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atigraphy of the Naples Group
(Late Devonian)

it

in Western New York

i.

By

Robert G. Sutton

Temporary Geologist

New York State Museum and Science Service

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE
BULLETIN NUMBER 380

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department

Albany, New York

April 1960

Stratigraphy of the Naples Group
(Late Devonian)
in Western New York

By

Robert G. Sutton

Temporary Geologist

New York State Museum and Science Service

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE
BULLETIN NUMBER 380

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department

Albany, New York

April 1960

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University
With years when terms expire

1969 John F. Brosnan, A.M., LL.B., J.D., LL.D., D.C.L., D.C.S.,

Pd.D., Chancellor . New York

1968 Edgar W. Couper, A.B., LL.D., Vice Chancellor . Binghamton

1963 Mrs. Caroline Werner Gannett, LL.D., L.H.D., D.H. - - Rochester

1961 Dominick F. Maurillo, A.B., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D. - - - - Brooklyn

1964 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D., Litt.D. . Troy

1967 Thad L. Collum, C.E. . Syracuse

1966 George L. Hubbell, Jr., A.B., LL.B., LL.D. . Garden City

1960 Charles W. Millard, Jr., A.B. . Buffalo

1965 Chester H. Lang, A.B., LL.D. . Schenectady

1970 Everett J. Penny, B.C.S., D.C.S. . White Plains

1972 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A. . Purchase

1962 Edward M. M. Warburg, B.S., L.H.D. . New York

1971 J. Carlton Corwith, B.S. . Water Mill

President of the University and Commissioner of Education

James E. Allen, Jr., Ed.M., Ed.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Deputy Commissioner of Education

Ewald B. Nyquist, B.S., LL.D., Pd.D.

Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education and Special Services

Assistant Commissioner for State Museum and Science Service

William N. Fenton, A.B., Ph.D.

State Geologist, State Science Service
John G. Broughton, M.S., Ph.D.

M450r-My59-1500

State Paleontologist, State Science Service
Donald W. Fisher, A,M„ Ph,D,

CONTENTS

PAGE

Abstract . 5

Introduction . 6

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . 7

Distribution of the Naples group . 7

Stratigraphic nomenclature . . . . . . 7

Stratigraphy . . 10

Formations underlying the Naples group . 10

Formations overlying the Naples group. . . 11

Naples group . 11

Middlesex black shale . . . . . 12

Cashaqua formation . . . . . . 13

Sawmill Creek member . 14

Rock Stream member. . . 17

Rye Point member . 17

Rhinestreet black shale. . 18

Hatch formation . . . . . . . 19

Conclusions . 21

Lithology . 21

Black shale . 21

Gray shales . . . 24

Siltstones . . 26

Carbonates . 33

Fauna . . 35

Environments . 40

Siltstone facies and environment . 41

Sedimentary structures and textures . 41

Fauna . 43

Conclusions . 43

Black shale facies and environment . . . . . . . . 43

Sedimentary structures and textures . . 43

Fauna . . 44

Conclusions . 44

Gray shale facies and environment . 45

Sedimentary structures and textures. . . 45

Fauna . . 46

Conclusions . 46

Relationship of the environments . 47

References . 48

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Keuka Lake (east) composite section. . . . . . . . . . 51

Sawmill Creek section . 54

5MQTITI IT! ON' 1 “

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Figure 1. Distribution of Naples group and location of described

sections . . . . Inside back cover

Figure 2. Facies relationship of formations in the Naples

group . . . . Inside back cover

Figure 3. Genundewa-Cashaqua exposure 2 miles northeast of

Sturgeon Point, Lake Erie . 15

Figure 4. Sandstone beds about 3 feet thick in the Rock Stream

member, Wagener Glen, Keuka Lake . . . 16

Figure 5. Naples group. Sections between Lake Erie and Seneca

Lake . . . Inside back cover

Figure 6. Photomicrograph of Rhinestreet black shale (X8),

Whetstone Creek, 2 miles west of Honeoye, N. Y . 22

Figure 7. Same as figure 6 (X75) . . 22

Figure 8. Cashaqua shale (X75), Hemlock Lake, N. Y . 25

Figure 9. Cashaqua shale (X75), at Friend, N. Y . 25

Figure 10. Casts of lobate flow markings . 31

Figure 11. Siltstone with distorted laminae . 31

Figure 12. Nonlaminated siltstone (X8) Rock Stream member,

Cashaqua formation, Bristol Center section . . 32

Figure 13. Same as figure 12 (X75) . . 32

Figure 14. Parrish limestone (X8) in Cashaqua formation . 34

Figure 15. Relation of faunas . 37

Table 1. Geographic distribution and lithologic relationships of

the fauna . . . . . 28

Stratigraphy of the Naples Group
(Late Devonian)
in Western New York

By

Robert G. Sutton*

Temporary Museum Expert

ABSTRACT

The Upper Devonian Naples group in New York State is composed
of four formations: Middlesex black shale (bottom), Cashaqua forma¬
tion, Rhinestreet black shale, and Hatch formation (top) . The Cashaqua
formation is subdivided into three members: Sawmill Creek (new) , Rock
Stream, and Rye Point (new). These are recognized from Conesus Lake
to Seneca Lake. The four formations may be traced from Lake Erie east¬
ward to Seneca Lake where they intertongue with the Ithaca and Enfield
Formations of the Cayuga Lake region.

There is much evidence to support the conclusion that black muds
(Middlesex and Rhinestreet) were deposited in the west during the ad¬
vance of the silty facies from the east. Gray muds with a restricted
pelecypod and ammonoid fauna were present in the west during the
retreat of the silty facies. Variations in depth and circulation of the
water appear to be the principal factors governing the amount of organic
matter in the muds.

Fine-grained, even-bedded siltstones and shales pass eastward into
crossbedded siltstones and fine-grained sandstones. The thin siltstone
beds of the Hatch formation and the Rock Stream member were deposited
by turbidity currents.

* Associate professor, geology department, University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y.

[5]

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

INTRODUCTION

The Naples group is a westward thinning wedge of elastics of Late
Devonian age in western New York State (figure 1). Four formations
are recognized. They are: Middlesex black shale (bottom), Cashaqua
formation. Rhinestreet black shale, and Hatch formation (top). Directly
below the Naples group is the Genesee group, described by Grossman
(1944). The Grimes sandstone overlies the Naples group and passes
westward into the Angola shales (figure 2).

This study was initiated in the summer of 1950 and continued in parts
of the field seasons of 1952 and 1953, supported by grants from the
New York State Museum and Science Service. Preliminary progress
reports were submitted in 1952 and 1953. This is a final report on the
investigations of the Naples group from Lake Erie to Seneca Lake.

The author has attempted to correlate the lithology and fauna of
several measured stratigraphic sections. Thicknesses of formations and
members as well as changes in lithology were recorded. Interpretations
of the depositional environment were made where possible. Thin section
studies supplemented field observations.

Hall (1840, 1843 and 1879) and Clarke (1885, 1898 and 1904) de¬
scribed the lithology and fauna of the Naples group. They devoted more
attention to the fossils than to the strata. Chadwick (1935) likewise
emphasized the faunal succession as a means of subdividing the Upper
Devonian of New York.

This paper emphasizes the lithology rather than the fossils. Strati¬
graphic sections, chosen for their completeness, were measured by means
of a Jacobs staff and Brunton compass. Descriptions of the rocks are
based upon field observations, supplemented by microscopic examination
of hand specimens and thin sections. Fossils were collected and identified
wherever possible. No attempt is made to redescribe or redefine the
genera or species collected. Existing paleontological literature was
deemed adequate for the purposes of this study. The contributions of
Clarke (1898, 1904) were particularly helpful.

Seventeen stratigraphic sections were chosen at intervals of 10 miles
or less. A lack of good exposures increased this distance in some places.
Where exact correlations were in doubt, less well-exposed sections were
examined and described. Rapid facies changes also required more closely
spaced sections.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

7

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer acknowledges the financial assistance of the New York
State Museum and Science Service. Publication of Stratigraphy of the
Naples Group ( Late Devonian) in Western New York discharges report
requirements under the Graduate Student Honorarium Program. This
study originally formed part of a dissertation submitted to The Johns
Hopkins University in partial fulfillment of the degree of doctor of
philosophy. To T. W. Amsden and F. J. Pettijohn of that faculty, thanks
are due for their helpful suggestions and criticisms. The writer is also
indebted to H. L. Ailing for the loan of 70 thin sections, some of which
have been photographed for this paper.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NAPLES GROUP

The Naples group extends from Lake Erie to Seneca Lake. Equivalent
strata occur in eastern New York, where, according to Chadwick (1935,
pp. 313-314), they form the “main mass of the Catskill Mountains.”
Sections were measured between Lake Erie and Seneca Lake, a distance
of 120 miles. The strata dip less than one degree to the south or south¬
east and are overlain by successively younger formations in those direc¬
tions. A monocline in the Batavia quadrangle (Chadwick, 1932, p. 143)
and gentle folds between some of the Finger Lakes (Bradley and Pepper,
1938, p. 29) have been reported.

The Naples group is exposed in high cliffs along the southern edge
of Lake Erie (figure 1, section 1). It is exposed farther east in high
cliffs along valleys cut by northwestward flowing streams (figure 1, sec¬
tions 2 and 3) . East of Cayuga Creek, exposures occur in small branches
of the north-south valleys (sections 4-8). East of the Genesee River,
numerous lakes occupy the north-south valleys. Good exposures occur
in small streams that discharge into these lakes (sections 9-17). An ex¬
cellent section may be found in the Genesee River gorge between
Mount Morris and Letchworth Park (section 7).

STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE

A brief review of stratigraphic terminology is presented for two rea¬
sons. First, many different meanings have been associated with the term
“Naples” and other terms have been applied to the rocks of the Naples
group. Second, a clear understanding of the changes in terminology is
necessary in order to make use of the literature on the paleontology of
the Naples group. A review of the terms “Portage” and “Chemung” may
be found in Wilmarth (1938) and Schuchert (1943).

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Hall (1840, p. 390 ff.) first described the Upper Devonian section
in western New York. He found that the “Upper Black Shale” of the
Ithaca region was overlain by what he called the “Cashaqua shale and
sandstone.” The name “Gardeau or Lower Fucoidal Group” was given to
a “thick mass of shales and flagstones” above the Cashaqua. The Gardeau
was overlain by the “Portage or Upper Fucoidal Group.” Hall’s “Upper
Black Shale” included what is now called the Geneseo black shale, West
River shale, and Middlesex black shale.

Vanuxem (1842, pp. 170-174), in his survey of the Third Geological
District, referred to the “Portage or Nunda Group.” This group included
the Cashaqua shale, Gardeau and Portage Groups, and Sherburne flag¬
stone and shale. Hall accepted this revision and in his work on the Fourth
Geological District (1843, p. 224 ff.) used the terms Cashaqua shale,
Gardeau shale and flagstones, and Portage sandstones. Hall’s original
definition of the Cashaqua is still used today.

The term “Portage” was used for many years. Williams (1884) and
others referred to the “Portage fauna,” meaning the cephalopod and
pelecypod fauna in the Upper Devonian of western New York. Williams
also noted the difference between the fauna in the supposed Portage at
Ithaca and that of the “Portage” farther west. He placed the Ithaca
“Portage” in quotation marks.

Clarke (1885, p. 36) applied the term “Naples” to the strata of Ontario
County because of his inability to distinguish the subdivisions of the
Portage previously defined by Hall. Clarke’s order of succession was:
(1) soft olive-green and grayish shales with some thin flagstones; (2)
black, bituminous shales-Lower Black Band; (3) greenish, drab, soft
shale with some calcareous concretions and flagstones; (4) black shales-
Upper Black Band; (5) flagstones. Clarke did not intend the term
“Naples” to supercede the term “Portage” in western New York. He
clearly states (p. 35) :

The term Naples Beds or Naples Shales, by which I have here
proposed to designate the Cashaqua and Gardeau series is used
advisedly and in accordance with the precedent of adapting local
names for formations . . .

By 1894, Clarke (p. 750) recognized the Hamilton, Genesee, Naples,
Portage sandstone, and Chemung in the Naples region.

Meanwhile Williams (1887, p. 812) continued his studies of the
faunal relationships westward from Ithaca into the Genesee Valley and
beyond, showing that the Ithaca fauna was a separate and earlier stage
of the Chemung fauna and that the Portage fauna was probably partially
pelagic and restricted in geographical distribution and stratigraphic
range. He pictured the latter making an appearance where the conditions
Were “unfavorable for the more vigorous brachiopod faunas.” Clarke

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

9

(1897, p. 52) accepted this faunal relationship as shown by Williams,
but proposed that the western or Portage fauna be named the Naples
fauna and the eastern one be called the Otselic fauna because the Ithaca
assemblage contained elements of both faunas in its standard section.
Both would exist during the Portage epoch.

A different interpretation was placed upon the Naples-Portage rela¬
tionship by Merrill (1898, p. 137). He divided the Portage into the
(1) Cashaqua shale, (2) Gardeau shale and sandstone, (3) Naples beds,
and (4) Portage sandstone.

In his first report on the Naples fauna, Clarke (1898, p. 32) still
refers to the Portage group, but notes that the fauna does not coincide
with the strata. The Naples fauna extended above the Portage sandstones
into the beds he called the Wiscoy shales. In 1903 Clarke (p. 23) referred
to the lower and upper black bands as Middlesex and Rhinestreet, re¬
spectively. Luther (1902, p. 627) traced the Grimes sandstone from the
Naples region west into the middle of Hall’s Gardeau. Thus the collapse
of the original section presented by Hall was complete. The black shales
of the basal portion were now the Rhinestreet black shale, the rocks
above the Grimes sandstone were called “Gardeau” (restricted from
earlier usage) and that portion between the Rhinestreet and Grimes was
named Hatch by Luther (1903, p. 1005). In the Naples region, Clarke
and Luther (1904, p. 6) limited the “Portage beds” to the Middlesex,
Cashaqua, Rhinestreet and Hatch, because Ithaca fossils were found in
the overlying Grimes sandstone.

Chadwick (1935, pp. 313-314) presented a faunal differentiation of
the Upper Devonian. The validity of his revised stratigraphic groups
was demonstrated by a quantitative analysis of the number of species
confined to a given group compared with the number that are not. The
stratigraphy was revised at this time and new names added (1935a,
pp. 857-862). In both papers, “Naples Group” is used and subdivided
into: (1) Middlesex black shale, (2) Cashaqua shale, (3) Rhinestreet
black shale, and (4) Hatch flags and shale. The Genesee group below
consisted of (1) the Geneseo black shale, (2) Genundewa limestone,
(3) West River shale, and (4) Standish flags. Above the Naples, the
name Chemung group was applied, consisting of (1) Grimes, (2)
Gardeau, (3) Letchworth, (4) Portage and (5) Wiscoy, in the Genesee
valley.

Bradley and Pepper (1938, pp. 1-68) proved the persistence of many
of the formations mentioned above. Key horizons were traced across the
area. The base of the Grimes, the base of the Rhinestreet, the Parrish
limestone lentil (upper Cashaqua) , the top and the base of the Middlesex
are some of the horizons found to be reliable. The upper portion of

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

the Cashaqua. named the Rock Stream flagstone member, was found to
be increasingly silty toward the east.

Cooper, et al. (1942, pp. 1729-1794), used essentially the same names
and correlations as Chadwick. The name Chemung group was omitted,
and no group name was applied to the formations just above the Naples
group.

The author follows the classification of Cooper, et al., with two excep¬
tions. First, the term Attica shale is abandoned, and the Rhinestreet
black shale is recognized as far west as Lake Erie. Second, members of
the Cashaqua formation are proposed in the area between Conesus Lake
and Seneca Lake.

STRATIGRAPHY

FORMATIONS UNDERLYING THE NAPLES GROUP

The Genesee group underlies the Naples group. Grossman (1944)
divided the group into the Geneseo black shale (below) and the West
River shale (above) . East of Keuka Lake the West River was subdivided
into the Penn Yan tongue (below) and the Milo tongue (above) by a
westward extension of the Sherburne siltstones, locally called the Starkey
tongue. The West River is predominantly dark gray shales interbedded
with thin limestones, black shales and septaria. The West River-Middlesex
contact is sharp in some sections and less definite in others. Grossman
(1944, p. 46) placed the contact at the “first continuous sequence of
black, fissile shale/’ the procedure followed here. The West River may
be confused with the Cashaqua formation. The dark gray shale, large
septaria and numerous specimens of a large form of Pterochaenia
jragilis distinguish it from the Cashaqua in the field.

Thin beds of the Genundewa limestone occur between the Geneseo
black shale and the West River shale (Cooper, et al.. 1942, chart 4).
Grossman (1944, p. 45) abandoned the name “Genundewa.” He believed
the beds were a “discontinuous shell limestone facies of the West River.”

The lithology and fauna of the Genesee group are very similar to
those of the Naples. The Geneseo black shale is persistent as are the
Middlesex and Rhinestreet black shales. The Sherburne siltstones and
its westward tongue (Starkey) have the same stratigraphic relationship
to the West River as does the Rock Stream member to the Cashaqua
formation. Their faunas contain mainly pelecypods and ammonoids.
Many species are common to both.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

11

FORMATIONS OVERLYING THE NAPLES GROUP

The Naples group is overlain by the Grimes sandstone from Warsaw,
N. Y., to Seneca Lake. West of the Genesee River, the Grimes is a thin-
bedded siltstone. Eastward, the beds become thicker and coarser grained.
Fragments of fossils belonging to an Ithaca or Chemung fauna may be
found in many localities, but their preservation is generally poor. Crinoids
and brachiopods have been noted. East of Keuka Lake, sandstones similar
to those of the Grimes appear in the Hatch formation.

Above the Grimes sandstone are the Gardeau flags and shales. They
overlie the Hatch formation west of Warsaw in the absence of the Grimes
sandstone. The Grimes and Gardeau are equivalent to the Angola shale,
in part (figure 2), which overlies the Rhinestreet black shales because
of the disappearance of the Hatch formation west of Attica, N. Y.

NAPLES GROUP

The Naples group consists of four formations: (1) Middlesex black
shale, (2) Cashaqua formation, (3) Rhinestreet black shale, and (4)
Hatch formation. The name Attica shale, formerly applied to the Naples
strata above the Cashaqua formation in the Lake Erie region, is here
abandoned, and the term Rhinestreet black shale is applied westward to
Lake Erie (figure 2).

Black shales predominate in the western sections; only 30 percent
of the sections are gray shale. Eastward the gray shales and siltstones
increase in abundance whereas the black shale decreases in thickness.
Siltstones and arenaceous shales are characteristic of the Seneca Lake
sections. Fossils are most common in the gray shales. Pelecypods and
ammonoids predominate. Faunal zones have been established, which aid
in correlating sections that display rapid facies changes.

The base of the Rhinestreet black shale may represent a time line.
Two thin beds of black shale occur in the Cashaqua formation and may
also represent time lines. No conclusions have been reached concerning
the relative ages of the Naples group across western New York. If the
base of the Rhinestreet black shale is a time line or close to it, the
Rhinestreet-Hatch contact is probably older in the east. The Hatch sedi¬
ments were deposited in the east and gradually expanded westward.
A similar relationship may exist between the Middlesex black shale and
Cashaqua formation (figure 2).

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

The Naples group increases in thickness from west to east, as indicated
Jby the following measurements (figure 5) :

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

(West) Lake Erie . 169

Cazenovia Creek . 212

Wyoming* . . 331

Mt. Morris-Letchworth Park ................ 492

Conesus Lake . 500

Honeoye Lake . 511

Middlesex . 628

<East) Keuka Lake . . . 858

* Incomplete section with Middlesex covered, but shale is estimated to be 12 feet thick
from exposures a few miles away.

East of Conesus Lake, the Cashaqua is composed of three members.
They are (from the base upward) : the Sawmill Creek (new), the Rock
Stream, and the Rye Point (new) . The Parrish limestone lentil is found
near the upper contact of the Cashaqua formation. This lentil may be
traced from the Bristol Valley to Seneca Lake. It will be described in
greater detail under the discussion of the Rye Point member.

Descriptions of the lithologic units of the Naples group follow.

MIDDLESEX BLACK SHALE

Clarke (1903, p. 23) gave the name “Middlesex black shale” to the
Ibasal part of the Naples beds at Middlesex, in Yates County, N. Y. Upper
and lower contacts have been drawn where the gray shales first appear.
These contacts are not always sharp, and in some sections the choice was
an arbitrary one.

The following thicknesses were obtained :

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

Lake Erie Composite . . 4

Cazenovia Creek . . . 7

Tannery Creek . 13

Beards Creek . 26

-Mt. Morris-Letchworth Park . . 30

Conesus Lake . 22

Hartson Point . . . 42

Honeoye Lake . . 46

Middlesex . 47

Keuka Lake (east) . 69

Rock Stream . . 43

Sawmill Creek . 6

The above measurements show an eastward thickening to a maximum
near Keuka Lake, then a thinning to Seneca Lake. Recently the Middlesex
has been identified in the Cayuga Lake sections.

From Lake Erie to Wyoming the Middlesex consists of homogeneous
black shale. Eastward, however, thin beds of gray shale occur in the
center of the formation. At Honeoye, thin siltstones occur within the
gray-shale units, and the latter thicken considerably. Some black shales

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

13

in the Sawmill Creek member of the overlying Cashaqua formation are
believed to be eastward tongues of the Middlesex.

The black shales are sparsely fossiliferous for the most part, although
they were not examined for a microfauna. Only Lingula sp., Styliolina
fissurella and Protosalvinia huronensis were found.

CASHAQUA FORMATION

The name Cashaqua was given to the shales overlying the Middlesex
by Hall (1840, p. 390 ff.). The type locality was designated as the ex¬
posures along Cashaqua Creek (now Iveshequa Creek), one-half mile
south of Sonyea, N. Y. This formation is well defined by the black shales
of the Middlesex below and the Rhinestreet above. It thickens from the
shore of Lake Erie to Seneca Lake. The following tabulation shows this
eastward increase in thickness.

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

(West) Lake Erie Composite . 28

Cazenovia Creek . 53

Wyoming . 92

Beards Creek . 127

Mt. Morris-Letchworth Park . 166

Keshequa Creek . 116

Conesus Lake . 142

Honeoye Lake . 177

Bristol Center . . 234

Middlesex . . . 280

Keuka Lake (west) . 225

Keuka Lake (east) . 367

(East) Sawmill Creek . 480

In western sections, the Cashaqua is composed of soft, bluish-gray
shale, which rapidly weathers to an olive brown. This shale is interbedded
with thin limestones, many of which are fossiliferous. Numerous septaria
and concretions occur here. Limestones are absent in the basal Sawmill
Creek member to the east, although concretions persist to the Genesee
valley.

A few thin siltstone beds occur at the base of the Cashaqua formation
near Conesus Lake (figure 5). Farther east siltstones form a larger pro¬
portion of the formation and occur at a higher stratigraphic position.
They make up the upper two-fifths of the Cashaqua in the Keuka Lake
and Seneca Lake valleys. Gray and black shales below them are herein
designated the Sawmill Creek member. The shales above are named the
Rye Point member. The siltstones between were previously named the
Rock Stream member (figures 2 and 5).

In the past, the Cashaqua formation has been designated as a shale,
or shale and sandstone. Its complex and varied lithology, as evidenced
by the lithologic changes just described, are not adequately implied by
so simple a name. For this reason it is called the Cashaqua formation.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

The Cashaqua formation is the most fossiliferous unit within the
Naples group. The fauna is composed of pelecypods, gastropods and
cephalopods, although a few brachiopods, arthropods, fishes and other
organisms are represented. Most of the species found possessed strati¬
graphic or geographic ranges unsuitable for correlation purposes.
However, the following faunal zones were noted, beginning with the
lowermost :

1. Paraptyx Ontario -Loxonema noe zone. A gastropod, L. noe, occurs
in the lower portion of the Cashaqua from Cayuga Creek to Wyoming,
where it is associated with P. Ontario. This zone may be traced east¬
ward into the Rock Stream member in the Bristol Center section by
means of the latter species. P. Ontario was not noted in the Middlesex
section. This zone is just below a thin bed of black shale.

2. First Palaeotrochus praecursor zone. The gastropod, P. praecursor,
defines a zone within the undivided Cashaqua of the Genesee Valley.
This zone has been traced eastwardly to Bristol Center, where it
occurs between the upper and lower tongues of the Rock Stream
member. Farther east it becomes indistinguishable as these two
tongues merge into one and the gray shales disappear. As P. prae¬
cursor reappears higher in the section, this is designated as the first
Paleotrochus zone.

3. Ontario sub orbicularis zone. The small and rather fragile valves of
this pelecypod were encountered in sections between Cayuga Creek
and Glenville.

4. Second Palaeotrochus praecursor zone. A second zone defined by
this gastropod appears about 30 feet below the Cashaqua-Rhinestreet
contact in the Wyoming section and persists eastward to Sawmill
Creek, where it is found only a few feet below the Rhinestreet black
shales.

The two P. praecursor zones occur in similar stratigraphic positions
with respect to the tongues of siltstones of the Rock Stream member.
They appear to form the most reliable guides for correlation within the
Cashaqua. Corroboration of the faunal zones outlined above must await
detailed mapping of the areas involved.

SAWMILL CREEK MEMBER

The name Sawmill Creek1 is proposed for the gray and black shales
that overlie the Middlesex and underlie the Rock Stream. The Sawmill
Creek member may be identified from Honeoye Lake eastward to Seneca

1 After submission of this paper for publication, Colton and de Witt (1958) pro¬
posed the name Pulteney for the unit herein named Sawmill Creek. The former name
thus has priority. — Ed. note

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

15

figure 3. Genundewa-Cashaqua exposure 2 miles northeast of Sturgeon Point, Lake Erie.
From the bottom: Genundewa limestone (on which man is standing), less resistant West River
shales, blocky beds of Middlesex black shale and less resistant, lighter Cashaqua shale.

16

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Lake, where it is found in Sawmill Creek, the type section, on the east
side of Seneca Lake, eight miles north of Watkins. Exposures appear
in the stream bed between the village of Hector and Logan Road, two
miles to the east.

The Sawmill Creek shows a rather persistent eastward thickening with

the following measurements recorded:

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

(West) Honeoye Lake . . . 19

Bristol Center . 77

Middlesex . 119

Keuka Lake (west) ........................ 117

Keuka Lake (east) ........................ 177

Rock Stream . . 193

(East) Sawmill Creek . . . 236

This member is composed of interbedded, bluish-gray shale and black,
fissile shale. Toward the east, thin siltstones appear and increase in num¬
ber and thickness. Its beds form the faces of falls capped by the thicker,
more resistant siltstones and sandstones of the Rock Stream member
above (figure 4). In most of these exposures, black shales tend to be
concentrated just below the Rock Stream, but do not appear to form a
unit of sufficient homogeneity to warrant a separate name.

figure 4. Sandstone beds about 3 feet thick in the Rock Stream member, Wagener
Glen, Keuka Lake.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

17

As the member thins westwardly, many of the black shales appear to
merge with the Middlesex black shales below. Apparently the Sawmill
Creek is equivalent in time to the upper Middlesex farther west, but is
placed with the Cashaqua formation.

Fossils are rather uncommon in the Sawmill Creek. The latter contains
pelecypods and cephalopods identical to those that occur in the shales of
the Cashaqua to the west.

ROCK STREAM MEMBER

Bradley and Pepper (1938, p. 12) divided the “Cashaqua shale” in
the Watkins and Ovid quadrangles into two parts — a lower portion, “all
shale,” and an upper, “a series of alternating flagstones and shale.” For
the upper sequence they proposed the name “Rock Stream flagstone
member.”

The Rock Stream may be traced from Seneca Lake to Conesus Lake,
where it is represented by a few, widely spaced, thin siltstones. Near
Seneca Lake it appears as massive beds of fine-grained, calcareous sand¬
stone (figure 4). The following thicknesses have been noted:

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

(West) Conesus Lake . 29

Honeoye Lake . 45

Bristol Center . 94

Middlesex . 107

Keuka Lake (west) . 75

Keuka Lake (east) . 156

(East) Sawmill Creek . . . . 199

This member is composed of two tongues. In the Bristol Center section
the lower siltstones are overlain by a section of softer gray shales, which
contain the first Palaeotrochus praecursor zone. In sections to the east,
massive, calcareous sandstones may be found in two tongues of the Rock
Stream member. The thin black-shale bed noted in the Cashaqua forma¬
tion to the west may be traced eastward, where it disappears beneath,
the upper tongue of siltstones.

The fauna of the Rock Stream is composed of two parts. The soft gray
shales contain some of the same species found in the shales of the
Cashaqua formation to the west but in the massive, calcareous siltstones
and fine-grained sandstones crinoid and plant fragments may be found.
The thinner siltstones are barren.

RYE POINT MEMBER

The name Rye Point is here proposed for the fossiliferous, gray, cal¬
careous shales that overlie the Rock Stream. The type locality is a small
stream on the east side of Keuka Lake, three miles northeast of Ham-

18

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

mondsport and 1.5 miles northeast of Rye Point. The upper Rock Stream,
Rye Point, and the overlying Rhinestreet may be examined by entering
the ravine on the east side of East Lake Road, New York State Route 54.

The shales of the Rye Point thin toward the east and disappear from
the sections in the Ithaca region. The following measurements have been
recorded :

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

(West) Honeoye Lake . 113

Bristol Center . 62

Middlesex . 53

Keuka Lake (west) . 33

Keuka Lake (east) . 33

(East) Sawmill Creek . 15

The Rye Point is composed of calcareous shales in the western portion,
but to the east its beds are less calcareous and more arenaceous. This
member may be identified by the presence of the second Palaeotrochus
praecursor zone and by a red and green, nodular limestone bed known as
the Parrish limestone lentil. The latter, rarely more than one foot thick,
was so named by Clarke and Luther (1904, pp. 29-30), apparently for
its exposure in “Parrish gully at Parrish.55 The geologic map accom¬
panying their report shows a few houses with the name “Parish.55 Clarke
and Luther also refer to Parrish gully here assumed to be that gully
located just to the east. The name Parrish is no longer found on topo¬
graphic maps; the valley where it was located is now known as Parish
flat, the gully as Conklin gully. However, the name “Parrish limestone55
should be retained and the type locality understood to be in Conklin
gully.

The type Parrish is a “lentil” within the Rye Point member. Elsewhere
it may be one continuous bed or several lenses. A separate name seems
appropriate because of its unusual character.

The Rye Point fauna is like that of the soft, gray shales to the west.
Manticoceras, Bactrites, Ontaria, Honeoyea, Palaeoneilo and Palaeotro¬
chus are genera represented.

RHINESTREET BLACK SHALE

Clarke (1903, p. 23) gave the name Rhinestreet to the black shales
overlying the Cashaqua formation. The type locality is a cut along Rhine¬
street, a road connecting Naples with the settlement of Seaman Hill to
the north. Almost everywhere the basal contact with the Cashaqua is
sharp and well defined whereas the upper contact is very irregular. The
Rhinestreet black shales diminish in thickness eastward, being replaced
by gray shales and siltstones of the Hatch formation. Rhinestreet black

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

19

shales show a slight westward thinning between Cazenovia Creek and
Lake Erie. The following table summarizes these variations in thickness.

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

(West) Lake Erie Composite . 137

Cazenovia Creek . 152

Tannery Creek . . 119

Wyoming ................................. 72

Beards Creek . . 63

Mt. Morris-Letchworth Park...... . 110

Conesus Lake . . . 69

Honeoye Lake . 36

Bristol Center . . 29

Middlesex . 16

Keuka Lake (west) . 14

Keuka Lake (east) . 4

(East) Sawmill Creek . 15

Irregularities in the changing thickness are due, in part, to an interfinger-
ing of the black shales with the overlying Hatch. This contact is grada¬
tional and often arbitrarily placed.

The Rhinestreet has been described as a black shale, but its beds show
minor variations in color and structure. Some beds are more fissile than
others. Fossiliferous gray shale occurs in the lower part of the forma¬
tion from the Genesee River to Tannery Creek. Fossils identified are:
Manticoceras sinuosum, Bactrites aciculum , B. gracilior, Buchiola re-
trostriata, Pterochaenia fragilis, P. fragilis var. orbicularis , Honeoyea
major , H. erinacea , Praecardium vestutum , P. multicostatum , Lingula
sp.. and Styliolina fissurella.

The name Attica shale was applied to the black shales in western
sections by Chadwick (1919, p. 157) because the Rhinestreet here in¬
cluded more than that at the type locality. The Rhinestreet and Hatch at
Naples were considered equivalent to the Attica in the west. This addi¬
tional name does not seem necessary because age relationships are not
criteria for the definition of a rock unit. Therefore, “Attica shale” is
abandoned, and Rhinestreet is understood to be applicable westward to
Lake Erie.

HATCH FORMATION

Gray shales, thin siltstones and black shales that overlie the Rhine¬
street compose the youngest formation of the Naples group, and were
given the name Hatch by Clarke and Luther (1904, p. 34). The type
section is the lower part of Hatch Hill, one mile southeast of Naples. This

20

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

formation thickens from west to east as shown by the following measure¬
ments :

SECTION THICKNESS IN FEET

(West) Tannery Creek . 150

Wyoming . 154

Mt. Morris-Letchworth Park . 186

Conesus Lake . 267

Honeoye Lake . 253

Bristol Center . 265

Middlesex . 283

Keuka Lake (west) . 345

(East) Keuka Lake (east) . 418

In the west the Hatch is predominantly shale with a few thin siltstones.
Eastward, however, the siltstones become thicker, more abundant and
comprise a larger part of the formation. For this reason the word “forma¬
tion” is used rather than the term “shale” or “shale and siltstone”
(figure 5).

The westward equivalent of the Hatch formation is, in part, the Rhine-
street black shale. Upper Hatch is equivalent to the lower beds of the
Angola shale (figure 5). Evidence for this lateral replacement is:
(1) very thin, arenaceous beds appear in the lowermost Angola west of
Tannery Creek; (2) the pelecypod, Posidonia mesacostalis , a common
Angola fossil, occurs in the Hatch as far east as the Genesee Valley; and
(3) the thickness of the Hatch is abnormally large in sections just east
of the Angola shale.

The Angola shale does not belong in the Naples group. Its lower part
may be correlated with the Hatch, but its upper portion is equivalent to
the Grimes sandstone, Gardeau shales, Letchworth formation and Portage
shale (Cooper, et al., 1942, chart 4). The upper contact of the Naples
group should be placed at the base of the Grimes sandstone. Where the
latter is absent, the top of the Rhinestreet may be so regarded.

The Hatch is overlain by Grimes sandstone to the east. Both may be
traced to the Keuka Lake region. East of here, sandstones like those of
the Grimes appear within the Hatch and the Hatch-Grimes contact is
no longer identifiable. These sandstones contain a fauna similar to that
of the Grimes.

The Hatch formation is rather unfossiliferous ; only a few species have
been noted in its gray shale. They are : Manticoceras sinuosum , Buchiola
retrostriata , Posidonia mesacostalis, Pterochaenia fragilis, Palaeoneilo
sp., and Styliolina fissurella .

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

21

CONCLUSIONS

Two major cycles of deposition are represented (in part) in the Naples
group — each depositional cycle composed of three rock types: (1) black
shale, (2) gray shale and (3) siltstone. One cycle is made up of black
shale at the bottom and gray shale at the top. A wedge of siltstones lies
between these two. The siltstone wedge thins westward, and where absent
the black and gray shales are in direct contact.

The first or lower cycle is represented by (1) Middlesex black shale,
(2) Cashaqua formation (undivided) and (3) Rock Stream member (a
siltstone wedge). The second or upper cycle consists of the (1) Rhine-
street black shale, (2) Angola shale and (3) Hatch formation and
Grimes sandstone (representing the lower part of a siltstone wedge).
The Rock Stream siltstones reach only to Conesus Lake, but those of the
Hatch formation extend almost to Lake Erie. Thus the depositional site
of the second cycle was somewhat further west than that of the first.

Other parts of the Upper Devonian in western New York demonstrate
this same relationship. For example: the (1) Geneseo black shale, (2)
West River shale and (3) Sherburne siltstones (Grossman, 1944, figure
2). Limited observations indicate that other examples may be present in
Upper Devonian strata above the Naples group.

LITHOLOGY

Four major rock types have been recognized. They are: (1) black
shale, (2) gray shale, (3) siltstone and (4) carbonates. Carbonates are
the least common and occur as thin limestone beds, concretions and
septaria. Gradations exist between all types. The term “shale” is used
here as an indurated sedimentary rock composed of a mixture of silt-sized
(1/16-1/256 mm.) and clay-sized (less than 1/256 mm.) particles, pos¬
sessing a shaly parting.

BLACK SHALE

The term “black shale” is applied to rocks that have a very dark to
black color and split into thin or fissile sheets. Black shales grade into
lighter shales as noted elsewhere. Fresh rock is massive but becomes
fissile if weathered. The black shale resists stream erosion and forms falls
and rapids. Freshly broken specimens have an odor of petroleum and a
thin oil film may occur where quiet water covers the rocks. Septaria and
concretions are rare although septaria may be found in the lowermost
beds of the Rhinestreet black shale. Fossils are also rare, and most of
them are pyritized.

22

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

figure 6. Photomicrograph of Rhinestreet black shale (X8), Whetstone Creek,
2 miles west of Honeoye, N. Y.

figure 7. Same as Figure 6 (X75). White patches are quartz grains; darker
portions are organic rich clays.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

23

In thin section the black shales are both laminated and nonlaminated.
Silt-size quartz particles form laminae that alternate with thicker layers
of clay and dark brown bituminous matter (figures 6, 7). More rarely,
laminae are formed by a variation in amount of organic matter, the clay
and quartz content remaining constant. Quartz-rich laminae average 0.13
mm. and clay-bituminous laminae average 0.84 mm. in thickness. Some
quartz-rich laminae are lenticular. Others have the grains concentrated
in pockets and patches with the layering disrupted. The mineral composi¬
tion of the shale is: quartz (0.004 mm. and larger) — 30 percent, bitumin¬
ous matter — 10 percent, clay (0.004 mm. and smaller) — 45 percent, chlor¬
ite and sericite — 5 percent, pyrite — 5 percent, and carbonate — 5 percent.

Almost all the larger detrital grains are quartz, only six chert frag¬
ments having been noted in 25 thin sections studied. The quartz grains
are angular, and many show strain shadows. Their irregular outline is
displayed as (1) sharp, well-defined jagged edges, and (2) wavy, ill-
defined surfaces. The former appears to be due to a lack of rounding;
the latter to solution after deposition. Grains average 0.01 mm. in maxi¬
mum diameter and range in size from those too small to measure with
a micrometer eyepiece to those 0.04 mm.

Sericite and chlorite are concentrated in the quartz- rich laminae.
Carbonate is rare but is more abundant if fossil fragments are present.
Larger carbonate patches are rhombohedral in outline whereas smaller
ones are irregular. Pyrite occurs as small euhedral crystals and larger,
irregular, spongy masses. Under high power, the larger masses are com¬
posed of many small crystals, each with a definite euhedral outline. The
edge of the mass may have short, stubby, fingerlike projections extending
into the fine-grained matrix.

Fossils are not common in thin sections, excepting spores and plant
fragments. The spores, now carbon, appear as oval to round bodies, the
largest ones measuring 0.005 mm. Fragments of plant material assume
varied sizes and shapes. Both spores and plant fragments are concen¬
trated in bituminous-rich laminae.

Carbonate shells rarely occur in the black shale. Bactrites and Styliolina
fissurella were identified ; other shells can be recognized only as pelecy-
pods. The latter are thin, crushed, and associated with the quartz-rich
laminae. Some fossil fragments have a light brown, laminated, carbonate
shell, the inside surface of which is lined with light brown carbonate
rhombs that project toward the interior of the shell cavity. The remainder
of the cavity is filled with clear, secondary carbonate. Pyrite crystals may
be embedded in the light brown or clear carbonate or both. The pyrite
transects all carbonate grain boundaries and is thus later than the sec¬
ondary carbonate. This holds true for the pyrite in the matrix as well.

24

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

GRAY SHALES

The Naples group displays a rather heterogeneous array of shale
types. These have been distinguished on the basis of their color, i.e.
“light gray/5 “bluish-gray/5 “olive-gray,55 “dark-gray” etc. Appreciable
amounts of quartz were detected in some so that the adjective “arenace¬
ous55 is used.

All gradations in color exist, and no sharp line may be drawn. Color
is affected by variations in composition and severity of weathering. Or¬
ganic matter seems to be one of the most important factors affecting
color, darker shales having more organic matter. Variations in color due
lo weathering are caused by the oxidation of small amounts of iron
sulfide. An example of the latter occurs in the shales of the Cashaqua
formation. Some beds are bluish-gray on fresh fracture but become olive-
gray after prolonged exposure.

Thirteen thin sections of shales from the Cashaqua and Hatch forma¬
tions have been examined. One slide of a shale parting in the Hatch
formation revealed significant differences that distinguish it from the
others and will be discussed with the siltstones. The shales show thin,
quartz-rich laminations interbedded with thicker clay and micaceous
layers. The laminae are wavy with wrinkles confined to a single layer.
Because of the fissility of the shale, it was necessary to cut almost all of
the thin sections parallel to the bedding planes. As a result, no quantita¬
tive data on the thickness of the laminae could be obtained. From
limited observations, the ratio of the quartz-rich to the clay-rich laminae
is about the same as that observed in the black shales previously dis¬
cussed. The most significant difference between the gray and black shales
is the presence of wavy laminae in the former.

The estimated mineral composition of the gray shale is : quartz (greater
lhan 0.004 mm.) — 20 percent, bituminous matter — 2 percent, clay (finer
than 0.004 mm.) — 35 percent, chlorite and sericite — 20 percent, pyrite —
3 percent, and carbonate — 20 percent.

Large grains are present and have been identified as quartz by their
refractive index. The grains are angular, and have an average maximum
diameter of 0.006 mm., the largest noted being only 0.025 mm. Detrital
quartz is less abundant than in the black shales. It increases in shales of
a darker gray color.

Crystals and spongy masses of pyrite are present in the gray shales.
Pyrite is concentrated in the quartz-rich laminae, and much of it occurs
inside fossil shells (figure 8). As in the black shales, the spongy masses
have euhedral crystals along the margins and fingerlike projections into
the surrounding matrix. The interiors of cephalopod shells contain many
euhedral crystals. Some shells may be completely filled, leaving only a

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

25

figure 8. Cashaqua shale (X75) , Hemlock Lake, N. Y. Black is pyrite, and light
patches are carbonate and fossil fragments.

figure 9. Cashaqua shale (X75) at Friend, N. Y. Spherulites in a matrix cf
tiny quartz fragments and chlorite.

26

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

thin carbonate layer around the outside. Limonite has been noted stain¬
ing the matrix or concentrated along partings in the quartz-rich laminae.
The amount of pyrite is less than in the black shales, ranging from one
to five percent. Thus, it appears to be more characteristic of darker
colored shales.

Carbonate is more abundant in gray shales than in black. It varies
from 5 to 30 percent and is concentrated in the quartz-rich laminae.
The carbonate is more abundant in fossiliferous shales but occurs even
if carbonate fossil shells are absent. Spherulites of carbonate, noted in
three slides, averaged 0.08 mm. in diameter; the largest one measured
0.2 mm. They are found in shales with a high carbonate content and
are concentrated in the quartz-rich laminae.

Cross sections of cephalopod shells have a very similar appearance to
the spherulites noted above. They are oval or circular in outline and
are filled with carbonate crystals that formed on the inside of the shell.
The optic orientation of these crystals is similar to that of the typical
spherulite and forms a black cross under crossed nicols. The spherulites
may be distinguished by a clear carbonate rim and light brown carbonate
center (figure 9) . This is the reverse of that found in the filled cephalopod
shells.

Both sericite and chlorite are more abundant in the gray shales than
in black. The sericite varies from 10 to 30 percent and the chlorite from
1 to 5 percent. Both minerals are more abundant and better oriented
in the clay-rich laminae.

Organic components of the gray shales are spores, plant fragments,
very fine organic matter and carbonate shells. Spores and plant frag¬
ments are less common in the gray shales than in the black. They are
concentrated in the clay-rich laminae and increase in amount in darker
shales. This increase is not itself sufficient to produce the color differences
noted. Color differences appear to be due to differences in amount of very
fine organic matter, darker shales containing more organic matter. The
carbonate shells are more abundant in the gray shales and tend to be
concentrated in the quartz-rich laminae.

SILTSTONES

The word “siltstone” is a field term here applied to fine-grained clastic
rock that breaks with difficulty and forms conchoidal fractures if struck
with a hammer. It is light gray to bluish-gray and weathers to a pale
brown. The beds are 0.1 to more than 2 feet thick and are resistant,
forming the caps of falls and rapids in ravines.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

27

The siltstones are interbedded with gray shales ; very rarely with black
shales. If black shales are present, they are separated from the siltstones
by some gray shale. If all three rock types are present, the typical sequence
would be: (1) black shale interbedded with gray shale, (2) gray shale
interbedded with widely spaced, thin-bedded siltstones, (3) gray shale
interbedded with closely spaced, thin-bedded siltstones, (4) gray, arena¬
ceous shale alternating with thick beds of siltstones and (5) gray shale
interbedded with widely spaced, thin-bedded siltstones.

Several types of sedimentary structures occur on the underside of the
siltstone beds. The first type discussed is called a lobate flow marking
(figure 10). Hall (1843, p. 232) referred to these markings as “casts
of flowing mud.” He believed they were formed in two ways: some by
mass movement of silt along the sea floor, others were casts of depres¬
sions previously hollowed out by flowing water. Clarke (1918, pp. 199-
200) interpreted the markings as natural casts of deeply marked strand
slopes, rilled and eddied by an ebbing tide. Rich (1950, p. 724) found
similar markings in Silurian siltstones at Aberystwyth, Wales. He re¬
ferred to them as “flow markings” and believed they were due to erosion
by a moving abrasive fluid (water rendered abrasive by a heavy load of
silt). Kuenen (1953, p. 1051) confirmed Rich’s theory by noting that
coarse grains had collected in the bottom of these grooves, and that the
tapering, down-current direction exactly matches that of current bedding
and ripple marks, where present. Thus they are formed by turbidity
currents.

Parallel ridges form a second type of sedimentary structure observed
on the underside of siltstones. These ridges are casts of grooves in the
underlying sandy shales. They are parallel and, if associated with lobate
flow markings, tend to be oriented in the same direction as the tapered
ends. The ridges may vary in width from fine lines to several inches, the
former being much more common. Hall (1843, pp. 234-237) noted that
the marks were in an east-west direction at Lake Erie and northwest-
southeast at Cayuga Lake. He believed they were caused by objects
dragged over the sea bottom. Clarke (1918, pp. 209-210) suggested that
the markings were caused by land ice brought down to the sea or by the
landward thrust of sea ice. Rich (1950, p. 723) mentioned that small
striations were present in the siltstones at Aberystwyth and ascribed
them to abrasion by sand-laden water (turbidity currents).

The upper surface of some siltstone beds show current ripple marks,
but others have an undulatory surface that reflects a folding of the
laminae in the bed. Cross-bedding is common in the siltstone beds in the
eastern sections.

Examination of 17 thin sections reveals two types of siltstones: (1)

Geographic Distribution and Lithologic Relationships of the Fauna
Number indicates number of times genus or species recorded

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

*

CM

XXOXOOXX

0X0X0

*

xooxxxxx

xxxxo

LITHOLOGIC RELATIONSHIPS

SH. & SS.

O

LO i — i

CO H 1— 1

CAL.

Ov

CO i— ( i— 1 H CO LO CO f— l

^COH

GRAY

CO

CM ^P CM co r-

CO

DK. GR.

t-*

i— < CM

pH

BL.

vO

GEOGRAPHIC

DISTRICT

EAST

LO

Ov CO CO CO CM

VO r— 1 p— 1 r-H

CENT.

rP

i— 1 r-l CM CM LO

VO r-l

WEST

CO

OHHCOH LO NO

tP CM

i INDEX TO

ABUND.

CM

OHH^HIOOOMN
r-H COH

Tp CM r— 1 r— 1

GENERA OR SPECIES IDENTIFIED

1

Cephalopoda

Manticoceras sinuosum

M. sororium

M. apprimatum ( ? )

M. styliophilum

M. perlatum

Probeloceras lutheri

Bactrites aciculum

B. gracilior

Orthoceras sp.

Gastropoda

Loxonema noe

Palaeotrochus praecursor
Phragmostoma incisum

P. natator

Pleurotomaria ciliata

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

29

OX xxo oxxoxxoxxxo

XXX

X<N-x OX

ox xoo oxoooxoooxx

XXX

o^x ox

LO i— 1 ft r-H

rH CM r-l to

CM

CO

1— 1 rl H H ^ ^ H i — 1 H H CO CONOCO

CM r-H

CM

2

1

18

143

I— ICO r— 1 r— Ip— 1 1— 1 p— Ip— 1 H r— 1 r-l 00 CO

pH

LO

CO

CO 1— 1 r— 1 r— 1 r— 1 r— 1

ON

pH

CM

CM

TF CO

ON

rH O r-l r-l CM CM CM CM

rH CM rH On

00

VO

H On pH rH CM ^ rH H CM CM CO CM LO CO

pH rH

pH pH

2

4

14

107

V© H H H CM H CO H i- 1 HHCO^

CM r— 1

rH t"»

CM

lit

CMLOHCMCMCMvOLOvOHHGMCOlOHf-tCMCvcO
^ CM

i— i CM CM

CM rH rf CM CM O
LO

286

Pelecypoda

Buchiola halli (?)

Buchiola retrostriata

Grammy sia sp.

Honeoyea erinacea

H. major

Lunulicardium ornatum
Lunulicardium sp.

Ontaria clarkei

O. sub orbicularis

Palaeoneilo lingulata

P. muricata ( ? )

P. petila

Paracardium doris

Paraptyx Ontario

Posidonia mesacostalis

Praecardium multicostatum
Pterochaenia fragilis

P. fragilis var. orbicularis

Puella sp.

Brachiopoda

Chonetes lepidus

C. scitulus

Lingula spatulata

Others

Hyolithes neapolis

Primitia veriostriata

Proto salvinia huronensis

Crinoid fragments

T entaculites tenuicinctus

Styliolina fissure lla

Columns 11 and 12 represent strata below and above Naples group respectively. The X indicates fossil is present; O = form not reported.

30

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

laminated and (2) nonlaminated. Laminae may be observed in polished
specimens cut normal to the bedding planes or in thin sections with the
same orientation (figure 11) . Some are caused by an alteration of quartz
grains with chlorite and sericite ; others are due to variations in organic
content and concentration of pyrite. Organic material, mostly plant frag¬
ments. increases in the micaceous portions. Most of the pyrite is asso¬
ciated with quartz. The luminae average less than 1 mm. in thickness
with a maximum of 3 mm. in an undisturbed bed.

A significant difference in grain size was observed between the two
types of siltstone. Maximum diameters were measured in three thin sec¬
tions of each type. The average maximum size was 0.04 mm. for the
laminated and 0.08 mm. for the nonlaminated. The latter is coarser
grained and might be called sandstone. Because the value of 0.08 mm.
would fall in the very fine sand category, the term siltstone will be used
to refer to both types of rock. The two types may be distinguished by
their fractured surfaces. The laminated type tends to break parallel to
the bedding, whereas the nonlaminated siltstone has a conchoidal frac¬
ture. A mineralogical analysis of each type is shown below:

NONLAMINATED

LAMINATED

( percent )

( percent )

Quartz . . . .

. . . . 45

40

Feldspar . . . .

. 2

1

Sericite .

5

3

Chlorite . .

. 15

11

Biotite .

. 3

1

Carbonate .

. 19

30

Leucoxene .

2

1

Epidote .

tr.

Limonite .

. 2

1

Sphene .

tr.

Organic matter . . .

1

1

Pyrite . . .

1

Clay minerals . .

. . 5

10

Total .

. . 100

100

The quartz is angular; much of it is strained and filled with mineral
inclusions. A few of the larger fragments form mosaics of interpenetrat¬
ing grains. The largest grain measured was 0.35 mm. Some mineral in¬
clusions appeared to be chlorite and sericite, but most were unidentifiable.
Feldspar is rare in both types although some plagioclase was identified.
The total amount was not greater than 2 percent in the nonlaminated type
and less in the laminated type. The feldspar identified was unaltered
(figures 12 and 13) .

The carbonate content is higher in the laminated type and in general
is greater for siltstones than for shales. It occurs as patches (never in
layers) that may include several quartz grains. The entire patch acts as a
crystallographic unit. Pyrite occurs in the same manner as in the shale,

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

31

figure 10. Casts of lobate flow markings on the underside of siitstone beds in the
upper Hatch just south of Hammondsport, Keuka Lake (east) section.

figure 11. Siitstone with distorted laminae. Lowermost part of the Hatch forma¬
tion, Sawmill Creek, Seneca Lake (X8).

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

figure 12. Nonlaminated siltstone (X8) Rock Stream member, Cashaqua formation,
Bristol Center section.

figure 13. Same as Figure 12 (X75), showing angular quartz grains, shreds of
chlorite and sericite and finer clay matrix.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

33

namely, as isolated euhedral crystals or in spongy masses composed of
these cubes. The amount seems to be significantly less than in the shales.
Limonite is present in all thin sections, staining the pyrite-rich laminae.
Chlorite is more abundant than sericite, a reversal of their relationship
in the shales. Biotite is present in small amounts. The fragments of these
are larger and vary with the size of the quartz. The largest fragment of
chlorite noted occurred in a nonlaminated siltstone and measured over
0.3 mm. The flakes are bent around detrital quartz grains and show
frayed ends. Some of them must certainly be detrital because the clay
content is low, thereby inhibiting the formation of large chlorite flakes.
Their orientation is not completely random even in the nonlaminated
siltstones although orientation is much better in the laminated types.

Fossils are very rare in the siltstones. Some small plant fragments
occur, particularly in the laminated siltstones, but plant spores are rare,
and only one carbonate shell fragment was noted. That fragment was
part of a thick-shelled organism and was oriented parallel to the foliation
of the micaceous minerals.

The siltstones are coarser grained than the adjacent shale partings and
have less well-developed laminations. Chlorite and sericite are more
abundant and better oriented in the shale. Shale partings associated with
the siltstones are much more arenaceous than the shales in the Cashaqua
formation where siltstones are absent.

The difference between the laminated and nonlaminated types appears
to be a significant one. Whatever mechanism is called upon to deposit
the strata must also account for the presence or absence of the laminae
and the difference in grain size between the two.

CARBONATES

Two distinct kinds of carbonate rocks occur in the Naples group: a
biostromal limestone (Parrish) and thin-bedded argillaceous limestone
(found in the western sections of the Cashaqua formation). Carbonate
concretions and septaria are also common in the Naples group.

The Parrish limestone forms a resistant bed less than two feet thick
in the Rye Point member. It consists of reddish nodules in a green
matrix and contains large numbers of carbonate shells. Soft greenish-
gray shale occurs above and below the limestone. The shales below the
limestone contain small concretions.

Four thin sections disclose a fine-grained carbonate and clay matrix
enclosing numerous fossil shells (figure 14). Styliolina ftssurella is
the most common fossil. Interlocking carbonate rhombs form a small
part of the matrix, but most of the carbonate occurs as spherulites
and cavity fillings in fossil shells. The cavity fillings consist of radi-

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

34

figure 14. Parrish limestone (X8) in Cashaqua formation. Black portions are
pyrite.

ating carbonate rhombs so oriented as to produce a “black cross”
under crossed nicols. Many of the shell interiors are only partly filled
with carbonate. The remainder of the space is occupied by a fine matrix
that may include a stray detrital quartz grain. The carbonate rhombs
were formed by a replacement of the matrix.

Angular, detrital quartz grains form less than 20 percent of the rock.
They are rather large, many measuring over 0.1 mm. and are similar
to those observed in the nonlaminated siltstones. Some of the largest are
mosaics of smaller interlocking grains, and many have an extremely
irregular outline suggesting partial replacement. A few grains of un¬
altered plagioclase feldspar were also noted.

Parts of the matrix are replaced by barite and pyrite. The barite
occurs as irregular stringers and patches and is closely associated with
the pyrite. Quartz grains, carbonate matrix, pteropod shells and spher-
ulites form inclusions and embayments in the barite. Replacement by
the barite was selective and occurred after the spherulites were formed.
The pyrite forms spherical patches composed of euhedral crystals along
the edges. These patches contain detrital quartz grains and, rarely, a
spherulite. Good examples of replacement of barite by pyrite were ob¬
served in a thin section of the Middlesex black shale, but the relationship
is not quite so obvious in the Parrish limestone.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

35

The second type of carbonate rock is a thin, bluish-gray, argillaceous
limestone. Beds of this type weather to a light brown and are found inter-
bedded with the soft, bluish-gray shales of the Cashaqua formation,
where they form less than 1 percent of the section. These limestone
beds are very persistent. At some localities a bed may terminate and a
row of concretions or septaria occupy the same horizon.

The limestone beds, concretions and septaria are important as strati¬
graphic markers. They are equally important because of the well-
preserved and uncrushed fossils they contain. By contrast, fossils in the
shales are crushed and broken. Early solidification of the calcareous
masses may account for this difference.

The small ellipsoidal concretions contain very few fossils. One excep¬
tion had a well-preserved specimen of the pelecypod. Buchiola retrostriata,
in the center. This pelecypod was encased in barite that was, in turn,
jacketed by a fine-grained carbonate matrix. In another specimen, blades
of barite formed a vertical plane perpendicular to the long axis of the
concretion.

The larger concretions (more than five inches in diameter) may con¬
tain many fossils. They consist of a band of fossil-rich limestone with
upper and lower caps of barren carbonate. In many of these, fossils are
pyritized. Pyritization may be selective, replacing one or two species,
excluding the rest.

Concretions occur in some of the siltstones of the Hatch formation,
some over 2 feet in diameter, and appear as low, rounded knobs that
project above the upper surface of the bed.

FAUNA

Hall (1843, pp. 241-247) was among the first to describe fossils from
the Naples group, listing 18 species. Many names have been added to the
list so that now over 400 species are known from the Naples group or
its equivalent in New York State. Williams (1844), Clarke (1898 and
1904) and others noted that distinct faunas existed in the Upper Devon¬
ian. These faunas and their stratigraphic positions are discussed below.
The relation of the fossils in the Naples group to those in the Ithaca-
Enfield group (Caster, 1933, pp. 201-202) is emphasized.

The term Portage was used for a stratigraphic unit in the Upper
Devonian of western New York. Many workers, like Williams (1884),
referred to the “Portage fauna,” meaning the fauna in the Portage
group of western New York. This fauna consists of pelecypods, cephalo-
pods, and some gastropods. Crinoids, brachiopods and corals are very
rare or absent.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

In the Ithaca region, Williams (1884, pp. 29-31) noted the following
faunal succession in the Upper Devonian: (1) Genesee slate fauna, (2)
Portage group fauna and (3) Chemung fauna (figure 15). The Genesee
slate fauna was represented by the brachiopods Orbiculoidea lodensis
(as Discina lodensis ), Chonetes lepidus (as C. lepida) and the pteropod
Styliolina fissurella (as Styliola fissurella) . The Portage fauna was “in-
terstratified” with what Williams called the “Ithaca fauna and several
sub-faunas.” It was represented by Buchiola retrostriata (as Cardiola
speciosa) , Goniatites, Hyolithes and Coleolus . The Ithaca fauna is repre¬
sented by Martiniopsis laevis (as Spirifer laevis) and Palaeoneilo filosa.
A mixed Portage and Ithaca faunas give way to the Chemung fauna.
Williams identified the Chemung fauna by the presence of Cyrtospirifer
disjunctus (as Spirifera disjuncta ) , Ambocoelia umbonata var. gregaria ,
Atrypa reticularis , Productella lachrymosa and many others.

Clarke (1898 and 1904) called the fauna of the Portage group the
Naples fauna. Life or bionic provinces were distinguished for the seas
of “Portage time.” The Oneonta province occupied the area east of the
present Chenango River and was made up of estuarine or fresh-water
deposits. An Ithaca province extended from the Oneonta province west¬
ward to the meridian of Cayuga Lake and was occupied by the Ithaca
fauna. The Genesee province extended from Cayuga Lake to Lake Erie.
It was occupied by the Naples fauna (figure 15) .

The Naples fauna, described by Clarke (1898 and 1904), must not be
confused with the fauna of the Naples group. The former is the fauna
of the Portage group in western New York. This group, as defined then,
included not only the present Naples group but also several hundred
feet of strata above. Thus the fauna of the Naples group represents only
a part of Clarke’s original Naples fauna.

Clarke (1904, p. 211) recognized two subprovinces within the Genesee
province: a Naples subprovince extending from Cayuga Lake to the
Genesee River and a Chautauqua subprovince between the Genesee River
and Lake Erie. The fossil list compiled by Clarke and Luther (1904, pp.
60-63) for the type section of the Naples is very different from the Ithaca
fauna recorded by the same authors (1905a, pp. 61-65).

NAPLES NO. OF SPECIES

(type section) ithaca common to both

Crustaceans . 4 8 0

Cephalopods . 16 7 0

Pteropods . 5 8 1

Gastropods . 12 21 0

Pelecypods . 25 84 2

Brachiopods . 4 57 1

Corals . 1 6 1?

Crinoids . 1 3 0

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

37

figure 15. Relation of faunas.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

In writing about the character of the Naples fauna, Clarke (1904, p. 215)
stated :

Throughout the components of this fauna there is a striking
homogeneity of character expressed in the fact that all classes of
invertebrate organisms are thin shelled, a condition compromised
solely by the presence of a few representatives from the adjoin¬
ing fauna (Ithaca fauna) to the east.

Chadwick (1935, pp. 313-318) combined the Upper Devonian forma¬
tions into seven groups, each group containing a distinct fauna. His
faunal list for the Naples group included Clarke’s list of fossils from the
Naples subprovince and the Ithaca fauna. Chadwick’s tabulation indi¬
cated that 185 species were restricted to the Naples group ; 91 also occur
in the Hamilton group, 51 in the Genesee group, and 76 carry on into
younger strata. A total of 403 species is present in the Naples group or
its equivalents.

The fauna of the underlying West River is very similar to that in the
Naples group. Grossman (1944, p. 63) found Pterochaenia fragilis most
abundant, but also listed as common: Chonetes lepidus , Pleurotomaria
rugulata , Buchiola retrostriata, Paleoneilo constricta, Paracardium doris ,
Ontaria suborbicularis , Bactrites acicuium , Manticoceras sinuosum ,
Probeloceras lutheri , Styliolina fissurella, crinoid stems, and plant re¬
mains. These species are also present in the Naples group but in different
proportions. Chonetes lepidus , Paracardium doris , and crinoid stems are
uncommon. However, Buchiola retrostriata and Bactrites acicuium are
abundant. Similarities of the faunas rather than slight differences seem
to be most significant.

The Naples group is overlain by the Grimes sandstone, which carries
a Chemung fauna. Clarke and Luther (1904, p. 63) noted that the follow¬
ing were present in the Grimes sandstone : Protonympha devonica, Palaeo-
chaeta salicifolia , Conularia sp., Paracyclas sp., Grammysia subarcuata ,
Aviculopecten cancellatus , Sphenotus sp., Orbiculoidea sp., Schizophoria
impressa , Leptostrophia mucronata , Chonetes lepidus , Liorhynchus
mesacostalis, L. globuliformis, Productella lachrymosa, Ambocoelia um-
bonata, Atrypa spinosa, Paropsonema cryptophylum, and Dictyospongia
haplea. Only Chonetes lepidus is common to both the Grimes sandstone
and the Naples group. Thus the faunal change is a sharp one.

This paper attempts to emphasize the stratigraphy and lithology rather
than the paleontology. Over 1,000 fossil specimens were collected as the
stratigraphic sections were measured and later identified. Most of the
fossils were either interior or exterior molds, the original shell material
having been dissolved away. The fine-grained rock matrix preserved many
of their structural features.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

39

The genera and species identified are listed in table 1, column 1. An
approximate index of abundance (column 2) may be obtained by noting
the number of times a species was found in the measured sections. This
does not record the abundance of that species in any one described
unit. For example, Manticoceras sinuosum may be represented in a given
unit by three identifiable specimens, Styliolina fissurella by 30 specimens.
Each would be recorded but once for that unit.

Pelecypods species were most abundant, followed by cephalopods,
gastropods, pteropods and brachiopods. Among the pelecypods, Buchiola
retrostriata was most common, followed by Pterochaenia fragilis and P.
fragilis var. orbicularia . Of the cephalopods, Bactrites aciculum is most
common, followed by Bactrites gracilior and Manticoceras sinuosum.
Palaeotrochus praecursor is the most common gastropod. Styliolina
fissurella is the most abundant fossil in the Naples group. Ammonoids
are more abundant than their indices in table 1 would indicate, but the
suture lines on many specimens were rarely clear enough to allow spe¬
cific identification, and most of the shells were either crushed or
significant parts were missing.

The geographic distribution of this fauna may be shown by arbitrarily
dividing the Naples group into three geographic areas. A western area
(table 1, column 3) comprises the sections from Lake Erie to Beards
Creek. The central area (column 4) extends from the Mount Morris-
Let chworth Park section to the Honeoye section. An eastern area (column
5) includes the sections from Bristol Center to Sawmill Creek.

Fossils are more abundant in the western sections. Some species are
restricted to a limited geographic area; for example — Loxonema noe,
which was found only west of the Genesee valley, or Paraptyx Ontario ,
present only in sections east of the Genesee valley. The more common
species were found throughout the Naples group. But even here varia¬
tions in abundance occur ; for example, Bactrites aciculum is more com¬
mon in the western sections.

This fauna shows a definite relationship to the rock types (table 1,
columns 6-10). It is very apparent in the field that fossils are common
in the calcareous gray shales but rare in the black shales. They decline
in abundance in the arenaceous shales, siltstones and sandstones. In
calcareous shales their frequency is greater and species are more num¬
erous. A few species occur in the more arenaceous beds. Palaeotrochus
praecursor , Manticoceras sinuosum , Bactrites gracilior , Buchiola re¬
trostriata, and Styliolina fissurella are examples. These appear to be
somewhat more independent of lithologic changes.

Approximately 90 percent of the fossils collected came from the
Cashaqua formation. Few changes in composition of the fauna were

40

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

observed from the bottom to the top of the Naples group. One exception
is the pelecypod, Posidonia mesacostalis, which makes its first appear¬
ance in the Hatch formation. It is common in the Angola shales. Most
of the species collected from the Naples group are present in the strata
below and above (table 1, columns 11 and 12), according to Chadwick
(1935, pp. 313-323) . The more common species (table 1, column 2) , such
as Manticoceras sinuosum, Bactrites acicuium , B. gracilior , Palaeotrochus
praecursor, Buchiola retrostriata, Pterochaenia fragilis , and Styliolina
fissurella , also are found in the Angola shale.

The fossils of the Naples group represent, for the most part, a facies
fauna. No species was found to be completely independent of lithologic
changes. Only the gastropod, Palaeotrochus praecursor , showed some
lateral persistence. It occurs in the soft, gray shales of the Cashaqua in
western New York and the arenaceous shales of the easternmost sections.
Thus, P. praecursor became the most reliable zone marker in the Cash-
aqua formation. The pelecypods Ontaria sub orbicularis and Paraptyx
Ontario , and the gastropod Loxonema noe, also make good zone markers
In the Cashaqua formation. An ammonoid, Manticoceras sinuosum , marks
a faunal zone, occurring in dark gray shales a few feet above the base
of the Rhinestreet black shale, Posidonia mesacostalis , a pelecypod, occurs
in both the Angola shale and the upper part of the Hatch formation.

Several observations have been made concerning the character and
paleoecology of this fauna: (1) it is different from the Ithaca fauna
to the east; (2) it is associated with the gray shales and calcareous
beds; (3) this fauna is characteristically thin-shelled; (4) it con¬
tains elements that may have been pelagic, as the pteropod Styliolina
fissurella and the ammonolds; (5) this fauna lacks elements that were
typically sessile — corals, crlnoids and bryozoans are absent for the most
part in the Naples group, but do occur in the Ithaca -Enfield group; (6)
the fauna of the Naples group is an indigenous one, for if the fossils
were swept in from elsewhere, their restricted geographic distribution
and lithologic associations already described would not be expected.

ENVIRONMENTS

Three types of rock predominate in the Naples group: siltstones, black
shales and gray shales. Differences in their geographic distribution,
structures, textures and faunas demonstrate that a specific environment
existed for each. The environment of each is reconstructed as far as
present data will permit. An interrelationship of the environments Is
postulated.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

41

SILTSTONE FACIES AND ENVIRONMENT

The siltstones facies is defined as the strata composed of interbedded
sandstones, siltstones and arenaceous shales, which make up the Rock
Stream member and the Hatch formation. This facies is best developed
in the eastern part of the Naples group and interfingers with black and
gray shale facies to the west.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES AND TEXTURES

Crossbedding of a larger scale is present in a few of the siltstone beds,
most pronounced in the eastern sections but rare to absent in equivalent
strata to the west. It is interpreted as evidence for deposition in relatively
shallow water. Siltstones to the west were deposited in deeper water be¬
cause this crossbedding is rare to absent.

Small-scale crossbedding is present in many of the thin, laminated
siltstones to the west. Kuenen (1953, p. 1051) found this type of cross¬
bedding common in fine sandy or silty materials deposited by turbidity
currents. This crossbedding may take the form of low-angle, wavy laminae
or appear as steeply dipping laminae along the base of the bed. Both
types have been observed in the Naples siltstones, but the former is
much more common.

The upper surfaces of many siltstones show well-developed ripple
marks. Interference ripples were also noted. Sheldon (1928, p. 243)
found that channels formed by current scour are associated with ripple
marks and large-scale crossbedding in the “Portage” at Ithaca. Ripple
marks are much less common in the western sections of the Naples group.
This decrease in abundance of large-scale crossbedding and ripple marks
from east to west indicates that the water was shallower in the east.

In the Naples siltstones, parallel ridges are closely associated with
lobate flow markings. Both structures occur in beds that lack large-scale
crossbedding and ripple marks. They are most common in siltstones that
are west of, but correlate with, crossbedded and ripple-marked siltstones
and sandstones. Turbidity flows were the cause of the lobate flow mark¬
ings and parallel ridges.

Short rodlike ridges are found on the underside of some siltstones.
They are casts of depressions made in soft mud. Hall (1843, p. 241) re¬
ferred to them as “marine vegetation or fucoids,” giving them the name
Fucoides graphica. Clarke (1918, pp. 205-207) believed that they were
impressions of ice crystals. Flower (1955, p. 861) suggests they may be
depressions formed by cephalopods coming to rest in the soft mud. The
markings show no preferred orientation. Rapid burial by a turbidity
flow explains their preservation.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Two types of siltstone are recognized in the Naples group: the non-
laminated and laminated types. Both are poorly sorted, contain angular
quartz particles, and occur in rather thin beds of uniform thickness over
considerable distances. Both types may have lobate flow marking and
parallel ridges. The nonlaminated type was produced by a turbidity
current. It is more difficult to explain the laminated type in this way.
Kuenen (1953, p. 1050) offers a reasonable explanation:

But in many instances there are dozens of laminations involved
with strongly contrasting compositions. So large a number of more
or less separate flows, each with a different composition can hardly
be assumed. The obvious explanation of this type of lamination
is that the load was carried forward by traction along the bottom.
A strong local sorting action can then develop. That traction may
become important in turbidity currents is confirmed by the devel¬
opment of small scale current bedding and of ripple mark . . .
Tentatively the writer suggests that this occurs when the current
becomes more dilute with a relatively high (but absolutely low)
lutite content and a small amount of larger particles. The lutite
load must be sufficient to cause flow under influence of gravity.

If the nonlaminated and laminated siltstones are compared, the lamin¬
ated type shows: (1) a smaller amount of sand- and silt-size quartz par¬
ticles, (2) a smaller amount of biotite, chlorite and sericite fragments,
(3) a larger amount of clay minerals, (4) a smaller average grain size,
and (5) small-scale crossbedding.

The observations listed above agree with Kuenen’s explanation of
what might be expected in the laminated beds. The thicker nonlaminated
siltstones represent the first deposits from a flow. Downslope, the thinner,
laminated beds are deposited by traction. This is borne out by field
observations in the siltstone facies. The tongues of siltstone that first
appear in the westernmost sections are composed of a thin, laminated
bottom and a thin, laminated top. As the last vestiges of the flow moved
over sediments already deposited, the diluted residual may have been
moved along by traction producing the observed laminations.

A few examples of “slump structure” were noted in the siltstone beds
with flow markings. “Slump structure” includes overthrusts, underthrusts
and twisted beds, according to Kuenen (1953, pp. 1054-1058). They
are due to horizontal movement of slope deposits after deposition. Slump
structures are cited as evidence that at least some of the siltstone beds
in the Naples group were slope deposits.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

43

FAUNA

Fossils are very rare in the siltstones. Only a few specimens were col¬
lected from the interbedded arenaceous shales and shaly partings. These
were forms characteristic of the fauna in the Naples group (table 1).
Elements of the Ithaca fauna were absent. The siltstone facies was not a
suitable environment for the extensive development of either the Ithaca
fauna or the fauna of the Naples group.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Some of the siltstones in the easternmost sections were deposited
in shallow water, but those to the west were deposited in deeper
water.

2. All siltstone beds, except those with large-scale crossbedding and
ripple marks, were deposited by turbidity flows. The nonlaminated
types were carried along in suspension. The laminated types were
carried forward by traction and represent the downslope equivalents
of the nonlaminated type.

3. The siltstone facies were deposited in an environment that was not
suitable to the Ithaca fauna or the fauna of the Naples group.

BLACK SHALE FACIES AND ENVIRONMENT

The black shale facies of the Naples group is represented by the Middle¬
sex and Rhinestreet black shales. These shales are thickest in the western
sections and thin eastward. If traced eastward, the shales correlate with
the lower part of the siltstone facies. Black shales alternate with gray
shales in the western sections where the siltstones are absent.

The black shale facies in the Naples group correlates with part of a
much thicker section of black shales to the west. Cooper, et al. (1942,
plate 1) show that the Ohio black shale (Ohio), Kettle Point black shale
(southwest Ontario Province), “Huron” black shale (northwest Ohio
and southeast Michigan), Delphi black shale (north-central Indiana),
“Antrim” black shale (Michigan) and the New Albany (southern In¬
diana and northern Kentucky) are equivalent, in part, to the Naples
group. Any environmental conditions postulated must take into account
this extensive area of black shales.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES AND TEXTURES

Laminations are present in much of the black shale. Silt-size quartz
particles form laminae that alternate with thicker layers of clay and dark
brown bituminous matter. The silt-size quartz particles average 0.01
mm. in maximum diameter compared to 0.04 mm. in the laminated silt-

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

stones and 0.08 mm. in the nonlaminated siltstones. Silt-size quartz par¬
ticles make up only 30 percent of the black shale compared to 40 percent
in the laminated and 45 percent in the nonlaminated siltstones. Clay
makes up 45 percent of the black shales and 5-10 percent in the siltstones.

Many theories have been proposed to account for laminations in black
shales. Hard (1931, p. 177) believed the laminae were formed by “agita¬
tion.” He added that compaction and differential settling obscured all
evidence of this agitation. Bradley (1931, p. 320 ff.) compared the
Geneseo black shale with other black shales and concluded that the coup¬
lets of laminae were varves formed by a cyclic supply of organic material
controlled by climatic changes. Bradley (1929, p. 102) suggests that
variations in amount of rainfall might indirectly form laminae. Rubey
(1930, pp. 40-41) mentions storms, floods and shifts in marine currents
as possible causes. It has been impossible to determine the cause of the
laminations in black shales of the Naples group.

Crossbedding, ripple marks, flow markings and slump structures are
absent in the black shales. The absence of these features and the extreme
regularity of the laminae suggest deposition took place below the zone
of effective wave action.

FAUNA

Fossils are rare in the black shales. Only Styliolina jissurella, Lingula
spatulata, the spore Protosalvinia huronensis , and plant fragments were
found. The black shales are interbedded with fossiliferous gray shales.
It is concluded that conditions that existed during the deposition of the
black muds were not conducive to the development of a fauna such as
is found in the gray shales.

The Ithaca and Enfield faunas existed to the east of the area of black
shale deposition. Any conditions postulated for the development of black
muds must take into account these marine faunas.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The black shales were deposited below the zone of effective wave
action.

2. A low oxygen content existed in the water during the accumulation
of the black muds. The high organic content, absence of fossils,
and secondary pyrite are evidence of this. The rarity of limestones
in the black shales is interpreted as evidence that a low pH existed
at the same time.

3. The black shales were deposited in deeper water than that in which
the Ithaca and Enfield faunas existed to the east. The waters were
stratified, and black muds were formed where the oxygen content
was low.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

45

GRAY SHALE FACIES AND ENVIRONMENT

The gray shales are thickest in the western sections of the Naples
group. They correlate with the upper portion of the siltstone facies to
the east. Arenaceous gray shales are interbedded with the siltstones in
the eastern sections.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES AND TEXTURES

Most of the gray shales are laminated. Thin quartz-rich layers alternate
with thicker clay layers. Large-scale crossbedding and ripple marks are
absent. Small-scale crossbedding is found only in the more arenaceous
shales. The laminae tend to be wavy in the gray shales. In a few places
the laminae are disrupted by microchannel fillings. The wavy laminae
and microchannel fillings are interpreted as evidence of weak current
activity.

Bituminous matter makes up only 2 percent of the gray shales com¬
pared to 10 percent in the black. Variation in the color of the un¬
weathered shales, that is from gray to black, is due to variable amounts of
organic matter. This variation in organic content might be explained
in several ways: (1) an increase in sedimentation rate may cause a dilu¬
tion of organic matter, (2) the supply of organic matter may change,
and (3) the available supply of oxygen at the bottom may vary.

In the first case, should the sedimentation rate increase, one might
expect a direct ratio between the thickness of the lamina and the color.
Just such an increase in sedimentation rate may explain the virtual
absence of black shales in the eastern sections compared to equivalent
strata to the west. Approximately 130 feet of dark gray to black shale
(Rhinestreet) is believed to be contemporaneous with 300 feet of dark
gray to gray shale (Hatch) in the Keuka Lake region.

In the second case, smaller biotas yield a smaller supply of organic
material. It may be recalled that the gray shales are contemporaneous
with black shales in the adjacent regions to the west. If there were dif¬
ferences in biotic development, organic matter in the surface waters must
have been very irregular in distribution. Strong surface currents would
have to operate to maintain this irregular distribution. The gray shales
were found to have a definite correlation with the upper part of the
siltstone tongues. Such a correlation could hardly be explained by the
erratic behavior of surface currents.

In the third case, the available supply of oxygen could change due to
changes in circulation of the water. As circulation increases, the bottom¬
most layers receive more oxygen from the surface waters. More carbon
is oxidized, and the muds become lighter. This seems to be the most

46

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

plausible explanation and is supported by observations in the faunal
changes discussed below.

Carbonate occurs in variable amounts in the shales. A decrease in
carbonate in the darker shales is interpreted as evidence for a decrease
in the pH of the water during deposition of the darker muds.

FAUNA

The fauna of the Naples group consists of pelecypods, cephalopods
and gastropods for the most part. Corals, echinoderms and brachiopods
(except for the genera Chonetes and Lingula) are absent. Most of the
species present are rather thin shelled and small. Fossils are virtually
absent in the black shales, rare in the dark gray shales, and most abund¬
ant in the light gray shales, calcareous shales, and biostromal limestones
(Parrish limestone).

The fossils of the Naples group represent an indigenous fauna, and
the species are different from those in the Ithaca fauna. Fossils are rare
in the siltstone facies, but should be abundant if they were carried in
by currents.

The attitude of the fossils shows that only weak currents operated
during the deposition of the gray muds. Many valves of the pelecypods,
such as Buchiola retrostriata , were found oriented with the convex side
down representing an unstable position. The conical shells of the straight
cephalopod. Bactrites , showed random orientation on the bedding planes.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The gray shales were deposited in a zone below effective wave
action. The absence of large-scale crossbedding and ripple marks
as well as the unstable position of the pelecypod valves are evi¬
dences for this.

2. The faunal population and the amount of bituminous matter were
controlled in part by the oxygen content of the water. The oxygen
content increased when circulation increased. If sufficient circu¬
lation occurred, most of the bituminous matter was oxidized, a
thin-shelled pelecypod-cephalopod fauna was maintained and gray
muds with wavy laminae and microchannel fillings were deposited.
If circulation decreased, more bituminous matter was deposited,
the fauna decreased in population and species, and darker muds
with less wavy laminae were deposited. With circulation at a mini¬
mum, almost no faunal life existed, and black shales with straight
laminae were deposited.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

47

3. The pH of the water presumably varied as shown by a decrease
in carbonate content in the darker shales. Reduced circulation of
water was probably responsible for this change.

4. It is impossible to determine to what extent the pH controlled the
population of the fauna. The presence of thin, unfossiliferous lime¬
stone beds in the black shales would indicate that at times the pH
was not too low. With the fossils absent, it might be assumed that
a low oxygen content, and not low pH, was the factor responsible.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE ENVIRONMENTS

The interrelationship of the environments is important in understand¬
ing the facies relationships of the Upper Devonian of New York. Rich
(1951) gives a valid explanation of his observations in the Cascadilla
gorge at Ithaca. He postulates three depositional environments: (1) unda,
(2) clino and (3) fondo.

The unda environment is subjected to repeated agitation by waves and
currents, throwing finer material into suspension. The wave base is the
critical factor here, and that part of the sea floor subjected to this agita¬
tion is called the “undaform.” The second environment is the clino en¬
vironment or slope, extending “from wave base down to more or less
deeper parts.” The land form is called the “clinoform” and demonstrates
freedom from wave-caused disturbances. “Muddiness, great and oft-
repeated variations in sediment supply, deposition dominantly from sus¬
pension, density currents . . . gravity slides and/or intra- or interstratal
flowage . . are typical features. At the base of the clinoform is the
fondoform. The fondo environment is quiet, although it may be disturbed
by general currents and by density currents descending from the
clinoform.

Rich (1951, pp. 9-14) suggests criteria for recognizing rocks deposited
in each of these environments. For the unda, he suggests that (1) grains
could range in size “from gravel through sand to coarse silt,” (2) the
composition could be conglomerate, sandstone, coarse siltstone, frag¬
mental limestone, oolite or coquinite, (3) moderately thin bedded, and
(4) contain either wave or current ripple marks, crossbedding etc.

For the clino environment, the criteria are: (1) silt or clay material.
(2) interbedded siltstones (one-half to 10 inches thick) and shales, (3)
even bedding and laminations, (4) fluting and striations (flow mark¬
ings) and (5) internal crumplings of the laminations of the siltstone beds.

Criteria for recognition of rocks in a fondo environment are: (1) uni¬
versally fine sediments (except for organic remains), (2) clay, shale,
calcareous or siliceous oozes and (3) even bedding tending toward
massive.

48

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

These criteria may be applied to the rocks of the Naples group. The
criteria for the fondo environment fit the black and gray shale environ¬
ments represented by the Middlesex black shale, Cashaqua formation
(in the western sections) and the Rhinestreet black shale. The presence
of gray or black muds in the fondo environment is explained by changes
in oxygen content of the water due to changes in circulation. The criteria
suggested for a clino environment then apply to the shales and siltstones
of the Hatch formation and Rock Stream member of the Cashaqua forma¬
tion. The strata formed in the unda environment are possibly represented
by some parts of the Ithaca and Enfield formations to the east. The diffi¬
culties in correlating the Naples group with the strata to the east may
be explained by the difference in depositions! environment postulated
above.

Additional study of the Upper Devonian of New York may show that
other formations exhibit a similar pattern. The black and gray shales
(examples: Geneseo black shale, West River shale, Angola shale) may
represent deposits in a fondo environment. The thin-bedded siltstones
(example: Sherburne siltstone) could be deposits in a clino environment.
The thicker bedded siltstones and sandstones (example: Grimes sand¬
stone, near Naples, N.Y.) may represent deposits in an unda environ¬
ment. If future studies substantiate this theory, the complex facies changes
in the New York Upper Devonian may be more easily correlated and
interpreted.

REFERENCES

Bradley, \V. H.

1929. The varves and climate of the Green River Epoch. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof.
Paper 158 E, pp. 87-110
■ & Pepper, J. F.

1938. Geologic structures and occurrence of gas in part of southwestern New
York: Pt. 1, Structure and gas possibilities in the Oriskany sandstone in
Steuben, Yates, and parts of adjacent counties. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.
899A, 68pp.

Caster, K. E.

1933. Upper Devonian rocks at Ithaca, New York. (Abst.), Bull. Geol. Soc.
America, v. 44, pp. 201-202

Chadwick, G. It.

1919. Portage stratigraphy in western New York. (Abst.), ibid., v. 30, p. 157
1932. Linden monocline, a correction. (Abst.), ibid., v. 43, p. 143
1935. Faunal differentiation in the Upper Devonian, ibid., v. 46, pp. 305-342
1935a. Summary of Upper Devonian stratigraphy. Am. Midland Naturalist, v. 60,
pp. 857-862

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

49

Clarke, J. M.

1885. On higher Devonian faunas of Ontario County, New York. U. S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 16, 86pp.

1894. Report of field-work in Chenango County, New York. N. Y. State Geologist,
Ann. Rept. 13, p. 750

1897. The stratigraphic and faunal relations of the Oneonta sandstones and
shales; The Ithaca and Portage Groups in central New York, ibid., Ann.
Rept. 15, p. 52

1898. The Naples fauna (fauna with Manticoceras intumescens ) in western
New York. N. Y. Geol. Survey, 16th Ann. Rept., pp. 29-162

1903. Classification of the New York series of geologic formations. N. Y. State
Handbook 19, 28pp.

1904. Naples fauna in western New York. N. Y. State Museum Mem. 6, pp. 199-
454, 16 figs., 26 pis.

1918. Strand and undertow markings of Upper Devonian time as indications
of the prevailing climate. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 196, pp. 199-210

Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D.

1904. Stratigraphic and paleontologic maps of Canandaigua and Naples quad¬
rangles. ibid., Bull. 63, 76pp.

1905. Geologic map of the Tully quadrangle, New York, ibid., Bull. 82, pp. 35-70
and map

Colton, G. W. and de Witt, ¥., Jr.

1958. Stratigraphy of the Sonyea formation of Late Devonian age in western and
west-central New York. U. S. Geol. Surv., Oil and Gas Investigations Chart
OC 54.

Cooper, G. A., et al.

1942. Correlation of the Devonian sedimentary formations of North America.
Bull. Geol. Soc. America, v. 53, pp. 1729-1794

Eastman, C. R.

1907. Devonic fishes of the New York formations. N. Y. State Museum Mem. 10,
235pp. 35 figs., 15 pis.

Flower, R. H.

1955. Trails and tentacular impressions of orthoconic cephalopods. Jour. Paleon.,
v. 29, pp. 857-867

Goldring, W.

1923. The Devonian crinoids of New York. N. Y. State Museum Mem. 161,
670pp., 63 figs., 60 pis.

Grossman, W. L.

1944. Stratigraphy of the Genesee Group of New York. Bull. Geol. Soc. America,
v. 55, pp. 41-76

Hall, J.

1840. Fourth annual report of the survey of the Fourth Geological District,
New York. N. Y. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept., 4, pp. 391-392, 452-455

1842. Natural history of New York, part IV, geology, pp. 224-249

1879. Descriptions of the Gastropoda, Pteropoda, and Cephalopoda of the Upper
Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, and Chemung groups. N. Y. Geol. Survey,
Paleon. 5, pt. 2, XV, 492pp.

50

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Hard, E. W.

1931. Black shale deposition in central New York. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol.
GeoL, v. 15, pp. 165-182

Hibbard, R. R.

1927. Conodonts from the Portage Group of western New York. Amer. Jour. Sci.,
5th Ser., v. 13, pp. 189-208, 4 pis.

Knight, J. B.

1941. Paleozoic gastropod genotypes. Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 32, 510pp.

Kuenen, P. H.

1953. Significant features of graded bedding. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.,
v. 37, no. 5, pp. 1044-1066

Luther, D. D.

1902. Stratigraphic value of the Portage sandstones. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 52,
pp. 616-631

1903. Stratigraphy of the Portage formation between the Genesee Valley and
Lake Erie, ibid., Bull. 69, pp. 1000-1029

Merrill, F. J. H.

1898. A guide to the study of the geological collections of the New York State
Museum, ibid., Bull. 19, pp. 105-262

Miller, A. K.

1938. Devonian ammonoids of America. Geol. Soc. America Special Paper 14,
262pp., 41 figs., 39 pis., 2 tables

Rich, J. L.

1950. Flow markings, groovings, and intrastratal crumplings for recognition of
slope deposits with illustrations from the Silurian rocks of Wales. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., v. 34, pp. 717-741

1951. Three critical environments of deposition and criteria for recognition of
rocks deposited in each of them. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, v. 62, pp. 1-20

Rubey, W.

1930. Lithologic studies of fine-grained Upper Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of
the Black Hills region. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 165, pp. 1-54,
3 figs., 5 pis.

Schuchert, C.

1943. Stratigraphy of Eastern and Central United States. John Wiley and Sons,
1013pp.

Sheldon, P. G.

1928. Some sedimentation conditions in Middle Portage rocks. Amer. Jour. Sci.,
5th Ser., v. 15, pp. 243-252

Vanuxem, L.

1842. Geology of New York State, part III, comprising the survey of the Third
Geological District. Nat. Hist., New York, pp. 171-172

Williams, H. S.

1884. Fossil faunas of the Upper Devonian. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 3, pp. 55-86

1887. On the fossil faunas of the Upper Devonian, the Genesee section, New
York. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 41, pp. 81-82

Wilmarth, M. G.

1938. Lexicon of geologic names of the United States. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull.
896, Pts. 1 & 2, 2396pp.

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

51

APPENDIX

Keuka Lake (east) Composite Section

The lower part of the Naples Group is well exposed in a northward
flowing stream 1.5 miles east of Grove Springs on the east side of Keuka
Lake two miles south of Bluff Point. The Rock Stream member may be
observed in the stream where it is crossed by the Grove Springs-Wayne
Road.

The section occurs in a northwestward flowing stream 1.2 miles south¬
east of Urbana. It is 1.3 miles northeast of Rye Point on the east side
of Keuka Lake and exposes the upper portion of the Rock Stream member
and Rye Point member of the Cashaqua, the Rhinestreet and lower Hatch.
The upper Hatch may be examined in the northward flowing stream
located directly south of Hammondsport. The Grimes sandstone crops
out in the stream 1.3 miles south of Hammondsport.

Unit Description Thickness (ft.)

Covered above
Grimes Sandstone

70. Siltstone, noncalcareous to exceedingly calcareous, massive and

crossbedded (beds average one foot in thickness), with thin

arenaceous shale partings . 23.1

MEASURED GRIMES 23.1

Hatch Formation

69. Shale, dark bluish gray, interbedded with an occasional thin

siltstone . . . . . . . 11.5

68. Covered . 8.0

67. Shale, arenaceous, dark bluish gray, irregularly bedded, with

many plant fragments . . 2.6

66. Alternating beds of calcareous siltstone, bluish gray weathering

to brown and bluish gray arenaceous shale . 4.1

65. Covered . 22.5

64. Siltstone, calcareous, bluish gray, crossbedded to massive and

laminated . . 18.5

63. Shale, dark gray to light bluish gray with two rather thick

siltstone beds 3.6 feet from base . 7.6

62. Shale, black, thin bedded . 0.9

61. Shale, dark bluish gray to bluish gray interbedded with a few

thin siltstones . 5.5

60. Siltstone, slightly crossbedded, laminated crossbedding . 0.7

59. Dark bluish gray argillaceous to arenaceous fossiliferous shale
interbedded with an occasional thin siltstone. Noted were:
Manticoceras sinuosum, Buchiola retrostriata, and plant

fragments . 9.2

58. Alternating bluish gray, crossbedded, calcareous siltstone and

dark bluish gray, fissile arenaceous shale . . . 26.5

52

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Unit Description Thickness (ft.)

57. Siltstone, calcareous, bluish gray, even bedding with thicknesses

of beds up to 1.1 feet. .................................... 7.5

56. Shale, arenaceous, bluish gray, with a few thin siltstone beds

decreasing in number toward the top ....................... 16,0

55. Siltstone, calcareous, light bluish gray, massive throughout
except for crossbedding at top. Massive bed at base contains
large concretions ........................................ 4.3

54. Covered ................................................ 14.0

53. Alternating beds of bluish gray, arenaceous shale and massive

medium gray calcareous siltstones up to 1.3 feet thick. ....... 29.0

52. Shale, argillaceous, dark gray, irregularly bedded, fossiliferous 10.3

51. Shale, arenaceous, bluish gray, interbedded with a few thin

bluish gray siltstones ..................................... 9.5

50. Covered ................................................ 5.0

49. Shale, arenaceous, bluish gray, interbedded with a few thin

bluish gray siltstones ..................................... 9.8

48. Shale, argillaceous, dark gray, irregularly bedded, interbedded,

with a few arenaceous shales. Argillaceous shales contain Mon-
ticoceras sp., Buchiola retrostriata , Grammy sia sp.. ......... . 10.5

47. Arenaceous, bluish gray shales with occasional thin siltstone

beds up to 0.2 foot ....................................... 42.5

46. Siltstone, bluish gray, thin even bedding at bottom, massive

toward top. Two beds with shale partings. .................. 1.0

45. Alternating beds of arenaceous, noncalcareous, gray to dark

gray, crossbedded shale and calcareous, crossbedded to massive

siltstones. Siltstones are more abundant than in 44, and shales
become more argillaceous and darker toward the top of the

unit .................................................... 48.7

44. Shale, bluish gray, argillaceous to arenaceous with a few
thin beds of black shale and bluish gray, crossbedded siltstones,

0.1 to 0.2 foot thick. ..................................... 22.7

43. Siltstone, calcareous, bluish gray, crossbedded at top, massive

below, grooves and undulations on underside. ............... 0.4

42. Gray arenaceous shale interbedded with bluish gray siltstones

(up to 0.2 ft. thick). Both interbedded with dark gray to black
argillaceous shale ........................................ 31.5

41. Alternating beds of gray, argillaceous, thin bedded shale and

very thin siltstone beds ................................... 19.0

40. Shale, black, fissile, alternating with thin beds of gray argil¬
laceous shale ............................................ 2.5

39. Covered ................................................ 3.6

38. Alternating beds of black and gray argillaceous shale with thin

siltstone beds 3 feet from the base of the unit. No fossils were

noted . . 13.1

TOTAL HATCH FORMATION 418.5

Rhinestreet Black Shale

37. Shale, black, thin bedded, nonfossiliferous. ................. 4.0

TOTAL RHINESTREET 4.0

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

53

Unit

Description

Thickness (ft.)

Cashaqua Formation

Rye Point Member

36. Shale, slightly calcareous, arenaceous, irregularly bedded with
a few thin, crossbedded siltstones in the lower part. A few small
concretions occur in the top. Fossils noted were: Manticoceras
sinuosum, Bactrites gracilior, Orthoceras sp., P. praecursor,
Palaeoneilo sp., Ontaria suborbicularis, Lunulicardium ornatum 10.0

35. Limestone, argillaceous, bluish gray and reddish brown, nodular
with crinoid fragments abundant. The lower two feet are more
argillaceous, but upper foot shows red and green color through¬
out. Only nodules in lower part show color variation. (Parrish

limestone lentil? ) . . . . . 3.0

34. Shale, slightly calcareous, dark gray, irregularly bedded, with
numerous concretions measuring up to 3 inches in diameter.

No fossils noted . . . . . . . 20.0

TOTAL RYE POINT MEMBER 33.0

Rock Stream Member

33. Siltstone, calcareous, bluish gray, crossbedded with thicker
beds massive (up to 1.3 feet). The interbedded calcareous

shales are arenaceous and light bluish gray. Fossils noted were:
Manticoceras sinuosum, Bactrites gracilior, Styliolina fissurella 22.6
32. Alternating beds of purplish brown, slightly calcareous siltstone

(up to 1.2 feet thick) and dark gray, thin bedded shale . 20.3

31. Shale, black, fissile, nonfossiliferous . 0.4

30. Shale, arenaceous, slightly calcareous, bluish gray to dark gray,
bedding irregular, fossiliferous with Manticoceras sinuosum,
Bactrites gracilior, Palaeotrochus praecursor, Pleurotomaria
sp., Phrogmostoma incieum, Buchiola retrostriata, Paraptyx

Ontario, Styliolina fissurella noted . . . . . 25.1

29. Siltstone, calcareous, bluish gray, massive (to 1.2 ft.), with

arenaceous dark gray shale partings . 11.8

28. Shale, dark gray and thin flags . 10.2

27. Siltstone, bluish gray weathering to brown, bedding massive in
lower part becoming crossbedded and finally thin bedded at

top. Plant fragments common . . . . . 3.9

26. Shale, arenaceous, bluish gray, bedding thin and smooth to

lumpy and irregular . . . . 25.1

25. Alternating beds of bluish gray to dark gray shale and thick,
massive siltstone beds with crinoid fragments. Shales more
arenaceous in upper part. Large concretions at top .......... 14.9

24. Shale, bluish gray, thin bedded . 1.6

23. Siltstone, light bluish gray, medium bedded . 2.0

22. Shale, bluish gray, thin bedded. . . 4.1

21. Siltstone, slightly calcareous, light bluish gray, massive...... 1.0

20. Shale, bluish gray, thin bedded . 5.3

19. Thin siltstone beds separated by bluish gray shale.' . 1.5

18. Alternating bluish gray and dark gray shales . 3.5

17. Siltstone, noncalcareous, bluish gray, massive . 1.0

16. Shale, black, thin bedded . 1.6

54

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Unit Description Thickness (ft.)

15. Siltstone, noncalcareous, bluish gray, massive . 0.3

TOTAL ROCK STREAM MEMBER 156.2

Sawmill Creek Member

14. Shale, black fissile . 7.5

13. Interbedded bluish gray, fissile shale and thin calcareous, cross-

bedded, bluish gray siltstones . . 59.5

12. Shale, noncalcareous, irregularly bedded . 22.7

11. Siltstone, noncalcareous, bluish gray, laminated fissile . 0.3

10. Shale, dark bluish gray, thin bedded . 4.9

9. Siltstone, noncalcareous, bluish gray, laminated fissile. . 0.3

8. Shale, dark bluish gray, thin bedded . 4.5

7. Shale, dark gray to black, thin bedded . 66.5

6. Siltstone, calcareous, black, thin irregular beds separated by

dark gray shales . 1.5

5. Shale, dark gray, thin bedded . 9.7

4. Siltstone, bluish gray, fissile, nonfossiliferous . 0.1

TOTAL SAWMILL CREEK 177.5
TOTAL CASHAQUA 366.7

Middlesex Black Shale

3. Shale, black, fissile, nonfossiliferous . 12.1

2. Shale, dark gray to black, with thin arenaceous calcareous beds 2.9

1. Shale, black, thin to irregularly bedded . . . 54.3

TOTAL EXPOSED MIDDLESEX 69.3

Covered below

Sawmill Creek Section

Sawmill Creek is a westward flowing stream on the east side of Seneca
Lake 6.2 miles north of Watkins, N. Y. The Middlesex is exposed 0.25
mile east of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. The contact of the Sawmill
Creek and Rock Stream members may be observed just east of the bridge
on Logan Road. The Rhinestreet and lowermost Hatch are exposed in
the portion of the stream just west of an abandoned road, one mile
northeast of Logan.

Hatch formation

45. Alternating beds of dark bluish gray, arenaceous shale, black

fissile shale, and dark gray micaceous crossbedded siltstone. . . 7.8

TOTAL MEASURED HATCH 7.8

Rhinestreet Black Shale

44. Shale, black, bedding thin to fissile, slightly micaceous . 3.7

43. Siltstone, calcareous, dark gray, crossbedded, slightly micaceous 0.4
42. Shale, black, bedding thick to thin, slightly micaceous, inter¬
bedded with a few very thin siltstones . 10.8

TOTAL RHINESTREET 14.9

STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NAPLES GROUP

55

Unit

Description

Thickness (ft.)

Cashaqua Formation
Rye Point Member

41. Shale, argillaceous, calcareous, dark gray to bluish gray, very
irregularly bedded, fossiliferous with Manticoceras sp., Bac-
trites gracilior , Orthoceras sp., Ontaria suborbicularis , Honeoyea
major (?) , Lunulicardium sp. ............................. . 1 1.0

40. Shale, arenaceous, calcareous, medium bedded in nonfos-
siliferous parts, irregularly bedded where fauna was collected.

Thin limestone beds and concretions throughout. Noted were:
Palaeotrochus praecursor , Bactrites gracilior , and Palaeoneilo

sp. ..................................................... 17.0

39. Limestone, argillaceous, bluish gray . . 0.7

38. ’ Shale, arenaceous, dark bluish gray, with concretions two feet

above the base ........................................... 4.5

37. Irregularly bedded bluish gray, arenaceous shale and calcareous

siltstone ................................................ 12.0

TOTAL RYE POINT MEMBER 45.2

Rock Stream Member

36. Siltstone, calcareous, crossbedded, bluish gray weathering to

brown .................................................. 18.0

35. Covered ................................................ 30.9

34. Shale, bluish gray, thin bedded with a few thin siltstones ...... 4.8

33. Covered ................................................ 10.3

32. Alternating beds of gray, argillaceous shale and crossbedded

to massive, thick (up to 2.0 ft.) calcareous siltstone........ 35.8

31. Alternating beds of bluish gray shale and thin beds of siltstone

(up to 0.3 ft.) ............................................ 15.5

30. Shale, argillaceous, light bluish gray, thin even bedding..... 8.5

29. Shale, arenaceous, light bluish gray, irregularly bedded.

Pterochaenia fragilis noted ................................ 5.9

28. Covered ................................................ 23.2

27. Interbedded bluish gray arenaceous shale and massive beds of

bluish gray, calcareous siltstones. Concretions in center of
unit .................................................... 11.2

26. Alternating beds of bluish gray, thin bedded arenaceous shale

and argillaceous shale of the same color. .................. 5.0

25. Covered ................................................ 18.0

24. Alternating beds of bluish gray, arenaceous shale and very

thin bluish gray siltstones. ................................ 11.9

23. Siltstone, bluish gray, massive. ............................ 0.6

TOTAL ROCK STREAM MEMBER 199.6

Sawmill Creek Member

22. Shale, argillaceous, black, fissile. .......................... 6.0

21. Alternating beds of bluish gray, argillaceous shale and very

thin siltstone beds. . . 4.0

20. Covered . . .................... 4.1

19, Alternating beds of bluish gray, argillaceous shale, black shale,

and very thin siltstone beds, . . . . 7.0

56

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Unit Description Thickness (ft.)

18. Siltstone, calcareous, light bluish gray, massive . 0.9

17. Shale, arenaceous, dark bluish gray, irregularly bedded. . . 39.7

16. Siltstone, calcareous, light bluish gray, massive . 0.3

15. Shale, arenaceous, dark bluish gray, irregular bedding..... 4.6

14. Siltstone, calcareous, light bluish gray, massive. . 0.4

13. Shale, light bluish gray, thin to irregular bedding. . . 11.7

12. Siltstone, calcareous, light bluish gray, massive. ............ 1.5

11. Shale, somewhat arenaceous, fissile to arenaceous, interbedded

with fissile to massive siltstone beds occasionally throughout. . 45.9

10. Siltstone, noncalcareous, dark bluish gray, crossbedded, nonfos-

siliferous . 0.4

9. Alternating beds of dark bluish gray, arenaceous shale, black
fissile shale and a few thin siltstone beds (occasionally a

massive one) . . 58.0

8. Covered . . 45.0

7. Alternating beds of bluish gray siltstone (0.4 ft. each) and
bluish gray, arenaceous shale. One-foot bed of massive siltstone

at base . . 6.2

TOTAL SAWMILL CREEK MEMBER 235.7

TOTAL CASHAQUA 480.5

Middlesex Black Shale

6. Shale, argillaceous, black, fissile . . . 6.5

TOTAL MIDDLESEX 6.5

Genesee Group

Sherburne Sandstone Formation

5. Alternating beds of bluish gray shale, some black fissile shale

and thin siltstone beds (up to 0.1 ft.) . 8.5

4. Alternating beds of black fissile shales and thin beds of

purplish gray siltstone . 10.5

3. Alternating beds of bluish gray laminated calcareous siltstone
(0.2-0.3 ft.) and bluish gray arenaceous shale (0.4-0.5 ft.).

Shale becomes more abundant and fissile in upper part . 9.5

2. Shale, bluish gray, thin bedded with a few interbedded siltstones 23.3

1. Siltstone, calcareous, bluish gray, massive beds, no fossils

noted . 9.8

TOTAL RECORDED SHERBURNE 61.6

M

t ANNUAL REPORT

of the

i

Ll

$82X

MH

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

July 1, 1958— June 30, 1959

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

MUSEUM BULLETIN NUMBER 381

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department
Albany, 1960

121st ANNUAL REPORT

of the

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

July 1, 1958— June 30, 1959

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

MUSEUM BULLETIN NUMBER 381

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department
Albany, 1960

SMITHSONIAN .... »

INSTITUTION JUL *

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University
With years when terms expire

1969 John F. Brosnan, A.M., LL.B., J.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,

D.C.S., Pd.D., Chancellor . New York

1968 Edgar W. Couper, A.B., LL.D., Vice Chancellor . Binghamton

1963 Mrs. Caroline Werner Gannett, LL.D., L.H.D., D.H. - - Rochester

1961 Dominick F. Maurillo, A.B., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D., M. and S.D.- Brooklyn

1964 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D., Litt.D. . Troy

1967 Thad L. Collum, C.E. . Syracuse

1966 George L. Hubbell, Jr., A.B., LL.B., LL.D., Litt.D. . Garden City

1973 Charles W. Millard, Jr., A.B. . Buffalo

1965 Chester H. Lang, A.B., LL.D. . Schenectady

1970 Everett J. Penny, B.C.S., D.C.S. . White Plains

1972 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S. - - - - Purchase

1962 Edward M. M. Warburg, B.S., L.H.D. . . New York

1971 J. Carlton Corwith, B.S. ............ Water Mill

President of the University and Commissioner of Education
James E. Allen, Jr., Ed.M., Ed.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Deputy Commissioner of Education

Ewald B. Nyquist, B.S., LL.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Assistant Commissioner for State Museum and Science Service
William N. Fenton, A.B., Ph.D.

Assistant Director of State Museum
Victor H. Cahalane, B.S., M.F.

M455r-D59-1300 (9H4-15)

Contents

PAGE

General Statement . 7

Accomplishments of the Surveys . . 14

The Museum . 29

Special Services . 49

Publications . 56

Appendixes . 59

Museum Advisory Council

1959 Harry L. Shapiro . . .Pine Plains

1960 Hardy L. Shirley. . . Syracuse

1961 Arthur A. Davis . Rochester

1962 Vincent J. Schaefer . Schenectady

1963 W. Storrs Cole . Ithaca

[3]

The Staff

State Museum and Science Service

William N. Fenton, Assistant Commissioner

Anthropological Survey

William A. Ritchie . State Archeologist, Associate Scientist

Biological Survey

Donald L. Collins . State Entomologist, Principal Scientist

Donald P. Connola. . . . .Senior Scientist (Entomology)

Paul Connor . Scientist (Zoology)

Hugo Jamnback, Jr . . . Scientist (Entomology)

Donald M. Lewis . . .Junior Scientist

Eugene C. Ogden. . .State Botanist, Associate Scientist

Ralph S. Palmer . State Zoologist, Associate Scientist

Geological Survey

John G. Broughton . State Geologist, Principal Scientist

Donald W. Fisher . State Paleontologist, Associate Scientist

Y. William Isachsen . Associate Scientist (Geology)

William Lynn Kreidler . Senior Scientist (Geology)

Terry W. Offield . Scientist (Geology)

Lawrence V. Rickard . Senior Scientist (Paleontology)

Arthur M. Van Tyne . Scientist (Geology) — Wellsville Office

State Museum

Victor H. Cahalane, Assistant Director

Curatorial

Roger L. Borst . Senior Curator (Geology)

Charles E. Gillette. . . . . . Associate Curator (Archeology)

Clinton F. Kilfoyle . Associate Curator (Paleontology)

Edgar M. Reilly, Jr. . . . . . Associate Curator (Zoology)

Stanley J. Smith . Associate Curator (Botany)

John A. Wilcox . . .Associate Curator (Entomology)

Vacant . Associate Curator (Interpretation)

[4]

Exhibits

Edith Froelich . Museum Technician (Temporary)

Lewis E. Kohler. . . Museum Technician

Louis J. Koster . Senior Museum Technician

Theodore P. Weyhe. . . . . .Museum Exhibits Designer

School Services

Judith A. Drumm. . . . . Museum Instructor

Vacant . . . . . . Museum Education Supervisor

Library

Eileen Coulston. . . . . .Librarian (Temporary)

Margaret Bassotti. .
Marion B. Bender. . . .

Joan A. Creech .

Emily W. Dixon .

Joseph T. Killea.
Roselle Lithgow . . .
Marjorie R. Schmidt
Margaret Slater.

Mary C. Stearns. _

Eileen A. Wood .

Clerical

. Stenographer

. Clerk

. . . Stenographer

. .Typist

Mail and Supply Helper

. Clerk

. Principal Clerk

. . . Senior Stenographer

. Stenographer

. . . Senior Stenographer

Guards

James Carroll . . . . . .

John C. Cunningham . . .

Francis J. Lynch . . . .

William C. Zimmer .

. . . Museum Guard
. . .Museum Guard
. . .Museum Guard
Museum Caretaker

* *

John Heller .

Nelson D. Powers. .
Jacob Smallenbroek

. Photographer

Maintenance Helper
. Carpenter

[5]

[G]

General Statement

T have the honor TO submit a report of the major activities and
-*• accomplishments of the New York State Museum and Science
Service for the year ended June 30, 1959.

The year covered by the 121st Annual Report witnessed advances
toward fulfillment of policies outlined in the published statement of last
year. These may be summarized under five headings from the Deputy
Commissioner’s inventory paper at the June Staff Conference:

1. An entire museum hall devoted to a major field is being renovated.

2. The climate for basic research has definitely improved.

3. It was suggested that the Science Service develop a ‘Team
approach to projects.” This recommendation has been carried
out in several ways and is exemplified in the preparation of the
State geologic map.

4. The student honoraria program has been strengthened as a means
of encouraging science talent. Higher quality people representative
of a larger number of universities are now being attracted to this
program. Awards were made to 11 out of 38 applicants
(Appendix A) .

5. The backlog of old research reports has been printed and current
projects are being carried through to publication promptly. Bul¬
letins of the Museum and Science Service have achieved interna¬
tional recognition and have been requested and reviewed in
Britain, Russia, Poland and Japan.

Accomplishments engender new proposals. The philosophy which
motivates our program aspirations, and which is reflected in the current
budget proposal, again comprised part of the Deputy Commissioner’s
“major proposals for programming in cultural education and special
services,” made at the same conference:

1. The Department must advance vigorously its conviction that pro¬
gram goals in cultural and scientific areas have equal priority
with other areas of Departmental concern. Improving the
climate for acceptance of basic research as a program is a State as
well as a National concern. The progress we have made in the
Department during the past five years should be communicated to
the budget. There is growing public acceptance for research.

[7]

8

New York State Museum and Science Service

2. Grouping related disciplines into the three Surveys of the Science
Service has facilitated teamwork on major projects. It has fairly
balanced support between geology and biology and underlined the
needs in anthropology. In order to determine whether certain
diseases of the forest have animal (insect) or plant (fungus)
origins, our entomologists and botanists need the cooperative
services of a mycologist full time. To salvage archeological
remains on the rights-of-way of highways to be built with Federal
grants to the State, we need a second full-time archeologist, and
an aide to work in the laboratory.

3. Though the geography of the State has not been substantially
changed, the population has increased from 15,000 aborigines to
15 millions of persons in 350 years. Man’s use of the land has
radically altered its resources, and his conception of how resources
should be expended or conserved is changing constantly. So con¬
cepts of subsurface geology, of mineral resources, of glacial
deposits, of fossil fuels, of underground storage and new sources
of energy evolve with advancement of geological science. Com¬
mercial development in seeking new solutions to old problems,
awaits publication of research findings on new problem areas. Our
State Department of Commerce, for the first time in 50 years, will
be able to show to prospective industries a summary of present
knowledge of the geological resources of the State when in the
next fiscal year this Department publishes the new State geological
map which it has in preparation.

4. For the first time since Theodore Roosevelt opened the State
Museum in 1916, the staff looks confidently to a significant plant
expansion. The new laboratories in the wing afford research facili¬
ties hitherto unavailable for new research undertakings in experi¬
mental and systematic biology and its conservation correlates,
geochemistry and its relation to the origin of mineral resources and
rocks, and human prehistory. We may expect the staff of the State
Science Service, in cooperation with universities and other State
agencies, to pursue new lines of inquiry of interest to the tax¬
payers. New projects will require new funds beyond those now
available and programmed.

5. The Museum will also have new planning and preparation labora¬
tories. The Department may look for speedup in renovation of
exhibits hall by hall. Scientists are cooperating to shorten the
lifeline between discovery and interpretation. Attendance has
risen to 175,000. With an expanded school services program, we
may anticipate a demand for a new facility in a more accessible

121st Annual Report

9

location by seeking planning funds for a Museum Center to house
all cultural and scientific activities of the Department. All costs
of the project will approach $10,000,000; $20,000 of preliminary
planning money is the immediate requirement.

Having given the gist of what is done and what we propose, it may be
helpful to provide depth for otherwise bald statements.

The report of the Museum, written by the Assistant Director, poign¬
antly relates how rate of procurement and staffing affect progress in
exhibits. But any progress toward renovation accomplished in four
years is appreciated by a visiting public which has expanded by 35,000
over last year. Are we going to keep them waiting until 1964 to finish
the Hall of Ancient Life, now under construction? It is estimated that
each museum visitor who is held overnight in the community adds $15
to the economy. If but 10 percent of State Museum visitors are held in
Albany by this attraction, we are making an appreciable contribution
to the local economy. Culture seems to be important business.

The improved reporting of Department activities in the press has
brought people to Albany. The Museum has shared in the increased
coverage. Bulletin to the Schools , alone, carried stories of three new
exhibits: the coelacanthe, a living fossil fish, which came from the
Natural History Museum of Paris; the beaver habitat group, which
opened in December and has proved a great favorite; and the Earth —
Our Ship in Space. The latter two were indeed cooperative efforts of
many talents in the museum and scientific community, utilizing advice
of some of the country’s top scientists. The introduction of chamber
music on Sundays in July and August, in cooperation with the Amer¬
ican Federation of Musicians, brought Haydn’s “Sunrise Quartet” into a
natural history setting, and, though not well-publicized, attracted some
new visitors. It is an open question whether Sunday afternoon concerts
might go better in winter. The whole matter of summer vs. winter open¬
ing should be investigated; “600 days” in summer are uncommon since
the Thruway was completed.

The scientific resources of the Museum grow with the increase of
collections. Notable new collections are reported by the curator of
botany, through his own collecting activity and by gift. Over a thousand
plant specimens of the flora of Ulster County were donated to the
herbarium by Henry F. Dunbar of Kingston; and several hundred fungi
of Cattaraugus County were given by William C. Denison.

Recognition of the importance of the systematic collections at the
New York State Museum came in holding the Second Conference of
Directors of 22 research museums of natural history at Albany in
October. The Education Department and the State Museum were hosts,

10

New York State Museum and Science Service

with the Assistant Commissioner for State Museum and Science Service
serving as general chairman. A grant from the National Science Founda¬
tion assisted in the expense of the conference. Among the objectives
attained by this gathering was a statement of the importance of system¬
atic biology in the national interest. An organization of directors of such
establishments is another. A third objective was to suggest ways and
means by which natural history museums may realize their potential as
resources for the advancement of basic research in the United States;
such museums possess significant collections, they have scientific staffs;
they actively pursue research; and they publish it. These institutions
fulfill the classic definition of a museum: a place of study,1 and by
inference a community of scholars.

The value of the research conference to review results and decide
whether to search further, when some breakthrough is imminent, was
demonstrated by the geologists in holding a peripatetic colloquium on
the Taconic problem. Similarly, anthropologists from the Northeastern
and Southeastern States met in a daylong symposium on Cherokee and
Iroquois cultures at the annual meeting of the American Anthropological
Association in Washington, to which the State Archeologist and the
Assistant Commissioner contributed papers. These acts of scientific
leadership on the part of our personnel are typical of the kind of
professional activity listed in the appendixes (Appendix B).

How a scientist spends his time, in cooperation with others or in
personal research, is largely a matter of individual inclination or policy.
It depends on the person and it depends on the project. Should a
scientist devote his productive years to compiling and editing the work
of others, passing up opportunities for individual research? This is the
old question of the inventory and the need of bounding ranges. The
encyclopedic handbook is a most useful service to the world. The policy
question is whether to free the man to do it.

The appearance after five years of the first volume of the Handbook
of North American Birds , which the report of the State Zoologist
anticipates, is awaited with keen interest. Meanwhile the first scientific
report from the small mammal survey by Dr. Paul Connor is in hand
and will go to press soon.

How a scientist may bloom in a new environment under the stimula¬
tion of unlimited research facilities is demonstrated in the State Botan¬
ist’s report of researches on pollen at the Brookhaven National Labora¬
tory. Development of techniques of tagging and sampling ragweed
pollen should be carried to the next logical step, when actual research

1 After the great institution for literary and scientific studies built by Ptolemy I at
Alexandria. Transaction of the Albany Conference of Directors of Systematic Col¬
lections, October 13-14, 1958. [W. N. Fenton, (Ed.) ] 20 pp.

121st Annual Report

11

on dissemination begins. Control depends on it. Presumably the
National Institutes of Health will want this project extended.

The successful researches of the State Entomologist and his associates
into the biology, life cycle and control of biting insects not only won
them international recognition but led to the anonymous gift by a
family of grateful citizens, of $7,000 for research on “punkies” ( Culi -
coides) . The proceeds of this gift were accepted by the Regents as the
Adirondack Entomology Research Fund.

There is no better indication of research accomplished or meritorious
original work than publication. Pressure to publish is often decried in
teaching situations, and it can result in premature delivery of intellectual
monsters. But it is a poor teacher who makes no original inquiries, and
research for service alone leaves no record for the man or his institution.
Service activities bulk large in the work of an organization like the
Science Service (Appendix C) ; but we are also a community of scholars
who are freed of teaching to do research, and from such a group
scientific and scholarly contributions are expected. Besides service
reports to other State agencies, which should be written in clear and
concise English, the monographic and educational series of the Depart¬
ment have first claim on the staff who, it is presupposed, will also be
contributing idea papers to professional journals, articles to encyclope¬
dias, and an occasional book or literary piece for the general reader.
Such writing is a habit that is learned and from it derive “the pleasures
of publishing”.1 The shorter bibliography for this year — 6 in official
and 10 in outside media — suggests momentary deprivation.

Administrative demands on the time of busy scientists to fill out forms :
self-evaluation survey, questionnaires from the Budget Office, the
Governor’s Office — besides the reports to other fund-granting agencies —
occupied the whole staff during December and January. Like group
therapy such inquiries are disturbing experiences and affect produc¬
tivity adversely. To convert losses into gains, problems posed in the
returns of the curators were thoroughly aired and discussed in a meeting
with the Assistant Director. The organizational issue is the separation
of the museum functions from research with which the curator identifies
and which is the function of Science Service. The curators are scientists
in their own right and should be given some time and recognition for
individual research. They are also closely tied to exhibits and inter¬
pretation. Their reporting relationship to the Assistant Director was
reaffirmed.

Several staff changes have occurred during the course of the reporting
year. Y. William Isachsen was appointed provisionally on July 3, 1958,

1 The title of the Columbia University Press newsletter.

12

New York State Museum and Science Service

to the position of associate scientist (geology). The position of senior
curator (geology) was filled on September 25 with the appointment of
Roger L. Borst. Donald L. Collins received permanent appointment to
the position of principal scientist (biology) on April 9, 1959. Arthur N.
Van Tyne received his permanent appointment to the previously reclassi¬
fied scientist (geology) position on May 21, 1959, and Paul F. Connor
was appointed permanently to the position of scientist (zoology) on
March 26, 1959. Judith Drumm became museum instructor on Sep¬
tember 11, 1958, filling the position made vacant by the resignation of
Barbara Alberts. Similarly, on February 26, 1959, James Carroll
replaced David Mattas as building guard. Two stenographic positions
made vacant by the promotions of Grace Smith and Sandra Van Olpen,
were filled by the appointment of Margaret Bassotti on October 9, 1958,
and Joan A. Creech on January 1, 1959. Nelson Powers on May 21,
1959, replaced Jay Fredette, who resigned from the position of main¬
tenance helper on May 6, 1959. The position of scientist (entomology),
occupied by Dr. Hugo Jamnback, was reclassified to senior scientist,
in recognition of the research program he had developed and its
importance to the public. At the close of the year, the position of
museum education supervisor and the reclassified position of associate
curator (interpretation) remained vacant due to the resignation of Ruth
Rubin on January 15, 1959, and the retirement of Walter J. Schoon-
maker on September 30, 1958.

There has been a certain noticeable foot-dragging toward acceptance
of section 233, Education Law, providing for the issuance of permits for
recovery of archeological and paleontological remains on State lands.
Thirty-five permits have been issued and promptly countersigned by the
Department of Public Works. It is hoped that, in the next few years,
legal and other questions can be set aside for the benefit of the citizen
scientist.

To improve communication and facilitate planning, the heads of
surveys and the Assistant Director of the Museum have met regularly
with the Assistant Commissioner. Plans for the new laboratories in the
wing and “the move,” as we have come to call it, have kept us busy.
Location of telephones, disposition of equipment, priorities in the
removal of collections to locations near the “bridge of sighs” to the
wing have been prime considerations. The first thing was to relocate
the herbarium in the back of Biology Hall, as related by the Assistant
Director and the curator. This is the start on an improved research
facility, although it means loss of some exhibits space. It entailed
refiling whole genera of plants, employing an aide for the curator, who
is correspondingly delayed with accessions and identifications. The

121st Annual Report

13

imminent displacement of other collections underscores the need for
aides to the curators.

Prospective removal of scientists to a new research facility has set
them to planning new kinds of research that will make our establishment
a State center for basic research and service. The Regents declined
President Deane W. Malott’s invitation to a merger at Cornell University.
The pros and cons of this exciting proposal were thoroughly gone over
here and in Ithaca, and, as a consequence, our position in Albany has
been strengthened. The best part of it all was the expression of affection
in the local community for the retention of the State Museum in the
Capital area. We thanked the Chamber of Commerce for its interest with
an open house on December 2.

Writing an annual report is essentially a threshing operation. Reading
a journal yields some grain, it detects some straws in the wind, and
leaves chaff on the floor. There was the day the State Library reading-
room ceiling was reported falling, but like “Henny Penny’s” London sky,
the rumor was happily exaggerated. The movers of the herbarium were
exonerated, we learned the bearing capacity of the floor in Biology
Hall, and admitted it had been overloaded for 40 years. One Monday
a woman in West Sand Lake had found an “alligator” in her garden,
which proved to be a salamander, and in spring housecleaning another
housewife discovered in her attic a skull resembling “a horse having
a tooth sticking down its throat.” Our curator of zoology prescribed
the proper department in both contingencies.

Of greater importance are the tasks remaining at year’s end; an article
on the place of research in museums, a Museum and Science Service
feature for Museum News; and a policy paper on the Museum’s role in
the Department’s effort in continuing education. May we never run out
of things to do.

William N. Fenton

Assistant Commissioner for

State Museum and Science Service

14

New York State Museum and Science Service

Accomplishments of the Surveys

Anthropological Survey

Field Research

/Continuing the investigation into the development of aboriginal
'C settlement patterns in the Northeast, the Anthropological Survey
devoted most of the 1958 field season to completion of the excavations
which were begun the previous summer on the Bates site near Greene,
Chenango County. This is a late Owasco period hamlet radiocarbon
dated to circa A.D. 1300. With a crew of three college student assistants,
five weeks were spent in clearing and manually backfilling the remainder
of the site. This was the first prehistoric settlement site ever to be fully
uncovered and mapped in detail in New York. It has contributed signi¬
ficantly to the major problem under investigation, as well as to the ques¬
tion of Owasco-Iroquois relationships. A 10-day reinvestigation of the
Lamoka Lake site, Schuyler County, added to our knowledge of the oldest
known Archaic culture in the State, and produced datable carbon samples
(one already measured at circa 2500 B.C.). A site survey of the
Allegheny Reservoir area between Kinzua, Pennsylvania, and the New
York State line was made on a contract with the National Park Service.
Site reconnaissance was carried out in the following counties of New
York: Dutchess, Orange, Greene, Delaware, Onondaga, Ontario, Liv¬
ingston, Albany, Essex; also in Orwell, Vermont, and near Athens,
Pennsylvania. Pottery and other artifacts from Hochelaga and related
sites in the St. Lawrence Valley were studied in the McCord and Redpath
Museums, Montreal.

Wallace L. Chafe, The University of Buffalo, put in a third year of
fieldwork on the Seneca Indian language, principally at Allegany Res¬
ervation. He extended observations on structure and collected additional
vocabulary for a dictionary. He participated in the Cherokee-Iroquois
symposium. At the year’s end he had commenced fieldwork on the Tona-
wanda Reservation. His appointment as linquist at the Bureau of
American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, reflects luster on the
opportunities provided in the Science Service for professional develop¬
ment.

The Assistant Commissioner made some progress with personal
research on Iroquois studies. He continued mapping housing on the
Allegany Reservation, he assisted Edmund Wilson in fieldwork and by
reading chapters for a book, he worked on a translation of Lafitau’s
Moeurs des Sauvages, and gave the Sanford Memorial Lecture at

121st Annual Report

15

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, repeating it on request at Brown Uni¬
versity and Mount Holyoke College. He identified language texts on
tapes from wax cylinders of Iroquois speeches of the 19th century for
the Royal Ontario Museum. A committee of the Survey rendered a
criticism of Thomas Hart Benton’s sketches for the mural in the Niagara
Power Authority Building. The Survey assisted graduate students at
Buffalo, Columbia, Cornell, Chicago and Harvard Universities.

Laboratory Analysis

Borrowed archeological materials from several major sites were
analyzed and photographed, and file accounts were made for publication.
Typological studies and formal descriptions of eight projectile point
types were prepared for inclusion in a major work now in preparation
on the archeology of New York State.

Office Activities and Administration

The State Archeologist interviewed a total of 233 local or out-of-town
visitors, including professional colleagues, students and amateur archeo¬
logists and prepared a report for the National Park Service on Allegheny
Reservoir Survey. He edited two manuscripts on archeology for profes¬
sional colleagues; prepared data on New York birdstones for Earl C.
Townsend’s book, Birdstones of the North American Indian , 1959, and
wrote several short articles for “Notes and News,” American Antiquity;
Teocentli; People’s Encyclopedia etc.

Cooperative Work

Activities under this heading include: Identified human remains for
New York State Police Laboratory from seven localities in the State;
typed a pottery collection from Serpent Mound site in Ontario for
Richard Johnson, Royal Ontario Museum; worked with various amateurs
and amateur groups in New York on sites in Sullivan, Orange, Albany
and Greene Counties and other localities; prepared data for State High¬
way and other State Departments; assisted an R.P.I. professor with
bibliography of Piltdown Man; advised National Park Service excava¬
tor at Saratoga National Battlefield, and prepared reports on four key
Archaic sites in New York for National Park Service, National Site
Survey.

16

New York State Museum and Science Service

Biological Survey

npHE Biological Survey received $7,000 from an anonymous donor
A for research on “punkies” (sand flies, Culicoides spp.) in the Adiron-
dacks. This grant was accepted by the Regents as the Adirondack
Entomology Research Fund. It enabled the employment of a full-time
experienced summer assistant and the purchase of equipment such as
light traps and cages. The work is expected to proceed for at least two
years. The second season of work on the pollen studies was supported
by the grant from the National Institutes of Health. The small mammal
survey was continued from the headquarters at Richmondville. An added
feature was furnishing information on the possible effects of large-scale
forest spraying on small mammal populations.

Field Research by Projects

Botany Project No. 1. Aquatic plant fragments: their identification by
use of anatomical characters.

Approximately 800 microscope slides were prepared, bringing the
total to 1350.

Botany Project No. 2. Survey of airborne pollen grains and fungus
spores.

Completed, and a final report is now in press.

Botany Project No. 3. Ragweed pollen content in the air in relation to
weather conditions.

Conducted in collaboration with Brookhaven National Laboratory. A
paper on a phase of this work is ready for publication.

Botany Project No. 4. Pollen spectra of bog and lake sediments.

During the previous report period sites were selected, at Lake Lamoka
south of Penn Yan and at Crusoe Lake near Auburn. Both sites were
visited in the summer of 1958, and samples were taken from marsh and
lake sediments. Approximately 500 collections were made, and over
1,000 slides were prepared for study. The objective is to correlate
floristic conditions in prehistoric times with archeological studies. In
addition, the pollen from some 80 species of living plants was artificially
fossilized and stored in glycerine jelly. From this material over 200
slides have been prepared.

121st Annual Report

17

Botany Project No 5. Tagging and sampling of ragweed pollen .

The summer of 1958 was the first full season (of a minimum of three
seasons) for this project. The work is being carried on at Brookhaven
National Laboratory with the aid of a grant from the National Institutes
of Health. With ragweed plants grown in the greenhouse and in the
field, several techniques were devised for introducing radiophosphorus
which resulted in “tagged” pollen. However, the amounts taken into the
pollen were very low and efforts are being made to develop means for
increasing these amounts. Less success was obtained with dyes, some of
them fluorescent.

The designing, building and testing of improved pollen-sampling
apparatus reached the point that several models were ready for testing
at the beginning of the 1959 season.

Botany Project No. 6. Checklist of the grasses of New York State.

In the course of exploring and collecting for vascular plants in general
as indicated under Project No. 9, below, an attempt was made to add to
our knowledge of grasses from areas visited. Approximately 125 speci¬
mens were collected, representing over 100 numbers. The work on the
checklist of grasses is 97 percent completed.

Botany Project No. 7. General survey of the vascular flora of New York

State.

Exploration for vascular plants was continued, special trips being
made to northern, southeastern and central sections of the State and to
the drainage of the Allegheny River. Two trips were made to Onondaga
County with Dr. Mildred E. Faust, Department of Plant Sciences, Syra¬
cuse University, who is preparing a checklist of the plants of that county.
Fieldwork was done in Ulster County, in company with Henry F. Dun¬
bar of Kingston (who is studying the flora of Ulster County) and in
southern Cattaraugus County (Professor E. H. Ketchledge, Department
of Forest Botany, State College of Forestry, and Professor S. H. Eaton,
Department of Biology, St. Bonaventure University). Records (either
sight or those supported by specimens) were made in 27 counties. It is
estimated that this project is 90 percent completed.

Botany Project No. 8. The Desmidiaceae of the Susquehanna drainage

in New York State.

Dr. George Schumacher, assistant professor of biology, Harpur
College, continued work on this manuscript.

18

New York State Museum and Science Service

Botany Project No. 9. Flora of the Allegany Reservation and vicinity .

The curator concentrated on reviewing the herbarium at St. Bona-
venture University, which includes the herbarium of the Allegany
School of Natural History. He also spent three days in the area
collecting as indicated under Project No. 1. A manuscript has been
submitted and is awaiting publication.

Entomology Project No. 1. Beech scale and Nectria (beech bark

disease).

The eighth of a 10-year program of study, inspection and analysis of
data from study plots established in the Catskill Mountain area was
accomplished. The data will not be analyzed until next year.

Entomology Project No. 2. Gypsy moth.

Gypsy moth biological studies were carried out in the Glenville plot
near Scotia in Schenectady County. Observations in the 1959 season
include indications that exposure, drowning, wilt disease, parasites,
Calosoma beetles and small mammal predation each play a primary
role in the complex of environmental resistance. Gypsy moth larval
behavior differed according to site conditions.

Experimental sprays against gypsy moth.

Observations in the summer of 1958 at plots in Saratoga County
sprayed in the spring indicated that the insecticide Sevin was probably
the most promising of the new insecticides for use against gypsy moth,
and it was selected for further and more extensive trials in 1959. Final
evaluations cannot be made until after egg deposit counts have been
completed, but superficial observations continue to indicate the superior¬
ity of Sevin over other materials as a possible substitute for DDT where
the latter is objectionable. Observations on the effects of Sevin on other
fauna were also begun during the present report period. Thus far no
effect has been noted on small mammals such as shrews, deer mice,
squirrels and other rodents (see below).

Entomology Project No. 3. White pine weevil.

The tests of insecticides applied by knapsack-type gasoline-powered
mist blower were continued. Timing is a critical factor but promise was
shown in a test in which all the trees in a plot were sprayed from both
sides of the rows, with a formulation of 1 percent lindane emulsion
containing 1 percent Aroclor (an “extender”).

121st Annual Report

19

Cooperative experiments with the State Conservation Depart -
ment in testing new methods and new insecticides for control of
the white pine weevil. Damage by the insect deforms the trees
and reduces their timber value.

White pine weevil attack as related to soils in New York plantations .

Data collected in all forest districts of the State were analyzed. Tenta¬
tive observations were confirmed that poor internal drainage of soil is
an important factor favoring white pine weevil attack. Data from exces¬
sively drained sterile sands indicated the importance of nutrition as
another factor; this suggested fertilizer studies which were begun in the
spring of 1959.

Entomology Project No. 4 . Plantation insect studies as related to silvicul¬
tural practices.

These studies have been completed at least temporarily, pending
analysis of the data, most of which have now been compiled. Data from
51 study plots show that bark beetle attacks and buildup were least in
arsenited trees where the sodium arsenite solution was applied in the
summer to complete bark frills on the trunks at the base. Ax-girdling

20

New York State Museum and Science Service

was the least safe of the tested thinning methods because the slow dying
of the trees thus treated permitted bark beetle breeding.

Entomology Project No. 5. Red-pine saw fly.

Collection of data from study plots was completed and a sequential
sampling plan for predicting infestation by sampling egg-infested needles
was calculated.

Entomology Project No. 6. Forest tent caterpillar.

Defoliation and dead wood data were collected in the eight sugar
maple orchard study plots in the Lake George area. This completed the
planned five-year period of observations.

Entomology Project No. 7. European pine shoot moth.

The Kiekens portable mist blower was used to apply sprays to planta¬
tion red pine for the control of this pest. Results will not be known until
October 1959.

Entomology Project No. 8.

Twenty species of blackflies were collected in the high peak region in
1958. Two of these had never been found previously in the State.

The relationship of stream temperatures to Simulium venustum breed¬
ing was studied in a preliminary way.

Entomology Project No. 9.

In preliminary Culicoides studies, about 16 species were collected
during the past three years. Biting or otherwise annoying adults col¬
lected in 1958 in the Adirondacks were identified as C. ohsoletus , and
nine species of the genus were reared. A detailed literature survey on
the biology (biting habits, hosts, breeding areas, abundance, geograph¬
ical distribution, taxonomy and control) of species occurring or which
might occur in New York is underway.

Entomology Project No. 10.

Research activities of the curator of entomology dealt with the identi¬
fication and classification of the leaf beetles, family Chrysomelidae. This
work is a continuation of the projects described in more detail in the
previous annual report.

121st Annual Report

21

Studies by the curator on the biology of the gypsy moth and other
forest pests involved field observations and identification of insects.
Many of the pests were identified in the State Museum; others, parasitic
flies and wasps in particular, were sent to specialists.

Zoology Project No. 1. Small mammal survey.

A report was completed for publication as a Museum bulletin on the
small mammal studies in Otsego and Schoharie Counties. During May,
June and July 1959, a study was conducted in an area sprayed for
control of the gypsy moth in an attempt to determine the effects of the
insecticide on small mammals and other animals. It was planned to move
the small mammal survey headquarters to the region of Tug Hill, N. Y.,
by August 1, 1959. As previously, an important part of the collecting
program included the accumulating of ecological and biological informa¬
tion relating to the various species.

Two student helpers accumulated approximately 6,000 trap nights in
Schoharie County, trapping in localities not previously covered. One
hundred three skins with skulls, 38 skeletons and 13 skulls without skins
were prepared for the collections. In March 1959, 28 live bats were col¬
lected and delivered to the Wildlife Research Laboratory in Delmar for
blood testing by the Health Department in connection with the rabies
investigations.

Investigations in area sprayed for control of gypsy moth. At four
localities in Otsego County, within an area treated by the Federal Gov¬
ernment with aerial applications of the new insecticide Sevin in May
and June 1959, small mammal trapping was conducted and observations
of other animals, especially birds, were made. No unfavorable effects of
the spraying were evident; populations in general seemed unaffected,
while habits and activities of the various species appeared unchanged.
More work must be done, however, to determine the long-range effects of
the insecticide.

Laboratory Work by Projects

A considerable amount of laboratory work was an essential part of
most of the field projects, and in most instances is so closely and
obviously connected with a field activity that it is not discussed
separately.

The Bird Handbook is the major activity in the Zoology Office. There
is reasonable expectation that volume 1 of the Bird Handbook will be
ready for the printer early in the calendar year 1960. Perhaps a third
of the manuscript for volume 2 is in hand.

22

New York State Museum and Science Service

Geological Survey

HHhe diverse activities of the Geological Survey were characterized
in the past year by devotion to an immediate goal and by rapid
development in a new field of endeavor. An increasingly larger per¬
centage of the time of all staff members has been directed toward
meeting the self-imposed deadlines which will result in the successful
completion of a new geological map. Most work in the field, laboratory
and conferences by staff members has been aimed at its advance. A
related project has been the compilation, by the paleontologists, of cor¬
relation charts of the major geological periods.

The new field has resulted from demands for geological data in con¬
nection with peaceful uses of the atom and in preparation for civil
defense. Long-term storage of radioactive waste resulting from isotope
use in industry, development of underground industrial areas and the
relationship of the natural radioactivity of rock to congenital mal¬
formations pose new problems.

The year just completed has seen the filling of all vacant positions.

Field Research

Fieldwork of permanent employees in the Geological Survey was
concentrated on geological mapping, both for the purposes of the State
geological map and in greater detail in areas of particular interest.
Investigations of mineral resources were also carried on. This work
was done both by permanent staff members and by geologists tempo¬
rarily employed for the summer months.

1. Bedrock geology of the Plattsburgh and Rouses Point 15-minute

quadrangles.

Ten days were spent by the State Paleontologist collecting data. It is
believed that all outcrops have now been visited. Unfortunately, the com¬
bination of extensive glacial cover and widespread block faulting seri¬
ously hinders the projection of formational contacts in many places.
It was, therefore, decided to postpone additional work in this region
pending construction of the Northway.

2. Stratigraphy and structure of Columbia County.

Some progress was made in the paleontological zoning of this complex
area. The location of the heretofore unreported faunal zone above the

121st Annual Report

23

Elliptocephala zone (previously the only Lower Cambrian fossil zone
known in Columbia County) was particularly significant. Further field¬
work is planned for the fall of 1959.

3. Guide to the geology of the Niagara Frontier.

All fieldwork and photography for this report have now been
completed.

4. Studies in the Helderhergian limestone.

The staff paleontologists spent two weeks in the spring of 1958 meas¬
uring stratigraphic sections of the Lower Devonian and Upper Silurian
units in the Hudson Valley. The results are to be included in a report
on the stratigraphy of these rocks.

5. Geological mapping in Orange County.

The scientist (geology) spent a total of 83 days in the Goshen area.
Mapping was concentrated on the Cambro-Ordovician dolomite and
enough data were gathered to permit at least a partial subdivision of
the Wappinger dolomite. Parts of the Ordovician shales and the Pre-
cambrian were also mapped.

6. Rocks of the New York City series.

The scientists (geology) spent approximately 12 days in fieldwork
to determine the age of the metamorphic rocks of the New York City
group. A known but hitherto unmapped body of Cortland complex type
rock was outlined and a fault slice of Paleozoic rocks along the Pre-
cambrian border was mapped. Outcrops in the northeast corner of the
Thiells 7%-minute quadrangle and the Verplanck Point area across the
river were mapped.

7. Initial studies for State geological map.

In connection with selecting and defining map units for the new
geological map, the associate scientist (geology) began spot checking
and sampling unfamiliar broadly exposed rock units which have been
distinguished in the main solely by geographic position (e.g., Lyon
Mountain granite, Hawkeye granite etc.). He also initiated reconnais¬
sance geological mapping in Big Moose, Old Forge and West Canada
Lake quadrangles in detail sufficient for incorporation on the State map.

24

New York State Museum and Science Service

8. In addition to these specific field projects, numerous brief field trips
were made for various purposes.

The scientist (geology) (Wellsville office) made approximately 125
well locations, 25 trips to the Northern Gas and Oil Scouts Association
meeting and 50 visits to individuals and companies active in the oil and
gas industry in New York State in order to gather data and familiarize
them with the activities of the Wellsville office and to exchange
information.

The senior scientist (paleontology) spent 25 days in the field assist¬
ing individuals working on specific problems, particularly Honorarium
grantees. An unusual number of foreign paleontologists favored the
State Museum with extended visits to study collections, visit classic

The study collections of the State Museum are often utilized
hy scientists from abroad . Dr. Michael House (center). Uni¬
versity of Durham, England, studied Devonian ammonoids from
the Museum collection.

121st Annual Report

25

formations and study our field methods. The following paleontologists
were guided on field trips about the State or through the Museum.

Dr. Michael House , University of Durham, England (Dr. House
spent about five weeks at the Museum studying the Devonian
ammonoids in the collection in an effort to effect more precise
correlation between the Devonian rocks of Europe and America.)
Dr. Niels Spjeldnaes, University of Oslo, Norway
Dr. Valdar Jaanusson, University of Upsala, Sweden
Professor and, Mrs. Thorslund, University of Upsala, Sweden
Dr. Kenji Konishi, University of Tokyo, Japan
Dr. Wilhelm Kegel, Consulting Geologist, Rio de Janeiro

Also, Professor J. Westerveld of the University of Amsterdam was
conducted on a five-day excursion of Adirondack magnetite deposits.

The first field conference on Taconic geology was held from August 11
through 15. The sponsoring organization was the Geological Survey and
the groundwork for the conference was laid by the State Paleontologist.
Beginning in Dutchess County, a group of geologists with a common
interest in Taconic geology continued their field conference northward
into Vermont. A total of 27 attended, six staying all five days.

Field Research of Temporary Personnel

1. Investigation of limestones by counties.

Work was stopped temporarily to make funds available for the
State geological map.

2. Taconic geology of eastern New York.

Donald B. Potter of Hamilton College, assisted by William Harris
during the summer of 1958 and Timothy Hall during the 1959 season,
continued mapping the Taconic region of Washington County, com¬
pleting fieldwork on the Eagle Bridge, Hoosick Falls and a portion of
the North Pownal T^-minute quadrangles.

3. Upper Devonian rocks of central and eastern New York.

The work of Dr. Robert Sutton, The University of Rochester, in map¬
ping the Upper Devonian rocks of central and eastern New York, stands
out as a record of accomplishment for recovering new geological data in
an area studied. Mapping two black shales and relying on a faunal zone,
Sutton has been able to trace key units from central New York into the
western fringes of the Catskills.

26

New York State Museum and Science Service

4. Glacial geology of western New York .

Mapping continued under the direction of Ernest H. Muller of Cornell
University. During the 1958 field season he worked in northern
Cattaraugus County and southern Erie County, and during 1959 in
Genesee County. The mapping west of the Genesee River will be com¬
pleted before carrying it further east.

5. Shoreline erosion of Lake George .

At the request of the Conservation Department, Ernest H. Muller and
the State Geologist spent approximately three weeks in an investigation
during the 1958 field season to determine the degree of shoreline erosion
of Long Island in Lake George and establish some criteria by which
erosion could be measured in the future. Dr. Muller was assisted by
Robert H. Dodds. Their report was duplicated by the Conservation
Department.

6. Knickerbocker Project.

The restudy of the geology of the New York City metropolitan area
was begun in the fall of 1957; it continued into fiscal 1959-60. The
project is under the joint direction of Charles H. Behre, executive officer
of the Department of Geology at Columbia University; J. G. Broughton,
State Geologist, and Kurt E. Lowe of the College of the City of New
York. Dr. Lowe is directly supervising the activities of the geological
compilers who have collected a mass of information from State and
municipal offices and from private engineering concerns. This informa¬
tion has been brought up to date by visits to open excavations. Simon
Schaffel of the College of the City of New York and Rutgers University
and Seymour Tilson of New York University and Columbia University
were employed on the project in 1958-59.

Laboratory Work

All quadrangle size geological maps of the Adirondacks were reduced
by photogrammetry to 1:125,000 scale and combined into a composite
geological map using some 30 mapping units. The new base will serve
for future regional, geological and mineral resources study and from it
final consolidation of data will be made to the 1:250,000 scale chosen
for the State geological map. Because it was decided to indicate bedrock
geology on the new map slightly beyond the borders of New York State,
the senior scientist (paleontology) concentrated on the geology along
both sides of the Pennsylvania border.

121st Annual Report

27

An adjunct activity to the State map is the preparation of compre¬
hensive correlation charts of major geological periods. The State
Paleontologist completed the first of four, dealing with the Silurian
rocks. A second draft of a similar chart of Devonian formations was
completed.

An important addition to existing records has been the collection
of a large number of gamma ray-neutron and electric logs of New York
State gas wells. The new records have been made available by private
companies, and they will be of particular use for subsurface correlation
and structural work. The compilation of selected deep wells in areas
of gas production in western New York was continued. This task is
approximately 75 percent completed. Pertinent data were collected for
comparative purposes on visits to the Canadian Geological Survey,
Ottawa and the Quebec Geological Survey. In an attempt to reduce loss
by breakage of important data all well samples stored in glass bottles and
vials in the State Museum were transferred to manila envelopes. This
increased the available storage space.

Three subsurface structure maps of gas fields were prepared. Approxi¬
mately 35,000 feet of well cutting samples from 36 wells were collected,
of which some 5,500 feet were examined under the microscope.

The State Paleontologist’s contribution on tentaculids, hyolithids and
other miscellaneous conical shells of unknown affinities for a treatise
on invertebrate paleontology is nearing completion. The State Geologist
began an investigation for the newly established Office of Atomic
Development in an attempt to choose desirable sites for storage of
radioactive wastes. This service involves a reinvestigation of New York
salt mines and deposits and applying recent work done in glacial geology.
Based partly on consultation with survey geologists, Dr. John T. Gentry
of the New York State Department of Health published a paper relating
the incidence of congenital malformations in the State to natural radio¬
activity present in certain types of rocks and glacial deposits. This report
has aroused considerable lay interest. The State Geologist is supplying
to the U. S. Geological Survey certain data to correlate with airborne
radiometric surveys carried on in the vicinity of large reactors.

As part of a cooperative study of sources of expandable shale for
light-weight aggregate, 10 shale and slate samples were collected in
St. Lawrence County for kiln testing at the New York State College of
Ceramics at Alfred.

Office Activities and Administration

Advice was furnished the Joint Legislative Committee on Interstate
Cooperation concerning the provisions of proposed legislation dealing

28

New York State Museum and Science Service

with conservation of oil and gas, offshore drilling and the underground
storage of petroleum products. As cochairman of the Mineral Resources
Subcommittee of the New York- Vermont Interstate Committee on the
Champlain Basin, the State Geologist prepared a report on the mineral
resources for the September meeting held at Vergennes, Vermont. He
also approved a number of oil and gas leases which were negotiated by
the State Conservation Department.

The annual contract between the United States Bureau of Mines and
the Geological Survey concerning collection of mineral production sta¬
tistics was consummated.

The staff of the Geological Survey carried on extensive correspondence
with private individuals and concerns on the identification of fossils,
minerals, rocks and ores ; and relative to maps and oil and gas wells.

The annual geological Newsletter was compiled by all staff members.

121st Annual Report

29

The Museum

General

/Considering the size of the staff (five full-time employees supple-
merited by two part-time assistants) , a relatively large amount of
renovation, new construction and temporary or special exhibit work was
accomplished. All persons involved exerted strenuous efforts to advance
the program.

Two major projects were initiated this year. The more important of
these was the first stage of the renovation of Paleontology Hall. Based
on an imaginative design by the exhibits designer, a flowing wall or
partition was erected from the entrance to a point about halfway to the
southeast corner of the hall. This wall, which is topped by a canopy,
will contain the “windows” through which the exhibits will be viewed.
The section of the project initiated in 1958-59 was approximately one-
third finished at the close of the year. It represents a little more than
one-quarter of the entire job for the hall. However, it is hoped that the
project will be completed by the end of the calendar year 1964.

Construction of the wing to the Education Building forced the
evacuation of the herbarium from its quarters at the Hawk Street end
of the Museum offices. Nearly a year earlier than anticipated, it was
necessary to move some one hundred storage cabinets and other equip¬
ment to the planned area in the northwestern portion of Biology
Hall. To clear the floor area, most of the movable exhibits were rear¬
ranged and two fixed displays were dismantled. Due to age and attrition,
little material of value was removed from public view and much of the
compression was effected by the removal of semiempty cases. The
displays, particularly in the fields of fishes, birds and mammals, will be
rehabilitated and restored to view in modernized and beautified settings.
It is hoped that the final result of the project will be more attractive
and instructive exhibits. While a research facility was gained and better
working conditions were achieved in the herbarium, the program of
modernization, however, especially in Paleontology Hall, has been set
back materially. Another loss is the material reduction of floorspace
available for future exhibits in the important area of plant and animal
life. This reduced space will not be sufficient for biological displays
which will be in numerical or spacial balance with those in paleontology
and geology. The construction of a modernized Hall of Biology, how-

30

New York State Museum and Science Service

ever, cannot be initiated for many years unless the modernization pro¬
gram is accelerated to an unforeseen degree.

The skill and cooperative efforts of the designer and senior museum
technician and their assistants and the technical advice of the curators
and scientists were responsible for completing the assembly of an excel¬
lent habitat group, “Life at a Beaver Pond,” an exhibit on the earth and
its structure, a tribute to the famous paleontologist, James Hall, and
numerous other fine pieces of work. As usual, a great amount of time
and skill went into patching and repairing old, dilapidated casts, mounts
and other objects. Much of this work, while necessary, should be turned
over to less experienced hands, thus making available more time of our

This accessory display to the heaver habitat group features
the major anatomical adaptations of the beaver as well as a
diagram of a typical lodge.

121st Annual Report

31

skilled craftsmen to turn out new and intricate displays for the
modernization program. Several special, temporary exhibits also were
constructed. While these shows were essential and worthwhile, they
also diverted the staff from the main job.

A marked rise in public attendance is encouraging. Based on the same
statistical method of estimating from once-weekly tallies, attendance has
increased from 112,000 in 1956-57 to 140,000 in 1957-58 to 175,000
in 1958-59. It is evident that many persons are aware of and interested
in the program of renovation and modernization. This enhanced interest,
however, has not been reflected in the cooperative educational program
for the benefit of the schools. The number of children who visited the
Museum in organized groups was 29,700 in 1958-59 as compared with
28,200 two years previously. The number in guided tours (led by
Museum education staff members) was 14,500, a very slight increase
over the 14,000 in 1956-57 and a decrease from the 16,300 of 1957-58.
Some of the decline of the past year is attributable to the fact that the
Museum education staff was reduced early in the period from three
persons to two as a result of the supervisor’s resignation. This made
it impossible at times to accommodate all requests for guided tours
of the exhibit halls.

As always, a great amount of work was accomplished by the
curators. While much of it may be summarized as routine care and
increase of the collections, the work is essential to the functioning of
the State Museum and Science Service. Accessions were made to all
sections of the collections, particularly in the herbarium. Many
requests for information were received from the public and from offices
of the State and local government and were answered as completely as
possible. The curators gave excellent cooperation to the Museum
education program by guiding school and college groups through the
exhibit halls. Most members of the curatorial staff accomplished some
research during the year despite the pressure of other duties and
a dearth of assistance. The most notable progress in research, probably,
was in the field of entomology.

With only one exception, all manuscripts accepted during the year
for publication had been edited and sent to the printer by the close
of the period. (The exception was turned in only a week or two pre¬
viously.) While the output of the previous year was much greater than
in 1958-59, this was due to an accumulation of manuscripts which had
been building up over several years and were finally printed. The
production of technical papers undoubtedly will increase again in

1959-60.

It is encouraging that many members of the staff were able to
attend meetings of technical and professional societies. This enabled

32

New York State Museum and Science Service

our people to keep in touch with others who are doing similar work and
to keep their programs flexible by adopting new ideas and procedures.
The Assistant Director also made studies of exhibits at the American
Museum of Natural History in New York, the Smithsonian Institution
in Washington, the Museums of Natural History, Art and Health in
Cleveland, Ohio, and at the Academy of Natural Sciences, the University
of Pennsylvania Museum, the Museum of Wistar Institute and the
Museum of Art in Philadelphia.

A series of chamber music concerts was given in Orientation Hall
on Sunday afternoons in July and on October 13 (Columbus Day
observance) and November 11 (Veterans’ Day). In cooperation with
the Albany chapter of the American Federation of Musicians, the series
featured the String Ensemble with T. Roy Kiefer, director, the Traldy
String Quartet, Edward A. Rice String Quartet and Fred Graziade
String Quartet. While attendance at some of the concerts was small,
the audiences were highly appreciative of the quality of the music and
the introduction of a new cultural feature in the Museum.

In cooperation with the Science Teachers Association of New York
State, Inc., the State Museum put into effect a plan for giving recogni¬
tion to Regional Science Congress contestants and winners. Exhibition
space in Orientation Hall is provided for outstanding individual ex¬
hibits, not based on presentation, for grades 7 through 12, for periods
of four months during each year beginning July 1, 1959, for each of
the Regional Science Congress districts. Judging for eligibility in this
program is done by the Science Teachers Association.

Charges for transportation of the exhibits are provided, plus living
expenses in Albany for a period of 24 hours, for each winning student
at the time that his exhibit is to be opened to view in the State Museum.
This enables the winners to assist in setting up their exhibits, to tour the
Museum exhibit halls, to consult with science curriculum and other
officials of the Education Department, and to become acquainted with
the work of the State Museum and Science Service. These students
are welcomed in the offices and laboratories to meet and talk with
members of the staff in fields of their interest and to watch work as
it proceeds on permanent Museum exhibits.

The first of the winning students, Michael Wolf berg of Clarence, was
received at the Museum in June 1959. He was congratulated by
Commissioner Allen, Deputy Commissioner Nyquist and other officials
of the Education Department, who encouraged him to proceed in his
chosen field of science (mathematics). His exhibit, an electrical
version of the game of Tac-Tix proved to be popular with the public. It

121st Annual Report

33

Michael W ol f her g , of Clarence , the first Regional Science Con¬
gress winner 9 demonstrating his exhibit, an electronic version
of Tac-Tix .

is hoped that this program will help to promote an increased interest
in science among the young people of New York State.

If the State Museum is to provide adequate service to the public, sev¬
eral requirements must be supplied. Aides must be provided for the
curators to relieve these highly trained employees of the more menial
but necessary portions of their duties and thus make more time available

34

New York State Museum and Science Service

for the technical aspects of curating. Storage equipment is needed to
house safely the valuable collections of minerals, fossils, plants, animals
and archeological material which are among the most important
reference standards of science. In order to speed the renovation program
in the exhibit halls, more workers and funds for materials and contract
projects are essential. Adequate ventilation must be provided for the
comfort and health of visitors. The skylights which admit an uncertain
light to Geology and Paleontology Halls should be replaced by a solid
roof which will not leak and will permit the use of uniform, modern
lighting for the exhibits. Finally, an enlarged program of education
for the school children of the State should be instituted through employ¬
ment of a larger, well-trained staff using all the techniques of modern
museum pedagogy, exhibits and equipment.

Curatorial Activities

Archeology

The curator answered the requests of at least 113 visitors. These answers
included the Identification of bone specimens for the New York State
Police counsel to high school students on the requirements for

a career in archeology; advice to amateur archeologists on the excava¬
tion of sites and the preservation and recording of excavated material;
opening the collections to visiting scientists for study, and making
many identifications of items, both cultural and nonartifactual, brought
in by the general public. Other similar inquiries were answered by mail.
Advice was given to the building committee of the proposed Mattatuck
Library-Museum, on the needs in space and facilities for a small arche¬
ological museum.

On request, advice was given to Thomas Hart Benton for a mural
for the Niagara Power Authority Building at Niagara Falls in the form
of photographs of typical articles of Iroquoian material culture from
the Museum collections.

During February and March, the services of Andrew Pohl were
employed in restoring pots from the Bates site. During April, May and
June the temporary services of Mrs. Floyd Hill were utilized in the
repair of the Iroquois National Wampum Belts, which were attached to
a linen backing to prevent further parting of the fabric and loss of beads.

The project of dismantling the older exhibits swung into high gear
when Morgan Hall was repainted. The process of checking against the
catalog the artifacts removed from exhibit is continuing and the reor¬
ganization of the study collections is progressing.

121st Annual Report

35

A card was designed for recording information of value to the
New York State Museum of material in other museums and private
collections. Thirty-four slides were bound and added to the collection.

Several guided tours of the Indian Groups were given by the curator,
in cooperation with the Education Office.

For the Archeology Office, a filecard was designed by the curator
for the mounting of prints and recording pertinent information concern¬
ing the subject shown. Requests for negatives from the unified files con¬
tinued to require the services of the curator.

He advised the museum librarian on the compilation of a bibliography
on Indians and contributed the text for a popular guide to the groups
of Iroquois Indian life.

Botany

Activities of the curator resulted in the following collections:

Fungi . 1,553

Algae . 17

Mosses and liverworts . 1,146

Vascular plants . . 1,107

3,823

The curator also donated 7 specimens of Crataegus collected prior to
1947 in Chemung County. Dr. William C. Denison, temporary expert in
1957, sent 248 specimens of fungi from Cattaraugus County. Anton R.
Slysh, recipient of Graduate Student Honoraria in 1957 and 1958,
forwarded 280 specimens of Peniophora. There were two notable gifts.
Henry F. Dunbar, Kingston, who is making a study of the flora of
Ulster County, donated over 1,000 mounted specimens. Dr. Frederick
J. Hermann, Beltsville, Md., sent a series of 200 packets of Bryophytes,
all named either by himself or other experts in the field. Several other
individuals or institutions donated specimens or sent them in exchange.
A summary of these donations follows:

New York State Elsewhere Total

Fungi . 2,403 78 2,481

Algae . 17 17

Mosses and liverworts . 1,456 37 1,493

Vascular plants . 2,231 116 2,347

6,107 231 6,338

Due to moving the herbarium, many of the specimens have not been
verified or identified; consequently, many records have not been trans¬
cribed. From those recorded, however, have resulted the following

36

New York State Museum and Science Service

numbers of additions of species or subspecies to our records of vascular
plants for the counties noted:

Albany . 2 Essex . 3 Onondaga . 1

Cattaraugus . 18 Greene . 1 Putnam . 31

Chautauqua . 2 Herkimer . 1 Seneca . 1

Clinton . 1 Jefferson . 1 Suffolk . 3

Delaware . 3 Kings . 16 Ulster . 6

Erie . 1

Two taxa of vascular plants were added to the records for New York
State, both sent by Roy Latham of Orient: Car ex acutiformis and
Glyceria maxima subsp. maxima are European weeds, which are rarely
found on this continent. Dr. Frederick J. Hermann of Beltsville, Md.,
collected a number of interesting mosses, many of which are new to
some districts of the checklist. These, including Oncophorus tenellus
and Rhacomitrium canescens which are new to the State, are being
reported by him. Dr. Clark T. Rogerson of the New York Botanical
Garden accompanied the curator on many collecting trips and identified
many of the fungi. Four of these species are apparently new to the State.

The herbarium was moved to the north wing of the fifth floor of the
Education Building. By the close of the year all cases were in place
and the out-of-State materials were interpolated with the in-State genera.
These new quarters allow us to have all the collections relatively close
together on one floor, adjacent to research laboratories in the wing.
It also provides a large workspace for the curator, a smaller one for
an assistant and an alcove where visiting botanists may work undis¬
turbed. Sorting tables, plumbing and lights will be installed in the
near future.

Entomology

The transfer and rearrangement of the collection of exotic beetles was
completed. Similar work on a portion of the exotic moths was curtailed
for lack of storage drawers.

Many insect specimens were collected by the curator and scientists
of the Biological Survey. Of these, only a few related to special projects
have been mounted and placed in the study collections. Most will be
stored dry, or in alcohol until an assistant is available to mount and
label them.

Cooperative work with the Forest Pest Bureau, Conservation Depart¬
ment, called for identification of forest insect pests. Considerable effort
was made to build up a reference collection of these insects. John Flynn
of the University of North Carolina spent June 5, 1959, in the Museum
studying the type collection of Homoptera.

121st Annual Report

37

Approximately 360 requests for information called for identification
of a particular insect and the means of controlling it should it become a
pest.

Geology

Six hundred sixty specimens from the systematic mineral collection of
New York State were cataloged. The curator of geology was assisted in
this work through the part-time help of two assistants, Clayton La Valle
and Harvey Korotkin. Material from approximately five cases in the
physical and economic geology section of the Museum was sorted and
either stored or discarded in an effort to expand and rearrange storage
space.

Approximately 31 sets of New York State rocks and minerals were
donated to schools for classroom study purposes. After a loan policy
was adopted about the middle of the year, 25 boxed collections were
sent to 16 New York State schools and 9 to schools in other States.

Data are being collected for a revision of New York State Museum
Bulletin 70, List of New York Mineral Localities , 1903. D. E. Jensen,
head of the geological division, Ward’s Natural Science Establishment,
Inc., will collaborate with the curator.

During the year seven talks and tours of the geological exhibits were
given to school and college groups.

Various rock, mineral and ore specimens were identified for office
visitors. Ten of the specimens were identified through use of the X-ray
diffraction equipment of the State Police Bureau of Criminal
Investigation.

Public requests for information are listed below. The heading in¬
dicates the subject about which information was requested; the number
which follows is the number of requests received and answered for that
particular subject:

Form letter requesting the writer’s teacher to apply for a loan of representative

New York State rocks and minerals . 173

New York State geological information . 106

New York State mineralogical information, i.e., gems and precious stones,
mineral localities etc . 62

Soil samples requested (forwarded to Department of Agriculture, Cornell
University, Ithaca) . 20

Museum information . 8

Miscellaneous, i.e., caves, books, photographs, careers etc . 46

Total . 415

38

New York State Museum and Science Service

Paleontology

Type numbers were changed from the fractional number system to
serial numbers on 336 type specimens which had been on exhibit. The
contents (771 type specimens and 5,333 nontype specimens) were
removed from a number of Museum exhibit cases and the material was
cataloged and stored. Thirteen new specimens were added to the type
collection and cards for the same were entered in the catalog. Collections
containing approximately 376 specimens were packed for shipment.
Seventy-eight accession entries were made in the locality and accession
records and 152 specimens were ticketed with locality numbers. As
usual, a considerable amount of time was spent in keeping the type
catalog up-to-date.

Approximately 140 fossil type specimens were identified for some
50 visitors to the office. Harcourt, Brace & Co. of New York City was
supplied with six photographs of groups and restorations on exhibit
in the Museum. Among professional visitors and their interests were
Francis Hueber and James 0. Gierson of Cornell University (fossil
plants), William B. N. Berry of Peabody Museum, Yale University
(graptolites) , and George Theokritoff of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard University (trilobites) .

Zoology

Field trips were made with local bird clubs helping gather data on
migration and distribution of birds in New York State. These trips
were generally made on weekends. Work was done on map files of dis¬
tribution of animals in New York State with particular reference to birds
and reptiles and amphibians. Several more species were mapped for the
Bird Handbook and earlier maps to be published in volume 1 were
checked and revised.

The usual correspondence, consultation and advisory work with scien¬
tific organizations and other State agencies were handled. The Radio
Division of the Commerce Department was again helped in preparing
radio scripts on the animals of the State.

The catalog shows 19,011 entries, 670 being entered during this
period. The majority of these entries are from the Small Mammal
Survey.

The curator of zoology gave special guided tours in Biology Hall to
five groups. He also lectured widely in nearby schools.

The curator is putting the finishing touches to the series of bird dis¬
tribution maps for the Bird Handbook. Information is being gathered
and cataloged for a more permanent Checklist of New York State Birds.

121st Annual Report

39

Accessions

During 1958-59, generous donors contributed many hundreds of
objects, natural history specimens and other material to the collections
and exhibits of the State Museum. (One purchase is specified.)

Archeology

Fiberglas cast of Iroquois mask
Buffalo robe

Skeletal material from two burials
Indian grooved ax

Collection of flint samples from Ohio
Gourd rattle of Seneca Medicine
Society

Indian artifacts

Collection of flint from Ireland and
Ohio

Archeological collection of Brick
C. Smith

Iroquois woman’s costume (pur¬
chased)

Fragments of the “Oneida Stone”

Botany

Grasses from New York State (8)

Vascular plants from North America
(17)

Lichens (38)

Mosses from North America and
Sweden (35)

Climacium (1)

Vascular plants from New York
State (4)

Lichens from New York State (Madi¬
son County) (19)

Picca glavea from New York State (3)

Fungi from Cattaraugus County,
N. Y. (248)

Vascular plants from Ulster County,
N. Y. (1091)

Bryophytes from New York State

(200)

Two taxa of vascular plants

Mosses (32)

David Bartholomew, Hudson, N. Y.
Mrs. James Hill Estate, Albany, N. Y.

R. Arthur Johnson, Latham, N. Y.

R. E. Kleinstauber, Suffern, N. Y.

C. Lucy, Athens, Pa.

K. Mynter, Claverack, N. Y.

Rev. C. Plumb, Salem, N. Y.

A. G. Smith, Norwalk, Ohio

Daisy Smith, South Dayton, N. Y.

Mrs. Rose Spring, Tonawanda Indian
Reservation

A. G. Zeller, Oneida, N. Y.

New York Botanical Garden, New York,
N. Y.

U. S, National Herbarium, Washington,
D. C.

University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.

University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo.
Theodore Bairn, Schenectady, N. Y.

Irving M. Brodo, Ithaca, N. Y.

David Cook, N. Y. State Conservation
Dept., Albany, N. Y.

Dr. William C. Denison, Swarthmore
College, Swarthmore, Pa.

Henry F. Dunbar, Kingston, N. Y.

Dr. Frederick J. Hermann, Beltsville,
Md.

Roy Latham, Orient, N. Y.

Roy Latham, Orient, N. Y.

40

New York State Museum and Science Service

Flowering plants from Suffolk County,
N. Y. (39)

Gloeotulasnella caluspora from Madi¬
son County, JN. Y. (1)

Fungi (3)

Bryophytes (79)

Vascular Plants of New York State
(50)

Peniophora (200)

Hyndellum from Warren County,
N. Y. (1)

Vascular plants from New York (16)

Geology

Petalite collected at Varutrask, Swe¬
den (1)

Minerals (many of them quartz
crystals) collected at Ellenville,
N. Y. (bequest) (614)

Cinnabar with calcite and chalcedony

(!)

Euhedral quartz crystals with chlorite
inclusions (3)

Serpentine and chrysotile collected at
Thurman, N. Y. (10)

Ruby spinel and graphite in calcite
from Newton, N. J. (1)

Mica and fluorite in massive chondro-
dite from Pine Island, N. Y. (2)

Crystalline beryl with quartz and
muscovite from Media, Pa. (3)

Paleontology

Slabs bearing parts of trilobites from
Onondaga limestone, Williamsville,
N. Y. (3)

Graptolites from Columbia County,
N. Y. (23)

Fossil pteropods from Marcellus hori¬
zon near Hayter Gap, Va. (3)

Fossil plant from the Carboniferous of
Pennsylvania (1)

Fossils from various formations and
localities on the Rhinebeck, Pough¬
keepsie, N. Y. (30)

Fossils from various formations and
localities on the Cooperstown, Hart-
wick and Richfield Springs quad¬
rangles, N. Y. (36)

Roy Latham, Orient, N. Y.

Dr. Josiah L. Lowe, Syracuse, N. Y.

Dr. Orra A. Phelps, Wilton, N. Y.

Dr. Orra A. Phelps, Wilton, N. Y.

Dr. Orra A. Phelps, Wilton, N. Y.

Anton Slysh, Syracuse, N. Y.

Anton Slysh, Syracuse, N. Y.

Ralph Smith, N. Y. State Conservation
Dept., Albany, N. Y.

Herbert J. Arnold, Otis, Mass.

P. Edwin Clarke Estate, Ellenville, N. Y.

Harold Frick, Petaluma, Calif.

William H. Hallenbeck, Kinderhook,
N. Y.

Elmer Rowley, Glens Falls, N. Y.
Arthur Welling, Warwick, N. Y.

Arthur Welling, Warwick, N. Y.

Arthur Welling, Warwick, N. Y.

Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences,
Buffalo, N. Y.

W. B. N. Berry, Peabody Museum, Yale
University, New Haven, Conn.

Dr. Michael House, University of Dur¬
ham, England

Edward Smith, Utica, N. Y.

A. Scott Warthin, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.

D. H. Zenger, Darthmouth College, Han¬
over, N. H.

121st Annual Report

41

Zoology

Bird specimens (including a varied
thrush, fourth specimen on record
for the State)

Bird specimens

Glass case of birds mounted by Dr.

Emil Miller around 1900
Bird specimens (including a Bick-
nell’s thrush, first from Peekamoose
Mountain during breeding season)
Cricket frogs (2)

Bird specimens

Stuffed skin of a native Long Island
rattlesnake

John Belknap, Gouverneur, N. Y.

Mrs. Donald Radke, East Chatham,
N. Y.

G. Sann & Family, Rensselaer, N. Y.
Daniel Smiley, Lake Mohonk, N. Y.

Daniel Smiley, Lake Mohonk, N. Y.
Mrs. Myra Smilow, Red Rock, N. Y.
Southside Sportsman’s Club, Oakdale,
Long Island, N. Y.

Loans

Materials in the collections of the State Museum were loaned as
follows :

Archeology

Splint basket, wooden mask, rattles

(2)

Indian artifacts and beads (10)

Iron trader’s ax, pipe and tomahawk

Indian artifacts (15)

Typical prehistoric Indian potsherds
(24)

Orient-type projectile points (19)
Indian artifacts and beads (10)

Botany

Type specimens of fungi (4)

Type specimens of fungi (2)
Type specimen of fungi

Type specimens of fungi (26)

Type specimens of fungi (111)

Type specimen of fungi

Dr. Jean Boek, Albany, N. Y.

Carle Place High School, Carle Place,
N. Y.

New York State Department of Com¬
merce, Albany, N. Y.

Rensselaer County Junior Museum,
Troy, N. Y.

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.

Roland Lindale (Boy Scouts) Ravena,
N. Y.

Canadian Department of Agriculture,
Ottawa, Canada

Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
State University of Iowa, Iowa City,
Iowa

University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
Mass.

University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Tenn.

University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee,
Wis.

42

New York State Museum and Science Service

Entomology

Oberea (long-horned wood-boring
beetles) (70)

Drawer exhibits of tree pests (4)
Drawer exhibits of insect pests (4)
Gypsy moth parasites, Diptera (95)

Drawer exhibits (general insect col¬
lection) (3)

Schmidt box with 9 insects

Geology

Boxed collections of N. Y. State rocks
and minerals (25)

Paleontology

Graptolites (114)

Fossil brachiopods (12)

Type specimens of fossil brachiopods
(4)

Fossil cephalopods (7)

Fossil specimens (26)

Type specimen of a supposed fossil
barnacle

Fossil specimens (29)

Brachiopod type specimens (4)

Fossil specimens (29)

Type specimens of fossil bryozoans

(2)

Fossil specimens (65)

Specimens of fossil brachiopods (7)
Type specimens of fossil sponges (2)
Type specimens of trilobites (14)
Fossil cephalopods (5)

Trilobites (3)

Type specimens of trilobites (20)
Fossil specimens (29)

Stanton D. Hicks, Ottawa, Canada

Francis Larmore, Schenectady, N. Y.
Edward Morrison, Saranac Lake, N. Y.
Dr. H. J. Reinhard, College Station,
Texas

Saddlewood Elementary School, Colonie,
N. Y.

Harry V. Scott, Schenectady, N. Y.

Schools in New York State (16) and
out-of-State (9)

William B. N. Berry, Peabody Museum,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, U. S. National
Museum, Washington, D. C.

J. A. Fagerstrom, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Dr. R. H. Flower, Socorro, N. Mex.
Herricks Junior High School, Long
Island, N. Y.

Dr. Harry S. Ladd, Washington, D. C.

Manetuck School, Long Island, N. Y.
Mrs. Helen McCammon, Bloomington,
Ind.

Phelps Lane School, Long Island, N. Y.
Mrs. June Phillips, New Haven, Conn.

J. F. Pickett, Averill Park, N. Y.

Dr. Paul Sartenaer, Ottawa, Canada
D. B. Sass, Cincinnati, Ohio
Dr. Erwin C. Stumm, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Dr. Curt Teichert, Denver, Colo.

George Theokritoff, Cambridge, Mass.
H. B. Whittington, Cambridge, Mass.
Woods Road School, Long Island, N. Y.

121st Annual Report

43

Zoology

Department of Conservation, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Niskayuna Elementary School, Niska-
yuna, N. Y.

Mrs. George T. Parker, East Greenbush,
N. Y.

Queens College, Flushing, N. Y.
Rensselaer County Junior Museum.
Troy, N. Y.

Donations

Specimens and other material which were duplicated in the collections
were given outright to schools, cooperating institutions and individuals.

Bird study skins (2 loans)
Mounted birds
Bird study skins
Mammals

Mounted birds and mammals

Geology

Sterlingbush calcite crystal

Samples of Black River sands of New
York State (16)

Collections of New York State rocks
and minerals (31)

Ellenville quartz crystals (16)

Mineral specimens, anorthosite, prin¬
cipally (15)

Paleontology

Fossil specimens, duplicate (23)

Fossil specimens, duplicate (22)

Duplicate specimens (5)

Specimen containing eurypterid frag¬
ments

Rubber casts of type specimens of
brachiopods (6)

Fossil specimens, duplicate (41)

Photographs of a type specimen of
brachiopods (2)

Fossil specimens, duplicate (22)

Reading Public Museum, Reading, Pa.
Pan American Petroleum Corp., Tulsa,
Okla.

Schools, for classroom study

Geology Department, Leland Stanford
University, Palo Alto, Calif.

Students, for Science Fair Exhibits

Canastota Central School, Canastota,

N. Y.

Cherry Lane School, Long Island, N. Y.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, Mass.

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cam¬
bridge, Mass.

National Museum of Victoria, Mel¬
bourne, Australia
Norwich University, Northfield, Vt.

Dr. Paul Sartenaer, Ottawa, Canada

Sidney Central School, Sidney, N. Y.

Exchanges

Paleontology

Trilobites from the Onondaga lime¬
stone (3)

Slab of starfish from Mt. Marion beds,
Saugerties, N. Y.

Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences,
Buffalo, N. Y.

U. S. National Museum, Washington,
D. C.

44

New York State Museum and Science Service

Museum Exhibits

Two major projects were commenced this year. The most significant
jo'b was initiation of a complete renovation of Paleontology Hall.

A scale model was constructed to show architectural design and color
of the new interior walls, the arrangement of cases and the storage area
behind exhibits. A close estimate was made of the required storage
space and was included in the overall plan of the hall. The specifica¬
tions and model were the result of numerous consultations between the
Exhibits Designer and the State Paleontologist to develop the systematic
arrangement and dimensions of the 62 individual exhibits. It is
gratifying that study of the model by a number of Department
architects and others resulted in uniformly favorable comments and
no suggestions for major changes in color or design. The Exhibits
Designer drew up detailed plans to permit work to begin in the south¬
east quarter of the hall. After the full-scale layout was made, jigs were
devised to cut the sweeping curves. Serious delays in procuring
building material made it necessary to improvise and patch together
numerous members of the framework. By the end of the year the
skeleton of the wall was completed, from the entrance to and including
the end of the first alcove, and the canopy for the latter was installed.
Considerable time was required to make the display case around the
supporting column at this alcove and to move, cut and reassemble the
base slab of fossil glass sponges. Estimates were completed for con¬
struction material, finishes, spotlights and hardware for the next
two years.

The first exhibit for the new Hall of Ancient Life, a memorial to
the famous paleontologist, James Hall, was virtually completed. Some
progress was made on the design of individual exhibits; a scale
model for the geologic time clock was finished and photographs were
made in the field for an exhibit which will explain the work of the
paleontologist. Basic ideas for the remainder of the 12 displays in
this quarter of the hall were worked out in collaboration with the
scientific staff. However, the program for design and construction
of the hall was severely curtailed due to emergency work in Biology
Hall. Time was also allotted to building several special and temporary
exhibits as well as for routine maintenance and repairs.

Early in the spring of 1959, progress on the wing of the Education
Building virtually cut off access of the Botany offices to light and air.
It was decided to put into effect the reestablishment of the herbarium
in Biology Hall which had been tentatively planned for the following
winter. Despite the generous cooperation of the Department in

121st Annual Report

45

furnishing temporary help for shifting exhibits and moving the
herbarium cabinets and other equipment, it was necessary to divert the
Museum maintenance personnel to supervise and assist in this work.
A new floor plan was worked out for Biology Hall to clear a rectangle
approximately 40 x 70 feet in the northwestern part of the area.
Several old displays, including the bison exhibit, were dismantled and
the specimens were stored. Cases and walls were rearranged and
remodeled so that, with the addition of two doors, the public was
limited to the remaining exhibit space. Approximately 50 tons of
equipment was moved from the Botany offices in the Hawk Street
wing of the building, up one flight and into the new location in
Biology Hall. There it was rearranged according to plans drawn by
the curator. At the end of the year the actual shifting of cases and
herbarium cabinets had been completed, but plumbing and lighting in
the herbarium was yet to be installed. In the newly arranged exhibit
area a great number of old specimens were to be renovated and replaced
on display in new settings, and considerable new wiring was to be
furnished to permit the use of fluorescent lighting for the exhibits.

Several permanent exhibits were finished during the past year.
The beaver habitat group and its flanking displays were installed. The
small exhibits illustrate some of the major anatomical adaptations of
the beaver as well as a diagram of a beaver lodge and paintings show¬
ing the ecological effects of beaver dams. The entire display, entitled
“Life at a Beaver Pond,” depicts the typical ecological area which is
utilized by the beaver and many other such animals and plants which
are characteristic of the community.

An insect display near the Beaver Group was renovated with the
assistance of the curator of entomology, who also prepared five
exhibits which can be lent to schools or used in Biology Hall. A new
exhibit on poisonous plants, including specimens by the senior museum
technician and plant sketches by Theodore Bairn of Schenectady was
assembled.

Eight new reproductions of Iroquois masks from the collections were
installed overhead in the False Face Ceremonial Group. This illus¬
trates some of the mask types, and frees the originals in storage for
study. The newest display in Morgan Hall is that of Indian food plants.
These 80 replicas include native species as well as European plants
introduced by the colonists. The exhibit was enlarged during the year
by addition of several specimens. Only two plants remain to be copied
to complete the display.

The first permanent exhibit in Orientation Hall, “Earth — Our Ship in
Space,” was installed and opened to the public in January 1959. The

46

New York State Museum and Science Service

strata and its relationship to space.

121st Annual Report

47

display shows the planet as it might appear from about 30,000 miles
in space. The model of the earth, painted in fluorescent colors by
Thomas W. Voter, director of the Hudson River Museum at Yonkers,
is illuminated by “black light.55 The earth model glows against a dull
black background, dotted with luminous stars, which represents the
darkness of outer space. A plug projects from the model to show in
section the strata of the earth from the surface to the center. At the
side of the case is a colored column illustrating the layers of the earth’s
atmosphere. The exhibit was constructed according to the advice of vari¬
ous scientists, among them Drs. Vincent Schaefer of the Munitalp
Foundation, Curtis Hemenway of the Dudley Planetarium, and missile
expert W ember Von Braun of the U. S. Army Missile Center.

Three temporary exhibits were assembled in Orientation Hall. The
State Botanist and other members of the State Science Service con¬
tributed information for the exhibit on “Pollen as a Research Took55
A Seneca woman’s costume, purchased from Mrs. Rose Spring, is dis¬
played draped on a mannequin to illustrate the current feminine
ceremonial fashions on New York reservations. The curator of
archeology arranged various Iroquois wampum belts to show inter¬
tribal council relationships within the League of the Iroquois.

Repairs and renovations in the Museum halls included the semiannual
cleansing of the New York State relief map, restoration of a crumbling
magnesium ingot and renovation and rearrangement of the bird
exhibits, including the mounts of domestic poultry. Revisions were
made in the Myron H. Clark Hall of Indian Groups, where the interiors
of the groups were cleaned, the lighting revised and inflammable
material readjusted to reduce fire hazard. Diagrammatic labels were
painted on the sills and the first section of new aluminum railing was
installed.

Numerous exhibits were planned or partially completed. A permanent
exhibit for Orientation Hall, “How Geology Determines the Topography
of New York State,55 is in an early construction stage. Two new
Devonian dioramas, featuring fossil glass sponges and eurypterids, were
virtually completed at the end of the year.

Special shows during the year included: a display of Iroquois False
Faces and copies by David Bartholomew of Hudson, N. Y.; paintings of
grasses by Marguerite Scott, Naples, N. Y.; “Animal Portraits,55 a
group of photographs by Walter J. Schoonmaker, former exhibits
planner at the State Museum. A special show combining examples of
the handicrafts of the Shakers and the Iroquois Indians was in prepara¬
tion at the close of the year.

48

New York State Museum and Science Service

The Public

Once-weekly counts of visitors to the exhibit halls were made on
53 days. The totals on individual weekdays ranged from a low of 214
(July 23, 1958) to a maximum of 1,035 (March 19, 1959). Excluding
Saturdays, Sundays and holidays (when the highest attendance, 1,478
visitors, was recorded on Veterans’ Day), the daily average was 550
persons or a total for the year of 177,600. This a material increase over
the two previous years (140,000 in 1957-58 and 112,000 in 1956-57)
during which the same method of estimating on once-weekly counts has
been employed.

The Department nurse was called to attend a total of six visitors
who required some medical assistance. One woman suffered a fall in
the Hall of Indian Life Groups and another fainted in the same area.
Of the remaining four instances, involving children who had attacks of
fainting, one occurred in Biology Hall and three among the Indian
Groups. The concentration of cases of illness emphasizes the fact
that this portion of the Museum is poorly ventilated. The best efforts
to ameliorate conditions by reducing overheating during the colder
months and by placing fans at strategic locations have not solved the
problem. Means should be found for bringing fresh air in adequate
quantity into the exhibit halls.

The Museum guards have continued to carry out their duties faith¬
fully and efficiently and have performed numerous helpful services
beyond the strict confines of their job descriptions. Numerous minor
repairs have been made voluntarily, glass has been washed, cases moved
and painted, and assistance has been rendered on many occasions to the
Museum maintenance and exhibits personnel and to other sections of
the staff. Thanks largely to vigilance of the guards, disturbance to
visitors and vandalism on exhibits, furniture and the building continued
nominal. Valuable assistance in dealing with many of these problems
has continued to come from the Building Superintendent’s office.

121st Annual Report

49

Special Services

Program for Educational Groups

rpHE museum education office has carried out the policy of provid-
ing visiting classes with guided tours which supplement schoolwork.
During the tours the children have the opportunity to examine pertinent
objects from the Museum collections. The tours are adapted by the
instructors to the requirements of each group. Children are encouraged
to ask questions and to participate in the discussions.

Because of two factors, the number of guided tours declined during
the 1958-59 year. The limited education staff was unable to accom¬
modate all those who requested guided tours. In the fall, when Indian
tours are most popular, sections of the Indian Groups were closed for
painting. The Museum Education staff was assisted in giving tours
during the year by the senior museum technician (1) and the curators
of archeology (11), geology (4) and zoology (7) .

Problems include poor ventilation, unlighted exhibits and a limited
Education staff. Lack of luncheon facilities for visiting classes creates
difficulties for those groups which plan to spend the day in Albany.

Educational Group Instruction

Attendance of organized educational groups at the Museum rose from
25,190 in 1957-58 to 29,678 in 1958-59 (a 15 percent increase). The
number of students receiving guided tours declined from 16,319 in
1957-58 to 14,535 (10 percent decrease). The annual attendance of
educational groups at the State Museum has increased at a net adjusted
rate of almost 2 percent a year. The usual net adjusted rise in tours is
even higher. Since both these percentages are adjusted with regard to
the net total population increase in New York State, the Museum seems
to be attracting a larger segment of the total population annually.

Eighty-three percent of those visiting in groups were school classes,
and the remaining 17 percent represented organizations, such as
Scouts, 4-H groups, church clubs and resident and day camps. Dis¬
tribution by category and services is shown in the following tables:

50

New York State Museum and Science Service

guided tours of related Museum exhibits .

121st Annual Report

51

School Group Analysis

TOURS INTRODUCTORY TALKS

TOTAL - -

GRADES ATTENDANCE NUMBER ATTENDANCE NUMBER ATTENDANCE

Iv, 1-3 . 3,691 113 2,549 1 40

4-6 . 8,474 280 5,946 — 48

7-9 . 9,669 136 3,884 1 280

10-12 . 1,086 16 399 2

Multigraded. . . 868 18 543 — —

Unclassified .... 84 2 35 — —

College . 658 16 210 —

Adult Educ - 46 2 36 — —

24,576 583 13,602 4 368

Nonschool Group Analysis

TOURS INTRODUCTORY TALKS

AGE

LEVEL

NUMBER OF

GROUPS

TOTAL

ATTENDANCE

NUMBER

ATTEND¬

ANCE

NUMBER

ATTEND¬

ANCE

Youth . . .

. 157

3,890

28

647

2

214

Adult. . . .
Family

11

1,212

11

286

1

16

Groups.

—

—

—

■ —

—

— •

168

5,102

39

933

3

230

School groups visiting the Museum came from 45 counties of New
York State and from Ohio, Massachusetts and Vermont. Most of the
groups came from within a 50-mile radius of Albany; however, there
was good representation from Herkimer, Westchester, Onondaga and
Suffolk Counties. The shaded areas on the map (page 52) show the
counties of origin of visiting school groups.

Related Activities

Two form letters for tour requests were composed and printed. It is
hoped that these will reduce the amount of time spent in answering mail.
A letter to the Legislature was prepared which requests cooperation in
scheduling tours for the large legislator-sponsored school groups which
descend abruptly upon the Museum every March. This measure should
reduce crowding and confusion in the Museum halls during this period.

On October 30 and April 18, the Education staff held three-hour
workshops for teachers enrolled in Professor Deering’s extension course
at Bugbee School, State University College of Education at Oneonta.
The topic was “How To Use the State Museum.” The workshop con¬
sisted of a lecture and a guided tour. There was excellent response dur-

52

New York State Museum and Science Service

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121st Annual Report

53

ing the school year from the members of the class who taught in area
schools.

During the past year, the stock at the sales desk has been extended
to include publications, records and kits. The kits have sold especially
well during the short period that they have been available. The sales
list for these outside publications, which totaled approximately $600,
was:

421 Copies of various books and leaflets
187 Booklets on dinosaurs
120 Booklets on insects
181 Publications on the American Indian
227 Cards

73 Boxes of notepaper

28 Kits of fish banners and mastodon skeletons
6 Record albums of bird songs

4 Subscriptions to The New York State Conservationist

Museum Library

T> egular service continued during the year. Approximately two
hundred additional books were borrowed from the New York State
Library with only a small fraction of the number returned. The total
number of State Library books on indefinite loan to the staff is con¬
stantly increasing.

Items accessioned in the Museum Library periodical file increased to
3,580 as compared with 3,276 in the preceding year. Duplicates and
selected periodicals dated prior to 1950, of doubtful value to the staff,
were taken to the State Library, Gift and Exchange Section. The U. S.
Department of Agriculture Experiment Station Record vol. 1, 1889,
through vol. 77, 1937, was also sent to Gift and Exchange because of
limited space. It will be available for loan to the staff from the State
Library.

The following Honoraria Reports were received: Heavy Minerals
in the Glacial Drift of Western New York , by G. Gordon Connally;
Preliminary Report and Geologic Map of the Schunemunk , N. Y.
Quadrangle , by K. R. Kothe; Statistical Analysis of Regional Facies
Change in Ordovician Cohourg Limestone in Northwestern New York
and Southern Ontario , by L. Lippitt; and Geology of Camp Drum ,
New York ; A Preliminary Report, by Paul W. Long.

Three gift books were received, presentations of the University of
Pennsylvania Library, the William C. Whitney Foundation and Dr.

54

New York State Museum and Science Service

Paul Hahn, respectively. The State Library purchased 21 new books for
the Museum staff under the departmental loan arrangement. The staff
recommended purchase of 73 books and 13 periodicals by the State
Library. All books and periodicals mentioned above were checked
through the museum librarian. The volume of interlibrary loans in¬
creased markedly. Forty-four items were obtained for our staff by the
State Library ; many of these took considerable searching time.

A list of selected Geological Journals (with call numbers) in the New
York State Library was prepared for the use of the Geological Survey.
Basic work in the preparation of a bibliography on the Iroquois has
been completed. A mailing list to be used for the review and notifica¬
tion of Museum publications has been prepared and coded. From this
list, addressograph plates will be made. This innovation, it is hoped,
will increase the circulation of Museum publications and save many
hours of the typist’s time.

Need for an improved method of accessioning Museum Library
periodicals is still obvious. A visible record would save time and space.

Photography

A total of 145 requests for the services of the museum photographer
resulted in 335 black and white photographs taken, 1,671 negatives
processed from field photographs and 2,920 prints and enlargements
made from the preceding. In addition, 93 projection slides were pre¬
pared, 103 color photographs were taken and 88 special enlargements
were made of new exhibits.

The above work included both field and office assignments. Some
of the major subjects were a series of photographs showing a guided
tour of visiting students arriving at the Museum and their progress
through the exhibit halls; 4-H Capital Day delegates; events such as
“Sunday Musicales”; open house at the State Museum; records of
temporary exhibits and progress of construction and completion of per¬
manent exhibits. Borrowed exhibit material was photographed before
being returned to the lenders. Promotion ceremonies for members of
the Museum staff were photographed and photographic records were
made of damage from vandalism in the exhibit halls.

Photographs of material in the collections were made and prints were
supplied to the Niagara Power Authority for preparation of a mural.
Other photographs were made for institutions and scientists in foreign
countries and for schools, book publishers and scientists in America.
Prints of numerous subjects were furnished for use in a number of
manuscripts destined to become Museum bulletins, and a series of bird

121st Annual Report

55

eggs were photographed and prints were prepared for reproduction in
The New York State Conservationist.

In addition, a considerable amount of copy work was undertaken
on charts, drawings and maps for slide preparation, illustrations for
scientific reports and field mappings.

Requests for photographic services by the Commissioner’s office
included photographs of retiring Department employees, progress photo¬
graphs of construction of the addition to the Education Building, pro¬
fessional meetings and members of the Commissioner’s Cabinet.

Publications

1%/|~ost of the manuscripts which were submitted by the staff for
-*■•*-*- publication were edited by the Department editorial office and were
sent to the printer without material delay. It was necessary to hold one
paper over from the previous year, however, because of the expense
of publication. At the close of 1958-59, only one manuscript (which had
been completed but a short time previously) was awaiting editing.

Four Museum Bulletins (including an annual report) and 1 miscel¬
laneous item were printed during the year. These 5 numbers totaled
396 pages of text and 147 plates, figures, maps and tables. Another
paper of more temporary value was multilithed; it comprised 42 pages
and one map. This “production” was only one-third of the printing
secured in the previous year when a backlog of manuscripts had accumu¬
lated. However, the output of technical papers promises to increase
materially during 1959-60.

At the end of the year, 7 technical manuscripts were in press for
publication by the State Museum. One paper was in the field of
archeology, 2 in botany, 2 in geology, 1 in paleontology, and 1 in
zoology. Six additional manuscripts had been accepted by the editors
of “outside” media. Fourteen others were in the writing stage — 1 in
archeology, 1 in botany, 3 in entomolgy, 6 in geology and 3 in
paleontology.

56

New York State Museum and Science Service

Publications

State Museum and Science Service

1959 120th Annual report of the New York State Museum and

Science Service, July 1, 1957-June 30, 1958. N. Y. State
Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bulk 374. Jan. 1959. 68pp. 10 pi.

jamnback, H. & Wall, W.

1959 The common salt-marsh tabanidae of Long Island, N. Y.
State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bull. 375. July 1959. 77pp. 27 fig.

Offield, T. W.

1958 Mineral production in New York State, 1950-56. N. Y.
State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Nov. 1958. 19pp. 14 charts, 10 tab.

Reilly, E. M. & Parkes, K. C.

1959 Preliminary annotated checklist of New York State birds.
N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. 1959. 42pp. 1 map.

Ritchie, W. A.

1959 The Stony Brook site and its relation to archaic and
transitional cultures on Long Island. N. Y. State Mus. &
Sci. Serv. Bull. 372. Jan. 1959. 169pp. 7 fig. 2 tab. 53 pi.

Stein, R. C.

1958 Two populations of the alder flycatcher. N. Y. State Mus.
& Sci. Serv. Bull. 371. July 1958. 63pp. 6 fig. 18 tab.

In “Outside” Media

Collins, D. L.

1958 Some spiders of New York State. N. Y. State Conserva¬
tionist, v. 13, No. 1, pp. 2-4. Aug.-Sept. 1958.

1959 Developments in forest pesticides in New York. New York
Forester. May 1959, 16(2) : 22-26

Connor, Paul F.

1959 The bog lemming, Synaptomys cooperi, in southern New
Jersey. The Museum, Michigan State University, Biological
Series, 1(5): 161-248. 1959

Fenton, W. N.

1959 “Folklore.” (American Indian). Encyclopaedia Britannica.
March 3, 1958.

121st Annual Report

57

Kreidler, W. L.

1959 Gas and oil developments in New York State in 1958. Amer.

Assn, of Petroleum Geologists, v. 43, No. 6, June 1959, pp.

1139-1143

1959 Gas and oil developments in New York State in 1958.
National Oil Scouts & Landsmen’s Association. Yearbook,
1959. Review of 1958.

Reilly, E. M.

1959 Eggs and nests. New York State Conservationist, v. 13, No. 6,
pp. 22-26. June- July 1959

Ritchie, W. A.

1958 (Review of) The Adena people, No. 2, by W. S. Webb and

R. S. Baby. American Antiquity, v. 24, No. 2, pp. 211-212,

Oct. 1958

1959 Archeology: Western Hemisphere, Encyclopaedia Britannica,
Book of the Year, pp. 50-52. 1959

Van Tyne, A. M.

1958 New York. American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and
Petroleum Engineers. In a volume, Statistics of Oil and
Gas Production in 1958.

121st Annual Report

59

Appendix A

1959 Graduate Student Honoraria Recipients

Anthropology

Buedingen,

Columbia

Museum survey of Iroquoian

$192

Robert W.

University

(agriculture) ma terials

Taylor,

Columbia

Cataloging and analyzing Iro¬

504

Donna

University

quois wampum collections in New
York State

Botany

Brodo,

Cornell

Lichen ecology of Long Island

288

Irwin M.

University

Geology

Berman,

Columbia

Petrological and ore genesis study

240

Byrd L.

University

of Clinton iron beds

Cutcliffe,

Rensselaer Poly¬

Geological mapping of North

420

William E.

technic Institute

Troy and Tomhannock quad¬
rangles

Geological mapping of Schune-

Dodd,

Princeton

504

Robert T., Jr.

University

munk quadrangle

Nugent,

University of

Stratigraphy and sedimentation

504

Robert C.

Rochester

study of some Upper Devonian
strata

Platt,

Yale University

Geological mapping of Cossayuna

480

Lucian B.

quadrangle

Simmons, M. G.

Harvard

Gravity survey of Adirondack

504

University

area

Zoology

CoLER,

Syracuse

Biological, physical, and chemical

504

Robert A.

University

analyses of a polluted stream

Whitaker,

Cornell University

Natural history of the meadow

408

John 0., Jr.

jumping mouse

$4,548

60

New York State Museum and Science Service

Appendix B

Conferences and Professional Meetings in which the Museum and
Science Service Staff participated.

American Anthropological Association, Washington, D. C. — Fenton*, Ritchie*
American Association of Museums, annual meeting, Pittsburgh — Cahalane
American Ethnological Society, annual and spring meetings, New York and
Brooklyn — F enton

American Folklore Society, annual meeting, New York — Fenton
American Institute of Biological Sciences, Canada — Connor
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Bloomington, Indiana — Broughton
American Ornithologists Union, annual meeting, New York City — Palmer, Reilly
American Philosophical Society Library Committee; Conference on Research
in American-Indian Studies — Fenton
American Society of Mammalogists, Washington, D. C. — Connor
Association of American State Geologists — Broughton
Conference on Archeological Sites, University of Syracuse — Ritchie
Conference on Conservation Research, College of Forestry, Syracuse (April) —
Broughton, Cahalane, Collins and Fenton
Conference of Directors of Systematic Collections, (Research Museums)
Gainesville, Florida — Fenton

Conference on Moravian Archives, Bethlehem, Pa. — Fenton
Conference with U.S.G.S. personnel at Washington — Broughton (with respect
to the State Geological Map)

Eastern States Archeological Federation, Wilmington, Del. — Gillette, Ritchie*
Entomological Society of America, Baltimore, Md. — Collins, Connola, Jamnback
Federation of New York State Bird Clubs, Inc., Syracuse — Palmer, Reilly
Forest Insect Survey Conference, New Haven, Conn. — Connola
Forest Tree Improvement Conference, Beltsville, Md. — Collins
Geological Society of Canada — Borst, Isachsen

Gypsy Moth Conference, New Haven, Conn. — Campbell (Temporary Expert),
Collins, Connola

Gypsy Moth Control Conference, New York City — Collins
International Conference on Scientific Information, Society for Ethno-history,
Washington, D. C. — Fenton

Massachusetts Archeological Society, Worcester, Mass. — Ritchie
Mohawk-Cau ghnawaga Museum, Fonda — Gillette
Mosquito Control and Wildlife, Washington, D. C. — Collins
New Jersey Mosquito Extermination Association, Atlantic City, N. J. —
Jamnback

New York Academy of Sciences Symposium — Broughton, Isachsen, Offield
New York State Air Pollution Control Board — Ogden

New York State Archeological Association, Rochester, N. Y. — Fenton, Ritchie*
New York State Archeological Association, (Van Epps-Hartley Chapter),
Albany — Fenton, Gillette, Ritchie
New York State Forest Pest Control Survey — Collins, Connola

* Read formal paper.

121st Annual Report

61

New York State Geological Association — Borst
North American Wildlife Conference, New York City — Palmer
Northeastern Forest Pest Council, summer meeting, Boothbay Harbor, Maine —
Connola

Northeastern Forest Pest Council, Boston, Mass. — Collins, Connola
Northeast Museums Conference, Wilmington, Del. — Fenton
Northeastern Mosquito Control Association, Boston, Mass. — Jamnback
Northeastern Weed Control Conference — Ogden
Northern Gas & Oil Scouts Association — Van Tyne
Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association — Kreidler, Van Tyne
Society for American Archeology, member, Highway Salvage Committee —
Ritchie

Society of American Foresters, Albany, N. Y. — Collins, Connola
Society of American Foresters, New York Section, Syracuse — Collins, Connola
U. S. G. S. Geologists’ Conference, Washington, D. C. — Fisher, Richard
Wenner-Gren Foundation Viking Fund Awards Dinner, New York City —
Fenton, Ritchie

Wilson Ornithological Society, Rockland, Maine — Palmer
World Petroleum Congress — Kreidler, Van Tyne

62

New York State Museum and Science Service

Appendix C

Cooperative Work (Service) : Talks given by the staff of State
Museum and Science Service to various groups.

Adirondack Mountain Club — Collins

Alan Devoe Bird Club — Reilly

Albany Chapter of Nature Conservancy — Ogden

Brown University, Anthropology class — Fenton

Castleton Elementary School — Reilly

Chatham Central School — Reilly

Coeymans-Ravena Garden Club — Wilcox

Cohoes Elementary School — Ogden, Reilly

Colgate University — Broughton

Exchange Club of Albany — Fenton

Fort Orange Council, Boy Scouts of America — Reilly

Gloversville Garden Club — Reilly

Gloversville Rotary Club — Cahalane

Guilderland Central School — Reilly

Kinderhook Garden Club — Reilly

Men’s Garden Club — Wilcox

Newburgh Free Academy — Fisher

New York State Federation of Garden Clubs — Collins

Philip Livingston Junior High School, panel — Reilly

Piseco Lake Town Board — Jamnback

Saddlewood Elementary School — Wilcox

Sanford Memorial Lecture, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute — Fenton

Saranac Lake Town Board — Jamnback

Social Science Club of Mount Holyoke College — Fenton

State University College of Education at Albany, Biology Club — Koster

State University College of Education at Albany, panel — Reilly

State University College of Education at Oneonta — Koster

Tupper Lake Town Board — Jamnback

Van Rensselaer Garden Club, Troy — Reilly

121st Annual Report

63

Appendix D: Cooperating Agencies

A common function of the Museum and Science Service is to coop¬
erate with agencies and organizations concerned with museum and
research activities in this and other States, with government of U. S.
and Canada, with universities and industry in the discovery, analysis
and dissemination of scientific information. These contacts are fre¬
quently of reciprocal services and they arise often out of the personal
contacts of the staff, and if so listed would measure individual par¬
ticipation, but they are here tabulated for the organization. By no
means complete, the list indicates ranges of cooperative activity.

Adirondack Museum
American Cyanamid Co.

American Ornithologists Union

Brookhaven National Laboratory

California Department of Mines

California Institute of Technology

Canadian Department of Agriculture

Canadian Biological Survey

Cornell University, College of Agriculture

Cranbrook Institute of Science

Eastern New York Botanical Club

Federation of New York State Bird Clubs

Griffiths Air Force Base

Harvard University

Kansas State College

Lament Geological Observatory

National Park Service

New York Botanical Garden

New York State Department of Agriculture & Markets

New York State Department of Commerce

New York State Department of Conservation

New York State Department of Public Works

New York State Health Department

New York State Highway Department

New York State Police Department, B.C.I.

Office of Atomic Development
Quebec Geological Survey
Royal Ontario Museum
Shell Chemical Co.

St. Bonaventure University

State University College of Education at Albany

State University College of Education at Oneonta

State University College of Ceramics

State University College of Forestry

State University Harpur College

Suffolk County Mosquito Control Commission

64

New York State Museum and Science Service

Syracuse University
Torrey Botanical Club
Town of Webb

Union Carbide and Chemical Corporation

U. S. Bureau of Mines

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

U. S. Forest Service

U. S. Geological Survey

U. S. National Museum

University of Iowa

University of Massachusetts

University of Michigan

University of Tennessee

University of Wisconsin

Velsicol Corporation

WGY Farm Forum of the Air

Appendix E: Professional Affiliations

Adirondack Mountain Club, vice chairman — Cahalane (reelected)

Albany Club of the Society of the Sigma XI, secretary — Fisher
American Ethnological Society, president — Fenton
American Folklore Society, president — Fenton

American Institute of Mining Engineers, Industrial Minerals Division,

chairman, 1959-60 — Broughton

American Institute of Mining Engineers, Industrial Minerals Division,

secretary-treasurer, 1958-59 — Broughton
American Society of Mammalogists, member, Board of Directors — Cahalane
Second Conference of Directors of Systematic Collection, (Research Museums),
Albany, N. Y., chairman — Fenton

Entomological Society of America, (Section on Shade Trees and Ornamentals
of Eastern Branch), chairman — Collins; also member, Program Committee
Fifth World Forestry Congress (Section on Wildlife and Recreation), Program
Committee, member — Cahalane

Grassland Research Foundation, Inc., member, Scientific and Advisory
Board — Cahalane
Mosquito News, editor — Collins
National Parks Association, president — Cahalane

New York State Archeological Association, chairman, Committee of Chapters
and Memberships — Ritchie

New York State Archeological Association, treasurer — Gillette (reelected)
Northeastern Forest Pest Council, member for New York State — Collins
Northeastern Forest Tree Improvement Committee, member for New York
State — Collins

Northeastern Mosquito Control Association, president — Jamnback
Society of American Foresters, New York Section, member, Committee on
Forest Insects and Diseases — Connola
Society of Mining Engineers, director, AIME, 1959-60 — Broughton

J

N82X

NH

The Small Mammals
of

Otsego and Schoharie Counties,
New York

By

Paul F. Connor
Scientist ( Zoology )

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE
BULLETIN NUMBER 382

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department

Albany, N. Y.

July 1960

The Small Mammals
of

Otsego and Schoharie Counties,
New York

By

Paul F. Connor
Scientist ( Zoology )

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE
BULLETIN NUMBER 382

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department

Albany, N. Y.

July 1960

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University

With years when terms expire

1969 John F. Brosnan, A.M., LL.B., J.D., LL.D., D.C.L., D.C.S.,

Pd.D., Chancellor . New York

1968 Edgar W. Couper, A.B., LL.D., Vice Chancellor . Binghamton

1963 Mrs. Caroline Werner Gannett, LL.D., L.H.D., D.H. - - - Rochester

1961 Dominick F. Maurillo, A.B., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D., M. and S.D. Brooklyn

1964 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D., Litt.D. . Troy

1967 Thad L. Collum, C.E. . Syracuse

1966 George L. Hubbell, Jr., A.B., LL.B., LL.D., Litt.D. - - - - Garden City

1973 Charles W. Millard, Jr., A.B. . - - Buffalo

1965 Chester H. Lang, A.B., LL.D. . . Schenectady

1970 Everett J. Penny, B.C.S., D.C.S. . White Plains

1972 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S. . Purchase

1962 Edward M. M. Warburg, B.S., L.H.D. . New York

1971 J. Carlton Corwith, B.S. . Water Mill

President of the University and Commissioner of Education
James E. Allen, Jr., Ed.M., Ed.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Deputy Commissioner of Education
Ewald B. Nyquist, B.S., LL.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education and Special Services
Hugh M. Flick, Ph.B., Ph.D.

Assistant Commissioner for State Museum and Science Service
William N. Fenton, A.B., Ph.D.

State Zoologist, State Science Service
Ralph S. Palmer, Ph.D.

155

M456r-D59-1800

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . 5

DESCRIPTION OF REGION . 7

LIST OF MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES 10

ACCOUNTS OF SMALL MAMMALS . 13

Masked shrew . . 13

Smoky shrew . . . 15

Big-tailed shrew . 18

Pygmy shrew . 22

Short-tailed shrew . . 23

Hairy-tailed mole . 26

Star-nosed mole . 27

Little brown bat . 29

Keen’s bat . 31

Eastern pipistrelle . 32

Big brown bat . . 33

Red bat . 33

Hoary bat . . 34

Eastern cottontail . 35

New England cottontail . 36

Eastern chipmunk . . 37

Gray squirrel . 39

Red squirrel . . 40

Southern flying squirrel . . 42

Northern flying squirrel . . 43

Deer mouse . . 47

[3]

PAGE

White-footed mouse . 49

Southern bog lemming . 51

Red-backed mouse . . . 55

Meadow vole . 58

Pine vole . 61

Norway rat . 63

House mouse . 63

Meadow jumping mouse . 63

Woodland jumping mouse . . . 65

Short-tailed weasel . . 68

Long-tailed weasel . 69

APPENDIX ON FLEAS COLLECTED . 79

REFERENCES CITED . 81

[4]

INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In June 1956, the author was engaged by the New York State Museum
and Science Service to begin a survey of small mammals in Otsego
County. Work was carried out in Otsego County until April 1957, after
which operations were shifted to adjoining Schoharie County. Here
fieldwork was conducted from May 1957 until September 1958, with
occasional collecting undertaken after the latter date.

The objectives of this study were as follows: (1) to collect small
mammal brain tissue as part of a State interdepartmental project attempt¬
ing to determine whether, and to what extent, various small mammals
are reservoir hosts of the disease rabies; (2) to obtain, whenever pos¬
sible, basic information on the biology and life history of the species
collected; (3) to obtain ecological information relating to the occurrence
and distribution of the various small mammals in the region; and (4) to
augment the mammal collections of the State Museum. Throughout the
study emphasis has been on the smaller species, primarily those smaller
than the cottontail rabbit.

All mammal specimens prepared as study skins or skeletons are de¬
posited in the collection of the New York State Museum in Albany. Infor¬
mation gathered relating to the habitat preference, habits and biology
of the various species is given in the body of this report under the
separate species accounts. This information is based chiefly on the field
and laboratory notes of the author. All measurements given were made
by the author.

Traplines were operated in numerous localities in both counties. Trap¬
ping efforts were especially concentrated in Gilbert Lake State Park and
in the vicinity of Otsego Lake in Otsego County, and in the regions of
Summit, Burnt Hill (near North Blenheim), Petersburg Mountain (near
Cobleskill), and Gilboa in Schoharie County. But trapping localities also
were well spotted over the entire region. An effort was made to sample a
large variety of small mammal habitats at high and low elevations; as
a rule, those habitats more productive in numbers of species and speci¬
mens were trapped more intensively. In order to obtain representative
specimens for all seasons of the year trapping was conducted during
every month, being suspended only occasionally during the most severe
weather in midwinter. Individual traplines were usually run for a period
of several days but with a variation ranging from two days to two
months. The type of trap commonly used for mice, shrews and moles
was the regular-sized mouse snap trap with a wood pedal; sunken cans.

[5

SMITHSON! AN ....

INSTITUTION JUL

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mn

6

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

often half-filled with water, were used as “tumble-in” traps in some
localities. For larger species such as squirrels and weasels, rat snap traps
were used. Bats were collected by shooting or netting, or by picking them
off their summer or winter roosting places.

Throughout much of the study efforts were made to save fleas and
other ectoparasites. The fleas have been identified by Dr. Allen H. Benton
and Donald H. Miller, and their valued contribution has been included
separately as a special appendix at the end of this paper. Otsego County
fleas were identified by Donald H. Miller in his study of the siphonap-
terous parasites of the small mammals of Otsego County, done while
working for an advanced degree at the State University College of
Education at Albany. Dr. Benton, of the Biology Department of the
same institution, aided Mr. Miller in his work, and in addition identi¬
fied the fleas collected in Schoharie County. At the time of this writing
some of the Schoharie County fleas as well as other parasites collected
are awaiting identification.

Otsego and Schoharie Counties are located in an area of high rabies
incidence. Because a large proportion of foxes are found to be infected
with this disease in comparison with other forms of wildlife in this area,
the New York State Conservation Department has been conducting a
fox trapping program in an attempt to control the disease (see Colson,
et al., 1955). The possibility that small mammals such as shrews, bats
and rodents may serve as unrecognized reservoirs of infection stimu¬
lated the launching of a special New York State rabies project involving
the smaller species. This brought the State Education Department (of
which the State Museum and Science Service is a part) into coopera¬
tion with other departments already engaged in various aspects of the
rabies investigation.

The plan called for the author, as the field mammalogist, to collect
small mammal tissue, chiefly brains, in a condition suitable for rabies
diagnosis by the Health Department, which was working in conjunction
with the Conservation Department. Dr. Richard L. Parker of the Health
Department was in charge of receiving and testing material submitted.
As of March 31, 1958, approximately 1,160 brains and 35 pairs of
salivary glands representing the following genera were submitted and
tested: Sorex , Blarina , Parascalops, Condylura , Myotis, Eptesicus ,
Tamias, T amiasciurus, Peromyscus , Synaptomys , Clethrionomys , Micro-
tus , Pitymys , Rattus, Mus , Zapus , Napaeozapus and Mustela. No cases
of rabies were diagnosed from this material. However, an increasing
number of States are joining the list of States reporting bats infected
with rabies, and in 1956, the first year of the present study, the first
such case was reported for New York, from a big brown bat, Eptesicus

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

7

fuscus , collected in Rensselaer County by Dr. Allen H. Benton and turned
over to Dr. Parker, who isolated the virus (Anon., 1956) .

In Otsego County, field headquarters were maintained in Gilbert Lake
State Park during the first half of the period and at the Farmers’ Museum
in Cooperstown during the remainder of the time in that county. Appre¬
ciation is expressed to the Division of State Parks and to the Farmers’
Museum for the accommodations. In Schoharie County, field headquar¬
ters were maintained throughout the period at Richmondville.

Summer help was assigned to this study during the three summers
included. During the summers of 1956 and 1957, Donald H. Miller, then
a graduate student at the State University College of Education at Albany,
ably assisted in both field and laboratory work. During the summer of
1958 two Cornell University students, John 0. Whitaker (graduate
student) and Gene Whitaker, helped out for a period of several weeks.

This survey was carried out under the direction of Dr. Ralph S. Palmer,
State Zoologist. I wish to thank Dr. W. J. Hamilton, Jr., Cornell Univer¬
sity, for his critical reading of the manuscript and important suggestions
regarding it. Dr. Palmer and Victor H. Cahalane, Assistant Director of
the State Museum, also lent aid in the preparation of the manuscript.
Dr. Edgar M. Reilly, Jr., curator of zoology, prepared the map showing
the location of the region. Besides those already mentioned, I wish to
thank the following persons who have helped in various ways: Stanley J.
Smith, curator of botany, New York State Museum; Fred Barnard, game
protector, Otsego County, and George L. Couse, superintendent, and
Ralph Brightman, patrolman, Gilbert Lake State Park.

DESCRIPTION OF REGION

Otsego and Schoharie Counties are situated adjacent to one another
in east-central New York (figure 1) and encompass areas of 1,009 and
620 square miles, respectively. Physiographically, these counties lie
within the glaciated Appalachian Plateau, a highland area dissected by
numerous streams. This erosional plain (peneplain), at a level of ap¬
proximately 2,000 feet, extends unbroken across much of central and
south-central New York, and the counties discussed here are on an “arm”
of this physiographic unit which extends east of Schoharie County into
Albany County as far as the Hudson River Valley. The Mohawk River
lies just to the north of Otsego and Schoharie Counties and its valley
parallels their northern borders, while the Catskill Mountains are located
to the south and southeast of this region, their foothills corresponding
rather closely in places with the southern boundaries of these counties.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Thus in elevation and roughness of topography most of the region under
consideration is, in a general way, intermediate between neighboring
areas north and south, although the exact boundaries of the counties are
primarily artificial.

Figure 1. Map of New York State showing location of Otsego and Schoharie
Counties.

The dissection of the plateau has resulted in a rounded topography
with comparatively sharp, narrow valleys; the broad, flat hilltops tend
to have a remarkably uniform altitude. Most of the land lies between
1,000 and 2,000 feet in elevation with an extreme range of from 600 to
3,200 feet; both extremes are found in Schoharie County, elevations in
Otsego County showing a more limited range. In general, the terrain is
rolling in the north, with a larger proportion of steep slope in the south.
The maximum height to be found in most of Schoharie County is a level
of about 2,300 feet, which is reached in several places, and this was the
highest altitude trapped in this study. On the extreme southern boundary
of this county along the Greene County line, Catskill foothills rise as high
as 3,000 feet and slightly more. The rough, mountainous Catskills are

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

9

actually a part of the plateau, but rise to 4,000 feet, another 2,000 feet
above the general level of the plateau, and thus constitute a separate unit
(Rich, 1934). In the extreme northern part of Otsego and Schoharie
Counties the land levels out in a gradual descent toward the Mohawk
Valley. An escarpment cuts off the northern one-fourth of Schoharie
County and the extreme northeastern corner of Otsego County, with a
lower elevation prevailing to the north of it.

Almost all of Otsego County drains toward the southwest by way of
the Susquehanna River (which rises at Otsego Lake in the northern
part of the county) and its tributaries. In Schoharie County, on the
other hand, the direction of drainage is toward the north by way of
Schoharie Creek, except for the extreme southwest corner which is
drained by the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers. Schoharie Creek
originates in the Catskills and flows north through the eastern part of
Schoharie County to join the Mohawk, which in turn flows east to the
Hudson River. Small lakes, ponds and small swampy areas are fairly
numerous in the region. The only sizeable bodies of water are Canadarago
and Otsego Lakes in the northern part of Otsego County, of which the
latter, 8 miles long, is the larger.

The rocks are chiefly Devonian in age, primarily sandstone and shale,
but upper Silurian and lower Devonian limestone forms a belt across
the northern part of the area. Soil productivity ranges from low to high
(Maxon and Fuller, 1915; Tharp et ah, 1940). The more fertile soils
are found in the valleys, while much of the upland is of low agricultural
value. During the last century most of the land, except steep stony slopes,
was cleared for farms, but the hill country in general was unsuited to
agriculture, resulting in much abandonment of land after 1900. A steady
increase in forest acreage and a reversion toward original conditions is
thus taking place over much of the upland country. Today many of the
hills and the steeper slopes are wooded, while the valleys and the less
rugged hillsides are chiefly open agricultural land. Dairy farming is now
well established and is the dominant occupation, the other types of farms
being only of local importance. In general, the winters are long and cold,
the summers rather cool and pleasant in this area. The climate is less
severe than the Adirondacks and Catskills, but more so than the Erie-
Ontario Lake plain and the lower Hudson Valley.

This part of New York is included in the extensive hemlock- white
pine-northern hardwoods region which is characterized by the pro¬
nounced alternation of deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests com¬
munities (Braun, 1950). Here sugar maple (Alcer saccharum) , beech
( Fagus grandifolia) , yellow birch ( Betula lute a) , hemlock ( Tsuga
canadensis ) and white pine (Pinus strobus) are, or were under original

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

conditions, the dominant and characteristic forest trees (Bray, 1930).
Today there is little resemblance to original conditions in Otsego and
Schoharie Counties, but much unused land is in various stages of return¬
ing to the former state. Many of the small forest mammals discussed in
this report, as well as some of the larger game species, undoubtedly have
profited by this trend back to forest conditions. Second-growth woods
composed chiefly of sugar maple, or of maple, beech and hemlock, are
common in the area; old second-growth woods with rather large hem¬
locks and white pines are not rare. Other common trees include black
birch ( Betula lento), red oak ( Quercus rubra), white oak ( Quercus
alba), American elm (Ulmus americana) , black cherry ( Prunus sero-
tina) , red maple ( Acer rubrum) , striped maple ( Acer pennsylvanicum ) ,
basswood ( T ilia americana), white ash ( Fraxinus americana) and hop
hornbeam ( Ostrya virginiana) . Locally there is considerable oak and
hickory, intruding southern trees, while “boreal islands” of red spruce
( Picea rubens) and balsam fir ( Abies balsamea) occur in some localities
at about 2,000 feet altitude or higher. Small coniferous and deciduous
swamps are to be found, with stands of arbor vitae ( Thuja occidentalis)
frequent in the limestone belt in the northern part of the region. Conifer¬
ous reforestation plantations are frequent on abandoned land in many
localities.

LIST OF MAMMALS OF OTSEGO
AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

The list of 49 species given below includes, so far as I am aware, those
mammals which are known to exist in Otsego and Schoharie Counties
at the present time, or for which there are recent records of occurrence.
Most of these species occur in both of the counties ; a few at present are
known only from one of the counties, for example the big-tailed shrew
(Schoharie County). All the species on the list except European hare,
New England cottontail, coyote, long-tailed weasel and otter were taken
or recorded during the course of this survey. A total of 39 species were
collected; only a few specimens of the larger species were taken, but
opossums, woodchucks, beavers, porcupines, muskrats, red foxes, gray
foxes, raccoons, skunks, mink and deer were commonly observed in both
counties. The small mammals, with which this study was chiefly con¬
cerned, are treated in the discussion of species following this section;
on the list these species are marked with an asterisk.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

11

Opossum
^Masked Shrew

* Smoky Shrew

* Big-tailed Shrew

* Pygmy Shrew

* Short-tailed Shrew
*Hairy-tailed Mole

* Star-nosed Mole

* Little Brown Bat

* Keen’s Bat

* Eastern Pipistrelle
*Big Brown Bat
*Red Bat
*Hoary Bat

Varying Hare
European Hare

* Eastern Cottontail
*New England Cottontail

Woodchuck

* Eastern Chipmunk
*Gray Squirrel
*Red Squirrel

* Southern Flying Squirrel

* Northern Flying Squirrel
Beaver

*Deer Mouse

* White-footed Mouse

* Southern Bog Lemming
*Red-Backed Mouse

* Meadow Vole
*Pine Vole

Muskrat

* Norway Rat

* House Mouse

* Meadow Jumping Mouse
^Woodland Jumping Mouse

Porcupine
Coyote
Red Fox
Gray Fox
Black Bear
Raccoon

* Short-tailed Weasel

* Long-tailed Weasel
Mink

Striped Skunk

River Otter
Bobcat

White-tailed Deer

Didelphis marsupialis virginiana Kerr
Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr
Sorex fumeus fumeus Miller
Sorex dispar Batchelder
Microsorex hoyi thompsoni (Baird)

Blarina brevicauda talpoides (Gapper)
Parascalops breweri (Bachman)

Condylura cristata cristata (Linnaeus)

My otis lucifugus lucifugus (LeConte)

My otis keenii septentrionalis (Trouessart)
Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus Miller
Eptesicus fuscus fuscus (Palisot de Beauvois)
Lasiurus borealis borealis (Muller)

Lasiurus cinereus cinereus (Palisot de Beauvois)
Lepus americanus virginianus Harlan
Lepus europaeus hybridus Desmarest
Sylvilagus floridanus mearsii (J. A. Allen)
Sylvilagus transitionalis (Bangs)

Marmota monax rufescens A. H. Howell
Tamias striatus lysteri (Richardson)

Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus Ord
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus loquax (Bangs)
Glaucomys volans volans (Linnaeus)

Glaucomys sabrinus macrotis (Mearns)

Castor canadensis (Kuhl)

Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis (LeConte)
Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer)
Synaptomys cooperi cooperi Baird
Clethrionomys gapperi gapperi (Vigors)
Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus (Ord)
Pitymys pinetorum scalopsoides (Audubon and
Bachman)

Ondatra zibethicus zibethicus (Linnaeus)

Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout)

Mus musculus domesticus Rutty
Zapus hudsonius americanus (Barton)
Napaeozapus insignis insignis (Miller)

Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum (Linnaeus)

Canis latrans Say

Vulpes fulva fulva (Desmarest)

Urocyon cinereoargenteus borealis Merriam
Euarctos americanus americanus Pallas
Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus)

Mustela erminea cicognanii Bonaparte
Mustela frenata noveboracensis (Emmons)
Mustela vision Schreber

Mephitis mephitis nigra (Peale and Palisot de
Beauvois)

Lutra canadensis canadensis (Schreber)

Lynx rufus rufus (Schreber)

Odocoileus virginianus borealis Miller

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Several additional small mammal species have been taken in central
or eastern New York, but have not to my knowledge been recorded from
the counties covered in this report. Undoubtedly some of these eventually
will be taken within the confines of this region. Numerous trap nights
along the most suitable appearing streams I could find yielded no water
shrews ( Sorex palustris albibarbis) , although this species occurs in the
Catskills south of this region. The least shrew ( Cryptotis parva) , essen¬
tially a southern species, has been taken several times in the region of
Ithaca, Tompkins County (Hamilton, 1934) and at other widely scattered
points in New York State. The silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctova-
gans) may be not uncommon in this region, since it is statewide in
distribution and has been reported as common in several sections: it is
the most abundant bat of the Adirondacks according to Merriam (1884) .
Two cave bats have been recorded in nearby counties and undoubtedly
occur in small numbers in some of the caves of northern Schoharie
County; these are the Indiana bat ( Myotis sodalis) and the least brown
bat ( Myotis subulatus leibii ) . The former has been found hibernating in
Albany County just east of this region (Griffin, 1940), while the least
brown bat has been found in winter in an abandoned mine shaft in
Montgomery County, which borders Schoharie County on the north
(Schwager and Benton, 1956). The rock vole ( Microtus chrotorrhinus )
occurs in the Catskill Mountains, but this species was not taken in rocky
areas in Schoharie County, although it possibly occurs rarely and locally
in this county. The prairie deer mouse ( Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii)
and the least weasel ( Mustela rixosa) are essentially western forms which
may conceivably occur in small numbers here. The prairie deer mouse
has been taken as far east as the Ithaca region (Hamilton, 1950) and
the Susquehanna River Valley in northeastern Pennsylvania (Grimm and
Whitebread, 1952), while the least weasel has been taken in Bradford
County, Pennsylvania (Grimm and Whitebread, 1952) about 60 miles
southwest of the borders of the present region.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

13

ACCOUNTS OF SMALL MAMMALS
MASKED SHREW

Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr

Specimens taken. 88 (Otsego County, 43; Schoharie County, 45),
in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. The masked, or common shrew was
trapped in many localities, although frequently only one or two were
taken on a trapline. Nearly three times as many Sorex jumeus were
caught, but such a proportion in numbers may not actually exist, since
the smaller cinereus appears to be more difficult to capture in the
ordinary mouse snap traps. This was sometimes suggested when sunken
tin cans were used along with snap traps in a locality. In one trapline
in the fall of 1956 in a partially wooded area, snap-trapping over a
two-week period (about 1,000 trap nights) yielded among small shrews
only 4 fumeus. When the snap traps were then replaced with 13 cans
for the succeeding month, 7 cinereus , 3 more fumeus and a Microsorex
were secured. In another area the catch of masked shrews was greatly
increased by the use of cans.

In this region cool, moist woods, clearings and the marshy edge of
lakes are favored environments. Specimens of Sorex cinereus were col¬
lected in the following main types of habitats, in order of numbers of
shrews taken: deciduous and mixed woods, arbor vitae swamps, grassy
woodland edges and clearings, marshy edges of lakes and ponds, and
coniferous woods (these habitats were not all equally trapped). In a
low-lying arbor vitae swamp near Otsego Lake during February and
March 1957, Sorex cinereus was probably the commonest species of
mammal. Eighteen of these shrews were trapped; only red-backed mice
were caught in greater numbers, and these mice are much easier to trap
than the small shrews. No specimens were secured at elevations less than
1,150 feet, but they probably occur at the lower elevations in some
habitats. A seemingly unusual catch (for this region) was one taken on
bare, stony ground in a hilltop field covered with goldenrod (Solidago
grammini folia) .

Most of the specimens were taken in traps set at holes and cavities in
and about logs and stumps; some were trapped in the tunnels of larger
insectivores and mice in the humus, and in Microtus runways in marshy
areas. None were taken on talus slopes (or other extremely rocky areas)
which in this region are favored by Sorex fumeus , and locally, Sorex
dispar. In most areas where this species was trapped, smoky and short¬
tailed shrews also occurred, and sometimes all of these were taken in the

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

same traps on different days. Red-backed mice, other microtines and
jumping mice were also frequent neighbors of the masked shrews.

Reproduction. The reproductive season was ascertained to extend
at least from April through July. Four pregnant females were taken, as
follows: May 16, 1958, 8 embryos at 7 mm. crown to rump; June 18,
1958, 8 embryos at 5 mm.; July 11, 1957, 6 embryos at 12 mm. crown
to rump; July 20, 1956, 7 embryos at 12 mm. crown to rump. Nursing
individuals were taken on May 1, 26 and June 18, 1958, and July 19,
1957 ; one on August 3, 1956. had apparently just finished nursing. The
female trapped on June 18 was at the same time pregnant and lactating,
indicating mating may follow parturition.

Adult males in apparent breeding condition were collected from
April 19 to August 23; these had enlarged reproductive organs, with
testes measuring about 4 to 6 mm. in length. All the 8 males taken
during April, May and June were breeding adults. None of the 24 males
collected from September to March were in breeding condition; these
were all immatures and subadults, with small testes not measuring-
more than 1.5 mm. in length. This species was not collected between
March 10 and April 19, but all the spring males trapped were in breeding
condition on and after the latter date.

Measurements. During July and August, both adults (those born
the previous year) and immatures were taken on the traplines. Shrews
are short-lived animals, and by early fall most of the adults had been
replaced by the young shrews, the latest adult trapped apparently being
an old male taken on August 23. During the winter the new generation
did not increase in weight, but with the breeding season a marked
increase occurred.

Measurements of adults taken during the breeding season (April 19-
August 23) are as follows. Twelve adult males average: weight. 4.4
grams (3. 8-4.8) ; total length, 98.0 mm. (94-103) ; tail, 38.8 mm. (35-
41.5); hind foot, 11.2 mm. (10.5-11.5). Nine adult females average:
weight, 5.5 grams (4.4-7. 2) ; total length, 100.4 mm. (94-106) ; tail,
39.0 mm. (36-41) ; hind foot, 11.0 mm. (10.5-12). Most of the females
were with embryos or had well-developed mammary glands; the heaviest
(6.7 and 7.2 grams) had large embryos. All the males had large repro¬
ductive structures and appeared to be in breeding condition.

Young adults (subadults) taken before the onset of the breeding-
season weighed considerably less, none being over 4 grams in weight,
while during the breeding season all but one weighed over 4 grams.
The subadults also averaged somewhat shorter in total length. Thirty
of these, representing all specimens trapped from November to March,

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

15

measured as follows. Nineteen males average: weight, 3.3 grams (2.9-
4.0) ; total length, 95.4 mm. (91-101) ; tail, 39.7 mm. (38-43) ; hind
foot, 11.2 mm. (10.5-12). Eleven females average: 3.1 grams (2.9-3.6) ;
total length, 95.3 mm. (92-103) ; tail, 39.7 mm. (38-41) ; hind foot,
11.3 mm. (10.5-12.5).

SMOKY SHREW

Sorex fumeus fumeus Miller

Specimens taken. 249 (Otsego County, 46; Schoharie County,
203), in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. This shrew is primarily a forest species,
its favorite haunts in this region being the cool, northern deciduous and
mixed forests of sugar maple, beech, birch and hemlock, although not
absent from stands of red and white oaks, red maple and white pine
and other trees. Smoky shrews were frequently trapped in the tunnels
of mice and moles in the leaf mold, in cavities in rotten logs and stumps,
and in dark recesses among the rocks in ravines and talus slopes. That
these shrews also run about over the leaf litter on the forest floor was
indicated by four specimens which were caught in rattraps baited with
walnut meat for squirrels and placed on the ground near trees and logs.

Smoky shrews were usually represented on traplines in upland forest
habitats, and often made up an appreciable portion of the catch. In
some areas it was at times probably the most numerous member of the
small mammal community. This was especially true among the tumbled
rocks of the steep talus slopes; at one such locality (elevation 1,300 feet)
on the west side of Reed Hill, overlooking the Schoharie Creek Valley
near Gilboa, more Sorex fumeus were taken than any other small mam¬
mal, 53 out of 176 mice and shrews trapped in 1957 and 1958 consisting
of this species. In this area, where Sorex dispar also occurred, birches,
mountain maple and scattered hemlock grew among the rocks. Smoky
shrews were also abundant, at least during the spring and summer of
1958, in woods composed chiefly of sugar maple on the top of Petersburg
Mountain (elevation 2,300 feet) near Cobleskill. Here, in the numerous
tunnels in the humus and about rotten stumps, 55 smoky shrews were
captured out of a total of 156 small mammals.

Very few of these shrews were taken in the arbor vitae swamps and
small boreal islands of red spruce and balsam fir, where Sorex cinereus
was more apt to be encountered, although fumeus was common enough
in hemlock groves in the woods. Masked shrews also outnumbered this
species in the open, marshy ground between the woods and shores of
ponds and lakes. Sorex fumeus was, however, often taken under rocks

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

and banks along the margins of swift woodland streams where we trapped
in vain for water shrews. Grassy or weedy clearings in the woods, espe¬
cially where there were old stumps and the like, were also good places
to trap for smoky shrews.

In an old overgrown field (elevation 2,000 feet) near Cobleskill in
October 1957, 15 Sorex fumeus were taken in company with Microtus
pennsylvanicus and Blarina in mats of bluegrass and among the stems
of goldenrod, raspberry and small white ash saplings. Here the smoky
shrews were utilizing both the surface and subsurface runways of
Microtus. Roslund (1951) speaks of taking this species in brushy fields
of poverty grass (in Synaptomys runways) in north-central Pennsylvania.

Remarks. In several seemingly favorable wooded areas no smoky
shrews were taken. Blarina was common in these areas, and in some
of the areas especially heavy catches of the larger shrew were made.
This suggested that the larger, predatory blarinas possibly had reduced
the smoky shrew population. However, in some localities both shrews
seemed common. There may on occasion be some relation between the
populations of small shrews and Blarina ; Hamilton (1940) and Jameson
(1949) mention the possible role of Blarina in the reduction of numbers
of Sorex fumeus. That such may occur was also suggested by trapping
the same wooded area on Petersburg Mountain during two successive
years. Trapping during the fall of 1957 produced 10 Sorex fumeus and
78 Blarina ; trapping again during the following spring and summer
yielded 55 Sorex fumeus (as mentioned previously) and only 16 Blarina.
Possibly the high 1957 population of Blarina had held down the smoky
shrew population, while the low 1958 numbers of the larger shrew
(caused by exceptionally high winter losses, or my 1957 trapping?)
had allowed the Sorex to build up its population. These population
changes may have been entirely unrelated, and my figures may not be
comparable because trapping was not carried out at the same seasons
in both years.

During the record-breaking deep snows of January, February and
March 1958, Sorex fumeus was one of the few trappable species smaller
than squirrels, with such forms as moles, microtines and other small
shrews being very difficult to obtain. The use of small snap traps usually
was restricted to occasional spaces beneath log piles and upturned roots
of large fallen trees, and to snow passages beneath elevated logs or fallen
trees (depressions in the snow beneath the logs which were sometimes
used as highways of small mammal travel). As the season progressed,
snow gradually sifted into many of these places, making trapping more
and more difficult. Under such conditions, with most of the traps placed
on the snow in the snow passages, Sorex fumeus was often taken in

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

17

greater numbers than the other species. For example, on one line of
such traps in February, 6 Sorex fumeus , 3 Blarina and 3 Peromyscus
maniculatus were the only small specimens taken ; another area, trapped
in March, yielded just 11 Sorex fumeus , 2 Blarina , 2 P. maniculatus
and 2 P. leucopus. Smoky shrews were taken on top of the snow even at
below zero temperatures; one was caught in a rattrap baited with meat
for weasels and set in a large space under a fallen tree where there were
weasel tracks.

Reproduction. Hamilton (1940) gathered life history data on this
species near Rensselaerville in the southwestern part of Albany County,
just east of the region covered by this report. Findings in the present
study relating to reproduction for the most part agree with the more
extensive data given by that author. In the present study, gravid and
lactating females were taken from April to July (table 1) ; no non¬
breeding adult females were taken during these months. The first sign
of breeding activity among females was one with a swollen uterus on

Table 1

Reproductive data for female Sorex fumeus

DATE

NUMBER AND SIZE

NUMBER OF

PLACENTAL

SCARS

REMARKS

OF EMBRYOS

March 26, 1957

April 16, 1957

6 (7 mm.)

Uterus swollen

April 17, 1957

6 ( 11.5 mm. crown

Lactating

to rump)

April 24, 1957

April 27, 1958

5 (3 mm.)

6

Lactating

April 30, 1958

6

Recent parturition;

lactating ( ? )

April 30, 1958

Present

Recent parturition;
lactating ( ? )

May 2, 1958

5( ?)

Lactating

May 8, 1958

7

Recent parturition;

lactating

May 22, 1958

June 21, 1957

4 (7 mm. crown

7

Lactating

to rump)

June 24, 1958

Lactating

June 24, 1958

Lactating

July 3, 1957

July 5, 1958

1 (2.5 mm.)

Lactating

July 17, 1957

Present

Lactating

July 19, 1956

Lactating

18

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

March 26, but three other females taken in late March showed no evidence
of breeding activity. Embryo and placental scar counts average 5.3.

Young and subadult males which were taken during summer, fall and
winter, had small testes usually measuring less than 1 mm. to about
2 mm. in length. Testes of adult breeding males measured about 5 to
8 mm. in length. As early as February 24 (1957) a male appeared to
be coming into breeding condition, with testes measuring 4x3 mm., and
with conspicuous side glands. A male taken on March 5 (1957) had
minute testes, but all 10 males taken in the latter part of March (March
12-30, 1957, 1958) had enlarged testes and accessory structures. All
the adult males taken during April, May. June and July appeared to be
in breeding condition.

The first juvenile was trapped on May 30; after July the proportion
of adults to young decreased rapidly as the old population disappeared,
which is typical for these shrews, most of the adults apparently dying off
in late summer (Hamilton, 1940). An adult male with enlarged repro¬
ductive structures trapped on September 17 was, I believe, the latest
adult male taken in this study. However, a seemingly very old adult
female, with well-worn teeth, was trapped on December 13; this one
was probably entering its second winter.

Measurements. Thirty-nine adult males, all of which had enlarged
reproductive structures, average: weight, 8.0 grams (6.0-10.1) ; total
length, 119.6 mm. (114-129) ; tail, 46.2 mm. (41-51) ; hind foot,
12.7 mm. (12-13.5). Thirteen adult females (all pregnant or lactating)
average: weight, 8.1 grams (6.8-9.9) ; total length, 120.5 mm. (113-126) ;
tail, 45.1 mm. (40-49) ; hind foot, 12.7 mm. (12-13) . The heaviest smoky
shrew taken was a male in June weighing 10.1 grams. The heaviest
female taken was nursing, with enlarged mammary glands, and weighed
9.9 grams.

BIG-TAILED SHREW

Sorex dispar Batchelder

Specimens taken. 12 (Schoharie County), in June, July, October,
November and December.

Distribution and habitat. Although the big-tailed shrew is rare
and local, it may be looked for wherever, within its range, there are
suitable accumulations of talus on wooded mountain slopes. Rockslide
areas in Schoharie County are much smaller and less developed than
those of the nearby Catskill Mountains, and the most extensive ones 1
encountered were situated along the sides of the Schoharie Creek Valley.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

19

All 12 specimens were taken among talus rocks along the west face of
Reed Hill overlooking Schoharie Creek, at two closely adjacent localities,
1 1/2 and 2 miles north of Gilboa (11 specimens were taken at the first
locality). This species also may occur in small areas of talus at the
base of various ridges and cliffs which extend north along the valley
as far as Terrace Mountain near Central Bridge in the northern part
of the county. Many such areas examined however, seemed too shallow
and barren to afford suitable habitat for this species. Specimens taken
on this survey are apparently the first records for Schoharie County;
the species is unknown in Otsego County. Mearns (1898) and others
have taken this species at Hunter Mountain in the northern Catskills of
Greene County, about 20 miles southeast of Gilboa.

The habitat was similar in the two localities trapped in this study.
The elevation was about 1,300 feet in both areas, with steep slopes and
cliffs rising another 500 feet above the traplines to the summit of the
ridge. The loose rocks of sandstone were partly covered with humus and
leaf litter, and mosses and ferns were common ; passages extended deeply
among the rocks. The slope was rather thinly covered with a forest of
paper birch ( Betula papyrijera) , black birch ( B . lento) , other deciduous
trees and scattered groups of hemlock. Mountain maple (Acer spicatum ) ,
growing in tall shrub form, was abundant nearly everywhere. Sorex dis¬
par was taken in traps set in situations varying from on the surface in
strong daylight (at entrances to deep recesses) to dark cavities about
20 inches beneath the surface.

Sorex fumeus was the commonest shrew in the rock slide habitat ; in
the Sorex dispar localities five fumeus were trapped for every dispar
taken. Both of these species were frequently taken in the same trap cn
different days. No specimens of Sorex cinereus were taken in this habitat
(Richmond and Grimm, 1950, in certain rock slide areas of western
Pennsylvania found cinereus the most numerous shrew, with habits most
similar to dispar) . Blarina also was taken in the same rock crevices as
the two species of Sorex. Peromyscus leucopus and P. maniculatus gracilis
were both common among the rocks and over 100 of these mice were
taken in the same traplines that took big-tailed shrews ; red-backed mice
were not so common, less than a score being trapped. Two slimy
salamanders (Plethodon glutinosus) and a winter wren also were victims
of mousetraps set in rocky recesses in this same talus area.

Food habits. Table 2 summarizes 9 stomachs examined, of which
seven were from fall and two from summer. The small amount of plant
material in one stomach was perhaps accidentally ingested, although
this species, like other shrews, may not be averse to occasionally including
some plant food in its diet. Two additional stomachs (total of 11 ex-

20

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

amined) not included in the table contained nearly 100 percent rolled
oats which had been liberally sprinkled as bait near some of the traps.
All specimens were taken in traps which had the treadles baited with a
peanut butter-rolled oats mixture, both with and without the addition
of anise oil.

Table 2

Stomach analyses of 9 Sorex dispar taken from June to November
near Gilboa, N. Y.

FOOD

OCCURRENCE

(number of
STOMACHS )

PERCENT OF

VOLUME

Diptera (adults) ..............................

5

38.3

Orthoptera ( Ceuthophilus ) .....................

5

17.2

Coleoptera- (adults) ............................

1

7.7

Hymenoptera (ant pupae) ......................

Undetermined insects ( adults and larvae, including

1

1.1

probably at caterpillar) ......................

2

10.6

Spiders .......................................

4

14.7

Centipedes ....................................

2

9.2

Plant material .................................

1

1.1

Remarks. Big-tailed shrews seemed easiest to catch in autumn. In¬
tensive trapping in their habitat in summer, 1957 and 1953 (2,985 trap
nights) yielded only two specimens, and in spring, 1958 (1,505 trap
nights) none; in the fall of 1957, between October 26 and December 6
(3,161 trap nights) 10 were trapped. In contrast, Richmond and Grimm
( 1950) found spring the best season for trapping this species and trapped
almost all of their specimens then, taking only one in the fall months.
In both studies, few specimens were secured In the summer months, the
season in which most small mammal collecting is done; but Holloway
(1957) trapped 12 specimens at Bear Cliff (elevation 4,000 feet) in
Giles County, Virginia, in July. Richmond and Grimm (1950) suggest
that changes in the habits of these shrews such as change in feeding
behavior or increased activity associated with breeding may be impor¬
tant in effecting their capture.

In the present study, a drop in temperature in the fall appeared to
increase the catch. For example, traps were set iy2 miles north of
Gilboa on October 22, and from that date through the morning of the
25th the weather was warm (with rain) , and no Sorex dispar were taken.
Then the weather turned colder (with snow) for the period October 26

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

21

to 28 and five dispar were taken in that short period. From October 29
until November 5 a mild spell with rain prevailed and just one of these
shrews was secured during that time. Then it turned much colder during
the night of November 5 and two dispar were in the traps the next
morning. Perhaps the low temperatures, by reducing invertebrate ac¬
tivity, caused more active searching for food and greater receptivity to
bait on the part of the shrews. This idea is supported by the work of
Fitch (1954) which indicates that seasonal differences in trapping suc¬
cess with many small mammals depends on the degree to which the
animals are attracted to bait at different times.

The monthly distribution of the catch is as follows: June (1 adult
male) ; July (1 immature male) ; October (1 adult male, 4 immature
males) ; November (1 adult female, 1 immature male, 2 immature
females) ; December (1 immature female). Of the 10 fall specimens, the
two old adults, trapped October 28 and November 11, differed markedly
in appearance from the eight immatures. The adults showed characteris¬
tics of advanced age and, being in their second autumn, were probably
14 to 18 months old. The teeth were well worn down, tails were nearly
hairless and with a large portion of the tip end completely bare (tails
well haired and tips penciled with long hairs in the young), and, in
contrast to the immatures, the ear pinnae were bare and exposed and
thus quite conspicuous, apparently due to loss of hair. The old ones
were probably near the limit of their lifespan, since apparently very
few adult Sorex survive after the end of the summer.

Reproduction. Little information was obtained relating to repro¬
duction. An old adult male trapped on October 28 was apparently still
in breeding condition (testes 4 mm. long, accessory structures large,
tubules of cauda epididymis conspicuous), as probably was one on June
20 (testes 6 mm. long) . The remainder of the males were immature, with
testes not over 1.5 mm. long. No breeding females were taken.

Measurements. Three adults average: weight, 5.1 grams (4.5-6.0) ;
total length, 124.3 mm. (120-128) : tail, 55.7 mm. (55-57) : hind foot,
13.3 mm. (13-13.5). Average measurements of nine immatures are:
weight, 4.0 grams (3. 5-4.5) ; total length 121.2 mm. (116-128) ; tail,
56.8 mm. (56-59) ; hind foot, 1.3 mm. (12.5-13.5). The heaviest speci¬
men was the June adult male, which weighed 6.0 grams. The fall adults
weighed less, the male 4.7 grams, the female 4.5 grams. All males together
averaged 4.5 grams (3.8-6.0), females 4.0 grams (3. 5-4.5) ; in other
measurements the sexes were similar.

22

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

PYGMY SHREW

Microsorex hoyi thompsoni (Baird)

Specimens taken. 3 (Otsego County, 1; Schoharie County, 2).

Distribution and habitat. This tiny mammal was first taken on
November 14, 1956, in Gilbert Lake State Park, and two additional
specimens were secured on June 18 and July 14, 1958, on Petersburg
Mountain near Cobleskill. All were trapped in tin cans sunk in the
ground and partly filled with water; the cans were about 7 inches deep
and 4^/2 to 6 inches wide. The fact that this species was taken only in
the two areas in which these cans were intensively used and that none
were caught in snap traps argues that this shrew may be more common
than indicated by the conventional method of small mammal collecting.

The habitats at both localities were rather similar, being open situa¬
tions along the edge of woods. At Gilbert Lake the catch was made at an
elevation of 1,600 feet among blackberries, raspberries and goldenrods
growing along the edge between a white pine-red maple woodland and a
grassy, weedy, cabin clearing. On Petersburg Mountain, the captures
were made at 2.300 feet in a fire tower phone line clearing about 30 feet
wide cut through sugar maple woods ; here the two cans catching Micro¬
sorex were set (1) next to the remnant of a decayed stump, and (2) under
a pile of old, rotten logs. The clearing was grown up to sedges, grasses,
ferns (chiefly Dryopteris spinulosa) , and raspberry ( Ruhus sp.). In this
locality Parascalops, Sorex cinereus , Sorex fumeus and Synaptomys were
taken in the same cans with Microsorex; the two species of Sorex were
common in both areas where pygmy shrews were collected.

Remarks. A male trapped on June 18 was an adult apparently in
breeding condition, with testes about 3 mm. long, accessory structures
correspondingly large, tubules of the cauda epididymis readily visible
under the low power of the binocular dissecting microscope, and side
glands well-developed and conspicuous externally. Measurements of this
male are: weight, 3.6 gms. ; total length, 91 mm.; tail, 32.5 mm.; hind
foot, 10 mm.

The other two shrews are young individuals. A male taken July 14
weighed 2.2 grams and measured 85-31-9.5; it had testes not over 1 mm.
long, and the side glands were much less conspicuous than in the adult
male, although internally visible as reddish oval areas on each side
5-6 mm. long. An immature female taken November 14 weighed 2.5
grams with external linear measurements 82-29-9.5.

One stomach examined contained the remains of a rather large ground
beetle of the family Carabidae.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

23

Additional specimen from Otsego County. Since the above ac¬
count was written I have received from John Whitaker information
regarding an individual taken by him near his home on July 3, 1958.
This specimen, an immature female, was taken in an ordinary mouse
snap trap about two miles north of Oneonta at an elevation of 1,700 feet.
The shrew was caught at the entrance of a chipmunk-sized burrow on
the edge of a grove of pines, adjacent to fields containing young pines
up to 10 feet tall; the ground was heavily covered with a species of Carex .
The stomach of the shrew held the remains of a small beetle. Measure¬
ments are as follows: weight 2.5 grams; total length, 82 mm.; tail,
29 mm.; hind foot, 9.5 mm.

SHORT-TAILED SHREW

Blarina brevicauda talpoides (Gapper)

Specimens taken. 948 (Otsego County, 449; Schoharie County,
499), in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. Blarina is one of the most abundant of
small mamals and occurs in nearly all habitats. More of these shrews
were trapped than any other mammal species, and only Peromyscus
(both leucopus and maniculatus collectively) were taken as frequently.
Short-tailed shrews seemed especially common in deciduous and mixed
deciduous and coniferous forests where friable soil or deep leaf mold
encouraged a high population of tunneling mammals, and in fields and
meadows with dense grass or sedge cover such as is often favored by
meadow mice. In most localities, Blarina usually comprised between 20
and 50 percent of the total small mammal catch ; never did Blarina equal
as much as 60 percent of the catch, and in only a few instances less than
20 percent. In one wooded area a marked decrease in the numbers of
these shrews may have occurred between 1957 and 1958, as mentioned
under the account of Sorex fumeus.

In some habitats, at least locally during the period of this investiga¬
tion, Blarina was relatively scarce and seemed to make up only a very
small percentage of the small mammal population. These habitats in¬
cluded certain coniferous forest areas, such as deep hemlock woods,
an arbor vitae swamp ( Sorex cinereus common) and a stand of mature
red spruce, balsam fir and hemlock. On talus slopes Blarina was often
rather uncommon and usually much outnumbered by Sorex fumeus ,
although always found to be present in this habitat. Trapping indicated
that grazed upland pastures had the fewest short-tailed shrews of any
habitat, probably because of the poor cover and tunneling conditions;

24

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

here Peromyscus leucopus was the commonest species, with Blarina
being generally restricted in these areas to stone walls, occasional low,
wet spots of denser vegetation and the like.

Short-tailed shrews were trapped in almost every conceivable terrestrial
situation in the various habitats: in tunnels of Parascalops, Condylura
and microtines, as well as in tunnels of their own making ; in woodchuck
holes; in recesses among rocks; on the outside and inside of logs and
stumps; under roots of trees; at snow tunnels in winter; and in base¬
ments and at holes in the foundations of houses. On the surface of the
ground these shrews were not infrequently caught in rattraps baited
with meat or walnuts.

Remarks. At times these large shrews were seen running about on
the surface of the ground, and occasionally their chirping voice, a high-
pitched, musical “twitter,55 was heard. On July 4, 1957, I observed
considerable activity involving two of these shrews, perhaps mating
behavior. While “bird watching55 from a car about an hour before sunset
in an old field area where the dirt road was bordered with shady, over¬
grown stone walls I heard assorted chirping notes on the ground nearby.
Then two short-tailed shrews were seen boldly chasing each other about
in plain view over the leaves and among the rocks and bushes near a
decaying wall, and only a few feet from the car. They continued to
run about for a few moments, calling almost continually, and eventually
in the excitement one ran out on the road and directly under the car,
where it remained for a few moments. Finally the two ran together along
a ditch, then separated on reaching some bushes, one running off to
disappear among some rocks which had fallen from the old wall.

An entirely white albino Blarina with pink eyes, an adult male appar¬
ently in breeding condition, was trapped on March 29, 1957, near
Cooperstown. Five others from different localities had small amounts
of white in the pelage. Four shrews had the tail partly white, varying
from just the tip to three-fourths of its length; one of these had the hind
feet and a spot on the left side of the rump also white, while another
shrew had a small patch of white-tipped hairs on its left flank.

Reproduction. Reproductive data for female short-tailed shrews are
given in table 3. The December pregnancies indicate unusually late breed¬
ing for Blarina; another female from the same locality on December 7
had recently finished nursing. Most studies have indicated that the
breeding season terminates in September or early October. However,
Roslund (1951) states that occasional pregnant females are taken as late
as November. Rhoads (1903) differs from other authorities in stating
that young may be born at all seasons of the year, although less fre-

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

25

quently in winter, but he gave no specific instances of winter breeding.
In addition to the data given in the table, 18 lactating females were taken
on the following dates: May 17, 23, 24 (2), 1957; June 30, 1956;
July 3, 26 (2), 1956; July 16 (2), 1957; July 5, 1958; August 2, 10, 14,
1956; September 25, 28, 1956; September 25, 1957; October 1, 1956.
Twenty-one embryo and placental scar counts average 5.1 young.

Table 3

Reproductive data for female Blarina brevicauda

DATE

NUMBER AND SIZE

OF EMBRYOS

NUMBER OF

PLACENTAL

SCARS

REMARKS

April 3, 1957

Recent parturition

April 4. 1957

4 (6 mm. crown

to rump)

April 15, 1958

5 (5 mm.)

April 18, 1957

6 (3 mm.)

May 2, 1958

4 (8 mm. crown

to rump)

May 8, 1958

5 (13 mm. crown

to rump)

May 22, 1958

6

Lactating

May 22, 1958

6

Lactating

May 23, 1958

6

Lactating

May 24, 1957

4 (4 mm.)

June 19, 1958

6 (6 mm.)

June 21, 1956

5

June 21, 1958

6 (9 mm. crown

to rump)

July 4, 1957

3

Recent parturition;

lactating

July 5, 1956

5 (3 mm.)

July 20, 1956

5 (1 mm.)

August 8, 1956

6 (10 mm.)

August 8, 1956

5 (10 mm.)

August 8, 1956

5 (12 mm.)

August 30, 1956

6

December 3, 1956

4 (14 mm. crown

to rump)

December 6, 1956

5 (8 mm. crown

to rump)

Measurements. Thirty-five adult females without embryos average:
weight, 18.6 grams (15.5-22.7) ; total length, 124.6 mm. (116-134) ; tail,
27.1 mm. (24-32) ; hind foot, 14.3 mm. (13-16).

26

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

HAIRY-TAILED MOLE

Parascalops breweri (Bachman)

Specimens taken. 59 (Otsego County, 27; Schoharie County, 32),
in every month except January, February and March.

Distribution and habitat. This is the common mole in most wood¬
land and open habitats in the region, although outnumbered by Condylura
in wet and mucky soils. Parascalops was common in such diverse situa¬
tions as the sandy, alluvial soil of woods and open fields along Schoharie
Creek at an altitude of 600 to 700 feet, and in the rocky humus of wood¬
lands on the tops of the higher hills at elevations of 2,000 to 2,300 feet.
About half of the specimens were trapped in woodlands of northern
hardwoods (sugar maple generally common) and hemlock, where Sorex,
Blarina, Synaptomys, Pitymys and other small mammals were frequently
taken in the large tunnels of this mole in the humus. In five different
localities, single specimens were taken in wet ground in association with
Condylura: in a sedge meadow, in swampy woods, in weeds and thickets
along streams and on the marshy fringe of a lake. Eadie (1939) found
that Parascalops did not permanently occupy places where the soil was
very wet.

In many areas where these moles occur there is often little surface
“sign” to suggest their presence (although probing reveals their tunnels) ,
but in open fields and gardens their workings are often conspicuous;
these include numerous low, winding tunnel ridges several feet long and
mounds of pushed-up earth. In the spring of 1958, many surface ridges
were noted in gardens when they became exposed by the melting of the
snow. These shallow tunnels continued to be occupied for a while after
the snow left, but were later abandoned when the ground dried out.

Most of these moles were taken by snap traps placed in their tunnels ;
occasionally, they were secured with spear-type mole traps used when
the snap traps were consistently covered with dirt and rendered useless
by the activities of the moles. In the woods, several individuals were
trapped on the surface of the ground next to or inside of large punky
logs. Five hairy-tailed moles were caught in sunken tin cans; four of
these fell into a single can set next to a large rotten log over a six-week
period in midsummer.

Food habits. Thirty-five stomachs from specimens trapped during
spring, summer and fall were examined. Insects, earthworms and other
invertebrates made up most of the food, as summarized in table 4. Plant
matter was chiefly small roots and fragments of dead leaves and stems.
The single feather, as well as much of the plant matter, was probably
unintentionally ingested. The principal food items are the same as those
recorded by Eadie (1939).

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

27

Table 4

Stomach analyses of 35 Parascalops breweri taken from
April to December

FOOD

PERCENT

FREQUENCY

OF OCCURRENCE

PERCENT

OF VOLUME

Coleoptera ( adults ) ............................

51.4

13.1

Coleoptera (larvae) . . . . .

48.6

13.8

Diptera (larvae) . . . .

51.4

14.8

Ants ( adults ) . . . .

28.6

8.1

Ants (pupae) . .

17.1

5.3

Lepidoptera (larvae) . . . . . .

5.7

.9

Hymenoptera (larvae) .

5.7

.4

Unidentified insects (adults and larvae) ..........

48.6

10.6

Earthworms . . . .

45.7

21.3

Centipedes . .

31.4

6.3

Millipedes . . . . . .

17.1

2.6

Slugs . . . .

2.9

.6

Small feather . . . .

2.9

.1

Plant material . . .

37.1

1.9

Reproduction. An adult female trapped on April 16, 1958, had 4
embryos measuring 16-18 mm. (crown to rump) , while another taken the
next day had 5 large placental scars and showed evidence of recent par¬
turition. All the males trapped during April and May had enlarged
testes about 10 to 12 mm. long, while testes length in summer and fall
specimens was usually less than half this length.

Remarks. Of the 56 trapped specimens, males considerably outnum¬
bered females: there were 36 males and 20 females. Males slightly out¬
numbered females in each month’s catch.

Measurements. Twenty-four adult males average: weight, 51.5 grams
(45.5-62.8) ; total length, 164.8 mm. (155-173) ; tail, 31.3 mm. (29-33) ;
hind foot, 18.5 mm. (18-19.5). Twelve nonpregnant adult females aver¬
age: weight, 45.4 grams (41.0-49.9) ; total length, 158.6 mm. (151-166) ;
tail, 30.1 mm. (26-33) ; hind foot, 17.8 mm. (16-19).

STAR-NOSED MOLE

Condylura cristata cristata ( Linnaeus )

Specimens taken. 21 (Otsego County, 13; Schoharie County, 8),
in March, June, July, August, September and October.

Distribution and habitat. This unique mammal is common through¬
out the area and may be expected wherever there are low, moist situa¬
tions. It seemed most numerous in the mucky soil and wet ground of
open areas beside streams and ponds and in meadows, where various
sedges, grasses, weeds and shrubs grew in profusion. These moles were

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

also taken in small, damp spots in upland fields, and in woods, both
deciduous and coniferous. In woods, except in swampy places and by
streams, this species is uncommon in this region, yet one specimen was
taken in a relatively dry maple beech woodland on the summit of a hill
where 17 hairy-tailed moles were collected.

Star-nosed moles were trapped with unbaited mousetraps set cross¬
wise in their tunnels, and also in surface runways which were situated
beneath rank vegetation or imbedded in sphagnum. Usually no more
than one or two of these moles were taken on a trapline ; many traps set
in their tunnels were covered by earth or new routes were established by
the moles around the traps. On several occasions in summer these moles
were seen crossing (or found dead on) secondary roads.

On a low golf green located between the shores of Otsego Lake and an
extensive swampy area, much mole damage was seen in the winter and
spring of 1957. The caretaker spoke of his annual and unsuccessful
attempts to rid the premises of moles. Scores of mounds dotted the
green, and star-nosed moles were taken in traps set down in tunnels
6-10 inches beneath the turf. No other species of mole was taken at this
locality. Many of the mounds were old, but new mounds appeared on
the bare ground here during an unusually big thaw in late January.

Food habits. Of 12 summer and fall stomachs examined, 2 were
empty; of the remaining 10, all except 1 held earthworms, which in
volume comprised 83 percent of the food. Remains of slugs and insects
were present in several stomachs. Four stomachs contained plant remains,
in three instances apparently extraneous matter accidentally ingested;
however, one stomach was entirely filled with plant material, suggesting
more than accidental intake; this material included rootstock of sedge
{Car ex) and unidentified stems. This stomach was from the individual
trapped in the hilltop woods, as mentioned earlier, where this species
seemed far removed from its usual habitat.

Reproduction. Little reproductive data was obtained for this species,
since most specimens were collected outside of the spring breeding season.
A male trapped on March 29 had greatly enlarged testes measuring
22 x 12 mm. The long tail of this mole becomes swollen during the
winter and spring; fat stored therein may act as a temporary supply of
energy useful in the breeding season (Eadie and Hamilton, 1956). An
adult male trapped as early as October 23 had a notably swollen tail.

Measurements. Eleven males average: weight, 52.3 grams (42.0-
58.0) ; total length, 196.5 mm. (183-204) ; tail, 77.4 mm. (71-85) ; hind
foot, 28.2 mm. (26-34). Ten females average: weight, 46.9 grams (43.3-
55.2) ; total length, 190.4 mm. (182-199) ; tail, 75.6 mm. (72-79) ; hind
foot, 27.3 mm. (25-29).

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

29

LITTLE BROWN BAT

My otis lucifugus lucifugus (Le Conte)

Specimens taken. 178 (Otsego County, 112; Schoharie County, 66).

Summer colonies. This is the most abundant bat of the region, and
I believe it outnumbers all the other species of bats combined during
the summer months. Likewise, Mearns (1898) referred to this species
as the commonest bat in the Catskills. Large summer maternity colonies
are to be found in buildings in both of the counties covered in this
report. In early September 1956, we collected 90 little brown bats in
attics of old inhabited houses in Cooperstown near the shores of Otsego
Lake; these bats were chiefly adult females and immatures, but several
adult males also were present. In each of three attics visited between
September 4 and September 12 an estimated 40 to 60 bats were present ;
many bats had probably already left the summer roosts, since very few
bats were found during this period in several attics which had abundant
signs of occupancy. Perhaps several thousand little brown bats inhabit
the village as a whole during the summer, since a large proportion of
the attics have colonies. We were told that bats had been present in
some of the homes continuously for at least 30 years. Large accumula¬
tions of droppings, frequently several inches, and occasionally as much
as a foot deep were seen beneath favorite roosting spots.

At an old mansion near the northern end of Otsego Lake we found
several little brown bats hanging behind shutters and in outbuildings;
these bats were perhaps the remains of a once flourishing colony, for
we were informed that hundreds had occupied the main building before
the place was caulked up a few years previously. In Gilbert Lake State
Park this is the common species of bat roosting in the buildings. The
Old Stone Fort in the village of Schoharie has a well known summer
colony which has been visited by several biologists. Benton (1958)
reported on this breeding colony, and Griffin (1945) banded bats here
(one bat banded September 9, 1939, was retaken March 2, 1941, in
Haile’s Cave, Albany County). When we collected bats here on July 29,
1957, I estimated there were perhaps 500 bats in the building.

All of our evening collecting and observations of flying bats over lakes
and ponds in the more remote wooded sections as well as near villages
indicated that this was the commonest bat throughout the region. This
species was often observed hunting very low over the water; when noted
hunting near shore in this manner they were sometimes easily captured
with a long-handled insect net and a flashlight. Little brown bats also
were observed at times hunting higher above the water, or in small
openings between the trees near shore, and also over fields, and above

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

the shade trees and about the street lights in the villages. Scattered single
specimens were found in summer behind shutters of cottages and in
barns, while one was located behind a loose shingle of an old covered
bridge. John Whitaker found two bats of this species in Benson’s Cave,
Schoharie County, on June 19, 1955.

Hibernation. With the approach of cold weather, little brown bats
normally move into caves for the winter. In fall, these bats were seen
over their hunting grounds at least as late as the end of September.
In spring, an active bat of this species was seen on March 13, 1957,
hanging under the eaves of a cottage near Otsego Lake; it was easily
disturbed and flew away. In the northern part of Schoharie County and
in neighboring counties are numerous caves which harbor these bats in
winter, although apparently not often in such large concentrations as
are to be found in many summer colonies. Griffin (1940) reported that
as early as the middle of August in 1939 many Myotis lucifugus were
hibernating in caves in Albany and Schoharie Counties; Mohr (1945)
states that this appears to be the only such instance known for the
northeastern states. In Baryte’s Mine, an abandoned mine tunnel near
the village of Howe’s Cave, no bats could be found from July to Septem¬
ber 1958, but a small number of hibernating bats of this species were
noted hanging singly from early October through the winter. In this
mine Myotis keenii outnumbered M. lucifugus , while during the winter
months here Eptesicus fuscus also was more common than the present
species.

It is generally held that bats of this species entirely desert their summer
roosts in buildings with the approach of cold weather. There is a possi¬
bility that a small number may remain all winter in some buildings,
although, at best, buildings must present much less satisfactory hiber¬
nating conditions than caves. On February 7, 1957, I received a fresh
male specimen of this species from The Farmers’ Museum in Coopers-
town; it was found lying dead where it had presumably fallen from
the rafters of the ceiling above (having succumbed to unsatisfactory
hibernating conditions?). Repeatedly I heard assertions from owners
of houses possessing summer colonies that some of the bats remain in
the attics all winter, although other owners stated that as far as they
knew their attics were free of bats in winter. One person mentioned
seeing bats hanging in his attic at Christmas time, recalling the season
because he had gone into the attic to get tree ornaments. Of course, it
is possible that big brown bats, which are reported to hibernate in
buildings, move into these attics in winter, although no information was
obtained which would indicate that this is the case, and no big brown
bats were seen in or near the Myotis lucifugus colonies in summer.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

31

Measurements. Fifteen adult males average: weight, 8.8 grams
(7.5-10.4) ; total length, 94.7 mm. (89-100) ; tail, 39.1 mm. (36-41) ;
hind foot, 10.1 mm. (9.5-11) ; ear from notch, 16.1 mm. (15-17) ; fore¬
arm, 38.4 mm. (37-39.5) ; wingspread 268.8 mm. (257-280). Forty-eight
nonpregnant adult females average: weight, 9.4 grams (7.3-11.0) ; total
length, 96.4 mm. (92-102) ; tail, 39.6 mm. (35-44) ; hind foot, 10.5 mm.
(9.5-11) ; ear from notch, 16.5 mm. (15-18) ; forearm, 38.3 mm. (36-
40) ; wingspread, 270.3 mm. (260-282). The tragus was about 7 mm.
in length in almost every specimen. Measurements given were all taken
from bats collected from late July to the middle of September; a large
proportion were September specimens, most of which had already ac¬
cumulated considerable fat.

KEEN’S BAT

Myotis keenii septentrionalis (Trouessart)

Specimens taken. 12 (Schoharie County) .

Remarks. Hamilton (1943) states that this species is far more
abundant than specimens in collections would indicate and that it is
rather common in New York. All our summer specimens of Myotis ,
including those collected over several ponds and lakes or found hanging
singly behind shutters of cottages, were the common M. lucifugus. Thus
I have concluded that keenii is undoubtedly present and probably com¬
mon in summer, but that it must be considerably outnumbered by
lucifugus in most localities.

All individuals collected came from Baryte’s Mine, near the village
of Howes Cave, Schoharie County, where the bats were noted on several
visits to the mine between October 15, 1958, and March 24, 1959. On
October 15, six keenii were present (all 6 were collected) ; on October 31,
12 of these bats were counted (1 taken) ; on November 10, at least 18
of these bats were present (4 taken) ; on January 8, diligent searching
revealed only 5 of this species (1 taken) ; on February 7 and March 5,
again only 5 could be found, while on March 24, 7 were seen. On
October 31 and November 10, keenii was the most numerous bat in
the mine, with only a small number of little brown bats, pipistrelles, and
one big brown bat keeping them company. During the winter Eptesicus
was the commonest species in the mine. It appears that the Keen’s bats
utilized the mine in increasing numbers during October and November,
but that most of them moved on later in the season, perhaps to a larger
cave. Baryte’s Mine is an abandoned mine tunnel which extends for
about 300 feet horizontally into the side of a hill, and it is about 6^
feet in height throughout much of its length; the mine is located at an
altitude of 800 feet and its entrance overlooks Cobleskill Creek.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

The Keen’s bats usually were found hanging singly; sometimes two
were together. They were in positions not unlike those chosen by the
pipistrelles and little brown bats, chiefly hanging in or wedged in cracks
in the ceiling, but occasionally hanging on the wall; one was found
wedged in a small drill hole only two feet above the floor. These bats were
rather well distributed throughout the mine, being found from near the
entrance in deep cracks to the warmer, more humid rear of the mine.
The walls and ceiling of the mine were wet, and as the season progressed
some of these bats became silvery with glistening droplets of water on
their fur. Two wedged together in a crack in the ceiling apparently did
not change their positions between January 8 and March 24.

Measurements. Four adult males average: weight, 8.0 grams (7.3-
8.9) ; total length, 94.3 mm. (92-98) ; tail, 41.3 mm. (38-44) ; hind
foot, 9.0 mm. (8. 5-9.5) ; ear from notch, 18.5 mm. (18-19) ; tragus,
9.0 mm. (8-9.5) ; forearm, 35.8 mm. (34-38) ; wingspread, 252.5 mm.
(247-260). Three adult females average: weight, 8.5 grams (7.0-9.6) ;
total length, 94.0 mm. (93-96) ; hind foot, 9.8 mm. (9-11) ; ear from
notch, 18.7 mm. (18-19) ; tragus, 9.0 mm. (9) ; forearm, 36.3 mm. (35.5-
37) ; wingspread, 256.3 mm. (250-263) .

EASTERN PIPISTRELLE

Pipistrellus subflavus obscurus Miller

Specimens taken. 4 (Otsego County, 1; Schoharie County, 3).

Remarks. Pipistrelles are probably rather generally distributed,
although not abundant, in the region. Only one was collected in summer,
a male found September 7, 1956, hanging from the ceiling of a small
abandoned outbuilding adjacent to a small wooded ravine near Otsego
Lake. Other buildings nearby were inhabited by several Myotis hicifugus.
In winter, pipistrelles occur regularly in small numbers in the caves of
Schoharie County and adjacent areas. In October 1958, three hiber¬
nating males hanging singly were collected in Baryte’s Mine ; none were
seen here on several visits from July to September. John Whitaker col¬
lected three in Baryte’s Mine on November 24, 1956, and two in
McMillen Cavern on May 28, 1955; he also recorded the species as
present in Mitchell’s Cave, in Montgomery County just north of this
region, on December 5, 1954.

Measurements. Four males average: weight, 7.5 grams (6. 1-8.7) ;
total length, 86.3 mm. (84-89) ; tail, 39.5 mm. (39-41) ; hind foot,
9.6 mm. (9-10) ; ear from notch, 14.8 mm. (14-15) ; forearm, 34.0 mm.
(32.5-35.5) ; wingspread, 245.5 mm. (239-250).

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

33

BIG BROWN BAT

Eptesicus fuscus fuscus (Palisot de Beauvois)

Specimens taken. 32 (Otsego County, 2; Schoharie County, 30).

Remarks. During the warmer months a small number of these bats
were collected or observed in flight, but no large summer concentrations
were found. All summer bat colonies investigated were composed ex¬
clusively of individuals of Myotis lucifugus. Mearns (1898) stated that
Eptesicus was common (region of Kaaterskill Junction, Catskill Moun¬
tains), while Merriam (1884) in speaking of the Adirondacks referred
to this species as “unquestionably the rarest bat found within the limits
of the region.”

During winter this is one of the common bats occurring in caves in
Schoharie County. Eptesicus remains active later in the fall than most
other bats. In Baryte’s Mine (described under the account of Keen’s
bat) in the fall of 1958 I saw none of this species until November 10,
when one was present along with about two dozen Myotis. But between
20 and 30 Eptesicus were counted on each visit to the mine during
January, February and March, when they outnumbered the smaller bats.
A few Eptesicus were on walls at the rear of the mine, but the majority
were near the entrance (on walls or in crevices) where the temperature
was lower and the walls drier than at the back of the mine; some were
hanging in strong daylight where there was a layer of ice on the floor
of the mine. Most of these bats were single, but one compact bunch of
6 was observed on February 7 in a shallow concavity in the wall near
the entrance, and this cluster increased in size until it consisted of 11
bats on March 24. There was evidence of considerable shifting about
by big brown bats in the mine in winter.

Measurements. Two adult males average: weight, 20.5 grams, (19.9-
21.1) ; total length, 115.0 mm. (112-115) ; tail, 44.0 mm. (43-45) ; hind
foot, 11.3 mm. (10.5-12) ; ear from notch, 17.5 mm. (17-18) ; tragus,
7.5 mm. (7-8) ; forearm, 45.5 mm. (45-46) ; wingspread, 319.5 mm.
(318-321).

RED BAT

Lasiurus borealis borealis ( Muller )

Specimens taken. 2 (Schoharie County).

Remarks. The status of the red bat in this region is uncertain. One
was shot by Donald Miller at 9.30 p.m., E.D.T., on June 24, 1957, over
a small pond iy2 miles southwest of Hyndsville, where a hoary bat and
little brown bats also were collected. Another was found dead in a

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

mumified condition in a barnyard 1 mile west of Cobleskill in August
1957. Probably red bats are much more common than these two records
suggest. However, we made only a few probable sight observations of
this species and never were red bats in this region seen flying about
early in the evening or during daylight hours as they are accustomed
to do. It has been recorded from all sides of this region, although
Merriam (1884) states that it is among the least common bats in the
Adirondack region.

HOARY BAT

Lasiurus cinereus cinereus ( Palisot de Beauvois )

Specimens taken. 1 (Schoharie County).

Remarks. On July 24, 1958, at 9:15 p.m., E.D.T. (late twilight),
the author shot an adult female hoary bat over a small pond 1% miles
southwest of Hyndsville. Additional observations of hoary bats were
made at this locality but no others were collected. The pond, about 4y2
acres in extent, and known locally as Old Pond, is situated at an altitude
of 1,720 feet in hilly country where there is much abandoned farmland.
The pond is bordered chiefly by dry fields, only a fourth of the shore¬
line being bordered by mixed deciduous woods, hut the woods are con¬
tinuous with a nearby wooded slope. Probably in this region, as well as
in many other parts of the country, this large bat is more common than
the scanty records would indicate. In one season, A. K. Fisher, W. H.
Merriam and C. H. Merriam shot 19 specimens in and near the western
border of the Adirondacks (Merriam, 1884), although Merriam states
that scarcely a suitable evening passed during the entire season that
was not devoted to bat hunting. If this species came out earlier during
the summer evenings, undoubtedly more would be taken and we would
then have a better knowledge of its distribution at this time of the year.

The bat which was shot was not solitary, but was in company with
one, and possibly two of its kind ; one of these was also believed to have
been hit hut it was not recovered. Hoary bats were seen at Old Pond
several times during August, but the species was not definitely recorded
after the end of the month. Usually the hoary bats were first seen 15 to
20 minutes after the first little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) were noted,
and they could he seen for only a few minutes. On several nights I did
not see them at all, probably because they did not fly about until after
it was too dark for me to detect them. On two evenings hoary bats were
first seen flying swiftly along parallel and close to the shore, no more
than three feet above the water ; they passed close to me but disappeared

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

35

quickly into the gloom. Occasionally two were seen momentarily against
the fading western sky flying together above the pond about on a level
with the tops of the trees. The manner of flight as I observed it was always
powerful, swift and direct, and not at all erratic, in this respect agreeing
with the flight description given by Provost and Kirkpatrick (1952).
The long, narrow, pointed wings, and usually the large size, also were
distinctive in flight.

When shot, the bat fell into the water, but being merely wounded in
a wing swam swiftly to shore. When I approached to pick it up. the
bat opened its mouth wide in a threatening manner, and baring large
teeth, uttered rasping screeches, much louder and harsher than the cries
of My otis.

Food habits. The stomach of the single specimen collected was dis¬
tended with insects of the orders Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera,
Diptera and Orthoptera. Numerous wings of two or more species of
small plant bugs of the family Miridae were present, including probably
the common garden pest, Lygus pratensis.

Reproduction. All four nipples showed evidence of recent nursing,
while there seemed to be two faint placental scars, one in each horn of
the uterus (two young, born sometime in June, is usual in this species).
On July 1, 1953, at Syracuse, N. Y., Stegeman (1955) obtained a
freshly killed hoary bat with two well-grown young.

Measurements. Measurements of the single specimen are as follows:
weight, 26.8 grams ; total length, 144 mm. ; tail, 59 mm. ; hind foot,
11 mm. ; ear from notch, 20 mm. ; forearm, 55 mm. ; wingspread, 412 mm.

EASTERN COTTONTAIL

Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii (J .A. Allen)

Specimens taken. 16 (Otsego County, 5; Schoharie County, 11).

Distribution and habitat. This is the common rabbit throughout
these counties, occurring at all altitudes; several specimens were col¬
lected on the tops of the higher hills at elevations of 2,000 to 2,300 feet.
Cottontails are not restricted in habitat, and were not found to be
altogether absent in any of the major habitats covered in this survey.
In general, the presence of herbaceous and shrubby vegetation affords
good habitat for this species. Specimens were taken in deciduous woods
of maple and beech, and where hemlock or spruce predominated, as well
as in more open situations.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Food habits. During the summer, cottontails eat green grass and
other low herbaceous vegetation, but in winter rely heavily on twigs
and bark of woody plants. During winter, when there was considerable
snow on the ground, plants observed to be heavily browsed by this
species included staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) (bark of young stems) ,
hemlock (bark of twigs), silky osier ( Cornus ammomum) (chiefly stems
and branches less than 14 inch in diameter), and canes of raspberry
and blackberry; at this season rabbits also were noted to be feeding on
sprouts growing from the base of apple and of hornbeam ( Carpinus
caroliniana) , canes of rose, young stems of mountain maple ( Acer
spicatum) and striped maple (A. pennsylvanicum) , and twigs of beech
and basswood. During the deep snow of early 1958, cottontails came
nightly into the yards of our headquarters and other houses in residen¬
tial Richmondville to feed on cultivated roses and other shrubs.

Measurements. Four males taken in winter average: weight 1,275
grams (1,201-1,347) ; total length, 458.3 mm. (448-477) ; tail, 54.5 mm.
(45-68) ; hind foot, 102.0 mm. (100-105) ; ear from notch, 65.8 mm.
(65-67). Four females taken in winter average: weight, 1,184 grams
(1,006-1,370) ; total length, 472.0 mm. (455-480) ; tail, 69.8 mm.
(60-88) ; hind foot, 101.3 mm. (96-107) ; ear from notch, 63.0 mm.
(all 63).

NEW ENGLAND COTTONTAIL

Syivilagus transitionalis (Bangs)

Remarks. In this survey, rabbit collecting was limited and no speci¬
mens of transitionalis were taken. I do not know what the status of this
species is in the region, except that it is apparently much outnumbered
by floridanus. Probably it is not uncommon in wooded sections at higher
elevations in some areas, but floridanus was the only species we took in
such situations. Dr. Allen H. Benton informs me that there is a female
New England cottontail in the collection of the State University College
of Education at Albany which was taken by Richard Herodes on Decem¬
ber 25, 1957, at Warnerville, Schoharie County. Mearns (1898) recorded
this species from the upper Schoharie Creek Valley to the south of this
region in the Catskill Mountains of Greene County.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

37

EASTERN CHIPMUNK

Tamias striatus lysteri (Richardson)

Specimens taken. 138 (Otsego County, 70; Schoharie County, 68),
in every month except December and January.

Distribution and habitat. Chipmunks appeared to be common in wood¬
land and woodland edge habitats everywhere in Otsego and Schoharie
Counties during this study. Most woodland areas seemed to have their share
of these rodents, including various typesof deciduous and coniferous woods.
In the fall of 1956, chipmunks were observed to be particularly abundant
in a beech and sugar maple forest where other trees were scarce; here
there was an abundance of beechnuts and maple seeds on the ground on
which the chipmunks were feeding. In some stands of red spruce where
red squirrels were abundant, chipmunks also seemed to be everywhere.
This species was also found living on wooded talus slopes and in ravines,
along rocky fence rows where there were scattered trees, and in brushy
second-growth woods. Specimens were trapped under buildings in
suburban as well as woodland areas.

Food habits. The following foods were recorded, based on field ob¬
servations and the contents of 31 stomachs and the cheek pouches of
16 individuals. Seeds or nuts were present in most of the stomachs, but
usually were not specifically identifiable. Beechnuts, and seeds of maple,
hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) and Canada mayflower ( Maianthemum
canadense ) were found in the cheek pouches of chipmunks. The seeds
of hornbeam are at times eaten in large quantities, to judge from animals
observed feeding and the remains found on the tops of stumps; also
pieces of the leafy bracts were recognized in the stomachs. In September and
October nine chipmunks trapped had maple seeds (with the wing clipped
off) in their cheek pouches; these were chiefly seeds of sugar maple,
in one instance I believe striped maple. In one area, sign was noted where
chipmunks had evidently been feeding on beaked hazelnuts (Corylus
cornuta) . Raspberries, blackberries and nannyberries ( Viburnum len-
tago) were present in some of the stomachs; one individual had its
cheek pouches crammed with nannyberries. Animal food of various
types is relished by chipmunks. Insects (adults and larvae) were present
in 10 stomachs, while slugs were found in two stomachs and a snail
( Anguispira alternata ) was collected from the cheek pouch of 1 indi¬
vidual. One chipmunk had its stomach and cheek pouches distended with
pieces of young red-backed mice.

Hibernation. Chipmunks become dormant in winter, but usually not
for so long a period as the more profound hibernators such as wood-

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

chucks and jumping mice, and individuals are occasionally up and about
during mild spells in winter. In the fall of 1956 chipmunks were much
in evidence all through October and the first few days of November;
after that they were less often seen or heard, and the last one was trapped
on November 22. In 1958 one was observed regularly in our yard at
Richmondville up until November "21, after which it disappeared; on
March 5 a chipmunk, probably the same individual, was again active
in the yard. The earliest record in 1957 was February 15; after that
date a few were regularly seen during the latter part of the month, as
well as in March and April. In the spring of 1958 no chipmunks were
recorded until April 23 ; quite likely the deep snow cover which lingered
on into spring that year had much to do with delaying their emergence,
although probably some chipmunks were about before I recorded the
species.

Remarks. Reports were received of one or more “pure white” chip¬
munks in the vicinity of Van Hornesville near the northern border of
Otsego County; if true, this would be of interest in view of the fact
that Allen (1938) finds no record of albino chipmunks, which are
evidently uncommon.

Fifteen chipmunks trapped from August 1 to October 3 each had
one or two Cuter ehra (botfly) larvae, or scars indicating the recent
presence of these parasites; most of these larvae were located in the
inguinal and belly region.

Reproduction. There are two breeding periods in the eastern chip¬
munk, with young being born in spring or in midsummer (Yerger, 1955) .
Three gravid females were taken, as follows: March 28, 1957, 7 embryos
at 22-25 mm. crown to rump; July 12, 1956, 4 embryos at 12 mm.;
July 18, 1956, 7 embryos at 3.5 mm. Five placental scar counts are as
follows: April 3, 1957, 4 scars and lactating; August 16, 1957, 5 scars;
August 31, 1956, 5 scars; September 9, 1958, 4 scars and lactating;
September 11, 1958, 5 scars and lactating. The earliest male taken
(February 15) was evidently already in breeding condition, with testes
enlarged and descended. Several small young, newly out of the nest, were
seen along the roads as early as the last week in April, 1957 ; probably
these were born in the latter part of March.

Measurements. Thirty adult males average: weight, 92.8 grams
(81.1-108.7) ; total length, 246.3 mm. (227-263) ; tail, 94.2 mm. (83-
108) ; hind foot, 24.6 mm. (32-37). Twenty-four adult females without
embryos average: weight, 85.9 grams (71.2-104.7) ; total length,
244.4 mm. (231-259) ; tail, 94.8 mm. (87-105) ; hind foot, 34.5 mm.
(33-36).

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

39

GRAY SQUIRREL

Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus Orel

Specimens taken. 13 (Otsego County, 9; Schoharie County, 4).

Distribution and habitat. Gray squirrels are common and generally
distributed in this region, occurring on the higher hills, in the valleys
and about the villages. Most numerous in the heavily wooded sections,
they were frequently observed in the forests of northern hardwoods
with varying admixtures of hemlock, as well as in woods predomi¬
nately oak.

Remarks. During 1957 gray squirrels were believed to be especially
abundant, at least in Schoharie County, when they seemed to be every¬
where along the roads. In the same year the district game manager
reported records of extremely high populations for many areas in the
Catskill District, which includes Schoharie County (Anon., 1957). The
spectacular gray squirrel emigrations of early days and the smaller ones
of recent times, in which large lakes and rivers may be crossed, are
well documented. Heacox and Hall (1958) report that in the summer
of 1957 gray squirrels in large numbers swam east to west across
Schoharie Reservoir, which is located in the extreme southern part of
Schoharie County and in adjacent Greene and Delaware Counties; many
squirrels drowned in the attempt (on September 6 and 7, 88 drowned
squirrels were picked up by water supply employees) .

However, gray squirrels were not seen in many areas in which red
squirrels were common, and in most localities there were probably fewer
of the former than the smaller red and flying squirrels. But frequently
we observed gray squirrels living together in the same woods with red
and flying squirrels, even though several instances of reds pursuing grays
were noted.

In winter, gray squirrel activity is reduced during periods of deep
snow and low temperatures. Even then they may be about searching
for food, however, and these animals were seen abroad several times
when the temperature stood at about 0° F. and once during a blizzard.
Occasionally they were observed to strike out across deep snow in open
country, probably to reach isolated feeding areas, during periods of
severe weather when the reds remained in their nests or ventured out
only briefly in small areas of dense cover.

No black squirrels, melanistic individuals of this species which are
found in some parts of the State, were seen.

Reproduction. Litters of gray squirrels are brought forth in early
spring and again in summer, in two annual breeding seasons. One col¬
lected February 5, 1957, in Otsego County, had seven 6 mm. embryos.
A lactating female was taken July 13, 1956.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Measurements. Eight adults average: weight, 599.9 grams (520.2-
724.5) ; total length, 490.0 mm. (462-534) ; tail, 230.1 mm. (187-249) ;
hind foot, 67.6 mm. (61-71).

RED SQUIRREL

T amiasciurus hudsonicus loquax (Bangs)

Specimens taken. 75 (Otsego County, 36; Schoharie County, 39),
in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. Coniferous woods, mixed stands of
conifers and deciduous trees, and to a lesser extent purely deciduous
forests all support red squirrels. Stands of red spruce or red spruce
mixed with balsam and/or hemlock, although rather limited in this
region, usually had many red squirrels, with numerous cone middens and
burrows attesting to their abundance in such habitats; here, too, the
squirrels themselves were usually to be seen and heard. In one Otsego
County locality in late winter, 1957, a high population was encountered
in an arbor vitae swamp and adjacent brushy woods of thornapple
(Crataegus) , apple, nannyberry, staghorn sumach, wild grape etc.; here
their burrows and well-worn trails were everywhere in the snow, and
15 of these squirrels were taken in a dozen rattraps set for a two-week
period in an area of about an acre in size.

Woods of sugar maple, beech, yellow birch and hemlock were usually
inhabited by red squirrels, although here the animals did not seem to
attain the high numbers as exemplified by the habitats mentioned above.
Red squirrels were also observed and trapped in woods of sugar maple
and beech, red maple and oaks, beneath birches on talus slopes, and
under conifers along the edge of plantations and in cemeteries. Barns
and deserted buildings in rural areas showed evidence of considerable
use by red squirrels. Gray squirrels, flying squirrels and chipmunks
were all observed living alongside red squirrels in the same habitats.

Food habits. Red squirrels consume many seeds of coniferous trees,
and we often noted where they had been feeding on the cones of white
pine, red spruce and hemlock. In some stands of mature red spruce in
Schoharie County nearly every large tree had at its base a large pile of
scales of the husked cones. Hemlock, because of its more general dis¬
tribution in the region, is probably the most important conifer both as
regards food and shelter. In plantations, cones of Scotch pine ( Pinus
sylvestris) and white spruce ( Picea glauca ) were utilized. In an arbor
vitae swamp where the squirrels were plentiful, limited use of the seeds
of arbor vitae was indicated. Acorns of red and white oaks, butternuts,
shagbark hickory nuts, and fruits of apple, thornapple ( Crataegus ) and

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

41

nannyberry ( Viburnum lentago ) , were observed to be eaten extensively.
Late in the winter of 1957*58 much girdling of staghorn sumac was in
evidence; the bark was still being consumed by red squirrels at least as
late as the end of March. On April 23, 1958, a red squirrel was observed
in a large staghorn sumac, feeding on the fruit. In a cemetery in
February 1958, the ground in many places was littered with twigs of
white spruce with buds eaten out. Such food as acorns, nannyberries,
blueberries and even small puffballs were found buried in small pits in
the ground.

Twenty-two stomachs from various months were examined. Mast and
seeds were noted in 13 stomachs; fungi, including mushrooms, in 5;
green plant matter, including buds, in 4; fruit of thornapple in 3;
raspberries in 2; and apple, including probably bait, in 7.

Remarks. Red squirrels were noted to be active in the snow in tem¬
peratures as low as — 5° F., but seemed to be limited in their activity
or confined to thick coniferous cover during severe weather. Red squirrel
diggings in the snow were often seen, including tunnels and trails from
tree to tree and vertical burrows connecting with their burrows and
stores in the ground.

In February, two red squirrels were trapped on successive days at a
woodchuck hole. Judging from the position of the squirrels in the trap,
they were emerging from the hole when caught.

Several reports were received from local residents in Otsego County
of “pure white albino” red squirrels being observed or killed near
Oneonta and Mount Vision. We saw none of these, but two of the
squirrels collected showed a small amount of white spotting. A female
had the toes of the hind feet white, and the claws of the toes were also
without pigment. A male had a patch of white hairs on the dorsal
surface of the tail near its base, with a few scattered white hairs on
the rump.

Reproduction. There are two breeding seasons in the red squirrel,
most of the young being born in early spring or in summer (Hamilton,
1939; Layne, 1954). No pregnant females were taken in this study, but
lactating individuals were captured from March 31 to November 21;
number of placental scars ranged from 4 to 6. The November 21 lacta¬
tion date is, I believe, late for the species, October being the usual
termination of the breeding season; Layne (1954) obtained lactating
females as late as October 19, while Hamilton (1943) has found nest
young in late October in New York. Milk could be expressed from all
8 nipples of this late-nursing female (mammary tissue in two sheets
3-4 mm. thick, weighing about 16.3 grams), and there were 6 distinct
placental scars.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Measurements. Twenty adult females average: weight 198.9 grams
(175.5-236.5) ; total length, 324.6 mm. (310-349) ; tail, 128.4 mm.
(113-140); hind foot, 48.1 mm. (46-51). Sixteen nonpregnant adult
females average: weight, 195.5 grams (176.1-221.6) ; total length, 315.4
mm. (304-327) ; tail, 126.3 mm. (108-139) ;hind foot, 47.1 mm. (45-49).

SOUTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL

Glaucomys volans volans (Linnaeus)

Specimens taken* 29 (Otsego County, 14; Schoharie County, 15),
in every month except January, March and September.

Distribution and habitat. The small southern flying squirrel occurs
throughout these counties, but at higher elevations is probably outnum¬
bered by the northern flying squirrel. G. volans was common in various
kinds of woodland, and it was trapped in woods of sugar maple and
beech with varying percentages of hemlock and also in woods com¬
posed chiefly of red oak and white oak. In two localities in December
a total of 11 were trapped in stands of mature hemlock, where their
tracks were numerous in the snow. Perhaps winter activity is concentrated
in the shelter of conifers; tracks of this species and sahrinus at this season
seemed most numerous under hemlock, white pine and other conifers.

Most of the Otsego County specimens were trapped on the wooded
slopes and hills about Otsego Lake, where this species seemed to be
common. Rather intensive trapping in Gilbert Lake State Park in 1956,
however, produced only two flying squirrels ( sahrinus ) ; yet woodcutters
here spoke of occasionally seeing large groups of flying squirrels emerge
from trees being felled. Perhaps our trapping was done during a period
of low abundance in the area, unless some difference in their habits
here made trapping more difficult.

Food habits. Fifteen stomachs have been examined, from specimens
taken from February to October. Plant food accounted for 78.3 percent
of the total volume. This was chiefly unidentified mast and fungi ; foliose
lichens (August, 1 stomach), green buds (April and May, 2 stomachs),
and apple bait (April, 1 stomach) also were recognized. Animal food
(21.7 percent by volume) occurred in 6 stomachs and consisted of
insects and other invertebrates (including beetles and probably slugs).
In November, tracks and husked cones on top of a log showed where a
flying squirrel had been eating seeds of hemlock; a rattrap set on the
log secured one of this species.

Remarks. In February, the head of a squirrel of this species was
found in the stomach of a screech owl found lying dead on the snow in a

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

43

pasture; two days later the headless remains of one of these squirrels,
perhaps the same individual, was found under a hemlock in an adjacent
woodlot.

Several individuals of both species of flying squirrel were heavily
infested with mites, fleas and lice.

Reproduction. Females carrying 2 to 7 embryos were trapped dur¬
ing spring and summer, as follows : April 6, 1958, 4 embryos (2 mm.) ;
April 24, 1958, 2 embryos (14 mm. crown to rump) ; June 26, 1958,
lactating; June 31, 1956, 7 embryos (12 mm. crown to rump) ; August 2,
1956, 6 embryos (23-26 mm. crown to rump).

The sex ratio of 26 specimens was 50:50.

Measurements. Ten adult females average: weight, 69.0 grams
(62.9-81.9) ; total length, 237.4 mm. (232-247) ; tail, 107.6 mm. (101-
115) ; hind foot, 30.8 mm. (29-33) ; ear from notch, 20.7 mm. (20-22).
Six adult females without embryos average: 72.3 grams (65.5-78.1) ;
total length, 243.3 mm. (237-250) ; tail, 103.0 mm. (106-118) ; hind
foot, 30.7 mm. (29-32) ; ear from notch, 21.2 mm. (20-23).

NORTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL

Glaucomys sabrinus macro tis (Mearns)

Specimens taken. 37 (Otsego County, 4; Schoharie County, 33),
in every month except December.

Distribution and habitat. The northern flying squirrel in this part
of New York is as widely distributed as the better known southern
species. Specimens were collected at widely separated localities in the
two counties, although it appeared to be most numerous on wooded slopes
in the central and southern part of Schoharie County. On several trap-
lines in this area more of these animals were taken than any other species
of squirrel, and in deep woods at higher elevations in general it may
frequently be the commonest sciurid. Glaucomys sabrinus was trapped
at elevations ranging from about 1,000 to 2,300 feet; G. volans also was
trapped throughout this altitudinal range, but, whereas half (18) of the
sabrinus collected were caught at approximately 2,000 feet or above,
only three volans were taken this high, over two-thirds (19) of this
species taken being trapped at an altitude of 1,450 feet or lower.

However, there seems to be no outstanding difference in the habitat
preference of the two species of Glaucomys in this region. Both were
taken in deciduous woods, in mixed woods with much hemlock, and
in stands of conifers. Optimum habitat for G. sabrinus appeared to be
woods composed of such trees as beech, sugar maple, red oak, various

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

birches and other deciduous trees, with an admixture of hemlock or other
conifers, such as white pine. Half a dozen specimens were collected in a
woods of nearly pure sugar maple and beech, without conifers. Northern
flying squirrels also were taken in dark stands of red spruce, balsam
fir and hemlock. Specimens were trapped on steep talus slopes beneath
rather open growths of paper birch, black birch, mountain maple and
hemlock, where their tracks were numerous on snow-covered rocks in
winter.

Although there is probably complete overlap in the altitudinal dis¬
tribution of the two species of flying squirrel in the limited altitudinal
range present in this region, there seems to be some degree of segrega¬
tion in the two species, in that one woodland may be occupied by only
one of the species while a similar woodland nearby may be inhabited
by the other. On occasion, however, both are trapped in the same woods :
in three instances single specimens of volans were collected in woods
where two or more sahrinus were taken, and in one of these instances
both species were trapped on the same log. Trapping a series of five
localities along the valley of the West Kill and adjacent Burnt Hill in
Schoharie County demonstrated the way the two species may overlap
in one general area, seemingly without respect to type of woods, and
also how in this survey usually only one species was taken in the rela¬
tively small area covered by a trapline: (1) 1 mile northwest of North
Blenheim, elevation 1,050 feet, valley of West Kill, 5 volans were taken
in a stand of large hemlocks; (2) 1 mile upstream, elevation 1,060 feet,
7 sahrinus were taken in woods of hemlock, white pine, red oak, white
oak, and sugar maple; (3) 1 mile farther upstream, at Betty Brook,
elevation 1,300 feet, 3 sahrinus were taken under hemlock and white pine
growing among yellow and paper birches, beech, and oaks; (4) one-third
of a mile north, on Burnt Hill, elevation 1,400 feet, 4 volans were taken
in woods of white pine and red maple; (5) 1 mile northwest of last
locality, on Burnt Hill, elevation 1,960 feet, 1 volans and 2 sahrinus were
taken in sugar maple and beech.

Red squirrels, gray squirrels and chipmunks were often common in
the same woods where the nocturnal flying squirrels were trapped.

Food habits. Stomachs representing all months of the year except
August and December were examined (table 5). The contents of 7
summer stomachs (June 1 to September 12) were composed almost
entirely of mast and unidentified fungi, including mushrooms. Husked
hemlock cones at the base of trees probably often represented the work
of these squirrels. Of 8 spring stomachs (April 22 to May 29) all except
1 contained green buds, which constituted over a third of the volume;
some mast, including seeds of black birch ( Betula lenta) in 1 stomach,

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

45

fungi, bark, and animal remains were also included. Ten of the 15 winter
stomachs (January 24 to March 27) held green plant material, which
accounted for about a third of the volume. Two animals trapped on
January 24 had large stomachs crammed with the winter buds of hem¬
lock; many small hemlock twigs and needles noted on the ground in
some areas may have indicated feeding by these animals on the buds.
Two stomachs in February and March contained an abundance of
staminate catkins, apparently of yellow birch ( B . lenta) ; near where
these specimens were trapped the ground under a yellow birch was
strewn with twigs and catkins, and some of the latter were partly eaten
(in another area many yellow birch seed clusters on the ground were
thought to have been cut down by these squirrels) . Four specimens taken
in one area on March 19 and 20 contained many catkins of speckled alder
(. Alnus rugosa) , which was growing abundantly in a moist hillside open¬
ing near where the squirrels were trapped. A food which amounted to
less than a tenth of the volume of winter food but which was found in
7 out of 8 stomachs from one area in March was foliose lichens with
bits of bark; probably the lichens, common on elm, maple, and birch
in area trapped, were intentionally eaten by the squirrels, the bark
being accidentally ingested in the process. Mast, undetermined fungi
and animal remains were also represented in winter stomachs.

Table 5

Stomach analyses of 32 Glaucomys sabrinus taken throughout the year

FOOD

PERCENT

FREQUENCY

OF OCCURRENCE

PERCENT

OF VOLUME

Mast . . . . . .

37.5

25.3

Fungi . . . .

40.6

23.9

Green plant matter (chiefly buds, catkins) . .

59.4

23.7

Lichens and bark . . . .

28.1

3.7

Vertebrates (small birds and mammals).........

9.4

3.4

Invertebrates (insects and probably slugs) . .

18.8

2.3

Unidentified plant matter . . .

12.5

2.7

Apple bait . . .

34.4

15.0

Remarks. Most of the flying squirrels were collected with rat snap
traps placed on the ground at the base of large trees or on the tops of
logs and fallen trees, and baited with apples, walnuts or dead mice.
Apple proved to be the most convenient bait to use and seemed to attract
flying squirrels at least as much as the other baits.

During the deep snow of January, February and March 1958 (snow
20 to 32 inches deep in the woods), 16 northern flying squirrels were

46

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

taken on three different Schoharie County traplines in traps set at the
base of trees or in the space beneath fallen trees. With deep snow accumu¬
lated on the tops of stumps and logs, these objects were no longer used
as feeding spots or highways of travel by the squirrels, but numerous
tracks showed where these animals ran about beneath the shelter of
small hemlocks and other conifers in the woods, or where the animals
traveled across the snow from tree to tree. In one of these areas in
late January, with the snow about 2 feet deep, numerous tracks of this
species criss-crossed the snow beneath a group of about a dozen small,
young hemlocks 15 to 25 feet in height; the surrounding woods were
predominantly beech. Four traps placed here secured 3 adult female and
3 adult male G. sabrinus.

Besides the tracks, the tunnels and burrows of the animals also were
to be seen in the snow. The tracks showed where they investigated natural
cavities in the snow at the base of trees and where the lower branches
of the hemlocks were buried under the snow; the squirrels often enlarged
these cavities by tunneling vertically downward, perhaps to search for
food on the ground. At this same place on January 30 the rattraps were
found to be covered with 10 inches of fresh snow; above two of the
traps, set at the base of trees, were vertical snow tunnels made by flying
squirrels to get at the apple bait which I had placed on and near the
traps. One individual had tunneled down to the bait and was caught
by a snow-covered trap. Nearby, another tunnel showed where this or
another flying squirrel had burrowed down to get pieces of apple placed
near another trap, but the animal did not get caught in the trap. Here
the squirrel brought pieces of apple to the surface of the snow, and ate
them just outside the burrow, leaving pieces of apple skin on the snow.
At this same location there was also a large log sufficiently elevated
above the ground to permit the formation of a space beneath it which
was banked with snow along the sides, but judging from the tracks
beneath the log frequently traveled by flying squirrels. In several spots
where the snow had drifted beneath the log, blocking the passage, the
animals tunneled straight through; these horizontal tunnels somewhat
resembled weasel tunnels in the snow. Two G. sabrinus were taken in a
trap set under this log.

None were taken on windy winter nights, but temperature alone does
not seem to limit the activity of northern flying squirrels and they were
active on the snow at temperatures at least as low as — 10° F. One was
trapped in a night of heavy, I believe continuous rain, although no other
captures were made on rainy nights.

Owls are numbered among the deadliest enemies of flying squirrels.
An owl pellet, probably from a great horned owl, found beneath a tree

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

47

near Cobleskill contained the skull and hair of Glaucomys sabrinus.
A cat killed one of these squirrels in Gilbert Lake State Park while we
were there.

Two adult males from the same locality in Schoharie County in
March 1958, had small areas of white fur and probably were cases of
white spotting. One had a patch of white hairs on the left shoulder
region, the other a patch of white hairs on the back, near the base of
the tail.

Several more males than females were taken ; of 37 trapped individuals,
21 were males and 16 were females.

Reproduction. Females with 2 to 5 embryos or placental scars were
trapped, as follows: April 22, 1958, 2 embryos (24 mm. crown to rump) ;
May 25, 1957, lactating, with 5( ?) placental scars; May 27, 1958, lactat-
ing, with 5 placental scars; September 12, 1958, lactating, placental
scars present.

Measurements. Seventeen adult males average: weight, 99.2 grams
(80.7-111.0) ; total length, 272.9 mm. (264-284) ; tail, 122.9 mm. (115-
132) ; hind foot 36.3 mm. (34-39) ; ear from notch, 23.6 mm. (22-25).
Thirteen adult females without embryos average: weight, 101.0 grams
(76.5-125.0) ; total length 276.2 mm. (260-293) ; tail, 124.1 mm. (116-
134) ; hind foot, 36.8 mm. (34-39) ; ear from notch, 23.5 mm. (22-25).

DEER MOUSE

Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis (LeConte)

Specimens taken. 451 (Otsego County, 192; Schoharie County,
259), in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. The graceful, soft-furred deer mouse is
common in this part of New York, being found nearly everywhere in
the woods of sugar maple, beech and hemlock (and other forest types)
covering much of the hilly upland country. This was found to be the
common species of Peromyscus in woods in Gilbert Lake State Park, in
many ravines and wooded hills about Otsego Lake and Cooperstown,
in woods over large areas of Burnt Hill and of other hills in the central
and southern part of Schoharie County and in other areas.

At lower elevations leucopus outnumbers this species, but maniculatus
was taken as low as 1,050 feet in a hemlock woods, and, in a cool wooded
ravine at an elevation of only 1,300 feet, the catch of this species out¬
numbered leucopus by 17 to 1. Above about 1,000 feet there is a broad
area of overlap with leucopus , extending to the highest elevations trapped,
as mentioned under the account of that species. Sometimes, without any
reason apparent to me, one species would be dominant in one area

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

while the other species would be dominant in a different but similar
appearing area. But an examination of the trapping records shows that
maniculatus was usually the common species in the more mature wood¬
lands at and above about 1,600 feet (also was dominant on five traplines
in cool woods and ravines between 1,300 and 1,450 feet). Where the
two species occurred together, they were often taken about the same
logs and stumps or in the same rocky recesses, although some tendency
to segregation also was apparent. P. maniculatus did not, in the region
under consideration, show consistent affinity for certain seemingly “north¬
ern” habitats such as shaded talus slopes and deep woods of spruce
and hemlock; leucopus was just as apt to be taken in such areas, and
sometimes was the common species in these habitats at medium and
even at the higher elevations.

In general, this species may be said to be less flexible in regard to
habitat in comparison with leucopus. Very few were trapped far from
the shade of the forest trees. They occasionally venture out into the open,
marshy fringe of lakes in wooded areas. A small number, less than a
dozen altogether, were taken in old fields and other open habitats where
white-footed mice also were taken. Abandoned cabins and shacks in the
woods were often found to be occupied by these mice; sometimes both
species of Peromyscus were trapped in the same building.

A small number of Peromyscus collected in woodland habitats have
not yet been definitely determined, many of their external characters
being intermediate between the two species.

In the woods, both species of Peromyscus spend considerable time in
trees, and not infrequently have their nest in a cavity high above the
ground. Relatively few traps were placed on trunks or branches of trees,
yet a large proportion of such traps captured these mice. Deer mice were
taken in such situations as 5 feet above the ground on a large, flat
bracket fungus, 6 feet up on the horizontal branch of a white pine,
4 feet above the ground on a fallen tree trunk frequented by flying
squirrels, 4 feet up a leaning trunk, etc. These mice also utilize tunnels
of various small mammals in the leaf mold, and thus individuals have a
large vertical range.

Food habits. Foods noted in the stomachs or found as feeding sign
or in caches of these mice included seeds of hemlock, wild black cherry,
maple and raspberry, fleshy fungi, insects (including beetles and cater¬
pillars) and mammals. Two dozen fall and summer stomachs examined
contained chiefly seeds and mast, but with insects comprising 100 per¬
cent of the fare in some stomachs. In several instances these mice were
taken on the forest floor next to large, partly eaten mushrooms. These
mice do not disdain to feed on dead animals, and a January stomach

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

49

was filled with the hair and flesh of a red squirrel, while two other
stomachs in autumn contained undetermined mammalian remains.

Reproduction. Twelve pregnant, 4 pregnant and lactating, and 33
lactating females were taken between April 16 and October 17. The
extreme dates are both for lactating mice ; the latest pregnancy recorded
was September 1. Embryo size ranged from 5 mm. to 19 mm. crown to
rump. Litter size based on 55 embryo and placental scar counts average
5.1. with a range of 3 to 7 ; 5 was the most frequent number of young,
and litters of 4 to 6 were common.

Measurements. Seventy-five adult males average: weight, 19.8 grams
(16.3-25.3) ; total length, 184.7 mm. (171-201) ; tail, 94.4 mm. (83-105) ;
hind foot, 20.4 mm. (18-22) ; ear from notch, 19.1 mm. (17-21). Sixty-
five adult females without embryos average: weight, 20.1 grams (16.0-
28.7); total length, 189.7 mm. (171-211); tail, 96.9 mm. (83-113);
hind foot, 20.2 mm. (18.5-21); ear from notch, 19.3 mm. (17.5-21).

WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE

Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer)

Specimens taken. 440 (Otsego County, 112; Schoharie County,
328), in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. This is one of the most common small
mammal species, for not only does it inhabit woods at all elevations in
this region, but it also occurs in many open habitats and even enters
houses on the outskirts of the villages. In a number of localities it was
found to be the dominant small mammal, including such diverse habitats
as cool, mature hemlock and spruce woods and barren, rocky pastures.
Deciduous, coniferous and mixed woods, ravines, margins of streams,
talus slopes, bushy meadows and weedy places, old fields, pastures, hay-
fields and other agricultural land and barren road-cut banks all yielded
their quota of these adaptable mice.

The two species of Peromyscus overlap broadly in the small altitudinal
range in these counties, and they were found living in the same woods in
about half of the localities trapped, although in a given locality one or
the other species usually greatly outnumbered the other judging from
trapping results. This zone of overlap extended from about 1,000 feet
(5 maniculatus and 4 leucopus taken in a hemlock grove at 1,050 feet)
to woods on tops of the higher hills (60 maniculatus and 25 leucopus
taken in woods at 2,300 feet, the highest elevation trapped). Up to
nearly 1,600 feet leucopus was usually, although not always, the dominant
species, while in woods at roughly 1,600 feet and above, maniculatus

50

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

considerably outnumbered leucopus in most localities trapped. Excep¬
tions included a stand of mature red spruce at 2,060 feet, a cool “north¬
ern ’ environment in Schoharie County in which, surprisingly to me,
13 leucopus but no maniculatus were taken.

In open, nonwooded habitats leucopus was the more common species
at all elevations, and was taken in several old fields above 2,000 feet.
This was demonstrated in a trapping area near Summit; while manicu¬
latus occurred exclusively in a woodland here at 2,100 feet altitude, in
fields on a windswept hill 150 to 200 feet above the woods only leucopus
was found. Out toward the center of a large rocky pasture at 2,050 feet
few small mammals were taken in August 1957, aside from 28 specimens
of leucopus; here the scattered rocks and rocky outcrops probably
furnished cover necessary for the existence of this species, although it
was also taken in poverty grass ( Danthonia spicata ) a considerable dis¬
tance from any rocks. Two maniculatus were taken in this same pasture but
at an exceptionally large rocky outcrop. P. leucopus was also taken in vari¬
ous kinds of agricultural land, and on some large stony road-cut banks
with very sparse vegetation this was the commonest small mammal species.

P. leucopus was the common species also in brushy areas and second-
growth woods. On Burnt Hill in Schoharie County, traplines were set
out in several woodland areas between 1,400 and 1,960 feet where beech,
sugar maple, red maple, striped maple, yellow birch, white pine and
hemlock were common trees in woods approaching maturity ; maniculatus
was the common species in every locality, 97 being taken as opposed
to only 13 leucopus. On this same hill, however, in a young second-
growth woods of quaking aspen, gray birch, red maple and various
shrubs at an elevation of 2,000 feet, 10 leucopus and only 1 maniculatus
were taken.

Rocky stream shores in the woods were often quite productive of
these mice, and on wooded talus slopes in the Gilboa region at about
1.300 feet elevation they were found living in close association with
maniculatus , outnumbering the latter by about 2 to 1. White-footed
mice were trapped in abandoned and occasionally inhabited buildings
in the woods, on farms and on the edge of villages.

Food habits. Both species of Peromyscus include a wide assortment
of foods in their diet. Seeds, including those of hemlock and wild black
cherry, nannyberries, green plant matter and insects, including cater¬
pillars, crickets and beetles, were noted in the stomachs or as “sign”
at feeding stations where this species was trapped. Twenty summer
stomachs examined contained chiefly seeds, mast and insects. Both species
of Peromyscus , like Blarina, were not infrequently attracted to meat-
baited traps set for weasels and flying squirrels.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

51

Reproduction. Twenty-five pregnant, 3 pregnant and lactating, and
20 lactating females were taken. The earliest pregnant female was taken
on March 25 and the latest on November 30, indicating a long breeding
season. The latest lactation date was December 3. Embryo size ranged
from 2 to 22 mm. crown to rump. Average litter size based on 44 embryo
and placental scar counts is 4.3, with a range of 1 to 8 ; 4 was the most
frequent number of young, with litters of 3 to 5 being common.

Measurements. Seventy-five adult males average: weight, 21.4 grams
(16.2-26.8) ; total length, 172.0 mm. (159-186) ; tail, 79.2 mm. (71-87) ;
hind foot, 19.6 mm. (19-21); ear from notch, 17.2 mm. (15.5-19).
Thirty adult females without embryos average: weight, 21.0 grams (15.5-
27.9) ; total length, 172.5 mm. (153-196) ; tail, 79.7 mm. (69-90) ; hind
foot, 19.7 mm. (19-20.5) ; ear from notch, 17.2 mm. (16-19).

SOUTHERN BOG LEMMING

Synaptomys cooperi cooperi Baird

Specimens taken. 56 (Otsego County, 24; Schoharie County, 32),
in every month except January, February and March.

Distribution and habitat. Synaptomys has been reported from a
rather large variety of habitats in different parts of its geographical
range. In this region it is essentially a forest species. The preferred, or
typical, habitat is deciduous woodland (generally sugar maple and beech
dominant, but occasionally red maple, oak or hemlock in abundance)
where sedges of the genus Carex cover much of the ground and friable
soil and humus permit extensive tunneling. Trapping in such habitat
usually produced specimens, and, since this habitat covers extensive
areas in the two counties, it is felt that Synaptomys is quite generally
distributed in the region. In its preferred habitat in several localities
trapping indicated that it was the most numerous microtine. Some
specimens also were trapped in woods where the herbaceous cover was
thinner, consisting of scattered ferns and sedges. Somewhat over a fourth
of the specimens were trapped along the edges of woods or in small wood¬
land clearings. None were taken in bogs or marshes, and only one was
taken in open grassland in typical Microtus habitat. Altogether Synap¬
tomys was taken on 17 different traplines in 9 widely separated locali¬
ties. Hamilton (1941) has reported on the occurrence of this species
in forest habitat in Albany County.

The locating of its conspicuous sign of numerous cuttings and bright
green droppings aided in trapping Synaptomys . Microtus , the “sign” of
which at times rather closely resembles that of Synaptomys , is rare in
the usual Synaptomys habitat in this region except in the woodland edge

52

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

situations where the two species sometimes occur together. Pitymys , more
than the other microtines, in this region seems to have requirements
most closely approaching those of Synaptomys and the two species were
frequently taken together in the same woodland areas and often in the
same traps on different days. Similarly Saunders (1932) states that in
southern Ontario, where he took these two species together on several
occasions, where one of these microtines is found the other is likely
to occur. In southern New Jersey there is a different habitat arrangement
of the same microtine species; there I have trapped Synaptomys in
sphagnum bogs with Microtus and Clethrionomys , while Pitymys is con¬
fined chiefly to dry woods and fields.

Other common small mammal associates of Synaptomys in the present
study were Parascalops, Blarina, Sorex fumeus , Peromyscus m. gracilis,
Clethrionomys, and Napaeozapus.

An example of good Synaptomys habitat is the flat top of Petersburg
Mountain (elevation 2,300 feet) three miles southeast of Cobleskill. Here
under a stand of somewhat stunted trees, chiefly sugar maple, is a nearly
continuous layer of Carex pennsylvanica. Tunnels of small animals were
numerous in the humus under the leaf litter and sedge, and here 20 bog
lemmings, 4 pine voles, 1 meadow vole and 9 red-backed mice were
trapped, as well as shrews, hairy-tailed moles and other species. In a
narrow clearing nearby on the same hill (under the telephone line to
the fire tower) in sedge, grass and ferns 5 additional bog lemmings were
taken, together with 2 meadow voles. Bog lemmings were known to have
continuously occupied this same area at least from September 1957 to
September 1958. Another good location for Synaptomys was in the
densely wooded cabin area of Gilbert Lake State Park. In the fall of
1956, 11 were trapped here in shady situations in and near the yards of
the cabins (often under hemlocks) in sedge and grass.

Two catches were made in what seemed unusual habitat for this
region. One was in a mat of bluegrass ( Poa sp.) in an old field where
Microtus was common, but where there were scattered small saplings
of white ash and aspen. Another was halfway up a steep, rather bare
talus slope near where several Sorex dispar were collected; the trap was
set in a recess under the rocks beneath a thin stand of paper birches
with scattered marginal woodferns ( Dryopteris marginalis) the only
green herbaceous plants in the vicinity. Both of these instances probably
indicated higher populations in more suitable habitat nearby; in fact
the first area was half a mile from a wooded area where several bog
lemmings were collected.

Most of the specimens were taken in traps set in tunnels, including
large ones made by hairy-tailed moles, as well as smaller ones apparently

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

53

made by bog lemmings, other mice and short-tailed shrews. Others were
caught as they emerged from holes in rotten stumps and logs, and occa¬
sionally they were taken in surface traps set at sites of heavy cuttings in
growths of sedge. Ten were caught in sunken cans half-filled with water,
while the remainder were taken in standard size mousetraps. Trapping
of this species was most productive during the fall months (September
to November) when over half (31) of the specimens were secured.

Food habits. Synaptomys feeds chiefly on the vegetative parts of
sedges, grasses and related plants. Of 42 stomachs examined (April to
December), green vegetation, chiefly the leaves of sedges and grasses,
occurred in every stomach and comprised an estimated 73 percent of
the total volume. The white basal parts and rootstocks of sedge and
similar material were noted in 9 stomachs and made up about 12 per¬
cent of the total bulk. Other foods, occurring in small proportions in
the stomachs, included seeds of grasses, spores of an undetermined
fungus (Endogone?) , rolled oats bait and several unidentified materials.

Field evidence based on cuttings observed indicated frequent feeding
by these rodents on the green leaves and stems of the following: Carex
pennsylvanica and other sedges, bluegrass ( Poa sp.), mountain ricegrass
(Oryzopsis asperifolia ) and ground pine ( Lycopodium complanatum ) .
In many areas small woodland sedges (often Carex pennsylvanica)
apparently formed the main source of food throughout all or most of the
year ; all vegetative parts of these plants are utilized : leaves, white basal
parts and rootstocks. Green cuttings of L. complanatum were frequently
noted in spring and fall (reported also as food by Richmond and Ros-
lund, 1949).

Synaptomys was usually taken by strategically placed traps with or
without bait; however, rolled oats (sprinkled as bait near some of the
traps) were found in the stomachs or mouths of four bog lemmings and
peanut butter bait was found in the mouth of another. These were trapped
in the months of April, July and October.

Reproduction. Investigators have recorded from 1 to 7 young per
litter in Synaptomys. Information relating to females taken in this survey
is given in table 6. Most of the females collected were trapped in the
fall, hence the preponderance of fall breeding data.

On October 30 and 31, 1956, four juveniles, apparently litter mates
just out of the nest, averaged 10.9 grams (range 10.6-11.7). These were
taken in two traps set at old stumps on the edge of the woods adjacent
to the backyard of our cabin headquarters at Gilbert Lake. At the same
time (October 30) a nursing adult female was trapped in a hairy-tailed
mole tunnel 70 feet across the yard from where the small young were

54

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Table 6

Reproductive data for female Synaptomys cooperi

DATE

NUMBER AND SIZE

OF EMBRYOS

NUMBER OF

PLACENTAL

SCARS

REMARKS

April 17, 1957

3

May 19, 1958

4 (7.5 mm.)

Additional embryo

being reabsorbed

September 12, 1958

3 (14 mm. crown

to rump)

September 27, 1957

2 (7.5 mm.)

2( ? )

Lactating

October 5, 1956

2

Lactating

October 30, 1956

8

Recent parturition;

lactating

November 5, 1957

2

November 20, 1955

3

Recently lactating

taken. But this adult female showed evidence of very recent parturition
(stretched uterus, apparently placental material in stomach) and had
eight distinct placented scars. Possibly the young ones trapped were
those of the previous litter of this female and had been recently abandoned
by her in preparation for the new litter or they may have been the
young of another mother residing nearby.

Males which apparently were in breeding condition, with testes meas¬
uring 6 to 7 mm. in length (about the maximum size in this species) and
with accessory structures enlarged, were taken in every month from
April to November.

Remarks. Almost twice as many males as females were trapped:
34 males and 19 females were recorded.

Four adult males when collected showed old healed injuries, which
may have resulted from fighting. One was without a right hind leg;
another lacked a tail; another had most of its right ear pinna and a
toe missing; and another had lost all of its left ear pinna.

Measurements. The two sexes in this species are closely alike in
size (Howell, 1927; Wetzel, 1955; Connor, 1959). Twenty-two adult
males average: weight, 25.9 grams (21.5-32.6) ; total length, 119.1 mm.
(112-133); tail, 20.4 mm. (17-24); hind foot, 17.5 mm. (16-19.5).
Twelve adult females average: weight, 25.3 grams (21.4-30.1) ; total
length, 118.7 mm. (111-126) ; tail, 21.1 mm. (19-26) ; hind foot, 17.2
mm. (16.5-18) .

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

55

RED-BACKED MOUSE

Clethrionomys gapperi gapperi (Vigors)

Specimens taken. 164 (Otsego County, 92; Schoharie County, 72),
in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. In this region, red-backed mice do not
occur in such abundance as they do in the extensive boreal forests of
the Adirondacks or in the higher elevations of the Catskill Mountains
(Mearns, 1898, stated that it was common everywhere at higher eleva¬
tions in the Catskills and so numerous on the summit of Hunter Mountain,
elevation 4,025 feet, that it was difficult to trap any other small mammal
there). Although rarely the most numerous small mammal in a locality,
this species is rather generally distributed throughout the two counties
and is not restricted to any one environment or forest type. In general,
moist, cool, shady forest habitats are preferred. Largest populations were
encountered in a low-lying arbor vitae swamp (elevation 1,200 feet),
on a slope forested with large hemlocks (elevation 1,450 feet) and in a
stand of hemlock and red spruce bordering a small lake (elevation 2,300
feet). Both of the first two areas are located near the northern end of
Otsego Lake while the last named habitat is near Summit in Schoharie
County. At the first and last mentioned localities it was the most numer¬
ous small mammal trapped while on the hemlock-covered slope it was
outnumbered only by Peromyscus leucopus. None were taken in two
small “boreal islands” of red spruce and balsam fir, which seemed ideal
habitats.

Nearly half of all specimens taken were secured in mixed woods
(hemlock-deciduous) and in deciduous woods lacking conifers; some
other factor than the presence or absence of hemlocks seemed to govern
their abundance in these areas. In Gilbert Lake State Park in Otsego
County and on Burnt Hill in Schoharie County, red-backed mice were
not uncommon in woods of sugar maple and beech and also in moist
woods composed chiefly of red maple. Occasionally small numbers of
these mice were taken along old rock walls on land formerly farmed.
Rocky outcrops and talus slopes (including those inhabited by Sorex
dispar) were found to be not especially good situations to collect these
mice in this region; in such habitats they formed only a minor com¬
ponent of the small mammal population being greatly outnumbered by
Peromyscus and various shrews.

Jameson (1949) states that Clethrionomys is boreal in its geographic
distribution, but that altitude itself is not a decisive factor in its local
distribution in the Ithaca region. Such would also seem to be the case in
the area of this survey. Specimens were collected at localities ranging
from 1,200 to 2,300 feet in altitude, with elevation apparently playing a

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

minor part in its local distribution. The largest catch for any one locality,
the arbor vitae swamp mentioned previously (34 taken), was also the
lowest elevation at which this species was trapped.

As Batchelder (1896) mentioned regarding Clethrionomys in eastern
Massachusetts, the reduction of moist and deeply forested areas since
primeval days has undoubtedly deprived this species of much territory
although the recent trend back to forest cover in many areas has probably
favored this as well as certain other species. Roslund (1951) states that
Clethrionomys in north-central Pennsylvania is apparently a victim of
deer competition, and that it is common in suitable habitat only where
deer damage is not extensive.

The herbaceous cover ranged from sparse to luxuriant in areas where
we trapped these mice, but ferns and various forbs are undoubtedly im¬
portant in furnishing food and cover, as has been shown by various
authors. Good spots to set traps for these mice were about stumps, logs,
uprooted trees and brush piles, at holes at the base of trees and in
tunnels under the leaf litter. Specimens also were occasionally secured
on the tops of stumps and on the trunks of fallen trees above the ground.
These mice were especially easy to trap after light falls of snow when a
maze of their tracks would often be found concentrated about certain
logs and other surface debris.

Common associates of the red-backed mice were Blarina , Sorex , the
two species of Peromyscus, chipmunks, red squirrels, flying squirrels and
woodland jumping mice. In deciduous or mixed woodlands, Synaptomys
and Pitymys were frequent associates. In the arbor vitae swamp men¬
tioned previously, Sorex cinereus was the most numerous small mammal
taken aside from Clethrionomys; a small number of meadow voles
also were taken in this habitat.

Food habits. Finely comminuted green, white and brownish ma¬
terials were generally present in the stomachs; these materials were
usually difficult to identify. Nuts and seeds, green leaves of ferns or other
woodland herbs and perhaps roots and fungi were included in the
stomach contents of 12 specimens examined; no remains of insects or
other animals were noted in these stomachs.

Reproduction. The reproductive status of trapped females indicated
a long breeding season (table 7). A female with 5 distinct placental
scars on March 10 may have indicated a litter born in the winter. Twenty-
seven embryo and placental scar counts averaged 4.5 and indicated 3 to
5 as the usual number of young per litter although up to 8 placental
scars were counted. Data given in table 11 for April 23-24, 1957, are
for females taken in Greene County (Hunter Mountain), outside the
strict confines of the area covered by this report.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

57

Table 7

Reproductive data for female Clethrionomys gapperi

DATE

NUMBER AND SIZE

OF EMBRYOS

NUMBER OF

PLACENTAL

SCARS

REMARKS

March 10, 1957

5

April 23, 1957

4

April 24, 1957

5

Recent parturition;

lactating

April 24, 1957

5 (12 mm. crown

to rump)

April 24, 1957

4 (5 mm.)

Present

April 24, 1957

5

Recent parturition;

lactating

June 18, 1957

4

June 28, 1958

4

July 3, 1957

7

July 4, 1956

5 (8 mm.)

July 10, 1956

3

July 16, 1957

3 (7 mm.)

5

Lactating

July 16, 1957

5

Lactating

July 17, 1957

5

Lactating

July 17, 1957

5

Lactating; old

placental scars

also present

July 17, 1956

4

Lactating

July 19, 1958

3 (3 mm.)

Additional embryo

being reabsorbed

July 25, 1956

3 (5 mm.)

July 26, 1957

3

Lactating

August 1, 1956

4 (10 mm. crown

to rump)

August 13, 1957

4

Lactating; old

placental scars

also present

August 24, 1956

8

Recently lactating

September 26, 1956

5 (9 mm.)

October 26, 1956

6

Recently lactating

November 7, 1957

5

Old placental scars

also present

November 28, 1956

3

Recent parturition;

lactating

Numerous males, with all appearances of being in breeding condi¬
tion, including large testes measuring 10 to 13 mm. in length, were taken
from late March to early October. All of the 13 adult males taken in
January, February and early March 1957 were nonfertile, with testes
rarely measuring more than 4 mm. in length. (The several specimens

58

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

taken from late October to December appeared to be in a regressing
condition, with testes of intermediate size.) Three males taken in the
last week of March, as well as all adult males taken in April, were in
apparent breeding condition.

Remarks. In numbers trapped, males greatly outnumbered females:
•of 147 sexed specimens there were 93 males and 54 females.

Measurements. Forty adult males average: 24.5 grams (19.3-35.9) ;
total length, 138.0 mm. (126-155) ; tail, 39.2 mm. (31-45) ; hind foot,

17.8 mm. (16.5-19.5). Twenty-four nonpregnant adult females average:
weight, 22.7 grams (16.9-31.8) ; total length, 137.9 mm. (123-156) ; tail,

39.8 mm. (32-47) ; hind foot, 17.5 mm. (16-19.5).

MEADOW VOLE

Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus (Ord)

Specimens taken. 265 (Otsego County, 173; Schoharie County, 92),
in every month of the year.

Distribution and habitat. Meadow voles, or meadow mice, were
encountered in a large variety of grassy and sedgy habitats at all eleva¬
tions. Low, moist meadows and marshy margins of ponds and streams
were favored habitats. In some localities, dry upland fields and hayfields
harbored large numbers of these mice. Others were trapped in grassy
clearings in the woods, in wooded swamps, in sphagnum bogs, in grass
along the edge of cornfields, in shrubby and weedy areas, in grassy yards
and on a golf course (in winter).

Occasionally single specimens or small colonies were met with in
wooded sections: in small clearings, in herbaceous vegetation along
small shaded woodland streams and in some woods where the trees were
sufficiently spaced to permit an adequate growth of sedge or grass. One
specimen was trapped on the top of a stump in a small blackberry patch
in the woods; another was taken in a Synaptomys tunnel in the humus
in sugar maple and beech woods. Along a narrow, little used woods road
in Gilbert Lake State Park in a small patch of grass a few yards across,
beneath an interlocking canopy of tall forest trees, a Microtus pennsyl¬
vanicus nest with young was found in July 1956. Several young escaped
from the nest, but one, with eyes still closed and weighing 9.0 grams,
was collected. Within a few inches of the nest a lactating female carrying
10 embryos, undoubtedly the mother of the nest young, and an adult
male were caught. Perhaps woods roads, where boidered by some grass
or other herbaceous vegetation, may serve as highways of travel for
meadow voles through wooded sections. Altogether about 40 meadow

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

59

voles were collected in woodland and woodland edge habitats ; in general,,
however, this species is much less frequently associated with trees than*
the other microtines ( Synaptomys , Clethrionomys and Pitymys ) occur¬
ring in this region.

In a swamp of young arbor vitae in winter, meadow voles were com¬
mon and bred in situations where there was much grass and sedge on
the ground as well as numerous logs and stumps. Here red-backed mice
and masked shrews were common associates.

Under the protective covering of deep snow these mice may be active
in such bare habitats as golf courses and lawns. In a winter thaw early
in 1957 the melting away of the snow revealed their surface (subnivean)
runways covering large areas of a golf green ; traps set deep in Condylura
tunnels here secured half a dozen Microtus . Meadow voles were active
in our headquarters lawn under the deep snow of early 1958; when the
snow finally receded in early April abundant signs of their activity were
exposed : narrow surface runways which had been under the snow, holes
to subsurface tunnels, pits in the ground, small piles of earth, and dirt
cores which had been pushed into the tunnels.

In October a meadow vole was trapped in the cellar of a house, along
with a short-tailed shrew, white-footed mice and house mice.

In some upland pastures, where poverty grass was dominant and
where rocky outcrops were numerous, Microtus was not taken and
Peromyscus leucopus was the common small mammal. In such areas
Microtus probably occurs only in occasional low moist spots of denser
vegetation.

During the summer of 1956 I had the impression that Microtus was
scarce in suitable habitats in some areas of the region, especially the
southern part of Otsego County. Many low meadows and damp spots in
fields seemed to be without these mice or had only old signs of their
presence. Star-nosed moles seemed common in many of the same areas.

Food habits. A vast array of vegetable foods have been recorded for
Microtus , including green leaves and stems, roots, bark and seeds of
many plants. Casual observations made in this study indicated the fol¬
lowing plants were eaten : various parts of grasses and sedges, including
bluegrass ( Poa ), orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) , timothy ( Phleum
pratense) , poverty grass (Danthonia) , bulrush ( Scirpus ) and sedge
( Carex ) and in winter the twigs of red osier (Cornus stolonifera) .
Microtus is less strictly confined to a green leafy diet than Synaptomys,
and usually the droppings were not as bright a green as those of
Synaptomys occurring in the same habitat.

Remarks. Few specimens taken showed any indication of albinism.
One individual had a patch of pure white hairs on the crown and scat-

60

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

tered white hairs on the nape while another mouse from the same
locality had white hairs on the tip of the tail.

Reproduction. The meadow mouse is our most prolific mammal, one
litter following another in rapid succession from early spring to autumn.
In some years part of the population may breed during the winter. Repro¬
ductive data is presented in table 8. Number of embryos average 5.3. In

Table 8

Reproductive data for female Microtus pennsylvanicus

DATE

NUMBER AND SIZE

OF EMBRYOS

NUMBER OF

PLACENTAL

SCARS

REMARKS

January 9, 1957

4 (12 mm. crown

to rump)

May 17, 1957

6 (20 mm. crown

Additional embryo

to rump)

being reabsorbed

May 17, 1957

5

Recent parturition;

lactating

May 18, 1957

5 (3 mm.)

Lactating

June 26, 1957

4 (17 mm. crown

to rump)

June 26, 1957

5 (21 mm. crown

Additional embryo

to rump)

being reabsorbed

June 26, 1957

7 (18 mm. crown

to rump)

June 30, 1956

Lactating

June 30, 1956

4 (11 mm. crown

to rump)

July 4, 1956

Lactating

July 4, 1956

5 (6 mm.)

Lactating

July 9, 1956

10 (8 mm.)

Lactating

July 9, 1956

6

Lactating

July 10, 1956

Lactating

July 11, 1956

5

July 18, 1956

3

Lactating

July 18, 1956

7 ( full term )

Gave birth after

capture

August 9, 1956

5 (7 mm.)

August 31, 1956

5 (26 mm. crown

Nearly full term

to rump)

October 4, 1957

7

Recently lactating

October 9, 1956

4(?)

Lactating

October 19, 1956

2 (13 mm. crown

to rump)

October 23, 1956

4(?)

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

61

the winter of 1956-57 breeding occurred, at least in the Otsego Lake
region. Besides the female with embryos on January 9, several males in
breeding condition was taken in two localities between January 10 and
25 (testes 13-15 mm. in length and descended, and tubules of cauda
epididymis enlarged) ; the reproductive tracts of other males were in a
nonfertile condition through the month of March.

Measurements. Forty-five adult males average: weight, 35.3 grams
(28.3-63.9) ; total length, 162.6 mm. (148-188) ; tail, 47.1 mm. (33-58) ;
hind foot, 20.4 mm. (19-22). Sixteen adult females without embryos
average: weight, 35.4 grams (27.9-50.9) ; total length, 162.5 mm. (142-
180) ; tail, 46.9 mm. (41-53) ; hind foot, 19.8 mm. (19-21).

PINE VOLE

Pitymys pinetorum scalopsoides (Audubon and Bachman)

Specimens taken. 20 (Otsego County, 16; Schoharie County, 4),
in March, April, July, August, September, October and November.

Distribution and habitat. Pine voles, or pine mice, in this region
were taken only in deciduous woodlands. Although found in a wide
variety of plant associations in different parts of its range, soil type is
probably an important factor governing the distribution of Pitymys
(Jameson, 1949; Benton, 1955) ; friable humus or light, well-drained
soils, where tunneling is easy, are favored. In central New York, near the
northern limit of its range, many seemingly suitable areas are apparently
without this fossorial vole. It seemed to be common nowhere; rarely did
trapping yield more than 1 to 3 on a trapline. Eight were secured in
Gilbert Lake State Park, Otsego County, in the summer of 1956. Other
localities were near Cooperstown, South Valley, Milford, Oneonta in
Otsego County and near Cobleskill in Schoharie County.

Sugar maple, or sugar maple and beech, were dominant in all of the
areas in which Pitymys was taken; striped maple, black cherry and
scattered hemlock were frequently present. On almost all of the areas
the trees were rather large and well-spaced, giving much shade ; however,
three were taken in a stand of small second-growth trees near old stone
walls on long-abandoned farmland. The herb layer was generally scat¬
tered ferns, sedges or maple seedlings and in one locality a continuous
layer of Carex pennsylvanica ; several specimens were taken in the loose,
friable soil of blackberry and raspberry thickets in small woodland
openings.

Most of the specimens were taken on traplines located between 1,400
feet and 1,700 feet in elevation, but pine voles also occurred up to at
least 2,300 feet in altitude on the tops of some of the higher hills. One

62

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

would expect this species at low elevations in the valleys of the main
streams. Indeed, in a few localities near the banks of the Susquehanna
River and Schoharie Creek, in one place in an open sandy field, we found
numerous tunnels which were judged to be the work of pine voles.
Trapping of these tunnels, however, yielded only a few Blarina.

The majority of the catches were in traps set in subsurface runways
in the humus. Usually we were unaware of the presence of Pitymys
beforehand, except that some of the tunnels, being in woodland and of
vole size and shape, suggested either Synaptomys or Pitymys. Occasion¬
ally, the tunnels in which pine mice were taken were visible from above
as short ridges, with openings to the surface frequent. Three were taken
in the large tunnels of Parascalops. Five were caught on the surface:
three next to an old stone wall, a stump and a log, respectively, and two
in the open on top of the leaf litter, but in every case subsurface runways
abounded in the vicinity.

Blarina was the commonest associate, abundant in all areas in which
Pitymys was collected, and both species were taken in the same tunnels.
Synaptomys and Pitymys in this region seem to have very similar habitat
requirements although the former has fewer fossorial adaptations and
the two differ in their food habits. Over half of the pine mice were taken
in areas where the apparently more numerous Synaptomys also occurred.
Clethrionomys and Sorex fumeus were common in most of the areas
where Pitymys was taken.

Food habits. Of 13 stomachs looked at (various months), roots and
other underground or basal parts of plants occurred in 10 of the
stomachs and comprised about two-thirds of the total volume of food,
the remainder being chiefly green vegetation. Two stomachs contained a
small amount of animal matter, one the remains of unidentified insects,
the other flesh and hair possibly of a young mouse. On the top of Peters¬
burg Mountain (elevation 2,300 feet) in November 1957, these mice
were feeding on Car ex pennsylvanica; two stomachs contained exclu¬
sively the stolons, roots and the white basal parts of the leaves and shoots
of this sedge. In the same area bog lemmings were common but were
feeding heavily on the green leafy parts of this plant. Pine mice in traps
were often partly eaten, no doubt frequently the work of other pine mice.

Reproduction. Too few specimens were taken to give much informa¬
tion on breeding habits. Litters tend to be small in this species, the usual
number of young being 2 to 4 (Hamilton, 1938). Five females trapped
indicated litters within this range: July 10, 1956, 2 embryos at 11 mm.;
August 23, 1956, 4 placental scars; September 8, 1958, 3 placental scars
and lactating; September 25, 1956, 3 embryos at 7 mm.; November 7,
1957, 2 placental scars.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

63

Measurements. Ten adults average: weight, 26.1 grams (22.4-
29.1) ; total length, 123.0 mm. (116-123) ; tail, 21.1 mm. (19-26) ; hind
foot, 15.4 mm. (14-17).

NORWAY RAT

Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout)

Specimens taken. 14 (Otsego County, 11; Schoharie County, 3).
Remarks. Rats are common in and near places of human habitation
and occur in great numbers on farms ; during the warmer months fields,
marshes and stream banks may be occupied by these pests. In early
October 1956, they were found in large numbers in marshes near the
railroad yards at Oneonta. Here the rats were trapped at their burrows
along the edge of higher ground, and in muskrat trails in the sedge,
cattails, joe-pye weed and other marsh vegetation. A female taken here
October 9 was carrying 10 large embryos.

HOUSE MOUSE

Mus musculus domesticus Rutty
Specimens taken. 32 (Otsego County, 3; Schoharie County, 29).
Remarks. Like the rat, the house mouse is common in and about
buildings. In summer many live outdoors in woods, fields and farmland.
In October 1957, house mice appeared to be quite common in low-lying
agricultural land along the Schoharie Creek near the village of Schoharie.
Here they were trapped in strips of timothy, other grasses and goldenrod
bordering a cornfield in company with Blarina , Peromyscus leucopus ,
Microtus and Zapus. In May 1957, one was taken in a grazed beech-
sugar maple woods, the only instance in this study in which this species
was collected in woodland habitat. Often these mice were trapped in the
same buildings with white-footed mice. In a storeroom of our Schoharie
County headquarters an adult female and eight small young recently
out of the nest were collected in October.

MEADOW JUMPING MOUSE

Zapus hudsonius americanus (Barton)

Specimens taken. 81 (Otsego County, 34; Schoharie County, 47),
in every month from May to October.

Distribution and habitat. Although the various habitats were not
covered equally, these long-tailed mice were most often taken in low
meadows and rank vegetation near streams, on dry grassy slopes near
ponds or other water and along the narrow marshy fringes of ponds in

64

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

wooded sections; in smaller numbers, specimens were also secured in
agricultural land, in sphagnum bogs and in thin woods and small wood¬
land openings. Occasionally we failed to find this species in seemingly
favorable situations. Specimens were trapped throughout the full alti¬
tudinal range covered in this survey (600 to 2,300 feet). Condylura,
Blarina , Microtus and Peromyscus leucopus were typical associates of
Zapus.

Food habits. Of 15 stomachs examined, about 90 percent of the food
by volume was composed of vegetation, chiefly the seeds of grasses.
The remaining 10 percent consisted of insects and other invertebrates.
Signs of feeding on seed heads of grasses and other plants were fre¬
quently observed where we trapped these mice.

Hibernation. The date of the last individual trapped in autumn was
October 10, 1956 (elevation 1,080 feet). The earliest specimen collected
in spring was trapped on May 18, 1957 (elevation 1,100 feet).

Reproduction. Reproductive data is given in table 9. Many females
apparently brought forth their young during July in the period of this
study, and the data suggest this as a possible peak in the breeding season.
However, trapping of Zapus in June was limited.

Table 9

Reproductive data for female Zapus hudsonius

DATE

NUMBER AND SIZE

OF EMBRYOS

NUMBER OF

PLACENTAL

SCARS

REMARKS

June 30, 1956

Lactating

July 10, 1958

4 (full term)

July 11, 1958

5 (10.5 mm. crown

to rump)

July 12, 1958

4

July 15, 1958

6 ( small )

July 16, 1957

3

July 17, 1957

4

Lactating

July 18, 1957

Lactating

July 18, 1957

Lactating

July 19, 1958

6 (5 mm.)

July 20, 1956

Lactating

August 2, 1957

6

August 15, 1956

Present

Lactating

August 15, 1956

Lactating

August 16, 1956

3

August 21, 1956

Present

Lactating

August 21, 1956

Present

August 31, 1956

4( ? )

September 1, 1956

Lactating

October 2, 1957

5( ? )

Recently lactating

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

65

Remarks. For the subspecies name I have followed the latest tax¬
onomic revision of the genus (Krutzsch, 1954) which assigns specimens
from this region to Z. h. americanus.

Measurements. Fifteen adult males without hibernation fat average:
weight, 17.1 grams (14.9-19.7) ; total length, 215.0 mm. (206-229) ;
tail, 129.3 mm. (119-139); hind foot, 29.1 mm. (27-32). Twenty-two
adult nonpregnant females without hibernation fat average: weight,
18.8 grams (16.4-23.1) ; total length, 219.3 mm. (210-238) ; tail, 131.5
mm. (119-145) ; hind foot, 29.7 mm. (28.5-31).

WOODLAND JUMPING MOUSE

ISapaeozapus insignis insignis (Miller)

Specimens taken. 119 (Otsego County, 81; Schoharie County, 38),
in every month from May to October.

Distribution and habitat. This beautiful species was captured in a
rather large variety of situations in wooded areas throughout the region ;
cool forests of northern hardwoods and hemlock seemed the preferred
environment. It apparently occurs at all altitudes in the counties where-
ever there are suitable woodland habitats; specimens were secured at
localities ranging from about 1,000 to 2,300 feet in elevation.

Most of the specimens were taken beside or near water (under or
close to forest cover), including swift or slow small woodland streams,
rocky streams in steep ravines, meandering river, ponds and lakes,
and occasionally wooded swamps. Yet fully one-third of all specimens
taken were so far from permanent water that it seemed to be no factor in
the individual ranges of these animals. Between May and September
1958, 18 were trapped in a sugar maple and beech woodland (ground
cover chiefly sedge) on the summit of a hill over one-half mile from the
nearest permanent stream.

In most of the places where woodland jumping mice were trapped,
herbaceous cover, such as ferns or sedges, was common although in some
ravines where these animals occurred plant ground cover was rather
scarce on the rocky terrain. In one deep ravine, where, in September
1956, this species ranked second only to Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis
in numbers trapped, yew (Taxus canadensis ) was abundant. We fre¬
quently trapped these mice among the ferns, grasses and raspberries of
woodland openings and edges. Although usually caught in surface traps,
several specimens were taken in tunnels under the forest leaf litter or in
marshy soil in traps set for moles and microtines.

Although Zapus and Napaeozapus usually seemed to be well-segregated,
in a few instances both species were taken together in the same habitat.

66

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

sometimes in the same traps on different days. Habitats where the two
jumping mice were most often caught side by side were the grassy,
thinly wooded borders of streams, narrow marshy margins of woodland
ponds and small clearings in the woods, situations which often seemed to
combine characteristics of habitats preferred by both forms.

Hamilton (1935) and Preble (1956), if I understand them correctly,
state that, although Zapus was sometimes taken in habitat occupied by
Napaeozapus, the opposite did not occur in the areas of their investiga¬
tions. In the present survey, at least one distinct instance of the latter
was recorded: in August 1956, a woodland jumping mouse was trapped
alongside Zapus , Microtus and Condylura in a marshy, open meadow
near some alders but several hundred feet from the woods. Townsend
(1935) found that N apaeozapus occasionally wanders out into moist
meadows, and he states that this species is not so strictly confined to the
woods as Zapus is to the meadow.

At Bear Swamp Pond (elevation 2,050 feet), near South Valley, in
August 1956, 10 N apaeozapus were trapped in the open, narrow zone of
wet soil, sedges, grasses and alders between the water and woods; five
Zapus also were collected here. At Mud Lake (elevation 2,300 feet), near
Summit in July 1957 in what seemed to my eye a very similar situation —
a narrow sedgy zone between water and forest — 14 Zapus but no
Napaeozapus were taken although the latter was recorded from the
woods nearby. If anything, the first area seemed more suitable to Zapus ,
the open marshy zone being slightly wider, with a greater growth of
sedges. It is difficult to say why the woodland jumping mouse was domi¬
nant at the one place, and the meadow species at the other. Townsend
(1935) speculated that Napaeozapus may tend to drive Zapus out; he
had no definite evidence that such was the case, but mentioned an area
where he felt that Zapus would have been present if Napaeozapus was
not already there.

As stated by Miller (1899), settlement and clearing of the land prob¬
ably restricted the range of N apaeozapus, while enlarging that of Zapus ,
although the trend today to reforestation has probably favored
Napaeozapus.

Food habits. Of the 14 stomachs which have been examined, plant
material comprised about 70 percent of the food, the remainder being
chiefly insects; plant items included seeds, starchy roots and basal parts
of plants, while a large part of the insect food consisted of the larvae of
Lepidoptera. On the yew-covered ravine slope where Napaeozapus was
common, as mentioned previously, I noted that fresh cuttings of yew
twigs (and chewings on the branches) were made during the same night
that a Napaeozapus was trapped only a few inches away.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES 67

Hibernation. The date of the last individual captured in fall was
October 24, 1956 (elevation 1,450 feet). This one was an adult with
much accumulated fat; the four others taken during the second half
of October were young animals without fat. May 15 and 16, 1958,
(elevation 2,100 and 2,200 feet) were the earliest dates of capture in
spring.

Reproduction. Breeding data obtained indicates litters are brought
forth from May to September (table 10). Early summer is considered
to be the main breeding period in the species, with some females bearing
a second litter later in the season. Embryo counts ranged from 3 to 6, the
usual range in Napaeozapus (Hamilton, 1943), but as few as 2 and as
many as 7 placental scars were counted.

Table 10

Reproductive data for female Napaeozapus insignis

DATE

NUMBER AND SIZE

OF EMBRYOS

NUMBER OF

PLACENTAL

SCARS

REMARKS

June 4, 1957

Present

Lactating

June 6, 1957

Present

Lactating

June 9, 1957

4

Lactating

July 2, 1956

Lactating

July 4, 1956

6 (4 mm.)

July 10, 1956

Present

Lactating

July 16, 1957

6 (14 mm. crown

to rump)

July 18, 1956

5 (5 mm.)

July 19, 1955

3

Lactating

July 20, 1956

Present

Lactating

August 15, 1956

2

August 16, 1956

3

Lactating

August 16, 1956

Present

Lactating

August 23, 1956

2

Lactating

August 23, 1956

Lactating

August 30, 1956

5

Lactating

August 30, 1956

5 (20 mm. crown

to rump)

August 31, 1956

4

Lactating

August 31, 1956

4( ? )

Lactating

August 31, 1956

7

Lactating

September 1, 1956

3 (18 mm. crown

to rump)

September 12, 1958

Lactating

Measurements. Twenty-five adult males without hibernation fat aver¬
age: weight, 20.4 grams (18.0-24.2) ; total length, 231.5 mm. (224-238) ;

68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

tail, 142.3 mm. (134-149); hind foot, 29.9 mm. (28-31). Twenty-five
nonpregnant adult females without hibernation fat average : weight,
22.4 grams (16.8-28.4) ; total length, 235.3 mm. (222-249) ; tail, 144.4
mm. (128-155) ; hind foot, 29.7 mm. (28-31).

SHORT-TAILED WEASEL

Mustela erminea cicognanii Bonaparte

Specimens taken. 18 (Otsego County, 6; Schoharie County, 12),
in January, February, May, July, August, November and December.

Distribution and habitat. This small weasel is apparently common
throughout the area. Specimens were trapped at localities ranging from
1,100 to 2,100 feet in elevation — in both damp and dry situations — in
old fields, low meadows, bushy areas and at the edge of woods. Traps
making captures were placed at small culverts, old stone walls and
fence rows, isolated clumps of bushes and at the foundation of an aban¬
doned barn. Although none were trapped in woodlands, one was observed
at close range in a dark stand of hemlocks in a moist wooded area ; in
winter, tracks apparently of this species were seen in both deciduous and
coniferous woods, as well as in open country.

Remarks. Usually more than one weasel occurs in a favorable local¬
ity, and after one specimen has been captured, resetting the same trap
very often results in additional captures. Twice a male and a female,
perhaps mated pairs, were caught in the same traps on successive days
in May (the female with embryos) and July. One female and two males
were taken in the same trap on successive days in November; also on
two occasions two males were taken in the same trap on different days
in January and May. A total of 11 males and 7 females were taken; all
specimens were taken in rat snap traps.

In the deep snow of January, February and March 1958, snow tunnels
of these weasels were often seen. Sometimes a trail showed where a
weasel alternately traveled on top of and beneath the snow. Snow tunnels
were also found near the ground beneath two or three feet of snow where
there was little or no evidence of surface activity. Here they probably
hunted mice among the open spaces at the base of the grass stems
and in other retreats of the mice. One male was trapped under two feet
of snow near a small stream and culvert; a snow tunnel about one and
seven-eighths inches in diameter and located near the ground led from
the culvert to the sheltered, snow-buried trap which took the weasel.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

69

While checking mousetraps in Gilbert Lake State Park on July 1,
1956, a weasel, apparently a male of this species, was seen in the act
of carrying away a “museum special” trap which held a Peromys-
cus. “Squeaking” by me temporarily diverted the weasel and it ap¬
proached to within a few feet, running along deadfalls and in and out
of cavities at the base of trees and stumps. Later it carried the trap
with mouse out of sight into a cavity, where it proceeded to eat the
mouse. A few minutes later I flushed the weasel from another entrance
to the cavity and found the trap inside, with only a hind foot of the
mouse remaining in the trap.

Food habits. Of the 17 stomachs examined, 10 were empty; 2 con¬
tained the remains of Microtus, 1 of Peromyscus, 1 of Blarina and 1
the remains of a young bird; 2 stomachs held red squirrel remains, but
in both of these cases pieces of this rodent had been placed as bait
near the traps. One female was carrying a freshly-killed pregnant Microtus
when caught in a “museum special” mousetrap set in a meadow. Speci¬
mens were secured on both fresh and old meat bait, generally squirrel,
mouse or shrew carcasses ; during warm weather in May one was taken
on a five-day old Blarina carcass, seemingly unattractive bait.

Reproduction. Little breeding data was obtained. A female taken
May 5, 1958, had 5 embryos measuring 24-25 mm. crown to rump. The
three males taken in May had conspicuous testes, which were twice as
large (10 to 13 mm.) as in eight males taken between July and Feb¬
ruary (5 to 6 mm.).

Measurements. Eleven adult and subadult males average: weight,
97.5 grams (84.0-110.9) ; total length, 274.8 mm. (267-284) ; tail, 71.6
mm. (65-76); hind foot, 35.4 mm. (33-37). Six adult and subadult
females average: weight, 62.8 grams (53.9-69.9) ; total length, 235.7 mm.
(225-245) ; tail, 59.5 mm. (56-67) ; hind foot, 29.0 mm. (27.5-30).

LONG-TAILED WEASEL

Mustela frenata noveboracensis (Emmons)

Remarks. No long-tailed weasels were collected, although these ani¬
mals occur in the region. Very small weasels mentioned by trappers most
likely were females of erminia , while “large weasels” probably referred
to this species. Hall (1951) lists a specimen of this weasel in the American
Museum of Natural History from the village of Schoharie, Schoharie
County. Our trapping of weasels, which was extremely limited and chiefly
confined to the more elevated, hilly sections, suggests that erminea is the

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

commoner species in much of this region ; also in winter no tracks were
seen in these areas which seemed to be of the larger species. Hamilton
(1933) states that, based on fur trade information, erminea apparently
outnumbers frenata in a district along and 50 miles north of the Mohawk
River in a ratio varying from 3 to 2 at Troy to 6 to 1 at Utica. South¬
ward from the area covered in the present report the ratio changes rapidly
in favor of the larger species, and ermine a is scarce in most areas of
Pennsylvania, as the various mammal survey reports from that State
indicate.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

71

Figure 2. Talus slope on Reed Hill, l1/^ miles north of Gilboa, Schoharie County,
elevation 1,300 feet, November 11, 1957. Sorex fumeus, S. dispar, Blarina, Pero-
myscus maniculatus, P. leucopus, and Clethrionomys were trapped among the
rocks here.

Figure 3. Arbor vitae swamp near Otsego Lake, Otsego County, elevation 1,200
feet, March 5, 1957. Sorex cinereus, Tamiasciurus, Peromyscus leucopus, Cleth¬
rionomys, and Microtus pennsylvanicus were common here in late winter.

72

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Figure 4. Cabin area in Gilbert Lake State Park, Otsego County, elevation 1,600
feet, April 19, 1957. In November a specimen of Microsorex was trapped on the
edge of white pine-red maple woods on the right ; Sorex cinereus, S. fumeus, Blarina,
Parascalops, Glaucomys sabrinus , Peromyscus maniculatus, and Synaptomys also
were trapped in the area shown.

Figure 5. Mounds of Condylura near Otsego Lake, Otsego County, March 5, 1957.
Condylura and Microtus pennsylvanicus were taken here in traps set in mole tunnels
beneath the turf.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

73

Figure 6. Woods of hemlock, sugar maple, beech, etc. near Cooperstown, Otsego
County, elevation 1,650 feet, March 27, 1957. Traps here took Sorex fumeus, Blarina,
Parascalops, Tamias, T amiasciurus, Glaucomys volans, Peromyscus maniculatus,
P. leucopus, Clethrionomys, and Pitymys. Three flying squirrels were trapped on
the ground at base of hemlock on right.

Figure 7. Mixed woods in valley of West Kill, Schoharie County, elevation 1,060
feet, March 28, 1958, with late-lingering snow about ll/2 feet deep on the ground.
Trapping on the snow here in March secured Sorex fumeus, Blarina, T amiasciurus,
Glaucomys sabrinus, Peromyscus maniculatus, and P. leucopus.

74

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Figure 8. View looking down phone line clearing from summit of Petersburg
Mountain near the fire tower, Schoharie County, elevation 2,300 feet, December 31,
1957. Traps set in the clearing (near summit) at various seasons took Sorex cinereus ,
S. fumeus, Microsorex, Blarina, Parascalops, Peromyscus maniculatus, Synaptomys,
and Microtus pennsylvanicus.

Figure 9. Woods of sugar maple and other trees on summit of Petersburg Moun¬
tain, Schoharie County, elevation 2,300 feet, December 31, 1957. Traps in these
woods took Sorex cinereus, S. fumeus, Blarina, Parascalops, Tamias, Sciurus
carolinensis, T amiasciurus, Glaucomys volans, G. sabrinus, Peromyscus maniculatus,
P . leucopus, Synaptomys, Clethrionomys, Pity my s, and Napaeozapus. In Car ex
pennsylvanica, shown protruding above the snow in places, were many cuttings
of Synaptomys.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

75

Figure 10. Mud Lake, near Summit, Schoharie County, elevation, 2,300 feet,
July 17, 1957. Myotis lucifugus was common over the water in midsummer; Con-
dylura, Zapus, and other species were collected along the marshy shore; traps in
woods of red spruce and hemlock on the right took Sorex cinereus, S. fumeusT
Blarina, Tamias, T amiasciurus, Glaucomys sabrinus, Peromyscus maniculatus, and
Clethrionomys ( abundant ) .

Figure 11. Stand of red spruce, balsam fir and hemlock near Summit, Schoharie
County, elevation 2,100 feet, July 11, 1957. Sorex cinereus, Blarina, Tamias,
T amiasciurus, Glaucomys sabrinus, Peromyscus maniculatus, and Napaeozapus were
trapped in these woods in summer.

76

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Figure 12. Woods containing large hemlocks near Otsego Lake, Otsego County,
elevation 1,450 feet, March 5, 1957. Blarina, Sciurus carolinensis, T amiasciurus,
Glaucomys volans, Peromyscus maniculatus, P. leucopus, and Clethrionomys were
trapped here in winter. The two last-named species were numerous; both red and
flying squirrels were trapped on the large log shown.

Figure 13. Rocky pasture near Summit, Schoharie County, elevation 2,050 feet,
August 20, 1957. Peromyscus leucopus was common here in summer.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

77

Figure 14. Western end of Old Pond, near Hyndsville, Schoharie County, elevation
1,720 feet, June 28, 1958. Myotis lucifugus was common in summer; Lasiurus
borealis and L. cinereus also were observed and collected here. Blarina, Peromyscus
leucopus, and Microtus pennsylvanicus were trapped in the old fields.

Figure 15. Brushy fields near Cobleskill, Schoharie County, elevation 2,000 feet,
October 21, 1957. Sorex fumeus, Blarina, Peromyscus leucopus, and Microtus penn¬
sylvanicus were common here in the fall.

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

79

APPENDIX

LIST OF FLEA SPECIES BY HOST

The following list combines Otsego County fleas identified by Donald
H. Miller and Schoharie County fleas identified by Allen H. Benton.

Host

Flea species

Males

Females

Sorex famous

Nearctopsylla genalis laurentina

2

4

Doratopsylla blarinae

1

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

1

Sorex dispar

Nearctopsylla genalis laurentina

1

Doratopsylla blarinae

1

Blarina brevicauda

Doratopsylla blarinae

22

24

Hystrichopsylla tahavuana

2

1

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

10

12

Nearctopsylla genalis laurentina

12

10

Megabothris asio asio

1

Epitedia wenmanni wenmanni

1

Parascalops breweri

Hystrichopsylla tahavuana

3

2

Doratopsylla blarinae

1

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

6

5

Peromyscopsylla hesperomys

1

Condylura cristata

Hystrichopsylla tahavuana

1

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

1

1

Myotis lucifugus

Myodopsylla insignis

27

82

Sylvilagus floridanus

Cediopsylla simplex

4

7

Marmota monax

Oropsylla arctomys

1

3

Tamias striatus

Tamiophila grandis

5

Megabothris acerbus

5

5

Orchopeas sp.

1

Sclurus carolinensis

Orchopeas howardii

3

1

Tamiasclurus hudsonicus

Epitedia feceta

2

Monop syllus vision

6

12

Orchopeas howardii

14

36

Nest of Tamiasc'urus

Epitedia wenmanni wenmanni

1

Orchopeas howardii

16

20

Glaucomys volans

Epitedia faceta

6

9

Conorhinopsylla stanfordi

5

9

Opisodasys pseudarctomys

9

5

Orchopeas howardii

3

3

Peromyscopsylla catatina

1

Glaucomys sabrinus

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

1

Opisodasys pseudarctomys

17

20

Orchopeas howardii

7

9

Peromyscus maniculatus

Orchopeas leucopus

1

11

Peromyscus leucopus

Epitedia wenmanni wenmanni

5

3

Orchopeas leucopus

31

62

Peromyscopsylla hesperomys

9

20

80

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Host

Flea species

Males

Females

Peromyscus sp.

Peromyscopsylla hesperomys

1

2

Epitedia wenmanni wenmanni

1

2

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

1

Orchopeas leucopus

11

21

Synaptomys cooperi

Megabothris asio asio

1

Clethrionomys gapperi

Catallagia borealis

1

Epitedia wenmanni wenmanni

2

1

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

1

Orchopeas leucopus

1

Peromyscopsylla catatina

3

1

Nearctopsylla genalis laurentina

1

Microtus pennsylvanicus

Saphiopsylla bishopi

4

11

Epitedia wenmanni wenmanni

1

4

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

3

6

Megabothris asio asio

1

3

Ondatra zibethicus

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

1

Zapus hudsonius

Corrodopsylla curvata

1

Mustela erminea

Nearctopsylla genalis laurentina

5

5

Hystrichopsylla tahavuana

1

Epitedia wenmanni wenmanni

2

3

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes

2

6

Orchopeas howardii

1

Orchopeas leucopus

1

Opisodasys pseudarctomys

1

Megabothris asio asio

3

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

81

REFERENCES CITED

Allen, E. G.

1938. The habits and life history of the eastern chipmunk, Tamias
striatus lysteri . N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 314:1-122

Anon.

1956. First report of bat rabies in New York State. The Rabies
Reporter, 2 (3) :1. N. Y. State Dept, of Health, mimeo.

Anon.

1957. Small game hunting prospects. N. Y. State Conservationist,
12 (1) :28-29

Batchelder, C. F.

1896. Some facts in regard to the distribution of certain mammals in
New England and northern New York. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.
Proc., 27:185-193

Benton, A. H.

1955. Observations on the life history of the northern pine mouse.
Jour. Mamm., 36 (1) :52-62

Benton, A. H. & Scharoun, Jack

1958. Notes on a breeding colony of Myotis. Jour. Mamm., 39 (2) :
293-295

Braun, E. L.

1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. Philadelphia.
The Blakiston Co.

Bray, W. L.

1930. The development of the vegetation of New York State. N. Y.
State College For. Technical Pub. No. 29

Colson, Ralph, Stone, W. S. & Dean, D. J.

1955. Rabies, N. Y. State Conservationist, 9(5) :8-12

Connor, P. F.

1959. The bog lemming, Synaptomys cooperi , in southern New Jersey.
Publications of the Museum, Mich. State Univ., Biological
Series, 1 (5) :161-248

DeKay, J. E.

1842. Zoology of New York. Pt. 1, Mammalia. Albany. 146pp.

Eadie, W. R.

1939. A contribution to the biology of Parascalops breweri. Jour.

Mamm., 20 (2) H50-173

82

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Eadie, W. R. & Hamilton, W. J., Jr.

1956. Notes on reproduction in the star-nosed mole. Jour. Mamm.,
37 (2) :223-231

Fitch, H. S.

1954. Seasonal acceptance of bait by small mammals. Jour. Mamm.,
35 (1) :39-47

Griffin, D. K.

1940. Notes on the life histories of New England cave bats. Jour.
Mamm., 21 (2) :181-187

1945. Travels of banded cave bats. Jour. Mamm., 26 (1) : 15-23

Grimm, W. C. & Whitebread, Ralph

1952. Mammal survey of northeastern Pennsylvania. Final Report,
P-R Project 42-R. Penn. Game Commission. 82pp.

Hall, E. R.

1951. American weasels. Univ. Kans. Publ, Mus. Nat. Hist., 4:1-466

Hamilton, W. J., Jr.

1933. The weasels of New York. Amer. Midland Nat.. 14 (4) :289-344

1934. Habits of Cryptotis parva in New York. Jour. Mamm., 15 (2) :
154-155

1935. Habits of jumping mice. Amer. Midland Nat., 16 (2) : 187-200

1938. Life history notes on the northern pine mouse. Jour. Mamm.,
19 (2) : 163-170

1939. Observations on the life history of the red squirrel in New York.
Amer. Midland Nat., 22 (3) :732-745

1940. The biology of the smoky shrew ( Sorex jumeus fumeus Miller) .
Zoologica, 25 (4) :473-492

1941. On the occurrence of Synaptomys cooperi in forested regions.
Jour. Mamm., 21 (2) :195

1943. The mammals of eastern United States. Ithaca, N. Y. Com¬
stock Publ. Co., Inc.

1950. The prairie deer mouse in New York and Pennsylvania. Jour.
Mamm., 31 (1) :100

Heacox, C. E. & Hall, A. G.

1958. Squirrel emigration. N. Y. State Conservationist, 12 (4) :41
Holloway, H. L.

1957. Sorex dispar at Mountain Lake, Virginia. Jour. Mamm., 38
(3) :406

SMALL MAMMALS OF OTSEGO AND SCHOHARIE COUNTIES

83

Howell, A. B.

1927. Revision of the American lemming mice. N. Amer. Fauna,
50:1-37

Jameson, E. W., Jr.

1949. Some factors influencing the local distribution and abundance
of woodland small mammals in central New York. Jour. Mamm.,
30 (3) :221-235

Krutzsch, P. H.

1954. North American jumping mice (genus Zapus) . Univ. Kans.
PubL, Mus. Nat. Hist., 7 (4) :349-472

Layne, J. N.

1954. The biology of the red squirrel. Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
loquax (Bangs), in central New York. Ecol. Monog.. 24:227-267

Maxon, E. T. & Fuller, G. L.

1915. Soil survey of Schoharie County, New York. U. S. Dept, of
Agr. 29pp.

Mearns, E. A.

1898. Notes on the mamma!s of the Catskill Mountains, New York,
with general remarks on the fauna and flora of the region.
U. S. Nat. Mus. Proc., 21:341-360

Merriam, C. H.

1884. The vertebrates of the Adirondack region, northeastern New
York (Mammalia) . Linnaean Soc. N. Y. Trans.. 2:5-214

Miller, G. S., Jr.

1899. Preliminary list of New York mammals. N. Y. State Mus. Bull.,
6:271-390

Mohr, C. E.

1945. Sex ratios of bats in Pennsylvania. Penn. Acad. Sci. Proc.,
19:65-69

Preble, N. A.

1956. Notes on the life history of Napaeozapus. Jour. Mamm., 37
(2) :196-200

Provost, E. E. & Kirkpatrick, C. M.

1952. Observations on the hoary bat in Indiana and Illinois. Jour.
Mamm., 33 (1) :110-113

84

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Rhoads, S. N.

1903. The mammals of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Philadelphia.
Privately published.

Rich, J. Lyon

1934. Glacial geology of the Catskills. N. Y. State Mus. Bull.. 299:
1-180

Richmond, N. D. & Grimm, W. C.

1950. Ecology and distribution of the shrew Sorex dispar in Penn¬
sylvania. Ecology, 31 (2) :279-282

Richmond, N. D. & Roslund, H. R.

1949. Mammal survey of northwestern Pennsylvania. Final Report,
P-R Project 20-R. Penn. Game Commission. 67pp.

Roslund, H. R.

1951. Mammal survey of northcentral Pennsylvania. Final Report,
P-R Project 37-R. Penn. Game Commission. 55pp.

Saunders, W. E.

1932. Notes on the mammals of Ontario. Royal Canadian Inst. Trans.,
18 (2) :271-309

Schwager, Harold, & Benton, A. H.

1955. My otis subulatus leibii in eastern New York. Jour. Mamm.,
37 (3) :441

Stegeman, L. C.

1955. Record of a female hoary bat, Lasiurus cinereus, and young in
Syracuse, New York. Jour. Mamm., 36 (3) :455-456

Tharp, W. E. et al.

1940. Soil survey of Otsego County, New York. U. S. Dept, of Agr.,
64pp.

Townsend, M. T.

1935. Studies on some of the small mammals of central New York.
Roosevelt Wild Life Annals, 4 (1) : 1-120

Wetzel, R. M.

1955. Speciation and dispersal of the southern bog lemming,
Synaptomys cooperi (Baird). Jour. Mamm., 36 (1) : 1-20

Yerger, R. W.

1955. Life history notes on the eastern chipmunk, Tamias striatus
lysteri (Richardson), in central New York. Amer. Midland
Nat., 53 (2) :312-323

i

^®2X Biology of the

my Indian Reservation
and Vicinity

PART Is THE ALGAE
BY

GEORGE JOHN SCHUMACHER

Museum Expert

PART 2: THE SEED PLANTS
BY

STANLEY JAY SMITH

Curator of Botany

PART 3: THE AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES
AND MAMMALS

BY

MARGARET M. STEWART

Museum Expert

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

AND SCIENCE SERVICE
BULLETIN NUMBER 383

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department

Albany, N. Y.

January 1961

Biology of the
Allegany Indian Reservation
and Vicinity

PARTI: THE ALGAE
BY

GEORGE JOHN SCHUMACHER

Museum Expert

PART 2: THE SEED PLANTS
BY

STANLEY JAY SMITH

Curator of Botany

PART 3: THE AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES
AND MAMMALS

BY

MARGARET M. STEWART

Museum Expert

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

AND SCIENCE SERVICE
BULLETIN NUMBER 383

The University of the State of Neiv York
The State Education Department

Albany, N. Y.

January 1961

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University

With years when terms expire

1969 John F. Brosnan, A.M., LL.B., J.D., LL.D., D.C.L., D.C.S.,

Pd.D., Chancellor . New York

1968 Edgar W. Couper, A.B., LL.D., Vice Chancellor - - - - Binghamton

1963 Mrs. Caroline Werner Gannett, LL.D., L.H.D., D.H. - - Rochester

1961 Dominick F. Maurillo, A.B., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D., M. and

S.D. . Brooklyn

1964 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D., Litt.D. . Troy

1967 Thad L. Collum, C.E. - - . Syracuse

1966 George L. Hubbell, Jr., A.B., LL.B., LL.D., Litt.D. - - Garden City

1973 Charles W. Millard, Jr., A.B. . Buffalo

1965 Chester H. Lang, A.B., LL.D. . Schenectady

1970 Everett J. Penny, B.C.S., D.C.S. . White Plains

1972 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S. . Purchase

1962 Edward M. M. Warburg, B.S., L.H.D. . New York

1971 J. Carlton Corwith, B.S. . Water Mill

President of the University and Commissioner of Education

James E. Allen, Jr., Ed.M., Ed.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Deputy Commissioner of Education

Ewald B. Nyquist, B.S., LL.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education and Special Services
Hugh M. Flick, Ph.D., LL.D.

Assistant Commissioner for State Museum and Science Service

William N. Fenton, A.B., Ph.D.

Scientists Biological Survey
State Botanist, State Science Service

Eugene C. Ogden, M.S., A.M., Ph.D.

State Zoologist, State Science Service

Ralph S. Palmer, Ph.D.

M 457r. -My G0-2000

CONTENTS

Puge

The Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Seed Plants . . . . . . . , 19

Cultivated Plants . . . . . . .. , 22

Weeds . . . . . . . . 26

Native Plants . . . . . . 35

An Ecological Survey of Amphibians, Reptiles and Mammals. .......... . , 63

Tables . . . . . . . 89

ILLUSTRATION

Figure 1: Map of Allegany Indian Reservation and Vicinity, Cattaraugus
County . . . . .

99

JAN 23 1964

HIITBS0K1AI

tISTITUItoa

The Algae of the Allegany
Indian Reservation

and Vicinity

BY

GEORGE JOHN SCHUMACHER*

Museum Expert

New York State Museum and Science Service

During the summer of 1957, the New York State Museum conducted
a survey of the Allegheny River area. This survey involved all the dis¬
ciplines of the Museum either directly or indirectly and it was proposed
that a study of the algae be included. Toward this end a three-week
period extending from August 7 through August 28 was spent in that
region collecting the necessary samples.

It was evident that the area could be divided into three geographical
regions, namely the Allegany State Park, the Allegany Indian Reserva¬
tion and the immediate surrounding country. Actual collecting stations
were located in all three areas and they were selected on a threefold
basis; i.e., because of an interesting ecological situation, because of the
desirability to visit as many of the tributaries to the Allegheny as pos¬
sible and to establish stations in various geographical locations. In
this manner it was hoped a truly representative series of collections
could be obtained. The number of collections made at any one par¬
ticular station depended solely upon the variety of habitats exhibited
by that station and the apparent quality of the algae. A sum total of
188 collections was made during the survey, representing samples from
46 established stations.

The stations established outside the area are included because they
are similar in many respects to those stations located within the area,
and their individual floras add tremendously to the overall flora. Of
lesser importance are the facts that they are only a few miles from the
main area and their number is small.

* Associate professor of biology, State University of New York, Harpur College,
Binghamton, N. Y.

[5]

6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

All collections were placed in glass bottles and examined in the fresh
condition upon return to camp. In this manner such preliminary
examinations revealed many forms that might otherwise be destroyed
or altered due to preservation. All material was ultimately preserved
in 5-10 percent formalin and received extensive examinations during
the following winter months. All collections have been deposited in the
New York State Museum.

DESCRIPTIONS OF STATIONS

1. Small tributary to Stoddard Creek. A small, narrow, shallow stream
with cold water and rocky bottom. The margins are heavily shaded.
Altitude 1,760.*

2. Frances Brook. A small brook connecting several beaver ponds.
Altitude 1,760.

3. Same location as No. 2 but on south side of Frances Brook Road.

4. Beaver Pond. A shallow pond with no marginal cover or shade.
Runoff from nearby hillside has caused considerable silting. Altitude
1,690.

5. Quaker Lake. An artificially dammed lake situated on Quaker Run.
The lake is approximately 300 yards long and 125 yards at its
widest point. The western portion is used quite heavily for fishing
and swimming. The eastern (inlet) portion is very shallow and
muddy. Altitude 1,900.

6. A small cattail- sphagnum marsh along south side of A.S.P. No. 3,
0.9 mile west of Quaker Lake. Seepage keeps the area damp and
small puddles persist in depressions during periods of drought.
Altitude 1,740.

7. Quaker Run. Rapidly moving water over rock bottom. Altitude
1,800.

8. T unungwant Creek, Town of Limestone. A large, deep, silted
creek supporting a luxuriant growth of Potomageton. Altitude
1,400.

9. T unungwant Swamp. A rather extensive swamp that was completely
dry during the period of investigation. The only water seen was in
small holes and depressions. Altitude 1,400.

10. Riverside Junction Swamp. A disappointing location in that very
little water was present during August. Altitude 1,400.

11. Small tributary to Limestone Brook, immediately west of location
No. 8. Extremely muddy due to runoff from nearby cultivated fields.
Altitude 1,440.

12. Series of small pools and beaver ponds along Bay State Brook.
Denuded areas surrounding this location have added much silt and
the bottoms of the ponds and brooks are covered with soft mud.
Altitude 1,640-1,480.

13. Cain Hollow. A small, cool stream in wooded area. Altitude 1,440.

14. Fir Tree Swamp. Previous investigators have cited this small area as
an interesting relic of bygone days. Unfortunately, this investiga¬
tor was hard put to find any suitable collecting locales in the

^ All elevations are expressed in terms of feet above sea level.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

7

“swamp.” Moisture of any sort was apparent only in the northern
portion of the area in holes left by fallen trees and in the depres¬
sions around a few hummocks. Altitude 1,370.

15. Red House Lake. A triangular shaped lake with a dam along the
western margin. It is shallow and fed from all sides by four tribu¬
taries. The lake is used extensively for boating, fishing and swim¬
ming. However, most of the shores possess some type of aquatic
vascular vegetation. Altitude 1,420.

16. Cricks Run. A narrow woodland stream. Altitude 1,380-1,340.

17. Holt Run, similar to No. 16. Altitude 1,380.

18. Allegheny River at mouth of Quaker Run. Exposed mudflats are in
evidence here due to the silt being deposited by Quaker Run. The
river itself is shallow and swift at this point. Altitude 1,330.

19. Wolf Run. A small stream passing through woodland and farm¬
land. Altitude 1,320.

20. Wolf Run at junction of Brown’s Hollow. Altitude 1,400.

21. Island in Allegheny River. Three miles south of junction of A.S.P.
No. 3 with N. Y. 346. A flat sandy oval-shaped island in the middle
of the river. Altitude 1,300.

22. Allegheny River at Onoville. Altitude 1,280.

23. Sphagnum bog, one-quarter mile southwest of the junction of
A.S.P. No. 2 and No. 3. Altitude 2,200.

24. Red House Lake, collections made along north shore of lake de¬
scribed in item 15.

25. Beeline Creek, near eastern end of Red House Lake. Altitude 1,400.

26. Red House Creek, at western end of the lake. A narrow and shallow
creek with swiftly moving water. Altitude 1,380.

27. Boyd Creek, near camp No. 8. A small creek that falls quickly in a
short distance. Altitude 1,560.

28. Boyd Creek. Altitude 1,550.

29. Small beaver pond, 0.9 mile north of Camp Arrowhead. The pond
is only 20 yards in diameter and its bottom is covered with a thick
layer of silt. Altitude 1,600.

30. Red Pond, northwest of Steamburg and east of Blood Road. A
large boglike pond that is ringed by heavy growth of shrubs and
small trees including Rhus vernix L. The water is rich in organic
matter and the bottom soft from decaying vegetation. Altitude 1,410.

31. Abandoned gravel pit, between N. Y. 17 and the Allegheny River,
three-fourths mile west of Red House. An extensive abandoned pit,
long and narrow with steep sides. Altitude 1,340.

32. Randolph Fish Hatchery. Altitude 1,300.

33. Mouth of Wolf Run, where it joins the Allegheny. Altitude 1,327.

34. Allegheny River in vicinity of Breed Run. Eastern banks are shored
with metal pilings as the river makes a sharp turn. Altitude 1,360.

35. Allegheny River, City of Salamanca. Most of the collections from
this site were taken along the exposed flats lining the northern
shore. Altitude 1,370.

36. Titus Run , at Salamanca’s southern city limits. A very small, weak
stream. Altitude 1,430.

37. Wet roadside banks , 0.6 mile south of Carrolton Run. Altitude
1,500.

8

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

38. Mouth of Tunungwant Creek where it joins the Allegheny River.
A broad, deep mouth choked with Potomageton. Altitude 1,400.

39. English Brook. A small woodland brook with stony bottom. Alti¬
tude 1,500.

40. Bear Springs, 2.5 miles north of Quaker Run Administration Build¬
ing. Altitude 1,920.

41. Headwaters of Stoddard Creek. Altitude 2,200.

42. Stoddard Creek, lower end. In this area the creek’s flow becomes
slower and the water is exposed to more light and runoff. Altitude
1,440.

43. Bear Caves, three-fourths mile north of A.S.P. No. 3 near Stony
Brook. Samples taken from trees and logs in the vicinity. Altitude
1,780.

44. Pool along stream under Erie Railroad bridge on N. Y. 17. Pool
was very sluggish and stagnant. Altitude 1,367.

45. Farm pond at junction of N. Y. 242 and N. Y. 17 near East
Randolph. Altitude 1,320.

46. Small pit just off south side of N. Y. 17. Three-fourths mile west
of Red House. The pit is now being used as a dump for unwanted
brush. It is 20 feet deep and 50 feet in diameter but at the time it
held only a few inches of water. Altitude 1,340.

The foregoing stations may be grouped according to their ecological
similarities. The first group is exemplified by Quaker Run — a relatively
narrow stream with fast-moving water and a rocky bottom. Most of
its course is run through wooded areas and its banks are shallow but
straight. Other members of this group would be Stoddard Creek, Cain
Hollow, Cricks Run, Holt Run, Wolf Run, Beeline Creek, Red House
Creek, Boyd Creek and English Brook; all are found within the boun¬
daries of the State Park. Due to their swiftness, shade and bottom, they
support little in the way of plantlife with the exception of diatoms.
Typical of their algal content would be Ulothrix zonata, Mougeotia sp.
and Zygnema sp.

Group two differs from the preceding in that the streams are slower
moving and their waters receive more light. Due to the runoff from the
surrounding terrain they are inclined to have silt over the bottom. This
class includes Frances Brook, Limestone Brook, Titus Run and, in some
respects, Tunungwant Creek. The latter creek is much broader and
deeper than the rest but it shares their silted, open characteristics. Such
genera as Oscillatoria, Oedogonium and Spirogyra are found here.

The third division has only one member, the Allegheny River. Due
to its size, shallowness and general lack of aquatic vegetation it is
placed in a class by itself. Attached to stones in the moving water
would be found Cladopliora glomerata and Stigeoclonium nanum, while
in the tychoplankton and small puddles offshore would be species of
Selenastrum and Scenedesmus and the blue-greens Aplianocapsa, Meris-
mopedia and Spirulina.

The lakes comprise the fourth group. These are relatively large
bodies of water, although they are shallow, and are fed and drained by
streams. In this area, only Quaker Lake and Red House Lake are in
this category. Both of these lakes are artificially dammed along their
western margin. Their eastern margins support vegetation common to

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

9

marshes. The remaining shores are populated by waterweeds and water-
lilies. This type of habitat favors the growth of desmids, especially cer¬
tain species of Netrium , Closterium and Cosmarium. Other tycho-
plankton species are represented by the genus Scenedesmus. The
presence of species that require hard water, a high nitrogenous content
and an above average supply of C02 give an indication as to the
physical- chemical nature of the lakes. These indicator organisms are
Microcystis aeruginosa, Coelosphaerium naegelianum and, to a lesser
degree, Dinobryon bavaricum.

The small beaver ponds constitute the fifth group. Most of the ponds
in this area are small, rather shallow, heavily silted and have exposed
shorelines. The presence of silt on the bottom and in suspension creates
a situation that is unfavorable to aquatic vegetation, both vascular and
nonvascular. The effect of the animal population on such a situation
is evidenced by the presence of the algal plankters Eudorina and
Pandorina. Both are frequenters of hard waters that possess a high
amount of nitrogenous materials.

Grouping of the remaining stations would be difficult since they rep¬
resent a variety of environs such as roadside ditches, pools, pits, moist
soil etc. The most noteworthy of these is the acid bog, Red Pond.
(An adequate description of this station appears in the preceding list
of stations, No. 30) . The algal flora of this habitat is marked by the
presence of Batrachospermum ectocarpum and a desmid population rich
in quality. Under such circumstances the blue greens would be poor
qualitatively and quantitatively.

ANNOTATED LIST OF ALGAE FOUND IN AREA*

The numbers following the species listing and its habitat denote the
station from which the sample was taken and the number of the par¬
ticular collection in which the species was observed. The station num¬
bers are 1 through 46 and correspond to those used in the section
describing the stations. The collection numbers range from 1,500 to
1,689.

Since this is the first attempt to identify the algae of this area to
species, all of the reports are new locality records. Actually, little
work has been done in New York State on the algae. Therefore, no
attempt has been made to claim new records for the State or county
since all but the most common forms would represent some type of ex¬
tension of the known range for the particular species. Instead, it is
recommended that interested persons refer to the publications listed at
the end of this paper for comparison and further information.

* Excluding diatoms and charas.

10

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Division CHLOROPHYTA

Class CHLOROPHYCEAE
Order VOLVOCALES

1. Volvocaceae

1. Gonium pectorale Mueller. Frequent in tychoplankton. 22-1,615
and 25-1,622.

2. Gonium sociale (Duj.) Warming. Rare in tychoplankton. 46-1,635.

3. Pandorina morum (Muell.) Rory. Frequent in tychoplankton and
widespread in distribution. 4-1,520, 15-1,669, 25-1,622, 26-1,627
and 32-1,642.

4. Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg. In association with Pandorina in
tychoplankton. 4-1,520, 26-1,627.

Order TETRASPORALES

2. Palmellaceae

5. Sphaerocystis schroeteri Chodat. Tychoplankton. 25-1,622.

6. Gloeocystis vesiculosa Naegeli. Tychoplankton. 15-1,594.

3. T etraspor aceae

7. T etraspora gelatinosa (Vauch.) Desvaux. Forming gelatinous
masses on bottom in shallow, quiet water. 19-1,608.

Order ULOTRICHALES

4. Ulatrichaceae

8. Ulothrix zonata (Weber & Mohr) Kuetzing. Small bits of green
attached to stones in stream. 7-1,527.

5. Schizomeridaceae

9. Schizomeris leibleinii Kuetzing. Rare to frequent in tychoplank¬
ton. 15-1,552.

Order MICROSPORALES

6. Microsporaceae

10. Microspora willeana Lagerheim. Entangled with Stigeoclonium.
3-1,503.

Order CHAETOPHORALES

7. Cliaetophoraceae

11. Stigeoclonium aestivale (Hazen) Collins. Small bright green
tufts attached to submerged twigs in creek. 3-1,503.

12. Stigeoclonium nanum Kuetzing. Attached to submerged aquatics.
22-1,616.

13. Chaetophora attenuata Hazen. Green gelatinous beads on sub¬
merged wood. 12-1,541.

8. Protococcaceae

14. Protococcus viridis C. A. Agardh. Common on bark of trees and
logs. 40-1,673; 43-1,681.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

11

Order CLADOPHORALES

9. Cladophoraceae

15. Cladophora glome rata (L.) Kuetzing. Long green tufts on stones
in rapids. 18-1,554.

16. Basicladia chelonum (Collins) Hoffmann & Tilden. On shell of
Chelydra serpentina, the snapping turtle. 39-1,671.

Order OEDOGONIALES

10. Oedogoniaceae

17. Bulbochaete sp. Common in many situations. On dead submerged
wood, 5-1,537; on submerged aquatics, 24-1,616; in tychoplankton,
15-1,559 and 30-1,639.

18. Oedogonium sp. Common in many situations. On submerged
aquatics, 4-1,501, 8-1,587, 15-1,551 and 24-1,616; in tychoplank¬
ton, 2-1,504, 15-1,670 and 45-1,687.

Order CHLOROCOCCALES

11. Characiaceae

19. Characium rostratum Reinhard. Attached to filaments of Oedogo¬
nium. 15-1,551.

12. Hydro dictyaceae

20. Pediastrum boryanum (Turp.) Meneghini. In shallow puddles,
18-1,582 and 35-1,660; in small pond south of main area, 32-
1,642.

21. Pediastrum boryanum var. undulatum Wille. In small pond south
of main area, 32-1,642.

22. Pediastrum duplex Meyen. In shallow puddles, 18-1,582.

23. Pediastrum duplex var. clathratum (A. Braun) Lagerheim. In
tychoplankton, 22-1,615; in shallow puddles, 35-1,660.

24. Pediastrum simplex (Meyen) Lemmermann. In plankton near
dam, 26-1,627.

25. Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenb.) Ralfs. One of the most widespread
of the plankton green algae, 4-1,520, 15-1,591, 15-1,594, 22-1,615,
25-1,622 and 35-1,660.

26. Pediastrum tetras var. tetraodon (Corda) Rabenhorst. In scrap¬
ings taken from metal pilings, 34-1,659.

13. Coelastraceae

27. Coelastrum cambricum Archer. In scrapings taken from metal
pilings, 34-1,659; common in small puddles, 35-1,660; tycho¬
plankton, 46-1,635.

28. Coelastrum microporum Naegeli. Tychoplankton, 25-1,627.

29. Coelastrum scabrum Reinsch. Rare, but excellent coenobes in
tychoplankton, 15-1,669.

30. Coelastrum sphaericum Naegeli. Tychoplankton, 4-1,520.

14. Oocystacea©

31. Dictyosphaerium ehrenb ergianum Naegeli. Tychoplankton, 15-
1,670 and 46-1,635.

32. Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Wood. Tychoplankton, 22-1,615; in
shallow puddles, 34-1,660.

12

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

33. Oocystis pusilla Hansgirg. In shallow quiet water, 19-1,608.

34. Lagerheimia longiseta var. major G. M. Smith. Cells with chloro-
plasts in two parietal plates, each with a pyrenoid; setae up to
56p, in length. Rare in tychoplankton, 46-1,635.

35. Dimorphococcus lunatus A. Braun. In scrapings taken from metal
pilings, 34-1,659.

36. Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs. Mixed with Cladophora ,
18-1,554; tychoplankton, 22-1,615 and 46-1,635; in scrapings
taken from metal pilings, 34-1,659.

37. Selenastrum bibraianum Reinsch. Tychoplankton, 4-1,520 and
22-1,615; mixed with blue-greens along muddy shore margins,

34- 1,658.

38. Selenastrum gracile Reinsch. In shallow puddles, 35-1,660.

39. Selenastrum westii G. M. Smith. Mixed with Cladophora , 18-1,554.

40. Kirchneriella contorta (Schmidle) Bohlin. Tychoplankton, 22-
1,615; in small shallow puddles, 35-1,660.

41. Tetraedron regular e var. incus Teiling. Mixed with Cladophora ,
18-1,554.

42. Polyedriopsis spinulosa Schmidle. Frequent in tychoplankton, 22-
1,615.

15. Scenedesmaceae

43. Scenedesmus abundans var. longicauda G. M. Smith. In shallow
puddles, 35-1,660.

44. Scenedesmus acuminatus (Lag.) Chodat. In shallow puddles, 35-
1,660; tychoplankton, 46-1,630.

45. Scenedesmus acutiformis Schroeder. Tychoplankton, 25-1,622 and
46-1,635.

46. Scenedesmus arcuatus Lemmermann. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594.

47. Scenedesmus armatus (Chod.) G. M. Smith. In shallow puddles,

35- 1,660.

48. Scenedesmus bijuga (Turp.) Lagerheim. Tychoplankton, 15-1,669.

49. Scenedesmus brasiliensis Bohlin. Tychoplankton, 15-1,669.

50. Scenedesmus carinatus (Lemm.) Chodat. Tychoplankton, 15-1,669.

51. Scenedesmus dimorphus (Turp.) Kuetzing. Frequent in tycho¬
plankton, 22-1,615, 25-1,622 and 46-1,635; mixed with Clado¬
phora , 18-1,554; in scrapings taken from metal pilings, 34-1,654.

52. Scenedesmus hystrix Lagerheim. Tychoplankton, 15-1,670.

53. Scenedesmus obliquus (Turp.) Kuetzing. In shallow puddles,
35-1,660.

54. Scenedesmus opoliensis P. Richter. Mixed with blue-greens on
muddy margins, 34-1,658; tychoplankton, 46-1,630.

55. Scenedesmus quadricauda (Turp.) de Brebisson. Tychoplankton,
22-1,615 and 46-1,630.

56. Scenedesmus quadricauda var. longispina (Chod.) G. M. Smith.
In shallow puddles. 35-1,660.

57. Actinastrum hantzschii var. fluviatile Schroeder. Tychoplankton,
rare in 15-1,669, common in 22-1,615; in scrapings taken from
metal pilings, 34-1,659.

58. Crucigenia truncata G. M. Smith. Rare in tychoplankton, 22-1,615
and 46-1,635.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

13

59. Micractinium pusillum Fresenius. Tychoplankton, 22-1,615.

60. Micractinium pusillum var. elegans G. M. Smith. Rare in scrap¬
ings taken from metal pilings, 34-1,659.

Order SIPHONALES

16. Vaucheriaceae

61. Vaucheria sp. Floating mat in stream, 41-1,677.

Order ZYGNEMATALES

17. Zygnemataceae

62. Mougeotia sp. Common in varied situations, 2-1,504, 3-1,551,
6-1,524, 13-1,580, 16-1,601, 17-1,606, 18-1,597 and 28-1,628.

63. Spirogyra sp. Common, 2-1,505, 3-1,509, 4-1,500, 5-1,518, 6-1,516,
10-1,526, 25-1,622, 42-1,680 and 44-1,682.

64. Zygnema sp. In scrapings of dam spillway, 5-1,513; floating in
backwaters, 16-1,601 and 18-1,597.

18. Mesotaeniaceae

65. Netrium digitus (Ehrenb.) Itzigsohn & Roth. One of the most
widespread organisms of this order. In scrapings of wet cliff at
base of dam, 5-1,515; tychoplankton, 15-1,591, 15-1,670, 24-
1,614, 25-1,620 and 30-1,639.

66. Spirotaenia condensata de Brebisson. Frequent in tychoplankton,
15-1,594 and 17-1,606.

67. Spirotaenia trabecula A. Braun. In sluggish backwater, 13-1,580.

19. Desmidiaceae

68. Closterium dianae Ehrenberg. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594.

69. Closterium didymotocum Corda. One cell seen was extremely
large, 740/a x 35/x. Tychoplankton, 15-1,591 and 15-1,670.

70. Closterium incurvum de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 15-1,670, 25-
1,622 and 26-1,627.

71. Closterium moniliferum (Bory) Ehrenberg. Tychoplankton, 15-
1,552 and 25-1,622.

72. Closterium striolatum Ehrenberg. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594.

73. Closterium turgidum Ehrenberg. Tychoplankton, 15-1,591.

74. Closterium venus (Kuetz.) de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 15-
1,594.

75. Penium mar garitaceum (Ehrenb.) de Brebisson. Tychoplankton,
25-1,622.

76. Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii var. granulatum Ralfs. Apical poles
with five tubercules in face view. Rare in tychoplankton, 30-1,639.

77. Pleurotaenium maximum (Reinsch) Lundell. Tychoplankton, 15-
1,552 and 15-1,670.

78. Pleurotaenium nodulosum de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 4-1,520
and 15-1,594.

79. Pleurotaenium trabecula (Ehrenb.) Naegeli. Tychoplankton,
4-1,520 and 25-1,622; in scrapings taken from metal pilings, 34-
1,659.

80. Tetmemorus brebissonii (Menegh.) Ralfs. Tychoplankton, 30-
1,639.

14

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

81. Tetmemorus brebissonii var. minor de Bary. Excellent cells seen,
averaging 75^t in length, 19 p in width and 13/x at the isthmus.
Frequent in tychoplankton, 30-1,639.

82. Euastrum abruptum var. minor West & West. Tychoplankton, 15-
!,669.

83. Euastrum didelta (Turp.) Ralfs. Tychoplankton, 30-1,639.

84. Euastrum insulare (Wittr.) Roy. Tychoplankton, 15-1,591 and
15-1,594.

85. Euastrum verrucosum Ehrenberg. Frequent in tychoplankton, 25-
1,619.

86. Cosmarium granatum de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 4-1,520, 15-

1.594, 24-1,614 and 25-1,622.

87. Cosmarium holmiense Lundell. Excellent cells in shallow quiet
water, 19-1,608.

88. Cosmarium holmiense var. integrum Lundell. In scrapings of wet
cliff at base of dam, 5-1,515.

89. Cosmarium impressulum Elfv. Tychoplankton, 15-1,670 and 25-
1,622.

90. Cosmarium margaritatum (Lund.) Roy & Bissett. Tychoplankton,
15-1,594 and 15-1,670.

91. Cosmarium ovale var. prescottii Irenee-Marie. Several excellent
cells seen; row of granules at isthmus and two rows of granules
around edge quite evident. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594.

92. Cosmarium pachydermum Lundell. Cell wall 2.5/x in thickness.
Tychoplankton, 25-1,620.

93. Cosmarium polygonum (Naeg.) Archer. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594.

94. Cosmarium portianum Archer. Tychoplankton, 15-1,670 and 24-

1,614.

95. Cosmarium protr actum (Naeg.) de Bary. Tychoplankton, 15-

1.669, common in 15-1,670 and 25-1,622.

96. Cosmarium punctulatum de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 25-1,619.

97. Cosmarium punctulatum var. sub punctulatum (Nordst.) Borgesen.
Tychoplankton, 15-1,591 and 15-1,594.

98. Cosmarium quadratum Ralfs. In squeezings of sphagnum from
inlet, 5-1,529.

99. Cosmarium regnellii Wille. Tychoplankton, 15-1,591 and 25-1,619.

100. Cosmarium sportella de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 25-1,619.

101. Cosmarium subcostatum Nordstedt. Rare in tychoplankton, 15-

1.670.

102. Cosmarium subrenijorme Nordstedt. Tychoplankton, 25-1,622; in
small ponds south of main area, 32-1,642.

103. Cosmarium subtumidum Nordstedt. Rare in tychoplankton, 15-

1,670.

104. Arthrodesmus octocornis Ehrenberg. Rare in tychoplankton, 30-
!,639.

105. Staurastrum alternans de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 22-1,616.

106. Staurastrum arctiscon (Ehrenb.) Lundell. Tychoplankton, 15-

1.594.

107. Staurastrum breviaculeatum G. M. Smith. Rare in tychoplankton,
30-1,639.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

15

108. Staurastrum chaetoceras (Schroeder) G. M. Smith. Frequent in
tychoplankton, 22-1,615 and 24-1,616.

109. Staurastrum cuspidatum var. divergens Nordstedt. Common in
tychoplankton, 30-1,639.

110. Staurastrum denticulatum (Naeg.) Archer. Tychoplankton, 15-
1,594.

111. Staurastrum furcatum var. pisiforme Turner. Frequent in tycho¬
plankton, 30-1,639.

112. Staurastrum natator W. West. In scrapings taken from metal pil¬
ings, 34-1,659.

113. Staurastrum orbiculare Rails. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594.

114. Staurastrum polymorphum de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594,
15-1,670 and 25-1,622.

115. Micrasterias papillifera de Brebisson. In small depression of
sphagnum marsh, 6-1,524.

116. Micrasterias radiata Hassall. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594, 15-1,670
and 25-1,622.

117. Micrasterias truncata (Corda) de Brebisson. Tychoplankton, 30-
1,643.

118. Micrasterias truncata var. semiradiata Cleve. Rare in tychoplank¬
ton, 30-1,639.

119. Sphaerozosma granulatum Roy & Bissett. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594
and 25-1,622.

120. Hyalotheca dissiliens (Smith) de Brebisson. In still water of pool,
12-1,577.

121. Hyalotheca mucosa (Dillw.) Ehrenberg. In shallow depression,
9-1,538; tychoplankton, 15-1,594, frequent in 15-1,670 and 25-
1,622.

Division CHRYSOPHYTA

Class CHRYSOPHYCEAE

Order CHRYSOMONADALES

20. Synuraceae

122. Synura uvella Ehrenberg. In small beaver pond, tychoplankton,
3-1,503.

21. Ochromonadaceae

123. Dinobryon bavaricum Imhof. Euplankton, 5-1,513.

124. Dinobryon cylindricum Imhof. In shallow marginal waters, 30-
1,639.

Division PYRRHOPHYTA
Class DINOPHYCEAE

Order PERIDINIALES

22. Glenodiniaceae

125. Glenodinium palustre (Lemm.) Schiller. Tychoplankton, 30-1,639.

23. Peridiniaceae

126. P ridinium cinctum (Muell.) Ehrenberg. In plankton near dam,
26-1,627.

127. ridinium limbatum (Stokes) Lemmermann. Rare in tycho¬
plankton, 30-1,639.

16

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Division CYANOPHYTA

Class MYXOPHYCEAE
Order CHROOCOCCALES

24. Chroocoecaceae

128. Chroococcus turgidus (Kuetz.) Naegeli. In small depressions in
sphagnum marsh, 6-1,524.

129. A phanocapsa elachista West & West. Tychoplankton, 22-1,615
and 46-1,635.

130. Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetzing. Tychoplankton, 15-1,594, 15-
1,670 and 31-1,637.

131. Merismopedia elegans A. Braun. In floating debris, 27-1,599.

132. Merismopedia glauca (Ehrenb.) Naegeli. Tychoplankton, 15-
1,669 and 22-1,616.

133. Merismopedia punctata Meyen. In scrapings taken from metal
pilings, 34-1,659.

134. Coelosphaerium kuetzingianum Naegeli. Tychoplankton 31-1,637.

135. Coelosphaerium naegelianum Unger. Tychoplankton, 15-1,591,
15-1,594 and common in 26-1,627.

Order HORMOGONALES

25. Oscillatoriaceae

136. Spirulina major Kuetzing. Very common with other blue-greens
on muddy margins, 34-1,658; in scrapings taken from metal
pilings, 34-1,659; on bottom and submerged objects, 38-1,668.

137. Oscillatoria formosa Bory. Common on muddy margins, 34-
1,658; in puddles on island, 21-1,612.

138. Oscillatoria limosa (Roth) C. A. Agardh. Forming brown mats
on stones on bottom, 20-1,610; common in shallow puddles, 35-
1,660; floating in stream, 41-1,679.

139. Oscillatoria princeps Vaucher. Tychoplankton, 25-1,622; in shal¬
low puddles, 30-1,660.

140. Oscillatoria sancta (Kuetz.) Gomont. Entangled with floating
mat of Vaucheria, 41-1,677.

141. Oscillatoria tenuis C. A. Agardh. Tychoplankton, 1-1,510 and
45-1,687 ; on mud, 15-1,669.

142. Oscillatoria tenuis var. tergestina (Kuetz.) Rabenhorst. Common,
intermixed with floating debris, 15-1,591.

26. Nostocaceae

143. Anabaena felsii (Menegh.) Bornet & Flahault. Rare in tycho¬
plankton near dam, 26-1,627.

144. Anabaena flos-aquae (Lyngb.) de Brebisson. Forming a small
bloom about shoreline, 24-1,605; frequent in floating debris, 25-
1,620.

145. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L.) Ralfs. Along shore margin and
in euplankton, 31-1,629 and 31-1,637.

146. Cylindrospermum minutum Wood. In scrapings of wet cliff at
base of dam, 5-1,515.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

17

27. Stigonemataceae

147. Hapalosiphon hibernicus West & West. Entangled with other
algae in shallow water on stones and pebbles near dam, 26-1,627.

Division RHODOPHYTA

Class RHODOPHYCEAE
Order NEMALIONALES
28. Batrachospermaceae

148. Batrachospermum ectocarpum Sirodot. ( ? ) . The absence of re¬
productive organs makes positive identification of this species
impossible. It is tentatively placed in this species because of the
habitat and the vegetative characteristics. Frequent in small
shallow areas about the margin, attached to submerged roots, 30-
1,524 and 30-1,539.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this survey was to collect algae from the Allegany
State Park, the Allegany Indian Reservation and adjacent areas in order
to supply information applicable to the following:

1. A qualitative study of the algae, their distribution through¬
out the area and their identification to species whenever pos¬
sible.

2. A comparison of the current findings with those of the 1937
Biological Survey.

3. A prediction of what might happen should the area be flooded.

With these points in mind, each will be discussed.

1. Three weeks in the month of August were spent in the field col¬
lecting 188 samples from 46 stations. As a result, a total of 148 taxa in
65 genera and 28 families were identified. Those species worthy of
special mention because of their relative rareness are Schizomeris leib-
leinii , Lagerheimia longiseta var. major, Polyedriopsis spinulosa,
Scenedesmus carinatus, Actinastrum hantzschii var. fluviatile, Pleuro -
taenium ehrenbergii var. granulatum , Cosmarium ovale var. prescottii,
Arthrodesmus octocornis and Staurastrum chaetoceras. Anabaena flos-
aquae should be mentioned as a cause of a minor bloom in Red House
Lake.

The genera represented by the largest number of taxa are as follows:
Cosmarium, 18; Scenedesmus, 14; Staurastrum, 10; Closterium, 7, and
Pediastrum, 7. The families with the largest number of taxa are as
follows: Desmidiaceae, 54; Scenedesmaceae, 18; Oocystaceae, 12; Chroo-
coccaceae, 8, and Hydrodictyaceae, 8.

Further qualitative findings and individual distributions are given
in the annotated list.

2. An actual comparison of this study with that conducted by the
biological survey in 1937 cannot be made for several reasons. The
algae mentioned in the 1937 survey were identified only to genus; 38
were listed, and the investigations were limited to Chautauqua Lake — a
lake outside the area of this study. Lastly, the previous study was
principally limnological rather than taxonomic.

18

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

3. From field observations and the material gathered, it is quite
evident the Allegheny River is not a productive body of water for algae.
This point was made by McVaugh (1937 ) . He stated the growth of
vegetation is seriously hindered by the swift-flowing waters and the
bottoms covered with “waterworn glacial pebbles.” He also noted
the scouring action of periodic floods and the effects of pollutions in
creating an unfavorable situation. As far as can be seen, all these
conditions exist today and, as a result, the species that have managed
to establish themselves are those that are extremely hardy and have little
value.

For different ecological reasons, mentioned in the station descrip¬
tions, the mountain streams are quite barren and unproductive. If
flooding of the area should occur, it will be along the river and lower
portions of these streams. In such an event, little damage to the algal
flora is foreseen, i.e. in amount or variety. If permanent flooding did
take place, a condition could develop that would be favorable to the
establishment and maintenance of more desirable algae, due to the
increase in depth and the decrease in speed of such waters.

It is in the areas that will not be affected by inundation that the in¬
teresting algae are found; e.g. Red House Lake, Quaker Lake and Red
Pond. If these and their kind are permitted to remain intact it would
mean the great majority of the algae in the Allegheny River area would
be untouched and allowed to flourish.

REFERENCES

Burkholder, P. R.

1931. Studies in the phytoplankton of Cayuga Lake basin, N. Y. Bull. Buff. Soc.
Nat. Sci., 15:21-181
Chandler, D. C. & Weeks, O. B.

1945. Limnological studies of western Lake Erie. Y. Ecol. Monographs, 15:435-
456

Giegner, B. M.

1951. The plankton algae of the southeast end of Chautauqua Lake. Proc.
Rochester Acad. Sci., 9:409-420
Gordon, R. B.

1934. Lemanea grandis (Wolle)Atk. rediscovered after forty years. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club, 61:437-439
Hotchkiss, A. T.

1950. Vegetation of Bergen Swamp. IV. The algae. Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci.,
9:237-264
Hylander, C. J.

1923. Notes on the desmids of New York. Torreya, 23:59-62
McVaugh, R.

1937. Aquatic vegetation of the Allegheny and Chemung watersheds. Suppl.
27th Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Conserv. Dept.

Smith, G. M.

1924. Ecology of the plankton algae of the Palisades Interstate Park. Roosevelt
Wild Life Bull., 2:95-162

Snow, J. W.

1902. Plankton algae of Lake Erie, with special reference to the Chlorophyceae.
B ill U. S Fish Comm., 22:369-394
Tiffany, L. H.

I ff4 1 The plankton algae of the west end of Lake Erie. Contrib. Franz. Stone
No. 6, pp. 1-112

Seed Plants of the
Allegany Indian Reservation
and Vicinity

Additions and Notes
BY

STANLEY JAY SMITH

Curator of Botany

New York State Museum and Science Service

INTRODUCTION

The New York State Museum has had a traditional interest in the
botany of southern Cattaraugus County, particularly that in and around
the Allegany State Park. Several papers on the vascular plants and the
vegetation of the area have already been published. This report should
be considered as a supplement including the results of more recent
explorations.

The present investigator concentrated on the Indian reservation and
the oak woods near the Allegheny River. An effort was made to add to
our knowledge of escapes and weeds in the area. Since the bulk of the
previous botanizing in the region was done by scientists and students
connected with the Allegany School of Natural History and their efforts
were mostly made in the summer, special trips were made in spring
and in autumn. All in all, most of the summer of 1957, a week in the
spring of 1957, another in the spring of 1958 and a final week in the
autumn of 1958 were spent in the area. In the summer of 1957, the
writer was assisted by Paul F. Fendt. On the other trips, he was ac¬
companied by Dr. Stephen W. Eaton, professor of biology, St. Bona¬
venture University.

The herbarium of the Allegany School of Natural History is now the
property of St. Bonaventure University. Members of the staff of the
latter institution have collected widely in the area and their specimens
have all been made available for study. The writer has personally
verified about 90 percent of the sheets in the St. Bonaventure herb¬
arium. In addition, he has studied pertinent collections in the herb¬
arium of the New York State Museum. These include many specimens
collected by Dr. Homer D. House, former state botanist, and his col¬
leagues in connection with earlier museum publications on the botany of
the area as well as those of the present curator. They also include a
set of specimens collected by Dr. William N. Fenton, now Assistant

[19]

20

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Commissioner for the State Museum and Science Service, during his
investigations on the ethnobotany of the Iroquois in 1938 and 1939.
The first set of these specimens is preserved in the ethnobotanical col¬
lections of the University Museum of the University of Michigan.

These efforts have uncovered many interesting records which are de¬
tailed later. After studying all available published reports, it is con¬
cluded that a number of these records are apparently new. Unfor¬
tunately, the account of plants about St. Bonaventure by Fr. Hubert
Vecchierello (1940-1942) is rather general and the supporting speci¬
mens are mostly not in existence. In this situation, the present writer
has considered a taxon new to the area covered, unless Fr. Vecchierello
cited specific stations for it, which could be pinpointed as within
the area. As a result, 35 escapes, 75 weeds and 81 native species or
subspecies are added to the list of plants in the region studied. These
additions are indicated in the text by asterisks. The following are
hitherto unreported from the State:

Escapes

Agrostis gigantea var. gigantea
Lespedeza stipulacea

Weeds

Malva rotundifolia

Natives

Car ex caroliniana
C. gravida var. gravida
C. muricata var. laricina
Lilium canadense subsp. editorum
Baptisia tinctoria var. projecta
Chelone glabra subsp. elador

Nomenclature is in accordance with the International Code (Lanjouw
et al ., edit., 1956) . One of the most noticeable changes is in the
designation of a variety or a subspecies for the typical race of the
species rather than using the binomial for two things: the species in¬
cluding all its variants and also the typical element of the species after
variations are excluded. The typical element is designated by repeating
the specific epithet without author-citation.

Synonyms are cited from Gray’s Manual (Fernald, 1950), the
Illustrated Flora (Gleason, 1952) and from other works where per¬
tinent. Where the name used is in agreement with either the manual or
the flora or both, no other references are given. Where it is different
from the name (or author-citation) used in both those works, support¬
ing references are cited or a defense is otherwise made of the chosen
name. Where the race discussed is the typical one and no differentia¬
tion is noted by those works, a reference is given to support the treat¬
ment.

In papers of this kind, the author prefers to use a separate paragraph
for each species or major race (one with incipient isolation) . He con¬
siders these races as subspecies or possible subspecies. No new com-

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

21

binations are made, however, and, where a varietal combination is
available, he has used that as a paragraph-heading, except in a few
cases, where such usage might be misleading. In those cases and where
no combination was found, the binomial was used. Minor varieties
(without isolation) are sometimes mentioned without separate para¬
graphs.

The statements on distribution in the area and generally in the
State are based on published reports and also on material in the files
of the New York State Museum. References to the obvious sources
(Eaton et al., 1956; House, 1924; House and Alexander, 1927; House
and Gordon, 1940; Jennings, 1953; Muenscher, 1935b; Smith, 1945;
Wiegand and Eames, 1926; Zenkert, 1934) are omitted from the cata¬
log but included in the bibliography.

All stations reported in this paper are shown on the map (p. 99) as
far as possible. A few localities are outside these limits but may be
found on ordinary roadmaps with two exceptions. Tributary No. 49
of the Allegheny River is a small stream entering the river opposite St.
Bonaventure. Fivemile Creek enters the river from the north just west
of the village of Allegany and just east of the map. A few localities in
old reports could not be located on available maps. Two need some ex¬
planation. Jones Hill is the same as Roundtop on the map. Waterman
Swamp, also known as Owlenburg Bog (and so designated in earlier
reports) or Allenburg Bog, is outside the area, on the border of the
Towns of Napoli and New Albion.

All specimens cited are in the herbarium of the New York State
Museum, unless otherwise noted. Those in the herbarium of St.
Bonaventure University are indicated by the abbreviation, St. B, in
parenthesis. Specimens are cited by collector’s number, if possible, by
accession number or (in the absence of either) by date. Names of the
three most frequently cited collectors are abbreviated:

Stephen W. Eaton E

Paul F. Fendt F

Stanley J. Smith S

The writer expresses his appreciation to individuals and institutions.
St. Bonaventure University made its facilities available at all times.
In particular, Professor Eaton was an amiable and interested host and an
invaluable guide in the field. Mr. Fendt was a most helpful assistant.
Donald M. Lewis, junior scientist, New York State Museum and Science
Service, aided greatly in verifying citations in the manuscript. Dr.
Eugene C. Ogden, state botanist, identified specimens in the Potamogeton
verfoliatus complex. Dr. Harold W. Rickett, bibliographer, the New
York Botanical Garden, aided in interpreting the International Code.
Finally, the officials and various citizens of the Seneca Nation were most
cooperative.

22

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

I. CULTIVATED PLANTS

Cultivated plants, if really acclimated to an area, tend to escape and
become part of the established flora. Two such items, known to all, are
the common dandelion, Taraxacum officinale Weber, and the field daisy,
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. More recently, the sweet rocket,
Hesperis matronalis L., has successfully colonized large areas of the
State. There are many others. As noted in an earlier paper (Smith,
1945), records of such establishment are not common. The following
notes add to knowledge of this problem in the Allegheny Valley in New
York State.

Three elements are involved in the appearance of cultivated plants as
spontaneous items in the area under consideration. One is escape from
field, lawn, garden or park where cultivated by white people or by
others under their cultural influence. This accounts for the bulk of the
taxa. A second is the appearance of annuals, particularly cereal- grasses,
about railroad yards where the seeds are apparently swept out of
freight cars. These same grasses are occasionally spontaneous along roads
and elsewhere. The third element is persistence or establishment after
cultivation by the Indians. A notable example in this instance is the
manroot, Ipomoea pandurata (L.) G. F. W. Meyer (House & Gordon,
1940). Another is the germander speedwell, Veronica chamaedrys L.,
which was planted by the Seneca Indian gardeners for its handsome
blue flowers. If the plant in question is native in a region far removed
from ours, the problem is not difficult. Where it is slightly out of
range, it is a much harder matter to decide. Unproven cases are men¬
tioned under the various species in the section on native plants.

* Agrostis gigantea Roth var. gigaotea (var. ramosa Philipson,
1937). Waste places; rare. Along the railroad at Limestone, S & F
23171. This is the first specimen from New York State seen by the writer.
The var. dispar (Mx.) Philipson (A. alba auct A. stolonifera var.
major) is common.

* A. tenuis Sibth. Open areas; a local introduction. Grounds of aban¬
doned nursery, east side of Salamanca, S & F 23466.

■* Alopeeurus pratensis L. Moist low grounds; occasional. Across
river from St. Bonaventure, S et al. (St. B 3155) ; observed in Fox
Hollow, at Killbuck and on the north side of Salamanca. New to south¬
western New York and not reported from western Pennsylvania. Appar¬
ently overlooked because of early flowering or confusion with Phleum
pratense L.

Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Mert. & Koch. Roadsides; becoming
common, as elsewhere in the State. Observed at the following stations:
Limestone, west side of Allegany, north of Carrollton, Salamanca, north
of Steamburg. Reported only from the vicinity of Allegany Park Rock
City.

Bromus inermis Leyss. subsp. inermis (Wagnon, 1950). Roadsides
and fields; increasing, as in other areas. To the station on Jones Hill

* Indicates additions to earlier local lists.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

23

may be added the following observed localities: lower Quaker Run, east
of Blacksnake Mountain, Cain Hollow, Killbuck.

* Hordeum vulgare L. Railroad yards; occasional. Observed at Alle¬
gany.

* Lolium multi florum Lam. Waste places; occasional. Gravel along
brook, west side of Allegany, S & F 23631. This species may be ex¬
pected anywhere because of its frequent use in grass-mixtures.

* Panicum milaceum L. Cultivated places; rare. St. Bonaventure,
Vecchierello, Sept. 8, 1943.

* Secale cereale L. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23687, 24999.

** Setaria italica (L.) PB. Cultivated places and railroad banks. St.
Bonaventure, Vecchierello , Sept. 8, 1943; Quaker Bridge, Saunders ,
July 18, 1939.

* Sorgum sudanense (Piper) Stapf (S. vulgare var. sudanense ; S.
vulgare , p. p., of Fernald, 1950 and Gleason, 1952). Roadsides; occa¬
sional. West of Steamburg, S et al. 24465. Despite the marked differ¬
ence in appearance, the investigator would prefer to recognize this as
part of the comprehensive species, previously called S. vulgare Pers. ( cf .
Karper & Chisholm, 1936). That name, unfortunately, is invalid
(Shinners, 1956) and the writer has not located a combination. Pend¬
ing such combination, he is following Pohl (1947) and Chase (1950).

* Triticum aestivum L. Railroads; a frequent casual. Limestone,
S & F 23166; Allegany, S & F 23686; observed at Horseshoe, Quaker
Bridge and Elko.

* Zea mays L. Roadsides and along railroads; occasional. Observed
at Allegany, south of Peth and west of Steamburg.

Acorns calamus L. Swales and moist fields; more frequent than
reported. Cricks Run, Fenton 89; observed west of Vandalia, north of
Riverside Junction and at Killbuck. Reported, heretofore, only from
Quaker Run.

* Asparagus officinalis L. subsp. officinalis (Clapham et al,
1952) . Roadsides; rare ( ? ) . Observed south of Peth.

Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. (cf. synonymy in House, 1924). Occa¬
sional. An observation along lower Quaker Run at the mouth of Cain
Hollow places it definitely in the park.

* Ornithogalum umbellatum L. Rare. Ditch near abandoned
housesite, north side of Salamanca, S & E 26517.

* Populus X gileadensis Rouleau ( P . candicans auct.). Low
grounds; occasional. Several trees along the river, west of Allegany,
S & E 24983; E et al.. May 20, 1958 (St. B) .

* Sfilix fragilis L. Low grounds; at least locally common. Common
about the oxbow, Horseshoe, S et al. 26399. Probably elsewhere.

* Beiula pendtila Roth ( B . alba, auct.) . Along railroads; occasional.
Allegany, across Route 17 from St. Bonaventure, where there are several
old planted trees, S 23659, 24993; Carrollton, S & F 23406, 23407.
There are only a few records for the State.

Ranunculus repens L. Ditches; rare. Cold Spring, S & E 24958

f pleniflorus (Fern.) House (House, 1924). Oc^a<?ic^al in the S^o

'* Berberis thunbergii DC. Waste places, woods and occa¬

sional. St. Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 1344) ; railroad yards, Alleganv.

24

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

S & F 23632; observed in wet woods at Riverside Junction. Spreading
in the State.

* B. vulgaris L. Old fields; occasional. Mountainside, St. Bonaven-
ture, V ecchierello , Sept. 15, 1922.

* Fumaria officinalis L. Flowerbeds, etc.; occasional. St. Bonaven-
ture, anon. (St. B 1386) . Local in the State.

* Brassica napobrassica Mill. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23638. The Rutabaga seems never to have become established in
this State.

Hesperis matronalis L. Riverbottom woods; becoming common as
elsewhere across the State. River islands below Red House, S et al.
23586; observed at Olean and Salamanca. Reported from the mouth
of Fivemile Hollow ( Vecchierello, 1940 — 42).

* Lunaria annua L. In shrubbery; occasional. St. Bonaventure,
M. F. Way (St. B 1417). Only a few records for the State.

Nasturtium officinale R. Br. ( N . Nasturtium-aquaticum ) . A second
station: Allegany, anon. (St. B 1396).

“* Raplianus sativus L. Railroad yards and roadsides; occasional.
Near Ninemile, E (St. B 3103, 3104) ; observed at Allegany.

* Ribes sativum (Reichb.) Syme ( cf . synonymy in Berger, 1924).
Occasional near old houses and elsewhere. Limestone, S et al. 23522;
open oak woods, Killbuck, S & E 26476; 1 mile southwest of Peth,
E et al. (St. B 1468) ; observed at Salamanca. Compare the author’s
previous discussion (Smith, 1945).

** Lespedeza stipulacea Maxim. Railroad yards; occasional. Alle¬
gany, S & F 23658, 24299. Not found in flower, but the habit, texture
of leaflets, prominent scarious stipules, markedly petiolate leaves and
antrorsely pubescent stems all indicate this species (cf. Isely, 1948).
Only a few stations in New York State, for which the investigator has
seen no published records.

* Lotus comiculatus L. Appearing as a roadside plant; scarce, as
yet. North of Steamburg, S & F 23223; observed near Mount Moriah.

* Vicia villosa Roth. Waste places; rare. Allegany, anon. (St. B
1672) (as V. cracca) . Locally common in the State.

** Linum usitatissimum L. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23644. The common flax is not infrequent along railroads; it
seems never to have become established.

* Anethum graveolens L. Roadsides, etc.; occasional. St. Bonaven¬
ture, E (St. B 2402) ; Steamburg, S et al. 23730.

* Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth. Railroad yards; occasional. Alle¬
gany, S & F 23676. Several scattered stations across the State. It is diffi¬
cult to determine whether this should be considered as an escape from
cultivation or as a casual weed.

* Ajuga reptans L. Rare. A single plant in a low pasture, Tenmile
Creek, S & E 24935. The species is making large colonies in other
places in this small valley, spreading from plantings.

Veronica chamaedrys L. Ditches, roadside banks, lawns, etc.; fre¬
quent. Horseshoe, S et al. 23473; Salamanca, S & E 24951; south of
Cold Spring, S & E 24959; observed at Riverside Junction, Killbuck
and Frecks. Previously reported from Bee Hunter Run and English
Run.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

25

* V. filiformis Sm. Lawns; rare. Salamanca, S & E 24950. Local in
the State (Muenscher, 1949).

Lonicera morrowii Gray. Roadsides; occasional. Allegany, S
26252; observed at South Vandalia. Increasing in the State.

* L. tatarica L. Roadsides and streambanks; occasional. Observed at
Allegany and Horseshoe. An old favorite, locally frequent in the State.

Artemisia absinthium L. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23650. Reported from a pasture north of Randolph. Several sta¬
tions in the State, but still local.

Beilis perennis L. Lawns; frequent. Allegany, anon. (St. B 2723) ;
Salamanca, S & E 24949; observed at Frecks and Olean; reported from
St. Bonaventure. Fernald’s listing of this (1950) as an unnumbered
genus and calling it merely an escape from cultivation does not accord
with its frequency as a lawn weed at lower elevations in many parts of
this State. It is even a question, in the author’s mind, whether this
“small-flowered” strain might not better be considered as definitely
introduced as a weed, rather than as an escape.

* Coreopsis gran diflora Hogg. Spreading from cultivation; rare.
Abundantly seeded on site of old nursery, east of Salamanca, S & F
23463. By comparison, plants of the Chinese balloonflower, Platy codon
grandiflorum (Jacq.) DC., were thriving but were still in abandoned
rows. There are only a few scattered stations for C. grandi flora in this
State.

Helianthus tuberosus L. Weedy in low cultivated fields; local. Old-
town, S et al. 23493. Observed at Horseshoe and Quaker Bridge. The
writer believes this was unquestionably introduced by the Iroquois.
Hitherto reported only from Elko.

Inula helenium L. Wet old fields; local. Observed 0.7 mile east of
Vandalia. Previously reported only from Randolph.

26

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

II. WEEDS

In the study of the floristics of any area, a consideration of the weed
population is important. Some weeds never become established; others,
once they have appeared in a region, spread rapidly. Some will out-
compete most natives in the same general habitat. No representatives of
the last category have yet been found in the Allegheny area. The assign¬
ment of the various taxa to the other two classifications is evident from
the records cited.

Many weeds invade an area after disturbance of the native flora
through cultivation and construction. With regard to certain species,
one wonders whether they were originally native or whether they came
into New York State through Indian agency. One such possibility is
Panicum capillar e , witchgrass. This problem will be difficult to solve,
if not impossible, because of the scarcity of specimens of early date.

A number of these weeds are reported only from the railroad yards
at Allegany. They are doubtless also at many other spots along railroads
and are indicative of a major source of introduction of weed species.
Since most of the seeds of these species originally arrived in the area in
shipments of grain, feed and other produce, they are also undoubtedly
appearing on chicken farms and in garden patches in the general area.

Potamogeton crispus L. Ponds, sloughs, etc. ; local. Observed at East
Randolph. Previously reported from the vicinity of Quaker Bridge and
from a gravelpit between Red House and Cold Spring. Considered
locally abundant in the watershed (McVaugh, 1938).

Arisfida dichotoma Mx. A rare weed of railroad yards and sidings.
Carrollton, S & F 23442, 24501; Allegany, S & F 23681. No specimens
have been found to support the earlier report by Saunders ( cf . House
& Alexander, 1927). Not otherwise listed from western New York;
occasional in western Pennsylvania.

* Avena fatua L. Railroad yards; rare. Allegany, S & F 23688,
23689. The specific distinctness of this species and A. sativa L. is doubt¬
ful. The distinguishing characters (stoutness and geniculation of the
awn and heaviness and coloration of the beard — cf. Chase, 1950) are
all variable and not well correlated.

* Bromus commutates Schrad. {B. racemosus, p. p., of Gleason —
1952). Weedy places; occasional. Allegany, S & F 24317; across the
river from St. Bonaventure, S et al. (St. B 3143) ; observed north of
Steamburg and in the Conewango Valley. Frequent in the State.

** B. japonicus Thunb. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23682; Salamanca, S & F 23184. This chess is either spreading rapidly
in the State or has been overlooked in confusion with related species.
It is found along roads and railroads in many parts of the State.

* B. mollis L. (B. hordeaceus auct). Railroads; rare. Quaker
Bridge, S et cd. 22725. Local in the State.

* B. tectorum L. Railroads and roadsides; frequent as elsewhere in
the State. Allegany, S & F 23684; S & E 24998. Observed north of
Carrollton, at Salamanca and west of Red House.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

27

* Calamagrostis epigejos (L.) Roth. Waste areas; rare. Near Sala¬
manca, Vecchierello, August, 1943; east side of Salamanca, S & F
23798 (probably the same station). It is reported from Long Island
and Saratoga County (Chase, 1950) and a colony has been seen in
Putnam County.

* Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Railroad yards and curbings; occa¬
sional. Allegany, S & F 24322; St. Bonaventure, E (St. B 3178).
Frequent about cities and villages.

** Elymus canadensis L. Railroad yards; occasional. A large patch
along the railroad, west of Allegany, S & F 23629; two fruiting culms
in railroad yards, Allegany, S & F 23685. This is apparently new to
the area, the earlier reports referring to E. wiegandii Fern. (p. 37).
Not uncommon in the State as a native of dry habitats; local as a weed
along railroads.

Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Link (E. megastachya) . Waste places;
local. Observed at Allegany. Previously reported only from Salamanca.

E. multicaulis Steud. (E. peregrina; E. pilosa , p. p., of Gleason,
1952). Becoming frequent along railroads as in other areas, outside the
mountains. Vicinity of Limestone, S & F 23175; Allegany, S & F
24320, 27999; Horseshoe, S et al. 27794; Salamanca, S & F 23185;
observed at mouth of Tenmile Creek. The original report was from
Quaker Bridge and there is a specimen labeled “Allegheny River,
Allegany State Park,” Kenoyer 9.

E. pectimacea (Mx.) Nees. An even commoner weed of roadsides and
railroads. Vicinity of Limestone, S & F 23174; St. Bonaventure, E
(St. B 3179) ; Allegany, S & F 23692, 24319; 2 miles east of Red
House, S 23575; west of Steamburg, S & Schumacher 24362; Old-
town, S et al. 24482; observed at mouth of Tenmile Creek, Horseshoe
and Steamburg. Previously reported only from East Randolph.

* E. pilosa (L.) PB. Roadsides; rare and local. Roadside, mouth of
Tenmile Creek, S & Ketchledge 25837. The only other record from
western New York State is from Collins, Erie County, Perkins 403; the
species is rare in south central New York, the Hudson Valley and
outer Long Island, but a number of collections are known from the
vicinity of New York City. The citation by House and Gordon (1940)
is in error, the specimen being E . multicaulis ( E . peregrina) as orig¬
inally reported by House and Alexander (1927).

E. pooides PB. Roadsides and railroads; becoming common here as
elsewhere. Allegany, S & F 23693, 24321; Horseshoe, S et al. 23474;
west of Steamburg, S & Schumacher 24363; observed at Steamburg.
Previously reported only from Elko and the vicinity of Peth.

Festuca capillata Lam. ( F . ovina var. capillata ) Railroads; occa¬
sional. Red House, S & F 23182. Reported as chiefly on the higher
ridges of the park area.

Hordeum juBatum L. Waste places; rare. Allegany, anon. (St. B
450). Reported from Salamanca. Observed by the writer in railroad
yards at both places. Occasional to locally common in many parts of
the State, but not persisting long.

■* Panicum dichotomifiorum Mx. (inch var. geniculatum — cf.

Pohl, 1947). Weedy in railroad yards and along roads; becoming fre¬
quent. Allegany, S & F 24324; Tenmile Hollow, E (St. B 3175) ; west of

28

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Steamburg, S & Schumacher 24366; observed at Killbuck and the
mouth of Tenmile Creek. Also on gravelbars, where possibly native:
Oldtown, S et al. 24486; observed at Horseshoe.

* P. virgatum L. var. spissum Linder. Railroads and roadsides;
rare. Along railroad, west of Red House, S & F 23783. A second col¬
lection, S & F 23782, is transitional to var. virgatum. The species is re¬
ported from one mile north of Salamanca, Alexander, August 14, 1935.
A collection by Alexander on that date, but labeled “near Red House,”
is in the State Museum; it has no basal parts. A duplicate (St. B 497)
has long scaly rhizomes and is good var. virgatum. The relationship of
the varieties is very intricate, being complicated by polyploidy (Niel¬
sen — 1945). Var. spissum is frequent in southeastern New York, par¬
ticularly on Long Island, and is a frequent weed north to the vicinity
of Albany and occasional elsewhere, mostly about railroads and in
open, dry ground. Var. virgatum seems to be a scarce native in marshy
areas in western New York and locally east to the central Hudson Valley
and Lake George; it is rarely found as a weed.

Phalaris canariensis L. Waste places and cultivated garden beds;
occasional. St. Bonaventure, V ecchierello. Sept. 8, 1943. Previously re¬
ported from east of Salamanca.

Poa compressa L. Waste places and cultivated areas; frequent.
House and Alexander consider this “not common,” but it was observed at
many stations, apparently never making large colonies.

P. nemoralis L. Low woods; rare. Across river from St. Bonaven¬
ture, S et al. (St. B 3145) ; E (St. B 3140). Previously reported only
from “east of the Park area,” from which this station is also recorded.

* P. trivialis L. Swampy woods and along streams ; infrequent. River¬
side Junction, S et al. 23134; observed east of Vandalia, below Red
House and at Frecks. Locally frequent in the State.

** Setaria faberi Herrm. Railroad yards; local as yet. Allegany,
S & F 24326. Common in southeastern New York and north to Albany,
spreading rapidly; occasional in central and western New York, to
date.

* Sporobolus neglectus Nash. Railroad yards; rare. Allegany, S & F
24323.

* S. vaginifloms (Torr.) Wood. Roadsides and railroad yards; be¬
coming frequent. Mouth of Tenmile Creek, S & Ketchledge 25838;
Riverside Junction, S & F 24505; Killbuck, S & Ketchledge 27733;
East Randolph, S et al. 24462; observed at Oldtown. The first number
cited is referable to var. vaginiflorus; all others belong to var. inae-
qualis Fern. Var. vaginiflorus is much more restricted in range in this
State, but there seems to be no distinctive isolation. Both this species
and the last frequently occur in waste places and seem to be increasing;
the exact area of native occurrence, if any, in this State is extremely
difficult to determine.

* Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) C. B. Clarke. Railroads; probably
frequent. Allegany, S & F 23679; Carrollton, S & F 23425; Sala¬
manca, S & F 24329; Red House, S & F 23180. This species ought to
be found along railroads throughout western New York ( cf . Smith,
1945), but there are only two other stations known to the author from

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

29

west of Keuka Lake: Lime Rock, Genesee County, Watthews 5295;
Medina, Orleans County (observed by the writer).

* Allium vineale L. Railroad yards; rare. Allegany, S 24994. This
species was reported from Limestone, but the specimen is A. canadense L.
Locally abundant in the State.

* Epipactis hellefoorine (L.) Crantz ( E . latifolia) . Rare in the
region to date. Observed at Riverside Junction. Stations cited by Eaton
et al. (1956) are from outside the area.

Polygonum convolvulus L. Railroad yards, gravelbars, etc.; a few
more stations. Allegany, S & F 23662; observed at Carrollton and on
the islands below Red House. Common in the State.

* P. lapathifolium L. var. prostratum Wimmer. Railroad yards;
rare. Allegany, S & F 23663. Locally frequent in the State about rail¬
roads and curbings. This taxon, with its short, broad, blunt leaves, strik¬
ingly blotched with dark purple, its stubby inflorescences and sprawling
growth, is easily distinguished. The writer has no idea what its value
as a major race may be.

Kumex Crispins L. Common, as elsewhere in the State. Southern
Ninemile Creek, E (St. B 3077, p. p.) ; Elko, S et al. 22776; observed
at seven other stations.

* triangulivalvis (Danser) Rech. f. ( R . mexicanus auct ., at least
for the most part — Rechinger, f., 1937). Railroad yards; occasional.
Observed at Allegany. Becoming frequent in the State. This species might
be treated as a subspecies of R. mexicanus Meisn., to which it is closely
allied.

Chenopodiimi gigantospermum Aellen (C. hybridum auct. amer. —
Wahl, 1954). Waste places; rare. Allegany, S & F 24311. Previously
reported only from the grounds of the Allegany School of Natural
History. This species is native to New York but frequently appears as
weedy.

* Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad. Railroad yards; rare. Allegany,
S & F 23670, 24312. Occasional to frequent in this habitat in the
State; becoming abundant on the sandplains west of Albany.

* Salsola kail L. var. tenuifolia G. F. W. Meyer. Railroad yards;
rare. Allegany, S & F 23671. Becoming frequent along railroads and in
waste places at lower elevations in the State.

* AmarauSlius albus L. Waste places; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23667 ; Limestone, S & F 23150.

* A. Iiyforidus L. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F 24302,
24303.

* A. powellii Wats. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23665, 23666. These three species, or at least the first two, are probably
frequent in cultivated fields and gardens, but no other observations
were made. The first two are common in many parts of the State and
the third is locally so.

* A. tamarisciims Nutt. ( Acnida tamariscina — Sauer, 1955). Rail¬
road yards; rare. Allegany, S & F 24306 (pistillate), 24304, 24305,
24307, 24308, 24309, 24310 (staminate). The staminate plants were
variable in appearance, but all had the bracts and outer perianth-seg¬
ments prominently nerved and spinose-tipped and the bracts half as long

30

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

as the perianths. The species is becoming frequent in railroad yards in
several cities of the State.

** Mirabilis nyctaginea (Mx.) MacM. ( Oxybaphus nyctagineus) .
Railroad yards; rare. A single plant, Allegany, S & F 24295. Otherwise
becoming common in the State at low elevations.

Portulaca oleracea L. Waste places; probably frequent. Railroad
yards, Allegany, S & F 23661 ; Cold Spring, Fenton 205. The only pre¬
vious reports were from Quaker Bridge and St. Bonaventure. Common
in the State.

** Arenaria serpyllifolia L. Along railroads; probably frequent. Ob¬
served at Allegany and at Elko. Common in the State.

* Sagina procumbens L. Railroad yards; rare. Salamanca, S & F
24328. Occasional to frequent at lower elevations in the State, although
once considered infrequent to rare; Warren County, Pa.

Silene cucubalus Wibel (S. latijolia) . Waste places; increasing.
Allegany, anon. (St. B 1256) ; S & F 24300. Becoming common in
many parts of the State.

* Vaccaria segetalis (Neck.) Garcke ( Saponaria vaccaria) . Railroad
yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F 24301. Occasional in the State as

well.

Ranunculus repens L. Ditches, sloughs and gravelbars; probably
frequent. Horseshoe, S & E 26357, 26359; river islands below Red
House, S & E 23585; observed about Vandalia and in Tenmile Hollow.
No. 26357 is referable to var. glabratus DC., and the handsome sterile f.
pleni florus (Fern.). House is also present (p. 23). Reported from St.
Bonaventure. Infrequent in the State.

Alliaria officinialis Andrz. Wooded banks; rare. Salamanca, S & F
24327 ; S & E 26523. Reported from St. Bonaventure. Spreading in the
State.

* Arabis glabra (L.) Bernh. Roadsides; rare. Roadside, Allegany
State Park, Gordon (St. B 1409). Previously reported as the native
A. drummondii Gray.

Brassica juncea (L.) Coss. Railroads; occasional. Allegany, S
23637; S & F 24292; Limestone, S & F 23144. Reported only from
Quaker Bridge.

* Camelina microcarpa Andrz. Railroad yards; occasional. Alle¬
gany, S & F 24987. Becoming frequent in central and western New York.

* Cardamine pratensis L. subsp. pratensis (subsp. typica Clausen,
1949). Lawns and alluvial woods; becoming frequent. St. Bonaventure,
E et al. (St. B 1407) ; Horseshoe, S & E 26365; Salamanca, S & E
24948; lakeshore, Allegany State Park, Yackovich et al. (St. B 1406) ;
observed west of Allegany. Becoming frequent in many parts of the
State.

* Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb. Railroad yards; occasional. Alle¬
gany, S & F 23635, 24290; S 24986. Increasing in the State.

** Erucastrum gallicum (Willd.) O. E. Schultz. Railroad yards; oc¬
casional. Allegany, S & F 23636, 24291. Increasing in many parts of the
State.

* Erysimum repandum L. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S
24985. Rare in the State.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

31

* Lepidium perfoliatum L. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23640. Also rare in the State.

* L. virginicum L. var. virginicum. Railroads and roadsides ; prob¬
ably frequent. St. Bonaventure, E (St. B 3102) ; southern Ninemile, E
(St. B 3101). Common in many parts of the State.

* Raphanus raphanistrum L. Roadsides and gravelbars ; spreading
as elsewhere. North of Cold Spring, S et al. 23785; west of Steamburg,
S & Schumacher 24361; observed both east and west of Red House
and on the islands downriver. Becoming a pest in some parts of the
State.

•* Rorippa sylvestris (L.) Bess. Rivershores; becoming frequent as
elsewhere in the State. Carrollton, S & F 23382; river islands below
Red House, S et al. 23588; Quaker Bridge, S & F 23479; observed at
Riverside Junction, Horseshoe, Killbuck and north of Wolf Run.

* Tlilaspi arvense L. Along railroads and in abandoned garden
plots; scarce. Allegany, S & F 23639; S & E 24989; Tenmile Road, E
(St. B 3106, 3107) ; Quaker Bridge, Alexander & House 12828a. Ap¬
pearing in many parts of the State.

* Polanisia dodecandra (L.) DC. subsp. dodecandra (P. graveo -
lens — litis, 1958). Weed in gardens; rare. St. Bonaventure, V ecchierello
(St. B 1387). Local in the State; in part, native.

Sedum triphyllum (Haw.) S. F. Gray (S. purpureum; S. tele -
phium of Gleason, 1952) . Occasional in waste places. Elko, S et al.
22762 ; observed at Carrollton, Horseshoe and mouth of State Line Run.
Previously reported only from Holts Run. The writer is accepting the
nomenclature of Clausen (1949), who is monographing the genus.

* Potentilla argentea L. Waste places; rare (?). Allegany, anon.
(St. B 1540). Not observed by the writer or previously reported. Fre¬
quent in many parts of the State.

P. recta L. Waste places and fields; increasing. Observed at Alle¬
gany, Carrollton and opposite Red House. Locally abundant at lower ele¬
vations in the State.

•* Cassia fasciculata Mx. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23657. This species is locally frequent as a native in southeastern
New York, but rare elsewhere in the State.

Melilotus albus Desr. Waste places; infrequent. Allegany, anon.
(St. B 1691) ; observed at Carrollton and south of Peth. Originally re¬
ported only from north of Quaker Bridge.

* M. altissimus Thuill. Railroads; rare. Salamanca, Alexander (St.
B 1643) . This was originally reported as M. officinalis. Infrequent in the
State.

* M. officinalis (L.) Desr. Railroad yards; rare. Observed at Alle¬
gany. Distinctive in its corrugated fruits. The statewide distribution of
these two yellow-flowered sweet clovers is poorly known, because of con¬
fusion between them.

* Strophostyles helvola (L.) Ell. Railroad yards; rare. A single
plant of this characteristic species with lobed leaflets was observed at Al¬
legany, but it was destroyed before reaching proper stage for collecting.
A frequent native along the coast, along the lower Hudson River and
about the Great Lakes.

32

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

* Vicia cracca L. Railroad yards; rare. Observed at Allegany. Locally
frequent in many parts of the State. Reported from Quaker Bridge, but
the specimen, while of doubtful identity, is not this species.

•* Geranium pusillum L. Flowerbeds; rare. St. Bonaventure, S & E
26254. Gradually increasing in the State. It should be mentioned here
that small plants of a species of cranesbill with neither flowers nor
fruits were collected (S et al. 23492, 23793) or observed on several
occasions in a cornfield at Oldtown. This investigator suspects them of
being the native Geranium carolinianum L. var. confertiflorum Fern.,
which has been found in similar habitats in Chemung County.

Polygala sanguinea L. ( P . viridescens) . Fields and roadside
banks; scarce. Mouth of Tenmile Creek, S & Ketchledge 25835; Horse¬
shoe, S et al. 27747. Previously reported only from Butler’s Run. The
specimen from Portville, east of the map area, cited as P. incarnata L.,
also belongs here. Becoming increasingly common in the State.

* Abutilon theophrasti Medic. Railroad yards; occasional. Alle¬
gany, S & F 23643. Becoming frequent in cultivated fields throughout
much of the State.

Hibiscus trionum L. Waste places; occasional. Allegany, anon.
(St. B 1837, 1838) ; S & F 23642. Reported from St. Bonaventure. In¬
creasing in the State, but local.

* Malva rotundifolia L. Railroad yards; rare. Allegany, S & F
24296. This is the first specimen the writer has identified from New York
State, although the species may have been overlooked or not separated
from the common M. neglecta Wallr., which long passed as M. rotundi¬
folia.

Viola arvensis Murr. Fields and waste places; increasing. Hills,
Allegany, anon. (St. B 1920) ; railroad yards, Allegany, S 24991. Re¬
ported from the vicinity of Vandalia and Steamburg.

* Oenothera laciniala Hill var. laciniata. Railroad yards; occa¬
sional. Allegany, S & F 24294. Scattered stations about the State. Ap¬
parently native just west of area.

■* Convolvulus arvensis L. Railroad yards; rare. Observed at Alle¬
gany. Locally abundant in the State.

* Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23677. Known from a few stations across the State.

* Echium vulgare L. Railroad yards and waste places; occasional.
Allegany, S & F 23672; head of Fivemile Road, E & Liegey, Oct. 23,
1956 (St. B). The scarcity of lime may account for the rarity of this
species in the area.

* Verbena bracteata Lag. & Rodr. Railroad yards; occasional Alle¬
gany, S & F 23678. Rare in the State, but known from several counties.

* Datura stramonium L. Railroad yards ; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23674, 24313. Infrequent in the State, but known practically
throughout the lowlands.

Solanum americanum Mill. (Solanum nigrum auct ., p. p.) . Rare as
a native and rare as a weed. Railroad yards, Allegany, S & F 24314. In¬
frequent in the State.

•* S. rostratum Dunal. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23675, 24315. Occasional in many parts of the State.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

33

* Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. subsp. anagaliis-aquatica (Hul-

ten, 1958). Muddy shores; rare as yet. Horseshoe, S & E 26414; East
Randolph, S et al. 24452. Not listed from the watershed (McVaugh,
1938) . Becoming frequent in the lowlands of the State.

* V. arvensis L. Old fields, roadsides and lawns; probably frequent.
St. Bonaventure, S & E 24859; observed at Frecks. Frequent in the
State, outside of the mountains.

V. peregrina L. subsp. peregrina (subsp. typica Pennell, 1935).
Lawns and waste places; probably frequent, but overlooked. St. Bona¬
venture, S & E 24858, 24940; observed at Frecks. Previously reported
only from grounds of the Allegany School of Natural History.

* V. serpyllifolia L. subsp humifusa (Dickson) Piper (Piper, 1906)
(V. tenella). Lawns and old fields; scarce. Pasture, Mount Moriah
Swamp, S & E 26292; Tenmile Creek, S & E 24934. Also collected in
moist pasture two to two and one-half miles south of Ischua (to the
northeast), S & E 24912. Rare in the State. All these specimens are
larger than ordinary subsp. serpyllifolia with more deeply colored
corollas and spreading pubescence. However, in every case, they were
growing with ordinary plants of that taxon and others which were
typical of it except for being more robust than usual. Variations in
intensity of coloration of corolla and disposition of pubescence (stems
not spreading-pubescent, stems spreading-pubescent only in inflores¬
cence, stems spreading-pubescent both in inflorescence and below) were
noted. If isolation is ever effective, it does not appear so here. Boivin
(1952) typifies V. serpyllifolia on the element referable to var. borealis
Laest., which is synonymous with this subspecies. He refers to Hegi
(1918). Hegi, however, has three varieties. Pubescence is not empha¬
sized as distinguishing any of them. The description of the color of the
corolla of var. typica Beck is not correct for this subspecies and Hegi
also recognized var. tenella (All.) Beck, the basionym of which Boivin
refers to the synonymy of this taxon, his var. serpyllifolia.

* Plantago aristata Mx. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23641. Scattered and locally abundant across the State, except for the
mountains and the valleys north of the Adirondacks.

** Oiodia teres Walt. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
24293. Frequent on Long Island and Staten Island; six scattered stations
above New York City. Not listed by Zenkert; the nearest county in
northeastern Ohio.

Oipsacus sylvestris Huds. Old fields; local. Observed at Killbuck and
Oldtown. Reported from Onoville. Common in the State.

* Anthemis arvensis L. Waste places and gardens; rare, according
to collections, but probably overlooked. Allegany, anon. (St. B 2763).

A. cotola L. Waste places; probably frequent. St. Bonaventure, E
St. B 2764) ; Allegany, S & F 23649; southern Ninemile Hollow, E
(St. B 3223). Previously reported only from Quaker Bridge.

Artemisia biennis Willd. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23653. Cited as escaped near Elko. Infrequent in the State.

* A. vulgaris L. About railroads; local. Allegany, S & F 23651,
23652; south of Peth, S et al. 27800; Elko, S et al. 22760. Becoming fre¬
quent in the lowlands of the State.

34

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

* Centaurea jacea L. subsp. jacea (Clausen, 1949) . Old fields; rare.
Camp Carlton, Allegany State Park, Hicks (St. B 2795). Previously
reported as C. nigra. Locally frequent in the State.

* C. jacea L. subsp. eunigra Gugler (C. nigra — Clausen, 1949) . Old
fields; rare. YMCA Camp Fancher, Allegany State Park, Gordon
(St. B 2796). Also reported from the vicinity of Olean.

•* C. maculosa Lam. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F
23654. Rapidly spreading in many parts of the State.

* Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23648. This species is apparently an adventive, rather than an
escape from cultivation.

* Crepis capillaris (L.) Wallr. Fields and lawns; scarce. St. Bona-
venture, E (St. B 3215, 3216) ; Red House Lake, S et al. 23714; ob¬
served west of Steamburg. Becoming frequent in central and western
New York State and about New York City; rare elsewhere.

Galinsoga ciliata (Raf.) Blake. Waste places; occasional. St. Bona-
venture, E (St. B 3218) ; observed in railroad yards, Allegany. Re¬
ported from Salamanca. Increasing in the State.

* Helianthus petiolaris Nutt, subsp. petiolaris (Heiser, 1958).
Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany, S & F 23647. Appearing in rail¬
road yards in several cities of the State.

* Hypochaeris radicata L. Railroad yards; occasional. Allegany,
S & F 23655. Infrequent in the State.

Leontodon autumnalis L. ( Apargia autumnalis) . Oil fields and
waste places; spreading. East Randolph, S et al. 24450; observed on
south side of Conewango. Reported from St. Bonaventure and the en¬
virons of Limestone. Locally frequent in the State.

Matricaria matricarioides (Less.) Porter (M. suaveolens) . Spread¬
ing rapidly in waste places and along roads as elsewhere in the State.
Vicinity of Limestone, S & F 23145; Allegany, S & F 24298; observed
at Red House, north of Quaker Bridge and south of Conewango. Re¬
ported, hitherto, only from “Allegany State Park.”

Sonchus arvensis L. var. arvensis. Waste places; occasional. Steam¬
burg, S et al. 23729. Previously reported only from Big Basin. The
species is considered as locally abundant in the State and the typical
variant as the more common of the two (Muenscher, 1935).

* S. arvensis L. var. glabrescens Guenth., Wimm. & Grab, (inch S.
uliginosus) . Waste places; occasional. Railroad yards, Allegany, S & F
23656; observed at Salamanca. This taxon is reported (Shumovich &
Montgomery, 1955) as tetraploid and var. arvensis as hexaploid. Their
study, however, showed that the difference in chromosome-number was
not an absolute barrier.

* Tragopogon dubius Scop. ( T . major). Waste places; rare. Red
House, Alexander & House 13128, reidentified by House. This is ap¬
parently the basis of the single cited station for T. pratensis. Spreading
in the State.

* T. pratensis L. Waste places; infrequent. Observed west of Alle¬
gany and at Carrollton. Distinctive by its slender peduncles and short
bracts. Locally abundant in the State.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

35

III. NATIVE PLANTS

Despite the evidence of awareness of introduced species reported in
the first two sections of this paper, the writer is particularly interested
in the native plants and their geography. He is here reporting such
as are new, rare or otherwise interesting. There are obviously some
groups still to be collected and studied in detail, such as Crataegus ,
Rubus and Viola.

The most notable additions were made in the upland oak woods and
the alluvial bottomlands. The former produced a number of species of
more austral range; the latter yielded some taxa of more austral and
more midwestern range. The valley of Conewango Creek, marginal to
the area on the northwest, harbored a few items of ealciphile tenden¬
cies. One of the striking features noted was the pairing of related
taxa in distinctive habitats: Arisaema triphyllum subsp. stewardsonii
in bottomlands and A. triphyllum subsp. triphyllum in uplands; Uvu-
laria perfoliata in oak woods as opposed to U. grandiflora in mixed
hardwoods; Asarum canadense var. reflexum in bottomlands with A.
canadense var. canadense in uplands.

The other pleasant surprise was in the discovery of several new
Alleghenian elements, the presence of which was foreshadowed by the
frequency of Clintonia umbellulata. Among these should be noted:
Lilium canadense subsp. editorum , Baptisia tinctoria var. projecta and
Chelone glabra subsp. elatior. Detailed search should reveal more
stations for these and probably still other Alleghenian types.

Taxus baccata L. subsp. canadensis (Marsh.) Pilger ( T . canadensis
— Clausen, 1949). Swamps and moist wooded slopes; some additional
stations. Vicinity of Peth, E & Piorkowski, Aug. 25, 1955 (St. B) ;
E et al. (St. B 342) ; observed at Mount Moriah Swamp.

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Wet woods; another station. Mount
Moriah Swamp, E et al. (St. B 348). Previously reported only from
Balsam Swamp, Red House. Local in central and western New York.

Typha latifolia L. Ditches and swales; local. Krampf’s Pond, Ten-
mile Road, E (St. B 3034) ; observed north of Riverside Junction, op¬
posite Red House, around Steamburg, east of Blacksnake Mountain.
Apparently, the frequency is governed by a lack of suitable habitats.
Considered common by McVaugh (1938) but rare by House and
Alexander.

Sparganium eurycarpom Engelm. Marshes and sloughs; a second
station. Observed at Horseshoe. Reported only from Randolph. Com¬
mon in lakes of the watershed (McVaugh, 1938).

* Potamogeton perfoliatus L. subsp. bupleuroides (Fern.)
Clausen (Clausen, 1949). Rivershores ; rare. Horseshoe, S et al. 27782;
stranded on shore of island below Red House, S et al. 23612. Not re¬
ported from the Allegheny (McVaugh, 1938). A specimen from
Clean, E (St. B 403) was reported as P. richardsonii (Benn.) Rydb.
The vegetative characteristics of this specimen are considered by
Ogden to be transitional to those of P. perfoliatus as in other eastern
material studied by him (Ogden, 1943).

36

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

* P. spirillus Tuck. Ponds; rare. Krampf’s Pond, Tenmile Road,
E (St. B 3035, 3036). Locally abundant in the watershed (McVaugh,
1938).

Alisma plantago-aquatica L. var. parviflorum (Pursh) Farw.
(A. subcordatum) . All identifiable specimens of this species seem to be
of this taxon, characterized, inter aliis , by small flowers, small achenes
and narrowly margined sepals. There is considerable disagreement on
the status and distribution of the Water Plantains related to typical
European A. plantago-aquatica ( cf . Fernald, 1946; Hendricks, 1957;
Samuellson, 1932; Wiegand & Eames, 1926).

Elodea miitallii (Planch.) St. John (E. occidentalis ; Anacharis nut-
tallii) . Ponds and margins of streams; rare. Horseshoe, S et al. 26415.
Reported from East Randolph. Not listed by McVaugh (1938).

Agropyron tracliycaulum (Link) Make. Oak woods; occasional.
Southwest of Quaker Bridge, S & F 24498. The only other specimen
seen from the area is that from the slope opposite Red House. Both
specimens are referable to var. glaucum (Pease & Moore) Malte. Rare
in western New York.

* Agrostis stolonifera L. var. stolonifera (A. alba auct., p. p.; A.
stolonifera auct., p. p. — Philipson, 1937). Along streams; frequent.
Across river from St. Bonaventure, S et al. (St. B 3154) ; Limestone,
S & F 23170; Red House Creek Valley, Alexander & House 12637;
observed on west side of Allegany, west of Vandalia, Horseshoe, on
north side of Salamanca, at the East Randolph Fish Hatchery and on
the islands below Red House. This species is characterized by lack of
scaly rhizomes, by rooting at the nodes of the decumbent basal parts
of the flowering stems and by the contracting of the panicle-branches
and branchlets after anthesis. On streamsides or gravelbars, it fre¬
quently develops long prostrate leafy shoots which root near the base.
Frequent in the State.

* Andropogon gerardii Vitman (A. furcatus) . Riverbottom fields;
scarce. Observed at Oldtown and Horseshoe. Reported from Olean
Rock City to the east; considered frequent in western, New York.

* Andropogon virginicus L. var. virginicus. Old fields; rare.
Slope bordering Red Pond, S. et al. 23777 ; S & Schumacher 24392.
Common on the coast of New York but rare upstate. Known from the
eastern Great Lakes Plains northeast to Erie County, Pa.; new to the
High Upland of Jennings’ region.

* Brachyelytrum erectum (Schreb.) PB. var. erectum. Oak
woods; rare. Tenmile Hollow, E (St. B 3188) . As yet, there are no other
morphological characters correlated with that of pubescent lemmas.
However, it should be noted that this variety is common in New York
State only in the vicinity of New York City. All other stations are scat¬
tered and mostly at lower elevations along the larger streams or lakes.
The var. septentrionale Babel, with glabrous to scabrous lemmas, is
the common representative in New York State, as it is here, and is
equally as common as var. erectum around New York City.

Bromus ciliatus L. Oak woods; possibly rare and certainly not com¬
mon as indicated. The only two specimens seen are: west of Red
House, S et al. 24433; Elko Mountain, Alexander , August 31, 1926.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

37

* Echinochloa muricata (PB.) Fern var. muricata (E. pungens —
Fairbrothers 1956). Rivershores and ditches; frequent. Horseshoe, S et
al. 27797 ; roadside ditch west of Steamburg, 5 & Schumacher 24368;
Oldtown, S et al. 24488; Elko, S et al. 24473. Known from Warren
County, Pa.

* E. muricata (PB.) Fern. var. microstachya Wiegand ( E . pun¬
gens var. microstachya; E. microstachya — cf. Wiegand & Eames, 1926).
Gravelbars along the river; occasional. Horseshoe, S et al. 27798;
Oldtown, S et al. 24489. Reported from Chautauqua County. None of
the older specimens of cockspur grass, which were seen by the author,
belongs to either race of this native species. Records in the herbarium
of the New York State Museum indicate that both races are frequent in
western New York as in central.

Eiynius viliosus Muhl. Along the larger streams ; probably frequent.
Islands below Red House, S et al. 23624; mouth of State Line Run,
S & F 23236. Observed at Limestone, Horseshoe, Killbuck and Oldtown.
Reported from Riverside Junction and the vicinity of Peth. This never
seems to form large colonies in this State but occurs as occasional
clumps among other grasses.

Elymus wiegandii Fern. (incl. in E. canadensis by Gleason, 1952,
and Chase, 1950). Riverbottom woods; abundant there. Islands below
Red House, S et al. 23622; Quaker Bridge, S & F 23488. Observed at
Riverside Junction, Horseshoe, Oldtown and the mouth of State Line
Run. Also reported, as E. canadensis, from the vicinity of Elko and
Great Valley Creek, one mile south of Peth. On a canoe-trip from
Red House to Quaker Bridge, one of the most conspicuous sights all
along the route on both islands and shores was the large pale pendent
plumes of this species. Despite its showiness, the species has been over¬
looked in many parts of the State.

* Eragrostis frankii C. A. Mey. Gravelly soil; rare and possibly in¬
troduced. Weedpatch, East Randolph Fish Hatchery, £ et al. 24461;
roadside, Oldtown, S et al. 24483; gravelbars, Oldtown, S et al. 24484.
Local in the State. Many of the collections of this uncommon species
seem to be from disturbed habitats.

E. hypnoides (Lam.) BSP. Muddy shores of the Allegheny and simi¬
lar habitats; probably frequent in such places. Gravelpit, Russell, E,
Sept. 23, 1956 (St. B) ; Horseshoe, S et al. 27795; west of Red House,
S et al. 24434; Oldtown, S et al. 24485; near Onoville, Gordon (St. B
436) ; observed on islands below Red House. Previously reported only
from the mouth of Red House Creek. This species is local in the State
but is usually overlooked.

Glyceria canadensis (Mx.) Trin. Swamps; locally abundant and not
restricted to the bogs at the edge of the glacial drift as stated earlier.
Bottoms of the Tunungwant Creek near Limestone, S & F 23173, 23539;
swale at Carrollton, S & F 23450.

* G septentrionalis Hitchc. Swales and swamps; frequent in the
lowlands. Vicinity of Limestone, S & F 23172, 23537; Carrollton,
S & F 23449; two and one-half miles north of Riverside Junction, S & F
23189; observed north of Randolph and at the bogs north of Steam¬
burg. Marginal collections are from west of Leon, S et al. 22613, and
Cherry Creek, Chautauqua County, S et al. 22636, and it has been

38

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

observed at Portville on the Allegheny River to the east. Reported from
Celeron to the west. Although it is a prominent element of the flora,
being particularly showy in the Conewango Creek Valley and abundant
in low ground about Randolph, this handsome grass with its large
spikelets has been previously overlooked, possibly because of its early
shattering of spikelets. Rare in eastern and southeastern New York;
not uncommon from Utica and Greene (Chenango County) westward.

“* Mulilenbergia frondosa (Poir.) Fern. (M. mexicana auct.) . On
gravelbars; also weedy in curbings; frequent. Horseshoe, S et al.
27792; Randolph, S et al. 24438; islands below Red House, S et al.
23626 ; observed in railroad yards at Allegany and along a small stream
on the west side of Allegany. Considered infrequent in western New
York.

* M. mexicana (L.) Trin. ( M . foliosa auct.) . Ditches; a single col¬
lection. Near Randolph, S. et al. 24437. Probably overlooked. Consid¬
ered frequent in western New York; sparing on the High Plateau.

* M. sehreberi Gmel. Weedy as elsewhere in the State; probably fre¬
quent. Railroad yards, Allegany, S & F 24318; curbing, Randolph,
S & F 24439. Infrequent in Zenkert’s area; not common on the High
Plateau.

** M. sylvatica Torr. Oak woods ; rare. Seepage-run on steep slope,
Killbuck, 5 et al. 27731. Locally frequent in the largest valleys of the
State but rare elsewhere; infrequent in western New York.

* M. temiiflora (Willd.) BSP. Oak woods; rare as elsewhere in west¬
ern New York. With the last, S et al. 27732. The ranges of this and
M. sylvatica are nearly identical in this State.

Panicum capillare L. Disturbed soil in the larger valleys; common.
Railroad yards, Allegany, S & F 23695; one-quarter mile east of Van-
dalia, E (St. B 3174) ; Riverside Junction, S et al. 23138; observed at
mouth of Tenmile Creek, Killbuck, Steamburg and Oldtown. Weedy as
always in the State. House and Alexander reported it only from the
valley of the Tunungwant Creek and suggested that it was not native.
This is one of the annual species of disturbed situations which become
much more abundant on soil cultivation. Whether it is an old species
of the area, once restricted to small exposed areas after temporary dis¬
turbances and now more widespread, or whether it came as a weed in
Indian cultivation is a problem that applies to the whole State.

* P. gattingeri Nash (P. capillare var. campestre) . Gravelbars and
roadsides; frequent. Mouth of Tenmile Creek, S & Ketchledge 25839;
west of Steamburg, S & Schumacher 24367; Oldtown, S et al. 24487.
Rare in western New York. Another witchgrass which may be intro¬
duced or may be native, preferring disturbed soils.

P. latifolmm L. Sparse in dryish oak woods; a few more stations.
Riverside Junction, S et al. 23139, 23140; north of Quaker Bridge, S
et al. 22597 ; observed east of Vandalia, at Killbuck and southwest of
Quaker Bridge. The two earlier stations were on the west edge of the
park.

P. line a r i £©! i u m Scribn. Old fields; a new station. Carrollton, S et
al. 23456. This is referable to var. werneri (Scribn.) Fern., a distinctive
variant, but one without apparent isolation. Earlier localities cited for
the species (including both varieties) were all from below Steamburg

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

39

and Red House.

* F. philadelphicum Bernh. Gravelbars ; rare ( ? ) Horseshoe, S et
al. 27796. The specimens belong to var. tuckermanii (Fern.) Steyermark
& Schmoll ( P . tuckermanii — Steyermark & Schmoll, 1939) . This variety
seems to favor borders of alluvial swamps and gravelbars. The few
specimens of var. philadelphicum observed by the author seem to be
from more sterile and drier upland soils; an ecotype difference may be
involved. The variety is apparently a new find for that part of New
York State west of Cayuga Lake. The species is otherwise known in
that same part of the State by var. philadelphicum from Windom, Erie
County, F. W . Johnson , October 19, 1924.

* Paspahim ciliatifolium Mx. Old fields; rare as elsewhere upstate.
Red Pond, S & Schumacher 24391. The material belongs to var.
muhlenbergii (Nash) Fern. The nearest stations in New York are in
northern Livingston County and eastern Monroe County; Jennings
does not report it from northwestern Pennsylvania.

Phalaris arundinacea L. Bottomlands; common in the valley of the
Allegheny River and the flats around Randolph. Hemlock Swamp near
Quaker Bridge, Saunders (St. B 488, 489) ; observed at Riverside
Junction, Carrollton, Horseshoe, Salamanca, Steamburg, Randolph,
north of Randolph and at mouth of State Line Run. The only previous
report seems to be “Allegany State Park” with no further designation.

Poa alsodes Cray. Rich woodlands, including those on the bottoms;
common. East of Russell, S & E 26265; Bradford (Riverside) Junction,
Wiegand 15226 (Specimen at Cornell University) ; Horseshoe, S & E
26450; observed at South Vandalia Oxbow, Tenmile Hollow, Elko and
Frecks. This is one of the earlier grasses to mature and shatters quickly,
which may account for its being overlooked previously. The onlv citation
was, again, “Allegany State Park.”

“* P. lauguida Hitchc. Dry oak woods; a single station. Riverside
Junction, S et al. 23130. Frequent in western New York; missing from
northwestern Pennsylvania. This species is very close to P. saltuensis
and varies in practically all the differentiating characters (Clausen,
1939). This is the only specimen found which is good P. languida.
All others are P. saltuensis or transitional.

P. saltuensis Fern. & Wieg. Dry oak woods; apparently frequent. St.
Bonaventure, S & E 24945; Killbuck, S & E 26503; Elko, S et al.
22787; observed at Riverside Junction. Rarer in more mesic habitats:
Horseshoe, S & E 26451; observed along lower Tenmile Creek. Re¬
ported as occasional, “especially along Quaker Run.” Rather rare in
western New York and in the area just south.

Spartina pectinata Link. Riverbanks ; not as rare as previously indi¬
cated. Horseshoe, S & E 26455; S et al. 27799; observed at Quaker
Bridge. Reported only from a locality just one mile north of this station.
A large clump of grass, west of the village of Allegany, in a weedy
area, was dense enough to simulate one of the big tussock grasses; it
never flowered, but a specimen (S & F 23630) had the ligules, collars
and blades of this species. Rare in western New York.

40

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

* Sphenopbolis intermedia (Rydb.) Rydb. Oak woods; rare or
overlooked. Riverside Junction, S et al. 23126; observed at Carrollton.
This species, like the next, never seems to occur in abundance in any
locality in this State. Frequently, there will be but a plant or two and
they shatter quickly. Rare in western New York.

* S. nitida (Biehler) Scribn. Oak woods; rare or overlooked.
Riverside Junction, S et al. 23127, 25029; observed east of Vandalia.
Rare in western New York.

* Carex aihursina Sheldon (C. laxiflora var. latifolia) . Rich woods;
occasional. East of Russell, E et al.. May 20, 1958 (St. B). Notes on
ranges of species of Carex relatively frequent at lower elevations across
the State are omitted.

C. amphibola Steud. var. lurgida Fern. (C. grisea auct.) . Low
woods; four more stations, all in the valleys east and southeast of Sala¬
manca. East of Vandalia, E , June 4, 1956 (St. B) ; South Vandalia
Oxbow, S & E 26329; Carrollton, S & F 23428; Horseshoe, S & E
26430. Reported only from Limestone.

C. annectems (Bickn.) Bickn. Fields; occasional, but possibly more
frequent than apparent, due to confusion with C. vulpinoidea Mx.
Harrisburg, S et al., July 26, 1956 (St. B) ; St. Bonaventure, E et al.
(St. B 562) ; Riverside Junction, S & F 23123; Tenmile Hollow, E,
June 27, 1956 (St. B) ; Bear Bog, south of Halls, S et al. 22809. These
specimens are all var. anneetens. A specimen from a dry old field,
two miles east of Red House, S 23181, is clearly var. xanthocarpa
(Kiik.) Wieg. (C. brachyglossa — cf. synonymy, Mackenzie, 1931-35).
A specimen from Carrollton, S & F 23437, and those previously re¬
ported as C. brachyglossa seem transitional.

* C. arcta Boott. Swales; rare. Carrollton, S & F 23438. This species
is one of the rarest in the State. There are only two other stations rep¬
resented in the herbarium of the New York State Museum: vicinity of
Axton, Franklin County, Rowlee et al., July 11, 1899, and Truxton,
Cortland County, Wiegand, June 1896. Jennings does not record this
species and neither Mackenzie (1931-35) nor Hermann (1954) cites
it from south of New York.

“* C. art! tecta Mack. ( C . nigromarginata var. muhlenbergii) . Dryish
oak woods; rare. Riverside Junction, S & E 25017; north side of Sala¬
manca, S & E 26521.

* C. brevier (Dewey) Mack. Open oak woods; rare. North side of
Salamanca, S & E 26522. Rare and local throughout the State outside
of the mountains.

C. foromoides Schk. Swales and wooded swamps; frequent. Tenmile
Hollow, June 27, 1956 (St. B) ; observed at St. Bonaventure, South
Vandalia, Mount Moriah, Riverside Junction, Carrollton and Horseshoe.

C. bruimescens (Pers.) Poir. Moist woods and boggy thickets; more
common than indicated by House and Gordon. St. Bonaventure, S
24942; Carrollton, Peck, June; Salamanca Rock City, Alexander &
House 13047; Quaker Bridge, Alexander & House 13017; Bear Bog,
S et al. 22810; observed at South Vandalia Oxbow. All records are
referable to var. sphaerostachya (Tuck.) Kiik.

C. canescens L. Bogs and swamps in the River Valley; occasional.
St. Bonaventure, S 24943; Mount Moriah Swamp, E, June 4, 1956

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

41

(St. B) ; South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26331. Reported from the bogs
north of Steamburg and later as being common in Bear Bog, but the
present investigator could find only the abundant C. brunnescens (of
this series of species) in the latter station.

■* C. caroliniana Schw. New to the State (Mackenzie, 1931-35;
Hermann, 1954). Dry old field east of Red House, S & F 23183. This
species with the stiff habit and fat perigynia of C. bushii Mack., for
which the specimen was taken in the field, has smaller perigynia, less
cuspidate pistillate scales and glabrous leaves. Taylor (House, 1924)
cited a doubtful collection from Aqueduct (Long Island), but Mack¬
enzie apparently did not accept it as he ranges this species north to
New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Jennings reports this from Clarion
County, Pa., on the south side of the High Plateau section; this would
be the nearest station.

Carex cephaloidea Dewey (C. sparganioides var. cephaloidea) . Low
woods; another station for this sedge, which is apparently infrequent in
the area. Horseshoe, S & E 26443.

C. debilis Mx. var. rudgei Bailey. Acid woods; frequent in the Con¬
glomerate sections and somewhat so elsewhere. Additional stations are:
Harrisburg, S et al ., July 26, 1956, (St. B) ; Coon Run, anon. (St. B
616, p. p.) ; observed at St. Bonaventure, Salamanca Rock City and
north of Steamburg.

C. emoryi Dewey (C. stricta var. elongata) . Sloughs; a second sta¬
tion. Muddy borders of Oxbow, Horseshoe, S & E 26439. The shores of
the Allegheny River are the only stations in New York State, the first
collection being from near Quaker Bridge. Jennings reports it from
northeastern Ohio and from three counties in western Pennsylvania,
none of them on his High Plateau.

C. gracileseens Steud. (C. laxiflora , auct .; C. laxiflora var. gracil-
lima) . Moist rich woods and seepage banks at edge of same; frequent
near the Allegheny River. Three-quarters of a mile east of Vandalia, E,
June 4, 1956 (St. B) ; South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26328; Riverside
Junction, S & E 25022; Horseshoe, S & E 26434; north side of Sala¬
manca, S & E 26519; opposite Red House, S & E 24982; north of Cold
Spring, S & E 24957. Previously recorded only from Carrollton. This
species is the most slender of the group closely allied to true C. laxiflora.
It is further characterized by distinctly purple outer basal sheaths and
more divaricate-arcuate paler perigynia. The plants have a distinctive
appearance in the field.

C. granularis Muhl. Wet fields; apparently rare. Observed as dis¬
integrating specimens at Killbuck, September 9, 1958, swaly field, one-
half mile south of Conewango, S et al. 22653. Both stations are for var.
haleana (Olney) Porter (C. haleana ) previously reported only from a
station near the Allegany School of Natural History. Both this and var.
granularis are not infrequent in New York State outside the moun¬
tains, but there seems to be no general difference in occurrence.

■* C. gravida Bailey var. gravida. New to the State. Alluvial flats,
north of Quaker Bridge, Alexander & House 12203. This specimen was
inadvertently misfiled with out-of-state specimens at the time of pre¬
paring the flora and the supplement. Dr. House discovered it shortly
before he died and reaffirmed that all the specimens of Carex of that

42

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

effort had been identified by Mackenzie. It agrees fairly well with
specimens from Illinois. House earlier had cited a possible mislabeled
specimen from Sullivan Hill, Chemung County. This specimen, also
identified by Mackenzie, seems to this writer to be referable to the
related C. aggregata ( C . sparganioides var. aggregata ) . The first record
east of Ohio and lower Ontario.

C. grayii Carey (C. asa-grayi) . Low woods of the river valley; not
uncommon. Opposite St. Bonaventure, S et al., July 26, 1956 (St. B) ;
Carrollton, S & F 23436; Horseshoe, S & E 26442; river islands below
Red House, S et al. 23619; observed at Quaker Bridge and mouth of
State Line Run. Reported from Riverside Junction and the Balsam
Swamp, Red House. The latter specimen could not be located and the
habitat would be most unusual. Local in the larger valleys of the State.

C. hirtifolia Mack. Alluvial woods; possibly frequent, but fruiting
and shattering early. South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26327; Riverside
Junction, S & E 25016; Horseshoe, S & E 26437. House and Gordon
give the habitat as “Dry fields, banks and open woodlands.” The writer
has never seen it in really dry sites.

* C. intumescens Rudge var. femaldii Bailey (Cm intumescens , p.
p., of Gleason). Swampy woods; frequent. Carrollton, S & F 28049;
near Murray Brook, Gordon (St. B 667) ; upper Red House Valley,
Gordon , July 7, 1936; observed at Frecks. The material from Carrollton
and that from the upper Red House Valley has the obovoid achenes with
inflated perigynia and represents f. ventriosa Fern. A specimen from
Quaker Run, Alexander , August 19, 1927, seems to be intermediate in
achene-shape and perigynium-inflation between var. intumescens and
var. jernaldii f. femaldii. The var. femaldii is probably commoner at
higher elevations and in the colder swamps than is var. intumescens.

* C. laevivaginata (Kiik.) Mack. Seepage areas in dry oak woods
and swales; occasional. Riverside Junction, S & E 25028; meadow, south
side of Conewango, S et al. 22655; Balsam Swamp, Red House, Alexan¬
der (St. B 571); Big Woods (Stoddard Hollow), Alexander , August
1926 (St. B) ; observed in alluvial woods at Carrollton. Probably over¬
looked for Carex stipata Muhl., under which name both the Alexander
specimens rested. It is interesting to note that all the habitats appar¬
ently show moisture but seem to have little else in common.

C. laxiflora Lam. {C. heterosperma) . Mixed or oak woodlands; fre¬
quent. Coon Rocks, northeast of Limestone, E & Donahue , July 28,
1956 (St. B) ; Tenmile Hollow, E , June 27, 1956 (St. B) ; Riverside
Junction, S et al. 23122; S & E 25019; Killbuck, S & E 26488; ob¬
served at Horseshoe in alluvial woods.

C. leptalea Wahl, subsp. leptalea (Stone, 1911). Wooded swamps
and swales; two more stations. Mount Moriah Swamp, S & E 26298;
south side of Conewango, S et al. 22652. The latter station is remark¬
able for being in full sun, an unusual habitat for this part of the State.

** C. murieata L. var. laricina (Mack.) Gleason. (C. cephalantha.
Fernald, 1950, p. p.; C. laricina) . New to the State. Balsam Swamp, Red
House Valley, Alexander & House 12620. This is the basis of the report
of C. angustior. The relationship of these variants of C. muricata is very
difficult to assess. This collection with perigynia smaller than in subsp.
cephalantha (Bailey) Clausen (C. cephalantha-- Clausen, 1949) and

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

43

more ovate with more strongly serrulate beaks than in C. angustior
Mack. (C. muricata var. angustata ) seems best referred here. The
perigynia are lightly many nerved ventrally at base and the pistillate
scales arc blunter than in good subsp. cephalantha. The beaks, however,
are about one-half the length of the bodies, which is long for var. laricina.
This taxon, as a species, is cited (Mackenzie — 1931-35) from the area
about the upper Great Lakes, from Presque Isle, westward. Fernald
(1950) reduces it outright to C. cephalantha.

C. pechmciilata Muhl. Rich woods; frequent to common. East of
Russell, E et al. , May 20, 1958 (St. B) ; observed at St. Bonaventure,
South Yandalia Oxbow, Mount Moriah Swamp, the bogs north of
Steamburg and Frecks. Reported from three other stations by Eaton.
Overlooked because of early fruiting.

C. peiisylvaniea Lam. var. pensylvanica. Dry slopes and banks;
additional stations. St. Bonaventure and vicinity; E & Donahue (St. B
686) ; E et al (St. B 592, 593, 594) ; S 24995; Tributary 49, Allegheny
River, E (St. B 591, p. p.) ; Killbuck, S & E 26493; observed at
South Vandalia Oxbow, Horseshoe and Riverside Junction. Reported
only from Red House Valley and downriver.

Co plantaginea Lam. Rich woods; several more stations. East of
Russell, E et al. , May 20, 1958 (St. B) ; 5 & E 26263; north-facing
slope, Town of Allegany, E et al ., April 22, 1958 (St. B) ; Tributary 49,
Allegheny River, E et al. (St. B 629) ; 1 mile south of Peth, E et al. (St.
B 630) ; observed southwest of Quaker Bridge and at Frecks. Listed as
infrequent with only a single cited station at Quaker Run.

C. rosea Schk. Alluvial woods; two additional stations. Riverside
Junction, S & E 25027 ; Horseshoe, S & E 26445. Considered uncom¬
mon and reported only from Limestone.

* C. rostrata Stokes. Alluvial soils in open marshes; scarce. Tunun-
gwant Swamps, S & F 23163; S et al. 23532; Carrollton, S & E 26335.

* C. seorsa Howe. Wet woods; a single station. Mount Moriah
Swamp, E, June 4, 1956 (St. B). Frequent only about Oneida Lake
and locally in the region of New York City and Long Island; otherwise
scattered (five stations) in upper New York.

Carex spargansoides Muhl. Dry oak woods; two more stations. Kill-
buck, S & E 26497 ; observed at Carrollton.

Co swanii (Fern.) Mack. Old fields and pastures; probably frequent.
Eaton’s Pond, Tenmile Valley, E , June 27, 1956 (St. B) ; south side of
Conewango, S et al. 22651; observed one and one-half miles west of
Allegany, in the vicinity of Red House Lake and near the Steamburg
Bogs.

C» tricliocarpa Muhl. Bottom lands, often in woods; frequent; new
stations. Horseshoe, S & E 26440; Oldtown, S et al. 23508, 23796;
south of State Line Run, S & F 23232. At Oldtown, it almost com¬
pletely filled a large depression in a cultivated field of corn. Cited pre¬
viously as occasional, it appears as a dominant species along many
parts of the Allegheny River. Many places, it seems not to fruit well
but is easily recognized by the purple-brown “necktie” of the upper
sheaths.

C. trisperma Dewey. Thicketed bogs and wet woods ; apparently rare :
Bear Bog, S et al. 22811; Halls, anon. (St. B 574). These appear to be

44

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

var. trisperma , but var. billingsii, Knight, to which the previous
records from Balsam Swamp and the Steamburg Bogs belong, seems to
be primarily an attenuated form of sphagnum bogs.

* C. typhina Mx. Wet meadows; rare. Riverflats near Quaker Bridge,
Alexander & House 12224. This specimen was apparently overlooked in
the earlier reports. There are 17 stations scattered around the lower
elevations of the State; 7 of these are on Long Island. Local in western
Pennsylvania.

* C. umbellata Schk. (C. abdita Bickn.). Probably overlooked be¬
cause of early maturing, small size and the characteristic of the fruit’s
being mostly hidden in the leafy sods. Dry fields and open thickets;
scarce (?) Allegany, S 24996, 24997; Killbuck, S & E 26495, 26496.
Reported from Camel Back, Olean. These collections are somewhat vari¬
able in all characters used to segregate C. rugosperma Mack. (C. um¬
bellata auct.) The complex should be restudied.

* C. vesicaria L. Bottom lands; occasional to locally abundant. A
prominent species in the swamps of the Tunungwant Creek near Lime¬
stone, S & E 23162; swales at Carrollton, S & F 23430, 23431; observed
at Horseshoe. A specimen from the river islands below Red House, S
et al. 23617, had sterile inflated perigynia and may be of hybrid origin.

* Cyperus rivularis Kunth. Wet meadows; rare. South side of
Conewango, S & Ketchledge 25828. This should be found in similar
habitats and on gravelbars along the Allegheny. Frequent, at low ele¬
vations, across the State.

Dulichium amndinaceum (L.) Britton. River shores, sloughs and
bogs; probably frequent. Horseshoe, S & E 26429; observed on river
islands below Red House. Previously reported from the Tunungwant
Valley and the Steamburg Bogs, but not definitely reported from the
borders of the Allegheny River, proper, although considered common by
McVaugh (1938).

* Eleocharis calva Torr. Rivershores, bogs and wet meadows; prob¬
ably frequent. South side of Conewango, S et al. 22649 ; observed about
the Steamburg Bogs and on the margins of islands below Red House.
Local according to McVaugh (1938).

* E. tenuis (Willd.) Schultes var. borealis (Svenson) Gleason
(E. elliptica) . Wet meadows; rare. South side of Conewango, S et al.
22650. Not listed by McVaugh (1938).

* Eriopliorum viridi-carinatum (Engelm.) Fern. Swaly meadow;
rare. South side of Conewango, S et al. 22647. The only previous
record, Waterman Swamp, is outside the area studied and much more
isolated from the Allegheny River than this. Its presence in the Cone¬
wango Valley suggests that it might be found to the south in the flats
around Randolph and Steamburg. Locally frequent, as the next, across
the State.

* Scirpus lineatusMx. Open swaly fields; infrequent. South side of
Conewango, S et al. 22648; observed just north of Randolph.

* S. rubrolinctus Fern. Swales; frequent. Limestone Creek, south
edge of Limestone, S & F 23160; north side of Salamanca, S & E
26518; Quaker Run near mouth of Cain Hollow, S & F 23193. A speci¬
men from the watergarden at the Allegany School of Natural History,
Gordon , August 5, 1940, was considered by the collector as “probably

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

45

introduced,” but it could have come in naturally. This taxon, which is
proving not uncommon in upstate New York has uniformly small
achenes, ca. 1.0 mm. In every other character cited by Fernald (1900)
and by Beetle (1947) as separating this from S. microcarpus Presl, there
is variation. This is probably a subspecies of S. microcarpus.

Arisaeraa triphyllum (L.) Schott subsp. stewardsonii (Britton)

Huttleston (A. stewardsonii — Huttleston, 1949) . Alluvial woods and
wooded swamps; frequent. Mount Moriah Swamp, S & E 26296; South
Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26326 ; Horseshoe, S & E 26426 ; Elko, S et al.
22623; observed at Riverside Junction, on the islands below Red House,
at Oldtown and at the mouth of State Line Run. Previously reported
only from the Steamburg Bogs. Subsp. triphyllum (A. atrorubens) is
rare in alluvial woods, hereabouts, but is common in the drier woods
above the bottoms. Probably more frequent than previously reported
for upstate New York.

'** J uncus acuminates Mx. Ditches, oxbows, about bogs, etc.; fre¬
quent. Limestone, S & F 23155; Horseshoe, S et al. 27784; gravelpit
near Red House, S & F 23179; Steamburg Bogs, S et al. 24389; Still-
son’s Pond, East Randolph, Gordon (St. B 937). Frequent at lower ele¬
vations, about the State.

J. brevicaudatus (Engelm.) Fern. Swales; rare. Field, one-half
mile south of Conewango, observed. Previously reported from a bog near
Randolph. Rare in central and western New York.

* J. marginatus Rostk. Swales; rare. Field, one-half mile south
of Conewango, S et al. 22646. Rare in western New York. Not cited
as being near area on the south.

* J. tenuis Willd. var. dudleyi (Wieg.) Hermann (/. dudleyi — -
Hermann, 1944). Swales; rare. Field, one-half mile south of Cone¬
wango, S et al. 22644. This race apparently favors more alkaline soils
than var. tenuis , which accounts for its rarity here. Frequent in the
State, mostly at lower elevations.

Allium canadense L. var. canadense (Ownbey & Aase, 1955).
Low fields and woods; common in the Tunungwant Valley and along the
Allegheny River above and below the mouth of the Tunungwant. Lime¬
stone, Alexander & House 12700; St. Bonaventure, E et al ., April 15,
1958 (St. B) ; Horseshoe, S & E 26418. Previously cited only from
Riverside Junction. Frequent at low elevations in the State.

Gintonia umbellulata (Mx.) Morong. Rich woods; more frequent
than the three cited stations would indicate. Sixteen stations are known
in the area covered. Known only from Letchworth Park, Livingston and
Wyoming Counties, south and west in the State. An Alleghenian species.

Erythronium americanum Ker. Rich woods and low thickets;
frequent, as indicated, at least in the main valley. Allegany, anon. (St.
B 746) ; St. Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 744) ; east of Russell, E et al..
May 20, 1958 (St. B) ; Horseshoe, S & E 26421; one mile southwest of
Peth, E (St. B 745) ; Jack Point, Onoville, Fenton 452; observed at
Riverside Junction. These substantiate the earlier estimate of frequency
without cited stations. Common in the State, except for central Long
Island.

46

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Lilium canadense L. subsp. canadense. Low grounds; apparently
rare. Populations of the common race (in New York State) were never
seen in the area by the writer, although a colony was found in wet
woods at Cherry Creek, Chautauqua County, in the Conewango Valley.
The only old specimen found was from Quaker Bridge, Alexander &
House 12550, but that had flowers that at least approached those of the
next, being dusky red and with weakly recurved tepals. The leaves were
too narrow for that taxon, however. A specimen from north of Quaker
Bridge, in a mixed population, S & F 28052, was depauperate, but
apparently this, on purely morphological grounds.

* L. canadense L. subsp. editorum (Fern.) Wherry ( L . canadense,
p. p. of Gleason, 1952 — Wherry, 1947) . Seepage areas on banks border¬
ing oak woods and in meadows below such areas; occasional. Just west
of Vandalia, S & F 20753; E, July 27, 1956 (St. B) ; opposite Red
House, S & F 23073. This is the north edge of the range and the plants
are variable. They are referred here on the basis of the narrow dark
garnet-red tepals, which are comparatively weakly flaring, giving the
effect of a long tubular base to the flowers. The leaves vary from those
typical of this subspecies to those far too narrow and attenuate. The
Vandalia colony is the most typical and the most uniform. A collection
from north of Quaker Bridge was relatively small-leaved. Two plants
(S & F 23197) had the leaves about one-quarter as long as broad and
blunt. The third (S & F 28052) had them one-sixth to one-ninth as
long as broad and attenuate ; the tepals were broader, much lighter, with
more yellow pigmentation and more markedly flaring at tip. This third
specimen is cited under the typical subspecies. Jennings lists only subsp.
editorum for western Pennsylvania.

* Poiygoiiatum Mflorum (Walt.) Ell. Open oak woods; rare.
Riverside Junction, S & F 24504; Killbuck, S & E 26486. In many
parts of the State, particularly near the larger valleys, this species seems
less common than the next.

P. commutatum (R. & S.) Dietr. (P. canaliculatum auct., inch P.
giganteum — R. P. Ownbey, 1944). Alluvial thickets; infrequent. Ob¬
served above Quaker Bridge, south of Quaker Bridge and at Oldtown.
Reported only from near Cold Spring. The author thinks this should be
treated as a subspecies (cytotype) of P. biflorum.

* Uvularia perfoliata L. Acid woods and thickets and old fields;
frequent. 1 mile west of Harrisburg, E et al. (St. B 721) ; Riverside
Junction, S & F 23117; S & E 25031; Killbuck, S & E 26485; north
of Red House, Fenton 308; north of Cold Spring, S & F 23791; Cold
Spring, Fenton 23; observed opposite Red House and southwest of
Quaker Bridge. This was originally reported as common in the region
but was later considered to be absent, on the basis of available specimens
which proved to be U. grandiflora. U. perfoliata has the wider range in
the State.

* Hypoxis hirsuta (L.) Coville. Probably open oak woods or fields
nearby; rare. Allegany, anon. (St. B 826). No data as to habitat is on
the label. It is not suprising to find it here in view of its occurrence in
the Chemung Valley. Jennings cites it as common, except in his Eligh
Plateau.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

47

Goodyera repens (L.) R. Br. var. ophioides Fern. Cold woods;
rare. Mount Oneida, Saunders (St. B 879) (as Epipactis tesselata) .
Reported from Salamanca by Day, but no supporting specimen found
(House and Gordon, 1940).

Habenaria ciavellata (Mx.) Spreng. Bogs; scarce. Mount Moriah
Swamp, E et al. (St. B 3069) ; observed at Bear Bog. Reported only
from the vicinity of the Steamburg Bogs. Frequent in the State.

H. flava (L.) R. Br. var. herbiola (R. Br.) Ames & Correll (var.
virescens) . Swampy meadows; rare. Large colony in the Tunungwant
Valley, near Limestone, S & F 23165; S et al. 23535. The plants varied
greatly in size and most of them seemed to have two or three large leaves
abruptly succeeded by much smaller bracteal leaves; the petal-shape,
however, agreed with var. herbiola, as figured by Correll (1951). The
specimen from Rush Run, the only earlier collection, has the leaves more
gradually reduced as required by Fernald (1950) for var. herbiola.
From the specimens in the State herbarium, there is too much variation
in this characteristic for it to be useful. Local in the State.

* H. liyperborea (L.) R. Br. var. liuronensis (Nutt.) Farw. (H.
hyperborea auct., p. p.) . Meadows bordering bogs; rare. North of
Steamburg, S et al. 24390. This is at the southern border of the range
of the species.

H. lacera (Mx.) Lodd. Moist places; rare. Meadow bordering bog,
north of Steamburg, S et al. 23228. Previously reported only from
Mount Moriah Swamp and Seneca Mountain. Frequent in the State.

Liparis loeselii (L.) L. C. Richard. Boggy woods and swaly
meadows; rare. South side of Conewango, S & Ketchledge 25830.
Reported from the Balsam Swamp at Red House. Locally frequent state-
wise, except in the mountains.

Spiranthes cerium (L.) L. C. Richard. Swaly meadows and ditches;
scarce. South side of Conewango, S & Ketchledge 25829; observed at
mouth of Tenmile Creek. Reported from St. Bonaventure, Blacksnake
Mountain and from the Town of Carrollton; the latter specimens are
from Weaver Draw, Tenmile Valley. Common in the State.

* Populns deltoides Marsh. Streambottoms ; possibly frequent.
Islands below Red House, S et al. 23604; observed at Peth. New to
Cattaraugus County; also collected, outside the immediate area, on the
south edge of Otto, S et al. 23727. Common along the larger streams
of the State.

Salix interior Rowlee. Gravelbars; local. Islands below Red House,
S et al. 23605; Oldtown, S et al. 24475. Previously reported only from
Onoville. Not uncommon on bars at the lower elevations in central and
western New York; local eastward.

Comptonia peregrine (L.) Coult. var. peregrina (Myrica aspleni-
folia auct ., p. p.; M. asplenifolia var. tomentosa) . Dry fields; locally
common as stated. Additional stations are: Allegany, anon. (St. B
1004) ; Red House, Fenton 170; observed east of Vandalia. Not un¬
common in many parts of the State on sterile soils; var. asplenifolia
(L.) Fern, only on Long Island.

Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch. Woods; not uncommon along
the river and occasional in uplands nearby. Horseshoe, S et al. 27750:
river islands below Red House, S et al. 23600; Pierce’s Run, Fenton

48

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

459; observed east of Russell and at Killbuck. Frequent statewide, out¬
side of the mountains.

Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet. Open oak woods; occasional. Killbuck,
S et al. 27713; observed at Riverside Junction. Reported only from
Quaker Bridge and from moist woods. About the same range as the last.

Carpinus caroliniana Walt. var. virginiana (Marsh.) Fern. (C.
caroliniana, p. p., Gleason, 1952) . Woods and thickets; not as infrequent
as indicated. Observed at the following stations: Limestone, east of
Vandalia, Horseshoe, north of Steamburg, Elko, Frecks. Common in
the State.

Corylus cornuta Marsh. Woods and thickets; a few more stations
on the east side of the area. St. Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 1027,
1028) ; Allegany, anon. (St. B 1029) ; observed at Riverside Junction.
Frequent in the State, except for the Coastal Plain, where rare.

Quercus pritioides Willd. Dry thickets; rare. Near Red House,
Knobloch 503. Previously reported from terrace north of Onoville. Both
specimens consist of leafy shoots with very young fruits. They have the
leafhairs and the leafmargins of this species as prescribed by Dyal
(1936). These are the only stations in western New York; local in
western Pennsylvania.

Ulmus rubra Muhl. ( U . fulva) . Low woods; possibly frequent, but
not as gregarious as U . americana L. (a situation prevailing over most
of the lowlands of New York). St. Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 1141,
1142, 1211) ; Horseshoe, S & E 26402; observed at Riverside Junction.
Previously reported only from Quaker Bridge. U. rubra seems to be
absent from higher elevations in this State, where U. americana can be
found (except for the highest).

Comandra umbellate (L.) Nutt. Dry woods and thickets; more
common than indicated. Allegany, anon. (St. B 1154) ; Vandalia, E
(St. B 1214); Killbuck, S & E 26471; Quaker Bridge, Alexander &
House 12545. Frequent at lower elevations in the State.

Asarum canadense L. var. reflexion (Bickn.) Robinson (A. re -
flexum) . Bottom land woods; rare. South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E
27996; Horseshoe, S & E 26363. Previously reported only from Quaker
Run. Very local in the State: vicinity of New York City; drainage of
Seneca River; western New York. This investigator can see little dis¬
tinctive in New York material of var. acuminatum (Ashe) Bickn., so
labeled, other than the more caudate tips of the calyx-lobes. Var.
re flexum, on the other hand, has a number of characteristics. The
rhizomes are slender ; the leaves average smaller ; the flowers are smaller,
with prominently reflexed lobes. In the field, at flowering time, the
leaves appear a brighter yellow-green, the young ones not grayish; the
flowers are a brighter “brick-red,” with more yellow in the pigmentation
and the area of white inside the calyx is greater. In the areas where the
var. re flexum has been seen in New York State, the var. canadense (inch
var. acuminatum ) could not be found closely associated but was fre¬
quently in upland areas nearby.

Polygonum arifolium L. var. pubescens (Keller) Fern. ( P . ari-
folium auct.) . Bogs; rare. A new station east of the others: Mount
Moriah Swamp, S & E 26291. Frequent in the lowlands of the State,
south of the Adirondacks.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

49

P. cilinode Mx. Bottom lands; common. Horseshoe, S & E 26408;
mouth of State Line Run, S & F 23231; observed at Carrollton, River¬
side Junction, islands below Red House and Oldtown. Dry habitats are
usually emphasized for this species. It should be noted that the colonies
on these bottoms are frequently extensive and luxuriant. Locally fre¬
quent in the counties bordering Pennsylvania.

P. hydropiperoides Mx. subsp. hydropiperoides (Stone, 1911).
Sloughs; a new station. Horseshoe, S & E 27768. Considered common
by McVaugh (1938).

P. scandens L. Bottom lands; four more stations. Horseshoe, S et al.
27767; observed at lower Quaker Run. Oldtown and mouth of State
Line Run.

* Riimex altissimus Wood. Alluvial woods; rare. Islands below
Red House, S et al. 23609. “Rosettes” observed at Horseshoe, May 28,
1958, were probably this. Specimens collected in similar habitats in the
Susquehanna drainage east of the area lead the investigator to suspect
that it may be native in such areas. Jennings does not list it for the
High Plateau.

Claytonia virgiiiica L. Frequent on bottom lands, at least above Sala¬
manca. Allegany, anon. (St. B 1226) ; St. Bonaventure, E & Yackovich
(St. B 1222) ; Horseshoe, S & E 26406; observed at South Vandalia
Oxbow. Reported previously only from Wolf Run. This species is more
restricted in range in this State, being found primarily in more alluvial
situations, in the experience of the author, than C. caroliniana Mx.

Arenaria lateriflora L. Low woods and grassy fields; infrequent.
New stations upriver. South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26318; lower Ten-
mile Creek, S & E 24936; Horseshoe, S & E 26405. The grassy field
habitat is one to add to those mentioned by House and Gordon.

* Cerastium nutans Raf. Springy grassy banks; rare. North of
Cold Spring, S & E 24955, where luxuriant. Jennings thinks it weedy
and considers it rare in northwestern Pennsylvania. Zenkert reports this
only from the escarpment east of Buffalo. Rare in south-central New
York.

Paronychia canadensis (L.) Wood ( Anychia canadensis) . Dry oak
woods; apparently rare, but possibly overlooked. Killbuck, S & E
26483; S et al. 27727. Previously reported from just west of Bradford
(Riverside) Junction. The only other report for the State west of the
Finger Lakes is at Scottsville, Monroe County. Jennings points out its
rarity in the northern part of his area.

Silene anlirrhina L. Native in the region (?). Dry oak woods;
scarce. Killbuck, observed. Previously reported as an infrequent weed
along railroads. Again, apparently rare to the south of area.

S. stellata (L.) Ait. f. Open woods; additional stations upriver. St.
Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 1248, 1249) ; one-half mile west of Brad¬
ford (Riverside) Junction, Gordon (St. B 1251) ; observed at Killbuck.
Infrequent across the State, south of the mountains.

Stellaria iongifolia Muhl. Moist places; not infrequent near the
river. Mount Moriah Swamp, S & E 26289; Horseshoe, S & E 26404;
opposite Red House, S & E 24979; south side of Conewango, S et al.
22642; observed at Riverside Junction and lower Tenmile Creek.
Previously reported only from Quaker Run.

50

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Nupliar luteum (L.) Sibth. & Sm. subsp. macrophyllum (Small)
Beal ( Nymphaea advena; Nupliar advena — Beal, 1956). Occasional in
the larger valleys. Observed at Limestone and Horseshoe. Reported
from Riverside Junction. Not listed by McVaugh (1938).

* N. luteum (L.) Sibth. & Sm. subsp. variegatum (Engelm.) Beal
(N. variegatum — Beal, 1956). Lakes and ponds; occasional. Lakeshore,
Allegany State Park, Yackovich et al. (St. B 1261) ; observed in Red
Pond. Considered common by McVaugh (1938). Subsp. macrophyllum
is more southern in distribution than subsp. variegatum.

Anemonella tlialietroides (L.) Spach. Open oak woods; rare.
Allegany, anon. (St. B. 1283) ; St. Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 1282,
1284, 1285). Reported only from the vicinity of Red House.

Calfha palustris L. Scarce. A new station. Mount Moriah Swamp,
S & E 26277.

Hepatiea americana (DC) Ker. Open oak woods; not infrequent.
One and one-half miles north of St. Bonaventure, E & Donahue (St. B
1286) ; Killbuck, S & E 26460; observed east of Vandalia and at
Riverside Junction.

* Ranunculus abortivus L. var. acrolasius Fern. Open woods and
seepage banks; at least occasional. St. Bonaventure, E & Ellis (St. B
3088) ; Horseshoe, S & E 26360; vicinity of Cold Spring, S & E 24952.
Benson (1948) considered this variety interesting because of apparently
distinctive range but unworthy of nomenclatorial rank because based on
only one character; he recognized var. eucyclus because it was based on
two characters. Fassett (1942), in using mass collections, considered
var. eucyclus trivial but recognized var. acrolasius as a geographic race.
The pubescence is sparse and may disappear in age; transplant-studies
might solve the problem. Var. acrolasius is reported from western New
York.

R. ambigens S. Wats. ( R . laxicaulis auct.) . Bottom lands; rare. Cold
Spring, Alexander, August 16, 1927. Reported from the Tungungwant
Valley and from Salamanca; also from Portville to the east (McVaugh,
1938).

* R. hispidus Mx. var. hispidus. Swampy woods and bottom lands ;
rare. South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26313; Riverside Junction, S & F
25003; observed at Horseshoe. The collected specimens, at least, have
small flowers, much-dissected leaves and are rather tall; they resemble
a photograph of R. liirtipes Greene in the files of the New York State
Museum. Benson (1948) refers R. hirtipes to the present taxon.

R. hispidus Mx. var. faisus Fern. ( R . hispidus auct., p. p. — Ben¬
son, 1948, 1954). Dryish open woods and nearby banks; frequent. St.
Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 1269) ; Riverside Junction, S & E 25004;
Killbuck, S & E 26458, 26459; opposite Red House, S & E 24965;
observed at Vandalia and east. Previously reported only from near
Quaker Bridge. The range of the variants of R. hispidus in this State
is difficult to state at this time, due to confusion in older records.

R. septentrionalis Poir. var. septentrionalis. Sloughs and stream-
margins; common in the bottom lands. Mount Moriah Swamp, S & E
26278; Horseshoe, S & E 26356, 26358; observed at many sites. Con¬
sidered infrequent by House and Alexander.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

51

Llndera benzoin (L.) Blume var. benzoin ( Benzoin aestivate) .
Low woods ; two more stations. Observed in Mount Moriah Swamp and at
South Vandalia Oxbow. This species is found in the lowlands through¬
out much of upstate New York but frequently dies to the ground after
severe winters.

Sangninaria canadensis L. var. canadensis. Low woods ; probably
frequent near the river. Horseshoe, S & E 26364; south of Quaker
Bridge, S et at. 22690; observed on the islands below Red House.
Previously reported from Onoville (Fenton, 1949) and Red House.

* Arabis canadensis L. Open oak woods ; rare ( ? ) . Killbuck, S et
al. 27708. Infrequent in western New York.

Cardamine buibosa (Schreb.) BSP. Alluvial woods; rare. River¬
side Junction, S & E 25007; Horseshoe, S & E 26366. Numerous indi¬
viduals were present in each colony.

C. donglassii (Torr.) Britton. Springy thickets; rare. Observed
along Tenmile Creek in great abundance. Previously reported only from
Red House Valley. This and the preceding need to be restudied
throughout their ranges in this State.

C. rolim difolia Mx. Springy woods and banks; a new station. Seep¬
age bank opposite Red House, S & E 24966. In New York State, re¬
stricted to the southwestern corner.

* Erysimum clieirautlioides L. Occasional. River gravels near
Quaker Bridge, Saunders , July 31, 1940. Generally distributed about the
State except for Long Island; frequently weedy.

* Agrimonia pubesceus Wailr. Thickets in oak barrens; rare.
South of Quaker Bridge, S & F 23246. The distribution of the Agri¬
monies in this State is imperfectly known.

Geum laciniatum Murr. ( G . virginianum auct.) . Moist meadows
and thickets; more frequent than indicated. Observed in several places
from Limestone to Killbuck. Common throughout most of New York
State, at least in the lowlands.

Pyrus Roribimda Lindl. ( Aronia arbutifolia auct., p. p .; A. pruni-
folia) . Bogs; scarce. Allegany, anon. (St. B 1500); E et al. (St. B
1498) ; observed in bogs, north of Steamburg. Such specimens as had
flowers or fruits had nonglandular calyx-lobes; all are sparsely hairy.
Gordon’s specimens from Owlenburg Bog and some from the “Rock
Cities” to the east also belong here.

Rosa palustris Marsh. Marshes; scarce. Allegany, anon. (St. B
1589). Previously reported only from Limestone. Not uncommon in
many parts of the State in swales and marshes.

* Rtsbus canadensis L. Old fields and river thickets; probably
overlooked. Cold Spring, Fenton 55; Quaker Bridge, S & F 23483.
Not uncommon upstate, but mostly at higher elevations than R. alle-
gheniensis.

R. occidentals L. Old fields, waste places and thickets; frequent.
Several observations were made from Allegany to Elko. Frequent in
the State outside of the mountains.

* R. X permixtus Blanch. ( allegheniensis X hispidus) . Boggy
woods; rare. St. Bonaventure, S & E 24939, Fernald (1950) considers
this a species; Gleason (1952) includes it in his collective R. hispidus L.
It is local wherever the two alleged parents are found.

52

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Spiraea alba du Roi. Riverbottom swales, etc.; occasional. St. Bona-
venture, anon. (St. B 1483) ; E et al. (St. B 1481) ; west of Vandalia,
S & F 23710; Horseshoe, S et al. 26393; observed at East Randolph.
This is a frequent shrub in central and western New York.

* Baptisia tinctoria (L.) R. Br. var. projecta Fern. New to the
State. Dry banks; rare. North of Quaker Bridge, S et al. 22596, 22722.
These plants had flowering racemes up to 40 cm. long and large flowers
for the species. They were collected June 18-19 in a large colony of
nonflowering individuals. These latter flowered two to three weeks later
and were normal var. tinctoria (inch var. crebra Fern. — Clausen, 1944) .
Known north to central Pennsylvania.

Besmodium cuspidatum (Muhl.) Loud. ( D . bracteosum) . Steep
rocky oak woods ; a new station. Killbuck, S et al. 27724.

B. nudii! or uni (L.) DC. Open oak woods; scarce. Three more sta¬
tions: Killbuck, S et al. 27725; southwest of Quaker Bridge, S & F
24497; observed east of Vandalia.

B. rotun difolium DC. Open oak woods; infrequent. Two more
stations. Riverside Junction, S et al. 23112; observed southwest of
Quaker Bridge. The specimens of all the species of Besmodium should
be restudied and much more collecting must be done before adequate
statements of range can be made.

Latliyrus ocliroleiieus Hook. Dry woods and banks nearby; prob¬
ably frequent. One-half mile east of Vandalia, E (St. B 3115) ; River¬
side Junction, S & E 25013; observed at Vandalia and Killbuck. Pre¬
viously reported from Carrollton and Butler Run. The abundance of
this species increases westward in the State.

Lespedeza eapitata Mx. Dry fields; frequent. St. Bonaventure, E et
al. (St. B 1688) ; Horseshoe, S et al. 26397, 27762; Cold Spring, Alex¬
ander & House 12796; south of Quaker Bridge, S et al. 24468. Pre¬
viously reported only from Elko.

L. intermedia (S. Wats.) Britton. Open oak woods and thickets;
infrequent. Two new stations: Killbuck, S et al. 27726; Red Pond,
S et al. 23766. The total range of the species of Lespedeza, like that of
the species of Besmodium, covers the State south of the Adirondacks
and outside of the Catskills. They become increasingly scarce at the
higher elevations.

Lupines perennis L. subsp. perennis (Phillips — 1955) . Oak woods
and sandy barrens; rare. A single large clump, east of Riverside
Junction (a new station), S & E 26338. This species has much the same
general range as that of the two genera just mentioned.

Polygala senega L. Edge of oak woods; rare. Opposite Red House,
S & E 24969. Reported from Quaker Bridge. Rather rare in western
New York.

Acalyplia rliomboidea Raf. (A. virginica auct.) . Dry soil; infre¬
quent, as stated. West of Red House, S et al. 24417; observed at Kill-
buck and Quaker Bridge. House considers it frequent or common across
the State.

•* Callitriche palustris L. Moist soil about water; probably over¬
looked. On mud of emptied pond, East Randolph, S et al. 24453. Not
listed by McVaugh (1938).

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

53

Floerkea proserpinacoides Willd. Alluvial woods and seepage
banks; probably frequent in the river valley. Riverside Junction, S & E
25011; Horseshoe, S & E 26379; north of Cold Spring, S & E 24954.
Previously reported only from Red House. The author considers this
to be one of the most commonly overlooked species. It is not uncommon
in central New York. Zenkert considers it infrequent in western New
York and Jennings thinks that it is relatively absent from the northern
part; of the High Plateau.

Rhus typhina Torner (Barkley, 1937). Dry thickets; frequent. Ob¬
served from Allegany to Elko; definitely cited only from Quaker Bridge.
Considered common throughout the State except for Long Island.

R. glabra L. Dry thickets; locally frequent. Observed at several
places from Red House to Elko. Frequent or common throughout most
of the State.

R. vernix L. Bogs; rare. Balsam Swamp, Red House, Riccardo
(St. B 1742); Vecchierello (St. B 1741). Also reported from Mount
Moriah Swamp and the bogs about Steamburg and Randolph. Locally
common throughout the State except for the higher Adirondacks.

Acer nigrum Mx. f. var. nigrum (Fosberg, 1954) . Low woods; not
infrequent. Vandalia, E (St. B 1786) ; Tunungwant Valley, Alexander
(St. B. 1782); Horseshoe, S & E 26381; Killbuck, S & E 26472;
S et al. 27712; Oldtown, S et al. 23794; observed at Riverside Junction.
Reported from “Allegany State Park,” without further designation of
localities. The problem of subspecies has been discussed by Desmerais
(1952), but this investigator agrees with Fosberg (1954) and Clausen
(1949) on the choice of specific name.

Rhamnus alnifolia FHer. Wooded swamps; rare. Mount Moriah
Swamp, E (St. B 1749) . Previously reported only from Red House.
Infrequent in western New York.

Hypericum pyramidatum Ait. ( H . ascyron) . Riverbanks; rare.
Horseshoe, S & E 26375. Previously reported from Elko and a swamp
near Randolph. Rare to infrequent throughout the lowlands of upstate
New York.

* H. canadeiise L. Cultivated fields; rare. Vicinity of Red Pond,
S et al. 23756. This species is common only in the Adirondacks and on
Long Island; it is scarce to rare elsewhere in the State. The only other
record from western New York is an unconfirmed one for Niagara
Falls. Jennings considers it rare; his closest station would be Presque
Isle, Pa.

* H. virginicum L. var. fraseri (Spach) Fern. (Triadenum fraseri )
Swamps and bogs; scarce. Tunungwant Valley, anon. (St. B 1854). Re¬
ported from the bogs about Steamburg as H. virginicum. The specimens
from Allenberg (Owlenburg) Bog are all var. virginicum. Jennings
(1953) allows both varieties to cover the area but with different fre¬
quencies. Gleason (1952) thinks them worthy of specific rank.

* Viola affinis Le Conte. Old fields; rare. Pasture at edge of Mount
Moriah Swamp, S & E 26281. Frequent in western New York; possibly
overlooked in western Pennsylvania.

V. Umbriatula Sm. Old fields; rare. Pasture at edge of Mount
Moriah Swamp, S & E 26282. Reported from the vicinity of Vandalia.
Rather rare in western New York.

54

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

* V. sagittate Ait. Old fields; rare. Vicinity of bogs, north of
Steamburg, S & F 23754; S & Schumacher 24386, 24387. Frequent in
the middle Hudson Valley and on parts of Long Island; rare elsewhere
in the State. Rare or infrequent on the High Plateau to the south.

V. sororia Willd. Alluvial bottom lands; frequent as elsewhere in
the State in such habitats. South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26314; Horse¬
shoe, S et al. 26369, 27746; Elko, S et al. 22691, 22747; observed at
Carrollton and Quaker Bridge, on the islands below Red House and at
Oldtown. Reported as infrequent.

V. striata Ait. Bottom land woods; scarce. Across the river from
St. Bonaventure, Donahue & E (St. B 3135) ; Horseshoe, S & E 26367.
Reported only from Quaker Run. Common in western Pennsylvania;
infrequent in the Niagara Frontier.

Angelica atropurpurea L. var. atropurpurea (A. atropurpurea , p.
p., of Gleason, 1952). Bottom lands; frequent along the river. Observed
at South Vandalia Oxbow, Riverside Junction, Horseshoe, Quaker
Bridge and Oldtown. Previously reported as rare, the only cited sta¬
tions being Cold Spring and Randolph. Relatively common throughout
most of New York.

Heracleum lanatimi Mx. ( H . maximum). Bottom lands; frequent
along the river. Observed at Vandalia, South Vandalia, Horseshoe and
Quaker Bridge. Definitely cited only from Cold Spring. Frequent across
the State.

Osmorrhiza longistylis (Torr.) D. C. Woods and thickets; appar¬
ently rare. Allegany, anon. (St. B 2041). Reported from Quaker Bridge.
Not as common as 0. claytonii (Mx.) Clarke in this State.

Comus alba L. subsp. stolooifera (Mx.) Wangerin (C. stolonifera
— Clausen, 1949). Riverbottom thickets; rare. One-half mile west of
Allegany, E, Sept. 23, 1956 (St. B) ; Quaker Bridge, Fenton 448. Gen¬
erally common, upstate. Jennings suggests that it is not native except
in the glaciated area. Previously reported from the driftbogs around
Randolph.

C. drummondii C. A. Meyer. Bottom land thickets; rare. Cold
Spring, Fenton 11. The only other record for New York State is on the
Cattaraugus Indian Reservation near Gowanda, Erie County, whence it
was reported as C. asperijolia. This may have been brought in by the
Iroquois, who used it in medicine.

Monotropa hypopitliys L. subsp. lanuginosa (Mx.) Breitung (M.
hypopitys and M. hypopithys auct. amer. — Breitung, 1957) . Acid woods;
infrequent. Tenmile Hollow, E (St. B 3198, 3199) ; Riverside Junction,
S et al. 23110; observed east of Vandalia and at Killbuck. Reported as
infrequent; these new stations are all on the northwest corner of the
range.

Vacciniiim corymfeosum L. Wet woods; scarce. St. Bonaventure,
E et al. (St. B 2167) ; Mount Moriah Swamp, S & E 26283. Previously
reported only from the Steamburg Bogs.

V. stammeum L. Dry open woods and old fields; infrequent. St.
Bonaventure, E et al. 2158, 2180; Allegany, anon. (S't. B 2183) ; one
and one-half miles from St. Bonaventure, E & Donahue (St. B 2187) ;
Killbuck, S & E 26470. Earlier stations were all from the west side of
the Park.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

55

* Fraxinus pesmsylvanica Marsh, subsp. pemisylvaiiica (Miller,
1955). Bottom land woods; probably frequent. Carrollton, S & F 23385;
Horseshoe, S & E 26372; west of Red House, S & F 23778; islands
below Red House, S et al. 23590. The specimen from Horseshoe was
downy; all others were nearly glabrous. The glabrate variant was also
observed at Horseshoe. The trees from west of Red House had abundant
fruit; none of the others had either flowers or fruit. All showed the
distinctive epidermal pattern on the dorsal leaflet-surfaces. Frequent in
western New York.

Bartonia virginica (L.) BSP. Acid soil; rare. Gravelly terrace, oak
barrens, north of Onoville, Saunders (St. B 2215). Previously reported
only from the Steamburg Bogs. Infrequent in western New York.

* Apocynum cannabinum L. Gravelbars and poor soil ; infrequent.
St. Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 2232) ; islands below Red House, S et al.
23591.

* A. X medium Greene ( androsaemijolium X cannabinum or sibi-
ricum) . Poor soil; occasional. Allegany, anon. (St. B 2227, 2234);
Carrollton, S & F 23389.

* A« sibiricum Jacq. var. sibiricum. Poor soil; frequent. St. Bona¬
venture, anon. (St. B 2230) ; near Holts Run, Daniels et al. (St. B
2228) ; near Elko, Hicks (St. B 2229) ; Elko, S et al. 22755; observed
at Oldtown. The Hicks and Daniels specimens were both labeled A.
cannabinum and apparently were the vouchers for that species in the
original report. Details of distribution of these Indian hemps in western
New York await more and better collections.

Asclepias quadrifolia Jacq. Open oak woods; rare. Killbuck,
S & E 26469; S et al. 27711. The only earlier report is an old one
from Salamanca. Rare in western New York; frequent in western
Pennsylvania but less common on the High Plateau.

Convolvulus spitbamaeus L. Dry gravelly soil; local. Killbuck,
S & E 26484. Reported only from the vicinity of Red House. Rare in
western New York; not reported from the northern High Plateau in
western Pennsylvania.

Phlox maculata L. subsp. maculata (Wherry, 1951). Roadside
ditches and swales; local. St. Bonaventure, Vecchierello , May 15, 1924;
opposite Red House, S & F, 23072; Red House Valley, Porter (St. B
2340) . Reported only from Quaker Bridge and vicinity. These stations
are on the north edge of the native range. Rare in New York State;
common to the south.

Polemonium reptasis L. Springy woods, thickets, banks; frequent
in the larger valleys. Additional stations are: St. Bonaventure, E et al.
(St. B 2332) ; Allegany, anon. (St. B 2331) ; observed at South Van-
dalia Oxbow, Carrollton, Horseshoe, west of Red House and north of
Elko. Common in the lower Chemung Valley, the Genesee Valley and
the Allegheny drainage in New York State.

Agastache scrophulariifolia (Willd.) Ktze. Edge of bottom land
woods and thickets; rare. Horseshoe, S et al. 27781; Oldtown,
S et al. 23501. Infrequent or rare throughout most of the State. Widely
scattered and infrequent in western Pennsylvania.

Lycopus virgmicus L. Moist places, in shade or open; rare — a
second station. St. Bonaventure, E et al. (St. B 2298) . Reported from

56

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Red House Creek. Infrequent in western New York.

Monarda clinopodia L. Low woods and thickets, moist or dry; in¬
frequent. West of Red House, S et al. 24398; south of Quaker Bridge,
S & F 23243 ; Oldtown, S et al. 23503 ; observed at Killbuck. Reported
from Carrollton, Cold Spring and Quaker Bridge. In New York State
known only from Tioga, Tompkins and Monroe Counties westward.

* Pycnanthemum incanum (L.) Mx. Steep slopes in oak woods;
rare. Killbuck, S et al. 27730. Not infrequent south of Lake Ontario and
the Mohawk River except for the Catskills and extreme western New
York; infrequent on the High Plateau just south.

Teucrium canadense L. (inch varieties and T. occidentale — Mc-
Clintock & Epling, 1946). Habitat as cited; scarce. New stations are:
Horseshoe, S et al. 27780; islands below Red House, S et al. 23611;
near Onoville, Gordon (St. B 2241). Frequent in western New York.

* Che! one glabra L. subsp. elatior (Raf.) Pennell. New to the
State; bottom land woods; rare. Horseshoe, S et al. 21119. This record
is based on two plants growing in a colony of normal subsp. glabra.
They were several inches taller, with corollas entirely rose, externally;
the leaves were thinner with longer petioles and were more incised-
serrate. They were a good match for Jennings’ plate of subsp. elatior
(1953). According to Pennell’s maps and cited specimens (1935), this
is new to New York State, but Fernald (1950) extends the range to
New Hampshire, including his own f. rosea. Pennell does not cite this
latter name in synonymy or the index but refers the type (indicated by
footnote) to subsp. glabra. Fernald emphasizes the thinness of the
leaves. Gleason (1952) points out the overlapping of range of all other
races with the nominal race. Here, at least, there were no intermediates.
The isolating mechanism was not apparent.

Linderma dubia (L.) Pennell ( Ilysanthes dubia) . Gravelbars and
muddy borders of pools; scarce. Horseshoe, S et al. 27777, 27778;
river islands below Red House, S et al. 23610; observed at East Ran¬
dolph. Reported from Fivemile Creek and from near Cold Spring. Rare
in western New York; frequent in western Pennsylvania. The plants
from the mudsites had larger, thinner leaves with more rounded bases
and more prominently toothed margins; they showed no tendency to
reduction of upper leaves. The plants from the gravelbars had thicker
leaves with somewhat narrowed bases and these were nearly entire; the
older plants showed signs of reduction of the upper leaves. All the
specimens had pedicels varying from 5-12 mm. in length. Controlled
plantings of this species might serve to clarify the worth of the sub¬
species or varieties which are distinguished.

* Melainpyrum lineare Desr. var. latifolium Bart. Open oak
woods; rare. Riverside Junction, S & F 23114. This is good material
of the variety. Most of the plants from this region, which would be
placed under subsp. latifolium (Muhl.) Soo by Pennell (1935), are
referable to var. americanum (Mx.) Beauverd. It is interesting that the
range of var. americanum strongly overlaps that of the other races
( Gleason, 1952 ) .

Veronica scutellata L. Marshes; infrequent. Vicinity of Limestone,
S & F 23153; S et al. 23524; South Vandalia Oxbow, S & E 26322;
Pickup’s Pond, Randolph, Porter et al. (St. B 2396) ; near Onoville,

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

57

Gordon (St. B 2395) ; observed at Carrollton. Definitely cited only from
vicinity of Cold Spring and Quaker Bridge. Infrequent in western New
York.

Utrieularia vulgaris L. subsp. macrorrhiza (Le Conte) Clausen
(U. macrorrhiza; U. vulgaris auct. amer. — Clausen, 1949). Oxbows;
rare. South Vandalia, S & E 26323. Reported from the Tunungwant
Valley. Common in the watershed (McVaugh, 1938), but cited spe¬
cifically only from the lakes.

Piiryma leptostadhya L. Open oak woods; rare, but possibly over¬
looked. Killbuck, S et al. 27728. Probably frequent outside of the
mountains. Reported from the vicinity of Limestone and of Randolph.

Cephalantlius oecidentalis L. Oxbows along the river; local. Ob¬
served at South Vandalia, Vandalia and Horseshoe. Reported only from
Allegany and Randolph. Frequent in western New York.

* Galium pilosum Ait. subsp pilosmn (Stone — 1911). Open oak
woods; rare. Riverside Junction, S et al. 23107. This species is local in
the State and rather rare in western New York. Apparently rare in
northwestern Pennsylvania.

LoJiicera dioica L. var. dioica. Open woods; rare. St. Bonaventure,
E et al. (St. B 2481). Otherwise known only from the benches opposite
Red House. Frequent in western New York.

* L. sempervireus L. Woods; rare. Elko Mountain, Gordon et al.
(St. B 2476) (as L. dioica ). Several scattered stations about the Alle¬
gheny Plateau; more frequent on Long Island. Jennings cites it as rare
and suggests it is an escape.

Triosteum perfoliatum L. var. aurantiacum (Bickn.) Wieg.
(T. perfoliatum auct., p. p.; T. aurantiacum). Open oak woods and
bottom land thickets; more frequent than indicated. Carrollton, S & F
23386; Horseshoe, S & E 26373; Killbuck, S & E 26467; S et al.
27709; west of Red House, 5 et al. 24416; Elko, S et al. 22750; ob¬
served at Riverside Junction and opposite Red House. Reported from
St. Bonaventure, Quaker Run and Peters Run. Infrequent in western
New York.

Viburnum opulus L. subsp. trilobum (Marsh.) Clausen ( V . opu-
lus auct.; V. trilobum; V. opulus var. americanum — Clausen, 1949).
Bottom land woods; two more stations. Carrollton, S & F 23396; Horse¬
shoe, S et al. 23469. Infrequent in western New York. The specimens
found by this investigator were near the sites of longhouses. It is pos¬
sible the species was planted by the Iroquois.

Aster lowrieanus Porter. Open oak woods; local. Killbuck, S et al.
27720. Reported only from near Red House and as frequent in the park
(Knobloch, 1937). Rare (?) in western New York, but common in
western Pennsylvania.

A. novae-angliae L. Bottom lands; rare as stated. Observed at
Horseshoe and Vandalia. No stations were cited, previously. Common
in most of the lowlands of the State; common in western Pennsylvania.
Its rarity in this valley is unexplainable at present.

A. paternus Cronquist ( Sericocarpus asteroides) . Open oak woods,
etc.; infrequent. Observed at a new station upriver from the others;
Killbuck. Rare in western New York; common in the uplands of
western Pennsylvania.

58

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

A. sagittifolius Wedem. Dry old fields and open woods; frequent
near the River. Killbuck, 5 et al. 27719; west of Red House, S & F
24425; Cold Spring, S et al. 22672; observed at Horseshoe. Previously
reported only from Sunfish Run, near Red House and the vicinity of
Elko (Knobloch, 1937, inter aliis) . Common in western New York.

■* Bidens comosa (Gray) Wieg. (incl. in B. tripartita by Cronquist
— Gleason, 1952). Mucky places along the river; rare. Horseshoe,
S et al. 27752. Frequent in western New York.

B. vulgata Greene. In similar habitats; infrequent. Two more sta¬
tions, upriver. Killbuck, S et al. 27714; observed at Horseshoe. Fre¬
quent in western New York.

Cacalia suaveolens L. Bottom land woods; scarce. Horseshoe,
S & E 26384; river islands below Red House, S et al. 23602, 23716;
between Quaker Bridge and Cold Spring, Alexander , August 25, 1927 ;
south of Quaker Bridge, Saunders (St. B 2776). Rare according to
Zenkert, who considers it adventive; not common in western Pennsyl¬
vania.

* Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng. Fields and thickets near the
river; frequent as in other large valleys of the State. North of Cold
Spring, S et al. 23786; Elko, S et al. 22761; near Allegheny River, Alle¬
gany State Park, Wagner (St. B 2790) ; observed at Horseshoe, west of
Red House, south of Steamburg and at Oldtown. The Wagner specimen
was labeled C. lanceolatum.

* C. pumilum (Nutt.) Spreng. (C. odoratum) . Old fields; scarce.
Red House Lake, S et al. 23715; near bogs north of Steamburg, S et al.
23761; observed at Oldtown. Originally reported from Quaker Run,
but this record was deleted later. Possibly new to western New York,
the only earlier record being doubtful (Zenkert, 1934) .

* Erigeron plailadelphicus L. Fields and waste places; rare (?)
Allegany, anon. (St. B 2710). Frequent in most parts of the State,
outside the mountains; infrequent on the High Plateau.

E. pulchellus Mx. Open oak woods; scarce. Killbuck, S et al.
26474; observed opposite Red House. Reported from “Allegany State
Park” and St. Bonaventure. Jennings says: “avoiding the High Plateau.”

Eupatorium fastulosum Barratt (E. purpureum auct., p. p.) . Low
grounds; rare. Quaker Bridge, Alexander , August 26, 1926; near Kents
Corners, Fenton 102; observed north of Quaker Bridge. This should be
the E. purpureum sensu Wiegand of the House and Alexander flora, but
not all the specimens so named belong here. This striking species is
certainly local; Jennings, who has made a special study of the complex,
found no specimens from southwestern New York. E. maculatum L.
and true E. purpureum L. ( E . falcatum Mx.) are about equally common
in the valley.

Heleniunm autiinmale L. Riverbanks; frequent as elsewhere in the
State, outside of the mountains. Several collections and observations
were made.

Heliafitlms decapetalus L. Low grounds; frequent along the river
and elsewhere. Cold Spring, S et al. 22671; north of Elko, S et al.
22698; one mile south of Steamburg, E & Donahue (St. B 3217) ; ob¬
served at mouth of Tenmile Creek and at Florseshoe. Reported only
from near Elko Frequent in western New York.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

59

Hieracium vetiosum L. Open oak woods and banks nearby; not
infrequent. New stations east of the park are: one and one-half miles
north of St. Bonaventure, E & Donahue (St. B 2815) ; five miles west
of Allegany, E (St. B 2813) ; Riverside Junction, S et al. 23111; ob¬
served east of Allegany. Infrequent in western New York.

Lactuca hirsuta Muhl. Thickets on site of cutover oak woods; rare.
Near Red House, Alexander & House 12893 (as L. canadensis). The
specimens belong to f. calvifolia Fern. (if. calvescens — Fernald, 1920).
The species is rare and local in the State as in Pennsylvania. Jennings
cites var. hirsuta without definite station from “Allegany Park.”

Prenanthes altissima L. Woods; more frequent than indicated. St.
Bonaventure, E. H. Donahue (St. B 2809) ; Horseshoe, S et al. 27758;
west of Red House, S et al. 24429; observed near Salamanca Rock City.
Apparently common in western New York and western Pennsylvania.

* P. crepidinea Mx. Thickets in bottom lands; rare. South Vandalia
Oxbow, S & E 26316; Horseshoe, S et al. 26391, 27759. The only pre¬
vious reports for this State were for Buffalo, where the most recent date
of collection known to the author is 1844. Rare in western Pennsylvania.
The stations are apparently slightly east of any previously recorded.
Both localities are on sites of Indian villages and one wonders if the
species were introduced by them.

Senecio obovatus Muhl. Open woods; rare. Killbuck, S & E 26473.
Although reported as infrequent by House and Alexander, they cite it
only from Quaker Run. A third station is known, slightly to the north¬
east. The species is rare in this State outside of the counties bordering
the Hudson. Avoiding the High Plateau, according to Jennings.

Solidago canadensis L. Low woods and thickets near the river;
frequent. West of Red House, S et al. 24423; observed at Horseshoe
and Salamanca Rock City. Reported only from Gardner’s Rocks. Com¬
mon in western New York.

S. patnla Muhl. Bogs, swamps and springy places in woods; frequent.
Carrollton, S & F 23397; Killbuck, S et al. 27716; near Onoville,
Gordon (St. B 2592) ; observed in Mount Moriah Swamp, at Riverside
Junction, about the bogs north of Steamburg and on the south side of
Conewango. Previously considered rare and reported only from Sunfish
Run. Frequent in western New York.

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Phillips, L. L.

1955. A revision of the perennial species of Lupinus of North America. Res.
Stud. State Coll. Wash. 23:161-201

Piper, C. V.

1906. Flora of the State of Washington. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 11:1-637
Polil, R. W.

1947. A taxonomic study on the grasses of Pennsylvania. Am. Midi. Nat., 38:
513-604

Rechinger, K. H., Jr.

1937. The North American species of Rumex. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ.
(Bot. Ser.) 17:1-151

Samuellson, G.

1932. Die Arten der Gattung Alisma L. Ark. Bot. 24A. (7) : 1-46
Sauer, J.

1955. Revision of the dioecious amaranths. Madrono', 13:5-46

Skinners, L. H.

1956. Illegitimacy of the name Sorghum vulgare Persoon (Gramineae). Baileya,
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SImmovich, W. & Montgomery, F. H.

1955. The perennial soav thistles in northeastern North America. Canad. Jour.
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Smith, S. J.

1945. Contributions to the flora of central New York — I. N.Y. State Mus. Bull.
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Steyermark, J. A. & Schmoll, H. M.

1939. Panicum tuckermani a variety of Panicum philadelphicum. Rhodora,
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1950. Nomenclatural changes in Bromus. Rhodora, 52:209-215
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Wherry, E. T.

1947. A key to the eastern North American lilies. Bartonia, 24:5-8

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An Ecological Survey of
Amphibians, Reptiles, and
Mammals of Allegany Indian
Reservation and Vicinity

BY

MARGARET M. STEWART*

Museum Expert

New York State Museum and Science Service

During July and August 1957, a zoological survey was conducted in
the Allegheny River Valley, Cattaraugus County. The purpose of the
survey was to determine species of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals
(primarily small mammals) present in the Allegany Indian Reservation,
to check various ecological relationships of these species and to estimate
probable effects of flooding on these forms. Birds and fish were not con¬
sidered in detail since they have been studied by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Stream Survey and ornithologists working in the area (Caha-
lane, 1928; Eaton, E. H., 1910, 1914; Eaton, S. W., 1953; Saunders,
1923, 1925, 1936, 1938, 1942).

The project, under the sponsorship of the New York State Museum
and Science Service, was carried out by Dr. Margaret Stewart, and
assistants Gary Larson and Thomas Watthews. It was completed during
the period from July 5-August 28.

A series of areas representing a variety of habitats were chosen for
study. Thirty-eight such areas were examined. Many were checked
repeatedly over a period of time, especially those in which traplines
were set. The majority of study sites were located in the area extending
from State Line Road, less than one-quarter mile from the Pennsyl¬
vania border on the west side of Allegany State Park, to Red House
Station. Several localities outside the area of possible impoundment
were examined in order to check for differences in populations and
possible habitats for forms which would be forced out of the bottom
lands. All reference points correspond to the 1943 U.S.G.S. topographic
sheets of Salamanca and Randolph quadrangles.

* Associate professor of biology, State University College of Education at Albany.

63

64

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

The presence and numbers of large mammals were estimated by
chance sight, tracks, scats and markings left by the animals. Small
mammals were considered more in detail since less work has been done
on them in this region. They were taken in traplines or grids of small
and large snaptraps baited with a mixture of oatmeal and peanut
butter. Measurements and weights, data on reproductive activity, as
well as habitat notes, were taken on all small mammals collected, and
a representative series of skins was prepared. Complete data sheets
and skins have been deposited in the zoology office of the New York
State Museum. Ectoparasites were preserved and identified by a
specialist. Results are given in table IV. Snakes and salamanders were
obtained by turning over rocks, logs and debris in appropriate habitats.
Turtles and frogs were taken by surprise with a large dip net or by
hand. Only representative samples of each species seen were taken.
Most observations were made and data recorded in the field, thereby
allowing the animals to remain in their habitats.

Vegetation on the reservation consists primarily of second growth
deciduous forests — oak, hickory, beech, birch, maple, hemlock — in the
higher woodlands. Along the river there is a border of silver maple,
sycamore, and willow interspersed with various other less common
species and shrubs. Much of the reservation is either cultivated or
abandoned farmland. Abandoned fields are overgrown with weeds,
primarily asters and goldenrod, bracken, shrubs, or thickets of oak, wild
cherry, sumac and aspen. Detailed information on the vegetation of the
region is available in previous museum publications (Gordon, et al.,
1937; House and Alexander, 1927; Taylor, 1928).

Shale-covered slopes along roadsides and streams afforded excellent
hiding places for snakes. Many small streams, with rubble and shale-
covered bottom yielded several species of salamanders. Dry weather,
especially during the latter part of the summer, was responsible for
the drying of many streams, or “runs,” and probably accounted for
the difficulty in finding some species which were expected but not seen.

Scientific names of reptiles and amphibians are in accordance with
Schmidt (1953) and common names follow those used by the Com¬
mittee on Herpetological Common Names (1956). Latinized names of
mammals follow Miller and Kellogg (1955) ; common names are those
used by Hamilton (1943) . Identifications of all animals were made with
the aid of appropriate handbooks (see list of references) . Where the
subspecies of mammals could not be determined without a taxonomic
study of a larger series of animals, subspecific names were omitted.

Species seen or taken during the summer are listed. Several animals
are known to be present in the area from previous investigations but
were not taken during the summer. These are included in a separate
listing, with the source of information indicated.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

65

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The help and information contributed by many of the Allegany State
Park staff and local inhabitants were greatly appreciated. Some of
these were Charles Jahn, Oscar Nephew, Alden Wright, John Hohman,
Mrs. John Hohman and Harry Kilburn. Hugh Black contributed some
information on the bear population. Drs. William J. Hamilton, Jr.,
Edward C. Raney, Ralph S. Palmer, Edgar M. Reilly, Jr., Victor H.
Cahalane and Stanley J. Smith have been especially helpful in con¬
tributing information and advice.

Special thanks are due Dr. Allen H. Benton for his identification of
fleas collected from small mammals.

LIST OF SPECIES TAKEN OR SEEN

Class Amphibia

Salamanders — Order Caudata

Necturus maculosus maculosus Rafinesque — Mudpuppy
Diemictylus viridescens viridescens Rafinesque — Red-spotted
Newt, Red Eft

Desmognathus fuscus fuscus Rafinesque — Northern Dusky Sala¬
mander

Desmognathus ochrophaeus ochrophaeus Cope — Allegheny Moun¬
tain Salamander

Plethodon cinereus cinereus Green — Red-backed Salamander
Plethodon glutinosus glutinosus Green — Slimy Salamander
Plethodon wehrlei Fowler and Dunn — Wehrle s Salamander
H emidactylium scutatum Schlegel — Four-toed Salamander
Gyrinophilus porphyriticus Green — Northern Spring Salamander
Eurycea bislineata bislineata Green — Northern Two-lined Sala¬
mander

Frogs and Toads — Order Salientia

Bufo terrestris americanus Holbrook — American Toad

Hyla crucifer crucifer Wied — Northern Spring Peeper

Rana catesbeiana Shaw — Bullfrog

Rana clamitans Latreille — Green Frog

Rana sylvatica sylvatica Le Conte — Eastern Wood Frog

Rana pipiens pipiens Schreber — Northern Leopard Frog

Rana palustris Le Conte — Pickerel Frog

Class Reptilia

Turtles — Order Chelonia

Chelydra serpentina serpentina Linneaus — Common Snapping
Turtle

Chrysemys picta marginata Agassiz — Midland Painted Turtle
Trionyx ferox spiniferta LeSueur — Eastern Spiny Soft-shell
Lizards — Order Sauria

Eumeces anthrocinus anthrocinus Baird — Northern Coal Skink

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Snakes — Order Serpentes

Natrix sipedon sipedon Linnaeus — Northern Water Snake
Storeria dekayi dekayi Holbrook — Northern Brown Snake
Storeria occipitomaculata occipitomaculata Storer — Northern
Red-bellied Snake

Thamnophis br achy stoma Cope — Short-headed Garter Snake
Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis Linnaeus — Eastern Garter Snake
Diadophis punctatus edwardsi Merrem — Northern Ring-necked
Snake

Opheodrys vernalis vernalis Harlan — Eastern Smooth Green
Snake

Lampropeltis doliata triangulum Lacepede — Eastern Milk Snake
Crotalus horridus horridus Linnaeus — Timber Rattlesnake

Class Mammalia

Order Marsupialia

Didelphis marsupialis virginiana Kerr — Opossum
Order Insectivora

Sorex cinereus cinereus Kerr — Common Shrew
Sorex fumeus fumeus Miller — Smoky Shrew
Blarina brevicauda Say — Short-tailed Shrew
Order Chiroptera

My otis lucifugus lucifugus LeConte — Little Brown Bat
Pipistrellus subflavus ob scurus Miller — Pipistrelle
Order Lagomorpha

Sylvilagus floridanus Allen — Eastern Cottontail
Order Rodentia

Marmota monax rufescens Howell — Rufescent Woodchuck
Tarnias striatus lysteri Richardson — Northeastern Chipmunk
Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus Ord — Northern Gray
Squirrel

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus loquox Bangs — Southern Red Squirrel
Castor canadensis Kuhl — Beaver
Peromyscus maniculatus — Deer Mouse

Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis Fischer — Northern White¬
footed Mouse

Synaptomys cooperi cooperi Baird — Cooper’s Lemming Mouse
Clethrionomys gapperi Vigors — Red-backed Mouse
Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus Ord — Field Mouse
Ondatra zibethicus zibethicus Linnaeus — Common Muskrat
Zapus hudsonius hardyi Batchelder — Meadow Jumping Mouse
Napaeozapus insignis insignis Miller — Woodland Jumping Mouse
Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum Linnaeus — Porcupine
Order Carnivora

Vulpes fulva fulva Desmarest — Red Fox

Euarctos americanus americanus Pallas — American Black Bear
Procyon lotor lotor Linnaeus — Eastern Raccoon
Mephitis mephitis nigra Peale and Palisot de Beauvois — Eastern
Skunk

Order Artiodactyla

Odocoileus virginianus borealis Miller — Northern Virginia Deer

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

67

SPECIES REPORTED PREVIOUSLY
FROM THE AREA;

NOT TAKEN DURING PRESENT SURVEY

Amphibians

Cryptobranchus alleganiensis Daudin — Hellbender (Bishop,
1927; 1941)

Amby stoma jeffersonianum Green — Jefferson Salamander
(Bishop, 1927; 1941)

Ambystoma maculatum Shaw — Spotted Salamander (Bishop,
1927; 1941)

Pseudotriton ruber ruber Sonnini — Northern Red Salamander
(Bishop, 1927)

Hyla versicolor versicolor LeConte — Eastern Gray Treefrog
(Bishop, 1927)

Reptiles

Stenotherus odoratus Latreille — Stinkpot (Bishop, 1927)
Clemmys guttata Schneider — Spotted Turtle (Bishop, 1927)
Clemmys insculpta LeConte — Wood Turtle (Bishop, 1927)
Thamnophis sauritus Linnaeus — Ribbon Snake (Bishop, 1927)
Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta Say — Black Rat Snake (Bishop, 1927)

Mammals

Sorex palustris albibarbis Cope — White-lipped Water Shrew
(Eaton, 1945)

Parascalops breweri Bachman — Hairy-tailed Mole (Knobloch,

1943)

Condylura cristata cristata Linnaeus — Star-nosed Mole (Knob¬
loch, 1943)

Lepus americanus Erxleben — Varying Hare (Knobloch, 1944)
Sylvilagus transitionalis Bangs — New England Cottontail
(Knobloch, 1944)

Glaucomys volans volans Linnaeus — Small Eastern Flying
Squirrel (Knobloch, 1944)

Glaucomys sabrinus sabrinus Shaw — Northern Flying Squirrel
(Knobloch, 1944)

Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout — Norway Rat (Knobloch, 1944)
Mus musculus domesticus Rutty — House Mouse (Knobloch,

1944)

Urocyon cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus Schreber — Gray Fox
(Knobloch, 1944)

Mustela erminea cicognanii Bonaparte— Bonaparte’s Weasel
(Knobloch, 1944)

Mustela frenata noveboracensis Emmons — New York Weasel
(Knobloch, 1944)

Mustela vison mink Peale and Palisot de Beauvois — Southeastern
Mink (Knobloch, 1944)

Lynx rufus rufus Schreber — Bobcat (Knobloch, 1944)

68

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

SPECIES TAKEN NOT PREVIOUSLY
REPORTED FROM THE AREA

H emidactylium scutatum Schlegel — Four-toed Salamander
Eumeces anthrocinus anthrocinus Baird — Coal Skink
Trionyx ferox spinifera LeSueur — Eastern Spiny Soft-shell
Pipistrellus subflavus ob scurus Miller — Pipistrelle

SPECIES ACCOUNTS OF AMPHIBIANS
AND REPTILES

An annotated list of the observed species follows. Remarks of general
abundance, as indicated by observations during the field studies, and
special observations of interest are included. The list of “associated
species” includes other vertebrates which were found within the imme¬
diate vicinity of the species under consideration. One kind of inverte¬
brate was found in numbers large enough to warrant mention. Crayfish
were extremely abundant in the Allegheny River and all its tributaries.
They were the most abundant group observed in these aquatic habitats.
Although they are not mentioned in each account, they might well
influence the amount of food available for most of the aquatic verte¬
brates and might even prey upon some of them, especially in the larval
stages.

A list of collection sites for all species with details of the habitats
and dates of collections is given in table I. The corresponding name or
number of each site is used when mentioned subsequently.

MUDPUPPY

This handsome salamander was found in three localities, all near the
mouth of some tributary of the Allegheny River — Quaker Run, Wolf
Run and Sawmill Run. Eleven nesting adults, presumably females, were
found July 10 in Quaker Run in a 200-yard stretch above the railroad
bridge crossing. This is the area described as a suitable habitat by
Bishop (1927). Eggs were attached to the lower surface of large flat
rocks, in water up to two and one-half feet deep. Adults were guarding
10 of the nests. Eggs varied in number from 25 to 150, the usual com¬
plement numbering about 100. Eggs were three-fourths inch in diameter,
and larvae were in the hind limb bud stage. The same area was ex¬
amined August 28. One adult was seen; it was under a large flat rock
in one foot of water. A few egg membranes were still attached to the
nest rocks; no larvae were seen, but the water was extremely turbid
due to recent rain.

Nests were also found in Wolf Run (one nest 400 yards upstream
from mouth; adult attending about 100 eggs) and Sawmill Run. There,
four nests were found 200-300 yards from the mouth of the run. Three
of the nests (under large slabs of rocks in six to eight inches of water)
were attended by adults. When such a nest site was lifted and the adult

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

69

exposed, the mud puppy made no effort to escape unless disturbance was
continued. Instead, it nestled closer to the rock. All movements were
slow unless the animal was actually touched continually for several
minutes. Then it would swim away very rapidly several yards from the
rock. When all was again quiet, it would return slowly but directly to
the rock.

Records:

July 10, Quaker Run, above railroad bridge, Wolf Run Road, 11
nests with adults in attendance.

July 11, Wolf Run, 400 yards from mouth in pool in wide area of
creek, 1 nest with adult attending.

July 16, Sawmill Run, 4 nests with adults attending, 1 carcass in
creek.

Aug. 28, Quaker Run, 1 adult, with swollen vent, under rock in 1 y2-
foot of water about mile below nesting area.

RED-SPOTTED NEWT; RED EFT

This species was seen more often in the terrestrial stage than as
aquatic adults. Adults, however, were common in pools and backwaters
along Sawmill Run, State Line Run and Red House Lake. Efts were
seen in great abundance August 29 after three rainy days. They were
apparently migrating to the water at this time. About 20 large individ¬
uals were seen in about 200 yards crossing A.S.P. No. 2 on 'the
northeast side of Red House Lake. Numbers were less concentrated
in adjacent areas. On the same day, many were seen crossing Route 17,
west of Glean, in a wooded area. Except for this observation, efts were
solitary or seen in small numbers. Three large bright ones were encoun¬
tered around the same stump on the mixed hardwood slope by State
Line Road.

Associated species :

Green frog

Records:

July 8, State Line Road, 3 red efts in woods— -adults common in pools.

July 10, Quaker Run, Wolf Run Road, 1 red eft in woods.

July 11, Wolf Run, 1 red eft on hemlock slope.

July 16, Sawmill Run, adults common in pools and backwaters of
stream.

Aug. 23, State Line Road, red eft in road ditch.

Aug. 29, Red House Lake, red efts abundant crossing highway.

NORTHERN DUSKY SALAMANDER

This is one of the most common salamanders in the area. They are
less common, however, than their near relative, the mountain sala¬
mander, which was almost ubiquitous. Individuals showed a great deal
of variation in color and pattern. Some were very dark with faint
mottling, while others were light with pronounced pattern, even in
large adults. One large male taken in State Line Run was very similar
in appearance to the seal -salamander, Desmognathus pkoca .

70

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Associated species:

Mountain salamander

Two-lined salamander

Spring salamander

Records:

July 8, State Line Run, 1 subadult, 5 adult males taken, 2 resembling
D. pkoca.

July 11, Wolf Run, 2 adults by edge of run.

July 16, Sawmill Run, all sizes common along creek.

July 17, State Line Run, along dry stony run by logging road on
north side of road.

July 22, Quaker Run, Blacksnake Mountain by Science Lake, several
along run and in draws on slope above lake.

July 29, Bone Run, 7 large adults taken, smaller ones common.

July 30, Bone Run, all sizes abundant, 6 (41/^-inch) males, 1 large
female taken, others smaller to one-year size.

Aug. 7, Quaker Run, near Friends Indian School, shaded hemlock
and shale ravine, 3 large males.

Aug. 25, Bear Springs, several in small stream.

ALLEGHENY MOUNTAIN SALAMANDER

This was the most common salamander observed in the area. It could
be found under rocks in almost any damp woods either very near the
water or within 100-200 yards of a source of moisture. This does not
mean that they were restricted to such a situation, but they were less
common at greater distances from water. They were never found in an
area which was not wooded or where shade was not abundant. Along
the stream banks, they were frequently in company with the two-lined
and dusky salamanders, and in drier situations were sometimes taken
under the same rock as the red-backed salamander or Wehrle’s sala¬
mander. The species was abundant along State Line Run and Bone
Run where individuals showed much variation in color and pattern. In
the park they were even more abundant than on the reservation; this
was probably due to more abundant moisture in the dense woods.
Associated species:

Dusky salamander
Two-lined salamander
Red-backed salamander
Wehrle’s salamander
Slimy salamander
Pickerel frog
Records:

July 8, State Line Run, common along run and small tributaries.

July 10, Quaker Run, near railroad bridge, 10 adults in a 25-yard
transect on wooded slope.

July 11, Wolf Run, 2 adults under rocks at edge of run.

July 16, Sawmill Run, several along draws and creek.

July 17, State Line Road, abundant in bed of dry stony tributary
near logging road.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

71

July 22, Blacksnake Mountain, all sizes abundant, almost every rock
or log harbored one or more individuals.

July 28, Bear Cave slope, common under rocks along draw.

July 29, Bone Run, off Little Bone Run Road, all sizes common.

July 30, Bone Run, 5 adults (3 females, 2 males) taken which show
much variety of color pattern.

Aug. 6, Quaker Run, McCabe trail, common in woods with red-backed
salamander.

Aug. 25, Bear Springs, common along streams.

RED-BACKED SALAMANDER

This species was encountered in the same type of habitat as the moun¬
tain salamander, but not in such abundance in most areas. On August
6, two nests of 8-10 eggs, each guarded by the adult, were found under
embedded flat rocks in the woods just south of McCabe Trail. This was
the only species of salamander seen in the sphagnum Bear Bog in the
park.

Associated species :

Mountain salamander

Wehrle’s salamander

Records:

July 8, State Line Run, several by small tributaries.

July 9, Sphagnum Bear Bog, 8 adults, 4 subadults in and under
rotten logs and bark, bog wet.

July 10, Quaker Run, near railroad bridge, 7 adults on wooded slope.

July 22, Blacksnake Mountain, common on wooded slope.

July 28, Bear Caves, few adults under rocks on wooded slope.

Aug. 6, Quaker Run, McCabe Trail, 2 nests under rocks in woods.

Aug. 25, Bear Springs, common under rocks and logs.

SLIMY SALAMANDER

This is one of the more handsome salamanders of the area, but it is
seldom encountered. Only six individuals were seen during the summer.
As the records show, it is not restricted to moist situations.

Associated species:

Red-backed salamander

Records:

July 11, Elko Mountain, 1 6-inch adult under shale slab on railroad
cut, in the sun; 2^/2-inch subadult under bark of rotten stump on
hemlock slope.

July 20, English Creek, 1 subadult under rock in woods.

July 26, Gypsy Trail, under large slab in cabin yard, in the sun.

July 28, Bear Caves slope, adult under rock by moist draw.

July 30, Bone Run, large adult under slab on south-facing wooded
slope.

72

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

WEHRLE’S SALAMANDER

This is one of the very rare salamanders of New York. Allegany
State Park is one of the few areas in which it has been found. It was
seen in 1957 at the same site where it was first discovered in 'the State
30 years ago. Five adults were seen on the slope of Blacksnake Moun¬
tain above the powerline cut south of Science Lake. All were under
partially embedded large rocks (at least one foot in diameter). The
slope was quite dry since there had been little rain recently. They
moved very slowly when captured.

A ssociated species :

Red-backed salamander

Mountain salamander

Record:

July 22. Blacksnake Mountain, 2 adult males (4%-inch, 5-inch) and 3
adult females (3%-inch; 3^-inch; 4%-inch) .

FOUR-TOED SALAMANDER

Although this species has never been discovered in the reservation or
in the park, it might be expected to occur in Bear Bog and the Fir Tree
Swamp, two known sphagnum-covered areas in the park. It was dis¬
covered at Keith’s Bog, near Steamburg. One adult was taken from
under a piece of old tar paper on a dry sunny blueberry slope over¬
looking the almost dry bog.

A ssociated species :

Common garter snake
Short-headed garter snake
Ring-necked snake
Red-bellied snake
Record:

July 26, Keith’s Bog, 1 adult.

SPRING SALAMANDER

This aquatic species was not observed in large numbers but was seen
in widely scattered areas. It was not always in wooded areas. A small
larva was taken in an open meadow-bordered section of State Line Run,
another in a tiny exposed rocky stream flowing out of an oak-hickory
slope at Bradford Junction. They were more common at Bear Springs,
a cold spring-fed brook, than anywhere else.

A ssociated species :

Dusky salamander

Mountain salamander

Two-lined salamander

Records:

July 8, State Line Run, 1 2-inch larva.

July 9, Bradford Junction, 1 2-inch larva.

July 11, Wolf Run, 1 small larva.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

73

Aug. 4, Quaker Run, McCabe Trail, 2 adults (4%"inch, 5%-inch),
2 larvae (3%-inch, 41/£-inch) .

Aug. 6, same locality, 1 adult (51^*inch) , 4 larvae (2-inch, 4-inch).
Aug. 25, Bear Springs, 1 adult (7-inch), transforming larva (4-inch),
6 larvae (2-31/^-inch) .

Aug. 26, same locality, 3 large larvae.

TWO-LINED SALAMANDER

The only sites where this species was found in abundance were in
Sawmill Run, below the bridge near Onoville and in the north fork of
Bone Run. Adults of this species are often difficult to find during the
summer months, but, if they are present in an area, larvae are easily
detected under stones in shallow water. Although more common in
shaded areas, this species is not restricted to wooded sites.

Associated species:

Dusky salamander
Mountain salamander
Spring salamander
Records:

July 8, State Line Run, 1 subadult in transformation, 1 two-year larva.
July 16, Sawmill Run, 7 adults, 10 transforming subadults, and 6
two-year larvae in 25 yards of streambed.

July 23, Meetinghouse Run, near Red House, several two-year larvae
under rocks in shallow, partially shaded portions of small stream.
July 29, Bone Run, north fork, off Little Bone Run Road, all sizes
from young of the year to large adults in stream and on slope.
July 30, Bone Run, north fork, 6 large adults (3 over 4 inches), 2
recently transformed subadults, in wooded area.

Aug. 25, Bear Springs, 1 adult female.

Aug. 29, Quaker Run, near mouth, 2 large adult females under rocks
at edge of creek.

AMERICAN TOAD

These were seen in several localities, and are apparently one of the
more common anurans seen during the summer months. Sizes ranged
from recently transformed individuals common along streams and ponds
to large adults three and one-half inches in body length.

Associated species:

Newt

Leopard frog

Pickerel frog

Records:

July 8, State Line Run, adult on anthill by stream.

July 9, Bradford Junction, adult under shale slab, exposed on sunny
dry slope.

July 10, Quaker Run, Wolf Run Road, adult under rock by creek.

July 16, Sawmill Run, small adults under rocks by stream.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

July 22, Science Lake, 1 recently transformed individual by lake.

Aug. 6, large island in river near Quaker Bridge, adult female (3 y2
inches) in grass.

Aug. 7, small clearing on A.S.P. No. 1, adult female (31^-inch) in
wet grass.

Aug. 13, 14, gravel pit, small recently transformed individuals around
edge of water.

NORTHERN SPRING PEEPER

These tiny frogs were seen only once during the summer, but were
heard singing (singly, rather than in chorus) at three different sites.

Records:

July 19, Tunungwant Swamp, recently transformed individuals in
large numbers on leaves of weeds and sedges in open sun.

Aug. 13, 14, gravel pit, heard singing in woods in the sunny morning.

Aug. 24, woods by Stoddard Creek 1 mile south of Red House Lake,
heard singing at dusk.

Aug. 25, Twin Springs, A.S.P., heard singing at dusk after misty
afternoon.

BULLFROG

The only previous record of this frog was from the Tunungwant
Swamp (Bishop, 1927). Although seen several times on the reservation,
it was never observed in the park during the present study.

A ssociated species :

American toad
Leopard frog
Green frog
Records:

July 11, Wolf Run, large adult between rocks under railroad bridge.
July 16, Sawmill Run, 2 large tadpoles with hind legs, in pool near
road.

July 23, gaging station, a half-eaten carcass near the water; adult by
river.

Aug. 13, 14, gravel pit, by edge of pond.

GREEN FROG

This is the frog most commonly seen in the study area.

Associated species:

Newt

Leopard frog
Bullfrog
Wood frog
Records:

July 8, State Line Run, transforming tadpoles, in pools by run.

July 16, Sawmill Run, 1 tadpole, hind legs, 1 recently transformed
individual.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

75

July 19, Tunungwant Swamp, common along creek: adults and tad¬
poles.

July 25, Keith’s Bog, large adult male in meadow.

July 29, North fork, Bone Run, all sizes abundant along stream and in
meadow.

Aug. 9, Balsam Fir Swamp, 1 adult taken in snaptrap by little pool.
Aug. 13, 14, gravel pit, several small adults in muddy road ruts.

WOOD FROG

The wood frog is not often seen during the summer months. Only
three adults were seen during the entire study; one of these was taken
in a snaptrap.

Associated species:

Newt

Mountain salamander
Dusky salamander
Leopard frog
Records:

July 8, State Line Road, transforming individuals in pools by run.
July 30, Bone Run Road, adult caught in snaptrap in old orchard.
Aug. 4, McCabe Trail, 1 adult in woods.

Aug. 7, Quaker Run rental office, adult in window well.

NORTHERN LEOPARD FROG

Although Bishop (1927) found this to be one of the most common
frogs in the area, it was rarely seen during this study.

Associated species:

Dusky salamander
Mountain salamander
Green frog
Wood frog
Pickerel frog
Records:

July 22, Science Lake, 2 small adults by lake.

July 23, Keith’s Bog, small adult in little swale.

July 30, Bone Run, 1 adult.

Aug. 14, gravel pit, several adults, both green and brown phase
around pond.

PICKEREL FROG

This species was seen in situations similar to those of the closely
related leopard frog. Both species seem to be rather rare in the area.
Associated species:

Leopard frog
American toad

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Records:

July 22, Science Lake, small transformed individuals by water.

July 29, Bone Run, 1 adult by stream.

Aug. 5, Seneca Trading Post, Quaker Bridge, large adult male in
grassy area, recently mowed for hay.

COMMON SNAPPING TURTLE

Bishop (1927) reported this species only from the Tunungwant Valley.
In the present study it was located in the Quaker Run area of the park
and in the reservation.

Associated species:

Spring peeper
Leopard frog
Green frog
Bullfrog
Records:

July 19, Tunungwant Swamp, in small pool of water in sun. Carapace
4 y2 inches long.

Aug. 13, gravel pit, algal-covered carapace scales found at edge of
water.

Aug. 25, Quaker Run, in rocky run near western edge of park, very
aggressive adult; carapace 10 inches long.

MIDLAND PAINTED TURTLE

Although Bishop (1927) stated that this was one of the commonest
turtles in the area, it was seen in only two sites during the summer,
neither of which is actually in the park.

Associated species:

Soft-shell
American toad
Leopard frog
Green frog
Records:

Aug. 2, Quaker Bridge, 1 subadult sunning on lily pad in garden pool
of local resident.

Aug. 13, 14, gravel pit, several adults sunning on beaver house.

Aug. 25, gravel pit, one adult taken from small shallow backwater.

EASTERN SPINY SOFT-SHELL

This turtle had not been previously reported from the area although
the county is within the range given by Carr (1952). One specimen was
taken as it burrowed into the mud of a backwater of the Allegheny
River near the mouth of Red House Brook. Harry Kilburn, manager
of the Red House Lake concession, reported that the gravel pit near
Red House was used as a source of soft-shelled turtles by the Indians.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

77

Upon his suggestion, we tried catching them there, but with no success.
One line was stolen and the other had 10 of 12 baited No. 4 fishhooks
bitten from it.

Associated species:

Bullfrog
Leopard frog
Green frog
American toad
Painted turtle
Records:

July 23, Allegheny River, backwater about 1 mile west of Red House,
1 adult ; carapace 7 inches long.

Aug. 13, gravel pit, small individual seen sunning on beaver house.

COAL SKINK

Although this species is fairly common in a few areas of central
New York and in Pennsylvania, it had not previously been reported
from the Allegany State Park region.

One individual was seen crossing a small logging road off State Line
Road July 17. The spot was in the sun at 11 a.m. when the observation
was made. The lizard escaped capture, but on a hot sunny afternoon,
August 23, a concerted effort was made to collect a specimen. Three
adults were uncovered within 2 yards of each other, a spot about 10
yards from where the first observation was made. They were under
small shale slabs in a tiny open brushy area by the edge of the woods
on the road cut. Brush from a felled tree had accumulated and begun
to rot, creating a porous soil of sawdust and humus. One individual
released its tail when captured.

Records:

July 17, State Line Road, 1 seen in woods by road.

Aug. 23, same site, 3 adults.

NORTHERN WATER SNAKE

Only one water snake was taken during the summer. It was coiled
under a flat stone in the shallow Meetinghouse Run.

Associated species:

Two-lined salamander

Johnny darters

Records:

July 23, Meetinghouse Run, 1 young adult, color pattern pronounced.

July 23, gaging station, Allegheny River, 1 adult fell into water from
sunning on debris.

July 24, Allegheny River, 2 adults seen swimming into water when
frightened from riverbank.

Aug. 23, Red House Lake, 1 large adult frightened into water from
sunning in rushes.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

NORTHERN BROWN SNAKE

Only one brown snake was seen during the entire study. It was under
a small stone on a roadbank in company with red-bellied snakes.
Associated species:

Red-bellied snake
Record:

July 6, Bone Run Road, 1 adult.

RED-BELLIED SNAKE

This snake and the short-headed garter snake were the two snakes
most commonly seen in the area. Individuals were always taken from
under rocks where they remained quietly in a coil, even after being
exposed. Not until they were touched did they make an effort to escape.
Associated species:

Common garter snake
Short-headed garter snake
Ring-necked snake
Brown snake
Records:

July 6, Bone Run Road, several adults under rocks on roadbank,
both brown and gray color phases seen.

July 10, Quaker Run, near Wolf Run Road, 1 adult under rock near
dump, in shade.

July 11, Wolf Run, near mouth, 2 adults, one under shale slab by
railroad track, other under rock by road.

July 25, Keith’s Bog, 1 adult under debris and tar paper on dry
slope above bog — under same pile of paper as a common garter
snake.

Aug. 16, gaging station, 1 adult under wooden slab in open field.
Aug. 22, Randolph Fish Hatchery, 1 adult under rock by fish pools.
Aug. 27, Gypsy Trail, 1 adult under rock by road.

SHORT-HEADED GARTER SNAKE

These snakes were seen in greater abundance than any others. Since
they have the habit of sunning or lying exposed on the grass more
often than other species, perhaps they are detected more readily. This
may give a somewhat false impression of large numbers. Their tendency
to congregate in one area might also support this. They were found in
moist grassy areas as well as on dry rocky slopes.

One site was observed to be heavily populated with short-headed
garter snakes: the brushy path leading to the gaging station by the
river at Red House. A thicket on each side provided adequate cover,
and the freshly mown grass and weeds by the path left an exposed
strip for sunning. Each time an observer walked down the path, the
snakes (one about every two yards) would quietly slide back to cover
from the sun along the path. Two hours were devoted to watching these

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

79

snakes. About 10 minutes after being disturbed, they would come out
of hiding and return to the sun. Five large adults were captured by
waiting quietly in the center of the path. At least four more were seen
which were not taken. Two were watched crawling onto a small mound
of grass where they coiled slowly about each other and lay sunning for
about 15 minutes until they were captured. They were very gentle,
never attempting to strike or bite. Instead they coiled gently around
one’s fingers or hand. The second time the gaging station was visited,
the snakes seemed to be as numerous as before.

One individual was found coiled under a rock with a common garter
snake, and another was found under the same board as a red-bellied
snake.

Associated species:

Common garter snake

Ring-necked snake

Red-bellied snake

Records:

July 23, gaging station by river, 5 adults taken, 4 more observed.

July 25, Keith’s Bog, 1 adult female under old stump on grassy kame
overlooking Red Pond (gravid with 9 young, nearly ready to be
born), 6 under debris on slope overlooking Keith’s Bog.

July 28, Quaker Run camping area, 1 adult, d.o.r.

Aug. 14, gaging station, several seen along path.

Aug. 16, Red House, near gaging station, 1 adult under slab in field.

Aug. 20, Hotchkiss Hollow, 1 adult in cornfield.

Aug. 23, Sawmill Run, 1 adult by roadside.

EASTERN GARTER SNAKE

Although seen several times throughout the summer, this species was
not seen in as large numbers as the short-headed garter snake. When
disturbed in an exposed position, the snake seemed to perform its
aggressive display of puffing and striking, an attitude not observed if
the snake were found under cover.

Associated species:

Short-headed garter snake

Red-bellied snake

Ring-necked snake

Records:

July 9, Bradford Junction, 1 adult crawling in leaves on dry, sunny
hardwood slope.

July 10, Quaker Run, Wolf Run Road, 1 adult under rock in rut of
woods road.

July 17, Quaker Run camping area, 1 adult, d.o.r.

July 25, Keith’s Bog, 1 adult under debris at base of blueberry bush
on slope, 1 subadult in recently mown field near Blood Road
struck and puffed when approached.

Aug. 8, Balsam Fir Swamp, 1 large adult exposed in field displayed
viciously when approached, flattening entire body and striking.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Aug 17, Brawn’s Hollow ridge, 1 adult crawling on sunny leaves be¬
low boulder of rattlesnake den.

Aug. 22, Randolph Fish Hatchery, 1 adult taken near fish tanks.

NORTHERN SMOOTH GREEN SNAKE

This snake was observed only once during the summer. Its protective
coloration might prevent its having been observed more often.
Associated species:

Ring-necked snake
Red-bellied snake
Common garter snake
Record:

July 17, A.S.P. No. 1, 1 adult under shale on steep sunny roadbank.

NORTHERN RING-NECKED SNAKE

Less common than the red-bellied snake, but in the same habitat, this
species was found frequently on sunny banks under rocks.

Associated species:

Red-bellied snake
Common garter snake
Smooth green snake
Short-headed garter snake
Records:

July 10, Quaker Run, near railroad bridge, under rocks near shaded
dump.

July 11, Wolf Run, along railroad tracks, 3 adults, 2 under same slab,
another about 10 yards away.

July 17, A.S.P. No. 1, under shale slab on steep sunny road cut.

EASTERN MILK SNAKE

Only one specimen was seen during the summer. It was sunning on
the cinders by the railroad track and made no effort to escape when
captured.

Record:

July 23, Meetinghouse Run, Route 17, by railroad track.

TIMBER RATTLESNAKE

Although the Allegany Park region is one of the few remaining
localities in New York State where the timber rattlesnake may be
found, it seems to be getting scarce even there. The species is seen so
rarely that many of the campers coming to the park never know of its
existence. Most of the “snake stories” that the natives tell of! seeing
rattlers in the park are from years ago; few of the people have seen a
live rattler in recent years, except near the den sites.

Alden Wright, a youth who lives on Wolf Run Road near Brown’s
Hollow, took the investigators to the rattler den on the ridge which

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

81

his family has known about for years. He said that even there, where
he never failed to find rattlers, they were getting very scarce. He
reported having seen only two during the summer in early August.
One adult was killed on Brown’s Hollow road by the workers while
widening the road. Another large adult was taken by Alden from a
small ditch near the abandoned School No. 3.

The snake den examined was an accumulation of scattered large
blocks of quartz conglomerate in a mixed deciduous forest. The second
growth of maple, oak, hickory and serviceberry permitted abundant
sunlight to fall on the forest floor. Patches of earth on the boulders
afford a favorable site for the growth of moss, ferns, small trees and
shrubs on the larger rocks. Rough ledges and deep crevices on the sides
and under the boulders provided adequate hiding places for the
snakes.

The snake found was a pregnant female, 46 inches long, with 11
rattles. It was coiled at the base of a clump of serviceberry trunks,
shaded and well hidden from sight, on one corner of a 15-foot by
15-foot boulder, about 4 feet from the ground. The snake did not rattle
or attempt to escape as a noose was slipped around its neck. It did
rattle when stretched on the rock. The snake was kept in captivity until
September 25 when it gave birth to 12 young. One was born dead. A
complete description of the litter is being published (Stewart, et al.,
1960).

Record:

August 17, Brown’s Hollow ridge, 1 pregnant female.

SMALL MAMMALS

Since no detailed study of small mammals of the Allegany region
in New York State has been made, a special effort was made to obtain
exact data on distribution, population density and variation within
populations for the area. Knobloch (1943, 1944) included small
mammals in his list of Allegany Park mammals, but included little spe¬
cific data about them.

Table II, a resume of trapping done and results of the trapping
efforts, indicates species trapped on each site. Sex, weight, measure¬
ments and breeding condition of each animal captured were recorded.
Extremes and means for these data are given in table III. Actual data
sheets have been deposited with the curator of zoology, New York State
Museum, where they are available for reference to anyone desiring
further information.

Table II gives some indication of the relative numbers of animals
captured at various sites. It is understood that these represent only
those animals which are taken by traditional trapping techniques. For
those species which are trap-shy (such as Synaptomys cooperi and
Sorex) numbers taken are not necessarily an indication of relative
numbers present. Other species may well be present which were never
seen (such as Cryptotis parva) . Sorex palustris has been taken from
Stoddard Creek near Red House (Eaton, 1945). Traps were set at close
intervals along the banks and in the creek at the same site, but no

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

shrews were taken. Raccoons were a serious hazard to trapping in the
area; of 150 traps set, 140 were sprung by the raccoons which
seemed to enjoy pushing them into the water and playing with them.

Numbers of species trapped in any area must be considered in view
of numbers of trap nights in that area. Even so, a distinct difference
was noted in the relative abundance of species, or of numbers of a
single species, between different collection sites. The largest numbers
of animals trapped were in the wooded areas of the park or reservation.
It is of interest to note that the next greatest number of species, as
well as the most dense population found, was on the large wooded
islands in the Allegheny River. These will be discussed separately.
Numbers were noticeably low in the open field habitat (site No. 10),
where cover was light and the field very dry, and in the recently
burned flats (site No. 4). Although there was plenty of cover in the
flats, there evidently had not been time for animals to move into the
area; food might also be a limiting factor. Another site with marked
paucity of life was the small balsam fir stand (No. 27). It seemed to
be a natural cover in the center of an open grassy pasture; moisture
was abundant and a variety of plants would seem to provide adequate
food. The constant disturbance by a herd of cows might have some
effect on the small mammals.

Small mammals trapped, in order of abundance, were as follows:
Blarina brevicauda, Peromyscus leucopus, Microtus pennsylvanicus,
Napaeozapus insignis , Peromyscus maniculatus, Zapus hudsonius, Clei-
tlirionomys gapperi , Sorex cinereus , Sorex fumeus and Synaptomys
cooperi. From the presence of Blarina brevicauda and Peromyscus leu -
copus in the majority of sites, it seems that these two species have the
widest local distribution.

The lemming mouse is certainly much more common than trapping
results indicate. It seemed to inhabit small grassy clearings within
wooded areas. Evidence of its presence, piles of matchstick size grass-
cuttings and green droppings, were found in two areas where the
animals were not taken. Even in the areas where they were trapped,
traps were left down several nights before a catch was made. They had
been previously trapped in the park by Dr. W. J. Hamilton, Jr. (1941) .

Botfly larvae ( Cuterebra sp.) were prevalent in species of Peromyscus.
Twelve percent of both P. leucopus and P. maniculatus were infected,
the incidence being equally divided between males and females. These
were found only in August. Other species infected were Microtus penn¬
sylvanicus, Napaeozapus insignis, and Sciurus sp. Of the 14 infections
in P. leucopus encountered, 12 occurred in animals from the islands
where 30 percent of the animals taken were infected. Forty percent of
the P. maniculatus from the islands were infected. No infections were
found in this species from other sites. The reason for this difference is
not known; perhaps it was a result of lessened resistance due to over¬
population, or possibly the islands are especially suited to the breeding
of botflies.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

83

INSULAR POPULATIONS

There are several large islands in the river in the Red House-
Quake r Bridge area. The largest is 40 to 50 acres in extent. They are
wooded, the large trees being principally silver maple, American elm,
sycamore, red maple and black willow. At the time of this study, there
was usually a lower growth of shrubby willow around the edge of the
islands. Open patches afforded a lush growth of sedges, composites, wild
grape, nettles, touch-me-not and violets. Ostrich ferns, often shoulder
high, were present in large areas in partial shade from the large trees.
Narrow strips of pebble beach surrounded parts of the islands during
the summer when the water was low. The islands were accessible from
the mainland by wading. The water was less than a foot deep in some
stretches during August. Small waterholes in various stages of desic¬
cation were present on the islands.

Results obtained from island trapping were markedly different from
other localities. The two islands near Erie Station yielded in one night
(40 trap nights) a 60 percent catch. The island immediately below
Quaker Bridge yielded in two nights (394 trap nights) a 21 percent
catch. The reason for the extremely high populations is not known.
Whether it was relative freedom from predation by shrews, or abun¬
dance of food or some other factor was not determined. Measurements
of animals taken from the island did not differ from those from the
mainland. Weights were slightly greater. The islands are flooded every
spring. Piles of debris left from high water, and the verdant plant
growth provided abundant cover. Fruits and seeds seemed to be abundant.
A field mouse was observed feeding on Viola sororia, which was present
in large patches.

Larger mammals are present on the islands. Deer and raccoon tracks
were common, and one opossum was taken from the Quaker Bridge
island. Red squirrels were trapped, and a mink was seen carrying off
a victim of a snaptrap.

Peromyscus leucopus, Microtus pennsylvanicus and Zapus hudsonicus
were the most abundant species trapped. The marked scarcity of
shrews might account for the large number of mice. Three Blarina brevi-
cauda and one Sorex cinereus were taken. Elsewhere B. brevicauda was
taken in greater numbers than any other species. This apparent scarcity
of shrews might be due to the annual flooding which would destroy
many more fossorial forms than mice, which can climb easily.

A detailed study of the seasonal and annual variation in the popula¬
tions of small mammals on the islands would provide some much
needed information about the effects of flooding on small mammals.

LARGE MAMMALS

Since a reliable census of large mammals is extremely difficult, no
effort was made to evaluate exactly the population size of these forms
in the short time available. However, notes were taken on species

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

observed and their signs. Much of the information obtained by Rich¬
mond and Rosland (1949) in the adjacent region of Pennsylvania
might be applicable to this area, especially that part concerning Warren
County which lies just south of Allegany State Park and the Indian
reservation.

BIG GAME

Virginia deer and black bear are the only big game forms on the
reservation. Deer are common in the reservation as well as in the
adjacent park where they abound. Open fields and meadows, sur¬
rounded by wooded sections, provide excellent grazing, browse and
cover. Tracks were seen in almost every site examined. Paths through
the grass and woods were seen along Sawmill Run, Bone Run, Quaker
Run near Wolf Run Road, on the islands, by the gravel pit, in the
flats near Bradford Junction and in the Tunungwant Swamp. A doe
and two fawns were seen on State Line Road July 17. Deer were fre¬
quently seen in the park, either alone, with a fawn or in groups up to
five. They were seen more frequently in the area near Red House Lake
than anywhere else. They were seen during the day as well as early
morning and evening and after dark. The park deer were studied
previously by Shadle and Stalken (1942).

Although no bears were seen outside the park, a tree clawed by bears
and a wallow were found near State Line Road. One of the Indians
reported having seen a bear in the river near Quaker Bridge early
in July. The abandoned land and forested hills in the reservation and
to the west of it are well suited to bears. Patches of wild strawberries,
blueberries and blackberries abound. Ant colonies are common. Bears
seem to be more common in the park where they are frequently seen
along the highways and feeding at the park dumps. A bear with four
cubs was seen during the summer at the park dump. Three of these
and one other adult were trapped by Hugh Black who was studying
the bears in the park. He reported that numbers were lower this year
than in previous years, but that an exact estimate of the population
could not be made; 15-20 bears are taken each year from the park area.

UPLAND GAME

Cottontails, hares, gray squirrel, gray and red fox, raccoon, opossum
and woodchuck are the upland game species in the reservation. Much
overgrown farmland and woodland provides abundant cover for these
forms.

Perhaps the most abundant species in the reservation, the park and
adjacent farmland is the raccoon. Its marks — tracks and scats — were
ubiquitous along the edge of the river, streams, draws and mud puddles.
Farmers to the west of the reservation complained of coon damage to
crops, and sometimes have wholesale hunts to reduce the number of
animals which have become serious pests. On the other hand, rac¬
coons are encouraged in the park by campers and garbage. Almost any
night along A.S.P. No. 1 between Red House and the Quaker Bridge
camping area, 15 to 25 raccoons, including several mothers with 2 to 4
young could be counted. They made nightly tours from cabin to cabin

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

85

to raid garbage cans. Tracks were abundant on the islands as well as
on the mainland.

Woodchucks were abundant both in the open bottom lands and the
higher wooded slopes and riverbanks. Their population must reach near
capacity for the area. They were seen frequently feeding along the
roadhanks and in the fields. Their holes were found in most collection
sites. Opossum were seen dead on the road, except for one specimen
taken in a trap on the Quaker Bridge island.

Although no gray squirrels were seen on the reservation during the
summer, they were seen frequently in the park, just on the edge of the
reservation, and in the Red House camping area. About 30 percent of
those seen were black, or melanistic individuals. The “squirrel niche”
seems to be occupied to a much greater extent by the red squirrels
which were seen along the river, in the higher mixed forests and fre¬
quently in the park.

Red and gray foxes are present on the reservation and in greater
numbers in the park. No gray foxes were seen during the summer,
although previous reports (Knobloch, 1944) and accounts of the resi¬
dents indicated their presence. Nine observations of red foxes were
made in the park during the summer.

Relatively few cottontails were seen during the summer. It was impos¬
sible to tell by sight whether they were Sylvilagus floridanus or S.
transitionalis. One S. floridanus was found dead on the road near the
Friends Indian School. Individuals were flushed on Wolf Run Road
near Quaker Run, and near the old church at the junction of Routes
280 and 17. The recent status of the species in the area is not known.
Several species of rabbits have been released in the area in the past.
The Indians trap and hunt rabbits during the winter. They reported
the presence of the varying hare on the higher ridges. None were seen
during the summer.

FUR-BEARING MAMMALS

Fur-bearers on the reservation include beaver, muskrat, raccoon,
opossum, red and gray fox, skunk, mink, and various weasels. The
raccoon, opossum and foxes were discussed in the previous section.

From reports by local residents and from the Conservation Depart¬
ment, little trapping is being done on the reservation. Fur prices are
low, and most of the Indians are occupied with jobs outside the reserva¬
tion which provide adequate livelihood without the hunting and
trapping.

Beavers did not appear to be common on the reservation although
several colonies were established in the park and on the streams feeding
into the river from outside the reservation (Pierce Run, Bone Run). A
colony was present in the gravel pit near Red House and in Quaker Run
near the western edge of the park. The park beavers were quite tame
(Bay State Road, Frances Brook Road) and worked in spite of numer¬
ous observers. Aspen and willow were abundant in many areas so that
food probably was not a limiting factor in their spread. Previous inves¬
tigators made detailed studies of the park beavers (Shadle and Austin,
1939; Shadle et al ., 1943). The Conservation Department had only one

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

record of a beaver taken from the reservation in 1957, that one coming
from the Township of Salamanca.

Muskrats seemed to be the most abundant fur bearer in the reservation.
Their well-used holes were abundant along the riverbanks, small back¬
waters and along streambanks where there were deeper pools. Since
banks were soft and open bodies of still water were not abundant, the
streambank homes were utilized almost entirely rather than building open
water houses. Houses were seen only in the Tunungwant Swamp. One
muskrat was seen feeding at the head of Science Lake; five were fright¬
ened from the edge of the gravel pit where they were feeding. Scats
were found often on rocks and logs near the edge of the river and
streams.

Although only one mink (Quaker Bridge Island) and no weasels
were seen during the summer, they are present in fair abundance ac¬
cording to previous investigations (Knobloch, 1944). Some mink trap¬
ping is done, but not nearly so much as in the past.

Several skunks were seen dead on the road during the summer; four
individuals were seen along the road and trails in the Quaker Run
camping area, and two were seen feeding along the roadside on Route
17 near Red House.

MISCELLANEOUS FORMS

These animals include the porcupine, red squirrel, chipmunk and bats.
Although the red squirrel and chipmunk appear in the trapping table
of small mammals, those taken in traps do not represent an indication
of numbers in the area.

The porcupine is seen on the reservation, but seems to occur more
frequently in the park. There it is often caught in the campsites chew¬
ing on equipment. Its numbers are not yet to a point of requiring
control measures by the Park Commission. Two records were taken
from the reservation during the summer. One large adult was seen by
the road between Steamburg and Quaker Bridge on the night of July

19. A carcass, evidently a train casualty, was found on the tracks at
Wolf Run. Five were seen in the park during the summer; all were
observed either in the late evening or at night.

Both the red squirrel and the chipmunk are common in the area,
particularly in the park. The chipmunks are the more numerous, exist¬
ing in large numbers in the park, especially where there are many
rocks to afford shelter.

Small bats were seen in the evenings flying over beaver ponds and
in clearings in the park, or flying through the cabin porches. A few
used the largest crevices at Bear Caves for sleeping places but no more
than three were seen there at any one time. On July 28, one adult male
My otis lucifugus and one adult male Pipistrellus subflavus were taken
from Bear Caves during the day. One My otis lucifugus was taken July

20, when it flew onto the porch of an old abandoned house near the out¬
door theater by the Tunungwant Swamp.

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

87

POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF FLOODING

The nature of the topography and the distribution of mixed vegeta¬
tion afford many varied habitats for numerous faunal types. Clearings
interspersed with woodlots and bordered by brush or shrubs, an abund¬
ance of small streams and a meandering shallow river with small
bayous characterize the area. These provide food, cover and water for
the variety of animals and plants present. If the river valley is flooded,
this would eliminate those habitats associated immediately with the
river but would create a deep, cold water reservoir, a situation which is
now absent from the region. It is difficult to estimate the effects of
flooding on the flora and fauna of the area. Much depends upon the
depth of the water and the degree of fluctuation of the water level. The
time of year that flooding occurs is an extremely important factor. If
the water rises in the spring and summer, when many animals are re¬
producing, and young are still in nests (especially ground-nesting birds
and mammals), or are too weak to escape, destruction to wildlife will be
great. Very early spring before most forms are nesting, or late sum¬
mer before chipmunks, jumping mice, woodchucks, reptiles and am¬
phibians are hibernating, would be the best time for the change to

occur. If flooding occurs at such time, most animals could move to

higher ground to establish territories. This, however, could create

serious difficulties with those species where population pressure is

already high. Deer, for example, which already exist in high numbers
in outlying areas, might suffer from lack of food due to overcrowded
conditions. This might well be the case with small mammals, such as
deer mice, field mice, jumping mice and shrews, which serve as food
supply for larger forms.

Two species have been found in the area of possible impoundment
which were not found at higher elevations in the region under discus¬
sion. These are the hellbender and the coal skink, both species with a
limited distribution in the State. Excepting these, other species exist in
numbers large enough in surrounding areas not to suffer extermination
from the region.

With the exception of the river and its immediate environs, there
seems to be no significant difference in types of habitats which occur
in the reservation and those in adjacent areas. However, such a drastic
change as flooding an entire river valley must necessarily have many
imperceptible and far-reaching, little understood effects on an entire
area.

Certain of the natural habitats present will be destroyed. Aquatic
species adapted to swift, shallow water or shallow quiet backwaters will
be affected. A deep, cold water habitat, probably with a fluctuating water
level, will be created suddenly. Annual changes in water level and silt
deposition will create mudflats, advantageous to few forms, and will
thereby alter the vegetation between high and low water levels as well
as changing the face of the marginal vegetation, and thence the fauna.
If an effort is made to create a variety of habitats, such as quiet shallow
backwaters (particularly for breeding amphibians), the total impact

88

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

of the change might not be so drastic. Careful control of the water
level to prevent a great amount of fluctuation would also be a help.

The river bottom lands provide foraging areas for many forms —
snakes, frogs and toads, mice, moles and shrews, mustelids, rabbits,
foxes, woodchucks, raccoons, opossum, as well as many deer. The flood¬
ing of such a large amount of their natural territory could affect each
species as well as its predators. Beaver and muskrat might be forced
out of the reservation entirely but they could probably survive in
some of the smaller streams of the higher coves above a changing
water level which prevents the establishment of permanent homes.

Another area to be considered, although it does not lie in New York
State, is the river below the dam. It is the site that can be affected most
seriously by frequent flushings of cold water from the reservoir. The
result can be a biological wasteland since few forms can tolerate, espe¬
cially in early developmental stages, such a drastic change in water
temperature and depth. This would influence particularly various stream
fishes present as well as their food supply.

SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDY

If flooding of the valley is to occur, all previous knowledge of the
area should be put to use and a serious and extensive study made of
the changes produced by flooding. Very little is known of the actual
effects of flooding of a large area since few followup studies have been
conducted in inundated regions. If such a study could be made, it
would be a great contribution to biological knowledge. It is realized
that every such instance is different since conditions in each area are
different, but a ^tudy of one example would eliminate some of the
guessing which takes place every time the building of such a reservoir is
considered. The value of the reservoir and the expense of building it
could then be weighed more carefully against the effects It might have
on the vegetation and animal life.

TABLES

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BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

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93

Small Mammal Populations as Indicated by Trapping Results in Various Localities

94

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

NUMBERS TRAPPED AT EACH SITE

SdHDIN dVdl

NN^OjOWtHOOO^O^OiO^OiOO
T)<ooso>cono>^ONO)(OQOOtOHnN
rH <N rHrHCO COCO

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00

Tj<

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<N

05

SINDISNI

sndvzosvdVN

rH CO rH rH 05 1> CO

CO

to

to

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Tt<

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saionoiH

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CO

103

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YNINY7Q

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107

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2

11

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S173G3NI0 X3G0S

rH rH <M CO <M

05

COLLECTION SITE

1. Stateline Run . . . . .

2. Sawmill Run .

3. Bone Run . .

4. Burned flats . .

5. Wolf Run . . .

6. Quaker Run .

7. Island, Quaker Bridge . .

8. Islands, Erie Station . . . .

9. Open field, Routes 17, 280 . . .

10. Gaging Station, Red House . . .

11. Sphagnum Bog, A. S. P .

12. Bear Caves, A. S. P . .

14. McCabe Trail, A. S. P. .................. .

15. Tunungwant Swamp . .

20. Coon Run, A. S. P. . . .

22. Stoddard Creek, A. S. P . . . . .

24. A. S. P. No. 1, A. S. P . . . . .

25. Stoddard Creek, Red House, A. S. P. ...... .

27. Balsam Swamp .

Total .

Summary of Measurements and Reproductive Data of Small Mammals
Mean and Range of Measurements and Weights are Given

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION 95

Number

Specimens

Averaged

100

5

9

98

42

62

11

3

36

57

4

2

3

1

Dates of
Breeding
Females

July 10, 18, 30; Aug. 1

Aug. 1

Aug. 24

July 11, 18,24; Aug. 1,
2, 6, 8, 13, 21-23

July 17, 26; Aug. 6

July 12, 24; Aug. 1, 15,

16, 20, 23

Aug. 23

July 21

Nunberof

Breeding

Females

lO ft t> 00 ft • • ft ft

Number of
Breeding
Males

O • ft CO ft 05 00 • © ft ft • <N

•H ^ ft ft • ft <N

Number

Females

46

2

5

42

27

38

3

15

22

2

1

1

Number

Males

54

2

4

59

15

41

10

4

21

36

2

1

9

1

Weight

(G.)

16.9

(10.5-22.7)

6.7

(6. 1-7.6)

4.1

(3. 1-5. 4)

20.7

(11.1-34.4)

20.0

(13-26.5)

35.4

(18.3-59)

24.0

(17.1-30.2)

24.7

17.4

(12.2-25.5)

19 9

(10.9-30.3)

97.0

(94.8-98.8)

195.7

(159.1-232.3)

6.2

(5. 9-6. 5)

4.9

Hind Foot
Length
(mm.)

15.0

(13-16)

13.2
(12-14)

12.1

(11-13)

21.0

(19-23)

21.4
(20-24)

20.8

(19-23)

18.7

(18-19)

18.3

29.5
(28-31)

30.4
(29-32)

35.0

(33-38)

50.5
(50-51)

10.3

(9-11)

11

Tail

Length

(mm.)

25.8

(22-32)

42.2
(39-47)

39.1
(37-42)

76.7
(64-94)

88.7
(71-105)

45.0

(36-57)

41.0

(36-45)

17.7

128.1
(110-146)

139.4

(121-155)

85.6

(71-90)

119.0

(105-133)

37.3
(36-38)

39

Total

Length

(mm.)

116.8

(102-140)

112.4
(110-117)

97.8
(90-102)

163.8
(114-186)

174.7
(146-196)

155.1

(112-187)

134.8
(123-149)

114.7

210.5
(181-239)

222.5
(196-246)

227.6
(218-244)

304.0

(302-306)

88.3

(87-90)

81

Species

Blarina brevicauda

Sorex fumeus

Sorex cinereus

Peromyscus

leucopus

Peromyscus

maniculatus

Microtus

pennsylvanicus

Cleithrionomys

gapperi

Synaptomys

cooperi

Zapus hudsonius

Napaeozapus

insignis

Tamias striatus

Tamiasciurus

hudsonicus

My otis lucifugus

Pipistrellus

subflavus

96

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Table IV

Fleas Taken from Trapped Mammals

Species of Mammal

Species of Flea

Number

Males

Number

Females

Didelphis marsupialis

Orchopeas leucopus Baker

1

Marmota monax

Oropsylla arctomys Baker

1

4

Myotis lucifugus

Myodopsylla insignis Rothschild

1

Peromyscus sp.

Doratopsylla blarinae C. Fox

1

1

Orchopeas howardii howardii Baker

1

Orchopeas leucopus Baker

1

Peromyscus leucopus

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes pseudagyrtes Baker

1

Doratopsylla blarinae C. Fox

1

Orchopeas leucopus Baker

3

6

Peromyscopsylla hesperomys hesperomys Baker

3

Peromyscus maniculatus

Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes pseudagyrtes Baker

1

Orchopeas leucopus Baker

2

2

Peromyscopsylla hesperomys hesperomys Baker

2

Synaptomys cooperi

Megabothris asio asio Baker

1

Orchopeas howardii Baker

1

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus

Orchopeas howardii Baker

1

BIOLOGY OF THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION

97

REFERENCES

Bishop, S. C

1927. The amphibians and reptiles of Allegany State Park. N.Y. State Mus.
Handbk. 3. 141pp.

1941. The salamanders of New York. N.Y. State Mus. Bui. No. 324. 365pp.
1943. Handbook of salamanders. Comstock Publ. Co. Ithaca, N. Y. xiv + 555pp.

Burt, W. H.

1957. Mammals of the Great Lakes region. Univ. Mich. Press. Ann Arbor,
xv. + 246pp.

Cahalane, V. H.

1928. A preliminary wild life and forest survey of southwestern Cattaraugus
County, New York. Roosevelt Wild Life Bull. v. 5, No. 1

Carr, A.

1952. Handbook of turtles. Comstock Publ. Co. Ithaca, N.Y. xv + 542pp.
Committee on Herpetological Common Names (R. Con ant, Chairman).

1956. Common names for North American amphibians and reptiles. Copeia,
1956 (3) :172-185

Eaton, E. H.

1910. Birds of New York. N.Y. State Mus. Mem. 12, vols. 1 and 2
1914.

Eaton, S. W.

1953. Birds of Olean and Salamanca Quadrangles. Sci. Stud. St. Bonaventure
College, 15:1-27

Eaton, T. H., Jr.

1945. Water shrew in Allegany State Park. Jour. Mamm., 26:194

Gordon, R. B., et al.

1937. Vegetational survey of Allegany State Park. N.Y. State Mus. Handbk.
17. 412pp.

Hamilton, W. J., Jr.

1943. The mammals of eastern United States. Comstock Publ. Co. Ithaca, N.Y.

432pp.

1941. On the occurrence of Synaptomys cooperi in forested regions. Jour.
Mamm., 22:195

House, H. D. & Alexander, W. P.

1927. Flora of the Allegany State Park region. N.Y. State Mus. Handbk. 2.
225pp.

Knobloch, I. W.

1943. Mammals of Allegany State Park region. Sci. Stud. St. Bonaventure
College, 12:5-11, 23, part I

1944. Mammals of Allegany State Park region. Sci. Stud. St. Bonaventure
College, 12:13-24, part II

Miller, G. S. & Kellogg, R.

1955. List of North American recent mammals. U.S. National Mus. Bull. 205.
XII + 954pp.

Richmond, N. D. & Rosland, H. R.

1949. Mammal survey of northwestern Pennsylvania. Penn. Game Comm, and
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 67pp.

Saunders, A. A.

1923. Summer birds of Allegany State Park. Roosevelt Wildlife Bull. 1:239-354
1925. Additional notes on the summer birds of Allegany State Park. Roosevelt
Wildlife Bull., 3:477-497

1936. Ecology of the birds of Quaker Run Valley, Allegany State Park, New
York. N.Y. State Mus. Handbk. 16. 174pp.

1938. Studies of breeding birds in Allegany State Park. N.Y. State Mus. Bull.
318. 160pp.

1942. Summer birds of Allegany State Park. N.Y. State Mus. Handbk. 18.
313pp.

98

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

Schmidt, K. P.

1953. A checklist of North American amphibians and reptiles. 6th ed. Amer.
Soc. Ichth. and Herpetol. Univ. Chicago Press, viii + 280pp.

- & Davis, D. D.

1941. Field book of snakes. G.P. Putnam’s Sons. New York, xiii + 365pp.

Shadle, A. R. & Austin, T. S.

1939. Fifteen months of beaver work at Allegany State Park, N.Y. Jour. Mamm.,
20:299-303

- & Stalken, P.

1942. The deer of Allegany State Park, New York. Jour, of Wildl. Mgt.,
6:27-30

- Nanth, A. M., Gese, E. C. & Austin, T. S.

1943. Comparison of tree cuttings of six beaver colonies in Allegany State
Park, New York. Jour. Mamm., 24:32-39

Smith, H. M.

1946. Handbook of lizards. Comstock Publ. Co. Ithaca, N.Y. xxi + 557pp.
Stewart, M. M., Larson, G. E. & Watthews, T. H.

1960. Morphological variation in a litter of timber rattlesnakes. Copeia, in press.

Taylor, N.

1928. The vegetation of the Allegany State Park. N.Y. State Mus. Handbk. 5.

126pp.

Wright, A. H. & Wright, A. A.

1957. Handbook of snakes, vols. I and II. Comstock Publ. Assoc. Ithaca, N.Y.
xviii; ix + 1105pp.

Horrisburfl

Collection localities: George John Schumacher, circled
numbers; Margaret M. Stewart, uncircled numbers

y

a TYPOLOGY
and NOMENCLATURE
for NEW YORK
PROJECTILE POINTS

By

William A. Ritchie

State Archeologist
New York State Museum
and Science Service

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

BULLETIN NUMBER 384

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department

Albany, N. Y. April 1961

M4 5 pr-N60-2 5 00

A Typology and Nomenclature
for New York Projectile Points

By

William A. Ritchie

State Archeologist

New York State Museum and Science Service

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

BULLETIN NUMBER 384

Albany, N. Y.

The University oj the State of New York
The State Education Department

April 1961

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University
With years when terms expire

1969 John F. Brosnan, A.M., LL.B., J.D., LL.D., D.C.L., D.C.S., Pd.D.,

Chancellor . . New York

1968 Edgar W. Couper, A.B., LL.D., V ice Chancellor . Binghamton

1963 Mrs. Caroline Werner Gannett, LL.D., L.H.D., D.H . Rochester

1961 Dominick F. Maurillo, A.B., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D., M. and S.D. . . Brooklyn

1964 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D., Litt.D. . . . Troy

1967 Thad L. Collum, C.E . Syracuse

1966 George L. Hubbell, Jr., A.B., LL.B., LL.D., Litt.D . Garden City

1973 Charles W. Millard, Jr., A.B . Buffalo

1965 Chester H. Lang, A.B., LL.D. . . Schenectady

1970 Everett J. Penny, B.C.S., D.C.S. . White Plains

1972 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S . Purchase

1962 Edward M. M. Warburg, B.S., L.H.D. . . New York

1971 J. Carlton Corwith, B.S . . . . Water Mill

President of the University and Commissioner of Education
James E. Allen, Jr., Ed.M., Ed.D., LL.D., Litt.D., Pd.D., L.H.D.

Deputy Commissioner of Education
Ewald B. Nyquist, B.S., LL.D., Pd.D., L.H.D., D.C.L.

Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education and Special Services
Hugh M. Flick, Ph.D., LL.D.

Assistant Commissioner for State Museum and Science Service
William N. Fenton, A.B., Ph.D.

State Archeologist, State Science Service
William A. Ritchie, M.S., Ph.D., D.Sc.

IBB

CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction . 5

Explanation . 9

Table 1 . .10

Table 2 . 10

Adena points . 12

Bare Island points . 14

Brewerton Corner-Notched points . 16

Brewerton Eared-Notched points . 17

Brewerton Eared-Triangle points . 18

Brewerton Side-Notched points . 19

Clovis points . 21

Fulton Turkey Tail points . 23

Genesee points . 24

Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched points . 26

Jack’s Reef Pentagonal points . 28

Lamoka points . 29

Levanna points . 31

Madison points . 33

Meadowood points . 35

Normanskill points . 37

Orient Fishtail points . 39

Otter Creek points . 40

Perkiomen Broad points . 42

Poplar Island points . 44

Rossville points . 46

Snook Kill points . 47

Snyders points . 49

Steubenville Lanceolate points . 50

Steubenville Stemmed points . 51

Susquehanna Broad points . 53

Vosburg points . 55

References . 51

3

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Figure 1 — Standard projectile point terminology . . 11

Plate 1 — Adena points . . . 61

Plate 2— Bare Island points . 63

Plate 3 — Bare Island points . 64

Plate 4 — Brewerton Corner-Notched points . 67

Plate 5 — Brewerton Eared-Notched points . . 69

Plate 6 — Brewerton Eared-Triangle points . 71

Plate 7 — Brewerton Side-Notched points . 72

Plate 8 — Clovis points . 75

Plate 9 — Fulton Turkey Tail points . 76

Plate 10 — Genesee points . 77

Plate 11 — Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched points . 79

Plate 12 — Jack’s Reef Pentagonal points . 80

Plate 13 — Lamoka points . . 83

Plate 14 — Lamoka and “Dustin” points . 85

Plate 15 — Levanna points . 87

Plate 16 — Madison points . 88

Plate 17 — Meadowood points . 89

Plate 18 — Normanskill points . 91

Plate 19 — Orient Fishtail points . 93

Plate 20 — Otter Creek points . 94

Plate 21 — Otter Creek points . 97

Plate 22 — Otter Creek points . 98

Plate 23 — Perkiomen Broad points . 99

Plate 24 — Poplar Island points . 101

Plate 25 — Poplar Island points . 102

Plate 26 — Rossville points . 103

Plate 27 — Snook Kill points . 104

Plate 28 — Snyders points . 105

Plate 29 — Steubenville Lanceolate points . 107

Plate 30 — Steubenville Stemmed points . 109

Plate 31 — Susquehanna Broad points . Ill

Plate 32 — Vosburg points . 113

Plate 33 — Points of exotic flint . 114

Plate 34 — Untyped bifurcated base points . 115

Plate 35 — Untyped narrow triangular points . 117

Plate 36 — Untyped broad-bladed, stemmed points . . . 119

4

A Typology and Nomenclature
for New York Projectile Points

William A. Ritchie
State Archeologist

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE
Introduction

Lono and intimate familiarity with the projectile points of the
New York State area led the writer, quite some time ago, to a recog¬
nition of about 18 style categories, most of which could be related
through site excavations to particular culture complexes and relative
time periods. Subsequently, with radiocarbon dating, this chrono¬
logical sequence was not only sustained but given an approximate
actual value. Consequently, projectile point succession, as currently
known, spans a period of about 5,000 years before the present.

Until rather recently, the author has discussed these projectile points
in site reports and elsewhere in such general descriptive terms as broad,
heavy, side-notched points, or narrow-bladed stemmed points, while
at the same time exhibiting a tendency to refer to the very same points
as Brewerton or Laurentian side-notched points, or Lamoka stemmed
points, in accordance with the cultural associations he has been able
to demonstrate through excavations.

The need for some convenient classification and nomenclature to
replace this awkward phraseology has grown more insistent with
the progress of research. The utility of a ceramic typology for the
same area1 encouraged the effort, which has currently attained to the
dimensions indicated by the present publication. It seems safe to
predict, especially in view of the still untyped points discussed below,
that continuing research within the area will lead to the addition of
new types, and, with some probability, to certain revisions of the
series herein defined.

As the term is employed in this study, projectile points include:
arrowpoints; dartpoints, or the armament of javelins or short throwing
spears, hurled by hand either directly or with the aid of a dart thrower
or atlatl; and spearpoints, or the stabbing heads affixed to relatively

1 Ritchie and MacNeish, 1949; MacNeish, 1952*

5

New York State Museum and Science Service

long-handled thrusting weapons, not designed to leave the hand.
Since in many, perhaps most, instances, the function cannot with
certainty be deduced from the remaining part, the writer’s attempts
at such identification, where hazarded, are equivocal.

Furthermore, certain of the objects herein described (as in the Fulton
Turkey Tail type) may have been primarily or interchangeably used
as specialized cutting tools or knives. To the best of the author’s
knowledge and intent, however, only projectile point forms are in¬
cluded in this analysis.

The scope, as suggested by the title, is somewhat misleading, inas¬
much as none of the point types herein defined is restricted in range
to the geographical limits of the State of New York. In order, how¬
ever, to achieve a reasonable delimitation to this initial effort for the
area, it was decided to include only such point types as were known
to have representation within the State’s boundaries. It is hoped
that other workers in the Northeast will add to the picture with simi¬
lar analyses of point groups better represented and culturally known
in their respective regions, so that ultimately a collation for the entire
Northeast can be achieved.

In this typological study the author has been guided by the work
of Rouse (1939, 1960), Krieger (1944) and others. The presentation
of the data follows, in general, that of Scully (1951), Suhm, Krieger
and Jelks (1954), Kneberg (1956) and Bell (1958). The methodology
employed is that recommended by Krieger (1944, pp. 279-282) and
may be outlined as follows:

1. The material was first sorted into major groups of generally simi¬
lar points.

2. This sorting, or analysis, was governed by variations in the form,
size, proportions, chipping characteristics etc., of such morphological
features of the specimens as the blade, stem, notching, base etc., vari¬
ously referred to by Rouse and Krieger, as “modes” or “attributes.”
(See figure 1.)

3. These formal variations in the inherent morphological features,
modes or attributes became the basis for the tentative classification of
the points into types.

4. The next step was the testing of the probable validity of the arbi¬
trarily-constituted type by identifying it in collections from various
sites or geographical areas. If it could be shown to persist as an entity
with cultural, spatial and/or temporal (i.e., historical) associations,
it was felt to be acceptable for the final step in the classification.2

2 A total of 10,800 points from eastern, central and western New York were typed in
this phase of the work in which the author was assisted by James H. Zell.

6

New York Projectile Points

5. This step consisted in giving a name and description to the type
group.

The description allowed for the observed range of variation in the
modes, arising most likely from the vagaries encountered by individual
makers in the execution, from a refractory material, of an ideal model
or norm. It also provided for sufficient latitude or flexibility, so that
minor variations in additional material of the same kind could be en¬
compassed.

Finally, a nomenclature was provided, since the writer agrees with
Krieger (1944, pp. 275, 277-279) that for maximum convenience, both
in the construction and use of the typology, names, rather than numbers
or letters in a classificatory system, should be used. The latter method
of designation, usually derived from a geometric analysis and expressed
in formulistic terminology, he finds awkward and difficult to remember.

Following Krieger’s recommendation, he has chosen a locative no¬
menclature taken from the site or geographical locale where the type
was first found or recognized, occurred most plentifully or was best
culturally attributed. Linguistic, ethnic and cultural names (except
where the latter is called from a type site; e.g., Lamoka) were avoided.

According to established usage, his descriptions include significant
data concerning the age and cultural affiliations, distribution, literary
references etc. Any previously employed terminology for the group
is included in the latter.

Every effort has been made to avoid attaching new labels to already
described point types. Wherever it could be shown, generally by sub¬
mitting samples of specimens to the person responsible, that the group
in question had already been named, the prevailing designation and
definition or description (where available) were used explicitly and
duly credited.3 Additional data from the New York sample have been
clearly incorporated.

Certain fundamental assumptions, which the author shares with
his colleagues whose methodology, in general, he has applied, underlie
his work on this typology. These may succinctly be stated as follows:

The remarkable stylistic constancy in the modes or attributes, which
undeniably can be demonstrated within a series of points collected
over a wide geographical range or from numerous components of the
same culture complex, indicates the reality of a stylistic model in the

3 The writer gratefully acknowledges cooperation of this kind from the following
persons: Lewis R. Binford, Don W. Dragoo, W. Fred Kinsey III, William J. Mayer-Oakes
and John Witthoft. For the loan of specimens used in this study, the writer is also
indebted to Edward B. Christman, Thomas E. Daniels, R. Arthur Johnson, William J.
Kirby, Museum of Anthropology of the University of Michigan, Rochester Museum of
Arts and Sciences, Carl S. Sundler and James H. Zell.

7

New York State Museum and Science Service

minds of the prehistoric makers. Clearly they were working not
from caprice but from a “cultural compulsive” which impelled them
to conform to current fashions or established norms for their particular
area and period. The surviving material product of this long extinct
cultural concept can be recognized by the typologist and analyzed by
means of definite morphological features of form, proportions etc.,
into various attributes or modes, as already outlined. Although these
attributes are arbitrarily selected to conform to the purposes of the
investigator, it is believed that the end product of the analysis approxi¬
mates in important formal respects the ideal or norm of the maker.

It is further assumed that the typological configurations reflect
standardized behavior and the fixation of motor habits, through tradi¬
tional or culturally approved ways of doing things in the aboriginal
society concerned. The strong conservatism, widely remarked for
primitive societies, seems to be well illustrated in the marked degree
of uniformity found within each of our point type categories (Boas,
1927, p. 145ff.; Redfield, 1953, pp. 14, 120).

Finally, it should be made explicit that in these statements regard¬
ing the “recapture” of ancient cultural concepts, the author is fully
aware that, as Rouse and others have pointed out, “Culture does not
consist of artifacts. The latter are merely the results of culturally
conditioned behavior performed by the artisan. Types and modes
express the culture which conditions the artisan’s behavior.” (Rouse,
1939, p. 15.)

In more philosophical phraseology, “All records show only the
apparent forms of the truly existing inner reality.” (Wilhelm Dilthey,
quoted in Kluback, 1956, p. 60.)

As has been stated on page 6, the probable validity of the typology
derived in the present study from the combination of a background of
long familiarity with the materials and the specific analysis of several
thousand specimens, was tested in the fourth step of the procedure by
application to 10,800 additional projectile points. These formed part
of two New York State Museum collections and one private collection
from surface sites which were selected to represent an equal number of
areas in the State. They came, respectively, from the middle regions
of the Hudson River Valley (Greene and Rensselaer Counties), the
Seneca River Valley (Onondaga County), and the Genesee River
Valley (Livingston County).4

4 This investigation will be expanded to include more large collections, both public
and private, from the same and other areas. In addition to typological data, significant
distributional information is being accumulated for expanded treatment in a subsequent
report.

8

New York Projectile Points

The analysis of this large sample resulted in a remainder of 917
points (.084 percent of the total) which could not with certainty be
attributed to the 27 types herein described. Some of the difficulty
in typing the material arose from the lack, in certain specimens, of
“crisp” diagnostic criteria or from the presence, in others, of typo-
logically interlinking features . There were also a fair number of points
too crudely made to render determinate the essential form and a much
smaller number which showed obscuring secondary alterations.

From this untyped residue of 917 points can be extracted at least the
three following small groups:

1. Bifurcated base points totaling 48 (plate 34)

2. A long, narrow, triangular form, with 35 examples (plate 35)

3. A broad-bladed, stemmed form, represented by 34 points (plate
36). Some of these resemble Snook Kill points and may be vari¬
ants of that type. (See plate 27.)

The bifurcated forms, on the basis of scanty existing data, apparently
cannot be unified by their prominent attribute of stem bifurcation. On
the other hand, when the samples can be expanded and cultural and
temporal data supplied, the triangular and broad, stemmed forms
may become candidates for additional types.

There are left 800 points, from which can be isolated six or seven
small lots. Each consists of a dozen or less points in which the simi¬
larity is sufficient to hint at type categories from future research.

In accounting for the others, it is likely, especially where the
material as well as the form is exotic to the area, that an indetermi¬
nate number may be erratics from undescribed point groups of distant
proveniences. (See plate 33.) Among the rest are a fair number of
specimens that may plausibly be regarded as aberrant objects resulting
from accidents of the chipping process, perhaps from technical diffi¬
culties with the material; from the artisan’s caprice; or, perhaps, even
from his experimental design, unique and unadopted, since the element
of inventiveness must be admitted to account originally for some
unknown portion of all point styles.

EXPLANATION

In the following descriptions the projectile point types are arranged
alphabetically, in accord with the usual procedure. A single very
typical specimen (“holotype”) is reproduced natural size from a care¬
fully made drawing showing details of the chipping characteristics,
with descriptive text for each group. Following this, one or more
photographic assemblages depicting the range in size and form of the
type, are given, with data on provenience, material and ownership.

9

New York State Museum and Science Service

To aid the general student in identifying his own material, the point
types are also listed below under two categories: (1) by major period
provenience, table 1; and (2) by their principal morphological attribute
characteristics, table 2. To more readily comprehend the latter, the
standard terminology for projectile points is shown in the illustration,
figure 1, on page 11.

Table 1

Major Period Provenience of Projectile Point Types

General General

Periods Projectile Point Types Periods Projectile Point Types

Late Madison

Woodland Levanna

Middle

Woodland

Jack’s Reef Pentagonal
Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched
Snyders

Early

Woodland

Adena

Fulton Turkey Tail
Meadowood

Genesee

Brewerton Eared-Triangle
Brewer ton Eared-Notched
Middle Normanskill

Archaic Brewerton Corner-Notched

Brewerton Side-Notched
Otter Creek
Vosburg

Early Archaic Lamoka

Steubenville Lanceolate (?) Paleo-Indian Clovis
Steubenville Stemmed (?)

Orient Fishtail

Transitional Susquehanna Broad
and Perkiomen Broad

Late Archaic Rossville
Bare Island
Poplar Island (?)

Snook Kill (?)

Table 2

Point Types Grouped by Primary Morphological Feature

Side-Notched Points
Brewerton Side-Notched
Brewerton Eared-Notched
Fulton Turkey Tail
Lamoka (in part)
Meadowood
Normanskill
Otter Creek

Corner-Notched Points
Brewerton Corner-Notched
Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched
Snyders
Vosburg

Straight Stemmed Points
Bare Island
Genesee

Lamoka (in part)
Steubenville Stemmed

Contracting Stemmed Points
Adena

Poplar Island
Rossville
Snook Kill

Expanding Stemmed Points
Orient Fishtail
Perkiomen Broad
Susquehanna Broad

Stemless Points — Triangular or Lanceolate
Brewerton Eared-Triangle
Clovis

Jack’s Reef Pentagonal

Levanna

Madison

Steubenville Lanceolate

10

New York Projectile Points

Figure 1 — Standard Projectile Point Terminology: a, point or tip; b, edge; c, blade
or face; d, stem; e, tang; f, base; g, notch; h, barb; i, shoulder.

11

New York State Museum and Science Service

ADENA POINTS (plate 1)

General description: Large points with
broad, lobate stems.

Size: According to Bell (1958, p. 4) most
points of this type measure between 3 and
5 inches in length. In a sample of 50
from New York, the shortest was 1%
inches, the longest 4 inches, with the
majority falling between 2 and 3 inches.
In thickness, the New York sample varied
from to J{q of an inch; nearly all, how¬
ever, fell between Jfg and Jbs of an inch.
Such points are generally considered dart
points. Longer, probable spear points,
also occur. (See e.g. , Ritchie and Dragoo,
1960, plate 8, figure 6).

Proportions: For the most part, about two to two and one-half
times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade generally ovoid in outline; some of the narrower speci¬
mens could be described as lanceolate; biconvex to nearly flat in cross
section; edges excurvate. Shoulders weak to moderate in develop¬
ment, never barbed, sloping to approximately right angular in profile.
Stem broad, long, contracted, lobate in outline, with convex, some¬
times nearly pointed base. While stem grinding is reported for some
Adena points, it is absent in the New York sample studied.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the characteristic point style
of the Adena culture, of Early Woodland times, radiocarbon dated
between about 800 B.C. and A.D. 800. It is also a trait of the Middlesex
complex in the Northeast, which is believed to have been derived in
part from the Adena (Ritchie and Dragoo, 1959, pp. 43-50; I960,
p. 26ff.).

Kneberg says that “the type is also associated with the late Archaic
culture in the Tennessee area, dating from about 1000 B.C. to the early
centuries A.D.” (Kneberg, 1956, p. 26.)

Distribution: “The Adena type is found chiefly in the upper Ohio
River Valley, especially the states of Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, West
Virginia and Pennsylvania.” (Bell, 1958, p. 4.) It has an uncertain
peripheral distribution which includes Tennessee and New York.

12

New York Projectile Points

References: Kneberg, 1956, pp. 26-27; Bell, 1958, pp. 4-5; Ritchie,
1958, pp. 100-102, where it is called a “lobate stemmed point”; Ritchie
and Dragoo, 1960.

Remarks: In the upper Ohio Valley area Adena points are frequently
made of Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony or of Harrison County, Indiana
flint. Specimens made of these materials are also known from New
York, but most New York examples are of regional flints — Onondaga,
Oriskany, Helderberg, Normanskill, Deepkill, Fort Ann — or very
rarely of quartz. These seem to be local copies, in readily available
materials, but often on a somewhat smaller scale, of introduced Adena
points.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

BARE ISLAND POINTS (plates 2 and 3)

This description was prepared hy W. Fred Kinsey III.

General description: Medium to large,
finely flaked, symmetrical points, having
slender isosceles triangular blades. The
stem is straight with parallel sides and the
base is also straight.

Size: They range from 1.2 inches to 3*8
inches long with the average length slight¬
ly over 2 inches. In cross section they are
oval and relatively thick.

Proportions: Blade width is between } /£
and of the total length. A rather
slender shape predominates, although ex¬
treme narrow-bladed examples are in the
minority.

Shape: The blade exhibits considerable
symmetry in the form of an isosceles triangle. Edges are generally
slightly convex with the edges on the larger specimens tending to be
straighter. Greatest convexity usually occurs at the middle of the
blade. Tips are sharply pointed and are always on center with the
stem although there is no distinct medial ridge. Points made of
quartz are thicker than those fashioned from other lithic materials.
Probably this is a function of the way quartz flakes, rather than a
trait of ultural significance.

Shoulders are slightly rounded and tapered but not conspicuously so.
On a few specimens the shoulders are quite sharply angled and well
defined. An obtuse angle is formed between the blade and stem, but
in some instances a right angle is present. There are intergrades
between the Bare Island point and the Poplar Island point, but the
rounded shoulder is conspicuous on the latter type. This is a dis¬
tinguishing characteristic. The shoulder on the Bare Island point
is more crisp.

The stem is always narrower than the blade. The long sides of the
stem are parallel or nearly so forming a nearly perfect square or rec¬
tangle. The base is usually quite straight, but it is sometimes slightly
convex. A few examples intergrade with a large corner-notched point
form that has an expanded stem. There are often traces of grinding

14

New York Projectile Points

along the stem edges and at the base. Corners approach right angles
and on some specimens they are quite sharp.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is a distinctive point type found
on numerous Archaic sites in the lower Susquehanna watershed. It
is more abundant on the islands of the Susquehanna rather than the
hilltop sites back from the river. Although not found as yet in any
deeply stratified sites, it is the major point type in all levels at the
Kent-Hally site on Bare Island. It is also abundant at the Fallen Tree
site on the same island. The type is presumed to be part of a varied
and complex Late Archaic. Locally, the author believes it is contem¬
poraneous with steatite bowls.

Similarities between the Bare Island point and a component of the
Accokeek Creek site on the lower Potomac River, south of Washington,
D.C., are striking. It may be that the antecedent for this type lies
in the Virginia and Carolina Piedmont and the Savannah River in
Georgia.

Distribution: The type is found in the lower Susquehanna Valley,
particularly the river islands. It extends southward along Elk River
in Maryland, the Chesapeake and the lower Potomac. East of the
Susquehanna, it is found along the headwaters of the White Clay Creek
and the Brandywine in Chester County. West of the Susquehanna, it
is not common in the Adams and Franklin County sections of the
Cumberland Valley. The writer believes the distribution is also spotty
along the west and north branches of the Susquehanna.

[The distribution of these points extends across New Jersey into
southern and eastern New York. They occur in some abundance on
Staten Island and Long Island, and with diminishing frequency north¬
ward up the Hudson Valley, at least to Saratoga County. The
Ctl. 1 site in Greene County provided a sample of 114. In the south¬
ern part of this range, quartz is the commonest material. Farther
north flint predominates, although quartz and quartzite are still
present. (See plate 3). W.A.R.]

References: Kinsey, 1959, p. 115, where they are called “straight¬
stemmed, Type A.”

Remarks: At the Kent-Hally site nearly 50 percent of these points
were made of quartz. Other locally available stones in order of pref¬
erence are: siltstone, quartzite, rhyolite, argillite, and a very few of
flint, gneiss and schist. No attempt was made to utilize the available
flint and jasper sources. The reasons for this cultural preference are
unknown.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

BREWERTON CORNER-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 4)

General description: Broad, thick, corner-
notched points, predominantly of medium
size.

Size: Length range from about % to 3H
inches. Majority fall between Vy± and
inches.

Thickness about ^ to ^ of an inch;
majority about % of an inch.

Proportions: These points are one and
one-fourth to one and one-half times as
long as wide. The larger examples are
about twice as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, biconvex in cross section; edges
slightly excurvate, less often straight, or rarely incurvate. Stem cor¬
ner-notched with medium to large corner notches forming prominent
barbs, and basally expanded. Base straight, slightly convex or rarely
slightly concave. About two-thirds have the base ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: This constitutes a minority point type
in the Archaic Brewerton complex of Laurentian and in the Frontenac
complex in New York. There is some evidence that it appeared later
than the Brewerton Side-Notched type in the Brewerton complex.
The Vosburg Point of the eastern New York manifestation of Lauren¬
tian differs from the Brewerton Corner-Notched type in its shorter
stem, smaller notches and usually weaker barbs. The two forms over¬
lap, however, and appear to be genetically related and generally con¬
temporaneous.

Distribution: Primarily a central and western New York form.
Present also in eastern New York with occasional examples as far south
as central New Jersey. Similar points occur also as a minor and
relatively late type on sites attributed to the Laurentian of the upper
Ohio Valley (Dragoo, 1959, pp. 162, 176-180).

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 29, 48-49, 66, 88, where they are de¬
scribed as “corner-notched points.” Subsequently the writer has
referred to them as “broad corner-notched points.”

Remarks: Usually made of local Onondaga gray flint and apparently
in the same manner as the Brewerton Side-Notched form.

16

New York Projectile Points

BREWERTON EARED-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 5)

General description: Generally broad,
thick, weakly side-notched points, small
to medium in size, characterized by a broad
base with flanges which often project be¬
yond the edges and, for the most part,
have been carefully chipped into small and
delicate prominences or “ears.”

Size: The length range is from % to
inches, the majority being between 1 and
lj/2 inches long. Thickness % to % of
an inch, with }/£ of an inch for most
examples.

Proportions: About one and one-half to two times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid or ovoid in outline, biconvex in cross sec¬
tion; edges prevailingly excurvate, less frequently straight. Stem
broad, with small side notches and pronounced lateral, carefully
chipped “ears.” Ears and base, the latter in most instances slightly
concave, occasionally straight, are sharp, except in a very few examples
where they are ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: A minority type in the Brewerton
complex, where it constitutes 8 percent of the projectile point inven¬
tory at the Robinson site, but is barely represented at the nearby Ober-
lander No. 1 station. Present also as a minority form on Middle and
Late Archaic period sites in eastern New York and southern New
England.

Distribution: Central and eastern New York and southern New
England, especially Massachusetts.

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 28, 66, where it is called the “eared
notched point;” 1958, where it is referred to throughout as the “eared
side-notched point.”

Remarks: This point type was probably derived from the Brewerton
Side-Notched type in upper Middle Archaic times. The material of
the Brewerton series in central New York is Onondaga flint; of the
eastern New York series, predominantly local flints.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

BREWERTON EARED TRIANGLE POINTS (plate 6)

General description: Relatively thin, isos¬
celes triangular points, small to medium
in size, distinguished by small, delicately
chipped “ears” on either side of the base.

Size: Only one site has produced a sizable
sample of these points, the Robinson site
at Brewerton, N.Y. As represented by
the 60 such points at this site, the length
range is from % to 2^ inches, the majority
falling between lj/fg and inches.

Proportions: About one and one-half to two times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid or ovoid in outline, biconvex in cross
section; edges prevailingly excurvate, occasionally straight. Stem¬
less, base broad and slightly concave or infrequently straight. Very
delicately chipped “ears” occur on either side of the base, which in
some examples has been rubbed smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: Like the evidently related Brewerton
Eared-Notched point, this is a minority type in the Brewerton com¬
plex, where it comprises only 5-38 percent of the total point series at
the Robinson site, and is barely represented at the nearby Oberlander
No. 1 site. It also occurs occasionally in eastern New York sites of
the Laurentian tradition and in related sites of southern New England.
The author regards it as a type of the upper Middle and Late Archaic
horizons in these several areas.

Distribution: Central and eastern New York and southern New
England, especially Massachusetts.

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 32, 67, where it is described as the
“eared-triangular point.”

Remarks: This type intergrades with the Brewerton Eared-Notched
type and may well have developed from it. Most examples from the
Brewerton sites are of local flints, carefully made by pressure flaking
techniques.

18

New York Projectile Points

BREWERTON SIDE-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 7)

General description: Broad, thick, side-
notched points, predominantly of medium
size.

Size: Length range from about % to 3j/8
inches, prevailingly between 1)4 and 2}/£
inches.

Thickness about }4 to 3^2 inch; % to Jbg of
an inch for the large majority.

Proportions: These points are one and
one-fourth to one and one-half times as
long as wide. The larger examples are
about twice as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, biconvex in cross section; edges
slightly excurvate, straight, or rarely incurvate; faintly serrated in rare
instances. Stem side-notched (occasionally with dual notches) and
basally expanded, sometimes to a pronounced degree, resulting in
lateral projections or “ears.” Base straight, slightly convex or less
often mildly concave. About two-thirds of all specimens have the
base ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the commonest point of all
Archaic Laurentian complexes of New York.

Distribution: All of New York. Also a dominant type on upper
Ohio Valley sites attributed to the Laurentian (Dragoo 1959). It is
a minority type on certain southern New England Archaic sites and
is present in Laurentian and Laurentian-like contexts in southern
Ontario, Pennsylvania and elsewhere in the Northeast.

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 28, 64-66, where they are termed
“side notched points.” In later reports the writer has called them
“broad side-notched points.”

Remarks: These points probably were, for the most part, javelin
heads. The larger sizes seem to have been spearpoints, while the
smaller variety could apparently have served as arrowpoints. It is,
however, unlikely that the bow and arrow was a hunting device at
the period, probably from around 3000 B.C. to early A.D. when this
type of point seems to have been used. Some of the more convex

19

New York State Museum and Science Service

edged specimens, especially those with short blade, were likely knives.
Rechipping to sharpen may account for some of the short-bladed
examples (plate 7, figure 8) and this process would accentuate the
proportions of the base.

For the most part these points seem to have been manufactured by
percussion chipping from local flints. Pressure flaking to produce a
sharp retouched edge is common.

The Brewerton Side-Notched point is probably related to the Otter
Creek point (plate 20 and pp. 40-41 herein), the Black Sand Notched
(Scully, 1951, p. 10), the Big Sandy Side-Notched (Kneberg, 1956,
p. 25), and other forms, including very similar examples from the Shell
Mound complex of the Southeast. The writer suspects it is geneti¬
cally related to other very old and widely-distributed, side-notched,
American projectile points.

20

New York Projectile Points

CLOVIS POINTS (plate 8)

General description: Narrow, fluted, lan¬
ceolate points, of medium to large size,
with concave bases.

Size: Length range from about 1 to 5
inches. The majority, in a series of 66
such points from New York State, measure
between about 2)^ and V/i inches in
length, and between % and of an inch
in maximum thickness (range to ^
of an inch).

Proportions: Two to four times as long
as wide.

Shape: Lanceolate, with parallel or ex-
cur vate edges and concave base. Basal
and lower lateral edges usually ground
smooth. Both faces (rarely only one)
fluted, the channel scars extending for
varying distances on either side from base
to tip. Frequently more than one channel
flake was struck off on each face.

Age and cultural affiliations: Early paleo-
Indian. Recent radiocarbon dates from
the Lehner site, a mammoth kill site in southeastern Arizona with
Clovis points, indicate an antiquity of 11,000 to 12,000 years (Haury,
Sayles and Wasley, 1959, pp. 24-25) for the Llano complex to which
the Clovis point type has been assigned, at least in the western United
States (Sellards, 1952, pp. 17-18).

Carbon 14 dates averaging about 9,000 years ago have been obtained
for the Bull Brook site in northeastern Massachusetts (Byers, 1959),
where Clovis type points comprise part of a paleo-Indian chipped stone
tool complex, having parallels elsewhere in the eastern United States.

Distribution: Chiefly as surface finds without faunal or cultural
associations, the Clovis point is widely distributed throughout the
United States and southwestern Ontario. Definite components, with
faunal associations, mainly mammoth remains, have been found in
the American Southwest and High Plains; without faunal associations

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New York State Museum and Science Service

in the eastern United States from Tennessee to Vermont. Sporadic
point occurrences are known from Mexico, western Canada and Alaska.

References: Wormington, 1957, pp. 42-84; Sellards, 1952, pp. 17-46;
Suhm, Krieger and Jelks, 1954, p. 412; Ritchie, 1957; Bell, 1958, p. 16.

Remarks: Clovis points are generally skillfully and carefully made,
apparently by pressure flaking techniques. The stone material is
usually a high grade mineral which frequently is exotic to the area
where the points are found.

The Clovis type point should not be confused with the Folsom type,
which is also fluted, and which has a much more limited distribution
within the western part of the United States. The Folsom type, which
at the Blackwater No. 1 locality, New Mexico, has been found strati-
graphically above the Llano complex containing the Clovis type, was
probably developed from it by paleo-Indian groups in the High Plains
who hunted bison of now extinct species (Sellards, 1952, pp. 29-31).
A radiocarbon date of 9,883 =b 350 years ago has been determined for
a Folsom component near Lubbock, Texas (Sellards, 1952, pp. 52-55).

The Folsom point is described by Wormington (1957, p. 263) as
“A more specialized type, of excellent workmanship, thought to be
derived from the Clovis type. There is some overlap in size between
Clovis and Folsom points, but the latter are lighter and usually smaller.
They range in length from three quarters of an inch to three inches with
an average of about two inches. They are lanceolate in outline and
have concave bases usually marked by ear-like projections. There is
frequently a small central nipple in the basal concavity. The points
were fluted through the removal of longitudinal flakes. The flutes
usually extend over most of the length of the point. In most cases
one major channel flake was removed from each face, but sometimes
only one face was fluted. Most specimens have a fine marginal retouch.
The lower edges usually bear evidence of grinding.”

22

New York Projectile Points

FULTON TURKEY TAIL POINTS (plate 9)

Although probably a knife blade rather than a projectile point, this
type is listed and described in Scully’s paper on projectile point typology
(Scully, 1951, p. 11)- A small number of specimens have been found
in New York, chiefly in the central part of the State, in the Seneca
and Oneida Rivers region.

The following description, except for the few New York specimens
available, is taken from Scully (op. cit' ).

“Material: Chipped stone. [All examples of this type seen by the
writer were made from Harrison County, Indiana, gray or blue-gray
nodular flint. The surface-found New York specimens have weathered
to a tan or brown color, the lighter concentric rings in the mineral
sometimes weathering almost white. The flaking was very skillfully
accomplished by a pressure technique which left broad, flat scars.
Fine marginal retouching is universally present.]

“General description: Leaf shaped, pointed at both ends and side
notched at one end.

“Size: Average — about 6 inches. [The New York examples range
from 3M to 6 inches long and average 34 of an inch in maximum
thickness.]

“Proportions: Three times as long as the widest point.

“Shape: Body — pointed at both ends with widest portion halfway
up the length of point.

Notches — shallow, rounded, narrow, side notches located
about Mo length from end of point.

“Variants: Proportions vary as do the position of the notches.

‘ ‘Association : Usually with late Archaic or early Woodland. [A spe¬
cimen of this kind was found by the writer in a grave of the early
Point Peninsula complex, Early Woodland period, on the Oberlander
No. 2 site at Brewer ton, Oswego County, N.Y. (See Ritchie, 1944,
pp. 152-160, plate 71, figure 13- Slight damage to the base of this arti¬
fact has resulted in the loss of the characteristic point.) Charcoal from
one of the burials, all cremated, in this cemetery, yielded a radio¬
carbon date of 998 B.C. ± 170 years (Chicago sample No. 192. Arnold
and Libby, 1951, p. 114).

It is a diagnostic trait of the Red Ocher culture of the upper Great
Lakes region.]

“Distribution: Central Illinois, eastern Missouri, and southern
Illinois and Indiana. [To this range we may add Ohio and central
New York.]

“Reference: Titterington, 1950.” [Scully, 1951, p< 11.]

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New York State Museum and Science Service

GENESEE POINTS (plate 10)

General description: Large, thick, straight
stemmed points, of medium breadth.

Size: Length range is from approximately
l}/2 to 6 inches; the majority falling be¬
tween 3 and V/i inches. Specimens longer
than 6 inches occasionally occur or are in¬
dicated by broken basal sections. Thick¬
ness varies from about Jfg to of an inch,
with most points measuring between %
and J{$ of an inch.

Proportions: Typically about 2 to 2}/%
times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, mark¬
edly biconvex in cross section; edges
straight or slightly excurvate. Stem rec¬
tangular and straight or parallel-sided.
Shoulders weakly to moderately devel¬
oped, with straight or slightly oblique
basal edge. Base straight. About 40
percent show slight grinding of base and
sides of stem.

Age and cultural affiliations: Apparently Middle to Late Archaic;
part of Laurentian and Frontenac manifestations. Examples were
found among the grave goods of 9 burials at Frontenac Island (Ritchie,
1945, pp- 48-80). Radiocarbon dates at this site range from 2980 B.C.
dr 260 (C- 191, Arnold and Libby, 1951, p. 114), through 2013 B.C.
d= 80 (Y-459), to 1723 B.C. ± 250 (W-545).

Distribution: Central and, particularly, western New York and
westward across the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario. Especially num¬
erous in the Genesee Valley of New York and the Grand River Valley
of Ontario. To a much lesser extent they occur also in eastern New
York and southern New England.

References: Ritchie, 1940, p. 29; 1945, p. 30, where they are referred
to as “stemmed” and “broad stemmed” points, respectively.

24

New York Projectile Points

Remarks: Genesee points seem to have served as dart or spear points,
perhaps in a few cases as knives. A very large percentage are made
from the characteristic mottled gray and brown flint of the Onondaga
escarpment of western New York and adjacent Ontario, most of the
remainder being of the more uniform gray Onondaga chert of central
New York.

Broad, shallow chipping scars suggest percussion technique of manu¬
facture. Marginal retouching is evident in many specimens and prob¬
ably signifies pressure work.

These points bear a marked similarity to the Kays Stemmed, a Middle
to Late Archaic type of the Tennessee area (Kneberg, 1956, p. 26),
and to straight stemmed points from the Shell Mound complex of
Kentucky (compare, e.g., with figure 32, A. Webb, 1946).

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New York State Museum and Science Service

JACK’S REEF CORNER-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 11)

General description: Broad, thin, corner-
notched points of medium size, frequently
having angular edges.

Size: Length range from about 1 to 2}/i
inches; for the most part, between 1%
and 2 inches. Maximum thickness Jfg to
M of an inch, the majority do not exceed
the minimum figure. There is one larger
specimen, probably a spearhead of this
type, measuring 4 inches in length, but
only an inch in thickness (plate 33,

figure 2).

Proportions: About one and one-fourth times as long as broad.

Shape: Ovoid or pentagonal in outline, and flat or nearly so in cross
section. Edges excurvate or angular. Stem corner-notched and
basally flaring, barbs small to large, thin and sharp. Base straight,
and occasionally slightly smoothed.

Age and cultural affiliations: Later Middle Woodland times and the
earlier part of the Late Woodland period.

Its principal period of use in New York encompassed Point Peninsula
2 and 3 complexes and the early O wasco Carpenter Brook complex.
One site of the latter complex (White site, Norwich, N.Y.) has been
radiocarbon dated at A.D. 905 ± 250 years (M-176, Crane, 1956,

p. 668).

It appears to be one of the forms found in the Intrusive Mound cul¬
ture graves at the Mound City Hopewell group in Ross County, Ohio
(Mills, 1922, p. 579 and figure 94).

Distribution: A major center of use was the Seneca River area of
central New York, where it has been found in the burials and/or
refuse of the Kipp Island, Jack’s Reef, Bluff Point, Wickham and other
sices, and on much more numerous surface sites. It is sporadically
distributed in western, northern and eastern New York. As already
mentioned, it occurs in Ohio, which was probably a primary center
of dispersal into New York.

26

New York Projectile Points

References: Ritchie, 1944, pp. 132 ff., plate 59, figures 8, 14-18, 20,
22-25; p. 173, plate 77, figures 6-8; 1946, p. 20, plate 6, figure 23;
1958, plate 14, figures 5, 6. According to blade outline, the point is
alluded to in these references as “broad corner-notched” or “corner-
notched with angular edges.”

Remarks: This point takes its name from the late Point Peninsula
Jack’s Reef site in Onondaga County, N.Y., excavated by the writer
in 1947 and 1951 (ms. report on file at New York State Museum and
Science Service).

Materials include not only central New York Onondaga flint, but
eastern Pennsylvania jasper and Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony. The
points appear to have been made by carefully controlled pressure flaking.

27

New York State Museum and Science Service

JACK’S REEF PENTAGONAL POINTS (plate 12)

General description: Broad, stemless, pen
tagonal points.

Size: Range in length from 1 to 1% inches;
majority measure between 1J4 to 1^
inches, with a maximum thickness of
of an inch.

Proportions: About one and a third times
as long as wide.

Shape: Pentagonal, usually with straight sides. Sides, however,
may be slightly contracting. Base straight, rarely concave.

Age and cultural affiliations: A larger, thicker and cruder variant
(up to 234 inches long) appears in the Brewerton complex (Middle
Archaic). A few smaller, but still crude, examples occur in the middle
or Point Peninsula 2 complex (later Middle Woodland). It constitutes
a minor, but well-executed form on late Point Peninsula (Point Penin¬
sula 3), and especially on sites which show transitional features into
the early Owasco (lower Late Woodland) complex, where it continues,
however, as a minor point type. The best example is the White site,
near Norwich, Chenango County, N.Y., radiocarbon dated at A.D.
905 =b 250 years (M-176, Crane, 1956, p. 668).

Like the Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched point, with which it coexists
on both Point Peninsula and Owasco sites in New York, it was present
in the Intrusive Mound culture graves at the Mound City Hopewell
group in Ross County, Ohio (Mills, 1922, p. 579 and figure 94).

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 30-31; 1944, pp. 89, 107, 133; 1946,
p. 39. They are termed ‘ ‘pentagonal-shaped points” in these references

Distribution: Very similar to the Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched type.
In central and eastern New York it has been found in refuse and/or
burials on the Robinson, Wickham, Jack’s Reef, Kipp Island, Bluff
Point, White and Schermerhorn sites.

It occurs, as mentioned, in Ohio. A similar form is described for
Virginia (Holland, 1955, pp- 167 T 68).

Remarks: Named from the late Point Peninsula Jack’s Reef site in
Onondaga County, excavated by the writer in 1947 and 1951 (ms.
report on file at the New York State Museum and Science Service).

Materials, local flints. Technique, pressure flaking.

28

New York Projectile Points

LAMOKA POINTS (plates 13 and 14)

General description: Small, narrow, thick
points, with weak to moderately pro¬
nounced side notches, or straight stemmed
with slight, usually sloping shoulders.

Size: The length ranges from less than one
inch to about 2}/% inches. The majority
fall between 1J4 and 1% inches in length,
and measure about of an inch in maxi¬
mum thickness. There are a few longer
points, believed to be spearheads, which
range up to 5% inches in length. (Ritchie,
1932, plate V, figures 28-30.)

Proportions: Two to three times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, biconvex or median ridged in
cross section; edges straight or slightly excurvate. Stem straight and
of moderate length or side-notched. Base straight, oblique, or slightly
convex, usually unworked and as thick as blade, often exhibiting broad,
unmodified surface of flake or pebble from which point was made.
This thick, “unfinished” condition of the base is a prime diagnostic
feature of the Lamoka point wherever found.

Age and cultural affiliations: The characteristic point form of the
Lamoka complex, for which radiocarbon dates ranging from about
3500 B.C. to 2500 B.C. have been obtained. Both the side-notched
and stemmed forms occur together in the same Lamoka components at
the same levels, although the proportions vary somewhat from site
to site, as noted in the site reports. The type apparently persisted in
very minor proportions down to Middle Woodland times, at least in
central New York.

Distribution: This type has a wide range beyond the known area
of the defined Lamoka complex in central and western New York and
adjacent northern portions of Pennsylvania. To the west it is found
on the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario, and a very similar form, called
the “Dustin point,” is well represented in the Lower Peninsula of
Michigan. (Data received from, and specimens seen through the
courtesy of Lewis R. Binford, Museum of Anthropology, University

29

New York State Museum and Science Service

of Michigan.) East of the Lamoka culture area it is present in eastern
and southeastern New York and it has a still broader random dis¬
tribution.

References: Ritchie, 1932, pp. 91-92; 1936, pp. 4-5; 1944, p. 329;
1945, p. 30; 1958, pp. 14, 31-33, 45-46, 60-61; 1959, pp. 84-85, 87-89;
Dragoo, 1959, p. 238. (Ritchie has referred, in the later references,
to two types, viz., Lamoka Side-Notched and Lamoka Stemmed,
herein described as a single type.)

Remarks: Lamoka points seem usually to have been made from local
materials, principally flints, quartz or quartzite. A pebble industry
was indicated at the Lamoka Lake site. The chipping is generally
coarse and marginal retouching is rare. Binford has distinguished
two methods of making these points, the more common being lamellar
chipping from either edge to produce a medially ridged blade. This
is the only method reported by him for the “Dustin” points from
Michigan.

The second method has resulted in flatter, randomly placed flaking
scars, and a biconvex rather than a rhomboidal cross section for the
blade. He regards this distinction as of possible chronological signifi¬
cance. (By conversation of November 1959.) Should his hypothesis
be sustained, the writer suggests use of the terms Lamoka B and
Lamoka A, respectively, for these groups.

It would seem that Lamoka points constitute a relatively early
Archaic horizon style in the New York area.

30

New York Projectile Points

LEVANNA POINTS (plate 15)

General description: Medium to large,
fairly thin, triangular points, generally
with concave bases.

Size: In the sample of 250 New York
points used in this study, the length range
was J/$ to 3 inches. The majority meas¬
ured between and inches in length
and % of an inch in maximum thickness.

Proportions: Characteristically these points are nearly as broad as
they are long. In the more slender examples the length varies from
about one and one-third to one and one-half times the breadth.

Shape: Approximately 70 percent are equilaterally triangular. The
rest may best be described as broad isosceles triangles. Edges usually
straight, occasionally incurvate, recurvate, or slightly excurvate.
More than 80 percent have a basal concavity, often to a marked degree,
nearly V-shaped in a few examples, producing prominent corner barbs,
which are occasionally asymmetric (plate 15, figures 5 and 10). The
remainder have straight bases.

Age and cultural affiliations: In New York State this type evidently
made its appearance in late Middle Woodland times around A.D. 7 00.
It did not, however, become common until the transitional period into
Late Woodland, ca. A.D. 900. Thereafter its popularity rapidly in¬
creased, until it became the principal Late Woodland point type over
much of the area. Around A.D. 1350 it began to be supplanted by
the Madison type, mainly in the districts of Iroquois cultural domi¬
nation.

The Levanna point is associated as a minor type with the middle
and late Point Peninsula complexes. It is the characteristic type of
the Owasco of all stages of development. On the same time level
as Owasco it is an important type in the Bowmans Brook, Clasons
Point and Sebonac cultures of coastal New York. It appears in
significant proportions in various late prehistoric manifestations of
southern New England, New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

Distribution: New York, much of New England, southeastern
Ontario, the Middle Atlantic area, at least to Virginia, and eastern
Pennsylvania.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

References: Named from the Levanna site, Cayuga County, N. Y.
(Ritchie, 1928).

Remarks: Unquestionably an arrowpoint. Very finely chipped by
pressure flaking. Materials local flints, jasper, quartz and quartzite.

32

New York Projectile Points

MADISON POINTS (plate 16)

This point type was described by Scully
as the Mississippi Triangular Point, later
changed by him to the Madison Point
(Scully, 1951, p. 14. The copy received
from him contains the penciled nominal
revision). He gives the association as
“Middle Mississippi,” and the distribu¬
tion as “Middle and Upper Mississippi
sites in Illinois, Wisconsin and Missouri.”

Kneberg refers to a very similar point as the “Late Mississippi
Triangular,” but confines it to a form with “straight basal edge”
(Kneberg, 1956, p. 24). She relates it to “most of the late Mississippi
cultures in Tennessee,” including the historic Cherokee, of the period
of approximately A.D. 1300-1800. Her “Hamilton Incurvate” type,
assigned to several cultures of the Late Woodland period, dating
between c. A.D. 500-1000, exhibits the incurvate edges and base found
on some of the points included in Scully’s description as variants of
the Madison type. (Kneberg, ibid.)

Suhm, Krieger and Jelks (1954, pp. 504, 498, 506) have defined vari¬
ous triangular types — the Maud, Fresno and Starr — which have features
overlapping with the Madison type. These belong to assemblages
which flourished during the latter half of the Christian era, and in¬
cluded pottery and agriculture.

The New York specimens herein described have some definite simi¬
larities to all of these possibly interrelated types. Since, however,
the variations noted in our sample are readily accommodated within
the compass of Scully’s Madison type this name has been applied.

General description: Small, thin, triangular points.

Size: According to Scully, the length range is from x/i to 2% inches,
with an average of 1 inch. A New York sample of 100 points from a
single prehistoric Iroquois site in western New York (plate 16) ranged
from 54 to 1/46 of an inch, with a majority falling between 1 and 1J4
inches. The thickness varied from J/f6 to 546, most of the specimens
measuring 54 of an inch, maximum.

Proportions: These vary from about as long as wide in the nearly
squilateral specimens to twice as long as wide in the isosceles triangles,
with most of the latter around W/l times as long as broad.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Shape: Equilateral (20 percent) or isosceles (80 percent) in outline,
with straight (47 percent) or concave (53 percent) base (in two exam¬
ples the base is slightly convex), and straight (75 percent), slightly
excurvate (17 percent), or slightly incurvate (8 percent) edges. Flat
or nearly so in cross section.

Age and cultural affiliations: Late prehistoric to early historic
period. Constitutes, in varying proportions, an arrowpoint type of
many Middle and Upper Mississippi and Late Woodland complexes.
In the Northeast it is the distinctive Iroquoian form.

Distribution: Has a wide distribution in the eastern United States
and southeastern Ontario.

References: Scully, 1951, p- 14.

Remarks: Very finely chipped by pressure flaking. Among the
northern Iroquois the principal material employed was Onondaga
flint from the exposures of central New York and the Ontario Peninsula.

34

New York Projectile Points

MEADOWOOD POINTS (plate 17)

General description: Very thin, medium
to large, side-notched points, of medium
breadth.

Size: In length these points range from
about 1% to 3^2 inches, with the majority
falling between 2J4 and 2% inches. The
thickness, even of the largest points, rarely
exceeds % of an inch.

Proportions: The length averages approx¬
imately two and a half to three times the
breadth.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, flat
in cross section; edges are straight, slightly
excurvate or incurvate, and are occasion¬
ally serrated or steeply beveled from oppo¬
site sides. Stem neatly side-notched, some¬
times with double notch. Base straight or
convex, sometimes expanded in fan shape,
In about 50 percent base is ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the characteristic point type
of the early Point Peninsula (Point Peninsula 1) complex, radiocarbon
dated between about 2448 B.C. (C-794, Libby, 1954, p. 137) and 563
B.C. (M-640, Crane and Griffin, 1959, p. 183). It is apparently diag¬
nostic for this Early Woodland culture.

Distribution: Northern, central and western New York and west¬
ward across the Niagara Peninsula of southeastern Ontario. Sporadi¬
cally found in eastern and southern New York, and in the upper
Allegheny Valley of western Pennsylvania.

References: Ritchie, 1944, pp. 122, 125-126, 152-160; 1955, pp.
48-49, where they are termed “thin side-notched” points; 1958, p. 68,
where the type is referred to as “Meadowood Side-Notched.”

Remarks: While most specimens appear to be projectile points,
others seem to have been made or modified for use as side or end scrapers,
knives, and perhaps saws. Many could have been manufactured by

or beveled to scraper edge.

35

New York State Museum and Science Service

slight alteration from the numerous mortuary or “cache” blades found
in burials of this culture. The flat, well-controlled pressure flaking,
shows great skill. Wherever found, these points (and the accompany¬
ing mortuary blades, drills and scrapers) are prevailingly of the peculiar
mottled gray and brown flint of the Onondaga exposures in western
New York and the Ontario Peninsula, or of the clear gray flints of the
central New York Onondaga escarpment.

36

New York Projectile Points

NORMANSKILL POINTS (plate 18)

General description: Slender, thick points
of medium size, with prominent side
notches.

Size: Length range from about l1/^ to
inches, majority fall between 1% and 2
inches. Thickness from to % °f an
inch, in the majority the maximum thick¬
ness is 34 of an inch.

Proportions: Two to three times as long
as wide.

Shape: Blade narrow and triangular in
outline, markedly biconvex in cross sec¬
tion; edges straight. Stem boldly side-
notched and slightly thinned by coarse flaking from the base. Base
straight or very slightly concave. Rarely the base shows a little
smoothing.

Age and cultural affiliations: Occurs in varying proportions on sites
or site components of Middle Archaic age. Constitutes an element of
the Vosburg complex, Laurentian tradition.

Distribution: Eastern New York, chiefly along the Hudson River
and tributary streams, such as the Normanskill, Mohawk River and
Hoosic River, from about Glens Falls to Kingston. Excavated from
the Harris site (Scv 1-2), Saratoga County, and from Stratum 3 of the
Lotus Point site (Ctl 3-1), Greene County. The dominant point form
on the river site (Coh 8-3), Saratoga County. Abundant on the Vos¬
burg site, Albany County.

References: Ritchie, 1958, pp. 8-53, plate 3, figures 23-33; plate 12,
figures 9, 10; plate 15, figures 11-58, where they are described as
“narrow side-notched points.”

Remarks: This point suggests a slender variant of the Brewerton
Side-Notched type which, described as “broad side-notched” by the
writer (1958), occurs with it on the aforementioned eastern and other
New York sites. Morphologically it is transitional between the
Lamoka side-notched and Brewerton side-notched forms.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

The materials used are local flints. The techniques employed in
fabrication seem for the most part to have been percussion for the rough
shaping of the point and pressure flaking to produce the varying
amounts of marginal retouching.

38

New York Projectile Points

ORIENT FISHTAIL POINTS (plate 19)

General description: A slender, gracefully
formed point, of medium size, with char¬
acteristically narrow, lanceolate blade
merging into a flaring “fishtail” stem.

Size: Length range from about Ijjg to 4
inches, predominantly 2 to 234 inches.
Maximum thickness 5^6 to of an inch,
majority fall between 34 and ^6 of an inch.

Proportions: These points are two and
one-half to three and one-half times as
long as wide.

Shape: Blade lanceolate in outline, bicon¬
vex to nearly flat in cross section; edges
excurvate. Sloping shoulders merge into
flaring stem with incurvate or less often,
straight base. Latter occasionally slightly
smoothed.

Age and cultural affiliations: Late Archaic
and Transition period into Early Wood¬
land. The characteristic point type of the Orient complex on Long
Island and of a related manifestation with stone vessels in the Hudson
Valley and elsewhere. Orient complex radiocarbon dated between
1044 B.C. d= 300 years (M-586) (Crane and Griffin, 1958, p. 1101) and
763 B.C. db 220 years (W-543). (Ritchie, 1959, pp. 47-49, 74-76.)

Distribution: Eastern and southern New York, particularly the
middle and lower Hudson Valley and Long Island. Has a light,
sporadic representation in central New York, southern New England
and northern and central New Jersey.

References: Ritchie, 1944, p. 227 ff.; 1958, esp. pp. 29-31, on the
stratigraphic position of these points on a Hudson Valley site; 1959,
on the Orient complex. Formal description under same name in latter,
pp. 31-32.

Remarks: In the Orient complex of Long Island, a majority of these
points were made, apparently by indirect percussion, from the local
quartz or quartzite pebbles. Elsewhere regional flints of good quality
or occasionally jasper or even slate were employed, and the flat flaking
scars suggest reduction from a thick spall by a pressure technique.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

OTTER CREEK POINTS (plates 20, 21, 22)

General description: Large, thick, narrow
or medium wide, side-notched points, with
“square” tangs.

Size: Length range from about to 4^2
inches, majority fall between 2% and
inches. A few probable spearpoints of
larger size have been identified (plate 22).
Thickness range % to x/l inch, majority
measure between ^6 and Lie of an inch.

Proportions: Two to three times as long
as wide.

Shape: Blade ovoid or lanceolate, rarely
trianguloid in outline, biconvex in cross
section; edges excurvate, less often straight;
stem side-notched, notching seems to have
been final operation, resulting in “square”
tangs. Base concave or less frequently
straight. Almost invariably the base and
tang edges have been ground or rubbed
smooth, and in nearly all cases this treat¬
ment has been extended to the notch.

Age and cultural affiliations: The prevail¬
ing point type of certain, still undescribed
sites, apparently to be attributed to the poorly defined Vergennes com¬
plex of the Archaic Laurentian manifestation in western Vermont
(Ritchie, 1944, pp. 253-257).

Distribution: As currently known, west central Vermont, especially
the valley of Otter Creek and its tributaries. The predominant point
form on certain sites explored by Thomas E. Daniels, Orwell, Vt.
(plate 20); present also on the multicomplex Vergennes site (Bailey,
1939) and several other stations in this area. A cross tie with the
Brewerton complex in central New York is afforded by the occurrence
of a few points of this type on the Robinson site (Ritchie, 1940, plate
13, figure 97) and, conversely, of Brewerton type side-notched, corner-
notched and eared-notched types on the Vermont sites in question.

40

New York Projectile Points

An occasional point of this type is found on Archaic sites in eastern
New York (plate 21).

References: None.

Remarks: The author believes the Otter Creek point is genetically
related to the Brewerton Side-Notched point and to other similar types
mentioned under the description of the latter (page 72). Side-notched
points apparently very like Otter Creek points are reported from levels
5 and 6 of the Graham Cave site in Missouri (Logan, 1952, plate V,
G-L; plate VI, A, B), and from the Osceola site of the Old Copper
culture in Wisconsin (Ritzenthaler, 1946, plate 6; Bell, 1958, p. 68).
Because of its large size it may have been primarily a spearpoint. The
material of many of these points is a regional quartzite or metamor¬
phosed siltstone or slate. Some, however, are of native or probably
eastern New York flints. The chipping seems to have been done by
percussion with secondary marginal pressure flaking on most examples.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

PERKIOMEN BROAD POINTS (plate 23)

Witthoft is responsible for the definition
of this type which he has termed the
“Perkiomen Broad Spearpoint.” The fol¬
lowing discussion is based largely on his
paper, cited below.

General description: “Very broad, boldly
flaked spearpoints of semi-lozenge shape,
with certain characteristic contour details
often exaggerated.”

Size: “Rarely less than two inches long
and rarely more than four. Specimens up
to nine inches long are sometimes found,
and I have seen some examples four inches
broad and six long.”

A small New York sample ranged between and an inch in

thickness, with most examples in the lower range. The average thick¬
ness of this type slightly exceeds that of the Susquehanna Broad type.

Proportions: “Generally half as broad as long, or more. Rarely
narrow, often very asymmetrical.”

Shape: “Blade: Generally approximates an equilateral triangle, with
convex edges near tip, and often slight convexity or concavity else¬
where. Blade edges are frequently asymmetrical, and the blade is
often somewhat out of center in relation to the tang. Blades are thin,
with rarely any medial ridge; where one occurs on one face, the other
face is usually flat.

“Ears [Shoulders]: Frequently barbed, sometimes at both ears but
more often only at one corner. The ears may form either obtuse or
acute angles, but even strongly barbed specimens rarely have very
acute ears. Edges in the ear area are always thin and sharp, and were
carefully retouched to straight, even edges. Often the blade edge
ahead of the ear is somewhat concave or convex. Chipping details
of the ears and of the blade are like those of the Susquehanna Broad
Spearpoint, but the breaks in contour of the edge are frequently very
pronounced in the Perkiomen type, and the barbs and grotesquely
turned corners are exaggerations of these shape details. The two edges
of a specimen rarely show strong symmetry.

42

New York Projectile Points

“Tang [Stem]: Always constricted and almost invariably with a
convex base; the base is sometimes straight but is almost never concave.
[In about half of the New York specimens the base is straight.] The
tang is unusually small compared with the blade, and frequently is
tiny in proportion to the rest of the spear. The tang corners are
rounded, not prominent, and never suggest barbs. All edges of the
tang are always ground smooth, including the basal corners of the
tang. [This does not apply to many of the New York specimens.]
This edge grinding extends out onto the ears only a short distance,
generally to a conspicuous break in outline.”

Age and cultural affiliations: Probably like the Susquehanna Broad
point, i.e., of the Transitional period from Late Archaic into Early
Woodland. Witthoft has hypothesized that “The Susquehanna Broad
Spear type appears to be the ancestor of the Perkiomen Broad Spear and
the Lehigh Broad Spear [probably related to the Snook Kill point, here¬
in described, see pp. 47-48] types, ... as well as of slightly different
broad types of central New York and of the Hudson-Mohawk. . . .
These derived types are, I believe, both later than and contemporary
with the Susquehanna Broad Spear type; at any rate, they are over¬
lapping ages and there do not seem to be any very significant time
differences among them. Distributions are more geographic than
temporal.” (Witthoft, 1953, p. 16.)

Distribution: The Schuylkill Valley and its tributary streams enter¬
ing from the north, the eastern borders of the Susquehanna Valley,
the Delaware and Hudson Valleys. Sporadically distributed in north¬
ern and central New Jersey and in the Mohawk, Seneca, and Genesee
Valleys of New York.

References: Witthoft, 1953, pp. 16-20.

Remarks: The commonest lithic material of these points is Pennsyl¬
vania jasper, usually of the finest grades. Other specimens are of
rhyolite; Onondaga flint from central and western New York; Deepkill
and Normanskill flint from the Hudson Valley; Flint Ridge, Ohio
chalcedony; and rarely, argillite or quartzite.

43

New York State Museum and Science Service

POPLAR ISLAND POINTS (plates 24 and 25)

This description was prepared by W. Fred Kinsey III.

General description: Medium to large, finely flaked, symmetrical
points, having quite slender isosceles triangular blades. Shoulders are
rounded and the constricted stem tapers toward a narrow rounded base.

Size: They range from 1.8 inches to 3-4 inches with the average length
slightly over 2 inches. In cross section they are usually oval with
some examples rather thin and flat.

Proportions: Generally they are more slender than Bare Island
points. Blade width in comparison to length is narrow except where
some specimens have rechipped blades.

Shape: Blade exhibits considerable symmetry in the form of a slender
isosceles triangle. Edges are nearly straight with only a slight trace
of convexity. Tips and edges are crisp and the tip is always on center
with the stem. There is no medial ridge.

Shoulder area always rounded and on some specimens the shoulder
is not clearly defined. Usually it is a graceful curve and some pieces
lack distinct shoulders.

The nonparallel sides of the stem taper toward the base which is
the narrowest part of the stem. The lobate base is always convex
and sometimes it is nearly pointed. Basal corners are always round
and never sharp. Edge grinding is frequently present.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the second most popular point
type excavated at the Kent-Hally site on Bare Island. It occurs with
an overall frequency of 20 percent and its distribution was remarkably
uniform in all levels. At Kent-Hally two of this type were found in
intimate association with stone pots. One was inside a broken steatite
bowl and the other was lying against the outside wall of the vessel
(Kinsey 1959, pp. 128-129). The writer therefore suggested that this
was a Late Archaic type contemporaneous with the utilization of
steatite bowls, and also that the use of steatite might have been early
in the lower Susquehanna since the quarries are nearby. Witthoft, to
the contrary, places these points earlier in the Archaic since they are
found in deeper levels on Duncan’s Island. He believes the Poplar
Island and Bare Island points are close contemporaries. Probably
their antecedents lie in the Virginia and Carolina Piedmont and on
the Savannah River in Georgia.

44

New York Projectile Points

Distribution: The type is found in the same general area as the Bare
Island point but with a lower frequency. It is particularly conspicuous
on Poplar Island and Duncan’s Island in the lower Susquehanna River.
It also occurs along the Chesapeake and at the Accokeek Creek site.

[It has a sporadic distribution northward across Delaware and
New Jersey into southern and eastern New York. (See plate 25.)
W.A.R.]

References: Kinsey, 1959, p. 115, where it is referred to as “tapered
or lobate-stemmed, Type C;’’ Witthoft, 1959, p. 83.

Remarks: At the Kent-Hally site 37.7 percent of these points are of
siltstone, 24-5 percent of argillite, and 20 percent of quartz. Others
are made of quartzite, rhyolite and flint. At Poplar Island and Dun¬
can’s Island the use of siltstone and argillite is also conspicuous.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

ROSSVILLE POINTS (plate 26)

General description: Thick, lozenge¬
shaped points of medium size.

Size: Length range approximately 134 to
234 inches; majority fall between 1% to
2 inches. Maximum thickness varies from
34 to /4 of an inch in a sample of 72 from
New York, with most of the specimens
measuring 54 of an inch.

Proportions: About twice as long as wide.

Shape: Roughly rhomboidal or lozenge¬
shaped. Some examples have weak, oblique
shoulders which merge with a contracting
stem terminating in a blunt point. Edges
are straight or slightly excurvate.

Age and cultural affiliations: Very late Archaic, Transitional and
Early Woodland periods. They occur in the lower levels of certain
coastal New York shell heaps, apparently without pottery associa¬
tions, and continue into the North Beach and Clearview ceramic foci.
It is probable that they constitute a point type of other foci as well.

Distribution: From the Chesapeake Bay area, where it may have
originated, northward through southern and southeastern New York
and southern New England.

References: Skinner, 1915, p. 57; 1919, p. 70; Smith, 1950, pp. 134,
135; Holland, 1955, p. 170 (termed “Type K-Contracting Stem”);
Ritchie, 1958, p. 74, figures 25, 26 (termed “lozenge-shaped points”).

Remarks: Named from an early reference by Skinner to their pre¬
dominance at the Rossville site on Staten Island, N. Y. (Skinner, 1915,
p. 57). There seem to be no data to sustain the high antiquity accorded
to this form by Skinner.

Materials are chiefly quartz and argillite in the southern part of their
range, quartz and felsite in Connecticut and Massachusetts, and flint
in the Hudson Valley. These points display some overlap in shape
with the Poplar Island type, and a genetic relationship seems probable.

46

New York Projectile Points

SNOOK KILL POINTS (plate 27)

General description: Very broad, large,
thick, contracted stemmed points.

Size: Length range is from about 2 to 4
inches, with the majority falling between
2 34 and 3^ inches. Thickness ranges
from to of an inch; most points mea¬
sure between ^6 and of an inch.

Proportions: Typically about one and
one-half times as long as broad.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, bi¬
convex or plano-convex in cross section;
edges straight, slightly to moderately ex-
curvate, or slightly incurvate. Stem con¬
tracted or straight. Shoulders pronounced
and often asymmetric. No true barbs.
Base straight or slightly lobate. A very
small percentage have slight to moderate
basal grinding.

Age and cultural affiliations: The type
overlaps with the Lehigh Broad Spear-
point of Witthoft (1953, pp. 21-22), and
is probably of comparable age. The
author believes the Snook Kill complex
will prove to be related to the even less
well understood Late Archaic complex in
eastern Pennsylvania to which the Lehigh
point belongs. There is also enough gen¬
eral similarity between Snook Kill and
Savannah River points to suggest a genetic
relationship.

Distribution: Eastern New York, espe¬
cially the Hudson Valley between Albany
and Glens Falls and the lower Hoosic
Valley.

References: Ritchie, 1958, pp. 91-98.

Remarks: Nearly every specimen is made
of eastern New York flints, Normanskill,

47

New York State Museum and Science Service

Deepkill, Fort Ann; a few are of Onondaga or Oriskany flint, or of
weathered argillite, probably from the Delaware Valley in New Jersey
or eastern Pennsylvania, from which area the author suspects this com¬
plex entered New York.

The points exhibit broad, shallow flaking scars indicative of per¬
cussion chipping. In a fair number of cases retouching from both
sides has resulted in relatively thin, sharp, straight or slightly sinuous
edges.

Snook Kill points were probably employed on darts and spears.
Some with markedly convex edges (plate 27, figures 2 and 3), and
especially the variant with asymmetric edges and almost lozenge¬
shaped base, were doubtless knives.

48

New York Projectile Points

SNYDERS POINTS (plate 28)

The following description is based upon Scully (1951) and Bell (1958).

General description: A large, broad, ovate point with deep corner
notches.

Size: The length range is from about 2 to 6 inches, the majority fall¬
ing between 23T> and 3 inches.

Proportions: About four-fifths as wide as it is long.

Shape: Blade broad and ovate in outline, relatively thin and nearly
flat in cross section, edges excurvate. Stem short, deeply and usually
broadly corner-notched, and basally expanding. Base markedly
convex.

Age and cultural affiliations: It is a characteristic form of the Hope-
wellian culture of Middle Woodland age (approximately 500 B.C. to
A.D. 500).

Distribution: Central and northern Illinois, southwestern Michigan,
eastern Missouri, northeastern Oklahoma, the central Mississippi
Valley, the middle and upper Ohio Valley, and elsewhere, including
western New York.

References: Scully, 1951, p- 12; Bell, 1958, pp. 88-89.

Remarks: Of rare occurrence in New York, where its distribution
coincides with that of Hopewellian burial mounds. Most New York
examples are made of Harrison County, Indiana or Flint Ridge, Ohio
materials.

49

New York State Museum and Science Service

STEUBENVILLE LANCEOLATE POINTS (plate 29)

General description: Rather broad, lance¬
olate points, of medium to large size, with
slightly concave bases.

Size: Length range from about 1 to 3%
inches; the majority measuring between
2 and 3 inches. Thickness (of the small
sample from New York State) to ^ of
an inch.

Proportions: These points are two to two
and one-half times as long as wide.

Shape: Lanceolate, with excurvate or
slightly recurvate edges. Biconvex in
cross section. Base usually mildly to
moderately constricted and slightly con¬
cave. No smoothing, but occasional thinning present in the New York
sample.

Age and cultural affiliations: Problematical in the New York area.
Found in the Panhandle Archaic of West Virginia in association with
the Steubenville Stemmed type.

In eastern and southern New York State, where a similar point asso¬
ciation occurs, early pottery styles are evidently also present.

See fuller data under Steubenville Stemmed type, pp. 51, 52.

Distribution: The West Virginia Panhandle area and elsewhere in
the upper Ohio Valley; central New York, especially in the upper
Susquehanna Valley region; eastern New York, particularly in the
Hudson Valley south from Greene and Columbia Counties; Staten
Island, Long Island, and the upper Delaware Valley in New Jersey,
Pennsylvania and New York.

References: The Steubenville Lanceolate and Stemmed points were
named, but not defined or formally described, by Mayer-Oakes, 1955,
pp. 130-142; 1955a, pp. 8, 17-20; Ritchie, 1958, p. 99.

Remarks: These points are generally made of regional flints. In
the lower Hudson and upper Delaware River regions, however, a pur¬
ple or gray-weathering black argillite predominates.

50

New York Projectile Points

STEUBENVILLE STEMMED POINTS (plate 30)

General description: Broad, heavy points
of medium to large size, with wide stems
and very weak shoulders.

Size: In the sample of about 50 New York
points studied, the length ranged from 1%
to inches, with the majority measuring
between 2 and 2}/% inches. The thickness
varied from to 3i6 °f an inch, most
examples falling into the narrow range
between 5^6 and of an inch.

Proportions: From about one and one-
fourth to two and one-half times as long
as wide, with most of the points closer to
the former proportions, giving them a
short, wide, “stubby” appearance.

Shape: Blade outline ovate, lanceolate or trianguloid in descending
order of frequency; mildly biconvex in cross section; edges excurvate.
Stem wide, with very small, right angular or sloping (obtuse angular)
shoulders. In many cases the shoulders are so weakly developed as
to be almost nonexistent, and such intergrades link the stemmed and
lanceolate forms. Base concave or less often straight. Very slight
smoothing of the basal and/or stem edges, apparently more from use
than design, occurs on a small proportion of the specimens. In a few
of the specimens the base has been thinned by the removal from one
side of the stem of one or more shallow vertical channel flakes.

Age and cultural affiliations: Currently unknown in the New York
area. Part of the Panhandle Archaic of West Virginia. Mayer-Oakes
regards this and the culturally related Steubenville Lanceolate form
as very early Archaic in the upper Ohio Valley. He makes the assump¬
tion that “They were derived from the late Paleo-Indian ‘ScottsblufF
and ‘Starved Rock Lanceolate’ types, which came into the area from
the west at about the time of the post-glacial climatic maximum.”
(Mayer-Oakes, 1955a, p. 20.) Dragoo, on the other hand, would
place the Steubenville types in the Late Archaic complexes of the
upper Ohio Valley (Dragoo, 1959, pp. 202-206, 210, 213).

In eastern and southern New York State there is some evidence that
these types have ceramic associations. On the Ford site (Ctl. 16-2),

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Columbia County, they have been found on the same level with net-
impressed, grit- tempered, or shell-tempered and leached pottery.

“At Pelham Boulder [Har. 4-4, Bronx County], the Steuben villes
were in or near sherd clusters in the bottom third of the midden; col¬
lectively the types are Vinette 1, Modified Vinette 1, Fabric Impressed,
Net Impressed, Exterior Cord marked (like Vinette 1 and Modified
Vinette 1 except that there are no interior cordmarks) and Abbott
Zoned Dentate.” (Julius Lopez, letter of January 3, I960; cf. Lopez,
1956, p. 15.)

Distribution: The upper Ohio Valley, especially the West Virginia
Panhandle area; central New York, particularly the Susquehanna
Valley around Colliersville, Otsego County, and sporadically down
river at least to Susquehanna, Pennsylvania; eastern New York, chiefly
the Hudson Valley from Greene and Columbia Counties southward
to the mouth of the river; Staten Island; western Long Island; the upper
Delaware Valley in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and New York.

No doubt, as this point type becomes more generally recognized,
the range will be considerably extended, at least to include some of
the intervening areas.

References: The Steubenville Stemmed and Lanceolate types were
named, but not defined or formally described, by Mayer-Oakes, 1955,
pp. 130-142; 1955a, pp. 8, 17-20; Ritchie, 1958, p. 99.

Remarks: In most areas, local materials seem to predominate in the
composition of these points. In central and eastern New York, how¬
ever, a small percentage is comprised of purple- or gray-weathering
argillite, presumably derived from the Delaware Valley of New Jersey.
The incidence of argillite as a material rises sharply in the lower Hud¬
son and Delaware Valleys.

52

New York Projectile Points

SUSQUEHANNA BROAD POINTS (plate 31)

This point type has been described by John
Witthoft of the Pennsylvania State Museum
as the Susquehanna Broad Spearpoint. The
following discussion is taken very largely
from his work, cited below, as it applies
with equal validity to the New York
material in my sample of several hundred
points.

General description: “Broad, boldly flaked
spearpoints of roughly semi-lozenge to
rough corner-notched shape, with certain
characteristic contour details.”

Size: “Most specimens are between an inch
and a half and four inches long; rare exam¬
ples are as short as an inch and as long as
eight inches.”

The thickness of a representative sample of New York points varied
between % and jks °f an inch.

Proportions: “Generally half as broad as long, or less. Rarely
quite narrow.”

Shape: “Blade: Triangular, usually with some portion of the edges
convex, especially near tip. Edge often somewhat concave near base.
Frequently not symmetrical. In cross section, the faces of the blade
are evenly rounded rather than keeled or flat. Retouching of the
edge to final contour was usually from one face of the blade.

“Ears [Shoulders] : Not barbed, but jutting in a characteristic fashion.
The ears are usually angular, forming an obtuse angle, and are some¬
times somewhat rounded. In either case, they are always thin and
sharp, carefully retouched to thin, straight edges.

“Tang [Stem]: Always constricted and almost always with a con¬
cave base; base is rarely straight or extremely concave. Base of the
tang narrower than the ears, with tang corners generally acute and
prominent. All edges of the tang are always ground smooth, includ¬
ing the basal corners of the tang.”

Age and cultural affiliations: Transitional period linking Late Ar¬
chaic and Early Woodland periods. Probably between approximately
1200 and 700 B.C. The culture complex (or complexes) to which

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New York State Museum and Science Service

these points belong is poorly known, and with one exception, comes
from surface sites. They form part of a widely spread steatite or soap¬
stone pot-using culture which, in the Susquehanna Valley, has a very
limited associated complex mainly comprising distinctive forms of
chipped drills and scrapers, netsinkers, and crude ornaments of steatite.

Distribution: The Susquehanna Valley in Pennsylvania and New
York and its principal tributaries; the Delaware drainage system north
of the Water Gap; the Hudson and Mohawk Valleys; the Finger Lakes
region and the Seneca River and its affluent sources, including Oneida
Lake. The center of distribution seems to have been the Susquehanna
Valley in Pennsylvania.

References: Witthoft, 1953, pp. 7-16.

Remarks: In Pennsylvania, nearly all points of this type are said
to be made of purplish rhyolite derived from outcrops of this meta¬
morphosed volcanic rock in Franklin and Adams Counties, near Gettys¬
burg, Pennsylvania. This material also composes a large number of
the New York specimens and, together with the frequently associated
steatite, proves the intrusive nature of these artifacts, and almost cer¬
tainly of the complex to which they pertain. However, a much larger
proportion of the New York specimens, contrary to Witthoft’s state¬
ment (op. cit. pp. 8, 12) are of the local flints, for the most part Onon¬
daga, and constitute local copies of the introduced points.

Susquehanna Broad points of rhyolite and flint, associated with
steatite pot fragments, were excavated from the upper level of the
Frontenac Island site, Cayuga County, N.Y., above deeper deposits
of Archaic age (Ritchie, 1945).

Witthoft has classified these points as “spearpoints” but has not
defined the term. The author has distinguished between spearpoints
and dartpoints earlier in this study (see pages 5-6).

He suspects that the shorter examples were dartpoints. Some of
the very thin and fragile specimens may well have served as knives.

The writer has attempted to show the existence, chiefly in eastern
and southern New York, of intergrades connecting the Susquehanna
Broad point with the Orient Fishtail point (Ritchie, 1959, pp. 90-91,
169).

54

New York Projectile Points

VOSBURG POINTS (plate 32)

General description: Medium sized, broad,
relatively thin points, with small to med¬
ium comer notches on a prevailingly short
stem which is basally ground smooth.

Size: The length range is from about one
to 2% inches, the majority falling between
13/2 and 2 inches, with a maximum thick¬
ness of Jje to 34 of an inch. Longer points,
probably spearheads, do occur, the largest
seen measuring 434 inches long, 134 inches
wide, and z/% of an inch thick (plate 32,
figure 11).

Proportions: Length averages about one-quarter greater than breadth
in most specimens. The larger points are two to two and one-half
times as long as wide.

Shape: The blade is trianguloid in outline, slightly biconvex or
nearly flat in cross section; the edges are straight, mildly excurvate,
or rarely incurvate. A slight degree of serration is not uncommon.
The stem is corner-notched, usually with small notches forming rather
weak barbs, expanded, and usually very short. The base is straight or
slightly concave, and nearly always ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: An important point form of the Vos-
burg complex, Laurentian tradition, occurring in varying proportions
on nearly all sites of this manifestation. Examples were present in
Level 4, or near the base of the stratified Lotus Point site in the Hudson
Valley, hence they seem to have appeared rather early in the Archaic
horizon of this area.

Distribution: Primarily an eastern New York form, especially in
the Hudson, Mohawk and Hoosic Valleys. Of sporadic occurrence in
peripheral regions. A few examples were excavated at the Robinson
site of the Brewerton complex, Laurentian tradition.

References: Ritchie, 1940, p. 29; 1944, pp. 257-259; 1958, pp. 19,
32, 59, 69, 80. In the last reference the type is referred to as “Vosburg
Corner-Notched.”

Remarks: Generally made of eastern New York Normanskill and
Deepkill flints, apparently by pressure flaking techniques.

55

New York Projectile Points

REFERENCES

Arnold, J. R. & Libby, f. F.

1951. Radiocarbon dates. Science, Vol. 113, No. 2927, pp. 111-120. Lancaster.
Bailey, John H.

1939. A ground slate producing site near Vergennes, Vermont. Bull. Champlain
Valley Archaeological Society, Vol. I, No. 2. Fort Ticonderoga.

Bell, Robert E.

1958. Guide to the identification of certain American Indian projectile points. Okla¬
homa Anthropological Society, Special Bull. No. 1. Oklahoma City.

Boas, Franz

1927. Primitive art. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.

Byers, Douglas S.

1959. Radiocarbon dates from Bull Brook. Bull. Mass. Archaeological Society, Vol.
XX, No. 3, p. 33. Attleboro.

Crane, H. R.

1956. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates I. Science, Vol. 124, No. 3224, pp.
664-672. Lancaster.

- - — & Griffin, J. B.

1958. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates II. Science, Vol. 127, No. 3306,
pp. 1098-1105. Lancaster.

1959. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates IV. American Journal of Science
Radiocarbon Supplement, Vol. I. New Haven.

Dragoo, Don W.

1959. Archaic hunters of the upper Ohio Valley. Carnegie Museum, Anthropological
Series, No. 3. Pittsburgh.

Haury, Emil W„, Sayles, E. B. & Wasley, William W.

1959. The Lehner mammoth site. American Antiquity, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 2-30.
Salt Lake City.

Holland, C. G.

1955. An analysis of projectile points and large blades. In Evans, Clifford. A ceramic
study of Virginia archeology. Smithsonian Institution, Bur. Amer. Ethnology,
Bull. 160, pp. 165-191. Washington.

Kinsey, W. Fred, III

1959. Recent excavations on Bare Island in Pennsylvania: the Kent-Hally site. Penn¬
sylvania Archaeologist, Vol. XXIX, Nos. 3-4. Gettysburg.

Kluback, William

1956. Wilhelm Dilthey’s philosophy of history. Columbia University Press. New York.
Kmeberg, Madeline

1956. Some important projectile point types found in the Tennessee area. Tennessee
Archaeologist, Vol. XII, No. 1, pp. 17-28. Knoxville.

Krieger, Alex D.

1944. The typological concept. American Antiquity, Vol. IX, No. 3, pp. 271-288.
Menasha.

57

New York State Museum and Science Service

Libby, W. F.

1954. Chicago radiocarbon dates, IV. Science, Vol. 119, No. 3083, pp. 135-140.
Lancaster.

Logan, Wilfred D.

1952. Graham Cave, an Archaic site in Montgomery County, Missouri. Missouri
Archaeological Society, Memoir No. 2, Columbia.

Lopez, Julius

1956. The Pelham Boulder site, Bronx County, New York. Eastern States Archaeo¬
logical Federation, Bulletin No. 15, p. 15- Trenton.

MacNeish, Richard S.

1952. Iroquois pottery types. National Museum of Canada, Bull. No. 124. Ottawa.
Mayer-Oakes, William J.

1955- Prehistory of the upper Ohio Valley; an introductory archeological study.

Annals Carnegie Museum, Vol. 34. Pittsburgh.

1955a. Excavations at the Globe Hill shell heap. West Virginia Archeological
Society, Publication Series No. 3. Moundsville.

Mills, William C.

1922. Exploration of the Mound City group. Ohio Archaeological and Historical
Quarterly, Vol. XXXI, No. 4, pp. 422-584. Columbus.

Redfield, Robert

1953. The primitive world and its transformations. Cornell University Press. Ithaca.
Ritchie, William A.

1928. An Algonkian village site near Levanna, N. Y. Research Records of Rochester
Municipal Museum, No. 1. Rochester.

1932. The Lamoka Lake site. Researches and Transactions of the New York State
Archeological Assn., Vol. VII, No. 4. Rochester.

1936. New evidence relating to the Archaic occupation of New York. Researches
and Transactions of the New York State Archeological Assn., Vol. VIII, No. 1.
Rochester.

1940. Two prehistoric village sites at Brewerton, New York. Rochester Mus. Arts
and Sciences, Research Records No. 5- Rochester.

1944. The pre-Iroquoian occupations of New York State. Rochester Mus. Arts and
Sciences, Memoir No. 1. Rochester.

1945- An early site in Cayuga County, New York. Rochester Mus. Arts and Sciences,
Research Records No. 7. Rochester.

1946. A stratified prehistoric site at Brewerton, New York. Rochester Mus. Arts
and Sciences, Research Records, No. 8. Rochester.

1955. Recent discoveries suggesting an Early Woodland burial cult in the Northeast.
N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Circular 40. Albany.

1957. Traces of early man in the Northeast. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Bull.
358. Albany.

1958. An introduction to Hudson Valley prehistory. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv.
Bull. 367. Albany.

1959. The Stony Brook site and its relation to Archaic and transitional cultures on
Long Island. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Bull. 372. Albany.

- & Dragoo, Don W.

1959. The eastern dispersal of Adena. American Antiquity, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 43-50.
Salt Lake City.

1960. The eastern dispersal of Adena. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Bull. 379.
Albany.

58

New York Projectile Points

- & MacNeish, Richard S.

1949. The pre-Iroquoian pottery of New York State. American Antiquity, Vol. 15,
No. 2, pp. 97-124. Menasha.

Ritzenthaler, Robert

1946. The Osceola site — an “Old Copper” site near Potosi, Wis. The Wisconsin
Archeologist, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 53-70. Milwaukee.

Rouse, Irving

1939. Prehistory in Haiti, a study in method. Yale Univ. Publications in Anthro¬
pology, No. 21. New Haven.

1960. The classification of artifacts in archaeology. American Antiquity, Vol. 25,
No. 3, pp. 313-329. Salt Lake City.

Scully, Edward G.

1951. Some central Mississippi Valley projectile point types. Mus. of Anthropology,
Univ. of Michigan. Ann Arbor. (Tnimeo.)

Sellards, E. H.

1952. Early man in America. Univ. of Texas Press. Austin.

Skinner, Alanson

1915- Chronological relations of coastal Algonquian culture. Nineteenth International
Congress of Americanists, Proceedings, pp. 52-58. Washington.

1919. Exploration of aboriginal sites at Throgs Neck and Clasons Point, New York
City. Contributions from Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
Vol. V, No. 4. New York.

Smith, Carlyle S.

1950. The archaeology of coastal New York. Anthropological Papers of Amer. Mus.
of Natural History, Vol. 43, Part 2. New York.

Suhm, Dee Ann, Krieger, Alex D. & Jelks, Edward B.

1954. An introductory handbook of Texas archeology. Bull. Texas Archeological
Society, Vol. 25. Austin.

Titterington, P. F.

1950. Some non-pottery sites in the St. Louis area. Jour. Illinois State Archaeological
Society, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 19-31. Springfield.

Webb, William S.

1946. Indian Knoll, site Oh 2, Ohio County, Kentucky. Univ. of Kentucky, Reports
in Anthropology and Archaeology, Vol. IV, No. 3, Pt. 1. Lexington.

Witthoft, John

1953. Broad spearpoints and the transitional period cultures in Pennsylvania. Penn¬
sylvania Archaeologist, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, pp. 4-31. Lancaster.

1959. Notes on the Archaic of the Appalachian region. American Antiquity, Vol. 25,
No. 1, pp. 79-85- Salt Lake City.

Wormington, H. M.

1957. Ancient man in North America. Denver Mus. Natural History, Popular Series
No. 4. Denver.

59

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 1 — Adena Points

1-3, 5, 6, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 4, 8, 9, Onondaga County, N. Y.;
7, Cattaraugus County, N. Y.

1-3, 5, 6, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. S. Mus. collection.

Material: 1, 2, Normanskill flint; 3, 5, 6, Fort Ann flint; 4, 8, Onondaga flint; 7, Harri¬
son County, Ind. flint; 9, exotic flint.

60

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 2 — Bare Island Points
Kent-Hally site, Bare Island, Lancaster County, Pa.

Collection of Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission by whose courtesy
they are reproduced.

Material: 1-8, quartz; 9, quartzite; 10-12, 14, 15, siltstone; 13, rhyolite.

62

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 3 — Bare Island Points

1-9, 11, 12, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 10, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County,
N. Y.

Collection Carl S. Sundler.

Material: 1, 2, 5, 6, 12, Deepkill flint; 3, 4, quartz; others Normanskill flint.

64

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 4 — Brewerton Corner-Notched Points
1, 4, 5, 9, Oberlander No. 1 site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.; 2, 6, 10, 12, Rob¬
inson site, Brewerton, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 3, 7, 8, 11, Onondaga County, N. Y.

1, 2, 4-6, 9, 10, 12, collection of Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences; others col¬
lection of N Y. State Museum.

Material: All Onondaga flint.

66

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

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New York Projectile Points

71

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 7 — Brewerton Side-Notched Points
1-5, 7-8, 13-16, Robinson site, Brewerton, Onondaga County, N. Y.; others Oberlander
No. 1 site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.

All in collection of Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences.

Material: All Onondaga flint.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 8 — Clovis Points

1, Cte. 1-2 site, Deer River, Lewis County, N. Y.; 2, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 3, King¬
ston site No. 2, Ulster County, N. Y.; 4, 7, 8, Coxsackie, Greene County, N. Y.; 5, Liv¬
ingston County, N. Y.; 6, Lot 12, Van Buren, Onondaga County, N. Y.

All in collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: 1, Little Falls dolomite flint; 2, 3, 5, 8, jasper; 4, Deepkill flint; 6, 7, Onondaga
flint.

New York Projectile Points

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 9 — Fulton Turkey Tail Points

I, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 2, 3, Brewerton, Onondaga County, N. Y.
All in collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: All of Harrison County, Ind. flint.

76

New York Projectile Points

Plate 10 — Genesee Points

1, 3, 6, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 2, Gucker site, Charlotte, Monroe County,
N. Y.; 4, Wyoming County, N. Y.; 5, Onondaga County, N. Y. (?).

All in collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material : All of Onondaga flint.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 11 — Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched Points
1-3, 7, Van Buren, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 4, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County,
N. Y.; 5, 8, 10, 11, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 6, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.;
9, Alton, Chenango County, N. Y.; 12, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 13, Onondaga
County, N. Y. (?).

4, 6, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 1, 2, 13, jasper; 5, Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony; others Onondaga flint.

78

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 12— Jack’s Reef Pentagonal Points

1, Wickham site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.; 2, 4, 6, 7, Onondaga County,
N. Y. ; 3, Clifton Park, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 5, 8, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.
5, 8, collection of Carl S. Sundler; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 7, 8, Deepkill flint; others of Onondaga flint.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 13 — Lamoka Points

1-12, 14-17, 20-24, Frontenac Island site, Cayuga County, N. Y.; others Lamoka Lake
site, Schuyler County, N. Y.

All N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All of Onondaga flint, except 9, 13, 17, 23, 27, which are of argillaceous
quartzite.

82

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 14— Lamoka and “Dustin” Points

1-9, “Dustin” points, surface sites in Michigan; others Lamoka Lake site, Schuyler
County, N. Y.

1-9, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan collection; others collection
of Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences.

Material: 1-9, various flints and jaspers; others Onondaga flint, except 18, which is of
argillaceous quartzite.

84

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 15 — Levanna Points

1, 3, 6-9, Wickham site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.; 2, 4, Sackett site, Canan¬
daigua, Ontario County, N. Y.; 5, Chemung County, N. Y.; 10, South Cruger Island site,
Dutchess County, N. Y.; 11, Patchogue, Suffolk County, N. Y.; 12, Schaghticoke, Rens¬
selaer County, N. Y.; 13, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 14, Clifton Park,
Saratoga County, N. Y.; 15, Bates site, Chenango County, N. Y.

All collection of N. Y. State Museum, except 13, collection of Carl S. Sundler.

Material: All Onondaga flint, except 11, 12, which are of quartz.

86

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 16 — Madison Points

George Reed site, Richmond Mills, Ontario County, N. Y.

N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All Onondaga flint, except 27, which is of Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony, a
very unusual material for Madison points.

88

New York Projectile Points

Plate 17 — Meadowood Points

], 2, 4, 5, 7~9, 11, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 3, 6, Elbridge, Onondaga County, N. Y.
10, 13, Morrow site, Honeove, Ontario County, N. Y.; 12, Lvsander, Onondaga County
N. Y.

Collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: All Onondaga flint, chiefly western N. Y. variety.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 18 — Normanskill Points

1, 2, 6, 9, 18, Harris site, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 3, 15, Vosburg site, Albany County,
N. Y. ; 4, 8, 10, 14, 16, 17, River site, Saratoga County, N. Y. ; 5, 13, 19, South Cruger Island
site, Dutchess County, N. Y.; 7, 12, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.; 11, West
Albany, Albany County, N. Y.

1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 13, 18, 19, collection of N. Y. State Museum; 3, 15, collection of James H.
Zell; 4, 7, 8, 10, 14, 16, 17, collection of William Kirby; 11, 12, collection of Carl S.
Sundler.

Material: All eastern N. Y. flints — Deepkill, Normanskill and Fort Ann.

90

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 19 — Orient Fishtail Points

1-4, 6, 7, 9, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 5, 8, 13-15, Jamesport site, Suffolk
County, N. Y.; 10, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 11, 12, Stony Brook site, Suffolk
County, N. Y.

1-4, 6, 7, 9, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. State Museum collection.
Material: 1, Normanskill flint; 2-7, 9, Deepkill flint; 8, 11-13, quartzite; 14, 15, quartz.

92

New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 20 — Otter Creek Points
KI site, Rutland County, Vt.

2, 4, 6-9, 11, 13-15, collection of Thomas E. Daniels; others collection of Kathleen
Rowlands.

Material: 1, 12, 13, metamorphosed siltstone; 2, 6, 9-11, 14, 15, quartzite; 3, 7, 8, Nor-
manskill (?) flint; 4, 5, banded gray flint.

94

New York State Museum and Science Service

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New York Projectile Points

97

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 22 — Otter Creek Points

1, Stillwater, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 2, Bemis Heights, Saratoga County, N. Y.
3, Fish Creek, Saratoga County, N. Y.

N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All Normanskill flint.

98

New York Projectile Points

Plate 23 — Perkiomen Broad Points
Found along Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.

N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All Onondaga flint.

99

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 24 — Poplar Island Points
Kent-Hally site, Bare Island, Lancaster County, Pa.

Collection of Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission by whose courtesy
they are reproduced.

Material: Argillite and siltstone.

100

New York Projectile Points

101

New York State Museum and Science Service

15 cm.

inch

!

l I « ! I

Plate 25 — Poplar Island Points
1, 2, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.

Collection of Carl S. Sundler.

Material: quartzite.

102

Plate 26 — Rossville Points

1, 5, 12, Banner man site, Dutchess County, N. Y.; 2-4, 6, 8-11, 13, 14, Van Orden site,
Greene County, N. Y.; 7, Stony Brook site, Suffolk County, N. Y.

1, 5, 7, 12, collection of N. Y. State Museum; others Carl S. Sundler collection.
Material: 1, 3, 6, 8-10, 13, 14, Deepkill flint; 2, 4, Fort Ann flint; 7, quartz; 11, 12,
argillaceous siltstone.

103

New York State Museum and Science Service

inch I 2. 3, 4, 5, 6

i . ! i . I , ! . i I . J . , I , . I . , . I . , , | . i . I . , . 1 , . .

Plate 27 — Snook Kill Points
Weir site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.

Collection of James H. Zell.

Material: 1, 2, 4-8, 10-12, 15-20, Normanskill flint; 3, Oriskany flint; 9, 14, Onondaga
flint; 13, argillite.

104

New York Projectile Points

Plate 28 — Snyders Points

1, Portageville, Livingston County, N. Y.; 2, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.
Collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: 1, Harrison County, Ind. flint; 2, Onondaga flint (?).

105

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 29 — Steubenville Lanceolate Points
1-3, 5, 6, 8, Ford site, Columbia County, N. Y.; 4, Four Mile Point, Greene County,
N. Y.; 7, Van Buren, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 9, Clifton Park, Saratoga County, N. Y.

1-3, 6, collection of Edward B. Christman; 4, 7, 9, N. Y. State Museum collection;
5, 8, collection of R. Arthur Johnson.

Material: 1, 2, 6, Deepkill flint; 3, 5, 9, Norman' kill flint; 4, 8, argillite; 7, Oriskany
flint.

106

New York Projectile Points

107

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 30 — Steubenville Stemmed Points

1-3, 6, 7, Ford site, Columbia County, N. Y. ; 4, Four Mile Point, Greene County, N. Y. ;
5, Roger’s Island, Columbia County, N. Y.; 8, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.;
9, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.

1, 3, 6, 7, collection of Edward B. Christman; 2, 4, 5, 9, collection of N. Y. State
Museum; 8, collection of Carl S. Sundler.

Material: 1, 3, Deepkill flint; 2, 6, argillite; 4, Oriskany flint; 5, 8, Normanskill flint;
7, 9, Onondaga flint.

108

New York Projectile Points

109

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 31 — Susquehanna Broad Points

1-3, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 4, 6, 10, New Berlin, Chenango County,
N. Y.; 5, 7, 8, Chemung County, N. Y.; 9, 11, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.
Collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: 1-3, 9, 11, Onondaga flint; others rhyolite.

no

New York Projectile Points

111

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 32 — Vosburg Points

1, Covered Bridge site, Albany County, N. Y.; 2, 5, 10, Dunsbach Ferry site, Albany
County, N. Y.; 3, 11, Glens Falls, Warren County, N. Y. 4, 7, 13, Van Orden site, Greene
County, N. Y.; 6, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 8, Coxsackie Flint Mine, Greene County,
N. Y.; 9, Vosburg site, Albany County, N. Y.; 12, Four Mile Point, Greene County, N. Y.
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13, collection of Carl S. Sundler; others N. Y. State Museum collection.
Material: Deepkill and Normanskill flints.

112

New York Projectile Points

113

Wm

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 33 — Points of Exotic Flint

1, broad-bladed, thin, straight stemmed point, from Seneca River, Onondaga County,
N. Y. This is apparently an undesignated point form of the Adena culture, which occurs
also in the related Middlesex complex of tne Northeast (see Ritchie and Dragoo, I960,
plate 8, figures 1, 2, 4, 5).

2, broad-bladed, thin, corner-notched point from the Genesee Valley of western N. Y.
It seems to be an unusually large example of the Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched type (see
plate 11). Similar specimens are found in Hopewell culture sites of Ohio and elsewhere.

Material: Both points are made of Flint Riage, Licking County, Ohio chalcedony.

114

New York Projectile Points

Plate 34 — Untyped Bifurcated Base Points

1, 3~5, 7, 9, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 2, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 6,
Bannerman site, Dutchess County, N. Y.; 8, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.

2, collection of Carl S. Sundler; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 1, Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony; 2, 6, Deepkill flint; others Onondaga flint.

115

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 35 — Untyped Narrow Triangular Points
1, 6, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.; 2, 3, Round Lake, Saratoga County, N. Y.;
4, Clifton Park, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 5, West Albany, Albany County, N. Y.; 7, El-
bridge, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 8, Fish Creek, Saratoga County, N. Y.

1, 5, 6, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 1, 4, Normanskill flint; 2, 3, 5, 8, Deepkill flint; 6, 7, Onondaga flint.

New York Projectile Points

117

New York State Museum and Science Service

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119

a TYPOLOGY
and NOMENCLATURE
for NEW YORK
PROIECTILE POINTS

By

William A. Ritchie

State Archeologist
New York State Museum
and Science Service

REVISED 1971

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

BULLETIN NUMBER 384

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department

Albany, New York 12224 April 1961

1 9797

A Typology and Nomenclature
for New York Projectile Points

By

William A. Ritchie

State Archeologist

New York State Museum and Science Service

REVISED 1971

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

BULLETIN NUMBER 384

The University o] the State oj New York
The State Education Department

Albany, New York 12224 April 1961

19797

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University ( with years when terms expire)

1984 Joseph W. McGovern, A.B., LL.B., L.H.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,

Chancellor . - . New York

1985 Everett J. Penny, B.C.S., D.C.S.,

Vice Chancellor .

- White Plains

1978 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D., Litt.D. .

- Troy

1973 Charles W. Millard, Jr., A.B., LL.D., L.H.D. - - - -

- Buffalo

1972 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S., H.H.D.

1975 Edward M M. Warburg, B.S., L.H.D. -------

- Purchase

- New York

1977 Joseph T. King, LL.B. .

- Queens

1974 Joseph C. Indelicato, M.D. .

- Brooklyn

1976 Mrs. Helen B. Power, A.B., Litt.D., L.H.D., LL.D. - -

- Rochester

1979 Francis W. McGinley, B.S., LL.B., LL.D. -----

1980 Max J. Rubin, LL.B., L.H.D. .

- Glens Falls

- New York

1986 Kenneth B. Clark, A.B., M.S., Ph.D., Litt.D. - - - -

- Hastings
on Hudson

1982 Stephen K. Bailey, A.B., B.A., M.A.. Ph.D., LL.D. - - -

- Syracuse

1983 Harold E. Newcombe, B.A. .

- Owego

1981 Theodore M. Black, A.B. .

- Sands Point

President of the University and Commissioner of Education
Ewald B. Nyquist

Executive Deputy Commissioner of Education

Gordon M. Ambach

Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education

John G. Broughton

State Archeologist, State Science Service

William A. Ritchie

Preface to Revised Edition

Continuing archeological researches in New York State and else¬
where in the Northeast, chiefly by members of the Anthropological
Survey of the New York State Museum and Science Service, have
helped to clarify some of the problems of age, cultural affiliations and
distribution of several projectile point types treated in this bulletin,
as first printed in 1961. They have also produced data for the formu¬
lation of ten new point types, which are described and illustrated by
a representative example in the appendix. The need for maintaining
the present size of the publication has led to the elimination of plates
showing the range of variation within the new types, as was earlier
done.

The most notable change, in the category of clarification of older
data, is the renaming of two related point styles ; the Steubenville
points are now being termed Fox Creek points on the basis of excava-
tional findings on two sites. Steubenville points were first named,
but never formally described, by Mayer-Oakes from his upper Ohio
Valley data (pp. 50-52 herein), but a closer comparative study by
the writer of these points and their New York State counterparts,
indicates the prevailingly larger size of the latter, while still suggesting
a morphological relationship. The new site evidence has, however,
confirmed the writer’s prior statements that in southern and eastern
New York Steubenville points have early ceramic associations
(pp. 50-52, herein).

This evidence comes from two sites in eastern New York. At the
smaller, single component, Fredenburg site in Otsego County, ex¬
cavated by F. J. Hesse in 1967, rude net-marked, plain and dentate-
stamped pottery was found with Fox Creek points and other stone
artifacts. At the large Westheimer site, excavated by R. E. Funk in
1967 near the junction of Fox Creek with Schoharie Creek, Stratum
3 produced the Fox Creek assemblage with ceramic styles referable
to the Middle Woodland stage. Hearth charcoal from the Freden¬
burg site was radiocarbon dated at A.D. 360 ± 100 years (1-3442),
at the Westheimer site at A.D. 450 ± 80 years (Y-2349) and A.D.
410 ± 80 years (Y-2350) (Funk, n.d.). The Middle Woodland
provenience of the Fox Creek points is thus firmly established.

The Late Archaic status of the Genesee point (pp. 24-25, herein)
has recently been confirmed by its finding in the stratified Dennis site
in Albany County, N.Y. (Funk, n.d.), where it occurred in levels
immediately above the River phase which has been radiocarbon dated
in eastern New York to 1930 B.C. ± 100 years (Y-1169) (Ritchie,
1965, pp. 124-131).

That this point type pertains primarily to a still undefined and
undated assemblage is suggested by its presence as the principal point
form on two small sites in eastern New York.

Some light has been thrown by recent excavations in West Vir¬
ginia and on Staten Island, N.Y. on the problem of the bifurcated
base points illustrated on Plate 34. As noted on page 9, it was sus¬
pected that this group, unified only by the basal notch, would include
more than one type when cultural and temporal data became available.
This surmise has, in some measure, been realized. At the deeply
stratified St. Albans site in Kanawha County, West Virginia, Broyles
has distinguished a Kanawha Stemmed point type from levels 2 and
4, characterized by a shallow notched base, similar to figure 5 on
Plate 34, and radiocarbon dated at 6210 B.C. ± 100 years (Y-1540).
The next occupied levels below, zones 6 and 8, produced the Le Croy
Bifurcated Base type, with a date of 6300 B.C. ± 100 years (Y-1539)
(Broyles, 1966). Le Croy points are very like those illustrated on
Plate 34, figures 1-3, 6.

Excavations in 1967-68 on the Hollowed site in southern Staten
Island, by Donald Hollowed and Albert Anderson, have uncovered
in the lowest artifact-bearing zone a rough, polished and chipped stone
complex which includes bifurcated base points conforming mostly to
the Kanawha type. In 1969, Hollowed and Anderson, excavating on
the Ward’s Point site at Tottenville, Staten Island, found a similar
complex in which Le Croy points were also present, in the deepest
level. Charcoal particles from this zone provided a radiocarbon date
of 5310 B.C. ± 125 years (1-4512) for this new and still undefined
complex on Staten Island (Ritchie and Funk, n.d.).

REFERENCES IN PREFACE AND APPENDIX

Broyles, Bettye J.

1966 Preliminary Report: The St. Albans Site (46Ka 27), Kanawha County,
West Virginia. The West Virginia Archeologist, No. 19, pp. 1-43.
Moundsville.

Fowler, William P.

1963 Classification of Stone Implements in the Northeast. Bulletin of the
Massachusetts Archaeological Society, Vol. 25, No. 1. Attleboro.

Funk, Robert E.

1965 The Archaic of the Hudson Valley: New Evidence and New Inter¬
pretations. Pennsylvania Archaeologist, Vol. XXXV, Nos. 3-4, pp.
139-160. Gettysburg.

n.d. Recent contributions to Hudson Valley Prehistory. MS. in prepara¬
tion.

Kinsey, W. Fred, III.

1959 Recent Excavations on Bare Island in Pennsylvania: the Kent-Hally
Site. Pennsylvania Archaeologist, Vol. XXIX, Nos. 3-4, pp. 109-133.
Gettysburg.

Ritchie, William A.

1958 An Introduction to Hudson Valley Prehistory. New York State Mu¬
seum and Science Service, Bulletin 367. Albany.

1959 The Stony Brook Site and Its Relation to Archaic and Transitional
Cultures on Long Island. New York State Museum and Science Ser¬
vice, Bulletin 372. Albany.

1965 The Archaeology of New York State. Natural History Press, Garden
City, N.Y. (Second, Revised Edition, 1969).

1965a The “ Small Stemmed Point ” in New England. Pennsylvania Archae¬
ologist, Vol. XXXV, Nos. 3-4, pp. 134-138. Gettysburg.

1969 The Archaeology of Martha’s Vineyard: a Framework for the Pre¬
history of Southern New England. Natural History Press, Garden
City, N.Y.

- , and Robert E. Funk

n.d. Aboriginal Settlement Patterns in the Northeast (in press),
n.d.a. Evidence for Early Archaic Occupations on Staten Island (in press).

Robbins, Maurice

1960 Wapanucket No. 6, an Archaic Village in Middleboro, Massachusetts.
Cohannet Chapter, Massachusetts Archaeological Society. Attleboro.

Wilcox, David R.

n.d. Report on the Excavations of the New York State Museum and Science
Service on the Castle Gardens Site, 1967. MS. on file in Anthropolog¬
ical Survey office.

.

I CP I

CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction . 5

Explanation . 9

Table 1 . 10

Table 2 . 10

Adena points . 12

Bare Island points . 14

Brewerton Corner-Notched points . 16

Brewerton Eared-Notched points . 17

Brewerton Eared-Triangle points . 18

Brewerton Side-Notched points . 19

Clovis points . 21

Fulton Turkey Tail points . 23

Genesee points . 24

Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched points . 26

Jack’s Reef Pentagonal points . 28

Lamoka points . 29

Levanna points . . 31

Madison points . 33

Meadowood points . . 35

Normanskill points . 37

Orient Fishtail points . 32

Otter Creek points . 40

Perkiomen Broad points . 42

Poplar Island points . 44

Rossville points . 46

Snook Kill points . 47

Snyders points . 49

Steubenville Lanceolate points . 50

Steubenville Stemmed points . 51

Susquehanna Broad points . 53

Vosburg points . 55

References . 57

Appendix . 120

3

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Figure 1 — Standard projectile point terminology . 11

Plate 1 — Adena points . 61

Plate 2 — Bare Island points . . . 63

Plate 3 — Bare Island points . . 64

Plate 4 — Brewerton Corner-Notched points . 67

Plate 5 — Brewerton Eared-Notched points . 69

Plate 6 — Brewerton Eared-Triangle points . 71

Plate 7 — Brewerton Side-Notched points . 72

Plate 8 — Clovis points . 75

Plate 9 — Fulton Turkey Tail points . 76

Plate 10 — Genesee points . 77

Plate 11 — Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched points . 79

Plate 12 — Jack’s Reef Pentagonal points . 80

Plate 13 — Lamoka points . 83

Plate 14 — Lamoka and “Dustin” points . 85

Plate 15 — Levanna points . . . . . . . 87

Plate 16 — Madison points . . . . 88

Plate 17 — Meadowood points . . . . 89

Plate 18 — Normanskill points . . . 91

Plate 19 — Orient Fishtail points . ' . 93

Plate 20— Otter Creek points . 94

Plate 21 — Otter Creek points . 97

Plate 22 — Otter Creek points . 98

Plate 23 — Perkiomen Broad points . 99

Plate 24 — Poplar Island points . 101

Plate 25 — Poplar Island points . 102

Plate 26 — Rossville points . 103

Plate 27 — Snook Kill points . . 104

Plate 28 — Snyders points . . 105

Plate 29 — Steubenville Lanceolate points . 107

Plate 30 — Steubenville Stemmed points . 109

Plate 31 — Susquehanna Broad points . . Ill

Plate 32 — Vosburg points . 113

Plate 33 — Points of exotic flint . . 114

Plate 34 — Untyped bifurcated base points . 115

Plate 33 — Untyped narrow triangular points . 117

Plate 36 — Untyped broad-bladed, stemmed points . 119

4

A Typology and Nomenclature
for New York Projectile Points

William A. Ritchie

State Archeologist

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE
Introduction

Ijong and intimate familiarity with the projectile points of the
New York State area led the writer, quite some time ago, to a recog¬
nition of about 18 style categories, most of which could be related
through site excavations to particular culture complexes and relative
time periods. Subsequently, with radiocarbon dating, this chrono¬
logical sequence was not only sustained but given an approximate
actual value. Consequently, projectile point succession, as currently
known, spans a period of about 5,000 years before the present.

Until rather recently, the author has discussed these projectile points
in site reports and elsewhere in such general descriptive terms as broad,
heavy, side-notched points, or narrow-bladed stemmed points, while
at the same time exhibiting a tendency to refer to the very same points
as Brewerton or Laurentian side-notched points, or Lamoka stemmed
points, in accordance with the cultural associations he has been able
to demonstrate through excavations.

The need for some convenient classification and nomenclature to
replace this awkward phraseology has grown more insistent with
the progress of research. The utility of a ceramic typology for the
same area1 encouraged the effort, which has currently attained to the
dimensions indicated by the present publication. It seems safe to
predict, especially in view of the still untyped points discussed below,
that continuing research within the area will lead to the addition of
new types, and, with some probability, to certain revisions of the
series herein defined.

As the term is employed in this study, projectile points include:
arrowpoints; dartpoints, or the armament of javelins or short throwing
spears, hurled by hand either directly or with the aid of a dart thrower
or atlatl; and spearpoints, or the stabbing heads affixed to relatively

1 Ritchie and MacNeish, 1949; MacNeish, 1952.

5

New York State Museum and Science Service

long-handled thrusting weapons, not designed to leave the hand.
Since in many, perhaps most, instances, the function cannot with
certainty be deduced from the remaining part, the writer’s attempts
at such identification, where hazarded, are equivocal.

Furthermore, certain of the objects herein described (as in the Fulton
Turkey Tail type) may have been primarily or interchangeably used
as specialized cutting tools or knives. To the best of the author’s
knowledge and intent, however, only projectile point forms are in¬
cluded in this analysis.

The scope, as suggested by the title, is somewhat misleading, inas¬
much as none of the point types herein defined is restricted in range
to the geographical limits of the State of New York. In order, how¬
ever, to achieve a reasonable delimitation to this initial effort for the
area, it was decided to include only such point types as were known
to have representation within the State’s boundaries. It is hoped
that other workers in the Northeast will add to the picture with simi¬
lar analyses of point groups better represented and culturally known
in their respective regions, so that ultimately a collation for the entire
Northeast can be achieved.

In this typological study the author has been guided by the work
of Rouse (1939, I960), Krieger (1944) and others. The presentation
of the data follows, in general, that of Scully (1951), Suhm, Krieger
and Jelks (1954), Kneberg (1956) and Bell (1958). The methodology
employed is that recommended by Krieger (1944, pp. 279-282) and
may be outlined as follows:

1. The material was first sorted into major groups of generally simi¬
lar points.

2. This sorting, or analysis, was governed by variations in the form,
size, proportions, chipping characteristics etc., of such morphological
features of the specimens as the blade, stem, notching, base etc., vari¬
ously referred to by Rouse and Krieger, as “modes” or “attributes.”
(See figure 1.)

3. These formal variations in the inherent morphological features,
modes or attributes became the basis for the tentative classification of
the points into types.

4. The next step was the testing of the probable validity of the arbi¬
trarily-constituted type by identifying it in collections from various
sites or geographical areas. If it could be shown to persist as an entity
with cultural, spatial and/or temporal (i.e., historical) associations,
it was felt to be acceptable for the final step in the classification.2

2 A total of 10,800 points from eastern, central and western New York were typed in
this phase of the work in which the author was assisted by James H. Zell.

6

New York Projectile Points

5. This step consisted in giving a name and description to the type
group.

The description allowed for the observed range of variation in the
modes, arising most likely from the vagaries encountered by individual
makers in the execution, from a refractory material, of an ideal model
or norm. It also provided for sufficient latitude or flexibility, so that
minor variations in additional material of the same kind could be en¬
compassed.

Finally, a nomenclature was provided, since the writer agrees with
Krieger (1944, pp. 275, 277-279) that for maximum convenience, both
in the construction and use of the typology, names, rather than numbers
or letters in a classificatory system, should be used. The latter method
of designation, usually derived from a geometric analysis and expressed
in formulistic terminology, he finds awkward and difficult to remember.

Following Krieger’s recommendation, he has chosen a locative no¬
menclature taken from the site or geographical locale where the type
was first found or recognized, occurred most plentifully or was best
culturally attributed. Linguistic, ethnic and cultural names (except
where the latter is called from a type site; e.g., Lamoka) were avoided.

According to established usage, his descriptions include significant
data concerning the age and cultural affiliations, distribution, literary
references etc. Any previously employed terminology for the group
is included in the latter.

Every effort has been made to avoid attaching new labels to already
described point types. Wherever it could be shown, generally by sub¬
mitting samples of specimens to the person responsible, that the group
in question had already been named, the prevailing designation and
definition or description (where available) were used explicitly and
duly credited.3 Additional data from the New York sample have been
clearly incorporated.

Certain fundamental assumptions, which the author shares with
his colleagues whose methodology, in general, he has applied, underlie
his work on this typology. These may succinctly be stated as follows:

The remarkable stylistic constancy in the modes or attributes, which
undeniably can be demonstrated within a series of points collected
over a wide geographical range or from numerous components of the
same culture complex, indicates the reality of a stylistic model in the

3 The writer gratefully acknowledges cooperation of this kind from the following
persons: Lewis R. Binford, Don W. Dragoo, W. Fred Kinsey III, William J. Mayer-Oakes
and John Witthoft. For the loan of specimens used in this study, the writer is also
indebted to Edward B. Christman, Thomas E. Daniels, R. Arthur Johnson, William J.
Kirby, Museum of Anthropology of the University of Michigan, Rochester Museum of
Arts and Sciences, Carl S. Sundler and James H. Zell.

7

New York State Museum and Science Service

minds of the prehistoric makers. Clearly they were working not
from caprice but from a “cultural compulsive” which impelled them
to conform to current fashions or established norms for their particular
area and period. The surviving material product of this long extinct
cultural concept can be recognized by the typologist and analyzed by
means of definite morphological features of form, proportions etc.,
into various attributes or modes, as already outlined. Although these
attributes are arbitrarily selected to conform to the purposes of the
investigator, it is believed that the end product of the analysis approxi¬
mates in important formal respects the ideal or norm of the maker.

It is further assumed that the typological configurations reflect
standardized behavior and the fixation of motor habits, through tradi¬
tional or culturally approved ways of doing things in the aboriginal
society concerned. The strong conservatism, widely remarked for
primitive societies, seems to be well illustrated in the marked degree
of uniformity found within each of our point type categories (Boas,
1927, p. 145ff.; Redfield, 1953, pp. 14, 120).

Finally, it should be made explicit that in these statements regard¬
ing the “recapture” of ancient cultural concepts, the author is fully
aware that, as Rouse and others have pointed out, “Culture does not
consist of artifacts. The latter are merely the results of culturally
conditioned behavior performed by the artisan. Types and modes
express the culture which conditions the artisan’s behavior.” (Rouse,
1939, p. 15.)

In more philosophical phraseology, “All records show only the
apparent forms of the truly existing inner reality. ’ ’ (Wilhelm Dilthey,
quoted in Kluback, 1956, p. 60.)

As has been stated on page 6, the probable validity of the typology
derived in the present study from the combination of a background of
long familiarity with the materials and the specific analysis of several
thousand specimens, was tested in the fourth step of the procedure by
application to 10,800 additional projectile points. These formed part
of two New York State Museum collections and one private collection
from surface sites which were selected to represent an equal number of
areas in the State. They came, respectively, from the middle regions
of the Hudson River Valley (Greene and Rensselaer Counties), the
Seneca River Valley (Onondaga County), and the Genesee River
Valley (Livingston County).4

4 This investigation will be expanded to include more large collections, both public
and private, from the same and other areas. In addition to typological data, significant
distributional information is being accumulated for expanded treatment in a subsequent
report.

8

New York Projectile Points

The analysis of this large sample resulted in a remainder of 917
points (.084 percent of the total) which could not with certainty be
attributed to the 27 types herein described. Some of the difficulty
in typing the material arose from the lack, in certain specimens, of
“crisp” diagnostic criteria or from the presence, in others, of typo-
logically interlinking features. There were also a fair number of points
too crudely made to render determinate the essential form and a much
smaller number which showed obscuring secondary alterations.

From this untyped residue of 917 points can be extracted at least the
three following small groups:

1. Bifurcated base points totaling 48 (plate 34)

2. A long, narrow, triangular form, with 35 examples (plate 35)

3. A broad-bladed, stemmed form, represented by 34 points (plate
36). Some of these resemble Snook Kill points and may be vari¬
ants of that type. (See plate 27.)

The bifurcated forms, on the basis of scanty existing data, apparently
cannot be unified by their prominent attribute of stem bifurcation. On
the other hand, when the samples can be expanded and cultural and
temporal data supplied, the triangular and broad, stemmed forms
may become candidates for additional types.

There are left 800 points, from which can be isolated six or seven
small lots. Each consists of a dozen or less points in which the simi¬
larity is sufficient to hint at type categories from future research.

In accounting for the others, it is likely, especially where the
material as well as the form is exotic to the area, that an indetermi¬
nate number may be erratics from undescribed point groups of distant
proveniences. (See plate 33.) Among the rest are a fair number of
specimens that may plausibly be regarded as aberrant objects resulting
from accidents of the chipping process, perhaps from technical diffi¬
culties with the material; from the artisan’s caprice; or, perhaps, even
from his experimental design, unique and unadopted, since the element
of inventiveness must be admitted to account originally for some
unknown portion of all point styles.

EXPLANATION

In the following descriptions the projectile point types are arranged
alphabetically, in accord with the usual procedure. A single very
typical specimen (“holotype”) is reproduced natural size from a care¬
fully made drawing showing details of the chipping characteristics,
with descriptive text for each group. Following this, one or more
photographic assemblages depicting the range in size and form of the
type, are given, with data on provenience, material and ownership.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

To aid the general student in identifying his own material, the point
types are also listed below under two categories: (1) by major period
provenience, table 1; and (2) by their principal morphological attribute
characteristics, table 2. To more readily comprehend the latter, the
standard terminology for projectile points is shown in the illustration,
figure 1, on page 11.

Table 1

Major Period Provenience of Projectile Point Types

General General

Periods Projectile Point Types Periods Projectile Point Types

Late Madison

Woodland Levanna

Middle

Woodland

Jack’s Reef Pentagonal
Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched
Snyders

Early

Woodland

Adena

Fulton Turkey Tail
Meadowood

Genesee

Brewerton Eared-Triangle
Brewer ton Eared-Notched
Middle Normanskill

Archaic Brewerton Corner-Notched

Brewerton Side-Notched
Otter Creek
Vosburg

Early Archaic Lamoka

Steubenville Lanceolate (?) Paleo-Indian Clovis
Steubenville Stemmed (?)

Orient Fishtail

Transitional Susquehanna Broad
and Perkiomen Broad

Late Archaic Rossville
Bare Island
Poplar Island (?)

Snook Kill (?)

Table 2

Point Types Grouped by Primary Morphological Feature

Side-Notched Points
Brewerton Side-Notched
Brewerton Eared-Notched
Fulton Turkey Tail
Lamoka (in part)
Meadowood
Normanskill
Otter Creek

Corner-Notched Points
Brewerton Corner-Notched
Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched
Snyders
Vosburg

Straight Stemmed Points
Bare Island
Genesee

Lamoka (in part)
Steubenville Stemmed

Contracting Stemmed Points
Adena

Poplar Island
Rossville
Snook Kill

Expanding Stemmed Points
Orient Fishtail
Perkiomen Broad
Susquehanna Broad

Stemless Points — Triangular or Lanceolate
Brewerton Eared-Triangle
Clovis

Jack’s Reef Pentagonal

Levanna

Madison

Steubenville Lanceolate

10

New York Projectile Points

Figure 1 — Standard Projectile Point Terminology: a, point or tip; b, edge; c, blade
or face; d, stem; e, tang; f, base; g, notch; h, barb; i, shoulder.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

ADENA POINTS (plate 1)

General description: Large points with
broad, lobate stems.

Size: According to Bell (1958, p. 4) most
points of this type measure between 3 and
5 inches in length. In a sample of 50
from New York, the shortest was l1}^
inches, the longest 4 inches, with the
majority falling between 2 and 3 inches.
In thickness, the New York sample varied
from K to J{6 of an inch; nearly all, how¬
ever, fell between Ye and Y of an inch.
Such points are generally considered dart
points. Longer, probable spear points,
also occur. (See e.g., Ritchie and Dragoo,
1960, plate 8, figure 6).

Proportions: For the most part, about two to two and one-half
times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade generally ovoid in outline; some of the narrower speci¬
mens could be described as lanceolate; biconvex to nearly flat in cross
section; edges excurvate. Shoulders weak to moderate in develop¬
ment, never barbed, sloping to approximately right angular in profile.
Stem broad, long, contracted, lobate in outline, with convex, some¬
times nearly pointed base. While stem grinding is reported for some
Adena points, it is absent in the New York sample studied.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the characteristic point style
of the Adena culture, of Early Woodland times, radiocarbon dated
between about 800 B.C. and A.D. 800. It is also a trait of the Middlesex
complex in the Northeast, which is believed to have been derived in
part from the Adena (Ritchie and Dragoo, 1959, pp. 43~50; I960,
p. 26fL).

Kneberg says that “the type is also associated with the late Archaic
culture in the Tennessee area, dating from about 1000 B.C. to the early
centuries A.D.” (Kneberg, 1956, p. 26.)

Distribution: “The Adena type is found chiefly in the upper Ohio
River Valley, especially the states of Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, West
Virginia and Pennsylvania.” (Bell, 1958, p. 4.) It has an uncertain
peripheral distribution which includes Tennessee and New York.

12

New York Projectile Points

References: Kneberg, 1956, pp. 26-27; Bell, 1958, pp. 4-5; Ritchie,
1958, pp. 100-102, where it is called a “lobate stemmed point”; Ritchie
and Dragoo, I960.

Remarks: In the upper Ohio Valley area Adena points are frequently
made of Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony or of Harrison County, Indiana
flint. Specimens made of these materials are also known from New
York, but most New York examples are of regional flints — Onondaga,
Oriskany, Helderberg, Normanskill, Deepkill, Fort Ann — or very
rarely of quartz. These seem to be local copies, in readily available
materials, but often on a somewhat smaller scale, of introduced Adena
points.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

BARE ISLAND POINTS (plates 2 and 3)

This description was prepared by W. Fred Kinsey III.

General description: Medium to large,
finely flaked, symmetrical points, having
slender isosceles triangular blades. The
stem is straight with parallel sides and the
base is also straight.

Size: They range from 1.2 inches to 3-8
inches long with the average length slight¬
ly over 2 inches. In cross section they are
oval and relatively thick.

Proportions: Blade width is between }/%
and K of the total length. A rather
slender shape predominates, although ex¬
treme narrow-bladed examples are in the
minority.

Shape: The blade exhibits considerable
symmetry in the form of an isosceles triangle. Edges are generally
slightly convex with the edges on the larger specimens tending to be
straighter. Greatest convexity usually occurs at the middle of the
blade. Tips are sharply pointed and are always on center with the
stem although there i$ no distinct medial ridge. Points made of
quartz are thicker than those fashioned from other lithic materials.
Probably this is a function of the way quartz flakes, rather than a
trait of ultural significance.

Shoulders are slightly rounded and tapered but not conspicuously so.
On a few specimens the shoulders are quite sharply angled and well
defined. An obtuse angle is formed between the blade and stem, but
in some instances a right angle is present. There are intergrades
between the Bare Island point and the Poplar Island point, but the
rounded shoulder is conspicuous on the latter type. This is a dis¬
tinguishing characteristic. The shoulder on the Bare Island point
is more crisp.

The stem is always narrower than the blade. The long sides of the
stem are parallel or nearly so forming a nearly perfect square or rec¬
tangle. The base is usually quite straight, but it is sometimes slightly
convex. A few examples intergrade with a large corner-notched point
form that has an expanded stem. There are often traces of grinding

14

New York Projectile Points

along the stem edges and at the base. Corners approach right angles
and on some specimens they are quite sharp.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is a distinctive point type found
on numerous Archaic sites in the lower Susquehanna watershed. It
is more abundant on the islands of the Susquehanna rather than the
hilltop sites back from the river. Although not found as yet in any
deeply stratified sites, it is the major point type in all levels at the
Kent-Hally site on Bare Island. It is also abundant at the Fallen Tree
site on the same island. The type is presumed to be part of a varied
and complex Late Archaic. Locally, the author believes it is contem¬
poraneous with steatite bowls.

Similarities between the Bare Island point and a component of the
Accokeek Creek site on the lower Potomac River, south of Washington,
D.C., are striking. It may be that the antecedent for this type lies
in the Virginia and Carolina Piedmont and the Savannah River in
Georgia.

Distribution: The type is found in the lower Susquehanna Valley,
particularly the river islands. It extends southward along Elk River
in Maryland, the Chesapeake and the lower Potomac. East of the
Susquehanna, it is found along the headwaters of the White Clay Creek
and the Brandywine in Chester County. West of the Susquehanna, it
is not common in the Adams and Franklin County sections of the
Cumberland Valley. The writer believes the distribution is also spotty
along the west and north branches of the Susquehanna.

[The distribution of these points extends across New Jersey into
southern and eastern New York. They occur in some abundance on
Staten Island and Long Island, and with diminishing frequency north¬
ward up the Hudson Valley, at least to Saratoga County. The
Ctl. 1 site in Greene County provided a sample of 114. In the south¬
ern part of this range, quartz is the commonest material. Farther
north flint predominates, although quartz and quartzite are still
present. (See plate 3). W.A.R.]

References: Kinsey, 1959, p. 115, where they are called “straight¬
stemmed, Type A.”

Remarks: At the Kent-Hally site nearly 50 percent of these points
were made of quartz. Other locally available stones in order of pref¬
erence are: siltstone, quartzite, rhyolite, argillite, and a very few of
flint, gneiss and schist. No attempt was made to utilize the available
flint and jasper sources. The reasons for this cultural preference are
unknown.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

BREWERTON CORNER-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 4)

General description: Broad, thick, corner-
notched points, predominantly of medium
size.

Size: Length range from about to 33//8
inches. Majority fall between 1J4 and
2]^ inches.

Thickness about % t0 % °f an inch;
majority about % of an inch.

Proportions: These points are one and
one-fourth to one and one-half times as
long as wide. The larger examples are
about twice as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, biconvex in cross section; edges
slightly excurvate, less often straight, or rarely incurvate. Stem cor¬
ner-notched with medium to large corner notches forming prominent
barbs, and basally expanded. Base straight, slightly convex or rarely
slightly concave. About two-thirds have the base ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: This constitutes a minority point type
in the Archaic Brewerton complex of Laurentian and in the Frontenac
complex in New York. There is some evidence that it appeared later
than the Brewerton Side-Notched type in the Brewerton complex.
The Vosburg Point of the eastern New York manifestation of Lauren¬
tian differs from the Brewerton Corner-Notched type in its shorter
stem, smaller notches and usually weaker barbs. The two forms over¬
lap, however, and appear to be genetically related and generally con¬
temporaneous.

Distribution: Primarily a central and western New York form.
Present also in eastern New York with occasional examples as far south
as central New Jersey. Similar points occur also as a minor and
relatively late type on sites attributed to the Laurentian of the upper
Ohio Valley (Dragoo, 1959, pp. 162, 176-180).

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 29, 48-49, 66, 88, where they are de¬
scribed as “corner-notched points.” Subsequently the writer has
referred to them as “broad corner-notched points.”

Remarks: Usually made of local Onondaga gray flint and apparently
in the same manner as the Brewerton Side-Notched form.

16

New York Projectile Points

BREWERTON EARED-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 5)

General description: Generally broad,
thick, weakly side-notched points, small
to medium in size, characterized by a broad
base with flanges which often project be¬
yond the edges and, for the most part,
have been carefully chipped into small and
delicate prominences or “ears.”

Size: The length range is from % to 2S/i
inches, the majority being between 1 and
l}/2 inches long. Thickness % to % of
an inch, with ]/^ of an inch for most
examples.

Proportions: About one and one-half to two times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid or ovoid in outline, biconvex in cross sec¬
tion; edges prevailingly excurvate, less frequently straight. Stem
broad, with small side notches and pronounced lateral, carefully
chipped “ears.” Ears and base, the latter in most instances slightly
concave, occasionally straight, are sharp, except in a very few examples
where they are ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: A minority type in the Brewerton
complex, where it constitutes 8 percent of the projectile point inven¬
tory at the Robinson site, but is barely represented at the nearby Ober-
lander No. 1 station. Present also as a minority form on Middle and
Late Archaic period sites in eastern New York and southern New
England.

Distribution: Central and eastern New York and southern New
England, especially Massachusetts.

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 28, 66, where it is called the “eared
notched point;” 1958, where it is referred to throughout as the “eared
side-notched point.”

Remarks: This point type was probably derived from the Brewerton
Side-Notched type in upper Middle Archaic times. The material of
the Brewerton series in central New York is Onondaga flint; of the
eastern New York series, predominantly local flints.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

BREWERTON EARED TRIANGLE POINTS (plate 6)

General description: Relatively thin, isos¬
celes triangular points, small to medium
in size, distinguished by small, delicately
chipped “ears” on either side of the base.

Size: Only one site has produced a sizable
sample of these points, the Robinson site
at Brewerton, N.Y. As represented by
the 60 such points at this site, the length
range is from 7 g to 21 g inches, the majority
falling between lj/fg and \]/i inches.

Proportions: About one and one-half to two times as long as wide*

Shape: Blade trianguloid or ovoid in outline, biconvex in cross
section; edges prevailingly excurvate, occasionally straight. Stem¬
less, base broad and slightly concave or infrequently straight. Very
delicately chipped “ears” occur on either side of the base, which in
some examples has been rubbed smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: Like the evidently related Brewerton
Eared-Notched point, this is a minority type in the Brewerton com¬
plex, where it comprises only 5-38 percent of the total point series at
the Robinson site, and is barely represented at the nearby Oberlander
No. 1 site. It also occurs occasionally in eastern New York sites of
the Laurentian tradition and in related sites of southern New England.
The author regards it as a type of the upper Middle and Late Archaic
horizons in these several areas.

Distribution: Central and eastern New York and southern New
England, especially Massachusetts.

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 32, 67, where it is described as the
“eared-triangular point.”

Remarks: This type intergrades with the Brewerton Eared-Notched
type and may well have developed from it. Most examples from the
Brewerton sites are of local flints, carefully made by pressure flaking
techniques.

18

New York Projectile Points

BREWERTON SIDE-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 7)

General description: Broad, thick, side-
notched points, predominantly of medium
size.

Size: Length range from about to 3%
inches, prevailingly between and 2}/£
inches.

Thickness about to Yl inch; *^6 to % of
an inch for the large majority.

Proportions: These points are one and
one-fourth to one and one-half times as
long as wide. The larger examples are
about twice as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, biconvex in cross section; edges
slightly excurvate, straight, or rarely incurvate; faintly serrated in rare
instances. Stem side-notched (occasionally with dual notches) and
basally expanded, sometimes to a pronounced degree, resulting in
lateral projections or “ears.” Base straight, slightly convex or less
often mildly concave. About two-thirds of all specimens have the
base ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the commonest point of all

Archaic Laurentian complexes of New York.

Distribution: All of New York. Also a dominant type on upper
Ohio Valley sites attributed to the Laurentian (Dragoo 1959). It is
a minority type on certain southern New England Archaic sites and
is present in Laurentian and Laurentian-like contexts in southern
Ontario, Pennsylvania and elsewhere in the Northeast.

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 28, 64-66, where they are termed
“side notched points.” In later reports the writer has called them
“broad side-notched points.”

Remarks: These points probably were, for the most part, javelin
heads. The larger sizes seem to have been spearpoints, while the
smaller variety could apparently have served as arrowpoints. It is,
however, unlikely that the bow and arrow was a hunting device at
the period, probably from around 3000 B.C. to early A.D. when this
type of point seems to have been used. Some of the more convex

19

New York State Museum and Science Service

edged specimens, especially those with short blade, were likely knives.
Rechipping to sharpen may account for some of the short-bladed
examples (plate 7, figure 8) and this process would accentuate the
proportions of the base.

For the most part these points seem to have been manufactured by
percussion chipping from local flints. Pressure flaking to produce a
sharp retouched edge is common.

The Brewerton Side-Notched point is probably related to the Otter
Creek point (plate 20 and pp. 40-41 herein), the Black Sand Notched
(Scully, 1951, p. 10), the Big Sandy Side-Notched (Kneberg, 1956,
p. 25), and other forms, including very similar examples from the Shell
Mound complex of the Southeast. The writer suspects it is geneti¬
cally related to other very old and widely-distributed, side-notched,
American projectile points.

20

New York Projectile Points

CLOVIS POINTS (plate 8)

General description: Narrow, fluted, lan¬
ceolate points, of medium to large size,
with concave bases.

Size: Length range from about 1 to 5
inches. The majority, in a series of 66
such points from New York State, measure
between about V/2 and 3 V2 inches in
length, and between and % of an inch
in maximum thickness (range H to ^8
of an inch).

Proportions: Two to four times as long
as wide.

Shape: Lanceolate, with parallel or ex-
cur v ate edges and concave base. Basal
and lower lateral edges usually ground
smooth. Both faces (rarely only one)
fluted, the channel scars extending for
varying distances on either side from base
to tip. Frequently more than one channel
flake was struck off on each face.

Age and cultural affiliations: Early paleo-
Indian. Recent radiocarbon dates from
the Lehner site, a mammoth kill site in southeastern Arizona with
Clovis points, indicate an antiquity of 11,000 to 12,000 years (Haury,
Sayles and Wasley, 1959, pp. 24-25) for the Llano complex to which
the Clovis point type has been assigned, at least in the western United
States (Sellards, 1952, pp. 17-18).

Carbon 14 dates averaging about 9,000 years ago have been obtained
for the Bull Brook site in northeastern Massachusetts (Byers, 1959),.
where Clovis type points comprise part of a paleo-Indian chipped stone
tool complex, having parallels elsewhere in the eastern United States.

Distribution: Chiefly as surface finds without faunal or cultural
associations, the Clovis point is widely distributed throughout the
United States and southwestern Ontario. Definite components, with
faunal associations, mainly mammoth remains, have been found in
the American Southwest and High Plains; without faunal associations

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New York State Museum and Science Service

in the eastern United States from Tennessee to Vermont. Sporadic
point occurrences are known from Mexico, western Canada and Alaska.

References: Wormington, 1957, pp. 42-84; Sellards, 1952, pp. 17-46;
Suhm, Krieger and Jelks, 1954, p. 412; Ritchie, 1957; Bell, 1958, p. 16.

Remarks: Clovis points are generally skillfully and carefully made,
apparently by pressure flaking techniques. The stone material is
usually a high grade mineral which frequently is exotic to the area
where the points are found.

The Clovis type point should not be confused with the Folsom type,
which is also fluted, and which has a much more limited distribution
within the western part of the United States. The Folsom type, which
at the Blackwater No. 1 locality, New Mexico, has been found strati-
graphically above the Llano complex containing the Clovis type, was
probably developed from it by paleo-Indian groups in the High Plains
who hunted bison of now extinct species (Sellards, 1952, pp. 29-31).
A radiocarbon date of 9,883 ± 350 years ago has been determined for
a Folsom component near Lubbock, Texas (Sellards, 1952, pp. 52-55).

The Folsom point is described by Wormington (1957, p. 263) as
“A more specialized type, of excellent workmanship, thought to be
derived from the Clovis type. There is some overlap in size between
Clovis and Folsom points, but the latter are lighter and usually smaller.
They range in length from three quarters of an inch to three inches with
an average of about two inches. They are lanceolate in outline and
have concave bases usually marked by ear-like projections. There is
frequently a small central nipple in the basal concavity. The points
were fluted through the removal of longitudinal flakes. The flutes
usually extend over most of the length of the point. In most cases
one major channel flake was removed from each face, but sometimes
only one face was fluted. Most specimens have a fine marginal retouch.
The lower edges usually bear evidence of grinding.”

22

New York Projectile Points

FULTON TURKEY TAIL POINTS (plate 9)

Although probably a knife blade rather than a projectile point, this
type is listed and described in Scully’s paper on projectile point typology
(Scully, 1951, p. 11)- A small number of specimens have been found
in New York, chiefly in the central part of the State, in the Seneca
and Oneida Rivers region.

The following description, except for the few New York specimens
available, is taken from Scully (op. cit.').

“Material: Chipped stone. [All examples of this type seen by the
writer were made from Harrison County, Indiana, gray or blue-gray
nodular flint. The surface-found New York specimens have weathered
to a tan or brown color, the lighter concentric rings in the mineral
sometimes weathering almost white. The flaking was very skillfully
accomplished by a pressure technique which left broad, flat scars.
Fine marginal retouching is universally present.]

“General description: Leaf shaped, pointed at both ends and side
notched at one end.

“Size: Average — about 6 inches. [The New York examples range
from 3/4 to 6 inches long and average 34 of an inch in maximum
thickness.]

“Proportions: Three times as long as the widest point.

“Shape: Body — pointed at both ends with widest portion halfway
up the length of point.

Notches — shallow, rounded, narrow, side notches located
about Yio length from end of point.

“Variants: Proportions vary as do the position of the notches.

‘ ‘Association : Usually with late Archaic or early Woodland. [A spe¬
cimen of this kind was found by the writer in a grave of the early
Point Peninsula complex, Early Woodland period, on the Oberlander
No. 2 site at Brewerton, Oswego County, N.Y. (See Ritchie, 1944,
pp. 152-160, plate 71, figure 13- Slight damage to the base of this arti¬
fact has resulted in the loss of the characteristic point.) Charcoal from
one of the burials, all cremated, in this cemetery, yielded a radio¬
carbon date of 998 B.C. ± 170 years (Chicago sample No. 192. Arnold
and Libby, 1951, p. 114).

It is a diagnostic trait of the Red Ocher culture of the upper Great
Lakes region.]

“Distribution: Central Illinois, eastern Missouri, and southern
Illinois and Indiana. [To this range we may add Ohio and central
New York.]

“Reference: Titterington, 1950.” [Scully, 1951, p. 11.]

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New York State Museum and Science Service

GENESEE POINTS (plate 10)

General description: Large, thick, straight
stemmed points, of medium breadth.

Size: Length range is from approximately
l}/2 to 6 inches; the majority falling be¬
tween 3 and 3 Yi inches. Specimens longer
than 6 inches occasionally occur or are in¬
dicated by broken basal sections. Thick¬
ness varies from about % to of an inch,
with most points measuring between
and % of an inch.

Proportions: Typically about 2 to V/i
times as long as wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, mark¬
edly biconvex in cross section; edges
straight or slightly excurvate. Stem rec¬
tangular and straight or parallel-sided.
Shoulders weakly to moderately devel¬
oped, with straight or slightly oblique
basal edge. Base straight. About 40
percent show slight grinding of base and
sides of stem.

Age and cultural affiliations: Apparently Middle to Late Archaic;
part of Laurentian and Frontenac manifestations. Examples were
found among the grave goods of 9 burials at Frontenac Island (Ritchie,
1945, pp. 48-80). Radiocarbon dates at this site range from 2980 B.C.
± 260 (C-191, Arnold and Libby, 1951, p. 114), through 2013 B.C.
± 80 (Y-459), to 1723 B.C. ± 250 (W-545).

Distribution: Central and, particularly, western New York and
westward across the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario. Especially num¬
erous in the Genesee Valley of New York and the Grand River Valley
of Ontario. To a much lesser extent they occur also in eastern New
York and southern New England.

References: Ritchie, 1940, p. 29; 1945, p. 30, where they are referred
to as “stemmed” and “broad stemmed’ * points, respectively.

24

New York Projectile Points

Remarks: Genesee points seem to have served as dart or spear points,
perhaps in a few cases as knives. A very large percentage are made
from the characteristic mottled gray and brown flint of the Onondaga
escarpment of western New York and adjacent Ontario, most of the
remainder being of the more uniform gray Onondaga chert of central
New York.

Broad, shallow chipping scars suggest percussion technique of manu¬
facture. Marginal retouching is evident in many specimens and prob¬
ably signifies pressure work.

These points bear a marked similarity to the Kays Stemmed, a Middle
to Late Archaic type of the Tennessee area (Kneberg, 1956, p. 26),
and to straight stemmed points from the Shell Mound complex of
Kentucky (compare, e.g., with figure 32, A. Webb, 1946).

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New York State Museum and Science Service

JACK’S REEF CORNER-NOTCHED POINTS (plate 11)

General description: Broad, thin, corner-
notched points of medium size, frequently
having angular edges.

Size: Length range from about 1 to 234
inches; for the most part, between 1%
and 2 inches. Maximum thickness Jfe to
34 of an inch, the majority do not exceed
the minimum figure. There is one larger
specimen, probably a spearhead of this
type, measuring 4 inches in length, but
only of an inch in thickness (plate 33,
figure 2).

Proportions: About one and one-fourth times as long as broad.

Shape: Ovoid or pentagonal in outline, and flat or nearly so in cross
section. Edges excurvate or angular. Stem corner-notched and
basally flaring, barbs small to large, thin and sharp. Base straight,
and occasionally slightly smoothed.

Age and cultural affiliations: Later Middle Woodland times and the
earlier part of the Late Woodland period

Its principal period of use in New York encompassed Point Peninsula
2 and 3 complexes and the early Owasco Carpenter Brook complex.
One site of the latter complex (White site, Norwich, N.Y.) has been
radiocarbon dated at A.D. 905 ± 250 years (M-176, Crane, 1956,

p. 668).

It appears to be one of the forms found in the Intrusive Mound cul¬
ture graves at the Mound City Hopewell group in Ross County, Ohio
(Mills, 1922, p. 579 and figure 94).

Distribution: A major center of use was the Seneca River area of
central New York, where it has been found in the burials and/or
refuse of the Kipp Island, Jack’s Reef, Bluff Point, Wickham and other
sites, and on much more numerous surface sites. It is sporadically
distributed in western, northern and eastern New York. As already
mentioned, it occurs in Ohio, which was probably a primary center
of dispersal into New York.

26

New York Projectile Points

References: Ritchie, 1944, pp. 132 ff., plate 59, figures 8, 14-18, 20,
22-25; p. 173, plate 77, figures 6-8; 1946, p. 20, plate 6, figure 23;
1958, plate 14, figures 5, 6. According to blade outline, the point is
alluded to in these references as “broad corner-notched” or “corner-
notched with angular edges.”

Remarks: This point takes its name from the late Point Peninsula
Jack’s Reef site in Onondaga County, N.Y., excavated by the writer
in 1947 and 1951 (ms. report on file at New York State Museum and
Science Service).

Materials include not only central New York Onondaga flint, but
eastern Pennsylvania jasper and Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony. The
points appear to have been made by carefully controlled pressure flaking.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

JACK’S REEF PENTAGONAL POINTS (plate 12)

General description: Broad, stemless, pen
tagonal points.

Size: Range in length from 1 to 1?4 inches;
majority measure between 1J4 to \]/o
inches, with a maximum thickness of %
of an inch.

Proportions: About one and a third times
as long as wide.

Shape: Pentagonal, usually with straight sides. Sides, however,
may be slightly contracting. Base straight, rarely concave.

Age and cultural affiliations: A larger, thicker and cruder variant
(up to 2J4 inches long) appears in the Brewerton complex (Middle
Archaic). A few smaller, but still crude, examples occur in the middle
or Point Peninsula 2 complex (later Middle Woodland). It constitutes
a minor, but well-executed form on late Point Peninsula (Point Penin¬
sula 3), and especially on sites which show transitional features into
the early Owasco (lower Late Woodland) complex, where it continues,
however, as a minor point type. The best example is the White site,
near Norwich, Chenango County, N.Y., radiocarbon dated at A.D.
905 d= 250 years (M-176, Crane, 1956, p. 668).

Like the Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched point, with which it coexists
on both Point Peninsula and Owasco sites in New York, it was present
in the Intrusive Mound culture graves at the Mound City Hopewell
group in Ross County, Ohio (Mills, 1922, p. 579 and figure 94).

References: Ritchie, 1940, pp. 30-31; 1944, pp. 89, 107, 133; 1946,
p. 39. They are termed “pentagonal-shaped points” in these references.

Distribution: Very similar to the Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched type.
In central and eastern New York it has been found in refuse and/or
burials on the Robinson, Wickham, Jack’s Reef, Kipp Island, Bluff
Point, White and Schermerhorn sites.

It occurs, as mentioned, in Ohio. A similar form is described for
Virginia (Holland, 1955, pp. 167-168).

Remarks: Named from the late Point Peninsula jack’s Reef site in
Onondaga County, excavated by the writer in 1947 and 1951 (ms.
report on file at the New York State Museum and Science Service).

Materials, local flints. Technique, pressure flaking.

28

New York Projectile Points

LAMOKA POINTS (plates 13 and 14)

General description: Small, narrow, thick
points, with weak to moderately pro¬
nounced side notches, or straight stemmed
with slight, usually sloping shoulders.

Size: The length ranges from less than one
inch to about 2}/% inches. The majority
fall between and 1% inches in length,
and measure about J4 of an inch in maxi¬
mum thickness. There are a few longer
points, believed to be spearheads, which
range up to 5% inches in length. (Ritchie,
1932, plate V, figures 28-30.)

Proportions: Two to three times as long as 'wide.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, biconvex or median ridged in
cross section; edges straight or slightly excurvate. Stem straight and
of moderate length or side-notched. Base straight, oblique, or slightly
convex, usually unworked and as thick as blade, often exhibiting broad,
unmodified surface of flake or pebble from which point was made.
This thick, “unfinished” condition of the base is a prime diagnostic
feature of the Lamoka point wherever found.

Age and cultural affiliations: The characteristic point form of the
Lamoka complex, for which radiocarbon dates ranging from about
3500 B.C. to 2500 B.C. have been obtained. Both the side-notched
and stemmed forms occur together in the same Lamoka components at
the same levels, although the proportions vary somewhat from site
to site, as noted in the site reports. The type apparently persisted in
very minor proportions down to Middle Woodland times, at least in
central New York.

Distribution: This type has a wide range beyond the known area
of the defined Lamoka complex in central and western New York and
adjacent northern portions of Pennsylvania. To the west it is found
on the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario, and a very similar form, called
the “Dustin point,” is well represented in the Lower Peninsula of
Michigan. (Data received from, and specimens seen through the
courtesy of Lewis R. Binford, Museum of Anthropology, University

29

New York State Museum and Science Service

of Michigan.) East of the Lamoka culture area it is present in eastern
and southeastern New York and it has a still broader random dis¬
tribution.

References: Ritchie, 1932, pp. 91-92; 1936, pp. 4-5; 1944, p. 329;
1945, p. 30; 1958, pp. 14, 31-33, 45-46, 60-61; 1959, pp. 84-85, 87-89;
Dragoo, 1959, p. 238. (Ritchie has referred, in the later references,
to two types, viz., Lamoka Side-Notched and Lamoka Stemmed,
herein described as a single type.)

Remarks: Lamoka points seem usually to have been made from local
materials, principally flints, quartz or quartzite. A pebble industry
was indicated at the Lamoka Lake site. The chipping is generally
coarse and marginal retouching is rare. Binford has distinguished
two methods of making these points, the more common being lamellar
chipping from either edge to produce a medially ridged blade. This
is the only method reported by him for the “Dustin” points from
Michigan.

The second method has resulted in flatter, randomly placed flaking
scars, and a biconvex rather than a rhomboidal cross section for the
blade. He regards this distinction as of possible chronological signifi¬
cance. (By conversation of November 1959.) Should his hypothesis
be sustained, the writer suggests use of the terms Lamoka B and
Lamoka A, respectively, for these groups.

It would seem that Lamoka points constitute a relatively early
Archaic horizon style in the New York area.

30

New York Projectile Points

LEVANNA POINTS (plate 15)

General description: Medium to large,
fairly thin, triangular points, generally
with concave bases.

Size: In the sample of 250 New York
points used in this study, the length range
was to 3 inches. The majority meas¬
ured between 1J4 and 1% inches in length
and % of an inch in maximum thickness.

Proportions: Characteristically these points are nearly as broad as
they are long. In the more slender examples the length varies from
about one and one-third to one and one-half times the breadth.

Shape: Approximately 70 percent are equilaterally triangular. The
rest mav best be described as broad isosceles triangles. Edges usually
straight, occasionally incurvate, recurvate, or slightly excurvate.
More than 80 percent have a basal concavity, often to a marked degree,
nearly V-shaped in a few examples, producing prominent corner barbs,
which are occasionally asymmetric (plate 15, figures 5 and 10). The
remainder have straight bases.

Age and cultural affiliations: In New York State this type evidently
made its appearance in late Middle Woodland times around A.D. 700.
It did not, however, become common until the transitional period into
Late Woodland, ca. A.D. 900. Thereafter its popularity rapidly in¬
creased, until it became the principal Late Woodland point type over
much of the area. Around A.D. 1350 it began to be supplanted by
the Madison type, mainly in the districts of Iroquois cultural domi¬
nation.

The Levanna point is associated as a minor type with the middle
and late Point Peninsula complexes. It is the characteristic type of
the Owasco of all stages of development. On the same time level
as Owasco it is an important type in the Bowmans Brook, Clasons
Point and Sebonac cultures of coastal New York. It appears in
significant proportions in various late prehistoric manifestations of
southern New England, New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

Distribution: New York, much of New England, southeastern
Ontario, the Middle Atlantic area, at least to Virginia, and eastern
Pennsylvania.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

References: Named from the Levanna site, Cayuga County, N. Y.
(Ritchie, 1928).

Remarks: Unquestionably an arrowpoint, Very finely chipped by
pressure flaking. Materials local flints, jasper, quartz and quartzite.

32

New York Projectile Points

MADISON POINTS (plate 16)

This point type was described by Scully
as the Mississippi Triangular Point, later
changed by him to the Madison Point
(Scully, 1951, p. 14. The copy received
from him contains the penciled nominal
revision). He gives the association as
“Middle Mississippi,” and the distribu¬
tion as “Middle and Upper Mississippi
sites in Illinois, Wisconsin and Missouri.”

Kneberg refers to a very similar point as the “Late Mississippi
Triangular,” but confines it to a form with “straight basal edge”
(Kneberg, 1956, p. 24). She relates it to “most of the late Mississippi
cultures in Tennessee,” including the historic Cherokee, of the period
of approximately A.D. 1300-1800. Her “Hamilton Incurvate” type,
assigned to several cultures of the Late Woodland period, dating
between c. A.D. 500-1000, exhibits the incurvate edges and base found
on some of the points included in Scully’s description as variants of
the Madison type. (Kneberg, ibid.)

Suhm, Krieger and Jelks (1954, pp. 504, 498, 506) have defined vari¬
ous triangular types — the Maud, Fresno and Starr — which have features
overlapping with the Madison type. These belong to assemblages
which flourished during the latter half of the Christian era, and in¬
cluded pottery and agriculture.

The New York specimens herein described have some definite simi¬
larities to all of these possibly interrelated types. Since, however,
the variations noted in our sample are readily accommodated within
the compass of Scully’s Madison type this name has been applied.

General description: Small, thin, triangular points.

Size: According to Scully, the length range is from Yi to inches,
with an average of 1 inch. A New York sample of 100 points from a
single prehistoric Iroquois site in western New York (plate 16) ranged
from % to 1%$ of an inch, with a majority falling between 1 and V/i
inches. The thickness varied from to %•„ most of the specimens
measuring }/§ of an inch, maximum.

Proportions: These vary from about as long as wide in the nearly
equilateral specimens to twice as long as wide in the isosceles triangles,
with most of the latter around 1 L? times as long as broad.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

Shape: Equilateral (20 percent) or isosceles (80 percent) in outline,
with straight (47 percent) or concave (53 percent) base (in two exam¬
ples the base is slightly convex), and straight (75 percent), slightly
excurvate (17 percent), or slightly incurvate (8 percent) edges. Flat
or nearly so in cross section.

Age and cultural affiliations: Late prehistoric to early historic
period. Constitutes, in varying proportions, an arrowpoint type of
many Middle and Upper Mississippi and Late Woodland complexes.
In the Northeast it is the distinctive Iroquoian form.

Distribution: Has a wide distribution in the eastern United States
and southeastern Ontario.

References: Scully, 1951, p. 14.

Remarks: Very finely chipped by pressure flaking. Among the
northern Iroquois the principal material employed was Onondaga
flint from the exposures of central New York and the Ontario Peninsula.

34

New York Projectile Points

MEADOWGOD POINTS (plate 17)

General description: Very thin, medium
to large, side-notched points, of medium
breadth.

Size: In length these points range from
about 1% to 33^2 inches, with the majority
falling between 2J4 and 2% inches. The
thickness, even of the largest points, rarely
exceeds %j of an inch.

Proportions: The length averages approx¬
imately two and a half to three times the
breadth.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, flat
in cross section; edges are straight, slightly
excurvate or incurvate, and are occasion¬
ally serrated or steeply beveled from oppo¬
site sides. Stem neatly side-notched, some¬
times with double notch. Base straight or
convex, sometimes expanded in fan shape,
In about 50 percent base is ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the characteristic point type
of the early Point Peninsula (Point Peninsula 1) complex, radiocarbon
dated between about 2448 B.C. (C-794, Libby, 1954, p. 137) and 563
B.C. (M-640, Crane and Griffin, 1959, p. 183). It is apparently diag¬
nostic for this Early Woodland culture.

Distribution: Northern, central and western New York and west¬
ward across the Niagara Peninsula of southeastern Ontario. Sporadi¬
cally found in eastern and southern New York, and in the upper
Allegheny Valley of western Pennsylvania.

References: Ritchie, 1944, pp. 122, 125-126, 152-160; 1955, pp.
48-49, where they are termed “thin side-notched” points; 1958, p. 68,
where the type is referred to as “Meadowood Side-Notched.”

Remarks: While most specimens appear to be projectile points,
others seem to have been made or modified for use as side or end scrapers,
knives, and perhaps saws. Many could have been manufactured bv

or beveled to scraper edge.

35

New York State Museum and Science Service

slight alteration from the numerous mortuary or “cache” blades found
in burials of this culture. The flat, well-controlled pressure flaking,
shows great skill. Wherever found, these points (and the accompany¬
ing mortuary blades, drills and scrapers) are prevailingly of the peculiar
mottled gray and brown flint of The Onondaga exposures in western
New York and the Ontario Peninsula, or of the clear gray flints of the
central New York Onondaga escarpment.

36

N tiw York Projectile Points

NORMANSKILL POINTS (plate 18)

General description: Slender, thick points
of medium size, with prominent side
notches.

Size: Length range from about Ikfe to
inches, majority fall between 1?$ and 2
inches. Thickness from % to of an
inch, in the majority the maximum thick¬
ness is an inch.

Proportions: Two to three times as long
as wide.

Shape: Blade narrow and triangular in
outline, markedly biconvex in cross sec¬
tion; edges straight. Stem boldly side-
notched and slightly thinned by coarse flaking from the base. Base
straight or very slightly concave. Rarely the base shows a little
smoothing.

Age and cultural affiliations: Occurs in varying proportions on sites
or site components of Middle Archaic age. Constitutes an element of
the Vosburg complex, Laurentian tradition.

Distribution: Eastern New York, chiefly along the Hudson River
and tributary streams, such as the Normanskill, Mohawk River and
Hoosic River, from about Glens Falls to Kingston. Excavated from
the Harris site (Scv 1-2), Saratoga County, and from Stratum 3 of the
Lotus Point site (Ctl 3-1), Greene County. The dominant point form
on the river site (Coh 8-3), Saratoga County. Abundant on the Vos¬
burg site, Albany County.

References: Ritchie, 1958, pp. 8-53, plate 3, figures 23-33; plate 12,
figures 9, 10; plate 15, figures 11-58, where they are described as
“narrow side-notched points.”

Remarks: This point suggests a slender variant of the Brewerton
Side-Notched type which, described as “broad side-notched” by the
writer (1958), occurs with it on the aforementioned eastern and other
New York sites. Morphologically it is transitional between the
Lamoka side-notched and Brewerton side-notched forms.

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New York State Museum and Science Service

The materials used are local flints. The techniques employed in
fabrication seem for the most part to have been percussion for the rough
shaping of the point and pressure flaking to produce the varying
amounts of marginal retouching.

38

New York Projectile Points

ORIENT FISHTAIL POINTS (plate 19)

General description: A slender, gracefully
formed point, of medium size, with char¬
acteristically narrow, lanceolate blade
merging into a flaring “fishtail” stem.

Size: Length range from about 1% to 4
inches, predominantly 2 to V/i inches.
Maximum thickness 5^6 to Jl6 of an inch,
majority fall between 34 and An of an inch.

Proportions: These points are two and
one-half to three and one-half times as
long as wide.

Shape: Blade lanceolate in outline, bicon¬
vex to nearly flat in cross section; edges
excurvate. Sloping shoulders merge into
flaring stem with incurvate or less often,
straight base. Latter occasionally slightly
smoothed.

Age and cultural affiliations: Late Archaic
and Transition period into Early Wood¬
land. The characteristic point type of the Orient complex on Long
Island and of a related manifestation with stone vessels in the Hudson
Valley and elsewhere. Orient complex radiocarbon dated between
1044 B.C. d= 300 years (M-586) (Crane and Griffin, 1938, p. 1101) and
763 B.C. ± 220 years (W-543). (Ritchie, 1959, pp. 47-49, 74-76.)

Distribution: Eastern and southern New York, particularly the
middle and lower Hudson Valley and Long Island. Has a light,
sporadic representation in central New York, southern New England
and northern and central New Jersey.

References: Ritchie, 1944, p. 227 fL; 1958, esp. pp. 29-31, on the
stratigraphic position of these points on a Hudson Valley site; 1959,
on the Orient complex. Formal description under same name in latter,
pp. 31-32.

Remarks: In the Orient complex of Long Island, a majority of these
points were made, apparently by indirect percussion, from the local
quartz or quartzite pebbles. Elsewhere regional flints of good quality
or occasionally jasper or even slate were employed, and the flat flaking
scars suggest reduction from a thick spall by a pressure technique.

39

New York State Museum and Science Service

OTTER CREEK POINTS (plates 20, 21, 22)

General description: Large, thick, narrow
or medium wide, side-notched points, with
“square” tangs.

Size: Length range from about to 4 Yi
inches, majority fall between 2% and 3 Yi
inches. A few probable spearpoints of
larger size have been identified (plate 22).
Thickness range %> to Yl inch, majority
measure between *^6 and Ti6 of an inch.

Proportions: Two to three times as long
as wide.

Shape: Blade ovoid or lanceolate, rarely
trianguloid in outline, biconvex in cross
section; edges excurvate, less often straight;
stem side-notched, notching seems to have
been final operation, resulting in “square”
tangs. Base concave or less frequently
straight. Almost invariably the base and
tang edges have been ground or rubbed
smooth, and in nearly all cases this treat¬
ment has been extended to the notch.

Age and cultural affiliations: The prevail¬
ing point type of certain, still undescribed
sites, apparently to be attributed to the poorly defined Vergennes com¬
plex of the Archaic Laurentian manifestation in western Vermont
(Ritchie, 1944, pp. 253-257).

Distribution: As currently known, west central Vermont, especially
the valley of Otter Creek and its tributaries. The predominant point
form on certain sites explored by Thomas E. Daniels, Orwell, Vt.
(plate 20); present also on the multicomplex Vergennes site (Bailey,
1939) and several other stations in this area. A cross tie with the
Brewerton complex in central New York is afforded by the occurrence
of a few points of this type on the Robinson site (Ritchie, 1940, plate
13, figure 97) and, conversely, of Brewerton type side-notched, corner-
notched and eared-notched types on the Vermont sites in question.

40

New York Projectile Points

An occasional point of this type is found on Archaic sites in eastern
New York (plate 21).

References: None.

Remarks: The author believes the Otter Creek point is genetically
related to the Brewerton Side-Notched point and to other similar types
mentioned under the description of the latter (page 72). Side-notched
points apparently very like Otter Creek points are reported from levels
5 and 6 of the Graham Cave site in Missouri (Logan, 1952, plate V,
G-L; plate VI, A, B), and from the Osceola site of the Old Copper
culture in Wisconsin (Ritzenthaler, 1946, plate 6; Bell, 1958, p. 68).
Because of its large size it may have been primarily a spearpoint. The
material of many of these points is a regional quartzite or metamor¬
phosed siltstone or slate. Some, however, are of native or probably
eastern New York flints. The chipping seems to have been done by
percussion with secondary marginal pressure flaking on most examples.

41

New York State Museum and Science Service

PERKIOMEN BROAD POINTS (plate 23)

Witthoft is responsible for the definition
of this type which he has termed the
Perkiomen Broad Spearpoint . ’ ’ The fol¬
lowing discussion is based largely on his
paper, cited below.

General description: “Very broad, boldly
flaked spearpoints of semi-lozenge shape,
with certain characteristic contour details
often exaggerated.”

Size: “Rarely less than two inches long
and rarely more than four. Specimens up
to nine inches long are sometimes found,
and I have seen some examples four inches
broad and six long.”

A small New York sample ranged between 34 and % of an inch in
thickness, with most examples in the lower range. The average thick¬
ness of this type slightly exceeds that of the Susquehanna Broad type.

Proportions: “Generally half as broad as long, or more. Rarely
narrow, often very asymmetrical.”

Shape: “Blade: Generally approximates an equilateral triangle, with
convex edges near tip, and often slight convexity or concavity else¬
where. Blade edges are frequently asymmetrical, and the blade is
often somewhat out of center in relation to the tang. Blades are thin,
with rarely any medial ridge; where one occurs on one face, the other
face is usually flat.

“Ears [Shoulders]: Frequently barbed, sometimes at both ears but
more often only at one corner. The ears may form either obtuse or
acute angles, but even strongly barbed specimens rarely have very
acute ears. Edges in the ear area are always thin and sharp, and were
carefully retouched to straight, even edges. Often the blade edge
ahead of the ear is somewhat concave or convex. Chipping details
of the ears and of the blade are like those of the Susquehanna Broad
Spearpoint, but the breaks in contour of the edge are frequently very
pronounced in the Perkiomen type, and the barbs and grotesquely
turned corners are exaggerations of these shape details. The two edges
of a specimen rarely show strong symmetry.

42

New York Projectile Points

“Tang [Stem]: Always constricted and almost invariably with a
convex base; the base is sometimes straight but is almost never concave.

[ In about half of the New York specimens the base is straight.] The
tang is unusually small compared with the blade, and frequently is
tiny in proportion to the rest of the spear. The tang corners are
rounded, not prominent, and never suggest barbs. All edges of the
tang are always ground smooth, including the basal corners of the
tang. [This does not apply to many of the New York specimens.]
This edge grinding extends out onto the ears only a short distance,
generally to a conspicuous break in outline.”

Age and cultural affiliations: Probably like the Susquehanna Broad
point, i.e., of the Transitional period from Late Archaic into Early
Woodland. Witthoft has hypothesized that “The Susquehanna Broad
Spear type appears to be the ancestor of the Perkiomen Broad Spear and
the Lehigh Broad Spear [probably related to the Snook Kill point, here¬
in described, see pp. 47-48] types, ... as well as of slightly different
broad types of central New York and of the Hudson-Mohawk. . . .
These derived types are, I believe, both later than and contemporary
with the Susquehanna Broad Spear type; at any rate, they are over¬
lapping ages and there do not seem to be any very significant time
differences among them. Distributions are more geographic than
temporal.” (Witthoft, 1953, p. 16.)

Distribution: The Schuylkill Valley and its tributary streams enter¬
ing from the north, the eastern borders of the Susquehanna Valley,
the Delaware and Hudson Valleys. Sporadically distributed in north¬
ern and central New Jersey and in the Mohawk, Seneca, and Genesee
Valleys of New York.

References: Witthoft, 1953, pp. 16-20.

Remarks: The commonest lithic material of these points is Pennsyl¬
vania jasper, usually of the finest grades. Other specimens are of
rhyolite; Onondaga flint from central and western New York; Deepkill
and Normanskill flint from the Hudson Valley; Flint Ridge, Ohio
chalcedony; and rarely, argillite or quartzite.

43

New York State Museum and Science Service

POPLAR ISLAND POINTS (plates 24 and 2 5)

This description was prepared by W. Fred Kinsey I IT.

General description: Medium to large, linely flaked, symmetrical
points, having quite slender isosceles triangular blades. Shoulders are
rounded and the constricted stem tapers toward a narrow rounded base.

Size: They range from 1.8 inches to 3-4 inches with the average length
slightly over 2 inches. In cross section they are usually oval with
some examples rather thin and flat.

Proportions: Generally they are more slender than Bare Island
points. Blade width in comparison to length is narrow except where
some specimens have rechipped blades.

Shape: Blade exhibits considerable symmetry in the form of a slender
isosceles triangle. Edges are nearly straight with only a slight trace
of convexity. Tips and edges are crisp and the tip is always on center
with the stem. There is no medial ridge.

Shoulder area always rounded and on some specimens the shoulder
is not clearly defined. Usually it is a graceful curve and some pieces
lack distinct shoulders.

The nonparallel sides of the stem taper toward the base which is
the narrowest part of the stem. The lobate base is always convex
and sometimes it is nearly pointed. Basal corners are always round
and never sharp. Edge grinding is frequently present.

Age and cultural affiliations: This is the second most popular point
type excavated at the Kent-Hally site on Bare Island. It occurs with
an overall frequency of 20 percent and its distribution was remarkably
uniform in all levels. At Kent-Hally two of this type were found in
intimate association with stone pots. One was inside a broken steatite
bowl and the other was lying against the outside wall of the vessel
(Kinsey 1959, pp. 128-129). The writer therefore suggested that this
was a Late Archaic type contemporaneous with the utilization of
steatite bowls, and also that the use of steatite might have been early
in the lower Susquehanna since the quarries are nearby. Witthoft, to
the contrary, places these points earlier in the Archaic since they are
found in deeper levels on Duncan’s Island. He believes the Poplar
Island and Bare Island points are close contemporaries. Probably
their antecedents lie in the Virginia and Carolina Piedmont and on
the Savannah River in Georgia.

44

New York Projectile Points

Distribution: The type is found in the same general area as the Bare
Island point but with a lower frequency. It is particularly conspicuous
on Poplar Island and Duncan’s Island in the lower Susquehanna River.
It also occurs along the Chesapeake and at the Accokeek Creek site.

[It has a sporadic distribution northward across Delaware and
New Jersey into southern and eastern New York. (See plate 25.)
W.A.R.]

References: Kinsey, 1959, p. 115, where it is referred to as “tapered
or lobate-stemmed, Type C;” Witthoft, 1959, p. 83-

Remarks: At the Kent-Hally site 37-7 percent of these points are of
siltstone, 24.5 percent of argillite, and 20 percent of quartz. Others
are made of quartzite, rhyolite and flint. At Poplar Island and Dun¬
can’s Island the use of siltstone and argillite is also conspicuous.

45

New York State Museum and Science Service

ROSSVILLE POINTS (plate 26)

General description: Thick, lozenge-
shaped points of medium size.

Size: Length range approximately 1)4 to
l}/2 inches; majority fall between 1% to
2 inches. Maximum thickness varies from
34 to 3^6 an i°ch in a sample of 72 from
New York, with most of the specimens
measuring % of an inch.

Proportions: About twice as long as wide.

Shape: Roughly rhomboidal or lozenge¬
shaped. Some examples have weak, oblique
shoulders which merge with a contracting
stem terminating in a blunt point. Edges
are straight or slightly excurvate.

Age and cultural affiliations: Very late Archaic, Transitional and
Early Woodland periods. They occur in the lower levels of certain
coastal New York shell heaps, apparently without pottery associa¬
tions, and continue into the North Beach and Clearview ceramic foci.
It is probable that thev constitute a point type of other foci as well.

Distribution: From the Chesapeake Bay area, where it may have
originated, northward through southern and southeastern New York
and southern New England.

References: Skinner, 1915, p. 57; 1919, p. 70; Smith, 1950, pp. 134,
135; Holland, 1955, p. 170 (termed “Type K-Contracting Stem’’);
Ritchie, 1958, p. 74, figures 25, 26 (termed “lozenge-shaped points”).

Remarks: Named from an early reference by Skinner to their pre¬
dominance at the Rossville site on Staten Island, N. Y. (Skinner, 1915,
p. 57). There seem to be no data to sustain the high antiquity accorded
to this form by Skinner.

Materials are chiefly quartz and argillite in the southern part of their
range, quartz and felsite in Connecticut and Massachusetts, and flint
in the Hudson Valley. These points display some overlap in shape
with the Poplar Island type, and a genetic relationship seems probable.

46

New York Projectile Points

SNOOK KILL POINTS (plate 27)

General description: Very broad, large,
thick, contracted stemmed points.

Size: Length range is from about 2 to 4
inches, with the majority falling between
2J4 and 334 inches. Thickness ranges
from 34 to °f an inch; most points mea¬
sure between % and % of an inch.

Proportions: Typically about one and
one-half times as long as broad.

Shape: Blade trianguloid in outline, bi¬
convex or plano-convex in cross section;
edges straight, slightly to moderately ex-
curvate, or slightly incurvate. Stem con¬
tracted or straight. Shoulders pronounced
and often asymmetric. No true barbs.
Base straight or slightly lobate. A very
small percentage have slight to moderate
basal grinding.

Age and cultural affiliations: The type
overlaps with the Lehigh Broad Spear-
point of Witthoft (1953, pp. 21-22), and
is probably of comparable age. The
author believes the Snook Kill complex
will prove to be related to the even less
well understood Late Archaic complex in
eastern Pennsylvania to which the Lehigh
point belongs. There is also enough gen¬
eral similarity between Snook Kill and
Savannah River points to suggest a genetic
relationship.

Distribution: Eastern New York, espe¬
cially the Hudson Valley between Albany
and Glens Falls and the lower Hoosic
Valley.

References: Ritchie, 1958, pp. 91-98.

Remarks: Nearly every specimen is made
of eastern New York flints, Normanskill,

47

New York State Museum and Science Service

Deepkill, Fort Ann; a few are of Onondaga or Oriskany flint, or of
weathered argillite, probably from the Delaware Valley in New Jersey
or eastern Pennsylvania, from which area the author suspects this com¬
plex entered New York.

The points exhibit broad, shallow flaking scars indicative of per¬
cussion chipping. In a fair number of cases retouching from both
sides has resulted in relatively thin, sharp, straight or slightly sinuous
edges.

Snook Kill points were probably employed on darts and spears.
Some with markedly convex edges (plate 27, figures 2 and 3), and
especially the variant with asymmetric edges and almost lozenge¬
shaped base, were doubtless knives.

48

New York Projectile Points

SNYDERS POINTS (plate 28)

The following description is based upon Scully (1951) and Bell (1958).

General description: A large, broad, ovate point with deep corner
notches.

Size*. The length range is from about 2 to 6 inches, the majority fall¬
ing between V/i and 3 inches.

Proportions: About four-fifths as wide as it is long.

Shape: Blade broad and ovate in outline, relatively thin and nearly
flat in cross section, edges excurvate. Stem short, deeply and usually
broadly comer-notched, and basally expanding. Base markedly
convex.

Age and cultural affiliations: It is a characteristic form of the Hope-
well ian culture of Middle Woodland age (approximately 500 B.C. to
A.D. 500).

Distribution: Central and northern Illinois, southwestern Michigan,
eastern Missouri, northeastern Oklahoma, the central Mississippi
Valley, the middle and upper Ohio Valley, and elsewhere, including
western New York.

References: Scully, 1951, p. 12; Bell, 1958, pp. 88-89.

Remarks: Of rare occurrence in New York, where its distribution
coincides with that of Hopewellian burial mounds. Most New York
examples are made of Harrison County, Indiana or Flint Ridge, Ohio
materials.

49

New York State Museum and Science Service

STEUBENVILLE LANCEOLATE POINTS (plate 29)

General description: Rather broad, lance¬
olate points, of medium to large size, with
slightly concave bases.

Size: Length range from about 1 to 3%
inches; the majority measuring between
2 and 3 inches. Thickness (of the small
sample from New York State) fjg to % of
an inch.

Proportions: These points are two to two
and one-half times as long as wide.

Shape: Lanceolate, with excurvate or
slightly recurvate edges. Biconvex in
cross section. Base usually mildly to
moderately constricted and slightly con¬
cave. No smoothing, but occasional thinning present in the New York
sample.

Age and cultural affiliations: Problematical in the New York area.
Found in the Panhandle Archaic of West Virginia in association with
the Steubenville Stemmed type.

In eastern and southern New York State, where a similar point asso¬
ciation occurs, early pottery styles are evidently also present.

See fuller data under Steubenville Stemmed type, pp. 51, 52.

Distribution: The West Virginia Panhandle area and elsewhere in
the upper Ohio Valley; central New York, especially in the upper
Susquehanna Valley region; eastern New York, particularly in the
Hudson Valley south from Greene and Columbia Counties; Staten
Island, Long Island, and the upper Delaware Valley in New Jersey,
Pennsylvania and New York.

References: The Steubenville Lanceolate and Stemmed points were
named, but not defined or formally described, by Mayer-Oakes, 1955,
pp. 130-142; 1955a, pp. 8, 17-20; Ritchie, 1958, p. 99.

Remarks: These points are generally made of regional flints. In
the lower Hudson and upper Delaware River regions, however, a pur¬
ple or gray-weathering black argillite predominates.

50

New York Projectile Points

STEUBENVILLE STEMMED POINTS (plate 30)

General description: Broad, heavy points
of medium to large size, with wide stems
and very weak shoulders.

Size: In the sample of about 50 New York
points studied, the length ranged from 1%
to 33/2 inches, with the majority measuring
between 2 and V/i inches. The thickness
varied from to of an inch, most
examples falling into the narrow range
between % and ^ of an inch.

Proportions: From about one and one-
fourth to two and one-half times as long
as wide, with most of the points closer to
the former proportions, giving them a
short, wide, “stubby” appearance.

Shape: Blade outline ovate, lanceolate or trianguloid in descending
order of frequency; mildly biconvex in cross section; edges excurvate.
Stem wide, with very small, right angular or sloping (obtuse angular)
shoulders. In many cases the shoulders are so weakly developed as
to be almost nonexistent, and such intergrades link the stemmed and
lanceolate forms. Base concave or less often straight. Very slight
smoothing of the basal and/or stem edges, apparently more from use
than design, occurs on a small proportion of the specimens. In a few
of the specimens the base has been thinned by the removal from one
side of the stem of one or more shallow vertical channel flakes.

Age and cultural affiliations: Currently unknown in the New York
area. Part of the Panhandle Archaic of West Virginia. Mayer-Oakes
regards this and the culturally related Steubenville Lanceolate form
as very early Archaic in the upper Ohio Valley. He makes the assump¬
tion that “They were derived from the late Paleo-Indian ‘ScottsblufT
and ‘Starved Rock Lanceolate’ types, which came into the area from
the west at about the time of the post-glacial climatic maximum.”
(Mayer-Oakes, 1955a, p. 20.) Dragoo, on the other hand, would
place the Steubenville types in the Late Archaic complexes of the
upper Ohio Valley (Dragoo, 1959, pp. 202-206, 210, 213).

In eastern and southern New York State there is some evidence that
these types have ceramic associations. On the Ford site (Ctl. 16-2),

51

New York State Museum and Science Service

Columbia County, they have been found on the same level with net-
impressed, grit-tempered, or shell-tempered and leached pottery.

“At Pelham Boulder [Har. 4-4, Bronx County], the Steubenvilles
were in or near sherd clusters in the bottom third of the midden; col¬
lectively the types are Vinette 1, Modified Vinette 1, Fabric Impressed,
Net Impressed, Exterior Cord marked (like Vinette 1 and Modified
Vinette 1 except that there are no interior cordmarks) and Abbott
Zoned Dentate.” (Julius Lopez, letter of January 3, 1960; cf. Lopez,
1956, p. 15.)

Distribution: The upper Ohio Valley, especially the West Virginia
Panhandle area; central New York, particularly the Susquehanna
Valley around Colliersville, Otsego County, and sporadically down
river at least to Susquehanna, Pennsylvania; eastern New York, chiefly
the Hudson Valley from Greene and Columbia Counties southward
to the mouth of the river; Staten Island; western Long Island; the upper
Delaware Valley in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and New York.

No doubt, as this point type becomes more generally recognized,
the range will be considerably extended, at least to include some of
the intervening areas.

References: The Steubenville Stemmed and Lanceolate types were
named, but not defined or formally described, by Mayer-Oakes, 1955,
pp. 130-142; 1955a, pp. 8, 17-20; Ritchie, 1958, p. 99.

Remarks: In most areas, local materials seem to predominate in the
composition of these points. In central and eastern New York, how¬
ever, a small percentage is comprised of purple- or gray-weathering
argillite, presumably derived from the Delaware Valley of New Jersey.
The incidence of argillite as a material rises sharply in the lower Hud¬
son and Delaware Valleys.

52

New York Projectile Points

SUSQUEHANNA BROAD POINTS (plate 31)

This point type has been described by John
Witthoft of the Pennsylvania State Museum
as the Susquehanna Broad Spearpoint. The
following discussion is taken very largely
from his work, cited below, as it applies
with equal validity to the New York
material in my sample of several hundred
points.

General description: “Broad, boldly flaked
spearpoints of roughly semi-lozenge to
rough corner-notched shape, with certain
characteristic contour details.”

Size: “Most specimens are between an inch
and a half and four inches long; rare exam¬
ples are as short as an inch and as long as
eight inches.”

The thickness of a representative sample of New York points varied
between % and % of an inch.

Proportions: “Generally half as broad as long, or less. Rarely
quite narrow.”

Shape: “Blade: Triangular, usually with some portion of the edges
convex, especially near tip. Edge often somewhat concave near base.
Frequently not symmetrical. In cross section, the faces of the blade
are evenly rounded rather than keeled or flat. Retouching of the
edge to final contour was usually from one face of the blade.

“Ears [Shoulders] : Not barbed, but jutting in a characteristic fashion.
The ears are usually angular, forming an obtuse angle, and are some¬
times somewhat rounded. In either case, they are always thin and
sharp, carefully retouched to thin, straight edges.

“Tang [Stem]: Always constricted and almost always with a con¬
cave base; base is rarely straight or extremely concave. Base of the
tang narrower than the ears, with tang corners generally acute and
prominent. All edges of the tang are always ground smooth, includ¬
ing the basal corners of the tang.”

Age and cultural affiliations: Transitional period linking Late Ar¬
chaic and Early Woodland periods. Probably between approximately
1200 and 700 B.C. The culture complex (or complexes) to which

53

New York State Museum and Science Service

these points belong is poorly known, and with one exception, comes
from surface sites. They form part of a widely spread steatite or soap¬
stone pot-using culture which, in the Susquehanna Valley, has a very
limited associated complex mainly comprising distinctive forms of
chipped drills and scrapers, netsinkers, and crude ornaments of steatite.

Distribution: The Susquehanna Valley in Pennsylvania and New
York and its principal tributaries; the Delaware drainage system north
of the Water Gap; the Hudson and Mohawk Valleys; the Finger Lakes
region and the Seneca River and its affluent sources, including Oneida
Lake. The center of distribution seems to have been the Susquehanna
Valley in Pennsylvania.

References: Witthoft, 1953, pp. 7-16.

Remarks: In Pennsylvania, nearly all points of this type are said
to be made of purplish rhyolite derived from outcrops of this meta¬
morphosed volcanic rock in Franklin and Adams Counties, near Gettys¬
burg, Pennsylvania. This material also composes a large number of
the New York specimens and, together with the frequently associated
steatite, proves the intrusive nature of these artifacts, and almost cer¬
tainly of the complex to which they pertain. However, a much larger
proportion of the New York specimens, contrary to Witthoft’s state¬
ment (op. cit. pp. 8, 12) are of the local flints, for the most part Onon¬
daga, and constitute local copies of the introduced points.

Susquehanna Broad points of rhyolite and flint, associated with
steatite pot fragments, were excavated from the upper level of the
Frontenac Island site, Cayuga County, N.Y., above deeper deposits
of Archaic age (Ritchie, 1945).

Witthoft has classified these points as “spearpoints” but has not
defined the term. The author has distinguished between spearpoints
and dartpoints earlier in this study (see pages 5-6).

He suspects that the shorter examples were dartpoints. Some of
the very thin and fragile specimens may well have served as knives.

The writer has attempted to show the existence, chiefly in eastern
and southern New York, of intergrades connecting the Susquehanna
Broad point with the Orient Fishtail point (Ritchie, 1959, pp. 90-91,
169).

54

New York Projectile Points

VOSBURG POINTS (plate 32)

General description: Medium sized, broad,
relatively thin points, with small to med¬
ium comer notches on a prevailingly short
stem which is basally ground smooth.

Size: The length range is from about one
to 2% inches, the majority falling between
13/2 and 2 inches, with a maximum thick¬
ness of to 34 of an inch. Longer points,
probably spearheads, do occur, the largest
seen measuring 434 inches long, 1 34 inches
wide, and ^ of an inch thick (plate 32,
figure 11).

Proportions: Length averages about one-quarter greater than breadth
in most specimens. The larger points are two to two and one-half
times as long as wide.

Shape: The blade is trianguloid in outline, slightly biconvex or
nearly flat in cross section; the edges are straight, mildly excurvate,
or rarely incurvate. A slight degree of serration is not uncommon.
The stem is corner-notched, usually with small notches forming rather
weak barbs, expanded, and usually very short. The base is straight or
slightly concave, and nearly always ground smooth.

Age and cultural affiliations: An important point form of the Vos-
burg complex, Laurentian tradition, occurring in varying proportions
on nearly all sites of this manifestation. Examples were present in
Level 4, or near the base of the stratified Lotus Point site in the Hudson
Valley, hence they seem to have appeared rather early in the Archaic
horizon of this area.

Distribution: Primarily an eastern New York form, especially in
the Hudson, Mohawk and Hoosic Valleys. Of sporadic occurrence in
peripheral regions. A few examples were excavated at the Robinson
site of the Brewerton complex, Laurentian tradition.

References: Ritchie, 1940, p. 29; 1944, pp. 257-259; 1958, pp. 19,
32, 59, 69, 80. In the last reference the type is referred to as “Vosburg
Corner-Notched . * ’

Remarks: Generally made of eastern New York Normanskill and
Deepkill flints, apparently by pressure flaking techniques.

55

New York Projectile Points

REFERENCES

Arnold, J. R. & Libby, W. F.

1951. Radiocarbon dates. Science, Vol. 113, No. 2927, pp. 111-120. Lancaster.
Bailey, John H.

1939. A ground slate producing site near Vergennes, Vermont. Bull. Champlain
Valley Archaeological Society, Vol. I, No. 2. Fort Ticonderoga.

Bell, Robert E.

1958. Guide to the identification of certain American Indian projectile points. Okla¬
homa Anthropological Society, Special Bull. No. 1. Oklahoma City.

Boas, Franz

1927. Primitive art. Harvard University Press. Cambridge.

Byers, Douglas S.

1959. Radiocarbon dates from Bull Brook. Bull. Mass. Archaeological Society, Vol.
XX, No. 3, p. 33. Attleboro.

Crane, H. R.

1956. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates I. Science, Vol. 124, No. 3224, pp.
664-672. Lancaster.

— - & Griffin, J. B.

1958. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates II. Science, Vol. 127, No. 3306,
pp. 1098-1105. Lancaster.

1959. University of Michigan radiocarbon dates IV. American Journal of Science
Radiocarbon Supplement, Vol. I. New Haven.

Dragoo, Don W.

1959. Archaic hunters of the upper Ohio Valley. Carnegie Museum, Anthropological
Series, No. 3. Pittsburgh.

Haury, Emil W., Sayles, E. B. & Wasley, William W.

1959. The Lehner mammoth site. American Antiquity, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 2-30.
Salt Lake City.

Holland, C. G.

1955. An analysis of projectile points and large blades. In Evans, Clifford. A ceramic
study of Virginia archeology. Smithsonian Institution, Bur. Amer. Ethnology,
Bull. 160, pp. 1 65-191. Washington.

Kinsey, W. Fred, III

1959. Recent excavations on Bare Island in Pennsylvania: the Kent-Hally site. Penn¬
sylvania Archaeologist, Vol. XXIX, Nos. 3-4. Gettysburg.

Kluback, William

1956. Wilhelm Dilthey’s philosophy of history. Columbia University Press. New York.

Kneberg, Madeline

1956. Some important projectile point types found in the Tennessee area. Tennessee
Archaeologist, Vol. XII, No. 1, pp. 17-28. Knoxville.

Krieger, Alex D.

1944. The typological concept. American Antiquity, Vol. IX, No. 3, pp. 271-288.
Menasha.

57

New York State Museum and Science Service

Libby, W. F.

1954. Chicago radiocarbon dates, IV. Science, Vol. 119, No. 3083, pp. 135-140.
Lancaster.

Logan, Wilfred D.

1952. Graham Cave, an Archaic site in Montgomery County, Missouri. Missouri
Archaeological Society, Memoir No. 2, Columbia.

Lopez, Julius

1956. The Pelham Boulder site, Bronx County, New York. Eastern States Archaeo¬
logical Federation, Bulletin No. 15, p. 15- Trenton.

MacNeish, Richard S.

1952. Iroquois pottery types. National Museum of Canada, Bull. No. 124. Ottawa.
Mayer-Oakes, William J.

1955- Prehistory of the upper Ohio Valley; an introductory archeological study.

Annals Carnegie Museum, Vol. 34. Pittsburgh.

1955a. Excavations at the Globe Hill shell heap. West Virginia Archeological
Society, Publication Series No. 3. Moundsville.

Mills, William C.

1922. Exploration of the Mound City group. Ohio Archaeological and Historical
Quarterly, Vol. XXXI, No. 4, pp. 422-584. Columbus.

Redfield, Robert

1953- The primitive world and its transformations. Cornell University Press. Ithaca.
Ritchie, William A.

1928. An Algonkian village site near Levanna, N. Y. Research Records of Rochester
Municipal Museum, No. 1. Rochester.

1932. The Lamoka Lake site. Researches and Transactions of the New York State
Archeological Assn., Vol. VII, No. 4. Rochester.

1936. New evidence relating to the Archaic occupation of New York. Researches
and Transactions of the New York State Archeological Assn., Vol. VIII, No. 1.
Rochester.

1940. Two prehistoric village sites at Brewerton, New York. Rochester Mus. Arts
and Sciences, Research Records No. 5- Rochester.

1944. The pre-Iroquoian occupations of New York State. Rochester Mus. Arts and
Sciences, Memoir No. 1. Rochester.

1945. An early site in Cayuga County, New York. Rochester Mus. Arts and Sciences,
Research Records No. 7. Rochester.

1946. A stratified prehistoric site at Brewerton, New York. Rochester Mus. Arts
and Sciences, Research Records, No. 8. Rochester.

1955. Recent discoveries suggesting an Early Woodland burial cult in the Northeast.
N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Circular 40. Albany.

1957. Traces of early man in the Northeast. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Bull.
358. Albany.

1958. An introduction to Hudson Valley prehistory. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv.
Bull. 367. Albany.

1959. The Stony Brook site and its relation to Archaic and transitional cultures on
Long Island. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Bull. 372. Albany.

- & Dragoo, Don W.

1959. The eastern dispersal of Adena. American Antiquity, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 43-50.
Salt Lake City.

1960. The eastern dispersal of Adena. N. Y. State Mus. and Sci. Serv. Bull. 379.
Albany.

58

New York Projectile Points

- & MacNeish, Richard S.

1949. The pre-Iroquoian pottery of New York State. American Antiquity, Vol. 15,
No. 2, pp. 97-124. Menasha.

Ritzenthaler, Robert

1946. The Osceola site — an "Old Copper” site near Potosi, Wis. The Wisconsin
Archeologist, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 53-70. Milwaukee.

Rouse, Irving

1939. Prehistory in Haiti, a study in method. Yale Univ. Publications in Anthro¬
pology, No. 21. New Haven.

1960. The classification of artifacts in archaeology. American Antiquity, Vol. 25,
No. 3, pp. 313-329. Salt Lake City.

Scully, Edward G.

1951. Some central Mississippi Valley projectile point types. Mus. of Anthropology,
Univ. of Michigan. Ann Arbor. (mimeo-)

Sellards, E. H.

1952. Early man in America. Univ. of Texas Press. Austin.

Skinner, Alanson

1915. Chronological relations of coastal Algonquian culture. Nineteenth International
Congress of Americanists, Proceedings, pp. 52-58. Washington.

1919. Exploration of aboriginal sites at Throgs Neck and Clasons Point, New York
City. Contributions from Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,
Vol. V, No. 4. New York.

Smith, Carlyle S.

1950. The archaeology of coastal New York. Anthropological Papers of Amer. Mus.
of Natural History, Vol. 43, Part 2. New York.

Suhm, Dee Ann, Krieger, Alex D. & Jelks, Edward B.

1954. An introductory handbook of Texas archeology. Bull. Texas Archeological
Society, Vol. 25. Austin.

Titterington, P. F.

1950. Some non-pottery sites in the St. Louis area. Jour. Illinois State Archaeological
Society, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 19-31. Springfield.

Webb, William S.

1946. Indian Knoll, site Oh 2, Ohio County, Kentucky. Univ. of Kentucky, Reports
in Anthropology and Archaeology, Vol. IV, No. 3, Pt. 1. Lexington.

Witthoft, John

1953. Broad spearpoints and the transitional period cultures in Pennsylvania. Penn¬
sylvania Archaeologist, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, pp. 4-31. Lancaster.

1959. Notes on the Archaic of the Appalachian region. American Antiquity, Vol. 25,
No. 1, pp. 79-85- Salt Lake City.

Wormington, H. M.

1957. Ancient man in North America. Denver Mus. Natural History, Popular Series
No. 4. Denver.

59

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 1 — Adena Points

1—3, 5, 6, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 4, 8, 9, Onondaga County, N. Y.;
7, Cattaraugus County, N. Y.

1-3, 5, 6, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. S. Mus. collection.

Material: 1, 2, Normanskill flint; 3, 5, 6, Fort Ann flint; 4, 8, Onondaga flint; 7, Harri¬
son County, Ind. flint; 9, exotic flint.

60

New York Projectile Points

61

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 2 — Bare Island Points
Kent-Hally site, Bare Island, Lancaster County, Pa.

Collection of Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission by whose courtesy
they are reproduced.

Material: 1-8, quartz; 9, quartzite; 10-12, 14, 15, siltstone; 13, rhyolite.

62

New York Projectile Points

63

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 3 — Bare Island Points

1-9. 11, 12, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 10, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County,
N. Y.

Collection Carl S. Sundler.

Material: 1, 2, 5, 6, 12, Deepkill flint; 3, 4, quartz; others Normanskill flint.

64

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 4 — Brewerton Corner-Notched Points
1, 4, 5, 9, Oberlander No. 1 site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.; 2, 6, 10, 12, Rob
inson site, Brewerton, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 3, 7, 8, 11, Onondaga County, N. Y.

1, 2, 4-6, 9, 10, 12, collection of Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences; others col
lection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: All Onondaga flint.

66

New York Projectile Points

67

New York State Museum and Science Service

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New York Projectile Points

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New York State Museum and Science Service

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71

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Plate 7 — Brewerton Side-Notched Points
1-5, 7-8, 13-16, Robinson site, Brewerton, Onondaga County, N. Y.; others Oberlander
No. 1 site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.

All in collection of Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences.

Material: All Onondaga flint.

72

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 8 — Clovis Points

1, Cte. 1-2 site, Deer River, Lewis County, N. Y.; 2, Onondaga County,
ston site No. 2, Ulster County, N. Y.; 4, 7, 8, Coxsackie, Greene County,
ingston County, N. Y.; 6, Lot 12, Van Buren, Onondaga County, N. Y.
All in collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: 1, Little Falls dolomite flint; 2, 3, 5, 8, jasper; 4, Deepkill flint;
flint.

N. Y.;3, King-
,N. Y.; 5, Liv-

6, 7, Onondaga

74

New York Projectile Points

75

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 9 — Fulton Turkey Tail Points

1, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 2, 3, Brewerton, Onondaga County, N. Y.
All in collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: All of Harrison County, Ind. flint.

76

'New York Projectile Points

Plate 10 — Genesee Points

1, 3, 6, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 2, Gucker site, Charlotte, Monroe County,
N. 4, Wyoming County, N. Y.; 5, Onondaga County, N. Y. (?).

All in collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material; AH of Onondaga flint.

77

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 11 — Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched Points
1-3, 7, Van Buren, Onondaga County. N. Y.; 4, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County,
N. Y.; 5, 8, 10, 11, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 6, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.;
9, Afton, Chenango County, N. Y.; 12, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 13, Onondaga
County, N. Y. (?).

4, 6, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 1, 2, 13, jasper; 5, Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony; others Onondaga flint.

New York Projectile Points

79

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 12 — Jack’s Reef Pentagonal Points

1, Wickham site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.; 2, 4, 6, 7, Onondaga County,
N. Y.; 3, Clifton Park, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 5, 8, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.
5, 8, collection of Carl S. Sundler; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 7, 8, Deepkill flint; others of Onondaga flint.

80

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 13 — Lamoka Points

1-12, 14-17, 20-24, Frontenac Island site, Cayuga County, N. Y.; others Lamoka Lake
site, Schuyler County, N. Y.

All N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All of Onondaga flint, except 9, 13, 17, 23, 27, which are of argillaceous
quartzite.

82

New York Projectile Points

83

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 14 — Lamoka and “Dustin” Points

1-9, “Dustin” points, surface sites in Michigan; others Lamoka Lake site, Schuyler
County, N. Y.

1-9, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan collection; others collection
of Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences.

Material: 1-9, various flints and jaspers; others Onondaga flint, except 18, which is of
argillaceous quartzite.

84

New York Projectile Points

85

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 15 — Levanna Points

1, 3, 6-9, Wickham site, Brewerton, Oswego County, N. Y.; 2, 4, Sackett site, Canan¬
daigua, Ontario County, N. Y.; 5, Chemung County, N. Y.; 10, South Cruger Island site,
Dutchess County, N. Y.; 11, Patchogue, Suffolk County, N. Y.; 12, Schaghticoke, Rens¬
selaer County, N. Y.; 13, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 14, Clifton Park,
Saratoga County, N. Y.; 15, Bates site, Chenango County, N. Y.

All collection of N. Y. State Museum, except 13, collection of Carl S. Sundler.

Material: All Onondaga flint, except 11, 12, which are of quartz.

86

New York Projectile Points

87

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 16 — Madison Points

George Reed site, Richmond Mills, Ontario County, N. Y.

N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All Onondaga flint, except 27, which is of Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony, a
very unusual material for Madison points.

88

New York Projectile Points

Plate 17 — Meadowood Points

I? 2, 4, 5, 7-9, 11, Onondaga County, N. Y., 3, 6, Elbridge, Onondaga County, N. Y.;
10, ^3, Morrow site, Honeoye, Ontario County, N. Y.; 12, Lysander, Onondaga County,

Collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: All Onondaga flint, chiefly western N. Y. variety.

89

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 18 — Normanskill Points

1, 2, 6, 9, 18, Harris site, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 3, 15, Vosburg site, Albany County,
N. Y. ; 4, 8, 10, 14, 16, 17, River site, Saratoga County, N. Y. ; 5, 13, 19, South Cruger Island
site, Dutchess County, N. Y.; 7, 12, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.; 11, West
Albany, Albany County, N. Y.

1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 13, 18, 19, collection of N. Y. State Museum; 3, 15, collection of James H.
Zell; 4, 7, 8, 10, 14, 16, 17, collection of William Kirby; 11, 12, collection of Carl S.
Sundler.

Material: All eastern N. Y. flints — Deepkill, Normanskill and Fort Ann.

90

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New York Projectile Points

91

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 19 — Orient Fishtail Points

1-4, 6, 7, 9, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 5, 8, 13-15, Jamesport site, Suffolk
County, N. V. ; 10, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 11, 12, Stony Brook site, Suffolk
County, N. Y.

1-4, 6, 7, 9, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. State Museum collection.
Material: 1, Normanskill flint; 2-7, 9, Deepkill flint; 8, 11-13, quartzite; 14, 15, quartz.

92

New York Projectile Points

93

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 20 — Otter Creek Points
KI site, Rutland County, Vt.

2, 4, 6-9, 11, 13-15, collection of Thomas E. Daniels; others collection of Kathleen
Rowlands.

Material: 1, 12, 13, metamorphosed siltstone; 2, 6, 9-11, 14, 15, quartzite; 3, 7, 8, Nor-
manskill (?) flint; 4, 5, banded gray flint.

New York State Museum and Science Service

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Plate 22 — Otter Creek Points

1, Stillwater, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 2, Bemis Heights, Saratoga County, N. Y.;
3, Fish Creek, Saratoga County, N. Y.

N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All Normanskill flint.

98

New York Projectile Points

Plate 23 — Perkiomen Broad Points
Found along Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.

N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: All Onondaga flint-

99

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 24 — Poplar Island Points
Kent-Hally site. Bare Island, Lancaster County, Pa.

Collection of Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission by whose courtesy
they are reproduced.

Material: Argillite and siltstone.

100

New York Projectile Points

101

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 25 — Poplar Island Points
1, 2, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.

Collection of Carl S. Sundler.

Material: quartzite.

102

Plate 26 — Rossville Points

1, 5, 12, Bannerman site, Dutchess County, N. Y.; 2-4, 6, 8-11, 13, 14, Van Orden site,
Greene County, N. Y.; 7, Stony Brook site, Suffolk County, N. Y.

1, 5, 7, 12, collection of N. Y. State Museum; others Carl S. Sundler collection.
Material: 1, 3, 6, 8-10, 13, 14, Deepkill flint; 2, 4, Fort Ann flint; 7, quartz; 11, 12.
argillaceous siltstone.

103

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 27 — Snook Kill Points
Weir site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.

Collection of James H. Zell.

Material: 1, 2, 4-8, 1C— 12, 15-20, Normanskill flint; 3, Oriskany flint; 9, 14, Onondaga
flint; 13, argillite.

104

New York Projectile Points

Plate 28 — Snyders Points

1, Portageville, Livingston County, N. Y.; 2, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.
Collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: 1, Harrison County, Ind. flint; 2, Onondaga flint (?).

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 29 — Steubenville Lanceolate Points
1-3, 5, 6, 8, Ford site, Columbia County, N. Y.; 4, Four Mile Point, Greene County,
N. Y.; 7, Van Bureri, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 9, Clifton Park, Saratoga County, N. Y.

1-3, 6, collection of Edward B. Christman; 4, 7, 9, N. Y. State Museum collection;
5, 8, collection of R. Arthur Johnson.

Material: 1, 2, 6, Deepkill flint; 3, 5, 9, Normanskill flint; 4, 8, argillite; 7, Oriskanv
flint.

106

New York Projectile Points

107

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 30 — Steubenville Stemmed Points

1-3, 6, 7, Ford site, Columbia County, N. Y.; 4, Four Mile Point, Greene County, N. Y.;
5, Roger’s Island, Columbia County, N. Y.; 8, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.;
9, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.

1, 3, 6, 7, collection of Edward B. Christman; 2, 4, 5, 9, collection of N. Y. State
Museum; 8, collection of Carl S. Sundler.

Material: 1, 3, Deepkill flint; 2, 6, argillite; 4, Oriskany flint; 5, 8, Normanskill flint;
7, 9, Onondaga flint.

108

New York Projectile Points

109

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 31 — Susquehanna Broad Points

1-3, Seneca River, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 4, 6, 10, New Berlin, Chenango County,
N. Y.; 5, 7, 8, Chemung County, N. Y.; 9, 11, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.
Collection of N. Y. State Museum.

Material: 1-3, 9, 11, Onondaga flint; others rhyolite.

110

New York Projectile Points

111

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 32 — Vosburg Points

1, Covered Bridge site, Albany County, N. Y.; 2, 5, 10, Dunsbach Ferry site, Albany
County, N. Y.; 3, 11, Glens Falls, Warren County, N. Y.; 4, 7, 13, Van Orden site, Greene
County, N. Y.; 6, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 8, Coxsackie Flint Mine, Greene County,
N. Y.; 9, Vosburg site, Albany County, N. Y.; 12, Four Mile Point, Greene County, N. Y.
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 13, collection of Carl S. Sandler; others N. Y. State Museum collection.
Material: Deepkill and Normanskill flints.

112

New York Projectile Points

113

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 33 — Points of Exotic Flint

1, broad-bladed, thin, straight stemmed point, from Seneca River, Onondaga County,
N. Y. This is apparently an undesignated point form of the Adena culture, which occurs
also in the related Middlesex complex of the Northeast (see Ritchie and Dragoo, I960,
plate 8, figures 1, 2, 4, 5).

2, broad-bladed, thin, corner-notched point from the Genesee Valley of western N. Y.
It seems to be an unusually large example of the Jack’s Reef Corner-Notched type (see
plate 11). Similar specimens are found in Hopewell culture sites of Ohio and elsewhere.

Material: Both points are made of Flint Ridge, Licking County, Ohio chalcedony.

114

New York Projectile Points

Plate 34 — Untyped Bifurcated Base Points

1, 3-5, 7, 9, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 2, Van Orden site, Greene County, N. Y.; 6,
Bannerman site, Dutchess County, N. Y.; 8, Lysander, Onondaga County, N. Y.

2, collection of Carl S. Sundler; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 1, Flint Ridge, Ohio chalcedony; 2, 6, Deepkill flint; others Onondaga flint.

115

New York State Museum and Science Service

Plate 35 — Untyped Narrow Triangular Points
1, 6, Coh. 9 site, Rensselaer County, N. Y.; 2, 3, Round Lake, Saratoga County, N. Y.;
4, Clifton Park, Saratoga County, N. Y.; 5, West Albany, Albany County, N. Y.; 7, El-
bridge, Onondaga County, N. Y.; 8, Fish Creek, Saratoga County, N. Y.

1, 5, 6, Carl S. Sundler collection; others N. Y. State Museum collection.

Material: 1, 4, Normanskill flint; 2, 3, 5, 8, Deepkill flint; 6, 7, Onondaga flint.

116

New York Projectile Points

117

New York State Museum and Science Service

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New York Projectile Points

119

APPENDIX

Ten New Projectile Point Types

[120]

BEEKMAN TRIANGLE POINTS

Description prepared by Robert E. Funk

General description : Convex- or straight¬
sided triangular points with straight or concave
bases, generally well-chipped, of small to me¬
dium size.

Size: Range in length is 1%6 to 1% inches,
most being 1%6 to 1 inch long. Width varies
from 11/16 to l7/l6 inches, the majority having
a width of %-% inch. Thickness is generally
between %6 and % inch.

Proportions : These points are usually as

Shape : Most approach the equilateral triangle in outline, but a
few are isosceles triangular. Edges are usually excurvate, sometimes
straight, rarely recurvate. Bases are usually slightly concave, less often
straight, and in a majority of cases display slight to moderate grind¬
ing.

Age and cultural affiliations : The type is confined to the Ar¬
chaic stage in New York State, where it has been found in Laurentian
contexts. It appears most frequently in the Vosburg phase, and seems
to be a rare form on Brewerton components. The type description
is based mainly on the sample from lower levels of Stratum 2 at the
Sylvan Lake Rockshelter, Dutchess County (Funk, 1965; n.d.) . A
radiocarbon date of 2524 B.C. ± 300 years (M-287) has been attrib¬
uted to the Vosburg assemblage at the Bannerman site (Ritchie, 1958,
p. 67), and the Vosburg habitation of the Sylvan Lake Rockshelter
is C-14 dated at 2780 B.C. ± 80 years (Y-1535).

Distribution : Specimens of the type have been observed in east¬
ern New York from Lake George to the New York metropolitan area.
The type occurs as far west as Brewerton, but the limits of its dis¬
tribution to the east, north, or south of the Hudson Valley are not
known. It seems to overlap in morphology and in temporal and cul¬
tural provenience with the Squibnocket Triangle of Martha’s Vine¬
yard (Ritchie, 1969).

[121]

GREENE POINTS

Description prepared by Robert E. Funk

General description: Lanceolate or ta-
pered-stem points, of medium breadth,
with straight or slightly rounded bases.

Size : Length ranges from 2 to 4 inches,
predominantly 2*4-2% inches. Breadth
varies from % to 1*4 inches, the majority
measuring close to 1 inch. Thickness range
is % to % inch, the majority being %
inch thick.

Proportions: Greene points are 2% to
2*4 times longer than wide.

, Shape: Blade lanceolate in outline, with
y greatest width at or just forward of mid¬
point. Biconvex in cross section. Lower
edges usually taper gently to flat or slightly
rounded base. Less often there are weak
shoulders above a tapering stem. Rarely
the lower edges are lightly rubbed. The
points are frequently well-flaked and in¬
variably symmetrical.

Age and cultural affiliations : Late Middle Woodland in eastern
New York. Their first recorded appearance is in the Fox Creek
phase, C-14 dated between A.D. 360 and 450 ; they persisted into later
Middle Woodland times, vanishing about A.D. 800 with the onset of
strong influences from the Kipp Island phase of central New York
(Funk, n.d.).

Distribution : Predominantly the middle Hudson Valley, but
sporadic examples have been observed in collections throughout the
valley. The type also occurs in the Schoharie Valley. A small number
of Greene points were recovered from the lowest levels of the Cun¬
ningham site, Martha’s Vineyard, C-14 dated at A.D. 400 ± 80 years
(Y-1533), by Ritchie (1969), in association with Fox Creek points
and Middle Woodland ceramics, indicating a continuous distribution
through southern New England.

[122]

LAGOON POINTS

General description : Narrow, thick, rather
crudely made, lobate stemmed points, of
medium to large size.

Size: Length range from about 1% to
3 inches, median about 2% inches. Thick¬
ness of majority around % of an inch.

Proportions: About 2% to 3 times as long

as wide.

Shape : Blade trianguloid in outline, bicon¬
vex in cross section ; edges straight or slightly
excurvate. Shoulders weak, rarely moder¬
ately well defined, merging into contracting,
medium long to long stem, lobate in outline,
with convex or slightly squarish base. No
base or stem grinding.

Age and cultural affiliations : Our Martha’s Vineyard excavations
relate this type to the Early Woodland horizon, radiocarbon dated on
the Pratt site at 520 B.C. ± 120 years (Y-1531) and 430 B.C. ±
80 years (Y- 1532) (Ritchie, 1969). There are definite morphological
similarities linking Lagoon and Adena points as found in New York
State on Early Woodland sites.

Distribution : The type is fairly common and widely distributed
over southern New England, but it has not previously been described
or culturally attributed there.

In the artifact classification system of the Massachusetts Archae¬
ological Society the Lagoon point has its closest evident parallels in the
Corner-Removed category, numbers 3 and 9 (Fowler, 1963, pp. 2-4).

In eastern and southern New York, the Lagoon point occurs in
Early Woodland contexts on sites in the Hudson Valley and on Long
Island.

References: Ritchie, 1958, pp. 100-101, 106-107; 1959, pp. 33, 44,
120-121, where it has been termed the “lobate stemmed point”;
1969, p. 245.

[123]

Remarks : This point type was probably the armature of the javelin
or short throwing spear. A bar type atlatl weight formed part of the
context on the Pratt site (Ritchie, 1969).

The Lagoon point appears to have been coarsely fabricated by per¬
cussion chipping techniques. Pressure flaking to produce retouched
edges is lacking. The Martha’s Vineyard sample consists of felsite
and rarely of quartz, derived from local glacial pebbles. Long Island
specimens are mainly of quartz ; flint, quartz, graywacke, and other
materials were employed for its manufacture in the Hudson Valley.

[124]

LONG BAY POINTS and PORT MAITLAND POINTS

It is possible to recognize as distinctive
and to allocate culturally and temporally
two point forms to be provisionally
designated as new types, namely, Long
Bay points and Port Maitland points.
Available samples of both styles are,
however, insufficient for formal descrip¬
tions involving the usual metrical data.
Therefore only general descriptions will
be offered at this time.

Both point styles pertain to the Point Peninsula culture of the
Middle Woodland stage. The Long Bay point appears earlier in time
as the characteristic weapon point of the early Point Peninsula, Canoe
Point phase, radiocarbon dated in central New York at A.D. 240 ± 80
years (Y-1277) (Ritchie, 1965, pp. 203-213). It persisted, however,
into the later Point Peninsula, Kipp Island phase, radiocarbon dated
at A.D. 630 ± 100 years (Y-1379) in the same area. On some sites
of this phase it coexisted with the Port Maitland form (Ritchie, 1965,
pp. 228-253).

The Long Bay type may be described as a generally thin, well-made,
side-notched point, with slightly convex or straight base (see illustra¬
tions in Ritchie, 1965, Plate 82, figures 7, 8, 13, 14). The Port Mait¬
land form is a very thin, extremely well-made, side-notched point, with
broad, slightly concave or straight base, and a pronounced square tang
and notches (see illustrations in Ritchie, 1965, Plate 81, figures 26,
27, 30, 31, 35, 36).

SQUIBNOCKET STEMMED POINTS

General description : Small, thick, very narrow,
drill-like points, with markedly tapered stems.

Size: From about % of an inch to about 2 inches
in length. Most are around 1% inches long.
Thickness varies from %6 to %6 of an inch, with
the majority being about % of an inch in maxi¬
mum thickness.

Proportions : Range from approximately 2% to
3 times as long as wide.

Shape : Blade in most cases nearly spike-shaped, with slightly
excurvate edges and thick, lenticular cross section. Shoulders weak
or nonexistent. Long, tapering stem, terminating in a bluntly pointed
or narrow rounded base. No grinding.

Age and cultural affiliations : In our Martha’s Vineyard excava¬
tions this type was localized in Stratum 3 at the Hornblower II site,
where it was definitely associated with the Wading River and Squib-
nocket Triangle types in what I have defined as the Squibnocket
complex of the Late Archaic stage, carbon- 14 dated here to 2190
B.C. ± 100 years (Y-1529) (Ritchie, 1969).

Distribution : A common southern New England point type, found
also on Long Island.

References : It is usually grouped with the “small stemmed” points
of New England, although some specimens would probably be re¬
ferred to the “ tapered stem ” group of the Massachusetts classifica¬
tion (Robbins, 1960, pp. 40-41, 42; Fowler, 1963, pp. 1, 3; Ritchie,
1969, p. 243).

Remarks : This is probably a Late Archaic form wherever it occurs
and it may be considered a variant of the Wading River point. Like
the latter, it is usually made of quartz, evidently by percussion chipping.

[126]

SQUIBNOCKET TRIANGLE POINTS

General description : Small triangular points

with convex edges and generally concave bases.

Size : Length range is approximately from % inch
to 1 y2 inches, with most of the specimens measur¬
ing between 1 and 1 V4 inches. Width variation is
about y2 to % of an inch, with around % of an inch
for the majority. Thickness measures between
Ys and % 6 of an inch, % to %6 for the most part.

Proportions : Varies from about 2% times as long as wide to about
as long as wide ; most examples are approximately 1% to 1% times
as long as wide.

Shape : Equilateral or isosceles triangular in outline, biconvex in
cross section ; edges predominantly convex, rarely straight or pen-
tagonoid ; base predominantly concave, rarely straight. No basal or
edge grinding.

Age and cultural affiliations: This type was found on the Horn-
blower II site, where it was concentrated in Stratum 3 as a definite
trait of the Squibnocket complex, carbon-14 dated there at 2190 B.C.
± 100 years (Y-1529), and in Stratum 3B at the Vincent site (Rit¬
chie, 1969). The type is also present at the Wading River site on
Long Island in association with Wading River points (Ritchie, 1959).

Distribution : A common and widely distributed southern New
England point, found also in southeastern and southern New York,
especially on Long Island. It is included in the “ small triangular ”
point category of New England archaeologists.

References: Robbins, 1960, p. 40; Fowler, 1963, pp. 1, 3; Ritchie,
1959, pp. 84-85 ; 1969, p. 244.

Remarks : Several subtypes of this point are recognized in Massa¬
chusetts and our Martha’s Vineyard and Long Island points conform
to these. There is, however, no evidence to show that these varia¬
tions on a basic form have either cultural or temporal significance.
They occurred together at the Hornblower II and Vincent sites. The
material from which these points were made, apparently by percus¬
sion chipping, is in a vast majority of cases white quartz from local
glacial pebbles.

[127]

In the Hudson Valley the Beekman Triangle point seems to repre¬
sent a modal variant of the Squibnocket Triangle, from which it differs
in more often having a straighter base, less excurvate sides, a more
marked isosceles shape and greater length, also in being predomi¬
nantly chipped of flint. Some points of both types bear a close re¬
semblance and there is a definite intergrading of the two series (Funk,
herein). In the Hudson Valley the Beekman Triangle is a Lauren-
tian trait.

[128]

SYLVAN SIDE-NOTCHED POINTS

Description prepared by Robert E. Funk

General description : Small to medium sized,
thick, broad, sloppily manufactured side-notched
points.

Size: Length ranges from 1 y16 to 2 %6 inches,
the mode being inches. Breadth ranges

from %-iy16 inches, generally falling within
%—% inch. The usual thickness is %—% inch.

Proportions: Length averages 1% to 2 times
greater than breadth.

Shape: Blade usually ovoid in outline, rarely
trianguloid. Cross section is biconvex. Side-
notching usually broad and shallow, frequently asymmetrical. Base
straight or convex, not ground. These points are rudely chipped by
percussion.

Age and cultural affiliations : There appears to be some morpho¬
logical overlap with Brewerton Side-Notched points. Sylvan Side-
Notched points are rare to absent in Laurentian components in east¬
ern New York, but are characteristic of the late Archaic Sylvan Lake
complex, in which they occur as a minority type. The type assem¬
blage for the complex was present in Stratum 2 at the Sylvan Lake
Rockshelter, Dutchess County (Funk, 1965; n.d.). Age ranges be¬
tween approximately 2200 and 1500 B.C., based on radiocarbon dates
for the Sylvan Lake shelter and for similar manifestations in New
England (Ritchie, 1965a; 1969).

Distribution: Principally eastern New York. Examples of the
type have been seen by the writer in collections from Connecticut, and
it appears to be a rare form in the Bare Island complex of Pennsyl¬
vania (Kinsey, 1959).

[129]

VESTAL NOTCHED POINTS

Description prepared by David R. Wilcox

General description : Small, broad,
and thin side- or corner-notched points.

Size : In a sample of 452 points, the
length range is from 1:l/16 to 1 % inches,
the average length 1%6 inches. Maxi¬
mum breadth ranges from y2 to 1%6
inches and averages % of an inch.
Average width of neck %6 of an inch,
of base %6 of an inch. Average thick¬
ness %6 of an inch. Average weight
2.5 grams.

Proportions: 1% times as long as
wide.

Shape : Blade triangular in outline
and biconvex in cross section, with
straight or slightly convex edges. Shoulders often slightly barbed,
always broader than base, which is usually slightly convex or straight.
6.4 percent of sample had unfinished base, 13.7 percent had some basal
grinding.

Age and cultural affiliations: Occurred in definite association
with Lamoka points in midden and several pits at Castle Gardens site,
Broome County, N.Y. A radiocarbon date on charcoal from one such
pit was 2140 B.C. ± 100 years (Y-2347).

Distribution : As presently known, the center of distribution lies
in the upper Susquehanna Valley. Of the sample studied, 314 points
were surface finds within a 3 mile radius of Afton, N.Y. made by Jesse
Benton of Binghamton, N.Y., the remaining 138 are from the Castle
Gardens site, found in the excavations of the New York State Museum
and Science Service in 1967, those of Harpur College in 1966, or on
the surface by Murray Shapiro of Endicott, N.Y.

References: Wilcox, n.d.

Remarks : As the spacio-temporal relationships of this point are
still unknown, it is best to regard it as a tentative type of the Late
Archaic stage.

[130]

WADING RIVER POINTS

General description : Small, narrow, stemmed
points.

Size: Length range 1 to 2 inches. In a typical
sample of 50 specimens from the Hornblower II
and Wading River sites, 80 percent fall between
1 y4 and 1% inches, 46 percent between 1% and

1 y2 inches, and only 5 percent between 1% and

2 (one example) inches, and 5 percent between
1 and 1 y8 inches.

The thickness varies from y2 to % of an inch
in the same sample. Only the longest point (2 inches) measured
y2 inch, 86 percent were distributed about evenly between % and 5/16
of an inch, while 12 percent measured % of an inch in maximum
thickness.

Proportions : About 2 to 2% times as long as wide.

Shape : Blade triangular in outline, biconvex in cross section ; edges
straight or slightly excurvate. Shoulders weak to moderately well
pronounced, but generally poorly defined, oblique and merging into
the relatively long, squarish stem. Base straight or slightly convex,
appearing thick, rough and “ unfinished ” in about y3 of the specimens.
No grinding on stem or base.

Age and cultural affiliations : The Martha’s Vineyard representa¬
tion of this type pertained intrinsically to Strata IB and 3 of the
Hornblower II site, the latter securely radiocarbon dated to 2190 B.C.
±100 years (Y-1529) attributed to the Squibnocket complex of the
Late Archaic stage (Ritchie, 1969). At the Wading River site on
Long Island, it was the principal trait of a Late Archaic assemblage
which can be equated with the Sylvan Lake complex of eastern New
York, a contemporaneous manifestation (2210 B.C. ± 140 years)
(Y-1536) with the Squibnocket complex on Martha’s Vineyard
(Ritchie, 1959; Funk, 1965).

Distribution: This point type is common and widely distributed
over southern New England (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Is¬
land) and it occurs farther north, especially in the Connecticut Valley.

[131]

The type is also well represented in eastern and southern New York,
and it ranges southward through eastern Pennsylvania into the Mid¬
dle Atlantic area.

References : It constitutes the principal element in the category
of “ small stemmed ” points of New England archeologists and has
been widely illustrated and referred to under that name (see, for
example, Robbins, 1960, pp. 40-41; Fowler, 1963, pp. 1, 3). The
writer has discussed this point type and its relation to other narrow-
bladed point forms in a recent paper (Ritchie, 1965a). In this pub¬
lication the writer has proposed the type name “ Wading River ”
point because he first excavated a complex dominated by this point
form on the Wading River site on Long Island (Ritchie, 1959, pp. 78-
88; 1969, pp. 241-242).

Remarks: The vast majority of Wading River points are made
from quartz pebbles, evidently by direct percussion chipping. The
relatively few examples composed of other materials, especially those
of flint, are better made, thinner and more symmetrical.

This point type intergrades with the Bare Island point, from which
it is to be distinguished chiefly by its smaller size, the average length
of the Bare Island type being slightly over 2 inches (Ritchie, herein,
pp. 14—15), of the Wading River type slightly over 1% inches. It
also has some typological affinities with the stemmed variety of the
Lamoka point, especially in those specimens having a rough, “ un¬
finished ” base, preserving traces of the rind of the pebble from which
they were fashioned (Ritchie, herein, pp. 29-30).

[132]

■NNUAL REPORT

of the

(NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

July 1, 1959 — June 30, 1960

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

MUSEUM BULLETIN NUMBER 385

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department
Albany, 1961

122d ANNUAL REPORT

of the

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
AND SCIENCE SERVICE

July 1, 1959 — June 30, 1960

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE SERVICE

MUSEUM BULLETIN NUMBER 385

The University of the State of New York
The State Education Department
Albany, 1961

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University

With years when terms expire

1968 Edgar W. Couper. A.B.. LL.D.. Chancellor - - - Binghamton

1967 Thad L. Collijm. C.E.. Vice Chancellor .... Syracuse

1963 Mrs. Caroline Werner Gannett. LL.D., L.H.D.,

D.H. . - - - . Rochester

1974 Dominick F. Maurillo. A.B., M.D.. LL.D.. Sc.D..

M. and S.D. - . - Brooklyn

1964 Alexander J. Allan, Jr.. LL.D.. Litt.D. . Troy

1966 George L. Hubbell. Jr.. A.B.. LL.B., LL.D.. Litt.D. Garden City
1973 Charles W. Millard. Jr.. A.B. ------- Buffalo

1970 Everett J. Penny, B.C.S.. D.C.S. . White Plains

1972 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr.. A.B., M.B.A.. D.C.S. Purchase
1962 Edward M. M. Warburg. B.S.. L.H.D. ----- New York

1971 J. Carlton Corwith. B.S. -------- Water Mill

1969 Joseph W. McGovern, A.B.. LL.B.. L.H.D. - - - New York

President of the University and Commissioner of Education
James E. Allen, Jr., Ed.M., Ed I).. LL.D., Litt.D., Pd.I).. L.H.D.

Deputy Commissioner of Education
Ewald B. Nyquist. B.S.. LL.D.. Pd.D.. L.H.D.. D.C.L.

Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education and Special Services
Hugh M. Flick, Ph.D., LL.D.

Assistant Commissioner for State Museum and Science Service
William N. Fenton, A.B.. Ph.D.

Assistant Director of State Museum
Victor H. Cahalane, B.S.. M.F.

M460r — Ap 61 1300

Contents

Page

General Statement . . . . . . 7

Accomplishments of the Surveys . . . 13

The Museum . . . . . 31

Special Services . . . . . . . 55

Publications . . . . . . . 60

Appendixes . . 64

3

Museum Advisory Council

1960 Hardy L. Shirley. . . Syracuse

1961 Arthur A. Davis. . . Rochester

1962 Vincent J. Schaefer . .Schenectady

1963 W. Storrs Cole. . . Ithaca

1964 Frederick j. Dockstader. . . . .New York

4

The Staff

State Museum and Science Service

William N. Fenton, Assistant Commissioner

Anthropological Survey

William A. Ritchie. . .
Robert E. Funic .

Biological Survey

Donald L. Collins. . . .
Donald P. Connola . . .

Paul Connor. . .

Hugo Jamnbacic, Jr.. . .
Donald M. Lewis. . . . .
Eugene C. Ogden. . . . . .
Ralph S. Palmer. . . . . ,

....... State Entomologist, Principal Scientist

. State Botanist, Associate Scientist

Geological Survey

John G. Broughton. . . .
Donald W. Fisher. . . . .
Leo M. Hall. ........

Y. William Isachsen. . .
W. Lynn Kreidler. . . . .

Terry W. Offield .

Lawrence W. Rickard.
Arthur M. Van Tyne. .

.......... State Geologist, Principal Scientist

...... State Paleontologist, Associate Scientist

. . . . . . .Associate Scientist (Geology)

................. Senior Scientist (Geology)

. . Senior Scientist (Paleontology)

...... .Scientist (Geology) — Wellsville Office

State Museum

Victor BL Cahalane, Assistant Director

Curatorial

Roger L. Borst . . . Senior Curator (Geology)

Charles E. Gillette. . . . Associate Curator (Archeology)

Clinton F. Kilfoyle. . . . . .Associate Curator (Paleontology)

Edgar M. Reilly, Jr.. . . . . . .Associate Curator (Zoology)

Stanley J. Smith . . .Associate Curator (Botany)

John A. Wilcox. ................ .Associate Curator (Entomology)

Vacant . . .Associate Curator (Interpretation)

5

Institution jul

Exhibits

Edith Froelich . Museum Technician (Temporary)

Lewis E. Kohler. . . . . .Museum Technician

Louis J. Koster . . . .Senior Museum Technician

Robin Rothman . Museum Technical Apprentice (Temporary)

Theodore P. Weyhe. ................. .Museum Exhibits Designer

School Services

Judith A. Drumm . . . . . . Museum Instructor

Mary Jane Stauch. . . . . Museum Instructor (Temporary)

Janet L. Stone . Museum Education Supervisor

Library

Eileen Coulston . . . . .Librarian, Junior Scientist

Clerical

Margaret Bassotti . Stenographer

Marion B. Bender. . . . Clerk

Joan A. Creech . .Stenographer

Emily W. Dixon . Typist

Joseph T. Killea . . . . .Mail and Supply Helper

Roselle Lithgow . Clerk

Marjorie R. Schmidt. . . . Principal Clerk

Margaret Slater . . . . Senior Stenographer

Mary C. Stearns. . . . Stenographer

Eileen A. Wood. . . . . Senior Stenographer

Guards

James Carroll . . . . .Museum Guard

John C. Cunningham . Museum Guard

Francis J. Lynch . . . Museum Guard

William C. Zimmer. . Museum Caretaker

Photographer

John Heller . Museum Photographer

Nelson D. Powers . .Maintenance Helper

Jacob Smallenbroeic . Carpenter

James Wiedemann . Maintenance Man (Carpenter) (Temporary)

6

General Statement

1HAVE THE HONOR TO submit a report of the major activities and
accomplishments of the New York State Museum and Science Service
for the year ended June 30, 1960. The activities of the year covered
by the 122d Annual Report are best expressed in the individual reports
of the scientists and Museum curators, the exhibits and the educational
staff. My own report of stewardship of these activities reiterates programs
that I have proposed in staff conferences and accomplishments reported
to the Commissioner.

Because I believe that research museums such as ours are essentially
communities of scholars, considerations of the staff take first precedence.
As I have written elsewhere, it is the essential character of the research
museum that collections accumulate as a byproduct and directly reflect
the research interests of scientists. As the years go by and scientific
collections grow, they then become a resource for research, the museum
attracts scientists, and it attains stature proportionate to its resources
and its publications. A public museum is, moreover, an outgrowth of its
own services. Reputations of museums are ephemeral and must be con¬
stantly validated. As long as a museum maintains a research program
and continues to publish, it will hold its staff and its reputation in the
scientific community. It is important, therefore, that we give some con¬
sideration to the labor market for museum scientists.

Salaries are rising for academic posts in universities having similar
qualifications as curators in the State Museum and scientists in the
Surveys of the State Science Service. We can no longer meet the com¬
petition for new personnel nor are we promoting seasoned scientists so
rapidly as the universities. Recently, the directors of 22 leading science
museums have urged the adoption of standards for classification and
salaries of curatorial positions in research museums equivalent with
academic grades and titles in nearby colleges and universities, so that
curators equal full professors; associate curators, associate professors;
and assistant curators, assistant professors. For two years a plan has
been advanced to the Department requesting that our top professional
positions be raised to meet the competition of full professors who are
chairmen of departments in universities, and our top research scientists
should equal the salary level of teaching professors.

7

The Establishment

The Department has taken a long stride forward in providing new
laboratories for the scientists of the State Science Service. The addition
of the wing to the Education Department is, for the Museum, the first
extension of its facilities since the Museum was originally opened in
the present building. The new laboratories occupy the ninth floor of
the wing and are connected to the fifth floor of the Education Building
at the back of Biology Hall by a bridge. The arrangement of the labora¬
tories and offices is the work of a committee which was headed by
Dr. John G. Broughton, State geologist, who spent a considerable part of
three years in planning the laboratories and selecting suitable equip¬
ment. The laboratories which were nearing completion in June were
entirely financed and furnished by the State of New York. Grateful
acknowledgment is made to Deputy Commissioner E. B. Nyquist for
advancing our claim and to the Division of the Budget for awarding
the funds. Elsewhere in the report we express regret that a team from
the National Science Foundation which looked over our facility did not
make us an additional grant from its facilities fund to purchase cases
for the collections that have been dislocated by the move and to provide
subprofessional help for the curators. They did, however, express ad¬
miration and approval of what we had accomplished with our own
resources.

The Museum

Attention is called to the report of the Museum which indicates that
attendance has declined from a high of 175,000 last year by some
161/2 percent. Various theories have been advanced for this decline:
It has been ascribed to a shift in statistical methods, it has been ascribed
to a change in travel patterns of the American public, and it may be
owing to other factors beyond our ken. One thing is certain: In the next
year we must undertake a survey of our visitors to ascertain their origins,
whether they come back repeatedly, what age groups of the population
they represent and what sectors of the taxpayers are being served by
the Museum as an educational facility.

Visitors returning to the Museum after several years remark on the
very real progress with exhibits. This section of the report speaks for
itself.

We are particularly proud of the new herbarium which was created
at the rear of Biology Hall adjacent to the new wing. This gain in research
space meant a loss of exhibit space, but it was accompanied by an im¬
provement in the bird and mammal exhibits. Although the workspace

8

may not be the botanists’ ideal, at least we have the only herbarium in
the civilized world that has glass cases filled with domestic poultry visible
to both guests in the exhibit halls and to botanists within the herbarium !

State Museum Advisory Council

The plight of cities is reflected in the inability of the present tax base
to support educational programs of city museums over and above the
need of the public schools, and the museums in our large metropolitan
centers are serving wider audiences of school children than the narrow
area of municipal tax support. This situation was called to the attention
of the reading public last winter in a series of editorials in the New York
T imes. At its spring meeting, the State Museum Advisory Council recog¬
nized this problem and recommended three things: a new set of regu¬
lations for chartering museums, a definition of “museum” to serve as
the basis for new legislation to protect educational establishments from
encroachment by the entertainment industry, and the establishment of a
Commissioner’s Committee on Museum Resources. Simultaneously, the
council and its invited guests, who were directors of representative muse¬
ums in all parts of the State, commenced a movement to form a New York
State Association of Museums to seek these ends.

State Science Service

Within the next year we may look for a change in the kind of work
that the Science Service will undertake in its new laboratories, equipped
with the latest devices. Immediately, there will be a shift from 19th
century methods of observation to quantitative research and the more
accurate identification of materials with new instrumentation. Look also
for increased visitation and use by scientists from nearby universities
who have already applied to use the new facilities. In the future the
museums will do more of the nation’s research as universities fill up,
teaching loads increase and professors have less time for work in their
own laboratories. They will want permission to work in Museum labora¬
tories. We do have some available bench space.

The work of the scientific surveys is detailed in the reports that follow.
In 1956 we stimulated work on the Iroquoian languages of New York,
and Dr. Wallace L. Chafe, who was then a graduate student at Yale
University, undertook a study of the Seneca language. He has since
gone on to join the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smith¬
sonian Institution, and has completed the work in the present year. To
extend supervision and advisory services over a much wider area of the
State, the State archeologist has been joined by a junior scientist to

9

work on highway salvage archeology. He will also work cooperatively
with the Department of Public Works and the Federal Bureau of Roads.

Biological research moved ahead on three fronts. After two and a half
years of intensive study and trial, the State botanist has discovered a
way of tagging ragweed pollen so that he can count it by the introduc¬
tion of radioisotopes into the sap stream. To do this, he has designed
and constructed new pollen samplers which are perhaps the best in the
world. In entomology, research is continuing on the white pine weevil
which is the primary enemy of an important native tree. A report of
these investigations has been completed for publication. In the Adiron-
dacks punkies continue to be a nuisance insect, and attempts to control
them in the past have failed for want of knowledge of their biology.
With a grant of $7,000 from an anonymous donor, our entomologists
have now worked out the life cycle of these insects and have some ideas
about control. The State zoologist has completed editing the first volume
of the Bird Handbook , a manuscript of over 1,000 pages for publication
by the American Ornithologists’ Union. A bulletin on the small mammals
of Otsego and Schoharie Counties summarizes our participation in an
interdepartmental project to investigate the disease rabies.

The major effort of the Geological Survey during 1959-60 was directed
toward the compilation of its new State Geological Map. This project
is now in the compiling stage which has entailed a great deal of final
fieldwork and use of the literature. Our oil and gas geologists in Albany
and in the Wellsville office made two significant contributions to the
industry by publishing two reports: Selected Deep Wells and Areas of
Gas Production in Eastern and Central New York and Correlation of the
Silurian Rocks of New York State. A third interesting development has
been the participation of the State geologist in the work of the State
Office of Atomic Development.

Cooperation

The Museum was host to the American Folklore Society in August, an
event which gave the community pleasure and was the occasion of a
special exhibit in the Museum for which we prepared a special brochure.
Albany is a good community in which to hold meetings of small learned
societies. With the new seminar rooms in our new laboratories, we are
planning to bring meetings of 50 to 100 people in the several sciences
which we represent in an effort to give leadership to hitherto uncoordi¬
nated efforts.

It is always pleasant to go abroad to cooperate with one’s colleagues
in other museums. At the invitation of the Royal Ontario Museum, I

10

appeared on the CBC program “Who Knows?” on August 14, and visited
an anthropological field party near Toronto.

Our visitor of the year was our colleague, the director of the Ryks-
museum, Amsterdam, Holland, Dr. T. H. Van Luttervelt, who
accompanied an exhibit of Flemish paintings, a feature of the Hudson-
Champlain Celebration, to the Albany Institute of History and Art.

Because we believe that research in anthropology should carry over
into the improvement of the quality of teaching in the social studies,
we met and addressed the State supervisors of citizenship education at
their Albany conference. We also cooperated in the preparation of an
educational TV program that ran for two successive weeks on WPIX
in New York. This effort entailed many hours of tutoring and planning
with Harvey Zorbaugh, the teacher and script writer, and with David
Reese of the State College of Education, Albany, who made the films.
The classes of the air made a visit to the State Museum to view the life
groups of Iroquois Indians as they lived in 1600; they were taken on a
field trip to the Tona wanda Reservation, seeing Senecas as they were
a generation ago ; and the camera took city viewers into integrated classes
such as Indian children now attend in the Akron Central School; and
the city children heard a panel of Indian parents discuss educational
issues with their principal. We acknowledge our indebtedness to Edward
E. Allen, supervising principal of the Akron Central School, to Chief
Everett Parker and to our colleague, Francis E. Almstead.

The Museum education staff made a further effort toward improving
the teaching of social studies and natural history by assisting publishers
to select pictures of the unique objects in the State collections for illus¬
trating books. An example resulting from this type of collaboration is
the special edition for young readers of the American Indian by Oliver
La Farge (Golden Press, New York, 1960).

Permission was granted to York State Film Strips to include views
and individual exhibits of the Museum in a series which aims to prepare
classes for the visit to Albany. This medium promises to take the Museum
and its collections to classrooms throughout the State and beyond. We
helped edit and caption seven filmstrips on the People of the Longhouse
which introduce the concepts of a culture and a society into the teaching
of the Indian in the social studies curriculum.

In such collaborative undertakings with media beyond our means
and control, the policy is that production costs, including special photog¬
raphy, are borne by the producer; where original written contributions
are required of specialists, they are undertaken out of hours on the
writer’s option.

11

Some of us who have had a concern about the place of research
museums in the national picture agreed to participate in a symposium
on ‘,<;The Role of the Research Museum in Science,” which was held at
the 55th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Museums,
Boston, May 27. Prior to that, the more important anthropological col¬
lections in the eastern United States were visited, curators and directors
were interviewed, and the results were compiled in a paper on “The
Museum and Anthropological research.”1

There were a few staff changes during the reporting period. Terry W.
Offield resigned as scientist (geology) September 9 and the position was
filled provisionally January 14 with the appointment of Leo M. Hall.
The position of assistant librarian (Mrs. Eileen Coulston, who has been
so helpful to the scientific staff on reference work) was reclassified to
junior scientist January 28. Robert E. Funk was appointed provisionally
June 2 to the newly created position of junior scientist (archeology) , and
Janet L. Stone received permanent appointment as Museum education
supervisor June 16.

Having spent six years in getting our own house in order, we are
now preparing to move ahead into a wider area of service, in research
by the staff in new laboratories, and in enabling our sister institutions
of the State to take a more vigorous role in the education of school
children and in continuing education beyond the schools.

William N. Fenton

Assistant Commissioner for
State Museum and Science Service

1 Curator, v. 3, No. 4, 1960, pp. 327-355

12

Accomplishments of the Surveys

Anthropological Survey

Field Research

The state archeologist continued his studies of settlement pat¬
terns with major excavations centered in the Sackett site at Canan¬
daigua and the Maxon-Derby site near Jordan. Both sites belong to the
prehistoric Owasco culture. Small, circular, single-family dwellings were
indicated for the former, while on the latter were uncovered the ground
plans of large, oval or rectanguloid communal dwellings, suggesting pos¬
sible longhouse prototypes. Four college student assistants aided in these
investigations during July and most of August. In the late summer and
early fall reconnaissance projects involving various amounts of excavation
ranging in duration from one to ten days were undertaken in the follow¬
ing areas; Piffard, Livingston County; Jefferson County, especially on
Grindstone Island and around Perch Lake; near Savannah, Cayuga
County; Croton Point and George’s Island, Westchester County; Fulton
and Washington Counties; and outside the State in Rutland County, Vt.
In the spring of 1960 an important Archaic period site near Scotia,
Schenectady County, was excavated for a two-week period, with the
active cooperation of members of the Van Epps-Hartley Chapter, New
York State Archeological Association.

Artifacts of the Dorset and Sarqaq cultures in the eastern Arctic were
studied at the Peabody Museums in Cambridge and Andover, and at the
American Museum of Natural History in connection with the preparation
of a paper for the annual meeting of the Society for American
Archaeology.

Laboratory Analysis

Typological studies and formal descriptions of 25 projectile point
types were prepared, and a manuscript covering more than 30 such
types was completed under the title of A Typology and Nomenclature
of New York State Projectile Points. It will be published as a Museum
bulletin. Field notes were processed, maps were made, and data were
analyzed from the excavations on the Sackett and Maxon-Derby sites.
In addition, analyses were completed on borrowed site collections from
Ketcham Island, Vt., and the Hoosic Valley in New York. Potsherd series
were typed for several amateurs and colleagues.

13

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14

^4 Science Service archeological field party uncovering house floor outlines ( marked hy
stakes) at prehistoric Owasco culture site on Maxon-Derby farm , Jordan , N. Y.

Office Activities and Administration

The State archeologist wrote nine short articles and abstracts for
American Antiquity , Teocentli , and other journals and papers for annual
meetings of the Society for American Archaeology, Eastern States
Archeological Federation, and New York State Archeological Associa¬
tion. He interviewed 246 local or out-of-town visitors, including pro¬
fessional colleagues, students and amateur archeologists.

Cooperative Work

The State archeologist served as chairman of local arrangements com¬
mittee for the annual meeting in Albany of Eastern States Archeological
Federation and chaired one afternoon session. He also was chairman of
a committee on chapters and membership, New York State Archeological
Association, and brought one new chapter into the organization.

Assistance was given to several university research fellows, advanced
students and others with archeological problems and dissertations, and
numerous nonprofessional archeologists were advised concerning site
investigations, analysis and interpretation of their finds, and prepara¬
tion of reports. Manuscripts were read for several professional colleagues
and one university press. Seven petitions for grants-in-aid were evaluated
for the National Science Foundation, and data were prepared on New
York archeological sites for the National Park Service.

Human remains were identified for the New York State Police Labora¬
tory from five localities and for the curator of the Fort William Henry
Museum.

Under a cooperative arrangement with the Smithsonian Institution,
Dr. Wallace L. Chafe, linguist of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
during July and August completed fieldwork on the Seneca Indian lan¬
guage. This language is one of the most important survivors of the
Iroquoian family, which is still spoken at Tonawanda, Cattaraugus and
Allegany reservations in western New York. The publication terminates
work begun under our aegis in 1956 when Chafe was then a graduate
student at Yale. His completed reports are awaited with interest. His
publishing plans include a grammar and dictionary of the Seneca lan¬
guage, to be submitted to the Smithsonian Institution press. He will also
publish a glossary of the most common terms in Seneca for use by
anthropologists, historians and teachers to appear as a bulletin of the
State Museum and Science Service.

In cooperation with The University of Buffalo and the Buffalo Museum
of Science, and with support partly from the State Science Service,

15

Dr. Marian White continued field reconnaissance and excavation of
early Iroquois sites in Erie County.

A committee consisting of Wallace Chafe, Elizabeth Tooker and Marian
White was appointed to plan and conduct the 12th Conference on
Iroquois Research, which was held at Red House in October.

Biological Survey

With the continuing aid of research grants and other material assist¬
ance from outside sources in each of the Units of the Biological Survey,
substantial progress was made on several projects. The first two months
of this report period, July and August 1959, represented the active period
of the second season of work on the tagging and sampling of ragweed
pollen (a project supported by the National Institutes of Health) and
the most active period of the first season of research on biology and
control of “punkies,” a project made possible by a grant known as the
Adirondack Entomology Research Fund.

An important accomplishment was the sending to press of the first
of five volumes of the Bird Handbook , a monumental work which is
being compiled and edited by the State zoologist. The project receives
its major outside support from the American Ornithologists’ Union.

Also, during this period, the data from several years of a cooperative
project with the State Conservation Department, the study of white
weevil attack as related to soils in New York State plantations, were
compiled and submitted for publication as a Museum bulletin.

Field Research by Projects
Botany

Identification of aquatic plant fragments using anatomical
characters. Eighty-four of the approximately 250 species of aquatic
vascular plants in the State have been collected and their stems, rhizomes,
roots, leaves and peduncles are in various stages in the process of pre¬
paring microscope slides.

Survey of airborne pollen grains and fungus spores. Described
in the last previous annual report as “completed, with a final report in
press.” This report comprises Museum Bulletin No. 378, by E. C. Ogden
and D. M. Lewis, entitled “Airborne Pollen and Fungus Spores of New
York State,” issued in January 1960.

Ragweed pollen content in the air in relation to weather
conditions. The paper described in the last previous annual report as
“ready for publication” was published in the Journal of Allergy for

16

July-August 1960 entitled “Field Evaluation of Ragweed Pollen
Samplers” by E. C. Ogden and Gilbert S. Raynor. (It is not cited on
p. 62 because it was not published until after the period covered by
this annual report.)

Pollen spectra of lake and bog sediments. The Crusoe Lake sta¬
tion was revisited, and samples were taken by D. M. Lewis and D. D.
Cox from two levels for possible radiocarbon assay. Pollen diagrams for
the three sites at this station were completed, and an outline of the find¬
ings has been prepared. A final report must await studies now being
carried out by the State archeologist. The pollen of 30 species most rep¬
resented in our reference collections was obtained, and approximately
100 reference slides were prepared from previously collected material.

Tagging and sampling ragweed pollen. This project is in co¬
operation with Brookhaven National Laboratory and is supported by a
U.S. Public Health Service grant. A technique for labeling ragweed
pollen in the anthers, so that its release to the air and its buoyancy are
not modified, has now been perfected. It involves the use of radio¬
isotopes — radiosulfur or radiophosphorus. Pollen samples taken in the
area are processed to produce autoradiographs which readily distinguish
tagged and untagged pollen. Several new designs of pollen samplers were
constructed and tested in and around a one-acre field of cultivated rag¬
weed and on two nearby meteorology towers. Still further modifications
in samplers are being readied for the 1960 hay fever season. A wind
tunnel has been constructed for sampler testing under controlled wind-
speeds. A complex isokinetic sampler, to be used as a check, is nearly
completed.

Checklist of the grasses of New York State. In the course of
exploring and collecting for vascular plants in general (see next project),
an attempt was made to add to our knowledge of grasses. Eighty speci¬
mens were collected, representing 69 numbers, in addition to abundant
records on common species and detailed observations on critical com¬
plexes, particularly in the genera Festuca and Agrostis . Three days were
spent at the National Herbarium in Washington checking nomenclature
and problems in the genus Panicum. Work on the checklist is 98 percent
completed.

General survey of the vascular flora of New York State.

Exploration of the State for vascular plants was continued with special
trips made to central New York and Long Island. Records (either sight
or those supported by specimens) were made in the following counties:
Albany, Cayuga, Columbia, Dutchess, Essex, Fulton, Greene, Herkimer,

17

Montgomery, Nassau, Oneida, Onondaga, Oswego, Rensselaer, Rockland,
Saratoga, Schenectady, Schoharie, Suffolk, Ulster, Warren and Wayne,
The work was assisted in the field by Gary Griffin, during the summer
of 1959.

Entomology

Biology and control of Colicoides (punkies). This was the sec¬
ond season for the project, which is supported by the Adirondack En¬
tomology Research Fund. Studies made in 1959 indicated that Culicoides
ohsoletus was the only species that commonly attacked man in the
Adirondacks. The breeding habitat of the species was unknown, and it
was not located until the second season. Although conclusive data have
not yet been compiled, the following observations were made:

1. Six percent DDT in a fuel oil solvent applied by mist blower to
plots of 1 or 2 acres reduced biting populations to a low level for several
days in each of five plots.

2. C. ohsoletus adults were killed by an 8 percent DDT fog, and
biting adults were almost entirely eliminated for the period from dusk
to dark by fogging a strip 100 feet long.

3. Malathion emulsion (5.7 percent with corn syrup added as bait)
applied by mist blower to a two-acre plot did not appreciably reduce
the number of biting adults.

4. Solutions painted on window screens to affect punkies attempting
to enter houses were tested, and some of them appeared to offer real
promise. DDT did not kill fast enough, however, to prevent flies that
entered from biting. Malathion gave better results, but further work is
necessary to perfect and test different formulations.

Eastern encephalitis vector studies. During the fall of 1959 the
vims of eastern encephalitis (UEE”) was isolated from ducks on Long
Island. At about the same time, in New Jersey several human cases oc¬
curred, and it was strongly indicated that mosquitoes were the vectors.
In a survey conducted by the entomology office of the State Science
Service, breeding places of the principal mosquito vector suspect,
Culiseta melanura , were found in the area where duck farms were
numerous. After a joint meeting with State Health Service and other
agencies, the Biological Survey agreed to establish a field laboratory to
determine the actual vectors of EE on Long Island, to study host relation¬
ships and to make other related biological and epidemiological studies.
The Long Island Duck Research Laboratory (a unit of the State Uni¬
versity Veterinary College) furnished laboratory facilities at their estab-

18

lishment near Eastport, and the Suffolk County Mosquito Control Com¬
mission arranged to pay the salary of a temporary research expert during
the summer. Both the duck laboratory and the State Health Department
Division of Laboratories and Research arranged to process the vector
samples to detect the virus. In addition, the site of the small mammal
survey of the Museum and Science Service has been transferred to
Suffolk County, partly so that the work can be associated with the encepha¬
litis studies. With these arrangements the eastern encephalitis vector
survey began its activities toward the end of the present report period.

Blackfly studies. One test of a suggested biological control agent
(Bacillus thuringiensies) was made. A commercially prepared powder
(Thurieide) was applied to a stream over a 20-minute period at the
rate of about 0.5 ppm. Blackfly larval populations, primarily Prosimulium
hirtipes , were not affected.

Beech scale studies. Collection of data in the fall of 1960 will com¬
plete a 10-year study of beech scale and its association with Nectria
disease. Field observations in the study plots indicate that the scale-
Nectria association can be very destructive to beech in the Catskill
Mountains. It is hoped that data collected and their analyses may show
under what conditions the scale and fungus are most destructive and,
by inference, how they may be avoided.

Gypsy moth experimental sprays. Experimental airplane sprays
in 1959 and the spring of 1960 Indicate that Sevin at 1 pound in 1
gallon per acre (in fuel oil) is as effective at y2 pound DDT in 1 gallon
per acre (in fuel oil).

Gypsy moth biological studies. Biological studies of the gypsy
moth carried on by Robert Campbell (temporary research expert) in the
Glenvilie plots near Scotia were concluded, at least temporarily.

White pine weevil spray. In 1959, in tests with a portable mist
blower, 6 percent DDT and 4 percent lindane plus 4 percent aroclor
in emulsion form gave satisfactory results when directed toward the
leaders of white pine. The 1960 tests using 6 percent DDT and 6 percent
DDT plus 1 percent aroclor at 3 gallons per acre look very promising.
DDT was selected over lindane because of lower cost. Weevil counts
after spraying showed a heavy reduction of adult weevils in the spray
plots as compared to the check plot. The sprays in 1960 were applied to
four rows of trees at one time as compared to one row at a time in the
1959 tests. In both years the spray was aimed at the leaders.

19

20

European pine shoot moth. In 1959, using the portable mist
blower, tests were made with 6 percent DDT plus 6 percent Arochlor.
6 percent Sevin and 6 percent Arochlor and 2 percent Thiodan plus 2 per¬
cent Arochlor. Application was made when 73 percent of the moths had
already emerged. One percent Thiodan was ineffective; the DDT gave a
63 percent reduction over the check and the Sevin a 78 percent reduc¬
tion. Thicdan (2 percent) was ineffective. In 1960, 6 percent DDT and
6 percent Sevin (both with 3 percent orthospray sticker) in water (3/2
pound insecticide per gallon) applied at the rate of 4 gallons per acre were
applied to infested red pine. Results of tests will be analyzed this fall.
Sprays were applied before moth emergence.

Matsueoccus scale. A spot check survey of matsucoccus scale along
the Hutchinson River Parkway and on Long Island showed that it had
not spread easterly on Long Island beyond Commack, but westerly it
has spread to the New York City line. In Westchester the scale is more
widespread in the southern half of the county but has not made further
progress north or east along the Hutchinson River Parkway.

White pine weevil attack in relation to soils. The observations
have been compiled and analyzed. A final draft of the proposed bulletin
has been prepared.

White pine weevil fertilizer tests. In tests with several fertilizer
formulations, begun in the fall of 1958, no relationship between weevil
attack and the nutritional factors associated with the fertilizer has been
found. Observation in the fertilized plots will continue for another year.

Forest tent caterpillar. In the spring of 1960 an infestation was
discovered in the Catskills, and it is planned to use the sequential sampling
plan in survey work next winter. (Sequential plan was described in
New York State Museum Bulletin No. 366).

Identification and classification of the leaf beetle, family
Chrysomelidae. This work is a continuation of projects described in
more detail in the annual report for 1957-58. The objectives are a re¬
vised taxonomy of the Chrysomelidae , a catalog of North American
species, keys to the identification of American species and a bibliography.

Manuscripts covering these projects are practically complete. However,
considerable work has been done by other entomologists on the South
American Chrysomelidae. Rather radical changes in taxonomy and
many new genera have been added to the lists of Chrysomelidae, and it
is felt that a more thorough study of the literature and an examination

21

of representatives of the neotropical fauna should be made before any
extensive publication is issued on the North American insects.

Biology of the gypsy moth and other forest pests. The work
consisted of field observations and identification of insects. Many of
the pests were identified in the State Museum; others, parasitic flies and
wasps in particular, were sent to specialists for identification.

Zoology

Small mammal survey, Otsego County: Studies in an area
sprayed with Sevin. Small mammal trapping and observations on other
wildlife, begun in May 1959, was continued until July 16. 1959; a pre¬
vious report summarized the work. In this area in July, 115 mammals
of all species were taken in live and snap traps (800 trap nights).

Lewis County: Collecting on the Tug Hill Plateau. The move
to the new area (headquarters near Lowville) was made early in the
report period. Objectives included preparing specimens of Tug Hill small
mammals, preserving parasites and accumulating ecological and bio¬
logical information on the mammals. Bird observations also were made
in this little-known area. Trapping was conducted in all months except
March; work on the plateau summit was slower, but continued, in mid¬
winter. Mouse and rat trap nights totaled about 10,000 by June 1960.
Measurements, reproductive data etc. were recorded for about 700
mammals. During late winter laboratory analyses were made of many
of the stomachs collected up to that time. Two caves were visited in
Jefferson County but no bats found. James E. Brower, student, began
work as summer assistant on this project on June 1. 1960.

Handbook of North American Birds. Volume I went to press
early in 1960. It consisted of 1,091 manuscript pages, 44 text figures,
80 range maps and 6 color plates. Twenty-four authors provided major
contributions. Minor contributions and various forms of assistance from
about 60 other people also went into the production of this volume. The
curator of zoology made the distribution maps.

Office Activities and Administration

In all the offices the personnel took time to answer the usual profes¬
sional correspondence and correspondence with persons having problems
with control of pests. In entomology, termites, stored products pests,
mosquitoes and other biting flies appeared to cause the most concern.
Bequests for advice and for personal appearance of staff members to
talk about mosquito control have increased until it is difficult to fit them
into the program.

22

Geological Survey

The immediate effort of the Geological Survey during 1959-60 was
directed toward the compilation of its new State Geological Map. This
involved correction of the base map mosaic, fieldwork during the summer
of 1959, much analysis of the literature and the reduction of data to
preliminary maps. In anticipation of the transfer to new offices and
laboratories in the wing of the Education Building, a great deal of time
was devoted to the analysis and choice of suitable laboratory equipment.

An important increase in gas exploration and development led to
equally increased activity for the Wellsville office of the Geological Sur¬
vey. A well-received contribution to the oil and gas industry was a com¬
plete compilation (with maps) entitled Selected Deep Wells and Areas of
Gas Production in Eastern and Central New York (Bulletin No. 373).
“Correlation of the Silurian Rocks of New York State” initiated a newly
established map and chart series and was the first of a contemplated
sequence of correlation charts of the geologic periods of New York State.

Another activity of unusual interest lay in the application of geology
to problems of the atomic age: location of hardened industrial sites,
storage of radioactive waste and the correlation of natural radioactive
background to congenital malformations.

Field Research

Fieldwork of permanent employees was again concentrated on geo¬
logical mapping, both for the purposes of the State Geological Map and
in greater detail in areas of particular interest. Investigations of mineral
resources were also carried on. This work was done both by permanent
staff members and by geologists temporarily employed for the summer
months.

Geological reconnaissance in the Adirondaeks. The field season
of 1959 was devoted to geological reconnaissance of the Old Forge and
Big Moose 15' quadrangles as well as preliminary work in the West
Canada Lakes quadrangle. These areas have been terra incognita, and
knowledge of them was essential for the State Geological Map.

Detailed studies of metamorphism in Dutchess County. In con¬
nection with a study of progressively metamorphosed shales, samples
were systematically collected and selected rocks have been thin sectioned.
This will develop into a major research program involving the bulk com¬
position and transfer of trace elements within these rocks of progressive
metamorphic grade.

23

24

Cooler temperatures do not handicap fieldwork. Here is a New York Geological
Su rvey geologist , well protected from chilling winds , examining the Rensselaer

graywacke near East Nassau .

Spot checking for the State map. About three weeks were devoted
to fieldwork, mostly in the Taconic region of New York, spot checking
the geology of small areas for which knowledge was needed for the State
Geological Map.

Fieldwork in the Devonian and Taconic rocks of New York
State. Approximately one month was spent working with various geolo¬
gists on problems of the Upper Devonian and Taconic rocks in central
and eastern New York State.

Geologic mapping in Orange County. Geological mapping of the
Greenwood Lake and Goshen quadrangles in Orange County was con¬
tinued. Contributions were made to an understanding of the geology of
the Peekskill and Tomkins Cove areas.

Fieldwork of Temporary Personnel

Investigation of limestone by counties. During the 1960 field
season work was resumed on the limestone survey. John H. Johnsen of
Vassar College began work on a regional report summarizing the geology
of limestone in St. Lawrence, Lewis, Jefferson, Herkimer and Oneida
Counties.

Taconic geology of eastern New York. Donald Potter of Hamil¬
ton College, assisted by Timothy Hall during the summer of 1958 and
by John C. Lawrence during the summer of 1959, continued mapping
in the Taconic region of Washington County. Well over three quarters
of the Hoosick 15' quadrangle have been completed.

Upper Devonian rocks of central and eastern New York.

Dr. Robert Sutton of The University of Rochester continued his investi¬
gations of the Upper Devonian rocks of central and eastern New York.
This has resulted in detailed stratigraphic correlation of great value for
the State Geological Map and in deciphering those geological structures
that are of interest to the oil and gas industry. During the 1959 field
season coordinated studies were carried on not only by Sutton, but by
University of Rochester graduate students Elmer Humes, Frederick
Manly and Robert Nugent. During the 1960 field season Sutton was
assisted by Frank Fletcher and Daniel Twigg.

Glacial geology of western New York. Mapping of Pleistocene sur-
ficial deposits continued in western New York under the direction of
Ernest H. Muller of Syracuse University. His immediate aim is the com¬
pletion of the glacial geology west of the Genesee River so that a start
can be made on a glacial map of New York State. Work done during

25

the 1959 field season was in Genesee and Orleans Counties. During 1960
fieldwork was carried on in Cattaraugus and Wyoming Counties.

Knickerbocker Project. A restudy of the geology of the New York
City metropolitan area begun in the fall of 1957 has resulted in the
completion of the geology of the borough of Manhattan. The data are
now being prepared for publication. During the 1960 field season work
began on compilation of data in the Bronx. The project is directed jointly
by Charles H. Behre, executive officer of the department of geology at
Columbia University; J. G. Broughton, State geologist; and Kurt E.
Lowe of the College of the City of New York. Dr. Lowe is directly
supervising the activities of the geological compilers who have collected
a mass of information from State and municipal offices and from private
engineering concerns dealing with geology and engineering.

Spot checking for State Geological Map. Approximately 14 days
were spent by Lucian B. Platt doing reconnaissance geology in the
Cambridge quadrangle. Geology of the Tug Hill Plateau and, specifically,
the Oswego sandstone in that area were studied by William Kruger.
Ten days were devoted by Dr. Tesmer to tracing the Cuba sandstone in
western New York.

Laboratory Work

Because of the need to complete the State Geological Map, the efforts
of permanent staff members have been concentrated toward obtaining
data for the map and accompanying correlation charts.

The paleontologists have been engaged in work on the Devonian and
Cambrian charts which are nearing the stage when they may be sent to
critical readers. The Ordovician chart is only in preliminary form pend¬
ing the outcome of research not yet completed. The senior scientist con¬
tinued drafting stratigraphic horizons on 1 :250,000 maps in order to
facilitate the selection of units to be shown on the final draft. The work
was considerably advanced through the use of geologic maps of northern
Pennsylvania obtained by loan from the geological survey of that State.

Work continued on the companion volume to Bulletin No. 373,
Selected Deep Wells in Areas of Gas Production in Eastern and Central
New York . The material on western New York, when published, will
be of even larger size and greater use. All skeleton logs plus 98 percent
of the map work was completed during the last fiscal year. Some field
checking is necessary in order to outline the activities of the Medina
gasfield. Subsurface mapping of the Onondaga limestone was initiated
by the preparation of isopach maps. Work was also carried on in this

26

line by the senior scientist (paleontology) who worked on the prelimi¬
nary structure map for the top of the Onondaga and the base of the
Tully as well as a preliminary isopachous map of the Hamilton group.

The file of gamma-ray, neutron and electric logs begun a year ago is
increased as the records are made available by the oil and gas industry.
A project of considerable importance in the oil and gas work is the loca¬
tion of wells on quadrangles. Previously these have been shown on
15' quadrangles with some loss in accuracy. Transfer of data was carried
on by William Turner, a student at R.P.I., and Paul Graziade, a student
at Notre Dame. Considerable progress was made on this project. Prepa¬
ration of the manuscript concerning the bedrock geology of the Richfield
Springs and Cooperstown quadrangles is in progress. This is a joint
project of the senior scientist (paleontology) and Donald H. Zenger of
Cornell University.

The State paleontologist completed a typescript on tentaculitids,
hyolithids, cornulitids, coleolids and other miscellaneous shells of un¬
certain biologic affinities. His manuscript, with illustrations by Mrs. John
Winslow, will be published as part of Volume W of the Treatise on
Invertebrate Paleontology.

Under the direction of Arthur Van Tyne, almost 34,000 feet of well
samples were collected. The samples are a valuable source of informa¬
tion on the subsurface rocks in New York State and finds a wide use by
individuals and companies. During the last fiscal year temporary per¬
sonnel was hired to cut these samples and put them in better form for
use. The total footage cut was 32,846 feet. Our present excellent position
in regard to samples cut and the ease with which visitors can consult
this important source of information is felt to justify the small expendi¬
ture necessary to complete the job. Other office work entailed compilation
of data on well-plugging procedures for legislative committees working
on the oil and gas law, preparation of the subsurface structure map of
Allegany State Park area for use by the State Attorney General’s office
in connection with legal proceedings against the State of New York and
compilation of a report on characteristics of oil and gas reservoirs of the
State for a report on a study by the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists.

The State geologist continued to act as consultant to the Office of
Atomic Development and also was appointed to a subcommittee of the
Atomic Development Commission on site location for nuclear develop¬
ment. This involved location of sites for storage of radioactive waste,
nuclear reprocessing plants, high flux test reactors and an atomic port
for New York State.

27

Office Activities 9 Administration and Special Travel

Broughton and Kreidler served as consultants to the Joint Legislative
Committee on Interstate Cooperation concerning proposed legislation on
conservation of oil and gas, offshore drilling activities and the under¬
ground storage of petroleum products, and the former prepared a report
on the mineral resources of the Lake Champlain Basin for the September
meeting of the committee at Westport. Acting on staff advice, the State
geologist approved a number of oil and gas leases which were negotiated
between the State Conservation Department and private industry. The
annual contract between the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the Geological
Survey concerning collection of mineral production statistics was nego¬
tiated and approved.

The annual Geological Newsletter was compiled by all staff members.
The entire staff of the Geological Survey carried on extensive correspond¬
ence with private individuals and concerns relating to identification of
and information on fossils, minerals, rocks, maps, ores, and oil and

gas wells.

A new development was the use of X-ray diffraction for mineral iden¬
tification. A recordkeeping system was initiated and storage facilities
were developed for irradiated samples and their respective zones. Eighty-
seven mineral samples were run on the X-ray unit resulting in the
identification of almost as many minerals that otherwise would have
remained unidentified.

The associate scientist (geology) edited several manuscripts and pre¬
pared a mineral data sheet for publication in GeoTimes. Various staff
members did extensive editorial work on manuscripts which had been
submitted for publication.

The scientists in charge of the Wellsville Office made 131 well loca¬
tions, 36 trips to the Northern Gas and Oil Scouts Association meeting,
and 85 visits to individuals and companies active in the oil and gas
industry in New York State in order to gather data and familiarize them
with the activities of the Wellsville office and to exchange information.

New Projects

The State geologist and associate scientist devoted substantial time
during the year to making detailed plans for the new geochemical labora¬
tories. This required visits to manufacturers and other users of similar
equipment and the associate scientist attended a school on theory and
practice on X-ray spectroscopy sponsored by the North American
Phillips Corp. As a result, detailed specifications were set up for the

28

guidance of the Division of Standards and Purchase in acquiring the
new equipment.

The State paleontologist spent about one third of his time planning
and conferring with the persons involved in preparing the new exhibits
for Paleontology Hall. Information on the results may be found in the
Museum section of this report.

Through the cooperation of the State Library, a complete set of the
American Society of Testing Material Powder Diffraction data cards
was acquired for use with the X-ray equipment. This valuable acquisition
will permit making “fingerprint” identifications of all minerals, ores
and alloys.

29

One of a series of new exhibits introducing the visitor to paleon¬
tology. Spiraling out of the past we show the parade of life as it
appeared on our planet. This billion-year span of life is dramatized
in clock form , ticking off a million years each minute.

30

The Museum

General

All sections of the organization made progress during the year
u in acquiring better facilities and in providing better service to
the public. While there may not be unanimity of opinion on the most
outstanding areas of improvement, those that stand out in retrospect
are the herbarium, which was provided with much better working con¬
ditions, and Paleontology Hall, which saw the unveiling of the first
quarter of its new, modernized exhibits.

During the spring and early summer of 1959 approximately 52 tons
of botanical materials and their storage cases were moved from the
fourth to the fifth floor and reestablished in Biology Hall. An area about
40 by 75 feet was segregated by lining up exhibit cases, providing suit¬
able access doors and arranging the storage cabinets for orderly use.
Subsequently, worktables, cabinets and racks were built, and the Depart¬
ment installed telephone, gas, sink with plant washing facilities, fluores¬
cent lighting and numerous electrical outlets. Only a fumigation chamber
remains to be acquired. While the area is somewhat noisy when Biology
Hall is in use by numbers of schoolchildren (who, although not seen by
the botanists, are heard very distinctly ! ) , the new herbarium is a vast
improvement on the former crowded, poorly lighted and badly ven¬
tilated quarters. The betterment is a forecast of things to come for other
curatorial fields during the next year. Then the long-awaited transfer
of numerous offices and laboratories to the new wing will release con¬
siderable space into which other collections will expand.

Another facility which will help a curator to give better service in
less time is an X-ray diffraction unit. The machine was assembled from
old and recently acquired equipment and put into operating condition
through the knowledge and ingenuity of the curator of geology. It greatly
simplifies and expedites the identification of minerals, not only in col¬
lection material but in specimens which are submitted by prospectors
and other persons who seek information.

Although limited by funds for temporary services, most of the curators
were provided with some assistance for increasing and caring for the
collections. More progress was made in sorting and cataloging the
chaotic mineral collection than for several years past. A number of much
appreciated gifts of scientific material were received from donors. Two
of these acquisitions which represented a great deal of time and care

31

Functual form and color directs and introduces the Museum goer to
the story of ancient life. Beneath the fluted canopy that terminates
this section of the new structure are the displays designed to pre¬
pare the viewer for the fascinating story of paleontology that will
unroll as the hall is finished.

in preparation were 1,001 mounted vascular plants from Henry F.
Dunbar of Kingston and 3,157 plants of various divisions donated by
Roy H. Latham of Orient.

Although three displays were lacking, the portion of Paleontology
Hall on which the exhibits staff had concentrated their efforts for almost
two years was opened for Convocation. The layout, design, color treat¬
ment and techniques show imagination, skill and a blending of scientific
knowledge with appreciation for modern educational methods. Although
natural light, which is admitted through the glass roof, detracts from the
desired effect, the work as a whole is impressive. The holding power of
the individual exhibits on visitors’ attention is noticeable. In marking
the near-completion of this quarter-section of the plans for a modernized
Hall of Ancient Life, grateful acknowledgment is made of the interest

32

Something old and something new: A selection of the oldest and
finest fossils from the Museum’s renowned collection are displayed
in this modern alcove as part of the Hall of Ancient Life which is
now under construction. The dioramas and specimens depict life
in its earliest beginnings.

and encouragement by Department officials. Purchase of some construc¬
tion materials, including considerable plate glass, was made possible by
the allotment of additional funds when the Museum budget was exhausted.

For the work in Paleontology Hall, the regular services of the designer,
two preparators, and the carpenter and helper were supplemented by a
design assistant (full time after January 1), an artist (about five man-
months), two preparatory helpers (for two man-months) and a car¬
penter (about six months). As a result, the new display wall with view
openings was completed, and seven of the eleven displays in the section
were finished. The section was opened to public view in mid-May,
together with a newly acquired diorama depicting a Carboniferous coal
swamp, a Silurian diorama featuring eurypterids and two temporary
exhibits on dinosaurs and the horse. At the close of the year, progress

33

was being made on one of the four displays still to be constructed for
the new permanent section and on three exhibits for the area which
will be undertaken next year.

Although progress seemed slow, especially to the staff, the rehabilita¬
tion of older exhibits in Biology Hall was virtually completed by the
end of the year. The project was given its initial impetus by the clear¬
ance of space for the herbarium (which in turn was dispossessed of its
original quarters by construction of the wing). Except for the loss of
the 40-year-old bison and whistling swan groups (the latter in very poor
condition), the exhibits suffered little by the construction. On the con¬
trary, their attractiveness and educational value were definitely increased
by rearranging and grouping the subject matter, repair or replacement
of old specimens, proper labeling, and use of color and light. Wallpaper
of appropriate design or other material (such as chicken wiring for the
breeds of poultry) was utilized for backgrounds, glass shelving was
substituted for the former wood shelves, and fluorescent lights were in¬
stalled in homemade reflectors for case lighting. The latter enabled us
to dispense with the old (and inadequate) overhead lights which fes¬
tooned the ceiling arches. Floor and lower walls were painted by Depart¬
ment personnel. Finally, the casts of marine animals (porpoises, shark,
turtle etc.) were rehabilitated, adapted for suspension by thin wire from
the ceiling and were arranged in a naturalistic manner over the largest
open space in the hall. It only remains to light them with spot lamps.

Four group displays were exhibited during the year in the small hall
at the northwest corner of the Museum. The most pretentious of these
shows, on folk art of the Shakers and Iroquois, was the result of a joint
effort by the State Museum and the Division of Archives and History.
It was planned as a special feature for the annual meeting of the American
Folklore Society (which was held in the hall), but was kept on view
for about three months. By arrangement with the British Museum
(Natural History) we were able to display a group of some 40 striking
and artistic photographs made by the photographic staff at that insti¬
tution primarily to illustrate its scientific publications. Through the
courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, we were able to exhibit a group
of bird drawings by Tuttle and later, through a rental arrangement, a
photographic show entitled “Anatomy of Nature.”

While the total attendance of schoolchildren in organized groups de¬
clined slightly from the preceding year, the percentage of those taking
advantage of the Museum’s docent service for guided tours of the exhibit
halls increased from 49 percent in 1958-59 to 60 percent in 1959-60.
Beyond doubt, the instruction given these children was improved and

34

diversified considerably compared with that of the past several years.
This enrichment is the result of broad training and experience in nature
education which were brought to the program through the appointment
of Janet Stone as Museum education supervisor. It is expected that the
interest which is being engendered in both teachers and youngsters by
lectures, demonstrations, live animals and more interesting museum
exhibits will draw a larger attendance and greater demand for service.
However, it should be noted that these factors during the past year
caused an increase in the average size of the guided groups from 23
children in 1958-59 to 26 in 1959-60. This number, in view of poor
acoustics and lack of ventilation in some exhibit halls, is already too
large for optimum instruction.

The State Museum continued its efforts to stimulate interest of young
people in science by displaying the winning exhibits at Regional Science
Fairs and by bringing their creators to Albany for brief visits without
personal expense. Those students whose talents were thus recognized in
the 1959 Science Fairs were Margery Campbell, then a sophomore at
Union Springs Central School, who worked out a salt-crystal exhibit
and Nancy Dunning, then a freshman at Ithaca High School, who devised
means for making photomicrographs with inexpensive equipment.

Visitation to the exhibit halls was computed, as usual, on the basis
of sample counts which were taken on about 23 percent of the open
days. Estimated total attendance was 145,000, a decrease of 17 percent
from the previous year. A portion of this difference in attendance figures
is probably due to better use of the available statistics (resulting from
much appreciated advice of the Department’s Bureau of Statistical
Services). However, it is probable that the actual number of visitors
was somewhat less in 1959-60, an abrupt reversal of the steady upward
trend of the previous three years. It is possible that increasing congestion
of downtown city traffic, with ever-greater pressure on the shrinking
parking facilities within easy reach of the Education Building, has dis¬
couraged more would-be Museum visitors than in the past. It is also
possible that completion of the Berkshire spur of the Thruway, which
enables through travelers from the east and southeast to detour around
Albany, has played a part in this matter. These, however, are only
speculations. This problem and others emphasize the need for a scientific
study of our Museum visitors to determine their interests and needs.
Definite information is required for better administration and intelligent
planning for the future.

Among the numerous visitors who identified themselves to us as having
a special interest in the State Museum were the following: Mrs. Oliver

35

( Isabelle Bishop) Dibble of Woodside. Calif., a great-granddaughter of
James Hall; E. H. Bryan, retired director of the Bishop Museum in
Honolulu; and 0. E. Jennings, retired director of the Carnegie Museum,
Pittsburgh.

It is a pleasure to report that comparatively little vandalism occurred
in the exhibit halls. The only significant damages resulting from deliber¬
ate intent were slashes in the upholstered back of a bench in Biology
Hall and egg ( ? ) splatters on an Iroquois mask in a special exhibit on
folk arts. The bench upholstery was repaired, and the mask was cleaned
without detriment.

Except for notices of the opening of temporary displays borrowed
from other institutions and information concerning holiday schedules,
little attention was paid to the Museum by local newspapers. A feature
article by Rosemary Clark on the institution, its history and exhibits
was printed in The Conservationist. Several radio “shorts” on the
Museum and its primary fields of interest were issued by the State
Department of Commerce and were widely used by broadcasting stations
in New York State. A 12-minute account of the Gilboa fossil forest exhibit
was taped by professor Floyd Carlson, of the State University of New
York, College of Forestry at Syracuse University, and broadcast on the
Empire State FM School of the Air. An illustrated booklet entitled The
Oldest Forest was prepared by the Museum education supervisor as
supplemental information for distribution after the broadcast.

A major disappointment of the year was the rejection of a petition
to the National Science Foundation for funds to satisfy the personal
assistance and equipment needs of the curators. The petition was sub¬
mitted before the middle of the period and, as a result of an “inspection”
visit by three foundation representatives, was supplemented with addi¬
tional information. Unfortunately, the request by the State Museum was
unable to compete successfully with an unusually large number of de¬
mands for the limited money available. This turndown makes it impera¬
tive to secure approval for the purchase from State funds, over the next
five years, of some $26,000 worth of storage cases, steel shelving and
related equipment. Also involved in the unsuccessful petition was a
request for an equivalent amount to hire a senior curator (mycologist)
and four junior curators. The latter would have served as assistants for
the curators to undertake the less exacting phases of the latters’ duties.
Other major needs of the State Museum are funds for more workers and
materials to speed up the exhibits modernization program; adequate
ventilation and a new roof for the main exhibit halls (fronting on Wash¬
ington Avenue) to admit air and to exclude rain and light; and a recep-

36

tion center, equipment and materials to enable the staff to do a better
educational job for visiting schoolchildren and teachers. Lunchroom
facilities for school groups would also be of great assistance in the
Museum education program.

Curatorial Activities

Archeology

During the year 1959-60 the curator of archeology answered the re¬
quests of at least 125 visitors to his office. A few of these inquiries were
for bone identification by the State Police, Bureau of Criminal Identi¬
fication ; photographs of ethnological specimens to illustrate two books ;
information on Iroquois clothing for a mural; illustrations of Iroquois
dances; assistance in making photographs for a filmstrip ; information
on Iroquois artifacts for artwork; and a series of projectile points for
professional study. Other requests were answered by mail, including a
photograph sent to the Fels Institute at Yellow Springs, Ohio.

Cooperation with the State archeologist continued by assisting his
project of defining the projectile point types found in New York. Typical
projectile points were provided from the study collections and photo¬
graphs for the plates were keyed by catalog numbers and data of locality
and collector. The curator also assisted a researcher, James Zell, who
typed all Onondaga County projectile points in the Otis M. Bigelow
Collection and Livingston County points in the F. M. Crofoot Collec¬
tion. Further assistance was rendered in the rechecking, repackaging
and returning of projectile points borrowed from others for this study.

Collections made on the Canandaigua site, the Maxon-Derby site and
the Piffard site by the State archeologist were accessioned, cleaned, re¬
paired and cataloged.

Active assistance was given to Mrs. Donna Taylor, a graduate student
at Columbia University, in her analysis of wampum belts. The belts
were removed from exhibit and storage for her inspection, and all cata¬
log information on them was given to her. Those belts that had not been
X-rayed, as well as the invitation wampums from the Beauchamp Collec¬
tion, were taken by the curator to the State Health Laboratories where
such X-rays were made.

The “Esopus Treaty” wampum belt was borrowed from Ulster County
for study and repair. A buckskin coat, sash and war bonnet belonging
to the Constable Hall Association were borrowed for study and fumigation.

In Morgan Hall, artifacts temporarily stored in units as they came
from dismantled exhibits were distributed in the range storage according
to county and township.

37

Several new archeological sites were added to the site record files,
and 115 slides were bound and added to the collection. Work on the
permanent accession records and catalog card files, which had lagged
due to insufficient clerical help, was speeded up.

Botany

The entire collection was moved last year from its former positions
to new consolidated quarters at the rear of Biology Hall. This has allowed
arrangement of all materials in a linear equating of a phylogenetic
sequence. It has also permitted the interpolation of both New York State
and out-of-State collections in one sequence. The ranges have been
equipped with new fluorescent strip lighting. An alcove, equipped with
gas, electricity and running water, has been organized for preparation
and mounting of specimens. There is now ample space for sorting, a
separate alcove for visitors and room for expansion. The curator was
assisted for several weeks in the winter by a temporary employee,
Mrs. Frances Carr.

The entire mycological and bryological collections were fumigated
during the year.

The nomenclature of the out-of-State collections of mosses was equated
with that used in the State collections and the former marked with a
distinctive color for easy reference. Duplicate specimens of mosses were
separated for distribution to other herbariums. A start was made in
placing all out-of-State collections of vascular plants in green folders for
easy distinction from the State collections.

Three institutions and nine individuals sent materials in exchange
or as gifts. (See p. 44) These accessions are classified as follows:

FUNGI ALGAE BRYOPHYTES VASCULAR PLANTS TOTALS

New York State... 1,183 6 1,309 1,832 4,330

Out-of-State ...... 12 0 2 317 331

Total ........ 1,195 6 1,311 2,149 4,661

By Curator

In-State ......... 417 3 1,434 952 2,806

Total ........ 1,612 9 2,745 3,101 7,467

The most notable accessions were 1,001 mounted specimens of vascular
plants from Henry F. Dunbar, collected by him in Ulster County, and
3,157 specimens representing all divisions of botanical subjects donated
by Roy H. Latham, Orient, with few exceptions collected by him in
Suffolk County.

38

Activities during the fiscal year resulted in the addition of 22 possible
new members to the known fungus flora. Besides this, Anton Slysh, Paul
Smith’s College of Arts and Sciences, reported eight species of Peniophora
for the first time from New York. Most of the specimens of bryophytes
await determination. A single new record was noted for the vicinity of
Oswego and another for the vicinity of Poughkeepsie. Our botanical
work, including the transcribing of current reports in the literature, has
resulted in the following numbers of additions of species and subspecies
to the records of vascular plants for the following counties:

Cattaraugus .

.. 1

Greene ........

10

Saratoga . . . .

... 3

Columbia ....

.. 5

Herkimer ......

5

Schoharie . . .

.. 9

Cortland ....

. . 1

Montgomery . . .

1

Suffolk .

.. 6

Delaware ....

.. 1

Onondaga

2

Ulster . . .

. . 6

Dutchess ....

. . 16

Rensselaer

5

Warren . . . . .

. . 1

Essex .......

.. 9

Rockland ......

1

Wayne ......

.. 2

Fulton ......

. . 10

Entomology

In addition to routine maintenance of the collections, the special project
of transferring portions of the collections from cardboard boxes to glass-
topped wooden drawers was continued. Moving and rearrangement of
most of the duplicate New York State beetles were completed. Similar
work was done with a portion of our exotic moths; however, work with
this group was curtailed by a lack of storage drawers.

The curator has continued research in the taxonomy of the leaf
beetles.

Many insect specimens were collected by the curator and the scientists
(entomology) and by William Smith of the Conservation Department.
Of these specimens, only a few related to special projects of the ento¬
mology office have been mounted and placed in the reference-study col¬
lection. Most will be stored dry or in alcohol until an assistant is available
to mount and label them.

Approximately 300 requests for information were made to the office of
entomology. Most of these inquiries called for the identification of a
particular insect and means of controlling it if it were apt to become a
pest. Requests were made by telephone, by mail or in person.

Cooperative work with the Forest Pest Bureau, State Conservation
Department, included identification of forest insect pests. Considerable
effort was made to build up a reference collection of such pests.

39

Mounting a powder camera on the Museum’s X-ray diffraction unit ,
used to identify minerals

40

Geology

Acquisition and adaption of new parts and accessories brought into
operation for the first time an X-ray diffraction unit. A recordkeeping
system was initiated, and storage facilities were developed for irradiated
samples and their respective films. Eighty-seven mineral samples were
run on the X-ray unit, resulting in the identification of almost as many
minerals as otherwise would have remained unidentified. This successfully
operating unit, although it is outdated by more modern devices, is a
valuable and useful addition to the geological laboratories.

Fourteen hundred and fifty-two specimens from the New York State
systematic mineral collection were cataloged. The curator was assisted
in this work by three students. As a result, additional data were obtained
for the proposed revision of Museum Bulletin No. 70, A List of New York
State Mineral Localities , which was published in 1903. A conference
was held with David Jensen, head of Geological Division, Ward’s Natural
Science Establishment at Rochester, who will collaborate with the curator
in the project.

Seventy-two visitors, many of them schoolchildren requesting samples
or information, were assisted during the year. Approximately 280 rock,
mineral and ore samples were identified for the public and colleagues.
Five hundred sets of New York State rocks and minerals were assembled
for sale to students at the information desk. The curator supervised this
work, which was accomplished by student help.

On January 7, 1959, the curator assisted junior members of the Capital
District Mineral Club in presenting their monthly program. He also ac¬
companied other members during the summer in investigating newly
reported mineral localities.

The curator collected 46 mineral specimens from nine localities. Field
visits were made to seven major mining operations in the Adirondack
region.

Public requests for information totaled 539. The heading indicates
the subject about which information was requested; the number which
follows is the number of requests received (and answered) : rock and
mineral specimens and information concerning them, 198; geology of the
State, 96; mineralogy (gems and precious stones, locality information
etc.), 139; and miscellaneous (caves, books, photos, careers etc.), 106.

Paleontology

Partly because of the continuing program for replacing older exhibits
with new displays, a great deal of time was devoted to revising the
collection.

41

Type numbers were changed from the fractional number system to the
serial number system on 164 type specimens which had been on exhibit.
The contents (306 type specimens and 2,738 nontype specimens) were
removed from exhibit cases, and the material was cataloged and stored.
Twenty-one new type specimens were added to the type collection, and
cards for the same were entered in the catalog. Collections containing
approximately 382 specimens were packed for shipment. Ninety-three
entries were made in the locality and accession records, and 718 speci¬
mens were ticketed with locality numbers. The curator assisted the State
paleontologist and senior scientist (paleontology) in extracting material
for the new exhibits on brachiopods and coelenterates. As usual, a con¬
siderable amount of time was spent in keeping type catalog data up to
date. The State paleontologist and senior scientist (paleontology) collected
and turned over for accessioning a total of 697 fossil specimens from 28
localities in the State.

Assistance was given to the following visiting scientists who desired
to study portions of the collections: Dr. Wilhelm Kegel, Division of
Geology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Brazilian fossils) ; Dr. William A.
Oliver, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey (fossil corals) ; James E. Grierson,
Cornell University (fossil plants) ; William O’Brien, Rensselaer Poly¬
technic Institute (graptolites) ; Dr. Michael House, University of Dur¬
ham, England (fossil cephalopods) ; William B. N. Berry, University of
California, Berkeley (graptolites) ; Dr. Robert Reidel, Scripps-Howard
Oceanographic Laboratory, La Jolla, Calif, (fossil radiolaria) ; A. L.
McAlester, Peabody Museum, Yale University (fossil pelecypods) ;
David Lumsden, University of Buffalo (fossils from Grimsby sandstone) ;
Dr. IL A. Lowenstam, California Institute of Technology (fossils).

Dr. Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering, Buenos Aires, Argentina, was fur¬
nished seven photographs of type eurypterids. Approximately 180 fossil
specimens were identified for some 45 visitors, and information on fossils
and fossil localities was transmitted to numerous correspondents.

Zoology

The collections were fumigated and given routine care required. In
addition, the bird and mammal collections were inventoried, and, where
necessary, the specimens were repaired and renumbered and skulls were
placed in proper containers.

Bird and mammal specimens were turned over to the Museum by
Dr. John Payne, Mrs. Myra Smilow, Mrs. Donald Radke, Mrs. Eleanor
Turner, Mrs. B. Shinemann, all of Columbia County; Dan Smiley of

42

Lake Mohonk; John Belknap of Gouverneur ; Marty Hogan of Albany;
and several anonymous donors.

Catalog entries now number 19,409, showing an increase of 398 speci¬
mens over last year. The majority of these acquisitions are from the small
mammal survey. Specimens received from the survey were prepared for
storage in cabinets (skulls and skeletons cleaned and numbered) and
cataloged. Additional specimens were received, but cleaning and catalog¬
ing were not completed in the period reported.

Field trips were made by the curator to the Wilson M. Powell Wildlife
Sanctuary at Old Chatham to identify the fauna and faunal niches and
to help plan for an educational program using the area in cooperation
with biology teachers of nearby schools. Field trips were made, mainly
on weekends, with local bird, nature and garden clubs.

Map files on distribution of New York State animals were enlarged.
Mapping of bird distribution for the Handbook of North American Birds
was continued, and earlier maps were revised and otherwise edited.

Letters and phone calls from the public on bird distribution and
habits, and on snakes increased over previous years.

Accessions

The collections and, in some instances, exhibits of the State Museum
were enriched during 1959-60 by generous donations as follows: (Two
items were acquired by purchase.)

Archeology

Specimens from vicinity of Lake

Harold M. Ridlon, Naples, Me.

Sabago, Maine
Jasper sample, Vermont
Skeleton and charcoal sample
Specimens from various sites in

Charles F. Wray, West Rush
Edward B. Christman, Rensselaer
Harold Secor, Savannah

central New York
Pottery sherds

William Kail, Grindstone Island State

Birch bark canoe

Pottery sherds, St. Lawrence County
Pottery sherds

“Bust off” from Iverhuron site
Iroquois man’s costume (purchased)

Park, Alexandria Bay
Grant Johnson, Ticonderoga
Lester Laird, Savannah
James Veith, Suffern
Fritz Knechtel, Hanover, Ontario, Can.
Mrs. Adam Spring, Tonawanda Indian

Reservation

43

Botany

Paspalum ciliatifolium from Albany
County (10)

Vascular plants from Ulster County

(1001)

Plants mostly from New York State
(97)

Plants mostly from New York State
(3157)

Agaricales from the United States (8)

Phyllosticta aesculi from Albany
County (3)

Boletinus glandulosus from Quebec

Lactarius chelidonioides from
Michigan

Picea glauca from St. Lawrence
County

Fungi from New York State (7)

Plants mostly from New York State
(63)

Vascular plants from St. Lawrence
Valley (312)

Entomology

Plant galls (71)

Geology

“Boxworks”

Gneissic rock slab showing ptymatic
folding (one face polished) from
Little Hammond

Actinolite from Yonkers

Graphite in marble from Wilmington
Mountain

Triplite (first occurrence in New York
State) from Big Moose

Brochantite, linarite and barite roses
(4)

Uraninite, uranophane, allanite,
fergusonite, tourmaline, feldspar,
zircon, gypsum, apatite, pyrite and
biotite from a pegmatite in the
southeastern Adirondacks (51)

Dr. Werner C. Baum, Albany

Henry F. Dunbar, Kingston

Frederick J. Hermann, Beltsville, Md.

Roy Latham, Orient

Dr. Josiah L. Lowe, State University of
New York College of Forestry at
Syracuse University

Ralph S. Palmer, New York State
Museum

Dr. Rene Pomerleau, Sillery, Quebec,
Can.

Dr. Alexander H. Smith, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

Ralph H. Smith, Delmar

John A. Wilcox, New York State
Museum

New York Botanical Garden

National Herbarium, Canada

Roy Latham, Orient

Martin Tanymann, Carlisle
Prof. R. V. Dietrich, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Va.

John Kuhorn, Germantown
Kiah Maynard, Wilmington

Mrs. William Marleau, Big Moose

Richard N. Quint, Albuquerque, N. Mex.

Elmer Rowley, Glens Falls

44

Paleontology

Part of fossil tree trunk from Oneonta
sandstone, Oneonta, Otsego County

Thin section slides of our type bryozoa
(81)

Slabs bearing graptolites from Nor-
manskill beds, Grays Corners,
Saratoga County

Richard Cower, Oneonta

Dr. Richard S. Boardman, U. S. National
Museum

William Krueger, Jr., Rice University,
Houston, Tex.

Donations

Duplicate and other materials which were excess to the needs of the
Museum were used to fill requests from schools, cooperating institutions
and individuals.

Archeology

Projectile points, duplicate (100)

Projectile points, duplicate (4)

Geology

Suite of igneous rocks from the
Adirondacks

Collection of New York State rocks
and minerals

Course-grained graphite from
Ticonderoga

Paleontology

Fossil specimens, duplicate (6)

Rubber casts of trilobites (2)

Fossil specimens, duplicate (16)

Fossil bryozoa, duplicate (2)

Conularid, Tentaculites gyracanthus,
duplicate (3)

William Whitaker, Greene
Douglas S. Byers, Peabody Foundation,
Andover, Mass.

Department of Geology, George Wash¬
ington University, Washington, D.C.
Harry Oborne, Colorado Springs, Colo.,
for Annual Boy Scout Jamboree
U.S. Army Signal Research and Develop¬
ment Laboratory, Fort Monmouth, N.J.

C. W. Breedlove, Jr., Marietta, S. C.

Dr. Wilhelm Kegel, Divisao de Geologia,
Avenida Pasteur 404, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil

Dr. H. A. Lowanstam, California Insti¬
tute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.

Dr. H. Dighton Thomas, British Museum
Natural History, London, England

Dr. Huntington Williams, Baltimore City
Health Department, Baltimore, Md.

Botany

Sphagnum (451)

Sphagnum ( 161 )
Sphagnum ( 119)

Sphagnum (52)

Exchanges

State University of New York College of
Agriculture, Ithaca

New York Botanical Garden, New York
National Herbarium, Smithsonian
Institution

Prof. William T. Winne, Union College,
Schenectady

45

Loans

On request of schools, government, and other institutions and scientists,
materials in the collections were loaned as follows:

Archeology

Indian peace pipe
Ethnological pieces: (club, spoon,
tanned deerskin, baskets, paddle,
bowl, braided corn, arrow points)
War club and bows (2)

Silver peace medals (2)

Cranium and mandibles (2)

Projection slides (11)

Skull

Pottery sherds (10)

Type projectile points (14)
Ethnological items (21)

Projection slide

Botany

Specimen of fungus and specimens of
moss (12)

Critical specimens of fungi (28)

Type specimens of fungi (4)

Type specimens of fungi (10)

Type specimen of fungus

Type specimens of fungi (3)

Type specimen of fungus
Type specimen of fungus

Critical specimens of fungi (6)

Type specimens of fungi (8)

Type specimen of fungus

New York Department of State, Albany

Whitney’s Department Store, Albany

First Church of Albany
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C.

Menands Public School, Menands
Stanford Gibson (NYSAA), Norwich
Manufacturers Architectural
Representative Service, Albany
St. Lawrence University, Canton
St. Lawrence University, Canton
Schenectady Museum, Schenectady
National Park Service, Philadelphia, Pa.

State University of New York College of
Forestry at Syracuse University

New York Botanical Garden, Bronx
Park, New York 58

National Fungus Collections, Plant
Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.

University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.

University of Tennessee, Knoxville,
Tenn.

Tulane University, New Orleans, La.

Forest Biology Laboratory, Canadian
Department of Agriculture, Maple,
Ontario, Can.

Forest Biology Laboratory, Canadian
Department of Agriculture, Sillery,
Quebec, Can.

University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B. C.

Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Holland

46

Entomology

Scientific study collection of bees
( Melissodes ) (56)

Vials of aphids ( 14)

Dragonflies (12)

Drawer exhibits of insects (3)

Insects (19)

Geology

Specimens of seybertite, margarite,
masonite, corundolite
A polished limestone concretion
Collections of New York State rocks
and minerals (73)

Paleontology

Type specimens of fossil brachiopods
(3)

Fossil specimens (28)

Type specimens of graptolites (3)

Type specimens of graptolites (3)

Fossil specimens (25)

Fossil brachiopod specimens (13)

Fossil specimens (25)

Fossil specimens (25 )

Type specimens of fossil crinoids ( 10)

Fossil specimens (31)

Type specimens of fossil brachiopods

(2)

Type specimens of fossil cephalopods
(26)

Dr. Wallace E. LaBerge, Iowa State
College, Ames, Iowa
Dr. Mortimer D. Leonard, 2480 16th St.

NW, Washington 9, D. C.

Dr. George W. Byers, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.

West Sand Lake and Miller Hill
Elementary Schools, West Sand Lake
Vincentian Institute, Albany

Department of Geology, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Constance Walsh, Albany
Schools in New York State

Dr. Thomas W. Amsden, Oklahoma
Geological Survey, Norman, Okla.

Archbishop Stepinac High School,
White Plains

Dr. William B. N. Berry, Peabody
Museum, Yale University, New Haven,
Conn.

Dr. William B. N. Berry, University ol
California, Berkeley, Calif.

Beverly Hill School, Huntington Station

Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, U. S. National
Museum, Washington, D. C.

Deposit Central School, Deposit

East Greenbush Central Schools, East
Greenbush

Leonard Fernow, Cornell University,
Ithaca

Mrs. W. M. Garretson, 84 Carthage
Rd, Scarsdale

R. E. Grant, U. S. National Museum,
Washington, D. C.

Dr. Michael House (of University of
Durham, England ) , Cornell University,
Ithaca

47

Type specimens of fossil ostracods
(16)

Type specimens of eurypterids (3)

Fossil specimens (28)

Type specimens of fossil pelecypods
(60)

Type specimens of fossil corals (7)
Specimens of nontype fossil corals
(44)

Fossil specimens (25)

Thin section slides of type fossil
bryozoa (63)

Type specimen of fossil bryozoan

Fossil specimens (27)

Specimens of fossil brachiopods (15)

Type specimen of a fossil coral

Type specimens of fossil branchiopods
(4)

Type specimens of trilobites (3)

Fossil specimens (26)

Zoology

Mammals and birds
Snakes

Birds and mammals
Various animal specimens
Birds and distribution maps
Birds and mammals
Birds

Birds

Dr. Robert V. Kesling, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Dr. Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering (of
Buenos Aires, Argentina), Chicago
Natural History Museum, Chicago, Ill.

Manetuck School, West Islip

A. L. McAlester, Peabody Museum, Yale
University, New Haven, Conn.

Dr. William A. Oliver, Jr., U. S. Geo¬
logical Survey, Washington, D. C.

Oneida Junior High School, Oneida

Dr. T. H. Perry, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Ind.

June Phillips-Ross, Peabody Museum,
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

Pidgeon Hill Elementary School,
Huntington Station

John K. Pope, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Ohio

Dr. Erwin C. Stumm, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Dr. Paul Tasch, University of Wichita,
Wichita, Kans.

H. B. Whittington, Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Harvard
College, Cambridge, Mass.

Woodland School, Hazel Crest, Ill.

Birchwood Elementary School, Colonie
University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla.
Rensselaer County Junior Museum, Troy
Convent of Mercy, Albany
Cornell University, Ithaca
Draper School, Schenectady
New York State Conservation
Department, Albany
Miller Hill Elementary School, West
Sand Lake

48

Museum Exhibits

Design

With one full-time assistant during the last half of the year, the exhibits
designer worked up detailed layouts for approximately 15 major displays
for Paleontology HalL He directed and supervised the carpenters in com¬
pleting the first quarter of the hall construction, made detailed plans and
drawings for the structure and its architectural appearance, and drafted
the details for each of the custom-built display cases.

Designs for the following completed or nearly completed displays were
made: ‘“How Fossils Are Formed” and “Meet the Paleontologist” ; as well
as on the geologic timeclock ; living fossils ; fossil sponges ; glass sponges ;
sponge diorama; Coelenterates; Brachiopods; Cephalopods; Euryp-
terids; and three dioramas (coal swamp. Eurypterids and armored fish).
Advice and directions were given to temporary employees for making
exhibits on dinosaurs; the passenger pigeon and bird extinction by Mrs.
Edith Froelich; and an exhibit of horse evolution by Louisa Plumb, a
student employee.

Among the many other projects undertaken by the designer were:
Biology Hall renovation (nearly all the old exhibits and exhibit cases
retained for display were redesigned with new interiors), lights and ap¬
propriate setting selected for specimens. It involved a general facelifting
of the entire hall with a new color scheme and an improved arrangement
of traffic flow. The incorporated herbarium included designs for tables,
workbenches and color scheme. An arrangement for suspension of five
large marine mammals was plotted, and pertaining labels were made and
secured nearby. The foyer will receive a new full-scale model of the old
Naples Tree for which designs and construction drawings have been
made. It will contain a built-in lighting scheme to illuminate the com¬
panion fossil slab close behind it. Two new exhibits and cases were de¬
signed for a wampum belt display in the Indian groups, and new alumi¬
num railing stock selected for these halls and stairways. Designs were
formulated for “free form” tables to be arranged in various combina¬
tions in the new conference room. New color schemes and patterns of floor
tile were selected for several of the exhibit halls.

Considerable time was spent setting up the “carbon tissue-silk screen”
method of labeling. Construction drawings were made for much of the
required custom-built equipment.

Preparation

The preparation staff performed the following major items of main¬
tenance : New York State relief map twice cleaned and repaired ; mastodon

49

50

exhibit twice cleaned and renovated; extensive repairs made on Gilboa
Forest exhibit; all mounted birds, mammals and fish not on display re¬
conditioned and stored; zoological storage collections reassembled and
stored after herbarium was moved and Biology Hall reorganized; light
wells in large mammal groups cleaned and lighting improved; Iroquois
food plant exhibit cases repaired ; marine fish exhibit renovated and re¬
installed ; five large plaster casts of marine mammals fitted with hangers,
restored, recolored and suspended from ceiling of Biology Hall; 400
mounted birds cleaned, renovated and replaced on exhibit; many new
bases constructed and over 50 old ones rebuilt; old bird habitat group¬
ings made smaller and reconstructed for exhibit ; large number of
mounted mammals cleaned, renovated and provided with new bases ; new
mammals added to exhibit series and unsuitable old ones replaced; a
series of mammal tracks carved in plexiglass and mounted for exhibit;
old bison group dismantled and specimens stored ; new background paint¬
ing on glass made for old Devonian cephalopod exhibit ; two new wam¬
pum belt cases refinished; construction techniques and materials for re¬
building the Naples Tree model worked out and production of new leaf
replicas begun.

With the exception of work made necessary by moving the herbarium
and reorganizing Biology Hall, the efforts of the preparators were con¬
centrated on the renovation of the Hall of Ancient Life and included the
following projects: large glass sponge slab reduced in size and restored
as the base of a new sponge pillar exhibit for which specimens and
housings were prepared; scale model for coal swamp exhibit prepared
and its full-scale counterpart, constructed on outside contract, refurbished
and installed; 10 models, ranging from one-cell animals to giant reptiles,
created and installed in the geologic timeclock exhibit for which a large
“spectrum” was colored and installed ; skins and skeletons of four
weasels prepared to demonstrate methods of animal preservation ; fossil
leaf prints and shell reproductions made and installation of fossil forma¬
tion exhibit completed; living fossil exhibit completed and installed;
Upper Devonian and Upper Silurian dioramas completed and installed;
five enlarged models of cephalopods made and colored; coelenterate ex¬
hibit prepared and installed; horse skull prepared for renovated exhibit
on horse evolution and scale models of eohippus reproduced to replace
stolen one ; old dinosaur exhibit renovated and provided with new labels ;
replicas of fossil fish model made for paleontology section; complete
caribou skin and skeleton prepared for research collection.

For the archeology section, the main projects included: two Indian
pipes reproduced; work done on a relief map; large clay vessel repro-

51

duced and colored; broken stone artifacts repaired; drawings of arrow¬
heads made; plaster letters made and colored; illustrated labels made
for Iroquois groups; and various items of field equipment repaired.
Assistance was provided in installing the Shaker-Indian exhibit, and ma¬
terial was prepared for an archeology meeting.

In February the exhibits designer and the senior technician spoke
before the Museum staff on preparation of exhibits for the new Hall of
Ancient Life. A similar talk was given when Education Department
members previewed the exhibits thus far completed for the new hall.

The Public

Sample counts of visitors to the exhibit halls were made on 72 of the
325 days during which the Museum was open. Estimated attendance dur¬
ing 252 weekdays, based on the sample taken on 42 counting days, was
114,000. Estimated attendance during 51 Saturdays, based on an eight-
day sample, was 20,350. Actual attendance on the 14 Sundays during
the summer when the Museum was open was 5,124. Actual attendance
on eight holidays was 5,221. Total attendance for the year was approxi¬
mately 145,000, a drop of 17 percent when compared with the estimate
for last year of 175,000.

Highest daily count (1,500) occurred on Saturday, March 12, the
day of the St. Patrick’s Day parade. Highest count on a normal weekday
was 788 (Tuesday, July 7) . Lowest count recorded was 188 (Tuesday,
December 22). Daily average, including weekdays, Saturdays, Sundays
and holidays, was 466.

The Department nurse was called to attend a total of 20 visitors who
required some medical assistance. Seventeen of these cases were school-
children who fainted or became ill in the Indian groups. This part of the
Museum continues to be poorly ventilated despite the use of two fans.
There were three minor accidents and one serious accident when, on
Saturday, September 19, 1959, an elderly woman fell down the stairs
from the Indian groups to Geology Hall and complained of back and hip
injuries. No medical assistance was available, but the guards made her
comfortable until she was taken to the hospital by ambulance.

The Museum guards have continued to carry out their duties faithfully
and efficiently and have performed numerous helpful services. Exhibit
cases have been painted and glass washed. All lighted exhibit cases are
checked daily and rebulbed as often as necessary. Guards assisted Mu¬
seum staff members with installation of new exhibits and the renovation
of old exhibits. They also aided the carpenters in dismantling and moving

52

cases and other material from the Museum. It is necessary to cover the
cases in Geology Hall and the new construction in Paleontology Hall
with large sheets of plastic whenever it rains. Something should be done
to alleviate this problem because, should it rain while the Museum is
closed and no guards are on duty, extensive water damage could occur.
The guards helped with the equipment used by staff members of New
York State College of Education in preparing a film to be shown in class¬
rooms of public schools.

53

54

Learning animal characteristics from living specimens is a new phase of the
instruction provided by the Museum .

Special Services

Museum Education Program

The museum education office provided instruction for the teachers,
youth leaders, school classes and other groups that visited the Mu¬
seum during the year. The staff continued to adapt its teaching to the
particular needs of these groups by giving subject matter lesson tours
to augment classwork and by giving introductory talks. Natural history
tours are now enlivened by live animals.

The filling of vacancies on the staff made it possible for the education
office to give guided tours to a larger proportion of the total number of
groups which visited during the year. The position of Museum education
supervisor was filled in October by Janet L. Stone and that of part-time
instructor by Mary Jane Stauch. Additional instruction of a more spe¬
cialized nature was provided at the Museum and in the field by Museum
curators and scientists.

Efforts by the staff to conduct guided tours of maximum effectiveness
continued to be balked by the poor acoustics of the exhibit halls. Other
factors which also reduce the effectiveness of the Museum education pro¬
gram are overcrowding during the spring months, lack of a suitable re¬
ception center for groups and lack of lunchroom facilities.

Instruction for Visiting Groups

Brief introductory talks and longer guided tours on Indians, animals,
rocks and minerals, fossils, birds and other subjects were given to groups
ranging in age from preschool through adult.

Total attendance by groups was 28,936, a slight drop (2.5 percent)
from the year before. Of this total, 60 percent (17,406) received guided
tours as compared with only 49 percent the year before. This desirable
increase was somewhat offset, however, by a rise in the average number
of students per tour from 23 last year to 26 this year.

Of those who visited in groups, 84 percent were school students. The
remaining 16 percent came as members of Scouts, PTA, church and other
organizations. The following tables show school and nonschool distribu¬
tion by grade (or age level) and by service.

55

School Groups

TOURS INTRODUCTORY TALKS

TOTAL - - — -

GRADES ATTENDANCE NUMBER ATTENDANCE NUMBER ATTENDANCE

Nursery school . 18 1 18 — —

K, 1-3 . 3,923 135 2,639 1 25

4-6 . 9,389 308 7,680 2 77

7-9 . 8,426 145 4,337 6 417

10-12 ................ 1,588 20 590 1 154

Multigraded ......... 644 8 515 — —

College . 403 4 63 — —

Adult education ...... 53 3 53 — —

Totals ........... 24,444 624 15,895 10 673

Nonschool Groups

TOURS INTRODUCTORY TALKS

AGE NUMBER TOTAL - -

LEVEL OF GROUPS ATTENDANCE NUMBER ATTENDANCE NUMBER ATTENDANCE

Youth .... 154 4,420 36 1,072

Adult .... 30 743 5 171 15 260

Totals .. 184 5,163 41 1,243 15 260

Instruction was provided by the Museum education staff and by cura¬
tors and scientists as follows :

NUMBER OF

STAFF MEMBER NUMBER OF TOURS INTRODUCTORY TALKS

Drumm . . 293 15

Stauch . . . . 130 2

Stone ....................... 227 8

Fenton . . 1

Fisher . . . 3 —

Gillette . . 1 —

Koster . . 2 —

Reilly . 10 —

Ritchie . 1 —

Smith . . 1 —

Totals . . . 672 25

Data on 620 visiting groups show that 67 percent of these groups came
from within a 50-mile radius of Albany; 29 percent from a distance of
50 to 150 miles; 3 percent over 150 miles; and 1 percent from out of the
State.

56

Museum Education Extension Program

Several members of the staff traveled outside of the Museum building
to conduct educational programs for various groups. Examples of some
of the programs presented are outlined below. (See also Appendix C.)

The Museum education supervisor addressed the annual winter con¬
ference of the Science Teachers Association of New York State, on “How
the State Museum Can Serve High School Classes.” She also was a re¬
source panel member for a science forum on “School Use of Wildlife
Sanctuaries,” sponsored by the Tivoli Lake Nature Sanctuary.

The curator of geology presented a talk on career opportunities in
geology to students at Philip Livingston Junior High School, Albany.

The curator of entomology spoke to the combined biology classes of
the College of St. Rose on how teachers can use insect collecting as a
teaching aid.

The curator of zoology presented special lectures on birds and mammals
to the Caduceus Garden Club of Schenectady, the Castleton Garden Club,
Altamont Elementary School, Cohoes Elementary School, the New Hamp¬
shire Teachers Association, the Conservation Assembly of the Berkshires
and the Roundtable of Naturalists and Scientists. The curator acted as
judge in the annual eastern New York Science Fair and talked on museum
matters to the Science Teachers Association of New York at their annual
meeting. Field trips for schoolchildren were led to Wilson M. Powell
Sanctuary on six occasions, and scout groups were given lectures and
demonstrations about animal life and survival in the wilds.

Related Activities

Conferences and Meetings

The Museum education supervisor toured the following museums to
observe their educational program: the American Museum of Natural
History, the Brooklyn Children’s Museum, the Buffalo Museum of Science,
the Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences, and the Royal Ontario Mu¬
seum, Toronto. The supervisor and the instructor attended the annual
conferences of the American Association of Museums in Boston and the
Northeast Museums Conference in Buffalo.

Publications

Two articles were prepared for the Bulletin to the Schools to assist
teachers in planning a class visit to the State Museum and to encourage
students to use the Museum during the summer. The Oldest Forest , a book¬
let for intermediate and high school students was prepared to be dis¬
tributed in conjunction with an educational television program produced

57

by Dr. Floyd Carlson of the State University of New York College of
Forestry at Syracuse University.

Museum Sales Desk

The volume of sales at the sales desk increased from $600 for 1958-59
to $3,258.25 for 1959-60. A number of educational items have been
added to the inventory, such as a rock and mineral set (see report of
curator of geology), nature games, field guides and additional books for
children.

The sales list for these items was:

1,148 Pamphlets and books
812 Rock, mineral and gem stone sets
388 Activity kits
52 Nature games
319 Cards and letter paper

2,697 Dinosaur models
284 Arrowheads
12 Record albums of bird songs
10 Hummingbird feeders

There is a demand on the part of teachers and the general public for
a greater number of titles in natural history and physical science as well
as for inexpensive educational items for children. A saleswoman-recep¬
tionist would enable us to serve the public more effectively.

Museum Library

During the past year the master file of addresses to which Museum
publications will be sent for review or to which notification of publica¬
tions will be sent was completed. This entire list, numbering 321 institu¬
tions, journals etc., has been coded for facility in use. The periodical
routing lists for the State Library and the Museum library were revised.

The total number of items accessioned during the year was 3,412. This
is a slight decrease over the preceding year when 3,580 items were
accessioned.

The following honorarium reports were received: Geology of the
Magnetite Deposits and Associated Gneisses near Ausable Forks , N.Y.,
by Lorence G. Collins ; Quantitative Mineralogy as a Guide to Prospect¬
ing in Metamorphic Regions , by Lorence G. Collins and A. F. Hagner;
Progress Report on a Study of the Development of Vocalization in the
Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis), by James M. Hartshorne; Preliminary
Report and Geology Map of the Cornwall, N.Y Quadrangle , by K. R.

58

Kothe ; Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Salina Group in Central
New York , by Willard P. Leutze; Geology of the Cooperstown , N.Y.,
Quadrangle , by Donald H. Zenger.

Correspondence increased this year. Several letters of inquiry were
received from librarians of other State geological surveys and/ or
departments.

Crowded periodical files were cleaned out, and, if necessary, serials
of limited interest were taken to the New York State Library, gifts and
exchange section. Numerous duplicates were also transferred to that office.
Such transfers totaled 776 items. Problems arising through exchanges
were solved with assistance of the gifts and exchange section. Changes in
the Museum library exchange file were maintained currently.

Photography

A total of 136 separate requests for services resulted in the following:
567 black and white photographs taken; 1,312 negatives processed from
field photographs, and 2,467 prints and enlargements made from the
preceding. In addition, 101 projection slides were prepared, and 167
color photographs were taken.

This work included both field and office assignments: several sets of
slides to be used in talks at archeological society meetings; color photo¬
graphs of archeological material to illustrate a book; records of the
summer archeological field projects; pollen studies; control of punkies
and projects concerned with forest insects; reproduction of charts and
maps for Handbook of North American Birds ; enlargements and reduc¬
tions of topographic maps for the State Geologic Map; illustrations for
a treatise on invertebrate paleontology and photographs of type specimens
for use of foreign scientists. For the exhibits preparation staff, photo¬
graphic records were made showing progress and completion of exhibits,
and advice was given on methods of preparing labels.

Science Fair students were photographed with their prize-winning
exhibits.

Requests for photographic services by the Department included :
Ninetieth Convocation Ceremonies ; meeting of the State Boards of Edu¬
cation of the Northeastern States and meeting of State Commissioners of
Education ; dedication of the annex to Education Building ; merit award
ceremonies and service awards and retirements.

59

Publications

Nine museum bulletins (including an annual report) and three
miscellaneous items were printed during the year. These publica¬
tions totaled 958 pages of text and 141 plates, figures, maps, tables and
graphs. Two of the miscellaneous items, comprising 64 pages and two
figures, were multilithed. The third, a large plate showing the correlation !
of Silurian rocks in the State and issued as the first number in a new
Map and Chart Series, was printed by offset.

The number of items published in 1959-60 was double that issued
during the previous year, and the total number of text pages increased
almost as much (958 in 1959-60 as compared with 438 in 1958-59) . Two
manuscripts that were completed before the end of the year were held
over due to lack of editorial assistance in the Department’s Bureau of
Publications to prepare them for the printer.

At the end of the year, in addition to the two items “in press” for
publication by the State Museum, four manuscripts had been completed
for other institutions; they will probably appear before June 30, 1961.
The status of manuscripts in process of writing by staff scientists and
curators in the various disciplines was as follows:

Archeology

Botany

Entomology

Geology- — Paleontology

Zoology

To be ready for printing

Before June 30, 1961
3
3

5

6
1

After June 30, 1961
1

1

8

1

60

Publications

State Museum and Science Service

1960 121st Annual Report of the New York State Museum and Science Service,

July 1, 1958 -June 30, 1959. N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bull. No. 381.
Jan. 1960. 64pp. 8 pi.

Cox, D. D.

1959 Some postglacial forests in central and eastern New York State as deter¬
mined by the method of pollen analysis. N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bull.
No. 377. 52pp. 14 fig. 1 map

Drumm, J. A.

1959 Planning the State Museum visit. Bull, to the Schools, v. 46, No. 2, pp. 73-77.
Oct. 1959

Fisher, D. W.

1960 Correlation of the Silurian rocks of New York State. N. Y. State Mus. &
Sci. Serv. Map and Chart Series No. 1

Jamnback, IT, & Wall, W.

1959 The common salt marsh Tabanidae of Long Island, N. Y. N. Y. State Mus.
& Sci. Serv. Bull. No. 375. 77pp. 27 fig.

Kilfoyle, C. F.

1959 Catalog of type specimens of fossils in the New York State Museum,
Supplement 5. N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bull. No. 376. 134pp.

Kreidler, W. L.

1959 Selected deep wells and areas of gas production in eastern and central
New York. N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bull. No. 373. 243pp. 4 maps.
5 tab.

Ogden, E. C. & Lewis, D. M.

1960 Airborne pollen and fungus spores of New York State. N. Y. State Mus. &
Sci. Serv. Bull. No. 378. 104pp. 74 gphs.

Ritchie, W. A. & Dragoo, D. W.

1960 The eastern dispersal of Adena. N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bull. No. 379.
80pp. 2 fig. 5 tab. 16 pi.

Stone, J. L.

1960 The oldest forest. (Gilboa Forest) . N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Multilithed.

10pp.

1960 Hall of Ancient Life revamped. Bull, to the Schools, v. 46, No. 10, pp.
346-347

Sutton, R. G.

1950 Stratigraphy of the Naples group (Late Devonian) in western New York.

N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. Bull. No. 380. 56pp. 15 fig. 1 tab. 1 map
1960 Structural geology of the Dryden and Harford quadrangles, New York.
N. Y. State Mus. & Sci. Serv. 15pp. 2 fig.

Wiggins, J. W.

1959 Sample study and correlation of E. C. Kesselring No. 1 Well. N. Y. State
Mus. & Sci. Serv. 48pp.

61

In “Outside” Media

Cahalane, V. H.

1959 A biological survey of Katmai National Monument, Smithsonian Miscel¬
laneous Coll. v. 138, No. 5 (August) Washington, D. C.

1959 A giant bear. The New Scientist, v. 6, No. 161. (December), pp. 1242-1244.
illus.

1959 The first four years. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Mich.
Bull. 37, pp. 110-112

Collins, D. L.

1960 Status of eastern equine encephalitis and the mosquito vector potential in
New York State. N. Y. State Jour, of Medicine, v. 60, No. 8. (April)

Connola, D. P., Waters, W. E. & Nason, E. R.

1959 A sequential sampling plan for red-pine sawfly N eodyirion nanulus. Jour.
Econ. Ent. v. 52, No. 4. (August)

1960 Airplane spray tests for the control of gypsy moth. Station to Station Re¬
search News. Union Carbide Chemicals Company, White Plains, v. VI,
No. 3. (March)

Connor, P. F.

1960 A study of small mammals, birds and other wildlife in an area sprayed
with Sevin. N. Y. State Fish and Game Jour. (June)

Fenton, W. N.

1959 John Reed Swanton (1873-1958). American Anthropologist, v. 61, No. 4,
pp. 663-668

1959-60 Articles: James Mooney, Clark Wissler, Delaware, Mahican-Mohegan,
Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca and Iroquois (League of).
Encyclopaedia Britannica (revised edition)

1960 The Hiawatha wampum belt of the Iroquois League for peace — selected
papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethno¬
logical Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa. 1956. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press,
Philadelphia, pp. 3-7

1960 Review: L. H. Morgan’s The Indian Journals, 1859-62. Science, v. 131,
p. 402

Kreidler, W. L.

1960 Gas and oil developments in New York State in 1959. American Associa¬
tion of Petroleum Geologists, v. 44, No. 6. (June)

1960 A preliminary report on underground storage of natural gas in New York
State. Interstate Oil Compact Commission

Ogden, E. C.

1960 Tagging and sampling ragweed pollen. Progress Report No. 1. U.S.P.H.S.
Research Grant E 1956. Mimeographed. (May)

Reilly, E. M.

1959-60 Articles: Bird and 22 individual birds. Encyclopedia Britannica Junior
(revised edition)

Rilehie, W. A.

1959 Excavation of an Owasco village site in New York: report on 1958 settle¬
ment pattern studies in the Northeast. Eastern States Archeological Fed¬
eration, Trenton, N. J. Bull. 18, pp. 11-12

62

Ritchie, W. A. & Dragoo, D. W.

1959 The eastern dispersal of Adena. American Antiquity, Salt Lake City, Utah,
v. 25, No. 1, pp. 43-50

Slvsh, A. R.

1959 The genus Peniophora in New York State and adjacent regions. State
University of New York College of Forestry at Syracuse University. Tech.
Publ. 83, pp. 1-95, illus.

Van Tyne, A. M.

1959 Report on oil and gas activities for 1959 in New York State. American
Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers

Wilcox, J. A.

1960 Some beetles of New York. N. Y. State Conservationist, v. 14, No. 4.
(Feb. -Mar.) pp. 23-27

63

Appendix A

I960 Graduate Student Honoraria Recipients

Archeology

Jacobsen, Jerome — Columbia University

Study of Ward’s Point area in Tottenville, Staten Island, of aboriginal

shell midden and “Burial Ridge” . . . . . . $ 504

Taylor, Donna — Columbia University

Iroquois wampum study . . . 360

Botany

Brodo, Irwin M. — Michigan State University

Study of distribution and ecology of the lichens of Long Island. ....... 492

Entomology

Di Cyan, Erika — Syracuse University

Study of the ablation of the corpora cardiaca of the cockroach. ......... 360

Geology

Connally, G. Gordon — Michigan State University

Reconnaissance map of the glacial drift south of the Valley Heads

Moraine . . 408

Dodd, Robert T. — Princeton University

Mapping of the Popolopen Lake quadrangle . . . . 504

Simmons, M. G. — Harvard University

Complete gravity survey over Adirondack area . . . 600

Southard, John B. — Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Stratigraphic relations of rocks of Lower Devonian Age in northern part

of Paleozoic outlier . 300

Zenger, Donald H. — Cornell University

Stratigraphic and paleontologic study of Middle Silurian Lockport
formation . . 480

Zoology

Buckley, Paul A. — Cornell University

Study of birds along the coast of Long Island . . . 180

Carlson, Bruce M. — Cornell University

Chromatographic study of amino acids in various species of larval
lampreys . 504

$4,692

Appendix B

Conferences and Professional Meetings in which the Museum and
Science Service Staff participated:

Administrators of Museums in New York State, organization meeting, New York —
Cahalane, Fenton

American Academy of Allergy, 16th Annual Meeting, Hollywood, Fla. — Ogden

64

American Association of Museums, annual meeting, Boston, Mass. — Cahalane,
Fenton,* Stone, Drumni

American Association of State Geologists, annual meeting, Harrisburg, Pa. —
Broughton, Fisher

American Committee for International Wildlife Protection, annual meeting, New
York — Cahalane

American Ethnological Society, annual meeting, New York — Fenton
American Folklore Soceity, Albany — Fenton, Gillette
American Folklore Society, joint meeting, Bloomington, Ind.— Fenton
American Indian Ethnohistoric Conference, New York — Fenton
American Institute of Mining Engineers, annual meeting, New York — Broughton
American Institute of Mining Engineers, regional meeting, Bedford Springs, Pa. —
Broughton

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, North
Creek — Borst

American Mosquito Control Association and Northeastern Mosquito Control
Association, joint annual meeting, Boston, Mass. — Jamnback, Collins
American Ornithologist’s Union, annual meeting, Regina, Saskatchewan — Palmer
Bureau of Forest Pest Control, annual meeting, Saratoga — Collins, Connola
Carnegie Museum, Ligonier Valley, Pa. — Ritchie

Conference on Arthropod-Borne Encephalitis in New York, Albany — Collins,
Jamnback

Conference of Directors of Systematic Collections (Research Museums), Albany —
Cahalane, Collins, Fenton; Cambridge, Mass. — Cahalane, Fenton; Lawrence,
Kans. — Fenton

Conference on Gypsy Moth Research Problems, New Haven, Conn. — Campbell,
Collins, Connola

Conference on Lake Bottom Sampling for Fossil Pollen and Related Subjects,
Syracuse — Collins, Ogden, Lewis

Conference with Canadian Health Department on Arthropod-Borne Animal Dis¬
eases in St. Lawrence Valley, Wells Island — Collins
Conference on Vector Hazards of St. Lawrence Seeway, Syracuse — Collins
Conference on Status of Bedrock Mapping, Middletown, Conn. — Isachsen
Conference National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. — Isachsen
Conference U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. — Isachsen
David Boyle Lecture, University of Toronto, Toronto — Ritchie
Dedication-Osborn Ornithological Laboratory, Peabody Museum, Yale Univer¬
sity — Cahalane, Fenton, Palmer, Reilly
Defenders of Wildlife, annual meeting, Washington, D.C. — Cahalane
Eastern States Archeological Federation, annual meeting, Albany — Gillette,
Ritchie

Engineers Society of Western Pennsylvania, Bradford, Pa. — Van Tyne
Entomological Society of America, annual meeting, Detroit, Mich. — Jamnback
Entomological Society of America, Eastern Branch, annual meeting, Baltimore,
Md. — Connola, Collins

Federation of New York State Bird Clubs, Buffalo — Reilly

Geological Society of America, Pittsburgh, Pa. — Borst, Broughton, Fisher, Isach¬
sen, Rickard

* Read formal paper.

65

Interstate Oil Compact Committee Meeting, Philadelphia, Pa. — Kreidler
Meeting of State and University Scientists, Syracuse University, Syracuse —
Ritchie

Mohawk-Caughnawaga Museum, annual meeting, Fonda — Gillette
New Jersey Archeological Society, Trenton, N. J. — Ritchie
New York Academy of Sciences on Geochronology, New York — Isachsen
New York State Archeological Association, Rhinebeck — Gillette, Richie
New York State Archeological Association, Van-Epps Hartley Chapter, Schenec¬
tady — Gillette* ; Albany — Fenton, Gillette, Ritchie*

New York State Geological Field Conference, Clinton — Borst, Broughton, Fisher,
Isachsen, Kreidler, Rickard, Van Tyne

New York State Museum Association for Western New York, Rochester — Fenton
New York Section, Society of American Foresters, Albany — Connola
Ninth International Botanical Congress, Montreal, Can. — Ogden, Lewis
Northeast Museums Conference, Buffalo — Cahalane, Drumm, Gillette, Stone
Northeastern Bird-Banding Association, South Lincoln, Mass. — Palmer
Northeastern Forest Pest Council, Boston, Mass. — Connola
Paleontological Research Institute, semiannual meetings, Ithaca — Rickard
Society for American Archeology, New Haven, Conn. — Gillette, Ritchie
Twelfth Conference on Iroquois Research, Red House — Fenton,* Gillette, Ritchie*
Well Stimulation and Cementing Techniques Seminar, Lewis Run, Pa. — Van Tyne

Appendix C

Cooperative Work (Service) : Talks given by the staff of State Museum
and Science Service to various groups:

Adirondack Mountain Club, Albany Chapter— Cahalane
Albany Club of Sigma Xi — Fisher

Archeological and Historical Society, Schoharie — Ritchie

Auringer — Seelye Chapter, New York State Archeological Association — Fenton

Bethlehem School District Librarians — Fenton

Blue Mountain Lake Association — Jamnback

Caduceus Garden Club, Schenectady — Reilly

Canadian Broadcasting Company, Toronto — Fenton

Capital District Geologist Club — Isachsen

Capital District Mineral Club — Borst

Cardinal McClosky High School — Cahalane

Castleton Garden Club — Reilly

Cohoes Elementary School — Reilly

College of St. Rose, combined biology classes — Wilcox

Columbia County Extension Service, Claverack — Fisher

Conservation Assembly of the Berkshires — Reilly

Dana Natural History Society — Fisher

Dartmouth College, American literature class — Fenton

Daughters of the American Revolution, Hudson Chapter — Fenton

Eastern New York Science Fair, Judge — Reilly

Harrietstown Town Board — Jamnback

Isaac Walton League — Fenton

* Read formal paper.

66

Kiwanis Club, Rensselaer — Fenton

Newburgh Public School, adult education — Isachsen

New Hampshire Teachers Association — Reilly

Philip Livingston Junior High School, career guidance — Borst

Rotary Club, Niskayuna — Fenton

Rotary Club, Pawling — Cahalane

Roundtable of Naturalists and Scientists — Reilly

Sanitarians of New York City and Vicinity Health Department, New York —
Jamnback

Schenectady County Historical Society — Fenton
Schoharie Public Schools — Rickard
Schroon Lake Town Board — Jamnback

Science Teachers’ Association of New York State — Reilly, Stone
Scout Groups — Reilly

State Conference of Supervisors of Citizenship Education — Fenton
Tupper Lake Fish and Game Club— Jamnback
Tupper Lake Town Board — Jamnback
Vassar College Anthropology Club — Fenton

Wilson M. Powell Sanctuary, field trips for schoolchildren (6) — Reilly
WPIX — Educational Television — Fenton

Appendix D : Cooperating Agencies

A continuing function of the Museum and Science Service is to co¬
operate with agencies and organizations concerned with museum and
research activities in this and other States, with the governments of
United States and Canada, with universities and industry in the discovery,
analysis and dissemination of scientific information. These contacts are
frequently of reciprocal services, and they arise often out of the personal
contacts of the staff and, if so listed, would measure individual participa¬
tion, but they are here tabulated for the organization.

Albany Medical Center Hospital

American Civil Liberties Union, Indian Civil Rights Committee

American Indian Museum

Buffalo Museum of Science

Forest Biology Laboratory, Canadian Department of Agriculture

Forest Disease Survey, Forest Biology Laboratory, Canadian Department of
Agriculture

Harvard University: Gray Llerbarium, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Peabody
Museum

Memorial Hospital, Albany

National Art Museum of Sport

National Fungus Collections, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.

National Science Foundation

New York Botanical Garden

New York State Department of Agriculture and Markets

New York State Department of Commerce

New York State Department of Conservation

67

New York State Department of Public Works

New York State Police, Bureau of Criminal Investigation

New York State Supreme Court

New York State Teachers Association. Annual Winter Conference

State University of New York, College of Agriculture at Cornell University

State University of New York. College of Forestry at Syracuse University

State University of New York, Harpur College at Endicott

Paleontological Research Institution

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Holland

Schenectady Museum

Science Teachers Association of New York State, Inc.

St. Peter’s Hospital, Albany

Smithsonian Institution, Washington — Bureau of American Ethnology, U.S.

National Museum
Syracuse University
Tulane University
University of British Columbia
University of Chicago
University of Michigan
University of Tennessee
Wellsville Daily Reporter
Yale University and Peabody Museum

Appendix E: Professional Affiliations

Adirondack Mountain Club, Albany Chapter, vice chairman — Cahalane (reelected)
Albany Club of the Society of the Sigma XI, secretary — Fisher
American Committee for International Wildlife Protections, vice chairman —
Cahalane (reelected)

American Folklore Society, president — Fenton (reelected)

American Mosquito Control Association, editor — Collins

American Ornithologist’s Union, editor of Handbook of North American Birds —
Palmer

Defenders of Wildlife, vice president — Cahalane

Entomological Society of America, Eastern Branch, program chairman — Collins
Entomological Society of America, member of Culicoides Panel — Jamnback
Federation of New York State Bird Clubs, Publications Committee — Reilly
Industrial Minerals Division of AIME, chairman — Broughton
National Parks Association, president — Cahalane
New York State Archeological Association, treasurer — Gillette
New York State Archeological Association, Van-Epps Hartley Chapter, trustee —
Gillette

Northeastern Forest Pest Council — Collins, Connola

Northeastern Forest Tree Improvement Committee, member for New York State —
Collins

Northeastern Mosquito Control Association, president — Jamnback
Society of American Foresters, New York Section, member of Committee on
Forest Insects and Diseases — Connola
Society of Mining Engineers, AIME, director — Broughton

68

Figure 5 Naples Group Sections between Lake Erie and Seneca Lake

WEST

CASHAQUA

|

RHINESTREET

o em.

River

LOCALITIES

LAKE ERIE
CAZENOVI A CREEK
CAYUGA CREEK
TANNERY CREEK
WYOMING
BEARDS CREEK
MT. MORRIS-LETCH. PK.

8 CASHAQUA CREEK

9 CONESUS LAKE

10 HARTSON POINT

11 HONEOYE LAKE

12 BRISTOL CENTER

13 MIDDLESEX

14 KEUKA LAKE WEST

15 KEUKA LAKE EAST

16 ROCK STREAM

17 SAWMILL CREEK

LITHOLOGIES

\ Gray Shales
^ Black Shales
Siltstones

Limestones, Septaria

KEY TO SECTIONS

1. Lake Erie (composite)

2. Cazenovia Creek

3. Cayuga Creek

4. Tannery Creek

5. Wyoming

6. Beards Creek

7 Mt. Morris - Letchworth Pk.

8. Cashaqua Creek

9. Conesus Lake

10. Hartson Point

11. Honeoye Lake
12 Bristol Center

13. Middlesex

14. Keuka Lake (west)

15. Keuka Lake (east)

16. Rock Stream

17. Sawmill Creek

Figure 1

DISTRIBUTION OF NAPLES GROUP AND
LOCATION OF DESCRIBED SECTIONS

0 10 20 Miles

ONLY 15' QUADRANGLES SHOWN