Eugene C. Ogden ew York State Museum J / Kenneth Dean New York State Museum lensselaer Sheldon y, General Knolls te Museum The University of the State o THE STATE EDUCATION DE Albany, New York 197< Q ll N82X NH Field Guide to the Aquatic Plants of Lake George, New York Eugene C. Ogden New York State Museum J. Kenneth Dean New York State Museum Charles W. Boylen Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Richard B. Sheldon Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, General Electric Company Bulletin Number 426 New York State Museum The University of the State of New York THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Albany, New York 1976 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of The University (with years when terms expire) 1981 Theodore M. Black, A.B., Litt.D., LL.D., Pd.D., D.C.L., L.H.D. Chancellor _ Sands Point 1987 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S., H.H.D. Vice Chancellor _ Purchase 1978 Alexander J. Allan. Jr., LL.D., Litt.D _ Troy 1981 JOSEPH C. INDELICATO, M.D., L.H.D. _ Brooklyn 1986 Kenneth B. Clark, A.B., M.S., Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D., D.Sc. _ Hastings on Hudson 1983 Harold E. Newcomb, B.A. _ Owego 1988 Willard A. Genrich, LL.B., L.H.D., LL.D. _ Buffalo 1982 Emlyn I. Griffith, A.B., J.D. _ Rome 1977 Genevieve S. Klein, B.S., M. A. _ Bayside 1981 William Jovanovich, A.B., LL.D., Litt.D., L.H.D. _ Briarcliff Manor 1983 Mary Alice Kendall, B.S. _ Irondequoit 1984 Jorge L. Batista, B.A., J.D _ Bronx 1982 LOUIS E. Yavner, LL.B _ New York 1979 Laura B. CHODOS, B.A., M.A. _ Clifton Park 1980 Martin C. BARELL, B.A., I. A., LL.B. _ Great Neck President of The University and Commissioner of Education Ewald B. Nyquist Executive Deputy Commissioner of Education Gordon M. Ambach Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education John G. Broughton Assistant Commissioner for New York State Museum Noel C. Fritzinger Director, State Science Service Hugo Jamnback State Botanist Richard S. Mitchell CONTENTS Acknowledgments . . iv Introduction . . . 1 Key to genera . 3 Checklist . 11 Depth distribution data . 50 Glossary . 59 Index . . 63 iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful to Stanley J. Smith, Senior Scientist and curator of the New York State Her¬ barium, for his advice on plant relationships, reliable diagnostic characters, problems in nomencla¬ ture, and identification of difficult species. Richard S. Mitchell, State Botanist, revised the portion on Polygonum and reviewed the manu¬ script. Nancy G. Slack, Russell Sage College, supplied information on the occurrence of several species. Research on the submergent macrophyte communities has been supported by the Eastern De¬ ciduous Forest Biome, US-IBP, funded by the National Science Foundation under Interagency Agreement AG-199, BMS 69-01147 A09, with the Energy Research and Development Administra¬ tion, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The logistic support of the Lake George Freshwater Institute is gratefully acknowledged. The underwater photographs were taken by Ronald Sampson and Timothy Seaman. iv INTRODUCTION This bulletin is a guide to the aquatic flowering plants and ferns growing in Lake George, New York, and its adjacent marshes. It includes a checklist, keys and illustrations, to assist in the iden¬ tification of the aquatic vascular plants most likely to be encountered. If no location is given, it is assumed the species is common and may be found in suitable habitats throughout. Specific habitats may not be inferred from most cited locations; for example, “Dunham Bay” includes open water and adjacent marshes. Our data are from observations and herbarium records. Many of the herbarium collections do not indicate whether the plants were taken from the lake or from some nearby aquatic or non- aquatic habitat; if such species are known to grow in water, they are included. A few species are included for which we have no records from the lake but which have been collected in the Lake George drainage area. Trees and woody shrubs are not included; we do not consider them to be truly aquatic. The keys are based on vegetative characters as much as possible. As such characters are often variable; many of the genera appear in more than one place in the key. If the characters in the generic key trace to but one species in a genus having more than one, the species is named. For descriptions, notes on habitats, additional keys, and additional illustrations, see one or more of the following references: Fassett, N. C. 1957. A manual of aquatic plants. University of Wisconsin Press. Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. American Book Company. Gleason, H. A. 1952. The new Britton and Brown illustrated flora of the northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. New York Botanical Garden. House, H. D. 1924. Annotated list of the ferns and flowering plants of New York State. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 254. Muenscher, W. C. 1944. Aquatic plants of the United States. Comstock Publishing Company. Where the names used in one or more of these books differ from the ones used here, those synonyms are given in parentheses, unless the derivation is obvious, such as: Isoetes echinospora subsp. braunii vs. I. braunii. Detailed underwater surveys were made for some common deep water species using scuba gear. The diver (Richard B. Sheldon) recorded the data underwater as to species encountered at various depths from one to several meters. See DEPTH DISTRIBUTION DATA. Lake George is situated on the southeastern side of the Adirondack Mountains. It is famous for its spectacular scenery and its military significance during both the French and Indian Wars and the American Revolution. It has an overall length of 51 km and a mean width of 2.3 km. Maximum depths of almost 60 m have been recorded off Anthony’s Nose and Phelp s Island. The lake is divided near the middle by a channel dotted with islands (The Narrows). The northern basin and perhaps the lake itself is largely spring fed. However, much surface runoff water does enter via streams in the lake’s southern basin. The southern basin is also the location of most of the lake’s marshland. The single outlet of the lake is at the extreme northern end at Ticonderoga, the water thus flowing north. Lake George occupies a complex graben in Precambrian bedrock. The sheer slopes and the often linear shorelines are largely due to faulting along this graben. Much of the lake floor glacial or postglacial material is now covered or mixed with modern organic-rich sediments — a suitable substrate for aquatic vegetation. Because of the sheer sloped sides of much of the lake, the littoral zone is most confined to a narrow band around the periphery. Most submergent vegetation is found in 7 m of water or less although Elodea has been found as deep as 12 m and Nitella (a macrophytic alga) forms a zone throughout the lake between 12 and 15 m. Water transparency is exceptionally high for a freshwater lake, with secchi disc readings commonly 6 to 7 m throughout and values exceeding 13 m off Rogers Rock in the northern basin. Water chemistry measurements over the last several years as routinely monitored by the Freshwater Institute at Smith Bay show variation within a relatively small range. The pH of the 1 water column ranges between 6.8 and 7.8. Variation does not appear to be associated with either the southern or northern basins or time of year. Alkalinity measurements range from 16 to 24 mg CaC03/liter throughout Lake George. Interstitial water pH usually approaches neutrality regard¬ less of sediment type, and alkalinity ranges from 20 to 30 mg CaC03/liter. Amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in the interstitial sediment water are approximately ten times as high as they are in the water above. 2 KEY TO GENERA 1. Plants tiny (several may be attached together), floating on or near the water surface; without differentiation into stem and leaf 2. Each plant with a single root; undersurface green . . . Lemna 2. Each plant with several roots; undersurface often purplish . Spirodela 1. Plants with obvious stem and/or leaves 3. Stems jointed; leaves whorled, reduced to scales . . . . . Equisetum 3. Stems not jointed 4. Leaves basal or essentially so, may be reduced to bladeless sheaths (2nd 4, p. 6) 5. Leaves compound 6. Leaves palmate 7. Leaflets three; reproduction by seeds 8. Leaves not fleshy; leaflets lobed; flowers yellow . . Ranunculus septentrionalis 8. Leaves fleshy; leaflets not lobed; flowers white or pink . . . Menyanthes 7. Leaflets more than three; fertile and sterile portions of leaf dissimilar; reproduction by spores . . . . . . . . Osmunda regalis 6. Leaves pinnate 9. Leaves with margin entire or essentially so but leaflets may be lobed; reproduction by spores (ferns) 10. Leaflets 25 or less; sterile and fertile fronds dissimilar . . . . Onoclea 10. Leaflets more than 25 11. Sterile and fertile leaves dissimilar; sterile leaves with brown hairs at base of leaflets; fertile leaves cinnamon-brown, hairy . . Osmunda cinnamomea 11. Sterile and fertile leaves similar, green, glabrous . . Thelypteris 9. Leaves with margins of leaflets mostly serrate; reproduction by seeds; inflorescence an umbel 12. Stems angled; leaves pinnately compound, upper ones once, lower twice; leaf¬ lets serrate; fruits with 1 oil tube between each pair of ribs . . Slum 12. Stems terete; leaves twice or thrice compound, often some of them appearing palmate; leaflets serrate or entire; fruits with 1-3 oil tubes between each pair of ribs . . . . . Cicuta 5. Leaves simple 13. Leaves sessile, with no distinction between blade and petiole (2nd 13, p. 5) 14. Leaves less than twice as broad as thick (2nd 14, p. 4) 15. Stems and/or leaves arising several from a common base or several from distinct points along a horizontal axis (2nd 15, p. 4) 16. Leaves with closed sheaths, sometimes bladeless; inflorescence a spike or panicle of spikelets; flowers inconspicuous in the axils of scales; fruit an achene (sedges) 17. Inflorescence a subterminal spike, a panicle of spikelets, or a close cluster of spikelets that appears to be lateral to the stem . . Scirpus 17. Inflorescence a terminal spike or cluster of spikelets 18. Inflorescence with long white bristles; achenes lacking a tubercle . . . . Eriophorum 18. Inflorescence without obvious bristles; achenes with a terminal tubercle . . . . Eleocharis 16. Leaf sheaths open or absent; inflorescence not a spike nor a cluster of spikelets 19. Inflorescence many-flowered; flowers 2- or 3-merous 20. Roots with prominent cross striations; inflorescence a scape with a single head of tiny flowers . . . Eriocaulon 20. Roots without prominent cross striations; inflorescence a raceme or panicle 3 21. Leaves broadly triangular in cross section . Sparganium 21. Leaves terete or nearly so 22. Inflorescence a spikelike raceme, terminal on a long scape; each flower with 6 pistils . Triglochin 22. Inflorescence a panicle, appearing lateral; each flower with 1 pistil . Juncus effusus 19. Inflorescence few-flowered 23. Plants with rhizomes or stolons 24. Stolons greenish, arching above the soil; stems and leaves without striae; inflores¬ cence single-flowered; flowers with showy yellow petals . Ranunculus reptans 24. Rhizomes whitish; either stems or leaves with striae; inflorescence of several in¬ conspicuous flowers 25. Stems filiform and leaflike, or uniform thickness, not flattened or cupped at base; stems usually with a delicate membranous, tubular, basal sheath; plants usually green or yellowish green; inflorescence (seldom produced on wholly submersed plants) a terminal spike . Eleocharis acicularis 25. Leaves gradually tapered to tip, somewhat flattened at base, base of outer leaves cupped around inner leaves; sheathing lower portion of leaf with membranous margins, upper sheath truncate, abruptly tapered, or minutely auricled; plants often with a reddish cast; inflorescence (seldom produced on wholly sub¬ mersed plants) a spacious cyme . Juncus pelocarpus 23. Plants with no rhizomes or stolons 26. Roots with prominent cross striations . Eriocaulon 26. Roots without prominent cross striations 27. Leaves round at apex, with two hollow tubes as seen in cross section; inflores¬ cence a raceme of blue flowers . Lobelia dortmanna 27. Leaves acute, with 4 or more hollow areas as seen in cross section 28. Leaves with enlarged bases, bearing sporangia and spores, with 4 hollow tubes as seen in cross section; inflorescence never produced . Isoetes 28. Leaves never with sporangia, the hollow areas more than 4 as seen in cross section; inflorescence a raceme of tiny white flowers on a scape 2-10 cm long, seldom produced when plants are submersed . Subidaria 15. Stemlike peduncles arising singly from distinct points along a horizontal axis 29. Stems without bladders; leaves merely small blunt scales; flowers tiny, sessile, greenish . Myriophyllwn tenellum 29. Stems bearing tiny bladders; leaves tiny, straplike and rarely seen; flowers showy, about 10 mm long, violet, on short pedicels . Utricularia resupinata 14. Leaves more than twice as broad as thick 30. Roots less than 1 mm in diam, with prominent cross striations; leaves awl-shaped, ±5 mm wide at base, tapering rapidly to a slender apex, loosely cellular, often translucent, form¬ ing a basal rosette; inflorescence a scape with a single head of tiny 2-merous flowers . . .Eriocaulon 30. Roots without prominent cross striations (except sometimes in Sagittaria ) 31. Leaves stiff, not requiring water for support, less than 20 cm long 32. Leaves round at apex, with 2 hollow tubes as seen in cross section; inflorescence a raceme of blue flowers . Lobelia dortmanna 32. Leaves acute at apex; inflorescence a raceme of white flowers or an umbel of spikelets 33. Stems terete; leaves thick with open sheathing base; inflorescence a raceme of white flowers . Sagittaria 33. Stems triangular; leaves thin, with closed sheath; inflorescence an umbel of spikelets . Cyperus 31. Leaves limp; requiring water for support, ribbonlike, more than 20 cm long 34. Leaves with midvein not evident, longitudinal and cross veins numerous giving the leaf a checkered appearance with squares or short rectangles (some plants of Pontederia cordata forma taenia may key to this point); male and female flowers in separate spherical heads, monoecious . Sparganium 4 34. Leaves with an evident midvein, cross veins widely separated; flowers not in heads 35. Leaves with a dense middle area bordering the midrib and with translucent marginal areas that lack longitudinal veins; plants dioecious; flowers borne singly, female flow¬ ers on long coiled peduncles, male flowers sessile or on very short peduncles, both peduncles from a basal rosette . Vallisneria 35. Leaves with translucent areas between the narrow midrib and the margins; inflores¬ cence a raceme of showy white flowers . Sagittaria cuneata 13. Leaves with distinct petiole and blade 36. Leaf blades stiff and erect, not requiring water for support 37. Leaf blades with 2 basal lobes, cordate or sagittate 38. Leaf blades with basal lobes acute 39. Leaves with 3 prominent veins from the juncture of the petiole and blade and with many lateral veins from the midvein to the margins; inflorescence a spadix in a green spathe; flowers with no petals . Peltandra 39. Leaves with many veins from the juncture of the petiole and blade, with no veins from midvein to margins; inflorescence a raceme with pedicels in whorls of 3; flowers with showy white petals . Sagittaria 38. Leaf blades with basal lobes rounded 40. Leaves round at apex, venation netted 41. Odor not skunky; leaf margins toothed; inflorescence of large pedicelled yellow flowers . . Caltha 41. Odor skunky; leaf margins entire; inflorescence of tiny sessile flowers on a spadix in a fleshy spathe . Symplocarpus 40. Leaves acute at apex, margin entire, venation parallel; flowers not yellow 42. Plants up to 30 cm tall; leaf blades about as long as wide, apex with a sharp point; stems a horizontal rhizome only; inflorescence a spadix subtended by a large white spathe; fruits fleshy, red . Calla 42. Plants up to 100 cm tall; leaf blades mostly much longer than wide, apex with a blunt point; stems a thick horizontal rhizome with vertical stems each bearing a single foliage leaf; inflorescence a spikelike panicle subtended by a small green spathe; flowers blue; fruits dry, brownish . Pontederia 37. Leaf blades neither sagittate nor cordate 43. Leaf blades deeply lobed, nearly compound . Ranunculus septentrionalis 43. Leaf blades not lobed 44. Leaf blades with hollow trumpet-shaped leaves . Sarracenia 44. Leaf blades not trumpet-shaped 45. Leaves with long glandular hairs . Drosera 45. Leaves glabrous 46. Plants creeping, rooting at the nodes; flowers yellow . Ranunculus reptans 46. Plants erect; flowers white or blue 47. Petioles with central hollow cavity . Pontederia 47. Petioles with spongy central area 48. Leaf blades mostly less than twice as long as wide, rounded at base, all flowers bisexual; fruits in a single whorl on the receptacle, forming a disk . . Alisma 48. Leaf blades mostly more than twice as long as broad, tapering to the petiole; most flowers unisexual, male above, female below; fruits attached all over the receptacle, forming a globose structure . Sagittaria 36. Leaf blades floating on the water surface, requiring water for support 49. Floating leaf blades sagittate; submersed ribbon-shaped leaves may be present; inflores¬ cence a raceme . . Sagittaria cuneata 49. Leaf blades cordate; inflorescence a single flower or flowers clustered to form an umbel 50. Leaf blades mostly less than 5 cm long, several principal veins equally strong, branch¬ ing and recurving to unite with each other; some leaves appearing to be basal, others 5 from a slender, limp stem bearing a cluster of fleshy roots or flowers or both at the base of the petiole near the water surface . Nymphoides 50. Leaf blades mostly more than 3 cm long, central vein more prominent than other veins, forking but not uniting; petioles and peduncles from a basal rhizome; flowers borne singly 51. Leaf blades about as long as wide, with more veins from the base of the midrib than from along the midrib, veins much forked; petioles and peduncles with 4 large hol¬ low areas as seen in cross section; flowers white . Nymphaea 51. Leaf blades with more veins from the midrib than from the base of midrib, veins little forked; petioles and peduncles with many small hollow areas; flowers yellow . Nuphar 4. Leaves cauline or essentially so 52. Leaves linear 53. Leaves stiff, not requiring water for support 54. Leaves with parallel veins 55. Leaves with basal sheaths closed, or if open then with a ligule at the juncture of sheath and blade 56. Leaf sheaths several times as wide as the stem, basal sheaths overlapping, cauline leaves 1-3, not overlapping; inflorescence a terminal few-flowered raceme; each fruit composed of 3 follicles . . Scheuchzeria 56. Leaf sheaths scarcely wider than the stem; inflorescence a group of spikelets; fruit an achene or caryopsis 57. Leaf sheaths open (except Glyceria ); stem internodes with hollow pith; leaves 2-ranked, with a ligule at the juncture of sheath and blade; fruit a caryopsis (grasses) 58. Inflorescence with spikelets closely aggregated to form a narrow spikelike panicle 59. Plants usually less than 70 cm tall; spikelets in a dense spikelike panicle; spikelets with sterile flowers or glumes attached above the fertile flower . Alopecurus 59. Plants usually more than 60 cm tall; spikelets in a loose spikelike pan¬ icle; spikelets with sterile flowers or glumes attached below the fertile flower . Phalaris 58. Inflorescence with spikelets widely spaced to form an open panicle 60. Plants without rhizome; staminate spikelets below and distinctly separated from the pistillate spikelets . Zizanea 60. Plants with rhizomes (except Puccinellia ); with no distinct separation of staminate and pistillate spikelets 61. Plants 2-4 m tall; spikelets with long silky hairs giving a silky appearance to the whole inflorescence . Phragmites 61. Plants less than 2 m tall; spikelets without conspicuous hairs 62. Each spikelet with several florets 63. Leaf sheaths closed; rhizomes present; second glume with one dis¬ tinct vein . Glyceria 63. Leaf sheaths open; rhizomes absent; second glume with 3 veins . . . Puccinellia 62. Each spikelet with a single floret; leaf sheaths open 64. Leaf margins with fine sharp teeth; panicle pale green to whitish; spikelets 4-5 mm long; glumes absent; lemma pilose, ciliate on the keel but without long basal hairs . Leersia 64. Leaf margins without sharp teeth; panicle often purplish; spikelets 3-3.5 mm long; glumes present; with copious long hairs around the base of the lemma . Calamagrostis 57. Leaf sheaths closed; stem internodes with solid or spongy pith (except Dulichium ); leaves 3-ranked, with no ligule; fruit an achene (sedges) 6 65. Spikelets with long, exserted, silky bristles subtending the achenes, giving the in¬ florescence a cottony appearance . . . . . . Eriophorum 65. Inflorescence without long exserted bristles 66. Inflorescence a terminal umbel of spikelets 67. Scales of spikelets 2-ranked . . . . . . Cyperus 67. Scales of spikelets spirally imbricated . . . . . Scirpus 66. Inflorescence not an umbel 68. Stem internodes hollow; spikelets axillary on the stem . Dulichium 68. Stem with solid or spongy pith 69. Florets unisexual; achenes enclosed in a sac (perigynium) . . Carex 69. Florets bisexual; achenes not in a sac 70. Achenes with a tubercle (persistent style base) at the apex; perianth bristles 8-14 . . . . . . Rhynchospora 70. Achenes without a tubercle; perianth bristles usually 1-6 . . . Scirpus 55. Leaves without basal sheath, or if sheath present then with sheath open and without a ligule 71. Leaves less than 3 mm wide; flowers bisexual, radially symmetrical; fruit a capsule, less than 10 mm long . . . . . . Juncus 71. Leaves more than 5 mm wide; fruit an achene or, if a capsule, then more than 30 mm long 72. Leaves with a keeled midrib; flowers in pistillate and staminate globose heads . . . . . . . . . . Sparganium 72. Leaves without prominent midrib; inflorescence a spike or a single flower 73. Leaf sheaths abruptly narrowed to blade; inflorescence a spike; flowers tiny; fruits an achene . . . . Typha 73. Leaf sheath tapered to blade; flowers large and showy; fruit a capsule . . Iris 54. Leaves with netted veins 74. Leaves whorled; stems 4-angled; flowers 3- or 4-merous; fruits spherical and paired .... Galium 74. Leaves not whorled; stems terete or 3-angled; flowers 5-merous; fruits not spherical or paired 75. Stems 3-angled; flowers borne singly, bell-shaped . . . .Campanula 75. Stems terete or nearly so; flowers in heads 76. Inflorescence flat-topped; flowers yellow . . . . Solidago 76. Inflorescence not flat-topped; flowers not yellow . . . . Aster 53. Plants limp and flaccid, requiring water for support 77. Leaves opposite or whorled 78. Leaves whorled; flowers and fruits (both rarely seen) on long filamentous stalks . . .Elodea 78. Leaves opposite; flowers and fruits sessile in the leaf axils 79. Lower submersed leaves linear, bidentate at apex, tapering to a sessile base; upper and floating leaves spatulate to ovate; fruits heart-shaped with 4 seeds . Callitriche 79. Leaves all linear and submersed, apex acute, base broad and semiclasping or with sheathing stipules; fruits with 1 seed 80. Leaves 15-40 mm long, 0.5-1 mm wide at base above the lobes, tapering gradually to the apex; fruits borne singly in the leaf axils, terete and tapering to both ends . Najas 80. Leaves 30-100 mm long, less than 0.5 mm wide, sides parallel; fruits with a long beak, often toothed on one side, 2-5 in an axil . . Zannichellia 77. Leaves alternate 81. Leaves to 150 cm long, with midvein not evident, longitudinal and cross veins numerous giving the leaf a checkered appearance with squares and short rectangles, stipules ab¬ sent; flowers unisexual in globose heads . . Sparganium 7 81. Leaves less than 30 cm long, stipules present (may disappear with age); flowers bisexual, borne singly or in cylindrical or globose spikes 82. Leaves several times as wide as thick, with no definite midvein, stipules adnate to the leaf base; flowers (rarely seen) borne singly, 3-merous, pale yellow . Heteranthera 82. Leaves with an evident midvein, except for those which are very narrow and scarcely wider than thick; stipules adnate or free; flowers borne in spikes, 4-merous, greenish or brownish . Potamogeton 52. Leaves broad 83. Leaves opposite or whorled 84. Plants stiff, not requiring water for support 85. Stems terete or nearly so 86. Leaf margins entire 87. Leaves sessile 88. Leaves with transparent dots 89. Flowers yellow, without glands between the groups of stamens . Hypericum 89. Flowers pinkish or greenish, with three orange glands alternating with the three groups of stamens . Triadenum 88. Leaves without transparent dots (opaque dots may be present) 90. Plants 10-30 cm tall; stems soft; flowers bilaterally symmetrical . Gratiola 90. Plants 40-120 cm tall; stems firm; flowers radially symmetrical 91. Larger leaves slightly cordate; inflorescence a spike; flowers reddish-purple, trimorphic . Lythrum 91. Leaves never cordate; inflorescence a raceme; flowers yellow, not trimor¬ phic . Lysimachia 87. Leaves petioled 92. Plants delicate, erect or decumbent; leaves less than 4 cm long; flowers tiny, sessile in the leaf axils . Ludwigia 92. Plants firm, erect; inflorescence large and showy 93. Plants with milky sap; inflorescence an umbel; flowers pink . Asclepias 93. Plants without milky sap; inflorescence a raceme; flowers yellow . .Lysimachia terrestris 86. Leaf margins serrate 94. Leaves connate or whorled . Eupatorium 94. Leaves opposite, not connate 95. Plants decumbent; leaves linear lanceolate; inflorescence a raceme; flowers vio¬ let; fruits a notched capsule . Veronica 95. Plants erect or essentially so; inflorescence not a raceme 96. Plants 10-30 cm tall; leaves obovate; flowers borne singly in the leaf axils, white tinged with purple; fruits a globose capsule . Gratiola 96. Inflorescence a spike or a head 97. Inflorescence a terminal spike; flowers white . Chelone 97. Inflorescence a head; flowers yellow . Bidens 85. Stems 4- or 6-angled 98. Leaf margins entire; leaves opposite or in threes (some near inflorescence may be alternate); stems corky; flowers purple . Decodon 98. Leaf margins with teeth; stems not corky 99. Leaves whorled, mostly in fours or sixes; flowers white . Galium 99. Leaves opposite 100. Flowers borne singly or in loose racemes in the leaf axil 101. Plants 10-30 cm tall; leaves 1-3 cm long; flowers pale lavender, 7-10 mm long . Lindernia 101. Plants 30-100 cm tall; leaves 3-10 cm long; flowers blue 102. Leaves sessile; flowers borne singly in the leaf axils on pedicels 2-4 cm long; fruits a capsule with many seeds . Mimulus 8 102. Leaves with petioles 1-20 mm long; flowers in racemes or singly on pedicels less than a cm long; fruits forming 4 nutlets in each flower . Scutellaria 100. Flowers borne in dense axillary clusters or terminal spikes 103. Plants fragrant; tubers absent; flowers bluish-pink; stamens 4 . Mentha 103. Plants not fragrant; tubers sometimes present; flowers white; stamens 2 . Lycopus 84. Plants flaccid, requiring water for support, or prostrate 104. Leaves simple 105. Leaves 4 mm or less wide, sessile, with 1 vein; flowers in the leaf axils . Elatine 105. Leaves, at least some of them 5 mm or more wide, petioled 106. Upper leaves broad, forming a small rosette at the water surface, lower ones linear . . . . . . .C allitriche 106. All leaves broad 107. Stems trailing; flowers in the leaf axils, 20-30 mm wide, yellow, 5-merous, on pedicels 10-25 mm long . . . . . .Lysimachia nummularia 107. Some stems upright from a horizontal rhizome; flowers small, 4-merous, ses¬ sile or nearly so 108. Flowers terminal on the branches . . Chrysosplenium 108. Flowers in the leaf axils . . . Ludwigia 104. Leaves dissected 109. Leaves with bladders; flowers showy, bilaterally symmetrical . Utricularia 109. Leaves without bladders; flowers radially symmetrical 110. Leaves pinnately divided . . . Myriophyllutyi 110. Leaves forked 111. Plants without roots; all leaves submersed, lobes usually toothed on one side (plants lacking teeth might be confused with Bidens ); flowers tiny, in the leaf axils . . . Ceratophyllmn 111. Plants rooted; with or without emersed leaves, lobes entire; flowers in a showy head with yellow rays . . . . . Bidens beckii 83. Leaves alternate 112. Leaves peltate, floating plants usually with gelatinous coating . Brasenia 112. Leaves not peltate 113. Floating leaves with inflated petioles; submersed leaves pinnately dissected . . Trapa 113. Leaves without inflated petioles 114. With a cluster of thick, tuberlike roots near the water surface at the juncture of the petiole and stem; leaves cordate . Nij7nphoides 114. With no thick roots near the water surface 115. Plants flaccid, requiring water for support, or creeping mats 116. Leaves compound with broad leaflets; flowers about 2 cm wide, 5-merous; petals red-purple . . . . . . Potentilla 116. Leaves simple or compound with narrow leaflets or dissections 117. Leaves with parallel veins, with a stipule in the axil of the stem and leaf; in¬ florescence a spike; flowers small, greenish, 4-merous . . Pota7nogeton 117. Leaves with netted veins 118. Leaves palmately veined 119. Petioles as long or longer than the blades; inflorescence a tiny axillary umbel . . . Hydrocotyle 119. Petioles much shorter than the blade; flowers solitary, on a long pedicel . . Ranunculus 118. Leaves pinnately veined 120. Leaf margins entire; with a tubular sheath (ocrea) at the base of each petiole; inflorescence a spike with rose-colored flowers . . . . Polyg07iu7n 120. Leaf margins shallowly to coarsely toothed; with no tubular sheath; in¬ florescence not a spike 121. Leaves less than 2 cm long, with a short petiole, shallowly toothed; flowers solitary, terminal, 4-merous . Chrysosplenium 9 121. Leaves more than 2 cm long, sessile, coarsely toothed; flowers axillary, solitary or in clus¬ ters, 3-merous . . .Proserpinaca 115. Plants stiff, not requiring water for support 122. Leaves compound 123. Leaves once compound; inflorescence 1- to several-flowered; 124. Leaflets 3, terminal one stalked; flowers yellow . Ranunculus septentrionalis 124. Leaflets 5 or more; flowers not yellow 125. Petiole with broad base that encircles the stem; flowers 5-merous, red-purple .... .Potentilla 125. Petiole without broad base; flowers 4-merous, white or pink . . .Cardamine 123. Leaves twice or thrice compound; inflorescence an umbel; flowers white 126. Stems angled; leaves pinnately compound, upper ones once, lower twice; leaflets ser¬ rate; fruits with 1 oil tube between each pair of ribs . Slum 126. Stems terete; leaves twice or thrice compound, often some of them appearing to be palmate; leaflets serrate or entire; fruits with 1-3 oil tubes between each pair of ribs . .Cicuta 122. Leaves simple, may be deeply lobed 127. With short cylindric stipules sheathing the stem at the nodes (ocreae), may be reduced to fibers in Rumex; flowers whitish, greenish, or rose 128. Flowers sessile, forming a spike . Polygonum 128. Flowers on pedicels in whorls . . . Rumex 127. Ocreae absent 129. Leaves cordate 130. Stems with one cauline leaf; leaves with parallel veins, margins smooth; inflores¬ cence a showy spike of blue flowers . .Ponte deria 130. Stems with more than one cauline leaf; leaves with netted veins; margins scalloped; flowers yellow or white 131. Leaves mostly more than 10 cm wide; flowers yellow . Caltha 131. Leaves mostly less than 5 cm wide; flowers white . . . Hydrocohjle 129. Leaves not cordate 132. Flowers in heads . Aster 132. Flowers not in heads 133. Leaf margins entire, may be lobed 134. Leaves sessile, not lobed; flowers blue with yellow spot in center; fruits 4-lobed, becoming 4 nutlets . Myosotis 134. Leaves petiolate, with or without lobes; flowers violet or purple; fruits a berry . Solanum 133. Leaf margins toothed 135. Leaves lobed; flowers yellow; fruits a silique . Rorippa 135. Leaves not lobed; flowers not yellow; fruits a follicle or capsule 136. Inflorescence a cyme, coiled when young, straightening as flowers open; flowers greenish; fruits a follicle . . . Penthorum 136. Inflorescence a raceme of showy blue or scarlet flowers; fruits a cap¬ sule . Lobelia 10 CHECKLIST ISOETACEAE ISOETES QUILLWORT echinospora subsp. braunii (I. muricata) Fig. 2. macrospora Fig. 1. 1. Megaspores spinulose, 0.3-0. 6 mm in diam . . . /. echinospora 1. Megaspores reticulate, 0.5-0. 8 mm in diam . . . I. macrospora EQUISETACEAE EQUISETUM HORSETAIL fluviatile Fig. 3. Lake outlet; Red Rock Bay; Harris Bay palustre Fig. 4. Harris Bay swamp 1. Central cavity of stem about 4/5 the diameter of the stem . . . . . . ... .E. fluviatile 1. Central cavity about 1/6 the diameter of the stem . . . .E. palustre OSMUNDACEAE OSMUNDA cinnamomea CINNAMON FERN Fig. 5. Big Burnt I.; Northwest Bay; Pilot Knob; Speaker Heck I.; Warner Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay regalis var. spectabilis ROYAL FERN Fig. 6. 1. Leaves once pinnate . . . . . . . . O. cinnamomea 1. Leaves twice pinnate . . . . ... .O. regalis POLYPODIACEAE ONOCLEA sensibilis SENSITIVE FERN Fig. 7. THELYPTERIS palustris var. pubescens (Dryopteris thelypteris) MARSH FERN Fig. 8. TYPHACEAE TYPHA CATTAIL angustifolia NARROW-LEAVED CATTAIL Fig. 10. Lake outlet; N end of lake; Black Pt; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay X glauca( = T. angustifolia X latifolia) Fig. 11. Lake outlet; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay latifolia BROAD-LEAVED CATTAIL Fig. 9. Lake outlet; Cooper Pt; Northwest Bay; Warner Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay 1. Stigmas lance-ovate; pistillate and staminate parts of spike usually contiguous; pollen grains in tetrads . . . . . T. latifolia 1. Stigmas linear to lance-linear; pistillate and staminate parts of spike usually separated; pollen grains single 2. Stigmas lance-linear; pistillate and staminate parts of spike contiguous or separated by an interval up to 4 cm (usually less than the diameter of the pistillate spike); leaves mostly 7-12 mm wide . . . . . T. X glauca 11 Fig. 1. Isoetes echinospora; Fig. 2. I. macrospora; Fig. 3. Equisetum fluviatile; Fig. 4. E. palustre; Fig. 5. Os- munda cinnamomea; Fig. 6. O. regalis; Fig. 7. Onoclea sensibilis; Fig. 8. Thelypteris palustris. 12 Fig. 9. Typha latifolia; Fig. 10. T. angustifolia; Fig. 11. T. X glauca; Fig. 12. Sparganium eurycarpum; Fig. 13. S. americanum; Fig. 14. S. chlorocarpum; Fig. 15. S. angustifolium; Fig. 16. S. fluctuans; Fig. 17. S. minimum. 13 2. Stigmas linear; pistillate and staminate parts of spike separated by an interval of 0.5-12 cm (usually about twice the diameter of the pistillate spike); leaves mostly 4-8 mm wide . T. angustifolia SPARGANIACEAE SPARGANIUM BUR REED amerieanum Fig. 13. N end of lake; Northwest Bay; Shelving Rock; Bolton Ldg; Dunham Bay angustifolium Fig. 15. Harris Bay. This species and/or S. fluctuans found sterile throughout and impossible to distinguish with certainty, chlorocarpum Fig. 14. Northwest Bay; Warner Bay; Dunham Bay eurycarpum Fig. 12. fluctuans Fig. 16. Northwest Bay; Warner Bay. See note under S. angustifolium. minimum Fig. 17. Dunham Bay 1. Stigmas 2; fruit 4-8 mm wide, usually with 2 seeds . S. eurycarpum 1. Stigma 1; fruit 1-3 mm wide, with 1 seed 2. Pistillate heads more than 12 mm in diameter; staminate heads 2 or more; beak of fruit about as long as ovary 3. Plants erect with upper leaves emersed 4. Pistillate heads axillary (from the axils of bracts); upper part of fruit usually dull . S. amerieanum 4. One or more of the pistillate heads supra-axillary (on the peduncle above the axil); upper part of fruit usually shiny . S. chlorocarpum 3. Plants flaccid with upper leaves floating and often very long 5. Inflorescence branched; pistillate heads axillary; mature fruit dark with firm pericarp; beak strongly curved; sepals attached near base or middle of fruit stalk; leaves 3-10 mm wide, usually flatfish on both sides . S. fluctuans 5. Inflorescence unbranched; one or more pistillate heads supra-axillary; mature fruit brownish or greenish with loose pericarp; beak straight or slightly curved; sepals at¬ tached near the summit of fruit stalk; leaves 2-5 mm wide, usually rounded on the back . S. angustifolium 2. Pistillate heads about 10 mm in diameter; staminate heads 1 (rarely 2); beak of fruit short . S. minimum POTAMOGETONACEAE POTAMOGETON PONDWEED alpinus var. tenuifolius Fig. 22. Northwest Bay stream; Shelving Rock; Warner Bay; Dunham Bay amplifolius Fig. 19. crispus Fig. 18. Hague; Gull Bay; Smith Bay; Lamb Shanty Bay; Tea I.; S end of lake epihydrus var. ramosus (P. e. var. nuttallii ) Fig. 31. foliosus Fig. 32. Lake outlet; Dunham Bay friesii Fig. 34. Shelving Rock; Warner Bay; Dunham Bay gramineus Fig. 21. illinoensis (P. angustifolius , P. lucens) Fig. 24. Lake outlet; N end of lake; bay N of Black Pt; Weeds Bay; Warner Bay natans Fig. 20. obtusifolius Fig. 36. Dunham Bay 14 pectinatus Fig. 28. Hearts Bay; Arcady Bay; Shelving Rock Bay; Dunham Bay perfoliatus var. bupleuroides Fig. 23. praelongus Fig. 26. pusillus var. tenuissimus (P. berchtoldii) Fig. 33. richardsonii Fig. 25. Weeds Bay; Warner Bay; Brayton robbinsii Fig. 27. spirillus (P. dimorphus) Fig. 30. vaseyi Fig. 29. Bolton Ldg; Warner Bay; Dunham Bay zosteriformis (P. compressus) Fig. 35. 1. Leaves all submersed, linear, auricled at base, margins finely denticulate; stipules adnate . P. robbinsii 1. Leaves various but if linear then not auricled 2. Stipules adnate to the base of the leaf for a distance of 10 mm or more; floating leaves ab¬ sent . P. pectinatus 2. Stipules free or adnate for a distance of less than 10 mm 3. Leaf margins serrate . P. crispus 3. Leaf margins entire 4. Stem strongly flattened; leaves linear, veins 15-35 . P. zosteriformis 4. Stem terete or slightly flattened; leaves various but if linear then with less than 15 veins 5. Submersed leaves linear, less than 10 mm wide, length more than 20 times the width 6. Submersed leaves ribbonlike, flaccid, 2-10 mm wide, with a prominent parallel¬ sided median band of lacunae filling the broad space between the inner veins; fruits 2.5-4 mm long, embryo coil more than a complete revolution . P. epihydrus 6. Submersed leaves 0.1-4 mm wide, lacunae not forming a prominent parallel-sided band; fruits 0.8-3 mm long, embryo coil less than one revolution, or if more than fruits less than 2.5 mm long 7. Floating leaf blades more than 20 mm wide, usually cordate; submersed leaves (usually absent at maturity) mostly from the main stem, firm, 0.8-2 mm wide; fruits 3.5-5 mm long, keels obscure, coat wrinkled . P. natans 7. Floating leaves less than 15 mm wide, not cordate, often absent; submersed leaves flaccid, usually from branches; fruits less than 4 mm long 8. Floating leaves absent; submersed leaves 0.5-4 mm wide; fruits with embryo coil less than one revolution 9. Stipules strongly fibrous, becoming whitish, especially on the winter buds . P. friesii 9. Stipules delicate, greenish or brownish 10. Leaves 2-4 mm wide, rounded at apex; fruits 3-4 mm long . P. obtusifolius 10. Leaves 0.5-3 mm wide, acute to obtuse (if rounded, then with a sharp mucro); fruits 1.8-2. 8 mm long 11. Fruits with dorsal keel thin, undulate or dentate; leaves acute, scarcely lacunate . P. foliosus 11. Fruits with dorsal keel rounded; leaves acute or obtuse, usually with one or more rows of lacunae each side of the midrib . P. pusillus 8. Floating leaves usually present; submersed leaves 0.1-2 mm wide 12. Submersed leaves 0. 1-0.5 mm wide, tapering to a sharp pointed apex, stipules not adnate; peduncles from axils of floating leaves only; fruits with dorsal keel rounded and with embryo coil less than one revolution . . . . . P. vaseyi 12. Submersed leaves 0.5-2 mm wide, obtuse to rounded at apex; stipules slightly adnate to leaf base; peduncles from axils of floating and of sub¬ mersed leaves; fruits with dorsal keel winged and with embryo coil more than one revolution . P. spirillus 5. Submersed leaves without parallel sides, 2-70 mm wide (sometimes narrowly linear in P. g ramineus), length less than 20 times the width 15 13. Submersed leaves petioled or sessile but not clasping; floating leaves often present 14. Submersed leaves sessile, apex obtuse; floating leaves delicate, blade tapering without sharp distinction into the petiole; fruit wall hard and smooth, tawny-olive . P. alpinus 14. Submersed leaves sessile or petioled, apex obtuse or acute; floating leaves coriaceous, blade distinct from petiole; fruit wall spongy, greenish, brownish, or reddish 15. Submersed leaves, usually arcuate, with 19-37 veins; floating leaf blades mostly with more than 30 veins; fruits mostly more than 3.5 mm long . P. amplifolius 15. Submersed leaves seldom arcuate, with 3-19 veins; floating leaf blades mostly with less than 30 veins; fruits mostly less than 3.5 mm long 16. Stem usually much branched; submersed leaves 2-15 mm wide, sessile, with 3-9 veins; floating leaf petioles mostly longer than the blades; fruiting spikes 10-25 mm long; fruits 1.7-2. 8 mm long . P. g rarnineus 16. Stem simple or once branched; submersed leaves 15-40 mm wide, sessile or petioled, with 9-17 veins; floating leaf petioles mostly shorter than the blades; fruiting spikes 25-60 mm long; fruits 2. 5-3. 5 mm long . P. illinoensis 13. Leaves all submersed, cordate or rounded at base and clasping the stem 17. Leaves ovate-oblong, mostly 10-20 cm long, apex boatshaped, splitting when flattened; stipules persistent; stem often whitish; fruits more than 4 mm long . P. praelongus 17. Leaves ovate or elongate ovate, 1-10 cm long, apex not boatshaped; stipules at maturity inconspicuous or disintegrated to fibers; stem greenish; fruits less than 3.5 mm long 18. Stipules coarse, disintegrating to persistent whitish fibers; peduncles clavate; fruits with a cavity in the endocarp loop . P. richardsonii 18. Stipules delicate, disappearing with age; peduncles not clavate; fruits without a cavity in the endocarp loop . P. perfoliatus ZANNICHELLIACEAE ZANNICHELLIA HORNED PONDWEED palustris Fig. 37. Lake outlet; Gull Bay NAJADACEAE NAJAS NAIAD flexilis Fig. 38. SCHEUCHZERIACEAE SCHEUCHZERIA palustris subsp. americana Fig. 39. East Lake George marsh JUNCAGINACEAE TRIGLOCHIN ARROW GRASS maritima var. elata Fig. 40. East Lake George marsh near Brayton ALISMATACEAE ALISMA WATER PLANTAIN plantago-aquatica subsp. subcordatum (A. p.-a. var. parviflorum) Fig. 41. Lake outlet; Little Harbor Island; Bolton Ldg; Dunham Bay marsh 16 Fig. 18. Potamogeton crispus; Fig. 19. P. amplifolius; Fig. 20. P. natans; Fig. 21. P. gramineus; Fig. 22. P. al- pinus; Fig. 23. P. perfoliatus; Fig. 24. P. illinoensis; Fig. 25. P. richardsonii; Fig. 26. P. praelongus. 17 Fig. 27. Potamogeton robbinsii; Fig. 28. P. pectinatus; Fig. 29. P. vaseyi; Fig. 30. P. spirillus; Fig. 31. P. epihy- drus; Fig. 32. P. foliosus; Fig. 33. P. pusillus; Fig. 34. P. friesii; Fig. 35. P. zosteriformis; Fig. 36. P. obtusifolius. 18 Fig. 37. Zannichellia palustris; Fig. 38. Najas flexilis; Fig. 39. Seheuchzeria palustris; Fig. 40. Triglochin maritima; Fig. 41. Alisma plantago-aquatica; Fig. 42. Sagittaria latifolia; Fig. 43. S. rigida; Fig. 44. S. graminea; Fig. 45. S. cuneata; Fig. 46. Elodea canadensis; Fig. 47. Vallisneria americana. 19 SAGITTARIA ARROWHEAD cuneata (S. arifolia) Fig. 45. graminea Fig. 44. Sterile emersed plants similar to S. rigida. latifolia Fig. 42. rigida Fig. 43. See note under S. graminea. 1. Most leaves sagittate 2. Pistillate flowers on definite pedicels 3. Leaves stiff and erect; beak of achene horizontal . S. latifolia 3. Leaves usually flaccid, often of two kinds (submersed ribbonlike, floating sagittate) beak of achene nearly erect . S. cuneata 2. Pistillate flowers sessile or nearly so . S. rigida 1. Most leaves not sagittate 4. Pistillate flowers sessile or nearly so; peduncles strongly bent above the lowest flowers; achenes 3-4 mm long . S. rigida 4. Pistillate flowers on definite pedicles; peduncles straight or nearly so; achenes about 1 mm long . S. graminea HYDROCHARITACEAE ELODEA ELODEA, WATERWEED canadensis (Anacharis c., Philotria c.) Fig. 46. VALLISNERIA DUCK CELERY, FRESH WATER EEL GRASS americana (V. spiralis) Fig. 47. GRAMINEAE ALOPECURUS FOXTAIL aequalis (A. aristidatus) Fig. 48. Warner Ray; Dunham Ray; Bloody Pond CALAMAGROSTIS canadensis BLUEPOINT GRASS Fig. 49. Warner Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay GLYCERIA MANNA GRASS borealis (Panicularia b.) Fig. 50. canadensis (Panicularia c.) Fig. 53. Bloody Pond maxima subsp. grandis (Panicularia g.) Fig. 51. Lake outlet; Sabbath Day Pt; Lake George village striata (G. nervata, Panicidaria s., P. n.) Fig. 52. Lake outlet; Harris Bay; Bloody Pond 1. Spikelets 10 mm or more long, cylindrical; panicle narrow and erect . G. borealis 1. Spikelets 7 mm or less long, flattened, panicle spreading and nodding 2. Spikelets 3-4 mm wide; veins of lemma inconspicuous . G. canadensis 2. Spikelets less than 3 mm wide; veins of lemma conspicuous 3. Leaves 6-12 mm wide; spikelets 4-7 mm long; first glume 1-2 mm long; second glume 1.5-2. 5 mm long . G. maxima 3. Leaves 2-5 (—8) mm wide; spikelets 3-4 mm long; first glume 0.6-1 mm long; second glume 0. 8-1.3 mm long . G. striata LEERSIA oryzoides (H omalocenchrus o.) CUT GRASS Fig. 55. Lake outlet; Black Pt Bay; Dunham Bay PHALARIS arundinacea REED CANARY GRASS Fig. 56. Bolton Ldg; Diamond Pt; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay PHRAGMITES australis (P. communis, P. maximus, P. phragmites) GIANT REED GRASS Fig. 57. East Lake George marsh; Dunham Bay 20 Fig. 48. Alopecurus aequalis; Fig. 49. Calamagrostis canadensis; Fig. 50. Glyceria borealis; Fig. 51. G. maxima; Fig. 52. G. striata; Fig. 53. G. canadensis; Fig. 54. Puccinellia pallida; Fig. 55. Leersia oryzoides; Fig. 56. Phalaris arundinacea; Fig. 57. Phragmites australis; Fig. 58. Zizania aquatica; Fig. 59. Z. palustris. PUCCINELLIA pallida (Glyceria p., Panicularia p.) Fig. 54. Bolton Ldg; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay ZIZANIA WILD RICE aquatica (Z. palustris) Fig. 58. Harris Bay; Dunham Bay palustris (Z. aquatica, Z. a. var. angustifolia) Fig. 59. Harris Bay; Dunham Bay 1. Pistillate lemmas thin, delicately ribbed, with scattered strigose hairs on the surface or gla¬ brous . Z. aquatica 1. Pistillate lemmas coarsely corrugated; with hairs only between the ribs . Z. palustris CYPERACEAE CAREX SEDGE alata Fig. 64. East Lake George marsh; Dunham Bay bebbii Fig. 65. Pilot Knob; Harris Bay swamp; Dunham Bay canescens Fig. 75. Northwest Bay; Warner Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay chordorrhiza Fig. 74. East Lake George marsh comosa Fig. 78. crinata Fig. 85. Smith Bay; Northwest Bay; Harris Bay swamp cristatella Fig. 66. Lake outlet; N of Bolton; Pilot Knob; Warner Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay diandra Fig. 72. Warner Bay; Brayton; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay exilis Fig. 60. East Lake George marsh; Harris Bay bog mat flava Fig. 92. Brayton gynandra (C. crinata var. g.) Fig. 84. Hague; Tongue Mt; Pilot Knob; Brayton; Harris Bay howei Fig. 61. Brayton hysterieina Fig. 81. interior Fig. 62. Harris Bay swamp; marsh S of Lake George village intumescens Dunham Bay intumescens var. fernaldii Fig. 90. Boon Bay; Basin Bay; Brayton; Harris Bay Iacustris Fig. 86. Northwest Bay; Dunham Bay lanuginosa Fig. 88. Dunham Bay lasiocarpa subsp. americana Fig. 89. Lake outlet; Dunham Bay leptalea Fig. 77. Pilot Knob limosa Fig. 83. Brayton; Dunham Bay lupulina Fig. 91. Cotton Pt; Pilot Knob; Dunham Bay lurida Fig. 80. Lake outlet; Dunham Bay magellaniea subsp. irrigua (C. paupercula) Fig. 82. swamp east of Harris Bay marsh muricata var. angustata (C. angustior) Diamond Point; Harris Bay muricata var. cephalantha Fig. 63. normalis Fig. 67. Harris Bay; Lake George village prairea Fig. 73. Abandoned road east of Harris Bay marsh projecta Fig. 68. Pilot Knob pseudocyperus Fig. 79. Northwest Bay; Dunham Bay rostrata Fig. 93. Cotton Pt; Northwest Bay; Dunham Bay scabrata Fig. 94. Hague stipata Fig. 70. stricta (C. strictior) Fig. 87. Typical form throughout. A form with drooping pistillate spikes found on Harris Bay bog mat. This may be C. stricta forma xerocarpa. tenuiflora Fig. 76. East Lake George marsh tribuloides Fig. 69. Pilot Knob trisperma Fig. 76A. Hague; Huddle Bay; Harris Bay bog mat trisperma var. billingsii Harris Bay bog mat vulpinoidea Fig. 71. Pilot Knob 22 1. Staminate and pistillate flowers in the same spike; spikes more or less uniform in shape 2. Stigmas three; staminate scales connate at base much like a miniature aroid spathe; spike solitary, terminal . . . . . C. leptalea 2. Stigmas two 3. Culms arising from axils of preceding year’s leaves on prostrate culms lying in Sphagnum moss . . . . . . . C. chordorrhiza 3. Culms arising from roots or rootstocks 4. Spikelets one . C. exilis 4. Spikelets two or more 5. Perigynia with thin winged margins, sometimes narrow but at least present on the lower part of the beak and the upper part of the body of the perigynia. (Species keying to this point belong to an extremely difficult taxonomic complex — the Ovales. Precise measurements are necessary since forms of one species often simu¬ late another species to an exasperating degree. Other books should be consulted for more than field identification.) 6. Perigynia more than 2.5 mm wide . . C. (data 6. Perigynia less than 2 mm wide 7. Perigynia with wing more prominent on upper half, narrowed or absent on lower half 8. Spikelets crowded, overlapping in a dense, compact inflorescence 9. Inflorescense 2.5-5 cm long; spikelets tapered at base; perigynia appressed- ascending . C. tribuloides 9. Inflorescence 1.5-3 cm long; spikelets rounded at base; perigynia appressed or spreading 10. Perigynia appressed, usually winged to the base though wing narrowed below; pistillate scales acute and sharp. (Hybrids between this species and the next have been postulated) . C. bebbii 10. Perigynia spreading or recurved, wing usually absent toward the base; pistillate scales acute with a blunt or notched tip . C. cristatella 8. Spikelets remote, separated in a long, flexuous inflorescence . C. projecta 7. Perigynia winged from base to beak without conspicuous narrowing on lower half 11. Inflorescence greenish; perigynia distinctly nerved on inner face . C. normalis 11. Inflorescence brownish; perigynia nerveless or at most slightly nerved at base of inner face . . . C. bebbii 5. Perigynia without winged margins (at most with a thin rib) 12. Inflorescence simple (any branch with only one spikelet); spikelets 10 or less 13. Achene nearly filling body of perigynium; perigynia elliptic, with rounded mar¬ gins, surface greenish-white dotted under magnification, beak short 14. Lowest spikelet subtended by a bract several times as long as the spikelet, spikelets 1-5 flowered, widely separated in a flexuous, filiform inflorescence . . . C. trisperma 14. Lowest spikelet subtended by a bract usually less than twice as long as the spikelet, spikelets 3-30 flowered in a straightish, firm inflorescence 15. Inflorescence elongate; each spikelet with 10-30 perigynia . . . C. canescens 15. Inflorescence subglobose with 2-4 closely spaced silvery spikelets; each spikelet with 3-10 perigynia . C. tenuiflora 13. Achene filling only upper portion of perigynium (spongy below the achene); perigynia broadest toward the base, margins ribbed or sharp, surface not greenish-white dotted under magnification, beak prominent. (Species keying to this point belong to another difficult group — the Stellulatae. Confident identification may require additional reference books or minute comparisons with correctly identified specimens.) 16. Pistillate scales bluntish, shorter than body of perigynium (excluding beak); beak about Va total length of perigynium 23 17. Leaves lax, delicate, less than 1 mm wide; perigynia with veins on inner surface . C. howei 17. Leaves stiff, ascending, 1.2-2 mm wide; perigynia without veins on inner surface . . . .C. interior 16. Pistillate scales acutish, as long or nearly as long as body of perigynium (excluding beak); beak about Vz total length of perigynium . C. muricata 12. Inflorescence compound (branches, at least the lowest, with two or more spikelets); spikelets numerous 18. Perigynia 4 mm or more long; culms spongy, leaf sheaths strongly cross puckered . C. stipata 18. Perigynia 3 mm or less long; culms not spongy 19. Perigynia flat . C. vulpinoidea 19. Perigynia plump 20. Sheaths copper-colored; inflorescence loose; perigynia appressed and concealed by their scales; perigynia flattish on ventral face . C. prairea 20. Sheaths pale, not copper-colored; inflorescence compact; perigynia spreading, not concealed by their scales; perigynia convex on ventral face . C. diandra 1. Staminate and pistillate flowers in different spikes or the staminate flowers in a strongly con¬ stricted terminal portion of a spike 21. Perigynia with beak 2-toothed, each tooth longer than wide 22. Perigynia 15 or less per spike; pistillate spikes globose or nearly so . C. intumescens 22. Perigynia 15 or more per spike; pistillate spikes cylindric or short oblong 23. Perigynia densely pubescent 24. Leaves flat, 1.5-5 mm wide; stems sharply 3-angled . C. lanuginosa 24. Leaves rolled, 2 mm or less wide; stems with 3 rounded angles . C. lasiocarpa 23. Perigynia glabrous 25. Perigynia nearly all pointing downward 26. Pistillate spikes upright, sessile or with short peduncles . C. flava 26. Pistillate spikes drooping on long slender peduncles 27. Teeth of mature perigynium 1.5-2 mm long, widely spreading . C. comosa 27. Teeth of mature perigynium 0.5-1 mm Jong, parallel or slightly spreading . C. pseudocyperus 25. Perigynia nearly all pointing upward (except sometimes the lowest) 28. Pistillate scales terminated with an awn 29. Staminate spikes 2 or more . C. lacustris 29. Staminate spikes solitary 30. Perigynia with 8-10 veins . C. lurida 30. Perigynia with 15-20 veins . C. hystericina 28. Pistillate scales without an awn 31. Perigynia 4-8 mm long; staminate spikes 2 or more . C. rostrata 31. Perigynia 12-15 mm long; staminate spike solitary . C. lupulina 21. Perigynia with beak not 2-toothed, at most slightly notched at tip 32. Pistillate spikes drooping 33. Pistillate scales terminated with a long serrulate awn 34. Leaf sheaths smooth; pistillate scales notched at base of awn . . . C. crinata 34. Leaf sheaths scabrous; pistillate scales tapered to base of awn . C. gynandra 33. Pistillate scales without an awn 35. Roots glabrous; lower sheaths with threadlike brown fibers opposite the leaf blade . . . C. strict a 35. Roots pubescent 36. Pistillate scales nearly as broad as the perigynium . . . C. limosa 36. Pistillate scales conspicuously narrower than the perigynium . . . .C. magellanica 32. Pistillate spikes erect 37. Perigynia scabrous, beak prominent, obscurely toothed; plants forming extensive beds in wet woods . . . . .C. scabrata 37. Perigynia granular-papillate or smooth, beak minute, not toothed; plants often forming large dense hummocks . . . . . . .C. stricta 24 Fig. 60. Carex exilis; Fig. 61. C. howei; Fig. 62. C. interior; Fig. 63. C. muricata; Fig. 64. C. alata; Fig. 65. C. bebbii; Fig. 66. C. cristatella; Fig. 67. C. normalis; Fig. 68. C. projecta; Fig. 69. C. tribuloides. 25 73 Fig. 70. Carex stipata; Fig. 71. C. vulpinoidea; Fig. 72. C. diandra; Fig. 73. C. prairea; Fig. 74. C. chordorrhiza; Fig. 75. C. canescens; Fig. 76. C. tenuiflora; Fig. 76A. C. trisperma; Fig. 77. C. leptalea. 26 Fig. 78. Carex comosa; Fig. 79. C. pseudocyperus; Fig. 80. C. lurida; Fig. 81. C. hystericina; Fig. 82. C. magel- lanica; Fig. 83. C. limosa; Fig. 84. C. gynandra; Fig. 85. C. crinata. 27 Fig. 86. Carex lacustris; Fig. 87. C. stricta; Fig. 88. C. lanuginosa; Fig. 89. C. lasiocarpa; Fig. 90. C. intumescens; Fig. 91. C. lupulina; Fig. 92. C. flava; Fig. 93. C. rostrata; Fig. 94. C. scabrata. 28 97 Fig. 95. Cyperus strigosus; Fig. 96. C. rivularis; Fig. 97. Eriophorum gracile; Fig. 98. E. vaginatum; Fig. 99. E. virginicum; Fig. 100. Dulichium arundinaceum; Fig. 101. Eleocharis acicularis; Fig. 102. E. smallii; Fig. 103. Rhynehospora alba. 29 Fig. 104. Scirpus subterminalis; Fig. 105. S. pungens; Fig. 106. S. atrovirens; Fig. 107. S. rubrotinctus; Fig. 108. S. acutus; Fig. 109. S. validus; Fig. 110. S. pedicellatus; Fig. 111. S. eyperinus; Fig. 112. S. pendulus. 30 CYPERUS GALINGALE aristatus (C. inflexus) Hague; Caldwell diandrus Harris Bay rivularis Fig. 96. Harris Bay; Caldwell strigosus Fig. 95. Bolton Ldg 1. Spikelets pinnately placed . . . . . C. strigosus 1. Spikelets radiating 2. Scales with 7-13 veins . . . . . C. aristatus 2. Scales with 3-5 veins 3. Pigmentation mostly at summit of scale . . . C. diandrus 3. Pigmentation mostly at base of scale . . . C. rivularis DULICHIUM arundinaceum THREE-WAY SEDGE Fig. 100. Northwest Bay; East Lake George marsh; Warner Bay; Dunham Bay ELEOCHARIS SPIKE RUSH acicularis Fig. 101. erythropoda (E. calva) smallii (E. palustris) Fig. 102. 1. Styles 3-cleft; achene 3-angled . . . . . E. acicularis 1. Styles 2-cleft; achene 2-angled 2. Spikelets with blunt scales, with one empty basal scale . .E. erythropoda 2. Spikelets with sharp pointed scales, with 2 or 3 empty basal scales . . E. smallii ERIOPHORUM COTTON GRASS alpinum (Scirpus hudsonianus) East Lake George marsh at Brayton gracile Fig. 97. Harris Bay vaginatum ssp. spissum (E. callitrix) Fig. 98. East Lake George marsh; Harris Bay bog mat virgmieum Fig. 99. South of Brayton; Harris Bay bog mat 1. Spikelets grouped into a single cluster 2. Stem about 0.5 mm in diameter; foliaceous bract 1, ovate; each floret with 6 bristles . . . . . . E. alpinum 2. Stem about 1 mm in diameter; foliaceous bract absent; each floret with many bristles . .£. vaginatum 1. Spikelets grouped into 2 or more clusters 3. Leaves 1-2 mm wide, channeled; cluster of spikelets in a loose umbel; foliaceous bract 1, shorter than the umbel . . . . . E. gracile 3. Leaves 2-4 mm wide, flat; cluster of spikelets in a compact umbel; foliaceous bracts 2 or 3; exceeding the umbel . . . . . . E. virginicum RHYNCHOSPORA BEAK RUSH alba Fig. 103. Bolton Ldg; East Lake George SCIRPUS BULRUSH, WOOLGRASS acutus HARDSTEM BULRUSH Fig. 108. N end of Lake; Prison I.; Harris Bay atrocinctus Cotton Pt; Brayton atrovirens Fig. 106. Lake outlet; Pilot Knob; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay cyperinus var. pelius Fig. 111. Lake outlet; Black Pt; Northwest Bay; Bolton Ldg; Harris Bay pedicellatus Fig. 110. Cotton Pt. Brayton pendulus (S. lineatus) Fig. 112. Brayton; Harris Bay pungens (S. americanus) THREE-SQUARE Fig. 105. Hearts Bay; Harris Bay rubrotinctus (S. microcarpus) Fig. 107. Pilot Knob; Million Dollar Beach marsh subterminalis Fig. 104. Northwest Bay; Dunham Bay validus SOFTSTEM BULRUSH Fig. 109. Lake outlet; Dunham Bay; pond at S end of Lake 1. Involucral leaves one 2. Spikelets solitary on each stem; stems weak; often with tufts of hairlike leaves . S. subterminalis 2. Spikelets several; stems rigid 3. Stems terete 31 4. Stems firm; scales of spikelet longer than aehene; achenes 2.5-3 mm long . S. acutus 4. Stems soft; scales about as long as aehene; achenes about 2 mm long . S. validus 3. Stems triangular . S. pugens 1. Involucral leaves 2 or more 5. Stems solitary from a thick rootstock 6. Basal sheaths green; inflorescence once or twice branched; scales of spikelet mucronate; bristles barbed, about as long as aehene or absent; achenes 3-angled . S. atrovirens 6. Basal sheaths reddish; inflorescence repeatedly branched; scales acute or obtuse or mu- cronulate; bristles longer than aehene, achenes 2-angled . . . S. rubrotinctus 5. Stems in clumps; bristles without barbs 7. Mature bristles little longer than the scales . S. pendulus 7. Mature bristles much longer than the scales giving the inflorescence a wooly appearance 8. Spikelets mostly sessile in glomerules of 3-15 . S. cyperinus 8. Lateral spikelets mostly stalked 9. Involucels (bracts subtending each spikelet) blackish . S. atrocinctus 9. Involucels red-brown or yellow-brown . S. pedicellatus ARACEAE CALLA palustris WATER ARUM, WILD CALLA Fig. 113. PELTANDRA virginica ARROW ARUM Fig. 114. SYMPLOCARPUS foetidus (Spathijema f.) SKUNK CABBAGE Fig. 115. Red Rock Bay; Brayton marsh; Dunham Bay LEMNACEAE LEMMA DUCKWEED minor Fig. 119. trisulca Fig. 121. Lake outlet; Red Rock Bay; Bolton Ldg; Pilot Knob; Warner Bay; Dunham Bay 1. Fronds 2-4 mm long, not stalked, free and floating on the surface . L. minor 1. Fronds 6-12 mm long, stalked, mostly attached to the parent plant and sinking below the water surface . L. trisulca SPIRODELA polyrhiza LARGE DUCKWEED Fig. 120. ERIOCAULACEAE ERIOCAULON septangulare PIPEWORT Fig. 118. PONTE DERIACEAE HETERANTHERA dubia (Zoster ell a d.) WATER STAR GRASS Fig. 117. PONTEDERIA cordata PICKERELWEED Fig. 116. P. c. forma taenia seen at Northwest Bay and Harris Bay 32 Fig. 113. Calla palustris; Fig. 114. Peltandra virginiea; Fig. 115. Symplocarpus foetidus; Fig. 116. Pontederia cor- data; Fig. 117. Heteranthera dubia; Fig. 118. Eriocaulon septangulare; Fig. 119. Lenina minor; Fig. 120. Spirodela polyrhiza; Fig. 121. Lemna trisulca. 33 Fig. 122. Juncus effusus; Fig. 123. J. canadensis; Fig. 124. J. brevicaudatus; Fig. 125. J. acuminatus; Fig. 126. J. marginatus; Fig. 127. J. articulatus; Fig. 128. J. pelocarpus; Fig. 129. J. nodosus; Fig. 130. Iris versicolor. 34 JUNCACEAE JUNCUS RUSH acuminatus (J. paradoxus ) Fig. 125. Bolton Ldg; S end of Lake articulatus Fig. 127. Caldwell brevicaudatus Fig. 124. Sabbath Day Pt; Harris Bay; Lake George village canadensis Fig. 123. Harris Bay; Dunham Bay effusus var. solutus Fig. 122. maginatus Fig. 126. Northwest Bay; Bolton; Brayton nodosus Fig. 129. Bolton Ldg pelocarpus Fig. 128. 1. Inflorescence appearing lateral . .] . effusus 1. Inflorescence terminal 2. Leaves nodose, having firm cross partitions at regular intervals 3. Stamens 3 4. Seeds with tails (whitish tubular extensions of the seed coat) 5. Seeds, including tails, 1-1.8 mm long; tails % as long as the body of the seed; flowers 5-50 in each cluster; inflorescence (when well developed) quite broad; flower clus¬ ters usually subglobose . .J. canadensis 5. Seeds, including tails, about 1 mm long; tails about one half the body of the seed; flowers 3-7 in each cluster; inflorescence narrow and elongate; flower clusters hemispherical . ./. brevicaudatus 4. Seeds without tails . J. acuminatus 3. Stamens 6 6. Flowers borne singly or in pairs or partly replaced by bulblets . .J. pelocarpus 6. Flowers more than 3 in a cluster 7. Clusters spherical, with 10-25 flowers . .J. nodosus 7. Clusters hemispherical, with 3-11 flowers . .J. articulatus 2. Leaves not nodose 8. Flowers borne singly or in pairs or partly replaced by bulblets . .J. pelocarpus 8. Flowers in clusters . J. marginatus IRIDACEAE IRIS IRIS pseudacorus YELLOW FLAG Turtle I.; Warner Bay; Dunham Bay versicolor BLUE FLAG Fig. 130. 1. Flowers blue . 1. versicolor 1. Flowers yellow . I. pseudacorus POLYGONACEAE POLYGONUM SMARTWEED amphibium var. emersum (P. coccinium, P. inundatum) Fig. 132. Black Pt; Dunham Bay; S end of Lake amphibium var. stipulaceum (P. natans , P. fluitans, P. hartwrightii) Hague; Big Burnt I. hydropiper WATER PEPPER Fig. 134. Pilot Knob pensylvanicum var. laevigatum Pilot Knob; Warner Bay punctatum var. confertiflorum Fig. 133. Brayton; Dunham Bay; Million Dollar Beach 1. Plants annual, from a taproot 2. Flowers with yellow to brownish punctations (glands) 3. Achene surface dull: flowers with a pinkish tinge . P. lujdropiper 35 3. Athene surface shiny; flowers without pink tinge . P. punctatum 2. Flowers not punctate . P. pensylvanicum 1. Plants perennial with rhizomes or stolons 4. Flowers greenish to cream with glandular dots . P. punctatum 4. Flowers pink to carmine, without glands 5. Inflorescence 3 cm or less in length . P. amphibium var. stipulaceum 5. Inflorescence 3 cm or more in length . P. amphibium var. emersum RUMEX orbiculatus (R. britannica) WATER DOCK Fig. 131. Northwest Bay; Pilot Knob; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay; swamp at Brayton verticillatus SWAMP DOCK Black Pt; Sabbath Day Pt; south of abandoned road from Clever- dale to Brayton 1. Leaves often slightly reddish, margins crinkled or denticulate; peduncles about as long as ma¬ ture sepals, with no obvious joint; mature sepals nearly orbicular, 5-8 mm long; achenes about V2 as long as sepals . R. orbiculatus 1. Leaves not reddish, margins not crinkled nor denticulate; peduncles 3 to 4 times as long as mature sepals, with a swollen joint less than a mm from the base; mature sepals 3.5-5 mm long; triangular-ovate; achenes about % as long as sepals . R. verticillatus NYMPHAEACEAE BRASENIA schreberi WATER-SHIELD Fig. 137. Lake outlet; Northwest Bay; Warner Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay NUPHAR YELLOW WATER LILY luteum subsp. macrophyllum (N. advena, Nymphozanthus a.) Dunham Bay luteum subsp. pumilum (N. microphyllum, Ny. m.) Echo Bay by Rogers Rock; Shelving Rock; Bolton Ldg; Cooper Pt; Dunham Bay luteum subsp. variegatum (Ny. v.) Fig. 135. NYMPHAEA WHITE WATER LILY odorata (Castalia o.) Fig. 136. CERATOPHYLLACEAE CERATOPHYLLUM demersum COONTAIL Fig. 139. echinatum Fig. 140. Deep water of Warner Bay 1. Leaf lobes mostly toothed on only one side; fruits with no lateral spines, only 2 basal spines . C. demersum 1. Leaf lobes entire or nearly so; fruits with many lateral spines . C. echinatum RANUNCULACEAE CALTHA palustris MARSH MARIGOLD Fig. 138. Pilot Knob; Dunham Bay RANUNCULUS BUTTERCUP flabellaris Fig. 142. Swamp near Brayton; Harris Bay swamp; Dunham Bay longirostris (R. circinatus) Fig. 143. reptans (R. flammula) Fig. 145. septentrionalis Fig. 144. Marsh along shore, Pilot Knob 1. Leaves linear or linear-lanceolate, not lobed; flowers yellow . R. reptans 36 Fig. 131. Rumex orbiculatus; Fig. 132. Polygonum amphibium; Fig. 133. P. punctatum; Fig. 134. P. hydropiper; Fig. 135. Nuphar lutem; Fig. 136. Nymphaea odorata; Fig. 137. Brasenia schreberi. 37 Fig. 138. Caltha palustris; Fig. 139. Ceratophyllum demersum; Fig. 140. C. echinatum; Fig. 141. Rorippa palus- tris; Fig. 142. Ranunculus flabellaris; Fig. 143. R. longirostris; Fig. 144. R. septentrionalis; Fig. 145. R. replans; Fig. 146. Sublaria aquatica; Fig. 147. Sarracenia purpurea; Fig. 148. Drosera rotundifolia. 38 1. Leaves broad, lobed or finely dissected 2, Stems flaccid and requiring water for support; submersed leaves dissected 2 or 3 times into slender segments 3. Flowers yellow; emersed leaves sometimes present . .R. flabellaris 3. Flowers white; emersed leaves absent . . . . . .R. longirostris 2. Stems stiff and erect; leaves lobed but all lobes broad . . . . R. septentrionalis CRUCIFERAE CARDAMINE BITTER CRESS pensylvanica Log Bay I. pratensis CUCKOO FLOWER Bolton Ldg pratensis subsp. palustris Pilot Knob; Cotton Pt; Harris Bay 1. Cauline leaves with terminal leaflet usually wider than the other leaflets; petals white, 1.5-4 mm long . . C. pensylvanica 1. Cauline leaves with terminal leaflet usually as wide or narrower than the other leaflets; petals; petals white or pink, 10-15 mm long . . . . C. pratensis RORIPPA palustris (R. islandica, Radicula p.) YELLOW CRESS Fig. 141. Swamp near Bray ton SUBULARIA aquatica subsp. americana AWLWORT Fig. 146. SARRACENIACEAE SARRACENIA purpurea PITCHER PLANT Fig. 147. Silver Bay; bog mat southwest of Brayton; Harris Bay bog mat DROSERACEAE DROSERA SUNDEW rotundifolia Fig. 148. SAXIFRAGACEAE CHRYSOSPLENIUM amerieanum GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE Fig. 150. Swamp near Brayton; Dunham Bay; Shelving Rock PENTHORUM sedoides DITCH STONECROP Fig. 149. Bolton Ldg; Pilot Knob; Dunham Bay ROSACEAE POTENTILLA palustris MARSH CINQUEFOIL Fig. 151. CALLITRICHACEAE CALLITRICHE WATER STARWORT vema (C. palustris) Fig. 152. Lake outlet; Paradise Bay; Northwest Bay; Dunham Bay 39 Fig. 149. Penthorum sedoides; Fig. 150. Chrysosplenium americanum; Fig. 151. Potentilla palustris; F ig litriche verna; Fig. 153. Hypericum boreale; Fig. 154. H. punctatum; Fig. 155. Triadenum frasen. 40 Fig. 156. Lythrum salicaria; Fig. 157. Decodon verticillatus; Fig. 158. Elatine minima; Fig. 159. Ludwigia palus- tris; Fig. 160. Myriophyllum tenellnm; Fig. 161. M. alterniflorum; Fig. 162. Trapa natans; Fig. 163. Myriophyllum spicatum; Fig. 164. M. verticillatum; Fig. 165. Proserpinaca palustris. 41 HYPERICACEAE HYPERICUM ST. JOHN’S-WORT boreale Fig. 153. Northwest Bay; Kattskill Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay ellipticum Harris Bay mutilum Hermit I.; Speaker Heck I.; Dunham Bay punctatum Fig. 154. Pilot Knob; Brayton; Dunham Bay 1. Stems and often the flowers with black dots; fruit 3-celled . H. punctatum 1. Stems and flowers without black dots; fruit 1-celled 2. Leaves with veins originating at intervals along the midrib; stamens many . H. ellipticum 2. Leaves with veins originating at the base of the blade; stamens 12 or less 3. Bracts of inflorescence resembling stem leaves . H. boreale 3. Bracts of inflorescence much smaller than stem leaves . H. mutilum TRIADENUM MARSH ST. JOHN’S-WORT fraseri ( Hypericum virginicum var. /. ) Fig. 155. virginicum (Hypericum v.) Dunham Bay 1. Sepals ovate-lanceolate, acute, 5-7 mm long; style 2-3 mm long . T. fraseri 1. Sepals oblong or elliptic, obtuse, 2.5-5 mm long; style 0.5-1. 3 mm long . T. virginicum ELATINACEAE E LATIN E minima WATERWORT Fig. 158. LYTHRACEAE DECODON verticillatus var. laevigatus WATER WILLOW Fig. 157. LYTHRUM salicaria PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE Fig. 156. Warner Bay; Harris Bay ONAGRACEAE LUDWIGIA palustris var. americana WATER PURSLANE Fig. 159. Northwest Bay; Pilot Knob HYDROCARYACEAE TRAPA natans WATER CHESTNUT Fig. 162. Dunham Bay (a few specimens seen and destroyed by State personnel; none found during past few years) HALORAGACEAE MYRIOPHYLLUM WATER MILFOIL alterniflorum Fig. 161. spicatum subsp. exalbescens Fig. 163. Lake outlet; Warner Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay tenellum Fig. 160. verticillatum Fig. 164. Lake outlet; Dunham Bay 42 1. Leaves not dissected, scales minute or absent . M. tenellum 1. Leaves pinnately dissected 2. Submersed leaves 3-10(-12) mm long; flowers alternate . M. alterniflorurn 2. Submersed leaves 10-50 mm long; flowers whorled 3. Bracts shorter than the flowers and fruits; not lobed; stems often whitish on drying . M. spicatum 3. Bracts mostly longer than the flowers, deeply lobed; stems remaining greenish or brown¬ ish . . . . . M. verticillatum PROSERPINACA palustris var. creba MERMAID WEED Fig. 165. Brayton UMBELLIFERAE CICUTA WATER HEMLOCK bulbifera Fig. 166. maculata Fig. 167; Turtle I.; Big Burnt I.; Log Bay I.; Pilot Knob; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay 1. Leaflets linear, 1-5 mm wide; leaves usually with bulblets in the axils . C. bulbifera 1. Leaflets lanceolate to ovate-oblong, 5-20 mm wide; leaves without bulblets . C. maculata HYDROCOTYLE americana WATER PENNYWORT Fig. 169. Northwest Bay; Shelving Rock; Pilot Knob; Dunham Bay SIUM suave WATER PARSNIP Fig. 168. Lake outlet; N end of Lake; Red Rock Bay; Northwest Bay; Uncas I.; Warner Bay; Harris Bay PRIMULACEAE LYSIMACHIA nummularia MONEYWORT Fig. 170. Smith Bay; Paradise Bay; Big Burnt I. terrestris SWAMP CANDLE Fig. 172. Little Harbor I.; Oval I.; Log Bay I.; Pilot Knob; Speaker Heck I.; Lake George village; Harris Bay thyrsiflora (Naumburgia t.) TUFTED LOOSESTRIFE Fig. 173. Lake outlet; Sabbath Day Pt.; Northwest Bay; Bolton Ldg; Brayton 1. Stems creeping; flowers solitary in the axils . L. nummularia 1. Stems erect; flowers in racemes 2. Racemes terminal; petioles without fringe of hairs . L. terrestris 2. Racemes axillary; petioles with fringe of hairs . . . L. thyrsiflora GENTIAN ACE AE MENYANTHES trifoliata var. minor BUCKBEAN Fig. 171. Northwest Bay swamp; Harris Bay swamp; Dunham Bay marsh NYMPHOIDES cordatum (Trachysperma lacunosa) FLOATING-HEART Fig. 176. Harris Bay (reported by House in 1941, no voucher) ASCLEPIADACEAE ASCLEPIAS incarnata SWAMP MILKWEED Fig. 174. 43 168 Fig. 166. Cicuta bulbifera; Fig. 167. C. maculata; Fig. 168. Sium suave; Fig. 169. Hydrocotyle americana; Fig. 170. Lysimachia nummularia; Fig. 171. Menyanthes trifoliata; Fig. 172. Lysimaehia terrestris; Fig. 173. L. thyrsi- flora; Fig. 174. Asclepias inearnata; Fig. 175. Myosotis scorpioides; Fig. 176. Nymphoides cordatum. 44 178 Fig. 177. Lycopus uniflorus; Fig. 178. Mentha arvensis; Fig. 179. Mimulus ringens; Fig. 180. Scutellaria galericulata; Fig. 181. S. lateriflora; Fig. 182. Solanum dulcamara; Fig. 183. Chelone glabra; Fig. 184. Gratiola neglecta; Fig. 185. Lindernia dubia; Fig. 186. Veronica scutellata. 45 BORAGINACEAE MYOSOTIS scorpioides FORGET-ME-NOT, SCORPION GRASS Fig. 175. LABIATAE LYCOPUS americanus WATER HOREHOUND Northwest Bay; Bass I.; Uncas I.; Hermit I.; Clark I.; Lit¬ tle Harbor I.; Perch I.; Pilot Knob; Speaker Heck I. uniflorus BUGLEWEED Fig. 177. Northwest Bay; Bass I.; Gull Rock I.; Hermit I.; Crow I.; Sarah I.; Speaker Heck I.; Brayton; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay virginicus bugleweed Perch I.; Log Bay I.; Dunham Bay 1. Leaves usually lobed; sepals with rigid spine at apex . L. americanus 1. Leaves with coarse teeth but not lobed; sepals with apical spines 2. Plants with tubers; fruits clusters 4-9 mm wide . L. uniflorus 2. Plants without tubers; fruit clusters 8-15 mm wide . . . L. virginicus MENTHA MINT arvensis var. canadensis Fig. 178. SCUTELLARIA SCULLCAP galerieulata var. pubescens (S. epilobiifolia) Fig. 180. Hague; Turtle I.; Speaker Heck I.; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay lateriflora Fig. 181. Big Burnt I.; Uncas I.; Gull Rock I.; Sarah I.; Hermit I.; Pilot Knob; Harris Bay 1. Petioles 1-4 mm long; flowers borne singly in the leaf axils . S. galerieulata 1. Petioles 5-20 mm long; flowers in racemes in the axils . S. lateriflora SOLANACEAE SOLANUM dulcamara BITTERSWEET NIGHTSHADE Fig. 182. SCROPHULARIACEAE CHELONE glabra TURTLEHEAD Fig. 183. Northwest Bay; Montcalm Pt. ; Brayton; Dunham Bay GRATIOLA neglecta (G. virginiana) HEDGE HYSSOP Fig. 184. Green Island; Bolton Ldg; Harris Bay LINDERNIA dubia subsp. major (Ilysanthes d.) FALSE PIMPERNEL Fig. 185. Harris Bay M1MULUS ringens MONKEY FLOWER Fig. 179. Dunham Bay VERONICA scutellata MARSH SPEEDWELL Fig. 186. Uncas I.; Speaker Heck I.; Brayton; Dunham Bay; Bloody Pond LENTIBULARIACEAE UTRICULARIA BLADDERWORT intermedia Fig. 189. Northwest Bay; Bolton Ldg; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay 46 Fig. 187. Utricularia resupinata; Fig. 188. U. minor; Fig. 189. U. intermedia; Fig. 190. U. vulgaris; Fig. 191. Campanula aparinoides; Fig. 192. Galium palustre; Fig. 193. G. trifidum; Fig. 194. Lobelia cardinalis; Fig. 195. L. dortmanna. 47 Fig. 196. Aster puniceus; Fig. 197. A. lateriflorus; Fig. 198. Solidago graminifolia; Fig. 199. Eupatorium maculatum; Fig. 200. E. perfoliatum; Fig. 201. Bidens frondosa; Fig. 202. B. beckii. 48 minor Fig. 188. Lake outlet; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay resupinata Fig. 187. vulgaris subsp. americana (U. tnacrorhiza ) Fig. 190. 1. Stems erect from a rooted base; bladders absent or poorly developed . U. resupinata 1. Stems floating in the water, sometimes rooted; bladders commonly found in finely dissected leaves 2. Stems 0.5 or more mm thick; leaf segments terete, without a midrib; plants free floating . . . . . U. vulgaris 2. Stems less than 0.5 mm thick; leaf segments flattened, with a midrib; plants creeping on the bottom in shallow water 3. Bladders on stem separate from leaves; margins of terminal leaf segments minutely spiny; corolla spur nearly as long as lower lip . U. intermedia 3. Bladders on leaves; margins of leaf segments entire; corolla spur short. . . U. minor RUBIACEAE GALIUM BEDSTRAW palustre Fig. 192. Lake outlet; Perch I.; Pilot Knob; Speaker Heck I.; Lake George village trifidum subsp. tinctorium Fig. 193. Northwest Bay; Bolton Ldg; Bloody Pond 1. Flowers in much-branched clusters . G. palustre 1. Flowers mostly in groups of three . . . . . . . G. trifidum CAMPANULACEAE CAMPANULA MARSH BELLFLOWER aparinoides Fig. 191. Northwest Bay; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay LOBELIA cardinalis CARDINAL FLOWER Fig. 194. Gull Bay; Pilot Knob; Brayton dortmanna WATER LOBELIA Fig. 195. Juniper I.; Cooks Bay; Forest Bay; Hague; Smith Bay; Bluff Head; Bolton Ldg; Huddle Bay; Dome I.; Phelps I.; Gem I. siphilitica BLUE LOBELIA Marsh near shore; Bolton Ldg 1. Leaves in a basal rosette, fleshy . . . . . L. dortmanna 1. Leaves on the stem, flat 2. Flowers red . . . L. cardinalis 2. Flowers blue . . . . . . . S. siphilitica COMPOSITAE ASTER ASTER junciformis (A. junceus) Dunham Bay lateriflorus CALICO ASTER Fig. 197. Northwest Bay; Little Harbor I.; Uncas I.; Oahu I.; Crow I.; Sarah I.; Bolton Ldg; Dunham Bay puniceus PURPLE-STEM ASTER Fig. 196. Pilot Knob; Brayton simplex (A. paniculatus) Bolton Ldg; Brayton; Harris Bay 1. Stem leaves clasping . . A. puniceus 1. Stem leaves not clasping 2. Bracts of the involucre nearly equal in length; leaves more than 15 times as long as wide . . . A. junciformis 2. Bracts unequal in length; leaves seldom more than 12 times as long as wide 3. Leaves pubescent beneath, at least along the midrib; lobes of the disk corollas V2 to % as long as the tube; flower heads mostly on one side of the branch . A. lateriflorus 49 3. Leaves glabrous; lobes of the disk corollas 1/5 to 1/2 as long as the tube; flower heads on all sides of the branch . A. simplex BIDENS BEGGAR TICKS, BUR MARIGOLD beckii (Megalodonta b.) WATER MARIGOLD Fig. 202. comosa (B. tripartita) Northwest Bay; Brayton; Harris Bay frondosa Fig. 201. Northwest Bay; Mohican I.; Pilot Knob; Brayton; Harris Bay; Dunham Bay vulgata Bolton Ldg 1. Aquatic plants with filiform-dissected submersed leaves; achenes terete . B. beckii 1. Subaquatic plants without filiform-dissected leaves; achenes flattened or quadrangular 2. Leaves simple, unlobed to 3-lobed, terminal lobe without an evident stalk . . .B. comosa 2. Leaves compound, terminal leaflet with an evident petiolelike stalk 3. Disk flowers orange; outer elongated bracts 5-10, sparingly eiliate . B. frondosa 3. Disk flowers yellow; outer bracts 10-20, copiously hispid . B. vulgata EUPATORIUM fistulosum (E. maculatum, in part,) JOE-PYE-WEED Bolton Ldg; Pilot Knob maculatum (E. bruneri) JOE-PYE-WEED Fig. 199. Bolton Ldg; Brayton perfoliatum BONESET Fig. 200. Pilot Knob; Dunham Bay 1. Leaves opposite, connate-perfoliate; flowers whitish . E. perfoliatum 1. Leaves whorled; flowers purplish 2. Inflorescence flat-topped; stem not glaucous; florets 8-20 . E. maculatum 2. Inflorescence convex; stem glaucous . E. fistulosum SOLIDAGO graminifolia FLAT-TOPPED GOLDENROD Fig. 198. Big Burnt I.; Crow I.; Pilot Knob; Brayton; S end of Lake DEPTH DISTRIBUTION DATA Detailed underwater surveys were made to record the occurrence of species growing at water depths ranging from 1 to 12 meters. Underwater observations were made during the summers of 1973 and 1974 at 44 different sites in the lake. The location of these sites are shown on the map on page 2. The occurrence of species is given in tabular form starting at the most northerly site and moving south. The depths routinely observed were 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9 meters. In this presenta¬ tion, only presence or absence of a given species is scored; no information is given as to its abun¬ dance. Thirty-one species were observed most frequently in the lake and their presence is re¬ corded in the following tables. This does not represent the total number of species growing in water at greater depths than 1 meter. Submergent macrophytes sighted infrequently are not listed in the survey. Presence of a species is scored for each depth listed above. If the notation is hy¬ phenated (for example: 1-3), the plant was present inclusively between those depths (at 1, 2, and 3 meters). If the notation is given with a comma or “and (for example: 1,3 or 1 & 3), the plant was observed at those depths only and not at a depth inbetween (absent at 2 meters). Species growing at depths less than 1 meter and emergent were not scored in the survey. These include species of the following genera: Nuphar, Nijmphaea, Sagittaria, Scirpus, Sparganium, and Typha. The procedure for surveying was as follows: all underwater observations were made by R. B. Sheldon using self-contained breathing apparatus. Routinely observations started at the 1-meter depth and a transect approximately 5 meters wide was traversed to the 12-meter depth. Observa¬ tions were made directly underwater. Species of uncertain taxonomic position were taken from the water for closer examination. It is important to note that a thorough underwater survey was not possible at each site. Each survey as described above took between 20 to 30 minutes to complete. Any omission from the list, therefore, does not necessarily mean the plant was not present at a given site. 50 Growth habits of common submergent macrophytes found in Lake George. a: Potamogeton robbinsii (7m); b: P. amplifolius and P. g ramineus (3m); c: Bidens beckii and P. robbinsii (5m); d: Isoetes macrospora (9m); e: P. praelongus and P. robbinsii (5m). 51 East of Between Howes Black Pt & Ldg Spencer Pt Bi dens beckii 2 1-3 El a tine minima 1 Elodea canadensis 2 1-2 Eriocaulon septangulare 1 1 Heteranthera dubia 2 1 Isoetes echinospora macrospora 1 Juncus pelocarpus Lobelia dortmanna Myriophyllum al terniflorum 1-2 1 tenel 1 urn 1 1 Najas flexilis Potamogeton a 1 pin us 1-2 1-3 amp! ifol i us crispus epihydrus 1-2 1-3 gramineus 1-2 1-3 i 1 1 inoensi s pectinatus 2-3 perfoliatus praelongus 1-2 1-3 pus i 1 1 us 2 2-3 robbinsii spi ri 1 1 us 1-2 1-3 zosteriformis 2-3 Ranunculus longirostris 2 1-2 Sagittaria graminea Subularia aquatica 1-2 1-2 Utricularia resupinata 1 Val lisneria americana 1-2 1-3 Hearts Bay Weeds Bay West of Juniper Island Cooks Bay North of Anthony' Nose 1&5 2 3 5&7 2&7 1&5 9 1-3 2 2 2 2 3 2 1&3 2 5 5-7 5-7 5-7 3-5 1-3 2 3 2 2 1 2 2-3 3-5 1-2 2 2 1-2 1-2 1-7 1-7 2-3 2-5 1-5 1-5 2 3 3-5 1-3 1-5 2-3 1-5 1-5 3&7 3 1-5 2-5 3 5 3 3-5 1-5 1-3 3 2-3 1-3 1-5 2-7 5-7 2&5 5 1 2 1-3 2 2 1-2 1-7 1-7 3 2 1-3 Forest Blai rs Bay Bay Bidens beckii 3-5 Elatine minima 1 El odea canadensis 5 1&5 Eriocaulon septangulare 1 Heteranthera dubia Isoetes echinospora 5 2 macrospora 7 7-8 Juncus pelocarpus Lobelia dortmanna 2 Myri ophyl 1 urn al terniflorum 5 3-5 tenel 1 urn 3 1 Najas flexilis 2-7 1-7 Potamogeton a 1 pin us amplifoli us 5-6 2-5 cri spus epihydrus gramineus 3-5 1-5 i 11 inoensis pectinatus perfol iatus 5 2-5 praelongus 5 pusillus 5-7 2-7 robbinsii 7-9 2-7 spin' 11 us zosteriformis Ranunculus longirostris Sagittaria graminea Subularia aquatica Utricularia resupinata 1-3 2 Vallisneria americana 2&7 2-5 Lamb Gull Smith Arcady Shanty Hague Bay Bay Bay Bay 3-5 2-7 3 1 1 1&5 1&3 1-9 7-9 1 1 1 1 1 1-2 1-3 2&5 1-2 1-3 5-7 5-6 7 3-7 5-7 2 1 2 2 5 1 1-2 3 1-2 1-2 1-3 1 2-7 1-3,7 1-7 2-7 1-9 3-7 3 1-6 3-5 1 1 3 1-5 1-3 1-3 1-5 1-3 1-2 1-5 1-2 2-5 3-5 2-5 5 3-5 5 3 1-2 1-7 3-5 1-9 3-7 1-7 2-8 3-7 3-9 1 5 3-5 1 1 1-2 1 2 2 2 1 1-2 1 -6 1-5 1-6 3-5 2-5 Si Tver Bay Sabbath Bluff Day Huletts Davis Head Point Ldg Bay Mother Kitchal Bunch Bay Islands Bidens beckii Elatine minima Elodea canadensis Eriocaulon septangulare 1&7 Heteranthera dubia 1 Isoetes echinospora 1-3 macrospora 5-9 Juncus pelocarpus Lobelia dortmanna Myriophyllum al terniflorum 3 tenel lum 1 Najas flexilis Po tamo ge ton al pinus 1-9 ampl ifol ius crispus epihydrus 28.5 gramineus i 11 inoensis pectinatus 1-7 perfol iatus praelongus 1 ,5-7 pus i 1 1 us 5-7 robbinsi i spin'll us zosteriformis 5-7 Ranunculus longirostris 1 Sagittaris graminea Subularia aquatica 3 Utricularia resupinata 1-2 Vallisneria americana 28.5-7 3-5 1 1-5 3-6 1 2 2 2-3 1-2 6 7 4-7 1-3 1-3 2-7 1-7 2-9 2-5 1-3 1-7 2-7 2 5 2-6 5 2-3&7 2-38.7 1&5-7 2-6 3-7 5-7 2-7 2 3 2 1 -3 3 2-6 54 3 1 1 7 5-7&12 1 1 1 3 1&3 2-5 5-6 5-7 1-7 1-3 3 1 1 1 1-7 1-7 2-38.8 2- 5 3 1- 5 1-3 1-3 2 3-5 3 3- 5 2- 5 1-7 2-7 2-7 1 1-3 Black Red North end Mountain French Rock The Northwest Wal ker West side Point Point Bay Narrows Bay Point Tongue Mt Bi dens beckii 1 5 5 3-5 Elatine minima 1 1-2 1 1 Elodea canadensis 2 5&9 7&1 0 1&7 5-7 Eriocaulon septangulare 1 1-2 1 1-2 1 1 1 Heteranthera dubia 2 2-3 2-3 3 2 Isoetes echinospora 3 2&5 1&3 1&3-5 1-5 3-5 1-3 macrospora 5-8 3-7 3-7 1-7 3-7 5-7 5-7 Juncus pelocarpus 1-3 Lobelia dortmanna Myriophyllum al terniflorum 3 3 tenellum 1 3 2 1-2 1 Najas flexilis 2-5 2 -5&9 1-7 1-7 2&5 1-5 1-5&9 Potamogeton al pinus amplifol ius 3 3 3-5 2-3 3 crispus e pi hydros gramineus il linoensis pectinatus 1-3 2-5 1-2 1-5 2-5 1-5 1-2&5 perfoliatus 3-5 2-5 2-5 2 1&3 prael ognus 5 5 5 2 3 pusillus 2-7 5&9 2-5 1-7 2-7 1-5 2-3&7 robbinsi i s pi rill us 5-7 5-7&10 1-9 2-7 3-9 7-9 2-9 zosteriformis 3 Ranunculus longi rostri s 1 2 3 Sagittaria graminea 1 1 1 Subularia aquatica 1 1-2 1 Utricul aria resupinata 1 1-2 2-3 Val lisneria americana 2-5 2-5 1-5 2-5 2-5 1 2-5 55 Shelving Point Montcalm Green Rock Huddle Dome Phelps Comfort Point Island Bay Bay Island Island Bay Bidens beckii 2 3-5 2-3 1-3 Elatine minima 1 1-2 1-2 1 Elodea canadensis 3-7 2-7 7-9 1-3 1-2 1-8 Eriocaulon septangulare 1-2 2 1 1-2 1 Heteranthera dubia 2-3 2-3 1-5 1-3 Isoetes echinospora 3-7 1 3 1-2 1-3 macrospora 5-7 5-7 7-8 7 5-8 3-8 Juncus pelocarpus 1-2 Lobelia dortmanna 1 1 1-2 Myriophyl lum alterniflorum 1-3 1-2 2 1 tenellum 3 2-3 1-2 Najas flexilis 1-3 1&3-5 1-2&5 1&3-5 1-7 2-5 2-5 Potamogeton al pinus amp! ifol i us 2-5 2-5 3-5 crispus epihydrus gramineus 1-3 2-3 1-3 1-5 1-5 2-5 1-3 illinoensis pectinatus 1 perfol iatus 2&5 3-5 2-5 1-5 2-5 4-5 1-3 praelongus 5 5 3-5 pusillus 1-7 1-5 5 1-7 1-5 4-5 1-3 robbinsi i spiril lus 2-5 5-7 3-9 1-7 5-7 1-3 zosteriformis 3-5 1-5 Ranunculus longirostris 3 1-2&5 1-3 Sagittaria graminea 1-3 1 1-2 1 Subularia aquatica 1 1-2 Utri cularia resupinata 2-3 1 Val lisneria americana 2-5 2-5 2 1-5 1-7 1-5 56 Boon Sand,; Bay Bay Bidens beckii 1-3 5 Elatine minima 1 El odea canadensis 1-3&9 5 Eriocaulon septangulare 1 Heteranthera dubia Isoetes echniospora 1-3 5 macrospora Juncus pelocarpus Lobelia dortmanna Myriophyllum al terniflorum 5 tenel lum 2 Najas flexilis Potamogeton al pinus 1-5 2-5 amp! i foli us crispus epihydrus 2-3 3-5 gramineus i 1 linoensis pectinatus 1-2 2-3 perfoliatus 1-3 2-5 praelongus 5-6 pusillus 1-7 3-5 robbinsii 1-5 2-6 spin' 11 us zosteriformis 1 Ranunculus longirostris Sagittaria graminea 1 Subularia aquatica 1 Utricularia resupinata 1 1 Vallisneria americana 1-5 2-6 Warner Bay & Cove Harris Bay Dunham Bay Orcutt Bay 1-3 3 1 1-5 1,3-5 1-5 1 1 1-2 1 1 3 3&5 3 1-3 1-2 1 &5 1 1 2-5 2-5 2-3 1 1-3 1-3 1 1-3 5 1 1-3 1-3 1 &5 1 2-5 2-6 2-5 1-7 1,3-5 5 1&3 1-7 1-7 3-5 2-3 1&5 3 2 3 1-3 1-3 1 1 1 2-3 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-2 57 Lake Diamond Tea George Island Island Village Bidens beckii 3 3 Elatine minima 1-2 El odea canadensis 1 &5-10 2-7 3-10 Eriocaulon septangulare 1 Heteranthera dubia 2-3 2 3 Isoetes echinospora 2 macros pora 5 2-7 5-6 Juncus pelocarpus Lobelia dortmanna Myriophyll urn alterniflorum tenel 1 urn 2-3 1 Najas flexilis 1-5 2-5 3 Potamogeton a 1 pin us amplifol i us 5 crispus epihydrus 1-5 2 gramineus il linoensis 2-3 pectinatus perfoliatus 1-3 2-3 praelongus 3-6 pus i 1 1 us 1-5 2-7 3 robbinsi i 2-7 3-7 spiri 11 us zosteriformis 2-3 Ranunculus longirostris 2-3 3 Sagittaria graminea 2 3 Subularia aquatica Utricularia resupinata 1 Val lisneria americana 2 2-5 3 58 GLOSSARY achene: a small, dry fruit with a single seed that is free from the fruit wall. The fruit wall does not open naturally to release the seed, acute: pointed or forming less than a right angle, adnate: unlike parts united or fused together. See connate, alternate: any arrangement of parts that are not opposite or whorled. anther: that portion of the stamen in which the pollen grains are formed, apex: the tip or extreme end. arcuate: curved or arched. aroid: pertaining to a member of the arum family (Araceae). auricle: an earlike lobe or appendage. awl-shaped: gradually tapering from the base to a slender point, awn: a long stout or stiff bristle. axil: the upper angle between an organ and its axis such as a leaf attached to a stem. basifixed: attached by the base or lower end. berry: a fruit which, except for the seeds, is completely fleshy. bilaterally symmetrical: with two vertical planes of symmetry. bisexual: having both sexes in the same flower. bladder: an inflated structure. blade: the expanded portion of a leaf as distinct from the petiole, bract: a small leaf, usually subtending a part of an inflorescence, bristle: a stiff hair. calyx: the outer part of a flower, composed of sepals. capsule: a dry fruit formed from two or more carpels, which open at maturity exposing the seeds, carpel: a single modified seedbearing leaf that alone or fused to others forms a fruit, caryopsis: similar to an achene but with the seed coat fused to the fruit wall. Found only in the grasses. cauline: pertaining to the stem. centimeter: ten millimeters or two-fifths of an inch. ciliate: with marginal hairs or bristles. clavate: gradually enlarged upward. Shaped like a club. compound: formed of a number of similar parts, as a leaf made up of two or more leaflets or a fruit of two or more carpels. connate: similar parts united or fused together. See adnate. cordate: heart-shaped. coriaceous: leathery. corolla: the petals of a flower. culm: the stem of a grass or a sedge. cyme: a somewhat flat-topped cluster of flowers in which the central flowers open slightly in ad¬ vance of the outer ones. decumbent: reclining but with tip usually ascending, decurrent: extending down the stem from the point of attachment, dehiscent: process of opening which releases pollen or seeds, dentate: with teeth projecting at right angles, such as on a leaf margin, denticulate: finely dentate. dioecious: having male and female sex organs on separate individuals, such as pollen produced by one plant, seeds by another. disk: an enlargement of the tip of the peduncle bearing the tiny flowers in the family Compositae. dissected: divided into narrow segments. dorsal: the back or outer side. embryo: the rudimentary plant within a seed. emersed: extending above the water surface. endocarp loop: the tissue that projects as a fold into the center of the fruit of Potamogeton. 59 entire: with an unbroken or even margin, without teeth or other indentations, such as the smooth margin of a leaf. fertile: productive. Capable of producing seeds, pollen, or spores. filamentous: like a thread. filiform: threadlike. Long and slender. flaccid: limp. floret: a tiny flower. Usually used to indicate a flower in a cluster of flowers, foliaceous: having leaves. follicle: a dry fruit of one carpel that splits on one side. frond: the leaf of a fern. Sometimes used to describe the plant body in the Lemnaceae. fruit: a mature ovary with enclosed seeds; sometimes including other adherent parts. glabrous: without hairs, bristles, or scales. glandular: having secreting organs or glistening bodies. glaucous: covered with a powdery bloom, which is easily rubbed off. glomerule: a small compact, more or less rounded cluster. glume: one of a pair of empty scalelike bracts at the base of a grass spikelet. head: a dense inflorescence of sessile or subsessile flowers on a short or broadened axis. hispid: having stiff, bristly hairs. indehiscent: not opening. See dehiscent. inflorescence: a flower cluster. internode: portion of a stem between nodes. interstitial: referring to the space between particles. involucel: a secondary involucre that subtends a part of an inflorescence. involucre: a whorl of bracts subtending an inflorescence. keel: a prominent ridge. lacuna: a large intercellular cavity. lanceolate: lance-shaped, much longer than wide, widest below the middle and tapering to the apex. leaflet: one of the divisions of a compound leaf. lemma: a bract that usually encloses a flower in the spikelet of grasses, lenticular: lens-shaped, biconvex with two edges. ligule: a strap-shaped corolla bract of some flowers in the family Compositae. A membranaceous appendage at the juncture of the blade and sheath of grasses and similar plants, linear: narrow with parallel sides, littoral: along the shore. lobe: a partial division of a plant organ, such as a deeply cut part of a leaf, petal, etc. megaspore: a female spore, usually the larger when both male and female spores are produced, membranous: thin, flexible and more or less translucent. -merous: a suffix which taken with a numerical prefix indicates the number of each of the floral parts. midrib: the middle vein of a leaf or other structure. millimeter: one-tenth of a centimeter or one twenty-fifth of an inch. monoecious: having pollen and seeds in separate flowers, but on the same plant. mucronate: a short, sharp point at the tip of a rounded apex. node: position on the stem where a leaf, a bud, or a branch is attached. nodose: knotty, knobby, or having prominent nodes. nutlet: a small nut. Often used to include any small, thick-shelled, seedlike fruit. obovate: inverted ovate, egg-shaped with the attachment at the smaller end. obtuse: blunt, usually forming more than a right angle. ocrea: a stipular sheath surrounding the stem. opposite: two parts at a node on opposing sides of a node. ovary: the basal portion of a pistil containing one or more seeds. ovate: egg-shaped with the attachment at the larger end. palmate: with parts diverging from a common base, as fingers of a hand. 60 panicle: an elongate inflorescence with compound branching, papillate: bearing minute pimplelike protuberances. pedicel: the stalk of a single flower or fruit. The ultimate branch of a peduncle, peduncle: the stalk, including branches, of an inflorescence, peltate: attached by the lower surface, not by the margin. perfoliate: descriptive of a leaf having the stem apparently passing through it because of a joining or overlapping of the basal lobes. perianth: the calyx and corolla collectively or either one when only one is present, perigynium: a modified leaflike structure that surrounds the ovary, such as the inflated sac in Carex. perigynous: borne around the ovary, rather than below or above, petal: one of the parts of the corolla or inner leaflike parts of a flower, petiole: the stalk of a leaf, pilose: with rather sparse, soft hairs. pinnate: having the parts arranged in two rows along the common axis. pistil: the female reproductive part of a flower. pith: the central, soft tissue of a stem. plano-convex: flat on one side and convex on the other. raceme: an inflorescence having an elongate axis bearing single flowers on pedicels, rachis: the central axis of an inflorescence or compound leaf, radically symmetrical: having more than two planes of symmetry. rank: a vertical row. Leaves that are 2-ranked are in two vertical rows; 3-ranked in three vertical rows. receptacle: the floral axis to which the flower parts are attached. rhizome: a modified, underground stem. Distinguished from a root by having buds or scalelike leaves. rootstock: the basal thickened portion of a stem where the roots are attached, rosette: a basal cluster of leaves produced on a very short stem, sac: shaped like a bag or pouch. sagittate: shaped like an arrowhead. Similar to cordate but with pointed basal lobes, scabrous: rough to the touch because of tiny, stiff hairs or other projections, scale: thin membranous structure, such as a chafflike bract or a flattened hair, scape: a peduncle arising at ground level from a very short stem, scuba: self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, sepal: one of the parts of the calyx. serrate: with fine, sharp teeth that are inclined toward the tip. sessile: without a stalk, as with some leaves and flowers. sheath: a tubelike part surrounding another part, such as the lower part of a grass or sedge leaf that is wrapped around the stem. silique: a dry fruit that splits open leaving a thin partition. Found in the Cruciferae. spadix: a spike of flowers on a fleshy axis. spathe: a single large bract subtending an inflorescence, which is usually a spadix, spike: an elongated, unbranched inflorescence of sessile flowers. spikelet: a tiny spike, usually used for portions of the inflorescence of the grasses and sedges. spinulose: minutely spiny. sporangium: a structure containing spores. spore: single reproductive body of plants that does not produce seeds, stamen: the pollen-bearing organ of the flower, staminate: having male but not female reproductive organs, sterile: without sexual reproductive parts. stigma: the part of a pistil on which pollen adheres and germinates. stipule: a pair of appendages that may be present at the point of attachment of a leaf to a stem, stolon: a modified above-ground horizontal or arched stem that produces new plants at the nodes, striae: narrow lines, streaks, grooves, or channels. 61 strigose: covered with straight appressed hairs. style: the stalklike part of some pistils connecting the stigma and the ovary. supra-axillary: attached above the axil. terete: circular in cross section. tetrad: a group of four. trigonous: three-angled. trimorphic: having three forms. Having three kinds of flowers which differ in the relative length and placement of stamens and stigmas, tuber: a modified portion of a rhizome, being thick and fleshy, tubercle: a small swollen structure. umbel: an inflorescence having peduncles of nearly equal length and attached at a common point. It is usually flat-topped and may be simple or compound, undulate: wavy. unisexual: of one sex only; staminate or pistillate. vein: a bundle of externally visible transporting tissue in a leaf or other organ, venation: the pattern of veins in an organ, ventral: the under or inner side. versatile: attached by the middle and free to swing as with some anthers, whorl: a group of three or more parts at a node. winter bud: shortened and hardened tips of branches with crowded leaf blades, which serve to survive the winter and germinate the next season. 62 INDEX PAGE Alisma . 16 Alopecurus . 20 Anacharis . 20 Arrow grass . 16 Arrowhead . 20 Arum, arrow . 32 water . 32 Asclepias . . 43 Aster . . . 49 Awlwort . 39 Beak rush . 31 Bedstraw . . . 49 Beggar ticks . 50 Bellflower . 49 Bidens . 50 Bittersweet nightshade . . 46 Bladderwort . 46 Blue flag . 35 Bluejoint grass . . 20 Boneset . . 50 Brasenia . 36 Buekbean . 43 Bugleweed . . . 46 Bulrush . 31 Bur reed . 14 Buttercup . . 36 Calamagrostis . . 20 Calla . 32 Callitriche . 39 Caltha . . . 36 Campanula . . . 49 Cardamine . 39 Cardinal flower . 49 Carex . 22 Castalia . . 36 Cattail . 11 Ceratophyllum . 36 Chelone . 46 Chrysosplenium . . 39 Cicuta . 43 Cinquefoil, marsh . 39 Coontail . 36 Cotton grass . 31 Cress, bitter . 39 yellow . 39 Cuckoo flower . 39 Cyperus . 31 Decodon . 42 Dock . . 36 Drosera . 39 Dryopteris . 11 Duck celery . 20 PAGE Duckweed . 32 Dulichium . 31 Eel grass . 20 Elatine . . . 42 Eleocharis . 31 Elodea . 20 Equisetum . 11 Eriocaulon . 32 Eriophorum . 31 Eupatorium . 50 Fern, cinnamon . 11 marsh . 11 royal . 11 sensitive . 11 Flag . 35 Floating-heart . 43 Forget-me-not . 46 Foxtail . 20 Galingale . 31 Galium . 49 Glyceria . 20 Glyceria . 22 Goldenrod . . 50 Grass, arrow . 16 bluejoint . 20 cotton . 31 cut . 20 fresh water eel . 20 giant reed . 20 manna . 20 reed canary . . 20 scorpion . 46 water star . 32 Gratiola . 46 Hedge hyssop . 46 Hemlock, water . 43 Heteranthera . 32 Homalocenchrus . 20 Horehound, water . 46 Horsetail . 11 Hydrocotyle . 43 Hypericum . 42 Hypericum . 42 Hyssop . 46 llysanthes . 46 Iris . . 35 Isoetes . 11 Joe-pye-weed . 50 Juncus . 35 Leersia . 20 Lemna . 32 Lily, water . 36 63 PAGE Lindemia . 46 Lobelia . 49 Loosestrife . 42 purple . 42 tufted . 43 Ludwigia . 42 Lycopus . 46 Lysimaehia . 43 Ly thrum . 42 Marigold . 50 Marsh marigold . 36 Marsh St. John’s-wort . 42 Megalodonta . 50 Mentha . 46 Menyanthes . 43 Mermaid weed . 43 Milfoil, water . 42 Milkweed . 43 Mimulus . 46 Mint . 46 Moneywort . 43 Monkey flower . 46 Myosotis . 46 Myriophyllum . 42 Naiad . 16 Najas . 16 N aumburgia . 43 Nightshade, bittersweet . 46 Nuphar . 36 Nymphaea . 36 Nymphoides . 43 Nymphozanthus . 36 Onoclea . 11 Osmunda . 11 Panicularia . 22 Parsnip, water . 43 Peltandra . 32 Pennywort . 43 Penthorum . 39 Pepper, water . 35 Phalaris . 20 Philotria . 20 Phragmites . 20 Pickerelweed . 32 Pimpernel, false . 46 Pipewort . 32 Pitcher plant . 39 Plantain, water . 16 Polygonum . 35 Pondweed . 14 Pondweed, horned . 16 Pontederia . 14 Potamogeton . 14 PAGE Potentilla . . 39 Proserpinaca . 43 Puccinellia . 22 Purple loosestrife . 42 Purslane, water . 42 Quillwort . 11 Radicula . 32 Ranunculus . 36 Rhynchospora . 31 Rice, wild . 23 Rorippa . 39 Rumex . 36 Rush . 35 Rush, beak . 31 Rush, spike . 31 Sagittaria . 20 St. John’s-wort . 42 Sarracenia . 39 Saxifrage, golden . 39 Scheuchzeria . 16 Scirpus . 31 Scirpus . 31 Scorpion grass . 46 Scullcap . 46 Scutellaria . 46 Sedge . 22 Sedge, three-way . 31 Sium . 43 Skunk cabbage . 32 Smartweed . 35 Solanum . 46 Solidago . 50 Sparganium . 14 Spathyema . 32 Speedwell . 46 Spike rush . 31 Spirodela . 32 Star grass, water . 32 Starwort . 39 Stonecrop, ditch . 39 Subularia . 39 Sundew . 39 Swamp candle . 43 Symplocarpus . 32 Thelypteris . 11 Three-square . 31 Three-way sedge . 31 Ticks, beggar . . . 50 Trachysperma . 43 Trapa . 42 Triadenum . 42 Triglochin . 16 Turtlehead . 46 64 PAGE Typha . . 11 Utricularia . 46 Vallisneria . 20 Veronica . 46 Water arum . 32 Water chestnut . 42 Water hemlock . . 43 Water horehound . 46 Water lily . 36 Water milfoil . 42 Water parsnip . 43 Water pennywort . 43 Water pepper . . 35 Water plantain . 16 PAGE Water purslane . . 42 Water-shield . 36 Water star grass . 32 Water starwort . . . 39 Waterweed . 20 Water willow . 42 Waterwort . 42 Wild rice . 22 Willow, water . 42 Woolgrass . . 31 Yellow cress . . . 39 Zannichellia . 16 Zizania . 22 Zosterella . 32 65 KANIEN’KEHA’ OKARA’SHON: ’A Mohawk Stories Dorris Montour Mae Montour Frank Natawe Mary Nicholas Rita Phillips Rita Phillips, Illustrator Marianne Williams, Editor Josephine Horne Annette Jacobs Carolee Jacobs Frank Jacobs Jr. Dorothy Ann Lazore BULLETIN 427 New York State Museum • MpCATici^ t&i The University of the State of New York ALBANY, N.Y. 12234 The State Education Department 1976 NOVEMBER KANIEN ' KEHA ' OKARA f SHHN : ’ A. Mohawk Stories Josephine Horne Annette Jacobs Carolee Jacobs Frank Jacobs Jr. Dorothy Ann Lazore Rita Phillips Marianne Will Dorris Montour Mae Montour Frank Natawe Mary Nicholas Rita Phillips Illustrator ams, Editor THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of The University (with years when terms expire) 1981 THEODORE M. BLACK, A.B., Litt.D., LL.D., Pd.D., D.C.L., L.H.D. Chancellor - Sands Point 1987 CARL H. PFORZHEIMER , JR., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S., H.H.D. Vice Chancellor - Purchase 1978 ALEXANDER J. ALLAN, JR., LL.D., Litt.D. . Troy 1981 JOSEPH C. INDELICATO , M.D., L.H.D. - - - Brooklyn 1986 KENNETH B. CLARK, A.B., M.S., Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D., D.Sc. -- Hastings on Hudson 1983 HAROLD E. NEWCOMB, B.A. . . . . Owego 1988 WILLARD A. G ENRICH, LL . B . , L.H.D., LL.D. . . Buffalo 1982 EMLYN I. GRIFFITH, A.B., J.D. . . - . . Rome 1977 GENEVIEVE S. KLEIN, B.S., M.A. . . - . Bayside 1981 WILLIAM JOVANOVICH, A.B., LL.D., Litt.D., L.H.D. — . . Briarcliff Manor 1983 MARY ALICE KENDALL, B.S. . Irondequoit 1984 JORGE L. BATISTA, B.A., J.D. . . - . - . Bronx 1982 LOUIS E. YAVNER, LL.B. . - - - - New York 1979 LAURA B. CHODOS , B.A., M.A. . . . Clifton Park 1980 MARTIN C. BARELL, B.A., I. A., LL.B. . - . Great Neck President of The University and Commissioner of Education EWALD B. NYQUIST Executive Deputy Commissioner of Education GORDON M. AMBACH Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education JOHN G. BROUGHTON PREFACE The Mohawk people, like many other Native American tribal groups, have placed a high pri¬ ority on the retention of the Mohawk language by their children. This is evidenced by the ex¬ tensive language programs in operation in the schools that Mohawk children attend, both in Canada and in the United States. Kanien'keha' Okara' shon : 'a (Mohawk stories) is a welcome addition to the limited resources available to the Mohawk language teachers at this time. The authors are to be commended for the effort put into recording this portion of a rich cultural heritage. This pioneer work in writing the Mohawk language will benefit many of our people for years to come. Philip H. Tarbell Specialist in Indian Culture 111 OH NAHO : TEN ’ KAHIA : TON ' INTRODUCTION Page Wari£:nen Io ’nikhonrl : io . 1 ONKWEHSHON : * A SEWATAHONHSATAT Tekaronhitf : ken . 3 THARONHIAWA: KON Wariso:se Kanierithon . 7 SHA ' TEWAHSIRI : HEN Konwat ien : se ' 11 RAWE : RAS RO : NE ' Konwat s i ’ tsaien : ni . 13 AKON : WARA ' Konwats i ' tsaien : ni . 15 AKON: WARA’ Niioronhia : ’ a . 16 KAIENTEREHSTAHKHWA ' Wathahi:ne' tanon' Konwat ien : se ' 18 TIAWERON : KO KANEHON 0 KA : RA ' Tekaronhio : ken . 21 IEHWISTA ' EKSTHA ’ Warisoise Kaierithon . 23 SENHA ? TEHOTI : KA TSI NI : IOT NE AKON : WARA ' Konwats i ’ tsaien : ni . 27 RONENHE : ION IAH TEHONTA : TI ’ Konwats i ’ tsaien : ni . 30 ERHAR ' 0 : KON A:nen Kaia ’ t it^hkhe ' . 33 KASPE Akwira :’es . 35 0 1 TONHKWA ' Amen Kaia ’ t itahkhe ' . 37 IV IAKOTINENIOIA ' KS War is<5 : se Kaierithon ........ . 39 TSI TETKAHNHOHONTION Konwats i ’ tsaien : ni . . . . 43 KANA ' TAROKHON : WE War is<5 : se Kaierithon . 44 AHTHEN :NO Ordte ' Karihwenhawe ' . 48 WAHSHAKO IA * TAKEHNHA ' RAOHWA : TS IRE ' Niioronhia: ’a . 49 SE ’NIKON : RARAK Orote' Kar ihwenhawe ' ..... . .51 ATERO : SERA ' \ A : nen Kaia ' t itahkhe ' . .52 RABAHBOT ^ Orote ' Karihwenhawe ’ . 54 RAKSOTHA RAOKA : RA ' A:nen Kaia ' t itahkhe ’ . 56 OTHE: SERA Orote' Karihwenhawe' ............. 58 RONTONHWENTSI : SAKS Wariso : se Kaierithon ... . .59 TSITHA Orote' Karihwenhawe' ..... .63 KA : R NAHSONTHEN Konwats i ' tsaien : ni . 65 TSIK A TSIK, TSIK A TSIK A :nen Kaia ' t itahkhe ' . 66 IAH TEHOTEWEN : NARA Niioronhia : ' a . 69 TEHOSTERIHENHSERE ' Orote' Karihwenhawe' . . . 7 2 v IAH TESHATA : TI ' Orote’ Kar ihwdnhawe ’ ... . 7 3 IEHATI IEN : TERE ’ SKWE ' A:nen Karonhiahdn : te ’ Sky (Orote’ Kar ihwenhawe ' ) . 74 KAHNAWAtKE AOKA : RA ' Kawennand : ron ' . 7 5 ONKWEHSHON : 'A SEWATAHONHSATAT People Listen, All Frank Jacobs, Jr . 80 THARONHIAWA : KON The Holder of the Heavens Josephine Horne . 89 SHA ’ TEWAHSIRI : HEN Half a Blanket Carolee Jacobs . 99 RAWE : RAS RO : NE ' The Thunderer’s Wife Rita Phillips . 102 AKON : WARA ' 0 Face Rita Phillips . 107 AKON: WARA’ The Ugly Face Mae Montour . 109 KAIENTEREHSTAHKHWA ’ Omens Mary Nicholas and Carolee Jacobs . 113 TIAWERON : KO KANEHON OKA : RA ' The Eel Skin Story Frank Jacobs, Jr . 121 IEHWISTA 'EKSTHA ' The Bell Josephine Horne . 124 vi SENHA' TEHOTI : KA TSI NI:IOT NE AKON : WARA ' Faster than 0 face Rita Phillips . 133 RONENHE : ION IAH TEHONTA : T I ' The Dead Don't Talk Rita Phillips . 140 ERHAR '0 : KON The DogS Annette Jacobs . 147 KASPE Gaspd Frank Natawe . 151 0 ' TONHKWA ' The Flame Annette Jacobs . 156 IAKOTINENIOIA'KS The Legend of the Little People Josephine Horne . 160 TSI TETKAHNHOHONTION At the Open Door Rita Phillips . 171 KANA ' TAROKHON : WE The Corn Bread Josephine Horne . 174 AHTHEN :NO The Lacrosse Ball Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore . 185 WAHSHAKOIA 'TAKEHNHA ' RAOHWA : TSI RE ' The Boy Who Went for Help Mae Montour . 187 SE 'NIKON :RARAK Watch Out Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore . 193 ATERO : SERA ' Friendship Annette Jacobs . 195 Vll RABAHBOT The Bullheads Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore . . . 198 RAKSOTHA RAOKA : RA ’ My Grandfather’s Story Annette Jacobs . 202 OTHE: SERA The Powder Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore . 207 RONTONHWENTSI : SAKS The Expedition Josephine Horne . 210 TSITHA The Bird Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore . 222 KA : R NAHSONTHEN 11:45 P. M. Rita Phillips . 227 TSIK A TSIK, TSIK A TSIK, TSIK A TSIK Annette Jacobs . 229 IAH TEHOTEWEN:NARA The Disobedient Youth Mae Montour . 238 TEHOSTERIHENHSERE ’ He Is in a Hurry Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore . 245 IAH TESHATA : TI ’ Silence Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore . . , . . 248 IEHATI IEN : TERE ’ SKWE ’ Prophesy Anne Sky (Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore) . 251 KAHNAWA : KE AO KA : RA ’ The Story of Caughnawaga Dorris Montour . 254 viii KARAHSTANION ’ Konwatsi ' tsaidn :ni Page letshiiatahdnhsatat oh nahdrten' ionkhihsothokon ' kdnha ' ronrton' . 3 86 Tharonhid : kon . , .... 7 89 Wahor i ' wandn : tonhse ' oh nontieiren tsi sha ' tewahs ir f : hen shah£:wi' . 11 99 Rawe : ras Ro:ne' . 14 106 Akon:wara' . 15 108 Iah teshonwaia ’ tatshenr ion ne raksa:’a . 17 112 Tka ' serehtaien ’ karha : kon . ... 22 123 la ' thot ir ihwaien : ta ’ se ’ tsi enkonwaia ' tata ' ne iehwis ta ’ eks tha ’ 25 132 Iahnirdthen* kar ihstd : ke, la ' thiatkathdnnionhwe ’ 29 139 Ki:ken rahtahkdn :ni ' rennd:kahre' raonh£:’ak rone ' kdn : r e ' , roid’te’ dhta* shakwat^kwas ... 32 146 Wa ' tewatendn : ianihte ' drhar wa 'kontindkeren 'ne 1 . 34 150 Ohn£:ken' t£:re' ne Kaspd tahshakohsere * .... 36 155 Ken' niken ’ tonhkwa ’ se’ken tsi tkahnhohka : ronte ’ skennen ' ahson : ' a tsi teiohkwatasehd’t ie ’ . 38 159 Ken' romne' iakot inenioia *ks , ken'k nihdnrna’s iatathrdna'; t^non' dhsen nihot iwi : raien ' . 40 170 Akwe tenhon ' kenhrakwatho ' 45 174 Wahoninise’s ia:ken' tehonhthennoks tewa ' a : raton 1 . 48 186 ix Akwah ne:ne takaniehtoht arhon tsi nonrwe ni:ien' . 50 192 Kwah ia:ken' nek ne otdhshon' o 'kenhra : ke skakd : ron ’ . 52 197 Iahohr ion : t i ’ , akwe:kon wahshakoie :na ' ki rabahbot . . . . . . 55 201 0:nen th6:ha ahshakohdntera rne ' o:nen wa ' onhsa : kaienhte 1 . ...... 57 206 Kwdh ia:ken’ ronateneko : tote T ki:ken t siki 'nhont st okhwi ' 58 209 0:nen senha’ tsi ronine', rontonhkdria f ks , ratiwistos, tanon’ tehot ihwishenhe ; ion . 60 210 Kwah o:nen ranhotonrne' wahen:ron', "Rono:wen ki." . 64 226 Ne ki ' kifken ahkwesahshro :non ’ thdrnen' ki ' na:'a iahori ’wanon : tonhse ' aontahorion' ne rahon:tsi . 65 227 Wahatkdhtho* ken’ nikandnhsa* tkanonhsote’ . 68 237 0:nen wahatkahtho' tsi iah tha f tewahs i : tonte r teiotshinaren : tonte'' . . 71 244 Tha ’ kake : ro ’ k ' ki ' ia:kenr onhka’k tahohonwi : sere ’ . 72 247 Th6 ni:kon . 79 265 x INTRODUCTION The legends, histories, anecdotes, omens, and poetry collected here were written down by Mohawk teachers from Caughnawaga and Oka for their children. Most of the legends have been around for a long time, handed down from one generation to the next. Like any oral literature, they have been recounted so many times that they are no longer remembered as the property of a single person but have come to be part of the cultural heritage of all Mohawk people. A characteristic of most oral literature is its variety. Each legend has many versions, and the ones collected here are no exceptions. Any good storyteller is bound to make small changes with every performance, embellishing here, only alluding to an event or detail there. The versions presented here are not considered any more definitive or authentic than any other. The observant reader will notice that even within this volume, the same tale appears in two versions. Because this book is intended primarily for young people, many of whom are just learning the language, two kinds of translations have been included in the second section. Directly under each Mohawk line, are word by word translations. Their purpose is to provide the reader with a glimpse of some of the imagery present in the Mohawk. Word by word translations can never be perfect, however, because no single word in one language embodies the same connotations, ambiguities, presupposi¬ tions, and level of abstraction as one word in another. Sometimes a concrete term in English has been chosen for a word used abstractly in Mohawk, in order to reveal the imagery of the Mohawk. Number on nouns and tense on verbs need not always be specified in good Mohawk, yet it is not possible to separate number from nouns and tense from verbs in English, so arbitrary choices must be made, and different people have made different choices. The word-by-word translations can sometimes capture some of the imagery, but they can never convey the richness of the Mohawk style. In order to approximate an English stylistic equivalent, the teachers have retold the tales in English. This appears at the bottom of each page. Since these are retellings, and not translations, some details vary slightly from the Mohawk version to the English. As all of the teachers have remarked, a certain amount of color and wit must be lost in the retelling. 1 This observation should serve only to spur on younger readers to devote even more energy to their study of Mohawk so that they, too, may appreciate fully the original versions. Waridinen Io ’nikonhr f : io Marianne Williams Editor 2 ONKWEHSHON : 'A SEWATAHONHSATAT Onkwehshdn : ’ a Ietshiiatahdnhsatat oh nahd:ten' ionkhihsothokon ’ kenha ’ rdn:ton’. Onkwehshdn : ’ a Sheikon ionkwahronkdt ie ’ ionkhihsothokon * kenha ' raotiwdn:naf . Onkwehshdn : ’ a Ionkhihsothokon ’ kdnha ' rdn:ton', "Tho nonkwa ionsasewe’ tsi nisewaweiennd : ten tdnon' tsi nitesewehtdhkwen . " 3 Onkwehshdn : * a Ionkhihsothokon ' kenha ' ron : ton ’ , "Tho nionsasewe ' tsi nonkwaiti ne orihwak£ : ion . " Onkwehshon : ' a Ionkhihsothokon ' kenha ' ron : ton * , "S£sewatst ne sewaw£n : na ' . *' Onkwehshon : ' a Ionkhihsothokon ' kenha ’ r6n : ton ' , "Ietshiiatahonhsatat ne kontiriio' tsi nahoiten* roniton' Onkwehshon : * a Ionkhihsothokon * kenha ' roniton*, "Ietshiiatahonhsatat ne o ts i ' ten * shon : ' a tsi nahoiten' ron:ton' Onkwehshon : ' a Ionkhihsothokon ’ kenha ' roniton*. "Ietshiiatahonhsatat ne o ts i 'nonwahshon : ' a tsi nahoiten* roniton*.** 4 Onkwe ’ shdn : ' a Ionkhihsothokon ’ kenha ’ rdniton', "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat ne ononhkwa ' shdni T a tsi nahditen' rdniton’." Onkwehshdn : ’ a Ionkhihsothokon ' kenha ' rdniton', "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat tsi karhahrdnnion ’ tsi nahditen' rdniton'." Onkwehshdn : ’ a Ionkhihsothokon ' kdnha ' rdniton', ’’Ietshiiatahdnhsatat tsi kanientarahrdnnion ' tsi nahd:ten' rdniton'." Onkwehshdn : ' a Ionkhihsothokon ' kdnha ' rdniton' , ’’Ietshiietahdnhsatat ne ratiwerardhs tha ’ tsi nahditen' rdniton' ,M Onkwehshdn i ’ a Ionkhihsothokon ’ kenha ’ rdniton' t "Sewatahdnhsatat ne t iohkehndhkha ’ kardhkwa ' tsi nahditen’ wditon’." 5 Onkwehshdn : ’ a Ionkhihso thokon ’ kdnha ’ rdn:tonT, "Sewatahdnhsatat ne ahsonthdnhkha ' kar^hkwa’ tsi nahdrten' :ton' Onkwehshdn : ' a Ionkhihsothokon ’ kdnha ' rdn:tonT, "Sewatahonhsatat ne ots is tohshdn : ' a tsi nahd:ten' rdn:tonr." Onkwehshdn : 1 a Ionkhihsothokon ' kdnha ’ rdniton1, "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat ne ietshihsothd : kon * tsi nahd:ten* rdniton’." Onkwehshdn : ’ a Ionkhihsothokon ' kdnha ' rdniton', "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat ne ionkhi 'nistenha ohwemtsa tsi naho:ten' ioniton’." Onkwehshdn a sewatahonhsatat Tekaronhio : ken 6 THARONHIAWA : KON Tharonhiaw£ : kon , nd ken: ton’ rahawe ' tsi karonhid : te ' rondnha' raot ini : io ne rononkwehon : we . Shako ’ nikdn : rare ' t£non ' shako ia ' tanonstd : ton . Karonhia:ke nithawe : non otshatd : kon , watshatard : ken , e ’ th<5 wahoke : tohte ' . Wahshakona ' ton : hahse ' tdnon ' tahshakd : ion ’ , ne rononkwehon : we nattokh£htshera , nahontd : rate ' , nahont&tenonte 1 , t5non ' tsi nahat I : iere ' nahat ikwat£ : ko ’ ne raonatsheronnia ’ . Wahshakona ’ tdn : hahse ' ononhkwa ’ - shdn : ' a , t£non ’ ohtehra ' shdn : ’ a , naho t 1 tsen ’ te * . Wahshako ' sats tenhseron ’ t£non ’ ro t ir ihwakwar ihs ion tsi rdnrne's. Tahshakd : ion ’ ne 6 : nenhste wahshakona ’ tdn : - hahse’ ka ’ ndn nahatitshdn : r i ' ne onatsakdn : ra , o 'nidnkser i , osahe : ta ’ , tdnon ’ onon’dnsera. 7 Rao ' nikon : ra' thatenniehtha ’ tsi ni tsi ronatdtshens tho ni tsi ro t itokenhsehat ie ' tsi neniawenhseron ’ . Khwat&: ken na'tekdnteron tsi ronwd:kens enhshakor ihdnnien ’ nahd:tenf ioianere's ahonndn:ni’. Kwdh skendni'a tahshakowihat ie ’ kaia ' torehtatsher i : io . Ronater i : iohkwe ’ d:nen ronwatishennionhdt ie ' , thontaiawdnhs ts i kdn ' nahati : iere ’ , Tharonhiawd : kon wahokd : tohte ' . Wahdn:ron’, "Tohsa ’ tesewa ' nikonhrha :ren." Akte' nonsakaid : ra ' te ' tsi ronateri:io wahontkwd : ni f . Tharonhiawd : kon , wahshako ' nikonhrdta ' ne Tekanawirta, tdnon' Aid:wate’ nahianit iohkdn : ni ’ ne Kaianere ’ k<5 : wa . Kirken Tekanaw£:ta, tdnon’ Aid:wate’, kw&h i:ken tsi nihsennowandn : ne‘, Huron thohtdntion ne Tekanawi:ta, ok ne Aierwate', kanien ' kehrd :non ’ . E : so’ wahianonhton- nidn:ko* tsi nahn£:iereT nahianit iohkdn : ni ' . Eiso* iohserarke wahotiid ’ ten ’ tsi wahianit iohkwahseron : ni ' , Tharonhiawd : kon e : so' wahshako ’nikdn : ron ' tsi nahonni : iere ' ne tdhsa* taonterihsi' ne Kaianere ’ kd :wa nd:ne tsi ndn:we' enkatdtie*. Wahnirron’ tsi nikari:wes enkahwa ts iratdtie ’ tdnon ’ entkarahkwinekdnhseke ’ , dhente ’ entkaniohseke * tdnon’ ohnd:kanos kdnrne’s S’ thd nikari:wes enkatdtie’ ne Kaianere ’ kd :wa . 8 Aid:wate', wahakwd : ni ' wahona ’ t(5n : hahse ’ ne Atotdrho , ononta ' kehrd : non ' nahaia ' td : ten , nd:ne aonhcir'a thronkwe ' tdksen , wahohrd :r i ’ toka' enhdhser e ' ne Kaianere ’ k6 : wa tsi tenkatd :ni ' tsi rdnnhe* , e ’ thd ki na'a:wen'ne' . Wahaid :na ’ ne Kaianere ’ kd : wa wa * thattd : ni \ iah teshronkwe T tdksen , wahot inenhrd : ko ' ne ononta * kehrdn : non ’ tsi ni tsi tehottd : nion ne Roichner Atotdrho, akwd : kon wahonnl : ron ’ , "Teionkwatonhwents6 :ni aiakwdhsere ' ne Kaianere ’kd :wa . " Aid : wate ’ akwd nontd : rehte ’ ne wisk nihononhwentsd : ke , Kanien ' kehd : ka Oneniothd : ka ' , Ononta ' kehd : ka ' , Kaio ' konhd : ka ' , tdnon ’ Shot inontowane ' hd : ka ' , wahshako - hrd : r i ’ tsi niioidnere ’ ne akwd skdthne aontahontihdntho ' tdnon f akwd skdn : nen' ahdn : ton ' ne onkwehdn : we . Kwdh ionehrdkwa ' tsi niioidnere ' tsi ni tsi wahnikwatd : ko ' notidhkwa ’ idh ne td : ken ne iosnd : re ' aonnitiohkwarfhsi ' nok nd : ne tsi ndn : we ' . Akwd wahatir ihwandn : wehne ' nahat ihsere ' ne Kaianere ' kd : wa . Wisk-niwdhsen nihditi Rot iid : ner , wahontkennisa ' katsdnhakon. Wisk na’thatf- nerenke ’ ne kaidn : kwire ' , ne kdn : ton’ tsi d : nen wisk nihononhwent sd : ke ia ' thdnties te 1 . Enhat i ' shdts ten ’ ne ' skdthne enthont ihdntho ’ skdn : nen ’ enhdn:ton'. Kaid:ri- iawdn : r e ’ tewen ’ nidwe ’ tdnon ' wisk-niwdhsen shiiohserd : ten nihonanit iohkdn : ni . Oh na’kdnhkha* ne Tuscaroras 9 ronat ia : tare ' . Iaiia’k nihononhwentsa : ke wahdn:ton'. Enska ne tsohsera ronnit iohkward : rokskwe ’ ne wisk- niwdhsen niha:ti Rotiia:ner, katsenhakon enhontkennf sa ’ nek ratihd:wi ne raoner idhsakon ne skdn:nen' tdnon’ ne karihwi:io nek enhonnonhtonnion : ko ' ne akwe ahoti- ianeren’ne' ne raononkwe ' ta ’ shon : ’ a . Wahatiweien- tehta’ne’ tahoti ’nikonhraien : ta ’ne ’ , idh ni o:nen tha ' teshontatetsha : nis . On:wa’ wenhnisera : te tewehia:ras ne:ne Iaria’k Nihononhwentsd : ke , tsi rondnha ronanitsoh- kwi:son ne Kaianere ’ ko : wa . Kahnawa:ke ia:ken’ nohnd:ken Tharonhiawd : kon shonwarken, akta ’ ne Tiohtidike. Tho ni tsi shohtention tsi ni tsi thawe:non otshato:kon tsi karonhid:ke nionsd : re ' . Warisd:se Kaierithon SHA ' TEWAHSIRI : HEN Omen ki nl : ' i nakka:raT Wah6n:nise' iaiken’ki r6n:kwe, ro'niha sk&thne n!:teron’. Omen ki ron:kwe wahomiake' tanon' ne ro me ' iakotahkonta mi ' tsi tho ren:teron' ne roksten:ha. Sok ki ronrkwe iahoto:ri’ ne roien:'a iahoia ' tenhawe ' ne rohsotha t£non' karha:kon iahdhtka ’ we ' . Ki r6n:kwe cihsire’ tahorion' ne roien:'a tahohs irawen : ' eke ' ne rohsotha no men ienhohtka lwe f karh£:kon. Omen ici:ken'ki raksar'a iahoia ’ tenhawe ' ne rohsotha. Tsi omen iahamewe' ne karhciikon, sok ki rakscU’a ahs£n:nen wa ’ throhwiha ' ne cihsire’. Tho ki' tahdhtka ’ we’ ne rokstenrha t£non' tontahaht€n : ti ' shah£:wi’ ne sha ’ tewahsiri : hen . 11 Ki r6n:kwe wahor i 'wandn : tonhse ' ne roien : ’a oh nont il : ren tsi sha ' tewahsiri :hen shaha : wi' . Ki raksa : ' a wahohr6 : ri ' ne ro'niha, "Ki sha ' tewahsiri :hen sekhd : wi’ , enkatatiln : hahse ' . N6 :nen i : se ' ensakstln : ha 'ne ' ne In : kats te ’ tenkoniahs irawen : ' eke ' no : nen karha : kon ienkoni^htka 'we ' . " 0:nen i£:ken* ki ron:kwe wahanonhtonnion : ko ' tsi nahd : iere ' , sok wahohrd : r i ' ne roien: 'a aonsahondnksa ' ne rohsdtha. Kf:ken okaira' ne ne: 'e ken: ton ne tdhsa ' aionkhiiatahkdn : tahse* ne onkwe ' taka : ion T s . Ta:we' ne ohnisera, 1 : ' i kati' o:ni entionkwaien : ta 'ne ' . Konwat ien : se ' 12 RAWE : RAS RO : NE ’ Karhdrkon that i ’ terdn : tahkwe ’ id: ken’ kirken kahwd : tsire ' . Tc5hka' nihot iwi : raien ’ . Khdre ' d men kirken wahonwat inatahrd : nahse* kandrtakon that indkere ’ rontatenonhkwe ' wahontshenon mi ’ kirken ne shakoti- ien’okdnr’a tsi (5:nen wahonater o ' seraien : ta ’ ne ’ . Omen ki ’ idrken' karhdrkon niahat itakhendnt ie ' wahonhidkha ' sewahid : wane ’ , thontaiawdnhstsi ’ taie ' nahkwaweron ' tsi na ’ oken more ’ . Tewanine ’ kara ’ wdnions tdnon’ teio ’ tdnhahre' iowdrren tdnon’ wa ’ tkaweratd : se ’ khd ki’ d’ thd okwird:kon wahontahsehte ’ kirken na ' tewatendn : ianihte ’ tdnon ' idrken’ d’ thd niiohsnorre’ ontdhetste’ tdnon’ ontorishen'. Tontakarahkwineke ’ ne 1 . Sanwenhniser £ : iohs te ' nek tsi akwdrkon ki iondmawen. E’ thd kirken ne rat iksa ’ okdn r ’ a wahontahrakdtsko ' kwdh idrken' dnhsehre’ sha ’ tekarhi r hen wa’tiekhahsi tsi na ’ tonsaiohswathe ' ne ’ tcinon' ahs^nmen ndnrwe tsi tekeniidhse tekeniksdr’a wa ' onatsha tdrhahse T . Omen wa ' thiattoke ' tsi iakdnrkwe tsi iakote ’ whdhsate ' ki : ken wa ’ tkenikahra r ra ’ne ' . Omen kwdh ohtekenr’en wa ' kenika ' dn : ion ' tsi iakdnrkwe ki ;ken kwdh tsi iotdrhate ' ni : iete ’ . Isi’ ne kdrti ia ' teiekd mere ' . E' thd id :ken' niiehndn: ies tsi niiokwirres kahon ’ tsistoskon iakdtston tdrk niiako ’khd :res tdnori teiakoteweidhere ’ tork niiotsiwiidn : tes tsi iakononhwaro : ron tanon’ 13 ionterahkwawerh<5hstha ’ iehawe ’ tsenekw2:ti ne ka:ti. Tsik nii6:rer ia ’ tkenikahrai£n : ta 'ne T e’ th6 niiohsnoire' ka'k thonhte niah£:’en ne iak(5n;kwe. Tsi 6:nen ne tekeniks£:ra ionsakenewe ' t£nonf sat iathr6 : r i r nah6:ten' wa ' t iatk&htho T , wahshakohr6 : r i f ne' neks£:'a ronwa'niha, "lot ahkw£hswa 1 tsi i£h t eietshiwennar£ : ' on ase’k^n raweiras 6nhte thi:ken r6:nef wa ret shi : ken ’ k&ti ' non:wa' aiet shiiatera ' sw& :wi f . " 14 AKON : WARA ’ Shiiakwaksa 'oktfn : 'a akdnrwara’ she’s rontstha' ne rotiksten:ha nahotewiraseron : ni ’ . Tsi ni:iot tsi ionkhihro:ri iah onhka ’ ne wen : ton teioton:’on aiakothro : r i ' ne oh nihaia ' to : ten ase’ken akweikon ronenhe : ion tsi niia:kon ne ronwa:ken. E’ tho tsi na ’ teiotenonhianihton nihakonwaro : ten tiotkon’ ahsatakonhson ’ tehots tikahwenhatie ’ s ratonkwe ’ t 1 : saks rotateweienenta : ' on ahshakoie :na ’ ne iakaonkwe ’ taksen to:ka’ iah teiontate 'nikon : rare ’ . Konwatsi ' tsaien :ni 15 AKON : WARA • E : so’ iohser3 : ke d:nen tsi n&he ’ ne kahw£;tsire* skathne ie ' terdn : tonhkwe ’ sahsdtha safnist£nha ia'niha t&non' rat iksa r okdn : f a • Ki:ken iatathrdna ' w£:nehre' ahniia : ken ’ ne * ahiatkenhnisa ' 3nha ' . Wahshakotir i ’ wandn : tonhse ’ ne akokstdn;ha aiontenndn : na ' tsi nikari:wes enhot iiakdn : ’ en . Wa'iiron* nakoks ten : ha , "Id, nek ki’ tsi shehrdiri tha ’ tehont d : tat ase'kdn d:so' tsi tewak- wishenhd : ion . " Tsi niiosnd:re’ tsi iahniid : ken ’ ne ’ dksa’k t ahontd-hsawen ' ne kanonhsakwd : kon wa ’ thonraht^thon ' . Ne rotihsdtha t ia ' teka : konte ’ idn:ton’, "Tha’tesewa- tdrtat," nek ki’ tsi iah dnhka ’ teiakotahonhsatd : ton , Kh^re' d:nen wahonwat ihrd : r i * , "Tdka1 iah tha’tensewa- tdtdthe' atste ienkwaia ’ tdn : ti ’ tanon’ akdn:wara* ient shisewaia ’ tdnhawe ’ . " Iah tha ' tehonatota ; ton ratitakhendnt ie ’ s thihshakot id : ron ne akokstdn:ha wahshakotina ' kdn :ni ’ . Wa 1 onte ’ nidn : ten ’ ahonwat lie ; na ' ne rat ikowd ; nens nek ki’ tsi sdtsi' tehoti:ka. Nakwah ken1 nithrd ; 1 a rate 'nidntha ’ ahshakona 1 kd : ren ’ ne rondtia’ke. Tsi ro tohet stonhat ie ' tahonwaid : na ' . Tsi kanhohk^ :ronte ’ 16 atste iahonwarreke ’ vra’ i :ron' , "Kdh. akdn:wara’ ki:Jcen raks£: ’a,” t£non’ saiehnMh.aienh.te * . Kenk nikarl :wes sahonwenhndnksa ' ne raks£: ’ a i£h teshonwaia ’ tatshJnrion . Iah nonwen : ton teshonw$ : ken ne raks£ : ' a . Rake’niha rakkarat(5n : ni Niioronhi^ : ’ a 17 KAIENTEREHSTAHKHWA ' 1. Tdka' ensathdn : te 'ne ' dnhka'k taieken ' to ' dkhon ' tdnon' idh dnhka ' td:ien's nd kdn:ton' tsi dnhka'k eniaiheie ' . 2. Tdka' ensatatshatdrhah.se ' dnhka'k thd f:ien' tdnon' iah dnhka' te:ien's, nd ni' nd:'e kdniton' tsi onhka'k eniaiheie'. 3. Tdka' ehtd:ke iorhd:tare' ne d:nenhste' nd kdn:ton' tsi idh e:so' thakanie : ien ' . 4. Tdka' sdtsi' ehtdike otsi 'nahkontahkwd :ne ronatshi'- nahkdnrni nd ni' ne: 'e ken:ton' tsi idh e:so' thakanid : ien ' . 5. Tdka' ohwhardine i : ions tsi kahdn:tsi rohd:te' nd ken:ton' tsi eniohseresdnhake ' . 6. Tdka' okariahtdine dnhtsken' kandnhskon akohserd:ke nd ken:ton' tsi sdnha' enwathd : rate ' . 7. Tdka' tensahonhtd : kahre ' ne kdn:ton' tsi thdinen' enhser ihwd : ronke ' . 8. Tdka' tsi'tdn:'a onahs tonhkwd : ke teniadn:ko' nd kdniton' tsi iah tekarihwi:io naho : ten ' enhser ihwd : ronke ' . 18 9. T(5ka ' ensahs i ' tardnhkhwen ’ nd kdn : ton ' tsi kd’k idnhse ' tdkani ' tenhsenonniahkwd fna ’ ; 19. Tdka ' ensakahrani ’ kerdn : ko ’ tsi sehsenekwd : t i nekwd nd kdn : ton ’ tsi ensa 'nikonhrdksen ' tdkani' ensand : khwen ' . 11. Tdka ' ensakahrani ' kerdn : ko ' tsi sehseweientehtdhkwen nekwd nd kdn : ton ' tsi kar ihwf : io nahd : ten ' enhserihwd:- r onke ' . 12. Toka * ensahs iaronhkhwen ' tsi sehsenekwa : t i nekwd nd kdn : ton ' tsi cfnhka'k enhsendntsha ' . 13. Tdka’ ensahs iardnhkhwen ' tsi sehseweientehtdhkwen nekwd nd kdn : ton ' tsi ensahwistaidn : ta 'ne 1 . 14. Tdka’ nd : kon karahkwdkta ' iostsisto' nd kdn : ton ' tsi rdn:kwe enhrdnheie'. 15. Tdka* d : neken kar ahkwdkta ' iosts is to ' nd kdn : ton ' tsi tsakothonwi : sen enialheie ' . 16. Tdka' ia ' tesa ' kharakd : tote ' nd kdn : ton ’ tsi enhsaten 'niota :na ' . 17. Tdka* atdkwa ensd : sen 'se' nd kdn : ton ' tsi dnhka'k entien ' . 18. Tdka’ ieksohare ' tdhkhwa ’ onia'tdr'a ensd : sen ' se ' 19 nd kdnrton tsi dnhka’k idh teiakokwdniens eniesanata- hrd :nahse ' . 19. Tdka' idh thasa 'nikonhrdn :ni ' ahsani ' tskwahra ’ tshe - rakarhatho ' n d kdn:ton? tsi dnhka'k rohnd:ka enthatd- weia ’ te ' . 20. Toka* d:niare* ensatet shd : ten ' karihwaka ' tdnhtshera kdn : ton ' . 21. Tdka* entdhsia'ke' sandnhkwis nd:nen ordhkwase* sdnha* iohsnd:re’ ensewatehid : ron ’ . 22. Tdka' tenhsatianakarhdtho ’ nd kdnrton* tsi ohkwd:ri tentsdtera 'ne ’ . 23. Tdka' sdtsi' d : so ’ ensaidshon’ idh tekar ihwdhstha ' nd kdn:tonf tsi tenhsashdntho ' . 24. Tdka' owirdi’a oshon ' kard : ke rotahdnhsate ' nd kdn:ton' tsi d:ia' ensehsewirahni :non ’ . 25. Tdka* tdhka ' niionkwd : take enialheie' nd kdn:ton' tsi Shonkwaia ’ t i son thotdn : niote ’ . Tok ni : kon Wathahl:ne' tdnon' Konwat idn : se ’ 20 TIAWERON : KO KANEHON 0 KA : RA ' Ne k£:ti' kl:ken ok£:ra' wahdn :nise ' rdn:kwe wahaientakdha ' . Sk^thne tett iatera 'nd : ken akohs£:tens. Tet iate ' serehtahnhont^rha ' wahshakoia ' tani i(5n : ten ' . Oinen k£:ti' wahaht^niti* wahaientakdha ' t£non ' n£:ne akohs£:tens aonatahkwennia ' tiawer<5n:ko aoti- ndhon ionni£:ton. Tsi iahciirawe' karh£:kon tont^hsawen' wa'ok^n:- nore' . Iah^hsa ' ki tsi raient^kwas t£non' akw£:kon ka ' ser£htakon wahata ' , sok tontahahten : t i ' . Tsi tahshakoto : r i ' ne akohsa : tens , tets£:ron tat iat ih^ntho ’ icih ki ' tet iohtent ion ne tet iate ' serehtahnhont^rha ' . Aonahkwennia ' wa ' tewat iron : ten ' khe tka ' serehtaien ' karh& : kon . Ions£:rawe' tsi thondnhsote* t£non' wahshakoh- kwenniahra : ko ' ne akohsa:tens t£non ' aten ' enhrci : ke wahrotcirhoke ' ne aonahkwennia'. Tsi niwahsomtes onst&then' ne tiawer<5n:ko aonehon sok tont£hsawen' ont<5:roke'. Orhon'ke:ne wahaiie' iahatke ' t6 : ten ' tsi tekats isera : ton ' wahonehra : ko ' tsi naho:ten' wahatkcihtho ' . Tho aten ' enhrakta ' ka ' ser Ihtaien ' ne tetiate ' sereh- 21 tahnhontdrha ’ tetkaientdhere T , ne roient^kwen . Wahdn :nise ’ shihat ik£ : ratons ne thotl : ien ' Takaronhid : ken IEHWISTA ' EKSTHA’ Ne ki:ken aokdira' tsi iohwis tdn : ton teieiahson ' thd : ke ononhsatokenhti : ke . Wahdn:nise' o ' seronni 'dn :we rononti:io wahshakorhar dtsten ' Kahnawa 'kehrd : non ' tsi enhshakd : ion ' iehwista ’ dks tha ' . E' thd ki' na ' d :wen 'ne ' , tahatdnniehte ' kahonweia ' kowdhne tahonndta', Kahnawdrke taiawenonhdt ie ' . Ne ' thd non shontakahd : wi o ' seronni ' dn : we tdnon' t iohro ' shaka ' 6n : we ronater iidhne ' . Iah td:io ne iehwista ' dkstha ' nd tsi wa ' konwaid : na ' ne kahonweia ' kd :wa , iahatihawe' was tohrondn : ke , takarhdrho ' , wahonnetdhko ' tsi nahd:ten' wd:tahkwe' ne kahdnrwakon. Akwd wahonten- hniinon', 6' thd wa'kardtie' ne iehwis ta ' dks tha ' . Tsi ndn tkand:taien' ne Deerfield thatindkere' wahatihni : non ' . Khdre ' d:nen wahotindnhton ' ke ' nadnrwe* ne raot ihwi sta ' . Wahatir ihwi : sake ' ka ' nieiawe:non. Wahat ir ihwatshdn : r i ' tsi wa ' konwaid : na ' ne kahonweia ' kd :wa tdnon' tsi wastohrondn :ke tiorhdrhon Deerfield tkonwd:iats, tsi ndn t ioia ' to tarhd : ' on . Wahontenenhrdn :ni ' Kahnawa ' kehrd : non ' , tdkeni tewen ' nid : we' nihd:ti, ratsihdnhstatsi tdnon' o'serdnini' wahonhtdn : ti ' ; wahonnehsdkha ' ne iehwis ta ' dks tha ' . Kariiwes wa ' thonts tikdwha ' tsi niid:re' iahdn:neweT ne Deerfield. Akohsere ' kehkd :wa 1704 shiiohserd : ten. 23 Teio tenonhianihton tsi ni tsi wahonter i : io ’ . E:so’ wahoniheie'. Wahontkwd : ni ’ ne onkwehdnrwe, wahshakotiid :na ' dtia'ke ne wahshakoti ' shdn : ni ' . Ne ' tlio ndn shontakahd :wi tdka1 sdts i* d : so' rd : ti enhonniheie* ne onkwehdn : we , tenhsakotiia ' taiestdhsi ' nd:ne kwdh rotiia ' tahni : rions tdnon kdn' nithot iidn : ha ' rotisken ' rakdhte ' entehshako- t iia ' tdnhawe ’ , tdnon' th6 ni tsi enhsakonehid : ron ' tsi ni ne shako t iien ' okdn : ' a , khdre ' d:nen enhdniake ' onkwehdnrwe. E' thd ni tsi dtia'ke rotihsennaientd : ' on ne tiohrenisa, ken ' td : here ' , arismen, tdnon ' o ' seronni ' kdha kahsenna ' shdn : ’ a ; ne ki:ken raot ihsenna ’ shdn : ' a ne shakotiierna Kahnawdrke shako tiid : the ' . Wahatihwis taniiohtd : ko ' ononhsatokenhti : ke kahnia ' sd : ke , karontd :ke wahatihwdnerenke ' . Wahonnenhsd : ren ' d' thd ni tsi tontahonhtdn : ti ' . Kwdh i:ken tsi rotihahes tsi niidrre' enshdn : newe ’ . Iohseratshd : ni d:so' wahatiidsha' tsi niiohdhes, iohahdksen tsi rdnrne' tdnon' wa ' tkanien ' kwatasdhon ' . Ne d : so’ wahatiidsha ' shotdr, tsi thotikwi ' tshdhere ' niidire' iehatihsindn :serons . Wahshakoti 'ndsha ' ne onkwehdn:we ne tsi tehonathwdn : karonte ' ok d:neken thihdnrne'. Wahonskd :neke ' rondnha d:ni’ ahotiidn : take ' ne kahwdn : kare ' , tsi niid:re’ tsi tehotihwishenhd : ion tsi rotinio tkawenhdtie ' ok ne onkwehdnrwe iah thd tewe'ne' tahotihwishenhd : ion . 24 Tonsahat itharonnion ' , ia ' thot ir ihwaien : ta ' se ' tsi enkonwaia ' tata ' ne iehwis ta ' ekstha ' . Wahen:ron' ne ro ia : ner , "Ken:'en kaniatarakta' entewaia ' tata ' , kenkwite:ne tent itewakoha ' E* tho ki na ’ a : wen ’ ne ? . Wahatiia ' tata ' . Ia'kahewe’ ne kenkwite:ne sahont enenhron : ni ' e* tho nionsahon :ne ’ kaniatarakta' ne Champlain, sahonnetahko ' ne iehwis ta ' ekstha ' . Ronatshennonihat ie ' tsi sahat lhewe ' . Khare ' o:nen iahat ihwistaniion : ten ' ononhsatokenht 1 : ke kahnia ' sa : ke . E:so' iohsera:ke wahontste'. Ohiariiha shiwennhni ' to : ten wisk-iawen :re ' 25 shiskare' tiohtoniawen :re ’ tewen’nidwe' tdnon ’ idiia’k- niwdhsen ti6hton shiiohserd : ten kahwis tase ' ts i sahati- hwis tannidn : ten ' . On:wa' wenhnisera : te ' ononhsatokenhti : ke kanonhskon oshon ’ kard : ke tka:ien' ne Deerfield aohwfstha'. Ne tsakawehiahrakwen :nis tsi niiaweni’en ne iehwista- ’ eks tha ’ aokd : ra ’ . Warisd:se Kaierithon SENHA' TEHOTI : KA TSI NI : IOT NE AKON : WARA ’ Omen ki ’ kw£h ken’ niiohser£:ke tsi n£he ' kl:ken d' th d niiawdn:'on. E' th<5 shikah£:wi' kontatewennl : io shd's ne katshdinen' ne kahnawdrke. Isi' ndnhskwati she's niid:re' niekonndhtha ' ne te ionnhdnhskwaron . Awenhniser akwd : kon enkontihdn : take ' n£:kon ne kw£:ti. Sok she's tentkonhtdn : ti ' ndrnen ienk^hewe' akonwatinon ' tat^hko ' orhon'kdme tdnon' ne ni ' no ' karahsndha . 27 0:nen kiiken shiwenhniserd : te ’ idh tha ' tet iawd :non kiiken ne teionnhc5nhskwaron . Iahonwanatd : r i ' ne tehniksdi'a iatate ’ kdn : ' a aonsakonwaia ’ tisdkha ' . Iahnirdthen' karihstaike. Ia ’ thiatkathonnionhwe ’ . Toka’ akonwaiken’ ne raotitshe men ’ ka ’ ok noniwe aontaiora ' karhon ' . Khare' o:nen ki ’ ionsahiatsnenhte ' isi' ne kaiti’ akte'k non:we ieshonatken : se ’ . Khare’ dinen td:ke niid:re’ ndikon ne kditi ia ’ thiatst ikdhwha ’ . Idh ki ’ tekonwdiken ne raot i tshd : nen ’ . 0:nen tontaid : karahwe ’ tahiatdhsawen ’ tonthiate- rihstita’ tehotis terihenhdt ie ’ ase’kdn ronateridn : tare ’ akdniwara’ lire’s ndinen ent iokardhwe ’ . Kiiken ne thakowdinen rattdikas rotatshatard : nis ok thd men’ okwirokdnhson ’ nek tsi idh wdine’ tehadnini ase’kdn tdhsa’ aho terdnhkwen ’ ne rokdni’a. Khdre ’ d:nen wahias td : ron ’ . Sok d:ni’ ne onstordi’en ne kiiken karhakdnhs ’ on tet iotshatardtie ’ s . Khdre’ d:nen wa ’ thiarahtdte ’ d:nen ki ’ sdnha’ dkta ’ nonwdhte ’ ne not sha : ta ’ . Oinen kiiken ne thakowdinen tahohterdn : ne ’ . Wahanonhtonnionhwe ’ tsi toka’ dinen ki’ ne akdniwara’ shakoienahsere ’ . E’ thd ki ’ kiiken ronahstordnt ie ’ tsi nontaio ’ kara ’ onhat ie ’ . E’ thd ki ’ ne akdniwara’ sdnha’ aktdntie’ nontahawenonhtonhdt ie ’ . Khdre’ dinen 28 tho : ha ahshakonhonterd : ne ' . 0:nen th<5:ha shahia 'nikonhrd : ten ' wahattoke ' ne thakowd:nen ken'k niio:re' ne karhd:kon tkahdhsero te ' tontahonerahontsha ' ne ro'kem'a t£non' wa'thni:ten' tsi niiohsno:re' iahianontatsnenhte f . Iakem'ak iahninhoho : kate ' rotikstemha iatathrdna ' tsi thniiteron, r aotinonhskon ia ' thnihra ' kwenhtara 'ne ' . Wahonatewera : ienhte ' ne akomwara' kwah iakem'ak tonsa- hshakowihskwahte ' . Sereka ' ahshakoie :nenwake ' . Wahshakot ihro : r i ' ne iatathrona', "Tsatera ' swi : io ki:ken teseniia:se, tsi iah tetshiseniie :nen ne akomwara', ase'ken iah honhka ' ne wernton tetsako 'niaken : ' en tsi niia:kon shakonhontera : ' on tsi niiohsera : kon ahsontakonhson sha ' tehotstika- hwenhat ie ' s . " Konwats i ' tsaien : ni 29 RONENHE : ION IAH TEHONTA : TI ' Wahdn : nise ’ id:ken' kand : takon rat i ' terdn : tahkwe ' kaid:ri nihd:ti rondnikwe, tehontero ' ser 1 iohne ' . Khdre ' d:nen ki wa ' thonter ihotdrhoke ' , idhken dnhka ' ahohteron 'nihake ' . Shaid:ta ki ne rahtahkdn :ni ' wahaterd : ies te ' tsi idh thdinen' tehatshd : nis . 0:nen ki ' ne rondtia'ke ne rontdnrro' wahdmnehre' enhonwate- ' nidntenhs te ' oronhwi:io ken. Sdk ki shaid:ta thahrdn:ni tsi wahr enhd : ie ' . Shaidita nd:ne rahenheion ' tahserdn : nis wahshakadn : nien ' ne kardn:to. Kwdh ki ' tahatiid : rite ' tsi wahonwaia ' td : - ren' tanon' akwe:kon wahatiweiendn : ta 'ne ' tsi niiote- r ihwfson ' . 0:nen ki tsi taid:karahwe akwe:kon ki ' ne rontdniro' wahat inonha ' d : na ' . Wahonter ihwahserdn :ni ' ne ki ne rahtahkdn : nis ne e' tenhdrhenhte ' enhatendn : na ' . Wahar ihwandn :wen ' ne ki. Nid:rehkwe' ki ' sahakdha' raoio ' tdnhsera . Tdhsa' ki' ahondnhtonke ' tsi niwahsdn : tes . Oinen ki ' kwdh ken' shikahd:wi' tsi niwahsdn:tes ki:ken rahtahkdn :ni ' renndrkahre' raonhd:'ak rone ' kdn :re ' , roid'te' dhta shakwatdkwas . Thontaiawdnhstsi ' ki:ken ne raia'tdhere' tahatd:ti' 30 wahdn : ron * , "Hd tha ' tesatd : tat , thiiken idh teioter ihwison ' nahsennd : kahre ' nc5:nen sendnhnha * . " Ne rahtahkdn : nis wahdn : ron ’ , "I:se* tha ’ tesatd : tat , ase'kdn idh tehontditis ne ronenhd : ion . " Sok ionsahatasdnteren ' sahoio'ten*. Oinen kwdh ken' niskahdiwi* dire* ki ne raia*tdhere* tahdmron', "Hd , iahken tesdiien* ahser ihwakwdnnienhs te * ne iakawenhe : ion . Tha * tesatd : tat . " Ne rahtahkon:ni wahemron', "He, enskak d:nen enskonhro : r i ' , serihd:kten. 0:nen nfise* senhdiion." Sok ionsahatasdnteren*, sahrennd : kahre ’ tdnon* sahane ' kon : reke * . Sok a:re' ki 1 ne raia'tdhere* tontahohen : rehte ' , "Ser ihd : kten thiiken, tha ' tesatd : tat d:nenk." Oinen ki ' ne rahtakdmnis tahona : khwe ' . Tontahata * s ts i ’ t anon ' karonto ’ tsherakta ' nia ’ thd : ta 'ne ' tanon* ia ' thoso : kwe ’ ke * ne raia ’ tdhere ' . Tonsahat- karhatdini*, ionsahatien' tanon* sahoid'ten* skdmne* tsi niioire' wa'awemte'ne' . Iah nenska tha’tetho- wennaketd : ton ' ne rawenheiion. Tsi dinen tontahdnine' ne rontdniro' 31 aonsahonwa : iehte ’ ne raonihe i<5n : ta f tcinon’ aonsahshakokaratdn : hahse ’ oh na'a:wen' tsi niwahson : tes iah tehot ikw£nion aonsahonwawi€hton ? . Iah tha ' t iesehshakowennar£ : ni ne rawenhe : ion ronten:ro ' Konwatsi ’tsai£n:ni 32 ERHAR ' 0 : KON Wahonmise' iarken' nl:ne wa ' tewatenon : ianihte ' drhar wa ' kontindkeren ' ne ' ne kanartakon. Tdnon' she's iarken' teionaterien ' takar ia , ahsontakwekonhshon ' iotihnlrhen. 0:nen iarken' ne ranatakwe 'ni : io ' waharihor- wanahte ' tsi entar'on ok nenkaierren' kirken erhar sdtsi' wa ’ onat iohkowanha 'ne ' . Wahontkennisa ' ne rondnrkwe, tdnon wahat ir ihwinion ' te ' tsi akwerkon ki ' entdr'on enkonwanahshehton ' . Omen kirken rokstenrha imon karharkon thandkere ' , iahar ihwa : ronke ' tsi nihont iera : ne ' . Kwah iarken' oksa'k tahahten : t i ' , tahshakohroria ma ' tsi iah tetkaierri' tsi nihont iera : ne ' . Wahshakohro : ri ' , wahenrron', "Enkwahrd :r i ' tsi ionkhiia ' takehnhas thirken erhar. Sewater ien : tare ' kirken kaniataratat ie ' tsi ohniare ' ko : wa kont 1 : teron ' , tanon' ne teionatonhwentio :ni ne aontakont irathen ' kenr'en kanartakon akontien'. Ne karti' thirken ahsontakwe : kon sewathonrte' erhar iotihnirhen. Skonwa- na ' te ' kwahtha ' ne ohniare ' kd :wa , tdhsa' atidrkta' naontakon : ne' . " Tsi omen wahar iho : kten ' ne rokstenrha, iah dnhka ' themen' tetiakarwen tanon' skennen ' ahson : ' a sahonhten : t i ' . Iah ne wen: ton onhka' tha ' teskonwana ' nikonhare ' ne erhar. 33 Ne aori:wa’, sherkon n6n:war tho niionkwanahskwa - k£:te' erhar ne kanaitakon. A:nen Kaia ’ t it£hkhe ' 34 KASPE Ne:ne wahoninise' she:kon askwakaion : ne sha ' teionskwi : ia ' ks non:kwe o:nen ia:ken' ki:ken tontahonahtent ionhat ie ' ken' nithot ii^n : sa skaniatard : t i na ' ton tahon :ne ' . 0:nen ia:ken' tahon:newe' tsi ioton:niate' d:nen wahonttoke' 6: ia ' ohna:ken' tahon:ne'. Sok nd : ' a shaia:ta wahen:ron', "Ha'o ken : tho tewatahset, eniethiia ' tetshahnihten ' thi : ken ohna : ken' tahon :ne' Tho ki nahat i : iere ' . Wahoninise' iarken' thd ndnrwe nishonokwen ronkwehkenha ' , Kaspe ronwd : iatskwe ' . Thd ki ' tsi karihstote' thonwaia ' taten ’ . 0:nen ki' ne thd shiwahsonta : te' thd wahontenerd : - kwaien' wahonterha : rate ' ahdmnewe' ne rondtia'ke tahdnme'. Khare ' o:nen ki ' khe ' akta ' rot ihtharonnont ie ' ne ki:ken ohna : ken' tahon :ne ' . 0:nen ki' th6k nitidire', d:nen enwd:ton' enhsheien : tere 'ne ' . 0:nen shaiaita ne rotahsdhton wa ' thohen : rehte ' , wahdnrron', "Tohsa' ia'satkdhtho Kaspd tsi thaidita. " Sok id: ken' ki ronndn:kwe tahont ihdntho ' wahon- td : ko ' . 35 Omen ki nen1 ne:'e ne ki:ken rat inero : kwaien ’ wahonttoke* tsi niio:re' tsi ronateronhienhten : ni , ki:ken ne ronnon:kwe ronate ' kwenhat ie ’ . Sok ne ne:n ne: 'e tahont ihentho ' wahonteiko'. Ne’s ka:ti' ionsahiatkahtho ’ . She:kon ka:ti' ohna:ken' tdire' ne Kaspe tahshakohsere ' . Ne:’e ka:ti’ ne' ne: 'e tho ni:iot tsi wahshakot ianeronhkwen ' ne Kaspe ne tho shikahaiwi'. Ne:’e ki nen* ne: 'e ne wahonmise’ ne she:kon shihatikaraweientehtenion’ ne khe ' nihokon : * a sens tho ni:iot tsi rat ika : ratonhskwe ' . Ne:’e ki nen* ne: 'e ne akwiratekha' ronwa : iatskwe ' ne ki:ken rakkaraton :ni . Akwira : res 0 ' TONHKWA * Tdka' id : ia ' k- iawdn : re ' sha ' tewakohser iid : kon teiontiatieronnidn :ni istdnr'a tcinon' i:'i shonsaion- tiahtetionhdtienne ' dnska shiwahsontd : te ' . Oinen ki ' kwdh'kdn' shitio ' kard : ' on tdnon' teio thahci : kton tsi ndn:we niidkene'. Ok tieidrken' she’s tsi tionkwa- ndnhsote' nd:nen kanenna ’ ke : ne tdnon' akwd:kon ionerahtdn : ' en . Kwdh she's ki ' ken'k ndnrwe thi tkahnhohka : ronte Ionkenikaratdntie ' ki ' nd:'a, khare ' d:nen ki isten: 'a ia 'ontkcihtho ’ tsi t ionkwandnhsote ' tdnon' wa ’ I : ron ' , ”0h neken' kwah ndn:wa' nithatidrha’ thl:ken ia 'niha?" 0:nen 6:ni' ni:'i ia ' katkdhtho ' . Ken' niken ' tdnhkwa ' se'ken tsi tkahnhohka : ronte' skennen ' ahson :' a tsi teiohkwatasehdtie ' . Kw£h nd:ne dnhka'k shi ok nahditen' tieken ' enidnnions . Idh ki ' thdrnen' teiontianonhton- nidnhon', ase'kdn tho roid'teTcwe' thetdmre' ne rake'nfha. Tsi d:nen ionsaidkenewe ' wahonwar i ' wandn : - tonhse' oh nihatidrhahkwe ' ne dtste. Wahdn:ron' ne ' tsi iah ne dnska tiehoiakdn : ' en . Wa ' akonekhd : ren ' , nek tsi idh ki ' thdinen' teiakd:wen. 37 Tsi wa'orhen'ne' wa ' akor ihd : ta ' se ’ tsi thononhwdkt ani 1 ne ronwa ’niha, sok oksa'k wa’onhten:ti Tho war’enhte’ tsi thononhso te ’ . Sotsi wa’ako’nisko ok nd:’a shithawenhe : ion shiaha ’ onwe ' . Saiakehia:ra oh naho:ten' iont iatkahthon , tanon’ o:nen o:ni’ wa ’ ako 'nikonhr iaien : ta 'ne ’ tsi wa ’ akohshonnion ' se 1 thi tho shiwahsonta : te ’ . Ainen Kaia ’ t itdhkhe ' IAKOTINENIOIA'KS 0 : nen ki ' ni:'i nakkd : ra ’ . Wahdn :nise ' skahwats i : ra onkwehdn :we ronnd ’ skwe * , tidtkon rona- tonnhdhere ’ . KI ; ken ne ronwa'nlha ratoratsheraweidnhen iah nowdn : ton tehontonhkdr ia ’ ks ne raohwd : tsire * . KI:ken ne shakoti 'nistdnha iewe ienni : io iakokhonnidht skon tdnon ' tidtkon ionhkwennidn :ni raonawenhshdn : ' a kandhon tdnon ’ dhwhare ' idntstha' , ne d:ni iakonnid : tha ' ne raonahsire * shdn: 'a. Kaid : r i nihot iwi : raien ' . Tseid : ta ne Is i ’ ndn niiako ' nikonhratshd :ni , Katsi ’tsard :roks iontdtiats. Ne kwdh iakaon ' dskwani kaniatardkta' aidntien ' , tidtkon nia’te«kon ionnonhtonnidnkwas ne kar ihwi : io ' s naontd : we ' nakohwatsi : rakon. Ia ’ a kd : ta ’ we ’ se'kdn ndn : wa' . Akoserdnhtakon iakothdn : te ’ rot lhthare ’ . Ia ’ eidhtahkwe ’ . Taionnit skd : ten ' , kdn ’ na ’ d • iere ’ ken' rdn :ne ' iakot inenidia ’ ks , kdn’k nihdn :na’ s iatathrdna ' tdnon ’ dhsen nihot iwi : raien ' . Kwdh se’kdn ki : ken owird : ’ a kahronhserd : ke roia ' tanentd : kon . Katsi ’ tsard : roks o’nistdnha iotkd ; te ' ronwatikaratdn ;nis ne ronwat iien ' okdn : ’ a ne iakot inenidia ’ ks . "Tdhsa' ietshitshd : ni ’ k, ietshithdrhas tdhsa' teietsheia ’ te~ riahtfkhon enietshiaterd : shon ’ . ’’ Ne kati’ wa ’ akehid : ra rne r tsi nahd : ten ’ iakd : wen o'nistdnha. Idh ki * tet iakoton ’ ndkon ’ . 39 Iahonwatihtharhahse ’ wa’iiron’, "K2:ts k£n sew^tien t£non' sewator ishen . Sewatonhkaia ' ks ken? Kana ' tarokhtfn :we t£non' sewahitf jwane * watien’. Kc5h Isewak," t£nonT wahonwat ihn£ : kanonte ' . Wa'iiron1, "Ka’ n(5n nisew£n : teron ’ ?" Wahni:ronT ne iatathrdna ’ , "A’6:ren ononto- har£:ke." Wahshakot ihtfn : karon ' aienat£:ra’ tsi n<5n that 1 : teron ’ . Wa ’ onth(5n : tate ’ . Sah<5n:ne’ tsi sahonht£n : t i ’ , iah(5n : newe ’ tsi tkent stdn : rote 1 . Kirken iakoneni6ia ' ks rahsnonhs& : ke wahonitskertfn : t i ' t3non' kent stenhr^ : ke wahar^nie’. Thontaiaw^nhs ts i k£n* ni:wa' tsi wa ’ tewateronw^n : tate ' . Ionsahont^weia raot in<5nhskon ne raohw£ : ts ire ' . ’ te 1 40 Wa’i:ron’, "I3h th&onton' iakat^weia ' te ' sdtsi' kdn ’ niw our grandparents of old they are saying "Sdsewatst ne sewawdn :na ' . " use them those your words again Onkwehshdn : ’ a people Ionkhihsothokon * kdnha ’ rdn : ton T , our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat ne kontiriio 1 listen to all of the animals them tsi nahd : ten ’ r6n : ton * , ” to what they are saying 81 Onkwehshdn : ' a people Ionkhihsothokon ’ kdnha ’ rdn:tonT, our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat ne otsi ’ ten ' shdn : ’ a listen to all of the various birds them tsi nahd:tenf rdn:ton’." to what they are saying. Onkwehshdn : ’ a people Ionkhihsothokon ’ kdnha ’ r6n:ton', our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat ne otsi 'nonwahshdn : ' a listen to all of the various insects them tsi nahditen' rdn:tonT*" to what they are saying Onkwe f shdn : ’ a people Ionkhihsothokon ’ kdnha ' rdn:ton'» our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat ne ononhkwa ' shdn : ' a listen to all of the various medicines them 82 tsi nah(5 : ten to what rdn: ton' . " they are saying Onkwehshdn : T a people lonkhihsothokon ' kdnha ’ rdn : ton' > our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat tsi karhahrdnnion' listen to all of them the forests tsi nahd : ten ’ rdn : ton' • " to what they are saying Onkwehshdn : ’ a people lonkhihsothokon ' kdnha ’ rdn : ton' > our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahdnhsatat tsi kanientarahrdnnion r listen to all of them the rivers tsi nahd : ten ’ rdn : ton’ . to what they are saying Onkwehshdn : ’ a people lonkhihsothokon ’ kdnha ’ rdn : ton' , our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiietahdnhsatat ne rat iwerardhs tha 1 listen to all of them the they draw the winds 83 tsi nah(3:ten’ rdn:ton' • " to what they are saying Onkwehshdn : ’ a people Ionkhihsothokon ’ k£nha ' rdn:tonf, our grandparents of old they are saying "Sewatahdnhsatat listen, all ne tiohkehnghkha ’ the light of day tsi nahditen' wd:ton’*M to what it is saying Onkwehshdn : ’ a people Ionkhihsothokon ' kdnha ' r(5n:ton?, our grandparents of old they are saying "Sewatahdnhsatat listen, all ne ahsonthdnhkha ' the dark of day tsi nah(5:ten' wd:ton'.M to what it is saying Onkwehshdn: ’a people Ionkhihsothokon ' kdnha ’ r(5n:ton’» our grandparents of old they are saying kardhkwa ' sun kardhkwa 1 moon 84 "Sewatahonhsatat ne ots is tohshdn : ’ a listen, all of you the various stars tsi nahditen* rdn:tonf." to what they are saying Onkwehshon : ’ a people Ionkhihsothokon ' kenha ’ ron:ton’, our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahonhsatat ne ietshihsotho : kon ’ listen to all of them the your grandparents tsi nahdrten' ron:ton' to what they are saying Onkwehshon : ’ a people Ionkhihsothokon ' kenha ’ rdn:tonT, our grandparents of old they are saying "Ietshiiatahonhsatat ne ionkhi ’ nis tdnha ohwdmtsa* listen to her, all the our mother earth tsi nah6:ten’ i6n:ton?»" to what she is saying Onkwehshdn : ’ a People , sewatahdnhsatat listen, all Tekaronhid : ken Frank Jacobs Jr. 85 People Listen to what our ancestors are saying. People We are still, constantly hearing our ancestors' voices. People Our ancestors are saying, return to your culture and belief. 86 People Our ancestors are saying, return to the old ways. People Our ancestors are saying, return to your native language . People Our are ancestors are saying, listen to what the animals saying . People Our are ancestors are saying, listen to what the birds saying . People Our are ancestors are saying, listen to what the insects saying . People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what the medicines are saying. People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what the forests are saying . People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what the rivers are saying. 87 People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what the wind makers are saying People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what the sun is saying. People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what the moon is saying. People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what the stars are saying. People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what our elders are saying . People Our ancestors are saying, listen to what our Mother Earth is saying. People Listen. Tekaronhio : ken Frank Jacobs, Jr . 88 THARONHIAWA : KON Tharonhiawd : kon , ne kdnrton’ , rdhawe ’ T har onhiawa : kon that means his holding tsi karonhid : te ’ rondnha ’ raot ini : io ne at in the heavens their their creator the rononkwehdn :we . real people Shako 'nikdn : rare 1 tdnon* he puts his mind and on them shakoia * tanonstd : ton . Karonhid : ke nithawd :non he protects them in heavens he came from otshatd : kon , watshatard : ken , e ' thd wahokd : tohte ’ . in clouds white clouds there he appeared Wahshakona ’ tdn : hahse ’ he showed them tdnon' tahshakd : ion | and he gave them ne rononkwehdn : we nattokhdhtshera , nahontd : rate ' , the real people wisdom for them to hunt nahontd tenonte ’ , tdnon' tsi nahati : iere ' to feed themselves and how they are to do nahatikwata : ko ’ ne raonatsheronnia * . how they would sew the their clothing Thar onhiawS : kon means holder of the heavens. He was the great God of the Indians who presided over them and their hunting grounds. He came down from Heaven in a white cloud to help the Indian. He showed and gave the Indian the skills to hunt, nourish and clothe himself. The Indians were sustained 89 Wahshakona ’ tc5n : hahse T he showed them ononhkwa r shdn : ' a , tdnon ’ various medicines and ohtehra ’ shdn : ' a , various roots nahot itsenhte ' . to heal their ills Wahshakohsats tdnhseron ’ he gave them strength tdnon' rotir ihwakwar ihsion tsi rdn:ne's. and they are honest while they are here Tahshakd : ion ’ he gave them ne d:nenhste' wahshakona ’ tc5n : hahse ' the corn he showed them ka ' ndn nahat itshdn : r i ’ what place they would find ne onatsakdn : ra , the rice o'nidnkseri, osahd:taT, tdnon’ onions beans and onon ' dnsera ’ squash Rao ’ nikdn : ra ' his mind thatennidhtha ’ he sent down tsi ni tsi in the way ronatdtshens thd ni tsi rot itokenhsehdtie ’ they dream there is how they learn tsi neniawdnhsheron . Khwatorken na ' tekdnteron' what would happen every now from time to time and then by the bounty of the earth, river, and forest. Tharonhiawa : kon showed them the herbs and roots that would heal their sickness and wounds. He gave them the corn, wild rice, onions, and squash. He gave strength and integrity. Tharonhiawd : kon declared his will to them in dreams; in like manner he disclosed future events. It was he who guided the 90 tsi ronwd : kens enhshakor ihdnnien ' nah(5 : ten ’ as they see him he will teach them what ioidnere’s ahonndn : ni ’ . Kwdh skendn : ’ a it is good for them to just slowly make tahshakowihdtie ' kaia ' torehtatsheri : io . Ronater i : iohkwe ’ he is giving them good judgment they were fighting <3 : nen ronwat ishennionhdt ie ’ , thontaiawdnhstsi ’ kdn ’ now they were losing suddenly just nahat i : iere ' , they noticed Wahdn : ron ' , he said Tharonhiawd : kon Tharonhiawa : kon wahokd : tohte ' . he appeared "Tdhsa* tesewa ' nikonhr hd : ren . " do not put your mind on it Akte* nonsakaid : ra ' te ' tsi ronater i : io , other the battle turned at their fighting wahontkwd : ni ' . they won Indians in their early wanderings. He visited them from time to time in person to protect them from their enemies and to instruct them in useful arts. He instilled in them good judgment. He appeared in one of their battles when it looked like they were going to be defeated. Tharonhiawd : kon assured them all would be well, and the battle turned and they were victorious. 91 Tharonhiawd : kon , wahshako 'nikonhrdta ' ne Tharonhiawa : kon , he put into their minds the Tekanawlrta, tdnon’ Tekanawirta and Aidrwate' nahianit iohkdn : ni‘ Hiawatha for they two to organise ne Kaianere ’ kd r wa . the great good (League of the Iroquois) Klrken Tekanawl:ta, tdnon' this Tekanawi:ta and Aidrwate', kwdh Irken Hiawatha very much tsi nihsennowandn me1, they their names were great Huron thohtdntion ne Huron he came the from Tekanawlrta, ok ne Tekanawirta the other Aidrwate', kanien ' kehrd r non ' . Erso' Hiawatha he was Mohawk much tsi nahnlriere' what they two could do wahot iid ’ ten ’ tsi they worked to nahianit iohkdn :ni ’ . for they two to organise wahianonhtonnidn : ko ' they meditated E:so' iohserdrke many years wahianitiohkwahserdn : ni ’ , for they two to put together the group Tharonhiawd : kon inspired Tekanawlrta, who was the founder of the League of Peace. Hiawatha was his spokesman. He was a chief of high rank among the Onondaga's. For years Tekanawlrta meditated, and with inspiration from Tharonhiawd : kon , had elaborated in his mind the plan of a vast Confederation which would 92 Tharonhiawd : kon d:so* wahshako 'nikdn : ron ' tsi Tharonhiawd : kon much he gave them mind what nahonni : iere ' ne tdhsa1 aonterlhsi ' ne what they so as not to ever undo the should do Kaianere ' kd : wa nd:ne tsi ndn:we' enkatdtie’. League of Peace it was to be forever standing Wahni : ron ’ , tsi nikar I : wes enkahwa tsiratdtie * they said that the length generations are coming of time tdnon ' entkarahkwinekdnhseke ' , and sun will come up dhente ’ entkah- grass it will nidhseke ’ grow tdnon ’ ohnd : kanos kdn :ne's and water it flows €' thd that there nikar 1 : wes length of time enkatdt ie ' it will stand ne Kaianere 1 ko : wa . the League of Peace Aid : wate ' , wahakwd : ni ' wahona * tdn : hahse ' Hiawatha he was able he could show them ne Atotdrho , ononta T kehrd : non ' nahaia ’ td : ten , the Atotarho from the place on he is that type the hill person ensure universal peace. The system which he devised was not to be for a short time but a lasting one. He said that this confederacy would last from generation unto generation, as long as the sun shines, the grass grows, and the waters run. Tekanawi : ta sent Hiawatha to the wicked Chief 93 ne : ne aonhd : ’ a thronkwe ’ tdksen , wahohrd : r i ' this very much a bad person he told him tdka' enhdhsere ’ ne Kaianere ’ kd :wa tsi if he will the League of Peace it follow tenkatd :ni* tsi rdnnhe ' , S' thd ki na :wen *ne ' . it will change as his life that there is what happened Wahaid:na’ ne Kaianere ’ kc5 : wa wa ' thattd :ni ' . Idh he took it the League of Peace he was changed not teshronkwe ' taksen , was he a bad person ononta ' kehrdn : non ' people from the hill wahot inenhrd : ko 1 ne they were surprised the tsi nf tsi tehottd : nion as so that he had changed ne Roiarner Atotarho, the chief Atotarho akwd : kon all wahonnf : ron 1 , they said "Teionkwatonhwentsd ; ni aiakwdhser e ' we want it for us to follow ne the Kaianere ' kd : wa . " League of Peace Aie:wate' akwe nonta:rehte' ne wisk Hiawatha all over he went the five Atotarho of the Onondagas, to show him that this plan for peace would change his whole life for the better. When the Onondagas saw this change in their Chief, they all wanted to follow the new plan. Hiawatha then went to each of the other four 94 nihononhwentsd : ke , Kanien ’ kehd : ka ' , Onenio thd : ka ' , their nations Mohawks Oneidas Ononta ’ kehd : ka 1 Kaio ' konhd : ka ’ , tdnon' hill residents Cayugas and Shot inontowane ’ hd : ka f , wahshakohrd : ri ’ tsi nation of the big hill he told them that niioidnere’ ne akwd skdthne aontahont ihdntho ' how good the all together for them to pull tdnon ’ and akwd skdn:nen' ahc5n:ton' ne onkwehdn : we . all peaceful they the real people would become Kwdh ionehrdkwa what amazing tsi niioidnere it it is good tsi nf tsi the way wahnikwatd : ko T they two organised not idhkwa ' , the League idh ne td:ken ne not it was not the iohsno:re' aonnitiohkwar ihs i * nok it is fast for them to disband but the League ne:ne tsi the one is ndn : we ’ . forever Akwd wahatir ihwandn : we ' ne ’ nahatihsere' all they agreed they would follow tribes to tell them of this new way of living together in peace. Finally the Mohawks, the Senecas, the Onondagas , the Oneidas, and the Cayugas, all said they would become part of the peace plan. Fifty chiefs gathered 95 ne Kaianere ' kd : wa . Wisk-niwdhsen the League of Peace fif-ty nihditi Rotiid:ner, of them chiefs wahontkennl sa ' they had a meeting katsdnhakon. Wisk around the five Council Fire na ' that 1 : nerenke ’ they bound ne kaidn : kwire ’ , the arrows ne kdn:ton’ tsi d:nen wisk which it means that now five nihononhwentsd : ke tribes ia ' thdnt ies te they were joined enhati ’ shdtsten 'ne ’ they will become strong skdthne enthontihdntho ' skdn:nen' enhdmton’. together they will pull peaceful they will become Kaid : r i - iawdn : re ' tewen'nidwe' tdnon' wlsk- four-teen hundred and fif- niwdhsen shiiohserd : ten nihonanitiohkdn :ni . Oh ty at the year when they formed the League na'kdnhkha’ ne Tuscaroras ronatid : tare ' . Id : ia 'k later the Tuscaroras they joined six around the Council Fire. Tekanawlita said, MWe shall now combine our power into one great power which is the confederacy; we shall therefore symbolise the union of these powers by each nation contributing one arrow each, to be tied up together in a bundle with deer’s sinews^ which are strong. When they are tied together, no one can bend or break them and the confederacy shall endure.” Five arrows were then bound together to show that the five Iroquois tribes were now joined into a peaceful League of Five Nations. The League of Five Nations was believed to be formed in the year 1450. Later, when the 96 nihononhwentsd : ke wahdn : ton ' . Enska ne tsdhsera nations they became once the one year ronnitiohkward : rokskwe ' ne wisk-niwdhsen nihd : ti they used to meet together the fifty of them Rotii£iner , katsdnhakon enhontkennisa ’ nek chiefs around the they will make that Council Fire plans ratih£:wi’ ne raoner idhsakon ne skdn:nen' they bring the in their hearts the peace tanon' ne karihwiiio nek enhonnonhtonnidn : ko ’ and the good will only good thoughts ne akwd ahotiidneren ’ne ' ne raononkwe ’ ta ' shdn : ' a . the all it would go well the their own people for them Wahat iweientdhta ’ne ' tahoti ' nikonhraidn : ta 'ne ' , they all learned to lay their minds out idh ni <5:nen tha ' tehshontatetshd : nis . not longer now would they fear each other Tuscaroras came into the League, it became the League of Six Nations. Once each year the fifty chiefs met around a great Council Fire. The chiefs who came to this meeting were supposed to have hearts full of Deace and good will, patience, love, and honour, and to cultivate friendship. They were to think of what would be good for all the Iroquois, not for just the people of their own tribe. They learned to understand one another and they were no longer afraid of each other. 97 On:waT wenhniserd : te ? tewehid:ra's nd:ne Idiia'k these days we remember that the Six N ihononhwentsd : ke , N ations tsi rondnha ’ ronanitsohkwi : son it is they they organised ne Kaianer e ’ k<5 : wa . the League of Peace Kahnawa : ke at the rapids id : ken they say ’ nohnd:ken was the last time ’ Tharonhiawd : kon Tharonhiawa : kon shonwarken, dkta' they had neat seen him again ne the T ioht id : ke . Montreal Thd ni tsi there is as shohtention tsi he left again as ni is tsi thaweinon otshatd:kon as he had come in a cloud tsi karonhiaike to in heaven nionsd :re 1 . he went back. That is how the League of Six Nations began. Today, the Iroquois are remembered because of the League of Six Nations. Tharonhiawa : kon was last seen at Caughnawaga , near Montreal. He left the same way he had come, in a white cloud. This story was told to me by my grandfather and his friends. Waris6:se Kaierithon Josephine Horne 98 /A SHA ' TEWAHSIRI : HEN Half a Blanket 0:nen ki ni:'i nakka:ra' Now this mine my story Wahon:nise' ia:ken' ki ronikwe. Long ago it is said this man ro 'niha his father skathne ni:teron'. 0:nen ki ron:kwe together they lived. Now this man waho : niake ' tanon' ne ro:ne' iakotahkontd : ni' tsi he married and the his wife she got tired that th<5 ren:teron' there he lived ne roksten:ha. the he is old. Sok ki ron:kwe iahoto:ri' Then this man out he sent ne roien : ' a the his son iahoia ’ tenhawe ' to take him out ne rohsotha tanon' karhaikon the he is old and woods in iahohtka ' we ' . Ki ron:kwe ahsire' let him go This man blanket taho : ion ' he gave him ne roien : ' a the his son tahohsirawen : ' eke ' ne rohsotha to wrap him the he is old This is my story. A long time ago, this man lived with his father. The man married and brought his wife home. His wife got tired of the old man living with them. So the man sent his son to take the old man into the woods and leave him there. But before they left, the 99 nd:nen ienhbh tka 'we ' the when there will he him let go karhd : woods kon . in 0:nen ia Now it : ken ' is said ki raksa:'a iahoia ' tdnhawe ' this boy there he him took ne rohsotha. the his grand¬ father Tsi And 6 : nen when iahd :newe ' there they arrived ne the karhdikon, sok woods in then ki this raksd : boy 'a ahsdn:nen half wa ' throhwiha ' he it split ne ahs ire ' . the blanket Tho ki ' There just tahohtka 'we ' he him left ne roksten:ha the he is old tdnon' and tontahahten : t i ' , back he came shahd : wi ' he carrying ne sha 1 tewahs ir 1 : hen . the half blanket Ki ron:kwe wahor i 'wanon : tonhse ! ne roidn:'a This man he him asked the his son oh nontie : ren tsi sha' tewahs ir i : hen shaha : wi ' . what reason that half blanket he carries back Ki raksa a wahohro : r i ' ne ro ' niha , "Ki This boy he him told the his father, This man gave his son a blanket to wrap the old man with. So the boy took the old man into the woods. Before leaving for home, the boy took the blanket and tore it in half and took one half home with him. On returning home, he was asked by his father why he had brought back half a blanket. The boy said, "I am 100 sha ' tewahs ir i : hen sekha:wi', enkatat ien : hahse ' . half blanket back I carry will I it save No:nen i:se' ensaks ten : ha ' ne ' ne emkatste' When yourself you will be old this will I use tenkoniahs irawen : ' eke ' no:nen karha:kon I will wrap you up when woods in ienkoniahtka 'we ' . " there will I leave you. 0:nen id:ken' ki ron:kwe Then it is said this man wahanonhtonnion : ko ’ he it thought over tsi naha:iere', sok wahohro:ri' what he did then he him told ne roien : ' a the his son aonsahononksa ' to back he him go get ne rohsotha. the his grand¬ father Ki : ken oka : ra ' ne ne: 'e ken : ton1 ne tohsa' This story the it is it means this do not aionkhiiatahkon : tahse T ne onkwe ' taka : ion’ s . Ta:we» let them in our way be the people are old It is coming ne ohnisera' , 1 : ' i ka : ti ' 6 : ni ' entionkwaien : ta 'ne ' . the day ourselves then also will we become old. saving it. When you get old, I will use this half of the blanket to wrap you in when I leave you in the woods." The man thought over what he had just done. So he told the boy to go back into the woods and get his grandfather. There is a moral to this story. We should treat the old people kindly, for we too, someday, shall get old. Konwat i£n : se ' Carolee Jacobs, told to her by her mother 101 RAWE : RAS RO : NE ' The Thunderer's Wife Karhdrkon thati ' terdn : tahkwe ' id: ken' in forest they used to live they say kf:ken kahwd : ts ire ' . Tdhka' niho t iwi : raien ' . this family a few they have children Khdre' d:nen kf:ken finally now this wahonwat inatahrd :nahse T they were visited kandrtakon thatindkere' downtown they lived Wahontshendn :ni ' ki:ken they were happy this rontatenonhkwe ' . they were relatives ne shakot iien ' okdn : ' a the their children tsi that 6 : nen now wahonatero ' serai dn:ta'ne' . they had friends. 0 : nen now ki ' id:ken' karhiikon just they say in forest niahat itakhendnt ie they started to run into wahonhidkha ' sewahid : wane ’ , thontaiawdnhs ts i ’ they went to large fruit all of a sudden pick fruit In the forest stood a house where lived a couple who had several children. They seldom saw any strangers. One day, they had visitors, relatives who lived in town, who brought with them a girl. The children were so happy to have a new friend to play with and they skipped through the woods and soon were happily picking apples. 102 taie ’nahkwdweron* tsi na ' oken :nore * it poured down so much it rained buckets Tewanine ' kara 'wdnions tdnon’ teio ' tdnhahre * lightning was striking and it was noisy iowe:ren tanon* wa ' tkaweratd : se * khd ki ’ it thundered and winds came right just e* thd okwhro:kon wahontahsehte ' kf:ken there under trees they hid this na * tewatenon : ianihte ' tanon' id: ken* d' thd it got so terrible and they say there niiohsnd : re ’ ontohetste* tanon* ontorfshen*. as it is fast it passed and it stopped Tontakarahkwineke * ne * sanwenhniseri : iohste ' nek tsi the sun came back out the day got nice but again akwe:kon ki all this iona : nawen . it is wet E* thd there kf:ken ne this the ratiksa * okon : * a children wahontahraketsko ' they lifted their heads kwdh id: ken* till they say Suddenly, with a clap of thunder, rain poured down in buckets forcing them to take shelter under the nearest tree. It was a terrible storm, lightning flashing in all directions, winds blowing every which way, and the noise of the thunder frightening. Just as suddenly, the storm ended. The sun shone brightly upon the glistening wetness all around. Most of the children 103 dnhsehre’ sha ’ tekarhf : hen you will half the forest think na ' tonsaiohswathe rne ' thnon' it got bright and again tekeniihhse tekeniksh:'a two of them two girls 0:nen wa ’ thi^ttoke ’ tsi now they noticed that iakote ’ whdhsate ’ kf:ken edge of her skirt this wa ' t iekhhhsi ' tsi they as separated ahsdhinen ncfnrwe tsi half where that wa ' onatsha ta*rhahse ’ . they saw a shadow. iaktfn:kwe tsi a lady that wa ’ tkenikahrd :ra'ne' . their eyes fell upon 0:nen kwdh ohtekdnr'en now just completely wa ’ kenika ' dn : ion ' tsi they examined that iak(5n:kwe kirken kw^h lady this just tsi iotdrhate’ ni:iete'. at the edge of she stood the forest Isi* ne k£:ti there other side niiehn£n:ies tsi she was tall as ia ' teiekd : nere ' . she was looking E' thc3 i^:ken’ there they say niiokwi:res kahon ’ tsistdskon the length all in black of trees ran for home but for the two girls who had remained under a tree. As they lazed there, a dark shadow fell upon them and then moved on. They looked to see what it might have been, and as they gazed at the shadow, they realised that they were looking at the bottom edge of a lady’s skirt. Their eyes moved up and it was a lady! A lady as tall as the trees, all dressed 104 iakcftston ttf:k niiako ' khd : res t£non ' teiakoteweiahere ' she used so very long skirt and she wore a cape td:k niiots iwiidn : tes tsi iakononhwartf : ron very long pointed so she wore a hat t£non’ ionterahkwawerhdhstha ' iehawe' tsenekwd:ti and umbrella she carried on her left ne k£:ti. Tsik niid:re' ia ’ tkenikahraidn : ta ' ne ’ side by as it is far their eyes could see ef th(5 niiohsno:re' ka’k thonhte there as it is fast somewhere niahd : ’ en she went ne iak<5n:kwe. the lady Tsi at (5:nen ne tekeniksd:'a when the two girls ionsakenewe ' they got back tdnon ' satiathrd : r i ' nahd : ten ' and they told what wa ’ t iatkahtho f , they saw wahshakohrd : ri ' ne' neksdi’a he told them the girl ronwa ’ niha , her father in black. She had her back to them, and she seemed to be watching the receding storm clouds. She wore a long cape, a hat with a long point at the top, and on her left arm hung a folded umbrella. In the instant that they fully comprehended what it was that they saw, she disappeared. Later, when they had told what had happened, the girl’s father told them, 105 "Iotahkw^hswa ' tsi it is too that bad iah teiet sh iwennara* ’ on not did you address a word to her ase ' k£n because rawd : ras he thunders onhte perhaps thi : ken that ro : ne ’ his wife wa ’ etshi : ken ' you saw her kati’ non:wa' aietshiiater a ' swa : wi ' . " perhaps maybe she might have given you good luck l "It's too bad that you didn’t speak to the lady of the storm; she is said to be the wife of the Thunderer and gives good luck to anyone who speaks with her." Konwatsi ’ tsaidn :ni Rita Phillips 106 AKON : WARA ’ 0 Face Shiiakwaksa ' okdn : ’ a ak<5n:wara' sh£’s when we were children 0 Face then rdntstha ’ ne rotikstdn:ha nahontewirahseron : ni ’ . they use the they are old to straighten the children Tsi - ni:iot tsi ionkhihrd : r i i&h (5nhka * as so it is as we are told not anyone ne w€n : ton teio t<5n : ’ on aiakothrd : ri ’ ne the ever it happens for them to tell the oh nihaia ’ t(5 : ten ase'kdn akwdikon ronenheiion what kind of body he had because all they have died tsi nii£ : kon ne ronwd : ken . E f th(5 tsi that everyone the they have seen him there that na ’ teiotenonhianihton nihakonwar6 : ten tidtkon so horrible it is as his face is always ahsatakdnhson ’ tehotstikahwenhdt ie ' s ratonkwe ' ti : saks in shadows he travels along he hunts people When we were children, the older people would frighten us with the terrible name of 0 Face who travelled in the dark at night, always ready to catch the wicked or unwary person. 107 rotateweienenta : ’ on ahshakoie : na ' ne he is ready always to catch someone that iakaonkwe ’ tdksen tcJ:ka’ person is bad or iah teiontate 'nikdn : rare ’ . not his mind is on it ever His face, it is said survived after seeing is so horrible that no one him face to face. Konwats i ' tsaien : ni Rita Phillips 108 AKON : WARA f The Ugly Face E:so‘ iohserdrke <5:nen tsi ndhe ’ ne many years now that ago the kahwa : ts ire ’ family skdthne ie ’ ter<5n : tonhkwe ’ sahs<5tha together they used to live your grand¬ mother sa'nistdnrha ia'niha tdnon* your mother your father and ratiksa ' ok6n : ' a . children Ki:ken iatathrdna' this they are married wd rnehre ' they wanted ahniid : ken ’ ne ’ they would go out ahiatkenhnisa 1 anha ’ . they would go to a meeting Wahshakot ir i 'wanon : tonhse ’ they asked her ne akokstdnrha the she is old aiontenndn : na ' tsi nikarirwes would she watch as the length of the matter enhot iiaken : ' en . Wa’i:ron? nakokstdn : ha , ”16 they will be out she said she is old OK nek ki ’ tsi shehr6:ri tha ’ tehont6 : tat but tell them they keep quiet ase 'k6n because Many years ago when families lived together, that is, grandparents, mother, father, and children, this mother and father wanted to go out to a meeting. They asked the grandmother to take care of the children while they were gone. The grandmother said, ”0K, but tell the children to be quiet as I am very tired." 109 * 6: so' tsi tewakwishenhd : ion much so I am tired Tsi niiohsnoire’ tsi iahnii# : ken ’ ne ’ dksa 'k as it is fast as they went out right away tahontdhsawen ' ne kanonhsakwd : kon wa ' thonrahtdthon ’ . they started the all over the they were running house Ne rotihsdtha t ia ’ tekd : konte ’ idn:tonr, the their very often she said grandmother "Tha ' tesewatd : tat , " nek ki ' tsi idh dnhka ’ all of you be quiet but not anyone te iakotahonhsatd : ton . Khdre ’ d:nen wahonwatihrd : ri they did not listen finally now she told them "Tdka ' iah tha ' t ensewatotdthe ' dtste ienkwaia ' tdn : t i ' i£ not will you keep quiet outside I shall throw your bodies tdnon' ak6n:waraT ientshisewaia ' tdnhawe ' . M and ugly face he shall take you Idh tha ' tehonatotd : ton rat itakhendnt ie ’ s not did they quiet they running around As soon as the parents left, the children started running around the house. The grandmother kept telling them to be quiet but nobody listened. Finally, she told them, "If you don’t stop I shall throw you out the door and let Ugly Face take you,” The children kept right on making a lot of noise 110 thihshakot iie : ron ’ ne akokst^n:ha they tease her the she is old Wahshakot ina ' ktfn : ni ' they made her angry wa ' onte ’ niefn : ten ’ she tried ahonwatii£:na ’ she would catch them ne ratikowa:nens the they are bigger nek ki ’ tsi but sot si 1 tehoti : ka . too they run fast Akwah ken ' the very small nithra:’a rate 'nientha ' ahshakona ’ ke : ren ' ne he is small he is trying he would do like the them ronatia'ke. Tsi rotohet stonhat ie ’ tahonwaie : na * . others as he is passing she grabbed him Tsi kanhohka : ronte ’ atste iahonwa :reke ' wa'i:ron' , to the door opens outside she pushed she said him out "Koh akon:waraf ki:ken raksai'a," tanon' here uglyface this boy and saiehnhdhaienhte ’ . she slammed the door and running, teasing the old lady. They made her very angry. She tried to catch the older children, but they were too swift for her. The youngest was trying to do as the rest of them, and as the child was passing, she grabbed him and, going to the door, pushed him out, saying, "Here, Ugly Face, take this child," then she slammed the door. Ill K£n'k nikarf:wes sahonwenhndnksa ’ ne a bit matter is she went back to the long so get him raksd:’a idh teshonwaia ’ tatsh^nr ion . Idh boy not could she find him not nonwdnrton teshonwd:ken ne raksd:'a. ever did they see the boy. him again A while later she went back out for the child but she could not find him. The child was never seen again . Rake’niha rakkaratdn : ni my father he told me Niioronhid : ’ a This story was told to me by my late father, Louis T. Curotte Mae Montour 112 KAIENTEREHSTAHKHWA ' Omens 1. Tdka1 ensathon : te ' ne ' dnhka'k taieken ' to ' okhon ' if you will hear someone one is knocking tdnon ' idh dnhka ' te:ien's nd kdn:tonr tsi and not anyone there is that it means that onhka ' k eniaiheie ' . someone one will die. If you hear someone knocking, and no one is there, that means that someone will die. 2. Tdka ' if ensatatshatarhahse ’ dnhka'k thd I:ien' will you shadow see someone there one goes tanon ' and iah dnhka ' not anyone td : ien ' s , there one goes ne ni ' nd : ' e the also that ken : ton' tsi dnhka'k it means that someone eniaiheie ' . one will die If you see someone's shadow, and no one is there, that also means that someone will die. 3. Tdka’ if ehtd : ke low iorha: tare ' stalk ne o:nenhste' nd the corn that ken: ton' tsi iah it means that not e:so' thakanie : ien ' . much would snow fall 113 If the cornstalk is low, that means that there will not be much snow. 4. T6ka' s6tsi' ehtdike ots i ’ nahkontahkwa : ne if too low creature in a hive ronatshi ' nahkon : ni ne ni ' ne : ' e ken: ton* tsi they their nest that also that it means that make iah e:so* thakanie : ien ’ . not much would snow fall If the bee’s nest is too low, that also means that there will not be much snow. 5. Toka’ ohwhara:ne if fur on it 1 : ions tsi it is that long kahbn : tsi it is black roharte’ ne his that stripe ken:tonf tsi it means that eniohseresonhake ' . winter will be long If the caterpillar has a long, black stripe, that means that it will be a long winter. 6. Tdka* if okar iahtd : ne it bites its fill dnhtsken ' will you him see kandnhskon house in akohserd:ke nd kdniton' tsi senha' enwathd : rate ' . winter in that it means that more will it get cold If you see a mosquito in the house in the winter, that means that it will get cold. 114 7 . T6ka’ if t ensahonhtd: kahre f nd will your ears that ring ken : ton ’ it means tsi that thd : some nen' thing enhserihwd : ronke ' . will you news hear. If you hear a ringing in your ears, that means that you will hear some news. 8. T<5ka' if tsi'teni’a onahs tonhkwd : ke bird window on teniadn : ko ’ will it hit nd kdmton' tsi idh that it means that not tekarihwi:io nahdrten' good news what enhser ihwd : ronke ' . will you hear If a bird hits your window, that means that you will hear bad news . 9. Tdka’ ensahsi ’ tardnhkhwen ' n d kdn:ton' tsi if will your feet itch that it means that kd ' k idnhse' tdkani ' tenhsenonniahkwd : na ’ some there will or will you dancing go where you go If your feet itch, that means that you will go somewhere or you will go dancing. 10. Tdka’ if ensakahrani ’ kerdn : ko ' will your eye twitch tsi sehsenekwd : t i at beyond your side 115 nekwd nd kdn : ton ' tsi ensa 'nikonhraksen' tdkani ’ side that it means that will your mind or be bad ensand : khwen ' . will you get angry If your eye twitches on the left side, that means that you will be sad or angry. 11. Tdka' ensakahrani ' kerdn : ko ’ tsi sehseweienteh- if will your eye twitch at your right tdhkwen nekwd nd kdn: ton’ tsi karihwi:io side that it means that good news nahditen’ enhser ihwd : r onke ’ . what will you hear. If your right eye twitches, that means that you will hear good news . 12. Tdka' ensahs iardnhkhwen ’ tsi if will your palm itch at sehsenekwd : t i beyond your side nekwd nd kdn:tonf tsi dnhka'k enhsendntsha * . side that it means that someone will you arm hold If your left palm itches, that means that you will shake someone’s hand. 13. Tdka ’ ensahs iardnhkhwen ’ tsi if will your palm itch at sehseweientehtdhkwen your right 116 nekwd nd kdn:ton* tsi ensahwis taidn : ta ' ne ' . side that it means that will you money get If your right palm itches, that means that you will get money. 14 . Tdka' d :neken if up karahkwdkta f moon near iostsisto* nd star that kdn:ton* tsi tsakothonwi : sen ' eniaiheie'. it means that woman will she die If a star is over and near the moon, that means that a woman will die. 15. Tdka’ narkon karahkwakta* iostsisto’ ne if under moon near star that ken : ton’ tsi ron:kwe enhrenheie*. it means that man will he die. If a star is under and near the moon, that means that a man will die. 16. Toka* ia ’ tesa ’ kharake : to te ' ne kdniton’ tsi if your slip is peeking that it means that enhsaten ’niota :na ' you will go to a wedding If your slip is showing, that means that you will go to a wedding. Toka' atokwa ensa : sen ’ se ' nd ken : ton * tsi if spoon will you drop that it means that 117 dnhka ' k dntien ’ . someone will one come If you drop a spoon, that means that someone will come. 18. Tdka’ if ieksohare ' tdhkhwa ' one to dish wash uses it onia ’ tara : ' a rag ensa : - will you sen'se' nd drop that kdn:tonr tsi it means that dnhka'k idh someone not teiakokwdniens enie sanatahrd :nahse ’ . is one tidy will one to visit you come If you drop a dishrag, that means that an untidy person will visit you. 19. Tdka' idh if not thas a ' nikonhrdn : ni ' would your mind make ahsani ! tskwa- would you seat hra ' tsherakarhdtho ’ setter tip over nd kdnrton^ tsi dnhka'k that it means that someone rohndrka enthatdweia ' te ’ . he liquid will he enter If through no fault of your that means that a drunk man own, you tip over a chair, will enter your house. 20. Tdka' if 6:niare’ en satetshd : ten ’ snake you will dream kar ihwaka ’ tdn- scandalous htshera kdn:ton’ . matter it means . 118 If you dream of a snake, that means scandal. 21 . Toka* entehsia'ke* if will you cut sandnhkwis your hair nd :nen when ordhkwase ' moon new sdnha' iohsnd:re' ensewatehid : ron ' . more it is fast will it grow back. If you cut your hair during the new moon, it will grow back much faster. 22. Tdka ' if tenhsatianakarhdtho * nd kdn : ton T tsi will you put the shoe that it means that on the wrong foot ohkwd : r i bear tentsatera ’ne ' . will you two meet If you put the wrong shoe on the wrong foot, that means that you will meet a bear. 23. Tdka' sdtsi ' e:so’ ensaieshon' if too much will you laugh not tekarihwdhstha ' nd kdn:ton' tsi tenhsahsdntho ' does it reason that it means that will you cry use If you laugh for nothing, that means that you will cry. 24 . Tdka' owird : ' a if baby oshon ' kard : ke floor on ro tahdnhsate ' he listens 119 ne ken:ton’ tsi 6: ia ’ ensehsewirahni :non ’ . that it means that another will you baby buy If a baby listens on the floor, that means that you will have another baby. 25. Toka' tohka ’ niionkwe : take if several of people eniaiheie ' will they die ne ken: ton' tsi Shonkwaia ' t ison that it means that he our bodies finished tho ten : niote ' . he is having a wedding If quite a few people die that means that our Creator is having a wedding. Wathahf : ne ' Mary Nicholas tanon* Konwat ien : se ' and Carolee Jacobs 120 TIAWERON:KO KANEHON 0 KA : RA ' The Eel Skin Story Ne ka:ti' ki:ken oka:ra' wahon:nise' the that this story long ago rdn : kwe man wahaientakoha ' . he went to get wood Skathne tettiatera 'n6 : ken together they two side by side each other akohsa:tens. Tet iate ' serehtahnhontdrha ' wahshako- one is astride it links it drags he them ia ' taniion : ten ' . bodies hitched 0:nen ka:ti' wahahten:tiT wahaientakoha1 now then he went away he went to get wood tdnon' ne:ne akohsa:tens aonatahkwennia f and that one is astride harness tiaweron : ko eel Tsi as aot inehon their skin iaha : rawe ’ he arrived ionnia : ton . it is made karha : kon at forest of tontahsawen ’ it started Long ago a man went to get wood in the forest. He hitched two horses together side by side on an adjustable wagon. Now then he went into the forest to get wood. The horses' harness was made out of eel skin. As he arrived at the forest, it started to rain. He 121 wa ' ok£n : nore ’ . Iahdhsa' ki tsi raientdkwas it rained he finished this then he cuts wood tdnon' akwd:kon ka ' ser£htakon wahdta ’ , and all in it drags he put in sok p tontahahtdn : t i ’ . Tsi then he started to as return home tahshakotd : r i ' ne he started them the going akohsd : tens , tetsd:ron one straddles both of them tatiat ih£ntho ' they pulled idh ki ’ not even tetiohtdnt ion ne tet iate ' serehtahnhont^rha 1 . did it move the it drags it adjusts forward Aonahkwdnnia ' wa T tewat ir<5n : ten’ khe their it started just harness tka * serdhtaien ' it drags it remained karhd : kon . in forest Ionsd : rawe ’ he arrived tsi thondnhsote ’ tdnon' at his house and stands there wahshakohkwenniahrd : ko ’ ne akohsd:tens tdnon' he removed their harness the one straddles and finished cutting the wood, and loaded it on to the wagon, then he started for home. He got the horses to go, but the wagon did not move. Their harness started to stretch. The wagon remained in the forest. As he arrived at his home he removed the harness from the horses and hung it on the fence. 122 aten ’ enhrd : ke wahrotarhoke ’ ne aonakwdnnia T on the fence he strapped it the their harness Tsi niwahsbn : tes onstdthen' ne as long night it dried the tiawerdn : ko aonehon sok tontahsawen* ontd : roke ' . eel skin then it started it shrank Orhon'ke:ne wahd:ieT i ahatke ’ td : ten ' tsi in morning he woke up he looked out of at tekats isera : ton' wahonehra : ko ' tsi nahditen’ window he was surprised at what wahatkahtho ’ . Tho aten ’ enhrakta* ka ’ serdhtaien ’ he saw there near the fence it drags it lay ne tet iate ' sereht ahnhonterha’ tetkaientdhere ’ , ne the it drags it adjusts full of wood the roientdkwen . he cut wood During the night the eel skin dried and started to shrink. He woke up in the morning and looked out of the window and to his surprise he saw the wagon parked next to the fence full of wood that he cut. Wahon:nise' shihatikd iratons ne thot I : ien ' skwe ’ . long ago as they used to tell the they were older Tekaronhio : ken Frank Jacobs, Jr . 123 IEHWISTA ’ EKSTHA ' The Bell Ne ki:ken aokd:ra’ is this story tsi iohwis tdn : ton ' of metal hanging teieiahson ’ thd : ke ononhsatokenhti : ke . Wahc5n:nisef one signs the cross in the holy house long ago o ’ seronni 'dn :we rononti:io wahshakorhardts ten ' real axe makers their king he promised them Kahnawa ’ kehrd : non ' tsi enhshakd : ion ’ people of rapids that he will give them iehwista - one strikes ’dkstha’. E’ thd ki 1 na ' d : wen ’ne ’ , metal with that there just it happened it tahatdnniehte ’ . he sent it Kahonweia ’ kowdhne tahonndta’, Kahnawd:ke taiawenon- in a large boat they put at rapids it was hdtie ’ . coming Ne ' thd ndn shontakahd : wi ' o ’ seronni ’ c5n :we it there place as it carries people of France This is the story of the church bell in the St. Francis Xavier Catholic Church in the village of Caughnawaga, Province of Quebec, near Montreal. The King of France promised the Mohawk Indians he would give them a bell for their church. He fulfilled his promise, and a bell was put on a ship for Caughnawaga. 124 tdnon' tiohro ' sh aka ’ cJn : we ronater iidhne ' . Idh and English people they were fighting not td:io ne iehwis ta 1 dks tha ' tsi arrive the one strikes metal because with it wa ' konwaid : na ’ ne kahonweia ' kcJ : wa , iahatihawe' they caught it the large boat they took it was tohrondn : ke takarhdrho ’ wahonnetdhko ’ tsi (Bostonian place) it docked they took out United States nahd : ten ’ wd : tahkwe ’ ne kahdn : wakon . Akwg whatever it was on the in the boat all wahontenhni : non ' e ' they sold that th<5 wa’kardtie' ne there along with the iehwista ' ekstha ' . one strikes metal with it Tsi n<5n tkand:taien' at where town lies ne the Deerfield that indkere ' wahatihni : non ’ . Deerfield they live there they bought it Khare ’ until 6 :nen now waho tin6nhton rke* na6n:we' ne they became for it to impatient arrive At that time the French and English were fighting one of their wars. The bell never reached its destination The ship was captured and docked in Salem, Massachusetts, and the cargo was sold, including the bell. The town of Deerfield purchased the bell. In the meantime, the Mohawks were waiting for their 125 raotihwlsta ' , wahat ir ihwi : sake ’ ka ’ nieiawe :non . their metal they sought the where it had gone reason Wahat ir ihwatshdn : ri ' tsi wa ' konwaid : na ' ne they found the reason that they caught it the kahonweia ' kd : wa tdnon ' tsi was tohrondn : ke large boat and that United States tiorhdrhon Deerfield it was Deerfield docked tkonwd:iatSj tsi ndn they call it at the place t ioia ' to tarhd : 'on. it was caught Wahontenenhrdn : ni ' Kahnawa ' kehrd : non' tdkeni they formed a group rapids people two tewen 'nidwe' hundred nihd : t i , ratsihdnhstatsi tdnon of them priest and o ' serdn : ni' axe makers shotdr wahonhtdn : t i ' , wahonnesdkha ' soldier they went away they went to look for ne iehwista ' dks tha ' . the one strikes metal with it bell. They inquired about it and found that the ship had been captured and the bell had been sold in Deerfield. The Mohawk Indians got together a war party of 200 braves along with some French soldiers and a priest, and together they left for Deerfield to find the bell. 126 Karf:wes wa ’ thontstikawha ' tsi niic5:re' length of they wandered to so it is far time iahdnmewe' ne Deerfield. Akohsera ’kehkd :wa they arrived Deerfield middle of winter 1704 shiiohserd : ten . Teiotenonhianlhton tsi nl was the year it was frightful as the tsi wahonter f : io ' . E:sof wahonnlheie ’ . as they fought many they died Wahontkwd : ni ’ they won ne onkwehdn:we. Wahshakotiid :na 1 dtia’ke ne the real people they held them some the wahshakoti ' shdn :ni f . Ne ’ thd ndn they defeated them in there place tdka' sdts i ' 4 : so ' rd : ti enhonnlheie if too many of them they will onkwehdn : we , tenhshakotiia ' taiestdhsi ' real people they will look over people shontakahd : wi ' as it carries die the nd:ne kwdh which truly rotiia ’ tahni : rons tdnon' kdn ' nithot iidn : ha they are strong and small they are aged (males) rot is ken ' rakehte ' boys entehshakotiia ' tdnhawe ’ they will bring them tdnon f and It was in the winter of 1704 that they arrived in Deerfield. A fierce battle took place, the town was taken , and many lives were lost. The Mohawks captured some prisoners. In those days, if they lost too many warriors, they would pick out the strongest young males, capture them, and bring them to their 127 th.6 ni tsi enhshakonehid : ron ' there that as they will raise them tsi ni ne as that the shakotiien 'okdn : 'a, their children khdre ' (5:nen until now enhdniake ’ he will marrv onkwehdn : we . E’ th6 ni tsi dtia’ke real person that there that as some rotihsennaientd : ’on ne tiohrdn:sha' ken ' td : here ' , they got their names the English Scottish arismen, tdnon' o ' seronni ' kdha kahsenna ’ shon : ’ a Irish and way of axe makers names ne kirken raotihsenna ’ sh<5n : ’ a ne shakotiid:na is this their names the they caught them Kahnawd:ke shako tiid : the . to rapids they brought them. Wahatihwis taniiontd :ko ’ ononhsatokenht i :ke they took the metal off at the holy house kahnia ’ sd : ke , karontd:ke wahatihwdnerenke ' . on its neck on log they tied it Wahonnenhsd : ren ’ 6' they carried over their shoulders thd ni tsi there the as tontahonhtdn : t i ’ . they returned village to raise like their own sons. Eventually they would marry into the tribe. This is how and why some of the Indians have English, Scottish, Irish, and French names. The names came from the young boys who were captured in the wars. The bell was taken from the church steeple and fastened to a beam with a crossbar at both ends, so that 128 Kwdh i:ken tsi rotihdhes tsi nii<5:re’ truly it is that their road to as it is far was long enshdn : newe 1 . Iohseratshd : ni 6:so’ wahatiidsha' they will fierce winter much they suffered return tsi niiohdhes , at as the road is long iohahdksen tsi rc5n : ne ' tdnon ' bad roads as they walked and wa ' tkanien ’ kwatas£hon ' . it snowed Ne d:so' wahatiidsha' the much their hardship shotdr , tsi thotikwi ' tshdhere ' soldier to their knees niid : re ' that far iehatihs indnhserons, wahshako ti 'ndsha 1 ne their legs were they were the falling in jealous onkwehdn: we ne tsi real people because tehonathwgn : karonte ’ they had snowshoes ok on € : neken top thihdn :ne ’ . they were walking Wahonskd :neke ' rondnha (5:ni* they were themselves also longing the men could carry it. They left Deerfield and started the long trek homeward. The winter was cruel, and there were many hardships, one of them the rough terrain. The snowstorms were hard to endure, especially for the French soldiers, who suffered a great deal from the toil of wading through the deep snow. They envied the Indians who were wearing snowshoes and who seemed to be floating on top of the snow. They did not show signs of fatigue 129 ne kahwdn:kare' the snowshoes ahot iidn : take ' they should have them tsi niitfire' because tsi teho t ihwishenhd : ion as they were tired ok ne onkwehdn:we iah but the real people not taho t ihwishenhd : ion . they would be tired. Tonsahatithar dnnion ' , they discussed tsi enkonwaia ’ tdta ' ne that they will bury the tsi rot iniotkawenhdt ie ' that they were laboring through the snow the tewerne at all did it show ia ’ thotir ihwaien : ta ' se ' they decided iehwis ta 1 ekstha ’ . one strikes metal with it Wahdn:ron* ne roidiner, he the he is chief "Kdni'en kaniatardkta' entewaia ’ tdta ' ; here near the lake will be bury it kenkwitdine tent itewakoha ’ . " in spring will we come get it E' thcf ki na ' d : wen ’ ne ' , wahat iia ' tata ' . that there this it happened they buried it. as did the French soldiers. The party decided to bury the bell on Lake Champlain and come back for it in the Spring. When Spring came. 130 Ia’kahewe' ne kenkwitd:ne sahontenenhrdn : ni ' there it the spring they grouped back arrived together d' th(5 nionsahdn : ne ' that there they retraced their steps kaniatardkta' ne Champlain near the lake Champlain sahonnetdhko ’ ne they took it the out iehwista ' dkstha ' . one strikes metal with it Ronatshennonihdt ie ' they were happy tsi sahatihewe’. Khdre ' that they brought time it back (5:nen iahatihwistaniidn : ten ’ now they hung the metal ononhsatokenhti :ke . in the holy house E:so‘ iohserdrke wdhontste*. many years they used it Ohiari:ha shiwennhni ’ td : ten wisk- iawdn : re ’ June in the month of fif teen shiskare’ t iohton-iawdn : re ' tewen’nidwe' t£non’ the date nine teen hundred and id : ia ' k-niwdhsen six t y tidhton shiiohserd : ten nine in the year of kahwistasd ’tsi new bell sahatihwis taniidn : ten ’ . On:wa' they hung the metal Now they grouped together again and went back to Lake Champlain where the bell was buried and triumphantly brought it home. In due time it was installed in the church steeple. The bell served the village for many years . A new bell was installed on June 15, 1969. 131 wenhnisera : te ' days ononhsatokenhti :ke kanonhskon in the holy house inside the house oshon ' kara : ke on the floor tka : ien ' there it 1 ies ne Deerfield aohwistha ' . the Deerfield bell Ne tsakawehiahrakwen : nis it reminds us again tsi niiawenr'en ne what happened to iehwis ta ' eks tha ’ aokaira’ one hits metal her story with it (bell) Today you will find the old Deerfield bell resting on the floor inside the church to remind people of this history . This story was told to me by my grandmother. Warisd : se Kaierithon Josephine Horne 132 SENHA' TEHOTI : KA TSI NI:IOT NE AKON : WARA ' Faster than 0 Face Omen kf’ kw£h now just some kdn ' niiohser£:ke tsi few years n£he ' ago ki:ken d' th<5 this there niiaw^n : ' on . it happened thus E' th 6 there shikaha:wi' kontatewennf as it carries their word was good : io sh^'s then ne katsh^inen' the animals ne the kahnawarke. Isi' at rapids there ndnhskwat i beyond the bridge she's nii(5:re' used as it is to be far niekonnehtha ' ne teionnhdnhskwaron . Awenhnisera- they would the cows all day wander kwdrkon enkont ihdn : take ' nd:kon ne kwd:ti. Sok long they would eat under the side then grass she's tentkonhtdn : ti ' n<5:nen used they would come at the to be back time ienkdhewe ’ akonwati- it would for one carry to take This were still to pasture east side, happened some years ago when domestic animals free to roam in Caughnawaga. The cows used way on the other side of the bridge, on the returning home twice each day to be milked, 133 non ? tatdhko ' milk out of them orhon’kdme tdnon' ne ni ’ no 'karahsndha . morning in and the in the evening Omen ki:ken shiwenhniserd : te ’ idh now this as this day not tha ’ tet iawd : non ki:ken ne teionnhdnhskwaron . had she come this the cow back Iahonwanatd : r i ’ they sent them out ne tehniksd:’a iatate ' kdn : ' a the two boys they are brothers aonsakonwaia ' t isdkha ’ . Iahnirdthen' karistdike, for them to go look they two on the iron for her (body) climbed up ia ' thiatkathonnionhwe ’ . Tdka' akonwd:ken' ne they looked around maybe she might the be seen rao t itshd : nen' ka ' ok ndn:we aontaiora ’ karhon ’ their animal somewhere she might be lagging Khdre* d:nen finally now ki ’ ionsahiatsnenhte ’ just they two went back down is i ’ over there ne kd:ti dkte’k ndn:we the side every place ieshonatkdn : se ' . they locked morning and evening. One day, this cow did not return home, so the family sent out their two sons to search for her. The boys went up on the railroad tracks and looked in every direction, but she was nowhere in sight. They climbed 134 Khdre ' dinen td^k niidire' ndikon ne kditi finally now so as it is under the side far ia ' thiats tikdhwha ' . Idh ki ' they traveled not just tekonwdiken ne did they see the her raot itshd : nen'. their animal 0 : nen now tontaid : karahwe ' tahiatdhsawen ' it got dark they started again tontahiater is tita ' tehotis terihenhdt ie ' ase'kdn they traveled on they were hurrying because the iron ronateridn : tare ' they knew akdmwara' lire's 0 Face he goes nd :nen at the time ent id : karahwe ’ it will get dark Kiiken ne this the thakowd : nen he is large rattd : kas he notices rotatshatara inis ok thdinen' shadows appear something around him okwirokdnhson ' among the trees ndk tsi idh wdine' but that not showing tehadnini ase'kdn he made on because tdhsa ' not down the other side of the tracks and hiked a great distance but she was nowhere to be found. Darkness came upon them and they started for home following the railroad tracks back. They started to walk faster as darkness was descending upon them. They knew they had to be home before night was completely upon them 135 ahohteronhkwen ’ ne roken : ' a . Khdre ' 6 : nen to frighten the his small finally now him brother wahias to : ron ’ . S <5k 6 : ni ' ne ons t <5 : ren ' ne they two then also it began to the walked fast walk fast karhakdnhson tet io tshatarat ie ’ s . Khdre ' <5:nen in the forest shadowing finally now wa ' thiarahtate ' they two ran 6:nen ki ’ now just sdnha' dkta’ nonwdhte ’ more near it moved ne notshd : ta ' . the shadow 0:nen ki:ken now this ne thakowd:nen tahohterdn :ne ’ the he is larger he began to get scared as he came Wahanonhtonnionhwe ’ he thought tsi t<5ka ' <5:nen ki ’ ne that maybe now just the akonrwara’ shakoienahsere ’ . 0 Face he is going to catch them E’ th6 ki’ ki:ken there just this for they knew that 0 Face lurked in the dark of night, ready to pounce on any youth who wandered about. In the gloom, the older boy sensed a darker, gloomier shadow flitting among the trees in the distance He did not let on to his little brother the fear that was growing within him. As the gloom grew more dense, he sensed the darker shadow of 0 Face flitting in among the trees and coming closer and closer. He urged his 136 ronahstoront ie ’ tsi nontaiolcara ' onhdt ie ' . E' th(5 they were as it was getting dark there walking fast kf ' ne akdn : wara ' sdnha' aktdntie’ nontahawe - just the 0 Face more near abouts he came nonhtonhatie ’ . Khdre ' (5:nen tho:ha ahshakonhontera ’ne ' . along finally now almost would he catch up to them Omen tho:ha shahia 'nikonhr(5:kten ’ wahdttoke ' now almost they came to the he noticed end of their minds ne thakowdmen ken'k niidrre’ ne karhdikon the his is large a bit so is it the in the woods far tkahdhserote ' tontahonerahdntsha ’ ne ro'kdn:’a there a house he just grabbed the his small stands him by the wings brother tcLnon' wa ’ thnf : ten ’ tsi niiohsnd:re’ iahianontdtsnenhte ’ . and they flew as so it is they went down fast the hill Iakdnr'ak iahninhohd : ka ’ te ' rotikstdn:ha just barely they two reached they are old the door iatathrdna ' they are married little brother to hurry and finally they were almost on the road home. The darkness swirled around and so did the shadow of 0 Face, closer and closer. The boys saw a small light glowing in the window of a house where lived an old couple. They broke into a run, with the dark figure of 0 Face starting to take swipes at them. With a last desperate burst of speed, they plunged right through the door of the cabin. 137 tsi thni:teron', raotindnhskon ia T thnihra ’ kwdnhtara 'ne ’ . there they two in their house they fell down on live their stomachs kwah just Serdka ' almost ne iatathrdna' the they are marr le Tsatera ' swi : io k 1 : ken teseniidhse, tsi your luck is this you two that good idh tetshiseniie :nen ne akdn:wara’, ase’kdn not has he caught the 0 Face because you two idh dnhka’ ne wdn:ton tetsako ' niakdn : ’ en not anyone the ever have they escaped tsi niidikon shakonhontera": ’ on tsi niiohserd : kon as many people he has caught up as many years to them Wahonatewerd : ienhte T ne akdn:wara' a wind hit them the 0 Face iakdn: 'ak tonsahshakowihskwahte ' . barely did he miss them ahshakoid : nenwake ' . Wahshakot ihrd : r i ’ would he catch them they told them falling to the floor before the startled eyes of the old man and the old woman. The terrible roaring, dark form of 0 Face took one last angry swipe at the door and all was quiet. After the boys told their story, they were told how fortunate they were to escape, as in all 138 ahsontakdnhson sha ’ tehots tikahwenhdt ie ' s in the as he is travelling along darkness the years that 0 Face had been known to travel in the darknesses of earth, no one, but no one, had ever gotten away once 0 Face had gotten hold oT them. Konwatsi ’ tsaien :ni Rita Phillips 139 RONENHE : ION I AH TEHONTA : TI The Dead Do Not Talk Wahdn : nise ' long ago id : ken ’ they say kand:takon rati’teron:- in town they lived tahkwe ' then kaie : r i four niha:ti ronon:kwe, of them men tehontero ' seri - they used to be idhne ’ . good friends Khare ' o:nen ki wa ' thonter ihotarhoke ’ , and then this they had an argument iahken onhka ’ ahohteron ' nlhake ' . Shaiarta ki ne not who he would be one man this the afraid rahtahkon :ni ' wahatena : ies te ' he makes shoes he bragged tsi iah the :nen ' that not anything tehatsha :nis . he fears Omen ki ’ ne ronatia’ke ne now just the others the ronten:ro' wahomnehre' they are they thought friends enhonwate ’nientenhste ’ they will test him Long ago, it has been told, in this town lived four men who were very good friends. One day they got to arguing as to who among them was the bravest. The shoemaker boasted that he, of all, was not, and never would be afraid of anything seen or unseen. The other three decided among themselves to give him a test . 140 oronhwi:io ken. matter is if good Sdk ki shaid:ta thahrdn:ni tsi wahrenhd.'ie’ then this one man he made as as he died Shaid:ta nd:ne rahenheion ’ tahserdn :nis wahshakadn : nien ' one man who he is an undertaker he made them ne kar(5n:to. Kwdh ki ’ tahat iid : r ite ’ tsi the casket so even they did it as properly wahonwaia ’ td : ren ' tdnon ' akwd:kon wahat iweiendn : ta ’ne they laid his and all they prepared body out tsi niio terihwf son ' . as the matter should be 0:nen ki tsi taio ; karahwe ’ akwd:kon ki ' now this as it got dark all of ne rontdn:ro’ wahatinonha ' d : na ’ . Wahonter ihwah- the they are they went to the they made a friends wake ser<5n:ni' ne pact that ki this ne rahtahkdn :nis the he makes shoes ne 6 ' that there A few days later, the shoemaker was notified that one of his best friends was dead. One of the men, a funeral director, had made all the arrangements. The three remaining friends met at the wake and decided that one of them must remain with the dead man all night to 141 tenharhenhte ’ enhatendn : na ’ . Waharihwa ' ndn:wen ’ ne ’ he will spend he will watch he agreed the night ki' . just Nidrrehkwe’ ki T before though sahakdha' raoio ’ tdnhsera 1 he went his work back to get t<5hsa ' ki ' ahondnhtonke ' tsi not just he would find as the time long niwahsdn : tes . the length of the night Oinen ki ' kwdh kdn ' now just just a bit shikahd :wi ' tsi as it carries that niwahsdn : tes as the night is long kfrken rahtahkon : ni ' renndikahre* thi,s he makes he whistles shoes raonhd : ' ak he alone rone ' k<5n : re f , he hammers roid ' te ' he works dhta shoes shakwatakwas . he repairs Thontaiawenhsts i ' ki:ken all of a sudden this ne raia’tdhere' the his body is laid out watch. So, the shoemaker readily agreed to be the one, but first he returned to his shop to get a few things to work on during the night so that he would not find it so long. When the shoemaker was alone with his "dead" friend, he set to work repairing the shoes he had brought, whistling as he hammered away. 142 tahatd : ti ' wahen : ron ' , he spoke he said "He , tha ’ tesatd : tat , thi : ken idh teiote Hey , you keep quiet that not is the r ihwison ’ nahsenna : kahre ’ no : nen senonhnha ' . " proper way for you to when you are whistle watching Ne rahtahkdn :nis wahen : ron ’ , the he makes shoes he said "I : se ’ tha ' tesato : tat , ase’ken iah you you keep quiet as not tehonta : tis ne ronenhe : ion . M do they talk the they are dead Sok then ions aha tasdnteren ’ he continued sahoid ’ ten ' he worked again . 0:nen now kwdh just kdn ’ a bit niskah£ :wi' it carries again & : re ' again kf ne this the r aia ' tdhere his body is laid out tahdn : ron 1 , he spoke Suddenly, a voice from the casket said, "Have you no respect for the dead? Be quiet!” The shoemaker replied, "You keep quiet, the dead do not talk!" and he kept on hammering and whistling. After some time, the voice from the casket said again, "Quiet, you, have you no respect for the dead?" 143 "Hd , idhken tesa:ien' ahser ihwakwdnnienhs te ' Hey! not do you you should respect have ne iakawenhe : ion . Tha ’ tesat<5 : tat . M the they are dead Keep quiet Ne rahtahkdn : ni ’ wahen:ron', the he makes shoes he said "Hd , dnskak d:nen enskonhrd ri', hey! once now I will tell you again ser ihd :kten. shut up 0:nen ni:se’ senhd:ion." now you you are dead Sdk ionsahatasdnteren ’ , sahrennd : kahre ’ tdnon ' then he continued he whistled again and sahane ' kc5n : reke ’ . he hammered some more Sdk d : re ' ki ’ then again just ne raia'tdhere' the his body is laid out tontahohdn : rehte ' , he hollered again, "Ser iho : kten shut up thirken. Tha ' tesatd : tat d:nenk." that you keep quiet right now The shoemaker was getting a bit riled up by this time and said, impatiently, "Hey you, I’m telling you for the last time, you keep quiet. You’re the one that is dead." Then for a while it was quiet again and the shoe¬ maker returned to his hammering and whistling. Again the voice issued from the casket, this time much louder and demanding, "Keep quiet. You have no respect for the dead. 144 0 : nen ki’ ne rahtahkon : nis tahona : khwe ' . now just the he makes shoes he got mad Tontahatd ' s ts i ' he stood up suddenly tdnon ' karonto ' tsherakta ’ and near the casket nia ' tha : ta ’ne ' tdnon ' he stood and ia'thohso: kwe ' ke 'ne he hit him on the the head raia ' tahere ' . Tonsahatkarhatd : ni ' , his body is he turned around laid out ionsahdt ien ' he re-sat tdnon ' sahoid'ten and he worked again sken : nen ' tsi nii6 : re ' in peace as so it is far wa ' awen : te 'ne ' . daylight came Idh nenska tha ' tethowennaketo : ton ' not once did a word come out from him ne rawenhe : ion . the he is dead 0:nen tontah6n:ne' when they came back ne rontdn : ro ' the they are friends Only a very stupid and crude man would do what you are doing in the presence of the dead!" At this, the shoemaker angrily jumped up from his bench, bounded to the casket, and with his hammer, bopped the man in the casket on the head. After that, the shoemaker whistled and hammered in peace and quiet until the break of day. Not even one word issued from the dead man from then on. When his friends returned next morning, expecting 145 aonsahonwa: iehte ’ ne raoniheion : ta ' tanon' to wake him up the dead body and aonsahshakokaraton : hahse ’ oh na'd:wen' tsi for him to tell them what it happened as stories niwahson : tes as night is long iah tehot ikwenion aonsahonwawiehton ' . not were they able to wake him up Iah tha ’ t iesehshakowennard : ni ne not a word did he speaK the to them rawenhe : ion ronten:ro'. he is dead they are friends to be regaled by the story the "dead" man might tell . He lay still and never said a word. Konwatsi ' tsaidn :ni Rita Phillips 146 ERHAR ' 0 : KON The Dogs Wah<5n:nise' id:ken' n6:ne Long ago it is said that wa ' tewatendn : ianihte ' it exaggerated itself 6rhar wa ' kont indkeren 'ne ' ne kand:takon. Tdnon' dog they started to live the village in And she's ia:ken' teionater ien ' takar ia , ahsontakwekdnhshon ' then it is said they were noisy all night, here, there iotihni:hen. Omen ia:ken' ne ranatakwe ' ni : io ' they bark Now it is said the he is main town chief wahariho : wanahte ' tsi entar'on ok nenkaie:ren' he word made large that it must be something will be done kf : ken erhar this dog sotsif wa ' onatiohkowdnha ' ne ' . too the groups became large Wahontkennfsa ' ne they met the rondnikwe, tanon' wahati- men and they r ihwinion ' te ' tsi word brought that akwe : kon ki ' all just enta : ' on it must be A long time ago, there were a great many dogs in our small village. There were almost as many dogs as there were people. Everyone was getting very tired and impatient with them, because they were barking all night and getting into all kinds of mischief. The chief called a big town meeting and the people decided that something had to be done. The people agreed, and the chief announced that all the dogs of the village 147 enkonwanahshehton ' . they will be killed 0 :nen ki : ken roks tdn : ha i:non karhdrkon Now this he is old far woods in thandkere ' , iaharihwd : ronke ’ tsi nihontierd : ne ’ there he lives he word heard that what they are going to do Kwah ia:ken' dksa'k tahahten : ti ’ , tahshako- Just it is said quickly there he walked there he them hroria:na' tsi to tell came that iah tetkaieiri' not is it right tsi nihont iera : ne ' . that which they are going to do Wahshakohro :ri ’ , He them told wahen:ronT, "Enkwahrd : ri ’ he said I you will tell tsi ionkhiia ’ takehnhas thiiken erhar . Sewa- that they us help those dog You all ter ien : tare ' know ki:ken kaniataratat ie ' this river along tsi there ohniare ’ ko : wa snake big konti : teron ' , they live tanon' ne and the were to be killed. Now this wise, old man, who lived alone in the forest, heard what the people were about to do and he became very upset. He immediately started on a trip to the village to tell the people that what they were about to do was not right. He told them, "You all know that there are horrible sea monsters living at the bottom of this river passing right by our village, and these monsters are constantly 148 teionatonhwent io : ni they want kdn : f en here ne aontakont irathen ' the to climb up here kandrtakon akdntien’. village in for them to stay Ne kd : t i ' The reason thi : ken that ahsontakwe : kon sewathon:teT night all you all hear erhar iotihnirhen. dog they bark Skonwana ' te ' kwdhtha ’ ne ohniare ' k6 : wa , tdhsa' they them chase back the snake large do not atia:kta‘ naontakdn : ne ' . " riverside for them to come Tsi 6 :nen wahar iho : kten ' ne roks ten : ha , at when he word finished , the he is old iah onhka ' the : nen' tetiaka:wen tanon ' not anyone nothing did they say and skennen ' ahson : ' a sahonhten : ti ’ . Iah ne wen: ton peacefully they walked back Not ever dnhka ' tha f teskonwana ’nikdnhare ’ ne erhar . anyone did they touch their minds the dog trying to climb up the riverside to come into our village! Well, that noisy barking you hear all night is the dogs chasing back the monsters into the river. This is the reason we must keep our dogs and treat them kindly." When the 'wise, old man finished, not a word was spoken, and the people quietly left to go home. The dogs were never again bothered by the people, and they were always treated kindly. 149 n6n : wa ’ now tho there Ne aori:wa?, shdikon The reason still niionkwanahskwakd : te ’ our pet's are many erhar ne kana:takon. dog the village in That is why, even to this day, we still have a great many dogs in our village. Amen Kaia ’ titdhkhe ' Annette Jacobs 150 KASPE Nd:ne wahdnrnise' shdtkon askwakaidn : ne this long ago still bridge old at sha ' teionskwi : ia ' ks nc5n:kwe c5:nen when they bridge people now crossed id : ken ' it is said ki:ken tontahonahtentionhdt ie ' ken' nithot i i6n : sa this back they coming little they aged young skaniatard : t i na ' tontahdn : ne ' . beyond lake there they came 0:nen id:ken' tah<5n:newe' tsi io tc5n : niate ' now it is said they came to end of point (5:nen wahdnttoke' c5:ia' ohnd:ken‘ tah(5n:ne'. now they noticed another back they coming Sdk then nd : ' a and shaid : ta one body wahdn : ron ' he said > "Hd 'o how about kdn : tho here tewatdhset , we hide eniethiia' tet shahnihten we will intimidate them thi:ken ohnd:ken tah(5n:ne’.M those behind they are coming Long ago, when people still crossed the old bridge, it is said that several young men of the same age were on their way home. When they got to the Point, they noticed another group behind them. One of them had an idea and said, "Let's hide here and scare the group behind us." 151 Thd ki nahat 1 : iere ’ . such then so they did Wahdn:nise’ id:ken' th(5 ndn:we long ago it is said there at that place nishondkwen ronkwehkdnha ' , they from man had been water recovered Kaspd ronwd : iatskwe ’ . Gaspe he had been called Th<5 kl ' tsi karlstote’ there just at metal standing thonwaia T td ten ’ his body was put in Oinen kl ne now this the thd shiwahsontd : te ' thd there when night stood there wahontenerd : kwaien ' wahonterhd :rate ' they on their stomach they waited 1 ay ahdn : newe ’ for them to arrive ne rondtia'ke tah(5n:ne’. the they others they are coming Khdre ’ finally d:nen ki* now just khd ’ dkta ’ rot ihtharonndntie ' close near they are talking along ne kl:ken ohnd:ken' the these behind And so they did hide. Long ago, it is said, they recovered a man’s body. His name was Gaspd. There, by the marker, he was buried. On that special night there they were hunched, patiently waiting for the group behind to get there. Finally, now, they were close by and they were speaking, this group that was behind. 152 tah(5n : ne ' . they were coming Oinen ki ' thdk nitidrre', d:nen now finally only so it is far now enwd : ton ' it could be done enhsheidn : tere ’ne ' . 0 : nen will you recognise now someone shaidita ne rotahsdhton one body that he is hiding wa ' thohdn : rehte ' wahdn:ron', he called he said, "Tdhsa ' ia ’ satkdhtho Kaspd do not there look Gaspd ts i thaid : ta. M at where his body is Sok id:ken* ki ronn<5n:kwe tahont ihdntho ' then it is said that the men they pulled out wahontd : ko ' . they got away hastily 0 : nen ki ' nen ’ now just as nd : ’ e ne ki : ken it is of this ratinerd : kwaien ' they are hunched wahdnttoke ’ tsi niid:re' tsi they noticed as so it is far as Now they were so close that you could recognise them. Now one of the men hiding spoke loudly. He said, "Do not behold Gaspd's grave." Then, it is said, these men pulled out, they ran away . Now then, these men on the ground noticed the extent 153 ronateronhienhtdn : ni ki:ken • ne. ronndnrkwe for them blue has these the men fallen ronate ' kwenhdtie ’ . they hastily getting away Sok ne nen ' then they also nd : ’ e tahonti - it is they hdntho ’ pulled wahontd : ko ' . they got away hastily Ne ' s kd : t i this verily ionsahiatkdhtho * . back there they looked Shdikon kd:ti* still verily ohndrken' ta:re* ne Kaspd behind he is coming the Gaspd tahshakdhsere ' . he is chasing them Nd : ’ e kd : t i ’ ne' that verily this nd : ' e tho ni: iot tsi it is there is as so wahshakot ianerdnhkwen ' he them had spooked ne Kaspd him Gaspd ne thd the there shikahd : wi ' . as it carries . Nd : ' e ki nen ’ this that that nd : ’ e ne it is that wahdn :nise ’ long ago of their fear of these men in such hasty departure. Then they also pulled out and ran away. Now and again they would look back, only to see Gaspd coming behind them in pursuit. Such is the way that Gaspd scared the fellows by materialising on that special night. This is from the time when the old folks knew 154 ne she:kon shihatikaraweientehtenion ' ne the still when they knew stories they khe ' nihokon : ’ a sens tho ni:iot tsi my fathers used such as it is such to rat ika : ratonhskwe ' . they used to tell stories Ne:'e ki nen' ne : ' e ne this this parti- it is this cular akwiratekha ' sapling burning ronwa : iatskwe ’ ne he was called the kirken rakkaraton :ni . this he me story told how to tell stories. This is how my father and uncles used to tell stories. This particular one was told to me by my uncle Burning Sapling. Akwira : ’ es sapling tall Frank Natawe 155 0 ' TONHKWA ' The Flame Tdka ’ about id : ia ' k- iawdn : re ' six teen sha ' tewakohser iid : kon as I years had passed teiontiatieronni(5n:ni it made strange istdm'a tdnon' i:!i my mother and myself shonsaiont iahtet ionhdtienne ' dnska shiwahsontd : te ' . as back we two were walking one as night stood 0:nen ki ' kwdh ken' shit io ' kard : ' on tdnon ' Now just even little as it darkens and teio thahd : kton tsi ndn:we niidkene’. Ok it road curving at where we walk it tieidiken' she's tsi t ionkwandnhsote ' can be seen then at our house stood nd men when kanenna ' kd : ne tdnon' autumn in and akwd : kon all ionerahtdn : ' en . leaves have fallen Kwdh she's just then ki ' ken'k just ndn : we thi tkahnhoh- where there door kd : ronte ' . opening My mother and I were walking home one moonlit night many years ago, when I was about sixteen. There was a little bend in the road where we were walking, and it was such a lovely fall evening, that you could see right through the trees to the back door of our house. 156 lonkenikar atdnt ie ' ki ' nd:'a, khdre ' (5 : nen we two started along I suppose sudden then ki is tdn : ’ a ia 1 ontkdhtho ' tsi t ionkwandnhsote ' this my mother there she looked at where our house stood tdnon ’ wa ’ I : ron ’ , and she said "Oh nekdn ' What ever kwah ndn : wa' now nithatidrha ' is he doing thi : ken ia’nlha?" that your father. Omen <5 : ni ' ni:’i ia ’ katkdhtho ' . Kdn ' then also myself there I looked just niken ' tonhkwa ’ se ' k£n tsi tkahnhohkd : ronte ' so small flame as well at door opening skennen ’ ahsdn : ’ a tsi teiohkwatasehdt ie ' . Kwdh slowly at it surrounding just nd : ne dnhka'k shi ok nahd : ten ’ tieken 'enidnnions that someone what thing she examined IcEh ki ’ thd : nen ' not even anything teiont ianonhtonnidnhon ' , did we think My mother glanced up and suddenly said to me, "I wonder what your father is doing?" I followed her gaze to our back door and there, going slowly around the frame of the door, was a small flame, no bigger than a match flame. We thought that my father was checking his work, as he had just finished 157 ase’kdn tho roio'te'kwe' theten:re' ne rake'niha. because there he had been yesterday the my father working Tsi (5:nen ionsaiakenewe ’ at when back there we arrived wahonwari 'wanon : tonhse ’ she him asked oh nihat ierhahkwe ' ne atste. Wahen:ron? ne ' what he had been the outside He said it is do ing tsi idh that not ne enska t iehoiaken : ' en . Wa'akone- the one was he out she khe : ren ' , puzzled , nek tsi iah but not ki ' thernen’ teiaka:wen. even anything did she say. Tsi wa'orhen’ne’ wa ' akor iho: ta ' se ’ tsi at morning she received word that thononhwaktani' ne ronwa'nfha, sok there he was the her father then sick oksa ’ k immediately wa ' onhten : t i ' . Tho wa:'enhte' she left there she went tsi thononhso te ’ . to where his house stands hanging the storm door the day before. When we arrived home, my mother asked him what he had been doing outside. He answered that he had not been out all evening. We looked quizically at one another, but did not think anymore of the incident. The next morning my mother received the sad news that her father was very ill, so she quickly packed and left to go to his village. By the time she arrived 158 S6ts i’ too shithawenhe : ion then he had died nisko ’ late ok na : ’ a already wa ' ako ’ she was shiaha ’ onwe ’ . when she arrived Saiakehiarra’ne* she remembered oh naho:tenf what iontiatkahthon , we had seen tanon* o:nen 6:ni’ wa'ako- and now too she 'nikonhr iaien : ta 'ne ' tsi wa ' akohshonnion ' se ' got on her mind that she bad omened thi tho shiwahsonta : te ' . that there as night stood there, her father had already passed away. She immediately thought about the flame we saw on our way home the evening before, and she knew that it was one of those mysterious premonitions that people sometimes experience. Ainen Kaia ’ titdhkhe ' Annette Jacobs 159 IAKOTINENIOIA'KS The Legend of the Little People 0 : nen ki ’ ni : ’ i now here mine skahwatsi : ra one family onkwehdn ; we real people nakkd :ra' . my story ronnd ' skwe ' they used to roam Wahdn : nise ' long ago tidtkon always ronatonnhdhere ’ . Ki:ken ne ronwa'niha they were happy this the their father ratoratsheraweidnhen idh nowdn:ton tehontonh- he hunts well not ever are they kdria’ks ne raohwd : ts ire ' . Ki:ken ne hungry the his family this the shakot i ' nistdnha their mother iewe ienni : io iakokhonnidhtskon she is a good she likes to cook homemaker t dnon ' and tidtkon ionhkwennidn : ni raonawenhshdn : ' a always she is making their clothes clothes kandhon tdnon’ skins and dhwhare ’ idnts tha ’ , fur she uses ne d : ni ’ the also Once upon a time there was a very happy Indian family. The father was a good hunter and the mother worked very hard making clothes and blankets from the animal skins and using the meat for cooking nourishing meals . 160 iakonni# : tha ' ne raonahsire ’ shdn ; * a. she makes of this their blankets Kaie : r i four nihotiwi : raien 1 that many they children have Tseia : ta one child ne was isi far non niiako ’ nikonhratsha :ni , there so was she brave Katsi ’tsaro:roks Gathering flowers iontat iats . she was called Ne kwah iakaon ’ dskwani kaniatarakta ' the just she likes along the water aiont ien ' , she would sit t iotkon always nia'te:kon ionnonhtonnidnkwas many things she thinks about ne karihwi:io's naonta:we' nakohwats I : rakon . the good things it would to her family come la 1 akb ; ta ’ we ' se ’ken she fell asleep this non:wa’. Akoserenhtakon time in her sleep iakothdn:tef rotihthare'. she heard they were talking la ’ eiehtahkwe ’ . she awoke Taionnit sko : ten ' . Ken' na'd:iere’ kenf she sat up here so she did here ron : ne ' they were walking There were four children in this family. They had one daughter whose name was Gathering Flowers. She had an adventurous nature. She used to love to sit by the river bank and dream of pleasant things for her and her family. One day she fell asleep on the river bank. She awoke to strange voices. Sitting up, she saw 161 iakot inenidia ' ks , ken'k nihdn:na's iatathrdna' they throw stones little so they were they are tiny * married tanon’ ahsen nihot iwl : raien ' , and three that many they have children kwdh se'kdn even as well ki : ken owird : ' a this baby kahr onhsera : ke papoose board roia ' tanentd : kon . he is stuck to Kats i ' t sard : roks o'nistenha iotka:te' Gathering Flowers her mother often ronwat i - she tells karaton:nis ne them stories the ronwat iien * okon : !a, her children ne iakoti- the they nenioia’ks. "Tohsa1 ietshit sha : ni ' k , ietshihthdrhas throw stones do not be afraid of them talk to them tohsa' teietsheia ’ teriahtikhon enie tshiatera : shon ’ . " do not be mean to them they will bring you good luck wa ’ akehia : ra'ne' she remembered Ne kati’ this then iaka : wen she said o ' nis tenha . her mother ts i as Iah ki' not just naho : ten ' what tet iakoton ’ nekon ' . was she frightened a family of little people, a little man, his tiny wife, and three wee children; the baby was on a wee little papoose board. Gathering Flowers’ mother had often told the children stories about the little people and said, "If you ever see them, don’t be frightened. Talk to them, be nice to them, and they will bring you luck." She remembered this when she saw the little 162 Iahonwat ihtharhahse ' wa'i’iron' , "Kdkts ken she spoke to them she said come here sewatien' tanon' sewator fshen . Sewatonhka'r ia ' ks all sit and all of you you are all rest hungry ken? Kana * tarokhon : we ? real bread t£non ’ and sewahitf : wane ' large fruit watien* . Koh fsewak," tanon' I have here all eat and wahonwat ihnd : kanonte 1 she gave them a drink ohne:kanos. Wa'irron', water she said "Ka ' non nisewdn : teron ' ? " what place do all of you live Wahni : ron ' they said onontohara : ke . " on the hill ne iatathrcfna ’ , the they are married Wahshakot ih6n : karon ’ they invited her "A ’ d : ren away over there aienatd : ra ' she would visit t si at ndn that! where they : teron 1 ive ' . Wa ' onthCn : she agreed tate ' . Sahbn : ne ' t s i sahonhten : ti ’ , iahon : newe ’ they went back to they went home they arrived there people, so she was not too alarmed. She spoke to them, asking them to sit down and rest for awhile. She had a piece of corn bread and apples which she offered to her new found friends. She also gave them some cool water to drink. Gathering Flowers asked the little family where they lived, and they told her they lived yonder on a hill. They invited 163 tsi tkentstdn : rote ' ki : ken iakonenibia fks at there stands this one throws stones a rock rahsnonhsd : ke on his hands wahonitskercfn : ti ' tanon* he spit and kentstenhrh : ke waharhnie \ on the rock he rubbed Thontaiawenhstsi' all of a sudden kdn ’ ni:wa' tsi wa ' tewateronhwen : tate ’ . bit a little it opened a crack Ionsahontdweia ' te ’ they went back in Wa ' 1 : ron 1 , she said sotsi' ken’ too small raot indnhskon in their house "Iah thaonton' not fs it possible ne raohwg : tsire the his family iakat^weia ' te * for me to enter niwa : ' a tsi iontaweia 1 tdhkhwa ’ . " so is it where one uses it for entering ”To : ske ’ true wahi ' , M eh wahen : ron ’ ne iakonenidia ' ks . he said the one throws stones "Sonke ’ nikdnhrhen tsi my mind put down that skow£ : nen ni : se 1 . M you are big you her to visit their home. She accepted their invitation and went along with them. They came to a small rock and the little man spit on his hands and rubbed the rock with them. Suddenly the rock split open and his little family went through it into their home. "I can't get through the tiny opening, V said Gathering Flowers. "Oh yes," said the little man. "I forgot about 164 Akoh£n:ton wa ' th£ : ta ' ne ’ t£non' rahsnonhsa: : ke in front he stood up and on his hands of her wahonitsker<5n : t i ' , he spit ienontsirne wahaid'ina’. on her head he held Thontaiaw£nhstsi ' all of a sudden wa ' tfnhstho ’ne ' she got smaller tsi niicJ : re ' as so it is far tho ok nit sd : ka ’ tsi ni ne ronatia 'ke there so she was as the the the others small 0 : nen <5n : ton ’ ia ' ontdweia ' te ' . now she was she went in able KI : ken raot indnhskon ken ’ k ni : wa ' this in their house very it is atekhwd : ra , ani ’ tskwd : ra , kanakta ’ shbn : ’ a food is put seat is put places kakg : ron ' , tdnon’ karihstote* 6' the it is laid and standing that there out iron you being bigger than we are." He went over to her, spit on his hands, and rubbed her head. Suddenly she could feel herself getting smaller and smaller till finally she was the same size as the little people and was able to get through the tiny opening in the rock. Inside the home was a tiny table and chairs, beds and a stove with a pot of soup on it. Gathering Flowers was invited to sit down and have some soup with 165 kar ihs td : ke on the iron ondn : tara ' . soup kana ' t sahere ’ pot Wa ' ontathdn : kar on ' they invited her Wa ’ enontarardnnion ’ she served the soup Kats i ' tsard : roks Gathering Flowers ne iakdn:kwe the woman tahdn : tonte ' , they would eat iakordkwen , she was serving iakordkwen , she was serving tdnon' idh tetewaterdkwas and not was it emptying nondn:tara* . the soup lotena ' tsdtkon ’ . magic pot 0:nen ia’kdhewe' now there it carried ne Kats i ’ tsard : roks the Gathering Flowers naonsaionhtdn : t i ’ , eT thd ionsaiont d : roke ’ tsi she should go home that there she slipped in where teionits tenhrakhdhs ion . Khd ’ thd roia ' ten ' tdn : ne rock nad separated in right there he was behind two her ne rdn:kwe kdn’ nihrdi'a, the man small so he was sahonitskerdnrti' again he spit them. The little mother kept taking soup out of the pot* but no matter how much she took from the pot, it remained full, as if it were a magic pot, which truly it was . When it came time for Gathering Flowers to go home, she went through the narrow opening in the rock, the little man following her. He spit on his hands, 166 rahsnonhs2: ke t2non’ ienontsi:ne iahaidjna’., on his hands and on her head he touched Thontaiawdnhstsi ’ saiontehi2 : ron ’ tsi All of a sudden she grew back to nitia : kahskwe ' . her regular size Wahdn : ron ’ he said ne iakonenidia ’ks , "Enhske- the one throws stones you will rhardtsten’ tsi idh dnhka* thahsehrcJ : r i * promise me that not anyone will you tell tsi wahskwa : ken ’ , that you saw us tcinon' tsi wahskwdtho' and that you saw tsi ndn iakwdn : teron ' . " that place we inhabit E : so ’ shd : kon much again saienatd:ra' tsi she went back as to visit niwakdnnh.es . the summer was long Kanenna ’ kd : ne ’ dn:we', Autumn it came ia ’ kdhewe ’ ne there it the carried Katsi ’ tsard : roks tanon’ akohwd : ts ire ’ Gathering Flowers and her family- touched her head, and suddenly she grew back to her proper size. The little man made her promise not to tell a soul that she had seen or visited them. She came to visit them almost every day. Autumn came, and it was time for Gathering Flowers and her family to move on to a new hunting 167 iaonsahonhtdn : t i ’ tsi ndn thatorat staTikhwa ' they would move that place he uses it to hunt ronwa’niha. Saienata:: ra ' her father she went to visit shd:kon nohna ’ kdnhkha ' again for the last time tonsahonwat inonhwehra: : ton ’ nakoterd : sera ' . she would say good-bye her friends to them Ki:ken iakot inenidia ’ ks wahatk^htho ' tsi this they throw stones he saw that t iakorihwaie : ri ’ . Wahenrron', her matter was he said right "Ne tsi because seksa ’ ti : io you are a good child tanon' iah tesathro:ri tsi wahskwd : ken ' , ne and not have you told that you saw us the kati’ enkon:ion' ahsen niwaskanektsherd : ke . " why I will give three wishes you Ne ki:ken the this tiot ierenhton wa’eraiko', first one she chose "Kaska:neks ne I wish for the iotena ’ t satkon ' magic pot ne ondn : tara 1 , the soup area. She went to visit her friends for the last time to say good-bye. The little man saw that she was a good person and said, ’’Because you have been so nice to us and kept our secret, I will give you three wishes." Her first wish was to have a magic soup pot so 168 nd:ne akhw£:tsire* which my family aiakwa - could tdhsa' nowdn : ton not ever tonhk^r ia ’ ke ’ , t£non ' dnhka ' iakotohet stonh^t ie ' they hunger and anyone one passing by aiakhinontard :nonte ' . Tekenlhaton ' , kaskd : neks we would give them second one I wish for soup ne o ' nikdn : ra ’ ne the thought the tdhsa1 nowdn:ton dnhka’ not to ever anyone akhe ' nikonhrdksa 1 te would I cause their thoughts to be bad ne akarihdn : ni ' tsi the would the that reason be nah6 : ten ’ tkewennlneken’ s . what words I bring out Ahsdnhaton ' , third one kaskd : neks I wish for akwd : kon all ndn : kwe enkhd : ken ’ people I will see them ne tidk nahd : ten ' the some thing akatkdhtho ' ne would I see the ioi&nere ' it is good tdhsa ’ akherihwa ' tshdn- not to would I find nia ’ se ' . " faults with them Wahdn : ron ' he s a id ne iakot inenidia * ks , "Akwd the they throw stones All she and her family would never be hungry and that she might share the soup with any strangers who might come their way. Her second wish was to have the wisdom not wahsera : ko ’ . you chose ioidnere' naho:ten* it is good what Ts i ndn : we ' to ever enhsonnheke' tsi enhsatonnha : rake ’ , you will live that you will be happy tanon ' and ensatera ’ swiiohake 1 your luck will be good to hurt anyone with words that came out of her mouth. Her third wish was to be able to see something good in everyone she met and not to be critical. The little man said, "You have made very wise choices. You shall be happy for the rest of your life." Waris6:se Kaierfthon Josephine Horne 170 TSI TETKAHNHOHONTION At the Open Door Wahcfnmise' ia'iken', long ago they say atsa:kta’ a'kta’ near the near river tkanonhscf: tahkwe f there a house used to stand 6 ’ thd there rati ’ tercfn : tahkwe ’ they used to live iatathrcfna' tdnon’ ne ronwat iio ’ oktfn : ’ a they are and the their children married t£non’ akokstdn:ha. and she is old Oinen id:ken’ kirken now they say this sewahsdn : ta one night iahniid : ken ’ne ’ they two went out ne iatathrcJna the they are married wahiaterenna - they went to idnhna ’ . Akokstdnrha wa ’ ontendn : na ' . church she is old she watched Omen ki ’ now just kwdh k£n’ shikahd:wi’ tahontdhsawen ’ ne some bit as it carries they started the It has been told that long ago in a house near the river lived a couple, their children, and an old woman. One night, when the couple went out to church, they left the old woman to tend to the children. After some time of playing, the children became noisier and 171 ratiksa 'okdn : ' a wa ' thonterien ' takdriahte ’ . children they made noise Ronatsharokwahton ki ’ nd:’a tdnon’ they were roaring I suppose and ieshonateri : io , they were even fighting ronatswd:ton tdnon' ratitakhendnt ie ' s . they fooled and they ran around around Khdre ' Finally d:nen wa ' akononnid :ni ' now she could not bear it nakoks t6n : ha . Wa'aI:ron', the she is old she said "Tha T tesewatd : tat . T(5ka’ idhten you all keep quiet maybe not ak(5n : wara * 0 Face ients isewaia ' tdnhawe ' . " he will take your body away Idh ki ' thd:nen' tehonatahonhsatd : ton . not even anything did they prick their ears Khdre ' <5:nen thontaiawdnhstsi ’ tahonwani£ : ra ? ne finally now all of a sudden she grabbed him the by the scruff of the neck shaid:ta ratdkhe’ ieia’tdkta* shihotohetstonhdtie ' . one boy he runs near her as he was passing body noisier. They shouted, fooling around and running all over the place. After repeated warnings to quiet down, the children, of course, kept running around. The old woman, losing patience, grabbed the first 172 Sok wa ’ tiakonhohon : t i ' tha’akonini’ iahonwaia ’ ton : t i ' then she opened the door she made as she threw his body out atste . Nek tsi tsok naho : ten ’ awenhsa : takon outside but something in the fog (darkness) tahoie : na ’ tanon ’ iahoia ’ tenhawe ’ . I ah ne it grabbed and it carried his not him body away wen : ton ever teshonwaia ' tatshenr ion ne raksa:'a. was his body found the boy again one running past, which happened to be the littlest one, she jerked open the door and pretending to throw him out into the darkness, she yelled, "Here, 0 Face, take him!" And with a gush of wind the child disappeared into the fog, as if grabbed by an unseen force. He was never seen again. Konwats i ’ tsaien : ni Rita Phillips 173 KANA r TAROKHON : WE The Corn Bread Nia ' td : kon many iakoia ' takdhnhen it helps them ne o:nenhstef the corn nokwehcJn : we , the real people tsi nf tsi as it is iakoia 1 tahnf : rat s it makes their bodies strong tsi niidhseres. Ki:ken okdrra’ ne tsi at so the year this story is how is long niieidrhahkwe ' so she used to do aksdtha nd:nen my grand- when mother enienenhstobare r she will wash corn t2non ' and eniethe'serdnini* she will make flour ohdn:ton' tsi niid:re’ before to so it is far kana ’ tarokhdn :we eniena ' tarisa ' . Khwatdiken tsi real bread she will finish still so bread ni tsi rondika’s ndn:wa' t ahonatehiardnt ie ' . this as they like now those growing up now Kenkwitd rstsi 1 aksdtha eniahd:ronr, c5:nen in early spring Grandma she will say now The corn had many missions for the Indians; it sustained them throughout the year. This is a story about my paternal grandmother and how she prepared the dry kernels of corn into flour and finally the end product, the corn bread. ieidhe ahat i ’ tarakarhdtho T . Akwe tenhon ' kenhrakwdtho ' time for them to plow all they will turn soil lenietdhko ' she will take out kahnenhshdn: 'a, kdksakon eniakCta* seeds in a dish she will put in tdnon T and ent ionkhi : ion ? she will give us raktsi : ' a my older brother khe'kdn : 1 a my younger sister tdnon ' and i: 'i, me enionkhihrd : ri \ "Kaid:ri t<5ka- she will tell four maybe us ni1 wisk five nikandnhstake iensewd : senhte ' kernels you will cause to fall dhsen three niwahs i : take feet number na ' tekdnteron ’ . n E* thc5 ki ' they are apart that there is what na ’ kwd : iere ' . we did so Wakwahahoktanihon ’ > raksdtha tdnon we did row upon row my grand- and father aksdtha ohn£ : ken ’ t d : ne ’ my grand- behind they mother come tahot i'rhoronhdt ie ' they are covering t s i to nii(5 : re ’ eniakwdhsa ’ . it is far we will f inish Tsahid ;kshera sok nd:'a one it crosses already When spring came, every member of the family had a chore to do. We enjoyed working together. Grandma would have Father and my uncle plough the ground. They used a team of horses and a plough to get the ground ready for planting. Grandma would then carefully get out her seed corn, put it in a container, and hand it to my brother, sisters, and me. She would instruct us to drop four or five kernels every three feet. We did this, row upon row, with Grandma and Grandpa coming 175 eniot ikd : tohte ’ k£n ' they will arrive just nikaneraht£ : son ' s tenkonta ’ken- so wee leaves they will hrcJtka’we'. E:so* tenkonwat ihsnie ’ ne ’ khare ’ come through lots they will be cared until the ground for b:nen enkontehid : ron ' kwa:h sken£n:’a tsi now they will grow just slowly as enwatenenhs t i sa ’ . it will mature N(5:nen kanenna ’ ke : ne when autumn dn : wawe ’ it will arrive enhen : ron ’ he will say raksbtha, c?:nen my grand- now father iehidhe it is time naienenhst aienthd : ko r . one will unplant the corn Akwd tsi tkanenhstaidnthon all to where the corn is planted ienidkwe 1 we will go tanon ’ and ieniakwahrdhtenhte ’ . E* tho we will take off ears then ne ' c5:nen now behind us with a hoe in their hands, covering the kernels of corn with the rich soil. In about a week’s time we would see the tiny green blades come through the ground. After much care and nurturing they grew tall and stately and slowly matured with big ears of corn. When autumn came, it was time to harvest the corn. We all went into the corn field to take the corn from 176 eniakwanorolithsi ' . I all akwd* thaiakwanorohths i ’ we will take off not all would we take the the husks husks off kwah nek t si niicf : re * just only to so it is far iotene*nhs tate ' . Oinen the end of now the corn ki' nen' nd:'e enwrfiton’ supposedly that it will be done aksdtha tarnon* my grand- and mother raksdtha enhniratskentdn : ni ' , a’d:ren nikaronhkwafhs my grand¬ they two will make way over so the chain father a braid there is long toka ' tekeni-iawdn : re* tdkani' 1 wisk-iaw^n : re T maybe twelve maybe fifteen nikanonhkwdn : t ake enhniha :ren f naons t^then ' . Nd :nen so ears number they will for them to when hang them dry akwe iost^then nd : nenhste r sdk ndn:waT all it is dry the corn then now entsakwanenhstaron : ko r . we will take the corn off the cob the stalks . We then husked the corn and left the husks at the base of the corn cob. We left the husks on for a purpose. Grandma, Grandpa, and my aunts would take the husks with the ears of corn and braid them into a long string, twelve to fifteen ears in each braid, then hang them up to dry. When the kernels were completely dry, it was time to take them off the cobs. 0:nen enwd:ton now it is possible enienenhstcfhare * . she will wash the corn Ke?nr here niieigrha' tsi how she that does it ienenhstdhareS) she washes the corn enion ' kenhrontd : ko ' she will take out ashes karistakon o'k§n:ra’ in iron ashes n6:ne iotdrken' whhta*. like it burned hard maple Enienat sh : ren ’ karisth:ke ne ohn6:kanos thnon' she will put on the iron the water and a pot on wa T kenhront hkwen . ashes taken from the stove 0 :nen now tent iohnekbn : t i it will come to a boil ienienenhstd - she will pour corn weron' teniohnekbn : t i ' into it will boil tsi niibrre' no:nenhste' to so it is the corn far enkont ia ' tawi'tahsibn : ko ' . The ne' b:nen they will take off their then now coats eniehr'a:ko' karisth:ke; tsi she will on iron to take away kahionwatdt ie ' flowing creek The next step was cleaning and bleaching the kernels. This was done with ashes from the wood stove. It had to be ashes that were burned from hard maple trees . Grandma would put a measured amount of ashes and water into a large enamel cooking pot, bring it to a boil, then pour the corn into the boiling ash solution, then continue boiling it until the chaff and the tiny black hearts in each kernel were loosened. She would 178 ienidhawe ’ e' thd ienienenhst<5hare ' . Rakstftha she will there she will clean my take it the corn grandfather rona ’ tsakahron : ton ’ e' tho ienidnweron ' sok he has made holes there she will pour then in the pail awenike ieni£:kohwe' kw£h skendn:'a in water' she will put just slowly into to teniehkarhatenfhon1 ia' otiiaken 'enhdtie r ne she turns back and it is going out the forth kahnekaksen . bad water Wakon ’ dskwani I used to like sens then akheiaterd : roke ’ I would watch her tekka:nere ’ I am seeing ior ihwanerci :.kwa it is miraculous tsi at niio:re’ tsi so it is to far ontenenhstohare r kwah otsfinekwar corn got so just yellow clean nenid :wen 'ne ’ . it happened Akwd ne konn6n:kwe sdns kahidnwakon all the women used to in the creek then take it off the wood stove, take it outside, and pour it into a galvanized pail with holes all over the sides and bottom. Most of the ash solution ran out so that only what was clinging to the corn in the pail remained to be cleaned. She then took the corn to the creek to wash away whatever was left on it. This was accomplished by putting the pail with the corn into the flowing creek and swishing it around until the fresh water flushed out the ash solution. I used to love to watch the corn turn clean and yellow before my eyes. 179 iekont inerhs t6hares . they washed corn Ne th<5 ndn shontakah.3 : wi ' at that place as it carried i£h onhka ' te iakoidntahkwe ' ohndikanos ne not anyone did they have water the kandnhskon. N6:nen wa ’ enenhstohardhsi ’ sdk in house the now she finished washing then the corn n6n:wa* entses tdtha ’ te ’ . Nd:nen kwah tokdni’en next she will dry enwastcithen ' tsi nl it will dry so it naiethe ’ seron : ni ’ . one would maxe flour Raksdtha shahahni :non ' ne kathe ’ seron : ni ' my grand- when he the it makes flour father bought the now just thoroughly ne 6hstien', <5:nen enwdrton’ the bone now it can t iotdhsawe ’ it started iakwaksa ’ okdn : 'a onkwaio ’ tdnhsera r we children our work Most of the women took the corn to the creek for cleaning because we did not have indoor plumbing in those days; we had to draw water from the well. Then it was time to dry the corn. When the corn was dry as a bone, it was time to grind it into flour. Up until the time we got a corn grinder, they used to have to pound the corn into flour. Now that we had the grinder it became the children’s chore to grind the corn. The grinder was mounted on a very 180 <5n:ton' naiakwathe ’ serbn : ni ’ . it we would make flour became Ki*:ken kathe ' s er<5n : nis this it makes flour kd : tens thick oshdn:kare' fe' th<5 iora 'nenta : kon board there it is stuck to tdnon’ iokahkw^n : tonte ’ . and a wheel hanging Ieniakwanenstdweron ’ we would pour corn in sdk teniakwatenniha f te ’ then we will take turns teniakwakarhate’ : ni ’ ne ’ we will turn the the wheel okahkwdn : ta ' , nd:kon tkaksdrron d* thb wheel under pan is placed there ieiohndrote' oth£:sera’ it pours into flour tsi nii(5:re' till so it is far eniakwdhsa ’ . we finish 0:nen kathe ’ serison *, d:nen now flour is ready now enwa : ton ' it will be possible eniena ’ tardn:ni ' . she will make bread Kdn niiei^rha ’ . here so she does it Othe : sera ' , flour strong, thick board with a large wheel attached to it. We put the corn into the feeder at the top and the flour flowed at the bottom to be caught in a large pan beneath the grinder. We took turns turning the wheel until we finished the amount that was portioned out to us to grind. It was now ready for the end product. Grandma would take this flour, mix it with some cooked kidney 181 onekw^nhtara ’ red tdnon ’ and ostdn : ha a little nikasahe ' tcf : ten , type of beans teiohnekdntie ’ s boiling water t iohid : tsis , salt kdksakon in a bowl eniakdta ' , she will put in ent idnweron ’ , she will pour sok tenionwdnrie ' then she will stir tsi niid:re' till so it is far tenkontat id : na ’ • <">hnekandhsne they have all in the water blended together ia ’ tenionnihsnonhsolwe ’ . she will put her hands Eniontokwatsherdtsenhte ’ she will dip a spoon into for some tenietakwdnhtenhste ’ she will flatten iehsnonhsd : ke enid:ren' on her hands she will put teniehwe 'ndn :ni , she will shape into a round tdnon ’ and tet iohnekdntie ’ s ieniakdta*. boiling water she will put into Nd:nen enwatd : kerahwe ' > when it will come to the surface ne ken:ton' tsi d:nen that it means that now wa tka :rif. it is cooked Ie ' wahrakeri 1 tdhstha 1 one uses meat to fry beans, and a bit of salt, and pour boiling water into the ingredients and stir it until blended. She would then dip her hands into cold water, spoon some of the batter into her hands, and shape the hot batter into round, thick, flat, shaped corn bread. She put it into boiling water, and when it came to the surface it was cooked. She served it with steak or venison and gravy 182 tcrkani ' oskenonrton or venison perhaps enid rrihte ( she will fry ne teniakwa- the we shall tatiehsten' ne combine with the kana * tarokhtfn : we real bread tdnon’ ke‘n:ie and grease ent ionkwd : t i ' iawdkon'. we will pour it tastes good Ne sha 'kanenhsta iakwhtstha’ no:nen the same type we use the now corn eniakwatk&t ston 1 onenhsto. I ah thernen* tekai£shaTs we make soup corn soup not anything goes to waste no:nen kanenhstaienthokwen . when the corn has been unplanted Kirken on6:raf this husks kaiarowa : nen large bag ronneta 1 skwe 1 , ratiksa ' okon : ' a thd they used the children there to put into ron :ratskwe ’ , they used to lay on tanon' sens ratiratsken ’ t6n : nis and also they used to braid kentskare* ionrahsi 1 tokewahtha * . Kaia’ton:ni o:ni' rug he would wipe his made body also feet on over the corn bread. Corn soup is made from the same type of corn. The corn bread and corn soup are still in great demand, to this generation. Nothing went to waste in those days; the husks 183 rononni£: thahkwe ’ . they used to make Sh£:kon ndn:wa' skehi2:ra's still now I remember akw£ tsi niiakwahwatsf : ra ’ kat(5:ken all the of my family certain nah<5 : ten ' what ionkwaio ’ tensher£ : ien ’ . lon'we:sen' she's ne ' skathne tsi we had jobs it used to be together that pleasant ionkwaio ' te ’ . we were working were used to stuff mattresses for the children's beds, and scatter mats were made by braiding the husks and sewing them together. They made excellent mats for wiping muddy feet on. The husks were also used to make cornhusk dolls. I. still remember how pleasant it was when the whole family worked together. Warisdrse Kaierithon Josephine Horne 184 AHTHEN :N0 The Lacrosse Ball Wahdn : nise ' s id* : ken ' tehonhthennokskwe long ago it is said they played tewa ' a : raton . Thihonaterien ' tatshdnr ion ' tsi Lacrosse they invent a way to ronahthenno ’ ts heron : ni . Ne sd ’ s idiken’ thi they make balls that then it is there said ts ikdnhses the long faced one kdntson enkonwaid : na ' fish they will catch her tdnon ' and enkonwania ' t6 : 'ase' . Ohdn : ton' tsi niidire* they will slit throat her before as so it is far tenhat I : rihte ' they will break it up ka ' nionhsdkta' near the nose ndn:we nenhat ikwd : taren the where they will place cut kwdh just sd 1 s then id : ken ' it is said nd : ne this aiohnat irdnhthake ' it would be like rubber kwdh just sd ' s then id : ken ' it is said 6 :ni * also ostdn : ha a little A long time ago they used to play Lacrosse. They had to invent a way to make a ball. To do this, they would first catch a sturgeon and slit its throat. Near the nose, there is a place which is just like rubber, 185 teiothwe ' ndn : ni ne eh n6n : we . Ne ki ' id : ken ' it is round the there place the just it is said enhat ikwd : taren ' . Ne dnhonts te ' ne enhonhthenno ' - they will cut the they will use the they will use tsheron : nia ' te ' . Tho niio : re ' <5 men onia ' tara : ' a it to make there so it now cloth their ball is far tenhat ihwawen : 'eke' . they will wrap it Thok se's ia:ken' that then it is said ni : iot so it is tsi ka:ien' ne that this the wahon:nise' ne long ago the ahonten 'nikonhro - they would have r ia ' te ' . Ne fun the se's ki id : ken ' then this it is said r6ntstha ' ne they used the wahdn :nise ' tsi long ago to tehonhthenno ' . they would ball oksthahkwe ' . play with it and sort of round. This is where they would cut to make their ball. Then they would wrap this with a cloth. That was the only kind of toy they had, long ago. They used it to play Lacrosse. 0r<5te ' Kar ihwdnhawe ' Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore 186 WAHSHAKQIA 1 TAKEHNHA’ RAOHWA ; TSTRE f The Boy Who Went for Help Ne x th6 n6n shontakahi: wi ’ shd'ikon at this time as it carries yet f:non sha * teionnonhshiteron' wahot it^nhta ' ne ’ far so their houses were they got poor apart ne onkwehdniwe aserk£n ne 1 tho shiiohsera" : te* the real people because in there as that year idh 6:so‘ teiokennd : ron sok n£ : ’ a ki iahten ' not much did it rain so then this no tehot ihet iidhse1 were crops good for them nahonnonnhdhkwen ' ase’kdn for them to live because on akwd : kon all ieidnthohskwe'. they had planted E* th.6 n6n shontakah£ : wi ’ akokstdn:ha then there as it carries she is old At the time when the houses were still far apart, the Indians got very poor one year. There was no rain, so their crops were very bad, and they had little to live on that year. It was at this time that an old woman who lived 187 id;teron' iakothtfn: te ' she lives she heard la'ontke x t <5 : ten*, e* th<5 she looked out there Wahonwahnhohtdnkwahse ’ she opened the door for him dnhka’k t iehnhonht ishons . someone one is knocking raks£:ra ithrate * » boy he stands aontahatdweia * te T wa^jron' , for him to enter she said "Taki : tenr na ’'te iawenhniseranon : iani mercy on it is such a horrible day me tdnon* saiakenhdt ie r , serihsidn : ko ne and you are out you take them the off sawenhshdn: 'a tdnon' tstdtha't." your things and you dry them Tahdnrron' ne raksdr’a, "Idh he said back the boy not thdon : ton T 5s it possible ase'kdn tewakster ihens iaonsd : kewe * , istdn: 'a because I am in a hurry I would my mother return there ionkehnha ’ onhdt ie ' . Ahsathdn : tate ' ken aonsdtenef she is sending me would you be ? we two would willing go back alone heard someone knocking on her door, When she looked out she saw a little boy standing out there. She opened the door for him to enter , and said, "Mercy it is such a horrible day for you to be out! Take your clothes off and dry them," The bpy replied, "itls impossible because I am in a great hurry to return home. My mother sent me 188 ase’kdn ratikwdhkon thot inonhw^ktani ’ ne because all of them they are sick there the onkwantfnhskon. Teiako ' niktfnhrhare ’ ne ist£n:'a in our home she is worried the my mother ase’k^n idh cfrnen te tsonkwatennatshera: : ien f because no now do we have any more to eat i£h <5:ni’ tetsonkwanonhkwatsher^ : ien ’ tanon’ not also do we have any medicine and 6: so' tsi iakononhw^ktani ’ much that she is sick ne ist£n : ’ a . the my mother Wa'Iiron’ t(5ka' ostdnrha aesanonhkwatsheraien : take 1 she said maybe a few you would have medicines tdnon ’ and aesakhwaidn : take * ahshdrni’ you would have food you would lend her aiontshenncJn : ni ’ . " she would be happy Wa’irron’ ne akokstdn:ha, nA:ke oh she said the she is old 0 how nent iere ' will I do it ne i^rkewe’, na ’ teiohahahnPn rniani the I can the road is so bad get there to ask you to please come back with me because all our family is sick. My mother is very worried because we do not have any more food and we are also short of medicine. My mother is very sick. She asked whether you would have any food and medicine to lend her. It would make her very happy. " The old woman said, MMy! How can I ever get there; the roads are full of snow, and I shall get out of breath in such a bad storm.” 189 enkatonr id*: kten ’ tsi I shall get out so of breath na' teionien ’ kwataf: se." the storm is bad Tahdnrron' ne he said the back raksa*: ’ a , boy 1 enkonia 1 thahdhnien ’ . M I shall make a path for your body Thd ne wa ' ontatkwataTiko ' then the she got herself ready tahion’ sahonwa- and she followed hsere’ ne raksd:'a. him the boy back Wa 1 akonehrd : ko ’ she was surprised tsi how niwat id : sen ’ easy it was tsi nf tsi i : ien 1 so it is she walks wa ’ dnttoke ’ she noticed tsi akwdh that just nd:ne t ekaniehtohtdrhon is was the snow had been removed tsi ndnrwe at the place ni : ien ’ . she is walking The boy replied, MI shall make a path_ for you." The old woman then got ready to follow the hoy. She was surprised at how easy it was for her to walk. She noticed that it was as if the snow had been removed from her path. 190 lahd'inewe' tsi non thot incfnhsote ’ ne they got to where their house the there stood raks£: 'a, ia ’ ehnhoht f shon ’ ro’nistenha boy she knocked on his mother the door taiehnhohttfn : - she opened the ko * wa ’ f : ron * , door she said "A:ke tasat^weia ’ t , 0 you come in niwenhniseraksen what a bad day saiakenh£t ie * . " you are out Taiaf:ron’ ne akokst£n:ha, "Ehthidn:’a she said the she is old your son back kwi ’ ietsehnhd : ' on ahakihndnksha ’ . but you sent him he would get me Wa ’ f : ron ’ she said ne ro’nistenha the his mother "Iah dnhka' not anyone tiekhehnhd: ’on ase’kSn akw^ikon I have sent because all £ : s o ' tsi much that When they arrived at the child's home, and she knocked on the door, the boy's mother opened it for her, saying, "My! Come on in; what a bad day for you to be out." The old woman replied, "But you sent your son to get me." The mother said, "I have sent no one because we are all very sick. Three days ago we buried 191 ionkwanonhwaktani ’ . ^hsen non : ta ' tsi n£he 1 we are sick three days so ago wahshakwaia f tata * ne Ohser£ : se'. " we buried his body the New Year Wa ’ 1 : ron ’ ne akokstdn :ha , M0h kdt i ' she said the she is old how is it na ' a : wen tsi ne : ' e rakihnonksdnhne ? Z" it happens that that one he came to get me my son New Year.” The old woman said, "But how can that be, for he is the one who came to get me to help you If Rake'niha rakkarat6n :ni my father he has told me Niioronhia : ' a Mae Montour 192 SE 'NIKON :RARAK Watch Out T(5“hka’ niiohser^rke tsi n£he ' dh. several so years so it goes thus number nikiawdn : ’ en ki* : ken kkaratdn : ne t • so it this I am going happened to relate Ake ’ nistdnha d : nen kwdh ken ' ndhe 1 my mother now just a bit ago ionkkaratdn :ni . Kandtthen ne tsi kand : taien ' she has told me uptown the at town lies ia ’ teiakohahahiia ’konhakie ’ . Tha ’ kakd : ro lk id:ken' there she was crossing the suddenly it seems street isi’ na'ohdhati iakothdn : te ' over across the she heard there street dnhka'k khe someone just thontahohdn : rehte ' , he yelled right at her "Se ' nikdn : rarak wats ens^kwahte’ thi set your mind later it will get that you What I am going to relate took place several years ago. My mother told me that a while ago, she was crossing the street in downtown Cornwall. All of a sudden, she heard someone yell from across the street, 193 ka:sere Tanon' id!: ken* tontahohahahiia ' konh^kie it drags and it seems he was coming across the road Tsi wa ’ thi^tera ’ ne ' ne ake'nist^nha wa'^rron' , as they two met the my mother she said I'lifll not ki ’ even ne the <5nhte ' at all thd’ not thaesewatkaron :ni would it be a loss to you 0 : nen now i£ : ken ' it seems kwdh j ust kdn ' a bit nii<5 : re ' so it is far s£ : re ' he was walking again tontahoh^n : rehte ' id! :ken ' ah£n : ron' , "Kd! : sere he yelled back it seems he said it drags ki' wahe ' enkarihwdn : ta 'ne ' . " just certain- it will break to ly pieces "Watch out for that car!" The fellow who had issued the warning crossed the road, and as she met him, my mother replied, "If the car hit me, it would be no loss to you." After he had walked on a bit, her protector turned and yelled back, "But the car would be demolished!" 0r<5te' Kar ihwdnhawe ' Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore 194 ATERO : SERA ’ Friendship Ne id:ken' this it is said kiiken tehn6n:kwe, this two men shaia : ta one male body Ahkwesahshrd : non ' tdnon' resident of the and place of the partridge shaid : ta one male body Kahnawa ’ ke - resident of the place of hrdrnon' nes the fast water ne ronatdn : ro ’ they were friends nek tsi but teiotenonhianihton tsi na ’ tehiatater ihwanonhwehne ’ . it exaggerates itself that so they devised themselves a matter Tidtkon ok nahdrten' always some thing tiorih(5n:ni tehonatkennion reason made they compete Tetsd : ron both rot inahskwaidn : tahkwe ' they animal owned drhar , dog tdnon ’ and t itftkon both she ' s 6 : ni' n€: ' e then also it was Once there were two very good, but competitive friends. One was from St. Regis, and the other was from Caughnawaga. Not a day went by that they did not have a friendly argument about one thing or another Every little thing was an excuse to top one another. They were both the proud possessors of dogs, and each thought that his dog was much smarter and stronger 195 tehot ir ihwatl : ronte ’ , dnhka ' raotshe : nen ' sdnha’ they word pulled who his pet more ra'shdtste*. Khdre' 6 : nen wahiater 1 : io ? ne he is strong Sudden then they two fought the rao titshe :nen ' drhar . Sok wa ' thni : ien ’ , kwdh their two pets dog then they laid down even wahnihwis td : ren ' . 0 : nen ki enkat<5 : ken ' ne ’ dnhka ' they two put now this it will show who money on raotshd:nen* sdnha' ra’shdtste'. hispet more he is strong Kwah id: ken' nek ne wa ' tewaniwhard : ko ' Just it is said the fur came out tsi na ’ thiatdtienhte ' ki drhar. so they beat each these dog other Kwdh idh even not thd:nen' tetidrken’ anything there it was seen ka ’ nikd : ien ’ which it lies rotkwenionhdt ie ’ . he is winning than the other. One day the dogs had a fight, as dogs are prone to do. The two men thought that this was a fine time to find out which dog was really stronger. Each man was sure his dog would win, so sure in fact, that they made quite a big wager. The dogs went at it so ferociously that fur was flying in every direction, and they raised such a cloud of dust that it was impossible to see which animal was winning. When all the dust had finally settled, all 196 Khare' ki ' o:nen sudden but then ia ' tonson ' kenhraien : ta ' ne ' . dirt lay back down there Kwah iarken' nek ne just it is said only otahshon’ o’kenhratke tails on dirt skake:ron'. Oksa'k ki’ back they sudden were laying a:re' ne ronaten:ro' again the they are friends to each other tonsahiatken : ni ' again they two competed ka ’ nika : ien ' which it lays senha' irions more it is long t iotaten : ron . there it remains . that was left lying on the ground were two tails. That should have ended the argument, but the two friends immediately measured to see which tail was longer. A:nen Kaia ' t it£hke ' Annette Jacobs 197 RABAHBOT The Bullheads Tdhka’ niiohserd:ke tsi ndhe ’ sha’td:kon several so years so it goes eight number nikdn:ti rabahbdt of them bullheads wahents iahni : non ' ki rake’niha. he bought fish this my father At s id : kta ’ near the river iahshako 1 teron ' there he left them tsi nc5n:we at the place idh akwdh tekiohnd : tes . not quite is it deep Tsiahid ikshera td:wa' entdhetste* ki:ken one week maybe it passed this rakenonhd:'a eh tahahrdrho'. Ronehrakd : ’ on my uncle there he pulled he was surprised up id : ken ’ it is said kf : ken this tsi nikanahskwi : io ' s ki:ken that so beautiful are these the animals k£nts ion . fish Tdnon ’ ki ' ne s£nha* ieshonehrakb : ' on and all the more he was surprised tsi kwdh akwdrkon that even all skdthne tsi nbn:we together at the place Several years ago my father bought eight small bullheads. He left them in a shallow pool in the river. A week or so later my uncle pulled up to the dock and was amazed to see such beautiful fish. He was all 198 nikonti : teron ’ . Ok c5:ni' where they and also live id : ken ’ nd:'a iahohrion : t i 1 it is that he threw in said his fishline akwe :kon all wahshakoie :na ' he caught them ki rabahbot. this bullheads Sha ’ te : kon eight nikd’n:ti wah6:nawe*. of them he caught Kwdh id: ken' khe right it is there there said sahdhkete' ki:ken he turned this back rakenonhd: ’a sahentsiahsheronnid :na 1 . my uncle he went back to fix the fish lonsd : rawe ’ he arrived home ki ? dksa'k wahent siahsheron :ni ’ just right he fixed the fish away tdnon* wahentsiakeri : tahwe 1 . and he fried the fish Tsi nahdtsiarihse ’ as his fish was fried ki ’ ki :ken wah^n:ron’, ”To ionkiatdn : ro ' just this he said to my friend rinontsianontdn:ra. " I bring fish for him to eat the more surprised to see them all together in the same spot. He threw his fishline right in and caught all eight bullheads, then returned home to prepare the fish. At home he cleaned and fried them and, when they were ready, he decided to take them over to his friend as a special treat. My father was mighty pleased. They were really digging in when he asked his friend where he had found such beautiful fish. "Why, right here," replied my uncle. "Early this morning I pulled up to your dock and threw my fish hook 199 Otsta ’ id:ken’ ne ’ tsi nontahatshenndn : ni ' my gosh it that seems so he was happy ki:ken rake ' niha . 0 : nen id : ken ' td : ske * tsi this my father now it is said really that rotikhwd tten ' wahor i 'wandn : tonhse * ne ronatdn : ro ' , they were digging in he asked him the they are friends "Ka'" wahdn:ron', "n(3n:we nontahsitsidnhawe ’ ?" where he said place did you get the fish KI:ken rakenonha:’a wahen:ron', this he is uncle to me he said, "Satsid : kt a ’ near your river orhon ’ kdhstsi early in the morning takhrdrho’. Tsi ki' I pulled at just up ndn:we thi:ken place there iah wi ' sdtsi’ teiohnd : tes . Thd not so too is it deep there iahonkwahridn : ti ' wa ' kahr iohkawine ’ . I threw in my I fished fish hook Thd , " there wahdn : ron ' , he said "ni:iot tsi konti:teron' the way as they are placed t6 : wa ' as if shi : ken dnhka 1 k someone dh konwat i ’ teron ’ there he placed them ro tenahskwardkwen . " he kept them as pets into the shallows. These fish were just waiting for me, as if someone had set them in there as pets." 200 Wa ’ th.oh.en : rehte ' he burst out laughing ia:ken’ ki*:ken rake'nfha it is this my father said tdnon * wahoidshon'. "I : ' i," wahdn : ron ' , and he smiled I he said thl : ken that akitshenen'6:kon' . my pet Tsiahid : kshera one week tsi ndhe’ ago th<5 there tekhd ’ teron ' 1 : ’ i I placed I wakatenahskwardkwen . M I kept them as pets My father burst out laughing, pets," he said. "I just set them in "These were my_ there a week ago." Orote’ Karihwenhawe ’ Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore 201 RAKS0THA RAOKA : RA ' My Grandfather's Story Wahdn:nise', Ahkwesdhsne id:ken' dh Long ago at place of it is said there partridge nitiawdnr'en ki'iken nahdrten' there it this what happened kkaratdn : ne ' . I am going to tell Akohserdike dh niiawdn:'en. winter in there so it happened Arok shiiotohdts ton ne "seaway" not yet then it passed the Seaway kawehnd : ton ' she's thi nd:kon nekwd, kdn ' islands stood then that under place just nikawehnonhkwd : sa ' s . Raksdtha raowenhkdnha ' so islands small he to me to him used to grandfather belong dnska kdn' nikawehndhkwa ' . Kanonhsd : tahkwe ' one small so island house stood id:ken', tekaronta ' serbnnion' , it is said log on top of log tdnon ' thd she's and there then A long time ago, before the Seaway passed through the reserve of St. Regis, there were many little islands on the St. Lawrence River at the north end of the reserve. These little islands were privately owned and my grand¬ father was the owner of one tiny little island. It had a huge pine tree, a dock, and a little log cabin. This 202 ndn : we place tehonats tekawhenhdt ie ' . they were travelling na ’ tehat f : ta ' skwe ' ne so they used to stop the Sewat ie : ren tohka' ndn:ta’, sometimes a few days sewatidrren nek ne sometimes only sewahsdn : ta enhonndn : wete ' . one night they will sleep Iatathrona ' iaharnewe' o ’ karahsndha ’ , they married there they evening in to each other arrived iatonhkar ia : khe ’ tdnon' teho t ihwihshenhd : ion . they are hungry and they are tired Oksa'k ne rdn:kwe wahatsenhdn : ni ' , tdnon' ne Quickly the man he made sparks and the iakdn:kwe taiontahsawen ’ wa 1 ekhdn : ni ’ . woman she started she prepared food. 0:nen ki* shishonahtd : ’ on , wd:rehreT ne then just when they were full he thought ron : kwe man oksa’k ki ’ na: 'a ne ’ ienharathen ' , quickly I suppose that up he will climb was mostly used by fishermen who wanted to stay a few days on the river or by travellers who wished to rest, sometimes just overnight, and sometimes for a few days. One cold winter evening a travelling couple arrived at the island, weary and hungry. The man immediately started to make a fire and the lady began preparing some meat to cook. They enjoyed a quiet supper, and soon afterj the man went upstairs to sleep. 203 enhotd:wha'. Ok ne iak<5n:kwe, khd:ken ne ' he will sleep but the woman instead it is tonsaiakohtdrho ' nid:re'. Kwdh ki ' thi:ken she cleaned up meantime Just then that kdn ' nikarf : wes 6 :nen tiok nah<5 : ten ' small so matter now some thing long wa ' akothdn : te 'ne ' . she heard Wa ’ akor ihwaidha ’ she wondered oh nek£n' kwah what ever nah6:ten', sok ia ' eid :ken 'ne ' , what then out she went ia ' t iontkahthonnidnhwe ' . she looked around Idh ki ' thd:nen' teiako tkdhthon . Tontaiontdweia ' te ' . not at all anything did she see she came back in Sok d:re' Then saiakothdn : te ' ne ' , kwah nd:ne tiok again she heard as if some na ' kaia ' t6 : ten ' shitaio tskd : honke ' . such kind of body as it would be eating Oinen se'kdn now as well wa ' ako 'nikonhraidn : ta 'ne ' tsi kanonhsohard : ke she had her mind at on housetop nontaiawenonhdtie ' . Skennen ' ahsbn : ' a tsi ia ' ierdthen ' , it was coming slowly that up she climbed The lady began cleaning up the supper dishes and was just about finished when she heard a strange sound. She was puzzled and stepped outside to see what it was. She couldn't see anything, so she came back into the house, and went back about her cleaning. Again, she heard this strange sound. It sounded like some animal was gnawing on something. Just about then she realized it was coming 204 thd id: ken' ki "rdhskahn" tho ' wahrd : kon ne there it is said that rahskahn he was meat eating the rone ' kdnha ' . her late husband Kwdh id: ken' khe just it is said na'tontaieid:ten'ne' she fell back down tsi nikanekd : tes that so ladder is long tsi nii(5 : re ' that so it is far tsi wa'ako- that she teronhidnhten ' , became scared sok wa ' t ionrdhtate ' wa'ontdiko'. then she ran she fled Owisa ' kdhson ' on ice here and there nia ' etdkhe ' , she ran along shakdhsere' ne he chasing her the "rdhskahn. " Kw£h ki , id:ken', (5:nen thd:ha Even it is said now almost ahshakohdntera 'ne ' would he catch her <5:nen wa ' onhsd : kaienhte ' . now she sounded her mouth Kand : takon village in niid : re ' so it is far iahonathdn : te ' ne ' , sok there they heard then from upstairs. It was like someone had thrown a pail of ice water on her, the way the hairs on her neck stood up. She slowly climbed the ladder and when she peeked into the room, she saw a "raskahn" eating the flesh from her husband's body. She became so frightened at what she saw, that she fell back down the length of the ladder, picked herself up and started to run, slipping and sliding across the ice! The "raskahn" was right behind her when she gave a loud yell . The shout was so loud that they heard it miles away in the little village. They immediately 205 tontahsahkonaterahta : na ' . they came to meet her Sahahkete ’ back he turned ki ' ne "rahskahn," kwah just the rahskahn just ia : ken ' it is said nek ne wahemron’, but this he said, "Wesani ' tani : tenre ’ S - pitied you tsi iah tekonie :na . ” that not have I held you left to rescue her, for when the people hear that particular kind of yell, they know that the person is in trouble. When they reached the lady, the "raskahn" just turned back, shrugged his bony shoulders and sinisterly said, ’’You’re darn lucky I didn't catch you*" Amen Kaia ’ t itdhkhe ’ Annette Jacobs 206 OTHE : SERA The Powder . Kf : ken kkaratcfn :ne * rakenonha: ' a this I am going my uncle to tell rakkaratdn :ni tsi he has told that me the story na ’ thokerd’n :nion ’ se 1 . a strange incident happened to him Tsi that niwakdnnhe s during the summer k£ : ken th<5 nihoia ' tawdn : ’ en . this there so it happened to him "Orhon ’ kdhstsi', " wahdn : ron ’ , "wa ’ katkdt sko ' early in the he said I got up morning ia 1 ki£ : ken ’ ne ’ w£ :kehre ' enkhehnekanonten : ra 1 kitken I went outside I thought I would water this ohdn : ton ’ tewaktsi ’ tsai^nthon. Kw£h," wah^mron* , in front I had planted flowers just he said Md : nen iewakhnekonkidhsere ’ now I was about to pour the water wa'kdttoke* tsi I noticed that ok na ' kaia 1 t6 : ten ' some sort of animal I: waks klrken tsi it was this where eating This is a story that my uncle related to me, about a strange incident that happened to him during the summer. "Early one morning," he said, "I got up and went outside, planning to water the flowers I had planted in front of the house. Just as I was about to pour 207 waktsi ’ tsaienthcfhseron . Oksa’k d*:nif wa'kattoke’ I had planted flowers right also I noticed away tsi ts iki ' nhonts tdkhi ' wahonwaheht aka : r i ’ . " Kwdh that little blob-like they were destroy- just creatures ing the garden ia : ken ’ it is said skan6:ronks ahontekhwi : sa ’ kirken just about they would eat this it all up rotsi'tsiaienthon. he had planted flowers I si T over there na ' ohaha : ti on the other side of the road ren : teron ’ he lives ronaten : ro * they are friends wahohrorri’ ne wahenrron', he told him this he said "Thl : ken that ohnenna ' ta : ke on the potato ronathe ’ seronkie ’ s ne tho sa:ti.M they pour powder on this there you throw it Tho ki ' id:ken' naha:iere?. that just they say he did it Orhon ' ke : ne in the morning the water, I noticed a particular kind of creature nibbling on all of my plants. Ants were destroying my garden, devouring everything." A friend who lived across the road told him to pour a kind of powder on the root. He did just that. The next morning he looked out 208 id: ken’ ionsahatke ' t<5 : ten ' kwdh id : ken ' they say he looked out again just it is said ronatenekd : tote ' they had set up a ladder kl : ken tsiki 'nhontsdkhi ' . this little blob-like creatures Nek just id : ken * ki : ken rakenonhd : ’ a ne shotakiehsbn : ton they this my uncle this he was smiling say to himself sdtsi ’ id : ken ’ wa 1 thonwaren ' ken : ni ’ . so it is had they tricked him much said to see what had happened. Those ants had set up a ladder! My uncle could only smile to himself at how they had tricked him. Orote ’ Kar ihwenhawe ' Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore 209 RONTONHWENTSI : SAKS The Expedition Kfrken okd:ra' nd :ne t(5 : ske ’ 1 kw£h this story is of truly what e' th<5 niiawdnt'en. Raksdtha ne kwdh e ’ thd there it happened my grand¬ father the what there nihoia ’ taw£n : 'en. it happened to him 1893 shiohserd : ten wahonwa- was the year they were htihnha'ne' ne Hudson Bay Co, raksdtha tdnon* hired by the Hudson Bay Co my grand- and father ahsen nihotat e ' kdn : shen ' nahdn:ne’ tehniidhse three they are brothers they should two men go nirihs 1 1 : sere ' s nahshakot ihahdnnien ’ tdnon' they drag they will make the and steel road for them ahshakot ihsnie :non ’ they would help them nahatirihst 1 : sere ' they would drag the steel ki : ken this onhwdntsase ’ . Othord:ke n<5n:we niiaw£n:'en. new land at the cold place so it happened This is a true story about my maternal grandfather. The story I am about to tell happened in the year 1893. My grandfather and his brothers were hired by the Hudson Bay Company as Indian guides for the two surveyors who were to chart the land in the Northwest Territory. 210 Raksdtha Rowf Sohd : rase ' my grand- Louie Sohe : rase ’ father ronwaiat skwe ' , tanon' he was called and Sakd , Wishe , Sako Mike tanon ' Kanenraht f : ron ronwatf- and Kanenraht i : ron they were iatskwe ' ne rontate ' ken ' okdn : ’ a . called the they are brothers Kenkwitehs ts i ' early spring wahonhten : t i ’ they went away wahontonhwent s isdkha ' , tidhton they went to look for nine new land niwenhnl : take karhakonhko : wa rdnrne's. Ond : ke months numbered in the forest they were in canoe walking tanon ' and erhar iot ikarenionhdt ie ’ dog they are bringing ne the raonawenshdn : ’ a their things 0 : nen now sha ' tontahonahtent ionhat ie ' as they were coming home nia ’ many td.:kon tsi things that nahot iia ’ tawSnhseron* • Great Slave Lake konwd : iats it happened to them Great Slave Lake it is called tsi n6n serdka* tahonatenonhianihtdn : ni ' . at where almost tragic things happened to them My grandfather’s Indian name was Rowi Sohe: rase, and his brothers were Sak6, Wishe , and Kanenraht I : ron . The expedition started in the spring. They were in the wilderness for nine months with canoes, dogs, and dogsleds as their mode of transportation. They were on their return trip when they ran into tragic circum¬ stances. The tragedy occurred in Great Slave Lake. 211 Oinen akohserd:ke 6n:we' ioweiennat shd : ni now mid winter it it was rough arrived tsi na ' tkanien ’ kwatas^hon ' , iah thietscf :ken ' , there it was a blizzard not was it clear there any longer wahont ia ’ tdhton ' . 0:nen they were lost now ni ' wahond :karahwe ' it darkness fell on them wahontenaktdn :ni ' . they made their beds Tsi wa ’ dr hen 'ne ' akwe at following all day raona ' tohsera ’ onieht.e ' their tent snow t ioterho : ron , soronhke:ne it covered barely on:ton' tahatiia :ken ’ne ’ can it they come out tanon’ ne raot itshe men ’ and the their animals erhar wa ’ kont ia ’ tahton ’ . Raonatenna : tshera ’ o:nen dog they were lost their food now eht a : ke ni : we ’ khare ’ 6 : nen iahontshahte ' . low it is until now it was all gone Tohka ’ non : ta ’ oniehte ’ khok rononnh£hkwen . several day snow only they were staying alive Winter had set in. It started to snow. The storm became so ferocious and cruel that they could see only a few feet away, and as a result they became lost. They put up camp for the night. The next morning, their camp was completely covered with snow and they had to dig their way out. The storm lasted for days. They lost their dogs and were now walking and pulling their equipment. Their food was starting to dwindle and they were now on rations until finally they had nothing left to eat. 212 Skendn : ' a slowly 6 : nen now sdnha’ tsi more so rcJn :ne ’ , they walking rontonhkaria Tks , they were hungry ratiwfs tos , they were cold tanon ' and tehot ihwishen- they were hd : ion . tired 0 : nen now ni tbiske’ it is true tsi that tehot i 'nikonhrahrf : 'on. their minds are broken Ia ' thotir ihwaien : ta' se * tsi enhat i ' wahstard : ko ’ they set the matter that they will draw lots onhka' tsi ronnhe ' enhatatka ' we ' , who that his life he will sacri¬ fice himself enhdn :neke ' they will eat it tsi rdnnhe' ne tohsa' ahonniheie', bh that his life the not to for them how to die naia : wen ' ne ' can it be ronatia'ke ahonnbnnheke ' . others they would stay alive Nb :ne the one kwbh ken' niehrdi'a that small so he is tsi nihontate ' kdn : ’ a that they are brothers For days they were surviving on eating snow. They were slowly and laboriously working their way back to the Hudson Bay Company fort. They were now starving, freezing, and getting weaker each day. They were desperate . The six men decided to draw lots with matches. Whoever got the short match would be the one to sacrifice himself for food in order for the others to survive. Sak6 , the youngest of the brothers, took 213 Sakd waha ’was tar£ :ko ’ ne kOn! nika ’ wastefsha. Sako he chose the the small so the stick stick is Kwdh i:ken tsi very much so rot i ’nikonhr^ksens tdnon' their minds were and bad tehoti ’nikonhrahr 1 : 1 on tsi wahond : karahwe r . their minds were broken as night came upon them Tehniiahse iatate ’ ken : ’ a ia ’ thotirihwai£n : ta two of them they are they set the matter brothers tsi enska she:kon enshiate 'nien : ten’ that once again they will try nahiatoratha ’ for them to go hunting oskenon : ton . caribou Tsi i :ne ' as they walk tahonahsl : - it crossed t ia ' ke ’ their feet wahlcwar i ’ tar£ :ken raia’tatke, white bear on his body wa 1 tha : ta'ne 1 he stood up ki:ken ohkwa:ri tekeniawen : re f this bear twelve niwahsi : take feet number the short match. There was sadness and despair in the camp that night . Two of the brothers decided to try once more to go out and hunt for caribou. As they were hunting, they tripped and fell over a white polar bear. The bear stood up. He was about twelve feet tall. When he 214 nihahndn : ies , so he was tall wa ’ thatskdra ’we he opened his mouth t kwdh nd:ne just like o'tdnhkwa' ne fire the rahsd :kon . in his mouth Tdhka nia'kdienhte several times number nahonwardn : tate ’ tsi niidrre ’ iahrdnheie ' . they shot him to so it is far he died Oksa f k sahiathroid : na ’ tsi wa ' konwdr io T right they went back that they killed away to tell it ohkwd :ri. Ronatshennonnihdt ie ’ tsi wahoti ’ waraidn bear they were happy that they got meat ta’ne idh (5:nen ne Sak(5 thahrdnhe ie * . not now the Sako will he die Sakonwaia ’ t isdkha ' ne ohkwd:ri sakonwaia ’ ta - they went back to the bear they could not look for his body find the body idha ’ , sok nd : ' a akwd t ioteniehtd : ron . again then that all it was snow covered opened his mouth, the inside of it looked like a ball of fire next to his huge white teeth. It took several shots to kill the bear. The two brothers were all excited. They quickly went back to the camp and happily reported to their comrades that they had killed a bear, and now Sako would not have to be sacrificed. By the time they got back to the spot where the bear had been killed, he was nowhere to be found, as the blinding snow storm had completely covered him up. The 215 Wahonnd ’ kwate ’ they dug idh not tehot itshdnrion did they find it ase ' ken because tioia ’ tatarfhen its body was ne the ohkwd :r i bear wa 1 kawistand : wen ’ ice became damp warm ne oniehte ’ the snow kaia ' td : Icon , Tewenhniserd :ke under its two days number body ronndkwas 6:nen they were now digging shihon 'nikonhrd : ktha ’ as their minds were running out o : nen now ni sakonwaia ' tat shdn : r i ’ ne ohkwd:ri. this they found the body the bear again Wa ' konwaidnsehre ' sok wahat i ’wa : rar ihte ' . Tewenhnisera they skinned it then they cooked meat two days ke ohnekdkeri broth khok wahatihneki : ra ' only they drank tho ne ' then the o:nen wahat i ’wa : rake ’ , now they ate meat akwe wahot inonhwdkten ’ all they were sick heat from his body had melted the snow beneath him and buried him still deeper * After two days of digging and no sight of the bear they were about to give up when they finally found the bear. They skinned him and cooked the meat. The first two days they only drank the broth ? then they ate the meat. In the meantime, Kanenraht 1 :ron ’ s toes were all frozen and he could no longer walk. One by one they started to get sick 216 sdtsi* io 1 wahrare ’ sen tanon’ sdtsi1 karfrwes too meat is fat and too long matter tsi nahe ’ tethonatsk^: honhkwe ' . at time they were eating Kanenraht f : ron Kanenraht i : ron rahiakwir£ : ke wakanennio ikwanoste * his toes on it froze iah tdshre’s. not did he walk 0 :nen now ni wahon :newe * ne shakotiia * ti : saks this they arrived the they sought their bodies nahonwat iia ’ tak^hnha ’ , they came to help them ionsahonwat iia 1 tdnhawe * tsi they took their bodies to back ndn thonatenatison ’ ne Hudson Bay Company. Kaid : r i where they settled the Hudson Bay Company four niha:ti iosno:re’ sahon :newe f tsi non of them it is fast they arrived back at where ienakerenion ’ ndnrkwe . Raksotha R6wi Shohd : rase ’ various people the live people my grand¬ father Louie Shohe : rase ' from eating the bear meat. They eventually all became ill as the meat was too rich, for them after not having any nourishment for days. Help came, but none too soon. They were finally rescued. They were all taken to the Hudson Bay Company fort. Four of the men returned to civilization that winter; the four were 217 ro’keni'a Sakcf, fanon ’ ne tehniiaTh.se his Sakd and the two- men brother niristf: sere sok ne Wfshe , ta^non' Kanenraht i: ron , they drag iron then the Mike and khe ithne’s s<5tsi' rot inonhw^ktani ’ . Wa ' thonwatiThsnie ' they too they were sick they looked after remained them ne kw£h sken£n:?a the just slowly sahiata 'kari : tate ' . they regained their health Kanenrahti : ron, ser£ka f tsi rdnnhe ' ia * thaione : non r Kanenrahti iron almost as he lives he gave up tets2:ron wahonwahsi :nia ’ ke * . both they cut his legs Eiso’ wahatii^sha’ tsi ronahtentidn : ne 1 , much they suffered as they were away tidtkon ki iahat ir ihwai£ : r ite ' tsi nahditen* always then they finished their for what task ronathonkai^ ikon. Ki : ken ne tionathonwi : sen r they hired them this the women selves for my grandfather, Rowi Sohdjrase’, Sak(5 , the brother who was almost sacrificed, and the two surveyors. The other two brothers, Wishe and Kanenrahti : ron , had to stay behind at the Hudson Bay fort while they were slowly nursed back to health. Kanenraht i : ron had to pay a great price for his part in the expedition, as he had to have both legs amputated. After much hardship, their mission was 218 rotinidkhon they are married ondnha * they <5 : ni r also wa 1 kont iidsha ’ . suffered hardship Ronater ihwasherdn : ni they made an arrange- nd :ne that Hudson Bay Company Hudson Bay Company tsi that ment rotinidkhon enkonwat ik£ria ’ kse ’ they are they will pay them married tsi nikari : wes as for time long othord : ke iehdn :ne ' s . at the cold they were there Ki:ken ne Hudson Bay this the Hudson Bay Company 6 : nen kwdh ken* ndhe ’ Company now just a bit time idh the : nen' not anything tehshonwat iwennahronkha ' wahonte ' nikonhri : sa ' they did not hear their they made up their voice again minds tsi that idh tha ’ onsakonwat ik^ria ' kse ’ ne rotiniakhon. not would they pay the they are them again married Wahonni : ron ’ , they said idh 6:n.en tha ’ onshakwakdr ia ’ kse ’ , not now would they pay them accomplished, charting the Northwest Territory. The wives of the men also went through great hardship. There was an agreement made with the Hudson Bay Company that as long as the explorers were away their pay would come regularly to their wives. In the meantime, the Hudson Bay Company had lost contact with the men and the Company decided to cut off the payments to the wives. 219 "ase'k£n id:kwehre’ because we think thonenh£ : ion . M they are dead Taioti ’nikdn: ren 'ne T tsi na ’ teiotenonhianihton their minds fell that it was so terrible nahd:tenT wa 1 konwat ihrd : r i ' . Oh nenkont iie : re ’ what they told them what will they do d:nen wa ' ondt ia ' kse ’ tsi kont ihwistatdhkwas . now it was severed the they were taking money out Akwd nieiotiwiraidn : ton taiakot ihsnie ' ne ’ . all they have children they should look after Aksdtha dhsen niiakbwiraidn : tahkwe ' Grandma three she had that many children isten : ' a mother shiiewird : ' a . when she was a baby Kon’tdtie1 iakoi(3?tef all day she is working tdnon* td:k and so nit io 'kard : ’ on otsindhtara as the night beads iakoid ’ te ' she works skd:ti ne one side of ionhsiTtd:ke teiontatkardn : ron on her foot she is rocking owird : ’ a . baby Tsi what They told the women they could no longer pay them as they thought the men had perished. It was a horrible shock to the women to be told that their husbands were given up as dead and that their means of support was severed. They all had young children to support. My grandmother had three children to support; my mother was a mere babe in arms. Grandma had to work all day and late into the night, one foot rocking the cradle, while she did bead work. She would 220 enidhsa ' she will finish kaio ' tdhhshera ' beadwork tenionta4: ton' , she will exchange naho : ten ' ever atenna : tshera ’ food t£non ’ and ne karfstakon nahtf:ten' the inside iron what aiontd : kate ' nahotiia ' tatarf : hen ’ , iake^n : ’ ak tsi for her to for their bodies to barely to burn keep warm ronndnnhe ' . they live it.- Ontshard :ko ' tsi d:nen si:newe 1 ne chattering for now they the returned iatate ' kdn :'a, they are brothers Akwd ne rontdtenonhkwe ' tdnon’ all the they are related and ronatenro ’ shdn : 'a their friends ronatshenn6n : ni ronatonnhahere 1 they are glad they are happy tsi satnewe' that they returned ne iatonhwentsi : saks . the they search for land exchange the beadwork for food and fuel, barely staying alive . What a happy day it was when the men returned home. All the relatives and friends were there to welcome the explorers back home again. Waris6:se Kaierithon Josephine Horne 221 TSITHA The Bird Ne idrken' this it is said k£:ken ranekdnhteron’ this he is young ionsahatdweia ’ te ’ ts i thondnhsote ’ wahori ’wandn : - he went back into his home at where his house stands he asked tonhse' ne ro ’ nfha adn : ton ’ kdn ne the his father ? the aho ' serdhtani ’ . would he lend it drags "I rkehre ’ I want akaterohrdkha ’ ki:ken I would go this watch teioia ’ aks . " it flickers Wahdn : ron ’ he said id:ken’ ne they say the ro ' nlha , his father "Wd:s, go ahead nek ki ’ nd : ' a ne but just that the enhsaten ’nikdn : raren ’ . Tdhsa'" you will set your mind do not on it wahdn : ron ’ , he said Mndn:wat enhse ’niakenhtdnion ’ . " this will you speed around time Once a young boy returned home and asked his father whether he would be willing to lend him the family car, so that he could go to the movies. His father said, "Go ahead, but take good care of it and don’t go speeding around." 222 Sahdn iron ’ he said back id : ken ' it is said kiiken ranekdnhteron r » this he is young "Enkaten 'nikon iraren'se' I shall set my mind on it Orhon ’kerne iaiken’ sahar ihwa : ronke ’ ne in the morning it is he heard the said ro ’niha dkte’k noniwe his every place father iehshohonwf : sere ' s tdnon* he was driving and around akte’k 6 : ni ' noniwe ronwa : kens tethoke ' tohton . every also place people were coming out seeing him Ohstomha iaiken’ a little it is said 6 ini' also tsi so ni : iot it is nahor ihwaksha ’ se he was angry ne ro ’niha . Thok the his the she ' only ni : iot so tsi as father ronater ihwahsheron ini they had made plans tsi thok noniwe so just that place "I'll be careful," answered the boy. The next morning the father heard of his son’s adventures during the previous evening. People had seen him driving all over. He was somewhat angry. They had agreed that he would only go to the movies. He said 223 ienhakwdtho ' he will go ki:ken teioia ' aksne . this it flashes Idh c5:ni' not also dksa’k the right not away tehhiwen ki did he this speak ro ’niha . his father Tuhkdra ’ several ndn : ta ’ days ontdhe tste ’ . it went by Ronwaia ' tanontaktbnhne Friday o’karahsndha shonsd:rawe’ in the evening when he arrived ne roi£n:'a sahor i ' wanbn : tonhse 1 the his he asked him again son ne ro'nlha the his father enh.ath.6n : tate ’ will he be willing ken shd:kon ne ? again the aonsaho ' serdhtani 1 . he would lend him it drags Thb ki' nii(5:re’ (5:nen at that so it is now far wahori Twan6n : tonhse ' he asked him ne roi6n:’a t(5:ske' the his son it is true ken ? ki oh nahb:ten' this what thing rar ihwahrbn kha 1 . he is hearing about nothing^ and several days passed. The following Friday evening the son again returned home and again asked to borrow the car. At that point the father asked whether what he had heard were true . 224 Wahdn : ron ? id: ken' ki roidn : ’ a , MTd : ka ’ . " he said they this his son I don't say know Sahdn : ron ’ ne ro rniha , "Wa ' ker ihwd : ronke ' he said the his I heard back father thl tdhka ? niwahshontd : te ’ tsi ndhe ' that several night ago kon' serehtanihgn :ne ' tsi sa 'niaken ' dn :ne ' , I lent you it drags that you went all over the place aktdrshon1 id: ken’ every other it is place said ndn:we nonkwehshdn : ' a place people iesd:ken's tet isake ' tdhton ' . " they were you were appearing seeing you from everywhere Wahdmron* id:kenT ki:ken roidn:'a, he said it is this his son said "Hdnhka’ ne ' ne rd:tonf?" who was it who he is saying Ranonhtonnidnkwas id: ken’ ki;ken ro'niha he was thinking it is this his father said His son told him that he did not know. MI heard that several nights ago when I lent you the car, you drove around all over the place, and people saw you everywhere." The son asked who had said such a thing. 225 1 thd nii(5:re' d:nen iahdn:ron’, "Tsftha wahakhrd : r i ' . M there so it now he said is far there b ird he told me la ’ tehononhsonhtiia ’ konhdtie ! he was going into the other room id : ken 1 it is said ' ki this roiend : ' a . his son Kwdh just 6:nen ranhotdnme wahdn:ron now he was clos- he said ing the door ’ , "Rond : wen he lies ki ' ." just "A bird told me,” replied the father. The son went into the next room, but just as he was closing the door, he said, "That bird sure knows how to lie, then." Ordte’ Kar ihwenhawe ’ Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore 226 Ka'tsi some ok KA ; R NAHSONTHEN 11:45 P.M. ndn:we kl:ken kandnino karistatsi place this New York ironwork City tho tiid ’ tehkwe ’ tdhka' they were a few working nihd:ti kahnawakehrd : non ' of them residents of the place at the rapids tdnon' shaid:ta and one man ne ahkwesahshrd :non ' ost6n:ha the resident of the a bit place of partridge tethona : kara T s . Shaidrta <5:ni’ id:ken’ ne he was dark one man also they say the rah6n:tsi skdthne thonatordhon ronkwe : ta se ' . he is black together they partnered a new man Ne ki ’ kl:ken ahkwesahshrd :non r thdrnen’ Well just this St. Regis man something ki ' nd : ' a I guess iahor i ’wancin ; tonhse ' aontahd:ion' ne he asked for would he give the him There is this story of a few guys working on steel somewhere in New York City. A couple of them were from Caughnawaga, and one from St. Regis who was a bit on the dark side. A new guy was also working in the gang who was a black man. The St. Regis man asked the black man to give him 227 rahdn:tsi. Sok ia:ken’ he is black then they say wahen : ron ’ he said ttf:k such na ’ tehawennakare :ni , so his voice was loud, "Nia:wen ki ' ahsdnthen." Thanks midnight Khe ki ’ niiohsno:re' wa r thar ihwaser^ : ko ' ne right just as it is he answered back the fast rahon : ts i , he is black "Iah tekari:wa', aktaf ki'k not a matter near this ka:r nahsonthen nihsia ’ t6 : ten . " quarter midnight such you are a kind of ni : se ' yourself ne the something and as he was handed it, he said, "Thanks, Midnight!" to which the black man promptly replied, "You’re welcome; you’re pretty near quarter to midnight yourself!" Konwats i ’ tsaien : ni Rita Phillips 228 TSIK A TSIK, TSIK A TSIK, TSIK A TSIK Tsi niidhseres, id:ken', ki:ken At winter long it is said this iatathrdna ' they are married to each other wahiatonhkdr ia ' ke ' , they two hungered tdnon' wahiat ienhtd : kten ' <5:ni'. and they two were out too of wood Wahatateweienndn : ta ' ne ' ne he himself ready made the r(5n:kwe ahatordtha ' , man for him to hunting go tdnon' wahshakohrd : r i ' and he her told ne r<5:ne' tdhsa' the his wife do not aiontd : ka ' te ' for her it to burn cause tsik dnshrawe ' . until will back he come Idh teiako tahonhsatd : ton , kanirio'k Not did she her hears prick as soon as iahaid : ken 'ne ' out he went sok wa ' etsenhdn : ni ' tdnon' then she sparks made and sdts i ’ too One long and cold winter, a man and his wife ran out of food, and had very little firewood left. The husband got ready to go out on a hunt, and he told his wife not to make a fire and use up the wood until he returned with meat to cook. Now the wife was very cold and very hungry. She did not listen to her husband, and instead started a fire the minute he left. She stood warming herself 229 dkta ’ niahdi'en* tsi near she went at iotgkha* wa 'onnihsnonhscftshi ' it burns she her finger scorched Wa * t iakohen : rehte * she yelled ki’ na: 'a tdnon' wa*ako- I suppose and she her 'tsiireke* ne iehsnonhs£ : ke . Tsi nii6:re* tsi finger sucked the her finger on As so it is far as iontonhkar ia * ks , wa * akawe : ka ’ we ’ seken ne she hungry taste pleased her as well the tanon * and wa : ' eke w£ : ' eke she ate it she ate it 6 :ni also ieia ' td : ke , her body on tdnon ' and ionhs i ' td : ke . her feet on iehsnonhsa : ke her finger on ne ienentsha : ke , the her arm on ne iehsina:ke, the her leg on Kwah ia:ken' Even it is said tanon* ne and the akwd:kon ne all the wa ' ako ' ts irekhon ' she sucked ne ionhiakwird : ke . the her toes on 0:nen ki ia:ken* kwdh iah Now this it is said just not thd :nen ' anything tetsako ' wa : rare * , tanon* meat on her and she:kon niiontonhkdr ia ' ks still so she hungered next to the fire, when she accidentally burned her finger. "Aki : ’ i she yelled and stuck her finger in her mouth to try and ease the pain. She was so hungry that she discover¬ ed her burned finger tasted good, so she nibbled at it until she had eaten it all up. Then she burned her hand, and ate it, burned her arms and ate them, burned her body and ate it, burned her legs and ate them, even burned her toes and sucked and sucked on them! The lady ate her¬ self all up, and did not have a speck of meat left on her 230 sok ia ' e id : ken ' ne ' then out she went wahonwaia ' tisdkha ' she his body seek¬ ing went ne r<5 : ne ' . the he is married Ne seken ne The as well the 6: ia 1 nikawennd : ten other kind of sound t s i as wa ' onhtdn : t i ' . she walked Tsi nI:iot ne wa ' ohs tien r td : kahre ' , so as it is the noisy bones "tsik a tsik, tsik a tsik, tsik a tsik." Wa ' tharahtate ’ he ran ia:ken'ne' raotsheinen' it was said his pet erhar wahohror ia :na ' tsi dog he him to tell that went na ’ akoid : tawen ' what to her body happened ne the rb:ne?. Tdnon ' 6 : nen he is and now married 6:ni* iahothbn : te 'ne ’ also it to his ears came "tsik a tsik, tsik a tsik, tsik a tsik," taiohs t ien ’ takard : re ’ , sok id : ken ' wahatd : ko ’ . noisy bones coming then it is said he fled. bones. She made the wierdest kind of noise when she moved, like a pile of rattling bones, "chick a chick, chick a chick, chick a chick." Even after eating herself all up, she was still hungry, so she went out looking for her husband. In the meantime, the man's dog went and found his master and told him what had happened to his wife. Just then the husband heard a faint sound in the distance, "chick a chick, chick a chick, chick a chick." He knew what it was and he started running. 231 I ahd : rawe ' there he arrived kl : ken this ts i at nf:iot ne as it is the a ' 6 : ren over big it hole 0:nen ki wd:rehre' now this he thought tahi£ : ia ' ke ' . for him to cross nikanonhsa ’ such a house 0 :nen now iahahnhonht ishon ' . he door shook anon ' khe ieiot id : kton. and there it it - self cut off oh nenhd : iere ' ne what way the 6 :ni ’ wahatkdhtho ' ken ’ also he saw it small e ' . Tho niahd : re ’ tdnon e There there he and ■g went roks tdn : ha ken’k nihahndn he is old just so he is Wahor i ' wanon : tonhse ’ ne rdn:kwe ahoie :nawa ’ se ' he him asked the man for him to him help tahia : ia ’ ke ' . for him to cross there After running for some time, he came to a huge canyon. He ran along the edge of it trying to figure how he was going to cross, when he saw a little house in the distance. He ran up to it and knocked hard on the door . A little old man answered. He asked him to help him cross the huge canyon, and the old man agreed, but 232 Wahen : ron ' he said ne rokstehiha, the he is old "Thi kawenniiio' this word is good enta: 'on ki ' niahkwe ’ it will be just meantime necessary enhsahiakha ’ you will berry pick tanon ’ and enhsanitsatoratha ’ tdnon’ will you fish to and hunt go kdni'en nentdhshawe ’ here will you bring Tho ki ' nahd:iere’ there just there he went ne r<5n:kwe. Wa ' thos ter ihen ' the man he hurried ki ’ nd : ' a , I suppose (5:nen she’d:re’ sahothdn : te ’ ne ’ now again again to his ears it came Mtsik a tsik, tsik a tsik, tsik a tsik" taiohstien ’ takard : re noisy bones coming Tah(5 : ion ’ ne he him the gave kdhi, tdnon ' fruit and ne kdntson, the fish sok ne rokstdn:ha then the he is old wa ’ tat ia ' karat irdn : ten ' tdnon' he his body stretched and told him, ’’First you must pick me some berries and catch me some fish." The man raced around picking berries and catching fish, and in no time at all he had a big basket of berries and a long string of fish. Again, in the distance, he heard the strange sound coming closer, "chick a chick, chick a chick, chick a chick." He ran even faster back to the house. The little man said, "Come with me." They stood at the edge of the canyon. The little man stretched 233 wahatat ia ' tahni : rate * , sok raia'ta:ke wahahtdn:ti' he his body hard made then his body on he went ne r6n:kwe wa ' thaid : ia ' ke ' . Iahdirawe' ki the man he crossed he arrived that ne isi' nekwd ne r6n:kwe, ok nd:'a ne then the tdnon' kandnhskon and house in nionsd : re ' . there back he went the over place the man there rokstdnrha sahatatahs thohte ' he is old back he himself small made Ken'k nikari:wes just a so matter little long kanonhskon house in idshre's, sok there back then he went wahothon : te 'ne ' "tsik a tsik, tsik a tsik, tsik a tsik." it to his ears came Aktdntie' nontaiawenonhdt ie ' . closer it was coming Khdre ' d:nen kwah sudden now just himself and made himself hard and stiff, so that the man and his dog were able to walk on his back and get safely to the other side. Then, the little old man made himself normal and went back into his house. A short time later, the little man heard a weird sound in the distance, getting louder and louder! "Chick a chick, chick a chick, chick a chick." Finally the sound was right outside his door. There was a loud 234 at s te tho taior d : kahre ’ . Iahahnhotdn : ko ' . Thd outside there there noise He door opened there 1 : tsete ' ki:ken iakdn:kwe iah thdrnen' she standing this lady not anything teiako 'wa : rare ' . meat on her Wa ’ 1 : ron ’ she said "Taki ' terdnhna ' place me is i ’ nekwd . " over there Wahen : ron ' he said ne rokstdn:ha the he is old "Thi kawenni : io ' , that good word enta: 'on ki ' nidhkwe ’ it will be just meantime necessary enhsahidkha ' will you berry pick tdnon ’ and enhsanitsatordtha ' will you fish to hunt go tdnon ’ and kdn : f en nentdhshawe ' . " here will you bring them Iah teiakothontd : ton , wa’i:ronf, "Iah not did it to her come she said not tewakendktote ’ kwdh dksa'k taki ' terdnhna " does place stand just fast place me there for me pounding on the door, and when he opened it, there stood the lady without a speck of meat on her bones. She demanded, "Take me across the canyon." The little old man agreed, but told her, "First you must pick me some berries and catch me some fish-" "I have no time," she said, "Take me across immediately!" she angrily answered him. I 235 Sok ki ne Then this the roks ten : ha he is old wa ' that ia * karat iron : ten ' he his body stretched tdnon' raia’td:ke wa ’ onhtdn : t i ' and his body on she walked ne iakdn:kwe, the lady nek tsi but iah tieidiko not did she go ne isi' nekwd, the over there s<5 ts i ’ too wahatat ia ' tahnhetskwahte ' , wa'ekhdhen’, tdnon ’ he his body soft made she slipped and ia ’ eia : ten 'ne' . down her body dropped Idh ne wdniton dnhka ' Not ever anyone teskonwawennahrdn : ken . again one her voice heard Shatatahs thohte ’ ne roksten:ha tdnon* back he his the he is old and body small made kanonhskon nionsd:re*. house in there back he went The little man said, "Come with me." They stood at the edge of the canyon. He stretched himself right over the canyon and the lady started walking across his back, slipping and sliding, because instead of making himself hard and rigid, he made himself soft and flexible. The lady lost her balance and fell right to the bottom of the canyon. She was never heard of again. The man and his dog lived very happily on the other side of the canyon. Amen Kaia ' t i tdhkhe ' Annette Jacobs 236 237 I AH TEHOTEWEN : NARA The Disobedient Youth Iekaratdnhkhwa ’ tsi ki: ken kd'n* nithoi<5n:ha it is told that this small he is aged onkwehomwe raon ' eskwanfhahkwe ' iotahsontat Then real person he used to like middle of night she:kon ahoiakenhatie : seke ’ tsi nf:kon still he would be out that time ienhaia : ken ’ne ' eniai:ron' ne ro’nist^nha, he goes out she will say the his mother "Tohsa' sasa ’ nikonhrhen ohdn:tonr ahs<5nthen do not set out your mind before midnight tontasahten : t i ' ase ' ken no :nen enwatdhet ste to return home because when it will pass ne' tho nit sohwista : 1 e nek ne idh at this as is strikes metal just not tekon ' tkonhser 1 : io teskon :ne's." is spirit good they are around It is said that there was this Indian youth who liked to go out till after midnight. Every time he left the house his mother would say, "Don’t forget to he home before midnight, because after this hour there is nothing but evil spirits outdoors." 238 Tia ' tewahsdn : take ne kdn' nithoidn: ha night after night the small he is aged enharhd : rats te ’ tsi iohsnd : re ’ ^nshrawe ’ • Nek he will promise that it is fast he will but come back kil tsi t idtkon just because always sho ’ nikdnhrhens iahatkdhtho ’ he puts his he would look mind back there to nitsohwistd: 'e nd : nen ne how many it strikes when the metal rontenro ’ shdn : ’a they are friends t dnon ’ raot ihwd : t sire ’ enthontdhsawen ’ kakar i : io ’ s and their family they will start good stories tahontatkaratdn : hahse ’ . Iotkd : te iotkardt teron 1 s . they tell one another often scarey stories K1 : ken wahsontd : te iahatkdhtho ’ karahkwaka T - this night he looked clock idn:tha* . Tontahani ’ tsdnhkwahkwe ’ ionsahaiake'nhstahkwe ’ he jumped up he ran back out ase’kdn d : nen tdkeni tetsohwistd : 1 e . lohsontd hskats because now two it strikes beautiful metal night Night after night the youth would promise to get home early, but he always lost track of time when his friends and family started to tell one another good stories, often scarey ones. One njght he looked at the clock and saw that it was two o’clock, so he jumped up and left the house. It was a beautiful moonlit night, so he was not frightened. 239 ahson’ th£nhka ' ior^hkete’ i£h oth^rnon tehohte- moon is out moon. not anything is lie ron'nf : sere ? . frightened of OnhkaTc wahshak<5:ken’ someone fie saw her taiakawenon- she is coming h^tie.’ tsi niahawenonhat ie ’ . toward where he was going Tsi d:nen akta* when now near w^: 'onwe* tsakothonwf : sen ’ wa'i:ron, she she is feminine she said arrived "Kw6 , iohsontcihskats w&hi ' . Ka’ wa-hse’?" hello beautiful night isn’t where are you going it "Sonkwahtent ionh^tie ’ tah£n:ron’ . I am going back home he replied "Niiohsontdhskats £nio such a beautiful let’s night ostc5n:ha tiahtdmti," a little we could walk wa’k6n:ron*. Tah£n:ron’, she said he replied "A:ke i£h th£on:ton’ ase’kdn s(5k nd:'a oh not is it possible as already He saw someone come toward him and, as they got close, he saw that it was a girl* She said? "Hello, isn*t it a beautiful night? Where are you going?" "rim on my way home," he said* "Itls such a beautiful night, letts take a walk," she said* "Oh no, I can’t. I’m already late going home," he replied. 240 ohna : ken1 f:ke ' late I am going tsi sonkwahtent ionhrft ie ' . n that I am returning home Taken iron ’ , ne tsothonwf: sen ' , she replied the she is feminine "Enskonr terdnhna ' Sk^thne i;ne ' I will walk you home together they went tsi to (5 : nen iahd : newe r ate ' £n : rakon wa(k^n:ronf , now they got in the yard she said to "Anio tsi iakennekeraientdhkhwa ' iet i£t ien ’ let’s in hay loft we sit tdnon ' and entenikd : raton ' • I^hse ' we will tell not so stories thaiesand jkhwahse ' she could get angry at you ase'kdn 6 : nen se ' because already t s I : sa . ” you are back lahiatdweia ' te ’ . Kanekd : tote ' they two entered ladder ontkdhtho ' , she saw wa ’kdn : ron ’ , she said The girl said, "Illl wait you home." They walked together and when they got to his yard, she said, uLetts go and sit in the hayloft and talk. Your mother can't get angry at you, after all you are already home . ” The two of them entered and she saw a ladder. She 241 "Anio ietenirdithen a ’ k£ts £:se ' fshent," let’s we two go up o come on you go first nek ki’ tsi ne ranekdnhteron ’ waWnjron' , but the young man he said "I : se ’ i shent/’ s6k k£ tont^hsawen ’ you you go so then she started f irst akar^then ’ . Sha ’ tekanekotl : hen shahe ’ <5 : nen for her to half way up the she was now climb up ladder going teka ’nhia : ronhwe ' iahaid : na ' wahathon ’ kw^weron ’ rod across it he touched he looked up 6:nen wahatk4htho ’ tsi i&h tha ’ tewahsi : tonte ’ now he looked that not did she have feet teiot shinardn : tonte ’ . Tsi niid : re ’ tsi she had hoofs so it is far that wahoteronhidnhten ? he got frightened takaiakdn : seron ’ ne raok5 : ra ’ they came out the his eyes said , "Let’s go up there. Ah come on, you go up first,’’ But the young man said, "No, you go first." So she started to climb the ladder. When she was half way up, he started to climb. As he touched the rung, he looked up and saw that the girl did not have feet but heavy hoofs. He was so frightened that his eyes bulged out of their sockets. 242 t£nonl tehohenreht£;ne ' raot intfnhskon nionsa- and he screaming in their Lome Le went hat£khe * iowennatsh^ :ni w2:ton, running Larsh voice it says "Wesatera ' sw£: iohste 1 tsi idliten £ * se ' your luck is good that not you tesahdn : ton have you gone first ase'bdn t<5ka» aesahdnrton' because if you would have gone first iaonsakon- I would ia ' t£nha T have taken you away tsi ndn : we ' . " till ever Sh6:kon na ’ tehohenrdhtha ’ wahonwaid : na ' ne still he screaming so she held him the ro ’nistdnha his mother t dnon ’ wa ' i : ron ’ , and she said ME : so ' 6 :nen konhrd : r i much now 1 have told you tsi idh that not He went running into their home, with a harsh voice saying, "You are very fortunate that you didn't go up first, for had you, I would have taken you away with me . M Still screaming, he was held by his mother, who said , "I have told you many times that evil spirits 243 tekontkonhserf : io tiotkon ionatahsetonhdt ie r s is the spirit good always they are lurking nahsonthenhnehs hon ’ . " in the night are always lurking in the night »'r Rake ^niha rakkaratdn : ni my father he has told me Niioronhid : r a Mae Montour 244 TEHOSTERIHENHSERE ' He Is in a Hurry Kiotkon ia : ken ' ki : ken ron :kwe enht sken ' always they this man you will say see him ro ' thahita'hkhe ’ . Sawatis ronwa! : iats . Kiotkon he is walking John he is called always along the road <5 :ni ’ io ' shd'tste ' tsi rostoronkie ' . Tsi non: we also it was that he was any place fast rushing i£n : re ' 6 : nenk ia : ken ' tsi enhathahita ' . Iah he walks no they there he will walk not matter say she's ia : ken ' tha ' tahatate 'nikonha : ren ' ne then they would he trouble his mind the say ahrehsake ' ken ne honhka'k ken ahonwaia ' tita ' for him to for the someone there he would give look him a ride Tha ' kakid : ro ' k ki ' ia : ken ' honhka 'k suddenly j ust they someone say You can always see a fellow walking along the road. John is his name. He always seems to be rushing, but wherever he goes, he goes on foot. He would never put himself to the trouble of finding a ride. One time , they say, someone came driving along. 245 tahohonwf : sere ’ . he came by car Wa ' thd : ta ' ne r wd! : rehre r he stopped he thought enhoia ’ t ita ' . he will give him a ride Wa * thanhohtfn : t i ' he opened the door id! : ken ’ ne they this say Sawdt is . Idh ki ’ tehaw£ : ren John not just he thinks r at ft a . he gets in Wahdn : ron ’ he said id : ken ’ they say kf:ken tsi nikd! : ien 1 this the so it lies roia ’ t ita ' d!hne ’ he was going to give him a ride MKa' wdhse'?" where are you going Wahdn : ron ' id :ken ’ ne Sawdt is , he said they this John say "Tekahson * kahrd : r ens . " to Hogansburg (split planks) "Enkonia ’ t f ta ’ kat 1 ' ken?M shall I give then ? you a lift The driver stopped, thinking he would give this hurried man a lift. John opened the door, but never thought of getting in. The driver asked, "Where are you going?" John replied, "To Hogansburg.” "Would you like a ride then?" 246 Sahen:ron' ia:ken! ne Sawatis, "Iahten> he said they this John not at all > back say tewaks ter ihdnhsere ’ . M Ok na' id:ken’ 6:ni' I'm in a hurry then it also seems sahanhdhaienhte ’ . he closed the door again Then , "Oh, no," replied John. I’m in a hurry." it seems, he just closed the door and rushed off. Orote ’ Karihwenhawe ’ Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore 247 I AH TESHATA : T I ' Silence 0 : nen kwdh kdn * ndhe ' kiotdhsawen ki now j ust a bit ago it started this onkwehdn : we original people ronhtdnkie * s . they would leave Okia’ke dkte'k ndn:we some several places iehshotiio'tdkie's. they were working Ronekiohkowd : nen d:ni’ dkte'k they were a large also other group non : we places iehonwanatennidhtha ’ ne ahonter ihwaienstd : na ' . they were sent to the for them to go to school Okia'ke id: ken' several it is said kf:ken onkwehdn:we this original people enshdn :newe ' they would come back ne onkwehonwd : ke kwdh se's the Indian just then id : ken ’ it is said idh not thd:nenr tehshonhrdnkha ' anything would they know how to say ne onkwehonwehndha ' . the the way of the original people Kwdh id: ken* 6:ni’ just it is also said dkia'ke tohkdra'k several a few Not too long ago people began to leave the reserve to work or to go to school. When they would come back, they would have forgotten how to speak Mohawk. After 248 cf :ni ’ also tohkdra ' k several niiohserd : ke , years niwenhnf : take months t <5 :wa ' maybe ronahtdnkion ’ they have gone nek sh^’s ne but then the shat ikwdthos they would return tsi nc5n:we nihat ? : teron ’ . at the where they live place Tenhshontdtken ' idrken' they would meet it is said ne ronatenro ' shdn : ’ a the they are friends ne onkwehonwd : ke the original people kwdh she’s just then id : ken ’ it is said idh not tha ’ taontahontd : t i ’ did they speak a word ne onkwehonwehndha ’ . the way of the original people Kwdh just she ’ s id : ken ' 6 : ni ’ dkia ’ ke thihonnehtha ' . then it is said also several they would do it on purpose Shaid : ta id : ken ’ ki : ken onkwehdn : we one man it is said this original person iahonwaia ’ tdnhawe ’ tsi iakenheion ’ taient dhkhwa ' . they took him to the hospital several years or even several months they would return home for a visit. When they met up with their Mohawk friends, they would not be able to speak a word of Mohawk. They say some did it on purpose. It seems that they had to take one fellow to the 249 Wahonwahnia ' sakwdh taren ' id: ken r oh£n:ton tsi they operated on his it is before so throat said nii 6 : re ' as it is far tontahonwdhtka 'we' . they let him go back home Tontahonwen ' tercfnhna ’ they brought him back ne onkwehonwd : ke . the place of the original men Tonsahontdtken ' ne they met again the ronatenro ’ shdn : ’ a * they are friends Tsi iahonwawdn : nara ’ne ’ nia'td:kon wahonwari ’wa- as they spoke to him a lot of they asked things nontennitfn : hahse ' him tho nii(5:re’ there as it is far id:ken' d:nen it is now said iahdnttoke ’ , kwdh they noticed just id : ken ' ne ' ki : ken it is it is this said ronatdn : ro ’ their friend iah teshatd : t i ’ . not does he speak anymore hospital. Before he could come home, they operated on his throat. After he returned to the reserve, he met up with his friends, who asked him all kinds of questions. It was then that they noticed that he could not speak Mohawk. In fact, he could not speak at all. Ordte ' Karihw6nhawe ’ Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore 250 IEHATIIEN:TF,RETSKWE ’ Prophesy Ne khok ki' niwakkd : raien ' the and just so he has told me rake ' nfha my father tsi oh nah(5:tenT that what thing rakaratcfnhkhwahkwe ’ he used to relate ken ' then shiiakwaksa : ’ a ne:ne rot ikstohokon 'kdnha ’ when we were which they were old small nd : ne which iehat iidn : tere ’ skwe ’ they used to predict tsi niiawdnhshere 1 as so it was happening rontdnhahkwe * they used to say tchwe' nenhnisera’ it is the days coming ensewatkdhtho ’ ki:ken you will see this kaniataratdt ie ’ enkontohdts take * along the river they will pass kats i ' noniowd : nen ’ s large insects nd :ne idh nonwdn : ton tesewatkdhthon ok 6 : ni ’ which not ever have you seen only also ne karonhia ' kdhshon 1 enkontitie’ seken ne the along the sky they will also fly these My father used to tell us, when we were small, what the old people had predicted. They used to say that the day was coming when strange insects would pass by along the river, and that they would fly through the skies, killing many people. 251 kats i ’noniowd* :nen ’ s e : so ’ large insects many ndn : kwe eniaktfrio'. people they will kill them On:wa’ ki’ wenhnisera : te 1 today just this day ker ihwai^n : tere ’ s stories I know oh naho:ten’ rati:ton', Ne kf:ken ken’ what thing they mean the this this non:we nikana ' taien ’ place so the town lies tenwattd : ni T it will change idh kahnawd:ke not Caughnawaga (rapids place) thenskenhake ' . Idh 6:ni’ will it live not also again onkwehonwehndha r original people thenhshako ' nikonhrotakwen will it confuse one 's mind idh 6:nif dnhka’ not also anyone thaonsaiontat lhseke ’ nonkwawdn :na ' enionkwatewenndhton T se ’ will they speak our language will we lose our word ok 6 : ni ’ and also nonkwaianerenhshera ’ our law tenwattd : ni 1 . will it change 0 :nen ki ' now even tiotahsawen tsi teiottenionhatie f . it has begun that it is changing Now, today, I understand what they meant by these stories. This very place will change. It will no longer be the Caughnawaga we know. We Indians will no longer speak our language, and, along with our words, we will lose our law. Already we can see this. The white man’s 252 Ne sewatkwenie ’ s ne rat ihnara ' kenhndha ’ . the it takes over the white man’s way. I : ’ i wakhia : ton . I I wrote this A:nen Karonhiahen : te ’ Ann Before the Skies Rdwi Shohd : rese ’ rake Diihkdnha ’ ne Louie my late father he rakkaratdnhkhwahkwe ’ . he used to tell me way is taking over. This was told by Ann Sky, who heard it from her father, Louie Shohd : rese ’ . COrote’ Kar ihwenhawe ’ ) Sister Dorothy Ann Lazore Sky 253 KAHNAWA : KE AOKA : RA T The Story of Caughnawaga Tdka * ia:ia’k - iawdn:re* tewen ’nid*we * about six teen hundred tanon ' and. id:ia*k -niwd'hsen six ty tsdMta shiiohser£ : te * seven such was the year tohkara * a few nikahwatsi : rake famil ie s onkwehdn : we original people wahonhtena : taien * dkta’ kenhta:k.e tsi they towned near La Prairie to kaniataratat ie * . along the river Toka* id:ia*k - iawenrre* about six teen tewen ’ niawe * tanon* tsa:ta - niwdhsen shi - hundred and seven ty such iohsera : te * wa *thona : tahkwe * ken : * en , kahnawci : ke was the year they moved here Caughnawaga wahdntien ’ . they sat T6kar ia:iark mair tsi about six miles as nikandrtes tanon* so the settle- and ment is long About 1667 some Mohawk families settled near La Prairie by the rapids of the St. Lawrence River. In 1670 they moved to their present location but kept the name kahnawa : ke , which means "by the rapids." 254 kaid:ri mdir na ' tekanatakd : ron . Tdka ' wfsk- four miles so the settlement about fif- is wide niwdhsen ty tewen 'nidwe ' niia:kon ie : teron ’ . hundred ol them they live here Skaniatard : ti othordrke nekd:ti, kenhtd:ke nd : kon beyond the at the the side La Prairie under river cold (east ) nekd : t i , St. Isidore tdnon St. Constant dnt ie the side and south nekd:ti sharher’on d:neken nekd : t i . Akta ' ne the side Chateauguay west the side near the kahnawd : ke ne tiohtid:ke. Tewdhsen wfsk mlnit Caughnawaga the Montreal twenty five minutes id : ionwe ' aiakohonwi : sere ' . Tioht id : ke ne kwdh for one for one to drive Montreal the most to arrive tkanatowd : nen ne kordhne nekd : t i . the town is the govern¬ s ide large ment Kdn ' nikanatar'a ne kahnawd : ke . Th6 : ha like a small city Caughnawaga most The reserve covers about twenty-four square miles and has a population of five thousand. The St. Lawrence River and the city of Lachine are to the north, to the east is the city of La Prairie, to the south is the city of St. Isidore, and to the west, the city of Chateauguay. Caughnawaga is only nine miles, or approximately twenty- five minutes' drive by car from Montreal, Canada's largest city. Caughnawaga is urban in character. Most buildings 255 akw6 : kon ne kahwd : tsire ’ rotinonhsote 1 . Otia'ke all the family their house some stands ne raotinonhsa’ the their house 6 : nen t ioti : ion ne tsi now on the the there sides ot st en : ra ' watston tho ni stone it was there the used tsi as ronon :nihskwe ’ they used to build norihwaka : ion T . Otia’ke the thing is some old 6 :nen enska tewen ’niawe ' now one hundred tanon ’ wisk - niwahsen and five tens niiohsera :ke tsi so many years so nahe ’ it goes tkahson' . there it is Teionaktane’ ne two places the raotinonhsa ’ their house ne the ronon :ni ' they have built 6 : nen tsi ki ’ ni : iot ne ronatia ’ ke now as just as it is the other tsi as rot inonhso : ton their kind of house ne korahne the govern¬ ment nekd . side Tsi at iakenheion ’ t aientahkhwa ’ ne kwah tkanonhsow^ : nen they use it to lay the dead the most large building are single family dwellings. The very old homes are made of stone, and the owners proudly informed me that they are about one hundred fifty years old. The other houses are similar to the newer ones built throughout Canada. The largest building is the three story Kateri Memorial Hospital. 256 Tsi tenhsatstek^hwha ' as you will travel ne ki:ken enhsatkahtho ’ : the this will you see tsi ionter ihstahninon : tha ’ , where one sells iron tsi kanatakwe Tnii6 :ke at the main part of town tsi iontenhnindn : tha f where one sells things iah tha r tekaiahsonth£ : ke not does one make the sign of the cross ionterennaientahkhwa ’ , tsi rat it senhaient^hkhwa 1 , one uses it to pray where they use it to lay sparks tsi rat ir ihton : ke , where the place of the police tsi ron * swdhtha ' , where they extinguish tsi where teiontska 'honhkhwa ' , tsi ionteiennahnindn : tha * , one uses it to eat where one sells oil karonhiandnnha ' ionter ihwaienstahkhwa r . she watches the one uses it to lay words, sky Tsi tiot ierenhton enhsatk^htho ’ at first will you see kana ’ tsheraktatie f , tsi iaken - along the canal where the he ion ' taientahkhwa ’ , tsi shakot itsdn : tha ’ hospital where they heal them As you travel along the main highway, you will see signs such as these: store, hardware, United Church, Iroquois Council Office, Police Department, Fire Department, restaurant, garage, and the Karonhianonnha * School. Along the old main highway, these signs greet you: 257 Kateri Ionter ihwaiens t^hkhwa ' , Kateri one uses it to lay words tekaiahsontha! :ke one signs the cross ionterennaientdhkhwa f , tsi ienohare ' t£hkhwa * one uses it to pray where one uses it to wash tehatat id : nas Billy Two-Rivers radrwen, tdnonr he wrestles it is his and tsi iehiatonhseratahkwdhtha r . Nia * tekandnhsake where one uses it to pick so many buildings up written matter kanonhsd : ten . buildings stand Tidtkon teiot iweiennhard : ron always they are busy ne the kawennand : ron f dear word tsi at ionterihwaienstdhkhwa ’ nd:ne they use it to lay which kdn ' just words nihonnd;sa' rat iksa ' okdn ; ' a ronteweidnstha ' . they are children they learn new Kateri tsi ionterihwaienstdhkhwa * ne ne' ne Kateri where they use it to lay words Kateri Memorial Hospital, Clinic, Kateri School, St. Francis Xavier Catholic Church, Billy Two-Rivers * laundromat, and the Post Office. Caughnawaga is always humming with activity. The children/ in three schools, Kawennano : ron Nursery and Kindergarten, Kateri with grades one to three, and 258 t iotierdnhton tsi niid : re f ne ahsdnhaton first so so it is the third far t^non* karonhiandnnha ' and she watches the sky kaierfhaton tsi fourth so niitf : re ' as it is far iahi£ : khaton rontewe idnstha ’ . Akwd : kon sixth they are all learning ronteweidnstha 1 they are learn¬ ing ahontd : ti ’ t£non ' for them and to speak ahonterennd : ten 1 , for them to sing tiorhdn : sha ? , British o * seronni ’kdha ' the way of the axe makers tanon ’ onkwehonwehndha ’ . and the way of the original people Kaid : ri four tewen ’nidwe f hundred nihd : ti iehonter ihwaidnstha ’ of them they cause words to lay there sharhe : 'on. Chateauguay Tsa:ta nikahid : ton ' seven -th tsi niid : re r so as it is far enska- iawdn : re ’ one teen . thonwat irihonnidn :ni . Otia'ke they make words for some them there onkwehonwehndha 1 in the way of the original people ronteweidnstha * they learn aktd : shon * 6:ni' all over also Karonhianonnha f with grades four through six, are busy learning to speak and to sing in English, French, and Mohawk. Four hundred pupils attend H. Billings High School in Chateauguay. They study there from grades seven to eleven. Other young people study in various 259 n<5n : we place nit hot iidn : sa iehonter ihwaidnstha ' . they are young they cause words to lay there Otia 'ke others <5:ni' "Manitou College” ieh<5n:ne's. also they go there Tidtkon nia'td:kon ronaterihwahtent i£ : ton always many things they are starting matters ne rat indkere ' ne ratiksa 'okdn : ' a raoterihw^ : ke . the they live the children on their behalf Tdhka' niiohserd:ke tsi n£he' several years ago rotinonhsison they finished a building ne rat iksa ' ok<5n : ’ a raotit idhkwa ' the children their group raond : wen . it is theirs. Tdhka ' na 'teiondktane ' iondktote' tsi ndn:we several there are two place stands at now places ne ahat ihson ' karakd : tate the for them to scratch the planks tdnon ' tahat itsi 'nehtara iron, and they are stringing beads Rat iwennahnotdhkhwa ' they use it for reading id:ien' tdnon' d:nil it lays and also id:ien' tsi n6n:we it lays at the place niiont ia ' tahkariohstdhkhwa ' which they use to make their bodies supple schools in Montreal. Still others go north to Manitou College . The residents of Caughnawaga are always involved in projects for the children. Several years ago they completed the Girls' and Boys' Clubs, where the children 260 kanonhsow^* : nen ne eh n<5n : we nia r te”: kon tf :ni large building the there the many things also place n£ : ? e ndn : wa ' it is now ioterihwahtent i£ : ton f . E ' th<5 they have started that is matters where tehonhthenno !ks . Akte r they play ball all over nithon^htha’ nahontefni- they come for them to konhro : ri 1 . have fun Tdhka ’ niiot idhkwake rotin£n : raien r ne several clubs they have a the group iakotehia : ron' : Legion, Knights of Columbus, Moose, they are adults tdnon ' Marine Club. Ionkhihsothokdn: Ta 6 :ni r and grandparents also rotin^mraien' . New Horizon Club konwd : iats .. they have a club it is called Ronat iohkowd : nen ne kahwd ; tsire ^ n§:ne a large group the family who can go to do crafts and beadwork. There is a library there and also a gymnasium. Children come from all over to play ball there. Parents are busy at the Legion, Knights of Columbus, Moose Club, Marine Club, and other organisa tions. Grandparents enjoy themselves at the New Horizon Club. Summer is a happy time. Many families return 261 kandn:no iehat i ' tertfn : ton tethat inat2 : re f s ne New York they live there they return to the City visit kahnaw^:ke ne akenhnh£:ke. place at the in summer the rapids E:so' rcfn:ti ne many of them the ratii^nthos ne they plant the £hsen, n£;ne ienakardtha ’ , three which pole beans are onenhste ’ 0n : we tctnon' onon ' onsera f shdn : 1 a , original maize and various squashes Cincluding pumpkins, melons, cucumbers, etc.) Rono f £skwani ’ ahontawdnha’ kana ’ t sher£ : kon they like it for them to in the canal go bathe tdnon’ rat iksa ’ okdn : ' a tsi iontawenst^hkhwa r and children at one uses it to bathe rontaw£nhe ' s . Tsi iakenhe ion ' taientdhkhwa * lsif they go to at the hospital over bathe there na’oh&hati tho n6n:we nihontawenstdhkhwa * t&non' across the there the where they use to and road place bathe from New York City to visit their Caughnawaga relatives. Most residents can be seen working in their gardens, where they plant the three sisters: corn, beans, and squash. People like to swim at the town beaches, and the children especially enjoy the public pool near the 262 tehonth^nno 'ks . they play ball Roti ' nikonhrd : ris ne rot inonhwaktanidn : ni they are sick ne the r on ten ’nikonhrd : ris they enjoy it enj oy it the Ken fk 6 : n i * niid : re ’ there al so so it is far ne rat iksa ’ ok(5n : ' a the children ronteweidnstha ’ ne they learn ahatik£ : we f they would paddle i:non akt£:shon* far all over n6n : we the place enthdn:ner ne they will the come kwcih just tenhont^t ien r te ’ they will arrive t si so tenhonre : ron ’ . they will race Otia'ke ronon 1 dskwani ' tewa’d:raton t£non' some they like lacrosse and golf tahonhthenno 1 ke ’ . they play Nd:ne kwdh aonha:^a rot i 'nikonhror ia : tha ’ that most they they enjoy which no:nen enhat inenhr ineken 'ne ’ when they will bring the whole crowd out tanonr tenhonatata : se f and they will go around town hospital. The patients enjoy watching the children swim and play ball there. The children can also be seen practicing in kayaks and canoes for their races Others enjoy lacrosse and golf. The big event is the Fire Brigade Parade. We are 263 ne ron f swahtha * . the they extinguish Te iakhir^nhsarons ne we are proud of the them onkonkwe f tahshon : ’ a ne men the ron * swdhtha ' they extinguish Tsi so nihd:ti akwd:kon of them all rontatsnid :nons . they help freely Ionkwe ' eskwan i ' tsi niidtion we like it so many of us kahnawa : ke the place at the rapids iakwanakere ' . we inhabit very proud of the skills of our volunteer firemen. Life is nice at Caughnawaga. Kawennano ; ron ’ Dorris Montour 264 THO NI:KON 265 . ■' 1,1 . 78940 Species Diversity and Community Structure in Bryophytes: New York State Studies Species Diversity and Community Structure in Bryophytes: New York State Studies Nancy G. Slack Russell Sage College Bulletin 428 New York State Museum The University of the State of New York THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Albany, New York 1977 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of The University (with years when terms expire) 1981 Theodore M. Black, A.B., Litt.D., LL.D., Pd.D., D.C.L., L.H.D. Chancellor _ Sands Point 1987 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B., M.B.A., D.C.S., H.H.D. Vice Chancellor _ Purchase 1978 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D., Litt.D _ Troy 1981 JOSEPH C. Indelicato, M.D., L.H.D. _ Brooklyn 1986 Kenneth B. Clark, A.B., M.S.. Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D., D.Sc. _ Hastings on Hudson 1983 Harold E. Newcomb, B.A. _ Owego 1988 Willard A. Genrich, LL.B., L.H.D., LL.D. _ Buffalo 1982 Emlyn I. Griffith, A.B., J.D. _ Rome 1977 Genevieve S. Klein, B.S., M.A. _ Bayside 1981 William Jovanovich, A. B., LL.D., Litt.D., L.H.D. _ Briarcliff Manor 1983 Mary Alice Kendall, B.S. _ Irondequoit 1984 Jorge L. Batista, B.A., J.D _ Bronx 1982 LOUIS E. YAVNER, LL.B _ New York 1979 Laura B. Chodos, B.A., M.A. _ Clifton Park 1980 Martin C. Barell, B.A., I.A., LL.B. _ Kings Point President of The University and Commissioner of Education Ewald B. Nyquist Executive Deputy Commissioner of Education Gordon M. Ambach Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education John G. Broughton Assistant Commissioner for New York State Museum Noel C. Fritzinger Director, State Science Service Hugo Jamnback State Botanist Richard S. Mitchell Polytrichum juniperinum and P. piliferum near timberline, Whiteface Mountain. (photo by A. B. Wellborn) Both Forbes and Darwin realize struggle but see that it has produced harmony. Today perhaps we can see just a little more. The harmony clearly involves great diversity, and we now know . . . that every level is surprisingly diverse. We cannot say whether this is a significant property of the universe; without the model of a less diverse universe, a legitimate but for¬ tunately unrealized alternative, we cannot understand the problem. We can, however, feel the possibility of something important here, appreciate the diversity, and learn to treat it properly. G. Evelyn Hutchinson, 1965 in The Ecological Theatre and the Evolutionary Play Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Larry G. Mason and Dr. William C. Steere for encouragement and for critical reading of the manuscript, Dr. Michael Rosenzweig for stimulating discussion of diver¬ sity, and Dr. E. H. Ketchledge for introducing me to the problems of bryophyte ecology in the Adirondacks. Thanks are due also to Drs. Howard Crum and Robert Ireland and to Drs. Norton Miller and S. Rob Gradstein for the verification or identification of critical mosses and hepatics, respectively. Elisabeth Manz, Edward Valentine, and Sigrin Newell provided valuable field and technical assist¬ ance. A. B. Wellborn is thanked for his excellent photography and Carl George for kindly allowing use of some of his data. The Nature Conservancy supported, in part, the research at Kenrose Pre¬ serve. The Atomspheric Science Center, SUNY, Albany, generously provided laboratory and other facilities at Whitefaee Mountain. Finally, I wish to thank Dr. Richard Monheimer of the New York State Science Service for his help in seeing the manuscript through to publication, and the Donald Richards Fund, The New York Botanical Garden, for a grant to aid in the publication of this Bulletin. COVER: Mt. Whitefaee in the Adirondack Mountains. Etching by Herbert S. Kates. tv Contents Acknowledgements . . . . . . . IV Introduction The Early Study of Bryophytes in New York State . . 1 The Study of Species Diversity . . . . 3 The Study Areas Adirondack Areas . . . . . . . 4 Helderberg Area — Kenrose Preserve . . 7 Field Methods Adirondaeks . . 7 Helderbergs . . 7 Analysis of Data Diversity Indices . . 8 Measures of Importance ......................................................... 8 The Evenness Component of Diversity . . . . . . . . 9 Comparison of Species Composition . . . . . . . 10 Taxonomic Diversity . 10 Gradient Analysis . . . . . . . 11 Multiple Regression Analysis . . 11 Bryophyte Diversity in New York State as a Whole ..................................... 11 Results of the Adirondack Studies .................................................... 13 Elevation in Relation to Diversity . . . . . . . 14 Changes in Species Composition with Elevation . . . . . . 16 Distribution Patterns of Bryophytes in Relation to Elevation . . . . 21 The Relation Between Total Bryophyte Cover and Diversity . . 24 Bryophytes in Relation to Other Plant Strata . . . . . 26 Is Seasonal Diversity a Factor? . . . . . . 31 Study of Epiphytic Bryophytes (Ampersand) . . . . . 32 Results of Kenrose Preserve Study . . . 40 Regression Analysis . . . . . . . 44 Taxonomic Diversity . . . . . . . 46 Further Aspects of Community Structure Populations, Communities, and the Elevation Gradient . . 50 Bryophyte Diversity and Community Diversity . . . . . 53 Dominance-Diversity Curves and the Division of Niche Space . . 55 Opportunism Among Bryophytes . . . . . . 57 Bibliography . . . . . . 63 Appendix A .................................................... . . . . 69 Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . 70 v Species Diversity and Community Structure in Bryophytes: New York State Studies by Nancy G. Slack Introduction The Early Study of Bryophytes in New York State The study of the mosses and liverworts of New York State has a long history. Collections in the New York Botanical Garden go back 150 years. During the period between 1830 and 1910, more than 40 different men and women made permanent collections of bryophytes in New York State. Charles Horton Peck, who was the first official New York State Botanist and is now known primarily as a mycologist, did important work on bryophytes early in his career. He collected specimens in both the Adirondacks and the Helderbergs, the two areas in¬ cluded in this study. In 1866, he published a list of New York State bryophytes in the Nineteenth Annual report of the Regents of The University of the State of New York. This early list included 274 mosses and 66 liverworts. Three other important bryologists also contributed to this list: Leo Lesquereux, the Hon. George W. Clinton, and Coe Finch Austin. Austin collected specimens mostly in Orange County, New York, but also near Albany, and he determined specimens for other bryologists, including Peck. He was also the first American authority on liverworts. Clinton, son of Gov¬ ernor DeWitt Clinton, was a judge in Buffalo, and col¬ lected mainly in western New York and around Niag¬ ara Falls. Lesquereux, who came to this country from Switzerland in 1848, was primarily a paleobotanist, the authority on the Appalachian coal flora and, as such, the first member to be elected to the newly formed National Academy of Sciences. He was also a very ac¬ tive bryologist who worked with William S. Sullivant in Columbus, Ohio, but collected widely in areas in¬ cluding the Adirondack Mountains of New York. Be¬ fore 1866, he had collected on the top of Mt. Marcy, the highest Adirondack peak, as well as on Whiteface Mountain, on which most of this study was done. He corresponded with and encouraged Peck, as can be seen from the following letter, written in 1867: Cambridge, 23 October, 1867 My dear Mr. Peck, Your letter of the 5th and package of mosses was sent to me here in Columbus. I received it today only. I shall return home about the 7th of November and will then examine your specimens and report. I was glad to hear from you again and expect some fine things from you from the Adirondack Mts. 1 found also some mosses especially Orthotricha around Placid Lake [Lake Placid] but still more at and near the top of White side [Whiteface?] Mt. and Mt. Marcy. Did you reach Mt. Marcy? Your friend, L. Lesquereau These early bryologists worked almost entirely with¬ out manuals. In another letter to Peck, Lesquereux replied to a question of Peck’s that no, there was not any manual to use for hepatics. Lesquereux and Thomas P. James first published a Manual of the Mosses of North America in 1884. There were, how¬ ever, early collections of bryophytes both in Albany and New York City, and later at Cornell University in Ithaca, as well as in private collections. Many speci¬ mens were exchanged among bryologists; Austin, for example, received collections from bryologists in British Columbia, New Brunswick, South Carolina and Florida, as well as from New York State. Peck corre¬ sponded with a dozen other bryologists, and sent out many specimens. The nineteenth-century bryologists came from a va¬ riety of professions, and many of them traveled widely. Thomas Potts was a druggist, Clinton, a judge. George Best, Elliot C. Howe, and Smith Ely Jeliffe were all physicians, as well as active bryophyte collectors in dif¬ ferent parts of the State. William Brewer was a geolo¬ gist and botanist and later professor of agriculture at Yale University. He made collections in California and Alaska as well as in New York. Orator Cook, an early collector of hepatics in New York State, was an agent for the State colonization Society in Liberia, and col¬ lected specimens there and also in the Canary Islands. George Nash, head gardener at the New York Botani¬ cal Garden, collected in Florida and Haiti as well as in 1 Closeup of Hylocomium splendens. New York. Anna Murray Vail, librarian at the Garden, collected in New York before moving to France. Perhaps the most interesting of the earlier collectors was Robert Statham Williams (Steere, 1945). At the age of 20, he moved out to the Montana wilderness where he was a homesteader, miner, explorer, and Pony Ex¬ press rider. During the gold rush, he moved to the Yukon and became the first resident bryophvte collec¬ tor. After trips to Peru, Bolivia, the Philippines and Panama, all in the early 1900’s, he gave up his travels and worked for most of his remaining years at the New York Botanical Garden. In the Adirondack region of New York State, much bryological exploration has taken place since Les- quereux’s early mountain trips. Among the collectors near the turn of the century were Elizabeth Knight Britton, Charles H. Peck, Annie Morrill Smith, and Caroline Haynes. Elizabeth Britton, who was brought up in Cuba and later made many West Indian bryophyte collections, was largely responsible for building up the early bryophyte collections at Colum¬ bia University and the New York Botanical Garden. She did much collecting in the Adirondack high peaks area, particularly in the 1890’s while staying in several of the early lodges, such as the Ausable Club Lodge, St. Hubert’s, and Adirondack Lodge near Lake Placid. She collected in the heart of the mountains from these locations, as I have discovered by examining her her¬ barium specimens at the New York Botanical Garden. Charles Peck, then State Botanist, published in 1898 an account of the plants of the town of North Elba, Essex County. This town includes several of the Adi¬ rondack high peaks, including Mt. Algonquin (McIn¬ tyre). He also commented on collections made on Whiteface Mountain, although this mountain is north of the town boundary. Peck listed 149 mosses and 32 liverworts, most of which were collected by Britton or himself. Other collectors included George Atkinson, mycologist and Cornell professor. Peck gave habitats as well as localities for the more unusual species. The localities given show that some of the best collecting areas for bryophytes, such as Mt. Algonquin and In¬ dian Pass, were already well explored at this early date. Hylocomium splendens, a moss collected early in bryological exploration of the Adirondacks, by Peck on Mt. Marcy. Annie Morrill Smith and Caroline Haynes also col¬ lected bryophytes in the Adirondacks in the early 1900 s. Annie Morrill Smith studied botany in Europe, was editor of The Bryologist from 1900 to 1910, and eventually gave 20,000 moss and lichen specimens to the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. In 1906, she published in The Bryologist a list of mosses from the vicinity of Little Moose Lake, near Old Forge in the western Adirondacks. In the same issue Caroline Haynes published a list of hepatics from the same re¬ gion. Much bryological exploration was also done in the Lake George region and the southern Adirondacks. One of the earliest collectors (1864-68) was Dr. E. C. Howe of Yonkers. Dr. Smith Ely Jeliffe collected in 1888-89 around Huletts Landing, and Dr. George Hulst, a Brooklyn botanist, at Assembly Point in 1898-99. Stewart Burnham (1919, 1920, 1929) of Hud¬ son Falls published lists of bryophytes of the Lake George region. The region was broadly defined and 2 (photo by A. B. Wellborn) specimens from Washington, Saratoga, and even Essex and Warren Counties were included. Many bryologists were involved in the compilation of these lists, in addi¬ tion to the above. Among them were George Clinton, Charles Peck, Elizabeth Britton, and also Wallace Greenalch of Albany, who collected in many parts of the State at the turn of the century. Burnham’s own collections were first made in 1892 and were deter¬ mined by Professor John Holzinger. Later, A. L. An¬ drews and Carl Warnstorf were involved in determin¬ ing Sphagnum species; A. W. Evans and Caroline Haynes were among those determining hepatic spe¬ cies. Daisy Levy (1919) also published a separate list of mosses from Lake George. It is clear that a great many bryologists were active in New York State and particularly in the Adirondack region prior to 1920. More recent Adirondack collec¬ tors include F. J. Herman, Stanley J. Smith, E. H. Ketchledge, Daniel Norris, Norton Miller, Richard Andrus, and myself. All the early work on bryophytes in the State was floristic. That work continues and species new for the State and for the Adirondacks are still being discover¬ ed. In the checklist of the mosses of New York State compiled by E. H. Ketchledge (1957), the State was divided up into floristic districts based on latitude and longitude. A few more mosses have been discovered in the State since then, and there are many new district records, including a few from my studies. No similar published checklist is yet available for hepatics. Habitat information was given by some of the above authors, notably Peck and Burnham, but there is a lack of published ecological studies of bryophytes in New York State. In this respect, the present work is a pioneering venture; much of it could not have been carried out, however, without the floristic work of so many of these bryologists. The Study of Species Diversity Although diversity has long been of interest to biologists and naturalists, the interpretation of diver¬ sity has been a great challenge to ecologists in the past 15 years. Species diversity is of prime importance in understanding community structure and the dynamics of natural communities. Diversity, both in terms of species richness or variety (the number of species pres¬ ent) and of the relative abundance of these species, has been related to other important aspects of commu¬ nity structure. These include productivity, succession, stability, competition and habitat complexity. In addi¬ tion to its theoretical importance in understanding community structure, diversity is also of practical im¬ portance for interpreting vegetation changes following human disturbance. Species diversity has been studied in a great variety of organisms including diatoms, insects, fish, lizards, birds, mammals, and vascular plants. Vascular plant studies relevant here include those by Johnson, Ma¬ son, and Raven, 1968; Whittaker, 1965, 1969; Pielou, 1966, 1969; Monk, 1967; Monk, Child, and Nicholson, 1969; Johnson and Raven, 1970; Auelair and Goff, 1971; Risser and Rice, 1971; Reiners, 1972; Shafti and Yarranton, 1973; Nicholson and Monk, 1974; and Sic- cama, 1974. Most of the vascular plant work deals largely with tree diversity, although several of the above also include shrubs and herbaceous vascular plants. Few diversity studies have been carried out on non- vascular plants other than phytoplankton. Nash (1972) discussed lichen species diversity in relation to pollu¬ tion; Hoffman (1971) discussed diversity of epiphytes on Douglas fir, and a study of plant diversity in Alaska by Reiners, et ah, includes bryophytes. Nonvascular plants, and especially bryophytes, show high species richness in many different habitats, and constitute a re¬ latively important component of the vegetation at a va¬ riety of latitudes, as, for example, in tropical and temperate rainforests, boreal bogs, and Arctic tundra. The relationships of bryophytes to other primary pro¬ ducers in a community have been explored to some extent in terms of biomass (Bliss, 1966) but not in terms of diversity or of theoretical aspects of commu¬ nity structure. Phytosociological studies of bryophytes, or analyses of vegetation in which bryophytes are recognized as an important component, have been carried out especially in Europe (Dahl, 1957; Gimingham, 1966; Yarranton, 1967a) and in Canada (Stringer and LaRoi, 1970; Yar¬ ranton, 1970; Neal and Kershaw, 1973; Stringer and Stringer, 1973). Bryophytes differ from most vascular plants in some aspects of their basic biology: nutrient procurement (lack of roots), dispersal (spores, swimming sperm, vegetative propagules) and genetic system (dominance of haploid plant). It seems likely that some of these dif¬ ferences cause bryophytes to play a different role in community structure from vascular plants of similar size. The present study was undertaken to elucidate diversity relationships among bryophytes, and the rela¬ tion of bryophytes to the structure and evolution of communities in which they are found. Some basic questions can be asked about diversity in the Adirondack and Helderberg plant communities analyzed in the present study. Trees, shrubs, and her¬ baceous vascular plants as well as bryophytes were in¬ cluded. For example, by sampling a particular segment of a community, e.g., vascular plants, is one “obtaining an index to the overall diversity of the system” (Johnson and Raven, 1970)? Are diversity patterns for shrubs, for example, similar to those for bryophytes as 3 one ascends Whiteface Mountain? Is species number a sufficient indicator of diversity, or is an evenness com¬ ponent, based on the relative abundance of the species present, also important? This evenness component of diversity has also been related to the question of whether certain groups of organisms consist largely of opportunistic or equilibrium species (Trainer, 1969). The present study provides data on this question for bryophytes, some of which are considered opportunis¬ tic on other grounds (Schofield, 1971; Schuster, 1966). Other questions concern taxonomic diversity. Should all species be considered ecological equivalents in terms of diversity? Should a forest with three species of oaks as dominants or a bryophyte community with three species of Polytrichum be considered as diverse as one with three dominants, each belonging to a dif¬ ferent genus? If there are relatively few species in a community, as, for example, in the arctic-alpine communities above timberline, are the species more likely to belong to different genera than if there are many species? Such questions of taxonomic diversity have been explored for other organisms (Lloyd, Inger, and King, 1968; Simberloff, 1970) but not previously for bryophytes. In many previous studies, attempts have been made to correlate diversity with environmental factors, both biotic and abiotic. This has not been done for bryophytes except in specialized communities, such as bryophytes of bogs (Vitt and Slack, 1975) or epiphytic bryophytes (Hoffman, 1971). I have studied bryophyte diversity in relation to a number of such factors in the Helderbergs (Kenrose Preserve), part of the present research. Several workers have attempted to determine the variables affecting species diversity in a particular re¬ gion using multiple regression analyses. Such studies largely concern birds or vascular plants. I have made a similar analysis of mosses of New York State, using the checklist compiled by Ketchledge (1957), based on dis¬ tricts into which the State has been divided for floristic studies. Variables used in the analysis and results ob¬ tained are discussed below. One result, that the range of elevations within a district is an important deter¬ minant of diversity, was used in setting up my field studies. These studies included gradient analysis of bryophyte diversity in relation to other environmental factors. Biotic factors such as diversity of other primary producers in the community have also been consid¬ ered. The methods used in these studies are described in the following sections. The Study Areas Adirondack Areas — Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains Adirondack field studies were carried out in the two floristic districts with the greatest range of elevation in New York State, districts 3 and 4 (see map, fig. 1). These districts include the Adirondack high peak area, including the highest mountain in the State, Mt. Marcy, 5344 ft (1629 m). The summits of this mountain and of several other Adirondack peaks including Whiteface Mountain, 4867 ft (1484 m) are above tim¬ berline and support an arctic-alpine flora. One major part of this study was conducted on Whiteface over an elevation range of 1600 to 4800 ft (488-1463 m). Whiteface, the fifth highest peak, is located at 44°21', ten miles north of the major high peak area of the Adirondack's. As a solitary peak it is more exposed than the other mountains in that area, and the summit is particularly subject to rigorous climatic conditions. The winter is long and the growing season corre¬ spondingly short, only 80-105 day in this part of the Ad irondacks (Stout, 1956; Feuer and Hager, 1956; Hartwig and Peech, 1963). At the higher elevations of Whiteface, it may average only 50-70 days (Nicholson and Scott, 1969). I have seen several feet of snow in June in the balsam fir ( Abies halsamea)1 forest at 4400 ft (1341 m) on Whiteface. The other Adirondack study area was Ampersand Mountain in district 3, south of Saranac Lake (see map, fig. 1). This mountain, just over 3300 ft (about 1000 m) shows little sign of disturbance by fire, log¬ ging, or other human activity. Epiphytic vegetation is well developed on this mountain, bryophvtic epiphytes occurring on a variety of hardwood and conifer trees. These epiphytes were also included in the present study. The elevations studied on Whiteface and Am¬ persand Mountains overlap between 1600 and 2800 ft (488-854 m) so that both hardwood forest and spruce- fir forest vegetation could be compared on the two mountains. Heimberger described the vegetation types for the Adirondacks (1934), but little work was published on the Adirondack forest for the next 30 years. Since 1963, a large scale study of the vegetation of the Whiteface area, particularly in relation to topographic gradients has been conducted (France and Lemon, 1963; Holway, Scott, and Nicholson, 1964; Scott and Nicholson, 1969; Scott and Holway, 1969; Nicholson and Scott, 1969; Breisch, et al., 1969). Soil (Witty, 1 Names of vascular plants follow Fernald, M. L. 1950, Gray’s Manual of Botany, American Book Co., New York, with the excep¬ tion of Quercus borealis Michx.f. and Betula alleghaniensis Britt. 4 FIGURE 1 Whiteface Mt. and Ampersand Mt., sites of Adirondack field studies. By Jerome S. Kates. 5 Deciduous forest of considerable Betula papyrifera, along Wil¬ mington trail, Whiteface Mountain. 1968) and weather data (Falconer, 1963) have also been published. Very little of the published work bears directly on diversity of bryophytes. According to the above authors, nonvascular plants were not in¬ cluded in their studies because of the difficulty of identification. The Wilmington trail area of Whiteface Mountain, in this study, has not been damaged by tourists; it is, in fact, much less used than the trails in the Marcy- Algonquin region of the Adirondack high peaks. Sum¬ mit disturbance is confined to the relatively small area visited by tourists; no quadrats were established in that area. The great majority of the area above timber- line is undisturbed except by natural rockslides. Some areas at lower elevations on Whiteface, particularly be¬ tween 2000 and 2500 ft (about 600-750 m) are under¬ going secondary succession, probably as a result of fire, as indicated by the presence of Betula papyrifera, Populus grandidentata , and other successional trees. Disturbance is not recent; there have been no major fires here for at least 50 and probably 70 years (Hol- way, Scott, and Nicholson, 1969). There has been no lumbering since 1896 when protective forest legislation was established. By using one of these areas, bryophyte diversity and species composition could be compared for “disturbed” and “undisturbed” areas (or earlier and later stages of succession of canopy trees) at the same elevation. I have made this comparison both on Whiteface and between Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains. Base of Whiteface Mountain trail, near Wilmington, N.Y.; hemlock-hardwood forest. 6 Helderberg Area: Kenrose Preserve The third area I used in this study was Kenrose Pre¬ serve, a deciduous forest area on the Helderberg plateau. It is the property of The Nature Conservancy and is located in the Rensselaerville Quadrangle (U.S.G.S.) in West Berne, New York, west of Albany (42° 36'N, 74° 12'W). Although the whole preserve is on Hamilton shale and is completely within the De¬ ciduous Forest Formation (including Hemlock- hardwoods, Braun, 1950), there is much variation in tree composition. Forest types include oak-hickory, beech-maple, hemlock, and other combinations of dominants. The elevation range is from 1120-1500 ft (335-457 m). The vascular flora of Kenrose Preserve was studied quite extensively in 1968-69 by Carl George, Robert Carlson and their students (unpublished manuscript). They set up permanent quadrats for the purpose of es¬ tablishing a base line for future vegetation studies. Some of their vascular plant and environmental data are used in conjunction with my bryophyte data in the present study. Field Methods Adirondacks Quadrats were set up on both Whiteface and Am¬ persand Mountains at 400 foot (122 m) elevation inter¬ vals beginning at 1600 ft (488 m), with two quadrats at each elevation. In addition, five quadrats were set up in the arctic-alpine summit area on Whiteface. The quadrat size was five by eight meters. I selected this large quadrat size because it was adequate for sam¬ pling vascular ground flora as well as bryophytes, and also because bryophytes were rather sparsely distrib¬ uted at some elevations. With the large quadrats, I was able to compare bryophyte cover at different ele¬ vations and in different forest types. As it was not possible to place transects straight up the mountains, quadrats were placed perpendicular to and at a predetermined distance from the trail, where the trail reached the selected elevations. At these dis¬ tances, eight meters on Whiteface and 15 meters on Ampersand, there were no apparent disturbance ef¬ fects of the trails. Because quadrats were regularly placed, there was no possibility of choosing them either for bryophytes or forest type, except as these are influenced by elevation, the independent variable in the study. Quadrats were delineated with iron spikes and copper wire and are relocatable. Quantitative methods were used to record bryo¬ phytes as well as vascular plants. Vascular plants were counted as individuals in all quadrats except those on the summit of Whiteface (see below). For some plants, e.g., Ribes glandulosa, it was difficult to determine what constituted an individual. In such cases, separate stems were counted. It is rarely possible to accurately determine what constitutes an individual bryophyte plant; therefore, cover was measured for bryophytes. The area covered by each species was computed by measuring length and width, radius, or triangle base and height for variously shaped clumps. I have found these methods repeatable to within five percent accu¬ racy. Actual measurements are more precise than es¬ timates using a cover scale, especially since cover scale data are often converted into percentage cover by statistically questionable techniques. In addition, many bryophyte species, e.g., Ptilidium pulcherrimum or Dicranum montanum ,l are present in numerous small pieces within a quadrat, so that cover is hard to esti¬ mate. In the summit areas of arctic-alpine flora, cover measurements were used for vascular plants as well as for bryophytes because all the plants occurring there, e.g., Vaccinium idiginosum, have a clumped or ces- pitose growth form and cannot be counted as individu¬ als. Studies made at only one season may underestimate total diversity. Whittaker (1965) found this to be espe¬ cially true for winter ephemerals in the desert. In order to find out whether spring ephemerals were sig¬ nificant in the Adirondacks, I restudied several quad¬ rats on both mountains. Spring data were compared with those of the previous summer and fall to deter¬ mine the extent of seasonal diversity. Certain specialized bryophyte habitats are not repre¬ sented or are underrepresented in a large study of this type. One such habitat is that for epiphytic bryo¬ phytes, living trees. I have collected data on species richness of epiphytic bryophytes on Ampersand Moun¬ tain. The epiphyte study is discussed separately below. Helderbergs At Kenrose Preserve, George and Carlson had set up permanent stations and quadrats. I relocated and used 13 of their original stations, all in wooded areas. George and Carlson (unpublished data) recorded the number of individuals for each species of vascular plant, using five 12 by 48 foot quadrats at each station. They also collected soil and micro-climatic data for each station. These collected soil type, pH, and nu¬ trient content; soil and air temperature; relative humid¬ ity, and light intensity. (For further details of the de¬ sign of this original study see Slack, 1971.) In the pres¬ ent study, I have used 4 by 16 meter quadrats, but 1 Names of mosses follow Crum, Steere, and Anderson, 1973, and of hepatics, Schuster, 1953. 7 Kenrose Preserve, showing one of the slopes studied. have collected data for the included 12 by 48 foot quadrats as well. The small extension made virtually no difference in the diversity index results; bryophytes are relatively sparsely distributed in the whole area as compared to the Adirondack sites. At least one 4 by 16 meter quadrat was sampled for each station. At six of the 13 stations, at least two quadrats were sampled in order to compare within- station and between-station variation in diversity and species composition. Twenty quadrats were completely sampled for bryophytes, using the same cover mea¬ surements as explained above for the Adirondack quadrats. The study was set up to include pairs of sta¬ tions at the same elevations so that I could determine whether elevation differences over the relatively small range of 1120 to 1510 ft (335-457 m) are statistically important determinants of diversity. Analysis of Data Diversity Indices The term “species diversity” has been used for two different types of measurements. The first type, which measures species richness, is sometimes called a vari¬ ety index (Auclair and Goff, 1971). It is essentially based on the number of species per area. (Gleason, 1922; Willis, 1922; Margalef, 1957; Menhinick, 1964) or on species number and a hypothetical distribution of relative abundance (Fisher, Corbet and Williams, 1943; Preston, 1948, 1962). Number of species (sig¬ nified by S) is used in the present study. The second type of index includes an evenness or equitability component in that the relative abundances of the species in the sample are included in these measures. The most commonly used of these came originally from information theory. Margalef (1957) suggested an analogy between diversity in biological communities and “information” content. The useful¬ ness of this analogy and the biological meaning of di¬ versity, particularly in regard to stability, has been questioned (Paine, 1969; Pielou, 1969; Auclair and Goff, 1971; Hurlbert, 1971; Goodman, 1975). The in¬ dices themselves, however, have been used in studies with many kinds of organisms as empirical measures of species richness and relative abundance of species. When used in this way the information theory type of measure is considered a “more meaningful index when used as a comparative statistic within taxonomically re¬ stricted groups” (Goodman, 1975). The index most often employed by ecologists and therefore most useful as a comparative statistic is Shannon’s formula (Shan¬ non and Weaver, 1963): H' = - 2 p,- In p, (1) where p, is the proportion represented by the ilh species. This is the diversity index I have used in the present research. Pielou (1966a, 1966b, 1969) has dis¬ cussed the use and misuse of this and similar indices for different types of biological collections. The use of this form of Shannon’s index is justified in terms of the sampling methods used in this study. Several workers have compared this index and other diversity indices such as Simpson’s (1949) and McIntosh’s (1967) using the same data and found very high correlations among them (Auclair and Goff, 1971; Nicholson and Monk, 1971, Gauch, Chase, and Whittaker, 1974). It appears that in spite of somewhat different theories on the part of their authors, these indices measure essentially the same parameters. Measures of Importance In Shannon’s formula (1, above) the term p, refers to the proportion of the total number of individuals (or 8 total biomass, cover, etc.) belonging to the ith species. The number of individuals has usually been used, par¬ ticularly in the study of bird diversity (e.g., MacArthur and MacArthur, 1961; MacArthur, 1964; Trainer, 1969; Recher, 1969), by other animal and plankton ecologists (e.g., Lloyd, Inger, and King, 1968; Margalef, 1968), and in most plant studies (e.g., Pielou, 1966a; Nichol¬ son and Monk, 1974). I have used proportions of indi¬ viduals for vascular plants in the present study except in the alpine quadrats. For alpine vascular plants and for bryophytes, I have used proportion of cover for each species. Other measures of relative importance have been suggested for both animals and plants, particularly where there are large differences in size among the species sampled (Dickman, 1968). 1 have treated trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants separately in most analyses, eliminating the relative size problems. Cover measurements do underestimate the importance of tall clump-forming species as compared to prostrate pleurocarpous mosses with the same cover value. It would be possible to measure height as well as area covered and compute a volume for use in the index. Alternately, one could harvest the bryophytes and use biomass (dry weight) or energy (caloric value as mea¬ sured in a calorimeter). Forman (1968) has attempted to correlate cover measurements with biomass and caloric value on a species basis, but results are not en¬ tirely consistent; Bliss (1962) and Forman (1968) found somewhat different values for Polytrichum juniperinum, the only species used in both studies. Variations in growing conditions probably affect the cover-biomass-calorie relationships. Biomass has been used as a measure of importance in tree diversity studies (Wilhm, 1968). Since a very high percentage of tree biomass consists of dead xylem tissue, the values are out of proportion to the present dynamics of the community. Whittaker (1965, 1970) has championed the use of productivity measurements and has used these successfully for both woody and herbaceous plants (Whittaker, 1965, 1966; Whittaker and Woodwell, 1969). From a theoretical point of view, productivity (or net photosynthesis for primary producers) per unit time is probably the best measure of the importance of a species in a community. It is, however, difficult to obtain the necessary data for a large number of different species. Tree productivity is usually estimated by using dimension analysis as Whit¬ taker and Woodwell (1969) have done. Productivity measurements are especially difficult to obtain for bryophytes because information on growth rates in the field is available for only a few species (Longton and Greene, 1969). Furthermore, in contrast to the situation in most vascular plants, it is often ex¬ tremely difficult to ascertain what constitutes the cur¬ rent year’s growth. Techniques worked out by Watson (1975) for Polytrichum species might be useful here. Without biochemical tests involving the breakdown of chlorophylls to pheophytin, it is often impossible to tell what portion of a moss is alive, and even such tests are not discriminating in certain genera such as Sphagnum. Although progress is currently being made on productivity measurements for bryophytes in the Arctic, it is doubtful that these measurements will ever be feasible for as many different species as were en¬ countered in the present study. For the present, cover measurements appear to be the best available for bryophytes for use in diversity studies. However, vol¬ ume measurements may be preferable when there are striking differences in height among species. Biomass measurements of living material are perhaps equally suitable, but these require destruction of the commu¬ nity, or a portion of it, in the process of studying it. Such measurements have recently been used success¬ fully for studies of epiphytes on old-growth P.seudo- tsuga (Denison, et ah, 1972, Pike et ah, 1975). The Evenness Component of Diversity Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964) and others (Krieher, 1972, Murdock, et ah, 1972) have pointed out that it is desirable for some purposes to be able to isolate the relative abundance component of diversity as mea¬ sured by Shannon’s index. Margalef, under the subject of “redundancy,” had already pointed out the impor¬ tance of this component in his original 1957 paper. The ecological meaning of this evenness (or equitabil- ity) component has been the subject of considerable discussion (Sager and Hasler, 1969; Trainer, 1969; Hill, 1973). Some of this discussion concerns the rela¬ tionship between the evenness component of diversity and opportunistic versus equilibrium species groups. This question will be explored further in conjunction with my results for bryophytes. The measure for evenness used in the present re¬ search is ]' = H'/H' max (2) where H'max = log^S. Pielou (1966a) suggested using H'/H 'max to measure evenness of distribution of spe¬ cies abundance, and Trainer (1969) subsequently called it J'. J' is not based on any hypothetical ecological maximum for evenness, and has the further advantage of being the most widely used measure; therefore, comparisons can be made with other research. (Note: H'max represents the maximum possible diversity for a given number of species (S) ; i.e. , the value of H' if all species were equally abun¬ dant. For further discussion of this and other evenness or equitability measures see Slack, 1971.) 9 Comparison of Species Composition Diversity indices themselves cannot tell us anything about changes in the actual species composition. We may find, using Shannon’s formula, that the diversity of bryophytes is almost the same for quadrats at 1600 ft (490 m) and at 4000 ft (1220 m) on Whiteface Moun¬ tain, but this gives no information about floristic simi¬ larity at the two elevations. Southwood (1964) re¬ viewed a number of indices for comparing faunas (or floras) over space or time. Two types of indices have been used. One group, collectively called Coefficients of Community, are based solely on species presence. Th ese include those of Jaccard (1922), Kulezynski (1928) and Sorensen (1948). The latter, a variant of Jaccard’s, as pointed out by Dahl (1960), has been most often used: Sorensen’s Quotient of 2w Similarity (Q.S.) = - (3) m + n in which m is the total number of species in the first sample (or quadrat), n the total number in the second, and w the number of species common to both samples The second type of index uses the relative abundance of the species in the sample, not merely their pres¬ ence, in making comparisons. In so doing it tends to emphasize the importance of dominant species in weighting similarity between samples. An often used measure of this type is the Percentage of Similarity (Raabe, 1952) Percentage of Similarity (% Sim.) = X min (a,b, . . . x) (4) where min = the lesser of the two percentage compositions for species a, b, . . . x in the two samples. For example, given the following per¬ centage compositions or two quadrats A and B having species a, b, and c: a b c a b c case 1 A .95 0 .5 case 2 A .95 0 .5 B .20 .75 .5 B .75 .20 .5 the % Sim for case 1 = .20 + 0 + .5 = .25 whereas Sorensen’s Q.S. = 2(2)/5 = .80 the % Sim for case 2 = .75-t-0 + .5=.80 whereas Sorensen’s Q.S. remains the same Thus it can be seen that the Percentage of Similarity index (4) rates as most similar those samples (quadrats) that have similar dominants. In this example, Soren¬ sen's index (3) appears to overvalue the rare species (species c in both cases 1 and 2 above) as pointed out by Whittaker and Fairbanks (1958). This is not always so, however. A large number of rare species can give low SOrensen values as compared with Percentage of Similarity for the same quadrats. Comparison of the two types of indices have been made by Kontkanen (1950) for leafhoppers and by Whittaker and Fairbanks (1958) for freshwater plankton. Kontkanen found the Coefficient of Community type of index more satisfac¬ tory; Whittaker and Fairbanks, the Percentage of Simi¬ larity. The group of organisms with which one is work¬ ing is probably the important factor. I have used both Sorensen’s index and Percentage of Similarity as well as two variants of Sorensen's with my data. These variants involve the calculation of SOrensen’s index using only those species which, re¬ spectively, constitute at least 1 percent (referred to as S0r. .01) and at least 5 percent (S(f>r. .05). The objec¬ tive was to compare the effectiveness of all four methods in evaluating floristic similarity. The latter two methods evaluate the effect of the inclusion of rare species. Cluster analysis was used to compare these measures of floristic similarity. The method used was essentially a modification of Harmon’s B-coefficient (Fruchter, 1954; Slack, 1971). In addition to the above methods, which all compare quadrats in pairs, I have used a method of Dahl’s (1960) to compare the vegetation, both bryophyte and vascular, of Whiteface Mountain with that of Amper¬ sand Mountain, and the vegetation of both Adirondack sites with that of the Kenrose Preserve. The deciduous forest, spruce-fir forest, and arctic-alpine vegetation were compared both within and among the areas (Slack, 1971). Taxonomic Diversity A question was raised in the introduction as to whether all species are ecological equivalents in terms of diversity; e.g., is a bryophyte community with three species of Polytrichum (or Sphagnum, or Dicranum ) as dominants as diverse as one having three dominants each belonging to a different genus? One way in which this question can be examined is in terms of niche separation; congeneric species with widely separated niches can, it seems to me, be considered ecological equivalents of species in different genera in terms of diversity. Congeneric bryophytes in genera such as Dicranum, Poly trichum, Grimmia, and Brachythecium were found in the same quadrats in this study. I have examined these genera in regard to possible niche separation. Quantitative analyses of taxonomic diversity can also be made. I have calculated the number of congeneric species in a quadrat in relation to the total number of species in that quadrat. In bird studies (Grant, 1969), the proportion of congeners has been found to vary di- 10 rectly with the total number of species; it was not known whether this was true for bryophytes. In addition, total species diversity (H') for bryophytes in each quadrat has been partitioned into specific, generic, and familial portions, as was done by Lloyd, Inger, and King (1968) for frogs, lizards, and snakes in the Borneo rain forest. These calculations are subject, of course, to decisions of taxonomists as to what constitutes a genus or a family. Family lines in particular are in considerable dispute for bryophytes, and some larger genera have been especially subject to splitting, for example, Lophozia, sensu latu. Species lines are in general less of a problem with most genera of bryophytes. Hybridization appears to be uncommon in bryophytes (Khanna, 1962; Williams, 1966). Gradient Analysis The major gradient used in this study was elevation. Changes in bryophyte and vascular plant vegetation were analyzed in relation to elevation. These changes included the following: changes in species richness (S) and in species diversity (H'); changes in species com¬ position; changes in relative cover of bryophyte species. Comparisons of species composition at differ¬ ent elevations were made by using Sorensen’s and Percentage Similarity indices as explained above. Other methods were graphical and are self-explana¬ tory. Multiple Regression Analysis Multiple regression analyses were carried out in re¬ gard to determinants of species richness in bryophytes both for New York State as a whole (see following sec¬ tion) and for Kenrose Preserve. In Kenrose Preserve, a large number of abiotic and biotic factors were used in the regressions. A stepwise multiple regression pro¬ gram (STEPREGI: SUNYA code: STAT/02) was used. Correlation coefficients between bryophyte diversity (H ') and environmental and other parameters were also calculated. Bryophyte Diversity in New York State Bryophyte diversity in the whole was examined by means of a multiple regression analysis of data from Ketchledge’s (1957) checklist of mosses of New York State. Since there are no comparable data for hepatics, this analysis is restricted to mosses. The checklist gives the moss species present in each of the districts of New York State (see fig. 2) as determined from her¬ barium and field studies. These data are largely free of taxonomic problems; the specific status of only a few FIGURE 2 Floristic districts of New York State, from Ketchledge, 1957. 11 taxa is in doubt. Some of the districts, however, had been better explored than others, for example, those close to New York City and to Cornell University. Moreover, additional species have since been discov¬ ered for various districts, including a few that I found in the three districts involved in my studies. Neverthe¬ less, these are probably the best data of this sort avail¬ able for American bryophytes. The parameters used in the linear regression analysis of these data were latitude, area, and the range of elevations within one district. The range of elevations (“elevation range on the table) was ob¬ tained from topographic maps (USGS) of the State. Areas of districts were determined by planimeter mea¬ surements from State roadmaps. Results of the multiple regression analysis are shown in table 1. In this table r2 and R2 are the coefficients of determination and multiple determination, respective¬ ly. It can be seen that range of elevation acts as a major determinant (r2 = 0.5159) of moss diversity in terms of species richness (S). Area adds very little as a determinant (R2 = 0.5665). TARLE 1 Coefficients of Determination (r2) and Coefficients of Multiple Determination (R2) from Multiple Regression Analysis based on Checklist of the Mosses of New York State Parameters r2 R2 Area 0.3745 * Latitude 0.0001 Area with Latitude 0.3748 Elevation Range 0.5159 Elevation Range with Area 0.5665 Elevation Range with Area and Latitude 0.5679 * Latitude is not a significant variable. Although there is a latitude range of almost five de¬ grees in New York State, latitude is of no importance as a predictor of diversity (i2— 0.0001). A few species may be affected by latitude. Pogonatum brachyphyl- lum, a coastal plain species is found only as far north as Long Island, and there are old records for such southern species as Syrrhopodon floridanus and S. texanus in the southernmost districts (Ketchledge, 1957). Two far northern species, Aulocomnium tur- gidum and Conostomum tetragonum are found in a northern district, but at elevations over 5000 ft (1525 m). Their presence is almost certainly an effect of ele¬ vation, not latitude; no unusual species are found in the northwestern districts of the State, which are at the same latitude but do not include the higher elevations. Area has surprisingly little value as a predictor of species richness, in contrast to the results of other studies, particularly island studies, in which area was the most important predictor. These include bird studies (Hamilton, Barth, and Rubinoff, 1964) and vas¬ cular plant studies (Johnson, Mason, and Raven, 1968; Slack and Nicholson, in preparation). Hamilton, et ah, (1963) did find elevation more important than area for vascular plants of the Galapapos, but this conclusion has been questioned (Johnson and Raven, 1973) be¬ cause of the inadequacy of the plant data used. Vuil- leumier (1970) studied bird species richness on conti¬ nental “islands,” ptiramo vegetation on isolated moun¬ tain tops. He, too, found area, together with distance from the source, the important predictors of species richness. Since this is not an island study, distance from the source of the vegetation is probably not a factor in New York State. It probably is a factor, however, in comparing species richness of bryophytes in New York and in the Southern Appalachians, or for example, in the Adirondacks and the Southern Blue Ridge (Slack, 1976). Larger area provides a larger target size for propagules and also more spacial heterogeneity, result¬ ing in a wider range of habitats. The problems of im¬ migration and establishment, so important for island species, are less important for bryophytes in New York State as a whole, except for species restricted to spe¬ cial “islands.” Principles of island biogeographv do apply to Sphagnum and hepatic species restricted to bogs and to those bryophytes found in tundra areas above timberline on Adirondack high peaks. (From my own experience this seems to be true. More arctic- alpine species of both vascular plants and bryophytes are found on the extensive tundra areas of Marcy and Algonquin than on peaks with less extensive areas. More Sphagnum species are found in the extensive Bloomingdale Bog area than in smaller bogs. Specific data are needed, however.) Apart from these special circumstances, it can be seen that area alone is not the important determinant by examining adjacent districts of essentially equal area — districts 14, 15, 16, and 17 (see fig. 2). Species richness varied in these districts from 102 to 281 species. Three of the smaller districts (4, 11, and 18), on the other hand, are among the five having the highest number of species in the State. 12 As shown in table 1, range of elevation was the best determinant of moss diversity. Those districts with the greatest elevation range, districts 3, 4, and 17 in the Adirondack and Catskill Mountains, all had high num¬ bers of species — 180, 266, and 281, respectively. Two of these districts were used in the present study in order to investigate further and more specifically the effect of elevation in relation to both moss and liver¬ wort diversity. Another indication of this relationship within an area comes from a survey of the literature on latitudinal diversity of bryophytes (Slack, 1971). The number of bryophyte species reported for 31 different geographical regions at all latitudes was given together with the area of each region. Although the data for many of these areas, especially tropical ones, are ad¬ mittedly incomplete, a number of tentative conclusions could be drawn. The one relevant here was that species richness is greater in regions of greater eleva¬ tion range and low evapo-transpiration rates. Two more recent publications, giving compilations of the mosses of Japan (Iwatsuki and Noguchi, 1973) and of the Southern Blue Ridge of southeastern United States (Anderson and Zander, 1973) further substantiate these conclusions. The regression analysis leaves a large part of the var¬ iance in species richness unexplained. It seems likely that a variable indicating the amount of bryological exploration for each district up to 1957 would have been helpful. When a new checklist is published with data collected since 1957, this analysis should be re¬ run. In addition, climatic factors such as annual pre¬ cipitation (or precipitation in relation to temperature) could be added to the analysis. Variables indicative of spatial heterogeneity, such as types of rock outcrop¬ ping, might also be important. That elevation range is an important determinant of hepatic as well as moss diversity has been brought out in the field studies I conducted in New York State. The results of these studies will now be presented. Results of the Adirondack Studies Summary of Results The results of the field studies, outlined here, are discussed in more detail under the separate headings below. A greater diversity of bryophytes occurred in a larger range of elevations. Increased overall diversity largely resulted from changes in species composition of bryophytes with change in elevation and, therefore, with forest type. Throughout the elevation range, species composition changed with increasing elevation difference between the quadrats sampled. Although a few species occur throughout the elevation range, I identified several distinct distribution patterns for bryophyte species hv plotting their relative abundance at different elevations. Both species present and abun¬ dance varied with elevation. Species composition of bryophytes in deciduous forest was similar both be¬ tween quadrats on one mountain and between moun¬ tains; this was true, hut to a lesser extent, for conifer¬ ous forest. Arctic-alpine quadrats showed considerable variation in species composition, and almost no similar¬ ity existed between arctic-alpine and coniferous forest bryophyte communities. Diversity, whether measured by S or H' (see page 8), showed different patterns along the elevation gra¬ dient for each of the plant groups studied: bryophytes, trees, shrubs, tree seedlings, and herbaceous vascular plants. S and H' also showed somewhat different pat¬ terns for any one group. For bryophytes, H' changed very little up to 3600 ft (1100 m). High elevation bal¬ sam fir quadrats with late snow cover showed highest diversity (both S and H') largely because of an increase in the number of species of hepatics. Both mean and maximum number of moss species per quadrat were similar for deciduous and spruce-fir forest, but lower in the arctic-alpine quadrats. For hepatics, species richness was higher in the coniferous than in decidu¬ ous forest, and lowest in the arctic-alpine summit quadrats although some species are restricted to this elevation. In the deciduous forest at 1600 ft (490 m), S and H' were about equal for bryophytes and for all vascular plants together; at all other elevations, bryophyte di¬ versity was higher than that of vascular plants. The evenness component of diversity (J') varied greatly; in some circumstances extreme dominance by one species resulted in very low J' and lower H' val¬ ues. Most of the J' values were lower than reported by other investigators for birds and for vascular plants. Diversity was not correlated with bryophyte cover (a long-term measure of productivity) for the whole ele¬ vation range. There is some indication, however, sub¬ stantiated by the Kenrose results (see page 40), that within a deciduous forest area, H' is positively corre¬ lated with total percent of bryophyte cover. An inverse relationship was found between shrub and tree diversity and that of bryophytes, indicating interaction between these groups of plants. Competi¬ tive interaction between a bryophyte, Pleurozium schreheri and an herbaceous plant species, Oxalis mon- tana was also studied. Seasonal diversity, the epiphyte study made on Am¬ persand Mountain, and taxonomic diversity are each discussed separately below. 13 FIGURE 3 Changes in species richness (S) and diversity (H ) with elevation for bryophytes at Whiteface and Ampersand Mts. Elevation in Relation to Diversity Figure 3 shows changes in species diversity in terms of species richness (S) and for the Shannon function (H'). The latter contains an evenness component as explained above. Data for Ampersand and Whiteface Mountains are shown separately. H' is seen to change surprisingly little from 1600 ft (490 m) to at least 3600 ft (1100 m) on Whiteface. At 4000 ft (1220 m) there was a sharp drop in H' with, however, little change in the number of species, S. The low diversity (H') is due here to the high dominance of one species, Pleurozium schreheri, which accounts for 59 to 67 percent of the total bryophyte cover. The resulting evenness values are very low, J' = 0.44 to 0.49. At 4400 ft (1340 m) on the other hand, both H' and S increase. At that elevation, where there is dense Abies balsarnea forest and very late snow cover until mid-June or later, an unusually high number ot hepa¬ tic species increase the diversity. I studied additional quadrats at these elevations after the completion of the main study to determine whether the findings at these two elevations might be chance effects of sampling. Very similar results were obtained in this resampling at the same elevations: 4000 ft (1220 in): first sampling H' = 1.33 second sampling H' = 1.25 4400 ft (1340 m): first sampling H' = 2.63 second sampling H' -- 2.41 The latter value (2.41), though not as high as in the first quadrat at 4400 ft, is nevertheless higher than that for any other elevation in the whole study. The arctic-alpine quadrats vary greatly in diversity (H'). Many factors such as microtopographv, slope as¬ pect, wind exposure, snow and water retention changed over very short distances on the summit of Whiteface, producing a mosaic of vegetation. These factors are important in determining the vegetation types, both on Whiteface (Nicholson, 1969) and in the alpine communities of the White Mountains (Bliss, 1963). In general, both H' and S are lower than in the deciduous forest or the spruce-fir, or in pure fir at 4400 ft (1340 m), but considerable variation was found 14 Author working in krummholz zone, Bryophyte-Iichen mat over rock, arctic-alpine zone, Whiteface Mountain. Whiteface Mountain. Andreaea rupestris on rock in foreground. both in numbers of species and in dominance relation¬ ships. Evenness (J') varies from 0.25 to 0.80 for two summit quadrats with almost the same number of species (S = 9,8) resulting in diversity indices (H') of 0.55 and 1.66, respectively. The bryophytes are impor¬ tant members of the plant communities on the summit is shown by the fact that the percent of bryophyte cover averages 20 percent. Ampersand Mountain also shows little change in di¬ versity (H') with elevation, except that the highest di¬ versity occurs at 1600 ft (940 m), an elevation where there is mature hemlock-northern hardwoods forest. Species richness (S) is similar to that of Whiteface quadrats at the same elevations, and is even higher at 2800 ft (850 m). H' values are lower than on Whiteface, however, because of high dominance, i n UJ FIGURE 4 Changes in mean species richness uj (S) of mosses and liverworts with elevation ^ and forest type for Whiteface and Ampersand ^ Mts. ^ UJ 0D 15 (photo by A. B. Wellborn) especially at 2400 ft (730 m) and 2800 ft (850 m), both of which are in the spruce-fir zone. Figure 4 shows changes in species richness (S) with elevation for mosses and liverworts separately. (Data for Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains are combined.) One can see that for mosses little difference exists between the deciduous and the spruce-fir forest. Mean species richness (S), however, decreases greatly from the spruce-fir to the arctic-alpine zone. The maximum number of species drops also, from 20 to 10. For liverworts, however, mean species richness (S) in¬ creases significantly between deciduous and spruce-fir forest (see fig. 4), from a maximum of six in the de¬ ciduous to 11 per quadrat in the spruce-fir. Higher humidity, lower light intensity and persistent snow cover may all contribute to the higher liverwort diver¬ sity, especially under the pure Abies balsamea at 4400 ft (1340 m). The summit quadrats show the lowest mean number of species with few or no liverworts in the drier, rockier quadrats. Several liverwort species, however, often with relatively high cover value, are found in wetter, more protected parts of the summit area. Such liverworts as Gymnocolea inflate, Ana- strophyllum michauxii, Lophozia ventricosa, Ptilidium ciliare and Scapania nemorosa add considerably to the diversity of arctic-alpine quadrat 21, just northeast of the summit. Changes in Species Composition with Elevation The original hypothesis, that bryophvte diversity is higher when a greater range of elevation is included in the analysis, was tested and appears to be tenable for the State as a whole. This is based on the results of the multiple regression analysis, for the elevation range of the Adirondack study, 1600 to 4800 ft (490 to TABLE 2 1460 m). The hypothesis assumes that species composi¬ tion changes along this gradient. Two techniques of di¬ rect gradient analysis (Whittaker, 1968, 1970) were used to test this hypothesis. Since the first of these in¬ volved using a similarity value for comparison of species composition between quadrats at different ele¬ vations, the results of the comparison of four such similarity measures are presented first. The four methods used to compare species composi¬ tion were Sorensen’s Q.S., Percent Similarity, and Sorensen’s using only those species having at least five percent cover and one percent cover, respectively (see Analysis of Data section). I compared these four methods, using data from all three areas and all five plant types. I also made comparisons for various com¬ binations of plant types, for example, shrubs, seed¬ lings, and ground flora. Results presented here, how¬ ever, refer to bryophytes on Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains, unless otherwise stated. Percentage Simi¬ larity and Sorensen’s Q.S. values for all combinations of Adirondack quadrats are shown in table 2. Table 3 below shows correlation coefficients between the methods. TABLE 3 Similarity Methods Compared Corr. Coeff. Percentage Similarity and Sorensen's Q.S. 0.79 Percentage Similarity and SOrensen’s (.01) 0.85 Percentage Similarity and SOrensen’s (.05) 0.87 Correlation coefficients among these indices for trees, shrubs, and tree seedlings were equally high whereas those for ground flora were somewhat lower. Correla¬ tion (0.87) is especially high between Percentage Simi¬ larity and SOrensen’s (.05), in which species with less SORENSON INDICES (TOP RIGHT) AND PERCENTAGE OF SIMILARITY (BOTTOM LEFT) BETWEEN PLOTS 1. 2. 3. 4 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 1 000 421 .341 .439 .263 .378 .238 .263 267 .227 . 154 .298 226 .286 250 .178 .263 .279 .158 .314 000 .057 .054 .063 000 2 .289 .000 .485 .485 600 483 .294 .267 .378 .389 .258 256 .311 412 .375 .324 .333 .229 .200 .326 .000 .074 .069 .083 .000 3 .208 .374 .000 .556 424 .438 .378 242 400 .462 .412 .333 .333 .432 400 .400 .364 .316 242 .478 .059 . 133 .125 .148 .077 4 . 185 .279 .530 000 .545 .500 .378 182 .350 .359. 353 .238 .250 .432 .514 400 .424 .263 .303 .478 .059 . 133 .063 .074 .000 5 . 104 .310 .227 .182 000 .483 294 .400 486 .333 .323 .410 444 .529 438 .432 .533 .343 .400 .465 .000 148 .069 .083 .000 6 . 163 .312 .194 .238 .284 .000 242 .207 .278 400 200 .263 .273 .424 .323 .278 .483 .235 .207 .333 .000 .154 .071 .087 000 7 . 136 .357 .365 .365 .150 .429 000 059 .341 500 .743 093 204 .316 500 293 .353 .256 .118 340 .057 .129 .121 .214 .074 8 .043 .038 .039 .024 .359 .269 .003 000 .432 111 065 .513 489 .294 188 .270 .267 .457 .400 .372 065 .074 .138 .083 .000 9 .092 .125 .119 125 .182 239 .220 .491 .000 .233 .316 .348 .385 .439 .359 .364 .378 .429 .324 .520 .105 .118 .167 .065 .000 10 . 157 .271 .322 .298 .167 .227 .332 .003 .078 000 541 .133 .196 350 421 .279 .333 .146 111 .286 .054 .061 .114 .200 .069 11 120 .253 .287 .315 .115 . 199 392 003 091 .702 .000 .100 174 .229 424 .263 .387 .222 129 .318 063 .071 133 .240 .083 12 016 .086 .019 033 441 230 .003 .434 151 008 .004 000 704 419 .293 .348 308 .500 .359 .462 .100 . 167 .105 .061 .063 13 .010 .033 057 .040 .090 098 023 .136 .077 039 020 .313 000 490 .255 .462 400 480 400 .483 .087 .143 .182 .103 053 14 .132 .253 410 300 .314 .257 .276 .083 144 246 .237 102 . 101 000 444 .585 .647 .462 .471 .596 .057 .258 .061 .000 .000 15 . 145 .367 .360 .342 .259 .426 .511 007 .088 .328 .322 017 042 504 .000 .462 .438 270 .188 .489 182 .138 .194 .154 .080 16 .030 .149 .221 .159 .252 199 . 129 183 .233 .123 095 . 123 094 .496 .339 000 .649 .571 .378 .640 .316 .353 .389 .258 .200 17 .047 . 113 .123 .175 .173 .267 143 .187 . 187 . 121 155 .189 . 159 .387 . 182 304 .000 .514 .400 .605 .194 .296 .276 250 .174 18 .033 .145 248 118 .256 . 169 . 130 . 245 130 097 .094 293 194 .282 151 .240 .457 000 629 .625 .222 .375 .235 .138 .071 19 .024 .031 074 .037 .107 .089 .013 .156 098 .013 .013 .146 .173 .115 .019 .092 .561 607 .000 .512 129 .222 .069 .000 .000 20 .045 .118 . 120 .173 .198 .268 109 .243 271 .065 .079 .243 .178 313 .144 .292 .427 .375 .341 000 .227 .200 .190 162 111 21 .000 000 .002 001 .000 .000 001 005 010 .004 .027 .020 009 .029 005 .227 039 059 .030 .033 .000 .429 .600 320 333 22 004 .007 005 .010 .008 010 011 007 011 .003 003 .022 .015 042 011 057 .237 .281 .228 .062 .354 .000 .385 .190 .200 23 .001 .008 010 008 .003 .008 009 .007 .016 .012 035 020 011 .028 .012 074 .047 .060 028 .039 .347 .195 .000 .522 .455 24 .001 001 .002 .001 .001 .001 004 .001 .001 006 .006 006 006 .000 .001 014 .008 .007 .000 .003 .263 .560 .253 000 .824 25 .000 .000 .002 .000 .000 .000 001 000 .000 .004 .027 016 .005 000 .001 072 Oil .018 000 .003 .156 .041 .199 .161 000 CORRELAUON COEFFICIENT BETWEEN SORENSON INDEX AND PERCENTAGE STABILITY' = .754 16 Pleurozium schreberi, dominant moss of the forest floor, spruce-fir zone, Whiteface Mountain (see fig. 8). than 5 percent cover value were eliminated. The Per¬ centage Similarity measure not only stresses domi¬ nance but also effectively ignores species of low cover value. These species are not necessarily rare, however; Tetraphis pellucida, for example, occurs in 12 different quadrats, but in only three of these is its relative cover value greater than five percent. This moss is an impor¬ tant member of the bryophyte community, occurring very regularly on decaying stumps, but rarely in large quantities since its substrate is limited. Thus the Per¬ centage Similarity index may ignore a frequent species with a highly specific niche but low cover value. Sorensen’s index, on the other hand, is said to over¬ value rare species. This is not true where the rare species differ in the quadrats compared; different rare species lower the Srensen index, but have no effect on Percentage Similarity. rr o o O' > 00 O' o o (closeup of above) The relatively high correlation (0.79) between Sorensen’s Q.S. and Percentage Similarity arises from the fact that, in general, bryophytes do not show very high dominance; where dominance is not unusually high, the two methods give similar results. High dominance exists in two very different habitats in this study. In the spruce-fir forest, particularly at higher elevations under fir, carpets of Pleurozium schreberi accounted for up to two-thirds of the total bryophyte cover. Percentage Similarity is unusually high here (0.784). Similar unispecies bryophyte carpets occur in conifer forest elsewhere. For example, Hylocomium splendens forms such carpets in northern Sweden as does T omenthypmum nitens in western Alberta. Un¬ usually high dominance also occurs in some of the arctic-alpine quadrats, particularly those in which con¬ ditions are particularly rigorous. A comparison of arctic-alpine quadrats 22 and 24 in table 2, for exam¬ ple, shows a Sorensen’s Q.S. of 0.190, but Percentage Similarity of 0.560. The high Percentage Similarity re¬ sults from the dominance of one species, Polytrichum strictum (formerly P. juniperinum var. gracilius ) which comprises 55 percent and 84 percent of the total bryophyte cover in the two quadrats. On the other hand, a comparison of quadrat 24 with another arctic- alpine quadrat, 25, gives a very different result, SOrensen’s 0.824, Percent Similarity only 0.161. In this case, seven of the ten species are found in both quadrats, but the dominance relationships in the two quadrats are completely different. These indices are used in examining the following important aspects of community structure: 1) Which species have physiological tolerances that enable them to grow at certain elevations? 2) How is niche space divided up within a com¬ munity? 17 TOP LEFT: Ground flora, Ampersand Mountain, with Aralia nudicaulis, Oxalis montana, seedlings of Acer saccharum, A. spicatum and A. pensyivanicum. TOP RIGHT: Acer saccharum, dominant canopy tree, deciduous forest, Whiteface Mountain. ABOVE: Acer pensyivanicum, common understory tree, deciduous forest on Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains. LEFT: Abies balsamea and Picea rubens, dominants of coniferous forest, upper slopes, Whiteface Mountain. 18 (photo by N. black) Sorensen’s index, which “counts” species if they are present even in small quantities, gives better answers to the first question. Percent Similarity, stressing dominance relationships, gives better answers to the second. Therefore, I have retained both of these indi¬ ces in showing changes in species composition with elevation (tables 2 and 3; figs. 5 and 6). Question 1 is discussed further below. Question 2, including dominance-diversity relationships and the division of niche space is discussed in a later section. Both the Sorensen and Percent Similarity values have been used for comparison at the same elevation in pairs. Table 4 shows values for some elevations. (For the complete matrix for all Adirondack quadrats, see table 2.) It can be seen in table 4 that comparisons between quadrats at 1600 ft (490 m), numbers 1-4, give high values whether compared on the same mountain or between mountains. At this elevation, a relatively mature deciduous forest dominated by Acer saccharum occurs on both mountains. At 2400 ft (730 m), comparisons of quadrats on the same mountain (8 and 9; 10 and 11) show high similarity values; compari¬ sons between mountains (quadrats 9 and 10; 8 and 11) show very low values. The transition between decidu¬ ous forest and spruce-fir forest occurs at somewhat dif¬ ferent elevations on different mountains in the Adiron- dacks, and even on different sides of the same moun¬ tain. At 2400 ft (730 m) there is already spruce-fir on Ampersand; on Whiteface, at least on the northeastern slope used in this study, there is still deciduous forest. The forest type is thus shown to be significant in terms of species composition of bryophytes in the ground layer. Table 4 also shows comparisons within the spruce-fir and arctic-alpine groups of quadrats, and between quadrats of these two groups. In almost all cases within-group similarity is much higher than between- group similarity in the arctic-alpine area and those in the spruce-fir zone. The lower values for some spruce- fir quadrats using Percent Similarity results from the high dominance of one species, Pleurozium schreberi, in these quadrats, as pointed out above. Notable also is the complete lack of similarity (0.0) of bryophytes with either index in some comparisons of spruce-fir and arctic-alpine vegetation. (See quadrats 19 and 24, and 19 and 25 compared in table 2 and at the bottom of table 4). TABLE 4 Bryophytes— Species Composition vs. Elevation Ampersand (A) and Whiteface (W) Mountains Mountains Elevations Zone compared compared Q.S. % Sim Deciduous A-A 490 m 0.421 0.289 (Quadrats 1-4) W-W 490 m 0.556 0.530 A-W 490 m 0.485 0.374 A-W 490 m 0.485 0.279 Deciduous to Spruce- A-A 730 m 0.431 0.491 Fir Transition W-W 730 m 0.541 0.702 (Quadrats 8-11) A-W 730 m 0.111 0.003 A-W 730 m 0.065 0.078 Spruce-Fir W-W 1220-1340 m 0.512 0.341 (Quadrats 18-20) W-W 1100-1340 m 0.625 0.375 W-W 1100-1220 m 0.629 0.607 Arctic-Alpine W-W 1460 m 0.429 0.354 (Quadrats 21-25) W-W 1460 m 0.600 0.347 W-W 1460 m 0.190 0.560 W-W 1460 m 0.824 0.161 Spruce-Fir- Arctic- W-W 1220-1460 m 0.221 0.059 Alpine W-W 1340-1460 m 0.129 0.030 (Quadrats 18, 19, 21, 24, 25) W-W 1340-1460 m 0.000 0.000 19 0.6 FIGURE 5 Changes in bryo- phyte species composition with increasing separation in eleva¬ tion on Whiteface Mt. 0.5 0.4 FIGURE 6 Change in bryo- phyte species composition with ^0.3 increasing separation in eleva- _j tion on Ampersand Mt. <1 >- H 0.2 o fj 80 40 20 POGONATUM ALPINUM n _ POLYTRICHUM STRICTUM n WHITEFACE = CL n n no. 21 22 23 24 25 ARCTIC- ALPINE QUADRATS, 1460m FIGURE 7 Relative abundance of species restricted to the arctic-alpine zone on Whiteface Mt. FIGURE 8 Spruce-fir and arctic-alpine 21 10 - o 30 - < o I 20 CD < UJ 10 > UJ a: 50 - cn UJ 5 40 30 - 20 - 10 - ADKS. BRACHYTHECIUM SALEBROSUM HETEROPHYLLIUM HALDANIANUM HYPNUM PALLESCENS O O o O ,-r iO m 10 f- oo SF; o o o o o o lO to N O W ^ r>- oo en = tvi io AA' ELEVATION, METERS FIGURE 11 Predominantly deciduous FIGURES 8-12 Distribution patterns for representative species of bryophytes on Whiteface and Ampersand Mts. 22 posed nonalpime areas as well. It is noteworthy that four out of five of these species belong to one family, the Polytrichaeeae. The fifth, Grimmia donniana is re¬ stricted to this zone, but Grimmia apocarpa is also found here. This species and Andreaea rupestris are found both in the arctic-alpine zone and at lower ele¬ vations where suitable rock substrates occur. The Polytrichaeeae and Grimmiaceae (including Rhacomi- trium heterostichum, also found at high elevations on Whiteface), as well as Andreaea, show a variety of adaptations to high winds, drying, and other aspects of exposure. These include lamellae, hair points, and a clumped or turfed growth form. Other bryophytes found only in the arctic-alpine quadrats, but in more moist habitats, were, Sphagnum russowii, Calliergon stramineum, Anastrophyllum michauxii, and Gym- nocolea inflat a. Many lichens, particularly crustose lichens, also show the same pattern of distribution. Lichens were noted but not included in the present study. At lower elevations, they form a very minor component of the plant communities except as epiphytes. Above timber- line in the arctic-alpine summit area, however, they become a major component, both as fruticose forms, largely Cetraria and Cladonia species, on the ground, and crustose species on rocks. In one summit quadrat, I distinguished fifteen species of lichens, giving a higher species richness (S) than for either bryophytes or vascular plants. Further work on plant diversity in this zone should include lichens. Polytrichum piliferum, showing hair points, near summit, Whiteface Mountain. Dicranum scoparium, a dominant moss of deciduous forests, also found in spruce-fir forests (see fig. 10). Andreaea rupestris, characteristic moss of arctic-alpine zone, also found on suitable rock outcrops at lower elevations. Andreaea rupestris with crustose lichens on rock face near summit, Whiteface Mountain. 23 Species characteristics of the spruce-fir zone and also found in the arctic-alpine area are shown in figure 8. One of these, Ptilidium ciliare, reaches its highest cover value in the latter area where it grows among lichens, particularly Cetraria islandica. (It is found at altitudes of at least 4500 ft in the kruinmholz, as¬ sociated with Polytrichum juniperinum .) Some of the predominantly spruce-fir species are shown in figure 9; two of these, Ptilium crista-castrensis and Drepano- cladus uncinatus, were found only in spruce-fir quad¬ rats, though both were occasionally found at lower ele¬ vations. Two very characteristic species of this zone, Bazzania trilob at a and Brotherella recurvans (fig. 9) were found also in deciduous forest quadrats. Several other species were restricted to the spruce- fir zone, but found only in small quantities. One of these, Isopterygium distichaceum (formerly I. subfal- catum ), is of particular interest because it does not ap¬ pear in the New York State checklist (Ketchledge, 1957) for the Adirondacks, and there was only one re¬ port for the whole State at that time. Six collections were made in this study, at 2400 ft (730 m) and 2800 ft (850 m) on Ampersand and at 4000 ft (1220 m) on Whiteface, all within the spruce-fir zone. Representative species present in both deciduous forest and the spruce-fir zone, the most common dis¬ tribution for bryophytes in the study, are shown in figures 10 and 11. Of these, probably only Plagio- thecium laetum is more characteristic of spruce-fir than of deciduous forest. Two other species of Hypnum, in addition to H. pallescens (including H. reptile Michx of the New York checklist, fig. 11), Hypnum lindbergii and H. imponens were also found predominantly in the deciduous forest quadrats. Of the eight species of Brachythecium found, six, including B. salebrosum (fig. 11) had distributions largely in deciduous forest. Two species, B. curium and B. reflexum, grow in both deciduous and spruce-fir forest. A few species occur throughout the elevation range wherever conditions are suitable. These include species growing on rock, such as Grimmia apocarpa and Andreaea rupestris, as noted above, and those growing on wood such as Dicranum montanum and Ptilidium pulcherrimum (fig. 12.). Weedy species such as Dicranella heteromalla and Pohlia nutans occur over the whole elevation range, but are uncommon in mature forest quadrats, although common along the trails and in other open, disturbed areas even above timberline. It is clear that differing distributions of the bryo- phyte species over the elevation range used in this study add to the overall bryophyte diversity. Both species presence and relative density (cover) change with elevation for the great majority of species. Differ¬ ing physiological tolerances and competition among species are probably both involved; only an experi- Polytrichum juniperinum and Ptilidium ciliare bryophyte mat, characteristic of krummholz zone, Whiteface Mountain. mental approach could distinguish these two causes of change in species along the elevation gradient. Toler¬ ance and competitive ability are, of course, related. Species only moderately tolerant of arctic-alpine en¬ vironmental conditions are unlikely to be good com¬ petitors in that zone. Competition, both among bryo¬ phyte species and between bryophytes and vascular plants, is discussed in a later section. The Relation Between Total Bryophyte Cover and Diversity In figure 13, the actual percent cover of Adirondack bryophytes is shown graphically with diversity (H') of bryophytes at each elevation. The cover value is the percent of each quadrat covered by all bryophytes. It varies in the Adirondack quadrats from 0.6 to 44.3 percent. It can be seen that the cover value, which in¬ dicates the relative importance (incorporating both density and basal area) of bryophytes in the whole plant community, increases rapidly where the spruce- fir zone is reached. This occurs at a lower elevation on Ampersand than on Whiteface, as noted above. Diver¬ sity, on the other hand, did not change greatly with elevation, at least below 4000 ft (1220 m). The arctic- alpine quadrats also have high cover values, often 20 percent or higher except in unstable rockslide areas, but with relatively low diversity compared to lower elevations. Diversity is highest at 1600 ft (490 m) on Ampersand, where cover values reach a maxi¬ mum of only 2.2 percent! Thus the total cover of bryophytes is not correlated in the Adirondack quad¬ rats with diversity, nor is any such correlation found when species richness (S) is used instead ol Shannon diversity index. 24 (photo by A. B. Wellborn) FIGURE 13 Percent cover bryophytes and diversity (H') at each elevation at Ampersand and Whiteface Mts. FIGURE 14 Changes in species richness (S) with elevation for: bryophytes, all vas¬ cular plants, tree seedlings, trees, and shrubs at Whiteface and Ampersand Mts. 25 DIVERSITY Within any one vegetation zone, however, diversity (H') and cover may be correlated. In the deciduous forest on Ampersand, diversity and cover values are as follows for the four quadrats: % cover: 0.55 0.98 1.5 1.8 H': 1.59 1.83 1.96 2.21 On Whiteface, however, the diversity values are all quite similar for the deciduous quadrats (2.0 to 2.38 for six quadrats) and there is no such direct relation¬ ship. The Kenrose Preserve data (see separate section below) do show positive correlation (r = — 0.63) of total bryophyte cover and bryophvte diversity in the deciduous forest. Bryophytes in Relation to Other Plant Strata Figure 14 shows changes in species richness (S) with elevation on Whiteface and Ampersand for trees, shrubs, seedlings, and bryophytes. For clarity, ground flora is not shown separately here but is included in “all vascular plants.” (It is shown separately in figure 15.) It can be seen that bryophytes show higher species richness than all vascular plants together ex¬ cept at 1600 ft (490 m) where they are about equal in numbers of species. Both trees and tree seedlings peak at about 2400 ft (730 m), where a variety of deciduous trees and seedlings occur together with a small admix¬ ture from the spruce-fir forest. The total number of vascular plant species, however, decreases with eleva¬ tion, although there is a sharp increase at the summit. This increase results from a large number of shrub species such as Vaccinium uliginosum and Ledum groenlandicum, which only occur in the arctic-alpine zone in this study. The number of species of bryophytes present within quadrats of one vegetation zone varied consid¬ erably. Within the larger forest types, such as spruce- fir, much variation exists. One can subdivide this type into a number of subtypes, based on relative domi¬ nance of red spruce and balsam fir. The presence of the latter depends on ground moisture as well as on elevation. Balsam fir becomes dominant at the higher elevations, but, even within pure balsam fir stands, the trees differ in age and density. Such structural dif¬ ferences within one forest type should be studied fur¬ ther in relation to bryophyte diversity. In some stands of fir, the presence of dead lower branches resulted in more light and lower humidity and a bryophyte layer on the forest floor quite different from that in other stands. At 4400 ft (1340 m) on Whiteface, where there is dense fir forest and very late snow cover, species richness of bryophytes and especially of liverworts, rises very sharply (see fig. 3). The high humidity in Abies stands, so dense that one can hardly stand up in these quadrats, is increased by the late snow melt, and Less mature deciduous forest with much Betula papyrifera, Whiteface Mountain; high bryophyte diversity was found here. creates conditions favorable to many liverworts. The deciduous forest stands also vary in species composition, in part a result of differences in maturity. The maximum number of bryophyte species was al¬ most as high (25) in deciduous forest quadrats as in spruce fir (30) or in pure fir (28), in spite of the much greater cover of bryophytes under spruce and fir. Within the deciduous forest zone, a slightly higher maximum number of species occurred in the less ma¬ ture deciduous forest with much Betula papyrifera (25) than in the mature sugar maple-beech forest (23). In each of the above forest types, the species composition differed. Thus the within-habitat (alpha) diversities for the different forest types add up to a high between- habitat (beta) diversity over the whole elevation range. This finding further corroborates the original hypothesis regarding species diversity and elevation range. 26 (photo by N. C. Slack) 25 GROUND FLORA ELEVATION , METERS FIGURE 15 Changes in species richness (S) and diversity (FT) for ground flora with changes in elevation at Ampersand and Whiteface Mts. Oxalis montana, dominant herbaceous vascular plant in spruce- fir zone on Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains. Vascular ground flora was studied quantitatively in each of the quadrats (see field methods). When species richness (S) and diversity (H') are plotted for the ground flora in relation to elevation (fig. 15), no clear relationship is seen over the whole range of elevations on Whiteface. On Ampersand, with a more limited elevation range, both S and H' are seen to decrease with elevation; they are higher in the deciduous than in the spruce-fir forest. On Whiteface, high and low diversities were found in both forest types; factors other than elevation appear to be important in deter¬ mining the number of species in the ground flora and their relative abundances. At 4000 ft (1220 m) a domi¬ nant herbaceous vascular plant, Oxalis montana, ac¬ counts for 82 to 85 percent of the ground flora density in these quadrats, and accounts for the low evenness values (J' = 0.40, 0.36). In these same quadrats, one bryophyte, Pleurozium schreberi, similarly accounts for a low J' and consequently low H' value for bryophvtes as explained above. As has already been seen for bryophytes, the species composition of the ground flora changes with elevation; also, the range of elevations adds to the diversity of the ground flora for the whole mountain. For example, at 4800 ft (1490 m), in the arctic-alpine quadrats, many plants appear that do not occur at lower elevations, even at 4400 ft (1340 m). These include Agrostis borealis, Arenaria groenlandica, Carex bigeloivii, C. brunnescens , Juncns trifida. Lycopodium selago, Potentilla tridentata, Scirpus caespitosus, and Solidago cutleri. Thus, Sorensen and Percent Similarity values 27 Lower layers in Abies balsamea forest, Whiteface Mountain, showing Oxalis montana and young balsam reproduction. Ground flora of transition zone, Whiteface Mountain, including Cornus canadensis, Lycopodium lucidulum, Monotropa uniflora, Oxalis montana, and the moss, Dicranum scoparium. 28 (photo by N. C. Slack) (photo by N. C. Slack) TOP LEFT: Ground flora of deciduous forests, including Medeola virginiana, Dryop- teris spinulosa, Acer saccharum and A. pensylvanicum seedlings. TOP RIGHT: Bryophyte community and Lycopodium selago, arctic-alpine zone, Whiteface Mountain. ABOVE: Ground flora of Abies balsamea forest including Oxalis montana, and mosses Hylocom ium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi. RIGHT: Lycopodium selago with Ledum groenlandicum and Cetraria islandica, arctic-alpine zone, Whiteface Mountain. 29 (photo by A. B. Wellborn) FIGURE 16 Bryophyte diversity (H') versus ground flora diver¬ sity (H ) at Ampersand and Whiteface Mts. between quadrats at 4400 ft and 4800 ft are very low (0.00 to 0.14). Similarly, some species occur in the de¬ ciduous forest quadrats but not at higher elevations. Thus, the ground flora showed patterns over the eleva¬ tion gradient similar to those shown for bryophytes in figures 5 and 6 and 7 through 12. The diversity (H') of the ground flora and that of shrubs is compared with that of bryophytes in figures 16 and 17. The shrub category included shrubby un¬ derstory trees such as Salix. The large quadrat size (40 nr) makes comparison of these strata possible, but it is probably too small for reliable comparison with canopy trees. With the notable exception of quadrat 24, diver¬ sity (H') is approximately equal or higher for bryophytes than for the ground flora of shrubs. For almost all quadrats, it is considerably higher (see figs. 16 and 17). Even in arctic-alpine quadrat 24, the number of species of bryophytes (9) is higher than the number of species on the ground flora (5) or of shrubs (2), but the evenness component (J') is only 0.25, the lowest for bryophytes in the entire study. Polytrichum strictum accounts for more than 80 percent of the bryophyte cover in this quadrat. I have compared the Adirondack data with those for other mountain areas such as the Great Smokies and the Rocky Mountains (Whittaker, 1956, 1967; Bliss, FIGURE 17 Bryophyte diversity (H ) versus shrub diversity (H ) for Ampersand and Whiteface Mts. 1963). The number of vascular plant species is lower in the Adirondacks than in the other areas, so that this high ratio of bryophytes to ground flora may not be a general one. It may, however, be characteristic of spruce-fir forest, in which low light levels and high humidity favor bryophytes over herbaceous vascular plants; more data are needed to resolve this question. In the Southern Blue Ridge of North Carolina, where I have also been working, species richness of both vas¬ cular plants and bryophytes is higher than in the Adirondacks, at least in deciduous forest. Within- habitat diversity of bryophytes and vascular plants has not yet been studied there, in a comparable way; therefore, further comparisons are not yet possible. No particular effect of ground flora diversity on that of bryophytes can be seen in figure 16. Interactions are present, however. Apparent competition between an herbaceous vascular plant, Oxalis montana, and a bryophyte, Pleurozium schreberi, was noted in the quadrats at 4000 ft (1220 m); where Oxalis density was very high, the moss was absent or appeared dead. Oxalis seedlings had germinated in the Pleurozium carpet, however, and where the Oxalis was less dense, both occurred together. The moss can photosynthesize both early in the season before the Oxalis leaves ex¬ pand and in early fall after they have been killed by 30 frost, to allow some seasonal variation in resource use. Here, the question of competition could be studied by removal of Oxalis and/or moss completely or to various density levels in different plots. Veiy little is known, however, about growth rates of bryophytes in nature. A one dm2 plot of Pleurozium adjacent to quadrat 19 at 4000 ft (1220 m), which I removed, showed no sign of regrowth after more than a year, although surrounded by undisturbed Pleurozium schreberi. Figure 17 does show an inverse relationship be¬ tween bryophyte diversity (H') and shrub and under¬ story tree diversity (r = —0.31). This may be the re¬ sult of competition; with more shrub species there may be less light, less water, or less space available for bryophytes. Quadrat 10 (fig. 17), in which both shrub and bryophyte diversity are high, has many young un¬ derstory trees. It is in a relatively immature open de¬ ciduous forest, with many species of bryophyte grow¬ ing in exposed places on both soil and rock. It seems unlikely that bryophyte diversity can affect that of shrubs and understory trees, but that the reverse is true is only suggested, not proven, by a significant negative correlation. Is Seasonal Diversity a Factor? Seasonal diversity is of interest largely in respect to the ground flora stratum of the plant communities studied. There is virtually no seasonal diversity of bryophytes in these Adirondack forests, since bryophy- tic ephemerals do not occur in these habitats. Nor is there appreciable seasonal diversity on woody plant strata, although some tree seedlings do not appear until summer and many die out in the winter. Sea¬ sonal diversity is, however, a noticeable aspect of the herbaceous ground flora. Bulbous or rhizomatous pe¬ rennials tend to show high productivity early in the season and to die back later, often using light re¬ sources available in early spring, but less available under an expanded leaf canopy. This phenomenon in¬ creases the total annual diversity of deciduous forests. Several deciduous forests quadrats on Ampersand and Whiteface were surveyed in late summer and again in May to determine the extent of seasonal diversity. Six species were found in the spring survey that had not been found in the same quadrats previously, notably Erythronium americana, Smilacina racemosa, and Tril¬ lium undulatum, all spring-flowering perennial herbs with food storage organs. The quadrat in which most additional species were found, quadrat 3 on Whiteface at 1600 ft (370 m), is compared below for late summer (3) and the following spring (3'): Oxalis montana and Pleurozium schreberi, probable competing species on forest floor under Abies balsamea. Q)uadrat S H' 3 14 1.6 3' 20 1.4 There is an increase in species richness from 14 to 20, but very little change in diversity (H'). The Shannon function continues to increase indefinitely as new species are added, but at a diminishing rate. Thus, if one species with a relative abundance of 5 percent were replaced by five equally abundant species, the increase in H' would be only 0.08. If the additional species are not equally abundant, the function may even decrease, as in the present case. The Shannon function may thus undervalue seasonal diversity, but in this forest ecosystem neither the species richness nor the productivity of spring ephemerals is very great compared to that of the plant community as a whole. A much greater contribution in both respects is made by ephemeral vascular plants in other ecosystems, for example, desert summer ephemeral (Whittaker, 1965). 31 Hemlock-hardwood forest on Ampersand Mountain, containing sugar maple, yellow birch, American beech and hemlock. Study of Epiphytic Bryophytes (Ampersand) One possible objection to the Adirondack study is that all bryophyte habitats have not been adequately sampled. None of the quadrats was chosen for its “good” bryophyte habitats; the only predetermined factor in the choice of locations was altitude. Since the main object of this study was to measure diversity, areas in which bryophytes were known to be particu¬ larly diverse could not be purposely chosen. Neverthe¬ less, certain “good” bryophyte habitats, such as streambanks and wet rock ledges, have been under¬ sampled by these methods. Many species of bryophytes of specialized microhabitats, found elsewhere in the Adirondacks, have not appeared in any of the quadrats. Detailed studies of communities in such habitats would complement the present study. A valuable quantitative study of one such community, that of rotten logs, has recently been completed by Miihle and LeBlanc (1975). In addition to the quadrat studies, I have made a pilot study of epiphytic bryophyte communities, to determine whether this specialized habitat adds significantly to bryophyte di¬ versity in the Adirondack forest. Epiphytes on northern hardwood trees are charac¬ teristic of undisturbed Adirondack areas with high rain¬ fall. Such epiphytes occur on both Whiteface and Am¬ persand Mountains, but are relatively uncommon ex¬ cept at the lower elevations on Ampersand (1600 to 2000 ft). True epiphytes on tree trunks were not in¬ cluded in the quadrat studies; tree base communities Epiphytes of Acer saccharum on Ampersand Mountain, includ¬ ing Neckera pennata and Porella platyphylloidea. were measured up to three decimeters from ground level, but these are quite different from true epiphyte communities further up the trunk. Epiphytic bryophytes are present largely on four species of trees on Ampersand: Acer saccharum, Be- tula alleghaniensis, Fagus grandifolia, and Tsuga canadensis (sugar maple, yellow birch, beech, and hemlock). Ten trees of each species were sampled, the only criterion being the presence of epiphytes up to at least two meters. In many cases they were present to 10 m. I attempted to record all species present, by using a ladder and long pole to reach the upper trunks. As in all parts of this study, specimens which could not be identified with certainty in the field (e.g., species of Frullania and Brachythecium ) were brought back to the laboratory for further study. Diameter at breast height (dbh) was measured for all trees studied. Each tree was treated as a “quadrat in the analyses of species composition. The results, which follow, have proven interesting even with this limited amount of data. Nine species of bryophytes were found growing as epiphytes and not found elsewhere in the quadrats on either Ampersand or Whiteface, indicating that this habitat is indeed an additional source of diversity. Fur¬ thermore, three other epiphytic species had been found only once before, on a tree base on Ampersand at 1600 ft (490 m). Although tree base communities contain a mixture of true epiphytes and others that are primarily terrestrial, these three species did not occur elsewhere on the ground. Thus I found a total of twelve species growing only as epiphytes. 32 (photo by A. B. Wellborn) Different species of trees offer different micro¬ habitats for bryophytes in terms of bark porosity, roughness, exfoliation, chemistry, pH, etc. (Billings and Drew, 1938; Barkman, 1958; Slack, 1976). The ef¬ fects of such differences among the four species of host trees or phorophytes were examined in terms of species richness (S) of the bryophytes growing on them. The results are as follows: Species richness (S) Max. no. species/tree Betula alleghaniensis 23 11 Fagus grandifolia 20 10 Tsuga canadensis 7 5 Acer saccharum 23 13 I found a total of 36 species of epiphytic bryophytes, 26 mosses, and 10 liverworts. Many additional species occurred in humus on the tree bases, but these are not true epiphytes and were not included. For compari¬ son, Brown (1948), in a study of epiphytes throughout New York State, found 35 mosses and 19 liverworts growing as epiphytes as defined above. (She found eight additional mosses and six additional liverworts on stumps or tree bases.) Brown’s study included 25 sta¬ tions at elevations from sea level to 5000 ft (1525 m). Seventy-four percent of the moss epiphytes and 53 percent of the liverworts found by Brown, on 63 tree species and over an elevation gradient of 5000 ft throughout the State, were present on only four tree species over an elevation gradient of 5000 ft throughout the State, were present on only four tree species over an elevation gradient of only 400 feet on Ampersand Mountain. Comparisons of my data with those of Brown (1948) and of Phillips (1951) in Michi¬ gan are shown in table 5. The bryophytic epiphytes found in the Ampersand study are shown in table 6. Phillips found 38 species of epiphytic bryophytes on 25 different host trees over all of Michigan, including 22 species on the four trees used in the present study. Brown found 38 species on these same four trees, only two more than on Ampersand, although Brown ob¬ served trees at more than twenty different sites in the State. A great many studies have been made of epiphytic bryophytes in North American temperate forests in addition to those of Brown and Phillips. Examples in¬ clude those of Beals (1965), Billings and Drew (1938), Cain and Sharp (1938), Coleman, Muenscher, and Charles (1956), Culberson (1955), Hale (1955), Hoffman (1971), LeBlanc (1961), and Quarterman (1949). Barkman, who has made extensive studies in Europe, has reviewed the American as well as the European epiphyte literature (1958). I have reviewed much of the subsequent epiphyte literature (Slack, 1976). Many of the earlier studies are concerned with the classification of epiphyte communities by phytosociological methods. Hoffman studied diversity of epiphytes but on only one host tree, Douglas fir. Beals, Culberson, and Hale considered diversity of epiphytes on a variety of trees in Wisconsin, but, al¬ though both tree and epiphyte species overlap with those on Ampersand, the overlap is insufficient to jus¬ tify extensive comparisons with my data. The number of species and the cover of bryophytes may vary with the age of the tree for any one species, as Quarterman, (1949) showed for red cedar. However, diameter at breast height is a reasonably good indicator of relative age for any one species of tree within a single locality and was used in this study. The relationship between tree size and the number of bryophyte species it sup¬ ports varies with the species of tree. A linear relation¬ ship was not found for any of the four species, but such a relationship was suggested for beech (shown in comparison with sugar maple in figure 18) and might be significant with a larger sample and larger maxi¬ mum size of trees. I have seen larger beeches and larger yellow birches elsewhere in the Adirondacks, each of which supported a larger number of epiphyte species than the Ampersand trees. Acer saccharum, showing large population of epiphytic moss, Neckera pennata on lower trunk. 33 (photo by N. C. Slack) TABLE 5 Epiphytes Compared for Ampersand (present study), New York State (Brown, 1949), and Michigan (Phillips, 1955) Acer. sac. Mich. NY Amp. Fagus grand. Mich. NY Amp. Betula alleg. Mich. NY Amp. Tsuga can. Mich. NY Amp. Mosses Amblystegium serpens Anomodon attenuatus A. minor A. rostratus A. rugellii Brachythecium oxycladon B. salebrosum B. starkei Brotherella recurvans Dicranum flagellare D. fuscescens D. montanum D. viride Drepanocladus uncinatus Haplohymenium triste Heterophyllium haldanianum Herzogiella striatella Homomallium admit um Hylocornium splendens Hypnum pallescens (H. reptile) H. cupressiforme H. imponens Leskeella nervosa Leucodon sciuroides Mnium affine Mnium punctatum Neckera pennata Orthotrichum elegans O. obtusifolium O. pumilum O. sordidum O. strangulatum Paraleucobryum longifolium Plagiothecium denticulatum P. laetum Platygyrium repens Pylaisiella intricata P. selwynii Rauiella scita T h u i di u m delicatulum T. recognition Ulota crispa U. ludwigii Liverworts Bazzania trilobata Cololejeunea biddlecomiae Frullania asagrayana F. bolanderi F. eboracensis F. inflat a Jamesoniella autumnalis Lophocolea heterophylla Lophozia ventricosa Plagioch ila aspten ioides Porella platyphylloidea Ptilidium pulcherrimum Radula complanata x x X XXX X X XXX X X XXX X X X X X XXX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X TABLE 6 Bryophytic Epiphytes, Ampersand Mountain Acer. sac. Fagus grand. Betula alleg. Tsuga can. Mosses Amblystegium serpens Anomodon attenuatus A. rugellii B rack ythecium oxycl ad on B. salebrosum Brotherella recurvans Call icladi um h alda nianum Dicra n u in mon ta n u m D. viride Homalia trichomanoides Hylocomiwn splendens Hypnum imponens H. pallescens Leucodon brachypus Mnium ciliare M. punctatum Flecker a pennata Paraleucobryum longifolium Plagiothecium laetum Platygyrium repens Pylaisiell a i n trica ta P. selwynii Rhodobryum roseum Rhytidiodelphus triquetris Th uidiu m del icatulum Ulota crispa Liverworts Bazzania trilobata Fru llan ia as a gray a n a F. eboracensis F. inflata Jameson iella autumn alis Lophocolea heterophylla Plagiochila asplenioides Porell a platyph yl l oi dea Ptilidium p ulcherri mum Radula complanata x x x x xxx x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x The fact that 23 different species grow on beech and 20 on yellow birch, even though no individual tree had more than 10 or 11 epiphyte species, respectively, in¬ dicates a higher potential diversity for larger, older trees. The bark on both of these trees roughens with age, increasing its water-holding capacity and the ease of attachment for bryophytes. Some bryophytes can become established on smooth bark, Frullania species for example, but most cannot. Trees whose bark re¬ mains smooth, such as striped maple, Acer pensyl- vanicum, rarely support epiphytes in the Adirondacks. (In the southern Appalachians, under different climatic conditions which affect the bark, it does support epiphytes). Sugar maple, which has a rough bark even 35 FIGURE 18 Relationship between tree diameter (dbh) and number of bryophytic epiphytes for Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia on Ampersand Mt. Epiphytic moss, Leucodon brachypus, v. brachypus, higher on trunk of Acer saccharum. 36 Epiphytes on Fagus grandifolia, including Hypnum pallescens and Frullania eboracensis, as well as lichens. as a young tree, was found to support a large number of epiphytic species even at small dbh. A succession of species and changes in their relative abundance was found on sugar maple, with Porella platyphylloidea, Neckera pennata, and Anomodon at¬ tenuate! dominant on different trees, but each of these species, as well as pioneer species such as Radula complanata, were found to persist at least in small quantities after their periods of dominance. The pres¬ ent data show an increase in species richness (S) of sugar maple epiphytes up to about 18 in (46 cm) dbh, followed by an increase in dominance and reduction in both S (fig. 18) and H' diversity, but larger numbers of trees and further cover measurements are needed to test this hypothesis. Age-size correlations are not com¬ pletely reliable even for one locality; trees of one species may grow at different rates because of differ¬ ences in microtopography, competition, or genetic fac¬ tors. Increment boring to determine age is currently being used in further studies. Host specificity of the epiphytic bryophytes on the four trees species was also considered. Using each tree as a separate “plot,” I calculated Sorensen indices to compare all 10 trees of one species with respect to species composition of epiphytes. Means for the 45 re¬ sulting comparisons for each of the four species were as follows: Acer saccharum 0.57 Betula alleghaniensis 0.58 Fagus grandifolia 0.48 Tsuga canadensis 0.42 These are high values, especially for sugar maple and yellow birch, showing similar composition of epiphyte communities on any one tree species. Soren¬ sen values between each pair of host tree species were also calculated. Resulting means were as follows: Acer-T suga 0.02 Acer Fagus 0.13 Acer-Betula 0.15 Fagus-Tsuga 0.27 Fagus-Betula 0.39 Betula-Tsuga 0.41 These values are all lower than those for single species, much lower except for Fagus-Betula and Betula-Tsuga comparisons, indicating that, while epiphytic bryophytes may not be closely host specific, within any one forest of particular age and climatic conditions, they show preference for particular tree species. Each of these trees presents somewhat differ¬ ent niche opportunities, probably because of differ¬ ences in bark characteristics. It does appear, however, that bryophytes distinguish poorly between Fagus and Betula and between Betula and Tstiga. In the present study, 13 species were present on only one of the four host trees, eight of these on sugar maple. In addition, four epiphytic species, very characteristic of sugar maple, were found only on that species and on one beech tree, indicating that these and probably most other epiphytes are not strictly host specific, but occur on additional trees of the correct age and stage. All the species found on only one tree species on Ampersand Mountain were also found on other host trees some¬ where in New York State in Brown’s, (1948) study; in other words, no species was host specific when the whole State was considered. Some epiphytes switch preferred hosts with rela¬ tively small change in latitude, sometimes even where the host tree is present throughout the epiphyte’s range. This has been shown in Europe (Barkman, 1958) and in Wisconsin (Hale, 1955). Conversely, the same host tree may bear different epiphytes in differ¬ ent regions. Sugar maple was found to support differ¬ ent “associations ” in lower and upper Michigan, Homallium adnatum in the former, Leucodon and Neckera in the latter (Phillips, 1951), climatic differ¬ ences being important in this study. Many species of epiphytic bryophytes are much more widely distrib¬ uted than their host trees. For example, many of the species found on American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ) are also present as epiphytes in Europe, but on Euro¬ pean beech, Fagus sylvatica. But often they also occur on unrelated tree species. Moreover, bryophytes, such as Neckera, Homalia, and Leucodon, which are re¬ stricted to or generally occur on trees in tropical and temperate regions, and are found solely as epiphytes in the present study, are epipetric in treeless arctic or alpine regions. Such switches of substrate are also seen in temper¬ ate regions. For example, the liverwort Frullania asagrayana, a common Adirondack epiphyte, is found in Minnesota on rock walls. The majority of epiphytes found in the Ampersand study, for example, Mnium and Brachythecium species, are facultative, not obli¬ gate epiphytes. Most of them occur also on rock, soil, or dead wood. Many species occur on both soil and trees, a smaller number on rock and trees, but rarely is a species found on all three substrates. The prefer¬ red habitat within one region may be dependent on climate, as noted above. Species epiphytic on beech in the Adirondacks or the Upper Peninsula of Michigan do not occur on beech at Kenrose Preserve (this study) or in lower Michigan (Phillips, 1951). The climate in the two more southern areas is less cool and humid, and the beech trunk habitat correspondingly more xeric. Many of these species do occur at Kenrose and in lower Michigan, but on the ground or on moist logs. A similar change from epiphytic to terrestrial habitats can be seen in Finland (Barkman, 1958). Few, if any, temperate bryophytes are host-specific in the same sense as fungal parasites of plants. The 37 host tree, sometimes called a phorophyte to distin¬ guish it from a parasite host, is merely a substrate. The actual bryophyte substrate is usually dead bark tissue. Bryophytes exhibit habitat preference (or de¬ grees of tolerance) in relation to roughness of bark, as well as bark acidity and other chemistry. It appears that relatively few species are tolerant of the tannin in hemlock bark. Roughness of bark is related to water¬ holding capacity; some epiphytes are found only in fis¬ sures or knotholes of the otherwise smooth bark of beech. Sone of these variables have been measured (e.g., Hosokawa, et al., 1964; Grubb, et al., 1969), but it is often difficult to interpret factor interactions. Host tree preferences of closely related species were examined for possible niche separation. More than one species of each of seven genera were present, includ¬ ing two species of Anomodon, Brachythecium, Di- cranum, Mnium, Pylaisiella, and Hypnum, as well as three species of Frullania. Two species of each of these genera were recorded on one species of tree, in¬ dicating that habitat selection in terms of tree species is not all-important for niche separation. (Intrageneric niche separation in terms of substrate certainly occurs in some of these genera. Two closely related species of Dicranum, for example, occur in the Ampersand study area, Dicranum viride on wood, as an epiphyte and elsewhere, and D. fulvum on rock.) Data for presence ( + ) or absence ( — ) of the tree species of Frullania on the four host trees are given below: Betida Tsugu Fagus Acer F. asagrayana + + + + F. eboracensis + — + + F. inflata + — + The fundamental niches (Hutchinson, 1957) of these species probably differ. The fact that F. asagrayana was the only species found on hemlock bears out Schuster’s (1953) comment that it is the most xerophv- tic of these Frullania species. Niche overlap does, however, appear to be present at least in terms of tree species, and I could discover no habitat preference on the tree itself, for example, north vs. south side, for any of the species. A fourth species, F. bolanderi, present in New York but not found in this study, oc¬ curs on all four of these trees in Michigan (Phillips, 1951). On the other hand, on only three occasions were two of the Frullania species found on the same individual tree. It appears that these sympatric, con¬ generic species do not have well separated niches; I think they are opportunistic species kept apart largely by stochastic factors. The role of bryophytes as oppor¬ tunists is discussed below. It should be noted that epiphytic bryophytes occur on other tree species as well as the four studied on Ampersand and Whiteface Mountains. At lower eleva¬ tions, these included Fraxinus americanus, Quercus borealis, Ostrya virginiana, and Acer rubrum. At higher elevations, epiphytes were found on Picea ru- bens, Abies balsamea, Pyrus melanocarpa, and Betida papyrifera v. cordifolia. Trees of the same genus do not necessarily have similar epiphyte floras; those of Betida alleghaniensis and B . papyrifera and of Acer rubrum and A. saccharum are not similar. Ostrya vir¬ giniana, on the other hand, has a similar epiphyte flora to that of Acer saccharum. Bark characteristics are more important than genetic relationships except where these result in similar bark chemistry, as is probably true in the black oak group. All the bryophyte species found as epiphytes on the trees at higher elevations on Ampersand (i.e., spruce-fir zone), as well as all those found by Brown (1948) at four other Adirondack stations, were found also in nonepiphytic habitats in this zone. The epiphytic habitat thus does not increase the bryophyte diversity in terms of species richness at higher elevations on these moun¬ tains. That it adds significantly to species richness at lower elevations in the Adirondacks is shown by the present study on Ampersand Mountain. Contrary to general European (Barkman, 1958), Japanese (Iwatsuki, 1960) and even some recent American (Hoffman and Kazmierski, 1969) practice, no attempt has been made to classify epiphyte communi¬ ties (or associations, unions, etc.) on the trees on Am¬ persand Mountain. Although groups of species charac¬ teristic of particular trees, especially of sugar maple and hemlock, do occur, the particular combination of species varied with height and aspect even on a single tree, and on any one species of tree with size and loca¬ tion. Dynamic relationships appeared more obvious than fixed associations of species. In many places a bryophyte species, though still recognizable, was dead and had been overgrown by another species. Quarter- man (1949) has studied bryophyte succession on red cedar bark, particularly in terms of changing domi¬ nants. She aged the trees by increment boring and, al¬ though she studied only nine trees, her demonstration of “dynamic behavior of bryophyte species’’ is impres¬ sive. I think this is a good approach to understanding relationships among epiphyte species. Doignon, as re¬ ported in Barkman (1958) studied actual succession in time on a single tree over a 30-year period. This is perhaps the ideal method, but in the modern era of pollution and publish-or-perish policies, it seems un¬ likely that either the epiphytes or the ecologists would survive that long. New ecological techniques have been applied re¬ cently to epiphyte-host systems (see Slack, 1976, for a review). Beals (1965), for example, used ordination methods in the study of corticolous bryophytes and lichens. With such methods, it is possible to sort out the importance of the host tree as substrate as com- 38 pared to the age or location of the tree. Gradient analysis can also be used with time as the gradient and measured changes in the importance of individual species, species groupings, total biomass and diversity. This can be done with individual trees, trees of one species in one location but of different ages. In the Southern Blue Ridge in North Carolina, I have ob¬ served and measured such changes on different aged trunks of the same sugar maple (Slack, 1976). If changes in microhabitat, such as water-holding capac¬ ity of bark, could also be measured in relation to time, this would constitute direct gradient analysis. Another approach to epiphytic vegetation would be to treat trees as islands and to apply principles of is¬ land biogeography (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). In¬ vasion and extinction rates of epiphyte species could be measured and the influence of nearby “islands” de¬ termined. Although there has been much discussion of possible long-distance dispersal of bryophytes in rela¬ tion to their strange geographical distributions (e.g., Crum, 1972), there is little information about their short-range dispersal. It would be interesting to de¬ termine whether adjacent trees of the same species and similar size have more similar species composition than those further apart. In the present study, adja¬ cent trees of the same species were eliminated from the sample to avoid this possible factor, but it has not been measured as far as I can discover. In these Adirondack forests, this factor could be tested by using trees that are regularly present but uncommon and have distinctive epiphyte floras. Examples would be hop hornbeam, Os try a virginiana and white cedar, Thuja occidentalis, both of which are present together with the major species of the Ampersand study in a forest in the Adirondack Mountain Preserve near St. Huberts, N.Y., where I am currently investigating epiphytes. Another interesting question in regard to host- epiphyte “island” systems is whether chance “invad¬ ers,” those species such as Hypnum imponens, and Mnium ciliare or M. punctatum, which are not primar¬ ily found as epiphytes, persist for any length of time on these tree “islands ’ in competition with more usual epiphyte species. An even more intriguing question, which must have been asked by all earlier pursuers of epiphytes and is mentioned by a few, is why are there so many “empty islands?” A tree of the same species and of similar size may grow next to one covered with epiphytes and yet be completely barren of them itself, for no apparent reason. In addition to that source of “empty islands,” each new young tree as it grows, like a new oceanic island produced by volcanic activity, represents a new target for invasion. Thus, a continu¬ ous supply of open niches for epiphytes exists even in a mature or climax forest. The relationship between productivity and diversity, one of considerable current interest (Whittaker, 1967; Loucks, 1970; Auclair and Goff, 1971; Goodman, 1975), can also be considered in regard to epiphytic systems. Whether high diversity, even for trees, can generally be related to high productivity, as Loucks contended, has been questioned by others (Whittaker, 1965; Auclair and Goff, 1969). I have herein ques¬ tioned this relationship for bryophytes generally; higher diversity did not necessarily accompany the much higher bryophyte productivity found in the spruce-fir forest as compared to the deciduous forest. The same appears to be true in terms of epiphyte productivity and diversity. From my own experience in the Pacific Northwest and from studies in Oregon (Pike, et al, 1975) and in the Olympic Peninsula, (Hoffman, 1971), where extensive mats of epiphytic bryophytes are present, diversity of epiphytes is no greater than in the Adirondacks. The diversity of epiphytes on Ampersand seems high in view of the much lower productivity of epiphytic bryophytes there than in the Northwest. This question needs further quantitative investigation, especially of trees other than Pseudotsuga menziesii, on which most of the western studies have been conducted. I have found both higher productivity and higher species richness of epiphytes in the Southern Blue Ridge than in the Adirondacks, but this probably is a result of historical as well as climatic factors (see Anderson and Zander, 1973, and Slack, 1976). Although much is to be learned from further quan¬ titative studies of epiphytes and from the measurement of ecological factors affecting them, some of these fac¬ tors can only be distinguished experimentally. Trans¬ plant experiments of the sort that Brodo (1961, 1968) has done with lichen epiphytes could be used to study the substrate factor vs. other factors, such as location on the tree or in the forest. Barkman (1958) suggested other methods of experimental manipulation, such as putting up a baffle to prevent water movement down the trunk, or removing certain species to determine the effects of competition. Trees could be thinned to change the light intensity; some balance between suffi¬ cient light for photosynthesis and the detrimental ef¬ fects of heat and exposure in increasing transpiration rate appear to be important. Climatic factors are of primary importance since epiphytes generally occur in areas of high rainfall and low evapo-transpiration rates, but great differences also exist within a single forest. Manmade factors, which also affect epiphyte growth on the tree species studied here, include nutrient-rich roadside dust, probably a partially unrecognized factor in epiphyte studies, and toxic substances near cities or factories, a human disturbance much studied particu¬ larly in relation to lichens but also to bryophytes (e.g., LeBlanc, 1961, LeBlanc and Sloover, 1970, and Nash, 1972, for Eastern North American trees). Whether the 39 investigator uses disturbances created by others, as with pollution effects, or creates his or her own less drastic perturbations, much can be learned from such studies. It seems to me that the living tree with its epiphytes is an easier system to disturb, and thus to study experimentally, than most other aspects of plant communities. In conclusion, the present study presents well- replicated data on diversity, in terms of species rich¬ ness, for the four dominant trees of the hemlock- hardwood forest of northern New York. Many sugges¬ tions for further research are given. Additional quan¬ titative data, the techniques of gradient analysis and of island biogeography would make possible the study of dynamic relationships of epiphytes. Lichens should be included in future epiphyte studies; competitive rela¬ tionships between brophytes and lichens are obvious to an ecologist looking at epiphytes. The majority of past epiphyte studies, however, have been done by specialists on one taxonomic group such as hepatics or lichens in temperate regions, or orchids in the tropics, rather than by ecologists. The interesting problems that epiphytes present to the ecologist are made dif¬ ficult by the problems of identifying cryptogams (which are omitted from most investigations of plant commu¬ nity ecology for the same reason). Bryophytes, wrote Crundwell (1970), are “the wrong size.’ They must be identified by a combination of macroscopic and micro¬ scopic characters. If we were the size of cockroaches, he wrote, bryophytes would all look distinctive and would even be known by vernacular names “to the cockroach in the street. The same problems apply to lichens, but these problems are not insuperable, even for noncockroach-sized ecologists. Theoretical ecology would also benefit from the study of epiphyte systems. Results of the Kenrose Pi 'eserve Study The elevations studied as Kenrose Preserve ranged from 1120 to 1510 ft (335-457 m), thus nearly reaching the lowest elevation on Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains, 1600 ft (488 m). The forests at Kenrose Preserve are of entirely deciduous hemlock-hardwood, except for a small admixture of white pine. Many of the same trees, such as Acer saccharum, Acer rubrum, Acer pennsylvanicum, Fagus grandifolia and Tsuga canadensis are present as on the lower Adirondack slopes. While ash, ( Fraxinus americanus ) is, however, more common at Kenrose. Also, oak-hickory (Quercus borealis, Carija ovata ) forest is present at Kenrose Pre¬ serve, but not on Whiteface or Ampersand. I wanted to determine whether the limited range of elevation at Kenrose Preserve affected the diversity of bryophytes. Both H' and S are plotted against eleva¬ tion in figure 19 Elevation is significantly correlated with H' (r = 0.66). In general, higher elevations have Mixed deciduous forest, Kenrose Preserve showing open aspect. greater bryophyte diversity than lower elevations at Kenrose, the major exception being at 1380 ft (420 m), where station 5 shows greater diversity (H') than the highest stations at 1510 ft (457 m). Station 5 also has high species richness (S), but other stations at 1380 ft show considerable variability in both H' and S. Eleva¬ tion is also significantly correlated with degrees of slope (r = 0.50), and is negatively correlated with pH (r = 0.54). Thus elevation is here, as elsewhere, a complex variable. Diversity (IT) is plotted against log (percent cover) of all bryophytes in figure 20. The correlation coeffi¬ cient between H' and percent cover is significant (0.65). There was no consistent relationship between bryophyte cover and diversity (H') for the Adirondack quadrats. For the spruce-fir and arctic-alpine zones, the correlation between cover and diversity was nega¬ tive. For the deciduous forest it was positive, signifi¬ cantly so on Ampersand (r = 0.98 for four quadrats). Further investigation is needed. Diversity (H') appears to be low with low percent cover of bryophytes and high where the bryophyte cover is unusually high, but there is a significant amount of variations in inter¬ mediate cover values (figure 20). Figure 21 shows diversity (H') plotted against log^ S for Kenrose bryophytes, from which it can be seen that loge S is a relatively good predictor of diversity (H'); i.e., an approximately straight line relationship is seen on the graph. (See also multiple regression analysis below.) This means that the evenness compo¬ nent of diversity (J') is relatively constant. The J' val¬ ues do show less variation than in the Adirondacks; all but three of these values fall between 0.52 and 0.75. Thirty percent of the J' values were under 0.6 and 75 percent under 0.7, with a mean of 0.63, which are low values as compared with those found by other workers for birds (Tramer, 1969) and for higher plants (Pielou, 1966). Adirondack values were mostly low, also. The most extreme low evenness value (J = .31) at Kenrose was at a station at the base of an unstable steep bank down which water runs each spring. Only one species of moss, Fissidens taxif alias , appears to be well adapted to these conditions and accounts for 87 per¬ cent of the bryophyte coverage. ELEVATION, METERS FIGURE 19 Changes in species richness (S) and diversity (H ) of bryophytes with elevation change at Kenrose Preserve FIGURE 20 Diversity (H') versus log of percent cover of bryophytes at Kenrose Preserve FIGURE 21 Diversity (H') plotted against species richness (log,S) for bryophytes at Kenrose Preserve 41 FIGURE 22 Diversity (H ) plotted against species richness (log ,.S) tor ground flora at Kenrose Preserve Figure 22 shows the relationship between H' and loge S for the vascular ground flora at Kenrose Pre¬ serve. The majority (65%) of the quadrats have J' val¬ ues between 0.50 and 0.75, a very similar range to that for bryophytes in almost all quadrats. Low j' val¬ ues for ground flora, however, do not coincide with low J' values for bryophytes. Dominance relationships for bryophytes are thus independent of dominance re¬ lationships for the vascular ground flora. Several vascu¬ lar plants, for example, are adapted to the unstable bank conditions where Fissidens taxifolius was the only important bryophvte. When bryophyte diversity (H') is compared with that for vascular ground flora, an interesting relation¬ ship appears. At the higher elevations, bryophytes show higher diversity for almost all quadrats. Below about 1300 ft (400 m), the opposite is true; that is, all the quadrats at 1120 ft (340 m) and the majority at 1250 ft (380 m) show higher diversity of ground flora. It appears from the soil data (see below) that such fac¬ tors as high calcium and concomitant high pH as well as poor drainage found at the lower elevations may limit bryophyte diversity more than that of vascular plants. Even shrubs show higher diversity than bryophytes in two quadrats at the lowest elevations, 1120 ft (340 m). At all other elevations at Kenrose (fig. 23) and at all stations in the Adirondacks, bryophyte diversity is higher than that of shrubs. The number of tree species (S) and dominant tree species at the four elevations at Kenrose are seen in figure 24 in relation to bryophyte diversity. The number of tree species per quadrat is correlated with diversity of bryophytes (r = 0.59). Highest bryophyte diversity is found in quadrats in which sugar maple is one of the dominants, with several other trees such as hemlock, striped maple, and ash as associates. Diver¬ sity is lowest in quadrats in which ash is the sole dom¬ inant. High diversity was found also in the oak-hickory forest present on the crest of a hill at 1500 ft (525 m) and above. Although diversity here is not as high (IF — 1.98) as in some of the quadrats under sugar maple (H' = 2.3, 2.5), seven of the 18 species found in this oak-hickory forest were not found elsewhere in the Kenrose study. Thus, forest type can add to the overall beta diversity for an area whether or not one type of forest has a more diverse bryophyte flora than another. This was found to be true in the Adirondack study areas which encompassed both deciduous and conifer forest, but that it is true even within the deciduous forest biome shown here. Many environmental factors were measured at Ken¬ rose Preserve. These measurements were made in the same quadrats in which the vegetation was investi¬ gated by Carl George and associates. (See Study Area section.) The following variables, which might have some significance for bryophyte diversity, were se¬ lected for a multiple regression analysis: elevation, de¬ gree of slope, percent of full sun under tree canopy, pH of soil, calcium content of soil, soil temperature, relative humidity, and maximum air temperature. In addition, the following aspects of the vegetation were included in the analysis: total density of bryophytes per 4 by 16 meter quadrat, total density of vascular plants, loge S for bryophytes, and number of tree species. Other variables, such as soil type, slope angle, phosphorus and organic content of soil, and minimum summer temperature were eliminated earlier when no correlation with bryophyte diversity was found for any of these factors. Two factors not included may be im¬ portant. These are drainage, which ranges from poor to good in the study area, and the relative maturity of the forest. Good drainage and later successional stages appeared to favor bryophyte diversity, but neither of these variables had been sufficiently quantified to use in the regression analysis. Hemlock-hardwood forest, Kenrose Preserve, Acer sac- charum and Tsuga canadensis dominants. Bryophyte diver¬ sity was high in forests where sugar maple was dominant. 42 (photo by C. /. George) BRYOPHYTE DIVERSITY 0.5 1.0 1.5 H, SHRUB DIVERSITY FIGURE 23 Bryophyie diversity (Ft') plotted against shrub diversity (H') at Ken rose Preserve 2.5 2.0 FIGURE 24 Number of tree species (S) in relation to bryophyte diversity (FT). Dominant tree species at each of the four elevations are also shown. Key: A Acer saccharum C Carya ovata Fa Fagus grandifolia Fr Fraxinus americana P Pinus strobus Q Quercus borealis Ti Tilia americana Is Tsuga canadensis U Ulmus americana (T) oc W 1.5 5 LsJ t— > X a. ° LO 0.5 KEN ROSE ■ A Fr Ts AFr Ti Ts / -- ■'AC FrQ Ts ■ AFrQ / □ AFaFr rt'A Fr • AFaFrQTI Ts “ • Fa Ts □ A Fa FrTi □ Fa Fr Ts - 0 Fr • FrP - /O FrU 0 340 m □ 380 m • 420 m ' 1 - ■ _J _ 1 - J - 460 m _l _ 1 _ 1 S, NUMBER OF TREE SPECIES 10 43 Regression Analysis Four separate analyses were made using some or all of the 11 variables, in a stepwise multiple regression analysis program (STEPREGI; SUNYA Code: STAT/ 02). The results of the regression analyses are shown in table 7. Correlation coefficients between bryophyte di¬ versity (H') and various environmental and other parameters are shown in table 7b. The entire correla¬ tion matrix is given in table 8. The first analysis (1, table 7a utilized loge S (or H',„ox) only. (Recall the evenness component of diver¬ sity, J' = H7H'mox). As stated above, the evenness component of bryophyte diversity was low but rela¬ tively consistent. Therefore, at Kenrose (but not in the two Adirondack study areas), diversity (H') can be predicted reasonably well from the number of species present. The coefficient of determination is 0.87; the regression equation predicts H' from logp S as follows: H' = 0.9553 loge S -0.745 When all variables except loge S are retained in the regression analysis (2, table 7a), only elevation and bryophyte percent cover were significant, although several other variables are significantly correlated with H'. These other variables are not significant in the re¬ gression analysis because they themselves are corre¬ lated with the significant variables (table 8). For exam- TABLE 7a Results of Stepwise Multiple Regression Program for Environmental Factors and Other Parameters Determining Bryophyte Diversity (H') at Kenrose Preserve Type of Analysis variables Reg. Coeff. Std. Error T Coeff. Det. 1. Loge S(=H'm„x) Log S (bryophytes’ ) 0.955 0.087 11.01 0.87 (cumulative) 2. Best X (excluding Loge S) Elevation 0.0021 0.0005 4.25 (0.47) Bryophyte cover 0.0000 0.0000 3.13 0.72 (No. tree species 0.0535 0.0304 1.76 0.77) 3. Best X (excluding all Elevation 0.0023 0.0006 3.67 (0.47) bryophyte variables) No. tree species 0.0919 0.0342 2.69 0.67 4. Best X (excluding all Elevation 0.0021 0.0007 2.93 (0.47) plant variables) Slope (degrees) 0.0219 0.0111 1.98 0.57 TABLE 7b Correlation Coefficients Between Bryophyte Diversity (H') and Environmental and Other Parameters at Kenrose Preserve Significant correlation coefficients with H' Loge S (=H'max) 0.93 Percent cover, bryophytes 0.63 Number of tree species 0.58 Degree of slope 0.59 pH of soil —0.45 Nonsignificant correlation coefficients with H' Percent cover, vase, plants 0.037 Percent of full sun —0.14 Calcium (kg/hectare) —0.36 Soil temperature 0.087 Maximum air temperature 0.099 Relative humidity 0.072 44 pie, the number of tree species (table 7b) would raise the coefficient of determination to 0.77 but is not quite significant in the present analysis (2) because of its cor¬ relation with bryophyte cover (Denbry, table 8). The third equation used (3, table 7a) excluded all bryophyte variables including bryophyte cover. Here elevation and number of tree species had significant regression coefficients and together account for 67 per¬ cent of the variation in IT. Finally, a fourth analysis (4, table 7a) utilized an equation excluding all the plant variables, using only nonbiotic factors. Here elevation and the degrees of slope, the latter being only marginally significant, ac¬ counted for 57 percent of the variation in H'. Although elevation alone accounts lor almost half of the variation in bryophyte diversity (H'), biotic factors are also im¬ portant variables, and together with elevation account for about 75 percent of the variation found. It should be noted that pH has a significant negative correlation (r = 0.45) with H' but does not have a sig¬ nificant regression coefficient in any of these analyses. This is explained by the fact that soil pH also has a significant negative correlation with slope (r = -0.79) and with elevation (r = —0.47), both of which were used in all analyses. Brophyte diversity in this study is low where the pH is high (pH 6 or above), and these quadrats are in areas of both low elevation and low slope at Kenrose. The pH of the soil was found to be correlated with Kg/hectare of calcium in the soil (r = 0.88), high pH resulting from high calcium. The corre¬ lation between calcium and diversity is not quite sig¬ nificant (r = -0.36); very high calcium is associated with low diversity, but so is very low calcium. Inter¬ mediate ranges of calcium have little relationship to diversity. The relationships between soil calcium, ele¬ vation, and bryophyte diversity (H') can be seen in figure 25. I interpret these data to indicate that the tolerance range for bryophytes both in terms of biomass (measured as total percent cover) and of diver¬ sity (H') is limited by low and very high calcium. In the intermediate range for soil calcium, presumably optimal for most forest bryophytes, diversity and biomass are limited by other factors such as humidity, or more likely by an interaction of such factors. Elevation, even over the short range found at Ken¬ rose Preserve, is a complex variable involving slope angle, soil chemistry, and probably soil drainage as well. Even more complex interactions are indicated. Slope angle, for example, was found to influence temperature, incident light, and relative humidity, none of which, when examined separately, was found to be a significant determinant of diversity. Such in¬ teractions cannot always be sorted out by multiple re¬ gression analysis techniques. Ultimately, experimenta¬ tion is needed. Perhaps the most striking result of the study of microclimatic variables at Kenrose was that so few of them were significantly correlated with diversity. Two conclusions can be drawn from this result: first, some variables such as summer soil and air temperatures are probably not relevant to bryophyte growth or diversity over the small range of these factors within the study area. The same factors might be important in a similar-sized or smaller area in which the microcli¬ mates are more severe, such as the summit of Whiteface Mountain. Important studies correlating microclimate and plant growth, such as those of Bliss (1969), have been made in areas with sharp micro¬ climatic gradients. TABLE 8 Correlation Matrix for Environmental and Other Parameters at Kenrose Preserve Soil Rel. Max. H 'mnj- Denbry Denvasc. Trees Slope Elev. %Sun pH Ca. temp. hum. temp. H' .64 .043 .65 .53 .59 -.15 -.36 -.24 .023 .025 .033 .93 H'maj- .26 .44 .44 .11 -.19 -.22 -.059 -.21 .27 .057 .63 Denbrv -.24 -.14 -.11 .50 .52 .55 -.010 .015 .090 .037 Denvasc. .44 .31 -.32 -.44 -.41 -.16 .19 -.15 .58 Trees .46 -.26 -.79 -.60 .16 -.067 .11 .60 Slope -.18 -.47 -.32 .22 -.14 .29 .66 Elev. .48 .24 .58 -.57 .23 -.14 %Sun .88 -.30 .26 -.19 -.45 pH -.45 .51 .012 -.36 Ca. — .94 .50 .087 Soil temp. -.34 -.072 Rel. hum. .099 Max. temp. H' 45 Oak-hickory forest, Kenrose Preserve; seven bryophyte species were found only in this forest type at Kenrose. FIGURE 25 The relationship between soil calcium, elevation and bryophyte di¬ versity (H ) at Kenrose Preserve Second, microclimatic measurements should be as closely related as possible to the stratum or type of plant under study. Relative humidity and light inten¬ sity at two meters above ground level are appropriate to the shrub layer, but may be of little significance for bryophytes growing at two centimeters or less above the soil. When I reexamined the high diversity quadrats at Kenrose Preserve after the completion of this study, I observed another probable factor affecting bryophyte diversity, the heterogeneity of the quadrat or station in terms of possible bryophyte substrates. Since most bryophytes cannot survive being covered by annual leaf fall, they are restricted in deciduous forest to sub¬ strates not covered by leaves. These include rotting logs, tree bases, tree trunks, outcropping rock, boul¬ ders, and steeply sloping ground. Such substrate di¬ versity could be measured by the Shannon formula, using percentages of area covered by rock, logs, etc. Poulson and Culver (1969) have used a similar measure in their study of diversity of cave inhabitants (all heterotrophs), but it has not been used to my knowl¬ edge in alpha diversity studies of plant communities. Further subdivisions of substrate, for example, into acid and basic rock, decorticated logs and those with bark intact, etc., would also be appropriate in relation to bryophyte diversity. Different species are adapted to particular substrates as Miihle and LeBlanc (1975) have recently shown for both mosses and hepatics on logs in various stages of decay. This method of study of alpha or within-habitat diversity would also be applica¬ ble to quite different communities, for example the at¬ tached microflora and fauna of freshwater ponds, where the substrates would be macrophytes, filamen¬ tous algae, wood, etc. Beta or between-habitat diversity was evident at Kenrose Preserve in spite of the small elevation gra¬ dient. Cluster analysis (see Slack, 1971) showed that clusters of quadrats at the same station all had signifi¬ cant B-coefficients based on the Sorensen index for species similarity, whereas clusters of quadrats includ¬ ing the highest and lowest elevations have B-coefficients ranging down to zero, that is, zero simi¬ larity of species composition within a cluster. Beta di¬ versity is also evident in the species composition of the station in dry oak-hickory forest. In one 4 by 16 quad¬ rat at this station, seven species of mosses were re¬ corded that were not found elsewhere in the Kenrose Preserve study. Taxonomic Diversity Table 9 shows the partitioning of bryophyte diver¬ sity (H') into components by family, genus, and species. If each species in a quadrat belongs to a dif¬ ferent family, 100 percent of the diversity is family di- 46 An mm iri\ versity. This was the case in the low diversity quadrats at Kenrose Preserve. Similarly, if each species belongs to a different genus, 100 percent of the H' diversity is family plus genus diversity. If there are thus no con¬ generic species, H' is the same whether calculated by species or by genera, as in arctic-alpine quadrat 21 on Whiteface Mountain. (See the last column of table 9 for H' calculated by genera.) Where H' is high, as in the spruce-fir quadrats at Whiteface and in some of the deciduous forest quad¬ rats at Kenrose Preserve, it can be seen (table 9) that a relatively high percentage of the diversity is at the species level; that is, many belong to the same genera. For these high diversity quadrats (H' = 2.13 to 2.63), the percentage of diversity resulting from congeneric species ranged from 10.4 to 16.0 (mean = 13.5). For the two highest diversity quadrats in these two loca¬ tions (3 at Kenrose and 20 at Whiteface; see table 9) generic diversity was also high, 11.0 and 12.9 percent, respectively. These two quadrats also had high specific diversity (because of congeneric species), indicating that species packing goes on at both the generic and specific levels where there are many species per quad¬ rat. Other quadrats in these two groups (table 9) show generally low generic diversity, from 1.9 to 6.3 per¬ cent (mean = 3.9). In all of the quadrats discussed above, the familial fraction of diversity is high, from 71 to 86 percent, that is up to 86 percent of the species in a quadrat are members of different families. When I compared these with those of Lloyd Inger, and King (1968), who partitioned diversity of amphibians and reptiles of a Bornean rain forest, I found the familial fraction of diversity in their study much lower, up to 50 percent for frogs and lower for lizards and snakes. The se three groups, however, constituted a total of only 15 families, whereas over 40 bryophyte families are represented in the present study. The generic frac¬ tion of diversity for both amphibians and reptiles was higher than in my bryophytic study as is the specific fraction for frogs and lizards, but not for snakes. The authors concluded that “only a small part of the total species diversity. ... is attributable to congeneric species living together,” but actually that percentage was 20 percent for frogs and 27 percent for lizards; these percentages do not seem to me to be insignificant. TABLE 9 Taxonomic Diversity — Partitioning of H' by families, genera and species Total Diversity (H') Quadrat No. Diversity (H') % Family % Genera % Species by Genera Whiteface Mt. — Spruce-fir quadrats 16 2.29 78.60 6.32 15.08 1.94 18 2.28 86.07 3.50 10.43 2.04 20 2.63 71.08 12.92 16.00 2.21 Whiteface Mt. — Arctic-alp ine quadrats 21 2.13 82.96 17.04 0.00 2.13 22 1.37 94.53 0.00 5.47 1.30 23 1.54 52.77 21.28 25.95 1.14 24 0.56 25.13 69.38 5.49 0.53 25 1.66 75.07 16.52 8.41 1.52 Kenrose Preserve — Deciduous forest quadral :s Low diversity quadrats 8 0.50 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 11 0.98 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.98 15 0.95 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 17 0.86 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.86 High diversity quadrats 3 2.51 74.12 10.95 14.93 2.14 4 2.26 85.94 1.93 12.13 1.98 12 2.13 85.33 3.54 11.13 1.90 18 2.14 80.76 4.17 15.07 1.81 47 Species diversity was also partitioned for two other groups of quadrats: the low diversity quadrats (H' less that 1.0) at Kenrose, and the five arctic-alpine quadrats at Whiteface. In all four of these Kenrose quadrats (ta¬ ble 9) the familial diversity was 100 percent; that is, each of the species belonged to a different family. This result is not surprising since the total number of species for these quadrats ranges only from five to nine; a random selection of species could yield this re¬ sult. Apparently, species belonging to several different families are adapted to conditions in these quadrats: high soil calcium, high pH, and instability because of spring soil movement. High Percentage Similarity be¬ tween some of these quadrats, especially the value of 0.77 for quadrats 8 and 15, which are separated from each other, indicates that certain species are indeed specialists for these conditions. The arctic-alpine quadrats differ greatly from each other when diversity (H') is partitioned into familial, generic, and specific portions. Quadrats 23 and 24 (ta¬ ble 9) have the highest specific diversity (26 percent) and/or generic diversity (69 percent) of any of the quadrats computed, whereas two other quadrats (21 and 22) have 0.0 specific and generic diversity, respec¬ tively. Quadrats 21, 22, and 25 show high familial di¬ versity (75 to 95 percent of the species belonging to different families). In 23 and 24, however, only 25 and 53 percent of the diversity is familial. In these quad¬ rats, two families, Grimmiaceae and Polytrichaceae and three genera, Grimmia, Polytrichum, and Pogonatum account for a large percentage of total di¬ versity. A total of seven species is involved. These genera, and particularly their representatives on the summit of Whiteface, have adapted to the high winds and insolation found on the summit by the reduction of transpiration. In these quadrats, the selection of a few species from a large number of families is not ran¬ dom, as it may be in the low diversity quadrats at Kenrose; a much smaller number of families have rep¬ resentatives adapted to these severe arctic-alpine conditions. Figure 26 shows some general relationship between the number of congeners and the number of species (S) for all Kenrose quadrats; quadrats with large num¬ bers of species tend to have more congeners than those low species richness. The quadrat with highest species richness had 14 congeneric species, indicating that high species diversities are made possible, at least in part, by species packing and habitat selection in such genera as Dicranum (see below). On the other hand, MacArthur (1969) has pointed out that the higher number of bird species within a limited area in the tropics may be largely an increase in genera rather than in congeneric species. He cites an example from Barro Colorado Island, Panama, compared with a MOURE 26 Number of congeneric bryophyte species in relation to species richness (S) at Kenrose Preserve 48 Vermont woodland. Simpson (1964) has pointed out the increase in the number of families of recent mam¬ mals in the American tropics as compared with the temperate zone. There is much evidence, however, that a large per¬ centage of tropical diversity, at least for plants, is at the specific level. Tropical congeners abound both in bryophytes and vascular plants. The liverwort genus, Plagiochila, which has only one representative in New York State, is tremendously diverse in the tropics, with several hundred species, many occurring together (Schuster, 1966, S. R. Gradstein, personal communica¬ tion). Richards (1969) noted that the large number of species of several different vascular genera, Shore a and Miconia, for example, which occur as congeners in the tropical rain forest in Asia and tropical America, respectively. My data suggest that the relative number of bryophyte congeners increases in both difficult low di¬ versity habitats and in very favorable high diversity habitats. The large number of congeners in high diver¬ sity areas may be a widespread phenomenon in plants and perhaps in some groups of animals also. Wake (1970) notes the remarkable speciation of one tribe of tropical salamanders, the Bolitoglossini of the family Plethodontidae. He attributes this speciation to the availability of numerous types of niche that are suitable for these salamanders in the tropics. From the analysis of taxonomic diversity, I conclude that the species is the most appropriate level on which to study bryophyte diversity. Questions that are raised concerning taxonomic diversity can also be examined by analyzing habitat preferences of congeneric species occurring in the same quadrat. Johnson and Raven (1970) state that a forest with four different oaks should be considered just as diverse as one with species of four different genera as dominants. I think that at least as good a case can be made for some bryophyte genera in the present study as for oaks. Consider, for exam¬ ple, the moss genus, Dicranum, of which at least six relatively common species occurs in the Adirondacks. Three species of Dicranum were found as congeners in 70 percent of the spruce-fir and deciduous quadrats at Whiteface and Ampersand Mountains; 25 percent of the quadrats contained four species of Dicranum. The various species were found to have distinct habitat pref¬ erences which, although not absolute, are at least as well marked as between many species of different gen¬ era. For example, Dicranum fulvum is found on rock, whereas the morphologically similar Dicranum viride is found on wood, sometimes as an epiphyte on tree trunks. Dicranum montanum is found in several habitats, but commonly on tree trunks. It is, however, a more xeric species than D. viride and is often found higher up the trunk on the same species of tree, or on more xeric tree species. For example, D. mon¬ tanum was regularly found on Tsuga; D. viride never was. (This might be due to chemical rather than water-holding differences in the bark, but in either case the two species of Dicranum show habitat prefer¬ ences.) Dicranum scoparium, although also occurring in rot¬ ten wood, was the only one of these species commonly found on the ground. Dicranum fuscescens was found on rotting wood, as was D. flagellare. Here there was at least a partial separation by elevation, with D. fus¬ cescens at higher elevations. Dicranum flagellare oc¬ curs regularly on very rotten wood. Other species, such as D. undulaturn, occur largely in boggy areas. In this genus at least, species are indeed ecological equivalents in terms of diversity. It would be possible, although somewhat more difficult, to make a similar case for congeneric species of Hypnum and even for most species of Brachythecium found in this study, some of which, however, are not congeneric in the same quadrat because of altitude preferences. In a few genera, habitat preference was not evident among congeneric species. This was true for epiphytic species of Frullania on Ampersand Mountain and for arctic-alpine species of Polytrichum, Pogonatum, and Grimmia. These genera, all living under extreme con¬ ditions, seem to me to represent a different phenome¬ non from the above. The species of Pogonatum or Grimmia living on a treeless mountain summit and the species of Frtdlania living on the smooth, dry bark of a beech, are each similarly adapted to these particular environmental conditions. It seems that a community of three macroscopically similar Frullania species is less diverse than a Neckera, Porella, Anomodon com¬ munity on a neighboring sugar maple, whose bark does not constitute so extreme an environment. The example of four oaks may be more similar to that of the three Frullania species than to the Dicranums. Several species of oak may live under rather extreme conditions, such as those of drought and recurrent fire in the Albany pine bush (sand plains) area, and have similar adaptations to these conditions. For oaks in this sort of environment and for bryophyte genera of dif¬ ficult environments, a good case could perhaps be made for studying diversity in terms of genera. The majority of the congeneric species of bryophytes in less extreme habitats in this study, however, showed ecological separation, although not in all genera as dis¬ tinctly as in Dicranum. 49 Further Aspects of Community Structure Populations, Communities, and the Elevation Gradient Elevation has proved to be a very important variable for bryophyte species diversity in this study. The effect of elevation range within a large area, the changes in species composition of bryophytes (and also of vascular plants) over a 1000 m range of elevation in the Adirondacks, and diversity changes even over the 130 m range of elevation at Kenrose Preserve have all been documented in this research. Each plant stratum has been shown to have a different pattern of diversity (H') and of species richness (S) over the elevation gra¬ dient studied on the two Adirondack mountains. Numbers of species of mosses and especially of liver¬ worts varied with elevation and with vegetation types resulting from elevation change. In New York State and also in other geographical areas, for example, Glacier National Park, Montana (Herman, 1969) and Costa Rica (Crosby, 1969), species richness of bryophytes is high in areas where the elevation gra¬ dient is large. The type of analysis used in this research, especially that involving the comparison of species composition along the elevation gradients at Whiteface and Amper¬ sand and at Kenrose Preserve, is generally called di¬ rect gradient analysis (Whittaker, 1956, 1968, 1970). In contrast to this type, indirect gradient analysis is used where there are no obvious environmental gradients that can be measured; the latter are inferred from the vegetation samples themselves and their changes in species composition. Population of single species can also be studied by direct gradient analysis. The term “plant community” has been used throughout this paper in Whittaker’s (1967) sense of a “particular, limited area of vegetation which seems homogeneous.” The vegetation of any particular quadrat may be considered a sample of the immediately surrounding homogeneous appearing community. These communities do not, however, have sharp boundaries except where a very sharp edaphic or topographic change occurrs. Although the composition of these communities changes with elevation (as can be seen in this study from the Sorensen and Percent Similarity indices), this community change is a result of separate density changes for each species along the elevation gradient. The pattern of density change with elevation differs for each species and usually takes the form of a bell-shaped curve for tree species. Whittaker (1968) shows such curves for pines and oaks in the Great Smoky Mountains between 400 and 1400 m. Similar curves can be drawn for beech, sugar maple, yellow birch, red spruce, and balsam fir from my Adirondack data, with peaks for each species as fol- lows, based on density of individual trees: Fagus gran difolia 1600 ft (490 m) Acer saccaharum 2000 ft (610 m) Betula alleghaniensis 2800 ft (850 m) Picea rubens 2800 ft (850 m) Abies balsamea 4000 ft (1200 m) Curves for these species from 53 sites in the Whiteface area (Scott and Holway, 1964) show very similar peaks. Such changes with elevation for each species are not so marked over the much smaller elevation range at Ken¬ rose Preserve, but even here some species, such as elm and ash, have their highest density at the lowest elevation while others, such as red oak and hickory, have highest density at the higher elevations. Some species, sugar maple, for example, are present throughout the elevation range at Kenrose. When such curves are examined for individual bryophyte species, simple bell-shaped or binomial curves do not always result. The physiological toler¬ ances of some species (c.f. Andreaea rupestris, fig. 12), enable them to live over the whole elevation range on Whiteface Mountain. For trees and almost all other vascular plants on Whiteface, the vertical distributions are limited by physiological tolerances, or where toler¬ ances are marginal, by competition with other species better adapted at particular elevations. Sorensen and Percent Similarity values for vascular plants at 1600 ft (488 m) and at 4800 ft (1463 m) are all 0.0; i.e., no vascular plants extend over the entire elevation gra¬ dient. For bryophytes, however, the values for these indices, although very low, do not reach 0.0. Such species as Andreaea rupestris and Grimmia apocarpa occur in both deciduous forest and arctic-alpine vege¬ tation on Whiteface. They are absent, however, where suitable rock substrate is not found; thus, plotting rela¬ tive density (cover) vs. elevation for such species may result in bimodal or irregular rather than smooth binomial curves. Figures 27 and 28 show generalized curves, pre¬ pared from the relative cover data, for 13 bryophyte species. It can be seen that each species has its own distribution pattern, although these patterns may be similar. Whether we see a continuum, with each species in turn reaching a peak density at a particular elevation, the view of most current American ecologi¬ cal theory, or communities of species with similar physiological tolerances occurring together in a quadrat at a particular elevation, as in most current continental European ecology, depends largely on our point of view. Roth points of view are valid and useful, pro¬ vided that the dynamic aspects of communities are not 50 HIGHEST RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, % FIGURE 27 Generalized curves for abundance of the following bryophyte species in relation to elevation on Whiteface and Ampersand Mts. Andreaea rupestris Dicranum montanum Dicranum scoparium Plagiothecium laetum Polytrichum ohioense Ptilidium pulcherr/mum FIGURE 28 Generalized curves for abundance of the following bryophyte species in relation to elevation on Whiteface and Ampersand Mts. Brotherella recurvans Dicranum fuscescens Drepanocladus uncinatus Heterophyllium haldanianum Hypnum pallescens Pleurozium schereberi Pogonatum alpinum 51 obscured by overzealous classification. Phytosociologi- cal methods have sometimes been used by Americans working with bryophytes, as, for example, by Norris (1964) in his Adirondack study, and by various stu¬ dents of bryophytic epiphytes. As pointed out above, epiphyte systems are especially dynamic, although characteristic groupings of species (communities in the sense used here) were found on particular tree species in this study. Although the comparison of communities and of species populations along an elevation gradient is termed by myself and others direct gradient analysis, it must be kept in mind that elevation is in reality a complex gradient. Organisms do not respond to changes in elevation per se, but to a variety of en¬ vironmental factors that change concomitant with ele¬ vation change. There is a striking change in the vege¬ tation on Whiteface Mountain at about 2500 ft (760 m) where deciduous forest is replaced by spruce-fir forest. This change occurs at somewhat different elevations on different slopes of Whiteface and at somewhat lower elevations on Ampersand. In this study, no sharp dif¬ ferences in environmental conditions were observed at these elevations, and even the large-scale study of en¬ vironment and vegetation on Whiteface (Scott and Holway, 1969) has been unable to document micro¬ climatic changes at the transition elevations. Different environmental factors, such as growing seasons, maxi¬ mum and minimum temperatures, annual precipita¬ tion, date of spring snowmelt, etc., could all be mea¬ sured and graphed as the individual species popula¬ tions were; each one probably follows a different pat¬ tern. At some elevation the “community” of these fac¬ tors is such that the growth of red spruce and balsam fir is favored over that of most deciduous trees. ( Be - tula alleghaniensis, B. papyrifera var. cordifolia and Pyrus americana do grow in the spruce-fir zone.) En¬ vironmental variables, such as exposure and prevailing winds, change with the direction of slope; thus, the community of factors favoring spruce-fir vegetation may occur at somewhat different elevations on differ¬ ent slopes. In a recent study of the Green Mountains of Ver¬ mont, which are quite similar to the Adirondaeks, Sie- cama (1974) concluded that the boundary between de¬ ciduous and coniferous (spruce-fir) forest was climati¬ cally, not edaphically controlled. His measurements showed a vertical climatic discontinuity accounting for the change in forest type. The two most important fac¬ tors appeared to be the number of frost-free days per year and the frequency of the cloud base. The latter increased at about 790 m, which resulted in increased fog drip and hoarfrost, favoring coniferous over de¬ ciduous forest. The mean number of frost-free days decreased from 142 at 732 m to 103 at 914 m in de- Flag trees (Abies balsamea) below timberline, Whiteface Moun¬ tain, showing importance of prevailing wind direction. Whiteface Mountain in late December showing snow cover, spruce-fir and arctic-alpine zones. 52 ciduous and spruce-fir forest, respectively. With a larger number of stations to record microclimatic data, these or similar factors could probably be shown to be important on Whiteface Mountain in the transition zone. The extent to which the transition is sharp or gradual will depend on the extent to which the changes in each of the important microclimatic factors occur at similar elevations. The change from spruce-fir to arctic-alpine vegeta¬ tion passes through a krummholz stage with stunted trees on some slopes occurring below the summit. Changes in environmental factors are more evident above timberline. Such changes within the arctic- alpine zone have been measured and related to the vegetation on Mt. Washington, New Hampshire, by Bliss (1963, 1969). On Whiteface, the effect of slope angle on vegetation has been measured by Nicholson and Scott (1969), who found it to be a major determi¬ nant of the altitude of timberline, and also of the di¬ versity of vascular vegetation. These findings were comfirmed in my study, but other microclimatic and topographic factors such as available water and habitat instability caused by rockslides also affect diversity of both bryophvtes and vascular plants. Duration of snow cover is another important factor that has not been examined systematically in the Adirondacks. Certain vascular plants and also bryophvtes, e.g., Polytrichum sexangulare (formerly P. norvegicum) are known to be characteristics of areas of persistent snow cover. Winter and spring snow cover varies with location on Adirondack summits. I have been on the 5,000-foot summit of another Adirondack high peak, Mt. Algonquin, in March and observed siz¬ able areas of arctic-alpine vegetation without any snow cover. On the other hand, on June 1, at least in some years, the 4400 ft (1340 m) quadrats are still under several feet of snow. The summit area of Whiteface, exposed to wind and high daytime insolation, was free of snow at that date. The high diversity found at 1340 m and the particularly high number of liverwort species are probably a result of increased moisture from the late snowmelt, and to the advantage of brvophytes over herbaceous vascular plants when the growing season is shortened by persistent snow cover. Bryophvtes, unlike most vascular plants, can photosyn- thesize virtually as soon as uncovered; there is even evidence of photosynthesis of bryophytes under snow (Rastorfer, 1970; Longton, 1974). Photosynthesis at subzero (0°C) temperatures in the arctic has been re¬ corded (Wilson, 1957) and may occur at these tem¬ peratures on Whiteface Mountain also. On the other hand, Oxalis montana comprised 84 percent of the total vascular ground flora at 1220 m, but is reduced to 22 percent in the quadrats with high bryophyte diver¬ sity at 1340 m. At Kenrose Preserve the much shorter elevation range also proved important in terms of species diver¬ sity. In fact, elevation is the factor most highly corre¬ lated (r = 0.69) with bryophyte diversity (H'). At¬ tempts to discover which aspects of elevation are im¬ portant, that is, what actually happens to the bryophyte environment over the 130 m elevation gra¬ dient, were partially successful. Degrees of slope (r = 0.46) and pH (r = 0.48) were both significantly corre¬ lated with elevation and highly correlated with each other (r = 0.79). They are also each correlated with diversity (H'): r = 0.60 for degrees of slope and 0.45 for pH. Thus, elevation range at Kenrose is a complex factor including degrees of slope, pH, and probably differences in drainage as well, some combination of which are important for bryophyte diversity. Bryophyte Diversity and Community Diversity G. Evelyn Hutchinson’s paper, 1959, “Homage to Santa Rosalia, or Why Are There So Many Kinds of Animals was one of several that spurred the current interest in species diversity. The great majority of the research on diversity has involved animals or planktonic organisms in spite of the following, perhaps overlooked, statement in Hutchinson’s paper: Extraordinary diversity of the terrestrial fau¬ na. ... is clearly due largely to the diversity pro¬ vided by terrestrial plants. He assumed that the three-fourths of a million insect species are in part a product of the diversity of terres¬ trial plant species and posed the really relevant ques¬ tion: “Why are there so many kinds of plants?” Is the diversity of one segment of a community indi¬ cative of the overall diversity of the community, as suggested by Margalef (1963) and Johnson and Raven (1970)? This question can be asked regarding the vari¬ ous strata or taxonomic groups of the plant community. My data suggest that one cannot obtain an index to the overall diversity of the plant community by sam¬ pling one segment. High bryophyte diversity is not correlated with high diversity of vascular plants whether H' or S is used as an index. Each stratum showed a different pattern of diversity with elevation in the Adirondacks. No correlation between diversity of vascular ground flora and that of bryophytes existed; shrub diversity showed an inverse correlation with that of bryophytes. The only direct correlation, in fact, was between diversity (H') of bryophytes and the number of tree species at Kenrose Preserve (c = 0.58). Even this relationship was not found elsewhere; that diver¬ sity of bryophytes is highest in the Adirondacks under 53 pure stands of balsam fir. In the arctic-alpine quadrats, the diversity of bryophytes is low, but that of another taxonomic group, the lichens, is high. Among vascular plants at that elevation, the shrub component of the communities has relatively high diversity, but the her¬ baceous vascular plant segment does not. A closer relationship between the diversity of one segment of a community with another may exist when the segments have direct predatory-prey relationships, either between consumers, or between herbivore and host plant. High plant and high insect diversity are both found in the tropics, for example. MacArthur and MacArthur (1961) found that bird species diversity was more closely related to structural aspects of the vegeta¬ tion than to the number of plant species present. Foliage height diversity (FHD) was the aspect of vege¬ tation structure used, and this or similar measures of vegetation structure have since been found to be de¬ terminants of bird, lizards, and rodent diversity in other studies (MacArthur, Recher, and Cody, 1964; Pianka, 1966; Rosenzweig and Winakur, 1969). Tomoflf (1974) found that FHD does not predict the number of bird species in desert scrub, but that a physiognomic coverage diversity based in part on the life forms of plants was a good predictor. Tomofif also found nest site specificity for desert birds in relation to plant species. Some other recent studies (Karr and Roth, 1971, Kricher, 1972, Cody, 1974) have discussed bird diversity in terms of vegetative structure, including beta (between-habitat) diversity of vegetation. The within-habitat studies have largely been of forest birds, usually secondary consumers and therefore not directly related in their food habits to specific plants. Prairie studies include herbivorous birds, but even these are rarely restricted to a particular species of plant. Studies of tropical fruit-eating birds might show closer bird and plant species diversity. From an evolutionary point of view, there is no question that birds of one family can evolve in relation to plant species available, at least in the absence of competition from birds of other taxonomic groups. The niches of almost all the Galapagos finches (Dick, 1947) can ultimately be related to plant species on the is¬ lands. The relationships between diversity of the insect and angiosperm sectors of the community can also be examined from an evolutionary viewpoint. The whole Cretaceous period was probably a time of extensive angiosperm and insect coevolution. Ehrlich and Raven (1964) cite coevolution of Papilionoidea (butterflies) and dicotyledons. Other examples of specific plant- insect coevolution, a subject initiated by Darwin, have been more recently given by Brower (1958) and Janzen (1969, 1970). Ehrlich and Raven (1964) conclude that the converse of Hutchinson’s (1959) assumption may be true: phytophagous insects augment the diversity of plants! Janzen (1970) supports a similar view in re¬ gard to seed-eating insects and tropical tree diversity. Two recent papers have discussed the relation be¬ tween plant and insect diversity. Sharp, et al. (1974) found little relationship between butterfly and plant diversity in subalpine areas, but Murdoch, et al. (1972) working with Homoptera in fields, found high plant- insect correlation for both H' and J'. The butterflies were not as closely tied to particular plants as the Homoptera, some of which are host specific. Such specificity should increase the importance of plant di¬ versity in relation to that of insects. Bryophytes have few close ties with animals, apart from the species of the family Splaehnaceae that live on dung, and whose spores are carried by Diptera. Several of these occur in the Adirondacks, though I have only found Splachnum ruhrum; Splaehnaceae are a more important part of brvophyte communities in the Arctic. Few herbivores eat bryophytes, although some animal unknown to me eats moss sporophytes, particularly those of Polytrichum, even on the summit of Whitefaee. Tardigrades live on and apparently feed on bryophytes, and I have seen a variety of rotifers as¬ sociated with bryophytes I have collected, but no one has yet made a diversity study of either of these groups of microscopic animals or their relation to brvophyte species. Within the various sectors of the plant community, relationships are not as specific as between most bird or insect and plant species. Parasitic and semiparasitic plants (including angiosperms) are exceptions, as are those plants which produce chemicals inhibiting the growth of other plants. In this study a few species of epiphytic bryophytes were specific to their host trees, at least within the area studied. Higher epiphyte di¬ versity was present on Ampersand Mountain in the mixed deciduous forest with many tree species than in the spruce-fir forest with fewer tree species. A pure beech or hemlock forest would have fewer epiphytic bryophyte species than a mixed hardwood-hemlock forest at the same elevation. Relationships between plant species in different strata are, in most cases, much less specific, usually involving environmental factors. The particular bryophytes found only in the oak-hickory forest at Kenrose Preserve are probably there in response to the same factors (low humidity? drier soil?) that favor the growth of these trees over maple or beech; the bryophytes are not there because of the particular tree species. Especially harsh conditions, such as at the summit of Whitefaee, may affect bryophytes and vascular plants similarly, resulting in a community consisting of species with similar tolerances in both of these strata. Species diversity is low in both these strata; relatively few species of either group are tolerant of summit conditions. 54 Species diversity relationships between segments of the plant community can also be looked at from an evolutionary viewpoint. The great majority of bryophytes in a temperate or tropical forest region are dependent on vascular plants for many aspects of their niches. Some bryophytes are obligate epiphytes on liv¬ ing trees; some liverworts are obligate epixyls on rot¬ ten logs (Barkman, 1958). In the tropics, in southern United States (Guerke, 1973) and even in the Pacific Northwest (Vitt, et al. , 1973), some bryophytes are epiphyllic, that is, are epiphytes on living leaves, largely on evergreen angiosperms (or conifers in the north). In Puerto Rico, I have observed liverworts growing on ferns and aroids. Even those forest bryophytes that are not so directly dependent on vascular plants as substrates are usually dependent on the shade and humidity provided by these plants. Although bryophytes are an ancient group and are not noted in general for rapid evolution, “explosive” evolution in some genera with many species is probably a relatively recent phenomenon. As such it is dependent on relationships with the vascular plant strata. I quote Schuster (1966) on this subject, with particular reference to liverworts: . . . any explosive evolution in the Bryophyta came about only after evolution of a polytypic, complex, and rather complete cover of such groups as Pteridospermae, conifers, tree ferns, and Angiospermae, which, together with a rich ground and shrub flora (of ferns, lycopods, etc.), served to maintain humidity and reduce insola¬ tion. Only after this were conditions on land created that favored speciation in the Hepaticae. Indeed, I would go so far as to say that today conditions of so much greater diversity exist (compare tropical montane rain forests . . . and . . . cool subarctic rain forests . . .) than prior to the Mesozoic, so that extensive present-day microevolution (i.e., speciation) of Hepaticae and Musci is much more likely on a large scale than in most prior periods of their existence. [Italics Schuster’s.] Schuster goes on to give examples of recent “explo¬ sive” speciation in such families as Plagiochiliaceae and points out that the majority of these species are ar¬ boreal and that their evolution “must postdate that of the dense, humid forests in which they have evolved most copiously.” Thus, in the tropics and even in a temperate forest, there exists a very important rela¬ tionship between the bryophyte diversity and that of vascular plants, in terms of bryo-coinmunities. It is in¬ teresting to note that bryophytes have evolved to fill quite different niches provided by vascular plants, niches in which neither shade nor high humidity is present. In this study, species of Frullania were found on tree trunks in highly xerophytic conditions, i.e., in open niches available to no other groups of plants ex¬ cept, perhaps, some lichen species. Evolution of spe¬ cial water-holding structures may have made the occu¬ pation of such niches by Frullania possible. Two conclusions can be reached from the above dis¬ cussion. First, one cannot assume that, by measuring the diversity of one segment of a community, whether birds, vascular plants, bryophytes, etc., the diversity of the community as a whole, or even of the plant or animal portion of it can be predicted. Significant corre¬ lations may exist, but more often they do not. Sec¬ ondly, one segment of a community may be related, at least in an evolutionary sense, to the diversity of another or of several other segments. Present diversity relationships are complicated by other factors, such as competition both between and within segments of each trophic layer of a community. Dominance-Diversity Curves and the Division of Niche Space Dominance relationships among members of a com¬ munity or one stratum of a community can be studied in several different ways. One method is by the calcu¬ lation and comparison of evenness or “J values. These have already been presented and compared, and are discussed further in the following section. Another method consists of plotting dominance diversity curves, as Whittaker (1965, 1970) has done for plant communities of the Great Smoky Mountains and elsewhere. These two methods have been used with my data, separately and in combination. I have plotted dominance-diversity curves for bryophytes in the quadrats studied at Whiteface and at Kenrose Preserve, using relative cover values to rank the species in order of dominance. Whittaker’s curves are plotted for vascular plants and are based on net annual production, although he has also used cover values and has stated (1965) that curves of similar form resulted for both types of values. The species are ar¬ ranged (figs. 29 and 30) in order of their decreasing cover values, from highest to lowest cover value on the abscissa. The curve origins are spaced out for clarity; for example, the five species of the first Kenrose quad¬ rat run from 1 to 5, but the 25 species of the last quadrat run from 25 to 49 (fig. 29). Relative cover value (or “abundance”) is on a log scale. Several different forms of curves result, some of them similar to those of Whittaker. In my quadrats of low diversity (low H' and low S) as in low diversity communities of Whittaker, straight lines of steep slope result. Whittaker pointed out that this type of curve approximates a geometric series. Translated into niche theory, such a series may be used as a model in which a dominant species preempts a certain percentage of 55 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, % 56 RELATIVE ABUNDANCE SPECIES RANK FIGURE 30 Dominance-diversity curves and J' and H' values for seven quadrats at Whiteface Mt. (Nos. 24, 9, 22, 25, 7, 3, and 20). 57 available niche space, e, approximated here by its per¬ cent cover, as follows: The second ranked species occupies the same percentage of the remaining cover, 1-c, generat¬ ing the equation: y = C (l-c)x-1c where y is the fraction of cover representing niche space for all species, C is total cover, and x is the species’ rank. None of the bryophyte curves shows a constant or nearly constant c, nor do those presented by Whit¬ taker (1965, fig. 3). There is no particular reason to be¬ lieve that each species should utilize the same propor¬ tion of niche space. Among the low diversity quadrats (8, 11, and 15 at Kenrose, and 24 and 25, both summit quadrats at Whiteface), considerable differences in di¬ vision of niche space exist to an extent that this is ac¬ tually reflected in dominance relationships. In quadrat 8 at Kenrose and 24 at Whiteface, one species has usurped the greatest extent of total bryophyte niche space, over 90 percent in quadrat 8. In these two quadrats either two or three species occupy over 99 percent of the niche space, resulting in very steep curves for this portion. Whiteface quadrats 24 and 9 (which has a large number of species but also a steep upper curve) have a relatively large number of species of low cover value. This pattern of dominance and di¬ versity results in a sigmoid type of curve (fig. 30) not found among Whittaker’s. Whittaker has omitted from his curves species of very low productivity, which may account for his steep lower curves, but it is also quite likely that bryophvtes are able to divide remaining niche space more finely than can vascular plants. I pointed out earlier that different dominance rela¬ tionships are present even in low diversity quadrats in the same area, even when they have the same number of species as in quadrats 24 and 25 on the summit of Whiteface. The dominance-diversity curves for these quadrats (fig. 3) show these differences very strikingly. In 25, the initial curve is less steep with abundances of bryophyte species more evenly distributed than in 24, and there are no rare species. Different possibilities exist for the division of bryophyte niche space even under similar rigorous conditions. Sigmoid curves similar to Whittaker’s is, at least over the upper and middle portions, also resulted from my data. In terms of niche allocation, such curves (2 and 20, Kenrose, fig. 29, and 7, Whiteface, fig. 30) represent communities with more competing species, no one species usurping an especially large portion of niche space and with a large “middle class” utilizing similar portions of the niche space. In quadrat 2, Ken¬ rose, there are two codominant species, a distribution also found by Whittaker. Whittaker’s communities of highest species diversity form similar sigmoid curves but of smaller slope. He used Preston’s “lognormal ’ distribution as a model for these communities. This distribution consists of many species of intermediate abundance with fewer of greater and lesser abundance, approximating a normal curve when abundances are plotted on a log scale. The most diverse quadrats in my study area, represented here by 3, Kenrose (fig. 29) and 3 and 20, Whiteface (fig. 30) do not fit Preston’s model. Preston’s curve would be truncated at the upper end since no species in any of my high diversity quadrats has a relative abundance as high as 20 percent. The lower end of the curve would also differ because of the large number of bryophyte species of low relative abundance in these quadrats. These species can be seen on the dominance-diversity curves, which lack the steep drop at the end in contrast to Whittaker’s curves for the high diversity communities in his studies. As Whittaker himself noted (1965), there is no good reason to expect different strata of a community “sub¬ ject to different environmental factors and modes of population limitation” to show parallel dominance- diversity relationships. When a plant community is ex¬ tended to include the too often ignored bryophvtes, differences in basic biology could be important. For example, Whittaker suggested that the lower portions of dominance-diversity curves may be affected by only partially adequate seed dispersal into the potential rare niche, leaving suitable niches empty, and presumably resulting in a steep lower curve. Bryophyte spore dis¬ persal appears to me to be more successful in filling these niches. The ability of appropriate bryophytes to arrive at “rare” niches is often very striking, even when these niches are manmade. BnjoerythrophijIIum recurvirostrum and Encalypta procera occur on a ce¬ ment wall near the summit of Whiteface but were found nowhere else on the mountain (Reilly, 1964). Other species, such as Tetraphis pellucida, are nearly always found where their appropriate niches occur. This is true to such an extent that I am always sur¬ prised not to find Tetraphis on rotting conifer stumps of the appropriate stage of decay when I am out of the range of this species. Furthermore, various types of open niches may each be filled by a number of different species of rare bryophytes, and this sort of opportunism, to be dis¬ cussed below, probably also fills in the lower end of the dominance-diversity curve. Fitting any of these curves to mathematical models of niche space division may be premature. We know little about their multi¬ dimensional niche spaces, or their competitive rela¬ tionships. Forman’s (1964) experimental study of the physiological ecology of Tetraphis pellucida is probably the closest approach to elucidating the fundamental niche in Hutchinson’s (1957) sense for any bryophyte 58 species. Other recent studies, though not experimen¬ tal, have succeeded in measuring or identifying niche factors for bryophytes in particular habitats, for exam¬ ple, Sphagnum species in bogs (Vitt and Slack, 1975) and bryophytes on rotting logs (Mtihle and LeBlanc, 1975). More such studies are needed before ecological theories of the division of niche space can be fully ex¬ tended to bryophytes. Finally, the shapes and slopes of dominance- diversity curves can be related to evenness (J') values as calculated from the Shannon function. These values, as well as those of H' are shown for each quadrat plot¬ ted in figures 29 and 30. For example, compare quad¬ rat 3 at Whiteface with quadrats 7, Whiteface, and 20, Kenrose. All of these quadrats contain one or two dominant species and have the same evenness value (J = 0.69). Quadrat 3 with six nearly equally dominant species at the top of the curve and therefore a higher evenness value (0.79), also has considerably higher di¬ versity (H' = 2.28 as compared to 2.03 and 1.98 for the other two quadrats). Although Whittaker stated that diversity is largely determined by the number of species in the middle portion of these curves, he was referring to diversity in terms of species richness (S). When highest diversity measured as H' is considered, it is obvious from the curves that H' is greatest when the species are evenly distributed throughout the curve; that is, over the upper as well as the middle portion. Such distribution results, of course, in the highest J' values. This pat¬ tern, and the resulting dominance-diversity curve, is an unusual one for bryophytes, at least in the forest habitats I have studied. High J' values were excep¬ tional in this study; almost all were very low compared with Trainer’s (1969) for birds or Pielou s (1966a, b) for herbaceous plants and shrubs. Opportunism Among Bryophytes Tramer (1969) has suggested that some groups of or¬ ganisms tend to be “equilibrium” groups and to have their diversity (H') regulated largely by variation in species richness (S), while other groups are oppor¬ tunistic and are more likely to have their species di¬ versity regulated by variation in relative abundance or evenness (J'). Thus territorial birds living in stable, nonrigorous environments and having relatively stable population densities over time may be thought of as equilibrium species. Plankton, at the other extreme, live in unpredictable environments and a species number may increase rapidly, but temporarily, when conditions are favorable. All species in one group need not be entirely oppor¬ tunistic or entirely equilibrium species; the Cape May warbler, a territorial bird, may be considered oppor¬ tunistic because its population increases in response to the periodic abundance of spruce budworms. MacAr- thur (1960) defined the terms “opportunistic” and “equilibrium” and pointed out that photosynthetic or¬ ganisms, including diatroms aand early successional vascular plants, could also be placed in the opportunis¬ tic category. According to Tramer (1969), groups of organisms with low and variable J ' values can be considered op¬ portunistic. He found high J' values (from 0.84 to 0.92), except for gregarious marsh birds. In addition, the J' values were stable; increased diversity (H') in his bird communities is closely correlated with in¬ crease in species richness (S). Thus, by his criteria, the species in these bird communities are not opportunis¬ tic. Sager and Hasler (1969), on the other hand, found lower J' values in their phytoplankton studies. Diver¬ sity (H') could not be predicted from species richness alone; the J' values were not stable. Therefore, accord¬ ing to Trainer’s criteria, these phytoplankton species could be considered opportunistic, as MacArthur ear¬ lier suggested for diatoms. By the same criteria, bryophytes, at least in certain habitats, can also be considered opportunistic. The J' values in my studies were low, as pointed out above, and also variable, at least in the Adirondacks. Out of all the quadrats studied, 29 percent had J' value under 0.6, 46 percent under 0.7, and 89 percent under 0.8. Most of the values ranged between 0.5 aand 0.8, but values as low as 0.25 were found under rigorous sum¬ mit conditions, as would have been predicted by Tramer. For bryophytes at Kenrose Preserve, entirely within deciduous forest biome, there was also great variation in J', with values as low as 0.3. The majority of values are between 0.5 and 0.75, lower than those found by Pielou (1966a, b) for the herbaceous-shrub community in a Quebec study. Although species diver¬ sity (II') and species richness (S) are correlated for Kenrose bryophytes, there is great scatter of J' values at lower species numbers, indicating that even in de¬ ciduous forest in the more rigorous habitats (see Ken¬ rose discussion) with low species richness, H' is not predictable from S. In the Adirondack study areas, J' is highly variable even in higher diversity quadrats; therefore, H' is not predictable from S even in these quadrats. In the summit quadrats on Whiteface, as pointed out above, quadrats with the same number of species sometimes have very different J' values. Rigorous or unstable environments, e.g., the sum¬ mit quadrats at Whiteface and the low elevation, sea¬ sonally mud-covered quadrats at Kenrose, are notable in these studies for low species richness and for low, though variable J' values as well. Some of the bryophytes species living in these environments prob- 59 ably are opportunistic in that they can persist and re¬ produce effectively in rapidly changing environments. Some are able to reestablish populations quickly after a landslide or mudflow. I do not mean to imply that all or most bryophyte species are opportunistic; most forest bryophytes probably are not. Other groups of organisms that consist largely of equilibrium species often contain some species or groups of species that are opportunistic in changing environments, such as the Cape May warbler (MacArthur, 1960), cited above, or black cherry (Primus serotina ) in disturbed oak forests in Wisconsin (Auclair and Cottam, 1971). For black cherry, the authors cited widespread dispersal, delayed seed germination, and flexible seedbed re¬ quirements as “opportunistic characteristics.” Adapta¬ tion for successful establishment under nonequilibrium conditions seems to be as important as high reproduc¬ tive rate for opportunistic species, at least among plants. There is evidence besides that of J' or evenness val¬ ues that some bryophytes are opportunistic, at least in certain environments. Schofield (1971), discussing bryophytes in the Arctic, wrote that “mosses are op¬ portunistic in the high water table conditions, various taxa invading the shaded sites. . . . yet others succeed¬ ing in the open well-illuminated areas. He also pointed out a number of species that were able to in¬ vade unoccupied sites such as rocks in streams and bare silt, and cited a study of Whitmire (1965) on the early establishment of opportunistic species on dung, followed, as pH becomes more like that of the sur¬ rounding bog, by common bog species, perhaps the equilibrium species of this environment Other arctic bryophytes, e.g., Bryum wrightii (Steere and Murray, 1974), also appear to be opportunists, appearing in such disturbed habitats as lemming runways. Crum (1966) stated that “open disturbed situations are usually quickly occupied by species of broad ecological tolerances and short life cycles or both, al¬ though he does not believe disturbed sites to be suita¬ ble to the majority of mosses. Many mosses, such as Pleurozium schreberi in balsam fir forest in the Adirondacks, appear to be occupants of stable sites and represent the “equilibrium species’ among bryophytes. Schuster (1966) described the exploitation by bryophytes, and especially by liverworts, of sites in the tropics not occupied by other plants, such as the sur¬ faces of living leaves and twigs (also of interest in con¬ nection with the high species diversity of tropical liverworts). The exploitation of the twig habitat is also illustrated by Herzog (in Gams, 1932) with a photo¬ graph of a small twig of Berberis in Bolivia bearing five different bryophyte species. The epiphyllous habitat also is a short-lived, unstable one. Although the leaves are usually evergreen and persist long enough for the bryophyte to reproduce, sexually or asexually, the population perishes when the leaf falls. Propagules are easily and quickly dispersed to other leaves, as is char¬ acteristic of opportunistic species. Outside the tropics, many liverworts are equally lim¬ ited to temporary or extreme habitats such as decaying logs or snowfield margins, or, as in this study, the bark of trees. Schuster (1966) considered liverworts, and perhaps bryophytes as a group, to a large extent op¬ portunistic; “the less mature and more extreme [the environment] the more diverse and conspicuous the bryophyte flora. He also cited some rare experimental evidence: Griggs (1934, 1935) found two liverwort species (both of Adirondack genera) that could grow and reproduce on nitrogen-free volcanic ash where other plants could not. When nitrogen was added, algae and moss protomema crowded the liverworts out. Opportunism and lack of competitive ability under conditions of higher productivity and stability appear to be correlated for certain species. This correlation may be found in liverworts as a group more often than in mosses, though it is not characteristic of all liver¬ worts, e.g., Bazzania trilobata, in the Adirondacks. Another somewhat different type of opportunism has to do with stochastic or chance factors and is related to the last question I want to consider here: the relation¬ ship for bryophytes of species diversity, niche space, and the Gausian principle. Schuster discussed elsewhere (1957) the composition of pioneer bryophyte communities growing as epiphytes on Thuja, and in another example, on decorticated logs. On Thuja he found 11 different combinations of liverwort species alone. He stated that these species were all ecologi¬ cally very similar and concluded that the most impor¬ tant factor in the determination of groupings was chance; that is, which species happened to arrive first. In the decorticated log habitat, he found a total of 25 ecologically similar “candidates” for invasion of this environment. He concluded that “environment plus chance plus time governed what species shall undergo ecesis [successful establishment] ... If a species has a slight advantage in time ... it tends to form large, pure patches, due to extraordinary high reproductive potential.” The latter is due largely to asexual repro¬ ductive structures, another frequent characteristic of opportunistic plant species. Schuster, also noted the occurrence on some of these logs of a great number of ecologically similar species that “undergo ecesis on the same site at the same time. The heterogeneous community formed “results from gregariousness of sociability of many species of Hepaticae (and mosses).” This same gregari¬ ousness, the presence of many different species oc¬ cupying one small area of apparently uniform envi¬ ronment, has been noted by many bryologists. Steere (1951) noted it on Cornwallis Island in the Arctic. 60 Bryophyte community of a rotten log, hemlock-hardwood forest, Ampersand Mountain, containing 15 or more species. Diverse bryophyte community overhanging rock face, Whiteface Mountain. 61 (photo by N. C. Slack) Schofield (1971) wrote that “the apparent lack of com¬ petition among a diversity of taxa of bryophytes in a small area is shown by the universal occurrence of this phenomenon in the arctic. It is also a common phenomenon in the deciduous and spruce-fir forests I have studied, particularly on logs, both decorticated and in earlier stages of decay. I have frequently found as many as fifteen species of bryophytes on one log, with little apparent differentiation of microhabitat for the majority of them, though a few are characteristic of damper undersides. Do Gausian principles of “competitive exclusion” re¬ ally hold for bryophytes in such habitats? In many habitats the bryophytes found in such assemblages be¬ long to the same genera, Mnium, Brachythecium, and Hypnum, for example, on logs in early stages of decay, and Cephalozia on decorticated logs. Must we believe Slobodkin (1961) that the “portions of the fundamental niches of two [ten?] species. . . . that are found to coexist are not identical”? Or, “if they seem to be identical the study is incomplete”? Perhaps we can use Slobodkin’s phrase “persist indefinitely” to wriggle out of this dilemma. These apparently coexisting species obviously do not persist indefinitely; their habitats are temporary. When the log decays completely, as when the leaf with its epiphyllous bryophytes falls, the species coexist no longer. These are in a sense fugitive species (Hutchinson, 1965) which when displaced, in this case not by a competitor but by the disappearance of their habitat, are mobile enough in terms of sexual or vegetative propagules to establish themselves on new open sites (e.g., another newly fallen log in the Adirondack forest). Hutchinson pointed out that a simi¬ lar idea as been advanced by Skellam for annual plants, which must find a new site each year. Perhaps they, too, thus avoid the problems of competitive ex¬ clusion. Even with a long-persistent rotting log, there is another way of avoiding Gausian fate, suggested both by Hutchinson (1964) and by Levin (1970). In Hutch¬ inson’s terms, “If two species were almost equally effi¬ cient over a wide range of environmental variables, competitive exclusion would be a slow process. It seems to me that with nearly equal efficiency in the rotten log habitat, exclusion could be slow enough even without the random environment suggested by these authors. In conclusion, I believe that the solution to this problem of coexistence of closely related species of bryophytes is very important to the understanding of bryophyte diversity and its importance in a plant community. Bryophyte diversity, where measured as S or H' (or very likely bv any other method) increases as the number of suitable bryophyte habitats increases, whether this increase consists of spatial heterogeneity in terms of logs, rocks, etc., within one quadrat, or consists of a large elevation range with resulting vege¬ tation types. Furthermore, diversity is increased where a large variety of bryophytes apparently coexist in any one such suitable habitat, whether it is a moss (and liverwort) covered log in the Adirondack spruce- fir zone, or an epiphytic site in a montane tropical rain forest. It is surely true that “the study is incomplete” and we may yet find differences between realized niches of all the apparently coexisting bryophytes. 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A. 1970. Toward a mathematical model of limestone pavement vegetation. III. Estimation of the determinants of species frequencies. Can. Jour. Bot. 48: 1387-1404. APPENDIX A Bryophytes Found in Adirondack Quadrats (Whiteface and Ampersand Mts.) Mosses Amblystegium juratzkanum Schimp. Amblystegium serpens (Hedw.) B.S.G. Amblystegium varium (Hedw.) Lindb. Andreaea rupestris Hedw. Anomodon rugellii (C. Miill.) Keissl. Atrichum angustatum (Brid.) B.S.G. Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) P. Beauv. Brachythecium acuminatum (Hedw.) Aust. Brachythecium curium (Lindb.) Limpr. Brachythecium oxycladon (Brid.) Jaeg. and Sauerb. Brachythecium populeum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Brachythecium reflexum (Starke ex Web. and Mohr.) B.S.G. Brachythecium rutabulum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Brachythecium salebrosum (Web. and Mohr.) B.S.G. Brachythecium velutinum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Brotherella recurvans (Michx.) Fleisch. Bryurn capillare Hedw. Callicladium haldanianum (Grev.) Crum Campylium chrysophyllum (Brid.) J. Lange Campylium hispidulum (Brid.) Mitt. Dicranella heteromalla (Hedw.) Schimp. Dicranum flagellare Hedw. Dicranum fulvum Hook. Dicranum fuscescens Turn. Dicranum montanum Hedw. Dicranum polysetum Sw. Dicranum scoparium Hedw. Dicranum undulatum Brid. Dicranum viride (Sull. and Lesq. ex Sulk) Lindb. Drepanocladus uncinatus (Hedw.) Wamst. Encalypta procera Bruch. Eurhynchium pulchellum (Hedw.) Jenn. Fissidens osmundoides Hedw. Grimmia affinis Hornsch. Grimmia apocarpa Hedw. Grimmia donniana Smith Hedwigia ciliata (Hedw.) Herzogiella striatella (Brid.) Iwats. Herzogiella turfacea (Lindb.) Iwats. Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) B.S.G. Hypnum imponens Hedw. Hypnum lindbergii Mitt. Hypnum pallescens (Hedw.) P. Beauv. Isopterygium distichaceum (Mitt.) Jaeg. and Sauerb. Leucobryum glaucum (Hedw.) Angstr. ex Fr. Mnium ciliare (C. Muell.) Schimp. Mnium hymenophyloides Heub. Mnium punctatum Hedw. Mnium spinulosum B.S.G. Neckera pennata Hedw. Oncophorus wahlenbergii Brid. Paraleucobryum longifolium (Hedw.) Loeske Plagiothecium denticulatum Hedw. B.S.G. Plagiothecium laetum B.S.G. Platydictya subtile (Hedw.) Crum Platygytium repens (Brid.) Mitt. Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt. Pogonatum alpinium (Hedw.) Roehl. Pogonatum dentatum (Brid.) Brid. Pohlia elongata Hedw. Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb. Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw. Polytrichum ohioense Ren. and Card. Polytrichum piliferum Hedw. Polytrichum strictum Brid. Ptilium crista-castrensis (Hedw.) De Not. Rhacomitrium fascicular e (Hedw.) Brid. Rhacomitrium heterostrichum (Hedw.) v. sudeticum (Funck) Dix. ex Bauer Rhodobryum roseum (Hedw.) Limpr. Rhynchostegium serrulatum (Hedw.) Jaeg. and Sauerb. Sphagnum capillaceum (Weiss.) Schrank Sphagnum girgensohnii Russ. Sphagnum quinquefarium (Lindb. ex Braighw.) Warnst. Taxiphyllum deplanatum (Bruch and Schimp. ex Sulk) Tetraphis pellucida Hedw. Thuidium delicatulum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Thuidium recognitum (Hedw.) Lindb. Tortella humilis Hedw. Jenn. Tortella tortuosa (Hedw.) Limpr. Ulota crispa (Hedw.) Brid. Ulota hutchinsiae (Sm.) Hamm. Ulota coarctata (P. -Beauv.) Hamm. Liverworts Anastrophyllum michauxii (Huds.) Buch Anastrophyllum minutum (Cr.) Schuster Barbilophozia barbata (Schmid.) Dumort. Bazzania trilobata (L.) Gray Blepharostoma trichophyllum (L.) Dumort. Calopogeia fissa (L.) Raddi Calopogeia muelleriana (Schiffn.) K. Muller Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.) Dumort. Cephalozia laciniata (Jack) Spruce Cephalozia media Lindb. Cephaloziella hampiana (Nees) Schiffn. 69 Frullania asagrayana Mont. Frullania eboracensis Gottsche Gijmnocolea inflata (Huds.) Dumort. Jamesoniella autumnalis (D.C.) Steph. Lepidozia reptans (L.) Dumort. Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrod.) Dumort. Lophozia attenuate (Mart.) Dumort. Lophozia ventricosa (Dicks.) Dumort. Marsupella emarginata (Ehr.) Dumort. Mylia taylori (Hook.) Gray Nowellia curvifolia (Dicks.) Mitt. Pellia epiphylla (L.) Corda Ptilidium ciliare (L.) Nees Ptilidium pulcherrimum (Web.) Hampe Radula complanata Dumort. Radula obconica Sull. Scapania nemorosa (L.) Dumort. Tritomaria exectiformis (Breidl.) Schiffn. APPENDIX B Bryophytes Found in Quadrats at Kenrose Preserve Mosses Amblystegium serpens (Hedw.) B.S.G. Amblystegium varium (Hedw.) B.S.G. Anomodon attenuatus (Hedw.) Hueb. Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) P.-Beauv. Brachythecium acuminatum (Hedw.) Aust. Brachythecium oxycladon (Brid.) Jaeg. and Sauerb. Brachythecium populeum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Brachythecium reflexum (Starke ex Web. and Mohr ) B.S.G. Brachythecium salebrosum (Web. and Mohr.) B.S.G. Brachythecium velutinum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Brotherella recurvans (Michx.) Fleisch. Bryum capillare Hedw. Callicladium haldanianum (Grev.) Crum Campylium chrysophyllum (Brid.) J. Lange Campylium hispidulum (Brid.) Mitt. Climacium americanum Brid. Dicranella heteromalla (Hedw.) Schimp. Dicranum flagellare Hedw. Dicranum fulvum Hook. Dicranum fuscescens Turn. Dicranum montanum Hedw. Dicranum scopanum Hedw. Dicranum viride (Sill, and Lesq. ex Sull.) Lindb. Ditrichum pallidum (Hedw.) Hampe Eurhynchium hians (Hedw.) Sande Lac. Eurhynchium pulchellum (Hedw.) Jenn. Fissidens osmundoides Hedw. Fissidens taxifolius Hedw. Fissidens viridulus (Sw.) Wahlenb. Grimmia apocarpa Hedw. Haplocladium virginianum (Brid.) Broth. Hedwigia ciliata (Hedw.) P.-Beauv. Homomallium adnatum (Hedw.) Broth. Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw. Hypnum imponens Hedw. Hypnum lindbergii Mitt. Hypnum pallescens (Hedw.) Broth. Leskeela nervosa (Brid.) Loeske Leucobryum glaucum (Hedw.) Angstr. ex Fr. Mnium ciliare (C. Muell.) Schimp. Mnium cuspidatum Hedw. Mnium punctatum Hedw. Physcomitrium pyriforme (Hedw.) Hampe Plagiothecium denticulatum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Plagiothecium laetum B.S.G. Platydictya confervoides (Brid.) Crum Platygyrium repens (Brid.) B.S.G. Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt. Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb. Polytrichum commune Hedw. Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw. Polytrichum ohioense Ren. and Card. Polytrichum piliferum Hedw. Rhacomitrium heterostichum Hedw. Rhynchostegium semdatum (Hedw.) Jaeg. and Sauerb. Rhytidiadelphis triquetris (Hedw.) Lindb. Tetraphis pellucida Hedw. Thuidium delicatulum (Hedw.) B.S.G. Thuidium recognitum (Hedw.) Lindb. Ulota crispa (Hedw.) Brid. Weissia controversa Hedw. Liverworts Bazzania trilobata (L.) Gray Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.) Dumort. Cololejeunia biddlecomiae (Aust.) Evs. Jamesoniella automnalis (D.C.) Steph. Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrad.) Dumort. Pellia epiphylla (L.) Corda Plagiochila asplenioides (L.) Dumort. Ptilidium pulcherrimum (Web.) Hampe Radula complanata (L.) Dumort. 70 Q 11 N82X NH IONTEN WENNA WEIEN STAMKH W A® Mohawk Spelling Dictionary A-hy.Qr,*.©;; Ilipi :©£<-:©:-:*:©^ ^©'•‘rvO'-rvl y!'W*x* w'w :8»§Wfc a-G-a-eaio-S-e :g©:g;©;gM>j;;0:gaB| :»->r;*©*«*©:H<*«3>rH©-^ \#*'©^V>V©'>kW*^Vv \%^;©r.;<:©70©:#7»:©*vr*:. ^o;g;e;§i;;SSg< mmmmm CWcAfi5^^ 7/ie University of the State of New York ALBANY. N Y. 12234 The State Education Department mMM BULLETIN 429 New York State Museum SEPTEMBER 1977 IONTENWENNAWEIENSTAHKHWA* Mohawk Spelling Dictionary Compiled by: Mary McDonald Ann Barnes Louise Cook Jean Herne Rita Jacobs Louise Jock Harriett LaFrance Elaine Ransom Winnie Sinclair Elizabeth Tarbell Marianne Mithun Editor THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of The University (with years when terms expire) 1981 Theodore M. Black, A.B. , Litt.D. , LL.D., Ph.D., D.C.L. , L.H. D. Chancellor . Sands Point 1987 Carl H. Pforzheimer, Jr., A.B. , M.B.A. , D. C.S. , H. H. D. Vice Chancellor . Purchase 1978 Alexander J. Allan, Jr., LL.D. , Litt.D . Troy 1986 Kenneth B. Clark, A.B. , M.S. , Ph.D. , LL.D., L.H.D. , D. Sc. . . . . Hastings on Hudson 1983 Harold E. Newcomb, B.A . . . Owego 1988 Willard A. Genrich, LL.B. , L.H. D. , LL.D . Buffalo 1982 Emlyn I. Griffith, A.B. , J.D . . Rome 1983 Mary Alice Kendall, B.S . Irondequoit 1984 Jorge L. Batista, B.A. , J.D . Bronx 1982 Louis E. Yavner, LL.B . . . . . New York 1979 Laura B. Chodos, B.A. , M. A. . . Clifton Park 1980 Martin C. Bareli, B.A. , I. A., LL.B . Kings Point 1981 Joseph R. Bongiomo, B.S. , M.D . Brooklyn 1984 Louise P. Matteoni, B.A. , M.A. , Ph.D . Bayside 1981 J. Edward Meyer, B.A. , LL.B . . . Chappaqua President of The University and Commissioner of Education Gordon A. Ambach Associate Commissioner for Cultural Education John G. Broughton PREFACE While working with the Mohawk Language teachers on the Ahkwesahsne Reservation several years ago, one of the goals we set for ourselves was to produce relevant Mohawk language materials for use in the schools. After overcoming some major hurdles, significant progress was made after agreement was reached on a basic standardized spelling system. This Mohawk Spelling Dictionary is a result of the efforts of those teachers to build their program upon a firm foundation. The drawings for this edition were created by Brad Bonaparte, Mark Light, Arthur Tarbell and Ricky White, four young students in the Language program. The layout and cover were designed by Frances Johansson. This publication was made possible through grants to the Salmon River Central School Bilingual/ Bicultural program under the director of Ms. Barbara Barnes from the U.S. Office of Education, Office of Indian Education, Title IV Part A (PL 92-318) and ESEA Title IV Part C. The points of view or opinions expressed in this book do not, therefore, necessarily represent official Office of Education position or policy. Philip H. Tarbell Specialist in Indian Culture INTRODUCTION This volume is the result of a desire among Mohawk teachers, aides, and curriculum planners at Ahkwesahsne for a practical and uniform way of recording their language. It is hoped that it will serve two purposes: one, as a spelling guide to teachers and others writing the language, and two, as a source of new vocabulary for those just now learning to speak. The entries in the dictionary were chosen, translated, and arranged by Ann Barnes, Louise Cook, Jean Herne, Rita Jacobs, Louise Jock, Harriett LaFrance, Winnie Sinclair, and Eliza¬ beth Tarbell. Grammatical information was then added and the spellings regularized by Mary McDonald and Marianne Mithun-Williams . In any active language community, dialect differences can be easily found. Different people have different, but equally correct, ways of- saying things. Furthermore, any na¬ tive speaker of a language has a rich assort¬ ment of terms for expressing nearly any con¬ cept, each with its own subtle flavor. The Mohawk words comprising this dictionary are not meant to represent the only correct equi¬ valents of their English translations. Rather, they are offered as an incentive to others to add to this list and eventually develop a rich record of Mohawk vocabulary. The spelling system used here is based on the various traditional Mohawk writing systems. A few refinements have been added to make it fit the language better. The need for these refinements has become especially clear as, iv more and more, children are learning Mo¬ hawk as a second language instead of a mother tongue. Native speakers can often get along with an awkward writing system. As they read, they can supply missing sounds in a text from their mental dictionaries. Learners can only learn to pronounce what is written. The few new symbols in this spell¬ ing system represent sound which, although unnecessary in English, are crucial to the correct pronunciation of Mohawk. The Mohawk spelling system is quite simple. It consists of only 8 consonents: t, k, s, n, r, w, h, * , 6 vowels : a , e , i , o , en , on , and stress and length marks: The sounds represented by each letter are described below. For anyone just learning the language, of course, the best way to de¬ velop correct pronunciation is to work with a native speaker. Consonants Approximate English Equivalent Example t ji before vowels _t everywhere else ti 'tea’ (Dee) thi 'there' (tea) Approximate English Equivalent k j* before vowels _k everywhere else s sh. between h and i _s next to consonants z_ everywhere else n jq r 1 or r w w i before vowels h h Example ki ’this’ (geese) ohsi : ta ’ ’foot’ (o she da) ska time ’together’ (scott neigh) so :ra ’duck’ (zola) ne ’ the ’ (neigh) ora: ta’ ’ heel ’ Co la da) wisk ’five’ (wisk) iah ’ no ’ (yeah) ohaha ’ ’road’ (oh ha ha) the catch in the mid- i: ’ i ’ I ’ die of oh oh (a mis¬ take) Because it is not used in English spelling, the glottal stop C ) has often been left out of Mohawk writing. This sound is just as im¬ portant in Mohawk as a t or k, however. It sounds something like the t in English ’ abou_t three’, when this is said rapidly. English speakers are not used to hearing _h before consonants, because it does not occur there in English. The h in this position can make a lot of difference in Mohawk, however. vi Notice the puff of air in the second word below: toka ' 'if' tohka ' 'several'. The h_ also makes a big difference after a consonant. The air resulting from an _h can be felt by placing the fingers before the mouth of a native speaker pronouncing words like the second in each pair below: ti ' tea' thf 'there' to ni:kon 'How much?' tho n£k : on 'that much' The combination of letters tsi is pro¬ nounced at Ahkwesahsne like 'gee' in 'gee whiz'. This can be heard in: tsi 'ks 'fly' otsi: tsia* ' f lower ' The combination of wh or w_J_ sounds something like an English f . Examples of this are: o 'whahsa ' 'skirt' ohwhara : ne 'caterpillar'. Vowels Approximate English Equivalent a a as in box e ai before: as in bait e as in bet other¬ wise i _ee as in beet o o as in boat en something like urn (pause) or the vow¬ el in umpire on something like noon Example ahta ’shoe’ (ahda) ne ’the’ (neigh) nek ’but’ (neck) thi ’there’ (tea) tho ’there, that’ (toe) en ’ yes ’ (un- ) on :wa ’today' (oon wa) In every Mohawk word, one syllable is louder than the rest. This syllable is marked with an accent symbol. If the tone on this syllable is high or rising, this is shown by the accent ' . If it is falling, it is shown by ^ . Compare the words below: oka : ra ’ ’story ’ oka :ra ’ ’ eye ’ onon : ta ’ 'hill' onon: ta ' 'milk' If the vowel in a stressed syllable is held longer than the others in the word, it has a length mark, : . Listen to the difference be¬ tween these words: viii toka 1 f if f to:kaf * 1 donft know1. This spelling system is very much like that now used at Caughnawaga. Differences in spelling reflect differences between the Caughnawaga and Ahkwesahsne Mohawk dialects. Some of these differences can be seen in the words below. Caughnawaga Spelling Ahkwesahsne Spelling nine1 kiohton (gyohtoon* ) tiohton (johtoon) The pronunciation and spelling differences are generally so small that anyone who learns to read one dialect can read the other very eas¬ ily. Every language has many regular rules for forming words and sentences. These can be learned from a grammar book. An example of such a rule in English is plural formation. To make a noun plural, speakers usually add -s. cat cats sock socks. There are some words, however, which do not seem to behave according to the rules. Look at the plurals of words like: ix deer ox deer oxen. These plurals simply have to be learned with the word. It is these idiosyncracies of words or irregularities which belong in a dictionary. Mohawk verbs are quite complex. Hundreds of different verbs may be formed from a single verb root by changing the subject or object, the tense, or many other things. If a speaker knows the four principle parts of a verb, how¬ ever, he can then predict all other forms of the verb by applying the regular grammatical rules. These four principle parts are not com¬ pletely regular, however. They must be memor¬ ized with each new verb. For this reason, the parts are provided with each verb entry in the dictionary. They are always presented in the same order: command first person serial indef iniate punctual masculine per¬ fective satekhwa :ko katekhwakwas aiontekhwa : ko rotekhwakwen ’bite it’ 'I bite it’ ’she might bite it ’ ’he has bitten it’ Notice that each form provides an example of a different pronoun. Some verbs require human objects. Examples of these verbs will always contain human objective pronouns. command sh^monk ’call someone’ first person khe monks ’I call someone’ serial indefinite aiontati :nonke ’ punctual x ’ she might call someone’ masculine perfective shako hnon : kon ’he has called someone’ Some verbs refer to states rather than actions, so they lack some of the principle parts. Examples of these verbs are provided with various different pronouns. happy, be wakatshenon:ni’ ’I am happy’ satshenon :ni’ ’you are happy’ iakotshenon :ni’ ’she is happy’ rotshenon :ni ’ 'he is happy' These are only a few of the many pronouns found in Mohawk verbs, but all other forms can be predicted automatically from these four, once the general rules are learned. Many thanks are due those who so gene¬ rously provided assistance, especially Betty Kruger, who typed the entire manuscript. It is hoped that this small volume will not only serve as an aid to teachers and students, but will also spur on others to go further, supplying additions and correc¬ tions, so that one day Mohawk children may have a rich record of the language spoken by their ancestors. Marianne Mithun-Williams Editor Abraham Aplam accomplishment karihwaieri : ton acorn karihton ohso: kwa' Adam's apple on my Adam's apple kenia ’ kwa : ke add , to tasero :rok ^ tkerd :roks ^ Er taierd :roke’ fUzi: o tehord iron g ^ Africa Ra t ihon ' t s ihne >> o* • « agent roterihonte ’ § Agnes Anies air owera airplane tekci: tens alcoholic beverage iakononhwarahton : - tha ’ ohne : ka ’ Alexis Ariksas Alexander Areks^nt alienate someone, to sheia ’ tohtahrho kheia ’ tohtAhrhos aiontakia ' tohtahrho ' shako ia ’ tohtdhrhon align it, to tsto : kenht tektd :kenhs taietd : kenht e' tehotokdnhton 1 karihton ohso : kwa 1 all all night akwe : kon ahsonthakwe : kon allure* an tek’ nikonhratdhtshera alligator teka f non : ton/ tekwa ' nikahton : ta along along the shore along the wall atsiaktdnkie’ ahsohtaktonkie * always kiotkon Andrew Athre Angus Ania : s animal* domestic katshe :nen animal* wild kontirio ankle on my ankle ohsineko : ta ’ khsineko ’ ta : ke Ann / A: nen another person ako : ren answer* an tekarihwa’ serakwen ants tsiki f nhontstokhi ape ka t s i ' nonhtaksko : wa apple tree sewahio :wane’ 6: kwire apron ateniioh: ta’ arch of the foot kahiakwata : kwen arm onelitsha f on my arm kenentsha:ke arrow kaien :kwire ’ as it is tsi ni:ioht ask, to ser i ’ wanon : ton keri'wanon: tons aieri’wano'n: ton1 rori’wano'n: ton assigned karihonte1 assume, to (isehre) i:kehreT a : ienhre f rawe :ron attached, mixed ia f tekaie^ton attention atokenhtshera auction tehotihenrehtha f autumn kahnenna ’ ke : ne axe ato :ken* 3 ohkwa:ri B Baxter Hill tsi iowenohkwakara : te beans osahe : ta ’ beans, baked watshahe : tonte’ bean soup osahe :taT onon:tara’ bean, red kidney onekwenhtara nikasahe to : ten beans, string, wax, green o * rhotsheri bear ohkwa : ri bear, polar ohkwar i ’ t ara : ken beard okohston : ha beat, to senonhwareT k kenonhware’ ks aienonhwar e T ke 1 rononhwdre’ bed kanakta’ bedbug ka t s i 1 no nw4 ker a s bedroom tsi ienonhwdtsha f bedsheets ioni T tskardnhkhwa bed spread iontenaktardkstha ' bee otsi 1 nahkonhtahkw^ : ne beechnut otsken:ra* beer onen' taker i beets onekwehhtara nikatsihko: ten begging atsheri’ tlihtshera beg, to tesatshd :ri T t tekatsha:ri’ ts taiontsha : r i ’ te ’ tehotshari: ton behind ohna : ken bell iehwista ’ Ikstha ’ belly button oneri: tsta’ keneri’ tst^: ke belt akia ’ tdhna /akia ’ tahnha belongs to them aond:wen belongs to her ak6 :wen bend it, to tetshcl: ket tekshct: kets taiesh&i kete' tehoshA: kton berry kahi bicycle tekeni tekakahkwen: tote’ 5 billfold iehwistarahkhwa’ billiard ball otsihkwa’ bird otsi? ten: ’ a bite it, to satekhwa: ko katekhwakwas aiontekhwa: ko f rotekhwakwen black kahon: tsi black ash ierontaia* ks/ dhsa blackberries sha : ies blackbird tsio : kwaris black caps teiotenhara: kton Black Lake Otsihkwarke tsi aniatarahon: tsi blanket ahsire’ block, to tesenehthahrhok t ekenehthahr hoks taienehthahrohoke ’ tehonehthahrhon blood in my blood onekwenhsa ’ akenekwenhsa : ke blood vessel in my blood vessel otsinonhiahton ktsinonhiahta : ke 6 blouse oia:karaf blue oro'n : ia T blueberries kahrata’k£ha’ bluej ay teri: teri boat kahonwe; ia ’ bobcat tako ’ sko :wa bobalink kwa * koria body on my body oia: ta’ kia' ta:ke body, dead oieron: taf body, inside oia : takon body, lower oren: ta ' boil (on skin) okwahro : ta’ boil (I have a) wakatkwahro 1 takw^ : - ronte’ boil it teshnekonkieht tekhnekonkiehtha ' taiehnekonkiehte’ tehohnekonkiehton bone ohskien bonnet, baby okwirar’a anon:warore’ on the bottom (of the stairs) ehta: ke boundary karihstatakie’ 7 bow a’ en:na' boy raksa: ’a bracelet atenentshahnha ' braids oratsken: ta' brain o T niko'n : ra ’ Brashar Falls Kiohr ionho : ken ' Brashar iron works tsi Kar ihs t onn lhahkwe ' bread kana: taro bread, fried kana1 tarakeri: ta’ bread, native kana ' tarokhon :we bread, yeast ka ' shehrha ’ tkenhton break it, to teshriht tekhrihtha 1 taie:rihte? tehohr lhton break in two, to tetsia ’k tekia ’ ks taid: iaf ke' tehoiaikon breast on my breast awentskwe:na kentskwe’naike breeze iowerare’ bridge, platform ahskwa’ 8 bring it here tashaw tekhas taidhawe’ thoha brooch athniotahkhwa ’ / athnio : ta broom konhonwa : tha 1 broth ohnek4keri brother (my older) raktsf Ta brothers address (my older) tsiatend : sen brother reference (my older) iakiateno ’ senha brown athehsa buckle athniahskari buffalo tsistikeria:kon bug bug-hard shell otsi’ non:waf o’ no :waf build, to soiirni kon: nis aion:niT raohmi bull tero a bullet oneh : ia ’ | bullfrog mararam bullhead rabahbot burdock ohwhohrte1 ko :wa bury (a body) , to tsia’tata’ kia’ tatar s aieia’ tataf roia f taten butter owihstohsera butterfly tsi’ ktsinen:nawen buttermilk kanon’ t£ : sa butternut tiehwa: ta button otsihkwa ? buy, to shni :non khni:nons aiehni :non’ rohni:non 10 cabbage call someone, to call someone’s name, to call on the tele¬ phone, to Canada cancer candy, sugar canoe birch canoe cantaloupe cake onehsio sheinonk khe : nonks aiontatirnonke’ shako hndn : kon shena : ton khena: tons aiontatena: ton’ shokona : ton satenwennata iekatenwennatas iaiontenwennata ’ iohotenwennaten Korahne i:waks otsikhe: ta’ kahonwe : ia 1 on&: ket wahiarri' s teiona’ taratsikhe: tare’ Ov • • cap ionekwen: tote’ cape teionteweiahrahkhwa ’ careful, to be se’ nikon: rarak ke’ nikon: rara’ aionte ’ nikon : rara’ wakate’ nikonhrara: ton otsi:nekwar nikatsihko:- ten carrot 11 nenhste carry away, to carry away, to iaha : sha iekhas iei^hawe 1 iehoha casket iakenheion 1 tarahkhwa ’ cat tako : s caterpillar ohwhara :ne catfish onovn : kwe ’ cause, to serihon:ni takarihonini aierihoh :ni T rorihdh :ni cause someone dis¬ tress, to sheiakie : saht kheiokiesahtha T aiontakie: sahtef kheiakiesahton caviar one : tara ’ cedar onen' takwenhten: tshera’ ceiling tsi kentskarahere f celebration watonhnahere f cellar ohontsio : kon center ahsen:non chair on the chair ani ' tskwa : ra ani T tskwahrahne chair with woven tewa’arraton ani’ tskwa:- 12 seat ra chase something, to itsher ikshere1 s aidhshere’ rohsheron Chateauquay Ohsahre: ' on cheat, to seT nikonhrha* t kef nikohra: tha* aie* nikonhrha’ te' ro T nikonhrha : ton cheek on my cheek ohno : kwa ’ /ohnoskwa ’ kehno ’ kwa : ke/kehno - skwa: ke cheese tsis cheetah tako’sko:wa cherry or i ’ ko : wa J chest on my chest aontskwe: na f 1 kentskwe’na: ke chest of drawers karon: to chestnut kohsa:tens aotihso:kwa’ chewing gum ohnehta’ chicken kitkit chief roia: ner chill something, to sewistoht kewistohtha ' aiewlstohte ’ rowistdhton chimney o’ta:ra’ standing chimney ken ’ta: rote’ Chinese people chipmunk Chippewa or Creek chokecherry choose, to Christmas Day Christmas time Tehotikahro 1 thf : io ohrio : ken Kioher ishon teiakonia ’ tawen : ’ eks sera : ko kerakwas aiera :ko ' rorakwen Roto^rni wenhnisera: te’ tsi nihatonnia :ne nikaha:wi church clam clans ononhsatokenhti takwarei re/ takware:ron o ’ tara 1 shon : f a I am of Clan he she I am of he she I am of clan he she the Bear wakhskare : waken rohskard : waken iakohskard :waken the Eel Clan wakeneniothro :non? roneniothro :non’ iakoneniothro : non 1 the snipe wake’ nehsi: io ro ’ nehsi: io iako’ nehsi : io ononhsatokenhti I am of the turtle clan he she wakenidhton ronidhton iakoniahton I am of the small field turtle clan he she wakhsennakehte’ rohsennakehte ' iakohsennakehte’ I am of the wolf clan he she wakkwaho rokwaho iakokwaho clan mother ka 1 nistdnhsera clean somthing, to tesohtahrho tekohtdhrhos taiakohtahrho’ tehaohtahrhon climb in, to satita 1 katita f s aiontita f rotiten climb out, to satitahko katitdhkwas aiontitdhko ? rotitdhkwen clock karahkwakaion : tha f close something, to sehno : ton/ sehnhb : ton kehn6 : tons aiehno : ton ’ rohnb : ton 15 closet ionkia’ tawif tsherarahkhwa cloth onia’ tara: f a clothes atsheronnia T clothes pin ie ’wahstotahkhwa ? coal o f swen : ta 1 / ohswen : ta 1 coal stove iontenonhsa ’ tariha tahkhwa f coat, dress heavy coat raincoat akia : tawi akia T tawi ' tko : wa kahnehtahrhon akia:- tawi coconut katsi Tnonhtaks ohso:- kwa ' cold, it is iotho:ref collar tekahnia ! sahere ? color What color is ohsohkwa 1 it? Oh niwahsohko : ten? comb , a atkerothi: ia comb, rooster raonrahsa come, to ka : ts ta: kef ta: ien’ thawe:non come in, to tasataweia ? t tkataweia: tha T taiontaweia’ teT thotaweia : ton come on! hanio connect things. to tesahsonteren tekahsonterha ’ taionhsonteren’ tehohsonteren it is connected tewahsoh: teref cook, to sekho'n:ni kekhonrnis aiekhohini1 rokhdnini cook iseriht ker lhtha’ aid: rihte’ rorlhton cookhouse, kitchen tsi iekhonnia: tha cookie kard: t copy, to teshnen f netahko (produce exact dup- tekhnen’ netahkwas licates as a Xerox) taiehnen’ netahko’ tehohnen ’ netdhkwen copy, to (imitate) tontasate ’nien: tenhst tetkate* nientenhstha ’ tontaionte ’ nien : tenhste * tethote’nientdnhston 17 corn cornbread fresh corn dried corn corn silk on the cornsilk ear of corn corn husk kernal of corn corn meal popcorn corn soup cornstalk sweetcorn corn tassel white corn white corn flour white corn grits hominy porridge yellow corn big yellow corn Cornwall Island couch couch cover (or sheets) cougar councilor count, to 18 6 rnenhste ’ kana? tarokhonrwe okahsero : ten ionenhstathen oke:ra’ okehra : ke skanonhkwen : T en ao : ra ’ skanenhstak o:nenhste’ kathe:ton watenenhstatakwas ioni ’ tsonhkontahkhwa ’ onenhsto ohere ’ teionenhstatsikhe: tare’ iotenherahere ’ onenhaken:ra onenhakenrra othersera kane’on:ni onenhakdnrra kahsehrho otslinekwar o:nenhstef otsi’ nekwahrko :wa o:nenhste Kawehno : ke/Kawehnohkowanen : ■ ne ’ ionr^tsha ’ iontenaktoroktha ’ tako ’ sko :wa ratitsienhaiens sahshet kahshe: tas aionhshete’ rohshe: ton cover, to cover something, cow cow barn crab crabapple crackers cradleboard cranberries crane cream crib cricket crispy crock cross seno'n : tek kenon : t eks aieno'n: teke’ rononteikon to sef rho:rok kef rho:rokeT aieT rhd: roke1 rof rho:ron kiohnhonhskwaront kiohnhonhs kwar on t ke tsiT erohten/otsiT erohten sewahiowane ’ on : we teiokare f tsherathen/ teiokare f tsherahio : tsis kahrhon to : kwenhre1 oha : kwar on kawistohserokwen owira:Ta ionratsha T cross, to tetsia : ia ’ k tekia : ia ’ks taieia : ia ’ ke f tehoiahia : kon crow tsio:ka'we’ crust ona ’watsisten’ cry, weep, to tesahse'ntho tekahsenthos taionhsehtho ? tehohsentho : hon cucumber tikoko'n/kanon’ onserakeras cup teionthnekontahkhwa * cupboard ieksahr ahkhwa T curds okaie: ta 1 cushion atkon: sera cut, to ishr ef n khre:nas aie:ref ne' rohreinen cut through some¬ thing, to (sever) ltsia’ k ikia ’ ks aie: ia’ ke’ roia : kon cut, to (gouge) skwe: taron kkwe: tarons aiekwe: taron’ rokwe: taron cut up finely, to tesahrihton tekahrihton taiakohrihton ’ tehohrihton dance, a kanonnia dance, to tesenonniahkw tekennoniahkhwa ' taiendhniahkwe ’ tehononniahkwen dandruff awehara danger iotteron dark, in the ahsha : takon daughter, my kheien: Ta day awenhnisera decide, to tetsia T to :reht tekia ’ tor ehtha ’ taieia’ to:rehte’ tehoia ’ torehton deep (like a dish) teiohshes or high (like a cliff) deer ohskeno'n : ton Deer River Oiekaro'nthne defend, to tasehne takehne ’ / tkdhne ’ s aontaiehne f thohnd : 1 on Deseronto Tekaientane : ken diabetes teionekwenhshatsikhe tare diaper a thwawen 1 ektha 1 differ ent tekia’ tihen/o: ia nirioht dig, to so f kwat ko * kwats aiako’kwate’ rao * kwa : ton dining area, (restaurant) teiontska ' honhkhwa ’ dirty- teio 1 tsion dirty, to tesi 1 tsionhst tekiT tsiohhstha’ taieT tsionhste' teho 1 tsionhston disappear sahton kahtons aionhton T rohton disease kanhra’ dish on the dish ake :ra akehra: ke ditch teionkia : kon/ tekahr onion ni along the ditch teiohronwatakie T do , to tho na:tsier nikakierha 1 naioh : kiere’ nihierren do it right, to tasateweien: ton tkatewei^n : tons aontaiontewei^n : ton ' thoteweien: ton 22 do it right, to tatsie:riT t tkie : ri ' ts , aontaieie:ri' te? thoieri: ton doctor female male wat^tsien ' ts ratdtsien T ts dog e :rhar dogfish tsia 'onhareini dollar, one skaneke : ta/ skahneke : ta / skahwista ’ two tekahnek£: take/ tekahwistake donkey tewahonhtes door ka hn h6 ha / ka hno ha dough kashe f rhon :ni dove or i : te T down feathers ohsto : seri drag, to se : ser ke: sere ’ aie: sere' ro : ser on dress up, to sakia ' tahseron : ni kakia ' tahseron : ni aionkia ' tahseron : ni' rokia ' toherdn:ni 23 get dressed up, to satsheronini katsheron:nis aiontsher on : ni rotsheron:ni drink, to shneki: ra khnekihrha ’ aiehneki:ra ? rohneki: ren drive, to sato : ri katorie* s aionto:rif rotorion drop something, to sa : senht ka ’ senhtha ' aioNn: senhte’ ro f senhton dry, to be iohstathen dry, to sstatha f t kstatha: thaf aiestatha1 ter rostatha: ton duck so': ra duck, wild shonhatsi dull (not sharp) teiothio : kton dull (boring) ioterihon: ko dumpling onen’ ontsta ? eagle a : kweks E ear earring eat a meal, to eat something, eel egg egg beater egg shell elbow elephant Elizabeth elm tree elm, slippery enamel England Englishman ohonhta ’ ate ’wahshare ’ tesatska :hon tekatska : hons taiontskll : hon tehotska :hon to x: sek f : kelcs a: ieke ’ rawe :kon kiaweron : ko o f nhonhsa ? teie 1 nhonhsawenr ie ’ - tahkhwa ‘ o’ nhonhsa* ona ’ watsista ’ ohiohsa ’ o ’no 1 tsta’ko:wa Arisawa oka : ratsi okoh : ra kaneniahrhon Kiohr en ’ shaka : ke Kiohren ’ sha : ka epidemic kahnr a t ar 1 : n e 1 s erase sera:kehw kerake:was aiera: kehwe’ rorake:wen eraser ierakehwahtha 1 ermine onon :kwet escape se’niaiken’n ke'nia:kenT s aie’nia: ken’ne’ ro r niakeh: f en esophagus ionhnehkwena : tha 1 Europe Ohontsiakaionine/ Ohwentsiakaion : ne evening o’ karahsneha* everything orihwakwe: kon exaggerate, to teserihwano'n: ianiht tekerihwanonhianihtha taierihwanoYi: ianihte’ tehorihwanonhianihton exchange, to tesata: ton tekata : tons taionta: ton tehota: ton eye on my eye oka : ra* kkahra : ke eyebrow on my eyebrow ona fwa: sa’ kena'wasa: ke eyelash on my eyelash eyeglasses okahrehta 1 kkahrehta :ke a t kahrahna / atkahrahnha face okonhsa’ fall (autumn) kahnenna ’ ke :ne fall, to (living thing) kia ’kie:nen ’ s aieia ’ kie : nen T ne roia’kienen: 1 en fall, to (object) kio ’ sen : f en fan kawerarahtha’ fast io ’ shatste 1 fat (human) (animal) o ’ tons era oia ’ tako'mha father, my rake ’niha fault, your my sarirwa 1 akerl:wa ' fawn ohskenon: ton ow£:ra‘/ iotsitohkwaronion : ’a fear, to you I he she sahteron :ni wakhteronini rohteron :ni iakohteronini feather ohsto : seri female (animal) (person) o’ nhehkien iothonwi: sen fence inside the fence on the fence aten’ en:ra ’ a ten’ en:rakon aten’ enhra: ke fever iako ' tonhkwahros fibber , liar atsho : ken fiddle o'no:waf fight, a ateriiohtshera fight, to sateri: io kateri : ios aionteri: io ? roteri: io fill something, to tashraht tekhrahtha” aontaie:rahte? thohrahton find, to setshen: ri ketshehrie ? s aietshen: ri? rotshenrion finger ohsnonhsa v fingernail otsi? e:ra? on my ktsi’ era: ke finish it, to itsha lkhshas aiehsha’ rohshon fireman ra ’ swahtha ? fire truck wa ? swahtha T fish kdntsion fish eggs one: tara ' fish hook a:ria 29 fish hawk white fish ohaikwaron skentstakenira fish worm otsinowenhne : ta ’ fist, my wakt s ihkwakwe ' non : n i fix it, to skwatciiko kkwatakwas aiekwata : ko ’ rokwatdkwen flame o ’ tonhkwa 1 flea (dog) (human) ata :we otsi:non floor ohson’kara:ke flour ohthe : sera flower otsi: tsia’ flowerbed tsi katsi ' tsiaientho fly house horse black tsi’ks onerdn: ta onen’onira dragon fly t s ikenon ’ war is ta f fly, to tetsi: ten teki: tens taid: ten teho: ten foam ohwa: tstaT 30 fold something, to shwe’nohini khweT non: nis aiehwe’ ron:ni* rohwe’ndnini food kakhwa f food (groceries) atena: tshera food, cooked lef t-over iokhwari io t ekhwa t a t en : r on foot on my foot ohsi: taT kahsi’ ta: ke footprint tehaianonini force something, to tasanonhton tkanonhtons aontaieno^hton thononhton: ’on forever tsi nen:we forget, to sa’nikonhrhen wake ’ nikdnhr hens aiako ’ nikonhrhen ’ ro ’ nikonhrhdn : ' en fork tsiao ’ estahkhwa ’ Fort Covington Kentsia’ kowahne forward ohen: ton fox France tsftso o ’ seronni ’ onwe :ne France 31 Frenchman o ’ seron :ni freeze something, to senennio : kwenohs t kenenio ’ kwenohs tha a ienenio : kwenohs t e ronenio 1 kwenohs ton Friday Wiskhaton/ Ronwaiatanontakton friendship my female friend my male friend atero : sera onkiatshi onkiaten:ro frightful iotteron fringe teiiohserie: tote' frog otskwa:rheT Frogtown Otskwa ’ rhehne frozen frozen water ionenio :kwano iowiseren fruit preserves kahi watahiateweien : ton fry, to stakerl: ta ktakeri: tas aie taker 1 : tahwe 1 rotakeri : ton full to the brim kana :non full tetkahere 1 gall otshahte* gamble, to tetsien tekiens taie:ien ^ teho:ien & gang kanen:ra t garbage watekhwakentston garters ahtshihna f gather , to sero : rok kero : roks aiero : rokeT roro : ron get, to go iaha: sko iekhwas iaie: ko’ iohokwen get married, to saniak (wakeniaks ) aiakweniake* roniarkon get up, to satketsko katkdtskwas aiontketsko' rotketskwen girl ieksa: f a give to me, to ta : kon taka:wis a ion: kon raka : wi glass o :wise f glove a f nia :nawen glutton anif tshdho gnats oTken:ro otsiTndn:wa go, to wa:s wa : ke ’ / . . t a : ion rawd:non go away, to sahten: ti kahtenkie T s aionhten : tl T rohtenkion go around, to tasahkwataise’ tkahkwata :se's aiontaionhkwata : se 1 thohkwata : se go back, to sasahket skahkets aonsionhkete 1 shdhkton go get, to skoha kkohas aiekoha T rokohon go look for, to se sakha kesakhe T s ai^hsake f rawesaikon go out, to tsia : ken kid : ken T s aieia:kenfnef roiaken: 1 en goalie teha tenia T tarendnhnha ’ goat kaia' takeras gold ohwistand : ron goose tewennia 1 keT gooseberry ohkwa : ri raonahi gossip kar ihwaka tenhtshera grasp, to tsie:na kiernas aieie':naf roierna grandfather, my raksotha grandmother , my akhsotha grape ondnhar e 1 - - grapefruit iohiatskarra \i ; V. .* grasshopper tsista:rare? Grass Lake Ohsa f kenta: ke grate, to isket ikkets aid: kete 1 roke: ton 35 gravel o ’nehtara f gravy ohshe : rha/rasos green ohonte 1 grey ta 1 kenhrohkhwa T ground hog anonhwaraweron group kenkiohkwa ’ guinea hen tekahson ’karia T ks gums oienhta 1 36 hair curly she has curly hair hairdo combed hair ononhkwis teidnhkeri teiakononhkeri kakof tsiahseron:ni kokerothirhen half, middle, center hamburger hammer hammer, to hand handkerchief ohtsia:na ahs en : non teka 'wahrarihton iene? konhrestha f sene’ ko'n: rek kene' ko'n: reks aiene ’ kon : r eke rone’ kon: re ’ ohtsia :na ionts i ’ nonhker a : tha ’ handle, a hang, to happy, I you she he onekerehetshen seniion : ten keniion; tha ’ aieniion: ten’ roni: ionte' waka t sh enon : n i ’ satshenonini’ iakotshenomni’ rotshenon:ni’ hard (solid) hard water harvest iohni: ron iohnekanf :ron kaienthokwen 37 harvest, to tsienth6 : ko kienthdkwas aieienthd : ko ’ roienthokwen hat anomwarore ’ hat with brim teiotarronte’ hat band t ewa tenon’ war ahn^kt ha ’ hate, to (ftshon) lkhshons aidhshon rohsho'n: ’on have one’s way, to tasano^hton takanonhtons aontakanonhton thononhton: ’on hay onekeri head on my head in my head onon : tsi kenontsi :ne kenontsistakon headband tewatenon ’warahnaktha ’ headdress kahstowa heart on my heart awe :ri akwer ia :ne heater iontenonhsa ’ tar iha ’ tahkhwa heel ora : ta ’ kerata : ke Helena Ohiakaronhtne hell ondhson hello shd : kon kwd kwd help, to takshid:non katatshnid: nons aionkhsni£ : non ’ rakhsni6: non hem t ekakwdthon hemlock onen’ ta ’ on : we her (emphatic) akdonha here here, right ken : T en ke'n: tho hickory tree onennohkara ’ hide something, to sahseht kahsehtha1 aionhsehte’ rohsehton hide oneself, to satahseht katahsehtha’ aiontahsehte1 rotahsehton him (emphatic) raonha hip on my oneskwa : rha keneskwa T r ha : ke hippopotamus kwdskwes kanonwakon: ha 39 hire something, to satenhna ’ katenhna 1 s a* ontenhna’ ne' rotenhna : f on hoe, a atsho : kten’ Hogansburg Tekahson ’ kar6 : rens hole iokd: ronte ’ iohson:waien hoof otsinaren: ta’ hook kahnio : kwa f hook, to sehnio ’ kwa f tsherotahrhok kehnio ’ kwa ’ tsherotahrhoks aiehnio ' kwa ' tsherotahrhoke robnio ' tsherotahrhon hopefully aia : wen’ s horn (antler) ona : kara ? horse stable kohsa : tens kohsatenhsne hose (socks) karris house log house kano^hsa T tekaronta 1 seronnion’ hummingbird raonraon hungry, to be I you she he katonhkar ia ’ ks satonhkar ia ' ks iontonhkar ia ’ ks ratonhkaria f ks hunt, to hurry up ! hurry s to sato : rat kato :rats aiont6 :rate f rotor 4 : ton 6ksa tesasterihen tewaksterihens taiakosterihen' tehosterihen raonraon I (emphatic) i : 1 i ice under the ice o :wise! owiso :kon ice hockey tehontsihkwa 1 eks owisa ke if t6ka ’ shiiken immeidately kwah 6 :nenk inch tsioweionhkara ’ Indian onkwehon : we Indian Ig or ways Ahkwesahsne dialect onlcwehonwehneha f Ahkwesahsn^ha T insult, an kahsenhtahtsheron insult someone, to shehshenht khehshenhtha 1 aiontatathshenhten ' shakonshenhton intestines okahrohsta * iron karihstatsi iron, to serihstahrho kerihstAhrhos aierihstAhrho ’ rorihstAhrhon iron worker rarihsta f kehro :non' island kawe:notef kawe:note? isn’t it? wahe’ Italy Tariienhne Italian Tariien 43 J jacket wahstehton jam, jelly Japanese jaw j ewelry j oint human judge, a judge, to juice just a while ago onero :kwa! wahstehton Tehotikahro ’ thi : io o ’ rhiotsha* ke f rhio t sha : ke ohwistanoron* shon: 1 a teiohston : tere’ ohstonteri : tshera f tehaia ’ torehtha ’ tetsia T to :reht tekia 1 torehtha ’ taieia ’ to : rehte 1 tehoia ’ torehton kahnekinekenhon kwahon :wa ’ k 44 K kangaroo keep it kerchief kerosene key kidney kill something, to Kingston kitchen knee kneel, to knife knock, to iohna ’ tahtsheronte ’ sat era : ko katerdkwas aionter^ : ko ’ roterakwen t eiont enon f warahnaktha ’ thahserohkhwa f kahnhotonkwa ’ otskiehseri serio kerios aierio 1 rorio Ka T tarohkwi’ t eiont ska’ nhonhkhwa’ okwitsha ’ kkwitsha : ke tesatatsho : ten tekatatshotha 1 taiontatsho : ten’ tehotatsho : ten a : share ’ sehnhohciia ’ k kehnhohaia ’ ks aiehnhohaia ’ ke ’ rohnhohaia : kon saterien : tare aiakoterien: tarake ’ rokater ien : tare ’ know, to 45 kahnhotonkwa 1 L lace * t 1 a: are Lacrosse & hockey tehona’ tsif kwa’: 1 eks lljl ladder kaneko: ta’ or i a ikon: kwe . iah teioton: on iah tekahtara:ni be be teshniahskarik tekhnicihskariks taiehniahskar ike ’ tehohiahskari : kon stsihkota : ko ktsihkotakwas aietsihkota : ko f rotsihkotakwen iah teiontaiti iah tekarihton/ iokahte ’ ohontsiokonhson na :kon ?7* H* H* fDxC* • • rt H* cn n> p4 3 to w kiako t ekhwakokt^f : ni sa T nikonhraien : ta f n wake 'nikonhraien : ta ’ s aiako ' nikonhraieli : ta 1 ne ’ ro f nikonhraien ta : ’ on na : kon kiontsha ' / na : kon kie : iens taserihsi tkerihsions aierihsion’ thorihsion 87 unfortunate, be karihwano'iron unharness, to sahkweniahra : ko kahkw en iahr & kwa s aionhkweniahra : ko f rohkweniahrakwen unlock, to seniethara : ko keniethar^kwas aieniethara : ko ’ ronietharakwen untangle, to tesani* tonniahsi tekani’ tonni^hsions taion’ tonniahsion’ tehoni’ tonnidhsion up e:neken upside down kakahrathon upstairs kanonhsohara : ke urine ohnenha/ohnenhohsa use something, to 1 : sats katstha T a : iontste ’ rotston uterus, womb atewirara : tha ' 88 vagabond vase vegetables vehicle veil vein venereal disease vinegar visit , to voice tehatonhwentsiata: sef s ietsi’ tsiarahkhwa ’ ase’ shon : 1 a ka : sere ionta ’ arohroktha 1 otsinonhiahton kahnhraksen teiohnekahio : tsis 89 w walk, to wall on the want, to warm, be warrior wart wash, to wasp waist on my waist ohsia : kara’ khsia T kara : ke wait, to satehra : rat katehra : rats aiontehra : rate’ rotehrara : ton wake up, to satketsko katk^tskwas aiontk^tskon rotketskon tesatekhahahkw* t eka t ekhahcihkhwa ’ taiontekh^hahkwe ’ t eho t ekhah4hkwen wall ahsdnhten ahsonhta : ke i:kehre’ lhsehre’ 4: iehre’ £:renhre’ io’ tarihen rateri : ios ohne: taT senohare kenbhares aienbhare’ rondhare* ratenawatstanentaktha ' 90 waste, to waste, to sakie/ : saht kakiesahtha 1 aionkie/: sahte T rokiesahton watch karahkwa kaionrtha’ watch, to (look at) satero :rok katero :roks aiontero :roke f rotero :ron water hard water ra inwater salt water ohne :kanos iohnekahni : r on ohsterakeri kiohio ' tsistakeri watermelon onon 1 onserakahte f wave, to tesanentshatenihon tekanentshatenihons taionentshatenihon tehonentshatenihon waves taietieronhsere ’ weasel onon:kwet Wednesday Ahsenhaton/ Sosehne week, one tsiahia : kshera weight okonhtshera wet, be \ lona : nawen whale tsionhno :wane f what? oh naho : ten wheat onatsia 1 when? katke where? ka' non: we which ka' nikaiien while tsi nikari:wes whip o : kwire ’ white kara : ken white ash kanehron/ o T non : na White people English speaking Ratinenra : ken Kiohrensha : ka who? onhka ’ wolf okwaho word owen:na work (noun) kaio 1 tenhtshera work, to . / 1 , t saio te wakio’ te’ aiiakoid * ten* roi6 ? ten’ write, to shia': ton khia : tons aiehia : ton ’ rohia : ton 92 Y yams teiohnenna ' tatsikhe yank, to senen :renht kenenhrenhtha 1 aiene rrenhte 1 ronenhrenhton yard kahenta :ke yardstick sewatcihtshera yarn ieriserenionia : tha’ year, one tsiohsera yeast ieshe ’ rhenhtahkhwa ’ yell, to tesahen:reht tewakhenrehtha 1 taiakohen : r ehte T t ehohenr ^ht on yellow otsi :nekwar Yellow Lake Katse'n : nekwar yes hen yesterday theten :re ' yogurt okaie^ta 1 you (emphatic) i: seT yourself sonha : f ak : tare 1 93 teiohnenna* tatsikhe: tare'