennen, first-summer cf, 16th— 18th April (M. D. Warren); another first- summer cf, 1 7th— 1 8th April (M. D. Warren). Sennen, d\ 17th — 18th April (D. S. Flumm et al). Land’s End, cf, 1 9th — 24th April (M. D. Warren). Dorset Wick Hams, cf, 17th April (A. Hayden, L. Pike, I. & ). Southworth). Portland Bill, cf S. c. albis- trata, 30th April, trapped, photo (M. Cade et al.). Essex Abberton Reservoir, in song, 6th May (D. Frost, C. Morrison, P. Stronach). Kent Dungeness, first-summer $ S. c. albistrata, 1st May, trapped, photo (D. Walker et al.). Man, Isle of Calf of Man, first-summer cf S. c. albistrata, 16th May, trapped (T. Bagworth, ). P. Thorpe). Norfolk Holme, cf, 26th April (P. C. Arbery, E. E. McLernon). Northumberland Holy Island, cf , 17th May (M. Thomson). Scilly St Mary’s, cf , 16th-23rd April, photo (R. J. Hathway et al). St Agnes, C f > 3rd-7th May, photo (C. Atkin, D. Page et al). Shetland Fair Isle, first-summer 2> 1st— 2nd May, trapped (D. N. Shaw et al); cf, 23rd-24th May (D. N. Shaw et al). Foula, first-summer cf , probably S. c. albistrata, 6th-8th May, photo (S. C. Votier et al); first-summer J, 12th June (S. Bearhop, C. J. Mclnerny, S. C. Votier). Noss, cf, 7th— 8th May (K. Bliss, T. Sykes). Gorie, Bressay, first-summer 2, 23rd May (S. E. Duffield). Quendale, Mainland, $, 1 1th August (P. V. Harvey, R. Riddington). Sussex, West Pagham Harbour, first-winter 2, 26th October (K. R. Burch, B. F. Forbes, D. I. Smith et al.). (Four races widely but locally distributed throughout Mediterranean basin from NW Africa and Iberia N to S France, and E to Greece and W Turkey. Winters S of Sahara from Mauritania and Senegal to S Egypt and Sudan.) Sardinian Warbler Sylvia melanocephala ( 1 , 68, 2) Lincolnshire Skegness, 2, since 10th November 2003 to at least 4th January (Brit. Birds 97: 608). Norfolk Winterton, cf , 1 5th — 26th October, photo (P. Cawley et al). Shetland Skaw, Whalsay, first-summer 2, 30th May to 10th June, trapped, photo ( J. Dunn, J. L. Irvine, British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 677 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 B. Marshall et al). This is one of the com- monest warblers through- out much of the coastal Mediterranean, and one which has expanded its breeding range north- wards in Italy, southern Bulgaria and parts of northwestern Spain in recent decades. Reflecting this, there has been a remarkably even rise in the number of British records, the total number of sightings having increased by 250% in each decade since the first in 1955 (see fig. 14), though the evidence of the last five years suggests that this rise is levelling out. Most Sardinian Warblers occupy breeding territories throughout the year, although some do move short distances in autumn, to winter more widely in North Africa, with some reaching northern Senegal, southern Algeria, northern Niger and Egypt. To the east, the populations in the Balkans and northern Turkey are wholly migratory, their breeding territories being completely vacated in winter (Shirihai et al. 2001, Sylvia Warblers). Although this could suggest a potential source for British birds, by far the largest populations are much closer to home, in the western Mediterranean. (Largely resident or dispersive throughout Mediterranean basin, from NW Africa and Iberia to S France, N Italy and E to W Turkey and Israel. Some winter in N Africa from Sahara S to Mauritania and S Libya.) Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides ( 1 2, 37 1 , 26) European and west Siberian race P. t. viridanus Angus & Dundee Ethie Mains, 12th August (S. C. Votier). Fishtown of Usan, 1 2th— 1 4th August (G. M. Smith et al). Borders Burnmouth, 13th August (D. K. Graham et al). Essex The Naze, first-winter, 12th September (D. Rhymes). Fife Fife Ness Muir, 24th August (A. W. Lauder et al). Isle of May, first-winter, 9th— 1 0th September, trapped, photo (A. Conway, A. J. Gramauskas). Norfolk Hopton, 11th August (I. N. Smith). Blakeney Point, 14th— 17th August, photo (S. J. M. & S. M. Gantlett et al.). Holme, 8th September, photo (per www.birdguides.com). Northeast Scotland Cove, 1 0th— 1 3th August (P. A. A. Baxter et al). Girdleness, 11th August (A. P. Jensen); 19th August (P. S. Crockett, I. R. W. Gordon et al.). Balmedie Country Park, 12th August (C. Gibbins et al). Bridge of Don, 13th August (P. S. Crockett, J. R. W. Gordon). Cruden Bay, 21st August (H. E. Maggs). Rattray Head, 24th August (H. E. Maggs et al). Northumberland Fame Islands, 14th August (D. Clare et al.)-, 31st August (D. Parnaby et al). Low Hauxley, first-winter, 1 5th— 2 1 st August, trapped, photo (M. J. Carr, A. S. Hart et al). Hauxley, two, 24th August, one to 27th (M. J. Carr, I. Fisher). Holy Island, 24th August (T. A. Farooqi et al). Orkney North Ronaldsay, 23rd August, photo (P. I. Donnelly et al). Shetland Geosetter, Mainland, first-winter, 12th August, trapped, photo (S. J. Minton, R. Riddington, J. Ucha-Rodriguez et al). Yorkshire, East Flamborough Head, 28th August, photo (I. Marshall et al). Spurn, 30th August (A. Roadhouse et al). (European and W Siberian race P. t. viridanus expanded W during 20th century to E Poland, Baltic countries and S Finland, with sporadic breeding in Germany, Czech Republic, Sweden and Norway. To E, breeds through Russia and W Siberia to Yenisey River, S through NW Mongolia to N Afghanistan and NW Himalayas. Winters throughout Indian subcontinent. Other races occur Siberia and throughout Himalayas to SW China, wintering from Indian subcontinent to Indochina.) Fig. 14. Ten-year totals of accepted records of Sardinian Warbler Sylvia melanocebhala in Britain, 1 950-2004. 678 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis ( 1 9, 242, 5) Essex The Naze, 5th-7th October (G. C. Bond eta/.). Orkney Auskerry, 15th August, photo (L. & P. Hollinrake). Scilly Bryher, 8th October, photo ( J. R. Walsh eta/.). Shetland Norwick, Unst, 6th-7th September (M. G. Pennington et al). Yorkshire, East Bempton Cliffs, 8th September, photo (per www.birdguides.com). 2003 Scilly St Martin’s, 28th October (C. Townend). 2003 Shetland Fetlar, 1st— 7th October (M. A. Maher, M. Smith, B. H. Thomason). (Breeds locally in N Scandinavia, becoming widespread across N Russia E to extreme NE Siberia, S to Baikal region, Ussuriland and NE China. Other races breed in Alaska, and Kamchatka through Kuril Islands to N Japan. Migrant through China to winter widely in SE Asia to Java, Philippines and Sulawesi.) Hume’s Warbler Phylloscopus humei (0, 79, 3) Caernarfonshire See 2003 Caernarfonshire below. Cornwall Helston, 13th November (A. R. Pay et al). Essex Fairlop, 11th January to 25th April, photo (A. A. Bell et al), in song on 25th April; presumed same as Greater London, below. Greater London Brent Reservoir, 1st May (L. A. Batten, I. S. Ellis et al.)-, same as Essex. Northeast Scotland Cove, 16th-22nd October, trapped, photo (P. A. A. Baxter, C. N. Gibbins, R. A. Mavor et al). 2000 Anglesey Soldier’s Point, Holyhead, 19th November, photo (K. G. Croft, K. Mullarney, R. I. Thorpe et al). 2003 Caernarfonshire Caernarfon, 14th December to 9th January 2004, photo (S. Hugheston-Roberts, R. I. Thorpe) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 60). 2003 Fife Denburn Wood, Crail, 1 1th November (A.-M. & T. C. Smout et al.). 2003 Lincolnshire Anderby Creek, 18th October (N. P. Senior). 2003 Yorkshire, East Flamborough Head, 23rd-24th October ( J. M. Bayldon et al.); 10th— 1 5th November, photo (D. P. A. Ward et al.). 2003 Yorkshire, North Ness Point, Whitby, 19th-20th October ( J. A. Beaumont, R. S. Slack et al). (Breeds Altai Mountains, S through Tien Shan and Pamirs to NE Afghanistan, NW Himalayas and mountains in NW China. Winters in S Afghanistan to N India, E to W Bengal. Another race breeds in C China from Shanxi to S Yunnan, W to lower slopes of Tibetan plateau.) Radde’s Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi ( 1 , 252, 5) Norfolk Weybourne, 17th October, trapped, photo (M. D. & M. J. Preston). Scilly St Mary’s, 1 1th— 14th October, photo (A. J. Booth et al). Suffolk Orfordness, 1st October, trapped, photo (J. Askins, S. Piotrowski, G. Stannard et al.). Land- guard Point, 27th October (P. Holmes, N. Odin, P. Oldfield et al). Yorkshire, East Flamborough Head, 16th October, trapped, photo (I. Marshall, N. Parker, per P. J. Dunn). 2003 Cornwall Sennen, 12th October (P. A. St Pierre et al). 2003 Dorset Hengistbury Head, 21st October (L. Chappell). (Breeds in S Siberia from Novosibirsk region E to Ussuriland and NE China. Migrates through E Asia to winter in N Myanmar, Indochina and C Thailand.) Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus ( 1 , 273, 2 1 ) Avon Royal Portbury Dock, 6th March to at least 13th April, photo (C. ). Stone, K. E. Vinicombe et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 1 19). Barrow Gurney Reservoir, 1st May (T. E. Bond, M. G. Chaffey). Cornwall Nanjizal/Skewjack, 1 6th— 1 7th January (K. A. & I. M. Wilson). Coombe, Fowey, 1st— 2 1st June at least (D. Clegg, S. C. Madge, R. Nelson et al). Cumbria Westfield Point, 29th October to 1st November, photo (L. R. Cross et al). Devon Clennon Valley, Paignton, since 21st November 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 613), to 30th April. Gloucestershire Slimbridge, 2nd May (M. J. McGill et al). Kent Minnis Bay, 9th October (M. C. Buckland, M. Hollingworth et al). Pegwell Bay, 3rd November British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 679 John Wright Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 (T. N. Hodge, P. Milton et al). Samphire Hoe, 25th-28th November (P. Holt, I. A. Roberts et ai). Norfolk Blakeney Point, 20th October (B. A. E. Marr, R. F. Porter). Cley, 20th-26th October (R. G. Millington et al). Eccles-on-Sea, 23rd October (N. Bowman, A. J. Kane). Winterton Dunes, 30th October, trapped (K. J. Brett et al). Northeast Scotland Collieston, 31st October to 1st November (P. S. Crockett et al). Scilly Tresco, 2nd November (E. A. Fisher, R. L. Flood). Shetland Fair Isle, 18th-19th October (M. A. Newell et al). Somerset Taunton, 4th-23rd January (B. D. Gibbs et al.). Suffolk Landguard Point, 20th October to 4th November, trapped, photo (R. Cope, N. Odin, S. Pimm et al). Bawdsey, 15th— 18th December (J. A. & P. R. Kennerley et al.). Kessingland, 2nd December to 17th April 2005, trapped, photo (per www.birdguides.com) (Brit. Birds 98: plate 59). Yorkshire, North Castle Hill, Scarborough, 2 1 st— 27th October (S. Wignill et al.). 2003 Dorset Portland Bill, 9th November (Brit. Birds 97: 613), correct finder was P. Morgan. 2003 Northumberland Fame Islands, 7th-8th November (A. Shreeve, D. Steel et al.). In 1970, a bird trapped on the Calf of Man on 14th May was found dying in Co. Limerick on about 5th December the same year (Brit. Birds 64: 361), and represented the first presumed instance of attempted wintering by Dusky Warbler in Britain & Ireland. No further wintering birds were discov- ered until 1994/95, when two wintered in the southwest, one at Bude, Cornwall, which remained until 4th May, and another at Bideford, Devon, until 30th April 1995 (Brit. Birds 89: 520). In the last ten years, this trend towards overwintering has continued, with a couple of long-staying individuals sup- plemented by several shorter-staying, midwinter birds. Long-stayers remained at Lodmoor, Dorset, from 23rd January to 18th March 1998 (Brit. Birds 92: 598), and in the Clennon Valley, Devon, from 21st November 2003 until 30th April 2004 (Brit. Birds 97: 613). Short-stayers that were nevertheless presumably attempting to winter were found at Sennen, Cornwall, from 16th November until the end of December 2001 (Brit. Birds 95: 515), and at Kessingland, Suffolk, from 30th December 2002 until 6th January 2003 (Brit. Birds 97: 614). Further midwinter birds found in 2003/04 and 2004/05 and mentioned in this report include birds in Avon, Cornwall, Somerset and Suffolk. The coincidence of late April and early May departure dates is remarkable, and is further supported by records this year from Avon on 1st May and Gloucestershire on 2nd May - presumably relating to S M € J «/ s I'o y Fig. 15. Western Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli, Sanday, Orkney, October 2004. 680 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 overwintering birds on the move. Note also the date of the 1970 Calf of Man record, itself presumably a migrating bird which had successfully overwintered somewhere in western Europe. Wintering birds certainly appear to be on the increase but, with four in the southwest, including the first record for Avon in the early part of the year, 2004 was exceptional. The June record from Cornwall is unprecedented but, as the bird appeared to have a wing injury, it might actually represent yet another wintering bird that was located belatedly, having been unable to migrate in the spring. The two Suffolk birds at the end of the year continue the overwintering trend. Does this signify a shift in migratory patterns similar to that experienced by Blackcaps Sylvia atricapilla , albeit on a much smaller scale? Or is it simply that milder winters enable these, and other warblers, to survive the winter months in Britain more successfully? (Breeds in Siberia from Ob River N to 60°N, E to Sea of Okhotsk, S to Russian Altai, N Mongolia and Ussuriland through NE China. Winters S China and SE Asia to Singapore. Another race breeds on Tibetan plateau.) Western Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli (1,65,4) Norfolk Holkham Meals, 1 2th— 1 3th October (R. G. Millington etal). Orkney Sanday, 12th October, photo (K. E. Durose, J. Wright) (fig. 15). Herston, South Ronaldsay, 29th October to 15th November, trapped, photo (J. A. & R. McCutcheon et al). Scilly St Agnes, 30th September (A. R Bunting, D. Page). 1983 Shetland Seafield and Helendale, Lerwick, 27th September to 3rd October (M. S. Chapman, C. Robson et al); previously accepted as indeterminate Western or Eastern Bonelli's Warbler (Brit. Birds 79: 575), but now accepted as the former. 1986 Scilly Bryher, 1 0th— 14th October (T. M. J. Doran, L. H. 8c R. Still et al); previously accepted as indeterminate Western or Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler (Brit. Birds 80: 562), but now accepted as the former (per J. K. Archer). 2003 Shetland Scatness, Mainland, 13th May, photo (D. P. Hall, S. J. Minton et al) (Brit. Birds 96: plate 251). (Breeding range centred on SW Europe from Iberia to N France, S Germany, Italy, Austria, and locally in mountains of N Africa. Winters along S edge of Sahara, from Senegal and S Mauritania to N Cameroon.) Eastern Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus orientalis (0, 3, I) Devon Lundy, 26th April, photo (R. Campey, T. Davis). (Breeding confined to E Mediterranean, from Balkans to S Bulgaria and Greece, E to S Turkey. Migrates to winter in NE Africa, from Sudan to Ethiopia.) Iberian Chiffchaff Phylloscopus ibericus (0, 8, 2) Northumberland Woodhorn, in song, 1 8th— 19th April, sound-recorded (C. Kehoe, S. I. McElwee, J. G. Steele et al). Yorkshire, East Easington, 17th May, trapped (P. Collins, A. A. Hutt, M. F. Stoyle et al). This is a terribly complicated species to identify. The taxonomy is still uncertain, the range of vocal- isations is not as clear-cut as one might expect, and the plumage features are subtle in the extreme. What is now becoming obvious, however, is that there is a range of plumage features, none of which are definitive on their own, which combine to give a relatively consistent Took’. The combination of rather pale legs and bill, clean white underparts with some yellow around the throat, some bright green tones in the uppertail-covert and rump area and a fairly strong supercilium means that the species bears a passing resemblance to a Willow Warbler Ph. trochilus. The call differs from that of Common Chiffchaff Ph. collybita , having a downward inflection, and can sound reminiscent of a Siskin’s Carduelis spinus flight call. Despite all of this, and slight but complex biometric differences from Common Chiffchaff, this is a species that needs to be heard singing and, preferably, sound- recorded before we feel able to accept a record in Britain, at least at present. The song itself is quite dis- tinctive and classically has three phases, the last and probably most important of which is a loud rattle or trill. Birders faced with a putative Iberian Chiffchaff should try to get some sort of sound record (digital video is extremely useful in the absence of specialist sound-recording equipment) but should also try to pay attention to the subtle plumage and bare-part characters. The two east-coast records reported here are the first of their kind, previous records all having British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 681 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 occurred in the south of England. Both were singing and were photographed as well as being observed over long periods. A number of other extralimital birds arrived elsewhere in northern Europe in spring 2004, and their appearance coincided with a large influx of Red-rumped Swallows Hirundo daurica and other southern European species. Records of other, slightly less straightforward individ- uals are still in circulation. (Breeds locally in French Pyrenees and S throughout W Iberia. N African range restricted to NW Morocco and N Algeria to NW Tunisia. Wintering range poorly known.) Taiga Flycatcher Ficedulo albicilla (0, 2, 0) 2003 Shetland Sandgarth, Mainland, first-winter, 1 2th— 1 5th October, trapped, photo (M. S. Chapman, D. P. Hall, S. J. Minton et al.) (Brit. Birds 98: plates 337-340). 2003 Yorkshire, East Flamborough Head, first-summer cf, 26th-29th April, trapped, photo (P. A. Lassey et al.) (Brit. Birds 98: plates 333-336). An out-of-season Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva is, in itself, an excellent find. In this instance, however, the finder’s persistence paid off as this was no ordinary Red-breasted Flycatcher. Although at the time the species had yet to be split by the BOU, Red-throated or Taiga Flycatcher was already on the radar for many rarity seekers. The potential for vagrancy was awakened by the trapping of a first-winter bird on the Baltic island of Oland, Sweden, in October 1998 (Birding World 12: 460-468). A rather cold-plumaged Red-breasted Flycatcher on the Isles of Scilly in October 1999 had also set alarm bells ringing with British observers. It was rather a welcome surprise, therefore, that the first British record should be a spring male in breeding plumage. Although a small red throat-patch could also be shown by a third-calendar-year male Red-breasted Flycatcher, the combination of a restricted red throat with extensive grey surround and black uppertail- coverts contrasting with slightly duller blackish tail feathers is diagnostic of Taiga Flycatcher. With the identification safe, many savvy twitchers were enjoying great views of this jewel later the same day. Amazingly, the first autumn record followed shortly afterwards, on Shetland in October. Observers faced with a potential Taiga Flycatcher in autumn, perhaps lurking in deeper cover, may struggle to clinch the identification. Bear in mind, however, that the call is distinctly different, and this should alert those already familiar with the call of Red-breasted Flycatcher to the possibility that they may be onto something much rarer. It then becomes essential to obtain critical detail of the black uppertail- coverts (contrasting with the slightly paler tail), bill colour, underpart plumage tones, and tertial- fringe pattern. For a full account of these two records, see Brit. Birds 98: 542-546 and 98: 547-550. (Breeds Siberia from Ural Mountains E to Sakhalin and Kamchatka, S to northern Altai, Baikal region, N Mongolia and Amurland. Migrates to winter from NW India, E to S China and S to Malay Peninsula.) Collared Flycatcher Ficedula albicollis (2, 23, 2) Shetland Fair Isle, first-summer cf, 9th-12th May (A. ). Perkins et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 186). Muness, Unst, adult cf, 2nd June, photo (M. Grey, M. G. Pennington et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 225). The migration route of Collared Flycatcher follows a largely north-south axis from central Euro- pean breeding areas to wintering grounds south of the equator in tropical Africa (Cottridge & Vini- combe, 1996, Rare Birds in Britain and Ireland: a photographic record). In spring, the species follows a similar route in reverse, so that overshooting birds on the western edge of the breeding range head for Scandinavia rather than for Britain. This is the presumed reason for its great rarity here: most spring overshoots moving north miss the UK completely, just occasionally appearing in the Northern Isles, while returning migrants moving south in autumn are unlikely to hit Britain, and any that do so are likely to be overlooked among relatively large numbers of Pied Flycatchers F. hypoleuca. Therefore, the two sightings in 2004 conform to expectations, spring birds in the far north having deviated less from their normal routes to make landfall there. The breeding ranges of Pied and Collared Flycatchers overlap widely in Europe and, despite signifi- cant differences in male plumage and song, hybridisation occurs frequently. For example, on the Swedish islands of Gotland and Oland in the Baltic, 3.2% and 5.3%, respectively, of all breeding attempts involved mixed pairs between these species (Lundberg & Alatalo 1992, The Pied Flycatcher). Classic spring males with a full suite of characters pose few identification problems, but for females, 682 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 hybrids and problematic individuals, reference to the detailed papers by Mild ( Birding World 7: 139-151, 231-240, 325-334) remains essential. The distinctive spring plumage of males is doubtless responsible for the very strong bias towards records of males in that season; all but three British records have been in spring. Nonetheless, even though the plumage of males is striking, they do prefer the crowns of taller trees and can be difficult to locate (as observers of the Kent bird in May 1984 will doubtless recall, some having to make two or more visits to see it, despite the bird favouring a rela- tively small area of wood/parkland). (Scattered pockets occur E France and S Germany but more numerous through C and E Europe to temperate regions of European Russia W of Urals. Isolated populations occur on Swedish islands Gotland and Oland in Baltic, and CS Italy. Winters in E and C Africa from Tanzania to Zimbabwe.) PendulineTit Remiz pendulinus (0, 170, 13) Cornwall Land’s End, juvenile, 26th October (M. D. Warren). Devon Slapton Ley, cf, since December 2003 {Brit. Birds 97: 614) to 23rd February. Presumed same, Clennon Valley, Paignton, cf,21st-22nd March (per www.birdguides.com). Dorset Lodmoor, cf, $, 9th January, 22nd-26th March, photo (D. Chown et al.), same as December 2003 {Brit. Birds 97: 614). Greater London Rainham Marshes, three, 29th December (H. T. Vaughan). Lancashire & North Merseyside Leighton Moss, 11th November, photo (B. Best, S. Grimshaw et al). Suffolk Orfordness, three cf cf , 15th February (M. C. Marsh, G. Stannard). Sussex, East Filsham, three, two cfcf> one $, 9th April (K. M. Johnston) (5 colour-ringed Scania, Sweden). Icklesham, first-winter cf, 26th October, trapped, photo (N. Bayly, P. Jones, J. Willsher); 30th October, photo (S. Findlay, I. Hunter, P. Jones). 2003 Cornwall Land’s End, 15th— 1 8th October (D. Clegg, E. Griffiths et al). 2003 Suffolk Orfordness, cf> 4th November, trapped (J. Askins, D. Cormack). 2001 Sussex, East Combe Haven, juvenile, 23rd September to 2nd October (E. J. Cruttenden, K. M. Johnston). The wintering bird at Slapton Ley, Devon {Brit. Birds 97: 614), was trapped on 24th January 2004 and found to have been ringed (as an adult male) at Baarlo, Limburg, southeast Netherlands (an inland site) on 12th July 2003, 697 km to the east. A ringed Penduline Tit was found on the other side of the River Dart, at Paignton, in late March and this was considered to be the same individual (although the bird was not trapped and the ring number checked). The colour-ringed bird at Filsham, Sussex, in April originated from Sweden, and represents the third confirmed exchange between Sweden and Sussex; the others were in October 1988 (an adult female ringed in East Sussex that was retrapped in a Swedish colony in May 1989) and October 1997 (a dispersing juvenile that had been ringed in Sweden in July 1997). The movements of these birds suggest that our vagrants are arriving from northern parts of western Europe, and they may illustrate the dispersal strategy of Penduline Tit, whose breeding numbers on the Continent fluctuate annually. Late September to early November is a typical arrival period for this species, and those arriving during that time in 2004 presumably relate to these dispersing continental strays. The groups recorded during the winter and spring are also not unprecedented; for example, there were small groups in Kent in winter 1995/96 {Brit. Birds90: 503) and Somerset in winter 1997/98 {Brit. Birds92: 600). (Widely but locally distributed throughout C and E Europe, from Denmark, Germany and Italy NE to C Sweden and Estonia. Absent from much of NW Europe but locally numerous in Spain. To E, breeds from S Russia to Volga River. Largely resident or dispersive in Europe. Other forms, sometimes regarded as separate species, occur in C Asia and from S Siberia to NE China, and winter in NW Indian subcontinent, S China and S Japan.) Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus (0, 3, I) Shetland Skaw, Whalsay, adult cf L. c. cristatus, 1 9th— 24th September, trapped, photo (J. Dunn, J. L. Irvine, B. Marshall et al.) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 394; plate 440). Of the four British records, this is now the third for Shetland (the others having been in September 1985 and October 2000), the remaining bird having been on Scilly in September 2001. Given that three of these have turned up in the last five years, it seems reasonable to expect further records of this species, especially now that the identification criteria of first-winter birds are better understood. The British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 683 Hugh Harrop Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 440. Adult male Brown Shrike Lanius c. cristatus, Skaw.Whalsay, Shetland, September 2004. fact that two adults have now occurred in Britain in autumn (the first Shetland bird was an adult too), while another adult turned up in Ireland in November 1999, is surprising, and seems to defy conven- tional wisdom regarding vagrancy patterns of eastern species; however, of the autumn records of the closely related Isabelline Shrike there are a handful of adults among the more predictable majority of first-winters. (Four races breed from Ob River basin in S Siberia, E to Sea of Okhotsk and Kamchatka, N Japan and throughout much of E China. Nominate race winters Indian subcontinent and throughout SE Asia. Other races winter SE Asia, Philippines, N Borneo and Indonesian islands.) Isabelline Shrike Lanius isabellinus (1,64, I) Shetland Vidlin, Mainland, first-winter, 17th October (M. S. Chapman et al). 2003 Caernarfonshire Llanbedrog, first-winter, 23rd November, photo (D. & W. Roberts, R. I. Thorpe et al). (Four races breed in C Asia, from Caspian Sea and W Iran through Kazakhstan to Tajikistan, Afghanistan and N Pakistan to S Mongolia and NW China, with isolated population from Zaidam depression to N Tibetan plateau. Winters in NE and E Africa, S Arabian Peninsula, S Iran and NW Indian subcontinent.) Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor (36, 1 30, 4) Derbyshire Etwall Sewage-farm, 1 1 th— 1 2th July ( J. S. & Mrs Thornhill). Northeast Scotland Newburgh, first-winter, 31st October, photo (R A. A. Baxter, R D. Bloor, J. R. W. Gordon et al). Orkney Windwick, South Ronaldsay, 20th-29th August (E. R. Meek, T. Mollinson, R. Ward et al.). Shetland Gulberwick, Mainland, adult cf, 17th August to 5th September, photo (P. M. Ellis, A. Ockendon et al) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 329). (European range centred E of Balkans to E Poland, with small numbers W through N Mediterranean to S France and NE Spain. To E, breeds locally from Black Sea coasts, across S Russia and Kazakhstan to extreme NW China and SW Siberia. Migrates through E Africa to winter in S Africa, from Namibia to S Mozambique and N South Africa.) Southern Grey Shrike Lanius meridionalis Central Asian race L. m. pallidirostris (I, 16, I) Kent Ash, first-winter, 6th-7th November, photo (C. A. Barnes, D. Dowell). (Resident races occur Iberian Peninsula and S France to North Africa, Middle East and India. Migratory form L. m. pallidirostris breeds C Asia from lower Volga E to S Mongolia and extreme NE China, S to N Iran and N Pakistan. Winters to S and W of breeding range from Sudan, N Ethiopia and Somalia through Arabian Peninsula to W Iran.) 684 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 J 44 1 . Juvenile Masked Shrike Laniu s nubicus, Kilrenny, Fife, November 2004. Masked Shrike Lanius nubicus (0,0, I) Fife Kilrenny, juvenile, 29th October to 14th November, trapped, photo (T. Glass, A. W. Lauder, M. Oksien, K. D. Shaw et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 395; plate 441). Masked Shrike has long been predicted as a new British bird, especially given October records from Finland (23rd October 1982) and Sweden (1st October 1984). This individual stayed for a fortnight but, unlike the Swedish bird, this one did so voluntarily, and was not held in captivity and subjected to an orientation experiment which lasted for almost two weeks. The finders of the Fife shrike are to be congratulated for their awareness of it being something different. Although it was initially believed to be a juvenile Woodchat Shrike L. senator , the correct identification was established in the field the day after its discovery, and was confirmed in the hand later that day after the BTO gave their authorisation for the bird to be trapped. Thankfully (for most of us at least), this was another of the year’s top birds that decided the mainland was more to its liking than an offshore island. (Breeding confined to E Mediterranean, and locally E to W Iran. Passage occurs through the Middle East, to wintering area in narrow band of N sub-Saharan Africa, extending from River Niger in Mali, E to Sudan and Ethiopia, and Red Sea coastline of western Saudi Arabia and Yemen.) Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus 2000 Flighland Moy, Inverness-shire, first-summer, 7th July (R. Proctor et al.). 2000 Scilly St Mary’s, juvenile, 28th September (M. Constantine et al). This species was removed from the list of species considered on 31st December 2001. (Irruptive, regularly reaching SE Europe hut only occasional breeder, erratically W to Hungary. Core breeding range extends from S Ukraine and C Turkey E across S Russia to E Kazakhstan and S through Iran to Afghanistan. Winters throughout India S to Sri Lanka.) British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 685 Dove Stewart Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus (0, 100, I) Durham Marsden Quarry, South Shields, 27th October (J. P. Cook). 2001 Anglesey South Stack, 4th October (D. Evans, P. Palmer). (Breeds throughout S Canada, and USA E of Rocky Mountains. Migrates throughout E USA to winter in N South America. Other races resident in South America.) Arctic Redpoll Carduelis hornemanni (26,789,6) Norfolk Titchwell, C. h. exilipes , 3rd-5th, 10th December to at least 2nd April 2005, photo (J. Cockram, P. Eele et al). Outer Hebrides Bru, Lewis, C. h. hornemanni, 11th October (M. S. Scott); 23rd October, photo (L. & P. Cunningham, M. S. Scott). Shetland Foula, C. h. hornemanni , 29th September to 8th October (P. J. Wright, R. B. Wynn et al). Norwick, Unst, C. h. exilipes , 9th— 18th October, trapped 9th (M. A. Maher, M. G. Pennington). Skaw, Unst, first-winter C. h. hornemanni , 1 0th— 1 1th October, photo (M. A. Maher). 2002 Caernarfonshire Llanfairfechan, 15th, 23rd March, photo (R. I. Thorpe et al.). 2002 Norfolk Barton Turf, two, 28th January (P. J. Heath). 2003 Shetland Sumburgh Head, Mainland, first-winter C. h. exilipes, 5th February, trapped, photo (P. M. Ellis, R. Riddington, I. S. Robertson). Fair Isle, C. h. hornemanni, 22nd-27th September (D. N. Shaw et al). (Circumpolar Arctic, with European breeding range restricted to N Scandinavia. Race C. h. exilipes breeds on tundra of Arctic Eurasia, Alaska and Canada to Hudson Bay. Nominate race breeds Ellesmere and Baffin Island to N Greenland. Both races disperse S in winter, irregularly reaching NW Europe.) Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera (I 15, I 10, 0) 2002 Shetland Sumburgh Head, Mainland, two 14th- 15th August (P. M. Ellis, D. Houghton). (Local resident within larch Larix sp. forests of N Eurasia from N Russia to E Siberia, reaching Sea of Okhotsk and S to Baikal region. Irruptive dispersal leads to irregular breeding in Finland and very occasionally in Sweden and Norway. Outside breeding season, dispersal occasionally reaches NW Europe. Nominate form breeds across N North America.) Pine Grosbeak Pinicola enucleator (7,4, I) Yorkshire, East Easington, first-winter cf, 8th— 10th November, photo (P. Collins, B. R. Spence, A. J. & M. F. Stoyle et al). This largely sedentary species is prone to occasional irruptions which can involve large numbers moving south through Fennoscandia to feed on berry-laden bushes in southern Sweden and Finland. Even in such irruption years, they reach western Europe only rarely and this species remains an excep- tional rarity in Britain. Since there had been just one truly twitchable bird ever (on Shetland in March/ April 1992), the untimely departure of the Easington bird was probably the single most disap- pointing event of the 2004 birding calendar. Its appearance coincided with a huge arrival of thrushes to the Spurn area on 7th November, including 10,000 Blackbirds Turdus merula and 2,000 each of Redwing T. iliacus and Fieldfare T. pilaris. Glimpsed without binoculars while drinking from a garden pond on the first day, and not seen at all on the second, it was there to surprise observers early on the morning of the 10th, giving a few locals the chance to see this first record for mainland Britain since a male in Kent on 15th May 1971. Pine Grosbeaks can be ridiculously tame, and this facet of their behaviour, allied to their sluggish nature, actually hampers their discovery, this bird escaping detection in a back garden until almost being trodden on! There can be few localities in Britain, let alone individual gardens, which could boast an array of rarities to rival this Easington garden in 2004. Earlier in the year, it had been home to an Iberian Chiff- chaff Phylloscopus ibericus in May and then an obliging White’s Thrush Zoothera dauma in October! (Nominate form resident or dispersive across N Scandinavia E to Yenisey River. Other races largely resident in E Siberia and Kamchatka S to Hokkaido, Japan. Widespread across much of N North America, E to Newfoundland and S in mountains to C California and N New Mexico, USA.) 686 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Yellow Warbler Dendroico petechia (0,3, I) Outer Hebrides Breibhig, Barra, first-winter, 2nd-7th October, photo (S. L. Rivers et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 396; plate 442). Another super record from Barra. This is the fourth record of this abundant Nearctic warbler (rapidly followed by the fifth, on Shetland in September 2005), and establishes a northern bias, with previous records (after the first, on Bardsey in August 1964) from Shetland (November 1990) and Orkney (August 1992). As with Tennessee Warbler Vermivora peregrina (four British records, on Fair Isle (2), Orkney and St Kilda), which shares a propensity for leaving the breeding grounds early, most adults depart by late July or early August, and arrive on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico by mid August. Birds of the year do, of course, migrate later but in general both species would be regarded as early migrants in North America. In Nova Scotia, these two species, along with Northern Waterthrush Seiurus novebora- censis, have identical migration timings, commencing in early August and finishing by about mid October, apart from a few late stragglers. In terms of their geographical spread in Britain, they are poles apart, with Northern Waterthrush more or less confined to southwest England (six British records, including four on Scilly, with the last in Dorset in 1996). Perhaps it is the more northerly track of Atlantic depressions in recent years which is bringing Yellow Warblers to northern Britain, in which case we should be on the lookout for more Tennessee Warblers and Northern Waterthrushes in Scot- land as well. (Widespread breeder across North America from NW Alaska E to Newfoundland, S through Mexico and C America to N Peru and Galapagos. Northern populations migratory, wintering C Mexico to C Peru and N Brazil.) Blackpoll Warbler Dendroica striata (0, 33, 0) 2003 Outer Hebrides Snishival Plantation, South Uist, 1 7th— 20th October, photo (P. MacEwan, A. Stevenson etal). The late acceptance of this record brings the total of Nearctic passerines for 2003 to 19 individuals of 1 1 species, making 2003 the best year for some time. All in all, the new millennium has proved to be a lean time for finding vagrant Parulidae in Britain. With Atlantic storm tracks now tending to be further north than in pre- vious decades, potential vagrants to these shores are pushed north towards Iceland in some years, while the majority of recent records of North American wood-warblers in the UK have come from the Northern and Western Isles. Blackpoll Warbler, with 33 records since 1950, is by far the com- monest of these North Fig. 16. Five-year totals of North American wood-warblers (Parulidae) in Britain, 1 950-2004. The 15-year period from 1982 until 1996 saw 68 of these delightful Parulids grace our shores. Since then, numbers have fallen back, possibly associated with population declines in North America, and in the eight years to 2004 only 1 2 have been found. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 687 Stuart Piner Bryan Thomas Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 American gems to have been recorded in Britain, occurring in double the numbers of its nearest rivals. The next most abundant species is Yellow-rumped Warbler D. coronata with 17 records, followed by Northern Parula Parula americana on 14, and Black-and-white Warbler with 12, but the last two species have not been recorded here since 1996. The flow of North American wood-warblers into western Europe reached its peak in the mid 1980s, but then dried up before increasing again a decade later (fig. 16). (Breeds widely across North America from W Alaska E throughout Canada to Newfoundland, S to Maine in NE USA. Migrates widely through E USA to winter in South America from Panama to Chile and E Argentina.) Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapilla (0, 3, I) Scilly St Mary’s, 25th-28th October, taken into care moribund on 28th (J. C. Harding et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 397; plate 443). Another fantastic bird for ‘teachers’ week’ on Scilly. This unobtrusive gem at times showed superbly under the pines at Innisidgen Hill. It looked a touch shaky at the end of its second day, however, and, after a soaking in horrendous overnight gales and rain, it was reduced to a very sad state on its third morning and subsequently died after being taken into care. This is the fourth British record, excluding the wing found on the tideline at Formby, Lancashire, in January 1969. A bird in Devon in October 1985 was also found dead, as was one of the two Irish records, in Co. Mayo, in December 1977. Perhaps the Atlantic crossing pushes them right to the limit of their endurance. The other two British records, in Shetland in October 1973 and Herefordshire from December 2001 to February 2002, were seen by only a handful of observers, so this was the first to be widely appreci- ated. Previously, one on Dursey Island, Co. Cork, in September 1990 stayed long enough to be ‘twitch- able’. Elsewhere in northwest Europe, one was found at Karmoy, Rogaland County, Norway, on 25th October 2003. There are no other Western Palearctic records. The North American Breeding Bird Survey results over the past 35 years appear to show that Oven- bird is just about holding its own but has experienced a recent decline. Other sources of data paint a bleaker picture. For example, migrant numbers at Long Point, Ontario, show a significant decline from 443. Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapilla. St Mary’s, Scilly, October 2004. 688 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 1961 to 1988 (Hussell et al. 1992), as do numbers recorded during spring migration in Massachusetts, during a 53-year period (1937-1989) (Hill & Hagan 1991). Ovenbirds breed in extensive tracts of mature deciduous forest and are sensitive to habitat fragmentation caused, for example, by housing development (Wunnicke et al. 2005), and even apparently minor forest fragmentation caused by seismic exploration can affect breeding numbers (Bayne et al. 2004). In some areas, the opening up of forest habitats increases brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds Molothrus ater. On the win- tering grounds, Christmas Bird Count data for Florida and Texas also indicate a significant decline, estimated at 0.7% per annum, from 1959 to 1988 (Sauer et al. 1996). This edge-of-range data is, perhaps, of limited value as the majority winter in Central America. Even here though, the conversion of forest to pasture and croplands poses a threat to Ovenbird populations along with several other Nearctic migrants. Despite more people out there looking, we cannot expect this species to become any less rare with us. Bayne, E. M„ Boutin, S„ van Wilgenburg, S. L, & Hobson, K. A. 2004. Behavioral and population responses of Ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapillus) to increasing forest dissection by seismic exploration. In: Scrimgeoun G. J„ Eisler G„ McCulloch, B„ Silins, U„ & Monita, M. (eds.), Forest Land-Fish Conference II - Ecosystem Stewardship through Collaboration: 171-172. Hill, N. R, & Hagan, J. M. III. 1991. Population trends of some northeastern North American landbirds: a half-century of data. Wilson Bulletin 103: 165-182. Hussell, D. J.T, Mather M. H„ & Sinclair R H. 1 992.Trends in numbers of tropical- and temperate-wintering migrant landbirds in migration at Long Point, Ontario, 1961-1988. In: Hagan, J. M. Ill, & Johnston, D.W. (eds.), Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Landbirds: 101- I 14. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC. Sauer J. R., Hines, J. E., Gough, G., Thomas, I., & Peterjohn, B. G. 1 997. The North American Breeding Bird Survey Results and Analysis. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel MD. — , Schwartz, S., & Hoover B 1996. The Christmas Bird Count. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel MD. Wunnicke, A., Lepczyk, C„ RadeloffV., Pidgeon, A., Flathep C„ & Hammer, R. 2005. Ovenbird Abundance and Ftousing Density Changes in Massachusetts from 1970 to 2000: a metapopulation modeling perspective. The Ecological Society of America, meeting, Montreal, August 2005. (Breeds E North America from SE British Columbia E to Newfoundland and S throughout C and E USA to N Alabama and South Carolina. Winters from Florida and N Mexico S to Panama and West Indies.) Common Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas ( Shetland Foula, first-winter cf> 9th- 10th October, trapped, photo (J. M. & T. P. Drew, A. R. Main- wood, M. A. Wilkinson et al.) (Brit. Birds 97: plate 398; plate 444). The first since 1997, and a deserving prize for the birders who have been working what is, arguably, Britain’s most remote inhabited island for some ten years now. This is Shetland’s third, but its first in autumn, the two previous records having been in June 1984 and May 1997. Elsewhere, there have been two on Scilly (October 1984 and October-November 1997) and singles on Lundy (the first for Britain, in November 1954) and Bardsey (September 1996). The wintering indi- vidual in Kent, in January-April 1989, is still the sole record from mainland Britain. (Widespread breeder across North America from SE Alaska E to Newfoundland, S to C California and S Texas, and to Oaxaca and Vera Cruz, Mexico. Winters S USA, S through Mexico to Panama.) White-throated Sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis (I, 26, I) Yorkshire, East Swanland, 31st May, photo (M. Barnett, J. & L. White). (Breeds North America from SE Yukon E to Newfoundland, S to Great Lakes and N USA to New Jersey. Winters SE USA, from Massachusetts S to Florida, Texas and into N Mexico and California.) Black-faced Bunting Emberiza spodocephala (0,4, I) Yorkshire, East Flamborough Head, 15th October (D. Bywater et al). (Breeds from Russian Altai and Ob River E across Siberia to Sea of Okhotsk, S to Baikal region, N Mongolia, 1,6, I) 444. First-winter male Common Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas, Foula, Shetland, October 2004. British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 689 Tony Mainwood Rebecca Nason Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Amurland, N Korean Peninsula and extreme NE China. Winters Japan, Taiwan, South Korea and S China, S to N Indochina, NE India and W to Nepal. Other races breed in Japan and central China.) Pine Bunting Emberiza leucocephalos (2, 39, 2) Devon Wembury, cf. 27th January to 17th March (C. Bailey, D. Wright). Norfolk Choseley, cf , 28th February to 11th March (A. I. Saunders et al.) {Brit. Birds 97: plates 120 & 121). (Breeds temperate Russia from W Urals to upper Kolyma River, S to S Siberia, Mongolia, lower Amur River and Sakhalin. Isolated population breeds Qinghai and Gansu provinces, C China. Small isolated wintering populations regular W Italy and C Israel. Otherwise winters S of breeding range from Turkestan E through Himalayan foothills to C and E China, N of Yangtze.) Rock Bunting Emberiza cia (3, 2, 0) 1958 Pembrokeshire Dale Fort, Haverfordwest, 15th August {Brit. Birds 53: 173), no longer considered acceptable. (Largely sedentary throughout Mediterranean basin from North Africa and Iberian Peninsula, N to C France and S Germany, and E through Turkey, Caucasus region and Iran to W Himalayas. Some populations dispersive or short- distance migrants.) Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica (23,41 7, 5) Shetland Fair Isle, cf. 4th-5th June, photo (D. Riley et al.) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 227; plate 445). Foula, first- summer cf. 6th June (S. Bearhop, S. C. Votier); cf . 13th lune (C. J. Mcln- erny, J. Rutherford, S. C. Votier et al). Out Skerries, 30th September to 1st October, photo (P. Forrest, M. J. McKee, C. J. Turner). Wiltshire Bradford-on-Avon, first- winter cf, 24th January, trapped, photo, died later (M. J. Hamzij, R. Turner). (Breeds in boreal forest mires of N Eurasia from Sweden and Finland, E across N Russia to easternmost Siberia and Kamchatka, and S to Baikal region. European population migrates SE to winter in E China, Korean Peninsula and S Japan.) Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola (10,214,3) Shetland Skaw, Unst, two $$ or first-winters, 5th-6th September, one to 7th, photo (M. A. Maher et al.) {Brit. Birds 97: plate 330); Toab, Mainland, $ or first-winter, lst-2nd October (R. M. Fray, A. J. Mackay et al). (European range restricted to small and declining population in C Finland, centred on Gulf of Bothnia. To E, breeds widely across Russia and Siberia to Kamchatka, S to NE China and NE Hokkaido. Winters locally from E Nepal through Himalayan foothills to NE India, and widely throughout SE Asia.) Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala (10, 162,3) Northumberland Fame Islands, first-winter, 23rd August (A. Ash, L. Barber, D. Clare et al). Pembrokeshire Skomer, first-winter, 5th September, photo (J. G. Brown). Warwickshire Nuneaton, cf. 31st May, photo (A. & C. McLure, S. Seal). (Breeds from C Italy to Greece, Turkey, N Iraq and W Iran, N through Caucasus to Ukraine and S Russia. Winters in W and C India.) 445. Male Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica, Fair Isle, Shetland, June 2004. 690 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Baltimore Oriole Icterus galbula (1,21,0) Oxfordshire Headington, first-winter cf> since 10th December 2003 to 16th lanuary (Brit. Birds 97: 622). (Breeds S Canada from C Alberta E to C Nova Scotia, S throughout E USA from N Texas to W South Carolina. Migrates to winter from S Mexico to Colombia and Venezuela.) Appendix 1. Category D species accepted (see Ibis 136: 253) Red-headed Bunting Emberiza bruniceps Dumfries & Galloway Monreith, in song, 9th June, photo (P. N. Collin, L. Jones etal). (Breeds C Asia from Volga and Ural Rivers E through Kazakhstan to E Afghanistan and NW Pakistan. Winters W and C India, S to Karnataka.) Appendix 2. List of records not accepted This list contains all current records not accepted after circulation to the Committee. It does not include a) those withdrawn by the observer(s), after discussion with the Secretary; b) those which, even if circulated, were not attributed by the observer(s) to any definite species; c) those mentioned in ‘Recent reports’ in British Birds if full details were unobtainable; or d) certain escapes. In the vast majority of cases, the record was not accepted because we were not convinced that the identification was fully established; only in a very few cases were we satisfied that a mistake had been made. 2004 Bewick’s Swan Cygnus columbianus. North American race C. c. columbianus , ‘Tundra Swan’, Near Ashington, Northumberland, 12th February. ‘Black Brant' Pagham Harbour, West Sussex, 24th January; St Mary’s Marshes, Kent, 20th December. Canvasback Swithland Reservoir, Leicestershire, 25th September. Black Scoter Loch Morlich, Highland, 8th November. Pied-billed Grebe Podilymbus podiceps Lower Tamar Lake, Devon, 14th February; Tresco, Scilly, 1 7th — 18th March. Yelkouan Shear- water Puffinus yelkouan Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, 10th July. Little Shearwater Puffinus assimilis Salthouse, Norfolk, 15th September; St Mary’s, Scilly, 21st October. Wilson’s Storm-petrel Bowness-on-Solway, Cumbria, 12th September. Great White Egret Breydon, Norfolk, 3rd January; Newport Wetlands, Gwent, 7th March; Astley Moss, Greater Manchester, 24th May; West Looe, Corn- wall, three, July 5th; Brading Marsh, Isle of Wight, two, 29th July; Penmon Point, Anglesey, 27th October. Black Kite Seaton, Devon, 24th April; St Alban’s, Hertfordshire, 1st May; Grove Ferry, Kent, 2nd May; Woking, Surrey, 19th May; Deptford, Greater London, 2nd June; Budleigh Salterton, Devon, 6th June; Marlow, Buckinghamshire, 25th |une; Dungeness, Kent, 2nd September; Orcome Point, Devon, 5th September; West Bexington, Dorset, 10th October. Red-footed Falcon Titchwell, Norfolk, 2nd May; Winterton, Norfolk, 30th May; Castletown, Isle of Man, 6th July. White-rumped Sandpiper Keyhaven Marsh, Hampshire, 4th August. Great Snipe Llangorse Lake, Breconshire, 8th January. Dow- itcher sp. Spurn, East Yorkshire, two, 1 1th October. Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus, North American race N. p. hudsonicus, ‘Hudsonian Whimbrel’, Pendeen, Cornwall, 20th August. Marsh Sandpiper Pauli Holme Strays, East Yorkshire, 3rd August. Laughing Gull Connah’s Quay, Flintshire, 21st December. Bonaparte’s Gull Handa, Highland, 20th May and Scourie, 22nd-24th May. Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea Seaton, Devon, 27th April; Fidden, Mull, Argyll, 6th October; Lleiniog, Anglesey, 14th October. Ivory Gull Papa Westray, Orkney, 3rd January. Gull-billed Tern Beachy Head, East Sussex, three, 27th June; Snettisham, Norfolk, 3rd September. Caspian Tern Blacktoft Sands, East Yorkshire, 27th June. Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis Llangorse Lake, Breconshire, 7th September. Whiskered Tern Whisby Nature Park, Lincolnshire, 10th August; Cardiff Bay, Glamorgan, 30th August; Canvey Island, Essex, 30th September. White-winged Black Tern Langford Low Fields, Nottinghamshire, 30th July. Alpine Swiff Alresford, Hampshire, 1st May; Alvaston, Derbyshire, 7th June. Pallid Swiff Avon Gorge, Avon, two, 16th July; Caister-on-Sea, Norfolk, 24th October; Thorpeness, Suffolk, 24th October. Red- rumped Swallow Castle Combe, Wiltshire, 7th February; Regent’s Park, Greater London, 29th April; British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 691 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 Cosmeston Lake, Glamorgan, 5th April. Red-throated Pipit The Naze, Essex, 3rd October. Citrine Wagtail Skomer, Pembrokeshire, 24th August; St Mary’s, Scilly, 21st October. ‘Siberian Stonechat’ Trevose Head, Cornwall, 13th April. Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica Skokholm, Pem- brokeshire, 28th-29th May; Skomer, Pembrokeshire, 9th June. Dark-throated Thrush Ossett, West Yorkshire, 8th April; Holkham Meals, Norfolk, 10th October. American Robin Dagenham Chase, Essex, 9th, 12th January; Northleigh, Devon, 23rd-25th January; Dunblane, Perth & Kinross, 18th December. Spectacled Warbler Sylvia conspicillata Balsdean, East Sussex, 16th September. Greenish Warbler Beachy Head, East Sussex, 14th June; Stronsay, Orkney, 24th August. Hume’s Warbler Carnon Downs, Cornwall, 24th-26th February. Iberian Chiffchaff Dorchester, Dorset, 11th, 13th April. Pendu- line Tit Seaforth, Lancashire & North Merseyside, 28th October. Arctic Redpoll Foula, Shetland, 5th, 7th May. Parrot Crossbill Loxia pytyopsittacus Grantown-on-Spey, Highland, 4th-5th May. Blackpoll Warbler Lundy, Devon, 2nd October. Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia Exminster Marshes, Devon, 25th April. Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus Tyneham, Dorset, 25th April. 2003 Ferruginous Duck Churncote Moss, Shropshire, 6th January. White-billed Diver, North Berwick, Lothian, 2nd February; North Ronaldsay, Orkney, 20th April. Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophris Rerwick Point, Orkney, 3rd October. Madeiran Storm-petrel Oceanodroma castro Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire, 13th October. Little Shearwater Aldringham-cum-Thorpe, Suffolk, 21st September. Great White Egret Elton Hall Flash, Cheshire, 13th February; Brandon Marsh, Warwick- shire, 9th August; Beaulieu Estuary, Hampshire, 17th August; Lizard village, Cornwall, 14th September; Littlehampton, West Sussex, four, 1 1th October. Black Kite Walland Marsh, East Sussex/Kent, two, 5th June; Porthgwarra, Cornwall, 2nd September; Winterborne Monkton, Dorset, 27th November. Red- footed Falcon West Bexington, Dorset, 29th May. Gyr Falcon Camel Estuary, Cornwall, 13th January; Cabrath/Auchindoir, Moray & Nairn, 28th July. American Golden Plover Red Rocks, Cheshire, 16th October; Skinflats, Central Region, 28th December. Semipalmated Sandpiper Nanjizal, Cornwall, 1 1 th— 1 3th August. Bonaparte’s Gull Sennen Cove, Cornwall, 30th October. Gull-billed Tern Evie, Orkney, 25th-27th September. Black Tern Chlidonias niger , North American race C. n. surinamensis Bardsey, Caernarfonshire, 16th October. Snowy Owl St Kilda, Outer Hebrides, 27th October to late November. Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops persicus Diss, Norfolk, 30th May. Red-throated Pipit near Sennen, Cornwall, 2nd October. Desert Wheatear Hodbarrow, Cumbria, 11th May. Lanceolated Warbler Fair Isle, Shetland, 8th September. Yellow-breasted Bunting Oving, East Sussex, 11th Sep- tember. 2002 Zino’s/Fea’s Petrel At sea, Sea area Sole, about 16 km SW of Land’s End, Cornwall, 14th August. ‘Black Brant’ Pagham Harbour, West Sussex, 6th January. Black-browed Albatross California, Norfolk, 31st December. Pallid Harrier Beachy Head, East Sussex, 1 5th— 1 6th July. Pacific Golden Plover Frieston Shore, Lincolnshire, 18th May. Upland Sandpiper Burnham-on-Sea, Somerset, 21st October. Chimney Swiff Chaetura pelagica Calstock, Cornwall, 2nd September. Pallid Swift Dawlish Warren, Devon, 22nd November. Red-throated Pipit Maybole, Ayrshire, 2nd December. American Robin Here- ford, Herefordshire, 5th June. Eastern Olivaceous Warbler Hippolais pallida Dealhall Beach, Essex, 24th August. Arctic Redpoll At sea, sea area Dogger, oil-installation Maerske Curlew, 17th October. 2001 American Wigeon Anas americana Caol, Highland, 29th December. Little Shearwater Peel Castle, Isle of Man, 30th September. Black Kite Thursley/Ockley Commons, Surrey, two, 15th May. Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina Farlington Marshes, Hampshire, 9th October. Red-footed Falcon Aber- lady Bay, Lothian, 13th May. Little Swift Porthgwarra, Cornwall, 24th May. Red-throated Pipit Bed- dington Sewage Farm, Surrey, 14th October. Booted Warbler Bardsey, Caernarfonshire, 20th August. 2000 American Wigeon Fulmer Lake, Buckinghamshire, 6th, 1 9th— 20th February. Wilson’s Storm- petrel At sea, sea area Lundy, 30th July, 7th August. Red-footed Falcon Bray, Berkshire, 12th June; Risley Moss, Cheshire, 23rd August. Baird’s Sandpiper Crowdy Reservoir, Cornwall, 25th August. American Robin Flelston, Cornwall, 9th November. Western Bonelli’s Warbler Bryher, Scilly, 2nd May. 1999 American Golden Plover Wrangle Marsh, Lincolnshire, 17th July. Common Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, North African race F. c. africanal spodiogenys, Hulse Heath, Cheshire, 22nd January. 1998 Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago, North American race G. g. delicata, ‘Wilson’s Snipe’, St Mary’s, Scilly, 9th October to 1999. 692 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 1996 Caspian Tern Farlington Marshes, Hampshire, 8th July. 1991 Blyth’s Pipit St Mary’s, Scilly, 16th October. Appendix 3. List of records not accepted but identification proved. Ross’s Goose Anser rossii Cheshire Frodsham, 15th February to 24th April, photo (G. Baker). Norfolk Various localities, north Norfolk coast, since November 2003 to at least 1st January (see below). Northumberland Budle Bay, first-winter, 21st February, photo (M. S. Hodgson etal). Perth & Kinross Vane Farm, 13th, 20th April (W. McBay, L. Mercer, K. D. Shaw et al); same as Norfolk 2003. 2002 Norfolk Various localities, north Norfolk coast, 1st October to 15th January 2003 (A. I. Bloom- field, I. Haynes et al). 2002 Northumberland Budle Bay, adult, 5th October (C. G. Knox et al). 2003 Norfolk Various localities, north Norfolk coast, 1st November to at least 1st January 2004 (A. I. Bloomfield, I. Haynes et al.). 2003 Perth & Kinross Blackford, adult, 13th April, photo ( J. W. Anderson). (Breeds in scattered colonies on tundra of Canadian Arctic, from Perry River region of Northwest Territories to N Manitoba, including Southampton Island, E to N Ontario. Most migrate across C USA to wintering grounds in S USA, with increasing numbers regular on Atlantic seaboard, and N Mexico.) Cinnamon Teal Anas cyanoptera Outer Hebrides Loch Thumaister, Lewis, 13th May to 16th June, photo (M. S. Scott, M. Witherall et al.) (Brit. Birds97: plate 218). (North American race A. c. septentrionalium breeds SW Canada, S through W USA to C Mexico. Migrates to winter in S USA from California to Texas, and S to C America. Other races breed South America.) White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala (0, 15,2) Cleveland Saltholme and Reclamation Pond, 29th March to 24th October (M. A. Blick, J. Grieveson etal.). Leicestershire Rutland Water, cf > 31st October to 1st November, photo (M. G. Berriman et al.). 1998 Cambridgeshire Godmanchester, juvenile, 4th September (It. M. Patient et al.). 1999 Essex Abberton Reservoir, $, 17th September to 28th October photo (A. Dally, G. Ekins, A. Kettle et al.). 1999 Greater London Walthamstow Reservoirs, $, 11th September, presumed same, 29th December to 20th February 2000 (Mr Darrell-Lambert et al.). 1999 Oxfordshire Stanton Harcourt, first- winter 2, 26th October to 9th November, photo (J. Baker et al.). 2002 Greater London Broadwater Gravel-pit, first-winter $, 1 4th— 1 8th December, photo (C. Lamsdell et al.). 2002 Leicestershire Stanford Reservoir, cf, 10th-22nd September, photo (G. Pullan et al.). 2002 Norfolk Hardley Flood, cf> 18th — 2 1st June, photo (A. Jarrett et al.). 2003 Avon Chew Valley Lake, juvenile, 26th August to 2nd September (K. E. Vinicombe); presumed same, 12th October, photo (P. Burrows, R. J. Higgins, K. E. Vinicombe et al); presumed same as 2003 Gloucestershire, below. 2003 Cambridgeshire Little Paxton Gravel-pits, cf , 1 3th-22nd September, photo ( J. L. Wells et al). 2003 Gloucestershire Slimbridge, juvenile, 24th August (M. McGill); presumed same as 2003 Avon. 2003 Hertfordshire Startops Reservoir, age uncertain, 1 0th— 1 2th September (M. C. Campbell, A. V. Moon, M. S. Wallen et al.). 2003 Kent Lade, Dungeness, first-winter, 26th-27th October (P. R. French et al); same as 2003 East Sussex/Kent, below. 2003 Leicestershire Swithland Reservoir, cf> 1 2th— 1 8th October (). A. Forryan). 2003 Sussex, East/Kent Scotney Gravel-pit, 29th October to 15th November (N. A. Driver et al.); same as 2003 Kent. As can be seen from the above list, BBRC has accepted the identification of a number of recent British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 693 Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004 individuals, including some from the notable influx that occurred between August and November 2003. However, not all records have been submitted and we would like to receive details of any claims that do not appear here, so that any emerging pattern of occasional autumn influxes can be docu- mented fully. The pattern of accepted records so far is difficult to explain in terms of escapes from col- lections. Better protection from illegal hunting and other conservation measures have enabled the White- headed Duck population in Spain to recover from an estimated 22 birds in 1977 to 2,396 in January 2000 (Brit. Birds 95: 174-188). It seems likely, though it remains unproven, that introduced Ruddy Ducks O. jamaicensis from the British population occasionally reach Spain in winter. Though it might seem that returning Ruddy Ducks could act as a ‘carrier species’, bringing the occasional White-headed Duck with them, this does not accord well with the concentration of autumn records, several involving apparent juveniles. In 2004, Vinicombe suggested that post-breeding dispersal by some of the Spanish population has, perhaps, become more widespread in years of climatic stress ( Birdwatch 145: 24—27). This would certainly seem to fit the timing better, and also coincides with similar occurrences in France. (Fragmented breeding range across steppe region of S Palearctic. Small resident or dispersive European population now confined to SC Spain. More widespread in Asia, from C Turkey, E through C Asian steppes of S Russia to E Kazakhstan and W Xinjiang province, NW China. Asian breeders winter locally on wetlands to S of breeding range from Israel to Iran and Punjab, Pakistan.) Appendix 4. List of selected records still under consideration This list is not intended to be complete. Some decisions may have been arrived at and County Recorders/observers informed prior to the publication of this Report. Some other outstanding records are referred to in the Systematic List. 2004 Black Scoter Staveley Nature Reserve, North Yorkshire, 11th August. Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis Saltholme Pools, Cleveland, 19th-20th September. Little Swift Southampton, Hampshire, 6th February. Tree Swallow Tachycineta bicolor Wick, Dorset, 31st October. Iberian Chiffchaff Windmill Far, The Lizard, Cornwall, 30th April to 3rd May. 2002 Brown Skua Catharacta antarctica, sub-antarctic race C. a. lonnbergi , St Agnes, Scilly, 7th October. Elegant Tern Sterna elegans Dawlish Warren, Devon, 18th May, 8th and 18th- 19th July; Porthmadog, Caernarfonshire, 23rd-26th fuly and other reports from eastern Britain. 2000 Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus Dungeness, Kent, 20th May. BBRC is currently undertaking a number of reviews which will investigate whether records of various rare races should continue to be accepted and will also attempt to establish the racial identity of many records currently accepted at species level. Several records of rare races that are potential ‘firsts’ for Britain also remain under consideration. A list of the reviews in progress was published in last year’s report; these all remain ongoing and the results will be published in due course. An article detailing BBRC’s approach to the recording of rare races is in preparation. ZEISS The British Birds Rarities Committee is sponsored by Carl Zeiss Ltd Chairman Colin Bradshaw, 9 Tynemouth Place, Tynemouth, Tyne & Wear NE30 4BJ Secretary M. J. Rogers, 2 Churchtown Cottages, Towednack, St Ives, Cornwall TR26 3AZ BBRC members Phil Bristow, Lance Degnan, Paul Harvey, lames Lidster, John McLoughlin, John Martin, Adam Rowlands, Brian Small, limmy Steele, John Sweeney Archivist John Marchant • Museum Consultant Brian Small RIACT Secretary Chris Kehoe • Statistician Peter Fraser Summariser and RIACT Chairman Reg Thorpe 694 British Birds 98 • December 2005 • 628-694 Protect your birds from the risk of avian (bird) flu If you keep birds, simple biosecurity measures can help to protect them, for example: • Feed and water your birds indoors. • Keep your birds away from wild birds as much as possible. • Keep everything clean - spilled feed, litter and standing water attract wild birds and vermin. • Make sure your clothes, footwear and hands are clean before and after contact with your birds. Visitors should do the same. Be vigilant! If your birds are sick, contact your vet immediately. Signs to look out for include: • breathing problems; • loss of weight; and • falling egg production. Good biosecurity makes sense at all times. Visit the Defra website at www.defra.gov.uk or call 08459 33 55 77 for more information. defra’* Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs Naturalised Birds of the World CHRISTOPHER LEVER Birds New to Britain 1980-2004 ADRIAN PI TCHES ant) TIM CLEKVE A look at the varied consequences for introduced species and the native fauna of their new home. Finder’s accounts convey the excitement and sense of achievement of finding a first for Britain. 0 7136 7022 3 - £35 Available from bookshops, or to order direct contact: Macmillan Distribution Ltd tel: 01256 302688 email: mdl@macmillan.co.uk P+P: Please add £ 1 .50 for UK orders and £3 for overseas Visit www.acblack.com for more books and special offers International journal on Palearctic birds Dutch Birding PROBABLY THE BEST BIRDING journal in Europe FOR DETAILS VISIT: WWW.DUTCHBIRDING.IML high quality production and lay-out with superb photographic quality top-quality papers on identification, taxonomy and systematics papers documenting rare and scarce birds in the Netherlands, Belgium and the WP papers and notes on birding trips, vocalizations, distribution and behaviour recent reports (WP, Belgium and the Netherlands) and latest news annual report of the Dutch rarities committee papers in English or, when in Dutch, with extensive English summary six issues per year (c 450 pages and more than 500 colour photographs) J Rare Bird Alert since 1991... .. .comprehensive , reliable, accurate & efficient NOW - new flexible options and great prices from the quality birdnews service Pagers For local birds or national news the pager is still by far the best service in- the-field, with low cost options for local news & no extra charges no matter how many updates there are. Get all the news & updates to ensure you are always in the best position to decide what to do with your limited birding time. Comes with free access to our birdnews online and free SMS account too. • From 40p - 83p per day fully inclusive of all messages and pager Mobile Phones Check-out our new flexible service. Whether you want news just at the weekend, whilst on holiday or all year our new SMS system offers the best news service with flexibility as never before. Also, with our unique listing feature you can even specify exactly which species you want news for. • Free to pager customers or from just lip per day Inclusive of some messages Online Our first class news service is updated online every few minutes throughout the day. Giving you all the news, maps of where the birds are, photo galleries and informative articles. Be sure to read the news first with RBA online. Comes free of charge with our pagers or is available for a 3 month or one year subscription. • Free to pager customers or from just 8p per day Unlimited news and extras More infomation, special offers & free trials logon or call THE BEST PAGER, THE BEST SERVICE ANDTHE BEST PRICE Use the Motorola Graphix Pager the best pager available and at £197.40 a year 23% less than any other supplier. Or we have an economy pager at £119.99 and a phone text service for £59 all inclusive - check out these prices! 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Est. 1999 ADIT 1988-2005 Sophisticated Software for Knowledgeable Naturalists Clever Code for Countryside Conservators Superb Programs for Serious Professionals Cunning Algorithms for Cheerful Amateurs Wicked Wizards for Wildlife Workers Handy Help for Biodiversity Boffins Deft Druids for Nervous Newbies Unlimited Support for Life AditPlan for Site and Species Management AditSite for Wildlife Recording and Mapping Kay Optical a 962) UNRIVALLED EXPERTISE, EXPERIENCE AND SERVICE * Sales & Repairs * Binoculars * Telescopes * Tripods, etc • Mail order • Same day despatch • Part exchange • Used items • Package deals • Credit available www.kayoptical.co.uk and www.bigbinoculars.co.uk 89(B) London Road, Morden, Surrey SM4 5HP Tel: 020 8648 8822 Fax: 020 8687 202 1 Email: info@kayoptical.co.uk Open: Mon-Sat 9-5 (lunch 1-2) Location: Southern edge of Greater London. 1 5 mins drive from M25 (for example via the A3, Ihen take the A298 Wimbledon/Merton slip-rood) or 2 mins walk from Morden underground (turn right). See our website lor o mop. Parking: 50 yards post our premises - first left Field Days Alternative venues to Morden at which you can try and buy our equipment in the field are given below. We aim to show our full range of equipment but it helps us to help you if you let us know your interests before each Field Day. Repairs can also be handed in/collected. 10.00 am to 4.00 pm usually. AditTrec for Handheld Recording Phone 01248 430075, visit www.aditsite.co.uk or email info@adit.co.uk for further details. Skip all the bumf and just buy online (all major cards, or official purchase order number) at www.aditsales.co.uk Prices start at £51.70 including VAT and delivery ADIT LIMITED, TYN RARDD, DWYRAN, ANGLESEY, LL61 6AJ Tel: 01248 430075 info@adit.co.uk www.aditsite.co.uk Sevenoaks Wildfowl Reserve On the A25 between Riveiheod and Sevenoaks Bat and Ball Stolian on 4 Dec, 8 Jan, 5 Feb & 5 Mar Pagham Harbour LNR On the B2145 into Selsey, West Sussex 1 7 Dec, 29 Jan, 26 Feb & 26 Mar Dinton Pastures Country Park Near Rending (M4, A329(M) Woodley turnoff) then A329 to Winnersh and Winnersh Station (B3030) 5 Jan The Kent Wildlife Trust, The Tyland Born, Sandling, Neor Maidstone, Kent 9 Apr Bough Beech Nature Reserve/Reservoir About 4 miles south of the A25/A21 junction (occess (torn B2042 or B2027) near Ide Hill, Kent. Info centre north of reservoir. 18 Dec, 22 Jan, 19 Feb & 19 Mar College Lake Wildlife Centre On the B488 near Bulboume, Iting, Herts. 12 Feb & 16 Apr Canon, Helios, Kowa, Leica, Manfrotto, Miyauchi, Nikon, Opticron, Optolyth, Sentinel, Swarovski, Zeiss, etc. Used items also on our web site. For subsequent Field Day dates, phone or see our web site DVDs from Bird Images Filmed & Narrated by Paul Doherty The Birds of Britain and Europe. 650 species. 6 DVDs. 13+ hours. £39.95 (+ £5 P&P) British Birds. 280 species. 3 DVDs. 6.5 hours. £19.95 (+ £2 P&P) Waders: Europe, Asia and North America. 104 species. 2 DVDs. 5 hours. £19.95 (+ £2 P&P) “So far ahead of any competition as to make comparison completely pointless” MB, Kent Cheques payable to: Bird Images, 28 Carousel Walk, Sherburn in Elmet, North Yorkshire LS25 6LP. Credit card hotline 01977 684666 www. birdvideodvd. com Classified advertising Payment for all classified advertisements must be made in advance by VISA, Mastercard or by cheque payable to British Birds. Copy deadline: 10th of the month. Contact: Ian Lycett, Solo Publishing Ltd., B403A The Chocolate Factory, 5 Clarendon Road, London N22 6XJ Tel: 020 8881 0550. Fax: 020 8881 0990. E-mail: ian.lycett@birdwatch.co.uk HOLIDAY ACCOMMODATION England NORTH NORFOLK Bed and Breakfast 1 .5 miles from Holt Very peaceful location. Close to Kelling Heath and Cley reserve. Double en-suite rooms. Evening meals and picnic lunches. Early breakfasts no problem. Non smoking. Tel: 0 1 263 7 1 0 1 1 6 or 07900 928729. Scotland ISLE OF TIREE, SCOTLAND - Self-catering cottage in fantastic location overlooking beach. Ideal for birdwatching and walking. Sleeps five. Strictly NO dogs. Book early to avoid disappointment. Contact Katie Ross preferably by email: katieross01@btinternet.com Tel: 0207 834 0817. Overseas AVIAN LEISURE - SOUTH AFRICA. Cape Peninsula. Ultimate birding base. Superb views. Above African Penguin colony. Indigenous garden: Sugarbirds 8c Sunbirds. Personalised trips countrywide. Guided or self-drive. Hot birding advice. Pelagic bookings. Leisure birders to dedicated listers. Established reputation. Owners Patrick 8c Marie-Louise Cardwell +27 21 7861414; www.avianleisure.com BEZUIDENHOUT HOUSE - Stanford, Cape Overberg, South Africa. Stanford is Bird Country. Klein River runs through it into the Hermanus lagoon in the unspoilt Cape Overberg. The area is an avitourist’s delight with our fynbos specials. Portfolio listed, TGCSA 4 star guest house. www.bezuidenhouthouse.co.za; info@bezuidenhouthouse.co.za Cell: +27 (0)83 662 9497 Fax: +27 (0)28 341 08. PROVENCE - CAMARGUE. Twos/c cottages. Rogers, Mas d’Auphan, Le Sambuc, 13200 ARLES, France. Tel: (0033) 490 972041 Email: p.m.rogers@wanadoo.fr BOOKS BIRD BOOKS BOUGHT AND SOLD. Visit our website for our online catalogue Visit our shop and see our extensive collection. Hawkridge Books, The Cruck Barn, Cross St, Castleton, Derbyshire S33 8WH. Tel: 01433 621999. Email: books@hawkridge.co.uk. Web: www.hawkridge.co.uk BIRDWATCHING HOLIDAYS Tanager Birding Budget birding trips with top local guides to Venezuela, Peru etc. For full details of planned trips call 07722 956672 or email tanagerbirding@yahoo.co.uk BIRDWATCHING HOLIDAYS Sri Lanka & India For a twin destination tour for birding & big game. eco@jetwing.lk www.jetwtngeco.com Jetwing Hotels Davey, A., photograph of ‘Sky Lark plot’, 575, plate 359 Davygora, A., photograph of Sociable Lapwing habitat, 481, plate 300 Dean, A. R., and Svensson, L., ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’ revisited, 396-410, plates 234-45 Degnan, L., and Croft, K., Black Lark: new to Britain, 306-31, plates 167-8 Dendrocopos leucotos , see Woodpecker, White- backed major , see Woodpecker, Great Spotted minor, see Woodpecker, Lesser Spotted syriacus , see Woodpecker, Syrian Dendroica petechia, see Warbler, Yellow striata, see Warbler, Blackpoll Desmette, F., photograph of Scottish Crossbill, 513, plate 317 Dies, J. I., Little Egret with yellow lores, 213-14, plate 1 10 Diver, White-billed, photograph, 507, plate 309; accepted records, 639 Doherty, P., photograph of Honey-buzzard, 186, plate 100 Donald, P. F., short and variable incubation period of the Sky Lark, 607-8 , , and Morris, T. J., saving the Sky Lark: new solutions for a declining farmland bird, 570-8, plates 355-61 , , see Cresswell, W., et al. Dotterel, photograph, 448, plate 274 Dove, Oriental Turtle, accepted records, 663 , Turtle, studies of West Palearctic birds: 58- 72, plates 23-28 Dowitcher, Long-billed, photograph, 622, plate 398; accepted records, 656-7 Dryocopus martins, see Woodpecker, Black Duck, Black, accepted records, 634 , Ferruginous, accepted records, 634-5 , Harlequin, accepted records, 637-8, plate 413 , Ring-necked, numbers in Britain in 2002, 77-78, plate 30 , Tufted, photograph of hybrid with Common Pochard, 94, plate 41; photograph of hybrid with Greater Scaup, 95, plate 42 Dumetella carolinensis, see Catbird, Grey Duncan, R., photograph of ‘Eastern’ Lesser Whitethroat, 602, plate 387 Dunlin, identification, 331-2, plate 175 Dunmore, G., letter on acknowledging records, 491 Dunnock, status change in woodland, 1 16-43 Dymond, N., review of Rasmussen & Anderton: Birds of South Asia, 609-10 Eagle, Golden, photograph, 272, plate 139 , Short-toed, ageing and sexing, 370-6, plates 211-21 , Steppe, PhotoSpot: gape-line, 147-9, plates 74-79 , White-tailed, photographs, 222, 425, plates 113,258 Earp, W., letter on 'The Chalice petrel’ revisited, 43-44 Editorial, abbreviation of scientific names, 410 Egret, Cattle, photographs, 334, 508, plates 179, 311; accepted records, 642 , Great White, landing and fishing in deep water, 212; photograph, 448, plate 272; accepted records, 642-4, plate 415 , Little, landing and fishing in deep water, 212; with yellow lores, 213-14; photograph, 426, plate 259; status and behaviour of wintering birds in western France, 468-75, plates 291-3 , Western Reef, inland records and unusual feeding methods, 213, plate 109 Egretta garzetta, see Egret, Little gularis, see Egret, Western Reef Eider, King, photograph, 390, plate 225; accepted records, 637 Elkins, N., weather and bird migration, 238-56, plates 126-37 Elliott, M., illustration of Blyth’s Pipit, 668, fig. 10 , S. T., diagnostic differences in the calls of Honey-buzzard and Common Buzzard, 494-6 Emberiza aureola, see Bunting, Yellow-breasted calandra, see Bunting, Corn chrysophrys, see Bunting, Yellow-browed cia, see Bunting, Rock — — cirlus, see Bunting, Cirl leucocephalos, see Bunting, Pine melanocephala, see Bunting, Black-headed pusilla, see Bunting, Little rustica, see Bunting, Rustic spodocephala, see Bunting, Black-faced Eretnophila alpestris, see Lark, Shore Eriksen, J., photograph of Red-throated Pipit, 426, plate 260 Erithacus rubecula, see Robin Evans, G., photographs of Long-tailed Shrike, 30, plates 8-10 Everett, M., review of Cocker & Mabey: Birds Britannica, 611-12 Everitt, P., photograph of Honey-buzzard nest- site, 154, plate 81 Fairbank, R. & J., review of Chandler & Unwin: RSPB Children’s Guide to Birdwatching, 381 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 699 Falco columbarius , see Merlin naumanni, see Kestrel, Lesser peregrinus, see Falcon, Peregrine rusticolus, see Falcon, Gyr tinnunculus, see Kestrel, Common vespertinus , see Falcon, Red-footed Falcon, Gyr, photographs, 170, 226, plates 88, 1 17; accepted records, 646 , Peregrine, nest raided by Common Raven, 215-16; ‘North American’ birds in Britain, 260-1; preying on Leach’s Storm-petrel, 320 , Red-footed, behaviour, nest-site selection and the use of artificial nest-sites in Hortobagy National Park, Hungary, 317-19, plates 171-3; accepted records, 646 Fellowes, E., photograph of Common Cuckoo and Meadow Pipit, winner, Bird Photograph of the Year 2005, 419, plate 250 Ferguson-Lees, I. J., and Christie, D. A., letter on English names for West Palearctic birds, and the role of the IOC, 207-10 , , see Combridge, P., et al. Ficedula albicilla , see Flycatcher, Taiga hypoleuca, see Flycatcher, Pied parva , see Flycatcher, Red-breasted Field characters: Lesser Scaup, 89-95, plates 34- 42; Steppe Eagle, 147-9, plates 74-79; Dunlin, 331-2, plate 175; Yellow-legged Gull, 53-54, plate 18; Black Lark, 306-31, plates 167-8; Crag Martin, 506, plate 307; Paddyfield Warbler, 168-9, plate 86; Reed Warbler, 99- 100, plates 45-49; Taiga Flycatcher, 542-6, plates 333-6; Marsh Tit, 225, plate 1 14; Yellow-browed Bunting, 618-19, plate 390 Finch, Large Cactus, photograph, 532, plate 332 , Small Ground, photograph, 532, plate 331 , Trumpeter, photographs, 393, plates 231-2 Firecrest, status change in woodland, 116-43 Fisher, D., identification of Yellow-browed Bunting, 618-19, plate 390 , L, photograph of Pomarine Skua, 519, plate 323 , R., Little Grebe swallowing small mammal, 156 Fitter, R., obituary of Cuthbert Anthony (Tony) Norris, 382-3, plate 222 Fleury, A., see Voisin, C., et al. Flint, P. and R., egrets and herons landing and fishing in deep water, 212 , Vladimir Evgen’evich, obituary, 441-3, plates 269-70 Flycatcher, Pied, status change in woodland, 1 lb- 43 , Red-breasted, species limits, 538-41 , Spotted, status change in woodland, 1 lb- 43, plate 60 , Taiga, in East Yorkshire: new to Britain, 542-6, plates 333-6; in Shetland, 547-50, plates 337-40; accepted records, 682-3 Food and feeding behaviour: Mallard, 377; Little Grebe, 156; Great Cormorant, 98; Grey Heron, 377; Eurasian Sparrowhawk, 46; Osprey, 378; Peregrine Falcon, 320; Cream- coloured Courser, 156; Ruff, 157-8; White- winged Black Tern, 47; Short-eared Owl, 46; Syrian Woodpecker, 378; Common Redstart, 265-6; Blackbird, 266; Blue Tit, 102; Corsican Nuthatch, 158-9, plates 83-84; Eurasian Nuthatch, 380; Short-toed Treecreeper, 380; Carrion Crow, 214; Common Raven, 215-16; House Sparrow, 216; Common Chaffinch, 268; Blue Chaffinch, 435; Linnet, 102 Forman, D., king of the castle: play-like behaviour in juvenile Common Coots, 263 Fox, T., obituary of Janet Kear, 218-20, plate 1 1 1 Fraser, P. A., and Rogers, M. J., report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2002. Part 2: American Wigeon to Ring-billed Gull, 73-88, plates 29-33 Fratercula arctica , see Puffin Fray, R., review of Taylor: A Birders Guide to Southeastern Arizona , 500 Fringilla coelebs , see Chaffinch, Common teydea , see Chaffinch, Blue From the Rarities Committee’s files: a review of the identification of ‘Balearic’ Woodchat Shrike, and details of three British records, 32-42, plates 11-17 and colour plate Frost, R. A., Eurasian Nuthatches foraging on stonework, 380 Fry, C. H., letter on The Birds of Africa Vol. VII: review correction, 45 Fulica americana , see Coot, American Fuller, R. J., et al , recent declines in populations of woodland birds in Britain: a review of possible causes, 116-43, plates 60-73 Fulmar, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19, plates 2, 6 Fulmarus glacialis , see Fulmar GaUinago media , see Snipe, Great Galvin, C., photograph of Pallas’s Leaf Warbler, 171, plate 91; of Waxwing, 172, plate 92; of Sooty Tern, 450, plate 279; of Wryneck, 567, plate 349; of White’s Thrush, 674, plate 438 Gannet, Northern, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19, plates 3, 6-7; status in Britain & Ireland in 2003/04, 280- 700 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 94, plates 148-61; letter on the Ailsa Craig gannetry in 2004, 551-2, plate 341 Garcia, E., letter on English names, 430 Garner, M., review of Wallace: Beguiled by Birds, 48; the Fair Isle sandpiper: a review, 356-64, plates 198-208 Garrulus glandarius, see Jay, Eurasian Gates, J., Common Kestrel and Carrion Crow using the same tree for nesting, 317 Gauntlett, F. M., letter on English names of Western Palearctic birds, and the role of the IOC, 430-1 Gavia adamsii, see Diver, White-billed Geospiza conirostris, see Finch, Large Cactus fuliginosa, see Finch, Small Ground Geothlypis trichas, see Yellowthroat, Common Gibson, A., Sky Lark using birdwatchers as refuge from Merlins, 46-47 Glareola nordmanni, see Pratincole, Black-winged Glaucidium passerinurn, see Owl, Pygmy Glue, D., review of Couzens: The Secret Lives of Garden Birds, 103-4 Godin, J., see Voisin, C., et al. Goldcrest, status change in woodland, 1 16-43; foot and leg colour, 379 Goldeneye, Barrow’s, photographs, 333, plates 177-8 Goose, Bar-headed, photograph, 560, plate 342 , Barnacle, photographs, 202, 524, plates 107, 326 , Brent, accepted records of B. b. nigricans, 631-3 , Lesser Canada, photograph, 524, plate 325 , Pink-footed, photographs, 241, 524, plates 128, 325 , Red-breasted, accepted records, 633 Gosler, A., see Marchant, J., et al. Grantham, M., see Roper, P. Grebe, Little, swallowing small mammal, 156; photograph, 420, plate 251 Greenwood, J. J. D., letter on Environmental Information Regulations, 207 Gregory, R., see Conservation research news Gricks, N., Short-eared Owl preying on Merlin, 46 Grosbeak, Pine, accepted records, 686 Grouse, Red, defence attack on Hen Harrier, 316; photograph, 421, plate 252 Gruar, D., see Conservation research news Grus grtis, see Crane, Common — — - leucogeranus, see Crane, Siberian Guillemot, Common, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19, plate 1; photographs, 294, 385, plates 161, 223 Gull, Bonaparte’s, photograph, 171, plate 90; accepted records, 660 , Franklin’s, accepted records, 659-60, plate 428 , Herring, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19; urban population: problems and solutions, 338-55, plates 185-97; photographs of American Herring Gull’, 515, plates 318-19; of ‘Steppe Gull’, 529, plate 328; of ‘Caspian Gull’, 529, plate 329; letter on numbers breeding on Skomer, 553-4 , Iceland, photograph, 227, plate 1 19; photograph of ‘Thayer’s Gull’, 227, plate 120 , Ivory, photograph, 56, plate 21; accepted records, 661 , Laughing, photograph, 509, plate 312; accepted records, 659 , Lesser Black-backed, urban population: problems and solutions, 338-55, plates 185- 97; letter on numbers breeding on Skomer, 553-4 , Ring-billed, numbers in Britain in 2002, 87- 88 , Ross’s, photographs, 114, 228, plates 57, 121; discussion of first British record, 230-7, plate 124; discovering the breeding grounds: 100 years on, 589-99, plates 366-78 , Sabine’s, numbers in Britain in 2002, 86, plate 33; photographs, 248, 449, 566, plates 131,276, 347 , Yellow-legged, identification, 53-54, plate 18 Gypaetus barbatus, see Lammergeier Hackett, R, photograph of Barrow’s Goldeneye, 333, plate 177; of White-billed Diver, 507, plate 309; of Laughing Gull, 509, plate 312; of Lesser Crested Tern, 510, plate 314 Haliaetus albicilla, see Eagle, White-tailed Hamblin, T., photograph of Little Grebe, second place, Bird Photograph of the Year 2005, 420, plate 251; of Common Pheasant, 424, plate 255 Hancock, James Allitt, obituary, 163, plate 85 Harrier, Hen, defence attack by Red Grouse, 316; opportunistic feeding by female, 317 , Marsh, nesting in trees, 314-16, plates 169- 70; photographs, 328, 503, plates 174, 306 , Pallid, migration through the central Mediterranean, 155; accepted records, 645, plates 416-7 Harriman, J., photograph of Lesser Scaup, 90, plate 34 Harris, A., Mallard diving for fish, 377; review of British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 701 Index c > Rose: In a Natural Light , 612-13 , M. R, photograph of Common Guillemot, 385, plate 223 , , see Wanless, S., et al. Harrop, A. H. J., presumed hybrid Syrian x Great Spotted Woodpecker in Poland, 98-99, plate 44 , H., photograph of Kittiwake, 96, plate 43; of Ross’s Gull, 1 14, plate 57; of Barn Owl, 1 14, plate 58; of King Eider, 390, plate 225; of Great White Egret, 448, plate 272; of Paddyfield Warbler, 452, plate 282; of Taiga Flycatcher, 547-8, plates 337-40; of European Bee-eater, 566, plate 348; of Greenish Warbler, 568, 625, plates 351, 406; of Dark- throated Thrush, 624, plate 403; of Arctic Warbler, 625, plate 407; of Yellow Warbler, 626, plate 409; of Pallid Harrier, 645, plates 416-7; of White’s Thrush, 674, plates 435-7; of Brown Shrike, 684, plate 440 Harvey, M., letter on Honey-buzzards in Britain, 489-90 , P, review of Green: The Birds of Dorset , 49; photograph of Semipalmated Sandpiper, 359, plate 201; review of Marsh: The Good Bird Guide , 500 , R., photograph of Sabine’s Gull, 449, plate 276 Hawfinch, status change in woodland, 1 16-43, plate 63 Hearn, P, see Marchant, J., et al. Heron, Chinese Pond, photograph, 56, plate 20 , Grey, landing and fishing in deep water, 212; piratical feeding and unusual diet, 377 , Night, numbers in Britain in 2002, 79; accepted records, 641 , Purple, numbers in Britain in 2002, 79-80; photograph, 254, plate 136 , Squacco, photograph, 620, plate 394; accepted records, 641-2, plate 414 Herroelen, P., Garden Warblers moulting in autumn, 434 Hewitt, I., photograph of Dotterel, 448, plate 274; of Lesser Grey Shrike, 568, plate 354 Hillcoat, B., review of Nowak: Wissenschaftler in Turbulenten Zeiten , 438 Himantopus himantopus, see Stilt, Black-winged Hippolais caligata , see Warbler, Booted rama, see Warbler, Sykes’s Hirundo daurica , see Swallow, Red-rumped rustica, see Swallow, Barn Histrionicus histrionicus, see Duck, Harlequin Hjort, C., letter on Siberian Pectoral Sandpipers seen migrating towards the southwest, 261 Holloway, P, photograph of Little Egret, 426, plate 259 Honey-buzzard, numbers in Britain in 2002, 81; in Britain, 153-5, plates 80-81; photograph, 186, plate 100; letters on breeding status in Britain, 488-90; diagnostic differences in calls compared with Common Buzzard, 494-6 Hoopoe, photograph, 335, plate 182 Hosking, D., see Chandler, R., et al. Hydrobates pelagicus, see Storm-petrel, European Ibis, Glossy, accepted records, 644 Icterus galbula , see Oriole, Baltimore Irvine, A., photograph of Gyr Falcon, 226, plate 117 Ixobrychus minutus, see Bittern, Little Jay, Eurasian, status change in woodland, 116-43 liguet, F., and Julliard, R., the status and distribution of the Cirl Bunting in France in 2003,216-17 Jones, M., White-winged Black Tern feeding on butterflies, 47 Johnstone, L, see Conservation research news Judd, K., photograph of Northern Gannet colony, 291, plate 158 Julliard, R., see Jiguet, F. lynx torquilla , see Wryneck Kane, K. W. S. and H. M. R., mimicry by Blackbirds, 378-9 Kear, Janet, obituary, 218-20, plate 111 Kehoe, C., see Bradshaw, Colin, et al. Kennerley, P, review of Borrow & Demey: Field Guide to the Birds of Western Africa , 269-70; photographs of Itoss’s Gull and its breeding habitats, 592, 596-7, plates 370, 373-7 Kestrel, Common, using the same tree for nesting as Carrion Crow, 317 , Lesser, discussion of first British record, 230-7, plate 125 Khrokov, V., see Cresswell, W., et al. Kilgour, R., photograph of Paddyfield Warbler, 168, plate 86; of Eurasian Nuthatch, 190, plate 103; of Song Thrush, 464, plate 288; of American Robin, 675, plate 439 Killdeer, photographs, 1 13, 227, 276, plates 56, 118, 141; accepted records, 649, plate 421 Kingfisher, Belted, photographs, 278, plates 144-5 Kirwan, G. M., letter on Black and White-winged Larks in Europe, and the museum tradition, 491-2 Kite, Black, photograph, 391, plate 226; accepted 702 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 Index c records, 644-5 , Red, vulnerability to rodenticides - a feeding experiment, 411-16, plates 246-8 Kittiwake, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19; photograph, 96, plate 43 Kjaer, D., photographs of Great Bustard, 305, plates 164-6; of Sky Lark, 573, 578, plates 357, 361 Knights, C., photograph of Lammergeier, 425, plate 257 Knot, Great, accepted records, 651, plate 422 , Red, photograph, 239, plate 126 Knox, A. G., see Svensson, L., et al. Konrad, V., photograph of Yellow-legged Gull, 53, plate 18; of Dunlin, 331, plate 175 Kornev, S., photograph of Sociable Lapwing, 477, plate 294; of rookery, 479, plates 296-7; of Black-winged Pratincole, 480, plate 298 Kruger, T., photograph of hybrid Greater Scaup x Tufted Duck, 95, plate 42 Lagopus lagopus , see Grouse, Red Lammergeier, photograph, 425, plate 257 Lancaster, B., Blue Chaffinch eating meat, 435 Land, D., photograph of Waxwing, 172, plate 93 Lane, M., photograph of Marsh Harrier, 328, plate 174; of White- tailed Eagle, 425, plate 258 Langman, M., photograph of 'Black-headed Wagtail’, 451, plate 281 Langsbury, G., photograph of Turtle Dove, 59, plate 23; of Tawny Owl, 188, plate 102; of Black Woodpecker, 423, plate 254; of Garden Warbler, 424, plate 256 Lanins colhirio , see Shrike, Red-backed cristatus , see Shrike, Brown isabellimis , see Shrike, Isabelline meridionalis, see Shrike, Southern Grey minor, see Shrike, Lesser Grey nubicus, see Shrike, Masked schach, see Shrike, Long-tailed senator, see Shrike, Woodchat Lansdown, P., review of Flegg: Time to Fly: exploring bird migration, 103; of Paulson: Shorebirds of North America, 499 Lapwing, Sociable, status in Eurasia: what does the future hold?, 476-85, plates 294-303; ongoing research on Sociable Lapwings - an update, 496-7 Lark, Black, new to Britain, 306-31, plates 167-8; letter on records in Europe, and the museum tradition, 491-2 , Calandra, accepted records, 665 , Shore, photograph, 242, plate 129 , Sky, using birdwatchers as refuge from Merlins, 46-47; new solutions for saving a declining farmland bird, 570-8, plates 355-61; short and variable incubation period, 607-8 , White-winged, letter on records in Europe, and the museum tradition, 491-2 Larus argentatus , see Gull, Herring atricilla, see Gull, Laughing delawarensis, see Gull, Ring-billed fuscus, see Gull, Lesser Black-backed glaucoides, see Gull, Iceland michahellis , see Gull, Yellow-legged Philadelphia, see Gull, Bonaparte’s pipixcan, see Gull, Franklin’s sabini, see Gull, Sabine’s Lassey, P. A., Taiga Flycatcher in East Yorkshire: new to Britain, 542-6, plates 333-6 Lawrence, J., photograph of ‘Thayer’s Gull’, 227, plate 120; of Killdeer, 276, plate 141; of Belted Kingfisher, 278, plate 144; of Cattle Egret, 508, plate 311 Leach, L, of Lesser Scaup and Greater Scaup, 90, plate 35; photographs of Lesser Scaup, 91-92, plates 38-39; photograph of Sora, 113, 646, plates 54, 418; of Dusky Warbler, 1 14, plate 59; of Lesser Canada Goose and Pink-footed Goose, 524, plate 325; of Squacco Heron, 642, plate 414; of Great White Egret, 643, plate 415; of Western Sandpiper, 652, plate 424; of Baird’s Sandpiper, 654, plate 425; of Pied Wheatear, 672, plate 434 Leopold, M., scavenging by Great Cormorants, 98 Lessow, O., photograph of Turtle Dove, 63, plate 25 Lidster, J., identification of Paddyfield Warbler, 168-9, plate 86; identification of Marsh Tit, 225, plate 1 14 Limicola falcinellus, see Sandpiper, Broad-billed Linmodromus scolopaceus, see Dowitcher, Long- billed Lindsell, J., see Conservation research news Linnet, food plants, 102 Linwood, S., photograph of Lesser Black-backed Gull, 353, plate 197 Locustella certhiola, see Warbler, Pallas’s Grasshopper lanceolata, see Warbler, Lanceolated luscinioides, see Warbler, Savi’s Logunov, D. V., see McGhie, H. A. Looking back: 237; 603 Loseby, T., photograph of Blackbird, 445, plate 271; of Fieldfare, 486, plate 304; of Bar- headed Goose, 560, plate 342 Luoto, H., letter on Pectoral Sandpipers in British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 703 Index c } Finland, 155 Loxia leucoptera , see Crossbill, Two-barred scotica , see Crossbill, Scottish Luscinia luscinia, see Nightingale, Thrush megarhynchos, see Nightingale, Common svecica , see Bluethroat MacFarlane, D., photographs of Black-browed Albatross, 620, plates 392-3 Maclean, N., et al, Taxonomy for birders: a beginner’s guide to DNA and species problems, 512-37, plates 316-32 Maher, M., photograph of Citrine Wagtail, 669, plate 432 Mainwood, T., review of Clark & Sellers: The Birds and Mammals of Caithness, 323; photograph of Lanceolated Warbler, 624, plate 404; of Common Yellowthroat, 689, plate 444 Mallard, diving for fish, 377 Malpass, M., photograph of Belted Kingfisher, 278, plate 145; of Caspian Tern, 509, plate 313 Marchant, J. et al. The BB/BTO Best Bird Book of the Year 2004, 144-6 Martin, Crag, identification, 506, plate 307 , Purple, accepted records, 665-6, plates 429- 30 Mason, C. F., birds, landscape and land use, 454- 67, plates 285-90 McCanch, N., Carrion Crow killing by strangulation, 214; adult Carrion Crow allopreening a juvenile, 215 McElwee, S., photograph of Golden Oriole, 392, plate 228; of Pacific Golden Plover, 449, plate 275; of Baird’s Sandpiper, 621, plate 397; of Citrine Wagtail, 623, plate 401 McGeehan, A., review of Watters: ATTU: Birding on the Edge, 161-2 , , see Nightingale, B. McGeough, B., photograph of ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’, 407, plate 244 McGhie, H. A., and Logunov, D. V., discovering the breeding grounds of Ross’s Gull: 100 years on, 589-99, plates 366-78 McGinn, D., photographs of Purple Sandpiper, 580, 583, 588, plates 362-3, 365 McKavett, M., photograph of Sky Lark, 571, plate 355 McKee, M., photographs of Killdeer, 1 13, 649, plates 56, 421; of ‘Siberian Stonechat’, 672, plate 433 McKinney, T., review of Freddi: Pelican Blood, 610 Meek, E., review of Patrikeev: The Birds of Azerbaijan, 557 Melanitta americana, see Scoter, Black perspicillata, see Scoter, Surf Melanocorypha calandra, see Lark, Calandra leucoptera, see Lark, White-winged yeltoniensis, see Lark, Black Melling, T., the Tadcaster rarities, 230-7, plates 122-5 Merlin, preyed on by Short-eared Owl, 46; Sky Lark using birdwatchers as refuge from, 46-47 Merne, O., photographs of Northern Gannet colony, 292, plates 1 59-60 Merops apiaster, see Bee-eater, European Michalczuk, I. and M„ feeding habits of Syrian Woodpecker, 378 Middleton, P., Blackbird defending food source with a leaf, 266 Milvus migrans , see Kite, Black Milvus milvus, see Kite, Red Mitchell, B., illustration of Bonaparte’s Gull, 660, fig. 8 Monthly Marathon: 13: 11, plate 19; 13: 12, plate 87; 13: 13, plate 115; 13: 14, plate 176; 13: 15, plate 308; 13: 16, plate 391 Monticola saxatilis , see Thrush, Rock Moore, D., letter on the British Birdwatching Fair 2005, 261-2; review of Burton: Garden Bird Behaviour, 324; of Playward-Smith: Ospreys: Flying Home to Rutland Water (DVD), 501 , , and Rees, G., Peregrine Falcon preying on Leach’s Storm-petrel, 320 Morris, A., photograph of Green-winged Teal, 518, plate 322 , , photograph of ‘Sky Lark plot’, 575, plate 360 , A. J., see Donald, P. F. Morus bassanus, see Gannet, Northern Motacilla alba, see Wagtail, Pied citreola, see Wagtail, Citrine flava, see Wagtail, Yellow Mullarney, K., identification of Yellow-legged Gull, 53-54, plate 18 Murray, S., see Wanless, S., et al. , , photographs of Northern Gannet colony, 281-7, plates 148-53 Muscicapa striata, see Flycatcher, Spotted Nason, R., photograph of Subalpine Warbler, 391, plate 227; of Corn Bunting, 459, plate 287; of Little Egret, 472, plate 292; of Rustic Bunting, 690, plate 445 New to Britain: Long-tailed Shrike, 26-31, plates 8-10; Black Lark, 306-31, plates 167-8; Taiga Flycatcher, 542-6, plates 333-6 Newell, R. G., review of Brown 8t Grice: Birds in 704 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 Index C > England , 436; photograph of ‘American Herring Gull’, 515, plate 319; of 'White Wagtail’, 521, plate 324; of ‘Tristan Skua’, 527, plate 327; of ‘Steppe Gull’, 529, plate 328; of hybrid gull, 529, plate 329; of Yellow Wagtail, 530, plate 330 , , see Maclean, N., et al. Newman, T., photograph of Red-billed Choughs, 109, plate 52 News and comment: 50-52; 107-111; 164-7; 222- 4; 272-5; 326-30; 385-9; 444-7; 502-5; 559-63; 614-17 Nightingale, 13., the status of Lady Amherst’s Pheasant in Britain, 20-25 , , and McGeehan, A., recent reports, see Recent reports Nightingale, Common, status change in woodland, 116-43, plate 65 , Thrush, photograph, 567, plate 350; accepted records, 671 Noble, D. G., see Fuller, R. J., et al. Norris, Cuthbert Anthony (Tony), obituary, 382- 3, plate 222 Ntampakis, D., and Carter, I., Red Kites and rodenticides - a feeding experiment, 411-16, plates 246-8 Nuthatch, Corsican, behaviour after a wildfire, 158-9, plates 83-84 , Eurasian, status change in woodland, 1 lb- 43; photograph of, 190, plate 103; flycatching, 380; foraging on stonework, 380 Nycticorax nycticorax, see Heron, Night Obituaries: James Allitt Hancock, 163, plate 85; Janet Kear, 218-20, plate 111; Colin Joseph Bibby, 220-1, plate 1 12; Cuthbert Anthony (Tony) Norris, 382-3, plate 222; Miriam Louisa Rothschild, 383-4; Derek Almey Ratcliffe, 439-41, plate 268; Vladimir Evgen’evich Flint, 441-3, plates 269-70; Roger David Penhallurick, 493 Oceanites oceanicus, see Storm-petrel, Wilson’s Oceanodroma leucorhoa , see Storm-petrel, Leach’s Oenanthe deserti , see Wheatear, Desert isabellina , see Wheatear, Isabelline pleschanka , see Wheatear, Pied Ogilvie, M. A., review of Kear: Ducks, Geese and Swans, 558 Oliver, P. J., letter on acknowledging records, 211; feeding rates of Avocet chicks, 263-4 Oriole, Baltimore, accepted records, 691 , Golden, photograph, 392, plate 228 Oriolus oriolus, see Oriole, Golden Osprey, components of a nest, 98; migrating with fish, 378 Otis tarda, see Bustard, Great Otus scops, see Owl, Eurasian Scops Ovenbird, accepted records, 688-9, plate 443 Owl, Barn, photograph, 1 14, plate 58 , Eurasian Scops, accepted records, 663-4 , Long-eared, status change in woodland, 116-43, plate 73 , Pygmy, photograph, 174, plate 94 , Short-eared, preying on Merlin, 46 , Snowy, photographs, 277, 451, plates 143, 280; accepted records, 664 , Tawny, status change in woodland, 1 16-43; photograph, 188, plate 102 Pagophila eburnea, see Gull, Ivory Palmer, P., Ruffs feeding on contents of a Giraffe’s stomach, 157-8; photograph of Macqueen’s Bustard, 231, plate 122; of Orphean Warbler, 232, plate 123; of Ross’s Gull, 233, plate 124; of Lesser Kestrel, 235, plate 125; letter on declining woodland birds, 428-9 Pandion haliaetus, see Osprey Pankhurst, T., Common Cuckoo parasitising Barn Swallow, 320 Parkin, D., review of Summers-Smith: The House Sparrow, 106; of Panov: The Wheatears of the Palearctic, 556-7 , , see Svensson, L., et al. Parus ater, see Tit, Coal caeruleus , see Tit, Blue cristatus, see Tit, Crested major, see Tit, Great montanus, see Tit, Willow palustris, see Tit, Marsh Passer domesticus, see Sparrow, House Penhallurick, Roger David, obituary, 493 Pennington, M., photograph of Rustic Bunting, 394, plate 233; review of BirdGuides: The DVD-ROM Guide to British Birds, version 8 (DVD), 321; photograph of Arctic Warbler, 568, plate 352; of Veery, 624, plate 402 Percival, S., birds and windfarms: what are the real issues?, 194-204, plates 104-8 Pernis apivorus, see Honey-buzzard Perrins, C., obituary of James Allitt Hancock, 163, plate 85; photograph of Northern Gannet colony, 288, plate 155 Petrel, Fea’s, accepted records, 639-40 , Zino’s/Fea’s, accepted records, 640 Phalacrocorax aristotelis, see Shag Phalacrocorax carbo, see Cormorant, Great Phalarope, Grey, numbers in Britain in 2002, 86 , Red-necked, numbers in Britain in 2002, British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 705 Index C 85; photograph, 335, plate 181 , Wilson’s, photograph, 565, plate 346 Phalaropus fulicarius, see Phalarope, Grey lobatus , see Phalarope, Red-necked tricolor , see Phalarope, Wilson’s Phasianus colchicus, see Pheasant, Common Pheasant, Common, photograph, 424, plate 255 , Lady Amherst’s, status in Britain, 20-25 Philomachus pugnax, see Ruff Phoenicurus phoenicurus , see Redstart, Common PhotoSpot: Steppe Eagle, 147-9, plates 74-79 Phylloscopus bonelli , see Warbler, Western Bonelli’s borealis , see Warbler, Arctic collybita , see Chiffchaff, Common fuscatus, see Warbler, Dusky humei , see Warbler, Hume’s ibericus , see Chiffchaff, Iberian orientalis, see Warbler, Eastern Bonelli’s proregulus , see Warbler, Pallas’s Leaf schwarzi , see Warbler, Radde’s sibilatrix, see Warbler, Wood sindianus , see Chiffchaff, Mountain trochiloides , see Warbler, Greenish trochilus , see Warbler, Willow Picus viridis, see Woodpecker, Green Piner, S., photograph of Killdeer, 227, plate 118; of Yellow Warbler, 687, plate 442 Pinicola enucleator, see Grosbeak, Pine Pipit, Blyth’s, accepted records, 667; illustration, 668, fig. 10 , Meadow, photograph, 419, plate 250 , Olive-backed, accepted records, 667-8 , Pechora, accepted records, 668 , Red-throated, photograph, 426, plate 260; accepted records, 669 , Rock, fledglings fed by House Sparrow, 216 , Tree, status change in woodland, 116-43 Pitches, A., news and comment, see News and comment; review of Britton & Day: Where to Watch Birds in Northeast England, 161 Plegadis falcinellus, see Ibis, Glossy Plover, American Golden, accepted records, 650 , Greater Sand, accepted records, 649-50 , Lesser Sand, accepted records, 649 , Oriental, exceptional numbers in southern Siberia in 2003, 156-7, plate 82 , Pacific Golden, photograph, 449, plate 275; accepted records, 650- 1 Pluvialis dominica , see Plover, American Golden fulva, see Plover, Pacific Golden Pochard, Common, photograph of hybrid with Tufted Duck, 94, plate 41 Porkert, J., and Spinka, M., feeding of bilberries to Common Redstart nestlings: an emergency strategy, 265-6 Porzana Carolina, see Sora parva, see Crake, Little porzana, see Crake, Spotted Potapov, E., photograph of Siberian Crane, 441, plate 269 Powell, D., review of Walthew: Eric Ennion: One Man's Birds, 322-3 Pratincole, Black-winged, photographs, 480, 482, plates 298, 302 Pritchard, J., see Bradshaw, Chris Prague subis, see Martin, Purple Prunella collaris, see Accentor, Alpine modularis, see Dunnock Prytherch, R., see Marchant, J., et al. Prys-Jones, R., review of van Emden 8c Rothschild: Insect and Bird Interactions, 160-1 Pterodroma feae, see Petrel, Fea’s rnadeira/feae, see Petrel, Zino’s/Fea’s Ptyonoprogne rupestris, see Martin, Crag Puffin, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19, plate 4 Puffinus assimilis, see Shearwater, Little puffinus, see Shearwater, Manx Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, see Chough, Red-billed Pyrrhula pyrrhula, see Bullfinch Radford, A. P., repeated singing by Wren as a reaction of an emerging Adder, 264; Common Chaffinch seizing Southern Hawker dragonfly, 268 Rarities Committee, news and announcements, 336; 546; 606 Ratcliffe, Derek Almey, obituary, 439-41, plate 268 Raven, Common, raiding Peregrine Falcon nest, 215-16 Razorbill, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19 Read, M., photograph of Great Spotted Cuckoo, 277, plate 142; of White Stork, 448, plate 273; of Sora, 621, plate 395; of Long-billed Dowitcher, 622, plate 398; of Spotted Sandpiper, 622, plate 399; of Blackpoll Warbler, 626, plate 410; of Little Crake, 647, plate 419 Recent reports: 55-56; 112-14; 170-2; 226-8; 276- 8; 332-6; 390-4; 448-52; 507-10; 564-8; 619- 26 Recurvirostra avosetta , see Avocet Redhead, accepted records, 634 Redpoll, Arctic, accepted records, 686 , Lesser, status change in woodland, 1 16-43, 706 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 Index c > plate 67 Redstart, Common, status change in woodland, 116-43; photograph, 243, plate 130; feeding of bilberries to nestlings: an emergency strategy, 265-6 Redwing, photograph, 255, plate 137 Rees, G., see Moore, D. Reese, R. A., letter on petrels around Madeira, 43 Regulus ignicapilla, see Firecrest regulus, see Goldcrest Remiz pertdulinus, see Tit, Penduline Reszeter, G., photograph of Ring-necked Duck, 78, plate 30; of Sabine’s Gull, 86, 566, plates 33, 347; of Spotted Flycatcher, 117, plate 60; of Eurasian Sparrowhawk, 131, plate 70; of Lesser Scaup, 226, plate 1 16; of Trumpeter Finch, 393, plate 232; of Taiga Flycatcher, 543, plate 335; of Broad-billed Sandpiper, 655, plate 426 Reviews Barnes: How to be a Bad Birdwatcher , 106 BirdGuides: BWPi: Birds of the Western Palearctic (DVD), 104-5 BirdGuides: The DVD-ROM Guide to British Birds, version 8 (DVD), 321 Borrow & Demey: Field Guide to the Birds of Western Africa, 269-70 Britton 8c Day: Where to Watch Birds in Northeast England , 1 6 1 Brown 8c Grice: Birds in England, 436 Burfield 8c van Bommel: Birds in Europe , 269 Burton: Garden Bird Behaviour, 324 Calvert: Reed Warblers at Rostherne Mere, 437-8 Casha: Where to Watch Birds and Other Wildlife in Malta, 325 Chandler 8c Unwin: RSPB Children’s Guide to Birdwatching, 381 Clark 8c Sellers: The Birds and Mammals of Caithness, 323 Cocker 8c Mabey: Birds Britannica, 611-12 Collar: Why Museums Matter, 324 Couzens: The Secret Lives of Garden Birds, 103-4 del Hoyo et al.: Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 9, 498 Denny: The Birds of Wintersett, 323 Doherty: DVD Guide to British Birds (DVD), 436-7 Elphick: Birds - the Art of Ornithology, 321-2 Fjeldsa: The Grebes, 556 Flegg: Time to Fly: exploring bird migration, 103 Freddi: Pelican Blood, 610 Gallimore 8c Appleton: Bird Brain of Britain, 104 Gorman: Woodpeckers of Europe, 160 Green: The Birds of Dorset, 49 Harrison 8c Harrison: The New Birds of the West Midlands, 6 1 1 Hayward-Smith: Ospreys: Flying Home to Rutland Water (DVD), 501 Kear: Ducks, Geese and Swans, 558 Marsh: The Good Bird Guide, 500 Murphy: A Birdwatchers’ Guide to Trinidad and Tobago, 162 Nowak: Wissenschaftler in Turbulenten Zeiten, 438 Olsen 8c Larsson: Gulls of Europe, Asia and North America, 270-1 Panov: The Wheatears of the Palearctic, 556-7 Patrikeev: The Birds of Azerbaijan, 557 Paulson: Shorebirds of North America, 499 Rasmussen 8c Anderton: Birds of South Asia , 609-10 Riley: Arrivals and Rivals, 325 Rose: In a Natural Light, 612-13 Rouse: Life in the Wild, 381 Smaldon: The Birds of Dartmoor, 501 Summers-Smith: The House Sparrow, 106 Taylor: A Birder’s Guide to Southeastern Arizona, 500 Tipling: Bird Photography, 613 Valqui: Where to Watch Birds in Peru, 498-9 van Emden 8c Rothschild: Insect and Bird Interactions, 160-1 Vaughan 8c Vaughan Jennings: The Stone Curlew, 555 Wallace: Beguiled by Birds , 48 Walthew: Eric Ennion: One Man’s Birds, 322-3 Watters: ATTU: Birding on the Edge, 161-2 Weston: Digital Wildlife Photography, 437 Rhodostethia rosea, see Gull, Ross’s Richardson, W., photograph of Red Grouse, third place. Bird Photograph of the Year 2005, 421, plate 252 Riddington, R., photograph of Reed Warbler, 100, plate 49; review of Barnes: How to be a Bad Birdwatcher, 106; of Burfield 8c van Bommel: Birds in Europe, 269; of del Hoyo et al: Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 9, 498; photograph of Citrine Wagtail, 669, plate 431 , , see Votier, S. , , see Bradshaw, Colin, et al. Rissa tridactyla, see Kittiwake Roberts, S., photograph of Honey-buzzard nest- British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 707 Index c > site, 154, plate 80 Rissa tridactyla, see Kittiwake Robin, status change in woodland, 116-43 , American, accepted records, 675, plate 439 Rock, P„ urban gulls: problems and solutions, 338-55, plates 185-97 Rogers, M. J., and the Rarities Committee, report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2004, 628-94, plates 412-45 , , see Fraser, P. A. Rook, photographs, 479, plates 296-7 Rooke, S., identification of Dunlin, 331-2, plate 175; of Crag Martin, 506, plate 307 Roper, P., and Grantham, M., Garden Warblers: autumn moulting in the UK and birds with extra rectrices, 266-7, plate 318 Rothschild, Miriam Louisa, obituary, 383-4 Rowlands, S., photograph of Snowy Owl, 451, plate 280 Ruff, feeding on contents of a Giraffe’s stomach, 157-8 Sage, B., Blue Tits feeding on a saltmarsh, 102; food plants of Linnet, 102 Sammut, M., Marsh Harriers nesting in trees, 314-16, plates 169-70; review of Casha: Where to Watch Birds and Other Wildlife in Malta, 325 Sandpiper, Baird’s, photograph, 621, plate 397; accepted records, 653-4, plate 425 , Broad-billed, accepted records, 654-5, plate 426 , Buff-breasted, numbers in Britain in 2002, 85; photograph, 565, plate 345 , Common, photograph, 422, plate 253 , Green, photograph, 171, plate 89 , Least, photograph, 564, plate 344; accepted records, 653 , Marsh, accepted records, 657 , Pectoral, numbers in Britain in 2002, 84-85, plate 32; in Finland, 155; Siberian birds seen migrating towards the southwest, 261 , Purple, population size, breeding biology and origins of Scottish birds, 579-88, plates 362-5 , Semipalmated, the Fair Isle sandpiper: a review, 356-64, plates 198, 201-3, 207-8; photograph, 564, plate 343; accepted records, 652, plate 423 , Sharp-tailed, accepted records, 654 , Spotted, photograph, 622, plate 399; accepted records, 659 , Upland, accepted records, 657, plate 427 , Western, the Fair Isle sandpiper: a review, 356-64, plates 199-200, 204-6; accepted records, 652-3, plate 424 , White-rumped, accepted records, 653 Sangster, G., see Svensson, L., et al. Saxicola torquatus, see Stonechat, Common Scaup, Greater, photographs, 90, 92, plates 35-36, 40; of hybrid with Tufted Duck, 95, plate 42 , Lesser, identification review, 89-95, plates 34-42; photographs, 226, 276, 390, plates 116, 140, 224; accepted records, 635-7, plate 412 Schenk, C., photographs of Ross’s Gull, 589, 599, plates 366, 378 Schofield, R., review of Murphy: A Birdwatchers’ Guide to Trinidad and Tobago, 162; of Valqui: Where to Watch Birds in Peru, 498-9 Scolopax rusticola, see Woodcock Scoter, Black, accepted records, 638 , Surf, numbers in Britain in 2002, 78 Scott, R. E., see Marchant, J., et al. , H., photograph of ‘Eastern’ Lesser Whitethroat, 602, plate 386 Seal, S., photographs of ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’, 406- 7, plates 243, 245 Seiurus aurocapilla, see Ovenbird Shag, which subspecies of Shag occurs in Galicia?, 369-70, plates 209-10 Sharpe, C., defence attack by Red Grouse on Hen Harrier, 316; opportunistic feeding by female Hen Harrier, 317 Sharrock, J. T. R., song of Common Chaffinch resembling that of Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, 47 Shaw, D., photograph of Snowy Owl, 277, plate 143; of Red-necked Phalarope, 335, plate 181; of Great Reed Warbler, 335, plate 183; of Blyth's Reed Warbler, 452, plate 283; of Arctic Warbler, 452, plate 284; of Western Bonelli’s Warbler, 625, plate 408 Shearwater, Cory’s, numbers in Britain in 2002, 79; photographs of ‘Scopoli’s Shearwater’, 600, plates 379-81 , Little, accepted records, 640 , Manx, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19 Shrike, Brown, accepted records, 683-4, plate 440 , Isabelline, accepted records, 684 , Lesser Grey, photograph, 568, plate 354; accepted records, 684 , Long-tailed, new to Britain, 26-31, plates 8- 10 , Masked, accepted records, 685, plate 441 , Red-backed, photograph, 568, plate 353 , Southern Grey, accepted records, 684 , Woodchat, review of the identification of 708 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 Index c 'Balearic’ Woodchat Shrike, and details of three British records, 32-42, plates 11-17 and colour plate; photographs, 336, 392, plates 183,229-230 Siskin, status change in woodland, 116-43 Sitta europaea , see Nuthatch, Eurasian whiteheadi , see Nuthatch, Corsican Skua, Arctic, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19 , Brown, photograph of 'Tristan Skua’, 527, plate 327 , Great, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19, plate 6 , Pomarine, photograph, 519, plate 323 Small, B., review of Olsen & Larsson: Gulls of Europe, Asia and North America, 270-1 , , and Walbridge, G., a review of the identification of ‘Balearic’ Woodchat Shrike, and details of three British records, 32-42, plates 11-17 and colour plate Smith, K. W., see Conservation research news; review of Fjeldsa: The Grebes, 556 , , see Fuller, R. J., et al. , R. D., and Summers, R. W., population size, breeding biology and origins of Scottish Purple Sandpipers, 579-88, plates 362-5 Snipe, Great, accepted records, 656 Somateria spectabilis, see Eider, King Sora, photographs, 113, 621, plates 54-55, 395; accepted records, 646, plate 418 Sparrow, Flouse, feeding fledged Rock Pipits, 216; food-induced erythrism, 434-5, plate 267; photograph, 466, plate 290 , White-throated, accepted records, 689 Sparrowhawk, Eurasian, hunting strategy, 46; status change in woodland, 1 16-43, plate 70 Spinka, M., see Porkert, J. Stagg, A., components of an Osprey nest, 98; hirundine cold-weather behaviour, 264 Starling, Rose-coloured, photograph, 56, plate 22; accepted records, 685 Stercorarius antarcticus, see Skua, Brown parasiticus, see Skua, Arctic pomarinus, see Skua, Pomarine skua, see Skua, Great Sterna albifrons, see Tern, Little anaethetus , see Tern, Bridled bengalensis, see Tern, Lesser Crested caspia, see Tern, Caspian fuscata , see Tern, Sooty nilotica , see Tern, Gull-billed paradisaea, see Tern, Arctic sandvicensis, see Tern, Sandwich Stevenson, A., Long-tailed Shrike: new to Britain, 26-31, illustration Stewart, D., photograph of Masked Shrike, 685, plate 441 Stilt, Black-winged, photographs, 334, 426, 510, plates 180, 261, 315; accepted records, 648 Stint, Little, aberrant leg coloration, 497, plate 305 , Temminck’s, numbers in Britain in 2002, 84 Stirrup, S., photograph of Lesser Yellowlegs, 171, plate 89; of Iceland Gull, 227, plate 1 19; of Woodchat Shrike, 336, plate 183; of Mute Swan, 465, plate 289; of House Sparrow, 466, plate 290; of Cream-coloured Courser, 648, plate 420 Stonechat, Common, accepted records of Eastern race S. t. maurusd Siberian Stonechat’, 672, plate 433 Stone-curlew, photograph, 483, plate 303 Stork, Black, accepted records, 644 , White, numbers in Britain in 2002, 80-81, plate 31; photograph, 448, plate 273 Storm-petrel, European, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19 , Leach’s, photograph, 248, plate 132; preyed on by Peregrine Falcon, 320 , Wilson’s, photograph, 508, plate 310; accepted records, 640-1 Streptopelia orientalis, see Dove, Oriental Turtle turtur, see Dove, Turtle Strix aluco, see Owl, Tawny Studies of West Palearctic birds: Turtle Dove, 58- 72, plates 23-28 Sturnus roseus, see Starling, Rose-coloured Summers, R. W., see Smith, R. D. Svensson, L., photographs of Common Chiffchaff, 397-401, plates 234-6, 240 , , see Dean, A. R. , , et al, species limits in the Red- breasted Flycatcher, 538-41 Swallow, Barn, parasitised by Common Cuckoo, 320, 607 , Red-rumped, accepted records, 666-7 Swan, Mute, photograph, 465, plate 289 , Whooper, photograph, 250, plate 134 Swift, Alpine, an incursion of Alpine Swifts - another historical record from Kent, 259-60; accepted records, 664 — — , Common, photographs, 601, plates 382-3 , Little, accepted records, 665 , Pallid, accepted records, 664-5 Sykes, T., Osprey migrating with fish, 378 Sylvia atricapilla, see Blackcap borin, see Warbler, Garden cantillans, see Warbler, Subalpine curruca, see Whitethroat, Lesser British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 709 Index c > hortensis, see Warbler, Orphean melanocephala, see Warbler, Sardinian Tachybaptus ruficollis, see Grebe, Little Tallack, R., photograph of Thrush Nightingale, 567, plate 350 Tarsiger cyanurus, see Bluetail, Red-flanked Tate, A., photograph of Little Crake, 621, plate 395 Taylor, M., letter on acknowledging records, 262 Teal, Blue-winged, accepted records, 634 , Green-winged, numbers in Britain in 2002, 76-77; photograph, 518, plate 322 Tern, Arctic, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19 , Bridled, accepted records, 661 , Caspian, photograph, 509, plate 313; accepted records, 661 , Gull-billed, accepted records, 661 , Lesser Crested, photograph, 510, plate 314 , Little, accepted records of Nearctic races S. a. antillarum/athalassos/browni, ‘Least Tern’, 661-2 , Sandwich, at sea in summer in the northwest North Sea, 2-19 , Sooty, photographs, 450, plates 277-9 , Whiskered, accepted records, 662 , White-winged Black, feeding on butterflies, 47; photograph, 623, plate 400; accepted records, 662-3 Tetrao urogallus , see Capercaillie Thalassarche melanophris , see Albatross, Black- browed Thibault, J-C., and Villard, P., taking advantage of a crisis: the behaviour of Corsican Nuthatches after a wildfire, 158-9, plates 83- 84 Thoburn, G., photograph of Woodchat Shrike, 392, plate 229; of Wilson’s Storm-petrel, 508, plate 310 Thomas, B., photographs of ‘Scopoli’s Shearwater’, winner, Carl Zeiss Award 2005, 600, plates 379-81; photograph of Franklin’s Gull, 659, plate 428; of Ovenbird, 688, plate 443 , R., letter on calculation of annual totals by British Birds Rarities Committee, 431-2 Thrush, Dark-throated, photograph, 624, plate 403; accepted records, 674 , Grey-cheeked, accepted records, 674 , Rock, accepted records, 673 , Song, status change in woodland, 1 16-43, plate 69; photographs, 185, 464, plates 99, 288 , Swainson’s, accepted records, 674 , White’s, accepted records, 673-4, plates 435-8 Tibbett, S., see Bundy, G. Tidman, R., photograph of Western Bonelli’s Warbler, 516, plate 320 Tipling, D., photograph ot Hawfinch, 122, plate 63; of Common Nightingale, 123, plate 65; of Song Thrush, 128, plate 69; of White-tailed Eagle, 222, plate 1 13; of Reed Warbler, 240, plate 127; of Shore Lark, 242, plate 129; of Whooper Swan, 250, plate 134; of Common Cuckoo, 251, plate 135; of Redwing, 255, plate 137; of Golden Eagle, 272, plate 139; of Lesser Scaup, 276, plate 140; review of Weston: Digital Wildlife Photography, 437; photograph of Little Egret, 474, plate 293; of ‘Black- headed Wagtail’, 512, plate 316; of Citrine Wagtail, 517, plate 321; of Small Ground Finch, 532, plate 331 Tipper, R., PhotoSpot: the gape-line of Steppe Eagle, 147-9, plates 74-79; photograph of Song Thrush, 185, plate 99 Tit, Blue, feeding on a saltmarsh, 102; status change in woodland, 116-43 , Coal, status change in woodland, 1 16-43 , Crested, status change in woodland, 116-43 , Great, status change in woodland, 1 16-43 , Long-tailed, status change in woodland, 116-43 , Marsh, status change in woodland, 116-43, plate 62; identification, 225, plate 114; hissing display of incubating bird and anti-predator response of young, 267-8 , Penduline, accepted records, 683 , Willow, status change in woodland, 116-43 Tomialojc, L., and Wesolowski, T., the avifauna of BialowieZa Forest: a window into the past, 174-93, plates 94-103 Treecreeper, Eurasian, status change in woodland, 116-43 , Short-toed, photograph, 278, plate 147; foraging on ground, 380 Tringa flavipes, see Yellowlegs, Lesser ochropus, see Sandpiper, Green stagnatilis, see Sandpiper, Marsh Troglodytes troglodytes, see Wren Tryngites subruficollis, see Sandpiper, Buff- breasted Turdus iliacus, see Redwing merula , see Blackbird migratorius, see Robin, American philomelos, see Thrush, Song ruficollis, see Thrush, Dark-throated 710 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 Tyto alba , see Owl, Barn Upupa epops, see Hoopoe Uria aalge, see Guillemot, Common van den Berg, A., photograph of hybrid Common Pochard x Tufted Duck, 94, plate 41; of White-backed Woodpecker, 187, plate 101 Vanellus gregarius , see Lapwing, Sociable Vanhinsbergh, D., see Fuller, R. J., et al. Vanni, L., Little Stints with aberrant leg coloration, 497, plate 305 Veery, photograph, 624, plate 402 Vilagosi, J., behaviour, nest-site selection and the use of artificial nest-sites by Red-footed Falcons in Hortobagy National Park, Hungary, 317-19, plates 171-3 Villard, P., see Thibault, J.-C. , , photographs accompanying Corsican Nuthatch note, 159, plates 83-84 Vireo olivaceus , see Vireo, Red-eyed Vireo, Red-eyed, accepted records, 686 Vittery, A., food-induced erythrism in House Sparrows, 434-5, plate 267 Voice: Honey-buzzard, 494-6; Common Buzzard, 494-6; Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, 47; Wren, 264; Blackbird, 378-9; Common Chaffinch, 47 Voisin, C., et al. , status and behaviour of Little Egrets wintering in western France, 468-75, plates 291-3 Votier, S. C., and Riddington, R., tail pattern of Reed Warblers, 99-100, plates 45-49 Wagtail, Citrine, photographs, 517, 623, plates 321, 401; accepted records, 669-70, plates 431-2 , Pied, photograph of ‘White Wagtail’, 521, plate 324 , Yellow, photograph, 530, plate 330; photographs of ‘Black-headed Wagtail’, 451, 512, plates 281,316 Walbridge, G., see Small, B. J. Walker, D., photographs of Woodchat Shrike, 42, plates 16-17 Wallace, D. I. M., letter on yet more dangers in photographs, size estimates and enhanced images, 44-45; review of Harrison & Harrison: The New Birds of the West Midlands, 61 1 Walsh, A., photograph of Northern Gannet colony, 287, plate 154 Wanless, S., et al., the status of Northern Gannet in Britain & Ireland in 2003/04, 280-94, plates 148-61 Warbler, Arctic, photographs, 452, 568, 625, plates 284, 352, 407; accepted records, 679 , Blackpoll, photograph, 626, plate 410; accepted records, 687-8 , Blyth’s Reed, photograph, 452, plate 283; accepted records, 676 , Booted, accepted records, 676-7 , Dusky, photograph, 1 14, plate 59; accepted records, 679-81 , Eastern Bonelli’s, accepted records, 681 , Garden, status change in woodland, 116-43; autumn moulting in the UK and birds with extra rectrices, 266-7, plate 138; photograph, 424, plate 256; moulting in autumn, 434 , Great Reed, photograph, 335, plate 183; accepted records, 676 , Greenish, photographs, 568, 625, plates 351, 406; accepted records, 678 , Hume’s, accepted records, 679 , Lanceolated, photograph, 624, plate 404; accepted records, 675 , Orphean, discussion of first British record, 230-7, plate 123 , Paddyfield, identification, 168-9, plate 86; photographs, 452, 624, plates 282, 405; accepted records, 676 , Pallas’s Grasshopper, accepted records, 675 , Pallas’s Leaf, photograph, 171, plate 91 , Radde’s, accepted records, 679 , Reed, tail pattern, 99-100, plates 45-49; reusing nests, 101, plates 50-51; apparent loss of pigmentation in an aged individual, 101-2; photograph, 240, plate 127; abnormal chicks, 432; abnormal body-feathers, 433-4, plates 265-6 , Sardinian, accepted records, 677-8 , Savi’s, accepted records, 675-6 , Subalpine, photograph, 391, plate 227; accepted records, 677 , Sykes’s, accepted records, 677 , Western Bonelli’s, photographs, 516, 625, plates 320, 408; accepted records, 681 , Willow, status change in woodland, 1 16-43 , Wood, status change in woodland, 1 16-43, plate 72 , Yellow, photograph, 626, plate 409; accepted records, 687, plate 442 Ward, R, photograph of Common Sandpiper, 422, plate 253 Warden, D., review of Calvert; Reed Warblers at Rostherne Mere, 437-8 Wardle, R., photograph of Sora, 1 13, plate 55 Warr, A., photographs of ‘Siberian Chiffchaff’, British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 Index c > 405-6, plates 241-2 Waters, E. and D., the former status of Great Bustard in Britain, 295-305, plates 162-6 Waxwing, photographs, 172, 249, plates 92-93, 133 Webb, A., photographs of Purple Martin, 666, plates 429-30 Wesolowski, T., see Tomialojc, L. Westwood, N. J., Reed Warblers reusing nests, 101, plates 50-51 Wheatear, Desert, accepted records, 673 , Isabelline, accepted records, 672 , Pied, accepted records, 672-3, plate 434 Whetman, M., obituary of Roger David Penhallurick, 493 Whitethroat, Lesser, status change in woodland, 1 16-43; photographs of ‘Eastern’ race, 602, plates 384-7 Whitlow, G., photograph of Red Kite, 413, plate 246 Wigeon, American, numbers in Britain in 2002, 75-76, plate 29 Williams, S., photograph of Ivory Gull, 56, plate 21 Wilson, J., see Conservation research news , M. G., obituary of Vladimir Evgen’evich Flint, 441-3, plates 269-70 Woodcock, status change in woodland, 1 16-43 Woodcock, M., review of Elphick: Birds - the Art of Ornithology, 321-2; foot and leg colour of Goldcrest, 379 Woodpecker, Black, photograph, 423, plate 254 , Great Spotted, presumed hybrid with Syrian Woodpecker in Poland, 98-99, plate 44; status change in woodland, 116-43 , Green, status change in woodland, 1 16-43 , Lesser Spotted, song resembled by that of Common Chaffinch, 47; status change in woodland, 116-43 , Syrian, presumed hybrid with Great Spotted Woodpecker in Poland, 98-99, plate 44; feeding habits, 378 , White-backed, photograph, 187, plate 101 Woodruff, P., hunting strategy of Eurasian Sparrowhawk, 46 Wren, status change in woodland, 1 16-43; repeated singing as a reaction of an emerging Adder, 264 Wright, J., illustration of Lesser Scaup and Tufted Duck, 93, fig. 1; of Lesser Yellowlegs, 658, fig. 7; of Western Bonelli’s Warbler, 680, fig. 15 , B., photograph of Large Cactus Finch, 532, plate 332 Wryneck, photograph, 567, plate 349 Wynde, R., review of Vaughan 8c Vaughan lennings: The Stone Curlew, 555 Wynn, R., photograph of Little Bunting, 626, plate 4 1 1 Yates, B., photograph of Black-winged Stilt, 426, plate 261 Yellowlegs, Lesser, photograph of, 171, plate 89; accepted records, 658-9 Yellowthroat, Common, accepted records, 689, plate 444 Yesou, P., et al, which subspecies of Shag occurs in Galicia?, 369-70, plates 209-10 Young, S., photograph of Lesser Scaup and Greater Scaup, 90, plate 36; of Greater Scaup, 92, plate 40; of Bonaparte’s Gull, 171, plate 90; of Ross’s Gull, 228, plate 121; of Sabine’s Gull, 248, plate 131; of Leach’s Storm-petrel, 248, plate 132; of Waxwing, 249, plate 133; of Short-toed Treecreeper, 278, plate 147; of crowd, 311, plate 168; of Barrow’s Goldeneye, 333, plate 178; of Black Kite, 391, plate 226; of Sooty Tern, 450, plate 278; of Barnacle Geese, 524, plate 326; of White-winged Black Tern, 623, plate 400; of Lesser Scaup, 635, plate 412; of Great Knot, 651, plate 422 Youngman, R., letter on recent declines in woodland birds, 429 Zonfrillo, B., letter on the Ailsa Craig gannetry in 2004,551-2, plate 341 Zonotrichia albicollis, see Sparrow, White-throated Zoothera dauma, see Thrush, White’s List of illustrations Pages 20 Lady Amherst’s Pheasant ( Dan Powell ) 116 Hawfinch ( Alan Harris) 26 Long-tailed Shrike ( Bill Neill) 194 Windfarm (Dan Powell) 58 Turtle Dove ( Ray Scally) 238 Barn Swallows (Richard Johnson) 712 British Birds 98 • Index to volume 98 BOOKS - Handle with care Name Address If undelivered, please return to: Blisset Bookbinders Roslin Road, London W3 8DH To Blisset Bookbinders Roslin Road, London W3 8DH I enclose cheque/RO. for £ for binding The rate for binding is £ 25.25 per volume, which includes the cost of packing and return postage (UK only). 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