foQ3o

UITISH BIRDS

THE-PEOPLE'S -B OOKS

BIOLOGY
LIBRARY

G

BRITISH BIRDS

DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE COMMONER
SPECIES, THEIR NESTS AND EGGS

BY F. B. KIRKMAN, B.A. OXON.

ILLUSTRATIONS BY A. W. SEABY

LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK
67 LONG ACRE, W.C., AND EDINBURGH
NEW YORK : DODGE PUBLISHING CO.

PREFACE

THE object of this book is to make as easy as limits of space
permit the recognition of all the British species, their nests
and eggs, except the rarest, The descriptions have been
written with an eye to the requirements of the non-specialist
observer, and, if the instructions on p. viii are followed, they
should prove adequate for practical purposes.

Descriptions of the female bird and of the young are given
only when these differ markedly from the adult male. Like-
wise seasonal changes of plumage are ignored unless marked
enough to make a description necessary for identification. The
descriptions and measurements of eggs follow for the most
part those of the Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain in the British Bird
Book. Complete descriptions of nests have yet to be written,
the range of material used by particular species being much
greater than the standard works would lead one to suppose.
The descriptions here given will, however, suffice for purposes
of identification.

The short notes on migration and distribution, and other
information as to time of laying, &c., are introduced solely to
aid identification by showing when and where the species and
their eggs are to be found. Limitations of space make it
obviously impossible to give anything but the strict minimum
of information necessary for this purpose.

The scientific nomenclature adopted follows the Rules laid
down by the Fifth International Zoological Congress as applied
in the Hand-list of British Birds by Hartert, Jourdain, Tice-
hurst, and Witherby (1912), except in so far as changes in the
generic name involve changes in classification. Where this

nomenclature differs from that of H. Saunders' Manual,

iii

263209

iv PREFACE

(2nd ed.), the latter is also given and placed second. Thus
no inconvenience can arise. Where subspecies are clearly
recognised trinomials are given, it being obviously incorrect, as
a general rule, to give a description as specific which may in
part not apply to the whole species but only to one or more of
its local forms.1

The classification adopted follows generally that of Professor
Hans Gadow in Bronn's Thier-Reich : Vb'gel II.

My best thanks are due to the Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain and
to W. Farren of Cambridge for revising the proofs and for
valuable suggestions.

All the illustrations are by Mr. A. W. Seaby, except those of
the heads of the crow and rook, and one or two others, repro-
duced from the British Bird Book.

1 Binomial: Corvus corax. Trinomial : Corvus corax corax, the
first name being that of the genus, the second of the species, the
third of the subspecies, the last being added to distinguish various
local forms or races: e.g. the typical Corvus corax corax from Corvus
corax hispanus (Spain) ; Corvus corax varius (Faeroes), &c.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Descriptions of Birds, &c. — Descriptions of the rarer birds, « ^ .
and nests not given in the present work will be found in the British
Bird Book, 4 vols., 1910-13 (ed. F. B. Kirkman), by F. C. R. Jour-
dain and W. P. Py craft, and, up to 1899 — since when, however,
many species have been added to the British list — in Howard
Saunders' Manual of British Birds (2nd ed.). For eggs, F. C. R.
Jourdain's Eggs of European Birds, or Dresser's Eggs of the Birds of
Europe, may also be consulted.

2. Geographical Distribution and Migration. — There is no recent
complete work on Distribution, but short notes up to date will be
found both in the British Bird Book, and in the Hand-list of British
Birds by Hartert, Jourdain, Ticehurst, and Witherby (1912). On
Migration — which, though properly coming under the head of
Habits, may conveniently be associated with Distribution — the most
recent information is to be found in Eagle Clarke's Studies in Bird
Migration, 2 vols., 1912, and the Annual Reports of the British
Ornithological Club. Short notes will be found in the two general
works above mentioned. A good short work on the general subject
is T. A. Coward's Migration of Birds, 1912 (Cambridge Manuals of
Science).

3. Habits. — The most recent and complete work on British Birds'
habits and instincts is the British Bird Book. Of the older works
Yarrell, History of Birds, 4th ed. (revised Newton and Saunders) ;
and Macgillivray, History of Birds, are the best. Seebohm's History
is of less value, and Morris's British Birds is not to be recommended.
Among the smaller works the best is W. H. Hudson's British Birds.
Of monographs, H. E. Howard's British Warblers stands as the
model of what may be achieved. On the general subject of Animal
Behaviour, with which the study of the behaviour of Birds must
be associated if it is to be of scientific value, the best works are
Lloyd Morgan's Animal Behaviour and Habit and Instinct; also
Washburn, The Animal Mind, at the end of which a full biblio-
graphy is given. From the great mass of general literature there is
space to select for mention only the works of W. H. Hudson and
E. Selous, and — " lest we forget " — the Natural History of Selborne.

4. Structure and Classification. — For general use W. P. Pycraft's
History of Birds and F. E. Beddard's introduction to W. H. Hudson's
British Birds will be found adequate. There are also excellent
articles in Newton's Dictionary of Birds. More advanced is Beddard's
Structure and Classification (1898).

A comprehensive work on the general problems underlying the
study of Birds is W. P. Pycraft's History of Birds (1910).

5. Periodicals. — The best for general use are the Zoologist, British
Birds (ed. Witherby), and Wild Life (ed. D. English), the latter
containing the best extant photographic work.

*

GUIDE TO THE DESCRIPTIONS

THE best plan, when an unknown bird has been observed, is to
note its characteristics always in the same order, beginning with
the head, passing down the back to the tail, then round under the
tail and along the under-parts up to the beak, ending with the wings
and legs (see the Fig., p. vi). Then proceed as follows :

1. Find the picture in the book which resembles most closely the
bird's shape and markings. For most small birds see pp. 12-45.

2. Note the length measurement. For purposes of comparison it
is useful and easy to remember that the common house-sparrow is
6 inches long, and the rook nearly 20 inches. All measurements are
from the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail.

3. See if the bird is in the district at the time of year in which noted.
For this see the information given just after the names of each
species. The term resident means that the species or subspecies is
present in the British Isles all through the year, though it may be
represented by different birds at different times, some being winter
visitors, others summer visitors, birds of passage or stationary. The
summer visitors are those which arrive usually between the end of
March and the end of May from winter quarters in Southern Europe
and Africa, and depart south generally from September to November.
During the latter period the winter visitors are arriving from Iceland,
from Northern or Central Continental Europe, or from Greenland
and other parts of the Arctic region. The winter visitors depart
again north in the spring or early summer. The term bird of passage
refers to the summer or winter birds that visit our shores in autumn
and spring only on their way to other countries. The term stationary
is applied to birds that remain with us throughout the year in the
locality in which they breed. Local movements apply to movements
from the breeding locality to other localities within our shores. A
local species is one that is found in a certain number of scattered
localities within its range.

4. Pass to the description given of the bird, and, if still in doubt,
verify, where possible, by the description of the nest and egg.

When unknown nests and eggs are found, the safest is to wait
for the bird to return. When waiting the essential is to keep
motionless. If the bird cannot be noted, use the size of the nest
and egg as a first means of recognition, if you have no other. It is
well to remember that the eggs of birds of the same species vary
more or less in size, shape, and coloration. The same applies to
material and site of the nest. The time of laying also varies, this
being later in the more northerly localities.

viii

BRITISH BIRDS

I. ORDER: PASSERIFORMES

(1) Family: Corvidce — Crows

1. Raven [Corvus corax corax Linnaeus]. More or less
stationary in hilly or coast districts.

Bird. Length 25 in. Black all over with purplish and blue
gloss. Distinguished from the carrion-crow by its larger size
and the more rounded end of the tail.
Nest. Usually on sea cliffs, also
in high trees, rarely in ruins. Out-
side: sticks, roots, stems, sea-weed,
earth. Inside : wool, fur, hair, fibres,
grass, &c.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Greenish,
sometimes blue blotched and flecked
with brown to black, and with under-
lying markings of ash-grey. Av.
size, 1-98 x 1'32

rsj

Fig. 1.

in. Laying begins in Feb.-March. One
brood.

2. Carrion-crow [Corvus corone corone
Linnseus]. Resi-
dent, except in

Ireland and the
Isle of Man. Rare
N. Scotland.

Bird. Length

19 in. All black with purple and
green reflections. End of tail less
round than raven's. Bill stouter than
rook's. (Fig. 2.)

Nest. Usually in trees or on cliffs. As
raven.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Like raven's, but
smaller. Av. size, 1 '71 x 1-18 in. Laying begins in April.
One brood.

3. Hooded-crow, Royston-crow, grey-crow [Corvus comix

Fig. 2.

10

BRITISH BIRDS

«. .,

comix Linnteusj. Moi'u or less stationary in Ireland, Isle of
Man, N. Scotland, rarely England. Winter visitor and bird
of passage E. and N. British counties.

Bird. Length 19 in. Distinguished
from the carrion-crow only by its
grey mantle and under-parts. Hybrids
between this and the carrion - crow
show every gradation between the color-
ation of the parent species.
Nest. As carrion-crow's.
Eggs. As carrion-crow's, but often
greener. Laying begins usually in
April. One brood.
4. Rook [Corvus frugilegus frugilegus Linnaeus], Common
resident throughout British Isles.

Bird. Length 19 in. Black with bright violet and blue
gloss. Distinguished from the carrion-
crow by the shape of the bill (Tig. 4)
and by the conspicuous bare whitish skin
round its base.
The statement
that the two
species can be dis-
tinguished by the
colour of the bases

of the feathers is inexact ; these are
normally grey in both. The young, up
to the second autumn moult, lack the
bare face, the base of the bill being feathered.

Nest. The species nests in colonies usually in
tree-tops, occasionally on chimney stacks, church
spires, in ^ hedges, bushes. Outside : sticks,
earth. Inside : moss, leaves, grass, wool, &c.

Usually 3-5. Normally greenish with olive-brown
markings. Size, 1 '6 x 1 '06 in. Laying
begins in March-April. One brood.
5. Jackdaw [Corvus monedula sper-
mologus Vieillot]. See Rook.

Bird. Length 14 in. Black with
blue-green or purple gloss. Distin-
guished from the preceding species,
with which it is often seen, by its
smaller size, quicker wing-beats, blue-
white iris, and the grey on its nape,
neck, and ear-coverts.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Nest. In any convenient hole, usually in buildings, rocks, or

CROWS

11

Material :

Fig. 6.

trees. Occasionally builds open and domed nests in trees.
Material : sticks, lined with wool, dry grass, fur, &c. Species
nests in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Shades of greenish-blue, marked with
brownish-blacks and ash-grey. Av. size, 1'39 x 1 in. Laying
begins end April. One brood.

6. Magpie [Pica pica pica (Linnaeus) ; Pica rustica (Scopoli)].
Builds throughout British Isles,

where not exterminated. Stationary.

Bird. Length 18 in. Easily
recognised by its black and white
plumage and long wedge-shaped
tail.

Nest. Position : as a rule high up
in a tree ; also in hedges and bushes,
sticks and earth, lined usually with roots, and
usually domed with thorny sticks.

Eggs. Generally 5-8. Greenish - blue to
greenish-yellow freckled with shades of greyish-
brown. Av. size, 1*30 x '90 in. Laying begins in
April. One brood.

7. Jay [Garrulus glatidarius rufitergum Hart, and Garrulus
glandarius hibernicus Witherby and Hartert]. More or less
stationary in wooded districts, the first in Great Britain, the
second in Ireland.

Bird. Length 14 in. Distinguished by the reddish-fawn
back, conspicuous white rump, and the patch of alternating
white, black, and blue on the wing. The under-parts are pale
brownish-buff, turning to rufous on the flanks. Tail mostly
black. Erectile crest whitish striped with black. Iris blue.
The Irish subspecies (G. g. hibernicus) is darker and more rufous
than the British (G. g. rufitergum), the most striking differences
being the " dark, rufous colouring of
the sides of the head, ear-coverts, and
under-parts, and the darker crest7'
(British Birds, Mag. iv. 235).

Nest. Place: bush or tree, usually
high up. Material : twigs and stem
neatly lined with fine roots, and
sometimes other material.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Pale brownish
or greyish-green, speckled olive-green.
Varieties have pinkish or blue ground
colour. Av. size, 1*25 x *90 in. Laying begins April-May.
One brood.

8. Chough, Red*legged daw [Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (Lin-

Fig. 7.

12 BRITISH BIRDS

nseus) ; P. graculus (L.)]. More or less stationary in certain
parts of our S. and W. Coasts and Ireland.

Bird. Length 16 in. Black with blue, violet, and green
gloss. Easily distinguished by the red legs and bill, the latter
curved. The beak of the young is at first straight, and is
coloured various shades of yellow and red till the first autumn
moult, when the adult colour is assumed.

Nest. Place: holes and crevices in cliffs, also fissures or
ledges in caves. Occasionally holes in old buildings, lime-
kilns, mine shafts. Material : sticks, stems, roots lined with
wool, hair, &c.

Eggs. Usually 3-5. White or cream to brownish marked
with reddish-brown shades and underlying lilac blotches and
spots. Av. size, 1*55x1 '10 in. Laying begins April-May.
One brood.

(2) Family: Fringillidce. Subfamily: Fringillinee — Finches

9. Greenfinch, green-linnet [Chloris Moris clitoris (Linnaeus) ;
Ligurinus chloris (Linnseus)]. Resident and common in most
parts.

Bird. Length 5J in. Recognised by the yellowish-green
of its plumage, the striking yellow on the wing quills and the
base of the tail quills, and by the stout bill. The yellow
parts are duller in the female, which has also the under-parts
chiefly olive-grey and the upper-parts browner. The young
have dark brown stripes both on olive-brown upper-parts and
the pale yellowish-green under-parts.

Nest. In shrubs, hedges, trees. Material: twigs, moss,
roots, wool lined with roots, hair, feathers.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Whitish or pale greenish-blue ground
spotted with reddish-brown and with
underlying markings of pale violet or light
brown. Unmarked eggs occur. Av. size,
*80 x '57 in. Laying begins April-May.
Broods 2-4.

10. Hawfinch [Coccothraustes coccothraus-
tes coccothraustes (Linnseus) ; C. vulgaris
Pallas]. Resident in woodland districts.
Rare, Ireland.

Bird (Fig. 8). Length 7 in. Recognised
by the orange and ruddy browns of
its plumage, the huge beak, the horny
Fig. §. pads inside it, the black throat and lores,

and the shape of the tips of the inner
primaries (Fig. 9). Wing quills black with glossy blue tips.

FINCHES

13

Fig. 9.

The female is distinguished by the ash-grey on the wing.
The fledgling has no black on the throat, and has the under-
parts spotted with dark brown.

Nest. In bushes, trees, hedges. Usu-
ally in orchards. Material : twigs, roots,
bents, &c., lined with rootlets, hair, dry
grass, and fibre.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Bluish or greyish-
green boldly streaked and spotted with
dark olive-brown and faint markings
of purple-grey. Slate-grey and also
buff ground colours occur. Av. size,
•94 x "68 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood.

11. Chaffinch [Fringilla ccelebs Calebs Linnaeus]. Resident
in most parts of British Isles.

Bird. Length 6 in. Recognised by the conspicuous white
patches on the wing-coverts, the slate-
blue crown and nape, light chocolate
coloured back, red throat and breast.
The hen has the crown and nape
greyish-brown, the back olive-brown,
the throat and breast whitish-brown
with a tinge of orange-red (sienna).
The young are much like the hen.

Nest. In hedges, bushes, trees,
p. -Q Material: felted moss, wool, &c.,

decorated with lichens and lined with
hair and feathers. One of the most beautiful nests.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Pale greenish spotted and streaked with
purple-brown. Blue eggs with and without markings occur.
Av. size, *76 x '57 in. Laying begins in April. Broods 1-2.

12. Brambling [Fringilla montifringilla Linnaeus]. Winter
visitor to most parts, and bird of passage. Accidental in
summer.

Bird. Length 6 in. Distinguished by the chestnut throat
and breast, white rump conspicuous in flight, and the blue-
black feathers of the head and mantle, '
which in winter have ruddy brown edg-
ings. Belly dull white. The female is
brownish-grey mottled with brownish on
the head and mantlo, lacks the rich chestnut
on throat and breast, and is generallyduller.

13. Goldfinch [Carduelis carduelis britan-
nica (Hartert) ; G. elegans Stephens].
Resident in most parts.

Bird (Fig. 11). Length 5 in. Easily recognised by the

Fig. 11.

14 BRITISH BIRDS

crimson, white, and black of the head and the yellow bar on
the wing. Wing and tail quills black with white on the tips.
Under-parts mostly grey-brown. Back brown. The young,
known as grey-pates or branchers, lack the red, white, and
black on the head, which is brownish, and have the upper-
parts and breast streaked brown.

Nest. Place : trees, shrubs, hedges. Material : neatly built
of moss, lichen, roots, &c., lined usually with hair, wool,
down.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Pale bluish spotted and streaked with
deep red-brown, and marked faintly with red-grey. Av. size,
•67 x *50 in. Laying begins May. Two broods.

14. Siskin [Carduelis spinus (Linnseus)]. Resident in Scot-
land, Ireland, N. England, N. Wales. Elsewhere winter visitor
and bird of passage.

Bird. Length 4J in. Recognised by the yellow and green
plumage, black crown and chin, and dusky streaks on the
back and flanks. For some time after the autumn moult
the feathers on the nape and back have ash-grey tips. The
hen is greyer and has the crown olive-green with dusky
streaks, the chin dull white instead of black, and the under-
parts all striped, except the belly. The young are still more
striated.

Nest. Place : usually high up in coniferous trees. Material :
twigs, roots, dry grass, moss, lichen, lined with wool, down,
hair, feathers, roots.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Pale blue marked with red-brown and
fainter red-grey. Av. size, '64 x '47 in. Laying begins April-
May. Two broods.

15. Lesser-redpoll [Linota linaria cabaret (P. L. S. Miiller) ;
Linota rufescens (Vieillot)]. Resident in most parts.

Bird. Length 4^ in. Recognised by its small size, the rosy
forehead, crown, breast, and rump, the dusky striated rufous-
brown back, the black lores and chin, and the buff wing band.
In winter the rose of the breast is obscured by brown. The
female has the red on the forehead and crown only. The
young lack it altogether, as well as the black on the lores and
chin ; they have the upper-parts greyish with dusky striations,
the under-parts greyish-white striated on the breast and flanks.

Nest. In trees, also bushes, hedges, sometimes heather,
furze, bracken. Material: twigs, stems, moss, wool, <fec.,
lined usually with down.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Dull greenish marked with purplish-
brown. Av. size, *62 x *48 in. Laying begins April-May.
Broods 1-2.

16. Mealy - redpoll [Linota linaria linaria (Linnaeus)].

FINCHES 15

Winter visitor and bird of passage chiefly to our East Coast
districts.

Bird. Length 5 in. Like the lesser-redpoll, which see, but
is larger. Has the rump striated, and lacks the rufous tint in
the brown of the back.

17. Twite [Linota flavirostris flavirostris (Linnaeus)]. Resi-
dent except in S. and B. England, where it is seen only as
a winter visitor and bird of passage.

Bird. Length 5 in. Distinguished from the redpolls by
having red on the rump only, conspicuous white on the inner
primaries, the beak more or less yellow in summer as well as
winter, to which fact it owes the name flavirostris, and no
black on the chin and lores. Upper-parts brown with paler
edgings. Breast and flanks bullish-white, striated brown.
The hen and young have no red on the rump, which is
striated.

Nest. Place: variable — bushes, heather, on the ground
under stones, sods, &c., in grass, walls, crevices of cliffs,
rabbit burrows. Material : roots, grass, stems, moss, twigs,
lined with wool, hair, &c.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Blue marked with dark red-brown.
Av. size, "66 x *49 in. Laying begins May. Probably two broods.

18. Linnet, brown-linnet [Linota cannabina cannabina
(Linnaeus)]. Resident and common in most parts.

Bird. Length 5^ in. Distinguished from redpolls and
twite by the white margins of the tail-feathers. In summer
the male has crimson on the crown, forehead, and breast,
which in winter turns to grey. The back is chestnut, wing
feathers dusky with white outer edges. The hen and young
lack the crimson and are more striated.

Nest. Usually in bushes, especially gorse, and in hedges.
Material : roots, moss, grass, &c., lined with hair, wool,
feathers, down.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Shades of pale or whitish-blue marked
with purplish-red, and sometimes unmarked. Av. size,
•71 x -51 in. Laying begins April-May. Broods usually 2.

19. House-sparrow [Passer domesticus domesticus (Linnaeus)].
Resident and common.

Bird. Length 6 in. Distinguished by the white cheek
patch, the black gorget, the ash-grey on the crown and rump,
the bluish-black beak, and the chestnut of the mantle. The
hen has the head and rump brown, mantle pale rufous streaked
dusky brown. Buff eye-stripe, under-parts dull buflish-white,
beak brown. The young are much like the hen. In winter
the grey and black of the cock are obscured by brown, the
white by a dull yellowish tinge, and the beak becomes brown.

Fig. 12.

16 BRITISH BIRDS

Nest. Place : Any hole or crevice in buildings, rocks,
stacks, &c. Also in the branches of trees. Material : straw,
hay, &c., lined usually with feathers. A large untidy struc-
ture, domed when in the open, and more or less so when
under cover.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Pale bluish-white marked with varying
shades of ash-grey and brown. Often one egg is lighter
than the others. There is a reddish variety, also a white.
Av. size, *86 x *61 in. Laying April-May or earlier. Broods
2-3 or more.

20. Tree-sparrow, mountain-sparrow [Passer montanus

montanus (Linnseus)]. Resident in most
parts, but rare in W. Scotland and Ire-
land. Local.

Bird. Length 5J in. Much like the
house-sparrow, but easily distinguished
by its ruddy brown crown and nape,
triangular black patch in the white of the
cheek, double wing bars of white, and
more graceful appearance. The sexes are
alike.
Nest. Place : holes in trees, buildings, walls, cliffs, &c.

Material : grass, straw, roots, wool, lined chiefly with feathers.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. Resemble the house-sparrow's, but are

smaller, more glossy, and more heavily marked. Often one or

two eggs are lighter than the rest. Av. size, *77x'55 in.

Laying begins usually May, sometimes April. Broods 2-3.

21. Crossbill [Loxia curvirostra Linnaeus]. Two forms :

(1) Loxia curvirostra scotica, which is confined to N. Scotland,
where it breeds and is stationary except for local movements ;

(2) the brighter-coloured Loxia curvirostra curvirostra, which
is chiefly a winter visitor to most parts, some staying to
breed.

in. Recognised by the crossed tips of the
bill. Male plumage mostly crimson, with
a touch of orange. Wings and tail brown.
Female yellowish-green. The young of
both sexes are mostly brown above, dull
white below, with dusky striations. The
full adult male plumage is not attained
till the third or fourth year, a yellowish
and mixed yellow and red preceding the
final red.

Nest. Place : high up in conifers. Material : platform of
larch or fir twigs, on which is placed dry grass, wool, moss,
roots, with a lining of finer grasses, sometimes hair.

Bird. Length

Fig. 13.

BUNTINGS

17

Eggs. Usually 3-4. Like large greenfinch's, but with fewer
and darker markings. Greenish-white sparsely scrawled or
spotted with dark purple-red. Sometimes unmarked, or only
faintly so. Av. size, *83 x '62 in. Laying begins usually
January-March. Broods 1-2.

22. Bullfinch [Pyrrhula pyrrJiula pileata Macgillivray ;
P. europcea Vieillot.J Resident in most parts.

Bird. Length 6 in. Recognised by the black hood, red (rose-
vermilion) breast, white rump which
contrasts with the black tail and grey
back and is conspicuous in flight. The
hen has the white rump and black
head, but differs in having the back
brown and the under-part vinous brown.
The young lack the black hood, but
have the white rump; their whole
upper-parts are grey-tinged brown,
and the under-parts pale brown.

Nest. In bushes, especially ever-
greens, and hedges. Material : twigs
and moss, lined usually with roots.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Greenish-blue
streaked and spotted, chiefly at the thick end, with purplish-
brown, with fainter under-markings. Rare white variety with
reddish markings and without markings. Av. size, '77 x *57
in. Laying begins usually May. Broods 1-2.

Fig. 14.

(3) Family: Fringillidce. Subfamily: Emberizince —
Buntings

23. Corn-bunting [JSmberissa calandra Linnaeus ; E. milaria
Linn.]. Resident in most parts.

Bird. Length 7 in. Distinguished by its heavy build and
thick bill. The latter is provided with a palatal knob.
General hue ochreous-brown, upper-parts
ochreous streaked with dusky brown,
under-parts huffish-white streaked with
dusky brown on the throat, forebreast,
and flanks. Wing-coverts margined with
buff, forming a bar. Tail dark brown,
edged paler brown. Yellower in autumn
and winter. The young resemble the
parents in autumn plumage, with differences of which the
chief are a distinctly rufous tint on the throat, and broad

Fig. 15

18 BRITISH BIRDS

bright yellow margins to the inner secondaries and tail-
feathers.

Nest. Place : long grass, furze, or low bushes on commons
or downs. Material : grass, roots, stalks, &c., lined with finer
material, usually grass.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Rather variable in colour. Usually
greyish or yellowish-white with lines, streaks, and spots of
dark brown and under-markings of pale violet. Rare varieties
are pure white or tinged reddish-brown. Av. size, *95 x "69 in.
Laying begins June- July, sometimes May. Broods 1-2.

24. Yellow-bunting or Yellow-hammer [Emberiza citri-
nella Linnaeus]. Resident and common.

Bird. Length 6*50 in. Distinguished by the lemon-yellow
head, neck, and under-parts, and by the chestnut rump. The
yellow on the head, neck, and forebreast
is banded with dark greenish-yellow
(Fig. 16). The under-parts are streaked
with chestnut. Mantle and wing-coverts
dull red, striped black. The two outer
tail-feathers on each side have white
patches. Female and young much less
brilliant, and have the crown dull olive-
brown, streaked black.

Nest. Place : usually on or near the ground in hedges,
bushes, or banks. Occasionally in hay-stacks. Material:
grasses, bents, a little moss or leaves, lined with horse-hair.

Eggs. Usually 3-5. Pale purplish-white scrawled and
streaked with dark brown, with a few fainter violet markings.
Rare varieties have a white, also a reddish ground. Av. size,
•83 x '62 in. Laying begins April-May. Broods 2-3.

25. Girl-bunting [Emberiza cirlus Linnseus]. In England
and Wales local and more or less stationary. Absent N. Eng-
land. Very rare in Scotland and Ireland.

Bird. Length 6J in. Like the yellow-hammer, but distin-
guished by the black throat and lores, and the olive-green
rump. Below the black of the throat is a bright yellow band,
followed by a sage-green band^ and reddish-brown stripes on
the flanks. Belly yellow. Crown and nape olive-green with
black streaks, mantle chestnut. The female has the throat
pale yellow striated with black. Distinguished from the
female yellow-hammer by the olive-green rump.

Nest. As the yellow-hammer.

Eggs. Usually 3-5. Pale bluish or greenish-white with the
markings bolder and darker, as a rule, than those of the yellow-
hammers, which they sometimes resemble very closely. Av.
size, "83 x *63 in. Laying begins in May. Broods 1-2.

LARKS 19

26. Reed-bunting, reed-sparrow [Embenza slwsniclus sho&-
niclus (Linnaeus)]. Generally resident in marshy localities or
reed-beds.

Bird. Length 6 in. Recognised by the black head and
throat with intersecting white stripe, and
the ash-grey rump tinged and striped with
brown. Uiider-parts white, the flanks
striated with brown. Mantle black mar-
gined chestnut. Tail dusky with con-
spicuous white on the outer quills. The
hen has the head reddish-brown, striated
dusky with yellowish- white stripe below
and above the eye. In autumn the male
loses the black, which becomes yellowish-
brown ; the female becomes browner. Fig. 17.
The young are much like the hen.

Nest. Place : usually near the ground in marshy ground.
Material : grasses, bents, lined with finer grasses, hair, or
reed-flowers.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Olive, pale greenish or buff spotted and
streaked with black-brown and fainter violet-grey. Av. size,
'76 x '56 in. Laying begins April. Broods 2-3.

27. Snow-bunting [Plectrophenax nivalis (Linnseus) ; Passerina
nivalis (Linn.)]. Winter visitor chiefly to coast districts. A
few breed in the Highlands.

Bird. Length 7 in. Distinguished from all the other
buntings by the large amount of white on the wings and their
greater length. The male, in the breeding season, is white
except on the back, middle tail-quills, and wings, the black on
the latter mixed with white. In autumn the upper-parts
become mostly chestnut or tawny, and the under-parts more or
less tinged with rufous buff. The hen differs chiefly in having
the upper-parts greyish-brown flecked with black ; in autumn
she resembles the male more closely. The young are much like
the female.

Nest. Place : usually crevices among boulders on a mountain-
side ; also in sea cliffs in Shetland. Material : usually grass
lined with feathers, fine grass, hair.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. White to pale bluish or greenish
marked with red-brown and fainter violet. Av. size, '86 x '63
in. Laying May-June. One brood.

(4) Family: Alaudidce — Larks

28. Skylark [Alauda arvensis arvensis Linnaeus]. Resident
and common in most parts.

20 BRITISH BIRDS

Bird. Length 7 in. Upper-parts buffish-brown streaked
darker brown. Under-parts pale buff with brown streaks.
Wings mostly brown. White edges to
outer tail-feathers. Erectile crest. Bufl*
stripe over eye. Recognised in flight by
broad buff hinder margin of the pointed
wings.

Nest. On the ground, usually in grass
or growing crops. Material : grass, bents,
lined with finer grasses and generally
hair.

Eggs. Usually 3-4. Greyish, greenish, or
brownish-white mottled thickly with olive-
Fig. 18. brown and grey. Av. size, "91 x '66 in.
Laying begins April-May. Broods 2-3.

29. Wood-lark [Alauda arborea arborea Linnaeus]. Resident
in England and Wales. Local.

Bird. Length 5J in. In general coloration like the sky-
lark, but distinguished from it chiefly by its smaller size,
shorter tail, smaller bill, arid the absence of white on the outer
tail-feathers.

Nest. On or near ground often sheltered by bracken, heath,
or grass. Material : grass, moss, lined with finer grasses,
sometimes hair.

Eggs. Usually 4. Dirty white spotted with browns and
fainter greys. Av. size, '83x'61 in. Laying begins March-
April. Broods 2-3.

(5) Family 3 Motacillidce — Wagtails and Pipits

30. Pied-wagtail [Motacilla alba lugubris Temminck]. Resi-
dent nearly all parts.

Bird. Length 7*30 in. Both this and the white-wagtail
are easily recognised by the black,
white, and grey plumage, and the
long black tail with white outer
feathers. In summer the cock
pied-wagtail is distinguished from
the hen by his black upper-parts
(except the white forehead), hens
being dark grey mottled with black.
After the autumn moult the sexes
are much alike ; both have grey backs and white throats
instead of black. The summer black on the upper breast is
retained to form a band. The young have olive-brown on the
upper-parts and greyish instead of black gorget and crown.

WAGTAILS 21

Nest. Place : usually recesses in walls or banks ; also
thatches, burrows, old nests, ivy, and elsewhere. Material :
moss, roots, twigs, leaves, &c., lined with grasses, hair,
feathers, &c.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Greyish-white marked with leaden
brown and grey spots. Av. size, *79 x "59 in. Laying begins
April-May.

31. White - wagtail [Motacilla alba alba Linnaeus]. A
summer visitor breeding sparingly chiefly on the south and
east of England. Also a bird of passage seen mostly on our
western seaboard.

Bird. See pied-wagtail. The male white-wagtail differs in
the breeding season from the male pied-wagtail in having the
back and rump grey instead of black. Otherwise the two
forms are not easily distinguished. The female has grey in
the white of the forehead and black of the crown. After the
autumn moult both sexes resemble the pied form at the same
season, but the white form has grey instead of black tail-
coverts.

Nest and Eggs. As pied-wagtail.

32. Grey-wagtail {Motacilla boarula boarula Linnaeus ; M.
melanope Pallas]. Resident in hilly districts, but not common.

Bird. Length 7*25 in. Distinguished from other wagtails
by the uniform slate-blue of the upper-parts and longer tail.
The male, in breeding plumage, has the throat black, white
stripes above and below the eye, sulphur-yellow under-parts,
white on the outer tail-feathers. The female differs chiefly in
having little or no black on the throat. After the autumn
moult both sexes have the throat white and the eye-stripe
buff.

Nest. Place: bank, wall, or rocky ledge, usually near
streams. Material : moss, twigs, &c., lined usually with hair.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Buffish faintly marked with pale brown.
Av. size, '74 x '56 in. Laying begins April-May. Broods 1-2.

33. Yellow-wagtail [Motacilla flava rayi (Bonaparte)]. A
summer visitor chiefly to the English and Scottish lowlands.

Bird. Length 6-30 in. Distinguished from the preceding
species by the olive-green of the upper-parts and bright
yellow ^ eye-stripe, and' from the rarer allied blueheaded-
wagtail [M. flava flava Linnaeus], by having the crown yellow
instead of blue, the eye-stripe yellow instead of white. The
under-parts are bright yellow, wings and tail chiefly dusky
brown, the outer tail-feathers white.

Nest. Usually on the ground in meadows or fields, or in
a bank. Material : grasses, stems, &c., lined usually with fine
grass and hair.

22 BRITISH BIRDS

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Whitish, mottled often very thickly,
with pale brown. Av. size, '75 x *55 in. Laying usually begins
May. One brood, if not two.

34. Tree- pipit [Anthus trivialis (Linnaeus)]. Summer visitor
and bird of passage. Rare N. Scotland. Absent Ireland.

Bird. Length 6 in. Resembles the meadow-pipit, with
which it is often confused. It may be
distinguished from it by its larger size,
by having the claw of the hind toe not
so long as the toe itself, and the three
outer primaries about equal and longer
than the fourth. The meadow-pipit has
the claw of the hind toe longer than the
toe, and the four outer primaries of equal
length. Sexes almost alike. The upper-
g 20 parts brownish, with darker striations,

except on the rump. Belly white, rest of
under-parts buff with black striations. "White on the two
outer tail-feathers on each side. Wings chiefly brown and
blackish. After the autumn moult both sexes have the whole
body tinged with rich buff.

Nest. Place : in woodland on the ground, or in a bank in a
tuft of grass or hollow. Material : dry grass, stems, moss,
lined chiefly with finer grass.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Eggs vary greatly in coloration, but
those in a nest are of the same type. Ground-colour
may be bluish, greenish, pinkish, brownish, or grey, thickly
spotted, or blotched and streaked with shades of brown.
Av. size, *79 x '59 in. Laying begins May. One brood, pos-
sibly two.

35. Meadow-pipit, tit-lark [Anthus pratensis (Linnreus)].
Resident throughout the British Isles.

Bird. See tree-pipit. Length 5| in. Sexes alike. Young
duller. After the autumn moult the plumage is tinged with
buff.

Nest. On pasture-land, marsh, and moorland ; on the ground,
or a bank, in the shelter of a tussock, heather, &c. Material :
as tree-pipit.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Greyish-white thickly marked with
brown, so as sometimes to hide the ground colour. Often a
black hair streak. Variations with pink and bluish grounds.
Av. size, '76 x "55 in. Smaller than tree-pipits. Laying begins
April-May. Broods 1-2.

36. Rock-pipit [Anthus spinoletta obscurus (Latham)].
Resident on our rocky coasts.

Bird. Length 6*25 in. Distinguished from other pipits —

TREE-CREEPER—WREN 23

except the related subspecies, the Scandinavian rock-pipit
(A. spin, littoralis), which is a rare visitor to Great Britain — by
the almost complete absence of white on the outer tail-
feathers. Sexes alike. Upper-parts olive-brown with darker
striations. Under-parts dull white mostly striated dull brown.
After the autumn moult the upper-parts have a greenish and
the under-parts a yellowish hue.

Nest. Usually in a crevice of a rocky cliff. Material : dry
grass, bents, lined with finer grass and hair.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Greyish to brownish, speckled thickly
with shades of brown. Av. size, -83 x '62 in. Laying begins
April-May. Two broods.

(6) Family : Certhiidce — Tree-creepers

37- Tree-creeper [Certhia familiaris britannica Ridgway ;
C. familiaris (Linnaeus)]. More or less stationary
in most woodland districts.

Bird. Length 5*5 in. Usually seen creeping up
and round the trunks of trees. Distin-
guished by the slender curved beak, long
pointed tail-feathers, and silky white
under-parts. The upper-parts are
mostly brown with paler streaks.
Rump rust colour. Wings brown
with buffi sh bar.

Nest. Place : usually behind loose
bark on the trunk of a tree, also be-
hind ivy stems or in suitable crevices
in walls, outbuildings, &c. Material :
twigs, moss, roots, grasses, &c., lined
with feathers, wool, down, &c.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. White, marked generally at the large
end with reddish spots. Av. size, '61 x *47 in. Laying begins
April-May.

(7) Family: Troglodytidce — Wrens

38. Wren [Troglodyte? troglodytes troglodytes (Linnaeus);
Troglodytes parvulus K. L. Koch]. Resident and common.
Two other forms, the St. Kilda wren (T. t. hirtensis Dixon)
and the Shetland wren (T. t. zetlandicus Hartert) are con-
fined to the islands after which they are named.

Bird. Length 3J in. The species is easily recognised by
its small body, short tail, and characteristic shape. (See
Fig. 22.) The common form has the upper-parts gener-

BRITISH BIRDS

ally rufous-brown, more

or less barred, chiefly on the
rump, with dark brown. Bars also on
tail and wings. White spots on the
median coverts. Under-parts whitish to
brownish, more or less barred with dusky
shades on the belly and flanks. Pale
stripe above eye. The St. Kilda wren is
larger, greyer, and has the bars on the
primaries white and dark grey instead
of white and dark brown or black. The
Shetland wren is darker, especially on
' the under-parts.
Fig. 22. Nest. In almost any convenient recess,

in a wall, bank, tree-trunk, &c., or in a

thick bush or creepers. A domed structure with hole at the
side and usually well concealed, and matching the site.
Material : various — bracken, moss, lichens, leaves, &c., lined
with feathers. Unlined nests are built (as far as is known)
by the cock and are not used for eggs unless subsequently
lined.

Eggs. Usually 5-8. White, more or less speckled with
reddish-brown. Av. size, *64 x '49 in. St. Kilda wren's egg,,
'71 x '54 in. Laying begins April-May. Broods 1-2.

(8) Family: Cinclidce— Dippers

39. Dipper or Water-ouzel [Cinclus cinclus britannicus
(Tschusi); G. aquaticusTtQchstein]. Breeds by quick running rocky
streams chiefly in N. and W. England, in Scotland, and Wales.
Stationary except for movements to open water in time of
frost. The black-bellied dipper [G. cinclus
cinclus (Linn.)] is an occasional visitor to
the east coast. The Irish form [G. c. hiber-
nicus Hartert] is confined to Ireland.

Bird. Length 7 in. The British form
is recognised by the dusky plumage con-
trasting with the white front and by the
short tail and wings. Below the white is
a patch of chestnut followed by black.
Upper-parts mostly lead-grey, but sooty-
brown on the head. Young differ chiefly
Fig. 23. in having the under-parts cream colour,

mottled grey. The Irish form differs in
being darker on the upper-parts and less chestnut on the
breast. The black-bellied form has little or no chestnut.
Nest. Place: usually near running water, under a bridge,

THRUSHES 25

in the bank, under a waterfall, on stumps or boulders, &c.
The nest is generally a rough ball of felted moss with a hole
at the side ; it contains a round nest made chiefly of dry
grasses lined with leaves.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. White. Av. size, l'03x*71 in. Laying
usually begins March- April. Broods 2-3.

(9) Family: Turdidce. Subfamily: Turdince — Thrushes

40. Mistle-thmsh, missel-thrush [Turdus viscivorus viscivorus
Linnaeus]. Resident in most parts.

Bird. Length 10'5 in. Distinguished from the following
species by its large size, spotted flanks, and the white
spots on the tail-feathers, often conspicuous in flight. Upper-
parts mostly greyish-brown, under-parts buff turn to white
on the belly. Spots on throat and neck fan-shaped, on the
breast and flanks oval.

Nest. Place : usually in the fork of a tree. Material : grass,
moss, &c., with an inner cup of mud lined with dry grasses.

Eggs. Usually 4. Usually tawny or greenish-white with
reddish-brown and violet markings. Av. size, l'16x'87 in.
Laying begins March- April, sometimes earlier. Two broods.

41. Song -thrush [Turdus philomelus clarkei Hartert;
Turdus musicus Linnaeus]. Resident and common. The
Continental form [ T. ph. philomelus Brehm] is a winter visitor
and bird of passage.

Bird. Length 9 in. Recognised by the olive-brown back,
fan-shaped black spots on the whitish under-
parts, except on the flanks, which are striated.
Distinguished from the Continental form by
the more reddish-brown of the upper-parts
and a deeper, somewhat rufous-buff on the
breast.

Nest. In bushes, hedges, trees, banks, ivy,
rarely on the ground. Material : grass, moss,
twigs, &c., lined with a smooth plaster com-
posed of one or more of the following materials :
decayed wood or vegetable matter, mud, dung,
chips of straw, or stems.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Blue with black spots. j?ig. 24.
Av. size, l'llx'82 in. Laying begins Feb.-
March. Broods 2-3.

42. Redwing [Turdus musicus Linnaeus (1758) ; Turdus iliacus
Linnaeus (1766)]. Common winter visitor and bird of passage.

Bird. Length 8'5 in. Distinguished from the preceding
forms by the rich red on the flanks — not on the wing as the

Fig. 25.

26 BRITISH BIRDS

name implies — and in having the breast striated as well as
the flanks. Upper-parts olive-brown, a broad white streak
over the eye. Ground colour of the under-parts white except
for the buff breast and red flanks.

43. Fieldfare, blue-felt [Turdus pilaris Linnseus], Common
winter visitor and bird of passage.

Bird. Length 10 in. Nearly as large as the mistle-thrush,
and easily recognised by the chestnut-
brown back contrasting with the grey
head and neck above and the grey rump
below. The latter contrasts with the
dark tail, especially in flight. The black
lores are noticeable. Throat and upper
breast buff, lower breast and belly
white. Throat striated black, the stria-
tions giving place to various shaped spots
on the breast and flanks.

44. Blackbird [Turdus merula merula Linnseus]. Resident
nearly everywhere.

Bird. Length 10*5 in. Easily recognised by the black
plumage, orange beak, and yellow eye-rim. The female is
mostly amber-brown or dusky, varying probably according to
age. The throat paler with rufous striations, a rufous tinge
on the fore-breast. The young have the upper-parts brown
streaked on the crown and mantle with rufous, and the under-
parts tawny-yellow, more or less barred with black.

Nest. Is found in same positions as that of the song-
thrush, but more frequently upon the ground ; and the out-
side is built of the same materials. Is lined with mud, upon
which is placed a further lining of dry grass.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Bluish-green or bluish. Spotted or
blotched with red-brown and grey.
Av. size, 1*14 x *84 in. Laying begins
March-April. Broods 2-3.

45. Ring-ouzel [Turdus torquatus
torquatus Linnaeus]. Summer visitor
to hilly districts and bird of passage.
Occasionally remains through winter.
Bird. Length 10'5 in. Recognised
by the dusky plumage and the white
crescent on the breast. The female
is brown, with a narrower and much
duller crescent. The young differ
chiefly in having the throat feathers
white tipped, the forebreast mottled black and brown, and the
rest of the under-parts spotted and barred with black and white.

Fig. 26.

THRUSHES 27

Nest. On the ground among rocks or heather, rarely in
bushes. Material : as blackbird^ except that, as might be ex-
pected, bracken and heather are more often used for the
outside.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Like the blackbird, but generally with
bolder markings. Av. size, 1*19 x "84 in. Laying begins
April-May. Broods 1-2.

46. Wheatear [CEnanthe cenanthe cenanthe (Linnaeus) ;
Saxicola cenanthe cenanthe Linnaeus]. Summer visitor and bird
of passage. Local. The related subspecies, the Greenland
wheatear [0. csnanthe leucorrhoa (Gmelin)], is a bird of passage
only.

Bird. Length 6 in. Recognised by the conspicuous white
on rump. The male has the upper parts mostly grey, a white
stripe passing round the forehead and
over each eye, lores and ear-coverts
black, wings mostly dark brown, under-
parts buff except the belly, which is
white. The female has the upper-parts
and ear-coverts brown, and the under-
parts all buff. After the autumn moult
the male resembles the female. The
young differ chiefly in having the back
greyish-brown, and the feathers on the
throat and forehead tipped brown so as
to form indistinct bars.

Nest. Place : on warrens, downs, stony
open country, in rabbit -bur rows, under
rocks or stones, or any suitable crevice.
Material : dry grass lined with hair, fur, wool, &c. Many pairs
may be found nesting near together.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Pale blue, sometimes speckled with
dark red-brown. Av. size, '81 x "61 in. Laying begins April-
May. Broods 1-2.

47. Whinchat [Saxicola rubetra rubetra (Linnaeus) ; Pratin-
cola rubetra rubetra (Linnaeus)]. Summer visitor to most parts
and bird of passage. Exceptional in

winter. Local.

Bird. Length 5j in. Distinguished
at all seasons from the stonechat by the
white oa the basal part of the tail and
its slighter build. The male has the
upper-parts brown with black markings.
The throat and breast is tinged with
rufous ; the rest of the under-parts white. A broad white
stripe over the eye and two white patches on the wing, the

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

Fig. 29.

28 BRITISH BIRDS

smaller sometimes absent. Female duller, with yellow buff
eye-stripe. In autumn the male is much like the female.

Nest. Place : usually commons or heaths, on or near the
ground in grass, or at the bottom of a bush. Material :
grasses, moss, &c., with lining of finer grass or hair.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Greenish-blue spotted rust colour.
Av. size, '73 x "56 in. Laying begins in May. Broods 1-2.

48. Stone chat [Saxicola torquata hibernans (Hartert) ; Pratin-
cola rubicola (Linnseus)]. Resident and local.

Bird. Length 5J in. The male has the head and back, chiefly
black, contrasted with white patch on the
tail-coverts (not tail itself as whinchat),
wing, and neck. Under-parts mostly chest-
nut and buff. Female differs conspicuously,
having the head and upper-parts brown
with darker markings, little or no white
on the neck, and the under-parts duller.
In winter the black of the male becomes
brown. The young are much like the
female.
Nest. Place : usually commons or heaths, in heather, grass,

or at the foot of a bush. Material: moss, grass, &c., lined

usually with finer grass and hair.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Pale bluish-green with rusty brown spots.

Av. size, '74 x -57 in. Laying begins March-April. Broods 1-2.

49. Redstart Phcenicurus phcenicurus phcenicurus (Linnseus) ;
Ruticilla phcenicurus (Linnaeus)]. Summer visitor to most
woodland districts. Rare in Ireland. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 5J in. The male, in summer, is recognised by
the white forehead contrasting with the
jet black of the sides of the face, the
throat, and the neck. Lower rump and
tail-coverts chestnut, tail the same but
duller. Rest of the upper-parts slate-
grey. Breast and flanks chestnut. The
female differs in having the upper-parts a
uniform brownish-grey. Under-parts dull
white, except the forebreast and flanks,
which are buff with a rufous tinge. Tail, tail-coverts, and
rump as in male. The young resemble female, but have the
upper- and under-parts mottled.

Nest. Place : hole in a tree or wall, sometimes on the ground
under cover, also in odd places, flower-pots, &c. Material : dry
grasses, rootlets, &c., lined with horse-hair and feathers.

Eggs. Usually 5-7. Pale blue, occasionally spotted with
red-brown. Av. size, f79 x '55 in. Laying begins in May.

Fig. 30.

THRUSHES 29

50. Redbreast, robin [Erithacus rubecula melophilus (Har-
tert)]. Generally resident and common. The autumn and
spring birds of passage from and to N. Europe belong to the
paler-hued subspecies, E. rubecula rubecula.

Bird. Length 5| in. Distinguished at all seasons by the
orange-red of the throat and breast which is margined blue-
grey. Upper-parts olive-brown. Belly white. The fledg-
lings have no red ; both their upper- and urider-parts are
mainly brown, spotted and streaked with buff.

Nest. Place : in banks, or holes in trees and walls, and almost
any position that affords some cover. Material : dead leaves,
moss, grass, &c., lined usually with hair and a feather or so.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Dull white more or less spotted with
red. Av. size, *78 x '61 in. Laying begins March- April.
Broods 2-3.

51. Nightingale [Luscinia megarhyncha megarhyncha (Brehm) ;
Daulias luscinia (Linnaeus)]. A summer visitor to mid and
south England and to the eastern borders of Wales. Rarely in
the northern counties.

Bird. Length 6J in. Recognised by the russet-brown of
the upper-parts and the pale chest-
nut tail. Under-parts white, except
the forebreast and flanks, which
are greyish-brown. Sexes alike.
The young have the chestnut tail,
but the upper-parts are rufous with
buff spots, and the under-parts
chiefly white or huffish-white with
darker edgings forming more or less
defined bars.

Nest. Place : usually on or near _^_
the ground among herbage, in -p,.

hedge bottoms and undergrowth
in woods. Material : usually dead leaves and grass lined with
finer material, grasses, leaves, &c.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Olive-brown. Rarely blue. "Some
clutches show distinct fine brown mottling, tending to form a
cap on a blue-green ground n (Jourdain). Av. size, *81 x *6l in.
Laying begins in May. One brood.

(10) Family : Turdidce. Subfamily : Sylviince — Warblers

52. Whitethroat [Sylvia communis communis Latham ; Sylvia
cinerea Bechstein], Widely distributed summer visitor Bird
of passage.

30 BRITISH BIRDS

Bird Length 5| in. Distinguished by the rust-coloured
edgings of the wing-coverts and
secondaries. The male, in breeding
plumage, has the head ash-grey,
upper-parts brown tinged with ochre
(clay yellow), the under-parts whitish,
except the forebreast which has a
rosy tint, and the throat which is
-p. o2 pure white. Wing and tail chiefly

brown or rust brown, but the outer
tail-feathers are mostly white. The female differs chiefly in
having the head brown, and being duller. Young are like
the female, but browner.

Nest. Usually near the ground, in tangled herbage, small
bushes or hedges. Material: grasses and roots loosely put to-
gether and lined with horse-hair.

Eggs. Usually 5. Greenish with ochreous or lead-hued
markings. Sometimes white or bluish with or without
markings, also pink with reddish markings. Av. size, *75 x '54
in. Laying begins in May. Usually one brood.

53. Lesser-whitethroat [Sylvia curruca curruca (Linnaeus)].
Summer visitor to England and Wales, rare in the south-west,
northern counties, and Welsh seaboard. Not proved to breed
in Scotland and Ireland. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 5J in. Distinguished from the preceding by
the grey head, the absence of chestnut on the wing, and
smaller size. Sexes alike, but female duller. Upper-parts
mostly greyish-brown. Tail brownish-grey. Outer web of
outermost tail-feathers white. Under-parts whitish, with
throat pure white, forebreast tinged with pinkish-buff, flanks
with buflish-brown. Wings brownish-grey with brown edgings
in parts.

Nest. Place : thick bushes, hedges, tangle, usually near ground.
Material : stalks, grasses, lined with rootlets, fine grasses, and
hair.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Creamy or white with a zone or cap of
brown and grey marking at the big end. Av. size, "65 x '49 in.
Laying begins jn May. One brood, possibly two.

54. Blackcap [Sylvia atricapilla (Linnaeus)]. Summer
visitor, generally distributed in woodland districts, but local.
Scarce in Ireland and N. Scotland. Bird of passage. Winters
occasionally in S.W. England.

Bird. Length 5| in. Distinguished from our other warblers
by the cap — black in the male, brown in the female and young.
There is no white in the tail. The upper-parts, wing-coverts,
and tail are ash-grey with olive-brown tinge on the back, and

WARBLERS

31

Fig. 33.

Rare in

olive-brown margins to tail-feathers. Wing quills dull grey.
Under-parts mostly pale grey.

Nest. In undergrowth, bushes,
hedges. Material : chiefly grass, lined
with finer grasses and horse-hair.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Creamy-white
marked yellowish-brown and some-
times with dusky spots and streaks.
Occasionally salmon-pink with reddish
markings. Also white marked and un-
marked. Av. size, '76 x *57 in. Lay-
ing begins in May. Broods 1-2.

55. Garden -warbler [Sylvia borin
(Boddaert); Sylvia hortensis (Bechstein)].

Summer visitor generally distributed, but local.
Ireland. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 5| in. Recognised by uniform olive-brown
of upper-parts, wing, and tail. Sexes alike. There may be
a pale buff stripe over the eye. Under-parts greyish-white
with dull buff tinge on throat, forebreast, and flanks.

Nest. Place : bushes in gardens, on wood-edges, in hedges
or herbage. Material : grass stalks loosely put together, lined
with finer grasses and hair.

Eggs. Usually 5. Like those of blackcap, but glossier and
more distinctly marked. Occasionally almost white, with
" faint yellowish cloudings or zones of small spots " ( Jourdain).
Av. size, "79 x '58 in. Laying begins in May. One brood usual.

56. Dartford- warbler [Sylvia undata dartfordiensis Latham].
Stationary, chiefly in the southern English counties, on gorse
commons and heaths.

Bird. Length 5 in. Recognised by the dark brown
of the upper-parts and the long
fan-shaped tail. The male has the
under-parts mostly dark chestnut-
red. Wing quills sepia-brown. Tail
dark brown with a white margin to
the outermost feathers. Iris dark
red. Female and young paler. With
the autumn moult white spots appear
on the throat of both sexes, but dis-
appear during the winter.

Nest. Place : usually in gorse or rough heather. Material :
usually grass stems, &c., lined with finer grasses and a little
hair, wool, or feathers.

Eggs. Usually 4. "Much like the whitethroats, but
smaller, less greenish, with a whiter ground and more

Fig. 34

32 BRITISH BIRDS

distinct markings of amber-brown and lavender" (Jourdain).
Av. size, *69 x '52 in. Laying begins March-April. Broods 1-2.
57- Gold-crest [Regulus regulus anglorum Hartert ; Regulus
cristatus K. L. Koch]. Generally resident in our conifer woods.
The lighter Continental form, Regulus
vegulus regulus (Linnseus), is a winter
visitor and bird of passage.

Bird. Length 3^ in. Recognised
by the brilliant lemon crest, that of
the male having, in addition, a patch
of orange-red, and by the olive-green of the
upper-parts. The crest is bounded by black.
The male has the under-parts dull white,
tinged on the throat and flanks with green.
The female has the under-parts dull buff.
Fig. 35. The young lack the yellow crest.

Nest. Place : usually suspended beneath
the end of the bough of some conifer, also in ivy, furze,
creepers. Material : green moss and spider webs, sometimes
lichens, lined with feathers, also hair or wooL

Eggs. Usually 7-10. White or ochreous, with ochreous or
reddish-brown markings. Av. size, "53 x '40 in. Laying begins
in April. Broods 1-2.

58. CMffchaff [Phylloscopus collybita collybita (Vieillot); Phyllo-
scopus rufus (Bechstein)]. A summer visitor to our wooded dis-
tricts. Scarce in Scotland. Also bird of passage. A few winter.

Bird. Length 4^ in. Distinguished by the blackish legs
from the willow-wren, which it resembles. The best means
of identification is the song, that of the chiffchaff giving it its
name : chiffj chaff, these two notes being repeated as many as
ten or more times. The song of the willow-wren, a much
commoner species, is a plaintive rippling warble. Upper-parts
olive-green. Wing and tail brown, edged olive-green. Under-
parts mostly dull white. A pale buff stripe over the eye.

Nest. Place : usually not far from large trees, some feet
from the ground, occasionally on or near it. Built in mixed
tangles of brambles, herbage, and the like ; in bushes, creepers.
Domed with opening at the side. Material: usually dead
leaves, grass, moss, and other material lined with feathers.

Eggs. Usually 6. White spotted purplish-brown with
fainter violet marks. Av. size, '61 x *47 in. Laying begins in
May. One brood usually.

59. Willow-warbler, also inaptly called willow-wren.
[Phylloscopus trochilus trochilus (Linnaeus)]. Very common and
widely distributed. Summer visitor. Bird of passage. Occa-
sionally winters.

WARBLERS 33

Bird. Length 4'9 in. Distinguished by the pale brown
legs from the chiffchaff, which see.

Nest. Unlike the chiffchafFs it is
usually on or near the ground, in
grass and other herbage, or in bank
sides, and may be found either in
woodland or on commons, away from <
trees. Domed with entrance at the
side. Material: grass, moss, leaves,
and other material lined with feathers.

Eggs. Usually 6-7. White spotted
with reddish - brown. Occasionally
freckled and rarely blotched with
light chestnut. Underlying marks violet-grey. Av. size,
*60 x '48 in. Laying begins April-May. Usually one brood.

60. Wood-warbler [Phylloscopus sibilatrix sibilatrix (Bech-
stein)]. Summer visitor to woodland districts, but local.
Scarce in Ireland.

Bird. Length 5J in. Distinguished from the chiffchaff and
willow-wren by its larger size, longer wings, sulphur-yellow
eye-stripe, throat, and flanks, and generally brighter hues.
The male, in summer, has the upper-parts yellowish-green.
Under-parts whitish, except throat and flanks, which are
sulphur-yellow. Tail and wings brown with yellowish-green
edgings and whitish tips. Female duller.

Nest. Usually on or near the ground in dead bracken or
mixed herbage. Material : bracken, grass, leaves, &c., with
a lining of finer grasses and hair — but not feathers, in which
this nest differs from that of the two above. Domed.

Eggs. Usually 6-7. White spotted dark red-brown, in-
clining to purplish-red. Av. size, '62 x *34 in. Laying begins
in latter half of May. One brood.

61. Reed-warbler [Acrocephalus streperus streperus (Vieillot)].
Summer visitor to most parts of England and Wales. Absent
from Scotland and Ireland.

Bird. Length 5J in. Almost impossible to distinguish from
the much rarer marsh-warbler. The best means of identifica-
tion is provided by the nesting-habits, eggs (see below),
and by the very superior song of the marsh-warbler, which
song has been described as " more silvery, high-pitched, sweet,
and varied than that of any other species of warbler with which I
am acquainted " (Warde Fowler). " It gave me the impression
of the song of a reed-warbler with the voice and execution of
a blackcap " (W. Farren). Its alarm-note is " a kind of musical
crake " (Warde Fowler). In the reed-warbler the upper-parts
are olive-brown inclining to rufous, especially on the rump.

C

34 BRITISH BIRDS

The marsh-warbler lacks this rufous tinge. Under-parts of
both species are greyish or rufous-buff", except the throat and
belly which are white. Wing quills and tail greyish-brown
with olive-brown margins. Fledglings more rufous.

Nest. The reed-warbler's nest is usually attached to the
stems of reeds over water, in which it differs from the marsh-
warbler's, but, like the latter, may also be found in rank vege-
tation, osiers and other trees, even at some distance from water.
The nest is deep. Material various : grasses, reed-flowers, wool,
&c., lined with the same or feathers and hair. The marsh-
warbler's nest, placed usually among mixed herbage, meadow-
sweet, willow-herb, willows, osiers, and the like, is not nearly so
deep as the reed-warbler's, or compact. The " main attachment
is to two or three, generally two, large stems ; that part of the
upper rim of the nest which passes round these stems is stretched
and separated from the main rim of the nest. The loops thus
formed have been most aptly described by Mr. Warde Fowler as
' basket-handles ' " (W. Farren). Material : green stems and the
like with a little moss, wool, &c., lined with hair and rootlets.

Eggs. Those of the reed-warbler number usually 4-5 and
are greenish-white, thickly blotched, and marbled with olive-
brown and ashy-grey, with occasional blackish spots. Occa-
sionally white. The marsh-warbler's eggs — usually 4-5 — have
" a bluish or greenish-white ground, boldly blotched with olive
and violet-grey, and numerous fine olive specks, as well as a
few blackish markings" (Jourdain). Av. size, practically the
same for both species : reed-warbler -71 X *53 in. ; marsh-warbler
*74 x '53 in. The reed- warbler begins laying in May-June ; the
marsh-warbler in June. One brood is usual.

62. Marsh - warbler [Acrocephalus palustris (Bechstein)].
Summer visitor to south and mid England. Local, but may be
more plentiful than thought.

Bird. Length 5J in. See Reed-warbler (No. 61).
Nest. See Reed-warbler (No. 61).
Eggs. See Reed-warbler (No. 61).

63. Sedge- warbler [Acrocephalus schwnob&nus (Linnaeus) ;
Acrocephalus phragmitis (Bechstein)]. Summer visitor. Rare
in north Scotland. Bird of passage.

Bird (Fig. 37). Length 5 in. Recognised by the conspicuous
buff eye-stripe, black stripes on the russet head and back, and
the markedly rufous or rust-brown rump. Under-parts whitish
with buff on neck and forebreast, brownish on flanks. Wings
and tail dark brown with paler brown edgings.

Nest. Place : in mixed herbage, bushes, hedges, usually near
water or marshy ground. Material : grasses, moss, &c., lined
usually with hair, also with feathers and other soft material.

WARBLERS 35

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Thickly speckled, or mottled ochreous
or yellowish-brown on a paler ground. Not unlike
the yellow- wag tail's. Black hair streaks common.
There are rare white and pink varieties. Av.
length *70 x *52 in. Laying begins in May- June.
One brood usual.

64. Grasshopper - warbler [Locustella ncevia
ncevia (Boddaert)]. Summer visitor to suitable
localities — moorland, commons, marsh.

Bird. Length 5J in. Distinguished by the
slight barring on the tail. It may further be
distinguished from other British species by the
curious " reeling " note not unlike the continuous
chirping of the grasshopper, whence its name. Fig. 37.
The upper-parts are reddish-brown with black-
brown markings, more or less in the form of longitudinal lines.
Faint eye-stripe. Under-parts pale brownish with a few darker
streaks on the breast.

Nest. Place : heather, low down in bushes, undergrowth,
and tanglecl herbage. Material : coarse grass, leaves, moss,
&c., lined with finer grass.

Eggs. Usually 6. Thickly speckled with fine red-brown
spots, " which occasionally form a zone, and in rare instances
are replaced by bold blotches on a creamy-white ground "
(Jourdain). Av. size, *69 x *53 in. Laying begins in May.
Usually one brood.

(11) Family : Accentoridce — Accentors

65. Dunnock or Hedge-sparrow [Accentor modularis occi-
dentalis Hartert ; also described as Prunella modularis
occidentalis (Hartert)]. Resident throughout our Isles. The
Continental and lighter-coloured form \_A. m. modularis] is a
fairly numerous winter visitor to our east coasts.

Bird. Length 5J in. Distinguished by the slate-grey head,
neck,andforebreaststreakedwith brown. The male has the back
streaked with brown on a rufous tinge. Below the slate-grey the
breast is dull greyish-white. Flanks palebrownstreaked amber-
brown. Wings, quills, and tail dusky brown with paler brown
margins. Beak comparatively slender and entirely different
from the thick beak of the house-sparrow. Female duller.

Nest. Place : usually in bushes, hedges, creepers, banks.
Material : usually twigs, moss, grass, lined with hair, wool,
moss, &c.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Unspotted blue. Rarely white. Av.
size, -78 x '58 in. Laying begins in* March- April. Broods 2-3.

36 BRITISH BIRDS

(12) Family : Sturnidce — Starlings

66. Starling [Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus], Resident and
common.

Bird. Length 8 J in. Individuals vary greatly, some having
more green about the head, others more purple, a fact which
has given rise to the unfounded view that our Isles are
frequented by two forms, a purple-headed
and a green-headed, and to the per-
sistent myth that they are visited by
the Siberian-starling, which has rarely
been recorded in Europe. Distinguished
by the glossy spangled plumage and
reddish-brown legs. The male, in summer,
Fig. 38. nas a Bright yellow beak, and the plumage

mostly a glossy black with metallic re-
flections of purples and greens and blues. The feathers of the
upper-parts are tipped with buff, those of the flanks and
belly spotted whitish. The dusky wing quills have rufous-buff
margins. Female more spotted and with less metallic gloss.
After the autumn moult the metallic hues tend to be obscured
and the bill is blackish. The young are easily distinguished
from their parents by the uniform greyish-brown of the upper-
parts, flanks, and forebreast, and the whitish throat and belly.
Nest. In any convenient hole, or what will do duty for
such. Material : straw, grass, leaves, &c., lined usually with a
scant lining of feathers, hair, and other material.

Eggs. Usually 5-7. Glossy blue, some almost white.
Marked occasionally with traces of reddish spots. Av. size,
1-19 x '84 in. Laying begins in mid April. One brood, some-
times two.

(13) Family: Paridce—Tits

67. Longtailed-tit [&githalos caudatus roseus (Blyth) ; Acredula
rosea (Blyth)]. Generally distributed and more or less stationary.

Bird. Length 5| in Distinguished by the long tail and the
black and rose-colour in the plumage.
The head is mostly white, streaked
black. A ring of orange-yellow
round the eye. Back black mixed
rose-colour. Under-parts white with
a few dusky striations on the throat
and forebreast, the rest mostly tinged
"Fis. 39 rosy. Wing quills and tail black,

the latter with some conspicuous

white streaks. The inner secondaries have white margins.

The rose-colour is wanting in the young.

TITS

37

Fig. 40.

Nest. Place : thick bushes and hedges, also in trees.
Material : moss, lichen, cobwebs, hair, wool felted to form a
domed nest with the opening at the side near the top. Lined
with feathers.

Eggs. Usually 8-12. White spotted light red, sometimes
unspotted. Av. size, '55 x "43 in. Laying begins in April.
Broods 1-2.

68. Great-tit,ox-eye [Parus major L.]. Resident and generally
distributed. Some are winter visitors to our eastern seaboard,
but these, owing to the greater size of the beak, have been sepa-
rated as Parus major major Linnaeus. If this distinction is main-
tained the breeding form becomes Parus major newtoni Prazak.

Bird. Length 5| in. Distinguished from the other tits by
its distinctly larger size and by the broad
black band which runs from the black
throat down the centre of the under-parts.
Head and throat glossy blue-black with a
striking white patch on the cheek. Upper-
parts yellowish-green, passing into bluish-
grey on the rump and tail. Outer tail-
feathers mostly white. A white spot on the
nape. Under-parts mostly sulphur-yellow.
Wings chiefly greyish-blue and brown with a white bar.

Nest. Place : usually in some kind of hole, also in thickset
twigs or old nests of other species. Material : moss, grass,
wool, &c., lined usually with hair or fur.

Eggs. Usually 6-11. White spotted with shades of red-
brown ; also unspotted. Av. size, *70 x '53 in. Laying begins
April-May. Usually 1 brood.

69. British coal-tit [Parus ater britannicus Sharpe and
Dresser]. Confined, as far as known, to Great Britain, but its
winter movements may extend to Ireland.

Bird. Length 4J in. Recognised by the conspicuous large
white patch on the nape. See also marsh-
tit and willow-tit. Head and throat
glossy blue-black with a white patch on
each cheek. Upper-parts and wings
mostly olive-grey with two white bars on
the latter. A rufous tinge on the rump.
Under-parts dull white with reddish-buff
on the flanks.

Nest. Place : a hole, usually in an old
stump or wall. Material : moss, lined usually with hair, fur,
or wool.

Eggs. Usually 7-11. White with red spots. Av. size,
*59 x '45 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood is usual.

Fig. 41.

38 BRITISH BIRDS

70. Irish coal-tit [Parus ater hibernicus Ogilvie Grant].
Recognised in 1910. Confined to Ireland.

Bird. Resembles preceding, but distinguished by the
sulphur-yellow on the cheek patches, nape, breast, and belly.

Nest and Eggs. Like those of the British form, as far as
known.

71. Marsh-tit [Parus palustris dresseri Stejneger]. This
subspecies is confined to England and Wales, but is absent
from Scotland.

Bird. Length 4J in. About the size of the coal-tit, but has
no white patch on the nape. Head
and throat glossy black, except the
sides of the head, which are dull white
inclining to rufous. Upper-parts
mostly olive-brown. Wings and tail
mostly ash-brown. Under-parts dull
white with buff on the flanks.

Nest. Place: usually in holes in
decayed trees. Material : moss lined
,,. ~ . with fur, hair, or down.

Eggs. Usually 7-8. White spotted

with reddish. Av. size, '61 x *48 in. Laying begins April-May.
One brood usual.

72. Willow-tit [Parus atricapillus Kleinschmidti (Hellmayr)].
Recognised in 1900. Subspecies confined apparently to Great
Britain, but distribution still uncertain. Breeds both in
Scotland and England.

Bird. Distinguished from the marsh-tit by lack of gloss
in the black of head and neck, and by rounded end of
tail, when partly closed, that of the marsh-tit being straight
or nearly so. Sexes alike (?). The willow-tit's notes are
distinct from those of the marsh-tit, but the difference has
yet to be clearly defined.

Nest. Place : hole in decayed wood. Said to be excavated
by the bird, and in this to be different from the marsh-tit's.
Requires verification. Material : said to be scanty.

Eggs. Differ, as far as known, little from those of the
marsh-tit. The markings said to be bolder and richer.
Number, size, &c., the same or nearly so.

73. Blue-tit, torn-tit [Parus cwruleus obscurus Prazak].
Subspecies confined to the British Isles. Not known to
emigrate. The blue-tits that come as winter visitors to our
east coast belong no doubt to the Continental form, Parus
cwruleus coeruleus, which is larger and of brighter coloration.

Bird. Length 4J in. The adults readily distinguished by
the blue of the cap, tail and wings, the green back, and

NUTHATCH 39

yellow under-parts. Cheeks white. Throat blue-black. White
wing bar. Black stripe running backward and forward from
the eye corners.

Nest. Place : a hole in a tree or elsewhere. Material : moss
and dry grass lined with hair, wool, and feathers.

Eggs. Usually 7-12. White speckled reddish-brown. Some-
times unspotted. Av. size, '60 x '46 in. Laying begins April-
May. Usually one brood.

74. Crested-tit [Parus cristatus scoticus (Prazak)]. The
British subspecies is rarely found outside the Spey valley in
Scotland.

Bird. Length 4J in. Recognised by the crest : the long
black, white-tipped'feathers of the crown. The male has the
sides of the head white enclosing a black more or less semi-
circular band. The lower side of the white area is bordered
with a black band which passes into the black throat. Back,
wings, and tail mostly brown or grey. Breast and belly white.
Flanks buff. The female has the crest shorter and is duller hued.

Nest. Place : hole or crevice, usually of a decayed pine-tree.
Material : moss, lined usually with hair and fur.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. White, boldly marked chestnut-red. Av.
size, *63 x *49 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood
usual.

(14) Family: Sittidce — Nuthatches

75. Nuthatch [Sitta europcea britannica Hartert ; Sitta
ccesia Wolf]. More or less stationary in the woodland districts
of Great Britain, but rare on the western side, and to the
north of Cheshire and Yorks.

Bird. Length 5| in. Easily distinguished from all
British tree-creeping species, and indeed all
other British species by its shape (see picture),
the blue-grey upper-parts, the rich rufous-
buff on the under-parts, and the short tail.
The throat and the sides of the head are white,
this area being bordered above by a black band
running from the corners of each eye back-
ward and forward. The flanks are chestnut-
red. The outer tail-feathers are patched with
white.

Nest. Place : hole or crevice, usually in
a tree. When too large, the entrance is
plastered round till the hole is just large
enough to admit the bird. The lining is composed generally
of dry leaves or shredded fir-bark, also dry grass.

Eggs. Usually 5-8. White, spotted and blotched with red-

40 BRITISH BIRDS

brown and a few underlying violet marks. Unspotted or
finely spotted eggs occur. Av. size, '75 x '56 in. Laying
begins April-May. One brood usual.

(15) Family : Panuridm

76. Bearded-tit [Panurus biarmicus biarmicus (Linnseus)].
Stationary in the Norfolk Broad district, and rarely occurs
outside it except in one or two places.

Bird. Length 6| in. Recognised at all seasons by the long
rounded tail, the deep tawny hue of the upper-parts and flanks,
and the small yellow beak. The male has the head bluish-grey
with a pointed tuft or " moustache " of black feathers depend-
ing from between the eye and the beak. The outer tail-
feathers have white ends. Undor-parts mostly greyish-white
with a rosy tinge. Under tail-coverts black. The female lacks
the " moustache " and the black under tail-coverts ; her head
is tawny, passing below into greyish-white, and her back more
or less lined with black.

Nest. Place : reed-bed or marsh, usually among the stems
of reed-mace, reed, or sedge. Material : generally reed-blades
lined with the flowering heads of the reed, and occasionally
feathers.

Eggs. Usually 5-7. White " with streaks, scrawls, or spots
of liver brown." Av. size, '67 x '54 in. Laying begins in April.
Broods 3-4.

(16) Family : Laniidce — Shrikes

77. Redbacked- shrike, butcher-bird [Lanius collurio collurio
Linnseus]. Summer visitor, chiefly to south and central
England and Wales. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 7 in. Only the adult male has the back red,
that of the female being dullbrownish-
chestnut, and that of the young
barred with black on red or reddish-
grey. The male has the top of the
head and neck grey, and a conspicuous
black band running backwards and
forwards from the corner of the eyes.
The rump is ash-grey. The tail has
the centre feathers black, the outer
black and white. The under-parts
-p. 44 are white with a rosy-buff tint on the

breast. The wing quills mostly dark
brown. Bill thick and hooked. The female is much less
brilliant. The back as above stated. The under-parts are dull

FLYCATCHERS 41

white with a buff tint on the forebreast and flanks, and are
conspicuously barred with semicircular black markings.

Nest. Place : bushes, hedges, tangled growth of brambles,
&c. Material : moss with stalks and other material, lined with
rootlets, grasses, wool, hair, down.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Ground-colour may be white, cream,
pink, brownish, or greenish, sometimes bluish, reddish, or bright
green. Spotted or blotched usually at the larger end, with
brown or reddish and fainter underlying lead tints. Av. size,
•87 x '64 in. Laying begins in May. One brood.

(17) Family: Muscicapidce — Flycatchers

78. Spotted-flycatcher [Muscicapa striata striata (Pallas) ;
Muscicapa grisola Linnseus]. Summer visitor, scarce in
N. Scotland. Bird of passage (E. Clarke).

Bird. Length 5 in. A small brown spotted bird that
perches on the tops of fences, posts, and
the like, from which it makes excursions
into the air, flitting here and there on
quick, graceful pointed wings in pursuit
of flies, is almost sure to be the spotted
flycatcher. The upper-parts mostly ash-
brown with darker brown streaks on the
head. Under-parts whitish with dark
brown streaks. Gape provided with
bristles. The young are conspicuously
mottled whitish or buff on the upper-
parts.

Nest. Place : a large variety of situa-
tions, such as beams, holes in walls, hay-
stacks, &c., where the trunk and some
large branch of an old tree meet, rock
ledges, deserted nests, creepers, spouts, &c.
Material : grass, rootlets, &c., lined with hair, wool, and other
soft material.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Generally " Bluish-green at first,
which often fades to yellowish-white, sometimes closely
freckled with reddish-brown and at other times boldly
blotched with chestnut and underlying purplish-brown"
( Jourdain). Blue eggs occasional. Av. size, '72 x *54 in.
Laying begins in late May or early June. Broods 1-2.

79. Pied-flycatcher [Muscicapa atricapilla Linnseus. By
rule of strict priority should be Muscicapa hypoleuca hypoleuca
(Pallas)]. Summer visitor to Great Britain, chiefly to N. Wales
and N. England. Rare elsewhere. Bird of passage.

Fig. 45.

2 BRITISH BIRDS

Bird. Length 5 in. The adult male has the upper-parts
black, with greyish rump and white
forehead. Under-parts white. Tail
all black or black with more or less
white on the outer feathers. A white
patch on the wing. The female is
olive-brown above, including the fore-
head. Under-parts bufnsh with white
throat and belly. Wing patch whitish
or buff. The young are like those of
the pied-flycatcher, but may be dis-
^^ 46 tinguished by their whitish or buff

wing patches.

Nest. Place: generally in a hole in a tree or building.
Materials : leaves, moss, grass, &c., lined with grasses, rootlets,
hair, feathers, wool.

Eggs. Usually 6-7. Pale blue. Occasionally speckled red.
Av. size, -68 x -52 in. Laying begins latter half of May or
early June. One brood.

(18) Family: Hirundinidce — Swallows and Martins

80. Swallow [Ghelidonrusticariistica(LiuiiSdus)-t Hirundo rwtica
Linnseus]. Widely distributed summer visitor. Bird of passage.
Bird. Length 7 '5 in. Often confused with the house-martin ;
but the latter is at once distinguished,
when in flight, from the swallow by
the shorter tail and wings and the
broad white patch on the lower part
of the back, just above the root of
the tail. Other marked differences
are the chestnut-red on the forehead
and throat of the swallow, and the
white feathered legs and toes of the
house-martin. (See also nest differ-
ences.) The swallow's upper plumage
is glossy steel blue. The tail dull
metallic green, with white spots, and
a long streamer on each side. (See

Fig.) Under-parts mostly bufnsh with a blue band bordering
the chestnut of the throat. The young are distinguished by
the absence of the tail streamers.

Nest. Place : usually under cover in a shed, porch, or cave.
Also in chimneys, and all sorts of odd places. Shape either
round and of varying depth, or like a half saucer, according to
position. Material : mud mixed with grass stems and straw,
and lined with grass and feathers.

MARTINS 43

Eggs. Usually 5. White with reddish-brown and grey
markings. Av. size, -77 x '54 in. Laying begins in May.
Two broods usual.

81. House-martin [Hirundo urbica urbica Linnaeus ; Cheli-
don urbica (Linnaeus)]. Generally distributed. Summer visitor.
More local than swallow. Bird of passage.

Bird. See 80. Length 5 J in. Sexes alike. Upper-parts glossy
dark blue except the rump, which is
white. Wings and tail brown with
green reflections. Under-parts all
white.

Nest. Place : outside under eaves
or under a ledge on a cliff face.
Sometimes, like the swallow's, under
cover in caves or outbuildings.
Built usually against a wall with
the top against the eave or ledge,
thus forming a closed nest, an en-
trance hole being left on one side
at the top. Material: mud with
little admixture of grass, lined mainly
with feathers. The species breeds
in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. White. Av. size, '74 x '54 in. Laying
begins end May to early June. Broods 2-3.

82. Sand-martin [Riparia riparia riparia (Linnaeus) ; Cotile
riparia (Linnaeus)]. Summer visitor. Bird of passage. Local.

Bird. Length 4*8 in. Easily distinguished from the two
preceding by the pale or sandy brown of the upper-parts.
Under-parts white with pale brown on the flanks and across
the breast. Wings and tail dark brown.

Nest. Place : in a rounded hole at the end of a burrow,
usually 2-3 feet long, bored by the birds in the face of a
sand-pit, cutting, steep bank, or the like. Occasionally in
holes in walls, trees and elsewhere. Material : chiefly feathers.
The species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. White. Av. size, '68 x '49 in. Laying
begins May. Two broods usual.

II. ORDER: CORACIIFORMES

(1) Family : Picidce — Woodpeckers

83. Green-woodpecker [Picus viridus pluvius (Hartert) ;
Gecinus viridis (Linnaeus)]. Subspecies confined to the British
Isles in woodland districts. Rare in Scotland and Ireland.

44 BRITISH BIRDS

Bird. Length 12 J in. Recognised by the bright green
on the upper-parts, greyish-green under-
parts and the rich crimson crown and nape.
Toes two before and two behind. The male
has a large black patch on the side of
the head enclosing a patch of crimson.
Rump yellow. Tail black with greenish
bars. Outer wing quills chequered white.
The female lacks the red in the black cheek
patch. The young are distinguished by the
barring on the rump and under-parts.

Nest. Place : hole in a tree, almost always
bored by the bird. Material : chips of wood.
'Eggs. Usually 5-7. Glossy white, some-
Fig 49 times stained by the wood. Av. size, 1*24
x '91 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood.

84. Great spotted-woodpecker [Dryobates major anglicus
(Hartert) ; Dendrocopus major (Linnaeus)]. Subspecies confined
to Great Britain. Found in woodland districts.

Bird. Length 10 in. Recognised by the black upper-parts,
the white patches on the cheek, sides of the neck and
scapulars, and the red on the belly and under tail-coverts.
Is about 2J in. shorter in length than the green-woodpecker.
Toes two before and two behind. The male has a band of
crimson on the nape which is lacking in the female. Wings
black barred with white spots. Under-parts dull buff except for
the red. Centre tail-feathers black, others barred dull whitish
and black. The young have the crown of the head crimson.

Nest. Place : hole in a tree bored by the bird. Material :
chips of dead wood.

Eggs. Usually 5-6. Glossy white, sometimes creamy. Av.
size, 1*03 x "76. Laying begins May. One brood.

85. Lesser spotted-woodpecker [Dryobates minor com-
minutus (Hartert) : Dendrocopus minor (Linnaeus)]. More or
less stationary in the woodlands of England and Wales. Ex-
ceptional in Scotland and Ireland.

Bird. Length 6 in. More than a third shorter in length than
the great spotted form, and has most of the back whitish barred
black. Wings as No. 84. Toes two before and two behind. The
male has the crown crimson, the female dull whitish. Both have
white patchesonthecheeksandsides of neck. Centre tail-feathers
black, others barred black and white. Under-parts whitish,
streaked black on the flanks. Young have more or less crimson
on the crown, and buff under-parts with short brown streaks.

Nest. As great spotted-woodpecker, but smaller.

Eggs. Av. size, *73 X '56 in. Otherwise as great spotted form.

WRYNECK— SWIFT 45

(2) Family : lyngince — Wrynecks

86. Wryneck [lynx torquilla torquilla Linnaeus]. Summer
visitor. Rare except in wooded
districts of S.E. England. Bird of

Bird. Length 7 in. Recognised
by the variegated pattern of its
plumage. The toes, two in front
and two behind. The upper-parts
are mostly covered with an intricate
pattern of grey mixed with brown,

buff, and whitish, heavily marked with dusky streaks. The
erectile crown is barred with chestnut and spotted white.
The brown wing quills are spotted with chestnut to form a
chess-board pattern. Irregular dusky bars on the greyish
tail. Under-parts chiefly buff, deeper on the throat and breast,
with dusky bars and V-shaped striations. The young lack the
heavy dusky streaks on the back.

Nest. Place : usually a hole in a tree not bored by the
bird. Also holes in banks. Material : none.

Eggs. Usually 7-8. White. Av. size, -80 x '60 in. Laying
begins May-June. One brood.

(3) Family : Cypselidce — Swifts

87- Swift [Apus apus apus (Linnseus) ; Cypselus apus (Lin-
naeus)]. Summer visitor, scarce in N. Scotland. Bird of
passage (E. Clarke).

Bird. Length 7 in. Differs from the Swallows,
Martins, and all other Passerine birds in having all four
toes directed forward. It may further be distinguished
from the swallow and the martin by its
larger size, and the long, narrow, scythe-
shaped wings equal to the body in length.
Plumage sooty black, except the throat,
which is dull white. Faint bronze-green
gloss on upper side of body.

Nest. Place : under eaves, in holes or
crevices of buildings ; occasionally in
crevices of rocks and quarries. Material :
a scanty lining of straw, feathers, and other material picked up
by the bird on the wing and cemented together with its saliva.

Eggs. Usually 2-3. White. Av. size, '98 x *63 in. Laying
begins end May or early June. One brood.

BRITISH BIRDS

Bird. Length 10J in.
enormous gape with its

Fig. 52.

(4) Family : Caprimulgidce — Nightjars

88. Nightjar, inaptly called goatsucker, nighthawk [Capri-
mulgus europceus europceus Linnaeus]. Summer visitor, gener-
ally distributed in open woodlands and waste lands. Bird of
passage (E. Clarke).

Recognised by the flattened head,
bristles, the intricate variegated
pattern of its plumage, and its
habit of flying in the twilight.
The general coloration is ash or
silvery - grey closely spotted,
streaked and barred with brown,
chestnut, and buff. A buff bar
across the wing. The male has a
white spot on the three outer
primaries (2nd, 3rd, 4th) of each wing, and white tips to the
two outermost tail-feathers. Otherwise the sexes are alike or
nearly so.

Nest. None, though there is some evidence that the bird
makes a scrape. The eggs are laid on the ground among dead
stick, leaves, &c., usually among bracken, on waste land or in
open woodland.

Eggs. Usually 2. A beautiful creamy- or greyish- white,
mottled and streaked with shades of brown and underlying
lilac-grey markings. Av. size, 1-24 x '87 in. Laying begins
end May to early June. One brood, possibly two.

(5) Family: Strigidce — Owls

89. Barn-owl, white-owl, screech-owl [Tyto alba alba

(Scopoli) ; Strix flammea]. Found in most parts ;
scarce in Wales, N. Scotland, and Ireland.
Stationary more or less.

Bird. Length 13 J in. Distinguished from
other British owls by its buff and white colora-
tion. The orange-buff of the upper-parts
and wing coverts is delicately patterned
with white, brown, and grey. The facial
discs are white, with rufous round the eye.
Under-parts white with a buff tinge on the breast.
Legs covered with white bristle-like feathers.

Nest. None made. The eggs are laid in a
crevice or hole in a building, tree, or rocks.
Eggs. Usually 4-6. White without gloss. A v. size, 1'59 x 1 '25
in. Laying may begin from end March to May. Broods 1-2.

Fig. 53.

OWLS

47
Resident in

54.

90. Longeared-owl [Asio otus otus (Linnaeus)],
many woodland districts.

Bird. Length 14 in. Distinguished by the
long so-called "ears" (1| in.). Sexes much
alike except that the female is larger. Iris
yellow, in which this owl differs from the tawny
and barn-owls, which have the irides dark brown.
Upper-parts buff with dusky streaks and
vermiculations and paler mottlings. Wing and
tail quills have dusky bars. Under-parts mainly
buff' with dusky striations, bars and vermicula-
tions.

Nest. None made. The eggs are usually laid
in the deserted nest of Crows or Hawks and
other large species, and in squirrels' dreys ; als>o
on the ground.

Eggs. Usually 3-5. White. Av. size, l'58x 1'62. Laying
begins March- April, exceptionally earlier. One brood usual.

91- Shorteared-owl [Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontop-
pidan) ; Asio accipitrinus (Pallas)]. Resident chiefly on the
northern moors. Exceptional in Ireland. Also winter visitor
and bird of passage.

Bird. Length 14 J in. Distinguished from the
longeared by the short " ears," the absence of
bars on the under-parts, which are pale buff
streaked with brown, and by its habitat, which
is the open country, moors, fens, and the like, that
of the longeared being woodland. The female is
larger and is somewhat darker. Upper parts buff
blotched and streaked with brown. Disc brownei
than that of the longeared form. Wings and tail
pale buff barred with dark brown. Irides yellow.

Nest. None made, except it be a scratch in the
ground. The eggs are laid on the ground in a
marsh, on moorland, sand-dunes, or pasture.

Eggs. Usually 4-7. White. Av. size, 1*57 x 1-21. Laying
begins March- April, exceptionally earlier. Broods 1-2, some-
times 3.

92. Tawny-owl, brown-owl, wood-owl [Strix aluco aluco
Linnaeus ; Syrnium aluco (Linnseus)]. Stationary in wooded
districts of Great Britain. Absent Ireland.

Bird. Length 15-18 in. Distinguished from the barn-owl
by its brownish plumage, and the familiar note or hoot, the tu-
whit, to-who of Shakespeare. The coloration varies between
two distinct types — the grey and the red. The grey type has
the body plumage grey streaked, mottled, and more or less

Fig. 55.

48

BRITISH BIRDS

barred with shades of brown. In the red type the upper parts
are reddish-brown with the pattern much
as in the grey type, and the under-parts chiefly
dull white with dusky streaks and paler bars.
The wing quills and tail are brown barred
chiefly with shades of the same colour. The tail
is tipped with white. The female is the larger.
Nest. None made. The eggs are laid
usually in the hole of a tree, also in recesses
or crevices in buildings and cliffs, old nests of
other species, such as Hawks and Crows, among
the exposed roots of trees, and in burrows.

Eggs. Usually 2-4. White. Av. size, T84
Fig. 56. , x 1*52 in. Laying begins generally in March.

'One brood, possibly two occasionally.

93. Little-owl [Athene noctua noctua (Scopoli)]. Resident
and on the increase, owing to introduction by Lord Lilford
and others. Breeds only in England and Wales. Exceptional
vagrant to Scotland and Ireland. Possibly an occasional
visitor from the Continent.

Bird. Length 9-9J in., the female the larger. Distinguished
from the other British owls described in this book by its much
smaller size, and by the white spots on the brown of the upper-
parts, forming lines and bars. Under-parts mostly dull white
with brown streaks. Wing quills and tail brown with paler
bars. Irides pale yellow.

Nest. None made. Eggs laid in a hole in a tree, building,
or elsewhere, or in a burrow.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. White. Av. size, 1*34x1 -13. Laid
April-May. One brood usual.

(6) Family: Alcedinidce — Kingfishers

94. Kingfisher [Alcedo ispida isp'ida
Linnseus]. Rare in N. Scotland and
Ireland. Elsewhere local and more or less
stationary.

Bird. Length 7-| in. Recognised by
the prevailing brilliant blues of the back,
wings, and tail, by the chestnut of the
under-parts and the relatively long black
beak. Throat white, bordered above on
each side of the neck and head by a blue
band, above which is a patch of white
passing into a patch of chestnut behind
the eye. Female has under mandible red.

Fig. 58.

CUCKOO— PIGEONS 49

Nest. Usually in a circular chamber at the end of a hole
2-3 ft. long, burrowed in a bank of earth, generally near a
stream. Sometimes in holes of walls. Material : fish-bones,
accumulated usually after lying in the form of " pellets " dis-
gorged by the birds.

Eggs. Usually 6—7. Glossy white and nearly round. Av.
size, *89 x *73 in. Laying begins March- April, possibly earlier.
Broods 1-2.

HL ORDER: CUGUUFORMES

Family : Cuculidce — Cuckoos

95. Cuckoo [Cuculus canorus canorus Linnaeus]. Generally
distributed. Summer visitor. Bird of passage (E. Clarke).

Bird. Length 14 in. Recognised by the bluish colour of
the upper-parts of throat and upper
breast, the long dark bluish and white-
spotted tail, the white black-barred
breast, the toes, two directed for-
ward and two back, and the well-
known note. Wings dark bluish
with brownish-black quills. Female
smaller, with more or less rufous on
the forebreast or neck. The young are mainly rufous-brown
with dusky bluish bars, and with a more or less white patch on
the forehead and nape.

Nest. None made. The hen deposits the eggs in the nest
of other species, the hedge-sparrow, Pipits, Wagtails, robin,
Warblers, wren, Finches, Redstart, Chats, and many more.

Eggs. Vary greatly in coloration, and sometimes resemble
those of the foster-species. Av. size of 626 eggs, *88 x '65 in.
(Rey). The eggs are therefore usually somewhat larger than
those laid by the foster-species.

IV. ORDER: CHARADRII-
FORMES

(1) Family: Golumbidce — Pigeons

96. Wood - pigeon, ring - dove,
cushat [Columba palumbus palumbus
Linnaeus]. Resident and generally
distributed.

Bird. Length 16 in. Distinguished
from other British pigeons by the
white patch on the neck and white
band across the wing, visible in

Fig. 59.

50 BRITISH BIRDS

flight. The head, neck, lower back, rump, and tail-coverts
bluish-grey. Purple and green reflections on the nape and
neck. Mantle and wing-coverts greyish-brown. Tail dusky.
Under-parts, vinous-purple on the breast and bluish-grey on
the flanks and belly. The young lack the white patch on the
neck.

Nest. Place : usually high up in trees or tall hedges. Often
in old nests of other species, or in ivy on walls, &c. Rarely
on or near the ground. A flimsy structure of twigs.

Eggs. Usually 2. Glossy white. Av. size, 1*68 x 1*15 in.
Laying begins April or earlier. Broods 2-3.

97. Stock-dove [Colurriba, anas Linnaeus]. Resident and
somewhat local.

Bird. Length 13 J in. Readily distinguished from the pre-
ceding form by its smaller size, and from both this and the
rock-dove by the absence of white in its plumage. The upper-
parts bluish or slate-grey. Green and purplish reflections on
the sides of the neck. Patches of black on the wing form
broken bars. Under-parts : throat and breast vinous purple,
rest greyish. The young have no reflections on the neck.

Nest. Place: usually a hole or recess in a tree, building,
ground, or old nest. Material : little or none ; twigs, leaves, &c.

Eggs. Usually 2. Creamy-white. Av. size, l'53xl*13.
Laying may begin in March. Broods 2, possibly 3.

98. Rock-dove [Golumba lima livia Gmelin]. Frequents
sea-cliffs, chiefly on W. coasts and Ireland.

Bird. Length 13 J in. Distinguished by the large patch of
white on the rump. Head, neck and tail dark blue, the tail
with a black terminal bar, and with white on the outermost
feathers. A patch of metallic green on the neck. Mantle and
under-parts blue-grey. Axillaries and under-wing coverts
white, conspicuous in flight ; those of the stock-dove are grey.

Nest. Place : ledge or crevice in a sea-cave, or crevice in a
cliff. Roughly constructed of grasses, roots, heather, sea-weed
and other material.

Eggs. Two. White. Av. size, 1*54 x 1'15 in. Laying
begins as early as January- February, and may go on to
October. Broods 2-3 or more.

99. Turtle-dove [Turtur turtur turtur (Linnseus) ; Turtur
communis Selby]. Summer visitor. Chiefly in the wooded
southern parts of Great Britain ; elsewhere scarce. Bird of
passage.

Bird. Length 11*25 in. Markedly different from the three
preceding both in shape, size, and coloration. It is smaller,
more slender, and has the feathers of the wing-coverts and
scapulars a rich reddish-brown with black centres, and the

AUKS

51

black side-feathers of the large tail broadly tipped with white.

On the side of the neck a conspicuous patch

of alternating bars of black and white,

which is lacking in the young. Prevailing

hue of the head and back bluish-grey with

intermixture of dull rufous or buff margins.

Under-parts pale vinous purple passing to

white on the belly.

Nest. Place: tree, bush, or tall hedge.
Flimsy structure of twigs.

Eggs. Two. Creamy-white. Av. size,
1*18 x "88 in. Laying begins end of May to
early June. Broods 1-2.

(2) Family: Alcidce—Auks

100. Razorbill [Aka torda Linnaeus]. Salt-water species
present throughout the year, and breeding on our sea-cliffs.

Bird. Length 17 in. Distinguished at once from the guille-
mot by the deep curved and grooved beak
withits conspicuous narrow white band (see
Fig.), by the darker upper-parts and the
stouter neck. Sexes alike. In the breeding
season the upper-parts are mostly black
with greenish gloss. A white bar on the
wing, and a white line from beak to eye.
Throat and fore-neck brown, rest of under-parts white. Outside
the breeding season the throat, fore-neck, and part of the sides
of the head are white.

Nest. None made. The egg is laid on the bare rock, preferably
in a crevice or under a ledge (cf. the guillemot) ; occasionally
under boulders. Species breeds in colonies, often with
guillemots.

Egg. One. Less pear-shaped than the guillemots. Ground
colour white, buff, brownish, reddish, and occasionally bluish-
green, blotched, spotted, and streaked with dark brown or black.
Av. size, 2- 95 x 1*86. Laying begins in May. One chick reared.

101. Guillemot \Uria, troille troille (Linnaeus)]. As razorbill,
and often breeds on the same cliffs.

Bird. Length 18 in. At once distinguished from the razorbill
by its much more slender and longer beak and slenderer neck
and paler upper-parts. Sexes alike. Many individuals have
a white circle round the eye with a backward white crease,
and are known as "bridled" or "ringed." In summer the
upper-parts, head, and neck are slaty-grey, turning to smoke
brown as the season advances. The under-parts are mostly

61.

52 BRITISH BIRDS

white. A white bar on the wing. In winter the throat
and part of the sides of the neck and head
become white.

Nest. None made. The egg is laid on the
bare rock on open ledges, or tops of stacks.
(See razorbill, No. 100.) Species breeds in
colonies.

Egg. One. Pear-shaped. Av. size, 3*04 x 1*94
in. Coloration very varied. Ground colour
may be various shades rof white, yellow, brown,
blue, green, or pink, spotted, blotched and lined
with reds, browns, blacks, yellows, greens.
Fig. 62. Some eggs unmarked. Laying begins May, later
than with the razorbill. One chick reared.

102. Black-guillemot [Gepphus grylle grylle (Linnseus)].
Salt-water species more or less stationary on the coasts of
Scotland, Ireland, and the Isle of Man. Exceptional further
south.

Bird. Length 11 in. Distinguished by the vermilion-red of
the legs and the large white patch on the wings. Sexes alike.
Plumage, black with green reflections, except for the white
areas both on the upper and under-side of the wing. In winter
the feathers of the upper-parts of the body are mostly edged
with white. Under-parts white. The young have a mottled,
barred white-and-black appearance.

Nest. None made. The eggs are laid on the bare rock,
usually under boulders at the foot of cliffs or in crevices in the
cliff, exceptionally in holes of ruins. Species nests singly or in
relatively small colonies.

Eggs. Usually 2. Whitish, marked with dark brown and
ash-grey. The ground colour may have a tinge of bluish-green.
Av. size, 2-32 x 1 '56 in. Laying begins in May- June. One brood.

103. Little-auk [Alle alle (Linnseus) ; Mergulus alle
(Linnseus)]. Irregular winter visitor, mostly off our north and
east coasts.

Bird. Length 7J in. Recognised by its small size. In
winter the upper-parts are mostly black, with white margins
to the upper scapulars and secondaries, and a white spot over
the eye. The under-parts are white, including the sides of the
neck, except for a more or less incomplete collar of black.
Immature birds lack the white spot over the eye. In spring
the throat and neck become black.

104. Puffin [Fratercula arctica arctica (Linnseus)]. Sea-water
species breeding on all the coasts of the British Isles. Uncommon
near shore in winter.

Bird. Length 13 in. Recognised by the large grooved and

TERNS 53

strikingly coloured beak, and the deep orange legs. Sexes
alike. In summer the fore-part of
the beak is red, the hinder-part slate-
blue, the two areas being divided by a
yellow line. In winter the yellow
line and the slate-blue horny plate
disappear, together with the cream-
coloured fillet at the base of the bill,
the orange-yellow rosette at the
gape, and the slate-coloured append-
ages above and below the eye. No
noticeable seasonal change in the
plumage. Upper-parts black. Sides of the head pale greyish.
Under-parts white, except black band round under the throat.
The young have the beak much smaller.

Nest. In a burrow in the soil on the top or sides of an isle
or cliff, also under boulders and in crevices. Material : usually
a little grass and feathers. Species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. One. Dirty white, with more or less faintly marked
shades of brown or violet. Av. size, 2-39x1 '67. Laying
begins in May. One brood.

(3) Family: Laridce. (a) Subfamily: Sternince — Terns

105. Sandwich-tern [Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis Latham ;
Sterna cantiaca Gmelin]. Summer visitor to our coasts. Local.
Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 16'5 in. The Terns are sometimes called sea-
swallows owing to their general re-
semblance to the swallow tribe in
appearance, allowance being made for
the much larger size and the grey
coloration. The present form may be
distinguished from the following by
its black relatively long beak with j,. *

yellow tip, black legs, and the striking
velvety black mane-shaped crest — and its habit of nesting in
close packs. In flight its stouter build, longer beak and
shorter tail aid recognition ; also its distinctive note — a sharp
Kirr-whit. Top of head and nape black. Upper-parts and wings
mostly pearl-grey, but rump and tail white. Under-parts white
with a not very apparent salmon-pink tinge. The young show
black or dusky markings on the upper-parts.

Nest. Place: usually near the sea on sand among marram
grass and the like, in shingle, also on mud-banks. The nest
scrape is either unlined or more or less lined with grass and odds
and ends picked up on the shore. Species breeds in colonies.

54

BRITISH BIRDS

Fig. 65. Arctic-tern's primary.

Eggs. Usually 2. Greyish to deep buff, spotted and blotched
with shades of brown and underlying ash or brown. Av. size,
2 '03 x 1*42 in. Laying begins in the first half of May. One
brood.

106. Common-tern [Sterna hirundo Linnaeus; Sterna
fluviatilis Naumann]. Summer visitor, and found breeding
usually on the sea-coast in the British Isles.

Bird. Length 14J in. See Sandwich-tern. Easily confused

with the Arctic-tern, which
it closely resembles. Both
have the upper-part of the
head and nape black, the
rest of the plumage mostly
a silvery-grey, the white
rump, throat, and upper
and under-tail coverts ex-
cepted ; legs red. They
may be distinguished most
surely by the relative
breadth of the dark inner
band on the outer primaries
and the coloration of the
bill, which is blood-red to
the tip in the Arctic and
in the common-tern, coral
red on the basal two-thirds,
dusky on the third from
the tip. The Arctic form
has shorter legs. The rare
roseate-tern differs from both
in having the breast rosy tinted, the beak black, the tail longer,
the inner webs of the primaries all white. In autumn all three
species have white on the crown and are paler on the under-
parts. Fledglings may be easily recognised by their buff-
coloured markings.

Nest. Place : shingle bed, sand with or without vegetation,
turf, bare rock, usually near the sea in the British Isles. The
nest-scrape may be either unlined or lined with dry grass and
other vegetable matter picked up near by, also pebbles, shells,
and sometimes rabbit bones. Species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. More often 3 than 2. Dull greyish, cream or deep
buff, blotched and spotted with shades of brown and ash.
Rare varieties with blue and red grounds. Av. size, 1*61 x
1*19 in. Laying begins end of May to early June. One brood.

107. Arctic-tern [Sterna paradiscea Brtinnich ; Sterna
macrura Naumann]. Summer visitor to our coasts and generally

Fig. 66. Common-tern's primary.

TERNS— GULLS 55

more northerly in its breeding range than the common-tern,
but the two are found breeding
together on the Fames and else-
where. Bird of passage.

Bird. See common-tern, No. 106.

Nest. Practically the same as the

common-tern, except that the species

j n •, i • , i_ •

is more definitely marine in its choice

of nesting site. Species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. More often 2 than 3. Like those of the common-
tern, but on the average the ground colour is deeper and
the marking bolder. Av. size, 1 '6x1-16, therefore slightly
smaller. Laying begins a few days later than in the case of
the common-tern. One brood.

108. Little-tern, lesser - tern [Sterna minuta minuta
Linnaeus]. Summer visitor to suitable spots nearly all
round our coasts.

Bird. Length 9£ in. While resembling the preceding
species in general appearance, it may
at once be recognised by its much
smaller size, the white forehead, the
yellow beak tipped black, and the
orange-yellow legs, also by the much j^ig. 68.

quicker wing-beats in flight, and the
sharp excited Kweeks and tiks that are its usual notes.

Nest. Place : on the beach, though abroad, like the common-
tern, the species nests inland on river shingle banks. The
nest -scrape, found in shingle or on sand among stones, shells,
&c., is less often lined than is the case with the three pre-
ceding species. Material : usually shells or pebbles, rarely
vegetable matter. Species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. 2-3. Grey to buffish or brownish, blotched and
spotted with shades of brown and underlying ash-grey. Av.
size, 1*25 x '92 in. Laying begins end May to early June.
One brood.

(3) Family : Laridce. (b) Sub-family : Larince — Gulls

109. Blackheaded-gull [Larus ridibundus Linnaeus]. Resi-
dent and common.

Bird. Length 16 in. Distinguished from the following
species by its red legs and beak. Sexes much alike. In
breeding dress the head is brown — not black — except for a
rim of white feathers partly encircling the eye. Otherwise
no marked seasonal change. Back pearl-grey. Wings the
same, except the outer primaries, which have black ends and

56 BRITISH BIRDS

more or less white tips, the three outermost quills being
all white except for the black ends. Best of plumage white.
Immature birds up to their second summer or later may be
distinguished by the black terminal
band of the tail, and the fledglings
by the buff and brown margins to
the feathers.

Nest. In colonies. Place : two
types (1) on the ground, on tussocks,
or among water-plants in marsh-
land, or on the edge of lakes inland
or by the sea ; (2) less often among
marram grass on sandhills near the
sea, as at Ravenglass and Walney.
Material : varies according to the locality ; marram grass,
reeds, &c.

Eggs. Usually 3. Shades of buff, brown, and olive-green,
spotted andblotched with blackish-brown and under lying purple-
grey. Sometimes bluish and reddish types are found. Av.
size, 2*2 x 1*46 in. Laying begins in April. One brood usual.

110. Common-gull [Larus canus canus Linnseus]. Resident
in Scotland and Ireland. A winter visitor to England and
Wales, except for immature birds, which may be seen in
summer. Has nested on the Fames (1910). Bird of passage.

Bird. Distinguished from the herring-gull by its distinctly
smaller size — 18 in. to the herring-gull's 24 — and from both
this species and the smaller blackheaded-gull (16 in.) by its
yellowish-green beak and legs. Sexes alike or nearly so.
Back and wings pearl-grey, except the primaries, which are
black or grey tipped white, except the outermost, which is
tipped black. Rest of plumage white, but after the autumn
moult the head and neck are streaked with ash-brown.
Immature birds may always be distinguished by the black
terminal rim of the tail, and by the dominant ash-brown of
the plumage, in which it differs from the immature blackhead.

Nest. On the vegetation-covered tops of low-lying islands and
cliffs, on shores of lochs, and on hillsides. Material : grasses,
heather, sea-weed, &c. Species nests usually in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 3. Clay or stone yellow to shades of brown.
Spotted, blotched and streaked with blackish-brown and
underlying ash-grey. Greenish and blue varieties. Av. size,
2 -3 x 1*6 in. Laying begins in May.

111. Herring-gull [Larus argentatus argentatus Pontop-
pidan]. The most widely distributed of our breeding gulls.

Bird. Av. size, 24 in. Distinguished from the preceding
species by its larger size and dull pinkish or flesh-coloured

GULLS 57

legs. Back pearl-grey, also the wings except for its white
tips, and the black on the primaries. Best of plumage
white. Bill yellow with red at the angle. After the autumn
moult the head and neck are streaked with ash-grey. The
young are mottled brown ; remain immature 4-5 years, with a
gradual transformation to the adult grey and white plumage.

Nest. Place : varied, usually cliff ledges, vegetation-covered
tops of islands, shingle beds and moorland. Material : grass,
heather, and other accessible material. Species nests usually
in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 2-3. Shades of buff, olive-brown, or green,
rarely whitish or blue, more or less spotted, blotched and
streaked with brown and underlying purples. Av. size,
2-7 x 1*9 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood normally.

112. Lesser blackbacked-gull [Larus fuscus fuscus Linnaeus].
Resident, found breeding mostly in W. England and Scotland.

Bird. Length 22 in. At once distinguished from the
preceding, which it nearly equals in size,
by the dark slate-grey on the back and
wings and its yellow legs, White tips to
the scapulars and wing quills, with white
" mirrors " or terminal patches on the one
or two outermost primaries. Rest of the
plumage white, but in winter the head
and neck are streaked with ash-brown,
Beak yellow with red at the angle. The
young are mottled brown, but, as might
be expected, darker than those of the j^ 79.

herring-gull, the back growing still darker
as maturity approaches in the fourth or fifth year.

Nest. Place : usually on the vegetation-covered tops of
islands, on moors inland, rarely cliff ledges, in which it differs
from the herring-gull. Material: as herring-gull. Species
nests usually in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 2-3. Like the herring-gull's, both in colora-
tion and size. Laying begins in May. One brood usual.

113. Great blackbacked-gull [Larus marinus Linnaeus].
Resident, breeding chiefly in Scotland and the west coast of
Ireland.

Bird. Length 30 in. Resembles the preceding species in its
black and white plumage, but is at once distinguished from it
at all ages by its much larger size. It resembles the herring-
gull in having flesh-coloured legs.

Nest. Usually on some small islet or top of a stack.
Material : as the two preceding species. Singly or small
colonies.

58 BRITISH BIRDS

Eggs. Usually 2-3. Much like those of the two preceding
species, but more boldly marked and larger. Av. size,
3 x 2* 13 in. Laying begins April— May. One brood usual.

114. GlailCOUS-gull [Larus glaucus Briinnich]. Winter
visitor, chiefly to our north and east coasts. Occurs in
summer, but not to breed.

Bird. Length 29 in., therefore about the same size as the
preceding species, from which it may be distinguished in adult
plumage by the entire absence of black. Mantle and wings
mostly pearl-grey ; rest of plumage white. Legs pink. Beak
yellow with patch of orange on the angle of the lower
mandible. Size apart, No. 114 applies also to the rarer Iceland-
gull (22 in.), which is also a winter visitor.

The young is mottled greyish-buff, which grows paler until
the plumage becomes wholly white in the fourth year, to be
followed by the grey and white of the adult stage.

115. Kittiwake [Rissa tridactyla tridactyla (Linnaeus)].
Resident and widely distributed. Strictly marine.

Bird. Length 16 in. Same size as the blackheaded-gull,
but distinguished both from it and the common-gull by the
vestigial hind-toe — usually a warty excrescence with a small
claw— by the black or dark grey legs, and, in flight, by the
conspicuous black triangular tip to the wings ; also by its
note, Kitti-way-ek, which gives it its name. Mantle and wings
mostly bluish-grey, rest of plumage white. Beak greenish-
yellow, black in the fledgling, and the inside of the mouth a
gorgeous orange-red, yellow in the fledgling. Fledgling and
immature birds have a more or less complete dark collar, a
greyish-black band on the wings and dark rim to the tail, but
resemble the adults in the general white-grey of the plumage,
thus differing conspicuously from other young gulls.

Nest. Place : on ledges of cliff faces or walls of sea-caves.
Material : sea-weed, grass, moss, earth. Usually a solid
structure. Species nests in colonies, often with razorbills,
guillemots, puffins, and gannets.

Eggs. 2-3. Greyish-white to olive-buff, spotted and
blotched with dark brown and ash-grey. Av. size, 2-21 x 1*6
in. Laying begins end May to early June. One brood.

(3) Family: Laridce. (c) Subfamily: Stercorariince — Skuas

116. Great-skua, bonxie, skooi [Megalestris skua (Briin-
nich); Megalestris catarrhactes (Linnaeus)]. Breeds in Shet-
land. Elsewhere winter visitor to our coasts.

Bird. Length 21 in. Recognised by the hooked upper
mandible and bluish cere, the general umber-brown of the
plumage, and the large white patch across the dark brown

SKUAS 59

primaries. Beak and legs black. The brown of the upper
parts streaked chiefly buff or rufous. Under-parts rufous with
paler streaks, noticeable on the flanks.

Nest. On open vegetation-covered slopes near the sea. A
depression lined more or less with dry grass, heather, feathers,
&c. Species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 2. Shades of olive-brown or green, spotted
and blotched with brown and ash-brown. Av. size, 2'73 x 1*93
in. Laying begins in mid-May. One brood.

117. Arctic-skua, Richardson's skua, shooi [Stercorarius
parasiticus (Linnaeus) ; Stercorarius crepidatus (Gmelin)]. Breeds
in N. and W. Scotland. Elsewhere a winter visitor. Rare on
south coast.

Bird. Length 20 in. Distinguished from the preceding by
its smaller body, shorter wings (13 as
against 16 in.), and long pointed central
tail-feathers (7-8 in. long). It may be
distinguished from the rarer long-tailed
or B'uffon's skua by having all the shafts
of the primaries white, instead of only
the two outer on each side. Coloration ^^ 7^

of plumage varies greatly, but there are

two marked types, a light and a dark with intermediate
varieties. The dark has the plumage mostly sooty-brown.
The light type has the under-parts and sides of the neck
whitish or creamy-white, with upper-parts brown. A con-
spicuous yellowish tinge is in nearly all cases present on the
sides of the neck and head. Legs black.

Nest. Vegetation-covered slopes, or moorland, usually near
the sea. A depression, with scanty
lining of rough grass, heather, &c.
Species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 2. Much like those
of the great-skua, but smaller. Av.
size, 2-18 x 1'61 in. Laying begins
end May to early June. One brood.

(4) Family : (Edicnemidce — Stone-
curlews

118. Stone-curlew, Thick-knee,
Norfolk-plover, great-plover. [(Edic-

nemus cedicnemus (Linnaeus) ; (Edic- Fig. 72.

nemus scolopax (S. G. Gmelin)]. Local

summer visitor to south and east England. Casual visitor
to other parts. A few winter in S.W. England.

Bird. Length 16 in. Distinguished by the large yellow

60 BRITISH BIRDS

eye and the long yellow legs. Upper-parts mostly buff
streaked with dark brown. Two white bars on the wing.
Wing quills dusky with white patches near the tips of the
outermost. Under-parts white or whitish, except the forebreast
and flanks, which are tinged pale brown streaked dark brown.
Irregular white patch on the side of the head. Beak yellow
with black tips.

Nest. On the ground, on open commons, and waste-
land. The nest-scrape is scantily lined with bents, pebbles
or rabbit droppings.

Eggs. Normally 2. Generally of a shade of buff, blotched,
streaked and spotted with browns and underlying ash-grey.
Av. size, 2*1 x 1'52 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood.

(5) Family: Charadriidce. (a) Subfamily: Scolopacince —
Woodcock and Snipes

119. Woodcock [Scolopax rusticola Linnaeus]. Resident
and widely distributed in our woodlands.

Bird. Length 14J in. Distinguished from the following

species by its larger size, the
broad dark bands which cross
the nape and the hinder half of
the head and from side to side,
and by the much narrower and
more denned dusky bars across
the pale buff or whitish breast.
On the back and wings is an intricate pattern of chestnuts
and blacks, varied with silver-grey. Primaries dark grey with
patches of chestnut and white tips.

Nest. A depression on the ground, usually in a wood among
bracken or other cover, lined with a few leaves or moss.

Eggs. Usually 4. Shades of yellow and brown spotted and
blotched with browns and underlying ash-grey. Av. size,
l'74x 1-33 in. Laying begins March-April. One brood, pos-
sibly two.

120. Common-snipe [Gallinago gallinago gallinago (Linnseus) •

Gallinago ccelestis (Frenzel)]. Resi-
dent, prefers marshy areas.

Bird. Length 10 in., therefore
distinctly smaller than the woodcock,
from which it may also be dis-
tinguished by the arrangement of the
lines on the crown, which pass from front to back. The lines
are three in number, and buff on a dusky brown ground.
The pattern of the upper-parts is chiefly of black and shades
of buff with grey added on the wings. Along the back run

Fig. 74.

PLOVERS 61

four parallel stripes or bands of buff. The black tail is banded
with tawny yellow and has a white terminal rim. Under-parts
mainly white or whitish, more or less vaguely barred with
dusky grey.

Nest. A depression in the ground in a marshy place, some-
times among heather. Lined with dead grasses.

Eggs. Normally 4. Pear-shaped with ground-colour varying
from greenish or yellowish-green to olive-brown, more or
less heavily spotted or blotched with shades of brown and
underlying ash-grey. Av. size, 1*56 x 1*12 in. Laying begins
March- April, and later in the north. One brood, some-
times two.

121. Jack-snipe [Gallinago gallinula (Linnseus)]. Generally
distributed winter visitor. Also bird of

passage (E. Clarke). Marshes and coast.
Bird. Length 7^ in., therefore dis-
tinctly smaller than the preceding, from
which it may be further distinguished by
having twelve instead of fourteen tail-
feathers, by the absence of a marked
central buff stripe on the crown, and by the metallic purple
of the rump and the metallic greens on the scapulars. Four
buff stripes along the back. Under-parts mostly dull white
more or less streaked with dark brown.

(5) Family: Charadriidce. (b) Subfamily : Charadriince— Plovers

122. Dotterel [fiudromius morinellus Linnaeus]. Summer
visitor, chiefly to Scottish hills. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 9 in. At once distinguished from the other
British plovers by the white band across the upper breast and
the large conspicuous patch of chestnut below it. Upper-parts
mostly ash-brown with paler edges. A marked white stripe
passing over the eye backward. A brownish-black patch on
the lower breast. Belly and tail-coverts white. After the
autumn moult the black and chestnut of the under-parts give
way to white. Fledglings differ greatly, sufficient for recogni-
tion being the buff eye-stripe, breast and flanks, and the
absence of the white breast band.

Nest. High up on barren mountain slopes. A depression
scantily lined with bents or other material.

Eggs. Usually 3. Yellowish or olive boldly blotched with
deep black-brown and occasionally with underlying ash-grey.
Av. size, 1 -62 x 1-14 in. Laying begins in June. One brood.

123. Ringed -plover ringed - dotterel [JBgiatifa hiaticula
hiaticula (Linnaeus)]. Resident, chiefly on our coasts.

Fig. 76.

62 BRITISH BIRDS

Bird. Length nearly 8 in. Recognised by the uniform
greyish-brown crown, back and wing-coverts, the white under-
parts broken by a broad black band passing across the upper
breast and upwards round the neck, the
orange legs and the curious black and
white markings of the head and neck
shown in the figure. Beak orange with
black tip. The fledgling lacks the black
band across the forehead, and has a
dusky beak. The rare Kentish-plover has
black beak and legs, and the black breast
band is reduced to two patches on either
side of the neck. It breeds coast of Kent
and Sussex.

Nest. On the ground, usually on sand
or shingle beds near the sea, occasionally inland. The nest-
scrape may be unlined, or lined with broken shells, pebbles,
bents and other accessible material.

Eggs. Normally 4. Pear-shaped, yellowish spotted brownish-
black. Av. size, 1*34 x '95 in. Laying begins April-May.
One, possibly two broods.

124. Golden - plover [Gharadrius apricarius Linnaeus ;
Gharadrius pluvialis Linnaeus]. Resident and generally
distributed. Breeds on hilly districts of Scotland, Ireland,
Wales, and W. England.

Bird. Length 11 in. Recognised by the black or dusky
upper-parts richly spotted with yellow, and by
the black face and under-parts, this black area
being broadly margined with an irregular band
of white that crosses the forehead, and passes
behind the eyes down each side of the neck and
breast to the white under tail-coverts. Under
surface of the wing white including the axillaries.
No hind toe. Black beak and legs. After
the autumn moult the under-parts are white,
tinged on the fore-neck with yellow mottled
dusky. The fledglings have the under-parts
white with dusky brown bars on the flanks.

Nest. On moorland or rough pasture. A
scrape in the ground, usually among heather or
tufts of coarse herbage. Unlined or scantily lined with bits
of heather, dry grass and other material.

Eggs. Usually 4. Pear-shaped. Shades of yellow spotted and

blotched brown-black. Rarely greenish-white ground. Av. size,

2-02 x 1*35 in. Laying begins April. One brood, possibly more.

125. Grey-plover [Squatarolasquatarola(Limisdus)'y Sqiiatarola

Fig. 77.

PLOVERS 63

helvetica (Linnaeus)]. Winter visitor to our coasts. Bird of
passage. Occasional non-breeding birds in summer.

Bird. Length 11 J in. Not unlike the golden-plover in the
general pattern of its plumage, but easily distinguished from
it, in summer, by the black and white barred upper-parts, and
at all seasons and ages by the black axillaries, conspicuous
against the light under-surface of the wing, and by the white
upper tail-coverts. In summer the under-parts and face are
black banded marginally with white as in the case of the
golden-plover. Short hind toe. Legs and beak black. After
the autumn moult the under-parts are mostly white. Fore-
breast ash-brown with dusky mottlings. The upper-parts are
mostly ash-brown more or less marked with whitish and
dusky. The young resembles somewhat that of the golden-
plover, with the marked difference above noted.

126. Lapwing, green - plover, peewit [ Vanellus vanellus
(Linnseus) ; Vanellus vulgaris Bechstein]. Resident and
generally distributed.

Bird. Length 12 J in. Recognised by the glossy green-
black crest and crown, the coppery-green
mantle glossed purple, the tail white on
the basal part and sides, rest black ; the
white under-parts with metallic-hued
black on the throat and upper breast,
and the conspicuous chestnut colour of
the upper and under tail-coverts. In
flight recognition is aided by the broad
rounded wings, and by the under-surface
of the same, which is black with white
axillaries. After the autumn moult the
throat is white. The male has the larger
crest.

Nest. On pasture, marsh, or moor.
A scrape in the ground, lined with bents
or other material.

Eggs. Usually 4. Pear-shaped. Yellowish, or olive-brown
to olive-green thickly spotted and blotched with black-brown.
Greenish-blue varieties. Av. size, 1*83 x 1*31 in. Laying
begins end of March to early April. One brood.

(5) Family: Charadriidce. (c) Subfamily: Hcematopodince.

127. Oyster-catcher, sea-pie [Hcematopus ostralegus ostralegus
Linnaeus]. Winters on all our coasts. Breeds on coast
and inland, but scarce in S. and E. England.

Bird. Length 16 £ in. Easily distinguished by the long

Fig. 79.

64 BRITISH BIRDS

bright orange-red beak and black and white plumage. See
the figure. The lower back, rump, and basal half of tail
white. Legs flesh-colour. After the
autumn moult the black of the neck is
broken by an irregular band of white.
The fledgling has pale buff margins on
the wings and tail-coverts.

Nest. On rough ground, rocks, or sand ;
usually near the sea. A scrape lined with
pebbles, shells, bits of grass, and other
material.

Eggs. Usually 3. Yellowish or rufous-
yellow spotted, blotched, and scrawled with black-brown and
underlying ash. Greenish-blue ground rare. Av. size, 2 '22
x 1*54 in. Laying begins usually in early May. One brood.

128. Turnstone [Arenaria interpres (Linnaeus) ; Strepsilas
interpres (Linnaeus)]. Name due to habit of turning over
stones in search of food. Winter visitor to our shores and
bird of passage. Seen also in summer, but evidence of
breeding slight.

Bird. Length 8 in. In summer the crown and nape are
white streaked black, the white of the nape extending to
form a band down each side of the neck. The mantle mostly
boldly marked with black and chestnut. The white of the
lower back and upper tail-coverts is divided by the black of
the rump. Tail mostly dark grey with white bases and tips.
Under-parts white, except the f orebreast and neck-band, which
are black. Beak black. Legs orange-red. After the autumn
moult the upper-parts are mostly Drown, with dusky brown
centres to the feathers. Throat white. Breast as back.
Belly white. Sides of the head ash-brown mixed with white.

(5) Family : Charadriidce. (d) Subfamily : Tringince.

129. Dunlin [Erolia

Fig. 80.

alpina alpina (Linnaeus) ; Tringa
alpina Linnaeus]. Very common
winter visitor on our coasts, where
non-breeding birds can also be seen
in summer. Breeds in Scotland, and
very sparingly elsewhere.

Bird. Length 7J in. Sexes alike,
but female larger. The accompany-
ing figure of the dunlin may be taken
as generally typical of the Family,
its members having long legs en-
abling them to wade in shallow

SANDPIPERS 65

water, and comparatively long beaks. In breeding plumage
the crown and nape are streaked black on pale chestnut, and
fche mantle black with pale chestnut margins. Upper tail-
coverts dark brown, rump ash-brown. Tail ash-grey with
central feathers dark brown. Wing-coverts mostly ash-grey,
and the quills brownish-black with a white bar on the
secondaries. Under-parts white, except for the black streaks
on the forebreast, and the broad black of the lower breast.
Legs black. After the autumn moult the upper-parts mostly
ash-brown, more or less screaked with dark grey, and the under-
parts white.

Nest. High-lying marshes or moorland, or low-lying rough
pasture or marsh by the sea. A scrape in the ground, among
coarse grass, heather, or other herbage, lined with grasses.

Eggs. Usually 4. Pear-shaped. From greenish to yellowish
or yellow-brown blotched, spotted, and streaked with dark
brown, and underlying ash. Av. size, l'34x'95 in. Laying
begins in May. Probably one brood only.

130. Purple-sandpiper [Erolia maritima maritima (Briin-
nich) ; Tringa maritima Gmelin]. A winter visitor and bird
of passage to our coasts.

Bird. Length 8J in. See No. 129. Distinguished from the
preceding species by the short yellow legs and darker plumage.
In the breeding plumage the upper-parts are mostly black
glossed purple, with pale rufous or buff margins on the
mantle. Secondaries show much white. Central tail-feathers
black glossed purple, the rest grey with narrow white margins
on the outermost. Under-parts whitish obscured by dark
brown streaks on the neck, breast, flanks, and under tail-
coverts. After the autumn moult the feathers of the upper-
parts are margined with dark grey.

131. Knot [Erolia canutus (Linnaeus) ; Tringa canutus
(Linnaeus)]. Named after its hoarse grunting note : Knot or
Knut. Winter visitor to our coasts and bird of passage.
Some non-breeding birds remain through summer.

Bird. Length 10 in. See No. 129. A marked difference
between the breeding and winter plumage. Easily dis-
tinguished in breeding dress from the two preceding species
by the rich bay or reddish-brown of the under-parts, head, and
neck ; the crown and hind-neck being, however, heavily
streaked with black. Back black with bay margins. Wing-
coverts mostly ash-brown margined chiefly with white. After
the autumn moult the under-parts lose the bay and become
white with greyish streaks. The upper-parts ash-grey with
darker streaks. Upper tail-coverts, which in summer show
more or less bay with white and some black, are now white

E

66 BRITISH BIRDS

barred black. Young birds resemble the adults in winter
plumage, but have a buff tinge. The rarer and smaller
curlew-sandpiper (8 in.), which has also bay on the head and
under-parts in summer, may always be distinguished by the
slightly down-curved beak. See also god wit (No. 136).

132. Sanderling [Caledris leucophwa (Pallas) ; Calidris
arenaria (Linnaeus)]. Plentiful on our shores in the autumn,
but most pass south to winter.

Bird. Length 8 in. See No. 129. Distinguished by the
absence of the hind toe. In spring or breeding plumage it has
the upper-parts with the head, neck, and forebreast mostly
rufous streaked black. Lower breast and belly white. After
the autumn moult the upper-parts are mostly ash-grey with
darker striations, the neck and under-parts white. Some
individuals seem almost wholly white. The immature birds,
which are very numerous, may be distinguished by the much
darker upper-parts, the mantle being chiefly mottled black
and white, with some buff on the wing -coverts and neck.

133. Common-sandpiper [Tringa hypoleuca Linnaeus ;
Totanus hypoleucus (Linnaeus)]. Summer visitor to inland
lakes and rivers, chiefly in hilly districts. Rare in the S.E.
counties. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 8 in. Recognised in breeding plumage by
the bronze-brown upper-parts, minutely
flecked, barred, and striated with umber-
brown, and the white under-parts with
dusky streaks on the neck and forebreast.
A white bar on the extended wing. Tail
white at end and sides. Legs yellowish.
After the autumn moult the umber-
brown markings almost disappear, leaving
the upper-parts a more uniform colour.
Nest. Usually on the ground among

shingle or herbage near a stream or lake-side. Lined with

dry grasses or other material.

Eggs. Usually 4. Pear-shaped. Buff spotted with brown,

and underlying ash-grey. Av. size, 1*4 x T01 in. Laying

begins in May. One brood.

134. Green-sandpiper [Tringa ocrophus Linnaeus ; Totanus
ocrophus (Linnaeus)]. Winter visitor and bird of passage.
Scarce on W. and N. coasts of Scotland, and in Ireland. Not
proved to breed in British Isles.

Bird. Length 9J in. Distinguished from the preceding by
the greenish upper-parts, mostly marked with small whitish
spots (buff in the young), by the white upper tail-coverts, and
the dusky under-surface of the wing. Under-parts white with

REDSHANKS— GODWITS 67

olive-green markings on sides of the breast. Tail barred
dark green. The much rarer wood-sandpiper (8| in.) resembles
this species, but is recognised by the white under-surface of
the wings. It is a bird of passage, chiefly on the S. and E. of
England,

135. Redshank [Tringa totanus (Linnseus) ; Totanus calidris
(Linnaeus)]. Resident and widely distributed, but local as a
breeding species.

Bird. Length 11 in. In shape not unlike No. 133. Recog-
nised by the brilliant red legs, and the white on the wing (inner
primaries and secondaries) and on the rump. Upper-parts
mostly greyish-brown heavily marked with dusky brown, grey,
and black. Tail barred black. Under-parts white streaked on
its upper area and more or less barred on the lower area with
dusky grey. Beak red, dusky on the end half. After the
autumn moult the upper-parts are greyer, and the under-parts
more faintly marked. The rarer greenshank (summer visitor to
N. Scotland, mostly bird of passage elsewhere) is distin-
guished from the redshank by its larger size (14 in.), the
olive-green legs, slightly up-curved beak, and the general dark
greyish hue of the upper-parts.

Nest. Nests usually not far apart on the upper beach,
rough pastures, or moorland. Well concealed in rough herbage,
also more or less exposed. More or less lined with dry grass.
Gregarious breeding species.

Eggs. Usually 4. Pale to deep yellowish spotted and
blotched with browns and underlying ash-purple. Greenish
ground rare. Av. size, 1*75x1 -21 in. Laying begins end
March to mid April or later. One brood.

136. Bartailed-godwit [Limosa lapponica lapponica (Lin-
naeus)]. Winter visitor and bird of passage on our coasts.

Bird. Length 15-| in. See No. 129. In breeding dress may
be recognised by its relatively large size, the bright bay on the
head, neck, and under-parts, the brownish-black and bay pattern
of upper-parts, the long slightly up-curved beak. Under wing
surface mostly white. Tail -coverts and rump white, more or
less barred and streaked black. Tail mostly white barred with
black. After the autumn moult the bay colour is lost. Pattern
of the upper-parts ash-grey and white with darker streaks.
Under-parts white, except the upper breast and flanks, which
are grey with darker streaks. Tail ash-grey with bars absent,
or almost so. Female paler. Fledgling like adult in winter,
but tail barred and a buff tinge on neck, breast, and flanks.
The rarer blaclctailed godwit (16 in.) resembles the lartailed, but
may be distinguished at all seasons by the broad black end to
the tail, whence its name.

68

BRITISH BIRDS

137. Curlew [Numenius arquata arquata (Linnseus)]. Com-
mon on our own coasts in winter, rarer summer. Home birds
breed inland, but scarce on E. side of England. Local.

Bird. Length 21-26 in. Female larger. Recognised by its
large size, the long down-curved beak
(5-6 in.), the light and dark brown
pattern of the upper-parts and tail, the
white rump excepted, and the mostly
whitish under- parts streaked brown.
Nest. On moorland, rough pastures,
and marshy ground. A scrape in the
ground, lined usually with dry grasses.
Fig. 82. Eggs. Usually 4. Pear-shaped.

Greenish or olive-brown spotted and

blotched with brown, and underlying ash-grey. Rarely blue-
green unmarked. Av. size, 2-65x1 '86 in. Laying begins
April-May. One brood.

138. Whimbrel [Numenius phceopus phceopus (Linnaeus)].
Chiefly bird of passage. A few breed in Orkneys and Shet-
lands, and possibly some of the Western Isles.

Bird. Length 16-18 in., therefore much smaller than the
curlew, which it resembles in coloration and in the long down-
curved beak (3^ in.). It differs in having a broad pale band
down the middle of the dark brown crown.

Nest. On moor or marsh. Scrape, lined with moss, lichen,
and other material.

Eggs. Usually 4. Broad pear-shaped. Greenish to pale or
deeper brownish boldly blotched with darker brown, and
underlying ash-grey. Av. size, 2*30 x 1 '61 in. Laying begins
May-June. One brood.

V. ORDER: GRUIFORMES

Family : Rallidce — Rails

139. Corncrake, landrail [Or ex crex (Linnseus) ; Crex pratensis

Bechstein]. Summer visitor to our
grass-lands, but local. Occasionally
remains through winter.

Bird. Length 10^ in. Recognised
by its rasping crake, its wedge-
shaped body, the yellowish-brown
upper-parts with broad dark streaks ;
the paler under-parts barred, not
streaked, on the flanks with brown,
and the chestnut wings. Greyish

Fig. 83.

above the eye, on the cheek, throat, and breast. This grey,

RAILS 69

which is paler in the female, gives place to yellowish after the
autumn moult.

Nest. Usually in high grass. A scrape in the ground, lined
with grasses and other material.

Eggs. Usually 8-11. Buffish or reddish-white spotted or
blotched with reddish-brown, and underlying ash-grey. Av.
size, 1*42x1 '02 in. Laying begins in May. One brood,
possibly two.

140. Water-rail [Rallus aquaticus aquaticus Linnseus].
Resident. Frequents marshy areas.

Bird. Length 11^ in. As skulking in its habits as the
land-rail. Distinguished from it and the two following
species by the relatively long, wholly red beak, the con-
spicuously white and black vertically barred flanks, and in
summer by the uniform lead-grey of the neck and breast.
The upper-parts are brown with broad black streaks. After
the autumn moult the grey is mixed with brown. The
fledgling has white bars on the wing-coverts.

Nest. In osier beds, among reeds and other aquatic plants.
A fairly large structure of sedges, reeds, and the like.

Eggs. Usually 7-12. Creamy-white generally sparingly
spotted with red-brown, and underlying ash-grey. Bold
blotches rare. Av. size, 1*37 x 1'02 in. Laying begins in April.
Broods 1-2.

141. Waterhen, inappropriately called moorhen [Gallinula
chloropus chloropus (Linnaeus)]. Resident and widely distributed.

Bird. Length 13 in. Recognised by the conspicuous under
tail-coverts (frequently jerked up) which
are white with median stripe of black, and
by the white broken line along the upper
feathers of the flanks, these white parts
being in strong contrast with the dusky
hue of the rest of the plumage. Head, neck,
and under-parts slate-black. Upper-parts
olive-brown glossed green. The forehead
shield and beak bright red, except the tip
of the latter, which is lemon-yellow. Legs green with a
" garter " of red and yellow at the top. Young birds may be
recognised by the dull grey or white on the under-parts and
the greenish bill and shield.

Nest. Usually among rushes or other aquatic plants, or
by ponds and lake or river margins ; also on the ground away
from water, or in hedges, bushes, trees. Strongly built, usually
of various water-plants, lined with finer material, grasses, &c. ;
also dry leaves. Extra nests are built, apparently for roosting
and resting.

70

BRITISH BIRDS

Fig. 85.

Eggs. Usually 6-10. Light buff to clay-yellow more or less
spotted or blotched with brownish or purplish-red, and under-
lying ash-grey. Av. size, 1*76 x 1*25 in. Laying begins in
April, sometimes earlier. 2-3 broods.

142. Coot [Fulica, atra atra (Linnaeus)]. Resident. Found

chiefly on the larger sheets of water ;
also on coast in hard weather.

Bird. Length 15 in. Sexes nearly
alike. Recognised by the curious lobed
toes (Fig. 86), the white beak and fore-
head shield, and the slate-grey plumage
relieved only by the white tips to the
secondaries. Head and neck nearly black.
Legs green. Young birds may be recog-
nised by the white on the under-parts.
Nest. Usually on lake margins in shallow water among

reeds and other aquatic plants. A

bulky structure of aquatic plants.
Eggs. Usually 7-9. Greyish to

clay-yellow speckled all over with

small purplish-brown or brown-
black spots. Av. size, 2-1 x 1*41 in.

Laying begins March -April or

later. One, possibly two broods.

VI. ORDER: GALLIFORMES

Family: Phasianidce. (a) Sub-
family : Tetraoninas — Grouse

143. Capercaillie, capercailzie
[Tetrao urogallus urogallus Lin-
naeus]. Resident. Breeds in Scot-
land. Local movements.

Bird. Male 35 in., female 25 in.,
therefore larger than the other grouse (Nos. 144-146). Like
them it has the wings short and rounded. The male has
the upper-parts freckled grey, except the wing-coverts and
scapulars, which are reddish-brown freckled black. Throat
feathers long and black. Under-parts blackish with glossy
dark green on the breast and white tips to the belly feathers.
The much smaller female differs markedly in coloration, which
is buff, and mostly rufous-buff on the upper-parts, barred and
spotted with black, brown, and white. Conspicuous orange-
buff on the throat and breast. The feathers on the lower
breast and belly have conspicuous black and white tips. Both
sexes have the legs feathered, and a bare red patch or wattle

Fig. 86. Coot's toes.

GROUSE

71

about the eye, larger in the male. The fledgling is not unlike
the female, but shows more buff.

Nest. Usually in a pine-forest, at the foot of a tree ; also
under a bush, in heather, or other cover. The nest-scrape is
lined with pine-needles, moss, feathers.

Eggs. Usually 6-8. Yellowish to reddish-yellow speckled,
spotted, and finely blotched with browns. Av. size, 2*27 x
1*62 in. Laying begins end April. One brood.

144. Black-grouse, blackgame; blackcock (male), greyhen
(female) [Tetrao tetrix (Linnaeus)]. Resident. Breeds chiefly
in the northern counties and Scotland. Absent from Ireland.
Local movements.

Bird. Length 23 in. The blackcock is easily recognised
by the lyre-shaped tail, the conspicuous white
under tail-coverts and less marked white bar
on the wing, both contrasting with the general
blue-glossed black of the plumage. In July-
September the black of the upper-parts is for
a time mixed with chestnut or brownish-buff.
The greyhen is chiefly barred and freckled
with rufous-buff and black. The forked-tail
readily distinguishes her from the hen caper-
caillie. The fledglings are much like the
adult female, but young cocks soon show
black in the plumage.

Nest. In woodland or open ground. A
scrape in the ground, lined with leaves, pine-
needles, moss, and other material.

Eggs. Usually 6-10. Like the capercaillie's, but smaller.
Av. size, 2 x 1*45 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood.

145. Red-grouse [Lagopus lagopus scoticus (Latham)].
Resident. Breeds in moorland districts of

Scotland, Ireland, and parts of Wales, W.
and N. England ; exceptionally elsewhere.
Local movements in winter from the high
moors to the lowland.

Bird. Length 15^ in. The male, in breeding
dress, is chestnut-red finely barred with black,
the breast being darker. Legs and toes
feathered white. Wing and tail quills
brownish. The coloration varies much.
Some individuals have the under-parts, and
sometimes the upper-parts, spotted white ;
others are dark, occasiooally almost black.
From June to October the males generally
become blackish on the upper-parts, with numerous irregular

Fig. 87.

Fig. 88.

72 BRITISH BIRDS

buff bars, after which they again assume the breeding plumage
(November - June). The female is smaller. In breeding
plumage (April-July) she resembles the male in his autumn
dress, and may further be distinguished by having merely
a bare red patch over the eye instead of the red crest -like
erections of the male. From August to March she wears
the breeding costume of the male. Like the male, the females
vary in coloration, some being redder, others blacker, and
others white-spotted, or, more usually, buff-spotted. An Irish
variety has the upper-parts barred buff and black. The
fledglings are not unlike the female in her breeding dress.

Nest. On moorland. A scrape among heather or coarse
herbage, lined with grasses, moss, feathers, &c.

Eggs. Usually 7-12. Whitish to creamy, sometimes with a
reddish tinge, more or less heavily and closely blotched and
spotted with reddish or blackish-brown. Av. size, T79 x 1*25 in.
Laying begins in April, sometimes earlier. One brood.

146. Ptarmigan [Lagopus mutus mutus (Montin)]. Resi-
dent. Breeds on the mountains of Scotland. More or less
stationary.

Bird. Length 14J in. Distinguished at all seasons from the
preceding by the large but varying amount of white on the
wings. Three seasonal changes of plumage. The male (1)
from April to July has the upper-parts blackish with a barred
and mottled pattern of rusty grey, and the under-parts white,
except the forebreast, which is brown more or less mottled
rufous ; (2) from August to October the upper-parts grey with
black-and-white pattern, under-parts nearly all white ; (3) from
November to March all white except the black on the tail-
feathers, lores, and eye-stripe. Birds living at the highest alti-
tudes appear to retain the white longer than birds lower down.
The female in period (1), April- July, has the pattern of the
upper-parts mostly buff, rufous-buff, grey, or white on brown ;
in period (2), August-October, she is darker than the male ;
and in period (3), November-March, differs in having no black
on the head. The fledgling is mostly blackish with rufous-buff
markings, and brownish-black and buff primaries.

Nest. Usually above 2000 feet on mountain-sides. A scrape
on the ground, unlined, or more or less scantily lined with
moss, ling, and feathers.

Eggs. Usually 8-9. Like these of the red-grouse, " but, as a
rule, the ground-colour is whiter, the markings more sparingly
distributed and blacker, with less of the rich deep red-brown "
(Jourdain). They are slightly smaller. Av. size, 1 '70x1 '20.
Laying begins about the third or fourth week in May. One
brood.

PHEASANTS 73

Family: Phasianidce. (b) Subfamily: Phasianince — Pheasants.

147. Pheasant [Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus]. Semi-
domesticated and stationary. Local in Scotland.

Bird. Length 35 in., the female with a much shorter tail.
No seasonal change. The female is easily distinguished from
the male by her general sandy-brown coloration, marked black,
with a reddish-brown or chestnut tinge on the mantle, flanks,
and tail-feathers. The most conspicuous features of the male
are the dark green-purple glossed head and neck, the long
reddish-buff tail barred black, the bare red cheeks, and the
general tawny-reddish hue of the plumage. The fledglings are
not unlike the female, but duller.

Nest. Usually on the ground, in rough tangle, or under
bushes ; in a hedge, wood, or ditch-side. Occasionally in trees.
The scrape is scantily lined with leaves, grass, &c.

Eggs. Usually 8-14. Olive-brown. Rarely pale blue. Av.
size, 1*81 x 1*41 in. Laying begins April-May. One brood.

148. Partridge, grey-partridge [Perdix perdix perdix (Lin-
naeus) ; Perdix cinerea Latham]. Resident and stationary except
for irregular local movements. Local in Scotland.

Bird, Length 12 J in. The male in breeding plumage
(Sept.- June) is mostly tawny-chestnut on the head and throat,
a brownish -buff on the upper-parts, with close wavy cross-lines
of black. The breast and flanks are grey, finely marked with
black. On the flanks broad chestnut bars. A large horse-shoe
shaped chestnut patch on the lower breast. From June-Sept,
the male has the neck brown, with buff and black streaks, and
the throat paler. In this plumage it may be distinguished
from young birds by the rounded tip of the outermost primary.
The female may always be distinguished by the black wing-
coverts, with wavy buff cross-bars, which she has in addition to
the buff shaft streaks of the male. Horse-shoe smaller or
wanting. Till May she has the head and neck brown, streaked
buff; from May-Sept, the neck becomes darker. The fledgling
has buff cross-bars on the wing -coverts, like the female.

Nest. Usually on the ground, in a hedge -row, in mixed
tangle, under a bush, in bracken, and similar places. The
scrape is lined with dead leaves and grass, which may be
placed over the eggs, when left.

Eggs. Usually 10-20. Olive-brown to greyish-olive. Rarely
blue. A v. size, '1-38 x 1*05 in. Laying begins in April-May.
One brood.

149. Redlegged-partridge, French-partridge [Caccabis rufa
rufa (Linnseus)]. Introduced species, resident in England
and Wales.

74 BRITISH BIRDS

Bird. Length 13 J in., therefore somewhat larger than the
grey-partridge, from which it may at once be distinguished in
adult plumage by the conspicuous black, white, and chestnut
barrings on the lavender-grey flanks. Female somewhat
duller. No seasonal change. Upper-parts brown, except the
crown, which is grey. Throat white, this white area being
edged with a black band, below which again is a broader band
of tawny-rufous with black tips. Breast lavender-grey. Belly
buff. Legs red. The fledgling has the head and neck dull
buff. Upper-parts mostly greyish-brown with black and pale
buff or whitish markings. Under-parts mostly a dull greyish
tawny-rufous tint with paler tips to the feathers. Flanks
unmarked.

Nest. Place : as grey-partridge. Slightly lined with grass
and leaves.

Eggs. Usually 10-18. Buff to rufous, finely speckled with
red-brown, and more sparingly blotched with the same or
purplish. Av. size, 1'59 x 1'21 in. Laying begins April-May.
One brood.

150. Quail {Coturnix coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus) ; Coturnix
communis Bonnaterre], Chiefly a summer visitor in fluctuating
and apparently diminishing numbers to the southern parts
of England and E. Ireland. Scarce elsewhere. Some stay
through winter.

Bird. Length 7 in., therefore much smaller than the
partridge. General coloration is pale brown or dusky above
with pale buff or whitish stripes, and chestnut and pale buff
beneath. The male has the crown and nape black, tipped brown,
with a central longitudinal buff stripe, and a similar stripe
passing backwards over each eye, bounded by a dusky stripe
below. Back dusky or black, barred pale brown, streaked
whitish. Scapulars and wing -coverts pale brown with whitish
or buff shaft streaks, and barred or spotted buff and dusky.
Wing quills brownish -grey barred buff. A black inverted
" anchor " on the throat. Forebreast pale chestnut striated
with buff. Flanks marked with black and buff. Rest of
under-parts pale buff. Female lacks the "anchor," and the
black on the upper-parts duller.

Nest. A scrape among crops or among grass in rough
pasture, lined with grass, stems, leaves, &c.

Eggs. Usually 7-12. Generally a yellowish ground-colour
with dark brown markings varying from a few heavy blotches
to innumerable spots. Av. size, 1*14 x "88 in. Laying begins
May-June. Broods 1-2.

EAGLES— HAWKS 75

VII. ORDER: ACCIPITRES. SUBORDER: FALCONES

(1) Family : Buteonidce. (a) Subfamily : Aquilince — Eagles

151. Golden-eagle [Aquila chrysaetus chrysaetus (Linnseus)].
Stationary in N. Scotland and in one or two places in Ireland.
Occasional wanderer elsewhere.

Bird. Length 32-36 in. Female the larger. Recognised
by its large size and general dark brown coloration. The head
and nape shade from brown to tawny, the rest of the upper-
parts are glossed more or less purple. A greyish band across
the tail. Beak hooked. Legs feathered. Toes yellow.
Young birds have the tail whitish with broad terminal band of
dark brown. The rarer and slightly larger whitetailed-eagle is
distinguished at all ages by the fact that its leg is not
feathered. Only the adult has the tail white.

Nest. Usually on trees or ledges of crags. A mass of sticks
lined with softer material such as grass, heather, moss.

Eggs. Usually 2. Whitish, variously blotched, spotted, and
marbled with shades of reddish-brown, and underlying pale
violet ; also unmarked white. Varieties with yellowish and
purple-grey ground. Av. size, 3*02x2*33 in. Laying begins
March-April. One brood.

(1) Family : Buteonidce. (b) Subfamily : Buteonince — Buzzards

152. Buzzard [Buteo buteo buteo (Linnaeus) ; Buteo vulgaris
Leach]. More or less stationary in the wilder and hillier
districts of Great Britain. Irregular visitor elsewhere.

Bird. Length 21-23 in., the female being the larger.
Beak hooked. Coloration variable, but recognised by the
general brown hue. There is a varying amount of white on
the breast, which may be either barred or striated with brown.
Tail barred dusky. Beak hooked, legs yellow and scaled,
the latter distinguishing this species from the rarer rough-
legged-buzzard, which has the legs feathered to the toes, the
base of the tail and tail-coverts white, and a creamy-white
head and neck streaked brown.

Nest. Cliffs, rarely trees now. Mass of sticks and other
rough material lined with softer material such as grass,
fresh leaves, &c.

Eggs. Usually 2-3. Whitish, more or less blotched with
varying shades of red-brown or black-brown, and underlying
violet ; also bluish-white unmarked. Av. size, 2*15 x 1-72 in.
Laying begins in April.

76

BRITISH BIRDS

(1) Family: Buteonidce. (c) Subfamily: Accipitrince —
Sparrow-hawks

153. Sparrow-hawk [Accipiter nisus nisus (Linnseus)].

Stationary in woodland districts. Scarce in N. Scotland.

Winter visitor on the E. coast.

Bird. Length 13-15J in., the female being the larger.
Wing comparatively short (8 in.). Legs long.
Bill hooked. The male has the upper-parts
slate-grey, the tail brownish with dusky bars.
Under-parts mostly whitish or pale buff closely
barred with dark brown and rufous, or rufous
only, and on the forebreast and flank tipped
with rufous. A chestnut tinge on the lower
sides of the head. The female has the upper-
parts browner. The lower sides of the head are
paler than in the case of the male, and streaked
brown. The under-parts whitish, mostly barred
with umber-brown. The young are like the

Fig. 89.

female, but margined rufous on the upper-parts.

Nest. Usually built of twigs, bark, and some softer
material on top of an old nest of crow, wood-pigeon, or magpie.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Usually bluish-white, sometimes
blotched with rich chocolate-brown, sometimes with paler
reddish-brown or purplish. Av. size, 1 '52x1*26 in. Laying
begins April-May. One brood.

(2) Family : Falconidce

154. Peregrine-falcon [Fako pergrinus peregrinus Tunstall].
Resident. Chiefly frequents hilly districts and
sea cliffs.

Bird. Length 15-18 in., the female being
the larger. Wings comparatively long (14 in.)
and pointed. Legs short. Cheeks blackish.
Beak hooked. Upper-parts slate-blue, spotted
and barred with black. Tail barred dusky,
tipped white. Under-parts bufnsh or rufous-
white, more or less closely barred with black.
Legs and feet yellow, unfeathered, and reticu-
lated. Young birds have the upper-parts dusky
brown, margined buff or rufous, and the
under-parts striped longitudinally black, not
barred.

Nest. Usually on the ledge of a cliff face. Sometimes on
the ground. A scrape, unlined.

Fig. 90.

HAWKS 77

Eggs. Usually 3-4. Whitish usually nearly or wholly hidden
by shades of beautiful tawny pink, orange to brownish-red
and purplish-brown. Av. size, 2*01x1*59 in. Laying begins
usually in April. One brood.

155. Merlin [Ftflco regulus regulus Pallas ; Falco cesalon
Tunstall]. Breeds on the hills and moorlands of Wales, N. Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland ; possibly Exmoor. Found on
lower ground and coasts in autumn.

Bird. Length 11-12 in., the female the larger. Recognised
by its relatively small size. Bill hooked. The male has the
•upper parts bluish with black shaft streaks, except the nape,
which is rufous. Tail grey-blue barred, dusky and tipped
white. Under-parts whitish, tinged rufous and striated black.
Legs yellow. Female, upper-parts dark brown. Tail the same,
barred and tipped white. Nape, cheeks, and under-parts
whitish striped with dark brown. The young like female, but
with pale rufous margins on upper-parts.

Nest. Usually a scrape in the ground among heather with
scanty lining. Occasionally in old nests in trees and on cliff
ledges.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Heavily mottled with shades of reddish
or purplish-brown, obscuring the ground colour. Av. size,
1*55 x 1*23 in. Laying begins usually in May. One brood.

156. Kestrel (wind-hover) [Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus
Linnaeus]. Resident generally where not

persecuted, but scarce N. Scotland and
Ireland.

Bird. Length 13-14 in., the female be-
ing somewhat larger. Bill hooked. Easily
distinguished from the sparrow-hawk by
its habit of hovering, its relatively long
wings (9J-10 in.), the fact that its tawny
rust-coloured under-parts are streaked
with black longitudinally and not barred,
and that the dominating colour of the
upper-parts is chestnut-red. Legs yellow F- 91

and unfeathered. The sexes differ in

the coloration of the upper-parts. The male has only the
mantle and wing -co verts chestnut-red, with black spots. The
top of the head, the rump and the tail are slate-blue, the
tail with a broad terminal black band, tipped white. Wing
quills dusky. The female has the whole upper-parts, including
the tail, dull chestnut-red, with black bars. Young: like the
female, but paler.

Nest. Place various : ledges of cliffs and quarries, ruins, on
old nests in trees, rarely on the ground. No material.

78 BRITISH BIRDS

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Yellowish-white, being sometimes
blotched, sometimes wholly concealed by shades varying from
reddish to blackish-brown, and from pale to reddish-yellow.
Rarely purplish underlying marks. Av. size, 1 '52x1*20 in.
Laying begins April-May. One brood

VIIL ORDER : ANSERITORMES. SUB-ORDER:
ANSERE8

Family : Anatidce. (a) Subfamily, Anserince — Geese

157. Greylag-goose [Anser anser (Linnaeus) ; Anser cinereus
Meyer]. Resident. Breeds IS". Scotland. Elsewhere winter
visitor or bird of passage.

Bird. Length 34 in. Distinguished from two of the other
and rarer Grey Geese (bean-goose, pinkfooted-goose) by the white
tip or nail to the bill, and from the third, the white-fronted-
goose, which has also a white nail, by having only a little or
110 white feathering round the base of the bill instead of the
conspicuous white patch on the face, which gives the latter
species its name. Beak, except tip, and legs pink flesh-
coloured. Plumage mostly greyish-brown, lighter on the
under-parts, with paler margins on the back and scapulars, and
dusky bars on the under-parts. Rump and wing-coverts
bluish-grey. Belly dull white. White tip to tail.

Nest. Usually in heather not far from water ; often on a
small islet ; also in coarse marsh herbage. A scrape lined
with heather, rushes, grasses, &c., with an inner lining of the
bird's feathers and down.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Till stained they are dull yellowish-
white. Av. size, 3 '43 x 2*3 in. Laying begins mid to end
April. One brood.

158. Barnacle-goose [Branta leucopsis (Bechstein); Bernicla

leucopsis (Bechstein)]. A winter visitor,
chiefly to our western coasts, especially
the Solway. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 27 in. Recognised by
the white face and throat enclosed by
the surrounding glossy black of the
crown, neck, and upper breast. Lores
black. Mantle and wing-coverts lavender-
grey with dark edgings, these being
rimmed white. Beak, legs, tail, wing
quills black. Breast and flanks whitish,
the latter barred grey. Tail-coverts and belly white. The
young has the white of the head tinged brown or dusky.

159. Brent-goose [Branta bernicla bernida (L.); Bernicla

SWANS— DUCKS 79

brenta (Pallas)]. Winter visitor, often in large flocks, chiefly
on our east coasts. Bird of passage.

Bird. Length 22 in. Therefore smaller than the barnacle,
from which it may be distinguished by
the black of the head, neck, and upper
breast, relieved only by a patch of white
on the neck ; by the dusky brown of the
mantle, and brownish-grey of the lower
and mid-breast. Beak, legs, wing, and
tail quills black. Tail-coverts and belly
white. The young lack the white neck
patch, and the forebreast is grey, not j?ig. 93.

black.

Family : Anatidce. (b) Subfamily : Cygnince — Swans

160. Mute-swan [Gygnus olor (Gmelin)]. Semi-domesticated,
resident and stationary species.

Bird. Length 60 in. This familiar tenant on our lakes and
rivers may be distinguished from its two wild relatives, the
whooper (60 in.) and the smaller Bewick's swan (50 in.) by its
reddish beak and black " berry " at the base thereof. Both
the whooper and Bewick have the bill yellow on the basal part
and black on the tip part, but in the whooper a tongue of the
yellow extends forward on each side under and beyond the
nostrils. Plumage white. The young swan or cygnet is dusky
or brownish-grey.

Nest. Usually near the water edge. A mass of aquatic
plants, rushes, grasses, &c.

Eggs. Usually 5-12. Greenish -white to greenish. A v. size
4*44 x 2*89 in. Laying usually begins in April. One brood.

Family : Anatidce. (c) Subfamily : Anatince — Shelduck and
Surface-water Ducks

161. Common - shelduck [Tadoma tadorna (Linnaeus) ;
Tadorna cornuta (S. G. Gmelin)]. Resident on flat coasts and
estuaries. Breeds inland in parts.

Bird. Length 25 in. Distinguished by its large size and the
boldly marked contrast of its plumage, which is white with
greenish-black on the head and neck, with a broad chestnut
band round the forepart of the body, a dark band down the
middle of the white breast and black on the scapulars and
primaries. Tail tipped black. Speculum or wing-spot, chest-
nut-red and steel-blue. Beak red with a basal knob. The
female lacks the basal knob. The young lack the chestnut
band and black breast-stripe.

80 BRITISH BIRDS

Nest. Usually near the sea, in holes, some feet long, either
of a rabbit or burrowed by the bird.
Occasionally some distance from the
sea. Sometimes in holes among rocks
or under bushes. Material: the
ducks' down and feathers mixed with
grasses, moss, &c. Many pairs may
nest in close proximity, t

E99*- Usuall7 7 ~ 12« Creamy-
white. Av. size, 2'57 x 1'84 in. Lay-
Fig. 94. ing begins usually in May. One
brood.

162. Mallard or wild-duck [Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha
Linnaeus ; Anas boscas Linnaeus]. Resident and generally
distributed both near salt and fresh water.

Bird. Length 23 in. Recognised by the glossy steel-blue
speculum or wing-spot which is margined laterally with white
and black. The drake — except from mid-June to mid-
September — has the head and neck glossy green, with a white
ring round the neck. The upcurled middle tail-feathers, the
rump and tail-coverts are glossy black-green. Back brownish.
Scapulars, lower breast and flanks greyish-white pencilled with
fine grey wavy parallel lines or vermiculations. Forebreast a
dark chestnut. From mid-June to mid-Sept, the drake assumes
the " eclipse " plumage which resembles that of the duck, but
with a more uniform coloration on the upper-parts. The duck
is dark brown marked buff, and has not the middle tail-feathers
upcurled.

Nest. On the ground, usually near water, and usually in
cover of some sort, rushes, long grass, tangled briars and
herbage, hedges and the like. Sometimes away from water.
Occasionally in trees, faggots, &c. Material : dry grass, moss
and other material, lined with the bird's down.

Eggs. Usually 8-14. Greenish to buffish-grey. Occasionally
with a blue tint. Av. size, 2'21 x 1*61 in. Laying begins
usually March-April, sometimes earlier and later. One brood.

163. Shoveler [Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus)]. Resident, but
local. Scarce in Wales. Frequents usually fresh water.

Bird. Length 20 in. Recognised by the large dusky-
coloured spatulate beak (see Fig. 95), by the speculum or wing-
spot, which is glossy green (duller in the female) bordered in
front with a broad and behind with a narrow white stripe
and by the wing-coverts, blue in the drake, grey-blue in the
duck, in both conspicuous. The drake has the head and neck
dark glossy green, followed on the forebreast by white con-
tinued upwards round the neck and on to the scapulars.

DUCKS

81

Fig. 95.

The rest of the under-parts chestnut followed by white, with

glossy blackish-green tail-coverts. Back dusky brown. In

" eclipse n (about July- October) the drake

has the head and neck much like the female,

and is duller on the under-parts ; but

wings as in breeding plumage. The

female has the speculum as the male, the

wing-coverts grey-blue. Mantle dark

brown with paler margins. Under-parts

and head mostly pale Drown with dusky

brown streaks on breast and flanks, and

finer streaks on the head. The young much like the drake

in "eclipse."

Nest. Place : various — meadow, moorland, or marsh, usually
but not always near water ; a depression in grass, heather,
rushes, &c. Material : grasses, sedges, &c., lined later with the
duck's down.

Eggs. Usually 8-12. Greenish or huffish-grey. Av. size,
2*05 x 1'45 in. Laying begins usually April- May. One brood.

164. Pintail [Dafila acuta (Linnaeus)]. Breeds in Scotland,
but local. More numerous as a winter visitor and bird of
passage to our coasts, and, less frequently, inland waters.

Bird. Length 26-29 in., the latter figure being mostly
accounted for by the length (some-
times 8J in.) of the central tapering
feathers in the drake. Speculum of
wing patch in both sexes is bronze
olive-green, margined in front with
bright chestnut, behind with black
edged white, and duller in the duck.
The drake is recognised by the long
central brownish-black pin tail-feathers ; the brown head,
throat, and upper neck, the latter cut on each side by a
white stripe which broadens as it descends to join the
white of the lower neck, breast, and abdomen. Flanks and
back delicately patterned with fine close-set wavy parallel
lines or vermiculatioris of grey on whitish. Inner secondaries
much prolonged and coloured black with brownish-tinted
margins. Upper and under tail-coverts black with an adjoining
buff patch. In "eclipse," about July-October, the drake
becomes much like the duck, but may be distinguished by
the grey vermiculations, and the wavy bars of white on the
scapulars and back, the latter in the duck being greyish
covered with more strongly marked irregular crescents of buff
and dark brown. Her scapulars are dusky brown barred
rufous. Flanks as back, but paler. Under-parts whitish

F

Fig. 96.

82 BRITISH BIRDS

marked faintly with rufous-brown. Head tinged chestnut
with fine brown markings. May be distinguished from other
ducks by the speculum and slender neck. The young are
like the male in "eclipse," but have the speculum dull
brownish-grey.

Nest. On the ground, in grass or other herbage. Material :
as preceding species.

Eggs. Usually 7-10. Shades of buff or yellowish-green.
Av. size, 2*16 x 1*52 in. Laying begins in early May. One
brood.

165. Teal [Nettion crecca crecca (Linnaeus)]. Resident in
most parts. Prefers fresh water.

Bird. Length 14 J in. Both sexes may be recognised by
the relatively small size, and by the speculum or wing patch,
which is half glossy black, half glossy green, bounded on
either side by buff, or in front by rufous. Beak black.
The drake has the head and neck chestnut, with a band of
glossy bluish-green proceeding from the eye backwards, the
same bordered above and below with a buff line which is con-
tinued from the front of the eye to the bill. Mantle and flanks
finely pencilled grey and white, except the hinder scapulars,
which are elongated to form a band of black and white. Breast
white, spotted black. Belly white. Rump and both tail-
coverts dusky brown to black. The male, in " eclipse " (July-
October), tends to resemble the female, but may be distin-
guished by the larger speculum and the fine buff barrings on
the mantle. The general hue of the duck is golden-buff
streaked with dark brown.

Nest. On moor, marsh, and meadow, usually near water.
On the ground in heather, rushes, grass, &c. Material : as
preceding species.

Eggs. Usually 8-16. Creamy-white with a greenish tinge.
Small. Av. size, 1*77x1-29 in. Laying begins April-May.
One brood.

166. Wigeon [Mareca penelope (Linnaeus)]. Common winter
visitor and bird of passage to our shores ; also inland waters.
Breeds in Scotland, and exceptionally in N. England and
Wales.

Bird. Length 18 J in. Recognised by the comparatively
small lead-blue bill, tipped black, and by the speculum or
wing patch. This in the drake is glossy green banded on
either side with velvet -black, broad behind, narrow in front,
the latter dividing the green from the conspicuous white on
the wing-coverts. In the female the speculum is dusky grey
and white. The drake has the head chestnut sprinkled with
green, crown buff. The back and flanks finely pencilled with

DUCKS 83

grey and white. Three of the secondaries on each side are
black, edged white. Forebreast greyish-pink. Rest of breast
and belly white. Upper and under tail-coverts mostly black.
Wing and tail quills dusky brown. In " eclipse " plumage
(July-October) the male is not unlike the female, but may be
distinguished by the speculum and the rufous ground of the
head and mantle, these parts being dusky brown with broad
rufous-buff edgings in the duck. The latter has the breast
pale chestnut-brown, grey edgings on the brown coverts. Belly
greyish-white.

Nest. On moor and marsh, usually not far from lake or pond.
On the ground among heather, rushes, &c. Material : as the
preceding.

Eggs. Usually 6-10. Creamy-white. Av. size, 2-16 x 1*52 in.
Laying begins April-May. One brood.

Family: Anatidce. (d) Subfamily: Fidigulince —
Diving-ducks

167. Pochard, redheaded-pochard [Nyroca ferina ferina
(Linnaeus) ; Fuligula ferina (Linnaeus)]. Chiefly a winter
visitor and bird of passage. More often on fresh than salt
water. Breeds in Scotland and parts of England, chiefly E.

Bird. Length 19 in. Recognised by the ash-grey speculum
or wing patch, and the broad lobe of the
hind toe. The drake has the head and
neck chestnut-red. Iris red. Beak black
with grey on the middle of the upper
mandible. The upper breast is black with
chestnut tinge, which colour forms a band
round the base of the neck and broadens
out on the upper back. Rump, upper and Fig. 97.

under tail-coverts are black. Mantle and

under-parts whitish, pencilled with fine grey wavy lines. In
"eclipse" (July- October) the head and neck are browner, and
the breast a dark pencilled grey. The duck has the head mostly
dull chestnut-brown, with some white on the sides. Back dark
brown mixed with greyish. Wing-coverts pencilled finely dark
grey on grey. Flanks dusky brown, rest of under-parts
brownish-white. Young birds resemble the duck, but are
darker beneath.

Nest. On marshy ground in flags, rushes, and other aquatic
plants, It is composed of dead flags, &c., the duck's down being
added later.

Eggs. Usually 6-11. Greenish-grey to greenish-brown.

84. BRITISH BIRDS

Av. size, 2*42x1 "72 in. Laying begins usually April- May.
One brood.

168. Tufted-duck \Nyroca fuligula (Linnaeus) ; Fuligula
cristata (Leach)]. Winter visitor and bird of passage to our
canals and inland waters ; less often on salt water. Breeds
Scotland, England, Ireland, and Anglesey.

Bird. Length 17 in. .Recognised by the crest, which is
smaller in the female, and by the black
(male) or dusky brown (female) head, neck,
upper-parts, and upper breast ; these
colours contrasting, in the male, with the
white on the lower breast, belly, and flanks
which, in the female, are brown to greyish
Fig. 98. or whitish-brown. The drake has a purple

gloss on the head. Both sexes have the

beak greyish with a black tip, and the wing speculum white.
The male, in " eclipse " (July- October), has the flanks more or
less pencilled finely with black ; he is otherwise like the female.
Young birds lack the crest and have more or less white on the
face.

Nest. Usually near water, among rushes, grass, heather,
under bushes. Material : as preceding.

Eggs. Usually 8- 12. Olive-brown, greenish-olive, or brownish-
yellow, " while the shape is somewhat characteristic, many eggs
being elongated" (Jourdain). Av. size, 2'32x 1-61 in. Laying
begins in May- June. One brood.

169. Scaup-duck, scaup [Nyroca marila marila (Linnaeus) ;
Fuligula marila (Linnaeus)]. Winter visitor and bird of passage
to our estuaries and low shores. Breeds exceptionally in
Scotland.

Bird. Length 19 in. The drake has the head, neck, upper
back, and forebreast black with green or purple gloss. The
rest of the back, the scapulars, and upper wing-coverts pencilled
white and grey. The flanks and the under-parts from the fore-
breast to the under tail-coverts are white. Upper and lower
tail-coverts black. Speculum or wing patch white with a
greenish-black border. The drake, in " eclipse " (July- October),
is like the duck, but has the head and upper breast much
darker. The duck has a conspicuous band of white round the
base of the bill. Head, neck, and forebreast rufous-brown,
with more or less white on the side of the head. Mantle
pencilled grey on a brownish ground. Same for flanks. Belly
white. Speculum as male. The young much like the duck.

170. G-oldeneye [Clangula clangula (Linnaeus); Glangula
glaucion (Linnaeus)]. Winter visitor and bird of passage to
our coasts and inland waters.

DUCKS 85

Bird. Length 18 J in. The drake is recognised by the round
white spot in front of each eye, conspicuous
between the bluish-black beak and the
glossy greenish-black of the head ; by
the large white areas on the scapulars,
the wing-coverts and secondaries, the
white under-parts and black back. A
short crest. The male in "eclipse"
(July-October) resembles the female, but Fig. 99.

is readily distinguished by the remains of

white on the head. The duck has the head umber-brown,
without the white spot, the back, breast, and flanks greyish-
brown or greyish, mixed with darker grey. Rest of under-
parts white. Less white on the wings than the drake, and
this divided by two black stripes instead of one, as in his
case. The young resemble the female.

171. Longtailed-duck [Harelda hyemalis (Linnseus) ; Har-
elda glacialis (Linnseus)]. Winter visitor, chiefly to our E.
coasts, more rarely inland waters. Appears to breed occasion-
ally on the Shetlands and Orkneys.

Bird. Length 22-26 in. The sexes differ conspicuously.
The drake in winter and summer has the
central tail-feathers long, slender, and
black, the outer and shorter being white.
Beak blackish, middle portion rose-colour
(when fresh, according to H. Saunders).
In winter the head and neck are more or
less white or greyish with a large patch
of dark brown shading below into paler
brown (see Fig. 100). The back to the tail, the breast,
wing-coverts, and quills dusky brown or blackish. The long
scapulars, inner secondaries, belly, and flanks mostly white.
In the summer plumage, which is completed in May, the
cheeks are whitish or buffish-white, the rest of the upper-parts
and the breast blackish-brown, with rufous margins on the
back and scapulars, the latter not long and white as in
winter. Flanks and belly white. The female lacks the long
tail-feathers and the long white scapulars. All the upper-
parts are brownish, except a ring round the base of the neck
and the sides of the head, which are greyish-white. Fore-
breast rust brown, rest of under-parts pale brown. The young
are much like the duck.

172. Common-eider [Somateria wwllissima vwllissima,
(Linnaeus)]. Breeds on our coasts and marine islands from
Northumberland and Kirkcudbright northwards ; also winter
visitor to same. Elsewhere occasional. Has bred Ireland.

86 BRITISH BIRDS

Bird. Length 23 in. Sexes differ markedly, but in both
the face feathers are carried
forward some distance along
each side of the beak. The
drake has the upper back, wing-
coverts, and scapulars white.
Longer secondaries buffish-white.
Head and neck white except for
the pale sea-green on each side
of the nape, and the black patch
on the crown (see Fig. 101).
Fig. 101. Primaries, shorter .secondaries,

rump, and tail brownish-black,

with a white patch on each side of the rump. Under-parts
black, except the rosy-buff of the breast. In the " eclipse " dress
(June Oct.) the plumage is generally rusty brown mixed white.
Duck : mantle dark brown broadly edged rufous. Under-parts
brown finely barred grey or pale brown. Two white bars on the
wing. The young are like the female, with less white on the
wings.

Nest. Near the sea, usually on islands. On the ground in
rough herbage, among rocks, or under a boulder. Material:
dead grass, &c., or sea-weed, lined later with the famous down,
which is pale greyish-brown with light centres. Species breed
in colonies.

Eggs. Variable in numbers, 4- 1 1 or more. Colour ranges from
shades of olive to greenish-grey or bluish-green. Smooth and
large. Av. size, 3 -06 x 2-05 in. Laying begins May. One brood.
173. Scoter, black-duck [Oidemia nigra nigra (Linnseus)].
Winter visitor and bird of passage to our seas. Also breeds
north Scotland, rarely Ireland.

Bird. Length 20 in. Recognised by the wholly black colora-
tion of the drake, and the mostly sooty or rusty brown
coloration of the duck. Legs and toes dusky. The male has
a black knob at the base of the bill, the latter being black
with a conspicuous orange-yellow patch on the middle part of
the upper mandible. The knob is absent or nearly so in the
female ; also the orange-yellow. She may further be dis-
tinguished by the dusky grey cheeks. Young birds may be
recognised by the whitish under-parts vaguely mottled brown.
Among a flock of common-scoters may be seen the rarer
velvet-scoter, easily distinguished by the white bar across the
wing, smaller in the female and young.

Nest. Usually in swampy moorland, among heather ; also on
islets in lakes, usually near water but not always. Material :
heather, rushes, &c,, with a lining of down.

DUCKS 87

Eggs. Usually 5-8. Pale buff to warm cream. Rather
poiLted and oval in shape ; large. Av. size, 2'57 x 1*75 in.
Laying begins in June. One brood.

Family : Anatida. (e) Subfamily : Mergince — Sawbill-ducks

174. Goosander [Mergus merganser merganser (Linnaeus)].
Breeds in N. Scottish mainland, and occasionally W. Isles
(Sunnier Isles). Winter visitor and bird of passage, chiefly to
our E, coasts. Salt and freshwater species.

BirL Length 26 in. Like the other sawbills, the goosander
has a straight, slender bill, hooked, and with the edges of
both nandibles cut with saw-like teeth directed backward.
The drake has the head and upper part of neck glossy black-
green. Nape feathers somewhat elongated, but no conspicuous
crest like the merganser. Mantle mostly black. The outside
scapilars, wing-coverts, secondaries, and under-parts mostly
whiti with salmon-pink tinge on the under-parts. Legs and
beak red. In "eclipse" (July- October) the drake is like the
female, but has darker upper-parts and a more or less com-
plete black ring round the neck between the chestnut-brown
and whitish areas. The duck has the head and neck chestnut-
red, with a white throat. Upper-parts mostly slate-grey.
Write on the major coverts and inner secondaries. Under-
parts white with more or less rosy tint, except the flanks,
wiich are grey or greyish-buff. Thick, bushy crest. Beak and
le*s red. The young female resembles fairly closely the duck,
the male being more like the adult male in "eclipse."

Nest. On islets in lochs, near streams or rivers ; built in
hcllow trees, holes in a bank, hillside, or among boulders;
occasionally in a hollow in the ground or under a thick bush.
Material : dry grass, rootlets, &c. , and down. In a tree-hole,
decayed wood.

Eggs. Usually 7-12. Creamy or yellowish. Av. size, 2-69 x
1 '85 in. Laying begins in April. One brood.

175. Redbreasted-merganser [Mergus sermtor (Linnseus)].
Breeds N. and mid-Scotland and in

Ireland. Also winter visitor and bird
of passage. More marine than the
goosander.

Bird. See No. 174. Length 24 in.,
therefore smaller than the goosan-
der, from which it may be dis- ^ 109
tinguished in both sexes by the
reddish throat. The drake has a blackish-green head with
a double crest of long slender feathers (see Fig. 102). Iris red.
A white ring round the neck. Upper breast reddish-brown

88 BRITISH BIRDS

with darker streaks. Sides of upper breast at base of neck
black. Scapulars black margined white. Upper wing-coverts
white margined black, making conspicuous white triangular
patches. Wing -coverts and secondaries mostly white, making
a broad white band on each side of the body when the
wings are closed, cut transversely by two black bars. Under-
breast and belly white tinted rosy. Flanks pencilled dark
grey or whitish. Beak and legs red. In " eclipse " (from
about July-October) the drake is not unlike the duel;, but
has the upper-parts darker and the wing-coverts /vhite.
The duck has the head, neck, and throat chestnut mixed teown.
The throat distinguishes her from the duck goosander, which
has it white. Upper-parts mostly dusky brown with paler
margins. Wings barred white. Under-parts whitish streaked
with brownish-grey on the breast. Crest shorter than drake's.
Legs and beak reddish.

Nest. Usually near water, on islets in lakes, or lake shores.
Built on the ground in heather or other rough herbage,
under bushes or projecting rocks, in the hollow of a lank,
wall, or cliff ; also in rabbit-holes. Not in tree-hollows, so far
as known. Material : dead bracken, grass, or other material,
lined later with the duck's down.

Eggs. Usually 7-12. Usually greyish-brown or olive-grey,
occasionally light greyish-buff. Av. size, 2f52 x 1 '78 in. Lay-
ing begins in May-June. One brood.

IX. ORDER: CICONIIFORMES. (1) SUBORDER
ARDEJE

Family : Ardeidce — Herons and Bitterns
176. Common-heron [Ardea cinerea (Linnaeus)]. Residert
and generally distributed. Somewhat local.

Bird. Length 36 in. Recognised by its size, the long
straight yellow beak, long legs, the
general grey and white plumage. In
flight the broad rounded slow flapping
wings and the neck curved back, so
that the head rests between the
shoulders, aid recognition. The male
has the upper-parts from the base of
the neck to the tip of the tail lightish
or French grey. The wing quills dark
Fig. 103 slate-blue.

The head and neck are white with

bluish-black elongated plumes behind the eyes, forming a
pendant crest, and bluish-black lines of spots down the front

CORMORANTS 89

of the neck. Under-parts white, with elongated feathers hang-
ing from the base of the neck. The female resembles the male,
but is smaller. The young lack the crest and the pendant
breast feathers.

Nest. Usually in trees, near the top; also on the ground or
low bushes, even in reed-beds. A large structure of sticks,
lined with twigs, grass, &c. The species usually nests in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 4-5. Light blue-green without gloss. Av.
size, 2-36 x 1*69 in. Laying begins usually in February. One,
probably sometimes two broods.

X. ORDER: CICONIIFORMES. (2) SUBORDER:
STEGANOPODES

(1) Family : Plialacrocoracida — Cormorants

177. Cormorant, great or black-cormorant [Phalacrocorax
carbo carbo (Linnaeus)]. Resident on most of our rocky coasts.
Also breeds on inland waters.

Bird. Length about 3 feet. Like the next two species it has
the four toes webbed ; and, like the shag, it has a straight, hooked
bill and comparatively short black legs set well back, but is
much larger in size (shag, 2 ft. 2 in.), and has bluish-black
under-parts, the shag being mostly greenish or greenish-black,
and fourteen tail-feathers, the smaller species having twelve. In
breeding dress it has a crest of scattered hair-like white plumes, a
continuous white band passing round the throat upward to the
back o£ each eye, and a white patch on the thigh. Shape as shag
(Fig. 104). The young are generally brownish, with more or less
white on the breast and belly, and a brown iris instead of green.

Nest. On rocky islets or ledges of cliffs by the sea ; and when
inland usually on islands in lakes, in which case it may be
built in trees instead of on the ground. Material : sticks and
rough material with finer lining, grasses, feathers, &c., when in
trees ; sea-weed mostly when on rocks or ledges by the sea.
The species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 3-5. Blue, mostly covered with a chalky
white deposit, soon stained. Av. size, 2-52 x 1'55 in. Laying
begins April-May. One, probably two broods.

178. Shag, green-cormorant [Phalacrocorax graculus graculus
(Linnaeus)]. Breeds on our rocky coasts, except S.E. and
E. England to Northumberland. Scarce E. Scotland. Rare
inland. Local movements in winter.

Bird. See preceding species. In breeding plumage both
sexes have a curved crest on the crown. Iris green. The
young may be distinguished from the young of the cormorant
by the twelve tail-feathers.

90 BRITISH BIRDS

Nest. Usually on ledges in sea-caves, sometimes on a cliff
ledge or in recesses among boulders by the sea ; generally,
therefore, unlike the cormorant's, under cover.
Material : sea-weed and coarse herbage. The
species breeds in colonies.

Eggs. Usually 3-5. Like cormorant's, but
smaller. Av. size, 2'51 x 1*51 in. Laying begins
March- April. Two broods.

(2) Family: Sulidce— Gannets
179. Gannet or Solan-goose [Sula bassana
(Linnaeus)]. Resident. Strictly marine species.
Breeds in large colonies on rocky islands at
various points round our coasts.

Bird. Length 33 in. (See No. 177.) Bill strong,
straight, not hooked, and of a pale lead-blue with deeper slate
coloured longitudinal lines. Tail graduated to a point, the
central feathers the longest. Wings long and rather narrow.
Plumage white, save the wing quills, which are dark brown,
not black as usually stated. In breeding dress there is a buff
tinge on the head and neck. The fledgling blackish-slate,
spotted white. Immature till the fifth year, and recognised
by the dark brown, chiefly on the back, wings, and tail, which
colour diminishes season by season till at maturity reduced
to the brown of the wing quills.

Nest. Generally on the ledges of
the precipitous sides of sea-washed
isles, such as the Bass Rock, Ailsa
Craig (Scotland), Bull Rock and
Little Skellig (Ireland). Material:
sea-weed, grasses from the isle top,
and any material from the surface
Fig. 105. of the sea.

Egg. One. Blue, covered or nearly so with a white chalky
deposit which soon becomes dirty and yellow stained. Av. size,
3'06x 1*96 in. Laying begins March-May. One brood.

XL ORDER: PROCELLARIIFORMES. SUBORDER:
TUBINARES

Family : Procellariidce— Petrels

180. Manx-shearwater [Puffinus puffinus puffinus (Brttn-
nich) ; Puffinus anglorum (Temminck)]. Seen on all our coasts,
but breeds only on the west, the Irish coasts, Orkneys, and
Shetlands.

Bird. Length 15 in. Beak long, slender, with hooked tip, and
dusky brown external tubular nostrils (see No. 182, Fig. 106).

PETRELS 91

Wings long and pointed. Feet webbed. Tail rounded. Upper-
parts sooty-black. This colour extends down on each side of the
posterior end of the body, except for which and brown mottling
on the side of the neck, the under-parts are white. The rarer
great-shearwater , which is to be seen in autumn, may be dis-
tinguished by its larger size (19 in.) and brownish upper-parts.

Nest. In a burrow made in the soil, on the slopes of a sea-
cliff, or island, sometimes in rabbit holes or in the recesses
of rocks and under stones. Material : chiefly grass ; some-
times no material. The species breeds in colonies.

Egg. One. White. Av. size, 2'39 x T67 in. Laying begins
May. One brood.

181. Fulmar, mollymauk [Fulmarus glacialis glacialis (Lin-
naeus)]. Seen off all our coasts, but breeds only on the west
and northern Scottish coasts and islands, and a few places
on the Irish coasts.

Bird. Length 19 in., i.e. about the size of the common-
gull. External tubular nostrils (see Fig.
106). Beak hooked at the tip and
mostly yellowish. Feet webbed. Mantle
and tail grey. Wing quills mostly dusky.
Rest of plumage white or varying shades
of grey.

Nest. On the ledges, in the recesses,
or in a hollow in the vegetation-covered -p- ^Q^

slopes of sea-cliffs. Occasionally tops of
stacks. Sometimes no material, sometimes a few grasses, &c.,
or fragments of stone. Species breeds in colonies.

Egg. One. White, occasionally traces of red spots. Av.
size, 2-88 x 1'95 in. Laying begins in May. One brood.

182. Storm-petrel [Hydrolates pelagica (Linnaeus); Procel-
laria pelagica Linnaeus]. Seen off all our coasts, chiefly in
spring and autumn. Breeds on the islands off our west coasts,
from Scilly to Shetlands, and off the Irish

coasts. More rarely on E. Scottish coasts.
Bird. Length 6^ in. Distinguished
from all species outside its own suborder
(Petrels, Shearwaters, Fulmars, Alba-
trosses) by the prominent external tube-
shaped nostrils, which give the suborder
its name Tubinares. Feet webbed. Beak
and legs black, the former with hooked
tip. Plumage black, except the con- y. ^

spicuous white of the posterior end of

the body (see figure), and the thin white margins on the
major wing-coverts. The rarer Leach's forktailed-petrel re-

92 BRITISH BIRDS

sembles the storm-petrel, but is at once recognised by its
larger size (8 in.), the markedly forked tail, and the grey on
the wing-coverts and secondaries.

Nest. On rocky sea-washed islands, under stones or boulders,
in crevices of rocks or ruins, in burrows made by the bird or
in those of rabbits. Scrape unlined or lined with a few
grasses, &c.

Egg. One. Chalky-white, more or less zoned with reddish-
brown spots round the bigger end. Av. size, I'l x '84 in.
Laying begins end May- June, or later. One brood.

XII. ORDER :

COLYMBIFORMES.
PODICEPEDES

(1) SUBORDER :

Fig. 108.

Family : Podicepididce — Grebes

183. Great crested-grebe [Oolymbus cristatus Linnaeus; Podi-

cipes cristatus (Linnaeus)]. Breeds on fresh water lakes in most
parts of the British Isles, except north
of the Grampians. Local movement to
the coasts in winter.

Bird. Length 21 in. The Family has
tail almost absent, toes lobed (Fig. 109).
Species recognised by the dark brown of
the crest, crown, and upper-parts, the
chestnut tippet or ruffle with blackish
margin, the white secondaries conspicuous

in flight, and the white under-parts. Female duller, with smaller

crest and tippet. The young are said to show little crest or

chestnut colour till the second year.
Nest. In the shallows of lakes,

either floating on the surface attached

to surrounding reeds or other aquatic

plants, or built up from the bottom.

Material: a mass of aquatic plants.

Eggs usually covered when bird not on.

Eggs. Usually 4. Chalky-white, pale bluish or greenish-white,
but soon stained dirty brownish by con-
tact with wet weeds. Av. size, 2*20 x 1'44
in. Laying begins April-May. Broods
1-2.

184. Little-grebe or dabchick [Colym-
bus ruficollis Pallas ; Podicipes fluviatilis
(Tunstall)"]. Resident. Also found gener-
ally distributed on our rivers, lakes, and
ponds. Found on the coast in winter.
Length 9-| in., therefore much smaller than the pre-

Fig. 109.

DIVERS 93

ceding species. Lobed toes (see Fig. 109, No. 183). Tail almost
absent. Upper-parts dark brown. Under-parts whitish, except
the chestnut throat and sides of the neck, and the dusky flanks
and the black chin. The white on the secondaries is limited to
the inner webs. Legs dull green. Beak horn colour, with
yellowish-green at the gape. Female smaller. After the
autumn moult the chin and throat are white, and the chest-
nut of the sides of the neck fades to buff. Young much like
the adult in winter plumage.

Nest. A mass of aquatic plants placed usually among reeds
or other water-plants in or by lakes, ponds, and sluggish
rivers. Also in the open in shallow water, or near the bank
under overhanging branches. Either floating and attached to
surrounding plants, or built up from the bottom. Not nor-
mally floating free. Eggs usually covered when bird not on.

Eggs. Usually 4-6. Bluish-white, but rapidly stained
varying shades of dirty browns or reds. Av. size, 1 '48x1*02
in. Laying usually begins April. Broods probably two.

XII. ORDER : COLYMBIFORMES. (2) SUBORDER :
COLYMBI

Family : Colymbidce — Divers

185. Great northern-diver [Gavia immer (Briinmch) ;
Colymbus glacialis Linnseus]. Winter visitor and bird of
passage to our coasts and inland waters, chiefly northern.
Occurs also in summer.

Bird. Length 31 in. ; male the larger. Recognised by the
black, green, and purple glossed head and neck, broken on the
throat and neck by two white bands, marked with close set,
parallel, dark downward streaks, which
ape continued below the green on the
white of the lower neck. Mantle glossy
black, with conspicuous cross bands of
white spots. Under-parts white. Beak
black, strong and pointed. Legs mostly
greenish-black. Wing quills and tail
dark-brown, the latter short and rounded.
After the autumn moult the upper-parts,
including the head and nape, are darkish brown with paler
margins to the feathers. All under-parts, including throat
and breast, white with streaks on the neck. The much rarer
blackthroated-diver, though not unlike the present species, may
be distinguished at all ages and seasons by the smaller size (27
in.) and the shorter, more slender bill ; and in breeding plumage
by the ash-grey crown and nape and the purplish-black throat.

94 BRITISH BIRDS

186. Redthroated - diver \Qawa, stellata (Pontoppidan) ;
Colymbus septentrionalis Linnaeus]. Breeds in Scotland and
Ulster. Winter visitor and bird of passage to all our coasts,
also to inland waters.

Bird. Length 24 in., therefore much smaller than the
preceding, and easily distinguished in breeding plumage by
the chestnut-red throat and the dark brown, instead of black,
mantle which is without the conspicuous bands of white spots,
being merely flecked with white or buff. Like the rarer Uack-
throated-diver (No. 187), it has the head and nape ash-grey, but
streaked white and black-brown down the hinder top of the head
and the nape, these darker streaks continuing down the white
neck, sides, and flanks. Under-parts white. After the autumn
moult it is distinguished by its smaller size (see No. 187).

Nest. Usually on the margin of a small lake or hill tarn,
less often on an islet in the same ; a depression in the
ground made by the bird, and more or less lined with a few
bents, rushes, &c.

Eggs. Usually 2. From chocolate to olive-brown, sparingly
spotted with brownish-black. Av. size, 2*89 x 1-82 in. Laying
begins in May. One brood.

187. Blackthroated-diver [Gavia arctica (Linnaeus) ; Colym-
bus arcticus Linnaeus]. Breeds Perth and Argyll, north to the
Shetlands. Uncommon winter visitor and bird of passage on
our coasts.

Bird. Length 27*5 in. Sexes alike. Distinguished in
breeding plumage from both the preceding by the uniform
ash-grey of the head and neck, with slate-grey on the crown.
Back and wings greenish-black with white spots forming bars.
Throat purplish-black. Longitudinal black and white stripes
on sides of neck and breast. Flanks black. Rest of under-
parts white. See Nos. 185-6. After the autumn moult the
ash-grey becomes pale brown. Ash-brown without spots on
the rest of the upper-parts. Under-parts white, except the
brownish-black flanks. The redthroated form also has the
under-parts white, but the flanks and upper-parts are slate-
grey, the latter being mostly spotted or speckled with white.
The young blackthroated-diver resembles the adult in winter,
but has grey margins on the upper-parts, these being white in
the young redthroated-diver.

Nest. Usually on islets in lochs. A depression in the vege-
tation, sometimes lined with heather, grass, &c.

Eggs. Usually 2. Olive-brown to olive-green or deep brown
sparingly spotted with blackish-brown. Av. size, 3'33x2'04
in. Laying begins May. One brood.

INDEX

The References are to the Sections

ARCTIC-SKUA, 117

Corncrake, 139

Great-skua, 116

Arctic-tern, 107

Crested-grebe, 183

Great spotted - wood-

Auks, 100-104

Crested-tit, 74

pecker, 84

Crossbill, 21

Great-tit, 68

BARNACLE-GOOSE, 158

Crows, 1-8

Grebes, 183-184

Barn-owl, 89

Cuckoo, 95

Green-cormorant, 178

Bartailed-godwit, 136

Curlew, 137

Greenfinch, 9

Bearded-tit, 76

Curlew-sandpiper, 131

Green-linnet, 9

Bewick's swan, 160

Cushat, 96

Green -plover, 126

Blackbacked-gulls, 112

Green-sandpiper, 134

113

DABCHICK, 184

Greenshank, 135

Blackbird, 44

Dartford-warbler, 56

Green-woodpecker, 83

Blackcap, 54

Daw, redlegged, 8

Greyhen, 144

Blackcock, 144

Dipper, 39

Greylag-goose, 157

Black-cormorant, 177

Divers, 185-187

Grey-partridge, 148

Black-duck, 173

Dotterel, 122

Grey-plover, 125

Black-guillemot, 102
Blackheaded-gull, 109

Ducks, 161-175
Dunlin, 129

Grey-wagtail, 32
Grouse, 143-146

Blacktailed-godwit, 136

Dunnock, 65

Guillemot, 101

Blackthroated-diver, 187

Gulls, 109-115

Blue-felt, 43

EAGLES, 151

Blueheaded-wagtail, 33

Eider-duck, 172

HAWFINCH, 10

Blue-tit, 73

Hawks, 152-156

Bonxie, 116
Brambling, 12

FALCONS, 154-156
Fieldfare, 43

Hedge-sparrow, 65
Heron, 176

Brent-goose, 159

Finches, 9-22

Herring-gull, 111

Brown-linnet, 18 -

Flycatchers, 78-79

Hooded-crow, 3

Brown-owl, 92

French -partridge, 149

House-martin, 81

Bullfinch, 22

Fulmar, 181

House-sparrow, 19

Buntings, 23-27

Butcher-bird, 77

GANNET, 179

ICELAND-GULL, 114

Buzzard, 152

Garden-warbler, 55

Geese, 157-159

JACKDAW, 5

CAPERCAILLIE, 143

Glaucous-gull, 114

Jack-snipe, 121

Carrion-crow, 2

Goatsucker. 88

Jay, 7

Chaffinch, 11

Godwits, 136

Chats. 47-48

Goldcrest, 57

KENTISH-PLOVER, 123

Chiffchaff, 58

Golden- eagle, 151

Kestrel, 156

Chough, 8

Goldeneye, 170

Kingfisher, 94

Cirl-bunting, 25

Golden -plover, 124

Kittiwake, 115

Coal-tit, 69-70

Goldfinch, 13

Knot, 131

Common-gull, 11

Goosander, 174

Common-sandpiper, 133

Grasshopper-warbler, 64

LANDRAIL, 139

Common-snipe, 120

Great blackbacked-gull,

Lapwing. 126

Common-tern, 106

113

Larks, 28-29

Coot, 142

Great crested-grebe, 183

Laughing-gull, 109

Cormorants, 177-178

Great northern-diver, 185

Leach's forktailed-petrel,

Corn-bunting, 23

Great-plover, 118

182

95

INDEX

Le«^.- jj^etbicke-T-sull, \,R^:^, 1.19 142

Stone-curlew, 118

112

Raven, 1

Storm-petrel, 182

Lesser-redpoll, 15

Razorbill, 100

Swallow, 80

Lesser spotted - wood-

Redbacked-shrike, 77

Swans, 160

pecker, 85

Redbreast, 50

Swift, 87

Lesser- whitethroat, 53

Redbreasted - merganser,

Linnet, 18

175

TAWNY-OWL, 92

Little-auk, 103

Redgrouse, 145

Teal, 165

Little-grebe, 184

Redlegged-partridge, 149

Terns, 105-108

Little-owl, 93

Redshanks, 135

Thick-knee, 118

Little-tern, 108

Redstart, 49

Throstle, 41

Longeared-owl, 90

Redthroated-diver, 186

Thrushes, 40-51

Longtailed-duck, 171

Redwing, 42

Titlark, 35

Longtailed-tit, 67

Reed-bunting, 26

Tits, 67-74

Reed-warbler, 61

Tree-creeper, 37

MAGPIE, 6

Richardson's skua, 117

Tree-pipit, 34

Mallard, 162
Manx-shearwater, 180

Ring-dove, 96
Ringed-dotterel, 123

Tree-sparrow, 20
Tufted-duck, 168

Marsh-tit, 71

Ringed-plover, 123

Turnstone, 128

Marsh-warbler, 62

Ring-ouzel, 45

Turtle-dove, 99

Martins, 81-82

Robin, 50

Twite, 17

Mavis, 41

Rock-dove, 98

s

Meadow-pipit, 35

Rock-pipit, 36

WAGTAILS, 30-33

Mealy-redpoll, 16

Rook, 4

Warblers, 52-64

Merganser, 175

Roseate-tern, 106

Waterhen, 141

Merlin, 155

Roughlegged-buzzard, 152

Water-ouzel, 39

Mistle-thrush, 40

Water-rail, 140

Moorhen, 141

SANDERLING, 132

Wheatear, 46

Mute-swan, 160

Sand-martin, 82

Whimbrel, 138

NlGHTHAWK, 88

Nightingale, 51
Nightjar, 88
Norfolk-plover, 118
Nuthatch, 75

Sandpipers, 129-134
Sandwich-tern, 105
Scaup-duck, 169
Scoter, 173
Screech-owl, 89
Sea-pie, 127

Whinchat, 47
Whitefronted-goose, 157
White-owl, 89
Whitetailed-eagle, 151
Whitethroat, 52
White-wagtail, bl

OWLS, 89-93

Sedge-warbler, 63

Whooper, 160

Ox-eye, 68

Shag, 178

Wigeon, 166

Oyster-catcher, 127

Shelduck, 161
Shooi, 117

Wild-duck, 162

Willow-tit, 72

PARTRIDGES, 148-149

Shorteared-owl, 91

Willow- warbler, 59

Peewit, 126

Shovel er, 163

Willow-wren, 59

Peregrine-falcon, 154

Siskin, 14

Wind-hover, 156

Petrels, 182

Skooi, 116

Woodcock, 119

Pheasant, 147

Skuas, 116-117

Wood lark, 29

Pied-flycatcher, 79

Skylark, 28

Wood-owl, 92

Pied-wagtail, 30

Snipes, 120-121

Woodpeckers, 83-85

Pigeons, 96-99

Snow-bunting, 27

Wood-pigeon, 96 .

Pintail-duck, 164

Solan-goose, 179

Wood- sandpiper, 134

Pipits, 34-36

Song- thrush, 41

Wood-warbler, 60

Plovers, 122-126

Sparrow-hawk, 153

Wood-wren, 60

Pochard, 167

Spotted -flycatcher, 78

Wren, 38

Ptarmigan, 146

Spotted-woodpecker, 84-

Wryneck, 86

Puffin, 104

85

Purple-sandpiper, 130

Starling, 66
Stock-dove, 97

YELLOW-BUNTING, 24
Yellow-hammer, 24

QUAIL, 150

Stonechat, 48

Yellow- wagtail, 33

Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON &* Co.
Edinburgh &> London

4/13

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY

OVERDUE.

•_*_

BIOLOGY LIBRARY

1937

British birds

.07X5

I/YI /

^yy

BIOLOGY

263209

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY