a oF : * . : : : = « a “t ; ‘ “- 4 1 SAN ih 1?) HED: Oh . Nana i Nyy Li STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief BULLETIN OF THE Illinois State Natural History Survey URBANA, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. VOLUME XIII 1918—1921 PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS 1922 STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION W. H. H. Mrtirr, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION W. H. H. Mitter, Chairman WILLIAM TRELEASE, Biology JoHn W. Atvorp, Engineering Joun M. Courter, Forestry Kenpric C. Bascock, Representing the Roitiin D. SaLispury, Geology President of the University of Illi- Witr1am A. Noyes, Chemistry nois THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION StePpHEN A. Forses, Chief eae ScHNEPP & BARNES, PRINTERS } SPRINGFIELD, ILL. 1922 62355—600 CONTENTS ARTICLE I.. THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS TIPHIA (HYMENOPTERA, ACULEATA) IN THE COLLECTION OF THE ILLINOIS STATE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY. BY Be eA AAG Heo GL GATS) COMORES WONG. <= 9,0 + «see's wri d:01 ¥lainloassievs) « LN GREC CO ELNNIC ERO Tide Ntat aoe enetaMars ter icles Se ocae se lateyona\s. oe royale yah ata ols Joi0: pid aa:eoo) ole plain cess EVES MOLMATIC ICH ctrcte tei tna elena) scl folererey nie ot ciatsielslaiayalicta « «,/0°aiaye10 ses) asi wathensese Gen GM Cw GUATACEOUG tr. tierce raiclcts tel ccoaicicin sere ona teherenetalmtetate 159 Imagines:— Caecalvanpendapess nieces viele ietacierstersta = qeimin eels cape ae bush iste Grebe cna 159 NAb RG Ow IAs Sancis ao canine Choc OnOoneOncr capa ce cen de dlc 161 ING VATU LS fesse ct tener arated spol eosha ys aabein yn cuatelg hevazs te ole ter el ates ae verabel cyeie ieneinyaret aeagedd 163 Superfamily Pentatomoidea .......... Sadan ee tater eats Ras ceee | onstatle te tal clever ala ere 164 Kieyiito famines aenieie arate cists tries eteyol alot axaraiel stags eusset sieve ie serous eh= lei aasimunii mala 165 igbpeahl hig 2teyalrzinoyeablol-Key Mae A ne Aon Hainan fe auaenan Aeron Gores 5 165 Key: to subfamilies) isis eve soresjajerctele > elelacisielsi vis «1s wleare a (opmls nin sly/=) alle gig 165 Subfamily Scutellerinae ........... cece cece eee eter teen tte eeeee 167 CV TOM EELOCS uavaleaiare alae eistitateernce ave lelsieleta nts piesa aitde late oft at ovale mio ees 167 TPribecOUOutOcaLSiMavaeisieisls cic cicislstaveletatels\ aialctore ial>ialctera\alnieleipiolaleiaiainiee 167 Key, to iseMerae. tears sai seeiel= sia Sudha sae BA a Oa eat 167 Tribe Deuy GIN, vee raate were soevals elstarcters yar Wiein ik atoud'e BisinNehets se a ianannielexe 168 Key to) 2 enera yaa ee vies ators ielelalalote avwicvetelsvehentetal ate Soy atone MERI Y mi 168 Subfamily Graphosomatinae .......-.-..eeeeee cece e eres Ste trates 171 Key. *h0 POTION A sicis ataicherh ial'syeveieteieie casi eials elaite 'sltee ieliehe evel arpters ibeele bel e/ oles js 171 vii PAGE SED EAI LY ELLE G UTIAG fae siete s trl aval clots whet ev evale sielp, pialerayeiotuha:/<)=.ehayo|9 (eialeis) alu. 172 SOLAN yey OMUATO IAT AG he, oad ot aislorel sintsiaxsjolers\e & Fkel ofefdishin) alofareista “a, ofa. 174 PCOS REET PEN ay Meiers cle-chal fol alate d(aternahatatots ge, olGanclict pals (ol ct aheu cis x /2.n feta pa. 174 ERIC RRURS COCOD TM ALETI LA: feiss esate ela oie etatena: sietets/ ape aisha) , 2x5) sivterclate &) O) +.) cha ey cvaleeGheteiate slay aleve 227 Influence of age of host on infestation............... cece cece ee eeees 228 Werf DLabes Cx ATMO cyte cacais)s n-clicle.slsve.20aio's «/o/eicts'aiv’e ofai's aFaieisjale's ale eig)aiers 229 Adaptability fo different host species... 2.0.0.0... cee ce ec cc eee cence 232 Species newly credited to the Illinois River fauna and new host-records 232 Comparison with other regional studies........--.-.eeeseeeeeeeeeees 233 SwaremlaticvCousideration. OL SPECIES. oc ciedc sce esas clean alo slelac aecine oe 234 viii PAGE Linkinis’ amanuyeript: species! 2% «cies ssa fissia aie als o/oe oiecets is mtern eters eatele 235 Wamily Jichinorhynchidae 42). cee safeties ek cries cure 5 5c Sate els SORE F 235 Hehinorhynchus) Zoegay 17762)... 2.2.0 o ssc s12.s tess s alp s/o e's sic leralatene 8 235 Ls "FRECHE US ALANTOMS © Sea ivern aie, ciape,eio'm vie sieiele ere ate re tars le eee Ee F 236 ELS SQUVOTINAG STAT CIN G(s /52 oS Soot ein aie 00.0 ase: 0m Sie ole wie > ws Were lercreneeameae 236 #. coregoni Linkins, n. sp.......... PY est BABA AS mui oc 2387 Pomphorhynchus Monticelli, 1905........... SHO doe oe ale eTORe i 237 P-bulvocolti -Linkins; ni.ospt.). bi. aes ee eas eee Cee ee are 238 Rhadinorhynehus’ Mtihesv19UT ses oe bs t's wee cele eels ee ne 238 EOF Natwe Vian). Cleave’ 3 /.)s ay. sain o:o ss elas s¢e's lave cle (essa ster tater een 238 R. tenuicornis Van Cleave. afb lets \elefederdio bere ese ipterolb a iene wane Cite 2388 Acanthocephalus Koelreuter,, 1772. 0... 005.0 50s ot esse one seeiene 239 ASS TONE? CSCHTAM EK) Ai tete tats fore lotetore Walgte ulate Gane 2 oes tae Oa TS 239 Family Neoechinorhynchidae .............c0sccccccccceccecctens oe 239 Distribution and diversification of species...............eeceeee - 239 Hamily characters «soars decied Ave oe cided lane en eRe ee 240 Synopsis of North American genera and species................+- 241 Neoechinorhynchus Stiles and Hassall, 1905................... 241 N.-cylindratus: (Van : Cleave) 0... .j. seen ees ea eo dee eniniogne . 242 Nentenellys: (Vani Clegve)y. ae sie cones ose side cea coe ee 242 NP Cn diss (TCA) 2's yee wie s8 aielava Gs se 8 Ss aeerelale eo Setoces Ae 242 IN LET OSSUS; 5 ANG: SDA alates ate ralsck se ola ala cnlacete eae lee Masi Slee ee 243 Octospinifer; Me MSernie etes. wach ole a's fu, 0 ald sche cits ly ioe ee ae 5 244 O: macilentus) WISP) is. oi os weiss eos ale Pa SH Ate edt) es 244 Gracilisentigy Negeenivan csc culenrdee 4. ahve tele aie jeneteherayaee iene Bei ici 245 G. gracilisentis, (Wan Cl6ayve) eo. ob. cee cic cca ulee oe dee wae ie 245 Tanaorhamphius)' Ward,» VOUS e: siccichiswsceuee'g wakes sate date Ae ee 246 T. longirostris (Van. Cleave) .....).. 00.5 cele cats conceesene cde 246 European species: — ; Reexamination of the types of N. agilis (Rudolphi)........... 246 Comparison of N. agilis data from various sources............ 247 Variability in WN. agilis............. Bia adateve Tene ox svar aneterete os See é 249 Wei G@gutts:) CRUGOWPU) i \ais sc tois:siblale overs: ekasera)eibiaratereie ca ait scolereicreral aera 250 INS Utter) ac had nant le erento bcihadNors «catchy ene ae ee 251 Thehidentification) of SpeCiesini.e oats. css oes o tie Pee dec ees 252 Key to species from fresh-water vertebrates exclusive of birds........ 253 Literatureviciteds 31.1./o4.65 5 pteoeewieeck ute wees eee CE eee 255 Symbols used in explanation of plates...........cccceeuececceeceeecs 257 ARTICLE IX. FOOT-ROT DISEASE OF WHEAT—HISTORICAL AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC. BY F. L. STEVENS. (1 Text-ricurE) Octoxrr, OG ey atela(e ons asa aiistadejarsvebaatetatarerade adsroletnse le wlatstaler ie tecstale tate cota ear eee een 259-286 Points of agreement in evidence................. ial che ieee chetsnne te tetane 262 Points, of (disaerecmientn empties )stascjons’s eielnls te ushals co Ceersiajace ate swan s/a(et ein siere ve 263 Annotated bibliography .............0.eeeeeaeees re eaieiskspereteienenee ateteverss 264 Explanatory ss ava atsueys avatatanet tee evciestate chats cocatetererh pac me petetee marae’ atne 264 Acknowledgments ..........+.e00- a\eleiotere (Seats fais lalate focuateteye tr ameitte rencin ieee 265 ix ARTICLE X. THE EUROPEAN CORN-BORER AND SOME SIMILAR NATIVE INSECTS. BY WESLEY P. FLINT AND JOHN R. page MALLOCH. (40 Figures, INCLUDING 2 PLATES) JUNE, 1920 287-305 Discovery of. the corn-borer and area infested................e.e000- 287 PINS PUN LEAS ev ven sick cd aya) 6s 9) chs) ou estal oie xan ov oush shel es aia; ms aioe Riaie labatalacel adie oi tel Siapetenals a Vataveteiets 288 iS LG Vamta eta cute niet ats a Peterscath/ara, scaleisi ahaha lal nine ataie sYate.¢ (os bval abate ares ereisnluieia 288 IMIGANSVOL -SONCAG ts crieie cise clelere, eferersieiaie) suallsisisvnle cle sveieVala elele » dials vee wivyeicieleiers 290 WSCC OE OO TO Le GRR eke GE OMIEtIO OCD COC COCO DE CIOAD OO COMO ET one Tet 291 Native borers closely resembling the European corn-borer............ 291 Other insects likely to be mistaken for the European corn-borer...... 294 Distinguishing characters of the corn-borer group (Pyrausta nubilalis, PAUP ILAUIS ANC” Ee. VOUULNLONGLAUULS) ele\ars 2 soe c’= theists c lciz/ciere se aisle ofese ele’ 297 The European corn-borer (Pyrausta nubilalis Hiib.)................-- 298 The Nelumbo-borer (Pyrausta penitalis Grote).........-c cece eee eee 302 The Smartweed-borer (Pyrausta obuwmbratilis, Led.)........ her EAE Wear 303 PUMCUSUG CONT EVE, (SDiiMcctanictcise cls cclea tcc es eraiclewie cee s Fateveterwislel aver eve etere 304 ARTICLE XI. A STUDY OF THE MALARIAL MOSQUITOES OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS. I. OPERATIONS OF 1918 AND 1919. BY STEWART C. CHANDLER. (3 Maps, 9 Puates) JuLy, 1920........ 307-328 Introduction :— The relation of mosquitoes to malaria..................0 cece eee 307 Melanin gins SOMtH Ors LIM OTS shel cha cis aiersiaituers sie.b aie cus’ o: oiaravereleselh:a cie.eicle sere 307 OMIECHROMsUNOmSULVEVierateristeiec\ercisicieteieie els. ole w'sicc cre sett cies ielaioase- als owturdua 308 PLCS CODY metas inet ne ctstetsretais aietdieveile ss io ele, Serslere cie'c (G0 furaveqelsle%e'cta ele ieleis te 308 Survey work at Carbondale: — HreqNencyaOr Widlavial (GISCASC... 2's. c15.0.0 «aie ciche)© ols avis cs cle nce e siete are 309 Maine MEHe : LELTICOLY.<:ciecie cis aie c's cvs soc ol cpeis ie clsidicre.s Sheld bias cou e eelewee 309 HWxaminations and) COUCCTIONS. «cic... +. «cre cinco eleseniaa ss cusses ew civielcte 310 HSHOCULIE PLACE etare talents revevetereteenicie revels atarntei sieve as)es10.(o val tials s\fakale wvereiele: vel avers 310 Prevalence of mosquitoes and abundance of malaria.............. 318 MEP CLON MME Re ce ieaie Siete eines Micieraie alwless avuctatelend gssis a-biv'e #(a ab "gatere acahs dwtaw intend 318 Relative abundance of malarial mosquitoes, 1919................ 321 SPP RE CLUS EUS a UTM IV EEE ELIS FOTO. ga)'arcisifae7e ale ve,se ssn 6 cain io a aces) opalaye dle ee e:eietere 322 ERA SM UE -ACES wear teralcta evavarciete ctl edclicley eke cuetiste veh wi-stdia che. sha lovevaisaietethvete, slalarslans 322 purvey workin Anna and JONeSDOLO. 26... cc cs cls mew acnciss slaaecacuts 324 SNE COMIE “WAGON ie retela ncbierrie eit oie ioisye reise eia ain, wi visieielers «el gielatete elevsl.c! eurnevelelavtve 324 Survey work at Scott Field, Belleville............ ccc cece eee eee eae 325, SCOUMMIMN Se WOK Its OLNET DIACES | i. oie sa laro0ia:0.s 010100 0 iolu oib/ov0 etoleelulene!alelels\eteis'e 325 GONEVOTSIMICASTITOS Weretttetstevercceve crs ators \ahote lo’ ietalerai'e ave) se avele tere als lelete, 00s a\sielelejeustene 325 Summary ......... Rua isyaloeiney dcacasece dtaiai sloravesalioraisiate’ eter stassheTaterenare tol erete aici enwlarers 327 ARTICLE XII. NEW SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF PHYLLOPHAGA. BY JOHN J. DAVIS. (4 Text-ricures, 6 PLATES) AuGust, 1920....329-338 PRODI Us DETLOMOM. LMSW is cre 'ciaicisle’> s\eielnicis c\e'= 01s 2/0 > sie7s rele) stele eelyis efoto 329 Phyllophaga fraterna Harr., var. mississippiensis, N. Var....-.......6. 330 PhayllopnagasMPeQrUGe; Ns ‘SPicte elenieleieinlolals,n18 (0 ois halo sieteiervicwwle ohete) i= eDiets sie Phyllophaga forsterit Burm, ..........+eee0+ EK OBES S od de Phyllophaga forbesi Glasgow .......... BiGie iktile onetays) staie siete ofate PITH Gis) Phyllophaga soror 0D. Sp.......06. als? otetehefnreverninin' stnts ssiavalayoie Yara pvarg asaveve sing Ae PRYTOONAGA, “POLE WIE v SPs orc -v en aien oho okerevet or ole’ oxeko at uy cvatok ales sich w\oncne) aveish aia) aee PN es PRYTOPHGGE VPA, CTC SD ia) sre wi eviarey oN st were) evel ohne at eiinseh mics on ah aie\/ai sia ANI At whee) Phyllophaga parvidens Lec., var. hysteropyga, ND. Var... ....eesseeveaee Phyllophaga hirticula Knoch, var. comosa, n. var..... IS Src 5 SMG oe Phyllophaga postrema; THOM. oc. siccc cece sacs ots cicisie vice syetsle stato nee Taltsee ARTICLE XIII. FURTHER TESTS OF DRY SULFUR COMPOUNDS FOR THE CONTROL OF THE SAN JOSE SCALE. BY WESLEY PL ELEN E. NOVEMBER.) DAO iyaie,s clas to ototetetetoieteralaietate tn + eels aneee Coe ete ARTICLE XIV. FOREST INSECTS IN ILLINOIS. I. THE SUBFAM- ILY OCHTHIPHILINAH (DIPTERA, FAMILY AGROMYZIDABEB). BY J. R. MALLOCH. (2 Puates) JANUARY, 1921..............6: Characters: Lofmsubfaniily: santero ciclers cretsievers everercts crs lcls eraterett o/s ath ete aa Distribution: and: Didlogy OL SOMSK As cet isicicle eseisie’s © = cies cle iels nie cle Se era Keys: ‘fo: (SOmer ayy c.-scos sma ieratera net Bhe ape son eter ecatd attes ave aca iB lo aarti a ota AChOMELOPIAs SCHINET etiam a; < nisin) ste) aw steiaehekene oie ipte ells. teleye aetaten NRL EEe Teucopis® simples. OCW. ce eyes a =a oie wines nim See a Sistah so ain [uede tahoe Oe Lewucopis Paraulela, SD. D. .- ewww enc ane news nnnn acs sannne ss oid sini TCUCODLS MANO. “SP TAY eos ve tate ovesatlel ence) siei=\ o.he) cle) peyote cele sine heltinie torent LEdCOpiS WNMETICANG, SPO.) ~)ehals ote oc steletare oielas sc sale cheb letelatcseie < eretele a) RUS Lieucopomyia;s SUDEEM Ts "Sails «slim wiehe to ininyer ate atasern, whee: une tete shee fepeie ane Leucopomyia pulvinaride, SP.D. 2.2... cece cece eee cececeevetens Neolencopis! (Sube@my Ms jeicjs sci jececasnfe rere wiels yp aiele sam iotete oa cammte eee) ensioteat rete INCOLEUNCOPIS PUNAGOIG, “SP! Ws hase «: ESS TTT PME ITN Vane eer Stes esol e ote ato) ajar ctsiataleie,wifaveiieseieini aesincreteiausterereie eve eualeters PAGE xii PAGE Profile of a section of the Illinois River. Maps of Illinois River and bottom-land lakes, Chillicothe to Grafton, with index sheet. ARTICLE XVI. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF.THE PRAIRIE VEGE- TATION OF ILLINOIS. BY HOMER SAMPSON. (3 Maps, 30 PLATES) | AT GUS Ty) UOT sor we sissereisis nie loeis/eisieie c/s elem stele ic/nte e/ece'sfalptnietede tetas 5238-577 Think, osood deo onto oO ny MoO ODUO SOCOM DOUBUCRODTMGE ha. 523 Location of existing virgin prairie of the state............ a\e: sueyeateveree 527 Orizin of Whe prairie DAP tatSiccer «sseeler cfeieretereversioysteie aicre nies = his 529 Succession of prairie plant associations:— iL, "The thy dr arch =sWeceSsiOms) sere aye ces e fie el + els 05 io lata ole te) =] oheje oe(ote 1aneheleteneNetene 532 @; On the. river” HOod=plaAIns © cases joys 21 ss, x, 59s) 2le le -<.0) 2.202. oee eee 4 No tooth, or’ ridge ‘on fifth yentral segment. ..6. osc. cas wc ee = wre oe a Mesopleurae doubly punctate on the entire surface; clypeus with lower central portion transyerse at apex, punctate almost to margin; fore tibiae in front and flagellum below ferrugimous. .:. 25.5.5 sole ce ae yiere cree Sie 5 Mesopleurae either with large punctures on entire surface or the minute punctures confined to margins; fore tibiae and flagellum black.......... 6 Small species, 5-6 mm. in length; second ventral abdominal segment with microscopic shagreenine On ISG... .5.00.< snes eee ciems tuberculata, sp. n. Larger species, 7-8 mm. in length; second ventral abdominal segment with- OUtFSNALTSSMIN SOM CLS Cicmymncl ater iasia ts oete tere mina ielciekesn incetle iets subcarinata, sp. N. Lower half of sides of metathorax with large shallow punctures in addition POMEES SUL LATLONS rer ia seus cite terce tet eal estakel etal ad col cleats ane ciat stts occidentata, sp. Nn. Lower half of sides of metathorax without punctures, only striate... i occeem SSS GN Re a Ne eae ee ne arn ste ar eros ocean ae a ai odontogaster Viereck. Basal dorsal abdominal segment without a transverse incision at middle...8 Basal dorsal abdominal segment with a transverse incision at middle..... 24 Tegulae much longer than broad................--.+-+----: transversa Say. Terzulae as LOA AS LOWS ese eri cle meen mirlelevelo etesen=Naleiai= el ateieor<) uy tuler=\ovele So .eleteasits 9 Central portion of clypeus flat and broad, its apical margin truncate, the width of the central produced portion greater than one-third the width between lower angles of eyes (Fig. 11).............-. clypeata Robertson. Clypeus generally more or less convex, the apical margin usually emarginate and always less than one-third the width between lower angles of eyes CRT e ON wet comes cele we cole eter orener tekeliifels <\oxeioteip coven getd ne Sensis es wate erage rece Eee 10 Mesopleurae with large deep punctures, the disc free from small inter- spersed punctures except OM MargiNS.......-- +--+ ees sees eee eee eee 11 Mesopleurae with large and small interspersed punctures on the entire SUIT EELGE, eo esses ha ate ecuet ww tan coevahatePeuasey eel epahelate ne ee: ol ode etencatnr ots tan eciee eae as 14 11. 12. 13. 14. 17. 18. 19. 20. 5 Angulation of radius less than one-fifth the distance from stigma to trans- verse vein; lateral dorsal areas of metathorax coarsely rugose-reticulate RUaN ea pata Tony, Staaten (ate ie al Uaiaiaya lwia ae alave jefe la) oc (avelsieteleVateinalaravsis ataic.a tre rugulosa, sp. n. Angulation of radius at least one-third the distance from stigma to trans- verse vein; lateral dorsal areas of metathorax not rugose-reticulate except IO SUOI I OE L Vere tai aa cistcfennelsimrelelceale)¢ clielere sts ctele icra cimlace eleva’ cua eraleyois dia Seema as 12 Apex of third cubital cell much distad of apex of marginal; occiput densely punctate, so that there are behind eyes no glossy spaces between the punctures; basal dorsal abdominal segment with a broad shallow post- PIPE P AMA BOG DU CHS trae sta teraei sie! nicte'siaia’s{s/\eymrs aaa ava, 4:'e! ae occidentata, sp. n. Apex of third cubital cell not appreciably beyond apex of marginal; occiput glossy, punctures behind eyes separated; basal dorsal abdominal segment with a deep linear post-marginal depression.................----++.---- 13 Third cubital cell ending almost in line with apex of marginal.similis, sp. n. Third cubital ending very distinctly proximad of apex of marginal.......21 Clypeus slightly convex on disc, center of apical margin slightly emarginate, the edge rounded, without any flat depressed rim, punctate to apex....... Agate SANE AoA BoB Eo OEE. OOK iY CO SER HOE Sie ionic ak icaeec clypeolata, sp. n. Clypeus not as above, there being usually a distinct impunctate flat margin at apex or the central emargination not being regularly rounded....... 15 Apex of marginal cell not extending distad of apex of third cubital, or very RDU SO CH LE Lcx Minter sielaelerelss 6 evele aliedisyacelin( sais oom aleje « a(s\siainie wwe einiwisieie« 16 Apex of marginal cell extending very conspicuously beyond apex of third MLO LE ele (RR E ed ot) erate nivale efopsiatalin'e lola eta, si0,e e's) s\cis/s:5)0)n1 ae a als\a Me'e|n/ sir \s nei vine 21 Dorsum of prothorax with minute punctures interspersed between the large punctures on disc; clypeus flat........... 0s cece cece eee eee ee eect nese 17 Dorsum of prothorax without the minute interspersed punctures except on margins; clypeus usually CONVeX....... 6. eee eee eee eee ee eee eee 18 Sixth ventral abdominal segment with very long yellowish upright hairs on the greater portion of disc.......-...+.ee eee eee eee e reece inornata Say. Sixth ventral abdominal segment with short whitish decumbent hairs on greater portion of disc.........--.eee eee cere eee e ees vulgaris Robertson. Basal dorsal abdominal segment with shallow poorly defined post-marginal GePTESSION «0.2.2.2 cece eee ccc e eect ete e rene eee e eet ee tect eee eseces 19 Basal dorsal abdominal segment with deep linear post-marginal depression ee NaS SF OES ck fas Sicroia ei ayelsrale(elaja ls chesle,* sta miet= a eiaaele ts 20 Sixth ventral abdominal segment with long yellowish erect hairs on greater Portion Of diSC.......... 2. eee aseee eens eect ereceeeccecees inornata Say. Sixth ventral abdominal segment with short whitish decumbent hairs on greater portion of disC.......---+--+eeeeeeee ceeeeree vulgaris Robertson, Mesopleurae with small, widely separated punctures and minute interspersed punctures on a glossy surface; tegulae with an incised line around outer and posterior marginS......---+++++-+++ ie ete eter! ela: ata winnemandae, sp. Th. 21. 22. 23. 24, 6 Mesopleurae with large and small interspersed punctures on disc, the former on at least the anterior half not separated by more than the width of one of the large punctures; tegulae without complete incised marginal line S: wists fats) charsunitar mjatias satis allawe eicterahejoherohel sitet ettekai dase sahtearce a sesh meee punctata Robertson. Abdominal segments 2 to 5 each with a slender incised line along posterior margin; incision between first and second dorsal abdominal segments very deep owing to the front margin of the latter being abruptly GOECIIVILOUS Ds treiccerstererleto ele tae aletelayet teie hele rae pete einen eae ene affinis, sp. D. Abdominal segments 2 to 5 without incised line on posterior margin, or if it is present it is very broadly interrupted at middle; incision between first and second dorsal abdominal segments normal, the front margin of second segment not abruptly declivitous................ 2c eee ee eeeee 22 Basal dorsal abdominal segment with a deep narrow post-marginal incision; fantennaen usually Dlaek:= seer erec ere iarsraierststeteueteccnarste vats terete rs inaequalis, sp. 0. Basal dorsal abdominal segment with a broad, shallow, punctate depression near posterior margin; antennae usually conspicuously ferruginous on under surtace of flasedlwmms icye alec + yore =/eynm foley eta) ntateienals io) sictcrsiier soit aeaanerea wae Basal dorsal abdominal segment with a large part of center of the declivi- tous anterior portion with minute closely placed punctures............... ah ayo tana uch woictra have tab OR erecta aac wpa aN catotne eicatalay Oia sGeePaTe ISI ot sine ote ete conformis, sp. D. Basal dorsal abdominal segment with large irregularly arranged punctures on entire surface of the declivitous anterior portion..... egregia Viereck? Legs entirely black; first dorsal abdominal segment sometimes with a tubercle near posterior margin..............-.-.-+-- floridana Robertson. Legs more or less yellowish, especially the fore tibae and the tarsi; first dorsal abdominal segment without a tubercle....... illinoensis Robertson. FEMALES Py eidiuim PUMCtAte LO) APCKe cece ime arese o:wllet ey etm im )ar= cha) (oleralm = (niere wien selene 2 Pygidium with a large portion of surface before apex impunctate.......... 3 Oral opening very narrow, extending almost to back of head, post-mandibular (MEM DS y aoSeahdeoncopbaopan ouon mses on (Neotiphia) acuta, sp. n.? * Oral opening broad, not extending almost to back of head, post-mandibular LTiAN Slee distinctwaca ese cle Sek ess Me eee ata ae floridana Robertson. Tegulae much longer than broad, very distinctly shagreened.............. tel ey cba te Peale bode a leletetovetatetoto te toca are oy Siopatenetasara che inlepesele le eleyesare tesolereien ais transversa Say. Basal joint of hind tarsi with a distinct longitudinal groove on posterior surface (Fig. 9) ...----- 2 eee s eee eee cece cece cece cette eee e nee weee 7 Punctures on pygidium extending to a short distance from apex; ventral surface of pronotum doubly punctate on entire surface.................. Be Se IN a Coen Sha rid POOR ESA CES sO Sa oie Ue iow vulgaris Robertson. * See notes on Tiphia luteipennis following description of acuta. 10. 11. 12. 13. ~ Punctures on pygidium ceasing at, or slightly beyond, middle of exposed surface; ventral surface of pronotum doubly punctate only on margins. .6 Declivitous portion of basal dorsal abdominal segment doubly punctate on its entire surface, the minute punctures very closely placed, the large OUCHEMAMELY oD IACOG ar ceccitctbaicls cnet sfelcrotneiciane cciets ate n sine te eiaee inornata Say. Declivitous portion of basal dorsal abdominal segment with large irregularly placed punctures, the small closely placed punctures absent............. Dreier varcysicveveisysCersteis)s eussista/ateversarcteVersrate wo ietalele ia‘avere alee arole clypeata Robertson. Clypeus punctate almost to apical margin, the apex with a round almost abruptly declivitous emargination....................005 clypeolata, sp. n. Clypeus usually impunctate on a narrow space along apical margin, the apical emargination when present not abruptly declivitous.............. 8 Pygidium with very distinct shagreening almost to apex; basal dorsal abdominal segment with a very shallow post-marginal depression in which Pees ots elle siOr Pll CLUES sia ctelots oie: sie, also alerts cle ie aieis sre s-6 Sle ais 0 se eraewiaiatare wie 9 “Pygidium without distinct shagreening, or if this is present it does not extend almost to apex, or the basal dorsal abdominal segment has a deep linear post-marginal incision in which there is but one series of punctures Basal angulation of radius about one-sixth of the distance from stigma to first complete transverse nervure; clypeus with 1-2 transverse series of UMHS SON TEC crapcravetrene sisteies oletereie(e afer s\ cyepaeay se te,arevapecoverei'sre rugulosa, sp. D. Basal angulation of radius about one-third of the distance from stigma to first complete transverse cubital nervure........... odontogaster Viereck. Mesopleurae with very distinct though microscopic shagreening on surface, which gives it a subopaque appearance; sides of metathorax with very coarse shagreening even on the upper rugose portion; basal dorsal abdominal segment with broad shallow post-marginal depression........ aie anata apes oi can al-sr-a) woehaPecatatn iekeim/aale a's) a pinlayesn' a's @,4.6ere «Siete lerabe.nja3 tuberculata, sp. n. Mesopleurae glossy on disc, without shagreening, or species not as above in PME T LCR CCES ser teteyaiciate|sicie aialarewolexolssays (cixiays. a) s:aisjescjale (osaevellets a} 175. . The same, longitudinal section through five anterior somites in a plane slightly oblique to the median sagittal plane and laterad of the same. - The distal ends of ventral setae, the relation of the mouth to the first somite, and part of the musculature of the alimentary tract are shown. X 70. October 1, 1918. PLATE IT 4 ms RN ET, swe Sea LTS ERR Az BAIR waz —_#LZuz=_—_ a Se ArticLE [V.—A Representative of the Genus Trichodrilus from Illinois.* By JAMeEs E. Krnprep. INTRODUCTION The description. given in this paper is based upon the detailed exami- nation of a single specimen which was pumped from a well in Concord, Illinois, June 18, 1915. It was submitted to Professor Frank Smith, of the University of Illinois, with a question as to its harmfulness, and after this had been answered, was set aside. The specimen is now in the col- lection of Professor Smith, to whom I am under obligations for the opportunity to study it and for suggestions in the preparation of this report. It came into my hands mounted in cedar oil, in good condition for external examination, but the sections which were made for examina- tion of the internal characters were unfortunately wrinkled in some of the most important parts of the reproductive somites, so that conclusive evidence for the presence or absence of certain of the reproductive parts can not be given, and therefore its exact status can not be established. The resemblance of this form to the members of the European genus Trichodrilus Claparéde is evident, and many points in its anatomy link it with the type species of the genus, T. allobrogum Claparede. No repre- sentative of this genus of the Lumbriculidae has as yet been recorded in North America, and still other representatives may exist in the kind of environment in which the present worm was found. Any small aquatic worms which are pumped from our wells from time to time may be important in extending our knowledge of Trichodrilus and other genera of the oligochaete fauna of the United States. It is desirable that persons finding such forms should send them to qualified specialists for identifi- cation if they can not themselves determine them with the aid of the brief description of the species of Trichodrilus given at the conclusion of this paper, thus aiding in the settlement of the position of doubtful forms and making known the presence of others, if there are such. Besides T.allobrogum, two other species of Trichodrilus have been described from Europe, T. pragensis Vejdovsky and T. sanguineus (Bretscher). The latter was first described as the type of a new genus, Bichaeta (Bretscher, 00), but Piguet (’13) placed it in the genus Tri- chodrilus. In the following section the details of structure of the Ih- nois form are given as far as the material will permit. Since it seems to a * Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Illinois, No. 119. 50 be more closely related to T. allobrogum than to the other species, it is recorded under that name, with a query indicating the uncertainty of its position. TRICHODRILUS ALLOBROGUM Claparéde (?) EXTERNAL CHARACTERS The natural color of the worm seems not to have been noted, but the body wall was presumably unpigmented. It is 45 mm. long and its diameter in 10 is 0.54 mm. Anterior to 10, the body tapers gradually to a diameter of 0.33 mm. The prostomium appears to be elongate, but as it was doubled upon itself, it could not be measured. There are 116 somites in the specimen, which has evidently lost several somites from the posterior end. Each somite has an annulation dividing it into a nar- rower anterior part and a wider posterior one, the latter bearing the setae. The setae are slender, elongate, nodulated, and sigmoid. A dorsal seta from 10 is 0.175 mm. long, 0.003 mm. in diameter at the base, and 0.007 mm. in diameter at the nodule, which is at a distance of 0.061 mm. from the tip. The clitellum is indistinct, although the worm was in a sexually active condition at the time of fixation. The spermiducal pores are borne at the distal ends of a pair of genital papillae which are on the ventral surface of 10, just posterior to the ventral setae. The oviducal pores are in the intersegmental groove 11/12, in line with the ventral setae. There are two pairs of spermathecal pores, one of which is on 11, between the ventral setae and the oviducal pores, and the other in 12/13, in line with the ventral setae. INTERNAL CHARACTERS The pharynx is thick-walled and extends into 6. In 4 it is 0.043 mm. in diameter, while the diameter of its lumen is 0.017 mm. It is covered with large deeply staining glandular cells, the septal gland cells, from 4 to 6. There is no distinct line of division between the esophagus and pharynx. The chloragogue cells begin in 7. The structure and relations of the circulatory system and of the nephridia are not sufficiently clear to be of value in comparisons. There are two pairs of spermaries attached to the septa 8/9 and 9/10 respectively, and projecting freely into 9 and 10. These two somites are filled with developing spermatozoa unenclosed in sperm sacs, but there is a small median sperm-sac projecting anteriorly into 8, and either one or two sacs filling up most of 11 and 12. The spermatozoa in these somites are distinctly enclosed in walls which are somewhat twisted and do not permit of a satisfactory determination as to the number of sperm sacs. Only one pair of spermiducal funnels could be located, and these are on the anterior face of 9/10. The presence or absence of a posterior pair can not be ascertained because of the folding of the sections in the region where they would be most likely to occur, but they are probably present. On each side a narrow sperm-duct, measuring 0.014 mm. in diameter with a lumen 0.003 mm. in diameter, extends posteriorly from 51 the spermiducal funnel of 9 to the atrium. It is unconvoluted in its passage along the floor of 10 and curves dorsally to enter the atrium in this somite. Columnar cells like those which make up the wall of the sperm duct line the lumen of the atrium, which is about three times as great in diameter as the lumen of the sperm duct. In addition to the epithelium of the lumen, the wall of the atrium of either side has a layer of muscle which is in turn surrounded by a mass of small glandular cells. A layer of circular muscle-fibres, continuous with the layer beneath the epidermis of the genital papilla, is present around the distal end of the atrium between the epithelial and longitudinal muscle-layers. This layer is folded in such a manner as to suggest that this part of the repro- ductive apparatus may be an eversible penial organ. The ovaries are on the posterior face of 10/11 and project freely into 11. The oviducal funnels are on the anterior face of 11/12. There are two pairs of spermathecae, one pair each in 11 and 12. These are very large and not exactly uniform in shape, although this lack of uni- formity is presumably due to their treatment after fixation. The one on the right side of 11 is almost spherical and is 0.142 mm. in diameter, the wall being composed of flattened squamous epithelium, 0.007 mm. thick. The duct leads directly to the exterior from the posterior surface of the ampulla, and its cells are more columnar in character than those in the wall of the latter. The length of the duct is 0.170 mm.; the diameter, 0.038 mm.; and the diameter of its lumen, 0.011 mm. There is no sign | of the degeneration or disappearance of these organs. The other three spermathecae are more ovoid than the one described, but all are approx- imately of the same size, and their ducts have the same general relations to the ampullae. The following brief diagnoses of the three European species of Trichodrilus have been appended for the benefit of readers who may be interested in the identification of these aquatic worms but do not have access to the scattered literature concerning them. TRICHODRILUS ALLOBROGUM Claparede Length, 20-25 mm. Somites, about 70. Color, yellow. Prostomium conical, about twice as long as diameter of base. Clitellum indistinct. Nephridiopores in line with ventral setae. Spermiducal pores on 10, on pair of genital papillae, posterior to ventral setae. Oviducal pores in 11/12. Spermathecal pores: one pair on 11 between oviducal pores and ventral setae; one pair on 12 in line with ventral setae. Setae simple- pointed, sigmoid, nodulated, two per bundle. Five or six pairs of trans- verse vessels per somite (one pair blind and contractile). Nephridia in 7 and 8; lacking in 9-12. Spermiducal funnels: a pair on the anterior faces of 9/10 and 10/11 respectively. Sperm ducts from these open into a pair of common atria in 10. Atrium pear-shaped, covered with glandular cells, with eversible penis at distal end. Spermaries—? Ovaries in 11. Oviducts and funnels on 11/12. Spermathecae ovoid; long nar- row duct to exterior; a pair in 11 and 12 respectively. 52 TRICHODRILUS PRAGENSIS Vejdovsky Length, 30-40 mm. Diameter, 0.6-0.7 mm. Somites, 60-80. Color, reddish white. Prostomium rounded, about twice as long as diameter at base. Clitellum indistinct. Spermiducal pores on 10, posterior to ventral setae. Oviducal pores in 11/12. Spermathecal pores: one pair on 11 between the oviducal pores and ventral setae; one pair on 12 in line with ventral setae. Setae simple-pointed, sigmoid, nodulated, two per bundle. Eight pairs of transverse vessels in anterior somites. Dorsal vessel with 4-6 asymmetrically arranged caecal diverticulae per somite, with forked tips. Nephridia in 8, 14, 22, etc., irregularly distributed, and extending into other somites. Spermiducal funnels paired in 9 and 10. Sperm ducts opening into a pair of atria in 10. Atria as in T. allobrogum. Spermathecae arranged as in 7. allobrogum, but the second pair dis- appears in sexually active worms. TRICHODRILUS SANGUINEUS (Bretscher) Length, 9-13 mm. Somites, 50-72. Differs from T. pragensis chiefly in having bifid setae. Spermathecae of 12 disappear in sexually active specimens as in J. pragensis. Lateral branches of dorsal vessel not described. LITERATURE CITED Bretscher, K. 00. Stidschweizerische Oligocheeten. Rev. Suisse de Zool., 8 : 435— 458, 1 pl. ‘ Claparede, E. 62. Recherches anatomiques sur Oligochetes. Mem. Soc. Phys. et Hist. Nat. Geneve, 16 : 217-291, 4 pl. Michaelsen, W. 00. Oligochaeta. Das Tierreich, 10 Lief. XXIX + 575 pp., 13 fig. Berlin. Piguet, E. 13. Notes sur les Oligochetes. Rev. Suisse de Zool., 21 : 111-146, 12 fig. Vejdovsky, F. 76. Ueber Phreatothrix, eine neue Gattung der Limicolen. Zeit. wiss. Zool., 27 : 541-554, 1 pl. 84. System und Morphologie der Oligochaeten. 166 pp., 16 pl. Prague. ArticLe V.—Contributions.to a Knowledge of the Natural Enemies of Phyllophaga.* By Joun J. Davis, Entomological Assistant, Cereal and Forage Crop Insect Investigation, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. INTRODUCTION On account of the difficulty of controlling the common white-grubs, which pass ninety-five per cent. of their life under ground, their natural enemies are of unusual importance to the farmer. No one species of animal can be regarded as the most important check on the increase of the grub, but of its insect enemies the black digger-wasps belonging to the genus Tiphia are undoubtedly the most generally common and wide- spread, and are among the most effective insect parasites of white-grubs. In some sections the yellow-banded digger-wasps of the genus Elis are abundant, and in others asilid larvae of one species or another are of considerable importance. Two-winged flies of the ortalid genus Pyrgota and others of the family Tachinidae parasitize the beetles, are generally distributed, and serve as significant checks. Among the native mammals and birds the skunk and crow stand out as models of efficiency in grub eradication. Diseases of various kinds are effective sporadically, but their occurrence is too infrequent, too local, and too dependent on weather conditions to make them as generally useful and reliable as the insects, mammals, and birds mentioned above. The efficiency of certain of the enemies of the white-grubs has been repeatedly demonstrated. During 1915 a nematode disease became evident in some sections, and heavily infested fields were practically freed of white-grubs by the action of this parasite. In another section, during the same year, a protozoan disease eradicated the pest in some fields. The black digger-wasps have undoubtedly controlled the grub in some sections where the pest once wrought havoc to corn crops. ee versely, the destruction of wild game, including birds and mammals, is apparently responsible in part for the increasing abundance of oe destructive pests as white-grubs. These insects are seldom so injurious or wide-spread as were the destructive broods of 1912 and 1915, and their superabundance at any given time or place is apparently due to a decrease in the natural enemies which under ordinary conditions would keep them under reasonable control. The value attached to their natural enemies in the control of the white-grubs is well shown by the fact that the Porto Rican sugar-growers * The specific synonymy of this genus here adopted is that given by Glasgow in his revision of the synonymy of the genus Phyllophaga Harris (Lachnosterna Hope)—Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. 11, Art. 5, Feb., 1916. 54 have had an expert traveling throughout the United States for several years gathering parasites for use in the control of the white-grubs in Porto Rico, where they are very injurious to sugar-cane and other crops. The object of this paper is to place on record our preliminary observations, to bring together the complete records of white-grub enemies for the use of others in this work, and to stimulate the study of the beneficial species occurring in different localities. The writer is especially anxious to receive living parasites from all sections of the country, and persons able and willing to cooperate are requested .to notify us of that fact. The writer is especially grateful to Messrs. W. R. Walton and H. E. Smith and Dr. J. M. Aldrich, who determined most of the dipterous parasites, and to Mr. A. B. Gahan for the determination of the Hymen- optera. Thanks are due the various state and bureau officials mentioned hereafter in the text, who have furnished specimens used in our work. We also take this opportunity of expressing our appreciation of the cooperation and assistance of colleagues who have served at the La- fayette Laboratory from time to time, including Philip Luginbill, C. W. Creel, W. J. Phillips, R. J. Kewley, A. F. Satterthwait, H. J. Hart, F. A. Fenton, S. L. Mason, H. Fox, D. G. Tower, and D. A. Ricker. Photo- graphs for figures 8, 10, 12, 28, 30, 31, 41, and 42 of the plates were taken by Mr. J. H. Paine; and the excellent drawings for the text illustrations were, with a few exceptions, made by Miss E. H. Hart and Mr. W. R. Walton, of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology, for which the writer ex- presses grateful acknowledgment. The writer is further indebted to his brother, H. A. Davis, for the lettering of charts I and IJ. To Dr. S. A. Forbes, the writer wishes to express his gratitude for the inspiration and encouragement received when as a member of the staff of the State Entomologist’s office he first attempted studies on white-grub enemies, and for the opportunity afforded for the publication of this paper. EcoLoGicaAL CONSIDERATIONS Although this paper is intended primarily to present the known facts relative to the individual enemies of Phyllophaga, it seems desirable briefly to note some of the relations existing between the many parasites, hyperparasites, and predators, and their hosts. The two accompanying charts present these facts graphically and require but few words of explanation. Chart I shows in a concise form the enemies of Phyllophaga from egg to adult. : Chart II is a diagramatic illustration of the relations existing be- tween Phyllophaga and its enemies, but does not take into consideration the interrelations of Phyllophaga and other beetles such as Cotalpa, Cyclocephala, and Ligyrus, which are attacked by some of the same enemies, since this would complicate and confuse the diagram. — - 55 ap rey 3 teat’ e SY 3 ce) _ ov a] © w i : vo Oo \ +) 6 cs . aw - ‘ \ ie zoe 2 0 Ge we exor ia iy S109 MyioceTe Chrysantisy Elis __| Mutillidae Th: Rhipiphorus Ly aes Exoprosopa LX Oppran NOD, A Anthrax : ys, me te v ti Zor. 8,. lg 1 ee 4 % 45 Xs £ 100, o o Y ‘. Y a) i258 9 ‘ a re % Eo A o w py ee @ 2 8 ¥ 0 Cuart I. Concise exhibit of the enemies of egg, larva, pupa, and adult of Phyllophaga. \ -1oyRpaid 10 ayisvard Jo aad 10 ‘Wsoy QUE[d-pooy ey} SPABMO] WULOd SMOG VL “Seftueue S}T PUB eseydo[[Aud JO SUOMVPadieyUL SuUIMOYS WeIseIq “II LUVEy ( unpy pure A127) y Ssepiqeie SEPtlAID SouW ss sueiqiyduy suspidg aepiuedel (s7IN PY) aepiqEiey snulvsjed PiajdouswAyp Baa aOusA Piyjuy pue STRESS oy Pdosoidoxy Gan 2 SppyAuis Poxumueshiogerso pIAued “ 57 It will be noticed that the length of the various stages of the host has a direct relation to the number of enemies in each stage. The egg and pupa each exist as such only about one month and, in addition, are well protected in their earthen cells, hence we find but few natural ene- mies affecting them. On the other hand, the larva, which exists for a much longer period, is beset with enemies, among the most important of which are digger-wasps belonging to the genera Tiphia and Elis, which are thoroughly adapted to burrowing through the soil in search of their host. These parasites have undoubtedly been responsible for the practi- cal eradication of grubs in ceratin areas—sometimes rather restricted, which can be accounted for by the fact that Tiphia at least, on account of its large body and comparatively small wings, is unable to fly any great distance. Likewise, Tiphia, as well as all other white-grub para- sites, is somewhat checked in its increase by the length of its life cycle as compared with that of Phyllophaga, the parasite having a one-year, and the host, as a general rule, a three-year, cycle, and although grubs of a particular size are present each year there is seldom more than one destructive brood; that is, an abundance of a grub of a particular size occurs only every three years, and although the digger-wasp parasites may become very abundant one year they are likely to decrease in num- bers the following year on account of lack of host material. Another important detrimental influence affecting these wasps is plowing, which exposes the cocoon to heat and drouth in summer, to the cold of w inter, and to the attacks of predaceous mammals and birds. The adult dipterous flies of the genera Microphthalma and Ptilo- dexia are not adapted to enter the soil in search of their prey as is Tiphia, and must therefore deposit their young in cracks and crevices of the earth, the larvae being obliged to search for the grubs of their host insect ; hence it appears that these species are more abundant in sandy and porous soils which offer the least resistance to a search for the grubs. Whether the flies are able to locate infested areas and thus deposit their progeny in favorable locations is not known, but it seems likely that this is the case. The hymenopterous enemies of the genera Pelecinus and Ophion, and the Diptera belonging to the bombyliid genus Sparno- polius are so rarely encountered that they are of no appreciable importance in their influence on the grub, population. The beetles of the family Carabidae and their larvae are naturally predaceous and live in or on the surface of the soil, being always alert in their search for soft- bodied prey. Soil-inhabiting asilid and tabanid larvae are likewise gen- erally predaceous, but the Asilidae are much the more important as white-grub enemies because they inhabit upland soils which are favor- able to the development of most Phyllophaga species, while the Taban- idae are typically low-ground and marsh-inhabiting insects. Likewise we have in the Asilidae a most interesting example of a life cycle con- forming to that of Phyllophaga; at least it appears that two species of Promachus have a three-year cycle as does the host, and, furthermore, they are able to live for long periods without food—an adaptation of 53 o the greatest importance when we reflect that the larvae must forage, and apparently blindly, through the soil in search of grubs which may be .few and far between. The Asilidae are also more or less beneficial in the adult stage as predaceous on other insects, though not attacking May-beetles since the former are diurnal and the latter nocturnal in habit of flight. On the other hand, the adult Tabanidae, or horse-flies, are well-known stock pests. The various nematodes and the protozoan, bacterial, and fungous diseases of Phyllophaga are but little understood. None of these agencies are known to be consistent checks on the multi- plication of white-grubs, but occasionally one or the other of them appears in such force as to wipe out the entire white-grub population in some areas. Favorable climatic conditions and abundance of the grubs are the two most important factors promoting the appearance of the diseases; and, unfortunately, these conditions can not be duplicated in the field by artificial means, and they occur too rarely to act as reliable checks. The fungous diseases also affect the insect parasites of white- grubs. The various native mammals and birds are among our most depend- able friends, especially such animals as the skunk and such birds as the crows and robins, which seem instinctively to scent the grubs and May-beetles and search the soil for them. Many of the other animal predators, especially birds, are dependent on the plow to turn up the grubs. Undoubtedly the increase in white-grubs in certain sections of the country is due largely, if not wholly, to the destruction of the wild mammals and birds which in years past prevented such insects from in- creasing to abnormal abundance. Respecting the insect parasites of the adult May-beetles, it should be noted that all excepting the sarcophagids, most of which are probably not true parasites, are nocturnal in habit as is their host. Most May-, beetle species are entirely nocturnal, feeding on the foliage of trees at night and hiding beneath rubbish or in the soil by day. The tachinid parasites of the adult deposit their eggs on the beetles while the latter are quietly feeding or copulating and are least likely to be disturbed; but the ortalid flies of the genus Pyrgota attack the beetles in flight. The Pyrgota species deposit their eggs in the bodies of the May-beetles, the opening of whose elytra in flight exposes the only part of the body soft enough to be pierced by the ovipositor of the parasite. A few sarcopha- gids may be regarded with reasonable certainty as May-beetle parasites, and it is interesting to note that they have been reared only from P. lanceolata and P. cribrosa, which are day-flying species, as are these parasites. When we further reflect that these enemies are likewise attacked by parasites, that some birds and mammals which destroy Phyllophaga may also destroy the beneficial parasites, that the adult of one predaceous larva may prey on the adult of a similar predaceous larva, and that the oe 59 predaceous larvae likewise may attack one another, we begin to realize the immense complexity of the interrelations of these animals. These few remarks indicate the importance of studying more thor- oughly the interrelations of insect pests and their enemies, and especially the effects of varying conditions on each—problems which are practically untouched, and yet ofter possibilities of the greatest economic impor- tance. Parasites of the larva Tue Buack Diccer-wasps (‘rputa spp.*) The black digger-wasps are without doubt the most efficient and abundant of the many parasites known to attack Phyllophaga. One or another of the species of Tiphia parasitic on our common white-grubs (Phyllophaga spp.) is to be found in greater or less abundance in every section of the United State east of the Rocky Mountains. The adult wasps feed on the nectar of various roadside flowers, but much of their life is spent in the soil and therefore they are not frequently encountered. However, the rather common occurrence of their tan-colored, woolly, egg-shaped cocoons in the soil, to be seen in following the plow in almost any section of the country, is sufficient proof of the beneficial activity of these wasps. The black digger-wasps were first recognized as parasitic, or more strictly speaking ectoparasitic, on white-grubs of the genus Phyllophaga by Riley, who in 1874 published an account of the habits and life history of a species which he referred to Say’s Tiphia inornata (59).~ Few additional facts were learned until 1907, when Forbes published an account (26) materially increasing our knowledge. Up to the present time, however, several species attacking white-grubs have been confused and practically nothing has been known of the different kinds. From our breeding records four species are now known to attack Phyllophaga larvae in the United States, each depositing its eggs on a different part of the grub, and several other species are parasitic on related grubs, such as Anomala, Ligyrus, Cyclocephala, Dyscinetus, etc. A fifth species (T. parallela Smith) is a parasite of the grub Phytalis smithii—a grub very mttch like our Phyllophaga—in the British West Indies, and, ac- cording to Nowell (53), the egg of this wasp is laid in a position identical with that of the egg of T. punctata on the Phyllophaga grub. T. punctata Rob., our commonest species, lays its egg on the dorsum of the thorax of the grub—or on the first or second abdominal segment— usually on the second or third thoracic segment, just to one side of the median line, in a groove of the folds of the skin; T. inornata Say com- -monly lays its egg on the under side of the thorax, usually between the legs, but occasionally beneath the first abdominal segment; T. transversa Say lays its egg on the under side of the abdomen, usually on the fourth * Determined by Mr. A. B. Gahan, and afterward checked up by Gahan using a key prepared by Mr. J. R. Malloch yj Numbers In parentheses refer to literature citations. 60 or fifth segment; and T. vulgaris Rob. is supposed to oviposit on the dorsum of the abdomen. In all cases the eggs are laid transversely and securely glued to the integument of the grub. It is interesting to recall in this connection some observations made by the writer in Illinois in 1907 while working under the direction of Dr. S. A. Forbes. The posi- tion of Tiphia eggs and larvae on grubs was noted in many cases while grubs were being collected behind the plow, and in every case, in spring and early summer, the eggs or larvae were found on the under side of the thorax and between the legs of the white-grub and may have been those of Tiphia inornata. In fall, on the other hand—that is during September and October—of the 63 eggs and larvae of Tiphia observed, 28 (probably T. vulgaris) were on the dorsal surface of the abdomen near the anal end; 24 (probably T. punctata) on the dorsum of the thorax; and 1 (probably 7. inornata) was on the under side of the thorax. The time of appearance of the wasps differs with the species, T. punctata and T. transversa appearing relatively late in the season, usually in the latter part of July or the first of August, while T. inornata appears early, that is from the latter part of April to the middle of May, and T. vulgaris issues from early May to July according to our records, which are meager for this species. Relatively speaking, inornata appears first, then vulgaris, and finally transversa and punctata, and since the wasps may live for a month or more, the species overlap considerably. The appearance of the different species at different seasons accounts for the supposition that Tiphia has several generations in a year; but our records show that under normal conditions there is only one annual brood in the latitude of Indiana. Adult Tiphias are often found in June and later, on the flowers of such common roadside weeds as wild parsnip, aster, goldenrod, and milkweed, the males always predominating, but more often the female wasps are to be found in the fields, on the surface of the ground, or making short flights. The males are capable of making extended flights, but this the females are tinable to do—except possibly for the first few days after emerging from the cocoons—owing to the larger size of the abdomen as compared with that of the wings. Usually the female wasps are found walking about over the surface of the ground in a quick, agitated manner, sometimes making short flights or jumps, with antennae continuously in motion, searching for evidences of their hosts. They make use of cracks, earthworm burrows, and possibly also of ant tunnels, in gaining an entrance into the soil, but not infrequently dig in directly, being admirably fitted to work their way through rather heavy soil with little apparent effort. Outside of our cages, we have noticed copulation only in cultivated fields and along roadways, and always on the surface of the ground. Fertilization is not necessary to hatching, for we have often obtained fertile eggs from unfertilized females, but these eggs invariably yielded males. Phyllophaga grubs are the principal hosts of Tiphia, but we 61 have reared T, punctata from larvae attacking Ligyrus gibbosus and Anomala grubs, and have found Cyclocephala grubs bearing eggs of two species (probably T. punctata and T. inornata) in the field, these being however, exceptional cases. The female Tiphia stings if given oppor- tunity, but the sting causes only a momentary itching, differing in this respect from that of the female Elis, which is sometimes quite painful. The species of Tiphia under discussion look very much alike, and a brief general account of their appearance is sufficient here. Indeed the Fic. 1. Tiphia transversa Say, female. taxonomy of this group has never been satisfactorily worked out, which fact accounts for much of the confusion in literature. They are entirely shining black with grayish hairs on the head, thorax, abdomen, and legs; the abdomen is very noticeably constricted between the first and second segments (Fig. 1) ; and the wings vary from transparent to brown, more or less deeply tinged. The males average about one-half inch in length and are more slender than the females, which average about three-fourths 62 inch in length. The males are readily distinguished by the black, curved stylus or spine projecting upwards at the tip of the abdomen, sometimes, however, pressed to the body and more or less inconspicuous. . The egg, pure white when first laid, gradually becomes pale flesh- color and finally cream-color or pale brown. It is elliptical in form, averaging for the species under discussion 1.25 mm. in length and .5 mm. in thickness (Fig. 2). Only the head of the larva protrudes when hatching begins (Fig. 3), but gradually the egg=shell splits longitudinally, exposing the body of the larva (Fig. 4). The body is pure glistening white and shows no characteristic markings, the segments being indistinct even in the mature larva (Fig. 5, and Pl. III, Fig. 1, 2). The cocoon is oval, or egg-shaped, covered with soft, fluffy silk of a tan or golden brown color, and averages from 15 to 25 mm. in length (Pl. III, Fig. 4, and Pl. IV, Fig. 8,9). Beneath the outer downy Fic. 2. White-grub showing position of Tiphia eggs; a, Tiphia punctata Rob., b, JT. transversa Say, and eggs much enlarged. covering are several more compact and firmer layers, capable of protect- ing against unfavorable soil conditions, such as excessive moisture. The method used by the writer in studying the details of the life of Tiphia is very simple, and the cage was an ordinary three-ounce tin salve box. Two grubs, put in opposite sides of each box, were covered with soil, and properly watered. These preparations were made in ad- vance of the introduction of the parasite to enable the grubs to make cells, which would give more normal conditions for the Tiphia. A female Tiphia was then introduced into the box and the grubs were examined for eggs every few hours if very exact records of oviposition 63 were desired. When a grub bearing an egg was found it was immediate- ly transfered, with soil, to an ounce tin-box, which was then filled to the very top with soil so as to enable the grub to make a new cell. It was found that the egg was seldom displaced by this proceeding, whereas if the parasite was in the larval stage the grub would usually rub the larva off in forming a cell. Also for a grub bearing a Tiphia larva, obtained Fic. 3. Tiphia larvae recently hatched Fic. 4. Tiphia punctata Rob., larva a and part of body still concealed few days old. by egg-shell. . in the field or elsewhere, if was safer, after placing it in a similar box, to use, instead of soil, a packing of loose, partially rotted, damp sphag- num moss, or very loose muck soil. When the Tiphia cocoon had been ‘completed it was transferred to a box containing an earthen cell. Each parasitized grub removed from the box containing the Tiphia adult was Fic. 5. Mature Tiphia larva. replaced by a healthy grub and the Tiphia was fed honey water about every other day.* The life histories of the four common species studied at Lafayette are similar in many respects, and are as follows: The black digger- wasps 7. punctata and T. transversa, and probably T. vulgaris also, issue from the cocoons during the summer, more often during June and July *The writer takes this opportunity to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. D. G. Tower, who faithfully cared for the Tiphia experiments during the writer’s absence August 15-30, 1915, and to Messrs. F. A. Fenton and S, L. Mason, who performed similar services in 1916. 64 (T. inornata earlier), feed on the flowers of such weeds as asters and parsnips or the honeydew of plant-lice (especially that of Aphis maidis Fitch), mate, and re-enter the ground to parasitize the common white- grub. The grub is first paralyzed, the wasp stinging it on the under side of the first or second thoracic segment, and an egg is then laid on the dorsum of the thorax, the under side of the abdomen, or elsewhere, according to the species of Tiphia. The egg is firmly attached to the body of the grub by a glutinous secretion which is at first colorless but later darkens to brown. In the process of oviposition the wasp, after paralyzing the grub, encircles the body so that the tip of its abdomen touches that point on the body of the host to which the egg is to be attached. The wasp then moves the tip of its abdomen back and forth in a fold or crevice of the skin for several minutes, all the while spread- ing the secretion which serves to attach the egg securely to the body of the grub. Under natural conditions the Tiphia attacks the grub in its earthen cell, but when a grub is exposed on the surface of the soil, the wasp stings it and then proceeds to undermine and gradually to bury Fic. 6. Tiphia larva eating re- mains of grub after having killed it. the grub before laying an egg on it. The egg having been laid the grub gradually returns to normal activity, the paralysis brought on by the sting of the wasp lasting only about an hour, or even less, and serving only to quiet the grub during the act of oviposition. Ordinarily but one egg is laid on a single grub, although in our cage experiments the wasp would in exceptional cases lay two or even three eggs on a single grub. That a second egg may be laid on a grub in the field if the first egg was dislodged is shown by the old egg-scars on grubs bearing an egg or larva, but we never have found a grub in the field which bore more than one egg or larva. Not infrequently the grub may molt soon after being parasitized, thus throwing off the egg or young larva, and once dislodged the parasite dies since it can not regain its position on the host. The egg hatches in four or five days, but in the beginning only the head pro- trudes. The larva immediately pierces the integument with its mandibles and begins to suck the body fluids, the grub apparently being unaware of its enemy. Within 5 or 6 hours the growth of the larva is sufficient to start an irregular longitudinal splitting of the egg-shell, and in 12 to 65 24 hours the shell is split its entire length and the body of the parasitic larva is exposed (Fig. 4). The larva remains affixed to the grub by the original egg-attachment (PI. II], Fig. 5, 6), and the host is more or less active until a day or two before the larva matures, growth up to this point being quite slow. At’this critical time the grub succumbs to the loss of its body fluids, the larva molts, and apparently having developed stronger mouth-parts proceeds to devour the entire grub, leaving only the chitinous head and portions of the shriveled hard skin (Fig. 6 and Pl. III, Fig. 1, 2). It was at first supposed that the Tiphia larva molted but once prior to spinning its cocoon and only a day or so before maturing, when it leaves the dorsal position on the host. However, an examination of the supposed skins arranged as leaflets beneath the larva and above the old egg-shell indicates that the !arva molts five or six times before pupation. The length of the larval stage, that is the time until the cocoon is begun, averages about two weeks, being shortest in the warmer months and longest in the cooler ones. There is also an indica- tion that the condition and activity of the grub has an influence on the growth of the larva. : After the larva has devoured its host it begins to spin the cocoon, first attaching loose threads of silk to all sides of the old grub-cell, fastening them more firmly at the small end of the cocoon with a “button” of silk (Pl. III, Fig. 3), and later spinning the inner layer, requiring from one to three days to complete the cocoon, judging from all external appearances. Unless the larva has a fairly uniform cell and one not too large it is unable to complete its cocoon, and will spin masses of silk at different places until it is exhausted and dies. Our observations indicate that most species remain in the cocoon over winter as larvae, although it is possible that other species, especially those issuing early in the spring, do pass the winter within cocoons as pupae or adults. The adults issue the following spring or summer, and in the latitude of Lafayette, Ind., all species of Tiphia have normally one annual generation. Several exceptions have been observed in the case of T. punctata and T. transversa in which the adults did not issue until the second season after spinning the cocoon. TIPHIA PUNCTATA Rob. This is the commonest Tiphia observed by us, and according to the material contained in the National Museum and our own records, it occurs in Ontario, Canada, and in the states of New Hampshire, Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Wisconsin, South Dakota, Mississippi, Kansas, Texas, Louisiana, and New Mexico. Detailed studies of the habits and life history of this wasp were made at the Lafayette Laboratory in 1915, and the results are given herewith. Cocoons from which adults were obtained and used in these studies were collected in the following locali- ties: Paxton, Ill., collected by G. N. Wolcott; Wellington, Kan., by E. 66 | G. Kelly; Hagerstown, Wolfsville and Reids, Md., by J. A. Hyslop, H. L. Parker, and W. E. Pennington; Berwyn and College Park, Md., by R. J. Kewley; Hadley, Mass., and Greenwood, Miss., by H. E. Smith; Central City, Neb., by J. W. Vieregg; Pukwana, S. Dak., by C. N. Ains- lie; Wakeman, O., by W. B. Hall; Buda, Tex., by W. E. Davis; Tappa- hannock, Va., by H. Fox; and Mt. Vernon, Oakwood, and Sheldon, IIL, Buck Creek, Frankfort, Huntingburg, Lafayette, Mt. Vernon, Switz City, and Washington, Ind., and Louisville, Ky., collected by members of the Lafayette Station staff. The egg of T. punctata is invariably transversely placed on the dorsum of the thorax or first two abdominal segments (Fig. 2, a), most often on the third, or between the second and third, thoracic segments, usually just to one side of the median line in a fold of the skin, or, infrequently, on the median line. When laid to one side of the median line, the polar region, that is the anterior end of the egg, is invariably nearest the median line. The uniformity with which the female deposits its eggs is well illustrated by our experiments in 1915, in which eight wasps of this species laid a total of 205 eggs (Table I), and in 1916, in which seventeen wasps, caged with white-grubs simply to determine the position of the eggs, laid eggs on the dorsum of the thorax or first abdominal segments invariably, and these 25 females as well as all of the progeny in the above-mentioned 1915 experiments (a total of 52 males) were determined by Mr. A. B. Gahan as T. punctata. Of the 69 records kept of sex of adults issuing from cocoons collected in the field, 25 were males and 44 were females. In our cage experiments the largest number of eggs laid by a single female of this species was 42, with an average of 26 for the eight individuals observed, averaging a little more than one egg per day; but this is apparently below normal, and an examination of the ovary tubes of female wasps collected in the field indicates an egg capacity of 50 to 75. As will be noticed in Table I, the egg stage varies considerably in length, averaging about 12714 hours, or slightly more than five days. The methods used by the Tiphia in paralyzing the grub and subsequently ovipositing on it, as well as other details of the life history common to the other species here dis- cussed, have been described in a preceding paragraph. The length of the larval stage, that is till a start is made on the cocoon, varies from 9 to 21 days and averages 14.4 days (Table I). This species almost invariably winters as a larva within the cocoon and has one annual generation. In our numerous experiments we have record of but one exception: an adult Tiphia punctata issuing July 17, 1916, from a cocoon collected at Tappahannock, Va., laid unfertilized eggs on grubs July 19-23, the larvae hatching, maturing, spinning cocoons, and issuing as adult male wasps by September 16 of the same year. In our experiments the adults issued from June 29 to September 6, most often during the latter part of July or first of August, and specimens were collected in the field as early as June 20 and as late as September 12. The adults live a maximum of 34 days in cages, and doubtless the normal life of the wasp 67 “u00000 6 Aine 119 Surjetduioo 1a}Jye uosvas puodas oy} Jey] pue ‘pansst }JNpe euo ATUO ft ‘PATA ATTe}Ueplooy + sqnais UJIM peoe[d JON « $L16I ‘ee Alne 91 (i) Soa) 9 & OFT 106—09 “"skeqd 9% cs “""""skeqd 86 | SIel ‘9 Aine |**"""* Se AHS pees “oO! penss! VuON €l LtI—S"01 Gel 6FI—€L “"skeq GI cS “sed 08-91 | ST6I ‘2-€ AImg jo" ae ‘LE “20 “OQ ‘emlT 'N paensst 9UON FL GC LI-0'11 961 cEIl— ~2 Elis ATRIVENTRIS Gahan This species (Fig. 13) was described and referred to as a parasite of Phyllophaga by Mr. A. B. Gahan (29), the specimen having been reared by Mr. C. N. Ainslie from cocoons collected at Elk Point, S. Dak., April 19. According to the original notes some of these cocoons bore Phyllophaga remains; but since several species (E. atriventris, E. 5-cincta, and E. illinotsensis) were reared from the lot it was not defi- nitely shown that this species was parasitic. However, the writer has since reared EF. atriventris from cocoons collected at Lafayette, Ind., which bore unmistakable remains of Phyllophaga grubs, and from we Fic. 13. Elis atriventris Gahan, female: a, lateral view of tip of abdomen of male, showing stylus. cocoons, bearing like evidence, collected at Ashboro, Ind., which facts give us reasonable assurance of the truly parasitic habits of this species. The adults issue during July and are to be found in company with 5-cincta feeding on such flowers as white sweet clover. ELIS INTERRUPTA Say We have reared E. interrupta from cocoons collected at Hoopeston, Ill., and Lafayette, Ind., the adults issuing July 30 and September 6, 78 respectively. Inference of their parasitic habits is based on the remains of Phyllophaga grubs found attached to the above-mentioned cocoons collected at Lafayette. This species was also reared from cocoons col- lected behind the plow at Wellington, Kan., by Mr. H. E. Smith, the adult issuing July 5, 1913. The adults are to be found feeding on flowers of such roadside plants as the white sweet clover. Eis opscura Fabr. Although there is no direct evidence of the parasitic activities of this or the following species of Elis the fact that their cocoons are to be found in fields infested with white-grubs makes it quite likely that they will prove to have parasitic habits similar to those of the species already discussed. We have reared FE. obscura from a cocoon collected by Mr. J. A. Hyslop at Hagerstown, Md., the adult issuing June 29, 1915; Mr. W. R. McConnell reared it from cocoons collected at Green- wood, Miss., the adults issuing May 30-31, 1913; and Mr. Harrison E. Smith obtained several adults between June 3 and 1% from cocoons collected in plow furrows at the same place. ELts ILLINOISENSIS Dalla Torre Our records show this species to have been reared from cocoons collected behind the plow by Mr. C. N. Ainslie at Elk Point, S. Dak., and by Mr. H. E. Smith at Greenwood, Miss., the adults in the latter case issuing June 3-17, 1914. The status of this species in relation to white-grubs is the same as that of E. obscura. TacHINID AND DerxiIp PARASITES Five species, two tachinids and three dexiids, have been reared from white-grubs of the genus Phyllophaga. Two of these species (Microphthalma disjuncta and Ptilodexia harpasa) are of considerable value in certain areas, and it appears that their occurrence in beneficial numbers depends largely on soil conditions which will enable the young larvae to easily penetrate the soil and so come in contact with their hosts. Two others of the five species, Microphthalma pruinosa and Ptilodexia abdominalis, can not be regarded as important enemies because of their rarity; and the remaining species (Myocera cremides?) is more often a parasite of Serica and grubs of similar habitat, than of Phyllophaga. Another dexiid (Prosena lacertosa v.d.W.), briefly treated in a subse- quent paragraph, has been reported as a parasite of white-grubs in Mexico. MicroPHTHALMA DISJUNCTA Wied. This species, under the name M. migra, was first recorded as a para- site of white-grubs by Dr. S. A. Forbes (24) in 1891, who subsequently reared it from white-grubs (25 and 26), as has also the writer (16). Mr. D. W. Coquillett (13) reports it as reared by the late Theo. Pergande from a puparium found in the skin of a grub August 12, 1891, at Washington, D. C., the adult issuing October 15. 79 The species has a wide distribution as shown by its reported occur- rence in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, District of Columbia. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, South Dakota, Kansas, California, Texas, Mississippi, and Georgia. We have reared it from grubs collected at Hagerstown, Md., by H. L. Parker; from Hadley, Mass., and Chelsea, Vt., collected by H. E. Smith; from Ercildoun, wos Fic. 14. Microphthalma disjuncta Wied., male. Pa., by J. C. Hamilton; from Crooks, S. Dak., by C. N. Ainslie; and from Lafayette and Lewis, Ind., Deford, Farmington, and Holly, Mich., and Swanton, O., by A. F. Satterthwait, D. G. Tower, R. J. Kewley, and the writer. Mr. H. E. Smith reared it from grubs collected at Broad Brook, Conn., in 1915, and from Greenwood, Miss., in 1914. Mr. Norman Criddle writes January 10, 1918, that he has reared M. dis- juncta from white-grubs collected in Manitoba. The adult is a rather large fly (Fig. 14, and Pl. VI, Fig. 22, 23), varying in length from 9 to 14 mm. The thorax is grayish above with 80 more or less indistinct longitudinal black streaks; the abdomen, black with the anterior margin of each segment banded with grayish bloom, giving the appearance of alternate bands of gray and white; the entire body, including the head, set with conspicuous long hairs or bristles; and the transparent wings tinged with brown at the base and the wing veins faintly margined with brown. The flies are to be found from May till September, most often in June or July, occasionally at lights, and frequently on the ground in fields, especially corn fields. They are exceedingly alert and difficult to capture, although they will remain quiet and apparently unsuspecting until one approaches quite near, and when disturbed they usually light only a few feet ahead. Pairs have been observed in copula on the ground in corn fields in June and July. The female oviposits in the ground, probably in cracks, and the larva enters the grub, but just how this is effected has not been determined. Our observations show that oviposition occurs in fields either cultivated or in grass, probably more frequently in the former although our records are conflicting on this point. The small maggots remain within the grub until mature, passing the winter therein and completing their Fic. 15. Microphthalma disjuncta Wied., puparium: anal end, and one posterior spiracle. growth the following spring. The infested grub feeds and acts normally until within a day or two of its death, which would indicate that the maggots feed entirely on the fatty tissues at first, not attacking the . vital organs until nearly full-grown. The first indication of the pres- ence of these parasites is the death of the grub and the coincident appearance of the anal end of the maggot through the skin of the grub, the conspicuous posterior spiracles showing prominently (Pi. VI, Fig. 18). About the same time the grub begins to liquefy (Pl. VI, Fig. 20), apparently melting away, and frequently the parasitic larva pupates within 24 hours from the time it is first noticed (Pl. VI, Fig. 19, 24). Maggots were observed, in grubs collected in the field, as early as April 26 and until August 17, and the earliest and latest dates of pupa- tion observed were on the same dates. Flies from caged material issued from May 24 to September 4, the length of the puparium period ranging 81 from 15 to 43 days, apparently depending largely on temperature and quite likely also on moisture conditions. Although Phyllophaga grubs are more often attacked than others, we have reared this parasite also from grubs of Cotalpa lanigera, and it seems not unlikely that it may infest other large scarabaeid grubs that occur in cultivated fields. The maggot and puparium are distinguished from the related dexiids by the posterior spiracles, shown in Figure 15. In no case have we found more than two larvae infesting a single grub, the number usually being one. to a grub. , As has been shown, M. disjuncta has a wide range of distribution and in certain areas it undoubtedly has a marked influence on the abun- dance of grubs. In a collection of grubs taken at Farmington, Mich., June 12, 1916, over 25 per cent. showed disjuncta parasitism. We have found it especially abundant in the eastern part of Michigan near Lake Huron, which would indicate a preference for, and an ability to live and seek its host advantageously in, sandy or sandy loam soils, as might be expected from our knowledge of its mode of life. MIcROPHTHALMA PRUINOSA Coq. Eight Phyllophaga grubs were received at the Lafayette Station june 14, 1915, from Framingham, Mass., where they were reported to be injuring pine and spruce seedlings. They were placed in individual one-ounce tin boxes, and on July 16 one was dead, and in the semi- liquid remains the anal ends of two dipterous maggots protruded through the body-wall, exactly as had already been observed for the parasite Microphthalma disjuncta. By ten o’clock the following morning (July 17) one of the maggots had formed a puparium, which, however, was still uncolored. By 2:30 p. m. the puparium had taken on its natural reddish brown color, and between 2:30 and 5:30 p. m. the second mag- got pupated. One adult, determined by W. R. Walton as M. pruinosa, issued August 27, but the record for the second adult which issued was lost. From the 7 remaining grubs + adults were obtained, all being Phyllophaga anxia (dubia, form insperata), and as the grubs had been carefully examined on receipt and no specific difference found, it is very probable that the species destroyed by this parasite was P. anxia. This seems to have been the first recorded observation (16) concerning the host relations of this tachinid. We have since reared a single specimen of this species from a grub collected at Chelsea, Vt., May 31, 1916, by Mr. H. E. Smith. In this case the grub died July 7, which was coinci- dent with the first appearance of the parasitic maggot, the adult fly issuing September 1 of the same year. M. pruimosa seems to be widely, though sparsely, distributed, for it was described from specimens collected in New Mexico and Mexico, and Dr. Aldrich has a specimen which he collected at Brookings, S. Dak., in 1891 or 1892. Apparently the species is of little economic im- . portance in controlling white-grubs, owing to its scarcity. 82 PTILODEXIA HARPASA Walk. (==TrpraLis Desv. of Coquillett and authors) * This fly, first recorded as a white-grub parasite by the writer under the name tibialis (16), has a wide distribution, occurring, according to published records, in Nova Scotia and Ontario, Can.; and in New Hamp- a NEN Aa SED, Fic. 16. Ptilodexia harpasa Walk., male. shire, New Jersey, Minnesota, Texas, and New Mexico. We have reared it from Phyllophaga grubs collected by H. E. Smith at Chelsea, Vt., and by the writer at Austin, Tex. Smith writes that he has reared *Concerning the status of this species I quote the following note furnished by Dr. J. M. Aldrich: “This species has been frequently referred to as Ptilodexia tibialis Desvoidy. which is evidently different as its describer placed it in a genus characterized by a petiolate apical cell. Austen, in Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Vol. XTX, p. 344, reports from an examination of the type of harpasa that it is the same as tibialis. Since he evidently used the latter in the accepted but erroneous sense, his statement seems to justify the use of harpasa for the present species.” . 83 it from grubs collected at Broad Brook and Orange, Conn., and at Hadley, Mass., and Mr. N. Criddle writes of it January 10, 1918, as a white-grub parasite in Manitoba, Can. In addition we have reared it from grubs of Aphonus pyriformis collected by D. J. Caffrey at Las Vegas, New Mex., and by Caffrey and G. W. Barber at Maxwell, New Mex. It was also reared by W. E. Pennington from unknown scara- baeid larvae collected February 17, 1916, in a decayed stump at Gaines- ville, Fla., and one adult was reared, which issued March 27, 1916. As with Microphthalma disjuncta, the grub is not seen to be para- sitized until the parasitic larvae are practically full-grown. The habits of the larvae and their effect on the grub are like those of disjuncta except that there is not the conspicuous liquefying effect on the grub (Pl. VI, Fig. 21), previously mentioned for that species. Apparently Fic. 17. Ptilodexia harpasa Walk., larva, lateral view; a, view of posterior ‘end, showing spiracles; b, a spiracle much enlarged. the eggs are laid in early fall and the small maggots enter the grub the same season, remaining within it over winter and completing their life cycle the following spring. From grubs collected at Chelsea, Vermont, May 8, maggots were observed from May 16 to 20, forming the puparia usually a few days thereafter. From grubs collected at Austin, Texas, April 29, Ptilodexia larvae were first observed from May 18 to June 18. In these cases adult flies issued between June 11 and July 10, the puparium stage varying from 20 to 32 days. Grubs collected in New Mexico May 10 and 24 showed parasitism from May 20 to July 7, while larvae from the same locality collected September 7 and confined in indoor cages showed parasitic larvae from October 7 to February 23. The number of larvae infesting a single grub varies from 1 to 7 and the average from our 50 examples is 2.3-++. 84 In all cases known to us where this species has attacked grubs the percentage of infestation has been marked. For instance, in one lot of grubs collected by Mr. Smith at Chelsea, Vt., over 35 per cent. were infested by it, while more than 10 per cent. of our Austin, Tex., collec- tion showed Ptilodexia parasitism, and over 45 per cent. of the Aphonus grubs collected by Caffrey and Barber at Maxwell, N. Mex., September 7, 1916, were parasitized by this species. These few examples indicate the importance of this parasite in Some sections. The fly, which has rather remarkably long legs, is well shown in Figure 16, and Plate VII, Figure 25, and the larva and puparium, as well as the characteristic posterior spiracles, are shown in Figures 17 and 18. Fic 18. Ptilodexia harpasa Walk., puparium; a, posterior end, showing posi- tion of posterior spiracles; b, the spiracles, much enlarged. PTILODEXIA ABDOMINALIS Desv. This species’ and the following one are here recorded as parasites of Phyllophaga on the authority of Mr. Norman Criddle, whose notes are here given through the courtesy of Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt : P. ab- dominalis* was reared from larvae of Phyllophaga rugosa collected in Manitoba. The larvae entered the earth to pupate after killing the grubs as does P. harpasa, and the two examples reared, issued August 31 and September 1, 1915, respectively. This dexiid has heretofore been recorded in literature only from Nova Scotia. Myocera CREMIDES Walk.? (of authors). Mr. Criddle reared a-number of individuals of this species, six or more issuing July 7 from a grub of Phyllophaga anxia or P. nitida, * Determined by J. D. Tothill. 7 This species is listed in Aldrich’s Catalogue (1) as Dexia abdominalis. = Determined by C. W. Johnson. J. M. Aldrich informs us that this wide-spread species is known in collections under the name cremides, but that it does not agree with Walker’s description of that species and is probably undescribed. 85 others issuing July 15 and August 4 from grubs of Serica sp., and one August 9, from a grub of P. drakit. He writes me January 21, 1918, that “Myocera cremides? appears to prefer Serica larvae and is evident- ly an inhabitant of semi-wooded areas.” The species is wide-spread, occurring according to published records and specimens in Aldrich’s collection, from New Jersey to Oregon, the states and provinces represented including New Jersey (under the name simplex in ‘““New Jersey Insects”), Indiana, lowa, Minnesota, Manitoba, S. Dakota, Idaho, and Oregon. ProsENA (MocHLosoMa) LACERTOSA v. d. Wulp This dexiid fly was found by Mr. C. H. T. Townsend during August 1909, abundant in pastures near Colonia Garcia, Mexico, principally on flowers of Rudbeckia. The flies, according to Mr. Townsend, were at the time of his visit issuing in great numbers from puparia in the soil, and the pastures in the vicinity were heavily infested with white- grubs, from which it was concluded that P. lacertosa is parasitic upon white-grubs (77). This inference is probably correct, and this species is apparently of considerable importance in Mexico as a white-grub enemy. Hymenopterous Enemies Recorpep OPHION BIFOVEOLATUM Brullé This large, slender-bodied, reddish brown ichneumon-fly (Pl. VII, Fig.. 30), which is distributed throughout the United States, has not been reared by us from larvae actually found attacking grubs. The first referenee to this insect as an enemy of white-grubs seems to have been made by Dr. C. V. Riley (63), who based his record on observations made by Prof. F. M. Webster at Lafayette, Ind. Professor Webster obtained a number of specimens of this species from a cage containing white-grubs, and this appears to be the only reason for the conclusions published by Riley. Dr. S. A. Forbes (26) records it as a parasite of grubs, basing his conclusions on his office notes—which he kindly permits the writer to publish here. The first note is as follows: “Leroy, Ill. Sept. 1, 1906. E. O. G. Kelly. Ophion cocoon found in a sod field with part of the skin and head of Lachnosterna grub enwrapped with cocoon. To rear adult. April 27, 1907. Ophion adult [later determined as O. bifoveolatum| has emerged, pinned it with cocoon as. accessions No. 37368. Davis.” Another note furnished by Dr. Forbes reads—‘“Ophion sp., Kelly. Mackinaw, Ill, 10/06. Sending to insectary.” The adults issue for the most part during April, and the larva is probably ectoparasitic, as is Tiphia. The larva becomes full-grown and spins its cocoon previous to August, passing the winter within the cocoon, which is dull brownish, frequently darker at the extremities, smooth and uniform in thickness at the ends as is the cocoon of Elis, but much shorter, measuring about half an inch in length and a quarter of an inch in thickness. 86 Our official records contain the following note which probably refers to this species: Mr. A. F. Satterthwait collected a Lachnosterna bearing a Tiphia-like larva, in a field at Nortonville, Ky., August 6, 1915, and when received at Lafayette the following day the grub was dead and the larva spinning its cocoon. The cocoon proved to be that of an ichneumonid, but was accidentally lost before the adult issued. It is not unlikely that it was an Ophion cocoon. If this species is a parasite of Phyllophaga only, one would expect to find it common in infested fields, since the adults are said to be com- mon and wide-spread. The above questionable record is the only avail- able Bureau record bearing on this point, notwithstanding the fact that we have collected and reared thousands of grubs from all parts of the United States. PELECINUS POLYTURATOR Dru. Only one record of this species as a white-grub parasite has been published, and this by Dr. S. A. Forbes (25), who in 1892 reared it from a Phyllophaga grub obtained at Champaign, Ill., May 9, the adult issuing August 26 of the same year. There seems to be no question as to the authenticity of the record notwithstanding the fact that this still stands as the only observation on the larval history of Pelecinus. The female of this parasite is quite remarkable. The entire body is jet-black, and the abdomen an inch and a half long (PI. VII, Fig. 29), differing markedly from the male, which lacks the long, slender-jointed abdomen. In 1914 and 1915 female specimens of P. polyturator were found rather common by R. J. Kewley in an isolated area four miles north of Lafayette, Ind., although not a single male was observed. July 31, 1914, he collected nine females; August 3, eight; August 8, fifteen; August 27, three; September 5, one; and September 6, eleven. The following year (1915) he collected two on August 26; three August 31; and ten Septem- ber 8, none being found after this date although weekly searches were made, nor were we able to find the species in any other area. The locality in question is a wooded glen along the Wabash River and mostly shady and cool. The bottom is rather swampy from the overflow of a small stream of spring water, and is matted with grass, water plants, and other vegetation. The specimens mentioned above were collected in flight or resting on foliage. The females are slow fliers and travel close to the ground, seeming to prefer sunny spots near stagnant water, and never resting long in one spot. The females collected were placed in cages covering pots containing white-grubs. On two occasions a Pelecinus was seen with the abdomen inserted to the thorax in-a crack in the ground. In one case the insect withdrew the abdomen half a minute after being observed, and then spent several minutes in cleaning the body with the feet. In the other case the abdomen was thrust into the soil several times within two or three minutes. Probably the females oviposited in the soil, which was not examined at the time, but no Pelecinus was reared, nor could we 87 find traces of Pelecinus parasitism when the contents of the cage were examined the following spring. Tue Tawny Bes-rty (Sparnopouius rutvus Wied.) The larva of this bee-fly was first reported as an enemy of white- grubs in 1907 by Dr. Forbes (26), his assistant, Mr. E. P. Taylor, having found it attached to the back of a Phyllophaga grub at Elliott, UL, August 25, 1904. Whether it is ectoparasitic as are the Tiphias or pre- daceous as are the Asilidae seems not to have been positively determined. Probably it is in a sense parasitic for, owing to its small size, it caw and probably does obtain all the necessary food from a single grub; but since the fly can not enter the soil to lay its eggs directly on the grub, Fic. 19. Sparnopolius fulvus Wied., female. and probably, therefore, oviposits in a crack of the ground, the larva upon hatching from the egg must search through the earth for its host, the grub, and is to this extent predaceous. This species has been reported from such widely separated localities as New Jersey, New Mexico, and Illinois, and although a common insect it is probably not of prime importance as an enemy of the white-grubs. 88 The adult is to be found on vegetation and on flowers in August and September. It is nearly as large as the common house-fly, but unlike the latter it is covered with erect, yellow, fur-like hair which gives it a look more like that of a bee than of a fly, and hence it has received the common name of bee-fly (Fig..19). The pupa, which has been described in detail by J. R. Malloch (47), is fully exposed and not enclosed within the last larval skin as are muscoid Diptera such as the house-fly, and it superficially resembles a small asilid pupa. At Galena, Ill., September 22, 1917, this fly was very abundant on the flowers of common roadside Helianthus, and a spider (Phidippus audax Hentz, det. C. R. Shoemaker) was seen to capture one of the flies as the latter alighted on the flowers. Harrworms (MesrmirHipar) Among the several thousand grubs reared at the Lafayette Labora- tory but four have shown parasitism by hairworms. These worms are specifically indeterminable, from our material, but belong to the genus Mermis, and apparently we have two species: one from grubs collected at Pensacola, Fla., by R. N. Wilson, and the other from grubs collected at Oakland, Md., by W. E. Pennington. The Florida grubs, collected March 1, 1915, were received at Lafayette March 3, and placed in indi- vidual 1-ounce tin boxes. March 16 one grub was dead and found to be infested with Mermis, and ten days later a second dead and blackened grub was noticed, and Mermis infestation was found to be the cause of its death. The worms were comparatively small, measuring about 6 inches in length, and several occurred in each grub. In the second case mentioned, one grub among a lot collected at Oakland, Md., November 10, 1915, and received at Lafayette a few days later, was found dead November 15 and infested with two worms of the genus Mermis. These were of cream-yellow color and noticeably larger than those infesting the Florida grubs, measuring 11.3 and 12.5 inches in length respectively (Pl. XI, Fig. 45). Dr. Henry Fox, of the Bureau of Entomology, also reared a mermithid from a Phyllophaga grub, obtained at Tappahannock, Va., May 1, 1915, the dead grub and worm being noticed July 13 of the same year. More recently (October 1, 1917), among a collection of white-grubs made by Mr. C. F. Turner at Lexington, Mich., September 26, 1917, we found one live grub infested with these worms, which were visible through the integument of the dorsum of the last abdominal segment. These were photographed (see Pl. XI, Fig. 43, 44) and the live specimens were sent to Dr. N. A. Cobb, who determined the parasite as a mermithid. According to published observations Mermis has been recorded from a large number of insect hosts, and we have ourselves frequently obtained it from cutworms. The worms, on becoming mature, leave the host, their maturity being usually coincident with the death of the host, and remain in the soil probably for several months in a semi-quiescent condition, during which period the sexual organs are developed. Mois- 89 ture is necessary for the growth and development of the worms although it has been assumed that the eggs might bear more or less desiccation. The eggs of the species parasitic on white-grubs are no doubt laid in the soil and it is to be presumed that the worms enter the body of the grub after hatching in the soil, although it is likewise possible that infestation occurs from eggs or young larvae taken into the body with food. A West InprIan GRuB-PARASITE (CAMPSOMERIS DORSATA Fabr.) Mr. D. L. Van Dine has reported Campsomeris dorsata as a parasite of a white grub in Porto Rico-(77 and 78), and more recently Mr. W. Nowell has given an extensive account of this species (53) as a parasite of Ligyrus tumulosus Burm., which may have been the grub referred to by Van Dine. Whether it may also be a parasite of Phyllophaga or Phytalis grubs is not known, but Van Dine’s record seems to justify mention of it as a possibility. Ligyrus twmulosus larvae live in manure and in soil rich in decaying matter, and the wasp in oviposition com- pletely paralyzes the grub and then lays an egg on the under surface of the body, the egg being deposited on end and at right angles to the axis of the body. The green June-beetle [Cotinus (Allorhina) nitida] has similar habits, and according to our observations its common parasite (Scolia dubia Say) attacks the grub and oviposits almost exactly as does C. dorsata. The wasps of Campsomeris are like Elis adults in frequenting flowers, and in the sleeping habits of the males. Predaceous insect-enemies of larva Ropper-Fuizs (Astmipap) The larvae of several species of robber-flies (Asilidae) are pre- daceous on Phyllophaga grubs, and doubtless many other species of this group of flies will be found similarly active and much more bene- ficial in destroying underground insects than has been supposed. The adult robber-flies are more or less beneficial in that they prey upon other insects, and we have seen one species (Proctacanthus mil- bertti) capture and destroy such active and hard-backed beetles as tiger-beetles (Cicindela 12-guttata Dej.). They are often considered harmful and are frequently referred to as “bee-killers’” because of their habit of catching honey-bees. Larvae of Asilidae belonging to six genera (Promachus, Erax, Deromyia, Asilus, Ceraturgus, and Proctacanthus) are treated in the following pages as actual, probable, or possible predaceous enemies of white-grubs, the last two classes being included mainly for the benefit of other workers who may have opportunity for further observation of their habits. 90 PROMACHUS VERTEBRATUS Say This important enemy of white-grubs is known to occur in Mich- igan, Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, and Washington. According to our observations the larva of P. vertebratus is the most beneficial of the asilids known to attack white-grubs. It is very common in certain parts of Wisconsin and Michigan where the common white-grub is a serious pest. The writer has several times seen the larva of this species attacking grubs in the field, most frequently in the sum- mer or early fall, when the grubs have become more or less inactive and have made cells preparatory to pupation.: It makes a small entrance- hole into the cell and through this attacks the grub, withdrawing if necessary to escape its mandibles. After it has weakened the grub, or if this is in the inactive prepupal or pupal stage, the predator may enter the cell and leisurely consume its host. In the summer and fall of 1914 we found large numbers of the empty pupal exuviae of this fly pro- truding half their length or more from the ground in fields at Baraboo Fic. 20. Promachus vertebratus Say, larva attacking a white-grub. and Madison, Wis., and at Richland, Mich., where grubs had been de- structive in 1912 and the adult beetles of that brood had issued in the spring of 1914. The life cycle has not been completely worked out, but from the facts that we have kept larvae in confinement for two years and that’ larvae of one size and pupal exuviae are found common in the same locality only every three years, it is probable that the cycle is three years, as Dr. Felt has found to be the case with P. fitchi. The larva is pure creamy-white, smooth, cylindrical, and tapering at the extremities. It very closely resembles the larva of Erax, and is shown in Figure 20. In feeding, it punctures the host with its sharp mandibles and, inserting its head in the small opening, sucks the body fluids. This and the other Pe eS a 91 asilid larvae differ noticeably from tabanid larvae in their feeding habits, the latter using their mandibles to tear the skin of the host and being exceedingly quick in their operations, while the asilids are slower in their movements and pierce their host by a puncture rather than by a cut or tear. The pupal form, and especially the brown chitinized spines and the stigmal spots, can be seen beneath the larval skin several hours Fic. 21. Promachus vertebratus Say, pupa. before pupation actually takes place. As the larval skin splits the pupa rapidly emerges, requiring less than a minute and a half to complete its exit. The head and body segments of the pupa are well armed with rigid spines (Fig. 21) which it uses to advantage in pushing itself to the surface of the soil just before the emergence of the imago. Pupation occurs, according to our records, from May 26 to July 18, and the adults issue from June 15 to August 18, the pupal period varying from 19 days, in rare instances, to 39 days, with an average from 55 examples of 32.++ Fic. 22. Promachus vertebratus Say, male. days. Of the 59 adults reared and recorded as to sex, 29 were males and 30 females. The fly is very characteristically shown in Figure 22 and in Plate VII, Figure 26. The female lays its whitish, elliptical eggs in fall in cracks in the soil or in little earthen cavities which the female makes, usually several eggs being laid together. The larvae upon hatching search the soil for food, probably feeding at first on small 92 soft-bodied insects and possibly also on earthworms. We have no record of the number of grubs which a single vertebratus larva may destroy but it is doubtless several, possibly many, and it undoubtedly ranks as one of the most important natural enemies of the common white-grub. PROMACHUS FITCHII O. S. According to Aldrich’s catalogue (1) this species has been recorded as occurring in Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Florida, and Connecticut, and we have reared it from larvae collected in the grub-infested areas near Richland, Mich., and Madison, Wis. The larva of P. fitchii was first reported as predaceous on grubs by Dr. E. P. Felt (18) who found it very abundant in fields heavily infested with white-grubs in New York, in some cases outnumbering the grubs. According to Dr. Felt’s observations the larvae live in the ground at least two years, and it is believed that they have a three-year life cycle—which would correspond exactly with the length of the life cycle of the more injurious species of Phyllophaga in New York—a very important factor where only one destructive brood occurs every three years. There is little doubt from Dr. Felt’s notes that this larva is as destructive to grubs in New York as is P. vertebratus in the central states. According to our rearing records pupation occurs usually in June, although occasionally in May, and in every case the pupal period was almost exactly 30 days in length. We are unable to distinguish the larvae of fitchii from those of vertebratus although the mature larvae of the latter are much the larger. The pupae are likewise very similar, but are separable according to Mr. J. R. Malloch (48). The adult of fitchii (Pl. VII, Fig. 27) is smaller than that of vertebratus and quite unlike it in appearance, the body of the former being covered, sparsely in parts, with golden hair. PROMACHUS BASTARDIT Macq. This species, which has not been seen by us, occurs in the Eastern States, and Mr. H. E. Smith states that the larvae are predaceous on Phyllophaga grubs in confinement cages. From this observation and from the known habits of the closely related species already mentioned, there is little doubt that P. bastardu attacks grubs under normal field. conditions. s Erax MACuLATUS Macq. (Syn. E. interruptus Macq., and E. lateralis Macq.) Of the several species of Erax known to attack white-grubs, macu- latus is the most common and beneficial. While following the plow near Greenwood, Miss., in March and April, 1914, Mr. H. E. Smith found many asilid larvae, the fields being in all cases infested with white-grubs to a greater or less degree; and in one or two instances the larvae were seen feeding on grubs. In confinement the larvae, which were believed to be of a single species, readily attacked grubs, usually puncturing the host on the dorsum near the head, but sometimes at - : : : 4 : { 93 other points. Frequently they partially entered the opening thus made, all the while sucking the body fluids, sometimes feeding until nothing but the shriveled grub-skin remained. Several adults issued, all prior to August 21, 1914, but only one was preserved. This proved to be E. maculatus. A larva of this species which we obtained ‘December 11, 1915, at Louisville, Ky., in sod ground heavily infested with Phyllophaga and Cotinus (Allorhina) grubs, pupated July 29—August 3, 1916, and the adult issued September 2. Mr. George G. Ainslie collected three larvae of this species while following a plow at Fellsmere, Fla., March 25, 1914, and placed them all in one box. When examined a month later only one remained, the others having apparently been killed and eaten by the survivor. This larva, which was received at the Lafayette Laboratory May 1, issued as an adult August 6, 1914. The larva (Fig. 23) of this species has been previously recorded by E. S. G. Titus (73) as predaceous on Ligyrus grubs in Louisiana. It attacks a grub as does Fic. 23. Head (a) and anal seg- ment (b) of Hrax maculatus Macgq., larva. Promachus vertebratus, which is shown in Figure 20 in its typical posi- tion when attacking a grub. From our data the life cycle appears to be one year, the winter always being passed in the larval stage, pupation occurring in July and August, and the adult fly (Fig. 24) issuing during August and early September. The species is distributed from Pennsylvania to Central America, but seems to be more typically a species of the southern United States. According to Titus (73), the adults of E. maculatus are predaceous on adult tabanids the larvae of which are predaceous on white-grubs. ERAX AESTUANS Linn. This species is included as a possible enemy of white-grubs from the fact that it was collected in a field infested with them and does attack Phyllophaga grubs in confinement. A single specimen was reared by 94 us froma larva received from Mr, G, G. Becker, obtained at Hot Springs, Ark., August 19, 1916. It pupated September 7 and issued as an adult October 22, 1916. Fic. 24. Hrax maculatus Macq., female. ERAX CINERASCENS Bellardi (Syn. E. albibarbis Macq.) Mr. E. G. Kelly reared two adults of this species from larvae col- lected at Wellington, Kan., March 11, 1911, in fields infested by white- grubs. The larvae pupated between May 6 and 19, 1911, and adults issued about June 11. No evidence of their predaceous habits was obtained. We have also reared this species from a larva obtained by the writer September 29, 1916, in a field heavily infested by grubs at Rock- ton, Ill. The larva pupated between May 31 and June 7, 1917, and issued as an adult July 7, 1917. DEROMYIA WINTHEMI Wied. June 28, 1915, Dr. Henry Fox, while following a plow in a wheat stubble field at Tappahannock, Va., found a larva of this species “crawl- ing over and apparently feeding on a Lachnosterna pupa.” The larva a eee 95 and pupa were placed together in a tin-box cage, and July 3 he saw the maggot feeding on the pupa. By July 6 nothing but the shriveled pupal skin of the grub remained and the larva appeared to be noticeably larger. It pupated previous to July 16, and the adult which issued between August 6 and 9 was determined by W. R. Walton as Deromyia winthemi (Pl. VIII, Fig. 31). Dr. Fox also reared this asilid from a pupa found in the soil at Tappahannock, Va., June 28, 1915, the adult issuing July 16, 1915. DEROMYIA DISCOLOR Loew Mr. Harrison E. Smith reared this species at Wellington, Kan., July 1, 1913, from a larva picked up behind the plow March 11, 1913, and Mr. J. A. Hyslop collected larvae behind the plow at Wolfsville, Md., May 2, 1913, from which he obtained pupae June 13 and 14 and two adults of D. discolor July 10 and 11, respectively. Aside from the fact that the fields were infested with white-grubs, there is no evidence that they were predaceous. DEROMYIA UMBRINA Loew Although we have no positive proof that this or the preceding species is predaceous on white-grubs, the fact that they are found in fields infested with grubs and the further fact that the very closely related Fic. 25. Deromyia umbrina Loew, eggs, much enlarged. species D. winthemi is known to attack them are indicative of their habits, and the notes herewith given seem pertinent. A male and female D. umbrina collected at Lafayette, Ind., by Mr. R. J. Kewley, were placed in a chimney cage at 6:00 p. m., August 1, 1914, and by 3:30 p. m., August 4, 93 eggs were laid, the female dying the following day. The eggs were laid singly or in groups of 2 to 13, a few on the surface, but most of them in the soil at various depths up to 3% inch, the majority about % inch deep. Some were placed in cracks in the dirt, and others in little cavities made by the female. The egg 96 is cream-colored, elliptical, slightly curved, 1.8 to 1.9 mm. in length by .8 mm. in width (Fig. 25, and Pl. IX, Fig. 38). The eggs hatched be- tween 1:00 p. m. August 11 and 1:00 p. m. August 12, but none of the larvae were reared to maturity. AsILus PAROPUS Walk. We have reared this species from larvae collected by the writer at Montford, Wis., October 3, 1914, in a field heavily infested by white- grubs, obtaining from the larvae thus collected 3 adults which issued June 9, 12, and 26, 1915, respectively ; also from a larva taken at Lancas- ter, Wis., September 27, 1916, which pupated between May 24 and 31, . 1917, and issued as an adult June 22, 1917. Although the reared speci- mens were not noticed feeding on grubs in the field, another specimen, supposed to be of the same species, was actually seen attacking a grub. This species has also been reared at this station from a larva obtained by Mr. A. F. Satterthwait in a grub-infested field at North Lima, Ohio, October 27, 1914, the adult in this instance issuing June 14, 1915. Mr. H. E. Smith has seen larvae of this species attack grubs in confinement, - but, because of their small size, he believes they are more actively pre- daceous on smaller larvae, such as Anomala and Macrodactylus. _ The life history of A. paropus is unknown, although it probably does not vary greatly from that of Promachus. The pupal stage, accord- ing to our observations, varies in length from 17 to 28 days, the adult, a small, slender fly, issuing in June. The species is sparsely but generally distributed in the northern United States east of the Mississippi. ASILUS LECyTHUS Walk. We are not familiar with this species, which resembles A. paropus, but Mr. H. E. Smith reports it, in a letter, as predaceous on Phyllophaga grubs in confinement. He believes, however, that like A. paropus it is more often predaceous on smaller grubs of the genera Anomala and Macrodactylus. CERATURGUS CRUCIATUS Say Our collection records show that the larva of this species occurs in fields heavily infested with white-grubs. One larva taken by C. F. Turner at Richland, Mich., April 18, 1917, pupated between May 3 and 10 and issued as an adult June 5, 1917. PROCTACANTHUS MILBERTII Macq. The larva of this rather common Proctacanthus has not been seen attacking white-grubs but has been taken in fields heavily infested with them at Richland, Mich., by C. F. Turner, and at New Carlisle, Ind., by the writer. At the former place it was found in company with grubs of Promachus vertebratus. Our rather meager data indicate that it has a two- or three-year cycle, the larva pupating in July (July 13-23 accord- ing to our records), and the adults issuing about six weeks later (August 24 to September 6). Shi CoENOMYIA PALLIDA Say According to J. R. Malloch (49) the larva of Coenomyia pallida Say (=ferruginea, American authors) has been seen to.feed on white- grubs in confinement. This larva was taken in a field near Chicago where grubs were common, and another at DuQuoin, IIl., “in company with larvae of Asilidae and probably fed also upon white-grubs.” Horss-rurms (TABANIDAR) Two species of tabanid larvae (Tabanus atratus Fabr. and T. sul- cifrons Macq.) are predaceous on Phyllophaga grubs, and further researches will no doubt show the like for other species. THE AuTuMN Horse-FLy (TABANUS SULCIFRONS Macq.) T. sulcifrons seems to be commoner than T. atratus. It has been reared from larvae collected in plow furrows at Greenwood, Miss., by Mr. J. M. Langston in February, March, and April, 1916. Some of these larvae pupated at the Lafayette Laboratory between August 7 and Sep- tember 4, adults issuing August 23 to September 27, while others passed the winter in the larval stage. The length of the larval stage was 16 days for those pupating in August to 23 days for those pupating the first of September. The length of the life cycle probably is normally one year, but no doubt scarcity of food or unfavorable soil conditions -may prolong this period, as is indicated in our experiments. Larvae apparently belonging to this species but which died before maturing, Fic. 26. Tabanus sulcifrons Macq., head of larva, showing sharp mandibles extruded. were collected in plow furrows by Mr. E. G. Kelly at Wellington, Kan. Others were received from Mr. R. J. Kewley, who collected thea while following the plow at College Park, Md., April 20, 1916. These. con- tinued as larvae until fall of the following year, pupating in August, 1917, and issuing as adults nearly a month thereafter. We also reared a single adult from a larva taken by G. G. Ainslie June 24, 1914, at Caney Springs, Tenn., the larva pupating between August 18 and 24 and the adult issuing September 14, 1914. In all cases the larvae were collected in fields containing white-grubs, and their predaceous activities in relation to Phyllophaga and Cyclo- cephala grubs in confinement were conclusively shown. On coming into contact with the soft body of the grub the larva thrusts its mandibles into the skin, and into the opening thus made the head is inserted, and the body fluids are consumed. The action of the mandibles is very 98 peculiar and interesting. ‘They are quite sharp, strong, slightly curved, and carried in a groove along the dorsal lateral side of the head when not in use. When in action they are rapidly thrust outwards and downwards (Fig. 26), the two generally working in unison and literally tearing the skin of the prey. Sometimes this operation is repeated several times and at different points on the body of the grub before any attempt at feeding is made. The writer has had his hand so severely punctured by the mandibles that itching or stinging lasted for several hours. In our eS aut cece Fig. 27. Tabanus suleifrons Macq., larva. tin boxes the host grub sometimes prepared a cell, and the tabanid larva often made an entrance to the cell just large enough for its head and the fore part of its body, thus enabling it to withdraw, if necessary, to a safe distance from the grub. This strategy is also frequently adopted by asilid larvae. The Tabanus larvae can crawl about and penetrate the earth quite freely. They prefer moist places. They no doubt feed on various soft-bodied underground insects, and probably on earthworms also. This species and T. atratus can pass long periods without food— a capacity frequent among predaceous larvae living under similar con- ditions. The adult is one of the common horse-flies and is often so. abundant as to be a serious stock pest. It is distributed from New Jersey to Lou- isiana and Missouri. It is of large size, varying in length from 17 to 20 mm.; the large compound eyes are typical of the family; the under surface of the thorax is densely covered with a grayish pubescence, the upper surface with alternate black and grayish brown longitudinal mark- Fic. 28. Tabanus atratus Fabr., larva. ings; the dorsum of the abdomen is reddish brown, with yellowish white triangles on segments two to five; the wings are transparent, with certain areas of the veins margined with brown (Pl. IX, Fig. 34, 35). The eggs have not been described, but they are probably dull-colored and laid in masses like those of related species. The larva (Fig. 27) of this species, which measures about 30 mm. in length when full-grown, is glossy, semitransparent white with delicate, almost microscopic, longi- 99 tudinal striae. By these characters alone it is readily distinguished from the larva of T. atratus, which is marked with black (Fig. 28), and from the asilid larvae Erax and Promachus, which are waxy white or cream- color. Likewise the anal end of Tabanus bears a retractile fleshy pro- tuberance or breathing tube (Fig. 29), and each abdominal segment bears six ventrally placed fleshy tubercles, the upper one on each side along the lateral line being the most conspicuous, and those on the last Fic. 29. Tabanus sulcifrons Macq., anal end of larva. two or three segments only faintly indicated. The asilid larvae lack these characters, the anal end being more or less pointed and the body smooth. The chitinous head is elongate and slender, brownish, and freely retractile (Fig. 26). The dull brown pupa (PI. IX, Fig. 36) is slender, rather uniform in thickness throughout its entire length, curved, and is not armed with conspicuous spines as are the asilid pupae. The reader is referred to papers by Hine (36,37,38) and Hart (34) for more complete descriptions of this and the following species, and for particulars concerning their habits. Tue Brack Horse-FLy (TABANUS ATRATUS Fabr.) Our observations on the habits and activities of this species are confined to one rearing record made from a larva obtained by Mr. A. F. Satterthwait near Linton, Ind., May 3, 1916. The larva was found along the drainage-ditch edge of a corn field where acute injury by wireworms and cutworms occurred in 1914. The tract in which this larva was found is a reclaimed swamp, covered with water much of the time until a few years ago and only the past season or two sufficiently drained for culti- vation. The larva was placed in an ounce tin-box and there freely attacked and ate grubs of Phyllophaga and Cyclocephala. It pupated between August 24 and 29 and the mature fly issued September 11, 1916. Its feeding habits differed in no way from those described for sulcifrons. The adult (Pl. VIII, Fig. 32; Pl. IX, Fig. 33) is one of the com- moner species of horse-flies, known as the black horse-fly or breeze-fly, and is distributed from southern Canada to Mexico, east of the Rocky Mountains. It is conspicuous because of its very large size, measuring about 24 mm. in length. The large eyes are typical of the family, the thorax and abdomen are black and covered with a thin whitish bloom, and the wings are black at the base to dusky or brownish transparent at the apex. According to Mr. Chas. A. Hart, who carefully described the various stages (34), the eggs are dark brown, subcylindrical, about 100 2.5 mm. long, with the surface minutely rugose. They are laid in masses (as illustrated in Plate IX, Figure 37, single masses containing as many as 500 eggs) on rushes and the like over water or wet ground. The larva is larger than that of the species just described, and at the con- nection of each segment is a broad blackish band which widens on the sides to form a broken lateral longitudinal blackish line. Otherwise it resembles T. sulcifrons. It is well illustrated by Figure 28. The pupa is similar to that of sulcifrons but is slightly larger (Pl. VIII, Fig. 32). According to Walsh and other authors this species is semiaquatic and feeds on water-snails, and probably also on various soft-bodied insects and earthworms. Mr. Hart obtained a hymenopterous parasite (Phanurus taba- nivorus Ashm.) from the eggs of T. atratus (Pl. IX, Fig. 37, and Pl. X, Fig. 39) and the same parasite has been reared from this host in Ohio and Louisiana by Prof. J. S. Hine (38). Another parasite, ob- tained by Mr. F. C. Bishopp from tabanid eggs collected in Texas, has been recently described by A. A. Girault as Phanurus emersoni (31). These two species of Phanurus are the only parasites known to attack the tabanids in any stage. CoLEOPTERA (CARABIDAE) Carabid larvae are always to be found in abundance in fields which are being plowed, and occasionally they have been seen in unusual abun- dance in those heavily infested with white-grubs. While the evidence Fic. 29a. Harpalus pennsylvanicus Dej., larva, much enlarged. in their favor in these cases is largely circumstantial, it is very probable that they are often predaceous on grubs, and much more beneficial than at present supposed. While following the plow at Victoria, Texas, February 18, 1916, Mr. J. D. Mitchell found carabid larvae abundant in a grub-infested field ; in fact they were nearly twice as numerous as the grubs, and the adults which we reared from the larvae sent to us, proved to be our common Harpalus pennsylvanicus Dej. (Schwarz det.). In our underground breeding-cages larvae and adults of H. pennsylvanicus (PI. VII, Fig. 28) and Amara sp. have been found abundant, with evidence of their predaceous activities, and in the cages it appeared that the adult beetles as well as the larvae (Fig. 29a) attack the grubs. In the field this 101 species is the most frequent and doubtless the most beneficial of all the carabids, although we also find the larvae of H. caliginosus Fabr. quite common in grub-infested fields. An interesting observation on the predaceous habits of these larvae was made by Mr. H. E. Smith at Wellington, Kan., April 4, 1913. A carabid larva picked up behind the plow and placed with a Phyllophaga grub immediately attacked it, piercing the skin with its mandibles but not tearing it, making only a small opening through which the body fluids were obtained. The grub thus attacked died in about three hours, after most of the body fluids had been consumed. The carabid died before maturing. The carabid adults, commonly termed ground-beetles, have been frequently observed feeding on adult May-beetles. Mr. C. M. Packard saw an adult Calosoma calidum Fabr. in the act of attacking a live May- beetle at Hagerstown, Md., April 21, 1914. The beetle worked its head beneath the elytron of its prey and bit into the soft part of the abdomen, a method usually practiced by these insects. Mr. Packard observed at the same time a Harpalus caliginosus eating the remains of a dead Phyllophaga, there being no proof, however, that it was responsible for the death of the beetle. Mr. W. L. Taliferrio saw at College Park, Md., May 8, 1893, a C. calidum feeding on the viscera of a live Phyllophaga adult through a hole in the abdomen, and the writer has made similar observations at Lafayette, Ind. We have also seen Calosoma scrutator Fabr. eating a live May-beetle beneath an electric light. Dr. Forbes (25) mentions finding a carabid beetle (Chlaenius tomentosus Say) clinging to a Phyllophaga beetle and feeding upon its viscera, partly drawn out of the wound, and Dr. Riley (60) saw Calosoma lugubre attacking May-beetles beneath street lights. An interesting parasite of Harpalus pennsylvanicus (?) larvae was found by the writer at Mendon, Mich., September 11, 1916. In the field, which was being plowed, carabid larvae and adult H.. pennsylvanicus (Schwarz det.) were exceedingly numerous, and two larvae were found parasitized by a hymenopteron. Both were rigid, as though attacked by an Isaria fungus, and to one the naked pupa of the parasite was attached. The other showed the parasite larva just issuing. The larva when mature, issues from the anal end of the host, and, remaining attached, it pupates as illustrated (Pl. XV, Fig. 61). The adult of this parasite was not obtained. MiscEtLannous INSECTS SOMETIMES PREDATORY Dr. Forbes (26) records an observation made by E. G. Kelly, who found three yellow coarctate meloid larvae with the remains of white- grubs attached, the natural supposition being that they had been feeding on the grubs; and this is quite probable since it is a well-known fact that meloid larvae, the immature stages of the destructive blister-beetles, feed on grasshoppers’ eggs and the immature forms of certain other insects. 102 Ants can not be considered predaceous enemies of white-grubs, but in our cages it is evident that they have been responsible for the death of grubs and pupae. It is doubtful if healthy grubs are ever attacked by them under normal conditions, but we have seen them attacking grubs almost immediately after being exposed by removing a piece of infested sod. The ants in the cases mentioned above, were Lasius niger Linn., var. americanus Emery. According to Mr. E. G. Smyth, Mr. T. H. Jones reared larvae of an elaterid (Pyrophorus luminosus Ill.) upon Phyllophaga larvae in con- finement, and adults were taken from soil in a cane field in Porto Rico where the white-grubs had been present in numbers, the latter fact indicating that the predaceous activity observed by Mr. Jones in the cages is a normal habit of the larvae under field conditions. Mr. J. A. Hyslop has found these larvae similarly active toward white-grubs in tin-box cages. Crickets may also prey upon white-grubs, as was noticed by the writer at Cascade, Iowa, September 24, 1917. While following the plow in a sod field heavily infested with the 1917 brood of grubs, two species of crickets (Gryllus assimilis Fabr. and Nemobius fasciatus, var. vittatus De G., Caudell det.) were seen to attack the young grubs as these were exposed by the plow. The crickets were quite numer- ous, the small Nemobius probably the more common, and after attacking the grub they would feed on the fluids issuing from the wounds. Mires as Enemies or Poy~tutopHaca Larvan Mites, determined by Mr. Nathan Banks as Rhizoglyphus phyllox- erae Riley, have frequently been found infesting grubs in the field and are a constant cause of trouble in our breeding cages. They firmly attach themselves to their host, and if not removed will frequently kill the grub. While we have never found them as destructive in the field as in our tin- box cages, nevertheless there is little doubt that they do sometimes weaken or even kill grubs under natural conditions (55). The same species has been collected on white-grubs by Mr. J. A. Hyslop at Hagers- town, Md., and by Dr. Henry Fox at Tappahannock, Va. It is wide- spread, our records showing its occurrence in the United States from Massachusetts to Texas. Its normal food appears to be decaying veg- etable and animal matter. A pale whitish species, Tyroglyphus armipes Bks. (Banks det.), was found infesting white-grubs collected at Austin, Tex.; and a third species attacking them, which Mr. Banks determined as Parasitus sp., was collected by Mr. C. N. Ainslie at Springville, Utah, and at Ell Point, S. Dak. The adult May-beetles are also sometimes infested by mites, and specimens referred to Mr. Banks were determined as belonging to the family Parasitidae (Gamasidae) and to the genus Uropoda. All of the mites we have collected on May-beetles are in the nymphal migratory stages, in which they attach themselves to the beetles as a means of car- ee 103 riage, and are probably neither parasitic nor predaceous. When a suitable breeding ground is reached the mites drop and transform, and begin to feed on bacterial and fungous growths. Parasites of the beetle Ortatip Fires (PyrcoTa UNDATA WIED. and P. vatipa Harris) Our earliest record of P. undata as a parasite of Phyllophaga adults was made by Prof. F. M. Webster, who reared it in the spring of 1891 from beetles collected at Lafayette, Ind., and the first published record is that of Dr. Forbes in 1907 (26). P. valida was first reared and se- corded by the writer in 1913 (15), and we have since reared it many times. The life histories of the two species are substantially alike. The beetles are attacked only at night while they are feeding, or in flight, the Pyrgota fly alighting on the back of the beetle, which if feeding is Fic. 30. Pyrgota undata Wied., female. usually sufficiently disturbed to cause it to drop, at the same time spread- ing its wings to break the fall. The fly immediately takes advantage of this act to thrust its ovipositor through the exposed thin abdominal wall beneath the wing covers and to lay an egg in the abdomen. The abdomen and ovipositor of Pyrgota are admirably adapted to this act, the former being curved, with the tip hard and conical, and the oviposi- tor being a fleshy muscular organ of medium length with a sharp-pointed chitinous tip (Fig. 31). 104 The eggs are elliptical, measuring .05 mm. by 1.2 mm., and pure white (Fig. 32). Counts of eggs in the bodies of two specimens of P. undata, made May 29, 1913, gave 54 and 98 respectively. The length of the egg stage has never been determined by us, but it is probably only five or six days, since the beetles are killed by the maggots within ten days or two weeks after being attacked, and the average length of the egg and larval stages combined is about three weeks. Before succumb- ing to the attack of the parasitic larva the beetle enters the earth to a depth of two to six inches, and within the abdominal cavity of the host the larva pupates and remains as a puparium until the following spring. Occasionally some of the tachinid parasites issue in the summer of the same year in which they pupate, but this never occurs with Pyrgota, and we have never found more than one Pyrgota developing within the same host. Rarely the Pyrgota remains in the puparium stage over two winters. In one case a male P. futilis caged June 12, 1916, was found to contain a parasitic larva June 27, this larva forming the puparium Fic. 31. Pyrgota undata Wied., Fic. 32. Pyrgota undata Wied., ovipositor extruded. egg, much enlarged. shortly thereafter, and although other parasites of the same species and from the same lot issued in the spring of 1917, one remained over the second winter and issued as an adult female P. undata May 11, 1918, about two years after it was first observed in the host. The larva (Fig. 33) is white and very robust, and in this respect might be likened to some of the larger nut-weevils. The puparia of the two species (Fig. 34, and Pl. X, Fig. 41) are quite distinct and readily recognized. ‘They are alike in shape, being broadly ovate, noticeably thicker and broader at the rounded anal end, the anterior end being pointed, but differ in size, texture, and posterior spiracles. The puparium of P wndata is the 105 larger of the two, averaging about 4.8 mm. at its widest point and 9.0 mm. in length, nearly smooth, and black with a slight silky luster. The posterior pair of spiracles are set a little above the median lateral line, one on each side of a small but prominent cavity which is encircled by a rugose ridge. P. valida is a smaller species, the puparium (Pl. X, Fig. 41) of which measures about 4.0 mm. at its widest point, and 7.5 mm. in length. It is dull black, coarsely punctate, being covered through- out with closely placed deep punctures. The spiracles are distant from the median lateral line and there is no trace of a cavity as described for undata. The adult flies are rather grotesque in appearance, being about as large as a medium-sized wasp, the head pointed at the apex and sub- triangular or conical, with prominent eyes, the thorax of the usual size, and the abdomen slender at the base but broadening apically, and narrow- Fic. 33. Pyrgota uwndata Wied., larva; a, Fic. 34. Pyrgota undata Wied., pupari- posterior end, showing posterior spir- um, (a) ventral and /b) lateral acles; b, one of the spiracles much view. enlarged. ing again in the female to a conical tip. The body and legs of undata are brownish, and the wings, excepting the posterior margins, are of the same color (Fig. 30), while in valida the body and legs are black- ish and the wings mottled with black (Pl. XI, Fig. 42). Pyrgota undata appears to be the more common of the two species and has been recorded from such widely separated localities as Quebec, (Canada), New Jersey, and Kansas. We have reared it from nine species of Phyllophaga, namely, P. bipartita, fervida (=arcuata), fra- 106 terna, fusca, futilis (=gibbosa), hirticula, ilicis, iuplicita, and vehemens, collected from Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Wisccnsin, and Virginia, as follows: St. Louis, Mo. (Phil. Rau); Charlottesville, Va., (H. Fox and W. J. Phillips); and from Milford and Sheldon, Ill., Lafayette, Orleans, Princeton, and Vincennes, Ind., and Lancaster, Wis. (members of the Lafayette Station staff, including R. J. Kewley, D. G. Tower, A. F. Satterthwait, H. J. Hart, F. A. Fenton, S. L. Mason, and the writer). In addition we have found puparia of this species in the bodies of P. lurtiventris and P. calceata collected in 1914 at Pauls Valley and Shaw- nee, Okla., respectively, by Mr. W. E. Pennington, the parasitized beetles being among a lot which had previously been caged for eggs and later sent in for determination. An empty wndata puparium was found in the body of a dead female P. hirticula picked up behind the plow by Mr. C. M. Packard at Hagerstown, Md. Other distribution records of P. undata in our files include Tempe, Ariz. (V. L. Wildermuth), Ithaca, N. Y., and Indianapolis, Ind. (H. Morrison), and New Haven, Conn., and Linglestown, Pa. (Champlain). The dates of emergence according to our 166 rearing records are May 8 to May 30, and in the field we find the species most common about May 20-24. Female beetles are much more frequently parasitized than males, and there appears to be some evidence that male flies are more frequently produced in the smaller species of beetles; in other words, the supply of food appears to have an influence in determining sex. Pyrgota valida was bred from thirteen species of May-beetles, namely, P. anxia (=dubia), balia, calceata, crassissima, crenulata, fervida (=arcuata), fusca, futilis, (—=gibbosa), hirticula, implicita, inversa, rugosa, and tristis collected as follows: Strathroy and Wilton Grove, Ontario, Can. (collected by H. G. Crawford), Manhattan, Kan. (J. W. McColloch), Wakeman, O. (W. B. Hall), and Sheldon, IIl., Lafayette and Orleans, Ind., Battle Creek, Farmington, Holland, Imlay City, and Port Huron, Mich., and College Station, Tex. (members of Lafayette Station staff, including D. G. Tower, H. J. Hart, A. F. Satter- thwait, R. J. Kewley, F. A. Fenton, S. L. Mason, and the writer). In addition a puparium of this species was found in the body of a female P. calceata obtained at Shawnee, Okla., in 1914 by W. E. Pennington. In literature it has been recorded from New York to Illinois, and Mr. E. G: Kelly has collected the adult at Wellington, Kansas. The adult of valida emerged, according to our 95 cage records, much earlier than undata, that is from April 23 to June 5, and out-of-doors it is found most often early in May, although we have taken it at Lafayette, Ind., as late as May 25, while collecting beetles from trees at night. P. valida, as in the case of undata, has a one-year life cycle, only one larva de- velops in a beetle, and females seem to be more readily subject to attack than males, although this tendency is more marked in our uwndata records. Both species frequent trees at night where the beetles are feeding, and both sexes are often attracted to electric lights, sometimes in very conspicuous numbers. Ee 107 These species are not as abundant nor apparently as wide-spread as our common tachinid (Cryptomeigenia theutis), but in some sections where they occur in sufficient numbers they are undoubtedly beneficial to a marked degree, especially as they most frequently attack the female beetles. Although these may lay a few eggs after being parasitized, our studies up to the present time indicate this to be the exception rather than the rule. We have never reared a parasite of Pyrgota, but Mr. E. G. Smyth has done so and has sent us two examples of the parasite, which were determined by Mr. S. A. Rohwer as a new genus and new species in Bethylidae. Mr. Smyth reared these from a Pyrgota undata puparium found in Illinois in 1914 by Mr. G. N. Wolcott, and writes that a number of the parasites issued from a single puparium. Tacuinip Fires In our studies three species of tachinid flies (Cryptomeigenia theutis, Eutrixa exile, and Biomyia lachnosternae) have been reared from May- beetles, and of these C. theutis is much the most common and wide-spread and seems to be the most beneficial of the parasites attacking the Phyl- lophaga adult. The three species can be readily distinguished in the adult and pupal stages by characters shown in the accompanying illustrations of the flies and the posterior spiracles of the larvae or puparia (Fig. 35, 36, and 41-43). Two other species (C. aurifacies and Eutrixoides jonesii), which occur in Porto Rico, are briefly treated. CRYPTOMEIGENIA THEUTIS Walk. The first published record of the parasitic habits of this species is that of Coquillett (13), who reports it as having been reared by Theo. Pergande from an adult Phyllophaga inversa taken at Washington, D. C., May, 1892, the fly issuing Mar. 23, 1893. The species occurs gener- ally throughout the northern states east of the Rocky Mountains, and its distribution, according to published records and our own studies, in- cludes Toronto and Montreal, Canada; New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, District of Columbia, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Kansas, Mississippi, Virginia, and Tennessee; and Mr. Norman Criddle writes Jan. 10, 1918, that he has reared it from May-beetles collected in Manitoba, Canada. We have reared theutis only from Phyllophaga, including the species drakii (=grandis), fervida (=arcuata), fraterna, fusca, jutilis (= gibbosa), hirticula, ilicis, implicita, inversa, micans, rugosa, tristis, and vehemens, but the writer once observed it in the act of laying an egg on an adult Diplotaxis, and it is not unlikely that further study will show it to be parasitic on certain of the larger Diplotaxis and beetles of. re- lated genera which feed on tree foliage at night. The fly (Fig. 35), which is about the size of the common house-fly and superficially re- sembles it, is frequently seen resting on tree foliage at night. At La- fayette, Ind., we find it throughout the month of May, sometimes earlier, 108 Fic. 35. Cryptomeigenia theutis Walk., male. Fic. 36. Cryptomeigenia theutis Walk., larva; a, anal end, showing posterior b, posterior spiracles much enlarged. spiracles ; 109 and frequently during the month of June. In the act of oviposition the fly stealthily crawls onto the beetle while the latter is feeding or copulat- ing at night and proceeds to lay one or more eggs, which it fastens to the body of the beetle by means of a glutinous secretion. The eggs (Fig. 37) are light brown, oval, measuring .36 mm. by .66 mm. They are frequently laid on the abdomen, usually at the side and near the edge of the elytron (Pl. X, Fig. 40) or they may even be slipped beneath the wing cover. They are sometimes laid on the hard parts of the body, such as the elytra and thorax, but it is questionable whether larvae hatching from eggs thus deposited are able to enter the body of the host. The larvae (Fig. 36) enter the abdominal cavity of the beetle and devour the fatty tissues, finally attacking the vital organs and thus killing the host. Before succumbing to the attacks of the parasitic larvae, in fact several days before death, the beetle almost invariably enters the soil to a depth of several inches, sometimes 6 or 8, the larvae pupating within the body cavity and remaining there as a rule until spring of the follow- ing year. Fic. 37. Cryptomeigenia theutis Walk., eggs, much enlarged. This species is the most frequent beetle parasite according to our observations, which include over 850 rearing records from the following localities: Manhattan, Kan. (J. W. McColloch and W. P. Hayes), Greenwood, Miss. (J. M. Langston), Wakeman, O. (W. B. Hall), Clarksville, Tenn. (H. Fox and P. Wyatt), Richmond, Va. (T. S. Her- bert), Tappahannock, Va. (H. Fox), Milford and Sheldon, IIl., Akron, Huntingburg, Lafayette, Orleans, Princeton, and Vincennes, Ind., Battle Creek, East Leroy, Farmington, Imlay City, Mendon, Port Huron, and Richland, Mich., Napoleon and Swanton, O., and Trout Lake, Wis. (members of Lafayette Station staff, including R. J. Kewley, D. G. Tower, A.-F. Satterthwait, S. L. Mason, F. A. Fenton, H. J. Hart, C. F. Turner, and the writer). The names in parenthesis indicate the col- lectors, who greatly helped the investigation by sending in specimens of 110 live May-beetles. In some cases the flies issued the year they killed the beetles, but most of those forming puparia in the spring of one year did not issue until the spring of the following year. From this and other data it is certain that under natural conditions the flies normally have a one-year life-cycle. In our cage experiments flies began to issue soon after the cages were removed from their winter quarters, that is about April 20, and continued to issue until early in May. These dates are somewhat earlier than is normal out-of-doors, the first emergence of flies usually being coincident with or shortly after beetle emergence, which in the latitude of Lafayette is, as a rule, the last few days in April. It would appear that both sexes of beetles are attacked indiffer- ently, since the number of male and female beetles from which the flies are reared is almost exactly the same. From one to seven larvae may develop in a single host, although we have never reared to the adult more than five from one beetle, and the average of the 134 examples observed in 1916 is 2.8 larvae to each beetle. C. theutis seems to be parasitized by a very interesting hymenop- terous parasite (Lepidopria aberrans Brues). At Hagerstown, Md., ‘August 15, 1913, Mr. J. A. Hyslop, of the Bureau of Entomology, found a dead female Phyllophaga inversa containing two dipterous puparia, which agreed with those of C. theutis. Each puparium showed two minute holes, and when opened one contained the shriveled remains of a fly and the other the fragments of an apterous hymenopteron which was determined and described by Mr. C. T. Brues as the above- mentioned species (10). We have occasionally found puparia showing minute holes, but have never found the parasite which was presumed to have made them. CRYPTOMEIGENIA AURIFACIES Walton This and the following species have been reported as parasites of Phyllophaga adults in Porto Rico but are not known to occur in the United States. C. aurifacies (Fig. 38, 39) was described and first recorded as a parasite in 1912 by Mr. W. R. Walton (80), and was later reported by Mr. D, L. Van Dine (78) as bred from beetles collected in several localities in Porto Rico. It is closely related to our common C. theutis, but may be distinguished from that species by the dorsal vittae of the thorax, which are distinctly velvety black, these markings being indistinct brownish in theutis; likewise the sides of the face of aurifacies are distinctly golden yellow pollinose, the face of theutis being gray. EuTRIXOIDES JONESII Walton A second tachinid parasite, not known to occur in the United States, was bred from Phyllophaga adults in Porto Rico by Mr. T. H. Jones in 1912, and the species described by Mr. Walton in 1913 (81). Although closely related to our American May-beetle parasite, Eutriva exile, it is distinguished, according to Mr. Walton, by the remarkable development of the ovipositor (Fig. 40), and in the male by its much narrower front and face. 111 Fie. 38. Cryptomeigenia aurifacies Walt. (After Walton.) Fic. 39. Cryptomeigenia aurifacies Walt., puparium (anterior end missing), anal end, showing position of spiracles, and one of the spiracles more enlarged. 112 EuTRIXA EXILE Coq. This species (Fig. 41) was first reported as a May-beetle parasite in 1897 by D. W. Coquillett under the name Eutrixa masuria Walk. (13). The flies issued March 12, 16, and 23, 1895, from a P. arcuata adult obtained at Washington, D. C. It is almost as wide-spread as Cryptomeigenia theutis, the published records giving its distribution as Ontario, Canada; New Hampshire, New York, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Our rec- ords show it to occur also in Mississippi, Missouri, and South Carolina. Although the species occurs more commonly in the Northern States, it seems to be less typically northern than C. theutis. We have reared the species from fifteen species of Phyllophaga, namely, P. anxia (=—dubia), draku (=grandis), fervida (=arcuata), fraterna, fusca, futilis (=gibbosa), hirticula, ilicis, implicita, profunda Fic. 40. Tip of abdomen (a) of Eutrixoides jonessi Walt., and (b) of Butrixva exile Coq. rugosa, tristis, vehemens, vilifrons, and new species b,* and from beetles representing 200 records and collected in twenty-four localities as fol- lows: Strathroy and Wilton Grove, Ontario, Canada (beetles collected by H. G. Crawford) ; Starkville, Miss. (G. F. Arnold) ; Mt. Grove, Mo. (M. P. Somes) ; East Greenbush, N. Y. (E. P. Felt) ; Winfield Junction, L. L, N. Y. (Jay Sedgwick) ; Wakeman, O. (W. B. Hall) ; Charlottes- ville, Va. (W. J. Phillips and H. Fox) ; Richmond, Va. (T. S. Herbert) ; Sharps and Tappahannock, Va. (H. Fox) ; and from Akron, Lafayette, Orleans, Princeton, and Vincennes, Ind.; Adrian, Battle Creek, East Leroy, Farmington, Imlay City, and Port Huron, Mich.; Swanton, Ohio; and Platteville and Trout Lake, Wis. (members of the Lafayette Station staff). In addition, Mr. Philip Luginbill, of the Bureau of Entomology, reared it in 1913 from an adult P. tristis taken * An undescribed species in author’s collection. 118 at Columbia, S. C., and Mr. Rees Philpott reared two of the flies May 3, 1915, from a single Phyllophaga beetle found two days before in the soil at Delaware, Ohio. * We have not studied all the details of the general habits and life history of this species, but as far as known they agree with those of C. theutis, the fly being nocturnal and laying its eggs on the beetles while they are feeding or resting on tree foliage at night. Some of the flies issue the same season they parasitize the beetle, that is during July, about one month after puparia are observed, but this is probably due to the conditions referred to in the discussion of C. thewtis, and in a natural Fic. 41. Hutrixa exile Coq., male. environment the life cycle is probably normally one year. In cages the flies begin to appear soon after they have been removed from the com- post heap where they are kept during the winter months, but under normal out-of-door conditions emergence is coincident with the appear- ance of May-beetles or a little later, their first appearance usually being a few days or a week after that of C. theutis. Our records show that the male and female beetles are about equally attacked and that from one to eight larvae develop in a single host, the average for 183 examples being two to a beetle. 114 E. exile may be distinguished in the larval and pupal stages from other parasites of May-beetles by the characteristic posterior spiracles, illustrated in Figure 42 b Fic. 42. Hutrixa exile Coqg., puparium from which adult has issued; a, posterior spiracles, much enlarged ; b, anal end, showing posterior position or posterior spiracles, BfoMyYIA LACHNOSTERNAE Towns. Biomyia lachnosternae was first reared by the writer in 1905 from an adult Phyllophaga crenulata taken at Urbana, Ill., and was recorded by Dr. S. A. Forbes (26) as a species of Viviana. This was later de- scribed by Mr. C. H. T. Townsend as a new species under the name V. lachnosternae (75). The beetle referred to above was obtained July 15, laid three eggs after being placed in a flower-pot cage, and died about July 29, the fly (Fig. 43) issuing August 5, after the beetle had been pinned. We have also reared it from beetles collected in Missis- sippi, South Carolina, and Virginia, and it is apparently typically a mem- ber of the southern fauna. In our rearing experiments we have bred this parasite from 89 beetles representing nine species of Phyllophaga, namely, P. calceata, ephilda (=burmeisteri), forbesi, forsteri (—=nova), luctuosa, prunun- culina, quercus, vehemens, and new species b. The beetles from which they were reared were collected at Agricultural College, Miss. (collected by students through the courtesy of Professor R. W. Harned), Greenwood, Miss. (collected by J. M. Langston); Gulfport, Miss. (C. C. Greer) ; Columbia, S. C. (Philip Luginbill) ; and Charlottesville and Tappahannock, Va. (H. Fox). It differs from the two preceding in that not more than one maggot normally develops in a single beetle, only one case having been observed in which as many as two flies came from the same host, and according to all our records the adults invari- ably issue within 45 days of the time when they were collected and caged. We have not studied the species under conditions occurring in the Southern States, its normal habitat, but the evidence at hand 115 indicates a second seasonal generation, and this is possible since adult Phyllophaga of one species or another are active in the Southern States from the latter part of March until the middle of August. The species may prove to be an appreciable aid in the control of Phyllophaga in the Southern States. Fic. 43. Biomyia lachnosternae Towns., male. SARCOPHAGIDS, INCLUDING DousrruL Recorps Several sarcophagids have been recorded in literature as parasitic on Phyllophaga adults, and we have occasionally reared them—and once an anthomyiid—in cages containing May-beetles, but in most cases it was plainly evident that the flies had hatched from maggots which fed only on the dead beetles. In all cases where these flies have been reared at the. Lafayette Laboratory, the cages were covered with wire-screen, permitting larvae or eggs to be thrust into the cage through the meshes. Furthermore, all such rearing records were from cages containing large numbers of beetles confined for parasites, and the dead beetles and abundant excrement were no doubt attractive to the scavenger flies. It might be noted that the sarcophagid larvae invariably left the dead 116 beetles to pupate, which is never the case with the beetle parasites already treated. Of the eight sarcophagids briefly treated in this connection only the first four (S. prohibita S. tuberosa, var. sarracentoides, S. cim- bicis, and S. new species) are probably true parasites of May-beetles. Like other sarcophagids they are active during the daytime, and each of the four was reared from a diurnal May-beetle. SARCOPHAGA PROHIBITA Ald. We have only one rearing record of this species. In a lot of Phyl- lophaga lanceolata received at Lafayette, Ind., July 4, 1916, from J. W. McColloch and W. P. Hayes, and collected at Manhattan, Kan., three days previous, one male and one female beetle were dead July 6, each containing a dipterous larva. One fly issued July 25, 1916, but was destroyed in the mail before being determined. The other fly issued June 5, 1917, and was determined by Dr. Aldrich as his prohibita. From the facts that both beetle and fly are diurnal, that the beetles were alive when received at Lafayette, and that prohibita is not known to occur in, Indiana but is more or less common in Kansas, it seems reasonably certain that this fly is a parasite of Phyllophaga. SARCOPHAGA TUBEROSA Pand., var. SARRACENIOIDES Ald. We have never observed this species, but Dr. J. M. Aldrich (2) records it on the authority of Mr. E. G. Kelly as having been reared from adult Phyllophaga. Mr. E. L. Barrett, of.the U. S. Entomological Laboratory at Wellington, Kan., obtained a number of this species July 13, 1916, from a screen-covered cage containing adult Phyllophaga lanceolata collected June 9, 1916. The cage had been sifted July 10, at which time the puparia of this fly were found in the dirt. It is probable that this sarcophagid is a true parasite of the diurnal lanceolata, but it is evident from our present knowledge of the Sarcophagidae that it is possible for the flies to deposit their larvae through the wire screen, and this is especially likely when the cages contain large numbers of beetles, many of which die on the surface, the dead bodies together with the abundant excreta being attractive to female sarcophagids. This fly has been recorded as parasitic on several insects and has also been reared from human excrement, dead fish, etc. Its range is from Virginia to Washington and British Columbia on the west, and south to Texas and Arizona. SARCOPHAGA CIMBICIS Towns. This species was obtained from a screen cage containing Phylloph- aga lanceolata by Mr. E. L. Barrett at Wellington, Kan., and was reared along with S. twberosa var. sarracenioides, notes for which have just been given under that species heading. It is probably a true parasite of this diurnal May-beetle, but further exact experiments will be neces- sary to prove this beyond doubt. The species was originally reared from the willow sawfly (Cimbex americana), and no further records of its parasitic habits have been published to my knowledge, although it ap- alli pears to be a rather common species with a range almost as extensive as that of sarracenioides. SarcopHaca, n. sp. (Aldrich det.) May 6, 1918, we received two pinned male Phyllophaga farcta from F. B. Paddock, which bore the label “Lometa, Texas, April 30, 1918”. On receipt the abdomen of one beetle was found loose in the box, to- gether with two sarcophagid larvae, one of which was immature and did not issue, the other issuing as an adult fly May 20. It was de- termined by Dr. Aldrich as a new species belonging, according to genital characters, to the group known to be parasites. SARCOPHAGA HELIcIs Towns. S. helicis has been repeatedly reared from larvae and puparia from cages containing numbers of May-beetles caged for parasites, and the dying beetles were no doubt responsible for the attraction of helicis adults and their subsequent oviposition in the cage through the wire screen. Repeated unsuccessful attempts have been made to induce the flies to infest live beetles, and it might be mentioned in this connection that Mr. A. F. Satterthwait conducted at Lafayette, Ind., a number of experiments to ascertain whether the flies of this species would infest live army-worms (Cirphis unipuncta), all these experiments resulting negatively. In 1893 Mr. C. H. T. Townsend (74) listed this species among a lot reared from Phyllophaga by Dr. Forbes, but there is no evidence that they were reared from live beetles. Dr. J. M. Aldrich (2) also records it as having been reared from Phyllophaga adults at Washing- ton, D. C., in 1895, but he questioned this record and considered it as probably a scavenger. The writer believes there is no basis for regarding S. helicis as a parasite of Phyllophaga, but there is sufficient evidence to prove its scavenger habits. SARCOPHAGA UTILIS Ald. We have reared S. utilis from a dead Pelidnota punctata adult, from loose puparia in the soil of Phyllophaga cages, and in one instance from a larva found in the body of a dead female P. implicita. ,The beetles in the cage in the last-mentioned case were collected at Lafayette, Ind., June 21, 1915, and the dead implicita beetle containing the nearly full- grown larva of S. utilis was found July 2. The larva left the beetle and pupated in the soil several days after, and the adult fly issued August 12. We have also reared it from dead Cotinus nitida adults, in which case it was almost certainly a scavenger, and Mr. W. R. Walton reared it from a dead Geotrupes splendidus (2). The possibility of this species being parasitic on Phyllophaga is very much to be doubted in the face of the evidence at hand. SARCOPHAGA FALCULATA Pand. This fly was obtained by E. G. Kelly and J. S. Wade from a cage containing May-beetles collected at Charleston, Mo., by Vernon King, 118 but there is no evidence that they were reared from live beetles, and it is hardly possible that they were. This species has been reared, accord- ing to Aldrich (2), from decaying meat. FANNIA CANICULARIS Linn. This interesting little fly, frequently found in houses and therefore termed the little house-fly, was reared from a female Phyllophaga vehemens obtained by J. M. Langston at Greenwood, Miss. The live beetles were collected April 24, 1915, and received at the Lafayette Laboratory April 28. The cage was examined May 4, at which time the dead beetles were discarded, and when again examined, May 28, one beetle was found to contain a dipterous puparium, the adult fly, de- termined by Dr. Aldrich as F. canicularis, issuing July 20 of the same year. ‘This species is only known to breed in decaying vegetable matter, dead insects, or animal excreta, and there is reasonable doubt as to whether it is sometimes a true parasite, or purely a scavenger as we have assumed. SpipEeRS as HEINEMIES OF May-BEETLES Although not generally active enemies, several species of spiders have been seen attacking live May-beetles at night. Most frequently the grubs are caught in the webs and are there taken by the spider, but the writer has seen one case of a truly predaceous attack. While col- lecting beetles from trees at Lafayette, Ind, May 20, 1912, an adult Phyllophaga implicita was seen to alight on a peach tree about dusk (7:45 p. m.), and several minutes later, after it had begun to feed, it was seized by a spider, determined by Dr. Nathan Banks as Lycosa helluo Wakeman. Another spider, Xysticus gulosus Keys (Banks det.), with a cap- tured P. futilis, was taken at Lafayette, Ind., May 12, 1915, by Mr. A. F. Satterthwait, of the Bureau of Entomology. At Princeton, Ind., June 29, 1916, while collecting May-beetles from trees, a number of spiders, all ot the same species and determined by Nathan Banks as Plectana stellata Hentz (Pl. XI, Fig. 46, 47), were observed attacking May-beetles (P. implicita) which had been caught in the webs, and the same spider was seen attacking May-beetles in a similar manner at Lafayette, Ind. Mr. G. G. Ainslie found an adult of P. fusca in the web of this spider at Knoxville, Tenn., and the writer saw an adult P. congrua attacked and killed by the same species at New Orleans, La. Diseases of the larva A Nematove Diszase A new white-grub disease, caused by nematodes, appeared in bene- ficial abundance in the vicinity of Lancaster, Wis., during the late summer and fall of 1915, but although many other localities where grubs were abundant were visited and a special search was made, the new a9) disease was not found elsewhere. August 19, 1915, the writer was in- formed by Mr. Frank S. Turner, a farmer living a mile east of Lancaster, that the grubs seemed to be dying in one of his fields where they had destroyed most of the corn that summer. An examination showed that a third or more of them were dead and yellow or decayed, and by October 5 at least 90 per cent. of the grubs had died. The disease was also prevalent in neighboring fields to a distance of three-fourths of a mile to a mile. With one exception, every field in which the dying grubs were found had been in timothy the year before, that is, the year the beetles were abundant, but whether this had any significance other than that such land is usually the worst infested with grubs, can not be told at this time. The one exception was a corn field which was in oats the previous year and adjoined a field which contained diseased grubs. According to Mr. Turner’s observations the disease made its appearance in a very wet spell about the first of July, and five or six weeks later, when the writer visited the field, a third of the grubs had been killed. Towards the end of August and following a period of wet weather newly affected grubs again became numerous, but shortly after this a dry spell seemed to retard the spread of the disease. From these Fic. 44, Nematodes found infesting white-grubs: a, mature indivdiual ; b, immature worm. observations it seems likely that moisture plays an important role in the occurrence, abundance, and spread of this nematode infestation. Af- fected grubs were usually within six inches of the surface. They have a characteristic appearance (Pl. XII, Fig. 49), recently killed grubs being of a peculiar lemon-yellow color and the body fluids yellowish green. A few days or a week later they begin to take on a brownish color, due apparently to decay, and several weeks after the death of the grub decay and disintegration is complete. The bodies of the dead grubs are filled with thousands of small nematodes, and frequently, with the aid of a magnifier, the active parasites are plainly visible through the skin of the host. The appearance of the nematode as it occurs in the grub, is shown in Figure 44. Individuals which appeared mature measured 2.17 mm., the smaller ones measuring .39 to 1.00 mm., and the average being approximately .80 mm. Grubs were sent to Dr. N. A. Cobb, who found two species present, one being Diplogaster aerivora Cobb, and the other immature Cephalo- bus (?) sp., the primary affection being considered by Dr. Cobb as due to the Diplogaster, although this point was not positively determined. An account of the life history and habits of D. aerivora has been pub- 120 lished by J. H. Merrill and A. L. Ford (51), who found it attacking Leucotermes lucifugus and grasshoppers’ eggs in Kansas. The nem- atodes were found parasitic in the heads, and in no case were they found in the abdomen of L. lucifugus, although after the death of the host they might feed within or on any part of the body. A Protozoan DtskasE While investigating reported white-grub injury on the farm of Robert Evans, seven miles northwest of Hoopeston, Ill., September 25, 1912, Mr. W. P. Flint and the writer observed live and dead grubs lying on the surface, and upon close examination also found sickly or dead grubs just below the surface, their presence being indicated by a slight cracking of the surface crust (16). Specimens were sent to Dr. R. D. Glasgow, who was at that time employed by Dr. S. A. Forbes to investigate white-grub diseases, and he pronounced the affection due to a protozoan parasite. The field containing the diseased grubs was a 60-acre corn field, 15 acres of which had been ruined by grubs of the 1911 brood of May-beetles. The soil in the field was a rich black loam and the field had been in oats the preceding year. A month later (October 29) the field was again visited and dead grubs were found quite abundant in the soil in the worst-infested parts of the field. Most of those on the surface were dry and readily blown about by the wind. Many other diseased grubs, and some dead, were found in the soil at a depth of % to 1% inches, their presence usually indicated by the crack- ing of the soil, as noted above. Grubs which were apparently free from the disease occurred 1 to 1%4 feet below the surface, and although it was impossible to make an exact estimate it was evident that more than 50 per cent. of the grub population had been destroyed by the disease. It is interesting to note that although skunks had been active in search- ing for the grubs in this field, they had apparently not eaten any of the diseased grubs, neither those lying on the ground nor those just beneath the surface. The following season (September 30, 1913) the writer again visited the field and followed the plow in the infested area for a distance of 360 rods; but only 7 adult beetles and 11 grubs were found, and most of these were along the edge of the infested area where the disease was least prevalent in 1912. Patches in the field were dug to a depth of 1% and 2 feet with similar results. The evidence showed rather plainly that the disease had destroyed most of the grubs. A second outbreak of this protozoan disease was found October 6, 1915, on the farm of Mr. Ira E. Bryan, one mile north of Belvidere, Ill. Dead and sickly grubs were on and just beneath the surface as in the case at Hoopeston, above mentioned, and Mr. Bryan had noticed diseased grubs several weeks before our visit. An approximate estimate showed that at least 50, or possibly 75, per cent. of the grubs in this field were affected. It had been in sod the previous year and the grubs were from the 1914 brood of beetles. Neighboring fields heavily infested with grubs showed the same disease to be prevalent. 121 These are the only localities where the disease has been found, and in both cases it has proved a very effective check. Our facilities have not provided for a study of Protozoa, and nothing is known of the propagation of this species, either artificially or under natural conditions, whether it is a direct or indirect parasite, or whether it can be utilized artificially for the control of white-grubs. The affected grubs are characterized by their habit of coming to the surface of the ground, or near to it, and at a season when, according to our observations, the natural migration would be downward, but they present no unusual appearance except that they look sickly and emaciated and gradually dry up—as one might expect any grub to do if exposed to the sun and wind on the surface of the ground where it could not re-enter. (Pl. XII, Fig. 48.) Bacteria Diseases To our knowledge, but one bacterial disease affecting white-grubs has been recorded as occurring in this country, although at least two are known to attack related species in Europe. Our American disease, due to Micrococcus nigrofaciens Northrup, has been studied and described by Miss Zae Northrup (52). She concludes that the organism causing Fic. 45. A common white-grub (Phyl- lophaga sp.) showing typical infec- tions of the bacterial disease due to Micrococcus nigrofaciens Note the one leg with only blackened stump remaining; another, in an earlier stage, with only its end blackened ; also the third infection at one of the spiracles. the disease is present in soils in widely separated localities in the United States and probably through most of the states. The diseased grubs are characterized by a blackening of the affected parts (Fig. 45), and an excessive wetness of the soil favors the progress of the disease. It has been encountered wherever we have collected grubs, and Miss Northrup is undoubtedly right in concluding that it is generally distributed through- out the United States. According to our observations, grubs become infected only through wounds, and the infection is usually limited unless certain favorable conditions are present. Grubs are, in fact, often reared to maturity which have shown the infection in one or more of their legs. We can only conclude from this and other observations, together with 122 our knowledge of the constant occurrence of the Micrococcus in soils everywhere, that it is of minor importance in the control of Phyllophaga, except possibly under exceptionably favorable ‘conditions, and that it can not be used for this purpose artificially. This disease has been studied in Porto Rico by Mr. R. H. Van Zwaluwenburg, and his con- clusions (79), which agree with our own, are as follows: “The organism is present in our soils but its efficiency can not be increased by any prac- . tical means, for infection takes place usually only through a bruise or cut in the integument of the larva.” Funcous DisEasss Of the several species of fungus parasites of white-grubs, the so- called green muscardine fungus (Metarrhizium anisopliae Metsch. and its variety americana Pettit)* is the commonest and most wide-spread (Pl. XIII, Fig. 51—57). M. amsopliae was discovered by Metschnikoff, in 1878, attacking larvae of Anisoplia austriaca, a white grub of con- siderable importance in Europe. It has since been frequently referred to in literature and is now known to attack nearly all torms of insect life, being apparently cosmopolitan in its distribution. The first indica- tion of the disease is a rigidity of the body, and this is followed shortly by the appearance of white mycelial threads, first at the joints, and later completely covering the body with a white velvety coat. Within a day or two the characteristic green spores develop—dark in the case of anisopliae and light green in the variety americana. This fungus has probably never been artificially employed with effective results on white- grubs although it has recently proven somewhat effective in Trinidad (64, 76) in the control of the sugar-cane froghopper (Tomaspis varia Fabr.). In 1913 the writer applied this fungus in several fields badly infested with white-grubs in Wisconsin and Indiana, using corn-meal cultures, some of which were grown at the Lafayette Station, but most of them furnished by Dr. S. A. Forbes. No results whatever were obtained in any case, although the grubs were abundant and the weather conditions were favorable to fungus growth. The green muscardine has also been used for the control of white-grubs in Porto Rico, and the results obtained there, which agree with our own, may be summarized from the report of the pathologist, John A. Stevenson (68). “At the south coast laboratory at Ensenada the fungus is present to such an extent as to seriously interfere at times with the progress of studies on the life history of the various beetles attacking cane. On the other hand no such success has attended the field trials which have been conducted in the neighborhood of Yauca. * * * The fact that it [the green mus- cardine fungus] does exist here and has not become epidemic would seem to militate against the success of present experiments, especially in the light of results obtained to date.” While following the plow we have found isolated cases of Metarrhizium infection in grubs of the " * Variations in color and size of spores are thought by John R. Johnston (40) to depend upon the host or the media, not being of varietal rank, but merely indications of different physiological races. 123 genus Phyllophaga in various parts of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, but have found it nowhere common. Scarabaeid grubs, and more especially grubs of the genus Ligyrus, are quite susceptible to this fungus in our breeding cages, and indeed it has occasionally interfered with our life-history studies, but the unusually favorable conditions in the cages can not be duplicated in the field, and, judging from our experience, the green muscardine can not be employed artificially as a means of controlling white-grubs in the northern half of the United States. The white muscardine, /saria densa Link (—Botrytis tenella), has been experimented with against the white-grubs in Europe, and a few investigators have claimed success, but the opinions of European investi- gators are conflicting on the subject and the actual value of its artificial use aS a measure against white-grubs is yet to be demonstrated. On the other hand there is little doubt that its wide-spread natural occur- rence among grubs in the field would prove an effective check upon their injuries, as is clearly indicated by the following record. In Decem- ber, 1911, Mr. W. P. Flint, of the office of the State Entomologist of Illinois, found Phyllophaga grubs killed by J. densa very common, and in some places abundant, on the surface of the soil in many parts of southern Illinois, including the counties of Randolph, Marion, Jackson, Perry, Bond, Madison, and Fayette. The grubs collected by Mr. Flint and kindly sent to us by Dr. S. A. Forbes, were thoroughly mummified, as shown in the accompanying photograph (Pl. XIV, Fig. 59). The fields where these diseased grubs were found were in corn, wheat, oats, and cow-peas. Although most of the sick grubs came to the surface of the ground before dying, it was noticed by Mr. Flint that the birds apparently did not pick them up. A fungus similar to J. densa (Isaria farinosa Dicks; Pl. XIII, Fig. 50)has likewise been tried by European investigators with much the same results as those reported for J. densa. J. farinosa is supposed to be the “Isaria stage’ of a species of Cordyceps, possibly C. mulitaris Linn. Pettit (56) also records Cordyceps melolonthae ? (Tul.) Sace., and Tsaria vexans Pettit as attacking Phyllophaga grubs. The peculiar and characteristic Cordyceps growths on white- grubs have been occasionally mentioned in literature and most of them referred to the species C. melolonthae, C. militaris, and C. ravenelii. The first reference to Cordyceps on grubs in this country seems to have been made by Jacob Cist in 1824 (12). In our studies we have obtained but one true Cordyceps attacking Phyllophaga grubs, and this specimen, found in the forest tract at Trout Lake, Vilas Co., Wis., has been kindly identified for us by Dr. E. B. Mains as probably C. ravenelii Berk, and Curt., but it could not be determined with certainty without the fertile tip, whieh was broken off. We have also obtained from Mr. D. E. Walker, through the kindness of Mr. Harry F. Dietz, grubs attacked by Cordyceps herculea (Schw.) Sacc. (=melolonthae) (Mains det.). These 124 diseased grubs, which are undoubtedly Xyloryctes satyrus, were collected in a forest area at Little York, Ind., July 2, 1915. The Isaria fungi are in most cases supposed to be one stage of the Cordyceps fungi, but our knowledge of the subject is meager and views are conflicting. Our own studies with Jsaria farinosa and I. densa indicate rather conclusively their ineffectiveness against the white-grub in the field under normal conditions. Indeed they are even less prolific and virulent than is the green muscardine fungus, and the conditions found necessary for their active growth are seldom if ever duplicated in cultivated fields, the perfect Cordyceps stage having been found by us only in forests or partly cut-over forest-land where the proper moisture and light condi- tions are to be found. PITCHER-PLANTS AND PHYLLOPHAGA Although probably of little economic importance, mention may be made of an interesting observation made in southwestern Georgia in a swamp near Coolidge by Dr. W. Dwight Pierce (57) on the insect- catching habits of pitcher-plants. In practically every. pitcher of Sar- racemia catesbaei Ell, a common species in southwestern Georgia, Phyllophaga remains were found. Miscellaneous predaceous enemies Brrps Birds are among the most efficient, if not the most active, natural agencies in the control of white-grubs throughout the United States, more especially in the newer regions where they are still to be found in large numbers. Of the 52 different kinds of birds presently to be men- tioned as benefiting the farmer by destroying May-beetles and their progeny, probably the crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and the crow blackbird (Quiscalus quiscula) are the most valuable. They are the constant companions of the plowman and diligently pick up the grubs and beetles as they are exposed. According to the records of the Biolog- ical Survey (4) both May-beetles and grubs have been found in the stomachs of crows every month of the year except January. An instance of the capacity of blackbirds for grubs was given the writer by Mr. Henry Holzinger, of Lancaster, Wis. While a timothy sod was being plowed in 1912 a single blackbird was seen by him to eat as many grubs as possible and then, with its mouth full of them, to fly away. By actual count this bird destroyed twenty grubs in from one to two minutes. This habit of the blackbird of eating a large quantity of grubs and then flying away with the bill full, is a common one according to our observa- tions. In addition to the crow and the crow blackbird the Bureau of Biological Survey has listed the following birds as feeding on May- beetles or white-grubs. They are here given in the order of their probable 125 value as enemies of Phyllophaga: robin (Planesticus migratorius) ,* Franklin’s gull (Larus franklini)*, red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus)*, killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus)*, horned lark (Otocoris alpestris)*, ruffed grouse (bonosa wmbellus)*, upland plover (Bar- tramia longicauda)*, meadow-lark (Sturnella magna* and probably S. neglecta), brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufwm), phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), cuckoo (Coccysus erythrophthalmus), screech owl (Otus asio), barred owl (Strix varia)*, great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), East- ern bluebird (Sialia sialis), house wren (Troglodytes aedon)*, prairie chicken (Tympanuchus americanus), quail, or bob-white (Colinus vir- ginianus), sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius)*, broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus)*, red-shouldered hawk (Suteo lineatus), red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis), scissor-tailed fly-catcher (Musctvora forficata), crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus), and the English sparrow (Passer domesticus)*. (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 19, 20, 21, 35, 41, 42, 50, 61, 66.) > Mr. Norman Criddle (14) mentions the robin, flicker, grackle or crow blackbird, cowbird, and gull as enemies of grubs, but the crow is said to rank highest according to observations made in Manitoba, Can- ada. The cowbird (Molothrus ater), although having a bad reputation, is said to be an excellent destroyer of white-grubs, usually eating the smaller ones, but when these are not available killing the larger ones by biting their heads and eating only parts of the grubs. Mr. A. C. Burrill mentions (11) the herring gull (Larus argentatus) as feeding on May- beetles, but its actual usefulness in this connection is not known. The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), which was introduced into this country within comparatively recent years, was reported to us in 1915 as an active destroyer of Cyclocephala grubs occurring in lawns at Staten Island, N. Y., and according to Mr. E. H. Forbush (27) it likewise feeds on May-beetles and white-grubs. Whether its appearance in this country will eventually prove a menace to fruit crops or to the more beneficial native birds, can not as yet be foreseen. In his study of the food habits of the English sparrow (Passer domesticus), Dr. C. V. Riley (61) found that 7 out of 92 stomachs examined contained grubs or May-beetles, while 40 contained the remains of either Tiphia or Myzine sex-cincta (=Elis 5-cincta), both of which are now known to be very important white-grub parasites. This particu- lar study certainly shows this sparrow as noxious in its relation to the white-grub, but it has been seen to follow the plow more or less and to destroy grubs. At Elk Point, S. Dak., Mr. C. N. Ainslie, of the Bureau of Entomology, saw both English and field sparrows feeding on grubs exposed by a corn lister. At Lancaster, Wis., an observing farmer, Mr. Holzinger, told us of the inestimable value of birds in destroying grubs, mentioning especially the blackbirds and English sparrows. | When plowing a sod field in 1912 he saw a sparrow following the plow. It pecked at five grubs without eating one and then ate the sixth, and upon * Those starred eat both beetles and grubs; others, only beetles 126 examination it was found that it had killed the first five, the head having been completely pulled off in one case. While following a plow in a badly infested field May 11, 1916, at Rockton, Ill., the writer saw many grubs with crushed heads, and three or four sparrows were noticed to be actively engaged pecking at the grubs as soon as they were turned out by the plow, seldom eating one but seeming to delight in pecking into their heads. At Lafayette, Ind., May 14, 1891, Prof. F. M. Webster saw an English sparrow feeding on Phyllophaga beetles which had fallen to the ground beneath an electric light the night before, and this observation has been made by others also. A gull, supposedly Franklin’s gull (Larus franklini), has been re- ported from various places in Nebraska, Iowa, and South Dakota as very fond of grubs. Mr. C. N. Ainslie saw flocks of gulls following the plow in infested fields at Elk Point, S. Dak., in May, 1913. They appeared.to feed exclusively when on the wing, swooping close to the ground and capturing the grub without alighting. In 1912 white-grubs were very destructive near Tabor, S. Dak., and the owner of a badly infested farm told the writer of the great value of the gulls and black- birds in destroying the grubs behind a plow or cultivator. His observa- tions on the habits of the gulls agreed with those of Mr. Ainslie, and the blackbirds in flying to the furrows and back to a near-by grove formed a black unbroken ellipse. In a letter to the Bureau of Entomology dated June 18, 1910, Mr. C. H. Loomis, of Platteville, Wis., refers to pigeons, as well as to crows and blackbirds, as actively feeding on grubs turned up by the plow. Other birds which have been reported to feed on white-grubs or May-beetles are the red-bellied woodpecker (Centurus carolinus) and the red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), according to the observations of Townend Glover (32); the blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), “golden woodpecker” (Colaptes auratus?), according to Har- gitt (38) ; chuck-wills widow (Antrostomus carolinensis), according to Dr. C. V. Riley (62) ; the catbird (Dumatella carolinensis), wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), and hermit thrush (H. guttata), according to Dr. S. A. Forbes (23, 25); and several grackles-(Quiscalus macrourus, Q. quiscula aeneus, Q. quiscula aglaeus, QO. major, the common ani (Cro- tophaga ani),and the grooved-bill ani (C sulcirostris), the laughing gull (Larus atricilla,) the Virginia rail (Rallus virginianus,) meadow-lark (Sturnella magna argutula), sora (Porzana carolina), and the rice bird (Dolichonyx orysivorus), according to observations made in Louisiana by Prof. G. E. Beyer (77). Crotophaga ani and Holoquiscalus brachyp- terus) feed on white-grubs in Porto Rico, according to Van Dine (77). While many of the above-mentioned birds are active grub-destroyers in the field, probably no one of them compares with the robin in its ability to detect and unearth grubs in lawns, a fact which makes them doubly valuable since grubs are much more difficult to control in grass lands than in cultivated fields. Evidently robins detect the grub by their keen sense of hearing, and having once ascertained its location they vigorously dig into the sod until it is unearthed. Mr. E. H. Forbush (28) reported an unusual abundance of white-grubs in a cranberry bog at Wareham, Mass., nearly every plant being killed; but the following season robins appeared in large numbers, and by digging into the soil and pulling out the grubs they practically cleared the field of the pests. The crow is often similarly active in destroying white-grubs in sod land, especially when they are abundant. In 1912 the writer saw a badly infested pasture at Galena, IIl., in which the sod had been literally over- turned by the crows in their search for grubs. Witp Mammats anp AMPHIBIANS Of the mammals known to destroy white-grubs and the parent May-beetles the common skunk (Mephitis mephitis—Pl. XV, Fig. 60) is undoubtedly the most important, and it has been repeatedly mentioned, since the early records by Harris, as a very efficient destroyer of white- grubs. In speaking of the remarkable capacity and fondness of skunks for grubs Dr. Lintner remarks (45): “I have often watched them, and, incredible as it may seem, I could not say that they ate less than half a bushel daily.” Mr. D. E, Lantz, in his discussion (44) of the “Economic Value of North American Skunks”, speaks of the common skunk (Me- phitis mephitis), the white-backed skunk (Conepatus sp.), and the little spotted skunk (Spilogale interrupta) as very important destroyers of white-grubs and May-beetles, basing his conclusions on extensive field observations as well as on studies of stomach contents; and other workers of the U. S. Biological Survey (21) write similarly. Mr. Frank C. Pellett (54) concludes from five years’ observation of this mammal in the field and in confinement that it is a valuable friend in destroying insect and rodent pests, and that “the poultry-killing habit is accidental and unusual and confined to a small percentage of the individuals”. Because of its nocturnal habits the skunk is seldom seen at work, but Mr. Norman Criddle (14) tells of watching a skunk catching May- beetles at night, and later in the season, after the beetles had disappeared, of observing the activities of skunks in search of grubs. In an 8-acre field infested with white-grubs, near Aweme, Manitoba, the work of two or more skunks was quite apparent, and he estimated that they had de- stroyed 116,160 grubs in this one field. In connection with our own studies we have frequently observed the work of the skunk. In 1912 Mr. Henry Geske, of McGregor, Iowa, told us of observing an old skunk roll up grub-infested sod, thus expos- ing the grubs, which she and her young ate eagerly. More often the animal detects the presence of a grub by a keen sense of smell and secures it by digging a small hole at the spot where she knows it to be. The writer was called to Lagro, Ind., November 3, 1911, to investigate a reported *white-grub injury to fall wheat. A week previous the grubs were common near the wheat plants, cutting off the roots, but on the day when we visited the field scarcely a grub could be found, most of them having been destroyed by skunks; at nearly every stalk of wheat 128 showing grub injury the typical skunk excavation was to be found but no trace of living grubs. A similar observation was made in an infested wheat field October 9, 1914, near Battle Creek, Mich. The farmers in the infested districts of Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa are realizing the economic importance of the skunk, and are in many cases prohibiting hunters from killing it, and in other ways giving it their protection. The common mole (Scalopus aquaticus) is probably next in im- portance. Mr. Theo. H. Scheffer (65), after examining the stomach contents of 200 moles taken in all months of the year, concludes that white-grubs and earthworms constitute the bulk of their food; and Mr. J. A. West (82) finds from a study of the stomach contents of moles collected under varying conditions in various parts of Illinois, that a good per cent. of the food of moles consists of white-grubs and May- beetles. Mr. George G. Ainslie, of the Bureau of Entomology, made some interesting observations on the feeding habits of the common mole in confinement. The mole, which was taken in a field at Nashville, Tenn., June 28, 1911, was fed ten large Phyllophaga grubs, two wireworms, and one web-worm in succession, all of which it ate with relish. The mole would eagerly take a grub, quickly crush its head between its teeth, and leisurely eat the remainder oi the grub. At Farmington, Mich., October 23, 1914, A. F. Satterthwait saw an abundance of mole tunnels in an old timothy sod badly infested with grubs, the unusual amount of mole work in this field indicating that they, as well as skunks, were attracted there to feed on the grubs. A similar observation was made by Joe S. Wade, of the Bureau of Ento- mology, at Shawnee, Okla., the mole tunnels being conspicuous, especially in the worst-infested parts of the field. At Ashboro, Indiana, we found a quantity of May-beetle remains at the end of a mole tunnel, and on several occasions have traced the mole-runs in corn fields infested with grubs and found them leading directly to hills where grub injury had occurred. All our field observations indicate that the moles play a significant role in the natural control of white-grubs. Other animals which have been seen to feed on white-grubs or May-beetles are the raccoon (Procyon lotor), the coyote (Canis latrans), the fox, the opossum (Didelphys virginiana), and the gopher. (21, 45, ° 55.) The first three are comparatively rare in most regions where white- grubs are important pests, and the ultimate value of the gopher is ques- tionable because of its injury to farm crops. Mr. J. S. Wade received a letter from a farmer of Shawnee, Okla., dated July 3, 1913, who reports killing a small striped gopher, or ground-squirrel—supposedly Citellus tridecemlineatus—in the immediate vicinity of grub-infested hay land and of examining its stomach, which contained about a dozen partly disintegrated grubs. Franklin’s spermophile (Citellus franklint) feeds on white-grubs, according to an examination of the stomach con- 129 tents made by Mr. Vernon Bailey (3); and such animals as the weasel, martin, wolf, and hedgehog are said to feed on white-grubs (17, 59). The shrew is also well known for its fondness for May-beetles and white-grubs, and A. F. Shull (67) estimates that a single short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) during one month might kill and use for food 450 May-beetles; and Mr. F. E. Wood (83) writes: “Probably no other mammal [referring to the above species], unless it be the skunk when on its good behavior, is so uniformly beneficial to the farmer.” The badger (Tavidea taxus) is very fond of white-grubs, and in some regions its beneficial activities have been noticeable. At Deford, Mich., July 25, 1913, Mr. A. F. Satterthwait, of the Bureau of Entomol- ogy, saw a white-grub-infested June-grass sod of about three acres dug up in a way that suggested the work of swine in rooting for grubs, and, on inquiry, Mr. Earl Lockwood, the owner, stated that badgers which lived in the adjacent woods were responsible for this work. The common toad (Bufo americanus) is very fond of May-beetles and has been seen at night beneath electric lights, feeding on the beetles as they drop, and during the evening in pastures, capturing May-beetles as they issue from the soil. At Wellington, Kan., May 23, 1911, E. G. Kelly saw toads eating beetles beneath lights and as they emerged from the grass in the evening, and in one case he noticed that a single toad ate more than nineteen beetles in succession. Mr. A. H. Kirkland (43) concludes from an examination of the stomach contents of many speci- mens that May-beetles constitute about 6 per cent. of the food of the common toad, and similar conclusions have been reached by other observers. Frogs are also known to feed on May-beetles. In one frog’s stomach examined by Mr. C. W. Hargitt six May-beetles were found (33) ; in another, that of a medium-sized frog, as many as ten beetles were found, according to G. H. Perkins (55); and P. R. Hoy (39) speaks of having found 8 May-beetles in a large spotted frog. The slimy salamander (Plethodon glutinosus) may eat May-beetles, according to observations by Prof. H. A. Surface (71), who found the remains of a. Phyllophaga adult among the stomach contents of this animal. Field mice also evidently feed to some extent on May-beetles. At Deford, Mich., June 25, 1914, A. F. Satterthwait found quantities of . May-beetle fragments under trash in mice runways at the base of a partially. defoliated Carolina poplar; and G. H. Perkins (55) reports mice (probably referring to field mice) as feeding on Phyllophaga. Domestic ANIMALS None of the enemies of Phyllophaga that have been mentioned rank as high in this rdle as do some of our domestic animals, and of these pigs are by far the most important. Their fondness for May-beetles and white-grubs, more especially for the latter, has been commonly observed, and their use for controlling white-grubs has been recommend- 130 ed for years. (P]. XIV, Fig. 58.) If pastured in infested ground, pigs will literally plow up the land in their search for grubs, and in a short time will practically eradicate the pests. Dr. Forbes (26) made an experiment to determine accurately the value of the pig in destroying grubs. One hundred pigs and 8 sows were turned into an enclosed 10- acre field September 23, and within 20 days 86 per cent. of the grubs were destroyed, and in 2% days less than 1 per cent. of the original infestation remained—a benefit of over 99 per cent. If we estimate 34.6 grubs per hill—the count made at the beginning of the experiment— and 3556 hills to the acre (hills 3%4 feet apart each way) it will be seen that the pigs destroyed something like 1,218,067 grubs in 27 days, that is, 11,278 grubs per animal. It was further noted that the pigs appar- ently suffered no ill effects from the continuous grub-ration. An interesting and illustrative account of the probable important role played by swine in the control of white-grubs in Texas twenty or more years ago was given us by Mr. N. Mowinkle, a resident of Texas for over sixty years, and of Travis county, where the grubs have recent- ly caused immense losses, for most of this time. Until comparatively recent years it was the custom of the Indians to burn over the mesquite meadows every fall, and hogs were always given free range. Previous to the year 1877 no fencing of any kind was used, but about that time barbed wire came into use. Burning over the land was discontinued fifteen or twenty years ago and laws requiring that hogs should be fenced were enacted. About ten, or possibly twelve, years ago the white-grubs began to destroy the pastures; in other words, they first appeared in injurious numbers five to seven years after the burning over of the land was discontinued and fencing for hogs was required. No doubt these two changes in the situation were in a large measure responsible for the increase of the white-grubs in certain parts of Texas. That the eating of white-grubs under certain conditions may be harmful to pigs, occasioning infestation with intestinal parasites, has been shown by Dr. C. W. Stiles (69), who says that the giant thorn- headed worm (Gigantorhynchus hirudinaceus = Echinorhynchus gigas), an injurious intestinal parasite of swine (Fig. 46), passes one stage of its life in the bodies of white-grubs of the genus Phyllophaga,* the pigs obtaining them by eating infested grubs, which themselves become in- fested by way of the excrement of parasitized pigs. Especial care should be taken to pasture brood sows in fields on which pigs have not been pastured for two or more years. Turkeys are extremely fond of grubs and we have seen the sod of pastures overturned by these birds in their search for the pests. Chickens are not so active as turkeys in their search for grubs in unplowed ground, but it is wise to encourage them to follow the plow and cultivator whenever possible, and they will eagerly pick up every grub or May-beetle exposed. In one case which has come to our at- * Other authors have shown a Similar relation to exist between this worm and two common European grubs (Melolontha vulgaris and. Cetonia aurata). 131 tention a heavily infested 15-acre field was cleaned of grubs by giving poultry the run of the field during cultivation. Another instance of the value of chickens in this connection was called to our attention by Mr. Frank Acker, of/ Middleton, Wis., whose potato crop was practically destroyed by grubs in 1912 excepting the part near the farm buildings, where the chickens had the run of the field. When sod is loose because its roots are cut off by grubs, chickens will scratch it away in their search for the insects much as do turkeys. When the beetles are abundant, on nearly every farm the chickens may be seen searching for May-beetles beneath the trees. Portable poultry houses, which can be transferred to any particular field or part of a field as it is being plowed or cultivated, were used in Fic. 46. Thorn-headed worms (Gigantorhynchus hirundinaceus) attached to piece of pig's intestine: +, male; ¢, female. Enlarged. (Re- drawn from Ransom, Yearbook U.S. Dept. Agr., 1905.) Europe over fifty years ago. Such houses, according to M. Maurice Girard (30), should have a capacity for 100 to 200 chickens, and should contain perches, numerous egg-laying compartments, and a receptacle to catch the manure. The chickens forage about the house during the day, returning at night, and a continuous ration of grubs has no percep- tible effect on the taste ot the eggs as does a continuous ration of certain lepidopterous larvae. Rarely dogs have been trained to follow the plow and pick up beetles and grubs (17). At Washington, Ind., April 16, 1915, Mr. D. G. Tower, 132 of the Bureau of Entomology, observed a black and tan terrier following a plow and eating the grubs as they were exposed. The dog seemed to find the grubs by scent as well as by sight, for frequently it would dig for those which were completely covered. Most of those eaten, accord- ing to Mr. Tower’s observation, were Cotinus (Allorhina), but un- doubtedly the dog would have eaten Phyllophaga grubs with relish had they been as abundant. It is well known that many cats are fond of May-beetles. Prof. H. A. Surface (70) reports that a cat in his possession would catch May- beetles as they came out of the ground in the evening, and that it once ate so many that it was made sick and vomited nearly a pint of May- beetle remains. es 2 fa ae ASS aa § ai- PRE) * a , aay - if et Feel tr ea) ia AY el WW aes ois inabigh woke saan it seer c ie RS tame: i Peae hetionsal wh bBo Sey: , Wf wi lynne at Salted Tey te ae p MRS hinge Sete? WP bri) Wd MAG mae i A. si cael) jy deRat Bia’ alg us arti £ weil LRU Pek Si Jak emery kisi fe if or ip . f thy wp Rohit ERRATA Page 97, line 17, for first larval in the line, read pupal. Page 112, in legend, for jonessi read jonesii. Page 114, in legend, for or read of. Page 131, in legend, for hirwndinaceus read hirudinaceus. Page 138, last line, for coccoon read cocoon. Plate XII, explanation page, next to last line, for acrivora read aerivora. Plate XIII, explanation page, next to last line, for White-grubs read Wihite-grub. LITERATURE CITED Aldrich, J. M. (1) 1905.. A catalogue of North American Diptera. Smiths’n Misc. Coll. No. 1444 (Vol. 46). 680 p. (2) 1916. Sarcophaga and allies in North America. The Thomas Say Foundation of Ent. Soc. Amer. 302 p., 16 pl. Bailey, Vernon (3) 1894. The prairie ground squirrels or spermophiles of the Mississippi Valley. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ornith. and Mamm. Bul. 4. 57 p. Beal, F. E. L. . (4) 1895. The crow blackbirds and their food. 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Agr. Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. No. 12, Pt. 2: 19-38, 12 fig. (37) 1906. A preliminary report on the horseflies of Louisiana, with a discussion of remedies and natural enemies. State Crop Pest Comm. La. Cir. 6. 43 p., 20 fig. (388) 1907. Second report upon the horseflies of Louisiana. La. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bul. 93. 59 p., 37 fig. Hoy, P.R. (39) 1881. [Frogs as enemies of May-beetles.] Trans. Wis. State Agr. Soc. 1880-81, 19 : 297. Johnston, John R. (40) 1915. The entomogenous fungi of Porto Rico. Bd. Comm. Agr. Porto Rico Bul. 10. 33 p., 9 pl. Judd, Sylvester D. (41) 1901. The food of nestling birds. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. 1900 : 411-436. (42) 1904. The economic value of the bobwhite. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. 1903 : 193-204. Kirkland, A. H. (43) 1904. Usefulness of the American toad. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 196. 16 p. Lantz, D. E. : (44) 1904. Economic value of North American skunks. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 587 : 10-12. 136 Lintner, J. A. (45) 1888. The white grub of the May beetle. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. Bul. 5. 31p., 5 fig. Also (1889) in Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. for 1883-86, Vol. 34. Lugger, O. (46) 1884. [Parasite of Tiphia, etc.] Psyche, 4: 211. Malloch, John R. (47) 1915. Some additional records of Chironomidae for Illinois and notes on other Illinois Diptera. Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 11 (Art. 4) : 306-363, 5 pl. (48) 1916. A comparison of the pupae of Promachus vertebratus and P. fitchu (Diptera). Bul. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 11 (No. 3) : 66-68. (48a)1916. The generic status of Chrysanthrax fulvohirta Wied. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 29 : 67. (49) 1917. A preliminary classification of Diptera, exclusive of Pupipara, based upon larval and pupal characters, with keys to imagines in certain families. Part I. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 12 (Art. 3). 249 pp., 30 pl. (49a)1918. The North American species of the genus Tiphia (Hymenoptera, Aculeata) in the collection of the Illinois State Natural History Survey. Bul. Nat. Hist. Surv. 13 : 1-24, 1 pl. McAtee, W. L., and Beal, F. E. L. (50) 1912. Some common game, aquatic, and rapacious birds in relation to man. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 497, 30 p., 14 fig. Merrill, J. H., and Ford, A. L. ; (51) 1916. Life history and habits of two new nematodes para- sitic on insects. Jour. Agr. Research [U. S. Dept. Agr.] 6 (No. 3) : 115-127, 3 fig. Northrup, Zae (52) 1914. A bacterial disease of June beetle larvae, Lachnosterna g spp. Mich. Agr. Exper. Sta. Tech. Bul. 18. 37 p., 22 fig. Nowell, W. (53) 1915. Two scoliid parasites on scarabaeid larvae in Barbados. Ann. Applied Biol. 2 (No. 1) : 46-57, 1 pl. Pellet, Frank C. (54) 1918. Food habits of the skunk. Proc. Ia. Acad. Sci. 1913, 20 : 307-309, 1 pl. Perkins, G. H. (55) 1892. Report of the entomologist. Fifth Ann. Rep. Vt. Agr. Exper. Sta. (1891), p. 144-159. Pettit, R. H. (56) 1895. Studies in artificial cultures of entomogenous fungi. Cornell al Exper. Sta. Bul. 97’: 339-378, 11 pl. 13% Pierce, W. Dwight (57) 1917. Notes on a southern trip. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 18 (No. 4) : 206-207. Rau, Phil., and Rau, Nellie (58) 1916. The sleep of insects; an ecological study. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 9 (No. 3) : 227-274. Riley, C: V. (59) 1874. The unadorned Tiphia, or white grub parasite—Tip/ia inornata Say. Sixth Ann. Rep. Ins. Mo., p. 123-126, 2 fig. (60) 1884. [Criticism of statements in (46) of this list.] Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 1 : 15. (61) 1889. The insectivorous habits of the English sparrow (Pas- ser domesticus). U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Econ. Ornith. and Mamm. Bul. 1 : 111-133. (62) 1889. Beetles from stomach of a “chuck-wills-widow.” Insect Life [U. S. Dept. Agr.] 2 (No. 6) : 189. (63) 1891. On the time of transformation in the genus Lachno- sterna. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 2 : 1382-134. Rorer, James Birch (64) 1913. The green muscardine fungus and its use in cane fields. Bd. Agr. Trinidad and Tobago Cir. 8. 12 p., 2 fig., 2 pl. Scheffer, Theo H. (65) 1914. The common mole of the eastern United States. U. 5S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 583. 10 p., 4 fig. Schwarz, E. A. (66) 1895. Report on the insect food of the crow. U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ornith. and Manm. Bul. 6 : 57-67. Shull, A. Franklin (67) 1907. Habits of the short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda (Say). Am. Nat. 41 : 495-522, 5 fig. Stevenson, John A. (68) 1916. Report of the pathologist. Fourth Ann. Rep. Bd. Comm. Agr. Porto Rico, p. 33-44. Stiles, C. W. (69) 1892. On the American intermediate host of Echinorhynchus gigas. Zool. Anz. 15 : 52-54. Surface, H. A. (70) 1911. Saving animal life, or zoological conservation, Bi- monthly Zool. Bul. Div. Zool. Pa. Dept. Agr. 1 (No. 6) : 245-246. (71) 1913. First report on the economic features of the amphib- ians of Pennsylvania. Bi-monthly Zool. Bul. Div. Zool. Pa. Dept. Agr. 3 (No. 3-4) : 67-152, 25 fig., 11 pl. Swezey, Otto H. (72) 1915. Some hyperparasites of white grubs. Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc. 3 (No. 2) : 71-72. 138 Titus, E.S. G. (72) 1905. The sugar-cane beetle (Ligyrus rugiceps Lec.), with notes on associated species. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 54 : 7-18, 6 fig. Townsend, C. H. T. (74) 1893. Hosts of North American Tachinidae, etc. I. Psyche, 6 : 466-468. (75) 1908. The taxonomy of the muscoidean flies, including de- scriptions of new genera and species. Smiths’n Misc. Coll. No. 1803 (Vol. 51), p. 106. Urich, F. W. (76) 1913. The sugar-cane froghopper (Tomaspis varia Fabr.). Bd. Agr. Trinidad and Tobago Cir. 9 : 7-27, 3 fig., 9 pl. Van Dine, D. L. (77) 1912. Progress report on introductions of beneficial para- sites into Porto Rico. First Rep. Bd. Comm. Agr. Porto Rico, p. 31-47. (78) 1913. The introduction of parasites of May-beetles into Porto Rico. Sec. Rep. Bd. Comm. Agr. Porto Rico, p. 36-48. Van Zwaluwenburg, R. H. (79) 1915. Report of the entomologist. Rep. Porto Rico Agr. Exper. Sta. 1914 : 31-35. Walton, W. R. (80) 1912. A new species of Tachinidae from Porto Rico. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 14 : 198-200, 1 pl. (81) 1913. New North American Tachinidae (Dipt.). Ent. News 24 (No.2) : 49-52, 1 pl. West, James A. (82) 1910. A study of the food of moles in Illinois. Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 9 (Art. 2) : 14-22. Wood, Frank Elmer (83) 1910. A study of the mammals of Champaign county, Illinois. Bul Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 8 (Art. 5) : 501-613, 12 fig. 3 pl. Pirate III Fig. 1, 2. Mature Tiphia larvae eating the last remains of a white-grub. Nat- ural size. Fig. 3. Same larva, a few hours later, beginning foundation of cocoon. Natural size. Fig. 4. Completed cocoon in a tin-box cage. Fig. 5, 6. Tiphia punctata larvae in their characteristic position on grub; front and rear views. Natural size. Biss 7. Tiphia cocoon from which a parasite (Anthrax parvicornis) has issued, characterized by the squarely cut-off tip of coccoon. Ill ATE Inte PLATE IV Fig. 8, 9. Tiphia cocoons, enlarged and natural size. Fig. 10,11. Elis cocoons, enlarged and natural size. Fig. 12. Chrysanthrax fulvohirta Wied., a parasite of Elis. Enlarged. ATE IV Pi PLATE V Fig. 13. Elis 5-cincta egg on under side of paralyzed white-grub, July 25, 1914. Natural size. Fig. 14-16. Same grub as shown in Fig. 13, the Elis larva in Fig. 14 not over two days old, that in 15 not over four days, and that in 16 about five days. Natural size. Fig. 17. Oblique view of Elis larva feeding on white-grub. PLATE V ig. 18. ig. 20. ig. 21. ig. 22. . 23. Brace » lS): Pirate VI Phyllophaga grub parasitized by Microphthalma disjuncta; the anal end of larva with the two posterior spiracles showing through body wall. Natural size. Same grub, a day later, with Microphthalma puparium. Nothing remains of. the grub but its dried and shriveled skin. Natural size. Grub parasitized by Microphthalma disjuncta, beginning to liquefy. Natu- ral size. A grub (Aphonus pyriformis) parasitized by several Ptilodexia harpasa maggots. No liquefaction of grub as in Fig. 20. Natural size. Microphthalma disjuncta, male, side view. Enlarged. The same, dorsal view. Enlarged. Microphthalma disjuncta puparium in dried grub-skin as collected in the field. Natural size. PLATE VI 9 1 Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. PuiatE VII Ptilodexia harpasa Walk., a parasite of white-grubs. Enlarged. Promachus vertebratus Say. About natural size. Promachus fitchii O. S., female. About natural size. Harpalus pennsylvanicus Dej. Slightly enlarged. Pelecinus polyturator Dru., female. Natural size. Ophion bifoveolatum Brullé, female. About twice natural size. Pirate VII PuateE VIII Fig. 31. Deromyia winthemi Wied., male. About twice natural size. Fig. 32. Tabanus atratus Fabr., male and empty pupal exuvia. Both enlarged to same, magnification. Pirate VIII Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. BBE 34. 35. . The same, empty pupal exuvia. Enlarged to same magnification as Prats IX Tabanus atratus Fabr., male. Natural size. Tabanus sulcifrons Macq., female. Natural size. Tabanus sulcifrons Macq., femals. Enlarged. Fig. 35. . Tabanus atratus Fabr., egg mass and individual egg parasitized by Phanurus tabanivorus. (After Hart.) . Deromyia umbrina Loew, eggs. About twice natural size. PiLate IX Pratt X Fig. 39. Phanurus tabanivorus, female, an egg parasite of Tabanus atratus. (After Hart.) Fig. 40. Phyllophaga adult bearing two eggs of Cryptomeigenia theutis on side of abdomen. Slightly enlarged. Fig. 41. Pyrgota undata Wied. (left) and P. valida Harr. (right) puparia. Much enlarged. PLATE X PiatTeE XI Fig. 42. Pyrgota valida Harr., female. Enlarged. Fig. 43,44. Grubs showing Mermis parasites within body. Natural size. Fig. 45. Mermis, or hairworms, obtained from white-grubs. Natural size Fig. 46, 47. Plectana stellata Hentz, male and female. (After McCook. ) PLATE XI PLate XII Fig. 48. Emaciated grubs affected by a protozoan disease. Natural size. Fig. 49. White-grubs killed by nematodes (? Diplogaster acrivora). natural size. About ee PLaTE XII Puate XIII Fig. 50. Phyllophaga adults attacked by a fungous disease (due to Isaria farinosa). Naturai size. Fig. 51,52. Early stages of Metarrhizium anisopliae infection, the white my- celial threads appearing at joints of body. Fig. 53. A later stage of Metarrhizium, the green spores beginning to ap- pear. Natural size. Fig. 54. Matured green Metarrhizium spores covering body of beetle. Fig. 55. The same covering body of a Cotalpa lanigera grub. Note charac- teristic beads of liquid accumulating just back of the head. Natural size. Fig. 56,57. White-grubs and Promachus larva covered with white mycelial threads of Metarrhizium. Natural size. Pirate XIII PLATE XIV Fig. 58. White-grub-infested corn-field uprooted by hogs in their search for the larvae. Fig. 59. Mummified white-grubs which have been attacked by a fungus (Jsaria densa). Natural size. Prawn Spy PLATE XV Fig. 60. The common skunk, Mephitis mephitis. Fig. 61. Parasite of carabid larva, the parasite pupa attached to its host in characteristic position. Twice natural size. PLATE XV 61 a ee . u n x - ArtIcLE VI.—Some Recent Changes in Illinois River Biology.* By STEPHEN A. ForBes AND Ropert EARLE RICHARDSON. The principal causes of change in the biological environment of the Illinois River which have come in since 1899 are the opening of the drain- age canal of the Sanitary District of Chicago in January, 1900, a great increase in the amount of Chicago sewage emptied into the stream, and an extensive reclamation of the river bottoms for agricultural uses; and it is our present purpose to trace the principal effects of these changes upon the life of the stream. Although this study has had primarily a purely scientific motive, it has bearings of a practical character which we have followed out in some cases beyond the boundaries of our proper inquiry, with a view to making our results available, or at least suggestive, to those who have to deal with problems of sewage disposal, fisheries, bottom-land agriculture, and the like. The principal changes due to the three causes above mentioned are presented summarily in the following numbered sections :— 1. The opening of the drainage canal of the Sanitary District of Chicago, January 17, 1900, admitted a flow of sewage-laden lake water which greatly increased the average depth and flow of the Illinois and lengthened the period and extended the range of its overflows. During the ten years preceding 1900 the average flow of the river at Peoria, 110 miles down-stream, was 8,391 cubic feet per second (or ‘second feet”) +; but the flow of the sanitary canal alone in 1913 averaged 7,193 sec. ft., or 85.7 per cent. of the Peoria flow of the original river.t If we take account of some 600 sec. ft. of Lake Michigan water coming into the Illinois River by way of the old Illinois and Michigan Canal, which is, of course, additional to the contribution of the sanitary canal, we have left 7,791 sec. ft. as the average flow from the natural watershed of the stream above Peoria during the decade just preceding 1900. Combining the increments from the two canals, we find just halt the average Peoria flow derived in 1913 from Lake Michigan. At average low water of the above-mentioned decade just preceding 1900, the flow: at Peoria was only 17 per cent. that of the canal in 1913, and at the Jowest rate of discharge (723 sec. ft.) it was only 10.5 per cent. At the highest water of the period on the other hand, the canal, if open at the time, would have increased the flow of the stream by less than 10 per cent. The ratio of canal to river water at the lowest river level was over eight times that at the highest. The effect of the canal upon the rising river is therefore to hasten the onset of the overflow and to increase the area greatly in the beginning, but this effect diminishes as "The present brief paper is an abstract only of some of the more general and significant parts of the product of a long series of studies of the biology of the Illinois River and its dependent waters which will be reported in detail in a number of articles now in course of preparation. 7 Jacob A. Harman, in the Report of the Illinois State Board of Health on Sani- tary Investigations of the Illinois River Tributaries, in 1901. ¢ Alvord and Burdick, Report on the Illinois River and its Bottom-lands (1915), p. 37. 140 the river continues to rise and it does not greatly expand the overflow when at its highest. It may thus materially increase the length of the overflow period without adding greatly to the area finally covered. All these effects of the canal affluent diminish, of course, down-stream, as the normal flow of the river is increased by the addition of tributary waters; and at the mouth of the river, in times of flood, less than 6 per cent. of the present flow of the stream comes from the sanitary canal. The biological importance of this extension of overflow conditions will be more clearly seen when we discuss the sources of supply of the river plankton. We have shown, in an earlier paper, that the average depth of the Illinois River at Havana, 173 miles below the mouth of the sanitary canal, was about three feet greater during the 10-year period following upon the completion of the canal than during the 10-year period imme- diately preceding ; and Alvord and Burdick, comparing the gage readings for fourteen years after and ten years before the opening of the canal, make this difference five feet for Peoria and three feet for Grafton, at the river’s mouth.* Not quite all this increase in depth can be fairly attributed to canal water, for the rainfall was somewhat less in the drainage basin of the Illinois during the earlier of these two periods than during the later. The average for the part of the state north of the mouth of the Illinois River was 34.09 inches per annum for the ten years from 1890 to 1899, and 35.92 inches for the period from 1900 to 1909. The rainfall for the 10- year period just preceding the opening of the canal was 1.83 inches per annum less than in the next ten years. If, however, we compare Havana levels from 1879 to 1899 inclusive, with those of the ten years next following, we find the average for the above twenty-one years to be 6.9 feet, and that of the ten years from 1900 to 1909 to be 9.7 feet—an increase at that point of 2.8 feet fairly attribu- table to the canal. : 2. This greater volume of water throughout the year has also pro- duced a greater expanse and depth of the bottom-land lakes, which com- monly stand at about the level of the river itself. This fact is well illus- trated by the change in Thompson Lake, near Havana—one of the largest lakes of the Illinois River series—as shown by two published tables of lake levels and corresponding differences of area, for the summer months (June to September) of thirty-four years, from 1874 to 1907 inclusive.t From the first of those tables we learn that the average level of the lake for twenty-six summers preceding 1900 was 429.46 feet above the sea, and that for the eight years next following this average was 433.06 feet § * Alvord and Burdick’s Report, p, 28. + The data for this comparison were obtained from an article on the ‘Climate cf Tllinois,’’ by Prof. J. G. Mosier, published as Bulletin No. 208 of the University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. t Hepart of the Submerged and Shore Lands Legislative Investigating Committee, Vol. I., p. ¢ Phese levels are equivalent to 5.09 ft. and 8.69 ft., respectively, on the Havana gage. 141 —a difference of 3.6 feet in the summer depth of the lake due to the opening of the sanitary canal; and we further find, by comparing these lake levels with the areas of the lake at different depths, as shown by the second of the tables, that the summer expanse of the lake averaged 1,943 acres before 1900, and 5,072 acres since 1899—an increase of more than two and a half times in the area of this lake, due to the higher levels pro- duced by the canal. AVERAGE LEVELS oF THOMPSON LAKE, JUNE, JuLY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, 1874-1907 Thompson Lake Year Memphis datum * Havana gage Elevations above 1874 433.25 1.48 1875 437.6 5.93 1876 439.25 7.58 1877 435.62 4.95 1878 438 iene 1879 434.62 3.95 1880 437.37 6.70 1881 436.12 5.45 1882 440.75 9.08 1883 436.7 5.03 1884 436.7 5.03 1885 437.5 5.88 1886 . 435.87 4.20 1887 433.75 2.08 1888 437.87 6.20 1889 438 6.33 1890 437.75 6.08 1891 437 Hass 1892 441.5 9.83 1893 435.75 4.08 1894 435.25 3.58 1895 434 2.33 1896 436.62 4.95 1897 435.75 3.08 1898 437 5.33 1899 436.25 4.58 1900 438.12 6.45 1901 436.87 5.20 1902 444.87 13.20 1903 440.87 9.20 1904 439.75 8.08 1905 440.75 9.08 1906 438.25 6.58 1907 443 .62 1195 Average, 1874-99 436.76 5.09 Average, 1900-07 440.36 8.69 *“\emphis datum” is 7.3 feet below sea-level. 142 INCREASED ACREAGE OF THOMPSON LAKE CORRESPONDING to INCREASING LEVELS Area of lake increases, for each As levels increase from— tenth of a foat, by—= 4.41 to 5.13 feet 4.72 acres 5135 tor 16,08!" 8.68> 6.08 to 7.08 “ LH F4AS 7.08 to 8.08 ” 4.56 “ 8.08 to 9.08 “ Boe ee 9.08 to 10.08 “ 2.56 10 1396+ -08 to 11.08 “ 3. A secondary effect has been to narrow permanently the belt of shallow weedy water along the banks of the stream in midsummer, and to do the same, at least temporarily, along parts of the shore of many of the lakes. The river waters now commonly reach in midsummer to the bases of the willows, permanently covering new banks of steeper slope than the original margins, which latter have now generally become too deeply sub- merged and too much shaded for rooting water-plants. Some of the lakes have lost large areas of rooted vegetation in the deeper parts, per- manently, as it appears, while many others whose characteristic vegeta- tion was killed out by the deeper water after the opening of the drainage canal, are now filling up again with the typical plants of deeper standing- water. This destruction of inshore and alongshore vegetation has been especially conspicuous in the broad belt of deadened trees and shrubs along the banks, especially in the middle course of the stream from Peoria southward. Other important effects are beginning to appear as these dead trees weaken and fall into the water of the stagnant lakes, fouling them, in the hottest weather, with the products of vegetable decay. 4. The greater depth of the present river, and especially the greater depth at low-water stages, must have an effect to diminish ranges of temperature, especially in the upper shallower part of the stream. The water there can not heat up as rapidly as formerly when exposed to the midsummer sun, or reach so high a temperature—a fact which must retard decomposition processes now as compared with the period before 1900, and thus delay the transformation of sewage materials into forms fit for use as food for the normal plants and animals of an unpol- luted stream. 5. Along with the greater average volume of the stream goes neces- sarily an increased average rate of flow and a shortening of the time of passage of water from point to point and from the source to the mouth. This difference is greatest for the lowest stages of water and least for the highest, but our computations show that, at usual midsummer levels, only about half the time is needed for water to flow the length of the stream that was taken before the opening of the canal, about thirteen 143 days being sufficient for the passage from Utica to Grafton (230 miles) in the month of August in the years 1910-18, and an average of twenty- nine. days in the same month of the years 1890-99. This fact has many interesting consequences. , Decomposition and assimilation processes set up at a given point and proceeding at a given rate are now extended farther down stream than formerly, and those which were usually completed at the mouth of the river before may now be only about half finished at that point. A plankton organism, if car- ried continuously by the main current, has much less time to multiply in the Illinois than formerly and reaches smaller numbers, and, other things being equal, it is proportionately less likely to be devoured on the way, the difference in this respect being the same as if the river were shortened by about one-half. Disease germs brought into the stream with sewage may now be carried as far again downward before they perish, and the sewage itself, imperfectly transformed before, as shown by chemical tests, now escapes from the river in still earlier stages of average trans- formation. Of course neither plankton organisms nor any part of the water of the stream are actually carried the full distance down the main current, but everything is retarded more or less as it approaches the bottom or the shores. We have no data to show what the general average move- ment of the whole content of the river now is or how it compares with the former average rate of progress, but there can be no doubt of the general truth of the foregoing statement. 6. The sewage load of the river has greatly increased since 1899. ' This is a necessary inference from the growth of Chicago and the river towns and the completion of the intercepting sewer along the lake front turning into the canal all sewage formerly sent into Lake Michigan, and it is shown also by a comparison of chemical data. The chlorine content of a polluted water (mainly chloride of sodium or common salt) is the best chemical index to the degree of its contamination by sewage, since the chlorine compounds pass down stream virtually undiminished and unchanged, while the nitrogen is rapidly transformed, and presently drawn upon as food for plants. A comparison of the amounts of chlorine passing Averyville, just above Peoria, before 1900 and in 1914, gives us 214 times as much per second for the latter period.* 7. Notwithstanding the increase in the quantities of sewage coming, into the river from Chicago, the flow of the stream has been increased in so much larger a ratio that the water of the river contained in 1914 a smaller percentage of sewage than before 1900. The sewage of the stream had become much more dilute than formerly. The ratio of chlorine (parts per million) in the water passing Lock- port, 35 miles from Lake Michigan, in 1897-99 compares with that of 1914 as 7.3 to 1, and the corresponding chlorine ratios for these periods at Averyville, 126 miles farther down, were as 2.3 to 1. * The chlorine average at Averyville July to October, in 1897-1899, was 7.69 kilo- grams per second; in 1914 it was 17.31 kilograms per second. 144 8. Owing to the much greater volume of the main stream since 1899, the effect of tributary waters is now much less than before, whether this be the diluent effect of a cleaner stream than the Illinois, such as the Fox at Ottawa, or the polluting effect of a local inflow of sewage from one of the river towns, as at Pekin or Peoria. For the same reason these diluent effects are much less obvious and important at a high stage of water than at a low stage. Peoria sewage, for example, can not now pollute the stream at any time nearly as much as it formerly did when the river was low. 9. The present greater average depth of the stream and the conse- quent lower average temperature must retard somewhat the rate of spontaneous chemical change by which the proteid compounds of the raw sewage, quite unfit in that condition to serve as food for chlorophyl- bearing plants, become converted by successive steps into forms fit for assimilation by green plants—into free ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates, in sequence—and must carry these stages of change farther down the stream than formerly; and this effect is to be added to that due to a virtual doubling of the rate of the down-stream movement. 10. As a consequence of several of the foregoing considerations it follows that the uppermost part of the river was more heavily charged with organic matter before 1900 than in 1914, and this headwaters pol- lution diminished rapidly downwards, the river returning to practically normal conditions much farther up-stream. 11. In our earlier paper it was shown that the tumbling of the water over the dam at Marseilles had a marked effect in 1911 to increase the content of dissolved oxygen, the additional oxygen being obtained, of course, from the air mixed with the water by the fall; and it was also shown that this increase of oxygen differed with the stage of water in the stream, being greatest when the river was low and the head of the falls was consequently highest. From this it follows (although we have no data on the influence of the dams before 1900) that this oxygenating effect must have been greater at the relatively low stages of that period than it is now. The removal of the upper dams, especially that at Mar- seilles—a measure strongly advocated in the interests of navigation— would have the effect to carry the polluted waters farther down-stream and to postpone their renovation both in distance and time. 12. It is also obvious, from what has already been said, that the organic contents of the sewage, unfit, as they are delivered to the stream, to serve at once as food.for its normal clean-water animals and plants, must become first available to them farther down-stream than before, and that, as a consequence, such normal organisms will find themselves ex- cluded, at least at times of greatest pollution, from parts of the upper river where they have previously found food. Just how far down-stream this change of conditions has progressed is a question difficult to answer exactly, especially as we have no collections of aquatic plants and animals from the upper river made before 1900 in a way to bring them into com- parison with those made by us since that date and thus to give us direct 145 evidence on this point; but to come to conclusions it is only necessary to assume that chlorophyl-bearing organisms presently arrive in the river whenever conditions appear favorable to their maintenance and multipli- cation, an assumption warranted by all our studies, and those of others, upon the river and elsewhere and at other times. Such conditions occurred in their earlier phases between Lockport and Morris before 1900 at low water; but in 1911 not until somewhere between Marseilles and Spring Valley; while optimum conditions for green plankton apparently occurred at or above LaSalle before 1900, but in 1911 not much if any above Chillicothe, and in 1918 not much above Peoria. More recent evidence of a still continued gradual creeping down- stream of pollutional conditions is found by comparison of collections made in 1911 with those obtained in August, 1918. In the former year a foul-water fungus (Sphaerotilus natans) disappeared from both channel and shore at or near Starved Rock, while August 28 to 30, 1918, it was found in the river at Henry, 35 miles below Starved Rock, and also at Lacon, 6 miles still farther down. At Henry, it was quite healthy, with normal cell-division in progress. Other evident indications are given by collections of two Lake Michigan diatoms (Tabellaria flocculosa and T. fenestrata), which come into the river through the sanitary canal. In 1910 these clean-water plants managed to survive in small numbers, as they passed down-stream, but were always of a pallid, sickly color until they reached Chillicothe, and here the water was clean enough to permit their return to normal condi- tion and to a rapid rate of multiplication; while in August, 1918, their numbers declined steadily down-stream, until at Pekin they disappeared almost completely. ; Another Lake Michigan diatom (Melosira granulata var. spinosa) which lived through the worst pollution of 1910 and began to multiply at Spring Valley, does not now do so until it passes Chillicothe, 36 miles farther down. 13. Consistenly with the foregoing statements, the ratios of total nitrogen, whether expressed by parts per million or as kilograms per second, now escaping into the Mississippi River are larger than they were in 1899. The nitrogen ratio at Grafton in 1899 was to that of 1914 as 1 to 1.60 in the spring months (April to June), and as 1 to 1.26 in the summer months (July and August) ; and in kilograms per second these ratios in 1899 were to those of 1914 as 1 to 3.46 in spring and as 1 to 4.83 in summer: In other words, between 1899 and 1914 the total nitrogen im a given quantity of the river water was increased by about one-fourth in spring and by six-tenths in summer, while the total for the entire flow of the stream in a given time was, in spring, 3% times as great in 1914 as in 1899, and in summer about 4.8 times as great. The nitrates, on the other hand, at the mouth of the river were, in parts per million, as 1 in 1899 to 1.48 in 1914. It would seem from this that the nitrogen-consuming organisms have not increased in quantity since 1899 as fast as their food supplies. 146 14. These food supplies show increase not only at the mouth of the river, where they are no longer available to the organisms of the stream itself, but also in the middle course of the Illinois, where its principal fisheries are found. The sum of the nitrates in spring, summer, and fall was greater in this part of the river in 1914 than in 1899—at Havana by 46 per cent., at Beardstown by 39 per cent., and at Meredosia by 40 per cent. 15. That this greater food supply has resulted in a greater produc- tion of plant and animal life in the stream was to be expected, and such evidence as we have supports this expectation. As we have shown in the earlier paper already cited, the larger plankton organisms of the IIli- nois River at Havana in 1909 and 1910 surpassed in quantity to the cubic meter of water that of 1897 and 1898 by 69 per cent., and surpassed the average production of the three years from 1895 to 1898 by 135 per cent., while the like plankton of 1909 and 1910 from Quiver Lake, a bay open- ing broadly into the river at all stages, surpassed that of the earlier period by 218 per cent. Furthermore, collections of the animal forms of the river bottom, so made at many points down the course of the stream as to give the number of specimens to a square yard, show us that the rich- ness of the plankton and that of the bottom sediments rise and fall together, the part of the river containing the largest number of organisms from one containing the largest number from the other also. We conse- quently have reason to believe that the bottom organisms, from which many animals, fishes especially, obtain an important part of their food, are more abundant now than before 1900. It is to be noted, however, that these foregoing data of plankton pro- duction were obtained at a time (August, 1909, to August, 1910) when only about 25,000 acres of bottom-land were under levee, and that this area has now been increased some five or six fold; and it will presently be shown that plankton production must be expected to fall off rapidly with the draining of lakes and a reduction of the area of overflow. It is quite possible, therefore, that the increased plankton production due to the increase of sewage has now been lost as a result of reclamation operations. 16. The area in the Illinois bottom protected by levees from over- flow and thus reclaimed for agriculture, increased between 1899 and 1914 from 6,700 acres to 124,205 acres, and there were at the latter date 47,250 acres more in drainage districts whose levees were not finished at that time. When these newer districts are completely leveed and drained, the original area of overflow of every spring will be reduced by 39 per cent., and that subject to overflow at the high-water level of 1904 will be reduced by 42 per cent. The effect of this restriction of overflow upon some of the tendencies due to the opening of the sanitary canal must be considerable. The river will now rise higher than before in times of flood and will fall lower when rainfall is deficient, but the floods will run off more rapidly since the leveed areas which were formerly flooded will no longer help impound the waters of the overflow, giving them up gradually to the stream. ee 147 Owing to the confinement of flood waters within narrower bounds, all effects of greater depth and swifter flow of the stream must be intensified. The bottom sediments are now more forcibly scoured out and moved farther down-stream than formerly; the successive stages of the oxidation and assimilation of sewage proteids are carried farther downward, as is also the upper limit of the normal life of the stream; the plankton is transported more swiftly and continues a shorter time in the Illinois, multiplying there, consequently, to smaller numbers; and more of the food material of the Illinois escapes into the Mississippi unconsumed. Moreover, drainage of contributing lakes and swamps and narrowing of the area of overflow lessens the productivity of the river itself quite independently of the richness of its waters in the elements of fertility. A river and its plankton are a flowing soil and its crop, both slipping away continuously, but both renewed constantly from an exhaustless source of supply. The fertility of the flowing water at any time is not dependent on the fertility of that which has preceded it, but on materials of fertility brought into it from the watershed. A complete exhaustion of this flowing soil by “overproduction” would not impoverish, but would actually enrich the organisms depending on it, for they could avail them- selves of its entire product without penalty of subsequent starvation. As the plankton of a river system is carried down-stream, its progeny are carried with it, and, however numerous they may become, they can have no upstream effect on the population. If the running wafer were left wholly to itself, the river would speedily empty itself of plankton; to maintain the floating population there must be a constant source of supply outside the waters involved in the downward movement. Such a supply can be found only in places where aquatic organisms are virtually sta- tionary, or from which, to say the least, they do not escape until they have themselves begun to multiply, and in which, consequently, they will leave fertile descendants behind them. Such places of possible continuous origin of the plankton organisms are weedy waters along shore, sluggish shoals, eddies, bays, sloughs, open backwaters of the bottom-lands, and lakes connecting with the stream. The river plankton originates in the mere overflow of the stationary population in such breeding places, and the reduction of these sources of supply must have its proportionate effect on the river product. Hence, the plankton productivity of the stream does not depend primarily on the richness and extent of its own flowing waters, but on those of its subsidiary breeding grounds, and if these are not adequate to the maintenance of a plankton sufficient to consume all the readily available food materials of the stream, more or less fertility of the-current waters must go to waste. It is conceivable, of course, that stagnant and semi-stagnant tributary waters might be so productive and so extensive as to contribute to the river a rapidly multiplying population sufficient completely to exhaust the food supply borne by the running water within the limits of its own course, however fertile it might be, sending it out at the mouth of the 148 stream with all the elements of its fertility strained out; but such a self- contained and self-sufficient system is far from anything we actually find, and there must be a heavy loss of potential productivity at the mouth of every normal stream. It may be noted, however, that a river, notwithstanding its continuous losses, may actually maintain a heavier plankton than a lake, even where both derive their food materials from the same source, as from the waters of a spring flood. The river being continuously fertilized while the lake has only the fertility left to it when the flood subsides, if the former has a slow current, as in low water, and a long course, its plank- ton may multiply to a number which the fixed fertility of the lake can not maintain. EFFECTS ON THE FISHERIES The apparent effects upon fish production of some of the environ- mental changes here discussed were treated in considerable detail in 1913 in our paper on the biology of the upper Illinois River. In this it was shown that the fishes normal to the river were virtually driven out of it during the midsummer low water of 1911 and 1912 by pollutional condi- tions extending as far down as Ottawa, 34 miles from the source, and that it was not until Hennepin was reached, 32 miles still farther down, that the fish population of the river was made up of substantially the same species as were to be found farther down. It was, however, in the Henry-Chillicothe section of the river, 77 to 93 miles down-stream, that the relative numbers of the several species first became virtually normal, and that all ichthyological effects of the Chicago contamination had obviously disappeared. After the above paper appeared we compiled statistics of production for the whole river from every available source, and these were placed, in 1915, at the disposal of Alvord and Burdick, civil engineers, who were making at the time for the Rivers and Lakes Commission of the state an extensive study of the Illinois River and its bottom-lands with special reference to problems of fisheries, agriculture, and flood control. Their report on the status and possibilities of the river fisheries embodies sub- stantially all our information bearing on the subject at the time, and we find their reasoning convincing and their conclusions sound. Our objects and point of view are, however, somewhat different from theirs, and we find it necessary to develop some parts of the discussion more fully than was done by them in their report. That the actual harvest of the Illinois River fisheries was greatly increased from 1900 to 1908 as compared with the yield from 1894 to 1899 is shown by statistics collected by the Illinois Fishermen’s Associa- tion, the Illinois State Fish Commission, and the U. S. Bureau of Fish- eries; but that a marked decline of production followed, at least until 1913, is made evident by data of shipments from Havana, one of the principal fishing points on the river, obtained by the junior author of this paper for the six years following 1907. From 1894 to 1899 the 149 yield of the river fisheries rose from 6,037,378 pounds to 12,605,691 * pounds—with an average annual yield of approximately 8,900,000 pounds ; and between 1900 and 1908 inclusive it rose from 11,899,865 pounds to 21,583,000 * pounds, with an annual average of approximately 15,000,000 pounds. The increase for the five years immediately preceding the open- ing of the sanitary canal was thus about 9 per cent. per annum, that for the 8-year period following the opening was about 3.5 per cent. per annum, and the estimated decline for the next four years based upon statistics of production at Havana was at the rate of 15 per cent. per annum. The fisheries at this point yielded in fact 25 per cent. less in 1912 than they did in 1896; the gain made in the course of this period of sixteen years was more than lost before its close. There are four factors to which this rise and fall of production may be attributed: 1, the opening of the ‘sanitary canal and the diversion of nearly all the Chicago sewage from lake to river; 2, the rapid multipli- cation of the European carp, which by 1908 yielded 64 per cent. of the whole product of the river fisheries; 3, the great stimulus to fishing which this enormous increase of the carp produced; and 4, the rapid progress of reclamation operations from 1908 onward. The first three of these factors tended to increase the actual yield, but the last, a cause of decline, has more than overbalanced their joint effect. It is difficult to isolate these various factors’ in a way to distinguish their separate shares in this stimulus to production or the reverse, but something may be done in this direction by an examination of such statistics as are available. The principal multiplication of carp came between 1894 and 1897, when this fish rose in ratio from 9.6 per cent. to 56.5 per cent. of the entire catch from the river; and the carp continued in about this ratio of abundance until 1903, when it stood at 54.9 per cent. Our next data are those for 1908, when the entire catch from the river, as given by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, was 24,000,000 pounds, of which 64.4 per cent. were carp, the total yield of both carp and other fishes being more than twice that reported for any preceding year. The year 1908 was, however, so exceptionally favorable for fishing that its totals are mis- leading; but the rise in ratio of carp to other fish seems nevertheless correct. It is evident that it is to the increase of carp more than to the influx - of Chicago sewage that we must attribute the rise in production after 1894. From that year to 1899 (the period of rapid multiplication of carp) the fisheries’ yield of the river increased 2.1 times, while by 1907, seven years after the opening of the canal, it had risen only to 14,739,000 pounds—an additional gain of 17 per cent. This latter increase may have been due to a greater food supply derived from the sewage, or it may have been simply a consequence of the growth of the fishing industry, which was greatly stimulated by the increase of the carp supply. * The mean of the estimates of the U. S, Fish Commission and of the Illinois Fishermen’s Association. 150 As will be seen from the table on this page, the number of men engaged in fishing in the State of Illinois increased 42 per cent. between 1894 and 1899 (five years) and 86 per cent. between 1899 and 1908 (nine years), and the value of the fisheries equipment increased 20 per cent. during the first period and 194 per cent. during the second. The value of the fisheries product, on the other hand, increased 157 per cent. and 151 per cent. during these two periods, respectively. We have no separate data for the J/linois River for 1894 or 1899, but in 1908 more than half the fisheries of the state and nearly two-thirds of the capital employed in fishing were on that stream. STATISTICS OF FISHERIES IN ILLINOIS, 1894-1908 * PERCENTAGES OF INCREASE OR DECREASE Between Between 1894 and 1899 1899 and 1908 Per cent. | Per cent. | Percent. | Per cent. increase | decrease | increase | decrease Men employed (numbers)........... BDI Sle 2 thatch 86 Equipment (values)................ Ons ellen: aachats ileus 194 Fisheries products (pounds)........ DEC villeye owavace Seton 151 Blache PASS ti aie 3c Ain setae asta tera SON Aisa ate aiees eee 322 Buttalo-fishiien ao stoetelisnraseie hie | ta eae ee Bhi Rete mil aie aesrie3 AFF 29 (OER AURIS Rin oi BRAS Bye cle a eich Fe Arne RODD ss eye Ine ek 119 Gat RSTn crs iei sy csierayraig eh Uiethave tees ehahiors Kora hoe poll ceed espera tse 19 30 Crappiesi. iissiras tinct et eeen he eaatieen 112 Ree eta Ga 260 Sheepshead's see 7 SUCRE rene Alea carel| ee ien aes 45 9 1 Of) CP ay UP PAS RS 8 een Sate Ce a ae ete 34 6 Paddle-fishyc ities ov eo ina ce ABIL tek ks ees aCe 106 PIG s 3,5 }e see ay yhieg aid, ees eared neL ANAL eae acid aca eenetawannce nie aes kf en 38 DCULSCON. Hi sic rdoolecs oralebsiava.e eisai (SSR an rend 5 13 Suckers soit c cutee eaersnmce stare heorehe oll Mrvalet ote ate 38 8.5 Sunfishes):) eee eee Hak oe aero BO Peay a dee ee 216 Wiall-eyedipilkket428 shee Spe eae ee ies G2a st iit seve ges 52 White, yellow, and rock bass......... G6; < ) ladaitienss eis Bera Sees 92 IRON CHG A eietios elec eines eakereee BON a invanseerence cian 1040 All native fishes...................- AOE caine catego eer| eeneteteteeancont. 11 Bottom feeders)}..228 cents ee ae ee alana cacaelek =f IDO OR Wales et me Abie 7 * In 1908, 57 per cent. (2,500) of the fishermen of the state and nearly two- thirds ($551,000) of the capital employed, were on the Illinois River. + Mostly from Lake Michigan district. A comparison of the percentages of increase and decrease in the two periods covered by the above table, one of five years and the other of nine, shows that the average rate of increase per annum in number of men was a little greater in the second period than in the first, and that of equipment was more than five times as great; but that, nevertheless, 151 the rate of increase in the product of the fisheries was but little more than half as great in the second period as in the first. In other words, the product of the fisheries fell far short of keeping pace with the increase in men and means devoted to fishing. This fact indicates that the stream was being “‘over-fished” during the second of the above periods, and that its yield must consequently be expected eventually to fall off if fishing operations are continued on the same scale as in the years just preceding 1909. This “diminishing return” for increasing activity is seen especially in the yield of European carp, as was to be expected in view of the recent introduction of this fish into waters especially favorable to its growth and multiplication; but it is also seen in the yield of the native species, which after increasing at an average annual rate of 8 per cent. for the first or five-year period, diminished about 1 per cent. per annum during the second period. That is, the rapidly growing abundance of carp so stimulated fishing operations that the stock of native fishes was too heavily drawn upon and began to dwindle in yield. We see this par- ticularly in the species which are distinguished as bottom-feeders—the buffaloes, the suckers, the sturgeon, the sheepshead or drum, and the catfishes.* Taken together these diminished in yield about 6 per cent. per annum during the first period, and nearly 1 per cent. during the second. In comparing these two periods, account should be taken of the fact that 1908 was an especially favorable year for fisheries, and its yield was far the greatest ever known on the Illinois River. In that year the fish- ing season, which begins with July and extends to November, was one of low water, concentrating the fish in relatively close quarters, and giv- ing easy access to the fishing grounds, and this fishing season had been preceded by a long period of unusually high water, covering neafly all of 1907 and the early months of 1908, during which the fishes had a wide range over shallow waters filled with an abundant food supply. The consequence was a fisheries yield 50 per cent. greater than the aver- age of the five years next preceding of which we have records, viz., 1899, 1900, 1903, 1906, and 1907; and to make a just comparison between our two periods in respect to increase or decrease of yield the yield of 1908 should be diminished by one-third. If this be done, the ratios will stand as tabulated on page 152. Along with an enormous multiplication of the carp in 1894 to 1897 the yield of native fishes fell off in the Illinois River by 22.2 per cent. (from 5,457,731 pounds to 4,234,308 pounds) ;* but from 1900 to 1907 it increased by 56 per cent. In other words, as the number of carp increased the number of native fishes diminished before the opening of the sanitary canal at an average rate of 7 per cent. per annum; and after the opening of the canal, the number of carp remaining virtually constant, the supply of native fishes increased in seven years by an average of 8 * The yield of these bottom-feeding species in 1894, when the number of carp was as yet relatively insignificant, was 81 per cent. of the total yield of native fish. * Alvord and Burdick, Fig. 25. 152 PERCENTAGES OF INCREASE OR DECREASE BETWEEN 1899 anp 1908 (ADJUSTED) Per cent.| Per cent. increase| decrease Fisheries products (pounds)....... 68 (Black DASSe cate sue bole ove fore Cee 181 Buttalo-fishy ier. oearsha:sietshst lena eaten tea katte ra 47 MOUTH bs gibiciesa kaa Bi sAsicearay kira won eocente tet 46 Cath Deel em Soo we: ole sto ce .eiatatanc a Un ace Aenea 13 CrApDIer sy Siete telarte deal temseeke oleae 14 Sheepsheda ss fais iisoiviess etemsiode Aes ©) sha tle epee 27 IOUS Hiei cate Me tetetchs aves esn ve laich oval erele never teeter | ica Nee 30 Pad dle-HShy os cc isis cssiets iors isieke sees 37 Pe Gievereestete ete ratercicvege te at ee hacer tomene somatostatin Pepe tee 60 UU BOM se eieleraisien manos ae Sela o Meta hongeameenen ats 25 Suckers teeter tis octaees detache, sia tchtuawrea nieekcest: vers 28 Sumiiphe sete 25 cosh icin ht ies bap tessa cree pa 110 Walle yed) DIK s ica sie's.c. cuvieralste diu-c.0 feo ivepe' sears ont 67 White, yellow, and rock bass................. 94 Pere fra See oeeveetee tes 695 All native fishes..............-+... 79 Bottom=feed ers. ier leverciete s.0/s¥a:<.e's) cls istaliteremielelebaie 37 per cent. per annum—a condition of things not easily understood except on the hypothesis that the resources of multiplication and subsistence opened up by the canal had enabled the native river fishes not only to sustain themselves but to increase in number in the face of the tremen- dous competition of a quantity of carp greater than that of all the other fishes of the river taken together. To what extent, if at all, it was the great and increasing quantity of organic material brought into the river by the canal which was the cause of increasing fish production, or whether the cause was mainly or wholly an expansion of the area of shallow water in which fishes could breed and feed to the best advantage, is a question to which we are unable to make definite answer ; but it is certain that it is now the area of available breed- ing and feeding grounds, and not the food supply, which is the limiting factor in the yield of the Illinois River fisheries. The raw materials of food sufficient for a much greater volume of plant and animal life than the river and its dependent waters now contain, are being continuously poured into the stream and worked up to the chemical conditions required for their assimilation; but they pass out of the river at its mouth in increasing quantities unassiniilated because, owing,to the progressive dik- ing of bottom-lands and draining of lakes, the productive area is steadily diminishing. From the report of Alvord and Burdick it appears that up to 1899 the area of the bottom-lands under completed levees was but 9,100 acres; five years later it had risen to 21,500 acres; by 1908, the year when the fisheries data of the last national census were collected, to 153 54,850 acres; by 1913, when our own last data of fish production were obtained, to 130,830 acres; and a year later, when Alvord and Burdick prepared their report, to 145,780 acres. Furthermore, there were at this time about 50,000 acres in drainage districts proposed or already formed, in which the work was in various stages of advancement, besides 7,755 acres concerning the condition of which our information is incomplete— a total of 200,000 acres of Illinois River bottom-lands covered by levee districts acually complete or in immediate prospect four years ago. The land area overflowed by the extraordinary high water of 1904 amounted to 2803910 acres, and if we add to this 49,340 acres in bottom- land lakes at low-water stages, we have a total of 330,250 acres, outside the area of the stream itself, formerly covered by water in time of flood. From 44 per cent. of this area the fishes of the river were already per- manently excluded in 1914, and another 16 per cent. will be added to it as soon as the drainage projects then in hand or in immediate view are completed. ; Coincident with this restriction of their range the yield of fishes declined, as shown by our data of shipments from Havana from 1908 to October, 1913, as shown in the following table. Tota FisH CatcH, HAVANA MARKET Per cent. of Year Pounds total catch Authority on river BEG fer aet. Wie ree ocle Slee 1,573,298 21.7 Illinois Fishermen’s Association US Ao ae ae a eee ee 1,600,183 16.5 Se i “s MeO crenccis s Fe Mere cieve ¢ 1,830,291 16.3 SS < “s GOD ci stops Mets eials-ey'e ers 1,368,010 11.4 sg - a EU ete seas seve) ahora areca ¢ 2,700,000 18.4 Illinois Fish Commission IGOR eee. es ches cas 3,800,000 19.7 a Me ss WANVETAR Gs chi cbse [tae Seselaia eo 4 LTS JW OD tavnencnestes Seeioe dite c DUBE pisieigiata'e es) alee R. E. Richardson TODO Fails ce cictcs bene eee « DOR TOR Nice aie mislsteieie.e he x OTe sete pele ccte Ss PEPPALGR OD Wirators stots ecmpe nest - DIS ce taresabeteracatele a yale sy alslals nccieicleisicle a.ersitis ese e's\nle\< aenifrons. Lateral plates with black line on inner margin, and black dot in outer half; callus reduced, not very conspicuous in the general lighter brown of the dark areas; hair dense and fairly straight; little or no brassy luster....... albailds Jena a Peoo te GOI bie cides Ato Serr Etc CAC OR HOLA eheTe “LOOT Ch CRO. Rte REE PNET ER parvulus. Pronotal lateral margin rather coarsely acutely denticulate; no white callus; ‘hair dense, curled; lateral plates with a black line on inner margin and a black spot occupying half or a third of the outer margin [Tex., Mex.]. .proteus. IMAGINES Head above bronzy black, sparsely short pubescent, without yellowish border; costal border more or less barred with black; pattern obscure, more or less MNTOUH EG er OTEet Ete Oe EIN IN ce tercrate eyaictal efainew relates: « lc) siele let: stats! <%e)ehs'slafere o aslare a aenifrons. Head above black or bronzy black, with yellowish margin or submarginal line; costal border pale; general color pale yellowish, with pattern more or less distinct. * Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. 7, p. 264. 170 Larger species (614-8 mm.) ; head bronzy black, with short sparse pubescence; sides of pronotum straight or slightly arcuate, apical expansion of pale median line of scutellum parallel-sided or narrowed anteriorly, bordered by black: ‘shading vs coc.oior e526 accerac) oon oidrdule ale ieiare areata a shece! em ayainie eteye ete bijugis. Smaller species (4%4-61% mm.); head black, with rather dense longer whitish pubescence; sides of pronotum concave at middle, hind angles more acute; apical expansion of pale median line of scutellum bordered with a black line ‘and. broader (AnCerior ly’ 5 2i5/n5, cieieie ere eastern ope vate e chamtetetnye wip airtel parvulus. HoMAEMUS AENIFRONS Say Scutellera aenifrons Say, Narr. [Keating’s] of Exped. [Long’s] to Source of St. Peter’s Riv., etc., 1823, Vol. 2, App., p. 40. 1825. Also Say’s Compl. Writ. Ent., N. A., Vol. 1, p. 199. From the Illinois valley sand-region near Havana and Forest City. Nymphs were taken June 6, and imagines June 27 and 29, August 15 and 20, and September 11 and 20. Also a single specimen frém Rock Island in June. Parkdale, Minn., August 28 (Zetek). Taken in sweepings in grassy areas. Ranges across the continent from Canada south to Mary- land and New Mexico. HomAEMUws Bryucis Uhl. Homaemus bijugis Uhler, Prel. Rep. [1871] U. S. Geol. Surv. Montana, etc., p. 393. 1872. One specimen from Union Grove, Ill., in the sandy region along the upper Mississippi, July 13, 6 specimens from Elizabeth, Ill., July 6, 7, 1917 (Hart and Malloch) ; Fergus Falls, Minn., July 10 and 17 (Zetek). Arid plains, Nevada and Colorado to Nebraska and Iowa (Van Duzee). The males are smaller than the females, and have more obscure markings. * HoMAEMUS PARVULUS Germ. Pachycoris parvulus Germar, Zeit. f. Ent., Vol. 1, p. 107. 1839. Tetyra grammica Auct., nec Wolff, Icones Cimicum, Fase. 5, p. 172. 1811. Taken in sweepings in southern Illinois at Odin, Dubois, Carbondale, Parker, and Cobden, May 8 to July 20; nymphs, May 30. Col. and Mex. east to N. C. and Fla. (V. D.). [In addition to characters given in key, parvulus may be distinguished from bijugis by the longer fifth ventral abdominal segment, which is usually at least half as long as sixth, the presence of lateral black spots on venter, and the shape of the anterior prothoracic ventral extension. ] 2. STETHAULAX Bergr.* There is but one species of this genus recorded from North America. STETHAULAX MARMORATUS Say Tetyra marmorata Say, Descrip. n. sp. Heter. Hemip. N. A., 1831; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A., Vol 1, p. 310. ; [* This genus was taken in Illinois subsequent to Mr. Hart’s death, and the treat- ment of it herein is by the editor.] algal Aulacostethus simulans Uhler, Bul. U. S. Geol. and Geogr, Surv., Vol. 1, No. 5, sec. ser., p. 272. 1876. The only Illinois specimen in our collection is a female taken at Cob- den May 9, 1918, by the writer. The species has been recorded by Van Duzee from N. Y., Md., N. J., N. C., Ga., Tex., and Cal. In the Bolter Collection there are specimens from Arizona. ~ I can not detect the central ridge on hind tibia in this species even at base, and in this respect it very closely resembles specimens from Florida in the Bolter Collection labeled Symphylus, and recorded in the next paragraph. I have figured the dorsal aspect of head (PI. XVII, Fig. 16), osteolar opening (Fig 21), anterior outline of ventral lateral portion of prothorax (Fig. 19) and genital segments (Fig. 24) of Stethaulax marmoratus and this Symphylus species (figures cited in next paragraph ) to illustrate the distinctions between them. These Florida specimens undoubtedly represent a species not included in our North American list. .38. SympHy.us Dall. - This genus is now included for the first time among the Nearctic genera by reason of several examples of a species in the Bolter Collection labeled Symphylus, from Indian River and Point Orange, Florida. [ (Pl. XVII, Fig. 17, 20, 22, 23; cf. with figures cited in previous paragraph.) ] 4. AcANTHOLOMA Stal . ACANTHOLOMA DENTICULATA Stal Acantholoma denticulata Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 1, p. 17. 1870. Four specimens in Bolter Collection and one in Natural History Survey collection, all labeled “N. Ill.”; one specimen, Dubois (S. IIl.), August 8, 1917 (J. R. Malloch); Kan. (Kirkaldy); Ind. Il., Kan. @VaDs): ‘ Subfamily GRAPHOSOMATINAE Key TO GENERA Side margin of pronotum at anterior angle bearing a tooth. ‘ PUM PREITE HLS RTSUN Gh LUC HUE LTA G Soiuis (cre clegnianalical pier wre ate ape eeel as tanw isis ain nena bic! ooh Amaurochrous. ARSUicate metasternial earings (COW) ee siemisie cisisicas's os sissy «sae ws Weda Schout. Side margin of pronotum at anterior angle bearing a subquadrate lobe, the apical margin denticulate (Va., Tex., Vancouver)............ Oncozygia Stal. AmAurRocHROUS Stal (Popors Lap: ) Smaller species, male 444-6 mm., female 6-7 mm. Anterior pronotal tooth narrow, apical angle about 45°, sides of pronotum with slight sinus near middle, otherwise nearly straight from anterior tooth to apex of posterior tooth, which has an apical angle of about 60°.... PUR ee eer ere Neate deh of acted Ferey tel crave, sete bie sue catak ens: s*eCEjaheip che ai'aieieic'e.¥ c/abete parvulus. Anterior pronotal tooth broader, apical angle 60°-90°, sides of pronotum markedly sinuate, nearly transverse behind the sinus, suddenly rounded into an obtuse lobe on the posterior tooth, so that its apical angle is about a ANS RU FemecULE es LEMS nD eee cc etctehne eae clin usa ae: eda telainy vt'c)-oie\ ators saat cain: Sipt damehsWene Nah oh wire cinctipes. - 172 Larger species, male 7 mm., female 7-9 mm., pronotum about as.in preceding SPOCLOS so, ya ava: tayetls ata tse oto ubsotacolssate ale ahove. simahs Us laletsy ate rei Mealelt eye tale egal teense ne Seema dubius. AMAUROCHROUS PARVULUS V. D. Podops parvulus Van Duzee, Trans. Am, Ent. Soc., Vol. 30, p. 22. 1904. Taken at Normal in central Illinois, March 26 and June 27; also in northern Illinois. Can., Mass., Kan., Col. (V. D.). AMAUROCHROUS CINCTIPES Say Tetyra cinctipes Say, Am. Ent., Vol. 3, 1828; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A., Vol. 1, p. 94. i j Seems to prefer sandy land, and often occurs in driftwood collec- tions. The imagines are found in all sections of Illinois, and throughout the year except in April and the early part of May. Algonquin, Urbana, Homer, Monticello, Havana, Quincy, Carbondale, and Pulaski, March 19, 30; May 19, 24, 28, 31; June 9, 21; July 9; August 16, 19, 20; September 21; October 27, 28, 30; Nov. 14. Occurs in some of the Southern States, but is more especially a species of the northern states and Canada. N. Y., N. J.,.Can. (V. D.). Duluth, Minn. (Bol.). AMAUROCHROUS DUBIUS P. B. Scutellera dubia Palisot de Beauvois, Ins. rec. en Afr. et en Amér., p. 33. 1805. This species occurs in the West Indies, and has been reported from N. Y., N. J., Va., and Tex. The Bolter Collection contains a female 8 mm. long, apparently of this species, from Nantucket Island, Mass. [The species may occur in IIlinois. | Subfamily HALYDINAE Includes but one genus in Illinois. BrocHyMENA A. & S. Key TO SPECIES NYMPHS Pronotum with large, irregular lateral thorns, the lateral outline not straight, very conspicuously angularly produced on posterior third, lateral cephalic margin with a short thorn just in front of eye...................200- arborea. Pronotum with small, almost equal-sized lateral teeth, the lateral outline almost straight, only slightly produced near posterior extremity; lateral cephalic margin with a short triangular protuberance just in front of eye. .4—pustulata. IMAGINES Osteole very small and inconspicuous, the auricle pale and very small or almost absent; pronotum produced in the form of a broad truncate process at lateral posterior angles, its apex with 2 or 3 sharp teeth; the paired plates at base of genital segments of female bulbous, their posterior margins declivitous...... Sysieistuse'cfeasksileye piigpaseleialo\es/ skoda Ve pe hateteneKos es syeba. wie sia Whee ce: eitabar ateol: eae et ope ste Roe ae Rene acelrenn COAL aia 173 Osteole large, the auricle dark and well-developed; pronotum either broadly rounded at posterior lateral angles or rather sharply angulated, usually with small denticles; the paired plates at base of genital segments of female slightly convex or flat, their posterior margins not declivitous. Osteole not surrounded laterally by pale yellowish color; apical dorsal segment of female conspicuously emarginate posteriorly; large species, females averaging 18 mm. in length; color of dorsum as in the other species of the genus but there is a paler area at apex of scutellum and on base of each elytron that is not so evident in any other species before me; lateral margin of metathorax narrowly pale yellow from base to apex............-. cariosa. Osteole surrounded laterally by pale yellowish color; apical dorsal segment of abdomen of female transverse or slightly emarginate; lateral margins of WELAUNOTAK’ TOL MATL O WAY DAG tore cicjele cine sleveiaieicies ciple ayelalaye tele ole j-pustulata. [The above keys and the record of B. cariosa in text are by the editor. Mr. Hart’s key to imagines included only arborea and 4-pustulata which were separated on entirely different characters. ] BROCHYMENA ARBOREA Say Pentatoma arborea Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., Vol. 4, p. 311. 1825. This also is a widely distributed species, ranging from Canada into Mexico, and over nearly the whole of the United States. Its habits are very similar to those of the preceding species, but it seems to be most abundant later in the season. Examples determined by H. E. Summers were reported to us as spearing on their beaks larvae of the Colorado potato-beetle. Beach, Urbana, Twin Grove; Centralia, Dubois, Metropo- lis; March 18, May 9, June 10, July 3 (on apple), August 19, September 6-14 (on apple), 20, 22, November 7. G. H. French reported to us that he found Brochymena in all stages on willow, apple, and grape, and also took adults on peach and pear, his localities being Centralia, Carbondale, Makanda, Cobden, and Villa Ridge, and the dates August 26, 28, and September 5, 12, 26. Riopavienk CARIOSA Stal Brochymena cariosa Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 2, p. 17. 1872. One female which I found in the series of 4-pustulata is undoubtedly cariosa, agreeing in every respect with Texan examples so named by Mr. Hart. Locality, Whitesville, Saline Co., Ill., June 29, 1905. BROCHYMENA QUADRIPUSTULATA Fabr. Cimez quadripustulata Fabricius, Ent. Syst., sec. ed., Vol. 4, p. 100. 1794. This is our commonest species. It ranges from the eastern United States to California and is also found in Canada. It occurs in all sec- tions of Illinois, but is perhaps commonest in the southern part. It rests on the branches of trees, protected by its color. We have found it on elm and grape, but it has been noted especially in orchards, on apple and cherry trees. Sanderson has recorded it as preying on the tussock and brown-tail moths; but its abundance in-all stages on trees suggests that 174 it may also feed on the sap. We have never seen any with their beaks inserted, but H. Garman, while an assistant at the State Entomologist’s office, found them very abundant on apple trees injured by twig punc- tures. We have taken them hibernating in December; they occur abun- dantly on apple, oak, elm, and other trees in May and June; and the nymphs in our collection were taken in late June, July, and August. The adults on apple trees, mentioned above, are perhaps the hibernating gener- ation, the next generation being that taken by us in August, September, and October. Localities are as follows: Milan and Andalusia in Rock Island county; Urbana, Peoria, Havana, Griggsville, and Pegrim; Col- linsville, Olney, Clay City, Flora, Odin, Centralia, Richview, Dubois, Du Quoin, Mt. Vernon, Carbondale, Grand Tower, Cobden, Anna, Pulaski, and Villa Ridge, in southern Illinois, the dates being April 7, 17, | 19, 20; May 15, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 30; June 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 13, 21, 26, 29;July 8, 17, 25; August 13, 14; September 2, 11, 14, and 20; and October 15, 31. Eggs of Brochymena, probably of this species, or of arborea, we have collected in late June, and from these we bred two parasites, determined for us by the U. S. Bureau of Entomology as Anastatus sp. and Trissolcus murgantiae Ashm. Subfamily PENTATOMINAE Key To TRIBES NYMPHS Juga broad, surpassing tylus and in close contact beyond it for a distance about equal to the width of a jUgum....... 0.00. . ec ewseccccsssceesssenses EDESSINI. Juga slender, straight, subacute, surpassing tylus by at least the width of a jugum, nearly or quite in contact beyond it; body elongate......... MECcIDIINI. Juga sometimes surpassing tylus, but by much less than a jugal width, and not in! CONTACL SPE YOM VAT sic creer crs eaters alate lap) wisye chavel,\ IMG: I. 5 oct svete tatelavenevelers scetanel sia etaics ars, iefotniats 16. Prionosoma. Pronotal hind angles not emarginate. Bucculae sloping off at posterior end, without evident posterior lobe. Margins of pronotum arcuate and explanate; membrane veins anastomosing {siete en sis sietcasiaress, wise te dente wipe cree 17. Menecles. Margins of pronotum sinuate; veins of membrane not anas- tomosing. XN Frena reaching well beyond mid-scutellum. Pronotal margin serrate anteriorly......... 18. Huschistus. Pronotal margin entire (Fla.)............... Padaeus Stal. Frena not reaching beyond mid-scutellum; pronotal margin entire (Kan. to Cal., north to Vancouver. .EHysarcoris Hahn. Bucculae elevated at posterior end into a distinct lobe, ending abruptly behind. Tylus not more prominent above than juga, which converge over it at apex (Col. to Cal., and N. Dak.) ....Carpocoris Kol. Tylus throughout more prominent than juga, which are parallel. Distal part of scutellum narrower than elytra.............. Trae Se cate, torah mate lsloras ol Gun Frans ie etamatane eaten ane ois 19. Hymenarcys. Distal part of scutellum broader than elytra...... 20. Coenus. [It was the intention of the author to arrange his keys according to ’ the natural sequence of the genera, but evidently the attaching of impor- tance to certain characters led him to place between closely related genera one or more genera that are apparently not closely related to the genera which they separate. An example may be seen in the case of Dendro- coris, since the genera Thyanta and Banasa are undoubtedly very closely related while Dendrocoris, intervening, is readily separable from them by a number of striking anatomical characters which are in my opinion of paramount importance in this family. The male genitalia are very dis- tinctive in all the species of Dendrocoris which I have seen, the deep central excavation and lateral clawlike processes (Pl. XVIII, Fig. 28) being strikingly different from the ordinary forms in Thyanta and its allies (Pl. XX, Fig. 70, 72, 75, 77). The genitalia of the females differ from those of Thyanta and allied genera in having the basal paired plates entirely covered by the apical ventral segment when in their normal posi- tion. In addition to the genital differences mentioned the metasternum of Dendrocoris lacks the central ridge except in some cases at its anterior extremity. The male of this genus frequently has no protuberance on the second abdominal sternite, but the above characters will identify such specimens. ] [The arrangement of the genera of Pentatominae and other sub- families of Pentatomidae has apparently been rather arbitrary if one may judge from the repeated re-alignment of the constituent genera in various 181 publications, even those issued by the same writer, and it occurs to the editor of this paper that a careful study of all stages of the group would afford a fruitful field for some unbiased student. | feesTeangn DAE: Si Loxa sp.? The Bolter Collection contains two examples of a species of Loxa labeled ‘‘N. Ill.” The genus has hitherto been known only from N. Mex. and Tex. (Uhl.) and Fla. (Van Duzee). 2. ACROSTERNUM Fieb. Key TO SPECIES Form short-oval, sides of pronotum conspicuously arcuated..... pennsylvanicum. Form obovate, sides of pronotum nearly straight............e.seeeeeeee hilare. ‘ACROSTERNUM PENNSYLVANICUM De G. Cimex pennsylvanicum De Geer, Mémoires pour Serv. a l’Hist. Ins., Vol. 3, Paco. 17 7a: Of this uncommon species we have several examples from northern Illinois in June. Its recorded range is from Massachusetts to lowa and north into Canada. Banks has taken it on Ceanothus. ACROSTERNUM HILARE Say Pentatoma hilaris Say, N. Sp. N. Am. Ins. found by Joseph Barabino, chiefly in La., p. 9, 1832; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A., Vol. 1, p. 304. This very common large green species is in our collection from numerous localities in the various sections of the state. It ranges from Canada to Brazil, and from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific. The Bolter Collection contains specimens from California, from which it had not previously been reported. The life history is very evident from the data at hand. The imagines are most frequently taken in May and the early part of June; there are only a few dates in July and August, but they become more frequent in the latter part of September, with records for October and November. The nymphal records are all for July and August and the early part of September. A number of food plants, trees and herbs, are recorded. Our data show the occurrence of the nymph on grape and ash, and of the adult on catalpa and apple. , 3. Banasa Stal [There appears to be some uncertainty as to the identity of the species in this genus, and an examination of types appears to me neces- sary to definitely decide the matter. I have figured one side of the male hypopygium in calva, dimidiata, and imbuta Walker—a Texan species— (Pl. XVIII, Fig. 25, 26, 27), to facilitate identification of the species dealt with in this paper. | 182 Key TO SPECIES Pronotum without any sharply contrasting color division. General color dark chestnut or blackish; abdominal marginal incisures with evident black dot; basal, angles of scutellum at most with very small smooth spots; [pronotum and basal half of elytra with narrow yellow lateral margins; male hypopygium similar to that of calva]............... sordida. General color greenish; abdominal marginal incisures without evident black dot; basal angles of scutellum with a smooth pale callus larger than eye; [pronotum and elytra without yellow lateral margins; male hypopygium similar to that. of Qvmigigtay] accross i reeeie oie ok ie eee euchlora. Pronotum green or olivaceous in front of a line connecting the lateral angles; back of this line red-brown; the two colors in sharp contrast. Abdominal marginal incisures with evident black dot; second antennal 2/3 to 3/4 as long as third; [male hypopygium as in Pl. XVIII, Fig 26]....calva. Abdominal marginal incisures with not more than a minute black point; second antennal 1/2 to 2/3 as long as third; [male hypopygium as in Fig. Ph ee eee A inserts coco orcs aria pee oma ae c OF ee ate dimidiata. BANASA sorDIDA Uhl. Atomosira sordida Uhler, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 14, p. 98. 1871. Two specimens taken by the author near the Mississippi River at Grand Tower, southern Illinois, June 30 and July 10. The species is recorded from Maine, Vancouver, and Arizona, and from some inter- mediate states. BANASA EUCHLORA Stal Banasa euchlora Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 2, p. 44. 1872. This is a southern species, one ranging from Florida to Arizona (Bol.), and north to Maryland a Iowa. It was captured on cedar at Summerfield (S. Ill.) May 1, by E. S. G. Titus. BANASA CALVA Say Pentatoma calwa Say, Descrip. n. sp. Heter. Hemip. N. A., 1831; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A., Vol. 1, p. 318. The species is known from Georgia, New York, and Montana. [We have one male from Grand Tower (S. Ill.) July 12, 1909.] Van Duzee says that near Buffalo (N. Y.) it is “tolerably abundant on various deciduous trees from August to October.” BANASA DIMIDIATA Say Pentatoma dimidiata Say, Descrip. n. sp. Heter. Hemip. N. A., 1831; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A., Vol 1, p. 318. / This 1s our commonest species. It ranges from the Atlantic coast to California, and north into Canada. We have it from Algonquin and vari- ous other pojnts in northern Illinois; also from Quincy (C. Ill.) May 12, Sl tig e 9, and November 14, (and from White Heath (C. IIL. ) Novem- ber 22, 1913.] 183 4, Denprocoris Bergr.* There is but one species of this genus in our Illinois material, though we have apparently six species from the United States in the collection. DENDROCORIS HUMERALIS Uhl. Liotropis humeralis Uhler, Bul. U. 8S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 400. 1877. This species is not uncommonly swept from black-jack oak at Havana, Forest City, and Meredosia. It also occurs under similar con- ditions at Alto Pass and Dubois. Other localities for Illinois are Gales- burg, White Heath, Carbondale; and one specimen is labeled “N. III.” Other states: Vt., Mass., N. J., Pa. Md., W. Va., Ga., Ohio, Iowa, Kan., Col., Cal.? (V.D). Mr. Van Duzee places a question mark after the California record. Possibly the specimen or specimens referred to are identical with one in our collection from Yosemite Valley, Cal., which is closely related to humeralis though evidently specifically distinct. The male hypopygia of the species before me are all of similar structure (PI. XVIII, Fig 28), and differ strikingly from those of Thyanta. The female genitalia differ from those of Thyanta and allied genera in having the basal plates concealed beneath the preceding ventral segment. , Mr. W. L. McAtee informs me that he has taken some specimens of humeralis that differ from the normal form in having the juga separated at apices. These specimens were taken in the vicinity of Washington, Dae Mr. Van Duzee in his recent catalogue lists Dendrocoris near the end of its tribe, placing Arvelius before it and after Thyanta. 5. CHLOROCHROA CHLOROCHROA UHLERI Stal + Chlorochroa uhleri Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 2, p. 33. 1872. Chlorochroa persimilis Horvath, Ann. Mus. Natl. Hung., Vol. 6, p. 555. 1908. This species is exceedingly abundant in the Illinois valley sand- regions, swarming on Opuntia rafinesquii, and feeding mostly at the tip of the fruits when these are present. I have also taken it in the sand dunes of the Chicago area on dwarf cedar (Juniperus sabina). Vestal says that it also occurs on Chrysopsis, Kuhnia, Ambrosia psilostachya, Lespedeza capitata, and grasses. In the Illinois valley we have it from Forest City, Manito, Bishop, Havana, Bath, Arenzville, and Meredosia. Inthe Chicago area we have it from Beach and Waukegan; and there are also single examples from Eureka, near the Illinois valley sands, from Mascoutah, near St. Louis, and from Dubois. The dates are April 1, 4, 9; June 5, 6, 10; August 7, 12, 13, 14, 18, 22, 24; September 28, 30; Octo- [* Treatment of this genus is by the editor.] [tj In Mr. Hart’s MS. he uses the name persinilis, but Van Duzee's Catalogue gives this as a synonym of whleri, in which he is followed here by the editor.] 184 ber 8, 15, 29, 30; and November 17. Nymphs occurred June 6 to October 30. In the late fall most adults are a dark brownish carmine resembling that of the ripe fruit of the Opuntia on which they occur. A few green individuals still remain, and it would seem that the red color is assumed at transformation, while mature adults are not affected. This dark variety was found abundant October 29, 30, and 31, and November 17. The species is common in sandy situations east to the Atlantic coast and in Iowa and Canada. It hibernates as an adult under shelter (Vestal). [The claspers of the male hypopygia of uwhleri, sayi Stal, congrua Uhler, and a species provisionally named ligata Say in our collection are very similar in structure, the most striking differences being found in those of the first two species as Shown in Figures 29 and 30, Plate XVII] 6. RuytipoLtomia Stal RHYTIDOLOMIA BELFRAGII Stal Rhytidolomia belfragii Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 2, p. 38. 1872. Three specimens from northern Illinois in April (S. H. Peabody) ; Ill., lowa, Neb., Canada (V. D.). [Judging from the general habitus and hypopygial structure of this and the preceding species one might reasonably question the validity of the generic separation of the insects. The hypopygial claspers are very similar to those of Chlorochroa and are shown in Figure 31, Plate XVIII.] 7. THyAnta Stal * Key TO SPECIES Pronotal side margin anteriorly uneven and serrulate, usually a distinct black margin, a very distinct pair of black dots on pronotal disc, behind head; punctuation of dise of corium sparser than in the next species; male genital segment with median lobe rounded or subangulate.................. calceata. Pronotal side margin nearly entire, often dark-mlargined, disc without distinct pair of black dots; punctuation of disc of corium quite dense; male genital segment with median lobe nearly straight-edged.................++. custator. THYANTA CALCEATA Say Pentatoma calceata Say; Descrip. n. sp. Heter. Hemip. N. A., 1831; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A. Vol. 1, p. 320. Mr. H. G. Barber has recently pointed out ~ the characters for the recognition of this species, which had been previously confused with custator. He states that calceata appears to be confined to the region east of the Alleghanies ; but the species had already been recognized by Dr. S. A. Forbes as distinct in our collection. The localities are Urbana and Towanda (C. Ill.) and Tamaroa [and Alto Pass] (S. Ill.), and the dates are May 2, [8], and 18, and September 22. We have also specimens from Kentucky and Florida in the Bolter Collection. * For synopsis of North American species see Addenda to this paper. 7 Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soe., Vol. 19, p. 108. 185 THYANTA CUSTATOR Fabr. Cimex custator Fabricius, Syst. Rhyng., p. 164. 1803. This common and variable species is easily recognized by its peculiar granulate appearance, caused by the fine and’ dense punctuation. There are two extreme color-varieties. One is green, often with a red band between the humeri and red lateral border to the pronotum; the other is brownish fuscous, more or less dotted above and below with fuscous, and with a pale median line on the scutellum. There are so many inter- grades between these forms that a variety name is not considered neces- sary. The species is widely distributed over the United States. It feeds on asparagus, corn, and various grasses. Several examples of the dark variety were once captured by C. W. Woodworth on the top of a tower of the University of Illinois about 180 feet high. The species is moderately common in all parts of Illinois, especially on dry or sandy soils. The dates are distributed rather uniformly throughout the season. Collections in November and December indicate that hibernation in the adult stage is usual. Nymphs have been taken from May to July, but much, more abundantly from August to October. 8. Pertpatus Muls. & Rey Kry To SPECIES Under surface and legs piceous, connexival pale border more or less invaded by large square black spots at incisures; [posterior margin of hypopygial opening AS win SNe ioc EL AG r ROV RMI ere coy tain be telelehalerovdharaie.s\ oie) is eve form Sleleysiis\s ++. piceus. Under surface and legs pale, connexivum with narrow pale border, line between this and the black discal color more or less sinuated outwardly on the inci- sures; [posterior margin of male hypopygial opening as in Figure 33]........ MN aMce ane eit se ertenctaistels ahora Biest en at oben iatneiats (sta ayehera ers o/e/'e a serne nies gM eerecevea.e limbolarius. PERIBALUS PICEUS Dall. Pentatoma? picea Dallas, List of Specimens of Hemip. Ins. in Coll. Brit. Mus., Pt. 1, p. 286. 1851. We have numerous specimens from northern Illinois (S. FL. Pea- body.). The species is rather rare, being listed from Canada, Montana, and Iowa. PERIBALUS LIMBOLARIUS Stal Peribalus limbolarius Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 2, p. 34. 1872. This common species ranges across the United States and from Canada to Mexico. We haye it from numerous localities in all sections of the state. It is particularly a late-summer and fall species. We have taken it in January, March, April, and May, but especially from June 19, to November 7, the largest number of captures being in October. The nymphs were taken during the summer months. It feeds on goldenrod (Kirkaldy). At Urbana, October 26, the author found twenty-three imagines on a single cauliflower stalk with their beaks inserted, evidently sucking the sap. 186 9. TRICHOPEPLA Stal Kery To SPECIES Sides of pronotum arcuate; head scarcely tapering; antennae black, first anten- nal rufous; basal half of scutellum finely and densely punctate..... atricornis. Sides of pronotum nearly straight; head distinctly tapering, with three pale impunctate stripes; antennae black, basal two or three segments pale; basal half of scutellum coarsely and unevenly punctate...............-. semivittata. TRICHOPEPLA ATRICORNIS Stal Trichopepla atricornis Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 2, p. 34. 1872. Recorded from Illinois and Wisconsin, west to California and Alaska. Not represented in our collections. TRICHOPEPLA SEMIVITTATA Say Pentatoma semivittata Say, Descrip. n.sp. Heterop. Hemip. N. A., 1831; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A., Vol. 1, p. 319. Ranges from Canada and Maryland west to Colorado. Our material shows a remarkable variation in size and color. Specimens from south- ern Illinois are smaller (5-7 mm.) and paler, the square black spots of the connexivum often reduced to rufous shades on a yellowish ground- color, while those from central Illinois measure 7—8,5 mm. and are usually darker, with distinct black connexival spots. ‘One specimen, evidently this species, has the antenna black except the basal joint. Dubois, Car- bondale, Alto Pass, Cobden, Parker, Dongola, Brownfield (S. Ill); Ur- bana and Seymour (C. Ill.)—June 7-22, July 3, 16, 17, 18, August 24, 30, and October 7. On the latter date they were abundant near Urbana in all stages, and Van Duzee so found them near Buffalo, N. Y., November 3. The food plant is the common wild carrot. 10. NeortrcLossa Kirby [This genus and Aelia are exceptions to the general rule in this subfamily in having the prothorax produced anteriorly on venter in the ‘form of a thin plate on each side, each plate being reflexed near its inner margin and continued caudally in the form of an erect slender ridge as in Scutellerinae. The other structures in the genera are, however, similar to those of the Pentatominae, and as the nymphs agree better with those of the latter than with Scutellerinae, in having the anterior tergal scent- glands in line with the posterior pairs, it appears to me inadvisable with the available data to suggest any change in the subfamily arrangement. ] Ktty To SPECIES NYMPHS Dorsal surface of head evenly rounded................e0ec eect eeeeee sulcifrons. Dorsal surface of head with a large circular depression on disc....... cavifrons. IMAGINES Head dorsally evenly convex transversely and longitudinally, at sides narrowly elevated above lateral carina; general color pale, fusco-punctate; head with Pale median: Wrme sees 3/0 oie srecetssoraperaln eievans miaroteas terol ncecmeedeusleial cise tate resale carole undata. 187 Head dorsally each side in front of eyes very tumid and greatly elevated above lateral carina; colors testaceous and black; head black, often with a tes- taceous mark each side, but without pale median line. Defiexed anterior part of head flattened, uneven, slightly impressed on tylus; scutellum broadly testaceous laterally, the base and a median stripe broadly RSL SLC Aiea’ «tev ctiey stearate ofa sete areata eva iivelaia!al'ajoi site .00% Stace er ajersyera thebeats sulcifrons. Deflexed anterior part of head occupied by a subcircular evenly concave densely punctate excavation; scutellum black, often with narrow pale MAT EAN LOMA pical EpOLeIONe Meme ee eee caic'< oe dione ole ssl ime cavifrons. NEOTTIGLOSSA UNDATA Say Pentatoma undata Say, Descrip. Heter. Hemip. N. A., 1831; Compl. Writ. Ent. N. A., Vol. 1, p. 319. Quebec to Vancouver, south to Col., Neb., Ill., and N. J., common in northeastern U. S. Algonquin (N. Ill.) ; Havana, Bloomington, Normal, Champaign, Urbana, St. Joseph, Homer, and Oakwood (C. Ill.) ; none taken in southern Illinois. Taken in Iowa on mullein. The imagines were all captured in April, May, and June except a few in November. NEOTTIGLOSSA SULCIFRONS Stal Neottiglossa sulcifrons Stal, Enum. Hemip., Pt. 2, p. 18. 1872. A southern species, ranging north as far as Utah, Nebraska, Iowa, and the District of Columbia. It occurs in southern Illinois, and is also taken in the central Illinois sand-regions at Havana and Forest City. The southern Illinois localities are Plainview, Carbondale, Makanda, and Cob- den. Taken later than the preceding species—May to August. NEOTTIGLOSSA CAVIFRONS Stal Neottiglossa cavifrons Stal, Enum. Hemip. Pt. 2, p. 18. 1872. This species is quite rare in collections, but is not uncommon in southern Illinois. It is listed from Texas, Utah, and California, The Illinois localities are Odin, Ashley, Dubois, Carbondale, Makanda, Anna, and Dongola, ‘all in the southern fourth of the state. The dates range from April 28 to July 21, with nymphs on June 20 and July 9. One of these was taken on Pycnanthemum. The species is quite distinct from sulcifrons. 11. Mureantia Stal MuRGANTIA HISTRIONICA Hahn Strachia histrionica Hahn, Wanz. Ins., Vol. 2, p. 116. 1834. This is a common pest of cabbage and other Cruciferae in the South and in extreme southern Illinois, but it is seldom taken north of the center of the state. It has been known to feed on corn and a few other plants, probably in the absence of its natural food. It requires, of course, a spray of contact poison, and since it is very resistant to such treatment it is a difficult pest to combat. We have it from Willard, Grand Tower, Aldridge, Murphysboro, Anna, Metropolis, Mascoutah, and Edgewood in 188 southern Illinois, on cabbage, rape, turnip, and wild peppergrass, May 16 and 23, June 2, July 24 and 25, August 3, 5, 6, 10, and 11; and from Edgar, Urbana, and Springfield (C. IIl.) June 23, September 8 to 28, and in October, both young and old having been found on rape at Urbana and imagines on mustard at Edgar. The Bolter Collection contains one example from northern Illinois, and the species has been taken by us in Chicago. It is listed from Iowa (Stoner). 12. CosMopEpLa Stal COSMOPEPLA BIMACULATA Thom.* Pentatoma bimaculata Thomas, Trans. Ill. State Agr. Soc., Vol. 5, p. 455. 1865. Cimex carnifex Fabricius, Ent. Syst., Suppl., p. 535. 1798. (Preoccupied.) Cosmopepla lintneriana Kirkaldy, Cat. Hemip. (Heter.), with Biol. and Anatom. Ref., Vol. 1, p. 80. 1909. Abundant and generally distributed in Illinois. Taken in every month from March to November. Unlike most species it was most frequently taken in the summer months. Nymphs were collected in June and August. Kirkaldy lists as food plants, Scrophularia nodosa, Ranunculus, currant, blackberry, mint, mullein, potato, raspberry, and moth mullein; and to these I add from our records Stachys and pokeberry. The recorded range is the United states and Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, also Washington. We have several typical specimens from Monterey, Mex., and two from New Mexico. 13. Mormipra A. & S. MorMIDEA LUGENS Fabr. Cimex lugens Fabricius, Ent. Syst., sec. ed., Vol. 4, p. 125. 1794. This species also is abundant in all sections of Illinois. Common in the United States and Canada, especially east of the Rocky Mountains. Like the preceding species it is notably most abundant in the summer months. Nymphs also were common in summer after June 21, and a few were taken in September and October. Imagines occurred in November, ‘December, March, and April, indicating hibernation as adult. Food plant, Verbascum (Kirkaldy). 14. Socusea Berger. SOLUBEA PUGNAX Fabr. Cimex pugnaz Fabricius, Ent. Syst., sec. ed., Vol. 4, p. 100. 1794. A southern and tropical species (PI. XXI, Fig. 78). It ranges from Long Island to Iowa, thence to Brazil. It has not been taken in northern Illinois and only rarely in central Illinois (at Urbana, Mahomet, and Topeka), but it is very common in the state south of the latitude of St. Louis. It is recognized as a pest of grasses in Kentucky,* and corn, [* The synonymy herewith is that given by Van Duzee in his recent Catalogue, Mr. Hart used the name lintneriana in his MS.] * Garman. Psyche, Vol. 6, p. 61. 189 wheat, Panicum, and Setaria are listed as food plants. We have taken it from May to November, especially in midsummer; the nymphs from July to October. It is also recorded as attacking the cotton-worm (Aletia). 15. Proxys Spin. PRoxYS PUNCTULATUS P. B. Halys punctulata Palisot de Beauvois, Ins. rec. en Afr. et en Amér., p. 188. . 1805. This species ranges from Florida to Oklahoma and Texas, and southward into Central America, with one record for Philadelphia. The species was taken by the author in extreme southern Illinois June 4 to 10, at Parker, Pulaski, and Cairo, in the latter place under electric street- lights. The food plant is given as cotton, but there is very littl or none of this in the vicinity of the localities named. It is also said to prey upon the cotton-worm. . 16. Prronosoma Uhl. PrionosoMaA PopopioivEs Uhl. Prionosoma podopioides Uhler, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., Vol 2, p. 364. 1863. The range usually recorded for this species is from western Canada to Lower California, west of the Rocky Mountains. Stoner records it, however, from Iowa City and Ft. Madison, Iowa, in sandy ground. Since the latter locality is on the Mississippi River opposite Illinois the species should be looked for in the extensive sand-regions on the Illinois side of the Mississippi in this vicinity. [There is one specimen without a locality label in our collection. | 17. MENECLEs Stal MENECLES INSERTUS Say Pentatoma inserta Say, Descrip. n.sp. Heter. Hemip. N. A., 1831; Compl. Writ., Ent. N. A., Vol. 1, p. 317. Recorded from Canada, and ranging across the northern United States from Massachusetts to California, south as far as Arkansas. “Ap- parently nowhere abundant.” (V.D.) In our collection from northern Illinois ; from Quincey, White Heath, Urbana, St. Joseph, Homer, Muncie, and Hillery, in central Illinois; and from Dubois and Anna (S. Ill.). Nymphs in June; imagines from March to November. Its infrequency in collections is doubtless due to its arboreal habits. Van Duzee records its capture in numbers from small hickory trees; and in late October and early November we found it very abundant on sidewalks on the campus of the University of Illinois under a row of hard maple trees, which it was presumably leaving for hibernation. 18. Euscuistus Dall * The structure of the male hypopygia in this genus is similar in all of the species, the principal distinctions being found in the shape of the {* The key, with the exception of the bracketed matter, is by Mr. Hart. The remainder of the text, including records and description of species, is by the editor.] 190 ventral plate, as shown in Figures 34 to 39, Plate XVIII. The form of this plate in impictiventris, euschistoides, ictericus, and servus is almost identical, the central emargination being almost evenly rounded off later- ally. In addition to this character all of the species of this group have a distinct central notch in the thin plate which projects from the caudal margin of the upper plate of the hypopygium, the notch varying slightly in depth in the different species (Fig. 37). The two species tristigmus and pyrrhocerus have the hypopygia of slightly different form, the ventral plate having a slight but distinct angle at each side of the central emargi- nation, and the thin plate above referred to sharply produced in center, not notched (Fig. 35). Other forms of the hypopygial structures are shown in Figures 34, 36, 38, and 39. Kery To SPECIES A distinct black dot in each anterior angle of the ventral segments.7 [Juga with a few sparse punctures along the lateral margins and between ocelli; disc of pronotum and elytra largely impunctate; antennae péle...... BRO OI REU AT ree rr os. AS CORIACEOUS er rnin cine ord Bier & co oi one subimpunctatus.] Juga above densely punctate; in side view obliquely truncate, not exceeding the obtuse median anterior profile formed by the tylus and labrum; mar- gin of male genital segment, as viewed from behind, with distinctly . limited median notch; antennae usually pale or reddish; 9 or 10 mm. Side margin of pronotum nearly straight to the obtuse lateral angles, an evident pale edge, sharply contrasting above with a well-defined dark border; head above with dark margin; no median ventral spots; notch in male genital segment V-shaped, a similar, very small incision each SIMSCOE Tio atrovent neneker esac Retcts, offcte io f eens aaa ‘SarT susibiaz WOpoL [Apuodsos] Japio snypoey. "| & G ssn) Bee Noun Mose te ‘777+ YSySop deyem-ysaaq|* "7°"? tosses sss s “OUI DADO DUT | BaplouvsoppAD J2epi9 0 4 » ies posou-suo7q|**** "ss": "sess ss (‘UUlyT) Snasso "7 SngpI9ayY) snyoUhysouryoy| T 9T * eS pesou-z10ys|***** (Jew) snwojzsozn)d snajsosidarT BaplouRsoquioyy 1apio 0 T tee wee see ysy-erpped|"* "4 C-qrem) pynyyods wopohtod TULOJSOYIRTAS 1apsio punoj eeydaooyjuvoy jo -ddg Ca ae soumeu uOULUOD soureu oynuepsg » SGOSId GANINVXG SAIOMdG TIV AOA VLYC adTaIwassy I WIavy 231 “BIqIUdUIY PUB BI[I}deYy JO UOl}BVOYISSe[O 94} UL PaMOT[OJ Useq 2ABY (LIGL[) INOqIeg pues Jasaulo}g § “eI109q }e@ SIOUT][] 94} WIOAIJ UOT}B}sSazUL UeTeYdsI00y}uUBIe JO Spaodad1 ‘sivoA [B1eA0s JO polled B 1aA0 papue}xe BUOSO.I0qd jo suol}euIWIexXG t “SI6L ‘JSnsny UI “[[[ ‘UMOJSpiveg }e UsYe} SPM UOPOA[OG JO Usautoeds a[Surs sy, + useq SPY (8061) UOSparByoIy puv saq1oq JO VeY} SedSIG JO UOTPBOYISSE] UT [eiaAes pue «weed ay} JO Suos¥as [[B Surpnypour *pasn 0 L : 0 g 0 To 0 | &@ 0 | @ 0 | @ syphwa-N| § p sipfima'N| & G siphiiua snyouhysowyoa0aN| 0G tae 0 T i] “ 7" “IQIOHT snupoiwaun ofng “MBYS DWDIIgGSaIDI DUDY SS An TE Iaqalyos suardid puny eluates 1apio peog|****: Soaqyng)|* + ** “s+ * So1y paedoay § VIAIHA WV at}an} Youq-asyyeory|***** sess s (Sart) Diafunds pphiuy e1u4n} peyuredg|**** (zissesy) DIDWbunwm sShwmashuyo deddeug uouu10D|*****""* Cuury) Duquadias Daphjayo Scag sas 0 an} deW|(Av1p) vavydv.boabopnasd shwaydnip este ee taleeeeteeae eee ees = (IQIOFT) MJSOOL2 “ef “* Wapygs|'****'*' CpetM) suvbaza shiwmapnasg Byeurpnysay, apao ‘UUVT 40J01JSU0D 12qn]09 ayeus yori)’ eyeumenbs epi § VITILGaU 232 ADAPTABILITY TO DIFFERENT Host SPECIES A number of interesting facts regarding specificity of hosts in fresh- water Acanthocephala may be observed in Table I. Tanaorhamphus longirostris, Gracilisentis gracilisentis, and Octospinifer macilentus are the only species recorded from a single host species. These all belong to the Neoechinorhynchidae. Their confinement to a single species is in sharp contrast to the adaptability displayed by Echinorhynchus thecatus and Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli. However,-as O. macilentus is known to occur in a different species of sucker in another locality, the two species from the gizzard-shad are the only ones found in the locality under con- sideration which present strong evidence of restriction to a single host- species. Members of the genus Echinorhynchus are among the commonest fish parasites, yet in the local fauna under consideration but a single species, E. thecatus, represents this genus. The relationship of this species to the host is obviously very generalized since it may find lodging in the bodies of fishes occupying widely different systematic positions. This species occurs not only in the more primitive orders of fish, but infests also representatives of practically every order of fish studied. It is significant that for the region included in this survey no verte- brate host was found bearing larval Acanthocephala. Fish and amphib- ians frequently serve either as primary or intermediate hosts for encysted larvae which reach maturity in predaceous fish, birds, and mammals. Unfortunately, a number of species of snakes were examined before the writer began to keep negative records. The examination of snakes in other localities within the state, especially in the vicinity of Urbana, has without exception failed to reveal any Acanthocephala, either larval or adult. In an earlier paper the writer (1915) has’ called attention to the infrequency of records of amphibian infestation by Acanthocephala in North America. Data in Table I are supplemented by his records of numerous examinations of both tailed and tailless Amphibia from other parts of the state, and none of these records shows acanthocephalan infes- tation for the amphibian fauna of the state. SPECIES NEWLY CREDITED TO THE ILLINOIS River FAUNA, AND New Host-ReEcorps The present study has added a number of new records concerning the distribution of Acanthocephala, the following four species being reported for the first time from Illinois: Echinorhynchus thecatus Linton (1891), Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave, 1913), Pompho- rhynchus bulbocolli Linkins, n. sp., and Octospinifer macilentus, n. sp. For E. thecatus, twelve additional hosts are added; namely, Lepisos- teus platostomus, Hiodon tergisus, Ictiobus bubalus, Carpiodes carpio, Cyprinus carpio, Ictalurus punctatus, Pomoxis annularis, P. sparoides, 233 Lepomis pallidus, Eupomotis gibbosus, Micropterus salmoides, and Perca flavescens. For N. cylindratus two new host species are reported: Carpiodes carpio and Micropterus dolomieu. COMPARISON WITH OTHER REGIONAL STUDIES In his report on “Fish Entozoa from Yellowstone National Park” Linton (1893 : 555) listed but two species of Acanthocephala. They were given names of European species. though recent investigation has shown that extremely few species of fresh-water Acanthocephala are common to Europe and North America. Drawings and descriptions show that one species is of the genus Echinorhynchus and that the other is one of the Neoechinorhynchidae, though data are insufficient for the determination of species. This report by Linton constitutes as thorough a study of Acantho- cephala as has been made for any fresh-water habitat in North America up to the present time; there is, consequently little data with which to compare the results of the present study; and, as indicated on an earlier page, there are few valuable European contributions with which com- parison may be made. Zschokke (1884) made an intensive study of the parasites from twelve of the most common species of fresh-water fishes from Lake Geneva, in Switzerland. In all, he examined over four hundred indi- viduals, which yielded but three species of Acanthocephala; namely. Acanthocephalus lucit (= Echinorhynchus angustatus), Pomphorhynchus laevis (= E. proteus), and Neoechinorhynchus rutili (= E. clavaeceps). Eight of the twelve species of fish studied were parasitized with Acantho- cephala. In the locality examined by Zschokke thé number of species of Acanthocephala is evidently very low when compared with the number of species found in the Illinois River. The genus Acanthocephalus, found in the European fishes, is wanting in the Illinois River fauna, while four genera of Neoechinorhynchidae occur in the Illinois River fish as against a single species revealed by Zschokke’s study. Ltthe’s check-list of parasites of European fresh-water hosts (1911) includes eight valid species of Acanthocephala characteristic of the fresh- water fishes of Europe. One additional species, E. gadi, is found in marine and migratory fishes, and is consequently taken into fresh-water habitats by the migratory fishes though not strictly characteristic of that habitat. Since Ltihe in his list assembled the data concerning all known European fresh-water hosts, a comparison of his record with that for the Illinois River alone would be wholly inadequate; the writer has consequently included in Table II data for all fresh-water species of Acanthocephala known to belong to the North American fauna. The writer has previously (1915) discussed the difference in numbers of species of Acanthocephala infesting Amphibia on the two continents. 234 TABLE II SPECIES OF ACANTHOCEPHALA REPRESENTED IN EUROPEAN AND NorTH AMERICAN FRESH-WATER Hosts EXcLusivE or BIRDS PISCES Gonecaet Species found in Species in Species known Acanthocephala European hosts Illinois River to occur in (Liihe, 1911) hosts North America Echinorhynchus......... WUTIDE teen aes thecatus........ coregoni SQIMONIS SPU Ts Alico ene salvelini CHOC UG feeomre ee ele sic techie bet cee gadi (?) CO LTAEOM (LD ERA era cl Be- fe Cee Ite et thecatus Pomphorhynchus........ LQEVIUS a ctelsts tccgstehs bulbocolli....... bulbocolli Acanthocephalus........ | anguillae lucii Rhiadinorhynchus........ MTiSti a vndiereE eka ee ae tenuicornis? Neoechinorhynchus...... MUTA dis io maks Stee cylindratus..... | cylindratus tenellus | crassus Tanaorhampnus sce ctolers| coat er een tasie ees longirostris..... longirostris Octospinifer sari sie eee bite cbnere Mere sete macilentus...... macilentus Gracilisentisn losis bsctecaulovetieiee svameespeeiareiere gracilisentis gracilisentis | AMPHIBIA Acanthocephalus........ OLE CDUS Se Buecatises sal ledeve easeronigeutne sisaeests ranae ranae anthuris REPTILIA Neoechinorhynchus...... | TWCLULN Se egahe anata | CUVUOAS nr ere aery | emydis SYSTEMATIC CONSIDERATION OF SPECIES So little has been written concerning the Acanthocephala of American fresh-water hosts that it seems desirable to bring together the scattered descriptions of the known species and to add to these the descriptions of a number of new species. This seems especially desirable in order that those interested in the study of economic problems, especially those con- nected with the fisheries industry, may have a ready means of identifying species in this important group of fish parasites. The older literature, even within its limited scope, does not meet this demand because of the failure of the earlier workers to recognize the distinctness of North American Acanthocephala from the Acanthocephala found on the Europeon conti- nent. Again, many erroneous identifiications of species have apparently extended the range of distribution for known forms owing to the inade- quate available descriptions of the species reported upon. In the following section descriptions are given for the genera and species of Acantho- 235 cephala infesting fresh-water hosts of North America exclusive of the birds. LINKINS’ MANUSCRIPT SPECIES In a manuscript thesis filed in the library of the University of Illinois, Mr. Ralph H. Linkins described two new species of Acantho- cephala belonging to the genus Echinorhynchus. In the course of later study he described in manuscript another new species, belonging to the genus Pomphorhynchus. One of the species of Echinorhynchus, /. salve- lin. Linkins, was subsequently cited and described by Professor H. B. Ward (Ward and Whipple, 1918), under whose direction the thesis inves- tigation was being conducted. Owing to his entering the Army, Mr. Linkins has been unable to put the results of his investigation into form for publication, and he has kindly granted the writer permission to quote from the manuscript descriptions in order that the species may be def- nitely cited in connection with the present work. The specific definitions of Echinorhynchus coregoni and Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli are entirely the result of work done by Mr. Linkins, to whom the writer wishes to give full credit. Family ECHINORHYNCHIDAE The family Echinorhynchidae was created by Hamann (1892) to include all of the Acanthocephala not set off in his other two families, Gigantorhynchidae and Neoechinorhynchidae. The species included in this heterogeneous group were, until a few years ago, all embraced in the one genus Echinorhynchus. Comparatively recent work, dating from the studies of Monticelli and of Ltthe, has resulted in the erection of numer- ous genera from the disrupted genus Echinorhynchus. All of these genera, with the exception of those included in the Centrorhynchidae, are still retained in the family Echinorhynchidae. More thorough study of this unnatural assemblage of genera will probably lead either to the estab- lishing of several families or, at least, to the recognition of subfamily groups within it. As the family now stands, little would be gained by an attempt to describe it, for there are very few characters common to all of the genera. Four genera usually assigned to this family are represented in the fresh-water fauna of North America. Each of these genera with its included species will be treated separately. EcHINORHYNCHUS Zoega, 1776 D> Generic Diagnosis —Acanthocephala of small to medium size, para- sitic as adults in the alimentary canal of fish. Subcuticula and lemnisci provided with numerous small nuclei or with a few very large finely dendritic nuclei. Body proper and neck spineless. Proboscis long, approx- imately cylindrical, armed with circles of hooks which are alternate in arrangement. Hooks of practically uniform size except those of a few basal circles, which are much reduced. Proboscis receptacle coimposed of 236 two layers of muscle inserted at the base of the proboscis. Central nervous-system near the middle of the proboscis receptacle. ECHINORHYNCHUS THECATUS Linton, 1891 (Pl. XXII, Fig. 1-4) Length: females, 11 to 26 mm.; males, 7 to 12 mm. In fully extended individuals both ends of the body are bent toward the ventral surface. Proboscis, when fully extended, frequently takes a position perpendicular to the axis of the body; in case of extreme extrusion may form acute angle with main axis of body. Proboscis usually about 1 mm. long. Neck about one-fourth the length of proboscis. Proboscis receptacle long and slender, about 1.5 times the length of proboscis. Central nervous-system located near the center of the proboscis-receptacle. Hooks alternate in arrangement; restricted entirely to proboscis; arranged in twelve longi- tudinal rows of twelve to thirteen hooks each. Lemnisci long and slender, about 1.5 times the length of proboscis-receptacle. Embryos within body- cavity of gravid female 80 to 110 » long by 24 to 30 » wide. The hooks at the base of the proboscis are 41 to 53 » long, nearly straight, and in many instances each hook is completely ensheathed in a cuticular collar (Fig. 2). Near the middle of the proboscis, hooks of a much heavier form occur. These are rather uniformly about 71 » long, although those on the ventral surface of the proboscis are more strongly curved and a little heavier than those on the dorsal (Fig. 2, 4). Hooks near the ante- rior tip are not so much recurved and not so strong as those near the middle though they reach greater length; namely, 77 to 89 p. In the male eight cement glands are closely compacted at the posterior border of the hind testis. Graybill (1902 :197) has given a very good description of this species, from which the foregoing data vary but slightly. Hosts: Morone americana, Roccus americanus, Micropterus dolo- mieu, M. salmoides, Ambloplites rupestris, Amia calva, Lepisosteus pla- tostomus, Hiodon tergisus, Ictiobus bubalus, Carpiodes carpio, Cyprinus carpio, Ictalurus punctatus, Pomoxis annularis, P. sparoides, Lepomis pallidus, Eupomotis gibbosus, Perca flavescens. ECHINORHYNCHUS SALVELINI Linkins, 1918 (in Ward and Whipple) (Pl. XXIII, XXIV, Fig. 5, 10, 12) Body slightly enlarged anteriorly. Males 7 to 9 mm. long; 0.82 to 1.27 mm.in maximum diameter. Females 10 to 17 mm. long; 1.2 to 1.6 mm. in maximum diameter. Proboscis cylindrical, armed with 16 longi- tudinal rows of about 13 hooks each. Basal hooks 39 to 50 » long. Hooks on middle and anterior proboscis-regions 44 to 68 » long, with basal pro- cess 83 » long. Embryos 115 to 165 » long by 20 to 25 « broad; middle 237 shell of embryos forming polar prolongations which are more than twice as long as they are wide. Host, Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum), the great lake trout. ECHINORHYNCHUS COREGONI Linkins, n. sp. (Pl. XXIII, XXIV, Fig. 6, 11, 13) “Body enlarged at anterior end. Males 3 to 3.7 mm. long, maximum width 0.8 to 1.05 mm., at anterior one-fourth of body. Females 3 to 5.5 mui. long; widest part of body 0.6 to 1.5 mm. Proboscis cylindrical, carry- ing twenty circular rows of hooks, each circle containing six hooks. Hooks of adjacent rows alternate. Basal hooks 28 to 53 p» in length. Hooks in middle region of proboscis 65 to 80 » in length. Terminal hooks smaller than those of middle rows. Ventral hooks larger and stronger than dorsal hooks. Embryos vary from 51 to 91 » in length and from 17 to 20 » in width. The common size is 77 by 19 p.” As indicated in an earlier part of this paper the above description is quoted directly from a manuscript thesis by Linkins. Host, Coregonus clupeiformis. PomrHoruyNcuus Monticelli, 1905 ; emended by Porta, 1907 Monticelli (1905 :11) named the genus Pomphorhynchus in a foot- note, without citing for it any type or characteristic species. Furthermore, he did not, in his definition, differentiate the genus, as later emended by Porta, (1907), from the genus Filicollis. Porta (1907 :413) assigned Echinorhynchus proteus to the genus Pomphorhynchus, and since P. pro- teus is a synonym of P. laevis, the latter becomes the type of the genus. There are numerous early records of the occurrence of “FE. proteus” in North American fishes, but without much question they are all based upon misidentification of the species. The writer has examined numer- ous specimens from American hosts and has never found one which agreed with the detailed descriptions of the European species. All the examples of this genus that have come to the attention of the writer clearly belong to a new species, to which the manuscript name Pompho- rhynchus bulbocolli has been assigned by Linkins. Linkins’ description follows the generic diagnosis. Generic Diagnosis.—Acanthocephala parasitic as adults in the alimen- tary canal of fish. Body unarmed. Neck very long, cylindrical except at its anterior extremity, where it expands into an approximately spherical bulla. The proboscis extends as an approximately cylindrical structure from the anterior region of this neck-enlargement. Tip of proboscis somewhat reduced in size. Proboscis receptacle inserted at the base of the proboscis, extending posteriorly through the neck, as a double-walled sac, into the anterior portion of the body-cavity proper. Central nervous- system at the posterior end of the proboscis-receptacle. 238 POMPHORHYNCHUS BULBOCOLLI Linkins, n. sp. (Pl. XXIII, Fig. 7, 8) Body elongate, tapering toward the posterior end. Neck prominent, measuring 2.6 to 4 mm. in length; diameter 0.15 to 0.4 mm. in posterior portion and 0.8 to 1.5 mm. in region of spherical enlargement. Proboscis cylindrical, 0.5 to 0.6 mm. long by 0.07 to 0.2 mm. wide; armed with twenty-four to twenty-eight circular rows of hooks. Basal circle with twelve hooks; remaining circles with six hooks each; hooks in circles anterior to basal circle alternating: Smallest hooks at tip of proboscis, about 16 » long, with a diameter of 4 ». Largest hooks, in seventh or eighth circle from tip, 36 to 40 » long with a diameter of 22 ». Hooks posterior to the eighth row 20 to 36 » long with a diameter of 4 to 8 up. Roots on hooks of first eight circles back from tip of proboscis 10 to 40 w long. Embryos within body-cavity of gravid females 53 to 83 p long by 8 to 13 w in diameter ; commonest size 63 by 10 pn. Hosts: Ictiobus urus, I. bubalus, Carpiodes carpio, Cyprinus carpio, Ameiurus nebulosus, A.melas, Pomoxis annularis, and P. sparoides. Intestine infested. RHADINORHYNCHUS Lthe, 1911 Generic Diagnosis—Acanthocephala parasitic as adults in the intes- tine of fish. Anterior body-region armed with scattered cuticular spines, ensheathed by cuticular folds. Proboscis and proboscis receptacle very long. Ventral proboscis-hooks stronger than dorsal. Proboscis receptacle a two-walled muscular sac with the brain located near its middle. Lem- nisci long, finger-like. This genus is not strongly represented in American hosts either from the point of view of species or of numbers of individuals encountered in the examination of fishes. It is typically a marine genus which is probably occasionally brought into fresh-water by migratory fishes. RHADINORHYNCHUS.ORNATUS Van Cleave, 1918 Proboscis armed with from twenty-two to twenty-four longitudinal rows of about forty hooks each. Hooks on proboscis 50 to 80 p long. Anterior body-region armed with scattered cuticular spines about 80 mu long. Embryos about 60 » long. Hosts, marine and migratory fishes. RHADINORITYNCHUS TENUICORNIS Van Cleave, 1918 (Pl. XXIII, Fig. 9) Proboscis armed with ten to fourteen longitudinal rows of approx- imately twenty-six hooks each. Proboscis hooks of female 40 to 80 long; those of male, near base, may be as short as 20 pw. Conspicuous crescent of about seven long spines on the ventral surface of the proboscis- 239 region at the division between neck and proboscis. Body spines of female 60 to 80 w in length; those of male about 28 ». Embryos within body- cavity of gravid females 60 to 80 » long and 12 » in diameter, with middle membrane drawn out into attenuated polar capsules. Hosts: marine fishes, and “trout” from Baltimore—uncertain as to whether marine or fresh-water trout. ACANTHOCEPHALUS Koelreuter, 1771 Generic Diagnosis —Acanthocephala of small to medium size, para- sitic as adults in the alimentary canal of fishes and amphibians. Sub- cuticula and lemnisci provided with numerous small nuclei. Proboscis ovate or a short cylinder. Body proper and neck spineless. Proboscis receptacle a two-walled muscular sac inserted at the junction of proboscis and neck. Central nervous-system located at posterior extremity of proboscis-receptacle. A single instance of the occurrence of specimens belonging to this genus is on record (Van Cleave, 1915) for the American continent. The specimens examined, agree in all essential details with the European A. ranae, and have been identified as such by the writer. ACANTHOCEPHALUS RANAE (Schrank, 1788) Proboscis short, slightly larger in the middle than at extremities; armed with twelve to twenty longitudinal rows of four to seven hooks each. Largest hooks, near the middle of the proboscis, 77 to 80 p» long; hooks at anterior tip of proboscis about 60 » long; those in basal row 30 to 50 ». Embryos within body-cavity of gravid female about 110 » long by 13 p» in diameter. Host, Diemyctylus viridescens Raf.; Franklin Falls, Baltimore, Maryland. Family NEOKCHINORHYNCHIDAE DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSIFICATION OF SPECIES The Neoechinorhynchidae occur as adults chiefly in the intestine of fishes, though one North American species is restricted to the intestine of turtles. Hitherto only seven species have been considered as validly placed in this family. Of these, two occur in European hosts, while five, accord- ing to present records, are confined to the American continent. Recently, in examining the collections of Dr. G. R. La Rue taken from Douglas Lake, Michigan, the writer discovered an abundance of well-preserved material representing two new species of Neoechinorhynchidae, one of which clearly belongs to a new genus. Thus, with seven North American species, the family seems to have attained a much higher degree of differ- entiation on this continent than it has in Europe. This is evidenced not only by the greater number of species in the less thoroughly studied 240 American hosts, but even more strikingly in the greater diversification of structure among the American species. Hamann’s description of the Neoechinorhynchidae (1892), based upon a knowledge of but one genus comprising two species of monotonous similarity, quite naturally emphasized for the family those characters which had been selected to characterize his Neorhynchus. The discovery of more strikingly diversified American species led the present writer (1913) to emend the generic diagnosis in order that N. gracilisentis and N. longirostris might be included within the genus Neoechinorhynchus (= Neorhynchus). However, more recent study has shown that the differences between these two species and the other members of the genus are too great to be regarded as of merely specific value. In the descrip- tion of N.longirostris (Van C.) the writer (1913 : 182) pointed out the © possibility of establishing a new genus for this species, but because of a few fundamental points of similarity in body-structure between this and other members of the family it was placed in the genus Neoechino- rhynchus. Recent further study of Neoechinorhynchidae, made possible by the addition of newly discovered species, and a re-study of cotypes of N.longirostris have convinced the writer that the arguments originally advanced for retaining this species within the genus apply more strictly as reasons for its retention within the family. The validity of this posi- tion was seen by Professor Henry B. Ward who (1918:547) erected for it a new genus, Tanaorhamphus, with N.longirostris (Van C.) as type. Inasmuch as the species N. gracilisentis (Van C.) possesses charac- ters which give strong evidence of its generic isolation it becomes advis- able to create for it a new genus, for which the writer proposes the name Gracilisentis, Neoechinorhynchus gracilisentis becoming the type of the genus. With the accumulation of new information and new interpretations of facts regarding members of this family more definite consideration should be given to the characterization of the family and of its con- stituent genera. In the following synopsis the writer has endeavored to describe the family and its genera in a more complete manner than has been attempted heretofore. Famity CHARACTERS Acanthocephala of small to medium size, parasitic as adults in the alimentary canal of fishes and reptiles. Wall of proboscis-receptacle a single layer of muscle. Brain near base of proboscis-receptacle. Body devoid of spines; spines or hooks on proboscis only. Nuclei of subcuticula and of lemnisci extremely large, normally of fixed number and definite arrangement ; the subcuticula with five in mid-dorsal line of body and one in mid-ventral line near anteriar end; the lemnisci normally with two in one lemniscus and a single nucleus in the other. Embryos borne inside body of females provided with three membranes. Membranes in all known species fully concentric, without polar modifications or constric- 241 tions. Testes elliptical, usually contiguous. Cement gland a single syn- cytial mass containing relatively few giant nuclei. The giant nuclei furnish the most easily available characters for the recognition of members of this family. Subcuticular nuclei in members of the other families of Acanthocephala show a considerable degree of variability in size and in form, but in no case do they approach the con- dition found in this family. The dendritic nuclei of Echinorhynchus thecatus Linton are relatively difficult to demonstrate. In addition they differ so broadly from the form of the giant nuclei of the Neoechino- rhynchidae that no confusion of the two is possible. The subcuticular nuclei are especially conspicuous in the Neoechinorhynchidae. Their loca- tion is clearly discernible as pronounced elevations of the body-surface both in living individuals and in preseryed specimens even before stain- ing. The number found in the subcuticula so far has been absolutely con- stant for every individual of the family examined, but their relative posi- tion within the dorsal and ventral lines of the body is subject to slight individual variability even within the confines of a given species. For example, the single nucleus of the mid-ventral line does not always bear a fixed relationship to the nuclei of the mid-dorsal line, but may be directly opposite the second dorsal nucleus or slightly anterior or pos- terior to it. The ratio of the spacing between the dorsal nuclei and the body-length is apparently an inconstant one. The giant nuclei of the lemnisci are apparently constant both in num- ber and in arrangement for all members of the family. In the examina- tion of several hundred: individuals, representing all the different genera, in every instance where conditions permitted close observation one lem- niscus showed two giant nuclei while the other bore but a single one. The cement gland of Neoechinorhynchidae shows considerable vari- ation in the number of giant nuclei even within the confines of a single genus; but within species limits the number of nuclei in this gland is absolutely fixed. Bieler has found eight in the cement gland of N. agilis and twelve in that of N.rutili. As to Amercian species of Neoechino- rhynchus, the writer has found eight giant nuclei in the cement gland of N. cylindratus, of N. emydis, of N. tenellus, and of N. crassus. In Tanao- rhamphus longirostris there are sixteen giant nuclei in the cement gland, while in Gracilisentis and in Octospinifer there are only eight. The. shape of the proboscis and the shape and number of the proboscis-hooks and their roots afford the most readily available charac- ters for the separation of the genera of this family. Synopsis or NortH AMBRICAN GENERA AND SPECIES NEOECHINORHYNCHUS Stiles and Hassall, 1905, sens. str. Neorhynchus Hamann, 1892, preoccupied. Eorhynchus Van Cleave, 1914. Echinorhynchus Zoega, 1776, in part. Generic Diagnosis—Neoechinorhynchidae with short, globose pro- boscis armed with three circles of six hooks each. Terminal hooks con- 242 spicuously larger and heavier than those of remaining rows, and the only ones which bear conspicuous reflexed root-processes. Each root a broad, flattened disc, pyriform in surface view, usually approximately parallel to surface of proboscis wall. The thorn or hook proper attached at the apical or anterior end of the root, and appreciably longer than the root. Of this genus three previously described and one new species are found in North American hosts. NEOECHINORHYNCHUS CYLINDRATUS (Van Cleave, 1913) (Pl. XXIV, XXV, Fig. 15, 17, 18) Bodies large, aimost cylindrical except in young forms, in which the posterior part is gradually narrowed. Females 10 to 15 mm. long, with a maximum diameter of 0.7 mm. a short distance back of the proboscis. Males 4.5 to 8.5 mm. long, with a diameter of 0.5 to 0.7 mm. Proboscis slightly broader than long (0.172 by 0.150 mm.). Hooks of terminal circle 79 to 97 » long, 14 p» thick at base, each bearing a root 58 » long and 29 » broad. Hooks of middle row 37 » long and 5 » through at base. Basal hooks 21 to 25 » long and 3 » through at base. Embryos inside body of gravid female 49 to 51 » long and 15 to 21 p broad. Type host, Micropterus salmoides; type locality, Pelican Lake, Minnesota. Additional hosts: Anguilla chrysypa, Micropterus dolomieu, Car- piodes carpio. NEOECHINORHYNCHUS TENELLUS (Van Cleave, 1913) (Pl. XXIV, XXV, Fig. 16, 19, 20) Bodies small, attenuated. Females 3.5 to 13 mm. long; 0.6 mm. in maximum diameter. Males 2 to 8 mm. long. Proboscis nearly cylindrical, 0.15 mm. long by 0.135 mm. wide. Hooks of anterior circle 90 to 110 p long; those of middle circle 38 »; those of basal circle about 27 ». Em- bryos 37 to 45 » long by 12 to 16 » broad. Hosts: Esox lucius, Stizostedion vitreum. NEOECHINORHYNCHUS EMypiSs (Leidy, 1852) (Pl. XXIV, XXV, Fig. 14, 21, 22, 23) Parasitic as adults in alimentary canal of turtles. Body much elonga- ted, approximately cylindrical. Females 10 to 32 mm. long with average width of 0.7 mm. Males about 8 to 11 mm. long by 0.7 mm. wide. Pro- boscis globular, length usually equaling breadth; average length 0.18 mm. Terminal hooks 95 to 103 » long, points usually reaching beyond bases of hooks of middle circle. Hooks of middle circle 49 to 59 p long; those of basal circle 35 to 54 ». Embryos within body cavity of gravid female oval, 16 by 114 p. Hosts: Graptemys geographica, G. pseudogeographica, Clemmys in- sculpta, C. guttata, “Emys serrata,’ Pseudemys elegans, P.troostu, P. scripta, P. concinna. 243 NEOECHINORHYNCHUS CRASSUS, Nn. sp. (Pl. XXVI, Fig. 24, 25, 28) Body short and thick, almost cylindrical, tapering but slightly toward either extremity. Observed males 4 to 7 mm. long; females 6 to 9 mm. Maximum diameter of body usually in region of second dorsal sub- cuticular nucleus, just behind the single mid-ventral nucleus; in males usually slightly more than one-tenth of the total body-length, in females slightly less than one-tenth of the same. Body wall, especially the sub- cuticula, very thick, usually from 80 to 100 » except in certain regions in anterior part of body of gravid females, where it becomes considerably thinner, frequently reaching only about 60 ». Proboscis 0.27 to 0.325 mm. long and 0.24 to 0.27 mm. in diameter. Armed with hres circles of six hooks each. Hooks of terminal circle only provided with prominent roots. Terminal hooks 94 to 100 » long; hooks of middle circle 71 to 83 »; those of basal circle 47 to 71 p. Proboscis receptacle typical of the genus in shape and structure; 0.45 to 0.6 mm. in length. Testes in largest males approximately the same size, 0.87 by 0.38 mm.; in broad contact with each other. In smaller males the anterior testis is the larger. Cement gland, in structure, typical of that described for the family; crowded into hind margin of posterior testis; approximately the same size as posterior testis except in largest specimens, in which it reaches 1.25 by 0.4 mm.; contains eight giant nuclei. Hard-shelled embryos within body of gravid female 35 by 14 yp. Cotypes in collection of U. S. National Museum and in collections of G. R. La Rue and of H. J. Van Cleave. Host, Catostomus commersoni (Lacép.). Type locality, Douglas Lake, Michigan. This species in many respects resembles the greatly variable Medi- terranean species, N.agilis. The two species are, however, easily sepa- rated on the basis of general appearance even though the measurements and data usually given in specific definitions do closely agree. Biological evidence and morphological data taken together, give sufficient grounds for the ready differentiation of the two species. There is fairly strong evidence that NV. agilis does not occur outside the Mediterranean, where it is found in fishes of the genus Mugil. Though fishes of this genus occur on the Atlantic coast of North America they have never been found to harbor any Acanthocephala. It seems improbable that a given species of Acanthocephala, N. agilis, for example, could have been brought to this continent by a marine fish and become established in an inland lake, leaving no trace of its transition from a marine to a fresh-water form. Numerous minor differences in structure give sufficient evidence of the distinctness of the two species even though ranges of variability in meas- urements for the two species frequently overlap. In general body-shape N.crassus is nearly cylindrical with a sudden diminution in size at each extremity, while N. agilis shows a conspicuous gradual tapering in both directions from the region of maximum diameter. The posterior two 244 thirds of the body of N.agilis tapers, while only the tip of the body of N. crassus is conical. The body of N.crassus is much more robust than that of JN. agilis. This appearance is due primarily to the greater thickness of the body- wall in crassus. In the region of maximum diameter of the body the wall of N. crassus rarely measures less than 80 p, and is frequently 100 p» thick, while in N. agilis the body wall in the same region rarely reaches a thick- ness greater than 40 p. This same difference may be expressed in the ratio between the thickness of the body-wall and the diameter of the body-cavity. In N.crassus the maximum diameter of the body-cavity is not more than eight times the thickness of the body-wall, while it is usually only about five times the thickness of the wall. In specimens of N.agilis studied by the writer the maximum diameter of the body-cavity is frequently eighteen or twenty times the thickness of the body-wall: The proboscis of N.crassus is conspicuously larger than that of N. agilis. The male reproductive organs in N. agilis are usually located farther from the posterior tip of the body than in N. crassus, and therefore the ducts leading from the cement gland and from the testes are longer in the former than in the latter. : The cotypes upon which the description of N.crassus is based were collected by Dr. George R. La Rue from the intestine of the common sucker, at Douglas Lake, Michigan, July 20, 1912. OCTOSPINIFER, n. gen. Generic Diagnosis ——Proboscis short, globose, usually slightly broader than long; provided with three circles of eight hooks each. Hooks of terminal circle not much larger or stronger than hooks of middle circle and but little longer than the root process. Testes elliptical, in contact with each other but not joined by a broad contact-surface. Cement gland not in direct contact with posterior testis. The two lemnisci dissimilar in nuclear content, one possessing two giant nuclei and the other a single one. Central nervous-system located at one side of the proboscis- receptacle, near its base. Type species, Octospinifer macilentus. OCTOSPINIFER MACILENTUS, fl. Sp. (Pl. XXVI, Fig. 26, 27, 29) Body long, approximately cylindrical, tapering slightly toward pos- terior extremity. Males about 4 mm. long. Females about 10 mm. long; maximum diameter about 0.4 mm., although in some gravid females it is as great as 0.58 mm. Genital opening of female on ventral surface about 0.1 mm. from the posterior extremity of the body. Posterior extremity of body about 0.19 mm. in diameter. Proboscis short, globular, usually slightly broader than long; length about 0.106 mm., diameter about 0.120 mm. The eight hooks of terminal circle equal in size; not conspicuously 245 larger than hooks of remaining circles. Terminal hooks 41 » long; hooks of middle circle 32 to 35 »; those of basal circle 24 to 30 pw. Testes ellip- tical, not crowded together. Sperm ducts of mature males frequently showing a number of vesicular enlargements between the posterior margin of anterior testis and the anterior margin of the cement-gland. Cement gland not in close contact with posterior testis, frequently broadly sepa- rated from it; form typical of the family, containing eight giant nuclei. Embryos within body-cavity of mature females 30 to 47 » long by 15 to 18 p wide. Type host, Catostomus commersonii (Lacép.); type locality, Douglas Lake, Michigan. Cotypes deposited in the U. S. National Museum and in the collec- tions of G. R. La Rue and of H. J. Van Cleave. The material from which this species was described was collected by Dr. George R. La Rue in July and August, 1912. GRACILISENTIS, n. gen. Neoechinorhynchus, in part; ( = Neorhynchus = Eorhynchus). Generic Diagnosis —Neoechinorhynchidae of small size, parasitic in the digestive tract of fishes. Body proper unarmed. Proboscis provided with three circles of twelve hooks each. Each thorn ensheathed in a prominent cuticular collar which permits only a small portion of the thorn to protrude from the surface of the proboscis. Each hook of the terminal circle provided with a conspicuous root-process several times longer than the exposed portion of the spine. Root composed of a broad flat basal area which, by gradual diminution in size anteriorly, makes an ill-defined transition from thorn to root. Basal region of terminal roots frequently slightly indented. Hooks of middle circle similar in general form to those of terminal circle except that root processes are shorter and less easily observed. Basal hooks without recurved roots. Type species, Gracilisentis gracilisentis (Van Cleave, 1913). GRACILISENTIS GRACILISENTIS (Van Cleave, 1913) (Pl. XXVII, Fig. 30, 31, 32) Body small, tapering slightly at either extremity; extremities bent toward ventral surface, forming a slight crescent. Fully mature females 1.7 to 4 mm. long, greatest diameter slightly anterior to middle of body, 0.38 mm. Males 1.5 to 3 mm. long, greatest diameter 0.38 mm. Proboscis approximately pear-shaped, usually with a slight constriction between the middle and basal circles of hooks. All hooks very delicate; those of terminal circle 15 to 17 p long, with a root 20 »; those of second circle 12 to 15 », with root about 15 » long; those of basal circle almost straight, 15 to 20 » long, without root. Cement gland containing eight giant nuclei. Embryos conspicuously spindle-shaped 36 to 40 » long by 10 » broad. Type host, Dorosoma cepedianum (LeS.) ; type locality, IWinois River at Havana, Illinois. 246 TaNnaornAMPHusS Ward, 1918 Neoechinorhynchus, in part; ( = Neorhynchus = Eorhynchus). Generic Diagnosis —Neoechinorhynchidae of small to medium size, with cylindrical proboscis several times longer than wide. Proboscis armed with about sixteen longitudinal rows of hooks. Rows frequently incomplete and imperfect. Cement gland of type characteristic of the family. F Type species, Tanaorhamphus longirostris (Van Cleave, 1913). TANAORHAMPHUS LONGIROSTRIS (Van Cleave, 1913) (Pl. XXVII, Fig. 38, 34, 35) Neoechinorhynchus longirostris (Van Cleave, 1913). Body robust, with posterior extremity slightly flexed ventrad. Pro- boscis when fully extended inclined toward ventral surface at conspicuous angle. Females average about 6 mm. in length and have a diameter of about 0.63 mm. Males average + mm. in length and have a maximum diameter of 0.47 mm. Proboscis cylindrical, 0.5 mm. long, and with a diameter of 0.15 mm. Hooks rather irregularly arranged in about sixteen to twenty longitudinal rows with about ten hooks in each row. Largest hooks near anterior end of proboscis, about 54 w long. A few hooks near the base of the proboscis about 16 » long. Cement gland with sixteen giant nuclei. Embryos within body-cavity of gravid female 27 » in length by 8 to 10 » in diameter. Type host, Dorosoma cepedianum (LeS.) ; type locality, Illinois River at Havana, Illinois. EHuropEaN SPECIES REEXAMINATION OF THE TyPES OF NV. agilis (Rudolphi) European representatives of the genus Neoechinorhynchus have been characterized by European parasitologists in widely different descriptions. Attempting to use these definitions of species in studying members of the same genus from North American hosts, the present writer found the characterizations so diverse that it was difficult to determine whether the conflicting data represented individual variability within the species or resulted from inaccurate observations and erroneous identification. The records of each of a number of the investigators are so inconsistent that tabulated comparisons of the data when considered alone afford practically no key to the solution of the problems of specific identity. Fortunately, through the efforts of Professor Henry B. Ward, the writer, in 1913, had the rare good fortune to secure from the Berlin Museum, for examination, two “type” specimens of NV. agilis (Rudolphi). A com- parison of these with the descriptions of European investigators and with other specimens from European hosts constitutes the basis of the dis- cussion which follows. i 247 Rudolphi’s description of N.agilis (= Echinorhynchus agilis) was based upon an examination of nine individuals taken from the intestine of Mugil cephalus at Spezia. The above-mentioned alcoholics from the Berlin Museum (Catalog No. 1179) had in the vial with them a label indi- cating that they were “types” of Echinorhynchus agilis from the collection of Rudolphi. It is very apparent that the term type specimens was here used in the older meaning of the term, indicating a type-lot of material upon which a specific description was based, not referring to a single individual. In spite of the fact that these specimens had been preserved in alcohol for almost a century they were in good condition for examina- tion. Because of the difficulties involved in the technic of dehydrating and clearing Acanthocephala, and because of the uncertainty of the suc- cess accompanying this procedure with such a limited number of unre- placeable specimens, the writer confined his examination to those obser- vations which could be made upon the specimens while in alcohol. Unfortunately, the individuals were both males, and consequently no facts regarding the embryos were available. The proboscis, fortunately, was extended fully in both specimens. The body of only one of the worms was perfect, the other lacking the posterior region of the body. In Table III the perfect individual is referred to as 1179A; the mutilated one, as 1179B. Careful observations were made upon the proboscis hooks of these specimens, but since the specimens were not cleared, measurements of hooks could be obtained for only those portions protruding beyond the proboscis-wall. As shown in the table, the two individuals differed con- siderably in the length of the exposed portions of the hooks (see also PI. XXVIII, Fig. 42, 43). It is interesting to note that this type material furnishes the key to an understanding of the variability in hook-length found for different individuals of this species as brought out in a later part of this paper. TABLE III DATA FROM Stupy or “Type” MATertar or N. agilis (Rud.) Length, exposed portion of hooks | Proboscis | Body-length| | | | | Length | Width | Terminal Middle Basal a4 | | | | a a1 iB 1179 A 33mm. | 160m | 148, 49 ig | °10p 1179B _|Incomplete | 148 w | 153 uw 54u 21-27 | 20 u Comparison oF N. agilis DATA FROM VARIOUS SOURCES Through the generous response of Professor Corrado Parona, of Genoa, and of Professor Fr. Sav. Monticelli, of Naples, the writer was supplied with collections for comparison with the “type” specimens 1179A and 1179B. The close resemblance between alcoholic specimens received 248 from these two investigators and the two “types” in question left no room for doubt of their specific identity. The writer. has since made careful study of stained whole-mounts and of serial sections with a view towards a more exact determination of the characters of the species as defined by Rudolphi. Specimens received from Professor Monticelli collected at Trieste by Stossich from Mugil sp?, possess hooks of uniformly smaller average size (Pl. XXVIII, Fig. 38, 39) than those collected by Professor Parona from Mugil auratus and M. cephalus at Genoa. The differences are not, however, great; nor are they discontinuous (Fig. 36, 37). In all instances the ranges in size of the various hooks for the two collections overlap. This may indicate a slight tendency within this species toward the differ- entiation of geographical varieties. Varieties have not, however, become definitely enough fixed to warrant an attempt to separate them. In the light of this evidence of divergence it seemed worth while to investigate typical instances of measurements ascribed to members of this species by various writers. Table IV presents data for this comparison. TABLE IV DATA FROM DESCRIPTIONS OF N. agilis (Measurements are in ») e n |a = a 4 n oO [ea 3 |= * oO ° | es = Ve csi gt a ag CHAM pn ephaciny © RECN Wy 8 | 3 i) fs] a 4 a | Sikes ‘a a q 3 fe] o | ole WEBB la Sbaee A SO lets oll eae een Observers |Date |Locality|°2|S x ‘4 ° ° 7) a Ps s ° HSolu'o 3) 13) uw Ssiee| 22 | 42/82) 2 | 8 | 2 | eels Boles Be. |S atolls =e Waa es off | Solso| oa oa| og ra a 3 So] 3 AZ |Z 4 | 4A 4 A, oy H A Z Dujardin,............ 1845 |Toulouse and Rennes} 3/ 6 110 74 65 PSO ees 43 14 3 Stossichie. cmavisteny dere URS al a op eh Re ee | si ee oe eel Hie Sl ee Snel lace eae) sadiaaey foe soo 3 Hamanil,.. ©. cascmacee 1895 i Bale 150 70 E2024) anaes
  • 72) S.. Abs. in, Zeibeetemlenemon (1896) : 234-235. Cuboni, G. : (36) 1896. Notizie sulle malattie della piante coltivate. Bol. d. Not. Agrar. 18 (No. 36): 487-500. Briosi, G. (37) 1896. Frank, A. B. (38) 1896. Bol. d. Not. Agrar. 18 (No. 42): 544-548. Jahrb. d. Sondera. f. Pflanzenschutz, Heft PASE Se (39) 1897. ———. Jahrb. d. Sondera. f. Pflanzenschutz, Heft 29:14. Berlese, A. N. (40) 189%. Nuovi studi sulla malattia del frumento sviluppatasi nel 1895 in Sardegna. Riv. D. Patol. Veg. 5: 88-97. Abs. in Zeit. f. Pik. 8 (1898): 102. Solla *(41) 189%. Notizen tiber einige in Italien aufgetretene Krank- heitserscheinungen. Zeit. f. Pik. 7: 159-164. Prillieux *(42) 1897. Maladies plantes agricoles, 2: 221. The lower node turns black and dies. The first internode becomes brown, and black specks appear. All browned parts are invaded by a mycelium. *(43) 1897. Sur le pied noir du blé ou piétin des céréales. Bul. Sta. Agron. Laon, p. 63-66. Abs. in E. S. R. 9: 1057. The first node is attacked, and the plant falls over. Mild, moist weather is favorable to the disease. Seed and chaff are said to spread the disease. 269 Lindau, G. *(44) 1897. Die Nattirlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Engler and Prantl’s), 1 (1 Teil, Abt. 1): 440. SHrank, A. Boe. *(45) 1897. Der Weizenhalmtéter (Ophiobolus herpotrichus Sacc.). Kampfbuch gegen die Schadlinge unserer Feldfrtichte, p. 67, pl. 3, fig. 8-11. Wark eae disease with blackening of the stem-base and roots. McAlpine, D. *(46) 1898. The fungi on the wheat plant in Australia. Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 9: 1009. “There is no doubt that the fungus [Cladosporium her- barum] is found associated with the disease [take-all], as I have never found a case of it without its presence * * * but “until infection experiments have been carried out, it is premature to speak of itas the ‘Take-all fungus.’” * * * “This [O. herbarum]|forms dark-colored blackish-olive patches on both surfaces of the leaf, usually giving it the appearance of being densely spotted.” * * * “The conidia are simple or uniseptate * * * occasionally bi- or tri-septate.’’ He lists Puccinia graminum, P. dispersa, Ustilago segetum, U. bullata, Urocystis. occulta, Septoria glumarum, 8S. graminuwm, Asco- chyta graminicola, Diplodia olivacea, Tilletia tritici, Clado- sporium herbarum, Macrosporium graminum, M. cerealium, Claviceps purpureum, and Epicoceum neglectum. Mangin, L. *(47) 1898. Sur le piétin ou maladie du pied chez le blé. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 127 (No. 5):286-288. Abs. in Base R. LO650: Author claims that the parasitism of both Leptosphaeria and Ophiobolus is well established. Ophiobolus is in the lower nodes and on the roots, and is the most important. Other fungi present are saprophytes. Hollrung, M. , *(48) 1898. Bemerkungen tber die im Jahre 1898 zur Kenntniss der Versuchstation flir Pflanzenschutz zu Halle a S. gelangten Pflanzenkrankheiten. Jahresber. Vers. Stat. Pflanzenschutz, Halle, 10: 35-64, fig. 3. Abs. in BAS: ee dl LOD. 4 *(49) 1898. Das rechtzeitige Pfltigen der Stoppeln und sein Ein- fluss auf gewisse Krankheiten unserer Halmfrtichte. Jahresber. Vers. Stat. Pflanzenschutz, Halle, 10: 29-34. NDS ibe) Rallis 959! Advises plowing under to control Leptosphaeria and Ophi- obolus. 270 Peglion, V. *(50) 1898. Il diradamento del grano e dell’ avena nell’ Agro romange nella Maremma. Stat. Sper. Agrar. Ital. p. 467-484. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 1:29. On rye, due to Ophiobolus herpotrichus and O. graminis. Frank, A. B. (51) 1898. ————. Jahrb. d. Sondera. f. Pflanzenschutz, Heft 38:16. Berlese, A. N. *(52) 1898. Nuovi studi sulla malattia del frumento sviluppatasi nel. 1895 in Sardegna. Bol. di Not. Agrar. Roma, p. 430-437. A fungus determined as Sphaeroderma damnosum was present in foot-rot of grain. This fungus, with its conidial stage, Fusarium, is regarded as a saprophyte which can be- come a parasite and cause the disease. Frank, A. B. J (53) 1899. ————. Jahrb. d. Sondera. f. Pflanzenschutz, Heft 50: 23. (54) 1899. Das Auftreten des Weizenhalmtéters auf der Gerste. Deut. Landw. Presse, 26: 806, 807. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 2:45, 227. Solla 4 *(55) 1899. In Italien im Jahre 1898 aufgetretene Krankheiten. Zeit. {. Pik. 9: 297-299. Notes Ophiobolus graminis. Mangin, ‘L. *(56) 1899. Contribution a Vétude de quelques parasites du bleé. Overs K. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Forhandl. p. 213-272, pl3; tiga A DS cine Bent kuslie bir Thinks that Leptosphaeria is the cause of the foot-rot, but it is accompanied by Ophiobolus, Pyrenophora, and other fungi. Claims that cultures prove the Coniosporium to -be the conidial form of Ophiobolus graminis. *(57) 1899. Sur le piétin ou maladie du pied du blé. Bul. Soc. Myc. de France, 15:210-237. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 2:44, 227. Pyrenophora, Dictyosporium, and Aspergillus are described. Author holds a Leptosphaeria to be the primary cause and the Ophiobolus a secondary cause. Leptosphaeria arises from the superficial mycelium. A Coniosporium belongs to the Ophiobolus. In October, pots of earth were irrigated with water bearing suspension of spores of Leptosphaeria and Ophiobolus. The plants were dead on February 15 from Lepto phaeria. Ophicbolus gave negative results. The roots were black. Leptosphaeria is brown when superficial, hyaline when internal. Attachments were present. Perithecia are free or immersed. Morbid histology is described. Ophiobolus forms flecks, superficial, adherent, distinguished by different attachments. 271 Bussard, L. (58) 1899. Le piétin et la verse des céréales. Rev. de Vit. 11: 685-687. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 2: 225. A general discussion of the various views as to the cause of foot-rot. d’Almeida, J. V. i (59) 1899-1900. . Agr. Contemp. Lisboa, 1899 u. 1900. Abs. in Zeit. f. Pik. 11 (1901) : 237. Marenghi, i *(60) 1900. Come possiamo difenderci dall’ Ofiobolo? Bol. di Ent) Agr. e Pat. Veg. 7: 126. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 3: 206. Helms, R. *(61) 1900. Take-all. Jour. Dept. Agr. W. Austral., Feb., p. 30. A brief description Cause thought to be a fungus. Eidam (62) 1900. Erhebungen ttber das Lagern des Getreides usw. Zeit. d. Landw. Schlesien, p. ,1612. Cited by Kriiger in (95). Frank, A. B. (63) 1900. Jahrb. d. Sondera. f. Pflanzenschutz, Heft. 60: 34, *(64) 1900. Der Weizenhalmtéter. Deut. Landw. Presse, 27 (No. 53):675, pl. 1. Abs. in E. S. R. 12: 261, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 3: 205. Discusses Ophiobolus herpotrichus, the results of infection at various ages of the wheat plant, and the influence of va- rious cultural methods. Kthn (65) 1900. Der Weizenhalmtéter. Ill. Landw. Zeit. 20: 212. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 3:81. Frank, A. B. (66) 1901. Delacroix, D. *(67) 1901. Sur le piétin des céréales. Bul. Soc. Myc. de France, Hs 17: 186-144, fig. 1, 2. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 4: 65. Diseased wheat was replanted in pots. Perithecia were first found in November. Some were of Leptosphaeria, others of Ophiobolus. On some plants both were present. He used sterile soil and seeds in pots and infected them with water holding spores. Three to four months later, traces of disease were present. He concludes that both Ophiobolus and Lepto- sphaeria can produce the disease. Close sowing increases disease. Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges. 19, Heft 29. Summers, W. L. ( *(68) 1901. Wheat-stem killing fungus. Jour. Agr. and Ind. S. Austral. 4: 521. “There appeared to be a constriction of one or more joints of the plant, and at the base of the stems there were indica- tions, in the form of sooty spores, of a fungus disease. The samples were sent to Mr. D. McAlpine, who states that he finds the wheat attacked by the fungus disease known in Europe as the ‘wheat-stem killer’ (Ophiobolus herpotrichus). This is the first recorded instance of the disease in Australia, though it has probably existed here for some years.” Jungners (69) 1901. Uber die Frostbeschddigung des Getreides im ver- gangenen Winter und die begleitende Pilzbeschadigung desselben. Zeit. f. Pfk. 11: 343-344. Mangin, L. *(70) 1902. Observations sur le piétin du blé. Jour. Agr. Prat. n. ser. 4 (No. 36):306-308. Abs. in E. S. R. 14: 580, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 5: 124. Inoculations were made with watery suspension of spores of Leptosphaeria and Ophiobolus. L. herpotrichoides caused disease; Ophiobolus caused disease only rarely, and is secon- dary. =: Nilsson-Ehle (71) 1902. ————. Sveriges Utsddesférenings Tidskrift, 12: 185-211. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 5: 116-117. Remer (72) 1902. ————. Jahr. d. Schles. Ges. f. vat. Kul. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 5:124. (Cf. Zeit. d. Landw. f. Schlesien, 1902, Heft 2; 1903, Heft 23: 723.) Holds that both Ophiobolus and Leptosphaeria are sapro- . phytes. Delacroix, G. *(73) 1902. Maladies des plantes cultivées, p. 8. Recommends drainage. McAlpine, D. *(74) 1902. Take all in wheat. Jour. Dept. Agr. Victoria, 1: '74— 80. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 5: 129. “The wheat plant makes a start all right, but before the stalk appears the green color fades and the outer leaves be- come yellow. When the stalk is developed it soon becomes stunted, and never matures the ear. The entire plant soon dies, and this is the case over the affected area. The roots, too, have a very characteristic appearance. They are stunted and deformed at an early stage. * * * The occurrence of the disease in patches is another feature.’ In many instances the basal portion of the stem was considerably blackened, and on the inner surface of the sheaths the fungus Ophiobolus 273 herpotrichus was found. The roots were often black and dead and covered with black fungous threads. Wheat varie- ties show but little difference in susceptibility. “Take all largely depends on the nature of the season and the mechan- ical condition of the soil. * * * If the soil is neither too dry * * * nor so wet as to cake * * * and contains sufficient plant food * * * then the ‘Take all’ will not appear.” Cordley, A. B. *(75) 1902. A foot-rot of wheat. Ore. Agr. Exper. Station Rep. p. 66, 67.. Cordley says: “I find that nearly every stalk * * * is in- fested at the base where it joins the roots, with a fungus disease * * *” Jt appeared in spots throughout the fields. “The disease is characterized by a blackening of the tissues of the lower part of the stem, particularly at the crown where the roots are given off, and by the stunted, unthrifty appear- ance * * *” Fungi were present but no spores were found. In a personal letter dated June 4, 1919, Dean Cordley writes me: “In reply to your letter of May 28, I have made no ob- servations since the 1902 report in regard to the disease in question and have not published anything further along that line.” Peglion, V. *(76) 1902. Sopra il cosidella brusone del frumento. Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 85 (No. 11, 12): 865-886. Abs. in E. S. R. 14:978, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 5: 126. The author believes the disease to be due at times to soil conditions. Malkoff, K. (77) 1903. Die schddlichsten Insekten und Pflanzenkrankheiten, welche an den Kulturpflanzen in Bulgarien wahrend des Jahres 1903 geschddigt haben. Abs. in Zeit. f. Pfk. 15 (1905) : 52. Secura, jo C. (78) 1903. El acame, encamado 6 acamado. Bol. Com. de Para- sitologia Agr. (Mexico), 2: 62-66. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 7 (1904): 98. : Stift 3 (79) 1903. Die im Jahre 1902 beobachteten Schadiger * * * landw. Kulturpflanzen, Oesterreich-ungar. Zeit. f. Landw. Bd. 2. Marchal *(80) 1903. Die im Jahre 1902 in Belgien beobachteten Pilzkrank- hieiteneZelta sty Pik. 1826. Mentions Ophiobolus on wheat. Kornauth, K. (81) 1908, Pathologische Vorkommnisse en Osterreich-ungarn. Abs. in Zeit. f. Pik. 14 (1904) : 353. Summers, W. L. *(82) 1903. “Takeall’” and “whiteheads” in wheat crops. Jour. Agr. and Ind. S. Austral. 7- (No. 5):297-299. Abs. Thal Boose, lees Taye (assy Advises burning stubble prior to plowing. ‘There is little doubt that what has often been called ‘Takeall’ was simply root fail, caused by a dry, hollow seed bed.” Vandal Gesa)e (83) 1903. Notes on the wheat stem disease (Ophiobolus her- potrichus). _ Tijdschr. Plantenzieken, 9: 77-110. Abs. in E. S. R. 16:571, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 6:78. Notes disease in Holland. Fungus lives in soil. Discusses relation to rotation. McAlpine, D. *(84) 1904. Take all and white heads in wheat. Jour. Dept. Agr. Victoria, 2:709. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 6:77. He says “it [take-all] is now proved through investigation of this branch to be due to a fungus.” * * * “True take all * * * had invariably a special fungus at the butt of the stem or on the roots * * * so that the term [take-all] has now a definite meaning and applies to wheat plants which have suc- cumbed to the attacks of this particular fungus.” Diseased stubble was placed in sand in pots and wheat planted in the pots with it. “After eighteen days * * * characteristic brownish spots were observed on the young stems. * * * Microscopic examination showed the presence in abundance of the young mycelium of the Ophiobolus. After six weeks many of the plants were dead.” In December, 1900, samples of white head were sent to McAlpine, and he says that he determined the fungus re- sponsible for white heads and take-all. *(85) 1904. Take all and white heads in wheat. Bul. 9, Dept. Agr. Victoria; Jour. Dept. Agr. Victoria, 1904, p. 410— 426. Ophiobolus is ato on Bromus sterilis and a sterile myce- lium on Agropyron scabrum. Brizi, A. (86) 1904. Il “mal del piede” del frumonto e l’abbruciamento delle stoppie. Avven. Agric. 12: 147-153. (87) 1904. Wheat fungus (Ophiobolus gramins). Jour. Bd. Agr. (London) 11:154, 155. Anonymously cited in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 7:99. Posch-Grinad, K. *(88) 1904. Mycopathologisches aus Ungarn. Zeit. f. Pfk. 14: 158 Mentions Ophiobolus on wheat. 275 *(89) 1906. Takeall in wheat. Jour. Dept. Agr. S. Austral. 10 (No. 5):280-285. Abs. in E. S. R. 18: 947. Thirty per cent.-injury is reported in some fields. Kirchner, O. *(90) 1906. Die Krankheiten und Beschidigungen unserer land- wirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen, p. 33-34, 81. ‘ The disease followed weakening of the plant from other causes, as spring frost, poor nutriment, too much water, etc. Ophiobolus is perhaps not a true parasite. Appel , (91) 1906. Untersuchungen tiber die Gattung Fusarium. Ber. a., d. Biol. Anst. f. Land. u. Forstw. Hiltner, L. (92) 1906. Ber. Kgl. Bayer. Agr. Anst. Munchen, p. 50. Robinson, G. H. : *(93) 190%. Take all and its control. Jour. Dept. Agr. Victoria, 5 (No. 4): 253-256. Abs. in E. S. R. 19: 151, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 10: 105. A dry summer following a wet winter is most favorable to the disease. The butts are quite black and perithecia occur in the sheaths. (94) 1907. - Heft 6? Bericht tiber die Tatigkeit der Kaiserl. Biologischen Anstalten in Jahre 1907:11. As cited in Ill. Land. Ztg. 33 (No. 65): 589. Kruger, F. *(95) 1908. Untersuchungen tiber die Fusskrankheit der Getreides. Arb. K. Biol. Anst. f. Land. u. Forstw. 6 (No. 3): 321- . 351, pl. 1. Abs. in E. S. R. 22:148, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 11: 127, 137. Author holds that while Leptosphaeria and Ophiobolus do cause disease as facultative parasites they are not the im- mediate cause of the trouble, which arises from weakening of the wheat by rain, frost, etc. Inoculation experiments were made with Leptosphaeria, Dictyosporium, Ophiobolus, Hen- dersonia, Coniosporium, and Fusarium. Leptosphaeria herpo- trichoides was found on rye and wheat; Ophiobolus herpo- trichus on rye, wheat, and barley. Stormer, K. *(96) 1908. Die in der Provinz in Sommer 1908 beobachteten Krankheiten aus Getreide. Landw. Wcehnschr. Sachsen, 10 (No. 35): 306-309; No. 38:331, 332; No. 39: 340, 341; No. 40: 347-349. Abs. in E. S. R. 20: 1042. Author regards the cause of the disease as still in doubt. Lindau, G. es *(97) 1908. Die pflanzlichen Parasiten. Sorauer’s Handbuch d. Pdlanzenkrankheiten, 2: 256. Places Ophiobolus in the Pleosporaceae. O. graminis was first known in France; then in Belgium and Saxony. The wheat is normal till bloom-time, when it wilts and dies sud- denly. O. herpotrichus Sacc. has spores double the length of O. graminis. Apparently infection comes at germination. Wet soil and fertilizers favor infection. Early varieties are least resistant. Known also in Italy, Germany, and Holland. Con- iosporium is suggested as an imperfect form. Dombrovski, N. (98) 1909. [Fungi as a cause of the lodging of cereal crops.] Khozyaistvo, 1909: 334, 335. Abs. in Zhur, Opuitn. Agron. (Russ. Jour. Expt. Landw.) 10 (No. 4): 558; and in FE. S. R. 23: 546. Shows, as ‘he believes, that Ophiobolus graminis is the cause of the lodging, and emphasizes value of drainage to pre- vent loss. Farrelly *(99) 1909. Takeall. Abs. in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 13: 272) Massee, G. *(100) 1910. Diseases of cultivated plants and trees, p. 226-227. Macmillan, N. Y. Ophiobolus graminis kills plants when young, and pro- duces either “take all” or “whitehead”. Description of stages given. The root and stem-base are attacked. A brown super- ficial mycelium is ‘present on surface of stem and leaf sheaths, forming a weft or felt. Perithecia in winter form on this felt. he disease is also found on Agropyron, Bromus, and oats in Europe, England, and Australia. O. herpotrichus, of the same general appearance, is recorded in Italy. Mortensen, M. L., Rostrop, S., and Ravn, F. K. (101) 1910. Oversigt over Landbrugsplanternes Sygdomme i 1910, No. 27. Abs. in Zeit. f. Pik. 22: 358. Notes foot-rot in Denmark. Chiefly due to Fusarium. Reynolds, M. H. *(102) 1910. Some conditions qualifying success in the production of wheat in central and western districts. Dept. Agr. N. S. Wales, Farmers’ Bul. 42: 128. (103) 1910. ———. Heft 11, Bericht tber die Tatigkeit der Kaiser . Biologischen Anstalten in Jahre 1910: 19. Cited in Ill. Land. Ztg. 33 (No. 65): 589. Neldner, Heinrich, et al. *(104) 1910. Takeall. Editor’s note of discussion, Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 13: 537-538. 277 Lehmann, et al. *(105) 1910. Takeall in wheat. Note of the discussion, Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 13: 544. Johns *(106) 1910. Does takeall live in the soil from one year to an- other? If so, what are the best means of treatment? Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 13: 701-702. *(107) 1910. Takeall. Abs. in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14:85. Pedler, Martin, and Paterson *(108) 1910. Takeall. Editor’s report of the discussion, Jour. ‘ Agr. S. Austral. 14: 186-187. . Westbrook *(109) 1910. Takeall. Editor’s abstract, with notes of discussion, Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14: 422-423. Hill *(110) 1910. Takeall: cause’ and cure. Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14: 423-424. Richardson, A. E. V. *(111) 1910. “Takeall.” Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14:466471. Abs. in E. S. R. 24: 551, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 13: 148. The crop promised well till October, then the disease be- came so serious as to reduce the yield to one bushel per acre. Oats near-by were free of di-ease. Disea e occurred in patches. One to two inches of lower stems were black- ened with the growth of the fungus. A good stubble-burn gives disease-free crops. Advises to fallow early and to follow with oats. Pridham, J. T. *(112) 1911. Field experiments with wheat diseases. Jour. Dept. Agr. Victoria, 9: 250-255. Burning stubble is beneficial. Oats are good in rotation, thouch a similar disease has been noted im oats and barley. A Helminthosporium was found, but Pridham does not think it responsible for the disease. Sutton, G. L. *(113) 1911. Take all. Practical methods for its eradication and control (Op/iobolus graminis). Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 22 (No. 2): 161-163. Abs. in E. S. R. 25:44. Advises clean fallowing and rotation. Journal of Agriculture of S. Australia *(114)) 1911. Samples of growing crops and takeall. Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14: 809-810. Lowrie, Richardson, et al. *(115) 1911. Takeall. Abstract of discussion, Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14: 884. 278 Nicholls, R., et al. *(116) 1911. Takeall. Abstract of discussion, Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14: 8599. Correll *(117) 1911. Takeall. Abs. in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14: 902. Fogarty : "* (118) 1911. Takeall. Abs. in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 14: 995. *(119) 1911-12. L’Ofioboio o mal del piede del frumento. Ann. d’Uffic. Agr. Prov. Bologna, 18:194-197. Abs. in E. S. R: 30: 349. Brief account of this disease; attributed to Ophiobolus graminis and O. herpotrichus. Fron, G. *(120) 1912. Contribution 4 l’étude de la maladie “Pied noir des céréales” ou “Maladie du Piétin’. Ann. Sci. Agron. 4 (ser. 1, No. 1): 3-29, fig. 3. Abs. in Internat. Inst. Agr. (Rome), Bur. Agr. Intel. and Plant diseases, 3 (No. 4): 1054-1056; in E. S. R. 27:47; and in Holl- rung’s Jahresb. 15: 149. Sterile wheat was easily infected with Leptosphaeria. Eriksson, J. *(121) 1912. Fungoid diseases of agricultural plants. London. Black cover on the lowest joint. Roots black for most of their length. Conidia (Coniosporium) small, ovate, one- celled. Bruck, W. F. *(122) 1912. Plant diseases, p. 47. Ophiobolus herpotrichus on wheat; Leptosphaeria herpo- - trichoides on rye. Mangin, L. *(123) 1912. Le piétin ou maladie du pied noir du blé. Jour. Agr. Prat. n. ser. 24 (No. 32):174-176, fig. 3. Abs. in E. S. R. 27:748, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 15: 135, 151. Ophiobolus and Leptosphaeria present. Mycelium brown, sterile. The Leptosphaeria is the most important. Averna-Sacca, R. *(124) 1912. Relatorio do gabinete de pathologia vegetal. Bol. Agr. 13 (No. 8):235-236, fig. 6. Sao Paulo. Abs. in E. S. R>29: 248. Describes foot-rot but does not definitely state that it occurs in Brazil. 279 Bureau of Microbiology *(125) 1912 Hiltner, L *(126) 1912 Massee, G. . “Take all” in wheat. Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 23 (No. 11): 934-936. Abs. in E. S. R. 28: 646. Mycelium abundant in the leaf sheaths. Plant dies from below upwards. No spores. . Eine Voraussage! Im heurigen Jahr wird die sogenannte Fusskrankheit des Getreides in Starkerem Masse auftreten. Prak. Blatter f. Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenschutz Mtinchen, 10:37-45. Abs. in Holl- rung’s Jahresb. 15: 150. Claims that unripe seed or seed-wheat grown in an ab- normally dry season produced very susceptible plants, and that infection is seed-borne. *(127) 1912. White heads or take all of wheat and oats. Bul. Peglion, Vittoria *(128) 1912. Misc. Inform. Roy. Bot. Gard. Kew, 10: 435-439, fig. 1; Jour. Bd. Agr. 19 (No. 12): 1020-1025, pl. 1. 1913. Abs. in E. S. R. 28: 646. Two or three inches of straw at base blackened as though charred. Roots woolly, owing to root hairs. Ophiobolus graminis is. readily recognized by the dark color of its myce- lium, which forms a thin felt on the stem and leaf sheaths. Says the disease is well known in Italy, France, Germany, Belgium, Australia, and the United States. In hanging drop the colored mycelium gives rise to a hyaline mycelium. Intorno al mal del piede del frumento. Casale. Stab. tip. ditta C. Cassone. 60 p. Stérmer, K., and Kleine, R. *(129) 1912. Uber das auswintern des Weizens und das auftreten Voges, E. *(130) 1912. der Fusskrankheit. Illus. Landw. Ztg. 32 (No. 38): 360-361. Abs. in E. S. R. 28:52, and in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 15: 135, 153. Ophiobolus herpotrichus and Typhula graminum caused disease following severe cold; the latter noted heretofore only in Sweden and Denmark. Zur Fusskrankheit des Getreides. Deut. Landw. Presse, 39 (No. 71): 815, 816, fig. 4; No. 72: 823, $24, fig. 3. Abs. in E.,S. R. 28: 445. Concludes that fungi are not the primary cause of foot- rot, but that it is due to lowering of vitality by cold or drouth. 280 Schaffnit, E. *(131) 1912. Der Schneeschimmel und die tbrigen durch Fusa- rium nivale Ces. hervorgerufenen Krankheitserschein- ungen des Getreides. Landw. Jahrb. 43: 521-648. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 15: 137-140, 55. Discusses extensively a disease attributed to Fusariwm nivale, one phase of which is a foot-rot. (132) 1912. Beitrage zur Biologie der Getreidefusarien. Jahrb. d. Ver. ang. Bot. : Rasquin, Max *(133) 1912. Le piétin des céréales. Jour. Soc. Agr. Brabant and Hainaut, 58:421-422. Oct. 11, 1912. Summarizes earlier literature. Bredemann, G. j (134) 1912. Das diesjahrige starke Auftreten der Fusskrankheit und der Schwarze des Getreides in unseren Bezirk. Amt. d. Land. f. Reg. Cassel, 16:412. Abs. in Holl- rung’s Jahresb. 15: 148. Ivett, J. *(135) 1912. Takeall and how to control it. Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 16: 84-85. Reuter, E. (186) 1912. Ett upptradande af halmdddaren (Ophiobolus) i Fin- land. Med. af Soc. Fau. et Fl. Fennica, 38:65. Abs. in Hollrung’s Jahresb. 15: 152. Depole, R., and Voglino, E. — (187) 1912. [Foot-rot of grains.] Coltivatore, 58 (No. 18): 567— 572, fig. 2. Abs. in BS. R.27: 748. Prunet, A. Z *(138) 1913. Sur les champignons qui causent en France le piétin des céréales. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 157 (No. 22): 1079-1081. Abs. in E. S. R. 30: 648. This disease is of importance in parts of Italy. Guerrapain, A., and Demolon, A. *(139) 1913. Enquéte et observations sur la maladie du piétin des céréales. Jour. Agr. Prat. 137: 566-567, 627-630. Discusses climatic influences, calling particular attention to increase of this disease following a mild winter, to geo- graphic distribution, to time and density of seeding, to varietal resistance, to fertilizers, and to the use of copper sulfate. It occurs on rye and winter barley. Abnormal winter temperatures favor the disease. *(140) 1913. Enquéte sur la maladie du piétin. Betterave, 23 (No. 597) : 386-388, fig. 1; No. 598: 402-405; 24 (No. 599): lin foie WAR una ANSi deer OS aay Hither high winter temperatures’ or excessive growth of the wheat favors development of the disease. Eriksson, J. *(141) 1913. 281 Die Pilzkrankheiten der Kulturpflanzen, p. 138-140. (Cf. No. 121.) - Great Britain Board of Agriculture *(142) 1913. Voges, E. *(143) 1913. *(144) 1913. *(145) 1913. “White heads” or “take-all’” of wheat and oats. (Ophiobolus graminis Sacc.) Jour. Gt. Brit. Bd. Agr. 19: 1020-1025. Reprinted with slight changes and abridgment as Leaflet 273 (July, 1913) by Gt. Britain Bd. Agr. and Fisheries, 1 fig. Abs. in E. S. R. 30: 148. Ophiobolus hérpotrichus und die Fusskrankheit des Getreides. Ztschr. f. Gdrungsphysiol. 3 (No. 1): 43-83, fig. 5. Abs. in E. S. R. 31: 542. The fungus appears as a felty layer over the host, and in dampness develops Fusarium rubiginosum A. & W. Asco- spores give two kinds of mycelium: (1) a dark thick- walled one; (2) a hyaline thin one. The second gives the Fusarium. No. 1 put on cooked wheat gives Fusarium; and on raw wheat, the usual dark mycelium. The mycelium of Ophiobolus, Cladosporium herbarum, or Mucor racemosus may be present. The Fusarium form is most dangerous. Die Schneeschimmel. Deut. Landw. Presse, 40 (No. 19): 229-231, fig. 3. Abs. in E. S. R. 29: 244. Thinks Fusarium is the conidial form of Ophiobolus her- potrichus. Die Witterung und die Fusskrankheit des Getreides. Deut. Landw. Presse, 40 (No. 83): 993, 994, fig. 3. Abs. in E. S. R. 30: 541. Indicates that fungi other than Ophiobolus may cause foot-rot, and that Ophiobolus and Leptosphaeria are not the primary cause of the disease. The conidial form of Ophi- obolus is given as Acremonium. Journal of Agriculture of S. Australia *(146) 1913. *(147) 1913. Takeall. Abs. in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 16: 1430. Wheat diseases. Abstract of discussion at Annual Conference meeting, Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 17: 178-180. Trowbridge, J., et al. *(148) 1913. McCormack, iby, *(149) 1913. Hartmann, A. *(150) 1913. *(151) 1913. Takeall. Abs. in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 17: 206-207. Takeall. Abs. in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 17: 247. Takeall. fxtract in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 17: 249- 250. Takeall. Extract in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 17: 551. ras) 2) © Gray, J. *(152) 1913. Takeall and oats. Extract in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 17 : 651-633. Stebler, F. G. (153) 1913. [Plant protection.] Land. Jahr. Schw. 27:18 Abs. in E. S. R. 29: 150. Notes presence of foot disease due to Ophiobolus. Reuther (154) 1913. [Foot disease of wheat.] Deut. Landw. Presse, 40: 780. Abs. in FE. S. R. 30: 243. *(155) 1913. Beobachtungen tibee die Fusskrankheit des Weigens. Ill. Land. Ztg. 33: 589. Notes on Ophiobolus herpotrichus, on Hordeum murinum, Bromus sterilis, Festuca bromoides, and Triticum repens. Foot-rot is worst when frost injury occurs in fields that are infected with foot-rot fungi. Robert, E. *(156) 1913. Quelques mots encore sur le piétin du blé. Jour. Agr. Prat. 137: 715-716. Mentions five conditions of maximum disease and deduces five recommendations as to practice. Boijeau, A. *(157) 1914. Le piétin du blé. Prog. Agr. et Vit. 61: 241-247. ANOISE: thitbel BAY Siac Nagar eB ayIL. Author discusses the influence of environment and variety on prevalence of foot-rot. Mangin, L. *(158) 1914. La question du piétin. Jour. Agr. Prat. n. ser. 27 (No. 8): 236-2389, 267-269. Abs. in E. S. R. 31: 147. Fusarium nivale, F. hibernan, F. minimum, Nectria graminicola, and Calonectria nivalis are discussed. Infec- tion is said to be by either soil or seed. In piétin the stems are black; the grain is weak and lodges. Secondary fungi are Septoria, Sphaerella, Helminthosporium, Cladosporium, Leptosphaeria, etc. Foéx, E. . (159) 1914. [Stalk disease of wheat.] Bul. Soc. Path. Veg. France, 1 (No. 1): 26-30, pl. 1. Abs. in E. S. R. 37: 248. Ophiobolus graminis is said to work at the base of the stalk; Leptosphaeria herpotrichoides higher on the stem. Cercosporella herpotrichoides, perhaps a conidial form of Leptosphaeria, is also said to cause a weakening of cereal stems. Hollrung, M. *(160) 1914. Die Mittel zur Bekampfung der Pflanzenkrankheiten, p. 292. Emphasizes drainage, quoting Dombrovski—(98) of this list. 283 Berthault, P. *(161) 1914. Contribution a l’étude du piétin des céréales pendant Vannée 1913. Rev. Gen. Bot. 25: 29-34. Abs. in E. S. R. 32: 641. Voges, E. *(162) 1914. [The conidial form of Ophiobolus herpotrichus. | Centralbl. Bakt. [etc.]. Abt. 2, Bd. 42 (No. 1-4): 49- 64, fig. 9. Abs. in E. S. R. 32: 843. Finds Hendersonia herpotricha, Ascochyta, Septoria, Mu- cor, Leptosphaeria, Cladosporium, and Alternaria tenuis associated with Ophiobolus. Ross, H. *(163) 1915. Wheat culture. Dept. Agr. N. S. Wales, Farmers’ Bul. 101. Goldsworthy, W. R. *(164) 1915. Takeall. Extract in Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 18: 921. Journal of Agriculture of S. Australia *(165) 1915. “Take-all”. Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 18: 966. Perkins, Arthur J. *(166) 1915. What the man on the land wants to know. Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 18: 1072-1080. Replies to a series of questions. Darnell-Smith, G. P., and Macixinnon, E. *(167) 1915. Fungous diseases of wheat. Dept. Agr. N. 5S. Wales, Farmers’ Bul. 102: 3-31, fig. 28. Abs. in E. S. R. 34: 845. Notes the disease on barley, barley-grass, and Bromus. It occurs on oats in England and N. 8. Wales. Capus, *(168) 1915. Action de l’acide sulfurique sur le “pietin’’ du ble. Compt. Rend. Acad. Agr. France, 1: 228-231. Abs. in E. S. R. 34: 244. Describes accurately three phases in the development of the disease which he considers due to Se SULORUDSSELS- Re- ports beneficial effect of sulfuric acid. (169) 1915. Action de l’acide sulfurique sur le piétin du blé. La Vie Agricole et Rurale, No. 4. Possibly identical with *(168). Moretlini, A. *(170) 1915. L’impiego dell’ acido sulforico per combattere le erbe infeste nel frumento. Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 48: 693- 716. Abs. in E. S. R. 36: 534. 284 Biffen, R. H. EL) is AO: Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. Eng. 76: 309. Leptosphaeria culmifruga produces brittleness of stems. (172) 1916. . Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. Eng. 77: 218-220. Abs. in E. S. R. 39: 452. Darnell-Smith, G. P. *(173) 1916. Green vitriol (ferrous sulfate) as a preventive of take-all. Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 2% (No. 2): 1384. Abs. in E. S. R. 35: 750. ; Recommended fifty pounds per acre. Spafford, W. J. *(174) 1916. “Bunt” and “Take-all”. Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 19: 953-961. *(175) 1917. Some diseases of wheat crops and their treatments. Jour. Agr. S. Austral. 20: 537-548. Abs. in E. S. R. 38: 48. Finds on the roots many dark brown threads. A plate mycelium between sheath and stem is continuous with the root mycelium. This peels off in flakes when dry. Also between sheath and stem a brown band passes upward. Perithecia occur on roots or sheaths. Infection is mainly from the soil. Prevention: burn stubble, kill weeds, use oats. Oats are but little susceptible. Mechanical condition of the soil is very important. Tanaka eae *(176) 1917. New Japanese fungi. Notes and translations. Myco- logia 9 (No. 3): 167-172. Abs. in E. S. R. 38: 648. Ophiochaeta graminis causes diseases on rice. Godfrey, G. H. *(177) 1918. Sclerotium rolfsii on wheat. Phytopathology, 8 (No. 2): 64-66, fig. 1. Abs. in E. S. R. 39: No. 9. Small brown lesions occurred on the crown. Pridham, J. T. *(178) 1919. Take-all, the wheat-growers’ worst enemy. Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 30: 77-79. z “Whether the disease is caused by the fungus Ophiobolus herpotrichus, by Cladosporium herbarum, by Fusarium rubiginosum, or by Mucor racemosus, the result is much the same on the wheat plant.” * * * “The roots are rotten.” Brittlebank, C. C. *(179) 1919. Green manurial crops and “take all”. Victoria Jour. Agr. 17: 171-174. Says that McAlpine (84) clearly showed that the disease is due to Ophiobolus graminis. Johnson, A. G. *(180) 1919. New wheat disease. Extension Messenger for Apr. 30, 1919, 2 (No. 18):2. In telegram to J. B. Haberkorn, says that “disease in wheat * * * is almost certainly the serious Australian dis- ease known as take-all, not previously found in America.” Haskell, R. J. f *(181) 1919. Take-all and flag smut: two serious wheat diseases new to the United States. Plant Disease Surv. U. S. Dept. Agr. (A leaflet, without number or date.) “Take-all, known for many years in Australia and Europe, and flag smut, common in Australia, India, and Japan, have recently been discovered in the United States in the very center of the winter wheat area.” * * * “This examination showed the disease to be very similar to the take-all of Australia and Europe, and [it] is probably identical with it.” Lyman, G. R. . *(182) 1919. “Take all” of wheat in this country. Circular letter bearing date of May 1, 1919. “A serious wheat disease which appears to be the same as the Australian ‘Take all’ (Ophiobolus) has made its ap- pearance in southern Illinois.” * * * “It appears, therefore, that we now have ‘take all’ in this country.” - Johnson, A. G. *(183) 1919. [As reported at the St. Louis Conference (May 12, 1919) on Take-all and Flag Smut of Wheat.] “t * * After careful study he decided that the trouble was the Australian ‘take-all’ disease. Dr. N. A. Cobb, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who has seen this disease in Australia, was consulted and stated that the behavior of the disease as described in Illinois agreed. perfectly with conditions in Australia. It therefore seemed practically certain that the trouble in Illinois was the Australian ‘take- all” ” * * * “Approximate number of acres affected, 802.” Lyman, G. R. *(184) 1919. Plans for survey of “take-all” and “flag smut” of wheat. Circular letter, dated May 23, 1919. “In addition to the Madison county area in Illinois, take- all has been found in Porter, Laporte, Tippecanoe, and Jasper counties, Indiana.” Onondaga County Farm Bureau News [N. Y.] *(185) 1919. New wheat diseases. Onondaga Co. Farm Bur. News, June, 1919. “Two new wheat diseases, known as ‘take-all’ and ‘flag smut’, which have caused serious loss in Australia, have recently been found in Illinois and Indiana.” 286 Bulletin of the American Steel and Wire Co. *(186) 1919. [Popular description of take-all.] See said Bulletin for June, 1919. Federal Horticultural Board *(187) 1919. Notice of public hearing of proposed European quarantine on account of the flag smut and take-all diseases of grains and the wheat nematode or eelworm disease. Mimeographed notice issued June 18, 1919, by U. S. Dept. Agr., Fed. Hort. Bd. The Secretary of Agriculture is said to have information that “take-all (Ophiobolus graminis)” has been ‘determined as existing * * * in Indiana and Illinois.” U. S. Department of Agriculture 3 *(188) 1919. Quarantine on account of flag smut and take-all dis- eases. Notice of Quarantine No. 39 (with regulations). 6 pp. ARTICLE X.—The European Corn-borer and some Similar Native Insects. By Westey P. Fiint anp JoHN R. Mattocu. The recent discovery in the eastern part of this country of the European corn-borer (Pyrausta nubilalis Hubner) and the possibility of its spread westward, has caused much alarm among farmers through- out the corn belt. The present publication is intended to give a few of the more important facts concerning this insect and some of the closely related native borers, and to supply a means of distinguishing them. Female Fic. 1. European corn-borer (Pyrausta nubilalis Hueb.). Twice natural size. DiscoVERY OF THE CORN-BORER AND AREA INFESTED This borer was first discovered in this country in a field of corn near Boston, Mass., during the summer of 1917. It had probably been imported from Europe: in shipments of broom-corn some eight or ten years before. In January of 1919 it was found near Schenectady, N. Y., and late in the summer of 1919 in some of the lake counties in western New York. 288 It has spread quite rapidly in Massachusetts since it was first dis- covered, and at present an area of about nineteen hundred square miles in the eastern part of the state is known to be infested, together with a few towns just over the line in New Hampshire. In New York there is an infestation of several hundred square miles in the vicinity of Schenectady, and a still larger area in the western part of the state in the counties bordering Lake Erie. INJURIES In Europe this insect periodically causes serious losses of corn, hops, millet, and hemp, and is known to feed on many other plants. There are records of destruction of 50 per cent. of these crops during years when the borers were abundant. In this country the insect is already known to feed on over a hun- dred different plants, including nearly all of our cultivated crops. Corn is apparently preferred to all other plants, and is the most seriously damaged. The larva feeds on all parts of the plant above ground, in- cluding the leaves, stalk, tassel, stem of the ear, and ear. As many as 117 borers have been found in a single stalk of corn, and 15 in a single ear. From our present knowledge of this insect, it is one of the most destructive which has ever been brought into this country, and seems capable of greater injury to corn than any of our native species. Lire History The corn-borer passes the winter in the stems of its food plants as a nearly full-grown caterpillar. Nearly all the caterpillars remain in the stem above ground, but they are sometimes found below the surface where the larger parts of the stall extend into the ground. They remain in a dormant condition until the weather becomes warm in spring, when a small percentage of them feed a little on the dry plants in which they passed the winter. All shortly change to the pupal or resting stage, and in the vicinity of Boston emerge as moths about May 15. The moths/ have a wing expanse of a little over an inch, with yellow or yellowish red wings (Fig. 1) marked by irregular dark lines. They live from six to thirty-five days, and after mating the females deposit their eggs in small irregular masses, cemented together,-on the leaves of their food plants (Fig. 2). Each mass contains from five to fifty or more glisten- ing white eggs. Each moth lays from two hundred to eight hundred eggs, the number laid by moths of the first generation being somewhat smaller than that of the second. The eggs hatch in from five to ten days. , The small caterpillars feed externally for a short time and then enter the stems and the larger parts of the leaves (Fig: 3). They complete their growth in from thirty-five to sixty days, pupate in their food plants, and, in Massachusetts, emerge again as moths during July and August. These lay their eggs in the same manner as the first generation, and the Fic. 2. Egg-mass of European corn-borer on leaf of corn; natural size... Fic. 3. Corn plants showing the characteristic breaking over of the tassel caused by the work of the European corn-borer. 290 caterpillars hatching fronf*ther become full-growf’on the apptéach of cold weather and’hibernate in the Stems of their food plants. Although there aré'two full annual: generations of the. insect in; the Massachusetts area, there is only one in New York, owing, no doubt, to the colder climate. There would certainly be two generations in Illinois, and possi- bly three in the southern part. se Fic. 4. Ear of corn infested by European corn-borer, showing the characteristic exudations of frass. MEANS OF SPREAD The moths are fairly strong fliers, and have been observed to fly over two hundred and eighty-seven yards at a single flight; and as such flights are frequent, it would be easy for the insect to travel a consider- able distance during the three or four weeks of its active life as a moth. It has, however, probably been established in new localities mainly while in the larval stage in the stems of its food plants. There is great danger of carrying it in this way from the infested territory, especially in ship- ments of broom-corn, hemp, celery, corn on the ear, etc., and more particularly in shipments of unshelled seed-corn. During the last few years large amounts of sweet corn on the ear have been shipped from points in the New England States near the known infested territory to canning factories located throughout the Middle Western States (Fig. 4); and perhaps the greatest danger of introducing the pest in the corn 291 belt has come from these shipments. Any one knowing of such ship- ments having been made in the last two or three years should notify the Natural History Survey, Urbana, Ill., of fields where such shipments have been planted, and should keep a sharp lookout for the borer in their vicinity, or more particularly in the neighborhood of places where such corn may have been shelled, if there is any likelihood that all the cobs have not been burned, as the borers would probably be transported inside the cobs. Careful examinations have already been made in the vicinity of all canning factories where such corn was known to have been re- ceived, but so far no trace of the insect has been found in Illinois. MEANS oF CONTROL. At present no very effective means of controlling this insect are known. In fact, the only way by which‘its numbers may be appreciably reduced is by burning the plants in which it passes the winter. This is a very expensive operation, as the borers are found in the stems of prac- tically all weeds, large grasses, and cultivated crops remaining on the ground after harvest, all of which must be completely burned up. This method of control was put to a thorough test in. the infested areas in New York and Massachusetts last year, with the result that the cost of clearing ordinary corn-stubble fields or land used for general truck crops was from $25 to $50 or moré per acre. More extensive ex- perimental work along this line is being done with improved machinery in Massachusetts this season (1919), and it is hoped to reduce materially the expense of this method of control. No adequate summer measures have been worked out. Spraying of food plants with arsenicals, while it affords some measure of control, does not kill a sufficiently large per- centage of the borers to make it worth while. NaTIvE BorERS CLOSELY RESEMBLING THE EuROPEAN CORN-BORER There are several related species which closely resemble the Euro- pean corn-borer, both in the appearance of all stages of the insects and in their work. The most abundant of these is commonly known as the smartweed-borer (P. obumbratilis), which is found very commonly in smartweed throughout the entire state. The life history of this insect is approximately the same as that of the European corn-borer, there being two generations, the moths appearing in May and again the latter part of July, and the insect passing the winter as a full-grown larva in the stems of its food plants. Until the last two or three years, this in- sect was not generally known to infest corn, but investigations made during the past year have shown that it frequently winters in the corn plant. A single specimen was found in gréen corn growing in a very large patch of smartweed about July 1, 1919. This specimen, however, ~ had evidently gone to the corn from a newly mown patch of smartweeds, 292 and simply made a small hole near the base of the corn-stalk in which to pupate. Early in the fall of 1919 examinations carried on throughout the state showed that this borer commonly leaves the smartweed early Fic. 5. Larvae of the smartweed borer (Pyrausta obumbratilis Lederer) in stems of Amaranthus (left) and corn (right). in fall, where the infestation is heavy, and migrates to corn (Fig. 5) and a number of other plants. We have never taken it in corn where the corn was growing more than thirty feet from infested smartweed. It apparently does no injury whatever to the corn, simply boring a small gallery in the stalk in which to pass the winter, and it does not enter 2293 the corn plant until the ear is fully matured—in fact, generally not until the stalk is quite dry. Up to the present time this borer has been found in the fall in the stems of the following plants: Sintattyweeder wea: eyeseeerd Polygonum hydropiper L. IREVEN ee droed Bae Haale d oy cheione Ambrosia artemisifolia L. AGENT EOC Waco ke poor A. trifida L. Indian mallow............. Abutilon theophrasti Medic. imson-weeden ates tas ss. Datura stramonium L. Goldennadir ees ate m cise» 4. Solidago sp.? [eat S-QUALCELS ae). sisal. > «s Chenopodium album L. Barnyardverass; 60...) 3. Echinochloa crus-galli Beauv. WOxtailietass carne se ss Setaria glauca Beauv. Cocklebunie veeciserae. esl Xanthium spinosum L. Western tickseed sunflower. Bidens aristosa Britton Common sunflower........- Helianthus annuus L. Rough pigweed............ Amaranthus retroflexus L. Mumbleweed\yvre san ste A. graecizans L. Prostrate pigweed.......... A. blitoides Wats. Spanishimeedles. 2. .n.s--- Bidens sp.? Waldvlettuce jaja .e eos ot Lactuca canadensis L. ~ Evening primrose.......... Oenothera hiennis L. Field corn. Sweet corn. This borer has not been found in any of the above weeds except where they were grow- ing near infested smartweed, and apparently it goes to them in fall as a more desirable place to hibernate than the smartweed stems. “It has not been, found in the stems of any weeds where ~ such stems were hard and woody, although it may be abundant in the softer parts of the same plants. In some fields where the smartweed was very heavily infested, the borers were found fully as numerous in the stems of some other weeds, as is shown by the following comparative counts made in plants other than smartweed: GO eters cae portale eee stenh es ayes! = 20 Amaranthus retroflexus ......... 108 WWamipisaq Watters’) yica- oat. 2 ayecera es 19 RRaIoNW CCG a rarsieta create nel nensiitrene sats 23 Sissi Hell a poh eee teenies Cer 99 Barnyardreass ners avr ae sia efcic ce2 2 So far as can be learned from the observa- Fic. 5a tions this season, no real injury has been done by Larvae of the Smartweed | European this native borer. Although as many as twenty borer corn-borer 294 of the insects have been found in a single corn-stalk, and one in the stem of the ear of the corn, no injury to the corn had resulted. Another closely related borer occurs in the stems of the Nelumbo or western water-lily or chinquapin (“yonkapin”). This species, so far as known, does not infest any other plant. OTHER INSECTS LIKELY TO BE MISTAKEN FOR THE EUROPEAN CORN-BORER In addition to the native borers already mentioned as closely related to the European corn-borer there are several others which might easily be mistaken for it by one not familiar with it. The Corn Ear-worm.—The most common of the above class is the corn ear-worm, a grayish, brownish, or greenish caterpillar found boring in the ends of the ears of sweet and field corn. When fully grown this caterpillar is about one and a half to two inches long, and varies greatly in its color and markings, some specimens being dark green with very few markings on the back or sides, others a light gray with quite distinct stripes, and still others coming somewhere between. these extremes. When placed under the microscope the skin of this caterpillar is seen to be covered with minute, dark, stubbed spines, which readily distinguish it from the European corn-borer, as the latter has no such spines. In addition to this character, the abdominal pseudopods of the ear-worm have an apical tranverse band of hooks, and not an almost complete circle as in the corn-borer. On becoming full-grown the ear-worm enters the ground and changes to a pupal or resting stage, in which it passes the winter, coming out early in spring as a yellowish or yellowish gray moth, with irregular dark spots distributed over the wings. The moth has a wing expanse of about one and a half inches, and flies mostly at night, feeding on the nectar of flowers. It is much more robust than the moth of the European corn-borer the thorax and abdomen being much stouter. The moths are very strong fliers, and, with a good wind behind them, may travel considerable distances, probably several miles. There are three generations of the ear-worm in each season, the moths of the first genera- tion laying their eggs on green, succulent plants and weeds, on the stems or leaves of which the larvae feed. The second generation feed on leaves of various plants, especially on sweet corn. Moths of the third generation appear about the time that the late and medium-late corn is in the fresh silk stage, and deposit their eggs in large numbers on the silks of such corn. These moths vary greatly in abundance from year to year, being usually most abundant after one or two dry seasons. This is one of our most destructive corn insects, especially injurious to sweet corn. Some of the large corn-canning companies in this state have some- times suffered losses of $30,000 to $40,000 in a single season, due to the ear-worm. In this state, corn is the principal crop injured by it, but 295 it also injures the fruit of the tomato, and in southern Illinois it is a serious pest of tobacco and cotton. . The Fall Army-worm—Another insect very likely to be mistaken for the European corn-borer is what is commonly known as the fall army-worm. The larva of this insect has very much the same external appearance as the corn ear-worm, except that we never find any speci- mens of a solid green. It is often found feeding in the ends of ears of corn, although it usually has much the same feeding habits as the true army-worm. It can be distinguished from the corn ear worm by the fact that under the microscope the skin appears smooth with very minute black dots. Like the corn ear-worm, this insect belongs to the night-moth family (Noctuidae), and it has the claws of the abdominal pseudopods in a transverse band. It can not survive the winter in Illi- nois, but the moths migrate northward each year from the Southern States. It occurs here in really injurious numbers only about one year in five to seven. The Common Stalk-borer—Another native borer somewhat resem- bling the European corn-borer in its manner of feeding is what is generally known as the common stalk-borer. Our attention is usually first attract- ed to this insect early in spring, by noticing small clumps of dead grass around the margins of fields, along roadsides, and in similar situations. If we examine these carefully, we shall find a very small caterpillar working inside the stems in the center of the clump. These larvae are brown with five white stripes, one down the middle of the back and two on each side. The side-stripes are interrupted for a considerable space near the middle of the body, so that usually one third or more of the body is entirely brown except for the stripe on the back, giving the insect somewhat the appearance of having been crushed or bruised about the middle. As the worms grow they leave the grass and burrow the stems of various weeds and cultivated plants. They frequently migrate into fields of grain or corn, burrowing in the stems of these plants, caus- ing the heads of the grains to whiten and the corn plant to become mis- shapen, and often preventing the formation of an ear. They become full-grown about the middle of July to the last of August, changing to the brown pupal or resting stage in the stems of their food plants, and emerging in August and September as dark, grayish brown moths with the outer third of the wing lighter and separated from the inner two- thirds by a whitish cross-line. The wing expanse is about one and a half inches. These moths belong to the same family as the two pre- viously mentioned. They fly at night, and lay their eggs in fall about the stems of the various weeds and grasses in the same situations in which the young larvae are found feeding in spring. There are several other species which resemble the European corn- borer in the larval or worm stage. One of these is a tineid, the larva of which occurs in the stems of Spanish needles and other weeds along 296 with the smartweed-borer. This species is shown in Figure 8. It may be at once distinguished from the other borers by the presence of three bristles of the infraspiracular spot on the prothorax (Fig. 26), by the Fic. 6. Larva of Pyrausta nubilalis, dorsal view. Fie. 7. Larva of Pyrausta nubilalis, lateral view: is, infraspiracular spot; ss, supraspiracular spot; as, anterior submedian spot; sp, spiracle; ps, postspiracular chitinized spot. Fic. 8. Tineid larva from stems of Spanish needles (Bidens sp.). number of bristles on the ninth abdominal segment (Fig. 27), and by the presence of a complete circle of claws, arranged in a single series, on the abdominal pseudopods. ’ 297 Another species which bores in umbelliferous weeds and which also closely resembles the European corn-borer, is a small moth (Depressaria heracleana) of the family Tineidae which occurs in this country and in Europe. Like the tineid mentioned in the preceding paragraph it has three bristles on the infraspiracular spot on the prothorax (Fig. 23), but the bristling of the ninth abdominal segment is very different in the two species (cf. Fig. 27 and Fig. 24). Briefly stated, there are many species the larvae of which superficial- ly resemble the European corn-borer, but with the exception of the smart- weed-borer none of them which are likely to be found in corn in Illinois present all of the group characters enumerated in the next paragraph as distinguishing the European corn-borer and its allies. Doubtful specimens should always be sent to the Natural History Survey, Urbana, Ill., so that their identity can be established with cer- tainty. - DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF THE CORN-BORER GROUP (Pyrausta nubilalis, P. penitalis, and P. obumbratilis.) Larvae.—Body with conspicuous round black or brown setigerous spots, ten on each of the thoracic and abdominal segments except the prothorax and the apical two abdominal segments. These spots are _ always conspicuous on the dorsum, and in penitalis only are they almost obsolete below the level of the spiracles. From species which have similar feeding habits the larvae may be distinguished by the following combination of characters: Prothorax with two bristles on infraspiracular and lateroventral spots (Fig. 13, 18), median abdominal pseudopods with an almost complete circle of small curved apical hooks which are arranged in three series at the broadest part of the circle (Fig. 21, 22), a small brown chitinized spot a short distance caudad of the spiracle on each of the segments which bear the pseudopods, supraspiracular spot on ninth segment with two bristles, the dorsum with a large transverse chitinized plate which bears two bristles, ocelli six in number, subequal in size, skin with minute chitinized dots at least on dorsum but wihout protuberances. Pupae.—Pygofers present but not very pronounced, fore femora exposed, tarsi not exceeding apices of wing-cases, apical segment with a number of curved bristles resembling small hooks; abdomen with very few hairs, and without distinct protuberances other than some very minute paired teeth on each side of the median line on dorsum. Adults —The group belongs to the family Pyralidae, subfamily Pyraustinae, genus Pyrausta. The species are very similar in general appearance, being yellowish or brownish with the basal and submarginal lines brown as a general rule, but in the case of nubilalis and some speci- mens of penitalis there is a tendency to have the fore wings with a more 298 or less distinct broad central dark fascia between the dentate lines. In all three species the hind wings have distinct markings. Not infrequently specimens of larvae, pupae, or adults are found under circumstances which suggest the possibility of their being the European corn-borer, and in order to decide whether or not they do belong to that species it is necessary to subject the specimens, at least the larvae or pupae, to a careful microscopic examination. The prin- cipal character by means of which the European species may be dis- tinguished from its nearest allies is fortunately almost invariably per- ceptible by means of a hand lens with a magnification of ten diameters. The specific characters enumerated in this paper have been ascertained from an exhaustive examination of large series of specimens of the three species involved. . THE EvuROPEAN CORN-BORER (Pyrausta nubilalis Hub.) Larva (Fig. 6, 7).—In the size and comparative distance between the anterior submedian dorsal spots on the abdomen this species ap- proaches very closely to penitalis, but the minute chitinized points on the skin surface are continued much below the level of the spiracles and the infraspiracular and lateroventral spots are conspicuously blackish or brownish. Bristles of the prothorax and of the eighth and ninth ab- dominal segments as in Figures 13, 14, and 15. From obumbratilis (Bie. 2, ba left) this species may, almost in- variably be distinguished by the much more widely separated anterior submedian dorsal spots on the abdominal segments (Fig. 5a right, 10), these being separated by a much greater distance than the diameter of one spot, by the almost uniformly colored lateroventral spots (Fig. 16), the arrangement of the bristles laterocephalad of the abdominal pseudo- pods (Fig. 21) ; under a very high power lens, by the less compact nature of the chitinized points on the skin, their less close approximation to each other, and the less complete series of dots in the interspaces (Fig. 12) ; and} seen under a very high power, the arrangement of the hairs and the small puncture slightly above the level of the ocelli differ from the same in obumbratilis as shown in the composite Figure 25, left side of figure. PLATE XXIX.—Fig. 9. Pyrausta obumbratilis, second and third abdominal seg- ments, from above. Fig. 10. Pyrausta nubilalis, the same. Fig. 11. Pyrausta_obum- bratilis, skin surface, highly magnified. Fig. 12. Pyrausta nubilalis, same. Fig. 13, 14, 15. P. nubilalis, prothorax, and 8th and 9th abdominal segments, from the side. Fig. 16. P. nubilalis, lateroventral spot. Fig. 17. P. obumbratilis. same. Fig. 18. 19, 20. P. penitalis, prothorax and 8th and 9th abdominal segments, from the side. Fig. 21. P. nubilalis, abdominal pseudopod. Fig. 22. P. obumbatilis. same. Fig. 23, 24. Depressaria heracleana. prothorax and 9th abdominal segment, from the side. Fig. 25. Composite head of Pyrausta: nubilalis, left side of figure; obwmbratilis. right ide Fig. 26, 27. Tineid sp., prothorax and 9th abdominal segment of larva, from the side. 299 Pirate XXIX 300 PLATE XXX PLATE XXX.—Fig. 28. Pyrausta penitalis, apex of pupa of female, Fig. 29. P. peni- talis, same of male. Fig. 30. P. nubilalis, apex of pupa of male. Fig. 31. P. nubilalis, same of female. Fig. 32. P. penitalis, apices of thoracic and cephalic appendages of pupa, male. Fig. 33. P. penitalis, the same of female. Fig. 34. P. nuwbilalis, pupa, male. Fig. 35. P. nubilalis, apices of thoracic and cephalic appendages, male. Fig. 36. P. obumbratilis, the same, female. Fig. 37. P. nubilalis, pupa, side view of cephalic extremity. Fig. 38. P. obwmbratilis, the same. 301 Pupa (Fig. 34).—The pupa is readily distinguished from that of obumbratilis by the absence of the blunt protuberance on the head (Fig. 37, 38). In general it more closely resembles penitalis, but the dorsal ab- dominal segments. have distad of the fine bristles two pairs of minute teeth on each side of the median line. These teeth are very much smaller in peni- talis and obuwmbratilis than in nubila- lis. The apical segment in both sexes of nubilalis is much narrower than in penitalis, as shown in Figures 30 and 31. In the comparative lengths of the maxillae and antennae there is but little difference between nubilalis (Fig. 35) and penitalis, but in obumbratilis the antennae and maxillae are considerably shorter than in the other two species. Adult—tThis species is the dark- est of the group, the malé in par- ticular being very dark. We have figured the wings of the female (Fig. 39, a). In the male the central band of fore wings, the base proximad of Fic. 39. Wings of the left side (a) the indented line, and the tip beyond Seyret e Metals’ temaic,’ the submarginal line are usually dark brown, leaving only two narrow notched yellow fasciae, one before and the other beyond the middle. The hind wings of the male are much darker than those of the female, the only yellow portion being a moderately broad band across middle. Fic. 40. European corn-borer (Pyrausta nubilalis): a, male hypo- pygium, one side: b, central process, more enlarged; and e¢, dor- sal plate. Female penultimate abdominal segment, d. 302 The face is produced but little beyond anterior margin of eyes in profile, is convex, with an almost imperceptible carina at anterior margin, beyond which it is declivitous.. The male hypopygium is as shown in Figure 40, the strong appendiculate thorn above middle of. each: clasper being very different from the two small thorns present in. obumbratilis. The process at middle of each clasper (Fig. 40) is miore like that of obumbratilis than that of penitalis. In the specimens before me the sub- marginal line in fore wings is less distinctly dentate posteriorly than in any of the other three species (Fig. 39, a). THE NELUMBO-BORER (Pyrausta penitalis Grote) Larva.——tThe dark chitinized points on the skin, which form the .color pattern on the dorsum and sides of the other two species are not continued below the level of the spiracles in penitalis, and the infra- spiracular and lateroventral spots are not darker than the surrounding skin, though chitinized (Fig. 18, 19, 20). The anterior submedian dorsal spots on the abdomen are separated by much more than the width of one of the spots as is the case in nubilalis. The prothorax has the small chitinized points proximad of the dorsal plate much more evident than in either of the other species. Fic. 41. Nelumbo-borer (Pyrausta penitalis): male hypopygium, one side, and median process much more enlarged. Pupa.—Distinguishable from nubilalis by the much broader apical segment in both sexes (Fig. 28, 29), and the smaller paired teeth beyond the bristles on the dorsal segments of the abdomen. Apices of thoracic and cephalic appendages as in Figures 32 and 33. Adult—Larger than obumbratilis, usually averaging as large as nubilalis, 27-35 mm. in expanse of wings. Freshly emerged specimens are more reddish than any of the other species included in this paper. The 303 submarginal line is more any dentate* than in nubilalis (Fig. 39, b). The face is aise more distinctly praduced, than) /in aabiladis, he anterior margin being carinate and. more or less distinctly arched. in middle, sometimes almost pointed above. The male hypopygium. differs from that of nwbilalis in having no thorns above at middle OF claspers and the process differently shaped (Fig. ela Fic. 42. Smartweed-borer (Pyrausta obumbratilis): male hypopyg- ium. one side; median process (right) much more enlarged; and (left) dorsal 'plate. THE SMARTWEED-BORER (Pyrausta obumbratilis Led.) Larva.—More slender than either of the other two species and nor- mally more conspicuously spotted, the spots larger and darker. Differs from nubilalis in having the anterior submedian dorsal spots on abdomen separated by less than the diameter of one spot (Fig. 9), the ventrolateral spot with a conspicuous lunate black upper margin (Fig. 17), the bristles cephalolaterad of the pseudopods differently ar- ranged (Fig. 22), and the small chitinized dots on the skin less evidently composed of minute contiguous points, the dots being separated on the greater portion of the body by less space than the diameter of a dot. the series of minute points in the intervening spaces being more complete (Fig. 11) ; and the bristles near ocelli (Fig. 25, right side) being differ- ently arranged. Pupa.—Distinguishable from either of the other two species by the prominent protuberance on the head as shown in Figure 38. The apical abdominal segment is very similar to that of nwubilalis, but the small 304 paired teeth on the dorsum of the abdomen are much smaller in this species. Apices of thoracic and cephalic appendages as in Figure 36. Adult— Much paler than nubilalis. The submarginal line is much more deeply indented, being similar to that of penitalis. The male hypopygium has two small thorns instead of the long stout appendiculate thorn which is present in nubilalis (Fig. 42), and the process at middle of the clasper is slightly different in shape and more numerously bristled (Fig.. 42). The face is not so much elevated at anterior margin as in penitalis, but has a slight carina beyond which it is declivitous. Usually _ the specimens average smaller than those of the other two species. Pyrausta caffreti, sp. n. Adult—tThis species closely resemble obumbratilis, the color and markings being very similar. The general color of the fore wings of the two females before me is a clear straw-yellow, with the markings linear and pale brown. The male which I have is badly deformed and the wings, owing to their being only partially developed, are darker than in the females, having many brownish scales apically. It is not possible to Fic. 43. Pyrausta caffreii: a, male hypopygium, one side; b, central process, more enlarged; and c, dorsal plate. Female genital seg- ments, describe the wing markings from the male but those of the female are al- most identical with those of obumbratilis, the submarginal line being deep- ly indented posteriorly. The male hypopygium is strikingly different from that of any of the other three species as shown in Figure 43. The principal distinction lies in the presence of three long spines arising from a com- _mon base at base of each clasper. In addition to this there are striking ' differences in the shape of the process at middle of the clasper and in its surroundings. The face in both sexes is almost conically produced and 305 very different from that of any of the other species (Fig. 44). Female apical segments as in Figure 43. We consider it| proper to assign a name to this very well-defined species though it may eventually prove to have been already described. A careful examination of the hypopygia of all the species in the genus is essential to a clearing up of the synonymy. Type, male, Bloomington, Ill., September 30, 1919, taken in a field of sweet corn which was destroyed by larvae of the fall army-worm (J. R. Malloch). Allotype and one female paratype without locality labels. Named in honor of Mr. D. J. Caffrey, who kindly supplied much of the material for the study of nubilalis. The immature stages and food plant of this species are unknown » to us at this time. For the identification of obumbratilis we are indebted to Dr. W. T. M. Forbes who, on a visit here some months ago, thus identified several specimens in our collection, some of which had been reared from corn- stalks in which the larvae had evidently passed the winter. This species was not included in the Twenty-third Report of the State Entomologist— “A Monograph of Insects Injurious to Indian Corn’’—as its habits were not known here until a year after that report appeared, the first Illinois specimen being reared in 1906. After this paper had been prepared for the press and before it was sent to the printer there appeared in the Journal of Agricultural Research a paper by Carl Heinrich on the European corn-borer in which the name Py- rausta ainsliei is given to the species here designated as obumbratilis. We have exam- ined the series of obumbratilis in the collec- tion of Dr. Wm. Barnes, which contains some specimens reared by Kearfott from Typha ric. 44. Pyrausta caffreii, (cattail-flag), and after comparing the geni- eT OS cd talia of one of the males of the reared series proboscis incomplete. with some of those in our collection we are ; convinced that they are identical with ainsliei Heinrich. The basal spine, which is not figured by Heinrich, is easily detached from the genitalia in dissection, and is really present in the species he figures but evidently was lost in dissecting the specimen. ERRATUM ' Fig. 5a, page 293, was reversed in printing; the two items of the legend should change places. , ArTIcLe XI.—A Study of the Malarial Mosquitoes of Southern Illi- nois. I. Operations of 1918 and 1919. By STEWART C. CHANDLER. INTRODUCTION The Relation of Mosquitoes to Malaria—The part which mosquitoes play in the transmission of malaria was established years ago, but we often find people who never heard of the relation between the two. It is there- fore important to make clear, at the beginning of this report on mosqui- toes, the facts in the case. Malaria was at first thought to be carried to men by damp night air. “Mal-aria,” bad air, was the name given to the disease for that reason. It was later clearly established that mosquitoes breeding in the swamps and other damp places and biting at dusk are the sole carriers of the disease. A mosquito, upon biting a malaria pa- tient in whom the disease parasites have developed for about ten days, sucks up the parasites into her mouth. Only the female mosquito bites and is capable of transmitting the disease. The germs now develop for a period of eight to ten days. In this time they break through the lining of the stomach wall and get into the salivary glands, from which they are readily transferred to man by the bite of the mosquito. Not all kinds of mosquitoes are malaria carriers. Only three species in this country (all belonging to the genus Anopheles) are implicated. There are in all twenty-four species of mosquitoes regional in Illinois. Malaria in Southern Illinois—Illinois is not usually regarded as a state in which. malaria is common; and the northern two-thirds would not be so classed. Southern Illinois, however, has a reputation not so enviable. I have found it impossible to secure correct statistics on the extent of malarial disease. Most physicians whom I have consulted do not keep records of malaria such that they can say definitely how many cases they have treated in a year’s time. They report irregularly or not at all on this disease to the State Board of Health. Estimates, of course, can be secured from them, and I have always found physicians whom I have consulted very willing to make as careful estimates as possible. Taking as examples the two towns in which I have done most of my sur- vey work, Carbondale and Murphysboro, I found that the estimates gave Carbondale from a hundred and fifty to two hundred cases of malaria in an average year, and Murphysboro from two hundred to four hun- dred cases. As these are towns of six and eight thousand population, respectively, we find that from two to five out of every hundred men, women, and children are attacked by malaria each year. There are many other points in southern Illinois, especially along the Mississippi, Wabash, and Ohio rivers, which are greater malaria centers than the towns men- 308 tioned, but estimates from these places are so widely divergent that I am. not presenting them at this point. The State Board of Health estimated, for the period of 1909 to 1914, (Vol. II, No. 6 of Illinois Health News, ) that in ten of our southern Illinois counties at least 8 per cent. of the population was ill from malaria each year. They put the number of cases for the state at nineteen thousand per annum, and the number of deaths from malaria at ninety-five per annum. Most of the physi- cians whom I consulted said that deaths from this cause are becoming increasingly rare, because of increased drainage in some sections and the fact that most people now understand the value of quinine and more of them than formerly screen their houses. The State Board of Health, in an endeavor to assign a money loss attributable to the disease in the state, estimates that the average loss to the individual patient due to med- ical attendance, cost of remedies, and diminished earning power is $160.00, amounting to over three million dollars for the nineteen thou- sand cases. There is another form of loss which is not always taken into account in speaking of a disease, namely, loss of vitality. Very often the patient is able to work, but only with a greatly decreased vigor, resulting in a loss, if not to the worker, at least to his employer. This reduction of efficiency is recognized in southern Illinois especially by big corporations, like the railroads, which have large numbers of employees. Object of the Survey—It was in view of facts of this nature that the Southern Illinois Medical Society passed a resolution in the fall of 1917 requesting the State Natural History Survey to make a mosquito survey of southern Illinois in order to locate the breeding-places of malarial mosquitoes, with a view to eventual efforts for the control of the insects and the prevention of malarial disease. This work has been carried on during the seasons of 1918 and 1919 as continuously as was consistent with the press of other duties. It was thought best to limit the work to one or two towns chosen as typical rather than to attempt to cover a large territory more superficially. It has been the main object of the survey to find the kinds of places in which malarial mosquitoes breed in southern Illinois and to learn which kinds are clearly preferred and how continuously and to what extent the various species abound through the year. From these data, together with those obtained from physicians, certain conclusions have been drawn in respect to the relation between the amount of malarial disease on the one hand and the number of malarial mosquitoes, the proximity of their breeding-areas, and the distances to which they are capable of fly- ing, on the other. Life History —A brief account of the life history of the mosquitoes will aid those not familiar with their habits to appreciate the importance of a knowledge of their breeding-places. In spring adult mosquitoes appear as the weather warms up, some as early as March in southern Illinois. The eggs are laid on some body of water, temporary or permanent, large or small. If the female finds 309 no water, she may die without reproducing, a fact to be borne in mind when control measures are considered. At least a day is necessary to bring the eggs to hatching—considerably more in late fall or early spring. The larval mosquitoes, commonly known as wigglers, are seen swimming in ponds, creeks, and other breeding-places, or floating at the surface, which they must visit at frequent intervals for a supply o£ ‘air. . ‘They, feed upon minute aquatic plants and animals. The larval period varies from one to three weeks, according to season and tempera- ture. In the pupal stage, which is passed in the water and lasts from one to five or more days, the head and thorax- are much larger than in the larva. The length of the entire life cycle depends on the time of year and the species. It is from ten to twenty-five days, being generally a little longer in the genus Anopheles, to which the malaria-carrying mos- quitoes belong, than in other genera. One authority* (Howard Dyar, and Knab) gives twelve to twenty-four days as the total length in May and June for the Anopheles in Washington, D. C. In planning the treat- ment of breeding-places, we must remember that the entire life cycle of the mosquito may be passed in ten days, and that successive generations will be produced as long as warm weather continues and breeding-places are available. The stage of hibernation varies with the species, but it is fairly well established that of Anopheles only the females survive the winter. I have found these during the winter at Carbondale in cellars, culverts, and other sheltered: places. Survey Work AT CARBONDALE Frequency of Malarial Disease-——Four physicians who had practiced for many years in Carbondale, gave the following estimates of the num- ber of cases of malaria treated in the town in an average year: Dr. J. W. Barrow, 200; Dr. Roscoe Lewis, several hundred; Dr. W. A. Bran- don, 150; and Dr. H. C. Mitchell, 150. As the population of the town is about six thousand, it would appear that at least two or three out of every hundred are treated for malaria each year. Mapping the Territory—A map of Carbondale township—not re- produced in this report—was traced, on which I indicated most of the possible breeding-places of mosquitoes. It was my first intention to make examinations in the country as well as the town, and I designated on this map about twenty-five tributaries and feeders of Crab Orchard Creek, a stream about two miles east of Carbondale. The doctors whom I interviewed had told me of the continued occurrence of malaria among the farmers along this creek and I later found malarial mosquitoes breeding in these tributaries. Lack of time compelled me, however, to confine my attention to the town and immediate surroundings. The breeding-places were numbered in my notes and on the map for ease in recording findings. Larger maps of Carbondale and vicinity were *“The Mosquitoes of North and Central America.” 310 obtained from the Illinois Central Railway division office through the courtesy of Supt. W. Atwill, and from Mr. C. E. Cox, a former civil engineer. By means of these larger-scale maps I was able to: indicate practically every possible breeding-place of mosquitoes which would be likely to affect the people of Carbondale. Although winds may carry mos- quitoes for a distance of several miles (as will later be shown in the case of Anna and Jonesboro) it is usually believed that mosquitoes do not fly over half a mile from their breeding-places. Most of the places ex- amined are within half a mile of the edges of town. (Maps, pp. 312, 313.) Examinations and Collections—Collections of larvae and pupae were made once, and sometimes twice, a month during the breeding seasons of 1918 and 1919 (with the exception of September, 1919) and were bred to the adult for identification. The wigglers were scooped up with a small strainer with a handle and a screen of about twenty meshes to the inch. They were removed with a small soft brush, such as is used in water-color work, and put temporarily into tin pill-boxes together with a little of the same water in which they were found. The contents of the pill-boxes were later emptied into glass jars in the insectary and more water with aquatic vegetation and some of the mud from the bottom was poured into the jars to furnish food and natural conditions. I usually secured this water from some one or two breeding-places which seemed to produce mosquitoes abundantly, taking care to exclude mosquito larvae and any animals which might be predaceous upon the mosquitoes. Notes were made as to the presence and abundance of the malarial and non- malarial mosquitoes in each breeding-place examined, and the species were later determined by Dr. C. P. Alexander and Mr. J. R. Malloch, of the Natural History Survey. The Anopheline and Culicine larvae (carriers and non-carriers of malaria) are readily distinguished by the positions which they take while resting at the surface of the water, the Anophelines lying parallel to the surface while the Culicine larvae hang down at an angle of about forty- five degrees, with only their long breathing tubes touching the surface. The pupae are more difficult to distinguish and will not be discussed. The adults of our Anopheles are easily distinguished from Culex and other genera by the spots on the wings, the Culicine wing being clear. The palpi of the female are longer in Anopheles than in Culex. The body of the Anopheline adult forms an angle with the surface upon which it rests, while that of the Culicine is parallel to the surface. BREEDING-PLACES Mosquito breeding-places at Carbondale are typical of those in many other towns. In the following description I am grouping them in classes which will be readily recognized by residents of other places. The breed- ing-places were numbered, as shown on the maps (pp. 312-313), to facili- tate the making of records. Plates XXXI—XXXYV illustrate a few of the situations. 311 Class I, Swamps.—The swamps studied are of a type common in the southern end of the state. Most of them are grown up to cattail, the density of which will be realized by reference to Fig. 1 and 2. The water generally contains a great deal of decayed organic matter. Around the edges usually, and in the main channels (if there are any), the water is clearer. At Carbondale the railroad shops, round-house, and yards are in a series of these swamps (Nos. 54-57, 59, 61). The physicians in town have all spoken to me of the large number of cases of malaria among the railroad men, and I do not doubt that these swamps are partly responsible. Class II, Marshes—A marsh, as the term is here used, is not as deep as a swamp, does not contain so much organic matter, and con- tains a considerable growth of grass besides some cattails. In Carbon- dale such a place (No. 71) is found opposite the old cemetery near the negro school. This place (Fig. 3) produced many malarial mosquitoes. Class III, Ponds——The ponds at Carbondale are -small bodies of water artificially formed. No. 58* in the A. & L. Tie Company’s yards and their two “creosote lakes” (Nos. 66 and 67), No. 52 on Chestnut street, No. 45 east of Freeman street, and the pond on the campus of the State Normal School (No. 179) are examples. The growth in these ponds varies from none at all, as in the Tie Plant property, to that of a swamp. ms Class IV, Roadside Ditches—Especially along built roads there are often left ditches which contain water and are grown up to grass or cat- tail. Numbers 62 and 63*, near the Illinois Central yard office, are types. Many other ditches show no growth at all and, as will afterwards be shown, yield comparatively small numbers of mosquitoes. Class V, Creeks and Streams—Crab Orchard Creek and its tribu- taries, Pyles Fork and a creek (No. 53) running into the swamps north of town, are those which I watched most closely. Class VI, Open Drains through Towns (Fig. 4, 5, 6, 7)—These drains may originally have been natural streams, but in the case of the two watched at Carbondale (Nos. 47 and 48), their courses have been somewhat altered. Class VII, Lakes—Thompson’s Lake (No. 51, Table A) at the south edge of town is leased by the Country Club and is consequently much visited by many of the residents. It is also important because of its proximity to town. Mosquito-producing Factors of Various Types—While all of these kinds of breeding-places yielded Anopheles, it soon became apparent that some were much more productive than others. The cattail swamps might be supposed, from their large area, to breed more malarial mosquitoes than any other waters, and they are no doubt important, although they present certain features which seem to decrease the output. I have found some of them yielding these mosquitoes in ~~ * No. missing on map. (Continued on p. 317.] (@pIs 1J9] 72 YWON) ‘TUF TAONTEE WI CYT NM7ID ISS] BLY 19 Ai 208 mucha Ql g dvd . 0 Asmadoad OE nay C2975, re! 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Stecher’s Lake, Murphysboro. The source of many of the malarial mosquitoes of the town. Fic. 14. Sink-hole near Murphysboro, formed by sinking of the ground over abandoned mine. PLATE XXXVIII Fic. 15. Sink-hole in very dry weather. Edges clear of protecting vegetation. Fic. 16. Swamp at Scott Aviation Field, near Belleville. PLATE XXXIX Fic. 17. Mosquito-producing creek, Scott Aviation Field, Belleville. ArtTIcLe XII.—New Species and Varieties of Phyllophaga. By Joun J. Davis, Riverton, New Jersey. Among the many collections of May-beetles received from entomolo- gists throughout the country have been found several apparently new species and varieties. Requests from the collectors for names which they could use in writings prompt the author to present the following descriptions. I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Henry Fox for the drawings of the genitalia of perlonga, mississippiensis, pearliae, foxii, impar, and comosa, and to Mr. R. E. Snodgrass for the detail drawings of the anal segment of the larvae of perlonga and mississip piensis. PHYLLOPHAGA PERLONGA, Nl. Sp. This large characteristic species is typical of the fusca group and apparently is nearest P. drakit (grandis Sm.) and P. karlsioei Linell, but is distinct from both species. It has been designated in the writer’s de- terminations as new species “a”. The species is rather large, measuring 22 to 25 mm., with elongate body, rufocastaneous to almost piceous, thorax shining, elytra dull to moderately shining. Clypeus slightly emarginate, the border moderately reflexed, surface moderately but not closely punctate, front similarly punctate. Thorax widest at base, sides nearly parallel posteriorly, con- spicuously arcuate anteriorly, margin entire, disc with feeble not closely placed punctures and with an inconspicuous smooth median line. Elytra with punctures similar to those of thorax but slightly rugulose at middle, costae inconspicuous. Metasternum rather densely hairy. Abdomen shining, sparsely and finely punctate. Claws curved, the tooth median, always noticeably stronger in the female. Male—Antenna 10-segmented, the club about as long as the stem, abdomen broadly flattened, the penultimate segment with a short, strong- ly arcuate ridge bordered with moderately long fine hairs, projecting in the manner of a ledge but not reaching to the posterior edge of the segment, the last segment rather strongly impressed, forming a cup- shaped depression. Fixed spur of hind tibiae approximately two thirds the length of the outer spur. The claspers are dissimilar and quite characteristic (Pl. XL, Fig. 1-4). Female.—Antenna with club short, about half the length of the stem. Penultimate segment transversely impressed near the posterior ventral margin. The pubic process similar to that of P. drakii (Pl. XL, Fig. 5). 330 Grub.—The larva is characteristic of the genus. Figure 1, showing the arrangement of the two rows of spines and surrounding hairs and spines on the under side of the last abdominal segment, suffices for description. Fic. 1, Under side of anal segment of larva of Phyllophaga perlonga, n. sp. Habitat—We have this species represented by five or six hundred specimens collected by Prof. R. W. Harned and his assistants, and students, at Agricultural College, Miss., March 19 to June 21, with isolated records for July and August, the period of greatest abundance being March and April. We have seen specimens from Greenville, Shubuta, Starkville, and West King Junction, Miss., and from Gum Springs, Clark Co., Ark., all of which were also collected by Professor Harned and his assistants. This species was collected at Clarksville, Tenn., from April 16 to May 25 in 1917 by Dr. Henry Fox, and from April 2 to May 8 in 1918 by Fox and Max Kisliuk, and at Knoxville, Tenn., May 8 to 10, 1916, by G. G. Ainslie and C. C. Hill. In most cases the beetles were collected at lights, but a few, collected at Agricultural College, were taken on pecan, elm, and hickory, and several at Clarksville were found on elm and honey locust. PHYLLOPHAGA FRATERNA Harr., var. MISSISSIPPIENSIS, nN. var. The above variety belongs to the fusca group according to Horn’s synopsis. It has been designated in the writer’s determinations as new species “‘b”. About the size of the largest specimens of P. fraterna, varying in length from 18 to 21 mm. and averaging 20 mm., rufocastaneous to piceous, the darker forms predominating, only moderately robust, shining. Clypeus acutely, moderately deeply emarginate, border moderately reflexed, dense- ly punctate, front similarly punctate. Thorax apparently widest at middle, obtusely angulate, margin indistinctly crenate, the punctures only moder- ately dense and sometimes slightly irregularly placed. Elytra with incon- 331 spicuous punctures, somewhat rugulose in middle, submarginal costae in- distinctly visible on distal half, distal costae moderately distinct. Pygidium not closely punctate, the punctures not clearly defined. Metasternum not densely hairy, finely and rather densely punctate Claws curved and with a strong median tooth in both sexes. Male—Antennal club nearly as long as the stem. Abdomen nar- rowly flattened at middle, penultimate segment with a transverse rugulose area which is scarcely elevated. Last segment concave on median ventrum, smooth except for a few papilla-like elevations near posterior side of concavity. Fixed spur of the hind tibia rather short and broad, being about one half the length of the outer spur. Genitalia large, the left clasper being especially large (Pl. XLI, Fig. 6-9). They closely resem- ble those of P. fraterna, even in the tendency. to a notch in the posterior margin of the left clasper. *This variety differs from the typical fraterna especially in being larger, and in having relatively larger genitalia and larger antennal club. Female.—Antennal club very small, as short or shorter than the funiculus. Penultimate with a transverse impression on the under side near the posterior border. The genitalia are strikingly like those of typical fraterna, and are sufficiently illustrated in Figures 10 and 11, Plate XLI. Grub.—The ventral surface of the last abdominal segment is shown in Figure 2. We have compared this grub with that of P. fraterna, and find them apparently separable: The two rows of spines on the under side of the last abdominal segment are similar but the surrounding hairs Si SZ Agi : 7 SZ NAN AR AAW ZOMG Z Art if SZ oh, NA GAA tXZ WMS Z Fic. 2. Under side of anal segment of larva of P. fraterna, var. nvississippiensis. and spines show an apparently constant difference, those of typical fra- terna being more sparsely placed, and consequently there are fewer spines, and the anterior spines and hairs being less robust. 332 Habitat —Several hundred specimens of this variety have been exam- ined, all of which were collected in Mississippi by Prof. R. W. Harned or his assistants excepting the collections at Greenwood, which were made by Mr. J. M: Langston. The collection localities include Agricultural Col- lege, Kiln, Greenwood, Caesar, Ellisville, Forkville, and Starkville, Miss. ; the food plants of the beetle include poplar, elm, hickory, black oak, plum, apple, and pecan—the latter apparently preferred; and the dates of collection range from March 19 to June 4, April being the period of greatest abundance. PHYLLOPHAGA PEARLIAE, 0. Sp. This species belongs to the fusca group according to Horn’s synop- sis, but the genitalia are quite distinct from all recorded species. It has been designated in the writer’s determinations as new species “c”. The specimens before me are moderately shining, quite variable in color, ranging from reddish brown to almost piceous, the lighter colored specimens with the head and thorax darker. Clypeus densely, punctate, narrowly reflexed, moderately deeply and obtusely emarginate, front similarly punctate. Thorax moderately punctate, the punctures fairly uniform and distinct, noticeably narrowest at front, very slightly wider at base than at middle, margin plainly crenate but not conspicuously so. Elytra with punctures finer and more closely placed than on thorax, sutural coxae well marked, the others wanting or scarcely visible. Pygid- ium with punctures indistinct. Metasternum with hair moderately sparse and short. Claws arcuate, strongly and equally toothed at middle in both sexes. Length, 18 to 20 mm. Male.—Antenna 10-segmented, the antennal club as lowe as stem. Abdomen flattened at middle,\the penultimate segment depressed along the posterior border and with a slight but noticeable transverse ridge in front of the depression which is more abrupt at sides, the last segment concave in middle. Fixed spur of hind tibia short and stout, being alf, or less, the length of outer spur. The genitalia distinctive, claspers dissiniilar, the left being large, the right smaller and with a characteristic hook, as illusrated. (Pl. XLII, Fig. 12-15.) Female —Antennal club about half the length of the stem. Penul- timate ventral segment with a linear transverse impression near the posterior margin. The genitalia characteristic, and well illustrated in Figures 16 and 17, Plate XLII. This is a typical bottom-land species and was fairly common in the collections of Dr. Henry Fox in 1917 and of Fox and-Kisliuk in 1918 in the Red River bottoms at Clarksville, Tenn. They collected it from April 29 to June 11 on elm (? American), winged elm, buttonwood, wil- low, and honey locust, by far the greater number being taken on honey locust. Mr. D. G. Tower collected a specimen of this species May 24, 1915, under a log in a woods at Princeton, Ind., and the writer found a 333 number of individuals on walnut and honey locust May 21, 1913, near Louisville, Ky., in an area not far back from and little elevated above the Ohio River. The writer dedicates this species to his wife in testimony to her philosophical consideration of the continuous nightly collecting trips necessary to a study of the Phyllophagae, and of the equally necessary 2 a. m. luncheons which were invariably awaiting the collector’s return. PHYLLOPHAGA FORSTERI Burm. The species which the writer has designated in his determinations as new species ‘“‘d’’, is apparently P. forstert (—P nova), a species quite vari- able. All which have been determined as n. sp. “d” were collected in Florida. PHYLLOPHAGA FORBESI Glasgow The species referred to by the writer in his ape ‘determinations as new species “e’’ has since been described by Mr. R. D. Glasgow as P. forbesi.* PHYLLOPHAGA SOROR N. Sp. This small species, which belongs to the quercus group and runs to the species affabilis in Horn’s synopsis, is distinct from that species but resembles clypeata in genital characters. It differs from the latter species in the emarginate clypeus, and there is a slight but constant difference in the genitalia of both sexes. This species has been designated in the writer’s determinations as new species “f”. Body oblong, rufotestaceous or darker, the thorax usually more of ‘a reddish brown, with the head darker, surface moderately shining. Clypeus broadly emarginate, margin moderately reflexed, punctures mod- erately close, front very slightly more punctate. Thorax moderately densely punctate, sides regularly arcuate, not angular, widest at middle and somewhat narrowed at front, less so at base, margin entire and with sparsely placed ciliae. Elytra with moderately dense punctures, the sutural and discal costae moderately prominent, the submarginal ones indistinct or absent. Pygidium with fine, sparsely placed punctures. Claws with tooth of moderate size and basal in male; larger and median in female. Metasternum sparsely hairy. Length, 13 to 15 mm. Male—Antenna 9-segmented, the club noticeably shorter than the stem. Abdomen flattened at middle, the last segment with a transverse elevated ridge near anterior margin, broken in the middle with a con- cavity. Inner spur of hind tibia free and about one half or less the * Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist.. Vol. XI (Art. V), p. 378. 334. length of the outer spur. The genitalia with, claspers symmetrical and simple (Fig. 3-5). Female.—Antennal club very small and shorter than the funiculus. The pubic process is a flat broad plate and deeply notched at the tip (Fig. 6). Habitat —Collected at Raleigh, N. C., July, 1916, by R. W. Leiby, and at Columbia, S. C., June 26, 1914, by P. Luginbill and A. H. Beyer. € Genitalia of Phyllophaga soror, n. sp. Fic. 3, right clasper; Fic. 4, dorsal view of same ; Fic, 5, front view of male genitalia; Fic. 6, pubic process of female. PHYLLOPHAGA FOXII, nN. sp. This species belongs to the fusca group. In many respects it re- sembles fraterna and in certain characters it approaches infidelis, but is apparently quite distinct. In the writer’s determinations it has been designated as new species “g”. Body rufocastaneous to piceous, in the lighter Specimens the head darker, sometimes both head and thorax darker. Clypeus moderately deeply emarginate, margin moderately reflexed, coarsely and densely punctate, front slightly less densely punctate. Thorax narrowest at front, the width at middle and at base subequal, sides somewhat angulate, margin indistinctly crenate, sparsely ciliate, punctures moderately sparse and slightly irregular in distribution. Elytra with punctures finer but more densely placed than on thorax, sutural costae distinct, submarginal ones evident but indistinct, especially the distal half. Pygidium with a moderate number of indistinct punctures. Hairs on metasternum moder- ately sparse. Claws arcuate, with strong median tooth in both sexes. Length, 16.5 to 18 mm. Male.—Antenna 10-segmented, the club nearly as long as the stem. Abdomen flattened at middle, penultimate segment granulate in middle \. 33d with an oblique ridge or tuberosity on either side, last segment with a transverse oval depression. Inner spur of hind tibia short and stout, the outer more slender and fully twice as long. Genitalia resemble those of infidelis in many respects but are also constantly different (Pl. XLIII, Fig. 18-21). Female.—Antennal club about as long as the funiculus. Last ven- tral segment broadly emarginate. The pubic process is quite different from that illustrated by Smith for P. infidelis, and resembles the fra- terna-rugosa type. The genitalia are sufficiently illustrated in Figures 22 and 23, Plate XLIII. Habitat—This species has been collected at Tappahannock, Va., by Fox, and at Columbia, S. C., by Luginbill and Beyer. The Virginia collections were made April 26, 1915, and April 7 to May 2, 1916, and were taken on the following plants: blackberry (Rubus nigrobaccus), blueberry (Vaccinium sp.), wild rose (Rosa sp.), persimmon (Diospyros virguuiana), red oak (Quercus rubrum), Spanish oak (Q. falcata), and locust (Robinia hispida). The South Carolina collections were made April 17 to May 29, 1916, and were taken on persimmon, elder bush, black gum, hackberry, birch, and sour gum. It is with much pleasure that the writer names this species in honor of Dr. Henry Fox. Dr. Fox has made collections in Indiana, Virginia, Tennessee, and Georgia which are invaluable in our studies of the dis- tribution, food plants, and ecological relations of the Phyllophagae. PHYLLOPHAGA IMPAR, Nl. Sp. This very interesting species, occurring, according to our records, only in the Carolinas, apparently belongs to the ephilida group of Horn’s synopsis, but is quite distinct from all described species belonging to that group. It has been designated in the writers determinations as new species “h”’. Body oblong, slightly broadest behind, reddish brown'or darker, the surface sometimes shining but usually more or less pruinose, and in one specimen the surface has a dull smoky appearance such as sometimes occurs in P. prununculina. Clypeus feebly emarginate, moderately re- flexed, shining, with punctures varying from comparatively sparse to moderately closely placed, front similarly punctate. Thorax narrow at front, being little more than half the greatest width, width at middle very little if any less than basal width, punctures moderately sparse. Elytra more coarsely and apparently more closely punctate than thorax, costae, excepting the sutural, indistinct or absent. Scutellum smooth or with a few very indistinct punctures. Pygidium with a moderate number of fine punctures. Metasternum only moderately hairy. Claws strongly arcuate and with a moderately large median tooth. Length, 13 mm. Male.—Antenna 10-segmented, the club as long as the stem. Abdo- men almost imperceptibly flattened on median ventrum, the penultimate 336 segment without characteristic sculpture. Inner spur on hind tibia short, being less than half the length of the outer spur, which is long and slender. . The genitalia are remarkable because of the dissimilarity of the claspers. The right clasper is slender and gives an impression of having been aborted ; the left clasper is strongly arcuate. The illustrations (Pl. XLIV, Fig. 24-27) show the characteristics of the genitalia. : Female.—tThe female is unknown. Habitat—We have this species from only two localities; from Southern Pines, N. C., collected by A. H. Manee, and one specimen, from Columbia, S. C., collected by P. Luginbill and A. H. Beyer in 1915. PHYLLOPHAGA PARVIDENS Lec., var. HYSTEROPYGA, Nn. var. This variety has the general appearance of P. crenulata but is near- est related to P. rubiginosa and typical P. parvidens, to which species it runs in Horn’s synopsis. The male genitalia are identical with those of P. parvidens, and there appears to be no constant difference excepting size. This variety is much smaller than any typical parvidens which I have seen, being about two thirds the length of that species and not more than half the, bulk. Variety hysteropyga has many characters in common with P. pygidialis, but a comparison with the type of that species shows it to be quite distinct. In the writer’s determinations this 665d variety is designated as new species “j”’. Body oblong, very little widest posteriorly, brown, head darker, thorax feebly shining, elytra with a slight pruinosity, head and thorax with a moderate number of more or less erect yellowish hairs, the elytra Genitalia of Phyllophaga parvidens, var. hysteropyga. Fic. 7, dorsal view; Fic. 8, right clasper. with short fine recumbent hair with a few longer erect hairs near anterior end. Clypeus. emarginate but not deeply so, the border narrowly re- flexed, surface moderately and rather finely punctate, front slightly more densely punctate. Thorax noticeably narrowest at front, the width at middle and base subequal, margin crenate:and with moderately long ciliae, surface rather sparsely and finely punctate. Elytra densely punctate, — 337 somewhat rugulose, especially on the median dorsum, recumbent and erect hairs as already described. Pygidium finely and uniformly punctate and set with moderately’short recumbent hairs. Metasternum with long hairs rather densely placed. Abdomen slightly pruinose with uniformly short fine recumbent hairs. Claws curved at apex and with a moderate- sized median tooth. Length, 15 to 16 mm. Male—Antenna 10-segmented, the club as long as the stem. The genitalia are simple but characteristic, as shown in Figures 7 and 8. Penultimate ventral segment slightly flattened at middle and granulate. Female —The female is unknown to the writer. Habitat—This species is represented by four males collected by J. D. Mitchell at light, Victoria, Texas, April 6—June 26 (exact date unknown), and we have seen one male collected by W. S. Blatchley at Sanford, Fla., March 25, 1911. PHYLLOPHAGA HIRTICULA Knoch, var. COMOSA, n. var. This variety closely resembles typical P. hirticula, but may be dis- tinguished by the absence of the rows of hairs on the elytra and the shortness or sparseness of the hairs on the thorax. This character seems to be constant, judging from the long series before me and the statement of the collectors, McColloch and Hayes, who report having collected numbers of this variety without finding any with the rows of hairs on the elytra. The genitalia resemble those of typical hirticula, and while there seems to be a constant slight difference in the male genitalia, the difference is so slight as to make it difficult to separate the variety on this alone. The genitalia of variety comosa are thicker and more robust than are the genitalia of Hirticula. Similar in shape and color to typical P. hirticula, being fuscofer- ruginous to very dark brown, moderately shining, without hairs on elytra except an occasional short one, and only a few on the head and thorax. Clypeus rather deeply emarginate, the margin narrowly reflexed, surface coarsely and densely punctate, front similarly punctate. Thorax slightly narrower at base than at middle, margin finely serrate posteriorly, coarse- ly so anteriorly, and with short ciliae, surface moderately closely punctate on sides and less so on disc, the punctures more or less irregularly placed, a rather distinct channel along basal margin from the hind angles to near the middle. Elytra with smaller and moderately closely placed punctures, somewhat rugulose at center; no rows of hairs, only an occasional short hair, and margin not fimbriate, sutural costae distinct, submarginal ones indistinct or absent. Pygidium with punctures moderately sparse and not distinct, wider than long, the apex broadly rounded. Metasternum with fine dense punctures and densely clothed with moderately long hairs. Claws arcuate, with a strong median tooth, alike in both sexes. Length, 16.5 to 18.5 mm. 338 Male—Antenna 10-segmented, the club not quite as long as the stem. Abdomen flattened at middle, the posterior margin depressed, giving the general appearance of a transverse ridge across the anterior half or two thirds of the segment, which is more abrupt at sides. Last segment with a transverse oval depression on under side. Inner spur of hind tibia moderately short and about half the length of the outer. The genitalia are shown in Figures 28-31, Plate XLV. Female.—Antennal club short, being about as long as the funiculus. The genitalia are illustrated in Figures 32 and 33, Plate XLV. PHYLLOPHAGA POSTREMA Horn The writer has had no opportunity to examine the types of P. pos- trema or P. quadrata Sm., but a study of our collections indicates that they are identical. The former is known only by the male and the latter by the female. Types of all the species and varieties described in this paper are de- posited in the collections of the Illinois Natural History Survey; par- atypes of the same, in the United States National Museum and in the writer’s collection; and paratypes of perlonga, mississippiensis, pearliae, soror, foxtt, and comosa have been deposited in the collections of the American Museum of Natural History and of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. ; PLATE XL Phyllophaga perlonga, n. sp. Fie. 1. Left clasper. Fig. 4. Male genitalia, dorsal view. Fic. 2. Right clasper. Fic. 5. Female genitalia. Fie. 3. Male genitalia, rear view. (See also text figure, p. 330.) PLaTE XL PuatTe XLI Phyllophaga fraterna Harr., var: mississippiensis, n. var. Fic. 6. Left clasper Fic. 9. Male genitalia, dorsal view. Fic. 7. Right clasper. Fic. 10. Female genitalia, dorsal view Fie. 8. Male genitalia, rear view. Fie. 11. Female genitalia, side view. (See also text figure, p. 331.) PLATE XLI PLATE XLIT Phyllophaga pearliae, n. sp. Fic. 12. Left clasper. Fic. 15. Male genitalia, dorsal view. Fic. 13. Right clasper. Fie. 16. Female genitalia, dorsal view. Fic. 14. Male genitalia, rear view. Fie. 17. Female genitalia, side view. Pirate XLII Puate XLIII Phyllophaga foxii, n. sp. Fic. 18. Left clasper. Fic. 21. Male genitalia, dorsal view. Fie. 19. Right clasper. Fig. 22. Female genitalia, dorsal view. Fig. 20. Male genitalia, rear view. Fig. 23. Female genitalia, side view. Piate XLIII ‘ Fic. 24. Left clasper. Fic. 25. Right clasper. . ce oe . * \ nig A i , ‘ » & i PLATE XLIV PLATE XLV Phyllophaga hirticula Knoch, var. comosa, n. var. Fic. 31. Male genitalia, dorsal view. Fig. 32. Female genitalia, dorsal view. Fic. 33. Female genitalia, side view. Fie. 28. Left clasper. Fig. 29. Right clasper. Fic. 30. Male genitalia, rear view. PLATE XLV Articte XIII.—Further Tests of Dry Sulfur Compounds for the Control of the San Jose Scale. By Westry P. FLtint. INTRODUCTION During the season of 1919 a series of experiments for the control of the San Jose scale was conducted in two orchards on the west side of the state. The object of these experiments was to make a thorough test, under field conditions, of several widely advertised dry sulfur com- pounds intended for the control of the San Jose scale. A description of these experiments and the results have been published in Experiment Station Circular No. 239, this work being conducted by W. S. Brock, of the Horticultural Department of the University of Illinois, and the present writer. During the season of 1920 the work in the Quincy orchard was continued and slightly enlarged, but that in the Barry or- chard was abandoned for lack of funds. The dry sulfur compounds, especially the dry lime-sulfurs, have several advantages over the commercial lime-sulfur solutions, for orchard use. Some of these advantages are that the dry material is not subject to leakage ; does not deteriorate with freezing; is much cheaper to ship and easier to haul; and is much handier to work with, especially for the small orchardists. For a better understanding of these experiments the description and results of the work done in 1919 are first given in full. LocATION AND CONDITION OF ORCHARDS The orchards selected for the experiments are near Barry, Pike county, and Quincy, Adams county. The orchard in Pike county is located one and one-half miles west of Barry and contains about forty acres of mature Ben Davis trees. The block selected in the Barry orchard adjoins an Osage hedge which was probably the original source of the scale infestation. The trees nearest the hedge were incrusted and, untreated, would almost certainly have failed to survive the season of 1919. At a distance of two hundred feet from the hedge the infestation was not quite so serious, but many of the limbs were incrusted. The plots were arranged to include each degree of infestation, and were as nearly uniform as possible. The orchard near Quincy, situated two miles east of the city, on the farm of Wm. Hausemann, consisted of six acres of seventeen-year 340 old trees of mixed varieties, Ben Davis and Grimes predominating. There was a uniformly heavy infestation of the scale throughout the orchard, all trees showing some limbs incrusted. The majority of these trees would probably not have survived the season of 1920 if no treatment had been given. MateriaAts UseEp The materials used and the strength of each spray were as follows: Commercial concentrated lime-sulfur 33° Baumé, 1 gallon to 8 gallons of water Scalecide, 1 gallon to 15 gallons of water B. T. S., 14 pounds to 50 gallons of water Niagara soluble sulfur, 12% pounds to 50 gallons of water Sherwin-Williams dry lime-sulfur, 15 pounds to 50 gallons of water Dow dry lime-sulfur, 15 pounds to 50 gallons of water TIME AND METHOD oF APPLICATION Barry Orchard—tThe sprays were applied March 28, 1919, with a “Bean” duplex power outfit at a minimum pressure of 250 pounds. There was a brisk west wind which made it necessary to use a spray gun in order to make the application from all sides of the trees. The tops of the trees were covered by a rod, and whirlpool disc nozzles were operated from the tower. The gun was operated from the ground. The weather was warm and the first leaves were beginning to show green. About nine gallons of material were used to each tree. Quincy Orchard.—The sprays were applied March 27, 1919, with a “Friend” power outfit, using from 250 to 275 pounds’ pressure. The tops and upper sides of the branches were sprayed with a gun from the tower, the under sides being covered with a rod used from the ground. A third man stood at a little distance from the sprayer to call attention to any parts of the tree that were missed. In this way, a very thorough appli- cation was made to all parts of the trees, about eleven gallons of solution being used per tree. The weather was warm, with bright sun and a light wind. The leaf buds were just bursting, nearly all of them showing a little green. — RESULTS The orchards were graded July 21 and 22 by both experimenters, working independently, neither knowing the kind of treatment applied to the plots except in the orchard under his personal supervision. Each tree in a given plot was graded separately, and-a general average for the plots was determined. The results were then compared and tabulated as shown in the following table. ee. 341 San Jose ScaLte Experiments, 1919 Control Plot Treatment No. Barry Quincy 1 |Commercial lime-sulfur solution, 1 gallon to 8 CEMA SS UAL EEEN cit cha ovate ale & sacshece evs os Cece Good Good 2 |Niagara soluble sulfur, 12144 pounds to 50 gallons VLG Ine mi tacstenataverers teeinrs) x iene hotetaleie is! « pore cote reveisSe Excellent Excellent 3 |B. T. S., 14 pounds to 50 gallons water....... Fair | Good 4 |Sherwin-Williams dry lime-sulfur, 15 pounds to BO TSO CWaAter ae baa eos clelemeimaee s a eTOn ® Excellent Excellent 5 |Dow dry lime-sulfur, 15 pounds to 50 gallons VUES ae Se cen a Wet Onee e Ce eine: Gare Ace ee Gs) | Excellent 6 |Sealecide, 1 gallon to 15 gallons water........ Excellent Excellent 7 |Check: unsprayed * Material failed to arrive in time for application. In the above table the terms used indicate that a plot graded as “Fair” showed a considerable number of live scales present on all parts of the tree and fruit; “Good” indicates scattered living scales fairly easy to find, but not numerous enough to cause marked blemishes on the fruit or injury to the trees; and “Excellent” indicates living scales difficult to find and no blemishes on the fruit. ADDITIONAL WorK IN 1920 In the spring of 1920 the same orchard at Quincy was again treated, plots 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 being given the same application as in 1919. Plots 6 and 7 were sprayed with Martin-Senour’s dry lime-sulfur at the rate of 12% pounds to 50 gallons of water. A‘check plot of three trees was left on the east side of the orchard, these trees having been sprayed in 1919 with liquid lime-sulfur, one to eight. The spray was applied on March 29 and 30. The days were warm and bright, with a moderately high wind from the northwest. The leaf buds were just beginning to show the green. The spraying was done with a “Friend” power outfit, using from 200 to 250 pounds’ pressure, the spray being applied with two rods, one used from the top of the tank and the other from the ground. All the trees were sprayed as thoroughly as possible. The orchard was graded on June 11 by five men, working inde- pendently, only one of whom knew the treatments which had been given. The plots were again examined and graded on Aug. 11 and Sept. 22, to note any increase in the number of scales. Results of these grad- ings were compared and tabulated as in 1919. On Aug. 11, fifty leaves were picked at random from different parts of the trees in each plot, and examined for living scales. On Sept. 22, one hundred apples on each plot were examined for the presence of the scale. These results may be somewhat misleading from the fact that the number of scales on all of the apples where less than 20% 342 showed the scale, was very small, very few of the apples being sufficiently infested to cause a blemish. The results of these examinations are shown in the following table. Fifty One hundred Control pom Treatment ss eeree q |@Pples examined) for August11 September 22 | season ! 1 |Commercial lime-sulfur solution, 1 gal. to 8 gals. water...... No scale 20% show scale|Good 2 |Niagara soluble sulfur, 12% lbs. to 50 gals. water........... Scaleon4 | 22% show scale;Good 3 |B. T. S., 14 lbs. to 50 gals. water.| No scale 16% show scale|Good 4 |Dow dry lime-sulfur, 15 lbs. to DOM Sal sre WialGO ists ee ayaratesa steve sip No scale 12% show scale|Good to excellent 5 |Sherwin-Williams dry lime-sulfur, 15 lbs. to 50 gals. water....| Noscale 16% show scale|Good 6 |Martin-Senour dry lime-sulfur, 12% lbs. to 50 gals. water..|Scaleon12 | 32% show scale|Poor to fair 7 |Check: unsprayed............... Scale on 40 |100% show scale In addition, a spray was applied to an older orchard composed en- tirely of 25-year old Ben Davis trees. These trees had been badly neg- lected and over half of the orchard was dead, the remaining trees being almost entirely incrusted and showing numerous dead branches. This orchard was treated in the following manner: Plot 1—Commercial lime-sulfur solution, 1 gal. to 8 gals. water 2—Niagara soluble sulfur, 1214 lbs. to 50 gals. water 3—B. T. S., 14 Ibs. to 50 gals. water 4—Dow dry lime-sulfur, 15 lbs. to 50 gals. water 5—Sherwin-Williams dry lime-sulfur, 15 Ibs. to 50 gals. water 6—Martin-Senour dry lime-sulfur, 12% lbs. to 50 gals. water 7—Check: unsprayed This orchard was carefully examined on June 11, and-again on Sept. 22. The scale was still numerous on many of the heaviest infested trees, as it would be impossible to clear up this orchard entirely with one treatment. A summary of the results obtained from this grading is as follows. nee HIP OnE Control for oO. season 1 |Commercial lime-sulfur solution, 1 gal. to 8 gals. water.. | Good 2 |Niagara soluble sulfur, 121% lbs. to 50 gals. water..... Fair to good 3) IB. TS. 14 lbs: to. 0 ealssiwaters> . a. cstoases tose te Fair to good 4 |Dow dry lime-sulfur, 15 lbs. to 50 gals. water............ Good 5 |Sherwin-Williams dry lime-sulfur, 15 lbs. to 50 gals. water.| Good 6 |Martin-Senour dry lime-sulfur, 1214 Ibs. to 50 gals. water. | Very poor 7 |Check: unsprayed 343 The results of two years’ work with these materials seem to show that some dry sulfur compounds, if used at sufficient strength, are ef- fective in controlling the San Jose scale. From the results of the past season where Martin-Senour’s dry lime-sulfur was used at a strength of 12% lbs. to 50 gallons of water, it is apparent that these materials should not be used at a less rate than 15 lbs. to 50 gallons of water. ArticLteE XIV.—Forest Insects in Illinois. I. The Subfamily Och- thiphilinae (Diptera, Family Agromyzidae). By J. R. MAttocu. This paper deals with a small group of two-winged flies, or Diptera, belonging to the subfamily Ochthiphilinae, family Agromyzidae, and is intended to serve as an index both to the habits and the systematic rela- tions of the species. CHARACTERS OF SUBFAMILY Costa complete, extending to apex of fourth vein; fifth vein not flexed proximad of outer cross-vein; anal vein incomplete; both basal cells present, sometimes the cross-vein at base of discal cell very weak; vibrissae absent; postvertical bristles absent or present, when present convergent; tibiae without preapical bristle; interfrontal bristles ab- sent; orbits never with an anteriorly directed bristle; arista bare or pu- bescent; sternopleura with one or more bristles; propleural bristle ab- sent; clypeus small. DISTRIBUTION AND BIoLoGy oF GENERA This subfamily contains only seven genera. Of these, four are known to occur in Illinois; the other three each contain only one North American species and are more southern in their known distribution. With the exception of the genus Cryptochaetum the genera have not been considered as of economic importance and but little has been published on the biology of the other genera, this paper containing the most complete series of records of the larval habits extant. The predaceous habits of the larvae, which so far as known feed upon aphids and scale insects, give to the species an economic status which does not belong to any other subfamily in the acalyptrate Diptera, the only true aphidophagous larvae in the Cyclorrhapha occurring in the Syrphidae. All species of the genus Leucopis feed on aphids and scale insects, and it is possibly due to their small size that their importance as destroyers of these insects has not been more than casually mentioned in literature. I present keys to the genera of the subfamily, including the larvae known to me, and keys to all the North American species of the genera Pseudodinia and Leucopis sens. lat. The larvae of Leucopis are subject to attack by chalcid parasites, the imago of the parasite emerging through a ragged hole which it gnaws in the anterior portion of the dorsum of the puparium of the host. Sr 346 Krys TO GENERA LARVAE AND PUPARIA Anal respiratory processes thread-like, one of them at least ten times as long as body, coiled inside of body of host; both larva and’ puparium internal in host (Icerya purchasi)............++ Cryptochaetum Rondani Anal respiratory processes very short and stout, sometimes sessile, not thread-like, and not as long as body; larva and puparium not internal ED (HOStie:svatelosetclatateter cis eictetsletaistarstatate ate: cieiaiaveks Lek Mua (Leucopis, sens. lat.) 2 Body almost cylindrical, not tapered posteriorly, with minute warty or setulose armature; anal respiratory processes sessile, situated much above level of venter and widely separated. Host, Pulvinaria vitis L......... SP TOOTS O GO AOL De CO ae oe SOOROL Leucopomyia, subgen. n. Body distinctly flattened ventrally, tapered both anteriorly and posteriorly, usually with minute warty or setulose armature; anal respiratory proc- esses stalked, usually lying close against the surface to which the larva or puparium is adhering.............. Leucopis Meigen, sens. str. IMAGINES Orbits with one or more pairs of distinct bristles...................+- Aer Orbits’ swithowt Dristles cs = sie fee, w siecle e's e's Leucopomyia, subgen. n. Ocellar bristles present (Pl. XLVI, Fig. 8).......... Neoleucopis, subgen. n. Leucoris Meigen, sens. str. Kery TO SPECIES Third antennal segment yellow; thorax and abdomen without black or brown stripes or spots, basal segment of the latter blackened except GU SPOSLELION MALE IN ani.) inc sichesicls cies sfarere erais e¥a.ai sie 7 flavicornis Aldrich mhindsantennale seement iplackseycrac casters ore dels tele cle stelelaicrersls RT 2 Basal two antennal segments yellow, contrasting conspicuously with the black third segment; mesonotum without distinct vittae, usually with 4 pairs of weak dorsocentrals; legs yellow, femora darkened in middle.. CASddacoconcolnooo abode pondodisoodniaancoinadioanigdddondn pemphigae, sp. Nn. Basal two antennal segments not conspicuously paler than third; species DOLCE SDECLSmUO Lh cau OON Clan acalote savas ieze falase )s: «si Botrrom Fauna, 1915, 4—7-roor Zone, Foor or Granp ISLAND TO BROWNING (9 MILES) a 3 Small Viviparidae Insects, and : pase ties worms, Total Pleuroceridae Sphaeriidae Crustacea Number per sq. yard, Average 92.4 106.4 10.3 209.1 10 coll.’s Pounds per acre, Average 309.7 53.2 4.5 365.6 10 coll.’s Per cent. of total, (By weight) 84.2% 14.5% 1.2% 404 Botrom Fauna, 1915, 1—3—roor Zone, Foot or Granp ISLAND TO BROWNING (9 MILES) sd 3 Small Viviparidae Insects, and — ‘ Gaaee one worms, Total Pleuroceridae Sphaeriidae Crustacea . Number per sq. yard, Average 327.4 186.2 26.1 539.7 4 coll.’s Pounds per acre, Average 1,516.0 93.1 4.3 1,613.4 4 coll.’s Per cent. of total, | (By weight) 93.9% 5.7% 0.2% (f) Lacrance Dam To GraFton (77.5 Mires) Hydrography—tThe average velocity in the 77.5 mile stretch of channel between the Lagrange dam and the mouth of the river in March, 1903, at a gage of about 18 feet, Peoria, (172.30° feet per minute), was more than three times that between Chillicothe and Peoria at the same time (51.94 ft. per minute); more’than twice that between Copperas Creek dam and Havana (83.81 ft.) ; and exceeded that of any other sec- tion of channel below Chillicothe except the 9 miles between Peoria and Pekin. The average decline in elevation of water surface at the 1901 low gages between Lagrange and the dam at Kampsville (0.85 inches per mile) was more than three times the average through Peoria Lake; and DECLINE IN ELEVATION OF LOW-WATER SURFACE, 1901; AND FrLoop VELocrTy Z Flood velocity (av. Interval AY. Slope feet per minute), Reach = inches miles 3 gage, 18 feet, ee Peoria* Lagrange dam (below) to Grafton 77.5 aba 172.30 Lagrange dam (below) to Kampsville dam (above) 46.1 0.85 164.24 Lagrange dam (below) to Florence| 21.9 1.26 146.92 Florence to Kampsville dam (above)| 24.2 0.49 183.85 Kampsville dam (below) to Grafton) 31.4 2.44 186.91 *Van Ornum float tests, March, 1903. 405 in the 31 miles below Kampsville (2.44 inches per mile) was more than in the short swift stretch between Peoria and Pekin. A comparatively well-scoured channel bottom is found most of the way from Lagrange to the mouth, sand, mud and shell, or dirty sand prevailing, and such mud bottom as occurs being usually hard and covered at most with only a very thin layer of recent silt. Inside the 7-foot line in 1915 a soft light-colored silt 2 inches to more than 12 inches deep was found at most of our collecting stations. The most im- portant local stretches of muddy channel in 1915 were 6 miles imme- diately above the Kampsville.dam; and about 4 miles just above the mouth of the river. A less important short section of muddy channel, in WIDTHS AND DEPTHS, LAGRANGE DAM To GraFrron, Low WATER, 1901 Miles ; above Station Width, ft. Depth, ft. Grafton HRS 77.0 1% mile below Lagrange dam 658 13.1 UATE MM IE -crchararctee al ooeic-cnn eee slg aa ere se 805 8.2 PROERMMENG nhs aleve fi sere pea svete omaha GE a ieyae 586 14.0 okt || Ren Spohr ta.) cei orate 658 12.7 71.5 IM Greg OSial -o:4 cierevovsraneretace sontarete 1,006 9.1 68.0 ee Re cere era yaa wicca ces terevstert ns 658 ier GO beat haciteites be c.ecikahaerscatak aieiore are 1,006 10.3 65.5 INADIGS oc .c 1m oreinaitie Semesters 787 8.7 GAO Mikes stale arwccrcccataels clatcls mane ceteris 951 6.9 OZ) 0 011! SSO SEE EIgIO PEROT Lea n teen a 823 a3 Pr anes te Peto P sl syes-orave Ge ater ick cceyseo-erc vedio 567 ayes LV DD MMMIPRIE Cai cic ore creis thors utee Phen e re 1,024 6.9 55.5 HUOTONCE. "3 7.cG Gin cakes 1,025 8.8 BY seo |. aS ee OG eR yc) ee 658 15.6 FED rae pe haya nS cia ie Oe wrere poate che eis ecu ce eeeee 975 9.0 ATEDieme We cts. da’ sheie des cake Cat ce oeawieme ne 1,116 10.9 AMIMTIN PE fasc cine Rca eS micle: Sate acetate ee 933 10.3 41.2 2 miles below Pearl....‘.... 1,317 10.5 OR Mais ‘crpivace, ev araraters aerate Stchasatoce agi cree 1,409 12.3 OHM lescsts tele = ove cas ot slaskimvievawih sora iors 1,482 10.2 Si S155 a pl | SR On Param emp tear tenet eee 1,043 14.5 33.0 1 mile above Kampsville.... 1,354 11.3 31.8 500 yards above dam....... 1,180 13.7 BLS 300 yards below dam....... 1,317 10.0 Oia Me lian hao chsh hens ate ers ae hohe ale eaneratstes 1,006 20.0 ENE Senge |. Sie ERA SIEGE) BAe SA Witt rareranen 1,079 9.2 21.3 FAARGID) Ge) spete's ersgceseneveacorsvee 1,134 8.1 OLS Maelo ss tcrsteis) «(jn ol vate era geieeeeie eee eaninic 1,116 6.5 SES i Teen str aiocal a tr aiceepal dic Nerettendtala era che fee 1,208 7.2 TOUS eA sae. tos-ce Wh caret lavenaeee ere ete meet oe 768 14.7 BAS PNW asark va /arete (cg ate ame < ensaeeeRe 1,061 8.1 NOLO Mg In iee adoro eleteicla.c seria ee Sheets ies 732 19:2 TSP, il MES Semce tn terete on socrarrrs Ses eae ee ots 1,189 7.8 7.3 Foot of Six Mile Island..... 1,610 8.7 Cig eal WeseaHige ey attempters nec aie cad 1,098 14.0 ERRNO Nicrccts wena onerchar aelewpsean- Sa Seams hee 1,263 14.2 AN Oe PWS Sieve arate wats ctexetavesd ‘a ata ce.e/areele 768 14.4 3.0 1 mile above mouth......... 677 18.4 406 the first mile below Six Mile Island—a local section with little drop in levels at low water—had a deep deposit of light-colored mud in 1913, but apparently much less two years later. In the 46 miles between Lagrange and Kampsville extreme depths in the channel at the low water of 1901 ranged from 9 to 11 feet as a rule, and did not anywhere exceed 15 feet. Widths at these levels were be- tween 1,000 and 1,400 feet for good stretches, and did not fall below 800 feet for any important distance. Below the Kampsville dam widths were seldom under 800 feet, ranging between 1,000 and 1,200 feet for most of the way, and reaching a maximum of 1,600 in the sluggish section just below Six Mile Island. Connecting lake and other backwater acreage per mile between La- grange and the mouth of the Illinois at the low levels of 1901 (219.6 acres per mile between Lagrange and Florence; 180.0 between Florence and Kampsville; 86.9 between Kampsville and the mouth) compared unfavorably with that of most of the river between Chillicothe and Havana.* The greater part of this backwater was levéed and drained between 1901 and 1913, resulting, no doubt, in recent years in a some- what better scoured channel even than is indicated by the government borings made between 1901 and 1905. As in the 42 miles above the Lagrange dam, shore vegetation between Lagrange and the mouth of the river has in recent years been a negligible quantity. Borrom CoLLecTions, LAGRANGE TO GRAFTON, 1915 Miles above Station Channel 4—T-tt.)| le Sees Crafted : zone zone Talat 1% mile above Meredosia 1 2 8 60.0 1% miles below Valley 1 55.6 Opposite Florence 1 54.5 1 mile below Florence ab Motales ao. cles 4 2 ou 47.7 %4 mile below Bedford 1 6 4 43.2 Opposite foot Pearl Island Fi 5 2 36.5 1%4-way Apple Creek to Panther Cr. 1 6 2 33.0 1 mile above Kampsville tb 31.6 300 yards above Kampsville dam i Motalaeneo cece 5 17 8 25.7 Opposite (west) head Diamond Is- land 1 20.6 ¥Y% mile below Hardin 1 2 4 11.5 1 mile below foot Mortland Island 1 4 2 9.3 Opposite Bloom’s Landing 2 2 8.5 Opposite head Six-Mile Island 1 4 7.3 Below foot Six-Mile Island 1 2 4 EQ ta ee ters ares 7 12 nb} Grand total........ 16 31 28 * Table, p. 378. 407 Bottom Fauna—In August, 1915, a total of 75 collections of the bottom animals were made in cross-section at 15 stations between La- grange dam and the mouth of the river, as shown in the preceding table. The bottom-fauna valuations indicated between Lagrange and Graf- ton by our collections of August, 1915, were almost uniformly poor both in the shore zones and in the channel—the average of the sixteen channel collections being only 6.7 Ibs. per acre; that of 31 collections between 4-7-feet, 16.7 lbs.; and that of 28 collections within the 4-foot line, 16.9 Ibs. The best local figures for the shore were obtained in the 4—7-foot zone opposite Meredosia, where two hauls averaged 57.5 lbs. per acre; and in the 1-3-foot zone below Kampsville dam, where twelve collections averaged 27.9 Ibs. Both in the channel and in the shore zones, if we except the 4—7-foot zone collections opposite Meredosia, Mollusca con- tributed less or very little more to the average weight of collections than did insects, worms, and small Crustacea, which together made up 63 to 65% of the average weight of collections in those depths zones, with the noted exception. Of the latter group (non-Mollusca) the most im- portant in weight were the larvae of caddis-flies in the channel, and the immature stages of Ephemeridae (willdw-flies) in the shore zones. As these were principally of the new broods hatched from eggs deposited by the adults which emerged only a month to six weeks earlier, they contributed less to the weight of collections than they would have done in the same numbers earlier in the summer or later in the fall. The larger snails (Viviparidae and Pleuroceridae) amounted nowhere be- low Lagrange to more than 5 or 10% of the weight of collections. Borrom Fauna, 1915, LAGRANGE TO GRAFTON POUNDS PER ACRE (AVERAGE TOTAL) Att) 18 tt. Reach Channel aan care 1. Lagrange dam to Florence (21.9 miles) Bie) 10.1 4* 2 8 2. Florence to Kampsville, above dam (24.2 miles) 12.4 16.6 105) 5 Ty. 8 3. Kampsville above dam to Grafton (31.4 miles) 6.5 10.3 27.9 A 2 12 Lagrange to Grafton (77.5 miles) 6.7 16.7 16.9 : 16 21 28 *The Italic figures give the number of collections. , 408 Borrom FAaunsA, CHANNEL, LAGRANGE TO GRAFTON, 1915 POUNDS PER ACRE ae ; Small Viviparidae Insects, and eae tye worms, Total Pleuroceridae Sphaeriidae Crustacea Lagrange dam to Florence 4 coll.’s ete trace Florence to Kampsville 5 coll.’s 5.0 1.5 5.9 12.4 Kampsville to Grafton 7 coll.’s 5 2.6 3.9 6.5 Lagrange to Grafton 16 coll.’s 0.3 1.6 3.5 5.4 Per cent. of total (by weight) 5.5% 29.6% 64.8% Bottom Fauna, 4—7-root Zone, LAGRANGE TO GRAFTON, 1915 POUNDS PER ACRE ae 3 Small Viviparidae Insects, and Garimens worms, Total Pleuroceridae Sphaeriidae Crustacea Lagrange dam to Florence 2 coll.’s 57.5 57.5 Florence to Kampsville , 17 coll.’s 0.6 10.3 5.7 16.6 Kampsville to Grafton 12 coll.’s 4.8 5.5 10.3 Lagrange to Grafton 31 coll.’s Trace 11.2 5.2 16.4 Per cent. of total (by weight) 68.2% 31.8% 409 Borrom Fauna, 1—3-Froor ZonrE, LAGRANGE To GRAFTON, 1915 POUNDS PER ACRE nee 5 Small Viviparidae Insects, and ! Rope Pees worms, Total Pkeuroceridae Sphaeriidae Crustacea Lagrange dam to Florence 8 coll.’s Obed 9.2 , 0.9 10.1 Florence to Kampsville 8 coll.’s 2.4 0.1 5.0 7.5 Kampsville to Grafton 12 coll.’s 0.3 6.3 21.3 27.9 Lagrange to Grafton 28 coll.’s 0.8 83 10.8 16.9 Per cent. of total | (by weight) 4.7% 31.3% 63.9 % (g) GENERAL SuMMary, Itiinois River Borrom Fauna, Juty—OcroseEr, 1915 1. DISTINCTION OF MAIN REACHES If we have regard only to the larger average differences in weight of the bottom-fauna stocks of, 1915, the 180.5 mile stretch of river be- tween Chillicothe and Grafton separates into four principal subdivi- sions :—First, a section of 43.7 miles between Chillicothe and the dam at Copperas Creek which bears a fairly rich channel- and a similarly rich shore-fauna (channel average, 239 lbs. per acres ; 4—7-foot zone, 372 lbs. ; 1—3-foot zone, 225 lbs.). Second, a short stretch between Copperas Creek dam and Havana which has an exceedingly rich channel fauna (3,029 Ibs. per acre) and a shore fauna far above the average (4—7-foot zone, 1,960 lbs. ; 1—3-foot zone, 920 lbs.). Third, 42.5 miles between Havana and the dam at Lagrange with very poor channel (22 Ibs. per acre) but with shore as rich as in the first 60 miles (4—7-foot zone, 282 lbs.: 1—3-foot-zone, 435 lbs.). Fourth, in the lower 77.5 miles, a long reach that is extremely poor both in shore and channel (channel, 6 Ibs. per acre; both shore zones, 17 lbs.). Whether in the shore or the channel zones, so far as is shown by the data of 1915, the richest stocks of small bottom-invertebrates are present in the reaches with the least flood slope and velocity, these 410 factors clearly influencing—more particularly, of course, in the channel— both the depth and softness of the bottom deposits (regarded as a medium or as a substratum for the bottom population), and also the food supply of the bottom animals so far as it is brought to them by sedi- mentation. In the two richer reaches of river above Havana the average flood velocity in recent years (around 0.9-miles per hour) has been only about 3% of that between Havana and Lagrange (1.5 miles per hour), and less than half the average between Lagrange and Grafton (1.9 miles per hour). Though there is usually, both in the slower and swifter reaches of the river, if we except the cases of some sharp bends, some retardation of current between mid-channel and shore, with accompanying increase in sedimentation and noticeable differences in the composition of the bot- tom populations, these differences in the less rapid sections above Havana are neither very important quantitatively nor correlated so far as can be seen. The average poundages per acre of bottom animals between Chilli- cothe and Copperas Creek dam in the channel and the shore zones (chan- nel, 239 lbs.; 4—7-foot zone, 372 lbs.; 1—3-foot zone, 225 lbs.) are in fact so nearly the same that little if any significance can be attached to the differences; while in the 16.8 miles between Copperas Creek and Havana (channel, 3,029 lbs.; 4—7-foot zone, 1,960 Ibs.; 1—3-foot zone, 920 lbs.) the differences in weight between theshore and channel stocks are in the reverse of the direction that might be expected. There is, however, a decidedly sharper contrast below Havana between the physical characters of the channel and shore zones, and in and to either side of the stretch of comparatively hard-bottomed channel between Havana and Lagrange a corresponding contrast in the richness of the bottom fauna that is without much question connected with it. In this section of 42.5 miles the 4—7-foot zone (282 lbs. per acre) had stocks thirteen times as rich as those of the channel (22 lbs.) ; and there was a further large in- crease shown in the stocks in the 1—3-foot zone. Certain special influences that may affect the bottom-fauna yields in the river below the Lagrange dam are discussed in a following sec- tion. ; 2. ALL-ZONE AVERAGES AND TOTAL STOCKS All-zone averages of the bottom-fauna stocks of the four main river reaches below Chillicothe based upon rough acreage-weightings show a figure for the first 43.7 miles below Chillicothe (264 Ibs. per acre) about the same as the average for the entire 180.5 miles between Chillicothe and Grafton (261 lbs.) ; for the 16.8 miles between Copperas Creek dam and Havana about ten times that (2,693 Ibs.) ; for the 42.5 miles be- tween Havana and Lagrange a rate of yield (88 lbs. per acre) about one third of the general river average and about one thirtieth of the rate in the richest section; and for the 77.5 miles below Lagrange (10.4 lbs. per acre) less than one twenty-fifth of the 180 mile average and less 411 ‘SUOTJIOTIOO JO AIqUINU 9} SAIS SeinsY eI] MUL « SoTta G'08T T®}O.L 86 16 91 a 6T 08 ZLT LT LT 9 GLL Woe 0} vsuRIseTyT 06 G6 oF se LE VET S&P G86 G6 GOP osuvIseTyT 0] VURARH 9 as oT 60 TS°E8 036 096'T 620°E 89T eUuvAvH O} Wep “1p sereddop AL oo =. | «08 60 L808 GGG GLE 686 Lév wep Yee) seieddop 0} 9q}OOI[TIGD ano ‘ulul aad ‘J ded say[Tu elLoeg 9uoz auloz 9u0z SOTTIN yorey AYOOTIA ‘VE 8 a8e3 pooy “‘W-E—T “‘W-L—FP jeuueyy) asR1lOAY AYWOTOA O3R1OAV SUDVIIAW GNOZ-WIONIG AIGWIG “GTET ‘UMAIY SIONITIT ‘VNOVY . GuyOV Wad SANNO WOLLOG 412 than one two-hundredth of the rate between Copperas Creek dam and Havana. Figures for the total stocks present in the combined channel and shore acreage below Chillicothe July—October 1915 (table, p. 18), based on these all-zone weight valuations and on approximate acreages for average July—October levels in 1910—1914, show that out of total stocks equaling 6,988,103 pounds for about 26,700 acres, 92.7 per cent., or 6,480,952 pounds, were in the 60.5 mile section of river above Havana— this constituting only one third of the total length of river studied and less than one third of the total river acreage. Again, of the total bottom- fauna stocks 53.9%, or 3,770,200 pounds, were in the 16.8 miles of river between Copperas Creek and Havana—which comprises less than one tenth of the total distance between Chillicothe and the mouth, and only about one twentieth of the total acreage. The stocks between Havana and Lagrange, 396,880 lbs., for 42.5 miles, made up but 5.6% of the grand total; and those between Lagrange and Grafton, 110,271 Ibs., for 77.5 miles, only 1.5 per cent. Borrom Fauna, ILLInois River, 1915. ACREAGE-WEIGHTED ALL-ZONE AVERAGES . POUNDS PER ACRE Approx. acres Estimated Bottom Reach Mil Gage, 8 ft part of fauna HESS Havana (total underIbs. per acre 7 ft. deep | (average) Chillicothe to Copperas Creek 43.7 10,268* 1/3 264 dam 2 807 Copperas Creek dam to Havana 16.8 1,400 1/4 2,693 89 Havana to Lagrange 42.5 4,510 1/5 88 58 3 ’ Lagrange to Grafton (HG 10,603 2/5 10.4 7d Chillicothe to Grafton 180.5 26,782 ane 261 "252 Average Chillicothe to Copperas Creek dam, 555 Ibs. * Average Copperas Creek dam to Lagrange, 705 lbs. 2 ov. COMPOSITION OF THE BOTTOM FAUNA ____In the section of river above Lagrange dam, both in the channel and in the shore zones, the great bulk of the bottom-fauna poundages was made up of Mollusca (Gastropoda and Sphaeriidae), the percentages by * Includes Peoria Lake. + The Italic figures give the number of coJlections. 413 ‘oye'] Blood Surpnyouy » YL Bb 2S6'08F'9 ggg 899'TT g'09 BURABTT 0} 9JOOITIIGO i] %9'6S | 080'L9T'F GOL TI6'S £69 lWep osueisey 0} Ulep “1p sesoddoy | TSe‘LLe'p 693 PIS‘9T 8981 UoWeIY 0} Wep Yyeerg seasaddoy £0T'886'9 19% Z8L'96 G'08T uoWeI 0} sy OOTIIIYO MGT TLZ ‘OIL FOL £09°0T GLL UO}JeIy) 0} Wep osueiseT gg 088'968 88 OTS'F cir 2 wep esuRisey 0} vueAeTT ME’ 002‘0LL'S £69'2 00F'T 8'9T BUBAvH O} Wep yoorp svsoddop ML 8S SSL‘0TL'S $93 «8920 Ley wep yoorg seieddop 0} oy yor IUD $0038 spunod e1oe sod “sq[ 1®}0} Jo Syoo}s Bune Buney Oeste SOTLIN yqoveay ‘yueo Jaq -110}}0q [2}OL w0}0g seroe ‘xouddy SI6L ‘uaG0 LO9—xTOL ‘NOLAVED OL AHLOOIMHO “IVLOL GNVUD GNV ‘SHHOVAY NIVIN VAAN SIONITTT ‘SMOOLg VNOVY-WOLLOg 414 weight running in these reaches from 86 to over 99%, and falling below 90% only in the 1—3-foot zone above the Copperas Creek dam. Below the Lagrange dam, where the large Ephemeridae (May-flies) were rela- tively much more abundant than farther north, the Mollusca percentages dropper to an average range between 35 and 68%. In the sections above Lagrange, if we except the 4—7-foot zone between Copperas Creek dam and Havana, the larger snails ( Viviparidae and Pleuroceridae) accounted for 70 to nearly 100% of the Mollusca totals (by weight). Below Lagrange the Viviparidae (and Pleuroceri- dae) were largely replaced by Sphaeriidae in all zones, the weight per- centages of that group rising to a range between 84 and 100%. Bortom Fauna, Inirnots River, 1915 PERCENTAGES OF AVERAGE TOTAL VALUATIONS BY WEIGHT CONTRIBUTED By MoLLuscA 4—7-ft. | 1—3-ft. Channel zone zone Chillicothe to Copperas Creek dam 96.7 ite 92.1 Copperas Creek dam to Havana 99.5 98.8 98.8 Havana to Lagrange 86.3 98.1 98.9 a Lagrange to Grafton 31.6 65.8 35.8 Bottom Fauna, ILLInois River, 1915 - Composition oF Motitusca ToTats. (PERCENTAGES BY WEIGHT*) Viviparidae and Sphaeriidae and small Pleuroceridae Gastropoda scar 4—7-4t. | 1—3-£t 4—1-£t.| 1—3-ft Channel zone zone "| Channel zone ; zone : Chillicothe to Copperas (Gucryie Glaira 78.5 78.1 70.7 25 21.9 29.3 Copperas Creek dam 7 9 TURETA Tae 100.0 22.5 97.7 trace eres) 2.3 Havana to Lagrange 84.3 84.8 89.7 15.7 15.2 10.3 1 i Lagrange to Grafton 15.8 none 13.2 84.2 100.0 86.8 * Pound values on which these percentages are based are shown in following tables. 415 jo aequinu [e}07 Aq peprArp syonpoad yo uns *suor}ooT[[o° uey} {suoTjoeT[oo Jo Jequinu Aq pol[dyj[nu Yyove seSsvisAe youaiqns » Tae rg ; 9'T £0 9T OTBIOAV OF oie 6& 9% L uoyeL 0} o[[fAsdurey a 29 Bi rat Fi 6 Tae oT a] 0S iH ne at [TAsdme yy 0 eousiotd abey : P ae soedbya 0} ahuellier £98 03% 0's ite | 0'9T 9T esuRiseyT 0} PUBARTT S66 rezos | pS T0 TST08 9T xOSBIOAY 66 8 O8TS LG TO 0'9STS 8 *e eueAvE 0} [ood4aArry - 66 | gene OF & To = | Baie . ; 4 ere 0} idee eae 9°96 £682 T8 86h P LST 0& | x03 BIOAV +6 SFL T8 ¥'S9 | seh tL wep 1p sereddop 0} ulyed A all 6 86S 60% $'8 | | 922 h Uupyed 0} 7] vIaoeg Jo 100g 86 €00P 9°¢ Ts | 9 T6E 7 ‘TT BIL09q JO JOOJ 0} SMOLIRN i 66 9 LTE Te POL | T PPS 8 2 ST[TASSOT, 07 eMIOoHITIUO 4ue9 Jed TOL S109] oupruoeuds ab annie Ca EEOTGNh Meee (Auywiwoag) ‘GUOW Ud SGNOOg ‘VNAVA WOLLog TANNVHO ‘GI6T ‘YMA SIONITIT 416 o'89 POT os | on 9081} TE aZeIOAV 9F €'0T gg | 87 rae WO}WeVI4) 0} VI[IASduIey g9 9°9T | Or 90 LT OT[ITAsSdmey 0} sdUaI0T,7 soUeLO[ YT 0} esUvIseT esueizeT 0} eueAey Se 8°86 F096T Gs GTOST LS&h LT aZBlOAV 86 OGCTS 0°92 LOLLT &61E &T BUBARTT 0} [OOdIOATT 86 @ 98FT LST 6909 € 718 2 [OOdIsATT 0} Wep AM seireddog vL6 S'TLE 16 9°62 GC8S €& asRIOAV 66 G'969 | TS VCS 0889 6 wep “1M seisddop 0} uryeg G6 £906 9°6 L98T 0°09 i UIyeqd 0} ‘JT BILOeg JO 100.7 86 9°L0S | 8g qs SOP ¥ ‘T @1109aq JO JOOJ 0} SMOIIEN €6 P LET esl 1°98 PLE 9T OT[TASSOP[ 0} 9qJOOTIINO Aten fae Te0L Basar eaprieniae ae A Bean N HPAES (AUVNWAS) “Ay wd SaNNnOg ‘VNAYY WoLLog i GNOZ LOOA-)—F ‘GTG6T ‘AHAIY SIONTITTT 417 098 6°9T SOT eg 80 86 aBBIOAV ia 613 e 1s : 9 €0 CL uojJeIy 0} o[[lAsduey && qh 0S T0 iad 8 Roe dtadeney fiaaienoee 16 TOL 60 86 8 souelO[ WY 0} osuelze'T 6°86 Goer ag OFF LS8é 02 esuvisey 0} BPUBALTT 0 te Ee ee ee ES SS 8°86 L616 GOT - 91S 9°L88 9 aSeIIAV 86 L616 GOT 912 9°L88 9 : ‘eUvAvH 0} [OodsoArT auoN ; ‘ walaearn 0} wep “ID araatos &°6 L’bSs PLT 8°09 G9OFL LT asBloAV 26 P16 oTs 8°19 £266 L wep 1M seieddop 0} ulyeg 96 ST6L VL 86 OPLT suoN UIyed 0} “T BILOagT JO OO, | T ‘TT B1109q JO JOOJ 0} SMOIIEN 26 | 266 | 6L S19 T0E 6 O[ILASSOW. 0} BOOTTIIVO BOSNTLOIN 1R1OL yt) 0990 yt) SUO0T}09] sae ‘yueo 180d sjoasu] | oepitievydg | PBplredtar, | -[0o Jo “oN LOB ee . (AUVIWNOG) “aUOy Ud SaNNOg ‘VNOAVY WOLLOg INOZ LOOI-E—T ‘GT6T “YAAIY SIONITIT 418 The Bottom Fauna of the Lakes and Ponds of the Illinois River Bottom-lands between Copperas Creek Dam and Lagrange, July—October, 1914—1915 1. HyproGRaPpHY AND PHysIcaL FEATURES In the midsummer and autumn months of 1914 and 1915 a total of 266 bottom collections, principally with the mud-dipper, were made in the lakes and ponds and other backwaters in the river bottoms between the head of Clear Lake and the foot of Sangamon Bay, covering a river distance of 39 miles, and representing an ex-river acreage (about 16,000 acres) at a gage of 8 feet, Havana, around one third of the total prevailing at the time between the Copperas Creek and Lagrange dams (about 52,000 acres). : : The lakes and backwaters studied, separate naturally on a basis of physical and hydrographical features into five classes: I. The deeper lakes of the all-bottom-land type, with flat muddy banks on both sides, and with maximum depths at recent midsummer levels between 714 and 9 feet. The five lakes of this class examined— Clear—Mud, Liverpool, Thompson, Dogfish, and Sangamon Bay—have deep soft black mud bottom in the central deeper portions, and only rarely a little sand near shore. The vegetation, principally Potamogeton and Ceratophyllum, is confined to the rather wide shallow margins, the most of it well within the zone of 0—6 feet. These lakes ranged in size at the low water of 1901 (4.2 ft., Havana) from 275 to about 1,800 acres, and represented in all at that gage about 3,390 acres. At the average gage of July—October, 1910—1914 (approximately 8 ft., Havana), their acreage is somewhere near 214 times the 1901 figures, or over 8,000 acres, which is close to one seventh of the total lake acreage between Copperas Creek dam and Lagrange, and more than the total river acreage at the same gage in the same distance (about 6,000 acres). II. The deeper, sand-beach type, bordering on one side against the sandy bluff, and with sandy shore on that side, but with flat muddy banks opposite. The two lakes of this type studied (Quiver and Matanzas) had a total acreage at the low water of 1901 of more than 600 acres), and maximum depths at recent midsummer levels of 8% to 12 feet. In Quiver Lake there is some sand and large quantities of old shells mixed with the mud in the deep “channel” which is kept open by the water from Quiver Creek during freshets. In Matanzas Lake the central open por- tion has all a soft black mud bottom. The vegetation in these two lakes is in its character and in its distribution not essentially different from that of the lakes of Class I, though it is inclined to be rather less dense on the average. These lakes receive a comparatively large amount of spring water from the sandy bluff on the east side, and their waters average somewhat clearer and (except at times of invasion by river water) poorer in plankton than the lakes of the all-bottom-land type. 419 III. The comparatively shallow, weedy lakes, with maximum depths at gage 8 feet, Havana, of about 5 feet. The lakes of this class in which collections were made in 1914 and 1915 (Flag, Seebs, Stewart) represented a total acreage at the low water of 1901 of about 1,500 acres, and at 8 feet, Havana, somewhere near 4,000. All of these lakes went completely dry in seasons of extreme low water before 1900. Both in the shallower and the deeper portions the black bottom deposits con- tain a much larger percentage of partially decayed dead vegetation than is found in the open waters of the lakes of Class I. In recent midsummer seasons, up to 1914, Flag and Seebs lakes have been almost completely filled with growing vegetation. In Stewart Lake at the same time some open water was to be found in the central deeper portion toward the foot, but much less relatively to the total area than was the case in such lakes as Thompson and other deeper lakes of its type. IV. The very shallow, very weedy lakes, with greatest depths at the low water of 1910—1914 between 3% and 4 feet. These lakes (Duck, Dennis, Crane) were little more than lily or flag ponds before 1900, going wholly dry at low water in most seasons before the opening of the Chicago Sanitary Canal. Between August and October, 1914, Duck and Dennis lakes were so filled with mixed vegetation that it was difficult to pass through them with a skiff, even the fallen dead stems of the coarse water-plants being blanketed with living filamentous algae. Crane Lake in 1914 and other recent years has been a vast lily- bed, with its rather more open, but densely shaded bottom sprinkled with dead lily stems and “yorkey-nuts”. These three lakes had a low- water acreage in 1901 around 1,200 acres. V. The shallow dead timber and brush areas first permanently submerged after the opening of the Sanitary Canal in January, 1900. These shallow backwaters, ranging in depth from 1% to 4 feet over most of their areas, have alternating opener and densely weeded stretches, the prevailing vegetation being Potamogetom and Polygonum. Their location on the ridges between such lakes as Flag and Thompson, and on similar ridges between these lakes and others and the river, makes them in reality littoral, either of the river or of lakes of the pre- ceding classes, as the case may be. Their bottom soil still contains abundant traces of the sticks and dead leaves contributed by the willows and mallows and button-bushes that grew there 20 years ago. The area represented by waters of this type can only, for the present, be roughly estimated. The total area under 4 feet in depth at the July—October levels of recent years between Copperas Creek and Lagrange dams (about 29,700 acres) made up over 50% of the total ex-river acreage, while careful estimates in the case of Thompson Lake as flooded to the same elevation (approx. Havana 8 ft.) indicated that on that gage in this lake these areas made up about 30% of the total land flooded. The dead timber and brush areas studied by us in 1914 and 1915 were all in the vicinity of Havana and were variously contiguous with Clear, Flag, Thompson, Dogfish, and Quiver lakes. 420 2. Borrom FauNA oF THE LAKES, BY CLASSES Class I.—Fifty-three collections from open water over 6 feet in depth in the. deeper all-bottom-land lakes of Class I in 1914 and 1915 averaged 222 pounds per acre of bottom animals, after deducting shells of Mollusca. An average about twice as great (441 Ibs.) was shown by %8 collections from the 1—6-foot zone, 21 of these hauls coming from open bottom and having an average of 696 lbs. per acre, and 57 from more or less weedy bottom, with an average of 347 lbs. The average of the total of 131 collections from the five lakes, all depths, in both seasons, was 352 pounds. Forty-two of the total 131 collections were taken in 1914 and 89 in 1915. Thompson Lake, both in 1914 and 1915, easily outranked the other - lakes of its class studied in the richness of its bottom fauna, its average of over 540 Ibs. per acre, in either season, being more than double the best other lake average in this class, (Dogfish,) and nearly three times the lowest (Liverpool). Class II—The two sand-beach lakes (Quiver and Matanzas) showed a combined average for 1914 and 1915, for open water over 6 feet, of 1,667 Ibs. per acre, for a total of 27 collections. Of these, 18 were from Quiver Lake, with an average of 2,471 lbs., and 9 from Matanzas Lake, with an average of only 58 lbs. per acre. The combined average of 37 collections, from the 1—6-foot vegetation zone, was 251 Ibs., the average of Matanzas again being lower than that of Quiver. The general average, for the total of 64 collections, both lakes, both years, and all depths, was 848 lbs. per acre, or more than twice that of the lakes of Class I. It will be noted, however, that the very high average for this class and for Quiver alone, was largely due to a few enormous hauls of large Viviparidae in the deep “channel” in 1914. These were much reduced in numbers and weight per acre in 1915. Classes III, IV, V.—The shallow weedy lakes of Class III, Flag, Seebs, and Stewart, averaged only 57 lbs. per acre, combined average of 45 collections, all depths, both seasons ; and the very shallow, very weedy lakes (Duck—Dennis, Crane) only 94 lbs. per acre for a total of 10 collections. As will be shown in the next section, however, it was in these shallower, weedier lakes, and in other weedy backwaters, that the shore animals in the weeds (above the bottom) reach their highest figures. In the dead timber and brush areas the bottom-fauna average of 16 collections, 1914—1915 (187 lbs.) was better than in weedy lakes of Classes III and IV, approaching, in fact, the average of the open water of the deep lakes of the all-bottom-land type (222 Ibs.). 421 *‘SUOT}OATIOD JO IEqUINU 94} OATS SaINSY eI UL + 2 Lg Te TéI 8k &¢ LYE 969 GSE ThP 66 aay ead: a3RIOAV ii éL if 8 a ST6T pce 0°S96 F'6ST 0°S96 9°90T Ate So); "8 GLE TomesuRrs § LE & er By ST6I OPEL Wiis PSL OPE 0'@ST “VW 98 (8 ¢9T) ysysoqd iS 8 is & FI6T GLEE Nee ve GLE GLEE PES VW 6 "8 GOT ysysoq ol & 4G 6L 8 : ST6T PCIS 9 LP9 9°CPS 0°39S 9967 W 6 (2 008'T) uosdu0y,, or Or 1 96 8 g PI6T GT&P G06 L'T#S 6319 LOts W 6 "2 008 T uosdmoyL, 6 ST 6 9 ST6T P6FT Ks,t T SPT P'6PT SGPrL W 6 8 0GE [ood19aryT 6r 0G or +8 = ST6L L086 ions 986 L096 9ST? 8 "B 0E8 PRA—ABIID uol} uol}e} SUOT}e}S 9uo0z 439 10A0 | "73 g “ACH Salas axe’ SuoT) -eyaseA | -o80A ON llV ‘WJ 9—T |4oyVM uedQ} yIdep “XPI| * Soy515 -d9[[00 Ward ee Pie Beate POISE TEA US aioe tod spuno, ada uvy-010}}0q ‘daa ‘I SsBIO aloe ied spunog Pp d } Ruel q a I SI6I—FI6T ‘VNOVA WoLLog ‘Sav] AGTIVA SIONITIT ‘suoT}OeT[OO JO AAquUINU 94} SATS SaINSY Oe} OWL + L8 £9 Lg Lg Taz @ecve 8F8 sata 199'T eevee afaxstace eSeIOAV 9 oT 9 6 ST6T 6'LL a $99 6 LL 9°83 Ww AS 2 068 | SUZUBIIAL tT dr tT g ST6T L'8st ae POLE L'8St T'808 ‘WF OT ("8 082) IOAN feed = ¥ ur as LT «ST FI6T $'888 See TTZe'T e888 0'g08‘Z "WE 81 "B 082 IOAN uory | wore, | suoneis | ouoz | 33.9 ado [733 8 “APH Jopghe voy eae suor, | ~@}@30A | 250A ON IV ‘Wy 9—T |toyeM uedQ! WIdep ‘xe asvaloy i -D9T[09 : eyed =} 33 9—T ‘WOTsTATpqns ( ‘ : Ae reran aouitOs aioe ied spunog edA} yoveq-puvs ‘dseq ‘JI SSID — GIG6T—FIGL ‘VNAVY WoLLog ‘SHV AGTIVA SIONITIT 423 *SUOTIOITIOD JO ToquINU 9Yy} OATS SOINSY [BIT OWL » of of of or as ' ST6T 8'éL | SEL — | eed Wg "8 086 PABMIYS 8 8 a te ae eae Pee [om [owe | nee & 4 PIGT OPEL = ham | OPEL | eh WG Trews Ale A 8q99S ST ST ST6I 6°13 tad 616 Tae se Wg (2 009) Be & «8 FIGT 6°02 coi | 6°02 | es WG e009 31 uot} uor}e} SUOT}e4S 9uloz ‘49.9 IOAO [47 g “ARH Sore a axel suor} -BJase0A | -a30A ON lv ‘43 9—T |4e7eM usedg!) qJdep ‘xe age eee, -d9][09 eyed ers, Data tae aioe ied spunog eds} ApoaM ‘MOT[VYS [I] sseloO GI6I—FI6T ‘VNOVY WOLLOg ‘SaMv] AGTIVA SIONITIT 424 ‘SUOT}OAT[OD JO AAaqUINU 94} 2ATS SaInSy OVI] OWL « oF 9T OT LST asad LST LST eye xo Eh atc Rictetene aser0Ay OF Or A ST6L PG0G SERS ay ¥G0G oy 43 “AS 9 ci FIGT 6'09T estate eres 6:09 areata “WP Ysniq pues 1equl} peeq ‘A sseip Or Or Or 6 eee +6 +6 ‘SLwLe.e.w ee wee eee aseVIOAV g ¢ eae ST6T 061 meg Ci iat 062 ita aig nyeone “8 O16 suelo g af FI6T € Orr Aan me S Ort SEs WP "8 096 stuueq—yong uot} U0T}B} SUOT}EIS 9u0z ‘43 9 IdAO | "43 8 “ABH ees eee ayer] suo0l} -BJ9S9A -a30A ON IV W-9—T |toyeM usdQ| qWdep “xepy asealoy ‘ -d9][00 SHILA Ba OE ES OG aloe Jod spunog Apoem AIOA ‘MOTTVYS ALOA, “AI SSBID aioe Jed spunog GI6I—FI6GL ‘VNOVA WOLLOg ‘SaMV] XAGTIVA SIONITIT 425 3. GENERAL AVERAGE VALUATION A simple average (without weighting to compensate for irregularity in distribution of collections within different lake classes) of the total of 266 bottom collections of 1914—1915 from the five classes of lakes and backwaters (including dead timber and brush areas) figures out at 402 lbs. per acre. Since the general average of 848 lbs. per acre for the Class II lakes (Quiver, etc.) applied to but 620 acres at the low water of 1901, while the average of 352 lbs. per acre for the Class I lakes covered 3,390 acres at the same gage, it is evident that a simple average of this sort is unfair and likely to be unduly high. As we have not complete acreage figures for different depths at recent gages pre- vailing in midsummer, and lack, in particular, exact figures on the dead timber acreage, a close general average of all the lakes and backwaters studied in the two years, based on accurate acreage weightings, can not now be figured. If we assume, however, that on the average the ex- pansion in lake acreage between 4.2 and 8 feet, Havana, is about the same in all of the first four classes of lakes except Class II, we shall not go far wrong in weighting the class average of I to IV, excluding the dead timber and brush areas, with the low-water acreage for 1901. The general bottom-fauna average for Classes I—IV, inclusive, figures out in this way at 285 lbs. per acre. If, again, we assume that the usual ratio of adjacent dead-timber acreage to the total acreage of lakes and backwaters at gage 8 feet, Havana, is about the same as in Thompson Lake (around 30%, estimated), and weight the Class I—IV average (285 Ibs.) and the Class V average (187 lIbs., dead timber and brush areas) with “per cent.” acreage figures on this basis, we obtain a gen- eral average of bottom fauna for the two years, for all classes of lakes and backwaters, all depths, of 255 lbs. per acre, or almost exactly the general river average for 180.5 miles below Chillicothe (261 Ibs.), but only about one third of the all-zone river average for the 59.3 miles be- tween Copperas Creek and Lagrange dams (705 lbs.). 426 ‘siseq ‘juao aed uo poayysiomM ft “pay ysiaM-asvaloy t ‘suol}oaT[O9 JO JAaqwuNU 9} AATS SAINSY ONeIT OUL s 9&6 ecg SOON rican Ae mitts travels A—I foser0ay 0S6 : a4 Sains apciets renee oTL‘9 AI—I joses0ay OF OF oT ST6T—FI6T L8T aes L8T L8T Pe Ae WP é ysniq pue Joqul}, peed A Or Or Or Apoom ST6I—FI6T $6 Lee v6 46 ne WP OLT'T AIGA !MOTTRYS ALVA AI of of ot ST6I—FT6T Lg au as LG Lg ee WG 0ES'T Apaom ‘MOTTeYS III 4& 19 4g 46 ; ST61—FT6T T&6 Eel 8F8 TSE 199'T “WJ CT: 029 edé} qoveq-pues ‘deed II Lg Té T&T 8L *6S ST61—FT6T LYE 969 GG& TP 666 “W 6 06'S ed) puvy-a10}}0q dead I uot} 01}e} Sm0T}2}S 9u0Z J 9 JOAO ‘BOUTS -BJoS0A | -o30A ON lV ‘yJI-9—T |10}7eM uedO 4a 9 CARH TO6T. deT[09 yidep “xeyy| 297244 MOT SSBID syed = /-qy_ g9—T. ‘WOISTAIpqns asvaloVy aioe ied spunog eioe Jed spunog GI6I—FI6T ‘VNOVA WOLLog ‘Sauv] AGIIVA SIONITIT 427 4. COMPOSITION OF THE Bottom FauNA The proportion of Mollusca to associated animals in the lake col- _lections of 1914—1915 did not run so uniformly high as in the river series of 1915. The Mollusca percentages are highest in the open water of the deeper lakes of Classes I and IJ, where they run from 84 to 96%. In the weedy zones (1—6 feet) of the deeper lakes the Mollusca per- centages were noticeably lower (77%). In the shallower weedy lakes of Classes III and IV the insects and small Crustacea are much more abundant relatively, and the Mollusca ratios drop to 36 and 50% Per CENT. Motitusca BY WEIGHT (TO ToTAL WEIGHT OF COLLECTIONS), Lakes, 1914—1915 Peer vgs Poet, |. ate open water | no vegetation vegetation | / Class I | 84.1 | 89.8 17.8 Class II | 96.8 ee. 17.5 Class III | BA ace 50.7 Class IV 36.4 Class V | 79.7 The snail fauna of the lakes, like the insect fauna, presents in the average somewhat greater variety than that of the river. Viviparidae made up the largest percentage of the Mollusca totals in the deeper lakes of Classes and II. In the shallower weedy lakes and in the dead timber areas the ratios of Viviparidae were lower. The smaller snail fauna (smaller Gastropoda, Sphaeriidae) less rarely than in the river consisted almost exclusively of Sphaeriidae—the Valvatidae and Amnicolidae being well represented in most of the lakes studied, and exceeding Sphaeriidae in some cases, in the shallower weedier lakes, both in num- bers and weight. Further details of the composition of the nie bottom-fauna are shown in the detail tables at the end. Per CENT. OF VIVIPARIDAE, BY WEIGHT, TO ToTAL WEIGHT OF ALL MOoLLuUScA, LaAKEs, 1914—1915 cone ee 1-6 ft., 1 Bi, open a ae no vegetation vegetation Class I 56% | 85% 86% Class II 99% pores 88% Class IIT ooce uses 62% Class IV Poti | areca 61% Class V 11% 428 ILLINOIS VALLEY LAKEs, 1914—1915, Borrom Fauna POUNDS PER ACRE I. Deep Bottom-land Type. (Zone over 6 feet) Large No. col- Bae 3 Sphaeriidae | Insects Per cent. Lake lections Mafra: etc. etc. Total Mollusca Clear—Mud, 1915 8 17.1 186.8 11.7 215.6 | 94 Liverpool, 1915 6 24.3 96.7 | 21.2 142.2 | 85 » Thompson, 1914 8 76.5 140.0 94.2 310.7 | 69 Thompson, 1915 8 413.9 64.6 18.1 496.6 96 + Dogfish, 1914 3 8.0 3.1 12.3 23.4 47 Dogfish, 1915 12 67.1 18.5 66.4 152.0 56 Sangamon, 1915 10 51.2 41.4 14.0 106.6 86 Average 53 104.6 82.2 35.2 222 84.1% ILLINOIS VALLEY Lakes, 1914—1915, Botrom Fauna _ POUNDS PER ACRE 1. Deep Bottom-land Type. (1—6-ft. Zone. No Vegetation) No. col- Large : Lake ‘easton Viviparidae| Sphaeriidae |Insects| Total | Per cent. : - ete. ete. etc. Mollusca Thompson, 1914 10 687.1 80.3 135.8 903.2 85 Thompson, 1915 7 610.5 24.9 12.2 647.6 98 Sangamon, 1915 4 145.3 109.5 10.2 265.0 96 Average 21 558.3 67.3 70.6 696 89.8%, 429 I. Deep Bottom-land Type. (1—6-ft. Zone. Vegetation) Clear—Mud, 1915 12 121.7 | 110.7 | ey, | 250.1 93 Liverpool, 1915 9 117.0 4.2 28.2 | 149.4 85 Thompson, 1914 16 210.0 28.4 193.1 | 431.5 55 Thompson, 1915 12 481.9 10.0 20.4 512.4 95 Dogfish, 1914 | a 336.0 19.1 42.4 397.5 89 Dogfish, 1915, | 3 | none 7.3 [2259 134.2 | 5 Average 57 | 233.9 36.1 77.0 347 717.8 % ILLINOIS VALLEY LAKes, 1914—1915, Borrom Fauna : POUNDS PER ACRE II. Deep, Sand-Beach Type. (Zone over 6 feet) No. col- Eanes : Lake 1 ti Viviparidae | Sphaeriidae |Insects | Total | Per cent. ass ete. ete. ete. Mollusca Quiver, 1914 15 2,754.6 2.9 47.5 | 2,805.0] 98 Quiver, 1915 3 800.0 none 3.1 803.1} 99 1 Matanzas, 1915 4) none 40.6 18.0 58.6] 69 Average 27 1,619.2 15.1 32.7 1.667 96.8% II. Deep, Sand-Beach Type. (1—6-ft. Zone. Vegetation) Quiver, 1914 aly 329.7 33.4 25.2 388.3 | 93 Quiver, 1915 | 14 35.5 9.3 113.9 158.7 | 28 Matanzas, 1915 | 6 | 58.4 9.6 Ss) 77.9 87 Average | 37 | 174.3 20.4 56.2 251 17.5% 430 Intuvyois VALLEY Lakes, 1914—1915, Borrom Fauna POUNDS PER ACRE III. Shallow, Weedy Type. (Depth 1—5 ft.) No. col- Large Lake lactions Viviparidae | Sphaeriidae | Insects} Total | Per cent. s ete. ete. ete. Mollusea Flag, 1914 3 none 25.7 45.2 70.9 | 63 Flag, 1915 15 5.0 none 229) > ated | 18 Seebs, 1914 i 14.0 15.5 94.5 124.0 | 24 Seebs, 1915 8 18.5 1.8 5.6 25.9 | 78 La Stewart, 1915 12 41.0 24.4 8.4 73.8 | 88 Average 45 18.0 10.9 28.1 57 | 50.7% ILLINOIS VALLEY LAxkes, 1914—1915, Botrom Fauna POUNDS PER ACRE IV. Very Shallow, very Weedy Type. (Depth 1—4 ft.) Large x , Lake No. col- |Viviparidae |Sphaeriidae |Insects| Total | Per cent. lections etc. etc. ete. Mollusca Duck—Dennis, 1914 5 none 12.4 97.9 110.3 11 Crane, 1915 5 42.0 14.3 22.7 79.0 71 Average 10 21.0 13:3 60.3 94 36.4% V. Dead Timber and Brush Areas. (Depth 1—4 ft. Vegetation) Vicinity Havana, 1914 6 29.8 87.1 44.0 160.9 72 Vicinity Havana, 1915 10 167.5 1.3 33.6 202.4 | 83 Average | 16 115.8 33.4 37.5 187 79.7% 431. The Weed-Fauna of the 1—4-foot Zone of the Illinois Valley Lakes, and the Combined Bottom- and Weed-Fauna Average, August—October, 1914 1. Weep Fauna oF THE LAKES NEAR HAVANA: In the autumn of 1914 a series of quantitative collections of the small invertebrates attached to and scattered between the leaves and stems of the denser growths of coarse vegetation about the margins of the bottom-land lakes near Havana, in depths 1 to 41% feet, were made at seven stations. These collections were made by inclosing the tops of the plants in a large bucket, lowered about them to a depth of about 9 inches, cutting off the stems a little below the 9-inch level, shaking them out thoroughly in the water obtained by righting the bucket, and then passing the water saved through a fine sieve. Though these collections _ represent but a fraction of the total ‘““weed fauna’, omitting the small insects and other animals occurring between the bottom and the lower limit of the bucket hauls (a distance of 1 to 5 feet), the average valua- tions obtained in this way were very much above the average bottom valuations from the same lakes in any zone, with the single exception of a few hauls from the bottom of the Quiver Lake “channel” in 1914. The general average for the seven stations was in fact 2,118 lbs. per acre, or more than eight times the general average of bottom fauna for the five classes of lakes and backwaters between the head-of Clear Lake and Beardstown studied by us in 1914 and 1915 (255 Ibs.). The smaller snails (Amnicolidae, Physidae, and Valvatidae, prin- cipally) formed about 50% of the average total by weight. The ap- proximate half of the collections made up of insects (larvae and nymphs) consisted principally of immature Odonata (Agrionidae and small Libel- lulidae). The only large snails were a few adult Planorbis trivolvis, the great bulk of the material being of quite small size and easily avail- able, in that respect, for use as food by young to half-grown as well as adult fishes. 2. COMBINED AVERAGE VALUATION OF THE BoTToM- AND WEED-FAUNA Stocks, AND ToTAL STOCKS IN THE ACREAGE For the purpose of calculating a general average, and also the total stocks, both of the bottom and weed animals, for the entire lake and other backwater acreage between Copperas Creek dam and Lagrange (approximately 52,700 acres at 8 feet, Havana—the average gage in July—October, 1910—1914), I have assigned the general bottom-fauna average of the twelve lakes studied (255 lbs.) to the entire acreage, as with no levees, and the weed-fauna average of the lakes in the imme- diate neighborhood of Havana (2,118 Ibs.) to the approximate 29,700 acres with depths under 4 feet in the district. An acreage-weighted general average figured in this way stands at 1,447 lbs. per acre, or at Ms 0S ST's | O'TSO'T L190'T ee oe ache L asB1OAV FL “sny LZ S'ESTT | #88 a Tastee AP T uosdmoyy, Jo as 9 “PO tPF €g9e'T | 0902 09S Spe v T Seif JO appr PL ‘sny &P PSO0ES | OFLET | F166 ee “AS T uosdmoyy, JO 007 or ‘sny 1G SS88PS | 9ES6'T 9FES Siena AS T wosduoyL, JO JOO BS : @ “PO 96 6L0G'% | 298 LTer's inn mts: ¥ if = yond JO s[PPriAL 1 ‘~O 61 9 LTS'S 6980S PSP ere: AL T Seq Jo pero 9 “PO 68 0'€6S'S | 0'62F TP9TS a ee G T uosdmoyy, pue s¥iq weaMjogq nepenne® | Semeteat | amog | gystan | emBHeateA, | ompysetana | eein| amo mer aaoy Wad sanood (SHHONI § YAddN) VNOV A GAIAM ‘FI6T ‘VNVAVH ALINIOIA ‘Savy 433 more than twice the all-zone river average for bottom fauna only in the same distance (705 Ibs.), and at more than 5% times the average figures for bottom fauna only in the lakes and other backwaters be- tween the two dams in 1914 and 1915 (255 lbs.). The total stocks in the entire 52,760 acres of lakes and ponds (acreage as with no levees, substantially same as 1908 rather than 1914—1915, for purpose of comparison with fish yields of that year), 76,358,400 Ibs. is more than 10 times the total stocks in the 59.3 miles of river opposite (6,988,103 Ibs. for 26,700 acres). Of the total, 13,- 453,800 lbs., or 17.6%, represents the bottom animals of the full acreage ; and 62,904,600 Ibs., or 82.3%, represents the small weed animals of the upper 9 inches only, in the rather more than 50% of the total acreage within the 4-foot line. BorroM- AND WEED-FAUNA Stocks, LAKES, COPPERAS CREEK DAM TO LAGRANGE (59.3 MILES) Approx. acreage |Average valuation*| Total stocks |Per cent. 8 ft. Havana pounds per acre | for acreage in of (No levees) 1914—1915 first columny total Bottom fauna | stocks—all 52,760 a. 255 13,453,800 17.6% depths Weed fauna stocks—1—4 29,700 a. 2,118 62,904,600 82.38% ft. Bottom and weed stocks 52,760 a. 1,447 76,358,400 The Bottom- and Weed-Fauna of the Littoral Zone of the Deep Glacial Lakes of Northeastern Illinois, August—October, 1916 1. Botrrom Fauna The general average of 119 mud-dipper collections from the zone of 1—7 feet in eight of the deep glacial lakes of northeastern Ilinois in August—October, 1916, was only 82.8 Ibs. per acre. The six isolated lakes studied (Deep, Cedar, Zurich, Crystal, Long, and Sand lakes) showed the better average (105.8 Ibs.), while the two large lakes (Fox and Pistakee) directly open to the channel of Fox River averaged only 54.2 lbs. Sparse vegetation, principally species of Potamogeton, with some Chara, chiefly within the 3-foot line, were present at most of the col- lecting stations. The bottom varied from sand, gravel or sandy mud, to * soft black mud or yellow clay. On the windward side (southeast or west) of most of these lakes there is a more or less sterile clay zone with very * Based on data from 12 lakes representing around half of the total acreage. + Equals approximately that of 1908. (Table originally made for comparison with 1908 fish yields.) 434 scanty vegetation, or none at all, lying between the weedy shore zone and the deep open water, part of it sometimes extending within the 7- foot line. Valuations considerably better than the average were obtained in restricted areas with more nearly uniform bottom in four of the isolated lakes, the average for clay bottom overlaid with fine decayed vegetation, in Deep Lake being 320 Ibs.; for sand and clay, in Cedar Lake, 251 Ibs. ; for gravel and sand, in Deep Lake, 220 lIbs.; and for gravel and sand, in Lake Zurich, 212 lbs. In its composition the littoral bottom-fauna of these lakes differs most strikingly from that of the Illinois Valley bottom-land lakes in the relatively much lower percentages of Mollusca. Snails made up only Lakes, NoRTHEASTERN ILLINOIS, AUGUsT—OcrToseER, 1916, Borrom Fauna POUNDS PER ACRE LirroraL Zonr, 1—7 Feet. SOME VEGETATION Lake area virinaniaie Sphaeriidae | Insects | po4q, | Per cent. nections Bete ete. ete. Mollusca Deep 7 iss 39.8 169.0 208.8 19 Cedar 24 Canes 24.2 135.6 159.8 15 Zurich 13 9.9 10.0 49.2 69.1 23 Crystal 6 BAe 16.0 40.4 56.4 28 Long 6 ee 1.7 50.7 52.4 3 Sand 10 ae ee 0.6 13.1 13.7 4 Average 66 1.8 AGI |e Sia 105.8 |. 17.4% Pistakee 29 10.8 26.0 ae 79.4 46 Fox 24 2.3 3.6 18.0 23.9 24 Average* 53 69 | 15.8 31.4 | 54.2 41.8% * General (simple) average of 8 lakes (119 collections) =82.8 pounds per acre. 435 17.4% of the average weight of the hauls at 66 stations in the six iso- lated lakes; and only 41.8% in the two lakes traversed by the Fox River channel. The snails belonged almost entirely to the smaller-sized species, the larger Pleuroceridae and Viviparidae occurring only very rarely and in small numbers in the hauls. The most abundant families were the Sphaeriidae, Amnicolidae, Valvatidae, and Physidae. The most important insects, measured by weight, were the Trichoptera (caddis- flies), Chironomidae, and large Ephemeridae (May-flies). (A more complete report on these collections, including also the dredgings in deep water, is being planned for publication later.) 2. WEED FauNA In August, 1916, we found the shore vegetation of the isolated glacial lakes so generally thin and sparse, as compared with the dense growths of Potamogeton and Ceratophyllum in the Illinois River bottom-land lakes, that it was practically impossible to employ the bucket method of collecting the weed animals used at Havana in 1914. Along the north shores of Pistakee and Nippersink lakes, however, beds of mixed Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, and Ceratophyllum were not uncommon that were fully as dense and that carried not far from as rich a fauna as that of such lakes as Flag and Thompson. The average for the upper 9 inches at two stations in Pistakee and Nippersink lakes in August, 1916 (1,665 Ibs. per acre), was only 26% less than the average of the seven weed-fauna stations in the vicinity of Havana in 1914 (2,118 lbs.). Both insects and mollusks constituted an almost insignificant part of the totals, 85% of the weight in one case, and 95% in the other being made up of a single small crustacean—the little fresh-water shrimp, Hyalella knickerbockert. (Table, p. 436.) Comparison with Outside Bottom- and Weed-Fauna Valuations 1. Borrom- AND WEED-FauNA OF ONEIDA LAKE. (BAKER, 1918) In the Lower South Bay of Oneida Lake, New York, in 1916, Baker found the richest bottom-fauna within the 6-foot contour. Averaged by weight*, in pounds per acre,-sand bottom showed the highest valua- tions, 143 sixteen square-inch units examined, averaging 387 lbs. Gravel bottom, with 207 lbs., clay bottom, with 188 lbs., and sand and clay, with 210 lbs., were well under sand bottom in richness, but were all much richer than the mud bottom over 6 feet. The mud bottom within the 6- foot line averaged for 27 units 230 Ibs. per acre. These valuations much * Rough, approximate valuations, by present author, from Baker’s figures per unit of 16 square inches, on same general basis followed in valuation of Illinois River and lake data, 1914—1916. Average adult size of some of the snails esti- mated by Mr. Baker. Chironomidae and larvae of Trichoptera lumped and aver- aged at a round valuation about the average of those of northeastern Illinois glacial lakes. 436 gco'T ase Aig Door 5 aser0Ay apis qj10U ST ‘sny G8 II t 0°668 0698 098 aoe are T yursieddin | Fe pue seddn ‘apis qj100 LT ‘sny G6 4 § SIIVS 0088's TTS a AE T aoHeIsld Pt) wie suo} el[e[VAH| S}OOSUI |BOSN{[OJ[) [POL Z aepIséyd 079 yea} ¥ : ayeq |. 5 3 $}090SUL DdaT[OO oye] used Jag |"}U80 1eg |"}Ue0 18g - SVPIVeA[VA | oepTaedIATA | WIdeq BPP | seprooruuty ACTOR (SHHONI 6 UWiddA) VNAV A aaa WaoV wid SdNNOd “OT6L ‘SIONITIT NUGLSVAHIMON ‘“SaxavT 437 exceed the average figures obtained by us in 1916 in the same depth zone in the isolated glacial lakes of northern Illinois (105 lbs.), but do not average much if any better than the best littoral areas in Deep and Cedar lakes (Deep Lake, gravel bottom, 220 lbs., clay and rotten vegeta- tion, 320 Ibs.; Cedar Lake, sand and clay bottom, 251 Ibs.). They com- pare very well with the all-depth average (one to eleven feet) for the Illinois Valley lakes of all classes in 1914 and 1915 (255 lbs. per acre), but are exceeded by the general average of bottom fauna only in the 1—6- foot zone of our Class I lakes in the Havana district (441 lbs.) ; and are far surpassed by the figures for the 1—3- and 4—?-foot zones of the Illinois River between Copperas Creek dam and Havana (1—3-foot zone, 919 Ibs. ; 4—7-foot zone, 1,960 Ibs.). The ratio of Mollusca to the total weight of all animals averaged much higher (38% to 64%) than in the glacial lakes of northern Illinois, but was far under the ratios found in the Illinois River and in the lakes near Havana. Bottom Fauna or ONEIDA LAKE, 1—6-root ZONE POUNDS PER ACRE (OUR VALUATIONS) nroniusen | Associated | cay | Her cont | Sand bottom 251.3 | 138.3 389 64 Mud bottom 96.9 133.5 230 42 Sandy clay 81.4 129.3 210 38 Gravel 139.4 68.2 207 67 Clay 75.3 112.7 188 40 . While Baker found in Oneida Lake, in a few situations, a weed fauna (total, picked by hand from plants removed from the water) that ap- proached in valuation his bottom-fauna averages for the littoral zones, the average productivity indicated ran very low, and even his heaviest collections (57 to 207 lbs. per acre, our valuations) were far below those obtained by us in the lakes of the Illinois Valley near Havana (2,118 Ibs. average) or in the thick Potamogeton and Ceratophyllum beds of Nippersink and Pistakee lakes (1,655 Ibs.). Baker’s best figures were obtained in the Potamogeton and Myriophyllum, and the bulk of the collections by weight was made up of snails. 438 2. Borrom Fauna or LAKE MEnvora. (Murrxkowsk1, 1918) Average valuations in pounds per acre for the 0—1- and 1—3-meter zones obtained by Muttkowski in Lake Mendota in 1914 and 1915 (60 and 64 Ibs. respectively) are slightly higher than our averages of 1916 from the 1—6-foot zone of Fox and Pistakee lakes (54 lbs.), but are well under the average for the six isolated glacial lakes (105 lbs.). Mollusca formed only 4% of the total average weight in the 0—1-meter areas, and 14% in the 1—3-meter zone. The most important groups of animals as measured by weight were the larvae of Chironomidae and Trichoptera. BoTrtoM FAUNA OF LAKE MENDOTA, WISCONSIN. 1—3 METERS POUNDS PER ACRE (OUR VALUATIONS) Per cent. Mollusca | Others | Total roses 0—1 meter | 2.59 | 57.37 | 60 | 4 1—3 meters | 9.40 | 55.12 | 64 | 14 3. Marine Botrom-Fauna. VaLuaTions, DENMARK (PETERSEN, 1911—1918) The marine bottom-fauna valuations, by rough weight, obtained by Petersen 1910 to 1916 included the shells of Mollusca and echinoderms, and require reduction by percentages that probably range at least 33 to 75%. His average valuations for large areas all concern the bottom fauna outside the 6-meter limit, in depths ranging from 10 meters up- wards. The average valuation obtained for the Thisted Bredning, years 1910—1916, with an area of 65,000,000 m.? (==16,055 acres) was 3,298 Ibs. per acre, rough weight, which would figure down by. the percentages mentioned to 800 to 2,200. The Nissum Bredning averages for 110,- 000,000 m2 (27,170 acres) was somewhat lower, 2,418 lbs., which would stand with deductions of 33 and 75% at 600 or 1,600 Ibs. Petersen’s figures for restricted Mytilus and Modiola (a mollusk re- lated to Mytilus) communities—167,556 and 92,036 Ibs. per acre, or 83 and 46 tons, respectively, the first in 2-meters depth, the second in 28 meters—by far exceed anything that has been reported elsewhere, so far as we know, for sea or land crops. The figures in the case of the Mytilus haul are equivalent to 552.9 ounces per square yard, or to 0.42 ounce per square inch of bottom area: and those for Modiola, to 303.7 ounces per square yard, or 0.23 ounce per square inch. These figures com- pare with about 10 ounces-per square yard (3,029 lbs. per acre), the net average weight* of the Illinois River channel collections of 1915 between * Shells of Mollusca deducted. 439 Copperas Creek dam and Havana, The Mytilus taken by Petersen, as shown by the photographed heaps as they fell out of the bottom sampler, were lying upon each other on the sea bottom. MarinE Borrom FAauNA VALUATIONS (PETERSEN, 1911—1918) AVERAGES, POUNDS PER ACRE*, LARGE AREAS Net weightj— Pounds per: acre fter deductions Depth Acres rough weight a a3-aud 75% Thisted Bredning over 10 m. | 16,055 3,298 800—2,200 Nissum Bredning over 10 m. 27,170 2,418 600—1,600 PETERSEN’S FIGURES FOR RESTRICTED COMMUNITIES, COMPARED WITH Best ILLINOIS- RIverR CHANNEL, 1915 Depth Pounds |Ounces per | Ounces per per acre |square yard) square inch Mytilus community | 2m. | 167,556 552.9 0.42 Rough weight Modiola community | 28m. 92,036 303.7 0.23 Rough weight Average Illinois-riv- er channel, Cop- | |... 3,029 10 aie Shells deducted peras Creek dam . to Havana The Food of certain Small Bottom-Invertebrates in the River Channel at Havana and the General Composition of the Detritus The results of microscopical examination of the stomach and gut contents of a number of the commoner Gastropoda, Sphaeriidae, insect larvae, and others of the small bottom animals of the channel opposite Havana in July, 1914, suggested that settled limnetic plankton plays a more important role in the food of the bottom fauna than seems to be gen- erally recognized. The studies made call for a subdivision of the com- moner small bottom-animals at that place into two main groups; the one depending principally upon plankton, and the other more largely upon old detritus, though containing species that make considerable use of * Pounds per acre calculated by us from Petersen’s figures in grams per 0.25 m.* t+ Our estimates. 440 plankton also. The specimens that fall clearly into the group of plankton- feeders represented a rather wide rangé of families, including Sphaeriidae (as represented by Sphaerium striatinwm) ; young Unionidae, about one year old; Bryozoa (Urnatella gracilis) ; Trichoptera (larvae of Hydrop- syche species) ; Chironomidae (unidentified red larvae); and Planaria. The stomachs of the Sphaeriidae and young Unionidae, though con- taining principally settled limnetic plankton, held also small amounts of fine dead detritus, as well as many living bacteria, apparently taken in with the latter or with dead planktonts. The insect larvae (caddis and Chironomidae) had enjoyed a clean feed of settled plankton, some of it still alive when eaten. Some living bacteria were seen in the stomachs of the caddis larvae. Species whose stomachs contained nothing but dead detritus included a small Asellus and several tubificid worms. The larger snails of the family Viviparidae (Campeloma subsolidum and Vivipara contectoides) had eaten large quantities of loose detritus and what appeared to be slime-clotted silt and organic detritus particles such as is commonly found as a thin coating on the shells of the snails them- selves and on other hard objects in the mud. Living bacteria, presumably putrefactive or fermentative types, were exceedingly abundant in the ma- terial in their stomachs. In small specimens of Vivipara and Campeloma, on the other hand, diatoms and Chlorophyceae from the settling limnetic plankton were not much if any less abundant than old dead detritus, At- tached incrusting algae (Pleurococcus and Palmella types) were present in the stomachs of all Viviparidae examined. In going through samples of the loose bottom-ooze taken with the mud-sucker (see Figure 6, page 372), I was struck with the fact that limnetic plankton, principally diatoms and Chlorophyceae, was, next after the flaky particles of decayed vegetable or animal matter that makes up the dead organic detritus, the most abundant edible element in the ooze, as far as could be determined, being decidedly more important in bulk than normal bottom Protozoa and Rotifera. While bottom Ostracoda were noted in the ooze they were relatively very rare, and limnetic Copepoda, Cladocera, and Rotifera were represented only by fragments or nearly whole carapaces or other chitinous parts. The enormous numbers of bacteria seen swarming in and among the flaky honeycombed particles of dead organic matter, and inside the bodies of recently dead planktonts, suggest that these minute organisms are themselves not an unimportant part of the food supply of both the plankton- and detritus-eating bottom-animals. Both bacteria and minute pale flagellates and ciliates were also very abundant in the interstices of the slime-bound silt and detritus scum that envelops the upper surface of the shells of a large portion of the living and dead snails. That this ma- terial on their own backs is used as food by their fellows is apparently proven by its presence in the stomachs as well as by the numerous tracks of radulae identified in the mantle of scum on the backs of liv- ing Vivipara and Campeloma examined. 441 *8Z00-U10}}0q UTY} 94} JO SJURJIqeYyUL UezZOJOId [eBUIION y ‘juepunqe AiA—1)1—a1oN Vi ‘uommoo—! fyuepunqe—ii , 50qe yt) TT}o pue soyzey. 4 BITSOTOIT -[asey SSeT1O[OO 4 B[NOTABN seuowopAue[ yO WNIjseIpeg 4 B[[e}OTIAD ae eS eoRLL your 4 ‘snawmd syisdwunT eBUly -oed =ejevyouAg yt) 4$89}®] 4 BI1SO]a -[e3eY SSeT1o0poo WINn1}Sel[I0D 4 B[NOIACN seuowopAmRel[ yy Snulsepeus0s 4 e[[a}OTIAD Pod eoRLL WNULZDIAS wnilanydg yt) B19J110Y evs[V stu0}eIG SUISIUBZ.10 . mo}yURId peap | (109}eUl peep) -OaOTUL BOZO} Cret 10 snytajep ut snqtqjep peurmexe sopoads PeqoeyV “¢ ellejoeg *% oTUvS10 OULA “T uo}YuURId wWoO}j0q [BM10U puP dotjeuUIT] SUIT}I09 ‘F feu Suadday NOLMNWIGd JO SHOVINOLG NI GNOoa aooy PIGL ‘ATO¢ ‘VNVAV]] “IUNNVHD UGIATY SIONITIT ‘SALVUIALUAANT WoLLOg Jo a00,q 442 ‘MOULMIOD = Jessep 94 .L—aLON e][e1LIng S][90 VlIe[ISe1y eullopuedg snulsepeuedg S][90 ‘eUllopny . BIISO[OIN BIO LOAD, eae euoN $1100.16 B[NOTARN 7 D112} DUL) : S[[90 ; seuomopAMe YO WN1jsele0p BLISO[OTAL Moy V euoN uvlieue[d per “your % 4 snuisepeuessg | satoeds Aur eee euoN eAIe[ plulouoliyD 070 B[NOTARN (‘ds LseuomopAmeyO| 1 snusepetesg BIISO[SIN eulos euoN eqoAsdoipsép ) R[A}JO[OAD, AP-stppeo jo eAreyT st) B191}OY ees[V su0}eIq SUsTuvs.10 (10}}2UL peep) -O10TUW BOZOA OI elleyoeg °Z snqtajep peulurexe seloedg peqoryy “¢ OTUeZ1I0 OULY “T ; WoyyuR[d OEuUUMI] SUITES “§ PI6T ‘ATOL SUadday NOLMNWIG dO SHOVWOLS NI GNOOA doo ‘VNVAVH “IANNVHD UAAIY SIONITIT ‘SULVATALAGANT WOLLOG 40 doo 443 ‘uoumos = | !yuBpunqe = }} !jJuepunqe AwoA = | ){—aLon WO}YUR[A oouuy], Surpyjog “g OIUBSIO OUI “T 444 $44 WIOM PIOYIGNyL want al snovyonbo §N1] 98S ¥ wn 4 BIISO]O] ~OTDOZIUY BI[E}0[OAD 4 gsno Od p vaipousg at fh AE $9)101997U09 -00001N9[q B[NOIABN DADMALA 4 BIISO]e 4 gsno eullopued| isnmsapeusog B[[A}O[VAD -0090.1N9]q| |. SeUOTIOpATATLT YO WndsBlaop e1psuAsg 44 ie ea uUnpryosagns WNnAsetped B[NOTABN pUojaduny i) ee 270 vy at a i ‘i RVLOIIIOY aVs[V SuloyeICy 3 ae BOZ0JOILg bes ie (snqtajep ur) pega 7 a Loree BIA} “Z t peurumexe seroedg PeyoezV “G SUIIAT SALUIAG JO SHOVWOLS NI GNNoa aooy FIGT ‘ATO¢ ‘VNVAV]E, “IONNVHO waAIY SIONTTI[ ‘SULVUAALUGANT WOLLOG JO aooyy 444 The Nitrogen, Organic Carbon, and other Oxidizable Matter in the Bottom Muds of the River and Lakes below Chillicothe, 1913—1914 1. Borrom Mups oF THE ILLINOIS RIVER CHANNEL, 1913 Mud samples taken in the Illinois River channel between Chillicothe and Kampsville in March and July—October, 1913, showed a rather wide variation in the amounts of nitrogen present, as expressed in terms of percentage of dry matter, but both in early spring and late summer agreed in showing a higher average above than below Havana. In percentage figures, as stated, five samples from above Havana, all months taken together, averaged 0.306% nitrogen, or 61% richer than the five samples taken on approximately the same dates at stations be- low Havana, which averaged 0.189%. A lesser actual difference in average nitrogen content is shown for the stations above and below Ha- vana, when we take into account the specific gravity and the moisture percentages of the samples and calculate average values of nitrogen by weight for a given area to a depth (3 inches) supposed to approximate the average depth of cut into the soft bottom by the dipper in taking the samples. The average number of pounds of nitrogen to the acre, figured in this way, was 1,918 for the stations above Havana; and only 26% less, or 1,417 lbs. per acre for the stations between Lagrange dam and Kampsville, in which the specific gravity was visibly higher and the moisture-content lower. ; The organic carbon per acre figures out, both above and below Ha- vana, at about 8 times the nitrogen, the averages standing at 14,111 lbs. per acre for the stations above and 11,322 lbs. for the stations below Havana. The total oxidizable matter (which includes both the nitrogen and the organic carbon, as well as various other substances, some of them of a mineral nature), figured in the same way, averaged 48,345 lbs. per acre to a depth of 3 inches in the river channel above Havana, and 31,869 lbs. per acre below Havana. Compared with the stocks of nitrogen and total oxidizable matter (dry weight) in the muds either above or below Havana, the total acre- poundages of dry matter or nitrogen represented by the bottom inverte- ‘brate population of July—October, 1913, are extremely small, however liberally figured. Taking the average bottom-fauna stocks of the river between Chillicothe and Havana (the richest section) as 555 Ibs. per acre (see table, page 412), and assuming a dry-matter content of about 10% and a percentage of nitrogen to dry matter of 7%, the dry weight of the average stock of bottom fauna on one acre would stand at 55 pounds, or about 1/900 of the dry weight of the total oxidizable matter per acre in the channel mud of that reach, and the contained nitrogen at less than 4 pounds, or about 1/500 of the total nitrogen per acre. 445 seyour g yydep 0} 098'Té 008'TT LIT (Ajeyeurxoidde) aioe aad spunog aI[IASdmey 0} GZP pit 68T 0 (40}}eUL AIp SuIt9}) “JU. 10g wep osueise'y] 80TT 0L9'T 9°EE L9'T ‘ ‘ ‘ seyour ¢ YIdep 07 OPE 8h OOT FT sTéT (Ajeyewtxoidde) e1oe sed spunog : BUPART TLL Ths 908°0 (19}}8UL AIp sulie}) “Jue. Jeq 0} 8JOONIIMO ‘3 ‘3 Wore “ypo—AIne 126 0ss'‘T OF cor 103} eu e[qe woqaeo ‘po—seW -ZIPIXO [TRIO d1UeSIO WesO1}IN AAT TE | 10} T qustem | yysTaM ‘yueo Jed =| AyAvIzs fia | 10M extASIOWL oyroeds yorery (SHDVAGIAY) "“E16T “IANNVHO UIAIY SIONITIT ‘dO NI “Ona ‘NaDOULINE 446 2. Bottom Mups oF THE LAKES BETWEEN COPPERAS CREEK DAM AND BEARDSTOWN Comparison of samples from the central portions of eleven lakes be- tween the head of Clear Lake and Browning, May—October, 1914, on the dry-weight percentage basis shows the shallow weedy lakes highest in bottom nitrogen. The average of Flag, Seebs, and Stewart lakes (Class III lakes) in terms of percentage of dry matter, was 0.39%, com- pared with an average of 0.27% for seven of the deeper, more open lakes of Classes I and II; and with 9. 26% for Crane Lake—a lake of the very shallow, very weedy type. The general average of all of the 19 mid-lake samples from eleven lakes of 4 of the five classes (0.32%) was some- what more than the average for the river channel stations above Havana (0.306%) and nearly twice the river average below Havana (0.189% ). The general average of organic carbon in mid-lake samples was 3.89%, comparing with 2.41% for the river channel above Havana, and with 1.51% for the channel below Havana. In organic carbon as in nitrogen, the shallow weedy lakes of Classes III and IV (with 4.30% and 5.19%) averaged well above the deeper lakes of Classes I and II (with 3.67% and 3.09%). Both in Thompson and Quiver lakes, May—October 1914, the ni- trogen and organic carbon figures were considerably highest in samples from the shallower water, the percentages of average difference as be- tween samples from under and over 6 feet in depth amounting in the case of the nitrogen to over 30%, in both Thompson and Quiver lakes, and in the case of the organic carbon to 15% in Thompson and to 52% in Quiver. NITROGEN AND ORGANIC CARBON IN Mups, THOMPSON AND QUIVER LAKES, May—Ocroser, 1914 Nitrogen Organic carbon Per cent. Per cent. (in terms of dry matter) (in terms of dry matter) Thompson Quiver Thompson Quiver Lake Lake Lake Lake Depth over 7 feet 0.325 , 0.320 4.83 3.46 Average 8* 4 8 4 Depth 1—6 ft. Average 0.428 0.440 5.56 5.27 7 4 7 4 All depths 0.373 0.400 5.17 4.67 Average 15 4 15 4 * The Italic figures give the number of samples. 447 NITROGEN, ETC., IN Mvp or Intinois ValLtey LAKres, May—OctToser, 1914 SAMPLES FROM MIDDLE, IN DEEPEST WATER PER CENT. IN TERMS OF DRY MATTER 5 Organic Lake Samples | Nitrogen eee pan iL Clear—Mud 2 0.23 2.93 Deeper bottom-land lakes) Liverpool 1 0.29 2.52 Thompson +4 0.32 4.83 Dogfish ul 0.30 3.46 Sangamon 5 0.22 4.86 Average (5 lake averages) oe 0.27 : 3.72 II. Quiver 4 0.32 3.46 Deeper sand-beach lakes Matanzas 1 0.24 2.73 Average (2 lake 0.28 3.09 averages) ea ; : III. Flag 1 0.52 5.48 Shallow, weedy : lakes Seebs 1 0.35 3.78 Stewart 1 0.31 3.66 Average ae 0.39 4.30 IV. Very shallow, very weedy Crane 1 0.26 i) lakes | General average....... 0.32 3.89 448 NITROGEN, ETC., IN Borrom Mups, 1913—1914, InLinois RrvER CHANNEL AND LAKES IN VICINITY OF HAVANA E Total Nitrogen pase oxidizable matter : T 2 T * yt River channel Chillicothe to | .247 100 1.87 100 6.32 100 Kampsville River channel, above Havana | .306 123 2.41 128 7.71 121 River channel, below Havana | .189 76 1.51 80 4.25 67 Eleven lakes, vicinity of Ha- | .320 129 3.87 206 vana, middle Thompson Lake, middle 325 131 4.83 258 Thompson Lake, shore, 1—6 ft. | .428 173 5.56 297 Thompson Lake, all depths foe 15a! 5.17 276 Quiver Lake, middle .320 129 3.46 185 Quiver Lake, shore, 1—6 ft. | .440 178 Dak 281 Quiver Lake, all depths 400 161 4.67 249 The Plankton and other Limnetic Oxidizable Matters carried by the Illinois River Channel at Chillicothe and Havana, 1909—1914 1. Stocks oF PLANKTON CARRIED PAST HAVANA SEPTEMBER, 1909—Avueust, 1910 Calculations of the total plankton that passed Havana September, 1909—August, 1910, from the silk-net figures of that year, increased in *This column gives per cent. in terms of dry matter. 7 This column gives percentage on base of Illinois River channel, Chillicothe to Kampsville. 449 the average ratios found by Kofoid* to hold between silk-net and filter- paper volumes in 1896—1899, show a figure for the twelve-month period (200,477 tons) almost exactly treble the amount (67,750 tons) that was carried in the average year just prior to 1900. Of the twelve months’ total about 89 per cent. (179,916 tons) was accounted for during the four months of the spring season, March to June inclusive, during which period 1,474 tons passed every twenty-four hours. The 14,025 tons that passed during the five months July to November inclusive, made up only 6.9 per cent. of the total for the year, but this amounted to ninety-one tons every twenty-four hours, and was enough if all settled to the bot- tom to supply 1,698 pounds per acre for every acre in the river below Copperas Creek dam at the average gage of that season and year (7.8 ft., Havana). The December—February plankton (6,536 tons) was less than half that of July—November, and only 3.2 per cent. of the total. The full twelve months’ total, over 400,000,000 pounds, amounted to 24,279 pounds per acre for each acre of the approximate acreage in the river below Copperas Creek dam at recent under-bank-full stages (8 ft., Havana); or to nearly a hundred times the wet weight of the total bottom-fauna stocks of July—October, 1915, shells deducted, between Copperas Creek and Grafton (4,277,351 pounds). The dry weight of this plankton at two to five per cent. (8,000,000 to 20,000,000 pounds) was twenty to fifty times the estimated dry weight (at 10 per cent.) of the total bottom stocks of 1915 below Copperas Creek (427,735 pounds). Complete figures for the plankton stocks produced in the full 120 miles between Havana and Grafton would doubtless also include, in ad- dition to the Havana figures, new stocks of no small size added on the way down stream, both as a result of normal multiplication and lake and other backwater contribution. I do not take the fact that all of our down-stream plankton series between 1899 and 1910 showed a large de- crease in volumes southward of Havana as ruling out the inference of continued though hidden increase, at a rate merely slower than the rate of decrease due to consumption and settling. The average time of pas- sage between Havana and Grafton was 6.7 days at the average gage of July—November, 1909 (7.81 ft., Havana), and was 4.82 days at the average gage of March—June (Havana, 12.04 ft.). During upward pulses, rates of increase in plankton volumes (c.c. per m*) were several times recorded both by Kofoid and the writer for the river channel at Havana and for Thompson Lake, both in spring and autumn months, 1896—1910, that amounted to over 25 per cent. in one day; while in ex- treme cases the increases ran to 60 to 70 per cent. in a single day, or 400 to 500 per cent. in a week. * Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI., Art. II. 1903, pp. 552-554. 450 "LL¥°002 =(SU0}) 1210} 1ee_ ‘spunod 61244 =(‘e FIG‘9T) o10e 10d ‘GL7'G96'00F =(Spunod) [e}0} vex azo te et |e uO, 869'T 69°" *|T9S‘0G0'8Z |Z8E‘E8T° °° * "| Spunod . TOL‘O9T 68° ° |’ Sue.tp, sAep EST OZL'SO'FS| 000‘0T T8'L eve T:S6¢ L3°0 “AON—A[nEe great’ bbPT* nt *| SHOE, 68112" L'68°° |SLL‘ZS8'6SE Grr 676s" °° | ‘Spunog 9LFOLS' LEST) “SMeBIH SABP ZT 0FZ'060'8F| 00002 FO GL G8'LZ T‘66T 86°EL sunf—yo1eyy geg'g: ss cigne tect e'| emo, ZS \OFL'ZLO'ST |9PSSPT °°) Spunod T6L 8Z9'E88'G9° |’ “SuleID SABP 06 0F2'060'8F| 000°02 96°TT LET T:18'°9 020 “‘q2,q4—1oq ule00q BUvARE “yy g ‘odey “wep yeed9 simoy Zz | puooas ‘ : searoddop Pee potaed aie ¥% | jod ,uW god yy | esvsear | 1 ¢ ae cae ae Ae 5 ie (qeAT1) “4400 efoy mn guissed BUuvAeHT | AB ‘xo1dde| euBAe HY wowed woyxueTd uo} ued U0SB9g PISOT | Voc | POMMd! poasure esaeyostq| eueaey | esey eo a ‘g10e red ‘Sq] ral PUTS aSieyosiq 18}0L |. ae AIS JueTePAIND A OI6L ‘ESopny—G06T ‘AAAWaATAGg ‘VNVAVH{ PNISSVd NOLUNVIg IVLOL, 451 2. Stocks oF ToTAL NITROGEN AND NITRATES IN THE RIvER CHANNEL AT CHILLICOTHE, 1914—1915 Comparison of the plankton figures obtained at Havana September, 1909—August, 1910, with the total nitrogen and nitrate figures for Chillicothe, March, 1914—February, 1915, does not suggest that plank- ton production in the river between Havana and Peoria has been at all in danger of limitation by the nitrogen supply at any season during re- cent years. The total nitrogen that passed Chillicothe in the twelve months (67,722 tons) was sufficient, if all metabolized without loss, to produte more than ninety times the actual stocks of plankton that passed Havana in the year 1909—1910 (based on a dry-matter per cent. = 5; nitrogen per cent. in dry matter = 7) ; while the stock of unused nitrogen in the form of nitrates (22,345 tons) was capable of producing under the same conditions more than twenty times the total plankton that actually passed Havana in 1909—1910. At the dry matter and ni- trogen ratios assumed, only about 1,431,983 pounds out of the total of 35,444,859 pounds of nitrogen that passed Chillicothe in the year 1914—1915 would be accounted for as nitrogen in the form of living matter in 400,000,000 pounds of plankton (the approximate amount that passed Havana September, 1909—August, 1910). If we could distribute the total nitrogen that passed Chillicothe over a river acreage of 26,782 acres (the estimated acreage below Chilli- cothe at about 8 ft., Havana, the average gage of July—November, 1910 —1914), we would have 2,442 pounds per acre in the March—June pe- riod ; 1,495 pounds per acre July—November ; 1,119 pounds per acre De- cember—February; and a total of 5,057 pounds per acre for the year. The nitrates, similarly distributed with correspondingly lesser poundages for the separate seasons, would amount to 1,668 pounds per acre for the twelve months on the same acreage. The Peoria discharge data entering into the various tables following are the rating-table figures of Jacob A. Harman, as published in the special Report of the Illinois State Board of Health on Sanitary In- vestigations of the Illinois River, 1901, and more recently used by Alvord and Burdick in the Report of the Rivers and Lakes Commission on the Illinois River and its Bottom-lands, 1915. These figures are consider- ably higher than recent figures of the U. S. Geological Survey, which we did not have at hand, except in fragmentary form, when the manu- script for the present article was being prepared. ind : . ‘BUBARH “JJ 8 ‘oases ‘soroe 7g)‘9Z Alayeurxoiddy | ‘eyep [[NJ YIM UOl}e]S JUSWIaINSVIUI-WIvIAI]S JSAIvON + DELVE AS Be OP OF OS OOO OR ROR OD ORO In HOO CUD CA. 0.o OST CREGD OIC aC a O58 Le MORI DOT Fog VY ba (U1 7 Z8L‘9z) ‘ere Jed GOR EPR eT eae ee eed nese unieaecs rm sve] nZaein\'s a0. e/ah afoiacayevate/t¥) wae eee wee treseeessssss(spmnod) [210] 19, G6r'T serene eee eens teeeeeseeeses-pupapE “9 8 ‘(OuIOOTITIUO MOTEq e ‘Oye] BllOeg SUIPNOUL ‘IOATI) O108 Jed spunog T00‘8S0‘0F Ce eee eee eee Ce EL Ae aeons (f=) 1% 23) 0} GT) porsed r) (ole Pw spunog 0eT LT8‘T92 692000° GTP 000°088°0T0'T OOLTL G6 Shep eG ‘PI6L ‘loquieaoN—Ajne¢ ZhPS eee ee eee ee Roce Se BT RAB TT “4 8 ‘(eqQoorpIyD MOTEq ‘oye Sl100g SUIPN[OUL ‘IaATI) 9108 Jad spunog 8c0‘STP‘'S9 e@eneeees' es Sie pacer ones eae sheiesh (Bena: SSL) potsed ejoyM spunog 896 6819S TL2000° ve PF 000°09S‘8L6'T 00622 0O'eT SABP GET FI6L ‘eunf—typorey 6IL'T eee eee eee eee ee ees es Ss SEE BAe er ap 8 *( Laqqoorr[imo MOTOq ‘aye PlL0ed SUIPNIOUI ‘IaAT1) o10e ied spunog OOSTLEGS | oy ttt ttre terest (gkep 0g) ‘porsed efoym ‘spunog 99T 020°0E 616000° Tgé 000°0F9‘02S'T 009°LT CTE SABP 06 ‘ST6I—PFT6T ‘Alen.1ge,q4—1oque00q SIno0y FZ “SIU 76 4g “no ; (Ae) aed aed ted ate ) a Se ye puoses (Ae) 2 suo} spunod spunod ee ann ease ted “yj ‘Nd | e110eg mosvesg Ues01}IU| weso01jIU uas01}1U a Be asinine Rd xP@LL098d e3ey 1P10L 1210,L 1210.L TOL Tsta asaeyosia SI6I—FI6T ‘GHLOOVTMIHO DNISSVd NADOULIN IVLOL 453 ‘BUBARH “JJ § ‘OYPOOITIIYD Mojeq ‘oye BIwoag Surpnpouy I9ATY « BOOT Oar eect ces rege pers Or eee ee me eR ae Caer ies see tae *spunod—(‘e 781‘9Z) ‘aloe 10g BES OED HH ete e eee e tee e eee e eee e tere teen eee e tees et eeeesesesceeeeees (SHEMOd) [B}0} IBOK | | Ise POL IeNts FH LORS CORO SLC RES, See ae ake (@ Zgn‘9z) ‘ease aod spunog #S8°L0'0T Trettses|sceserersselsses (seep ggq) pofied efoyM spunog 6& | 81L'99 990000° 90'T 000°088‘0T0'T 00LTT G6 SAeP ECT JaquleAON—A[ ne cag Bdvcpuopdeccr Meored| mame -+(-e gg1'9g) ‘agoe aad spunog > #69‘98S'¢z eeeeeece ee ey BP NCREON G2. 0) ZEL) potasd aTOUM ‘spunog FOL LGL‘60 90T000° TL'T 000°09S‘SL6'T 006° 0st s£ep 221 ; eunf—yo1e yl zee sreeeeesbeeseeecceed cccsseeee (4p geytgz) ‘gaae zed spunog 069‘c68's rrtsserehesseeeeeersl cesses (seep 9g) porred efogm spunog| 67 T¥8'86 $90000° GOT 000°0F9'08S'T 009'LT GTI SABP 06 AICN1IG9a,J—10eq W9098q sunoy 7Z| Sinoy FZ qycno | : ? : ied aed aod F Be ae 514 aon (ae) suo} spuno: spuno: ded yy "no RAS so}yeI}U soyeiyiu so}e1}1U Se e1loodg ae ae. a ree MOBEES BU EE Ge UsaZ011IN Sou YOST asaeyosiq c WeZO0IJIN | Wes0I}IN Ues01JIN 4 2 GIGI—FI6L ‘AHLOOTIHO DNISSVd SALVULIN 454 810} ZZL'L9 SU0} GhE'GS Gin . “SAI 882'069'FP SQLES6TEPT |'SAI 6LP°S96'007 t6 X ‘SGI 0ZS'09S'F26°LE | SAI 698 PHP SET 1eoR $0} E0T'S S10} 0000 sAep €ST “SGI PS8°L02‘0T “SQL O9T‘00T “S(T 19S°0S0‘8Z 666 X ‘SGI 08Z‘OFS'9TS TT | SI T00‘0S0'0F ‘IequisAON—Ane¢ SU0} §6L‘Z : SU0} 80L'SE SABP BCT “SQI $69°989'S2 ‘SQL LIT'G8Z'T S41 8L1‘SE8'69E 6S X ‘SCI OFZ‘9TS'9TE'ST | SAI 890° STF G9 ‘oun f— oie] SU0} LPPF SU0} G86'FT SAD 06 “SI 069°S68'8 "SAI 989'9F ‘SCI OFT'ZL0°8T T#9 X “SGI 000'FOT'Z6E'S | ‘SAI 008'TL6'62 ‘Areniqo,q—10q u1e08q 08¢:T OT6IT—606T OT6IT—606T 5 ST6L—_FI6T i ST61—FI6T OTj}eI 32 eUvALTT woyyueld 08Z:T Offet 72 eTOOTTILYD eq 1OOIT II t I mo WU UI ates moses TOOTIFO uoyyueld suissed yenjoe ton iam Suissed Ss So11}IN utr mo} yu soul} yuoTeAT DAT uss01}TU eSO01}IN [®10O.L sjenby [e10.L GIG6I—606L ‘SENIOG YIAIY SIONTTIT DNISSVd SULVULIN ONY ‘NODMNVIgd IVLOL ‘NaDOULIN TVLOL, 455 3. ToraL STOCKS OF OXIDIZABLE MATTER IN THE RIVER AT CHILLICOTHE, 1914—1915 Not only the plankton, but in addition all the other oxidizable matter carried in the stream-flow, whether suspended or dissolved, may be re- garded as potential detritus or as potential microorganisms, some portion of which, in some form or other, may be useful as food to the bottom animals or to the organisms on which they themselves feed somewhere in the course of the stream below the sampling point. If the total oxidiza- ble matter at Chillicothe 1909—1914 was in about the same ratio to the total nitrogen as in 1900—1902 (about ten times total nitrogen in the winter and spring months, and seven to nine times the nitrogen figures in midsummer and autumn), we would have had passing Chillicothe in the entire year, March, 1914, to February 1915 a total of 617,137 tons, or over 1,200,000,000 pounds total oxidizable matter, dry weight, or some sixty to a hundred and fifty times the total dry weight of the plankton that passed Havana in the twelve months September, 1909, to August, 1910 (eight million to twenty million pounds). If this enormous total load could be settled out and apportioned equally to the approximate 26,780 acres of river between Chillicothe and Grafton at gage 8 ft., Ha- vana, each acre would receive in the course of the year 46,086 pounds, an average equal to more than seventeen hundred times the average dry weight poundage (about 10 per cent.) of bottom animals per acre (twenty-six pounds) found in the summer of 1915 between Chillicothe and the river’s mouth. The employment of vertical instead of surface chemical samples for the determination of loss on ignition would with little question, also, show still higher values of total oxidizable matter than those here figured, particularly in seasons of recession from flood, when the dead suspended organic matter increases heavily in concentra- tion from the surface downward. (See table on p. 456.) 4. Tue PorTION OF THE PLANKTON SETTLED OUT OR CONSUMED Basing the computations on percentage decreases in silk-plankton vol- umes (c.c. per m.*) between Havana and Grafton in June and August 1910, and on rates of increase in discharge between Havana and the mouth of the river in the spring and midsummer months, but taking no account of normal multiplication, there is found for the nine-months growing season, March—November, 1909—1910, a total loss of plank- ton in the 120 miles below Havana of 243,503,139 Ibs., or almost exactly two thirds of the total stocks that passed Havana during the period (387,883,000 Ibs.). The dry weight of this lost plankton at 5% (12,- 175,156 lbs.) amounts to nearly 30 times the dry weight, estimated at 10%, of the bottom animals found in 1915 in approximately the same reach of river in which the loss occurred (total bottom-fauna stocks Copperas dam—Grafton, 1915, 4,277,350 lbs; dry weight at 10%, 427,- %35 Ibs.). 456 ‘UOT]IUSIT UO SSOT [B}0} PUB UasOI}IU [B}0} UseMJoq JI[[AALBAW 18 ZOGI—O06T UL SuLploy “GIGI—FIGL JO Sa[duies [eoruleyo AIe}IUeS UL PoULUZa}ep JOU UOT}{[UST UO SSOT x soijei JO SISeq UO poazeUII]se oa #80'9F LET‘LT9 L8S‘PLE PEST he 698 PPP SET sqvuOm ZT 69F OT 3 L00°90¥ ‘082 LX 000°8S0‘0F JeqtmeAON—4jn¢ POP PS ea 08S‘0ST'FS9 OL Xx 8S0°STP‘S9 sun f—Yo1e]N| T6T' TT wie 000°STL'66% OT X 008'TL6'°63 Aren.1qe,7—1eq w1809q eueaeH “YW 8 emo Mojeq (Aup) suo} (4ap) spunod | ,o1qeztprxo saioe Z8)‘9Z o108 10}) eu 10})eUL e303 Rae eases fe TOREOS Jad ‘sq] ‘1e}}euI | e[qezIprxO [20], |a[qezIprxo [eJO]) OJ 10}eA : @[GVZIPIXO [BIOL (“HSTaMA AUC) “GIGI-—PIGL AHLOOLTIIHO PNISSVQ YALLVIN AIAVZIGIXQ TVLOT, dO ALVNILST 457 That the greater part of the plankton lost, or all of it, was settled out or consumed by larger organisms, rather than that it perished be- cause of any failure of the food supply (particularly nitrogen), is forci- bly suggested by two or three considerations: that the losses took place at the greatest rate during the hot season, when the current was least and settling easiest, the rate of loss in August 1910 being 98% ; and that in- stead of there appearing any evidence that the losses were due to dim- inution in food, both the total limnetic nitrogen and the nitrogen in the form of nitrates increased down-stream both in the spring and midsum- mer—autumn months in 1914, the nearest year for which we have nitro- gen figures. I note here that incomplete studies on the succession of Algae, Protozoa, Rotifera, and Entomostraca in some of our down- stream series of plankton-catches suggest that a good part of the loss in plankton below Havana in the spring months during rising pulses of En- tomostraca may be due to internal consumption, within the plankton population itself. In May, 1899, in fact, these four groups of micro- organisms showed a progression in reaching their maximum abun- dance, each at a station farther down stream. In the circumstances the presumption seems strong that each pound of Cyclopidae or Rotifera taken near the mouth of the river represents several pounds of smaller plankton species eaten farther up stream. (See tables, pp. 458, 459.) 5. COINCIDENCE OF RICHER AND POORER PLANKTON AND Bortrtrom- Fauna REACHES IN THE RIVER BELOW CHILLICOTHE The fact that there are shown, on a basis of the plankton and bot- tom-fauna figures (1899—1915), such close coincidences between the location and extent of the richer and poorer plankton and bottom-fauna reaches between Chillicothe and the mouth of the river is not, I think, to be taken too quickly as in itself dependable evidence that the bottom fauna is to any certain and large extent a simple function of the vol- ume or weight of plankton above it. Not only, however, does it appear that both in its bottom fauna and its plankton stocks the sixty odd miles of low-sloped river channel between Chillicothe and Havana is far richer on the average than the lower river reaches, but the decrease down stream, on a broad scale, is in each case found to be progressive, and in fact in substantially similar ratios, if the comparison is made with the midsummer plankton figures. (Table, page 460.) The finding, on the contrary, in August 1913, in a local section of low-sloped channel in the lower river, of a rich plankton-consuming population of Sphaeriidae that was apparently not far from as rich as the best found in 1915 in the middle Illinois Valley district suggests that the very general lack of a suitable substratum for small Mollusca in the channel of the TIli- nois below Lagrange may have more to do with the decrease of the bottom fauna in the lower river than the decrease in the stock of plank- ton above it. Other influences that may have some bearing on the aver- age very poor showing made by the bottom fauna in the lower river in 1915 will be taken up farther on. 458 ‘ui ‘d ‘d uy asveroep Uy} Jo}eedS VS1VYOSIp Ul eSeBdrOUT “Jus. Jed + perqnop #280100] + % 0g osve10U] SL's eSBOINUI }VIIH uey} e10] 207 mwo}eIN eseo100q asea1NUl [[VUS G6G aseeloep [[VMS | esvel1DUT nous Go's | eueAeH (e1400q) (e1408d) T00‘8S0'0F 00L'TT STP 8S0°STP'S9 0062S - cond SqyOOTTILGD S£BP EST ‘oes Jed “33 000'000'T skep 227 ‘des Jod “4y 000'000'T bicy-(onaharg es1eyosip aed ues01}1U es 1eYOsSIp aed spunod [230], OSvIOAY syed spunod [¥}0,, eSB1IOAY syed SABP ZZL ‘ouNnf—Yo1IeIN sAep ggGT ‘lequieAoON— Sanp Lake, Aucust—OcToser, 1916. Borrom Fauna 10 CoxLtections, LirroraL ZoNr, 1 To 5 FT. SoME VEGETATION Number per square yard| Pounds per acre Amnicolidae 2.2 0.1 11.0 0.6 Valvatidae 8.8 0.5 Oligochaeta (small spp.) 2.2 0.1 Chironomid larvae (small spp.) 13.2 1.8 Sand-case caddis larvae 13.2 33.0 2.6 13.1 Agrionid nymphs 2.2 11 Gomphid nymphs 2.2 1.5 Total 44.0 13.7 519 PISTAKEE LAKE, AUGUST—OcTopER, 1916. Borrom FAauNA 29 CoLtLecTions, LirroraAL ZONE, 1 To 7 FT. SOME VEGETATION Number per square yard| Pounds per acre Goniobasis sp. 18.0 18.0 10.82 10.82 Pisidium sp. Amnicolidae Valvatidae Physa spp. Planorbis spp. Unionidae, young co “3 i mE Spo pote a rn) Po Sphaerium sp. 9 7 9 5 366.2 4 6 2 Oligochaeta (small spp.) Planarians Small leeches Chironomid larvae (small spp.) Sand-case caddis HiRoH wt to & bo b w tom oto 383.3 42.6 Hexagenia, ete. (nymphs) Agrionid nymphs Sialis larvae Asellus sp. Hyalella knickerbockeri bo ey WN AO AoNws CHrmnro RON WROD onwhds = so a Total 767.5 Fox Lake (INcLtupInc Minrota Bay), Aueust—OctToser, 1916. 28 CoLLECTIONS, LirroRAL ZONE, 1 TO 7 FT. 520 Borrom Fauna SoME VEGETATION Number per square yard Pounds per acre Campeloma subsolidum 0.8 0.8 2.3 2.3 Musculium transversum Musculium jayanum Sphaerium sp. Pisidium sp. Amnicolidae Valvatidae Physa spp. Oligochaeta (small spp.) Planarians Leeches (small spp.) Leeches (large spp.) Chironomid larvae (small spp.) Palpomyia larvae Sialis larvae Caenis larvae Caddis larvae, misc. Agrionid nymphs Libellulid nymphs Asellus sp. Hyalella knickerbockeri Total 40.6 bo NR OTS bh S bo GH O71 G0 & 0 te 278.2 Decl srerareeo pe) ep cert rg eerie el ra MoOMH OMIM ONOIAKAAH bo bo SS Sr 1 co ie bo ih Oo ROSH SSOSHHENSS CO OTH o OTH wo OTOP OT 3.6 18.0 319.6 23.9 521 2. WEED FAuNA HEAD OF PISTAKEE LAKE, AUGUST 17, 1916, IN CERATOPHYLLUM WEED Fauna, Upper 9 IncHES (DEPTH, 3.5 FT.) Amnicola limosa Physa sp. No. per sq. yard Pounds per acre Small beetle Plea striata 1,440 54.7 1,920 81.1 480 26.4 Chironomid larvae (small spp.) ip Se 120 58,080 84 2,330.1 Caddis sp. (basket case) 120 12.0 Hyalella knickerbockeri 57,000 2,280.0 60,000 2,411.2 NortH Sipe oF NippersiInK LAKE, Aucust 18, 1916, In POTAMOGETON AND CERATOPHYLLUM WEED Fauna, Upper 9 IncHEs, (DeptH, 3.5 FT.) No. per sq. yard Pounds per acre Amnicola limosa Physa spp. Total 600 22.8 840 36.0 240 13.2 Chironomid larvae (small spp.) 2,880 95.0 22,080 863.0 Hyalella knickerbockeri 19,200 768.0 22,920 899. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alvord, John W., and Burdick, Chas. B. 15. The Illinois River and its bottomlands. Rep. Ill. Rivers and Lakes Commission, p. 1—141. i Baker, F. C. 16. The Relation of mollusks to fish in Oneida Lake. N. Y. State Coll. Forestry, Syracuse Univ., Tech. Pub. No. 4, p. 15—366. 18. The productivity of invertebrate fish food on the bottom of Oneida Lake, with special reference to mollusks. N. Y. State Coll. Forestry, Syracuse Univ., Tech. Pub. No. 9, p. 1—264. Board of Officers ‘of the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army 05. Report upon a survey for a navigable waterway from Lock- port, Ill., to the mouth of the Illinois River. House of Repre- sentatives, Doc. No. 263, 59th Congr., Ist Session, p. 1—544, and charts. Forbes, Stephen A., and Richardson, R. E. 13. Studies on the biology of the upper Illinois River. Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., 9 (Art. X): 481—574. 19. Some recent changes in Illinois River biology. Bul. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv., 13 (Art. VI): 189—156. Legislative Investigating Committee ‘11. Report on the submerged and shore lands. Published under direction of House of Representatives, 47th General Assembly, State of Illinois. Vol. I, p. 1—191. Muttkowski, R. A. 18. The fauna of Lake Mendota. A qualitative and quantitative survey, with special reference to the insects. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters, 19 (Pt. 1): 374-482. Petersen, C. G. Joh., and Jensen, P. Boysen : "11. Valuation of the sea. I. Animal life of the sea bottom, its food and quantity. Rep. Danish Biol. Station, 20 (1911) : 1—76. Petersen, C. G. Joh. 14. Valuation of the sea. II. The animal communities of the sea bottom and their importance for marine zoography. Rep. Dan- ish Biol. Station, 21 (1913): 1—44. 18. The sea bottom and its production of fish food. A survey of the work done in connection with valuation of Danish waters from 1883 to 1917. Rep. Danish Biol. Station, 25 (1918) : 1—62. ae G 32s, Arateas PROFILE OF A SECTION OF THE ILLINOIS RIVER Profile of the Illinois River from Chillicothe to Lagrange dam, showing elevations of water surface at low gage of 1901, channel depths, and general character of upper layer of bottom soils and sediments. The profile marks out clearly the three deep, flat-sloped, mud-bottomed, natural pools in which the richest accumulations of small bottom-animals were found both in 1913 and 1915, viz.:. the Peoria Lake pool, lying behind the great bar thrown up by Farm Creek; the Havana pool, behind the great natural wier formed by the wash from Spoon River; and the Sangamon pool, lying behind the high bar thrown up by the mouths of the Sangamon. The data here used (elevations, soundings, and borings) are from the report of the U. S. Engineers’ Survey for a deep waterway, House Document No. 263, 59th Congress, Ist session, Washington, 1905. ; ey . ieee ata 4 jase ima re i etarine $i gta S Ui Sie 15 ines aS ea om, + NvuovT . sb ary SH 3 8 = Eat: kd > S ace E FE oI = ase: fess i z HF Z : + 33 aft ‘ see ceees i : 2 safest t sceeee! i ee : g rats in HET : eu tugal gasaeees SSE} 3 H : jesse seat sebece | peragzeed H HH HH i F H \QNVISI GNYUD 40 LOOd| = 1H i fH i Ht +' 5 gues ssceasee Hf H . | a t sae, Se et + eu ie ieattegs i + epeRceaeae surseene= 4 eHow: 0 XO Cva Ht E . ES ft ES: eeu seas! Ht scbeceeaees i Ht i if i 4 a HH HEE Hitt f ee i i Punter oyoneg PEERY tess pet i : Bef q MVC EUS SVEEAAOO | Hae ¢ HH - + H & o 4 8 a it 4 ‘3 R ‘| Twuw) exVT 3utsdg) 7H ft i + t : Be meazelinesl HE FB H dtreen ies esate Hee] 3 Hts EES PEE EHEEENH 3 i i : § 8 re a : HHH rng 50 F3NON heat Mae Sea ONIGEYT LOVE STOVE Mud! rH Sartrasson tt) Avg 9uy2dg| 494 soto rrr Dimi a) 18) a home Asem maw eTudinon eAony 100K aN INDEX SHEET to the following maps of Illinois River and bottom-land lakes, Chillicothe to Grafton. (After U. S. Engineers’ Survey, 1902-1905, House Doc. 263, 59th Congr., 1st Session, 1905.) { For non-tecnnicai summary, see page uve. tle Of026.80 . HE GRAFTGN 1. Grafton sheet. BEDFORD S ttl) aaa rele 4 Z Z + For non-tecnnical summary, sco yone ves ee KAMPSVILLE 2 “ Nile 26.80 to 49.5 IE 2. Kampsville sheet. r 4 + For non-teennicar summary, sco pose uuu VALLEY GITyY af < 2 — ae ao ZAG — Ke A aa eS a 6% ‘5 | a” GS Zz) | FLORENCE _/ Ge IRS | a | 3. Meredosia sheet. : <1) ‘ : XN XS S ; For non-teennicar sumunary; occ weow w~~= IO to 12),5 Q Nile S96. ary, svc pape vee ;+ For non-tecnnicai surmin MOSSVILLE + For non-technical summary, see pase vues + For non-technical summary, see pase vev Yi Nile 173.9 t0 SPRINS BAY 8. Chillicothe sheet. ArTICLE XVI—dAn Ecological Survey of the Prairie Vegetation of Illinois.* By Homer C. Sampson. INTRODUCTION + The purpose of this survey was to determine as far as possible the composition and ecological relation of the prairie vegetation of Illinois. The prairie area of this state is an eastern arm of the prairie region proper which forms a distinct formation between the grass-lands of the Great Plains on the west and the deciduous hardwood forest on the east. While the origin of this prairie dates back to the changes in climate following the uplift of the Rocky Mountains and subsequent changes during and following the glacial period, the factors limiting its present distribution are to be found in the present climatic and edaphic conditions together with the biotic factors which affect succession from prairie to forest associations. '. The occurrence of all the great prairie regions of the world in temperate climates indicates that temperature plays a role, either directly or indirectly, in determining the general boundaries of distribution of the prairies. For the prairie under consideration, Transeau’s map (26), comparing the ratios of rainfall to evaporation from a free water sur- face in the three great vegetational areas noted above, shows rather clearly that definite ratios of these two important climatic factors, with which temperature is indirectly involved, coincide closely with the present limits of distribution. The western boundary of the prairie is marked by a rainfall equal to about 60 per cent. of the evaporation from a free water surface, while on the eastern boundary of the prairie the ratio of rainfall to evaporation is about 80 per cent. Similarly the rainfall-evapo- ration ratios marking the boundaries of the Great Plains are 20 and 60 per cent., while those of the eastern forest range from 80 to 130 per cent. The prairie therefore lies in a region in which the ratio of rainfall to evaporation ranges from 60 to 80 per cent. (See map on next page.) The presence of local areas of forest together with man’s ability to carry on silviculture throughout the greater part of this range is suff- cient evidence that the occurrence of prairie vegetation is not limited by climate alone. Edaphic factors and the difficulty with which a forest vegetation invades and succeeds that of the prairie must also be taken into account. As the complex of climatic factors approaches the limiting conditions for forest development, the weight of the edaphic factors be- * Papers from the Department of Botany, Ohio State University. No. 126. j For non-technical summary, see page 569. 524 comes more and more evident and may tip the balance either in favor of forest or of prairie. Similar conditions exist between prairie and plains vegetation on the western edge of the prairie. But as we approach the center of the prairie region edaphic factors become less prominent, and it is here that we find prairie on the greatest number of edaphic habitats. Transeau (25,26) was the first to point out the characteristics of the centers of distribution of the vegetation of bogs and forests of North Map showing ratio of rainfall to evaporation expressed in percentages. (After Transeau. ) America and to call attention to the meaning and use of the term “center of distribution”. As he used it the term does not imply that the plants have necessarily spread from the present centers, but that the complex of climatic factors most favorable to the development of the type of vegetation characteristic of each center is localized there, and that as we depart from such centers we find conditions more and more unfavorable and resulting in the elimination of such species as are most rigidly or ras) or dependent upon climatic conditions. He also showed that the species comprising the vegetation of any center are more abundant, attain a greater size, and have a wider range of habitats within the limits of the center of distribution than elsewhere. These same conditions apply to the prairie. In addition to the climatic, edaphic, and biotic factors men- tioned above, prairie fires are also important locally and have been va- riously emphasized from time to time.* To sum up, climatic factors are important in determining the gen- eral boundaries of distribution of the prairie, while edaphic factors are important in determining the origin and character of the prairie asso- ciations within these boundaries. The edaphic factors become more and more prominent toward the edges of the prairie, as in eastern Illinois. When a prairie association is once established, biotic factors and prairie fires are important in checking invasion by forest vegetation. The location of Illinois at the eastern boundary of the prairie makes it a region of considerably more than local ecological interest. As a prairie state it has awakened interest since the time of the first settlers, several of whom have recorded brief but glowing descriptions of the early prairies. Of these older descriptions, one of the most important was written in 1857 by Frederic Gerhard (7), who greatly enriched his pub- lication by appending a forest and prairie map of the state compiled by Dr. Frederick Brendel of Peoria. This map shows the relative dis- tribution of prairie and forest at that time, and a reproduction of it by Barrows (1) is included in the present article (page 526). Unfortunately these pioneer writers, accustomed to life in a forested region, were generally unfamiliar with the plants of the prairie and failed to leave us an adequate account of the natural prairie flora. Further- more, the importance of a knowledge of the relationship of plants to the environment in which they live was not recognized until a later date. Indeed the dynamic and genetic relationship of plant associations was not fully appreciated until Cowles (4) pointed out its significance in 1899. As a result of this belated appearance of modern ecological conceptions the earlier accounts of the prairie are notably lacking in a record of the different associations of prairie plants and of their composition and suc- cessional relationships. The published accounts deal chiefly with asso- ciations on the broken soil of slopes or with those along forest borders conspicuous for their great display of coarse herbs, and leave the errone- ous impression that the original prairie flora was a mixture of a great variety of species. This impression, however, is offset by the occa- sional and significant reference to the prairie as a ‘‘sea of grasses” and by the statement of C. W. Short in 1845 that “Its leading feature is rather the unbounded profusion with which a few species occur in certain localities than the mixed variety of different species occurring every- where”. * For an historical résumé of the theories of the prairie see Shimek (24), ‘The Prairies.” Original Prairie and Forest Area in Illinois (After Brendel and Barrows) 527 Cowles (4, 5) has shown that the plant associations and their suc- cessions in a given region are correlated with its physiographic de- velopment. In order therefore to determine the original prairie asso- ciations the only feasible point of attack lies in a detailed study of the relic associations still to be found in the various physiographic habitats of the state. The conditions in these relic associations where least dis- - turbed by man approximate closely the conditions which existed in the much more extensive association of only a little more than half a cen- tury ago. The order of succession of the associations is without doubt the same today as in the past, and the composition of the undisturbed associations fairly representative. Some of the swamp prairies and many of the sand prairies of the state have already been studied on this basis by Cowles (5), Sherff (23), Gleason (9, 10), Gates (6), and Vestal (27, 28). The present investigation was also carried out on this basis with special reference to primitive conditions and an attempt to include practically all the prairie habitats of the state. The main contribution -of this report is the attempt to determine and classify the associations of prairie vegetation in Illinois and point out the succes- sions between them. The field work was entirely observational, but experimental data of other workers have been drawn upon wherever they appear to have a direct bearing upon the topic under discussion. Quantitative experimental data on the physiological factors underlying the problems of the prairie associations and their successions are too meager at present for a full discussion of the underlying causes. A more definite knowledge of both the ecological anatomy and physiology of many of the plants concerned will have to be obtained before some of the more fundamental questions can be answered. Most of the investigations were made during the summers of 1916 and 1916 with the cooperation of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, through its director, Professor Stephen A. Forbes, and under the direction of Dr. H. C. Cowles and Dr. George D. Fuller, of the University of Chicago. This report also contains many data ob- tained previous to the above dates and from observations made in many sections of the state during the summers of 1917 and 1918. I am par- ticularly indebted to Professor Forbes for his cooperation in the survey and for the aid he has given in the illustration of the report. I wish also to express many obligations to Dr. Edgar N. Transeau, of the Ohio State University, who first introduced me to the problems of the prairie in the summer of 1910, and helped me with valuable data and criticisms during the preparation of this report. To Dr. A. E. Waller, of the Ohio State University, I am indebted for criticisms and suggestions on the final report. LocaTIon oF ExIsTING VIRGIN PRAIRIES OF THE STATE The location of most of the prairies studied was obtained by means of circular letters of inquiry sent to each of the county surveyors of the 528 state. Seventy-three of a possible 102 replies were received. The fol- lowing tabulation by counties is taken directly from the letters received. It should be noted that these reports are not exhaustive, as no stirveyor would be expected to have a complete list of all the undisturbed areas of his county. In some cases more definite statements are desirable, but the ones given are included with the hope that they may be of value to other workers in the field. Unfortunately, grazing was not suggested as a type of disturbance in the letters of inquiry, and some of the areas here reported have been pastured and are now generally blue-grass pas- tures. Where this fact is known it has been added by the writer. Asterisks refer to regions investigated in this survey. Adams. Lowlands along the Mississippi River extending through three townships north of Quincy. Bond. A few small tracts in addition to numerous roadsides. *Bureau. Several thousand acres of sand and swamp prairie along Green River. Mostly pastured. *Carroll. Several thousand acres of sand prairie and flood-plain prairie south of Savanna. Most of the sand prairie and some of the flood-plain prairie has been pastured. *Cook. About 5,000 acres on the old lake bed of Lake Chicago and a few small tracts on the Valparaiso moraine. There are 2,000 acres in the vicinity of Ashburn within the city limits of Chicago. *Crawford. One hundred and sixty acres two and one-half miles northwest of Porterville. Pastured. De Kalb. About four acres near Maple Park. R. E. Wagner. Dupage. Small areas along east branch of Dupage River between Swift and Lisle. *E fingham. A few small tracts and roadsides. An 80-acre tract of Andropogon prairie on the farm of David Woods, 9 miles southwest of Dietrich, was reported to the writer in 1918. Forty acres of this tract reported plowed in 1917. Fulton. Lowlands along the Illinois River. *Grundy. “Hay swamps” north of Coal City; 220 acres 5 miles west of Morris along the Illinois River. Mostly flood-plain; some mo- raine and mostly pastured. Hancock. Flood-plain along Mississippi River south of Warsaw. *Henry. Sand and swamp land in northern part of county. Mostly pastured. *Jasper. Forty acres southwest of Gila and 320 acres 3 miles east of West Liberty. Pastured. Burke’s prairie of 2 acres two miles south- west of Wheeler. Virgin. A small area northwest of Wheeler now under cultivation. *Jo Daviess. Some prairie in north and southwest part. Pastured. Madison. Wet prairie in Shonteau township. 529 *Marshall. Saratoga Lake region one mile north of Camp Grove. Another small area 6 miles east of Lacon. Mostly swamp, some upland prairie. Mercer. Flood-plain along the Mississippi River. Ogle. Small tract one mile east of Polo. W. E. Eikenberry. Peoria. Lowlands along the Illinois River. Randolph. Flood-plain along Mississippi and Kaskaskia rivers. *Richland. Fox Prairie, 5 miles west of Olney. Cemetery at Noble. Rock Island. Flood-plain along Mississippi River. Washington. Flood-plain along Kaskaskia River. White. Small tracts in Enfield and Hawthorn townships. Whiteside. Prairie between Albany and Erie. Winnebago. Small tracts along Rock River. All of the above counties and the remaining counties with the ex- ception of those in the southernmost part of the state were reported to have patches of virgin prairie along railway rights-of-way, old line-fences, and roadways. Owing to a difference in farming methods these latter relics are somewhat more abundant in the southern half of the state than elsewhere. Numerous relics along most of the principal railways of the state and along hundreds of old line-fences were seen during the survey. This brief summary of present conditions shows that there are still several thousand acres of virgin prairie in the state which have been so little disturbed by man that they are of considerable value for ecological studies. The data also show that the greater area of these relic tracts are on flood-plains, swampy regions, and sand. Outside of the sand prairie the upland prairies are limited to small tracts, fence-rows, and railway rights-of-way, the latter of which were considered only after the survey had advanced sufficiently to indicate their limitations. ORIGIN OF THE Prarrie HaBitats The various plant habitats of the state are correlated with its recent geological history. The accompanying glacial and soil map after Leverett (18) and Hopkins (15) shows that nearly all of the state has been gla- ciated. The glaciers left the state with a gently rolling topography. The depressions, resulting from the formation of moraines across pre- glacial valleys and the unequal deposition of the glacial drift, became postglacial lakes and sloughs which were slowly drained. In general the moraines became forested, but many of the lakes and sloughs through gradual filling and draining became prairies, a process which was far from complete when the farmer entered the state and established arti- ficial drainage systems. The extensive areas and long duration of the wilderness of sloughs and swamps in the Wisconsin glaciation is best attested today by the depth and extent of the rich humus soil that accu- mulated in them. Their estimated dimensions are not lessened by the stories of the early settlers who swam their horses across them in early iil Map of the Glacial Geology of Illinois Unglaciated Areas. Lower Tllinoisan Glaciation, Middle Mlinoisan Glaciation. GY aver Tu ROUEN f= Iowan and SSS Br EJ Pre-lowan Glaciation, Deep Loess Areas. 4 Wisconsin Glaciation. Moraines in Wisconsin Glaciation, Bottom-Lands (old and late) Sand and Swamp Areas, 531 spring or skated for many miles across country in winter with but short walks between the swamps. Artificial drainage has not only reduced the swamps, but it has also caused a general lowering of the water- table, so that wells in this region must now be dug 5-10 feet deeper than formerly. A few of these undrained morainal depressions surrounded by definite zones of native vegetation remain today, but most of them have been disturbed by grazing and mowing. The swamp prairies of the Chicago plain with their intervening lines of beaches may be in- cluded in this group. Postglacial drainage at first favorable for prairie formation through the drainage of swamps ultimately became destructive through erosion of the soil in the development of the natural drainage systems. The invading heads of the ravines destroying the prairie turf were usually accompanied by the development of a forest vegetation. This fact is strikingly illustrated in Brendel’s map, which shows a fringe of forest along all the principal water courses. These belts of forest are much narrower and the intervening prairies much larger on the youthful topography of the Wisconsin glaciation than on the older Illinoisan glaciation. This condition is a result partly of the difference in age of the drainage systems of the two regions and also of the greater amount of forest encroachment on the pre-erosion areas of the prairie in the southern Illinoisan glaciation. Flood-plain formation has resulted in both forest and prairie; the prairies arising from the lagoons and swampy regions have much in common with those arising from morainal depres- sions. Outwash from the Wisconsin glaciers gave rise to enormous sand areas and sand dunes in the northern half of the state, some of which were forested, the remainder being covered with a prairie vege- tation and plants of the Great Plains. Rock outcrops and eroding clay bluffs were generally forested, but the slopes of lower gradient were frequently covered with a xerophytic prairie flora. Local areas of this type are still to be found in the vicinity of forest borders, though many of them must be regarded as secondary successions following deforesta- tion. In addition to the prairies arising from postglacial lakes and sub- sequent erosion, there is some evidence that the sand prairies and some of the upland prairie region of the state date back to an arid postglacial period during which there was an eastward extension of the prairie and plains flora. The conifer zone following the retreat of the glacier is thought to have been stfeceeded immediately by a xerophytic prairie flora extending as far eastward as Ohio. Subsequent increase in humid- ity in the Mississippi valley was then followed by a westward migration of a more mesophytic prairie flora and the deciduous forest of the east which have their present tension zone in Illinois. As evidence of this view Gleason (8) calls attention to the presence of scattered colonies of prairie species beyond the eastern limit of the present prairie province and to the isolated occurrence of such western plants as Cristatella 532 Jamesui, Lesquerella, argentea, and Opuntia fragilis on the sand dunes of Illinois many miles from their nearest reported station in the west. This brief summary of the prairie habitats of the state emphasizes the fact that the chief prairie region reached its greatest development on postglacial pre-erosion topography. The associations of prairie plants found in these habitats may be placed in two distinct groups: the hydrarch successions found on flood-plains, in morainal depressions, and on the old lake bed of Lake Chicago ; and the xerarch successions found on sand and xerophytic upland glacial soils. SUCCESSION OF PRAIRIE PLANT ASSOCIATIONS 1. THE HYDRARCH SUCCESSIONS The Succession (a) on the River Flood-plains The largest and least disturbed example of this type of prairie stud- ied is located on the flood-plain of the Mississippi River south of Sa- vanna. The exact area of this prairie was not determined, but it is known to include several thousand acres. The associations of prairie plants found on this flood-plain are usually distinct and readily differen- tiated. The list of associations found and their successional relations are represented diagramatically in Figure 1. See also Plates XLVIJI— LIII for illustrations of the individual associations, and pages 558—568 for a list of representative species. The associations in the diagram are given in order from swamp to prairie. On these Savanna prairies the plants representing the various associations usually occupy from 85 to 95 per cent. of the area of the association which they represent and are in every case the dominant plants of their respective associations. The areas of the individual associations vary from a few square rods to tens of acres. Where the slope gradient is steep they occur as narrow strips of only a few feet in width and some of them may be eliminated entirely. One Panicum virgatum association was found occupying nearly a hundred acres (Plate LII), and similar areas of Spartina Michauxiana are not infre- quent. Andropogon furcatus is the dominant grass of the drier portions of the flood-plain, but owing to the fact that habitats which have reached this stage of development are suitable for agriculture very few such areas remain undisturbed. ‘ Some of this prairie is now being grazed and is losing its natural aspect. Hundreds of acres, however, are disturbed only by late autumn mowing and occasional fires, while occasional local areas may be found that are seldom disturbed by man. It is in these least disturbed tracts where the dead grass remains from year to year that the dominant plants maintain their purest stand. The secondary species become insig- nificant, being represented only as scattered individuals here and there throughout the association. It is in such situations also that the transi- tion zones between the various associations are most clearly defined and readily recognized. ~~ oe 533, Andropogon furcatus Panicum virgatum Calamagrostis canadensis He Carex vesicaria Scirpus fluviatilis Fic. 1. Diagram showing the successions of the plant associations from swamp to prairie on the flood-plain of the Mississippi River at Savanna, Illinois. The dotted lines. represent local exceptions of rare occurrence. See Plates XLVIII-LIIT. The data obtained from the surveyors’ reports show that the greater amount of undisturbed flood-plain prairie occurs along the Mississippi River. Similar areas, however, occur along the Illinois and smaller rivers. The driest of these flood-plain prairies found, are along the Desplaines River near Riverside, in Cook county. These areas have been 534 modified by pasturing and are dominated by Andropogon furcatus or its ecological equivalents. The data in Figure 2 were obtained from a 220-acre field along the Illinois River five miles west of Morris, in Grundy county. The trend of associations on the unpastured portion are practically identical with those along the Mississippi. It is important to note that the data in Figure 2 also show the effect of grazing upon the natural prairie flora. Practically every one of the dominant species occurring under natural conditions is replaced by some other species. Scirpus fluviatilis is replaced by Typha latifolia; Spartina Michauxiana and Calamagrostis canadensis, partly by Carex and Juncus but mostly by Agrostis alba; Panicum virgatum, partly by Andropogon furcatus __. ...22 2-2... 22-2 ene eee eee eee aeons 3, Poa pratensis Spartina Michauxiana - - + A Carex vesicaria _.___ - Scirpus fluviatilis ------~ an re cree em eee eee ceeeneeneee =a Typha latifolia Unpastured Pastured Flood-plain and moraine Fic. 2. Diagram showing the successions of the plant associations on pastured and unpastured areas on the flood-plain of the Illinois River in Grundy county. The dotted lines indicate the successions brought about by grazing. Agrostis alba and partly by Poa pratensis; and Andropogon furcatus, entirely by Poa pratensis. Not only are these primary species destroyed by grazing, but practically all of the secondary species are likewise eliminated. It may readily be seen that areas not subjected to intense grazing or areas that had been pastured in the past and then allowed ‘ to revert to natural conditions would exhibit a mixture of associations of native and cultivated grasses impossible to decipher on an ecological basis unless ecological equivalents are recognized and appreciated. The above data are important in suggesting an explanation of the conditions existing on the Chicago plain, to be discussed later. According to the county soil reports (3) the surface soils of these flood-plain areas consist in the main of brown silt loam and sandy silt . loam derived from materials washed from the upland and deposited at periods of overflow. Usually there is present a considerable amount of sand. The subsoil as a rule is sandy silt loam, sand, or clay. In some of the swamps peat is abundant. Enormous areas of peat occur on the wide flood-plains of the Rock and Green rivers in Bureau, Henry, Lee, Whiteside, and Rock Island counties. The peat beds occur in depressions between the sand hills and in morainal depressions. With the exception of peat all of these soils are rich in the minerals required by plants, and their plant associations are similar. Peat, on the other hand, is exceptionally rich in organic material and poor in potassium, but its plant associations are dominated by the same species that dominate wet areas on other types of soil. Calamagrostis canadensis is particularly prominent on wet peat. The height of the water-table and not the chemistry of the soil is the limiting factor determining the order of associations. Some progress toward an explanation of the order of occurrence of the associations in the hydrarch succession has been made, but the data at present are little more than suggestive. Miss Hayden (13, 14) found that parenchyma and aerenchyma are more prominent in roots and rhizomes of swamp plants than of upland plants on the prairie of central lowa, and that the leaves of upland plants have thinner epidermal walls, a greater amount of palisade-tissue and more compact mesophyll, and are more frequently hairy than leaves of plants on the lowlands. -We are greatly in need of more ecological anatomy of this type which should be extended to include the dominant species of the prairie associations. It should also be checked by experiments similar to those of Cannon and Free (2) to determine the effectiveness of aerenchyma in supplying oxygen to roots in soils of low oxygen content. It should further be checked by actual measurements of transpiration rates to determine the comparative effectiveness of the various modifications of leaf structure. Transeau in some unpublished work has found that a heavy cuticle on leaves does not necessarily mean that they have a lower trans- piration rate than leaves with thin cuticle. Sayre (21) found that hairs on mullein leaves do not retard transpiration under ordinary intensities of wind and light, and that eighty per cent. of the transpiration from these leaves is stomatal transpiration. Some of the modifications in leaf structure, therefore, affect only the twenty per cent. of transpiration directly from the epidermal cells, and there is great danger of over- emphasizing their importance in the absence of experimental data. 536 The Hydrarch Succession (b) on the Old Lake Bed of Lake Chicago The geological history of this region has been described in detail by Leverett (17) and Salisbury and Alden (20). The following sum- mary is given to bring out more clearly the relation of the vegetation to the present physiography. During the retreat of the Wisconsin ice sheet, a temporary balance between the melting back of the glacial front and its forward movement resulted in the formation of the Valparaiso moraine. With further recession of the glacier this moraine served as a dam which hemmed in the water from the melting ice, forming a lake known as Lake Chicago. The surface of this lake was at one time 60 feet above the present level of Lake Michigan. An outlet through the Desplaines River gradually lowered the level of the lake until the glacier receded far enough to open an outlet to the north which resulted in the withdrawal of the water from the Chicago plain. Three old beach lines, sixty, forty, and twenty feet above the present level of Lake Michigan, show that the outlet to the north was interfered with a second and third time, and that a lake again occupied the area in question. With the final retreat of the glacier and subsequent drainage through the St. Lawrence System the water was gradually drained from the region between the Valparaiso moraine and the present beach of Lake Michigan. The area thus exposed was a flat, level plain, poorly drained, and abounding in lakes and swamps which have been gradually filling with vegetation. The old beaches and sand-dunes areas are forested, but the re- mainder is largely prairie or swamp land. Much of the present un- disturbed prairie is considered too wet for agricultural purposes except in dry seasons. In some of the drier portions, however, cultivated plants ecologically equivalent to Panicum virgatum and red top could be grown. Roadways and ditches have recently been established along the main section lines, and in some cases city blocks have been laid out. This artificial drainage has reacted to some extent upon the natural vegetation, and it is undoubtedly a partial cause of some of the dis- | turbances noted in the natural plant associations of this area. The drainage ditches are marked by a line of cottonwoods and a few willows, mostly Salix amygdaloides, though in some places swamp grasses are found refilling the ditches. These trees are growing in the bottom of the ditches where the prairie turf has been completely de- stroyed. This prairie is exceptionally rich in organic matter, peat sometimes oc- curring. The subsoil is mostly glacial till, forming poor subsoil drainage, but local areas of sand and rock also occur.. Owing to the flat surface and the impervious clay subsoil, much of the surface soil is usually saturated during the wet spring months. Later in the season the water content under present conditions of drainage may drop below the wilting co- efficient, Harvey (12) has shown that during the summer of 1911 the 537 water content of this soil at a depth of 7.5 cm. was below the wilting coefficient during most of the period from the first of July to the last of September, and at a depth of 25 cm. the water content was but a little above the wilting coefficient for the same period. Plants growing throughout the season, therefore, must be able to maintain a suitable water balance through the two oppo- Poa pratensis site extremes of soil-water content. Since the roots of many prairie plants grow deeper than 25 cm., we need more data on the wilting coefficient in relation to depth of root systems of Poa compressa the dominant plants in the different associations. More than 4,000 acres of this prai- rie are included in this survey. Fig- Agrostis alba ure 3, shows the trend of associations from a small pond near Chicago Lawn. The prominence of the cul- tivated grasses, Poa and Agrostis, in ; this locality is very probably the re- Glyceria nervata sult of the suburban habit of “staking cows out to pasture”, but, as will be shown later, other factors may also be important here. In Figure 4 an attempt is made to summarize the relations of the prin- cipal associations on the Chicago prai- rie including those of cultivated grasses. No attempt is made to in- clude all the associations in the deeper swamps. These have been described in detail by Sherff (23) and Gates (6). The data show that there is a far greater complexity of associations on this prairie than on those discussed above. In the first place the appear- ance of associations dominated by Agrostis alba and by the blue grasses, Scirpus fluviatilis Poa pratensis and Poa compressa, Fic. 3. Diagram showing the succes- represents a condition in this prairie eed anes Gee pean eta not characteristic of the natural prai- on the old lake bed of Lake Chi- ries of the state. There is no evidence were Se ee ee in the older descriptions of the prai- here, of associations dominatedby rie.that either of these species was Glyceria and cultivated grasses. . eels oe See Plate LIV. present in the original prairies of the Calamagrostis canadensis Carex stricta Spartina Michauxiana 538 Andropogon furcatus_ <<—£———————— Poa pratensis Poa compressa an Panicum virgatum Agrostis a canadensis Silphium-Cacalia Spartina Michauxiana Carex stricta Scirpus fluviatilis Fic. 4. Diagram showing the successions of the principal associations on the old lake-bed of Lake Chicago, including those of cultivated grass- es. See Plates LI, LIV-LXIV state. Their presence today is the result of their introduction and use in cultivation. The blue grasses were apparently introduced from Europe. Waller (30) finds that the early settlers of Virginia and Kentucky looked upon Poa pratensis as a dangerous introduced weed and some of them prophesied that it would some day drive the farmers out of the country. A wealthy plantation owner, fearful lest the blue grass would ruin his pastures, ordered his slaves to dig it out and burn it. The early settlers of Illinois say that blue grass came into the state following the destruc- tion of the native grasses by cultivation and grazing. The prominence of these cultivated grasses on the, Chicago praitie is, indicative of dis- turbance by man and raises the question as to how far this prairie may 539 be considered representative of original conditions. The data in Figures 2 and 5 show that grazing results in the coming in of cultivated grasses. A knowledge of the amount of grazing this prairie suffered during the early development of Chicago is wanting. During the last forty years the grass has been cut annually in July. This is rather more detrimental to the late fall grasses than to the earlier grasses in that it destroys their vegetative growth shortly before time for fruiting and usually pre- vents them from seeding. In addition, fires started by trains contribute to the disturbance of the composition of associations which obtained un- der natural conditions of competition. Artificial drainage has lowered the water-table and extended the seasonal period during which the water content of the soil is below the wilting coefficient. During the slow read- justment of the associations of native species to the disturbing condi- tions other species have a chance to obtain a temporary foothold. These cultivated grasses are not able to invade the undisturbed native associa- tions, and the period of their dominance in disturbed areas is dependent upon the continuation of the disturbances. In the second place a number of coarse herbs become more con- spicuous, notably Silphiwm laciniatum, Cacalia tuberosa, and Liatris spicata, which usually follow Spartina and Calamagrostis and may be found in pure or mixed stands of various combinations now occupying the greater part of local areas. Apocynum cannabimum var. hyperici- folium is also occasionally abundant at this stage. On the slightly drier prairies Silphium terebinthinaceum and Eryngium yuccifolium are some- times abundant. Finally, the occurrence of a mixed association dominated largely by Andropogon scoparius and Sporobolus heterolepis following Agrostis alba and Panicum virgatum on the low prairies seems out of harmony with the xerophytic nature of these grasses. The same species also dominate a portion of the Calumet beach near Chicago Ridge where it has been deforested. In this latter situation these species are in a - xerophytic habitat characteristic of them, but on the low prairie they appear in the hydrarch succession which is not characteristic of them. Isolated clumps and small patches of Andropogon furcatus occur with them. In my opinion the above factors explain the occurrence of culti- vated grasses in these prairies and also account for the Andropogon- Sporobolus association in the hydrarch succession and for the notable abundance of coarse herbs. During the period of readjustment follow- ing disturbance, the -speed of migration becomes an important factor which in turn depends upon the proximity of plants producing an abun- dance of readily dispersed seeds. Andropogon furcatus is not nearly as abundant on the hills and sand dunes near Chicago as are the other grasses, and the latter, therefore, have a chance to obtain the first foothold on drained and denuded areas. It appears that the composition of the associations on the Chicago prairie is scarcely more representative of the composition of the earlier natural associations than are those found on railway rights-of-way. 540, On the other hand, if we disregard the blue grass and red top in any given area or choose areas in which they have not gained a foothold the order of succession of the associations of native grasses is readily seen. With the exception of the presence of Andropogon scoparius and Sporobolus heterolepis in some places this succession of associations does not differ materially from that of the flood-plain prairies already described. Andropogon furcatus does not play a very important role on the Chicago prairie. Under natural conditions most of this prairie was too wet for Andropogon. As noted above, it is frequently found on the higher ground, and it is most abundant in the neighborhood of the artificial drainage ditches. One of the areas that shows clearly the suc- cession from Panicum virgatum to Andropogon furcatus on this prairie is about one half mile southwest of Oak Ridge (Plate LIX). The fact that this particular prairie is separated from the Wabash railway by a small stream is probably significant. The conditions on this area are more like those in other parts of the state. Coarse herbs are present — but they occur as scattered individuals of secondary importance. Red top and blue grasses are not abundant. Special attention should be called to the fact that owing to their much greater height the native grasses readily crowd out the cultivated grasses in regions undisturbed by man. Mowing checks but does not entirely prevent the encroachment of Andropogon furcatus in associations of Poa pratensis. This fact was obtained from observations on carefully mapped areas about one mile northwest of Ashburn just north of 87th Street on some of the best drained portions of this prairie. While the observations on this particular area were limited to a period of- only three years, a slight in- crease in the amount of Andropogon was evident. The data recorded in Figure 6 show still more conclusively that when man does not inter- fere too much, Andropogon furcatus will crowd out our cultivated grasses. Portions of the Chicago prairie have been cultivated from one to a few years and then abandoned. In all cases so far observed these abandoned areas have reverted again to prairie. Agrostis alba is usually the first grass to get a foothold. Coarse herbs likewise get an early start. Then blue grass and Andropogon follow. ithe reversion to prairie is not entirely due to the absence of “seed trees”. Seedlings of cotton- wood frequently make a start, but owing to subsequent mowing and burn- ing they are usually destroyed. The Hydrarch Succession (c) in Morainal Depressions The morainal depressions vary in size from the small ones found in terminal moraines to the much more extensive ones of the ground moraine. Many of these depressions were formerly post-glacial lakes which became partially drained by subsequent gradation. As would be expected, the greater area of these depressions today occurs in the less 541 eroded Wisconsin glaciated region. The horizontal or geographical suc- cession of associations in these depressions at present is important in showing the vertical or historical succession of associations during the gradual filling and draining of the sloughs since glacial times. Much of the Andropogon furcatus prairie of the state originated in this way. Mr. L. Wiles, of Dundas, Illinois, who plowed some of the virgin prairie in Vermilion county before artificial drainage was established, says that the only tillable soil between the rivers and sloughs was that covered by tall bluestem (Andropogon furcatus), and that usually the farmers were not able to plow quite all of the Andropogon prairie but had to leave a narrow strip of it surrounding other grasses bordering the sloughs in the depressions... In many places in the farming district these depressions have not yet been completely drained, and where graz- ing has not been too severe the successions of the native grasses are still evident. In some places, as in the depressions near Camp Grove and Lacon in Marshall county, all the associations up to and including Andro- pogon furcatus may be found, while in other depressions farming has destroyed the Andropogon, and sometimes Panicum, entirely. A sum- mary of these associations made from observations of more than twenty morainal depressions is given in Figure 5. Vestal (28) has described the associations about a small depression on the Valparaiso moraine on the boundary line of Cook and Dupage counties. While this prairie has some indications of the influence of civilization, such as the presence of red top and blue grass previously mentioned for the Chicago prairies, it is of interest as a description of a more xerophytic type of prairie characteristic of clay soils in the vicinity of forests. The hydrarch series is somewhat similar to that already described for the Chicago prairie, including the abundance of cultivated grasses and herbs. On the most xerophytic areas of the upland Andro- pogon scoparius is dominant. Silphium laciniatum occurs in patches as a local dominant. Several other coarse herbs are of frequent occurrence. The effect of grazing shown in Figure 5 is the same as that already discussed in connection with the flood-plain prairies. The conversion of natural prairie grass-lands to blue grass and red top by pasturing has oc- curred throughout the entire state. This fact is of interest both to the plant ecologist and to the farmers. In the first place the natural prairie grasses of any habitat serve as an indicator of the kind of culti- vated grasses most suitable for that habitat. This might be further extended to include all the agricultural crops of the region (Waller, 29, 31). In the second place it points clearly to the best method of ob- taining permanent pastures. The data show that Kentucky blue grass is the dominant pasture grass of all the upland prairie region, and when once established it remains a permanent feature. On the other hand timothy and red top pastures are in general short-lived but have the advantage of establishing themselves more quickly. It is a well known fact that the blue-grass pasture sod can not be obtained the first season after seeding. This difficulty, however, is readily overcome by seeding 542 Andropogon furcatus -—--~---e-- -+2++ ¢e0++-4> eevee +----- -~->> Poa pratensis ---7 Panicum _virgatum ,. ---~ Spartina Mfthauxiana | -- ~ Carex spp.-- ---- ----=-- --- ------- 2 -> Carex-Juncus-Iris Scirpus fluviatilis ....-.~. - ae cece cre eesteenes eee ee eeeeee--> Typha latifolia Unpastured Pastured Morainal depression, Fic. 5. Diagram showing the plant associations and hydrarch succes- sions in morainal depressions. The dotted lines indicate the changes brought about by grazing. to a mixture of blue grass with timothy and red top and allowing a few years for the blue grass to establish itself and crowd out the other grasses, except in low places where red top is a dominant pasture grass. On fertile loamy soil this succession will occur within three or four years, but on clay soils a somewhat longer time is required. With the foregoing associations and their successional relationships in mind it is of interest to compare them with the associations found on the more extensive shallow depressions of the ground moraine. This can be done at present only by having recourse to the relic patches of prairie plants along railway rights-of-way and fence-rows (Plates LXV— LXX). When this comparison is made, the same general associations frequently interspersed with patches of coarse herbs and cultivated grasses are met with again in the same order from lowlands to upland. This comparison also shows that most of the prairie areas of the older gla- ciated regions of the state had reached the Andropogon furcatus stage before they were disturbed by man, while large areas in the Wisconsin 543 glaciation were still dominated by Spartina Michauxiana, Calamagrostis canadensis, and Panicum virgatum. Owing to the clean farming methods practiced in this part of the state it is now very difficult to estimate the percentage of swamp prairie formerly occurring on the present well-drained farms. But the postglacial history of this area is still clearly written in the soil. The wide extent of the deep black soils points to a long postglacial period in which swamps dominated by sedges and swamp grasses covered large portions of this glaciation. With the gradual filling and drainage of these extensive swamps the more mesophytic prairies arose. Soil maps showing the comparative depth of the dark humus soil could be used in determining the extent of associations and also in the estimation of land values. Mr. Wiles estimated that from 70 to 90 per cent. of the area of the isolated prairie tracts separated by streams near his home in Vermilion county was dominated by an almost pure stand of Andropogon furcatus, the remainder by slough grasses, sedges, and rushes. He stated, how- ever, that more abundant and extensive sloughs were present in the prairie tracts northwest of Vermilion county. Farmers who helped drain Douglas county say that the area formerly covered by sloughs and shallow lakes greatly exceeded the area of tillable land in that county. 2. THE XERARCH SUCCESSIONS The Succession (a) on Upland Glacial Soils The succession of associations leading from swamp to the upland prairie was found in every case to terminate in an Andropogon furcatus association. This raises the questions of the amount of the upland prairie soils dominated by this grass and the nature of the successions from the more xerophytic areas on upland glacial soils and sand. In this survey emphasis was placed upon the Wisconsin and the Lower Illinoisan glaciations. On the former the most typical upland prairie soil is a brown silt loam, on the latter it is a gray silt loam poorer in organic matter and generally less fertile. Both of these surface soil types are underlaid at varying depths with the typical clays of the glacial till. Outcrops of these glacial clays are among the most xerophytic areas of the prairie. Owing to the value of this type of land for agriculture, it is now practically all under cultivation. The few small relics of Andropogon furcatus prairie in the ‘vicinity of morainal depressions previously dis- cussed and similar patches near forest borders constitute the only prairie tracts of this type found in the Wisconsin glaciation. On the southern Illinoisan glaciation several small tracts varying in size from a fraction of an acre to 2 acres were found. - With the exception of the exposed clay areas these are all Andropogon furcatus prairies. Additional data were obtained from railway rights-of-way, old line-fences, and from individuals who had lived on these prairies be- 544° fore they were plowed. Both of these sources of information have their limitations. The railway rights-of-way have been subjected to grading, artificial drainage, annual cutting, and burning, and many have been culti- vated at times. As a result the original associations have been fre- quently greatly modified or entirely destroyed. Natural competition is interfered with, and the observed composition of the associations and habitat-range of individual species may not correspond to original con- ditions. It is also of interest in this connection to call attention to the fact that patches of natural prairie plants on these rights-of-way may not always be relics of the original prairie but the result of secondary successions culminating in the original prairie plants. This fact is clearly illustrated in many places along the Indianapolis branch of the Illinois Central Railway. This right-of-way was originally 50 feet wide. In 1897 it was made 80 feet wide by enclosing 15 feet of farm land on each side. The diagram, Figure 6, represents the suc- cession of associations that has occurred on a strip of this abandoned farm land near my father’s farm one mile west of Wheeler in Jasper county. Andropogon furcatus. Solidago nemorali Poa pratensis Juneus tenuis Phleun pratensis Agrostis alba Farm weeds ’ Fic. 6. Diagram showing secondary successions on a railway right-of- way formerly under cultivation near Wheeler, Illinois. At the time of widening the right-of-way the land on one side of the tract was a timothy pasture, on the other side it was under culti- vation. In some places Andropogon furcatus occurs now in almost pure stand and might well be considered original prairie if its history were unknown. This reversion to the natural prairie plants may be seen anywhere along this right-of-way where a sufficient number of relic prairie plants existed on the old right-of-way. Another instance of this, on the Baltimore and Ohio Railway in Clay county, is illustrated in Plate LXX. The area now covered with Andropogon furcatus was formerly forested. The greater part of the 90 miles of this right-of-way 545 from Odin to Olney is covered by Andropogon furcatus, and much of it is original prairie sod. Still another type of reversion to the Andropogon waits prairie may be seen on eroding banks and slopes along these rights-of-way. Many instances were noted where Andropogon scoparius dominated the slopes of valleys while the upland and base of the slopes were domi- nated by Andropogon furcatus. The successions of these associations accompanying base-leveling in such cases is obvious. Sorghastrum nutans and Sporobolus heterolepis were also found on these slopes but generally as secondary species. Where erosion is rapid coarse herbs are abundant, but where erosion is slowed down by decreased gradients and consequent greater stability of soil they become scattered secon- dary members of the grass associations. In cases where the natural grasses have been entirely eradicated these coarse herbs prevail perhaps indefinitely. In addition to railway rights-of-way in the Illinoisan glaciation old fence-rows harboring relic patches of prairie plants are abundant. When land adjoining these fence-rows is sowed to meadow grasses the culti- vated grasses are gradually invaded and crowded out by Andropogon furcatus. One instance was observed where this native grass occupied an area of timothy meadow to a distance of 40 feet, and areas 10-15 feet in width are common. With regard to limitations in basing conclusions upon statements made by the early settlers the principle that safety lies in numbers was adhered to, and in practically all cases specimens of the plants in ques- tion were at hand. No less than 30 individuals were questioned with regard to the original prairies of the Southern Illinoisan glaciation. Many of these had spent from 20 to 30 years on the virgin prairies and on account of economic, medicinal, or esthetic reasons were familiar with many species of prairie plants. The data obtained from the early settlers and a careful study of the prairie relics seem sufficient to reconstruct rather accurately the original prairies of the Southern Illinoisan glaciation. The !ow prairie was dominated mainly by Spartina Michauxiana, Calamagrostis cana- densis, and Panicum virgaium, while the more extensive prairie was dominated by Andropogon furcatus. Coarse herbs grew only as scattered individuals among the grasses. On the exposed clay Andropogon scopa- rius was abundant, and associated with it were many coarse herbs. A mixed association consisting of the two Andropogons, Sorghastrum nu- tans, and Sporobolus heterolepis may have occurred in transition zones on some of these clay areas. Turning now to the Wisconsin glaciation the same sources of in- formation exist, but they were less fruitful. From the data available it is certain than Andropogon furcatus was the dominant grass of the upland prairies. The points in question concern the probable role played by coarse herbs and by more xerophytic grasses, particularly Andropogon 546 scoparius, and the probable extent of mixed associations. In the Andro- pogon furcatus prairies remaining in morainal depressions and the small areas in the vicinity of Chicago coarse herbs occur only as scattered individuals, as in the Southern Illinoisan glaciation. The older writers speak of these prairies as a “sea of grasses”, and it is probable that coarse herbs did not occupy very large areas, as their presence would certainly have called forth exclamations from the men of those days. Wherever the prairie grasses have been greatly disturbed along railway rights-of-way, both north and south, these coarse herbs become conspicu- ous, and this has probably led many to ascribe to them more prominence than they deserve. Gerhard and others report them as being abundant on hillsides and near forest borders, and they may have been rather prominent on the shallow soils of morainal ridges. The xerophytic grass association dominated by Andropogon scoparius is the characteristic association of these shallow soils. Relic patches of this grass are most frequently found on the broken topography near woodlands where the subsoil has been exposed by erosion. As in the southern part of the state, Sorghastrum nutans, Sporobolus heterolepis, and coarse herbs are also more conspicuous in these areas. Vestal (28) finds that this association is not very extensively developed in the upper Wisconsin glaciation. The data obtaimed in this survey agree with his statement. The available data bearing upon the extent of mixed associations in this region are rather insufficient for quantitative estimates. In the Southern Ilinoisan glaciation mixed associations were of minor impor- tance as most of that region had reached the climax stage of development and was dominated by but one species, Andropogon furcatus. It is probable that mixed associations representing a transition stage in suc- cession to this climax from the drier uplands may have been more ex- tensive on the younger topography of the Wisconsin glaciation, but conclusive evidence is wanting. From my records it appears evident that under the most favorable natural conditions the dominant species shown in the previous diagrams of this report must have occurred in almost pure stands; that coarse herbs were not abundant except on eroding soils and near forest borders; and that mixed associations were limited largely to transition zones. This conclusion was corroborated by every early settler with whom I talked and also by Dr. John H. Schaffner (22), who lived on the Andropogon prairies in Kansas and had many opportunities to see them in their natural conditions. They all report that in the best growing seasons Andropogon furcatus grew so tall that a man sitting on a horse could not see over it, and that the location of cattle and horses could frequently not be determined except by the waving of the tall grass as they passed through it. This height together with its production of a close sod and dense vegetative growth was sufficient to exclude most of the other prairie plants. Dr. Schaffner also reports that Andropogon Scoparius generally occurred in very pure stands, and that coarse herbs 547 were not abundant in either of the Andropogon associations but might occur abundantly on eroding soils. Some of the plates accompanying this report show these same features for Spartina Michauxiana, Calama- grostis canadensis, and Panicum virgatum. To sum up, both the historical data and the data’ obtained from relic prairie areas lead to the conclusion that Andropogon furcatus is the climax grass of the whole upland prairie region of the state, and that in the successions leading to this climax from the more xerophytic up- lands and exposed clay soils Andropogon scoparius is the most important species. Figure, 7 shows the successions of associations that may occur in this xerarch series. Andropogon furcatus Mixed ays Andropogon scoparius grass aa Bi herbs Fic. 7. Diagram showing the principal associations in the xerarch suc- cession on xerophytie upland soils. During the long postglacial period forests: working back from the water courses invaded these upland prairie soils. The progress of this invasion as would be expected is much farther advanced in the Lower Illinoisan glaciation than in the Wisconsin glaciation. While this en- croachment of the forest on the prairie is generally considered to have kept pace with the development of drainage and the soil erosion involved, there are rather extensive areas in which the encroaching forest preceded erosion. Since these forest soils bordering the upland prairie soils had the same origin, the differences in them today are largely a result of their floral history. In this connection the county soil reports (3) have some very in- teresting data showing the effect of vegetation upon soil types. The or- ganic matter of the forest soils ranges from about 25-50 per cent. of the amount present in the adjoining prairie soils. This gives the prairie soils a much darker color than the forest soils and is the result of a more complete decomposition of the plant remains of a forest than of a prairie. To quote from one of these reports: “The leaves and twigs of the trees fall upon the surface of the ground and decay completely; whereas the prairie grasses form a mass of roots in the soil which, when they die, are prevented from complete decay by the absence of sufficient oxygen. In this way prairie grasses and other plants cause a gradual accumula- tion of organic matter. If prairie land becomes forested the organic matter is slowly diminished to a low point.” This statement apparently is not intended to apply to flood-plain forests, where deposition during 548 overflows is an important factor in soil fertility, nor to the occasional small forest areas that have developed from swamps in which the slowly decaying organic matter accumulates under water during the greater part of the year. The conditions described above are more prominent in the older glaciated regions, where we find the most extensive areas of forest encroachment on pre-erosion topography. ; The data in these soil reports also show a lower content of calcium in forest soils than in the adjoining prairie soils. This difference is much more pronounced in the subsurface soils and subsoils than in the surface soils, rendering them more acid than the adjoining prairie soils. Forest vegetation when compared with prairie vegetation therefore retards the accumulation of organic matter and accelerates the drain on calcium. Certain authors have suggested that the greater content of calcium in prairie soils may be one of the causes of the prairie. .The above facts indicate that prairie vegetation greatly retards the rate at which calcium leaches from the soil. The farmers of the state have been slow in recognizing this effect of the floral history upon the present value of soils. In my own com- munity in the Southern IlIlinoisan glaciation the clearing and cultivation of forested areas always seemed to have an alluring appeal entirely un- related to economic values. Many of the farmers continued to clear the forest in spite of the fact that some of the forested areas after ten to fifteen years of cultivation yield no better crops than adjacent prairie areas that have been cultivated for forty years. Many of the slopes formerly protected, by forest vegetation have been cleared, farmed for a few years, and then abandoned to the forces of erosion. An in- telligent constructive forest policy that can be taught and convincingly explained to the farmers is the only hope for remedying these regrettable conditions. The Xerarch Succession (b) on Sand The sand prairies of the state have been described in detail by Glea- son (9, 10) and Vestal (27); consequently they have received only minor attention in this survey. The following description deals mainly with the more general features which tend to show the relation of the floral successions on sand to those of the soil types previously discussed. Both of the above sources of information have been drawn upon in this report. Evidence collected by Gleason shows that most of the sand prai- ries were covered with a carpet of vegetation when settlements were begun in this region. Subsequent plowing and pasturing, however, has led to the exposure of large areas of sand to wind action and the de- velopment of “blowouts”. Owing to frequent movement of the sand by wind, the revegetation and stabilization of these xerophytic sand areas’ is a slow process, and progressive successions are often less prominent than retrogressive ones. The most xerophytic prairies of the state occur in these sand areas, and as Gleason has already pointed out we have here the greatest representation of typically western plants. In fact the 549 vegetation of the more xerophytic sand areas is more representative of the sand-hill vegetation of Kansas and Nebraska than of the Great Plains or the Prairie. With the establishment of a pioneer association sufficient to pre- vent the erosive action of the wind, conditions become less severe and further growth of a less xerophytic type is favored. As the vegetation encroaches and establishes itself upon the sand, the accumulation of or- ganic matter from decaying roots and tops of successive associations results in physical changes in the soil which slowly approach conditions existing on the more mesophytic prairies. The more important of these changes is a decrease in the extremes of temperature and an increase in humus with a consequent increase in soil stability and soil water. Gleason (10) has shown that the evaporation rate of the air also gradually decreases from one association to another. Each association thus im- proves conditions and paves the way for its successor, ultimately leading to the climax association of the region. Observations were made on the sand areas at Hanover, between Savanna and Albany, at Oregon, and in the northwestern part of Bureau county. The succession of the principal associations leading to prairie in these areas is given in Figure 8. The Panicum pseudopubescens association is most frequently found in the vicinity of blowouts, where it is a stage in the retrogressive suc- cession from the bunch-grass association to the blowout association. Plate LXXI represents such a stage with the blowout just beginning, and shows the relative amount of the sand that may be occupied by this species. The secondary species are relics of the bunch-grass associations previously destroyed by the wind. With the further development of the blowout Panicum pseudopubes- cens is replaced by the blowout association, which Gleason further sub- divides into four distinct “associations.” First, the basin of the blow- out, where the sand is being removed by the wind. The vegetation of this “association” is very meager and is composed of a few scattered perennials persisting from the Panicum pseudopubescens , association. Chief among these are Acerates viridiflora and its varieties lanceolata and linearis, Lithospermum Gmelini, Euphorbia corollata, and Lespedeza capitata. Second, the windward slope, where the sand is being removed by both wind and gravity. The vegetation of this “association” consists of relics of the Panicum pseudopubescens and bunch-grass associations which have been undermined at the top and have gained a foothold while sliding down the slope. This association is limited to perennials, among the most important of which are Panicum pseudopubescens and Selaginella rupestris. Third, the lee slope, or “blowsand association,” over which the sand is being sprayed by the wind. The vegetation of this association consists mainly of annuals characteristic of the bunch-grass association. Gleason lists 31 species for this association, of which Aristida tuberculosa is the pioneer. This species is common to all the areas studied. Other important species such as Diodia teres, Paspalum setaceum, Commelina 550 eve grass €-------+-: Andropogon furcatus < e.. ‘ N : < at & ; Y Andropogon scoparius Mixed Breas os association ; ’ ¢ e . e 6 e C c7 . 2 Pioneer bunch-grass Re we” association . 5 ° td ¢ ° ge Xerophytic pasture Bouteloua etc. — Blowout association and blow-sand complex. Fic. 8. Diagram showing the, interrelation of the principal associations leading to prairie on sand. The broken lines represent retrogressive successions resulting from blowouts. The dotted lines represent suc- cessions resulting from grazing. See Plates LXXI-LXXYV. virginica, and Cenchrus carolinianus are more local in their distribution. Lastly, the “deposit association,” composed chiefly of such dune-forming species as Rhus canadensis, var. illinoensis, Ceanothus americanus, Te- phrosia virginiana, Panicum virgatum, and occasionally Calamovilfa longi- folia. To this list Vestal (27) proposes to add a fifth association, the “blowsand complex”, which arises from the continued growth of a large blowout or by the confluence of a number of blowouts. The vegetation is variable and is composed mainly of annuals as in the case of the blow- sand association. The meager vegetation of these five “‘associations” is of little conse- quence in the stabilization of the sand. The first permanent step in the development of vegetation on denuded areas is accomplished by the pioneer bunch-grasses which succeed in getting a foothold in any of these associations. Selaginella rupestris is also an important pioneer invader in these areas at Hanover and Savanna. The order of the entrance of the grasses is not definitely known, though, as Gleason has pointed out, it depends largely upon the nature of the neighboring areas of the 551 bunch-grass association. Invasion may be affected by a single species or by two or more species in common. The most important of these pioneers observed by the writer are Panicum pseudopubescens, Paspalum setaceum, Sporobolus cryptandrus, Leptoloma cognatum, Carex Muhlen- bergii, and Cyperus Schweinitzii. On the deposit associations Panicum virgatum may serve as the starting point of the bunch-grass association. The pioneer bunch-grass association may be dominated by a single species or by a mixture of several species. The most important of the grasses in addition to those listed above are Bouteloua hirsuta, B. curti- pendula, Eragrostis pectinacea, Koeleria cristata, Stipa spartea, and Andropogon scoparius, all of which may occur as local dominants. With decrease in xerophytism the pioneer bunch-grasses are replaced by Andropogon scoparius or a mixed grass association in which both species of Andropogon and sometimes Sporobolus heterolepis are the prominent members. Sorghastrum nutans and Panicum Scribnerianum also tn- crease in abundance in these associations. At first the secondary species are largely relics of the former bunch-grass association, but in the later stages these are largely crowded out by Andropogon and partly replaced by secondary species common to the Andropogon prairies elsewhere in the state. In the most mesophytic stage of the Andropogon scoparius association the open tuft-like growth characteristic of the pioneer bunch- grass association is replaced by a close sod (Plate LXXIV). These associations are not abundant today and were found only on low dunes, in depressions between dunes, and on railway rights-of-way where they had been least disturbed by agricultural practices. The most mesophytic areas of the sand are dominated by Andropo- gon furcatus. _Vestal (27) reports Andropogon furcatus dominating parts of the “black-soil transition association” on sand which he finds has reached its most advanced stage in the Havana region “in places near Devil’s Neck, in places east of the several forested dune areas, and particularly at the eastern border of the sand plain”. Most of the sand prairies of this type have been either plowed or pastured. Plate LXXV shows an almost pure stand of Andropogon furcatus on a low dune some two miles south of Savanna. This dune is probably not more than 20 feet above the river. One side grades off into the flood-plain, and the remaining three sides are bordered by small lakes. It has escaped both plowing and pasturing. About half of the dune is dominated by Andropogon furcatus, the remainder by Andropogon scoparius. A simi- lar area was found toward the base of a sand dune adjoining a swamp preserved for hay in the northern part of Bureau county. The older residents of this region report an abundance of tall bluestem on the low sand hills between the swamps, and an abundance of both tall and low bluestem, frequently mixed with other grasses, on the higher dunes. A large part of the sand area in Bureau county has been subjected to pasturing, and a blue-grass pasture has resulted in many cases. When the pioneer bunch-grass association or an early stage of the Andropogon 552 Scoparius association on sand is pastured, a xerophytic pasture results in which the prominent species are Bouteloua hirsuta, Leptoloma cog- natum, Panicum pseudopubescens, Paspalum, setaceum, Eragrostis pectinacea, and Cyperus Schweinitzti. The presence of the blue-grass pastures therefore indicates a rather advanced stage in the development of the sand prairie, probably either a late stage of the Andropogon Scoparius or mixed grass association, or an Andropogon furcatus asso- ciation. Apparently this last association was rarely developed on the higher sand areas. Gleason estimates that on the sand prairies as a whole at least two thirds of the surface was originally occupied by a mixed bunch-grass association varying all the way from areas dominated by the pioneer grasses to those in which the Andropogons were abundant. It would be of interest to both plant ecologists and farmers if a tract of the present cultivated sand prairies of the Savanna region could be set aside and allowed to revert undisturbed to natural conditions. The ecologist could determine more definitely the order of succession of the natural grasses on sand. At the same time the agriculturist would have a means of determining how long it would be necessary to allow his sandy farm to remain undisturbed in order to obtain a permanent blue- grass pasture to take the place of present poor crops and shifting sand. On the areas of pure sand many years would be required, but on most of the area where humus has accumulated from the natural: vegetation of former years the time required might be commensurate with the re- turns. In Figure 9, a summary of the succession of the principal associa- tions of the natural prairie plants is given. Associations of weeds and cultivated grasses now present on the prairie as a result of the influence of civilization are omitted in this summary. COMPOSITION OF THE ASSOCIATIONS In the preceding discussion of the associations emphasis is placed on the dominant species. Following is a list of the associations together with some of the more frequent secondary species found on less dis- turbed areas. This list made from small relic areas is not meant to be complete nor to represent absolutely the composition of the more ex- tensive associations before they were disturbed by man. Certain limi- tations must be recognized. In the first place, the composition of an as- sociation is usually most representative near its center of distribution, and least representative near its boundaries where there is an over- lapping of secondary species of adjacent associations. The centers of distribution of some of the associations have been entirely destroyed by cultivation, and only the boundaries remain for study. Under present conditions it is impossible in every case to list the secondary species with the association in which they were most common. In the second place, ‘SIOUI[[I UL SUOT]BIOOSSe-jUL[d sfaread ay} JO UOTJVoOYIssBlo oeUeS VW “6 “OL sysno[g SIpeIAny sndaiog “JOSSe xoIe: BUBIXNeYIW euljztedg 553 Sisuapeued SIysoispureles winjesiyA wnotueg spuejdn s4Aydoiex papnued Sqiey es1e0D snizedoos uogodoipuy snjeoinj uosodoipuy pues 41q suaoseqndopnesd winomegq ‘9OSSE SSPIZ-YIUNq J99uOIg UOHEIDOSSE SSeIS poxIy 554 the habitat range of any species is more extensive when the biotic factors of competition are removed than when they are present. The numerous disturbances accompanying civilization usually eliminate the influence of biotic factors, at least in part, and admit not only a greater prominence of secondary species but also a wider edaphic range of all species than existed under natural conditions. Recently drained sloughs may be found in which Spartina still persists as the dominant plant, but the Spartina association in such cases may have as secondary species mostly plants characteristic of the Andropogon associations. It is obvious that a detailed account of associations under disturbed conditions is not only valuless but is confusing to the uninitiated. Secondary species of local prominence following drainage, grazing, or other disturbance are not in- cluded in the list below unless they were found to occur frequently in the same associations elsewhere. A more complete list of secondary species | of any association may be obtained from the annotated list beginning on page 559 of this article. The Scirpus fluviatilis Association—Scirpus fluviatilis, S. validus, Glyceria septentrionalis, Sparganium eurycarpum, Acorus Calamus, Sagittaria latifolia, Sium cicutaefoliwm, Pontederia cordata, Alisma Plantago-aquatica, Rumex verticillatus, Polygonum Muhlenbergu, P. hydropiperoides, P. amphibium, Eleocharis palustris, E. acicularis, Pen- thorum sedoides, Scutellaria galericulata, Ludvigia palustris, Mimulus ringens, and Ranunculus delphinfolius. Typha latifolia and sometimes Phragmites communis occur in this association when there has been some disturbance, such as tramping by grazing animals, pollution of the water, and dredging. With continued disturbance Scirpus fluviatilis disappears, and Typha latifolia dominates except for small colonies of Phragmites communis in some localities. The data obtained in this survey indicate that neither Typha nor Phragmites was abundant in the natural prairies of the state. Scirpus validus may form an association in deeper water beyond Scirpus fluviatilis. In the shade of trees Sagittaria latifolia usually replaces Scirpus fluviatilis. Forest invasion of this association may occur. The principal invad- ing species noted are Cephalanthus occidentalis, Cornus stolonifera, Salix amygdaloides, S. nigra, S. cordata, S. discolor, and S. longifolia. The Carex Association—This association needs considerable more attention than it received during this survey. Carex vesicaria appears to be the most important dominant species on flood-plains and in some of the morainal depressions, but other species were also noted as domi- nants, namely, C. lanuginosa, C. stricta, C. Sartwellii, and C. vulpinoidea. The secondary species are: C. rostrata, C. lupulina, C. tribuloides, C. straminea, C. stipata, C. pennsylvanica, Scirpus atrovirens, Lobelia cardinalis, Steironema lanceolatum, Veronia fasciculata, V. altissima, Eupatorium perfoliatum, Asclepias incarnata, Stachys tenuifolia, Eleo- charis palustris, E. obtusa, E. intermedia, Leersia oryzoides, and Phalaris 555 arundinacea. These last two species may occur as local dominants be- tween Scirpus fluviatilis and Spartina Michauxiana, and they may have been prominent in this position on the original prairies. The Spartina Michauxiana Association—Spartina Michauxiana, Elymus virginicus, Phalaris arundinacea, Leersia oryzoides, Glyceria nervata, Carex vulpinoidea, C. Bebbii, C. scoparia, C. lanuginosa, C. tribuloides, Eleocharis palustris, E. obtusa, E. intermedia, Juncus nodosus, J. Torreyi, J. tenuis, Cyperus strigosus, Stachys palustris, Lythrum alatum, Vernoma fasciculata, V. altissima, Steironema lanceola- tum, Lycopus americanus, Aster paniculatus, Asclepias incarnata, A pocy- num cannabinum var. hypericifolium, Hypericum ellipticum, Iris versi- color, Lippia lanceolata, Senecio aureus, and S. Balsamutae. Forest invasion may occur in this association by the species noted aboye and also by Populus deltoides, less frequently by P. grandidentata or P. tremuloides, and Cornus Amomum. The Calamagrostis canadensis Association—Calamagrostis inex- pansa, Aspidium Thelypteris, and Onoclea sensibiis were found to be more abundant in this association than elsewhere, but the remaining secondary species consist largely of an overlapping of the secondary species of the Spartina and Panicum associations. This condition agrees well with the fact that the Calamagrostis association is sometimes eliminated in the succession from Spartina to Panicum virgatum. The Panicum virgatum Association—Panicum virgatum, P. Lind- heimeri, P. huachucae, P. tennesseense, Elymus virginicus, E. canadensis, Ranunculus fascicularis, R. septentrionalis, Baptisia leucantha, Anemone canadensis, Oxalis corniculata, Cicuta maculata, Steironema ciliatum, Physostegia virginiana, Veronica virginica, Liatris spicata, Solidago ser- otina, S. Riddellii, Cacalia tuberosa, Lathyrus palustris, Rudbeckia hirta, Stachys palustris, and Gaura biennis. Forest invasion in this association on the flood-plain at Savanna was found occurring by three different methods: (1) by tree seedlings along the forest borders in the shade of overhanging branches which had elimi- nated the Panicum, (2) encroachment of Cornus and Crataegus by means of adventitious buds from the roots extending into the prairie, and (3) by scattered seedlings of Fraxinus americana, Ulmus americana, U. fulva, and Populus deltoides on the prairie. A recent fire in a small section of this prairie had destroyed most of the seedlings less than six feet in height. The Andropogon furcatus Association—Andropogon furcatus, Sor- ghastrum nutans, Panicum implicatum, P. praecocius, P. Scribnerianum, Sisyrinchium angustifolium, Comandra umbellata, Fragaria virginiana, Baptisia leucantha, Crotalaria sagittalis, Petalostemum purpureum, P. candidum, Desmodium illinoense, D. sessilifolium, Lespedeza capitata, Oxalis corniculata, Polygala sanguinea, P. verticillata, Euphorbia Preslii, 556 Hypericum punctatum, H. Drummondu, H. gentianoides, Viola papilio- nacea, V. pedatifida, V. sagittata, Phlox glaberrima, P. pilosa, Gaura biennis, Eryngium, yuccifolium, Dodecatheon Meadia, Asclepias tuberosa, A. Sullivantu, Acerates floridana, Pycnanthemum flexuosum, Veronica virginica, Ruellia ciliosa, Vernonia illinoensis, V. missurica, Liatris squarrosa, L. spicata, Solidago nemoralis, S. graminifolia, Aster multi- florus, Silphium lacimatum, S. terebinthinaceum, Parthenium integrifo- lium, Heliopsis helianthoides, H. scabra, Rudbeckia hirta, R. triloba, Lepachys pinnata, Helianthus mollis, H. grosseserratus, Coreopsis pal- mata, Cacalia tuberosa, C. atriplicifolia, Lactuca canadensis, and Prenan- thes aspera. Forest invasion in this association in the absence of erosion is simi- lar to that described for Panicum virgatum (p. 555). See plates LXXVI, LXXVII. The Andropogon scoparius Association—Andropogon scoparius, Sorghastrum nutans, Panicum Scribnerianum, Stipa spartea, Aristida oligantha, Sporobolus heterolepis, Danthonia spicata Comandra umbel- lata, Cassia Chamaecrista, Tephrosia virgimana, Lespedceza capitata, Eu- phorbia corollata, Eryngium yuccifolium, Asclepias verticillata, Scutel- laria parvula, Pentstemon hirsutus, Ruellia ciliosa, Diodia teres, Kuhnia eupatoriodes, Liatris scariosa, Solidago nemoralis, S. rigida, S. gramini- folia, Aster ericoides, A. depauperatus, A. multiforus, Brauneria pallida, Helianthus mollis, and Coreopsis palmata. Most of these plants are also found as secondary species on well- established Andropogon scoparius associations on sand such as the one shown in Plate LXXIV. There are also. certain secondary species in this association remaining as relics from more xerophytic associations on sand: Ambrosia, psilostachya, Callirhoé triangulata, Bouteloua hirsuta, Helianthus occidentalis, Aster sericeus, A. linariifolius, Cyperus filiculmis, and Koeleria cristata. Many others occur during the earlier stages of the Andropogon associations on sand. The secondary species of the mixed grass association on sand are practically the same as those listed for the Andropogon scoparius asso- ciation. The chief grasses in the pioneer bunch-grass and Panicum pseudo- pubescens associations on sand have already been listed. Further de- tails regarding secondary species in these two associations may be ob- tained from the annotated list or, better, from Gleason’s paper (9) on “The Vegetation of the Inland Sand Deposits of Illinois.” The association of coarse herbs on denuded and eroding soils is rather variable, depending upon the water content of the soil and the proximity of plants. producing seeds. Several farm weeds and many of the coarse herbs listed for the two Andropogon associations may occur on these areas and in a great variety of different combinations. 557 THE RELATION OF PRAIRIE AND Forest IN ILLINOIS. The general relations of prairie and forest in the state have already been noted, and some of the invading forest species were listed with the secondary species of the prairie associations. Apparently any of the prairie associations may be invaded by forest under the present con- ditions. Four methods of invasion were noted: (1) forest invasion accompanying erosion by streams, (2) growth of tree seedlings along forest borders where the grasses are checked by the shade of over- hanging branches, (3) the occasional establishment of isolated seedlings farther out on the prairie, and (4) the growth of adventitious branch- buds from the roots of certain trees and shrubs extending short distances into the prairie. See Plates LXXVI and LXXVII. Many of the early writers claim that wherever the prairie was protected from annual fires the forest gradually encroached upon the grass-land. A quotation from Gerhard is interesting in this connection: “The first efforts to convert prairies into forest land were usually made on the part of the prairie adjoining the timber. A range of farms, which girded the entire prairie along its circumference having been established, three furrows were plowed all around the settlements in order to stop the burning of the prairie for the whole distance of the circuit in the neighborhood of these farms; whereupon the timber quickly grows up spontaneously on all the parts not burned, the groves and forests com- mencing a gradual encroachment on the adjoining prairies, so that one after another concentric circle springs up inside of the preceding, and thus the entire prairie is steadily narrowed from all sides until it is finally occupied, forming a vast region covered with timbers and farms.” Whether all of the prairie area of Illinois would have ultimately become forested under natural conditions is a matter of speculation. Within a few decades man has drained the sloughs and destroyed the prairie turf through cultivation with the result that trees may now be grown throughout the state. The development of natural drainage would no doubt in time have reduced the area of sloughs, destroyed a limited amount of prairie turf, and led to an increase of forested area. A basis of fact for this conjecture is found in the older glaciated regions with their older and better-developed drainage systems where forest occupies a greater proportion of the area than on the youthful topography of the more recently glaciated region. But forest invasion on the better-drained Andropogon prairies is exceedingly slow, and the existence of rather extensive Andropogon prairies on the older glaciated regions of the state shows that prairie vegetation may dominate for many thousands of years. When the Deciduous Forest Formation comes into competition with the Prairie Formation, the Andropogon furcatus Association may be suc- ceeded by several of the associations of the Deciduous Forest Forma- tion. This is not to be interpreted as saying that the Prairie Formation is a transition between Plains Grass-land and Forest; neither is it to be 558 understood as one of the series of successions leading to the Deciduous Forest Climax. When the Prairie Formation is succeeded by Deciduous Forest associations, it is exactly the same phenomenon that occurs when the Deciduous Forest invades and succeeds the Northern Evergreen For- est Climax—the Abies-Picea-Betula Association. Only in this sense is the Andropogon furcatus Association a temporary climax. We must therefore conclude that the Andropogon furcatus Asso- ciation is the climax association of the true prairies. Where the prairie grades off almost imperceptibly into Plains vege- tation there is an intermediate region in which it is too dry for Andro- pogon furcatus and in which the Andropogon scoparius association is the climax association of the prairie. In this intermediate region in the hydrarch succession, Andropogon furcatis is succeeded by AniGECs Scoparius. ANNOTATED List OF SPECIES No attempt was made to make a complete list of all the prairie species in the state. The following list is added primarily to give a more complete record of the secondary species of the different asso- ciations, and an attempt is made to check them with reference to the associations in which they are most usually found. Introduced species, ruderals, and species found only on railway rights-of-way or greatly disturbed areas are listed usually without reference to associations. Some of the weeds and most of the species characteristic : of forest bor- ders and small forest openings, which do not extend very far out on the prairie, are omitted. This list, compiled from small relic areas and un- der the present disturbed conditions, is subject to the limitations pre- viously discussed and can only approximate the distribution under natural conditions. Consequently reference is made only to the more promi- nent associations. These associations are referred to in the tabulation by initial letters as follows: S. f. a., Scirpus Auviatilis association, C. a., Carex association, S. M. a., Spartina Michauxiana association, C. c. a., Calamagrostis canadensis association, P. v. a., Panicum virgatum asso- ciation, A. f. a., Andropogon furcatus association, A. s. a., Andropogon scoparius association, M. g. a., Mixed grass association on sand, P. b-g. a., Pioneer bunch- -grass association on sand, P. p. a., Panicum pseu- dopubescens association. The nomenclature follows the Vienna Code, as given in the seventh edition of Gray’s Manual. 559 S.f. a. a. S. M.a. OnGs Ge P. v. a. PN Ss. M. g. a. P. b-g. a. Papa: Polypodiaceae Aspidium Thelypteris Onoclea sensibilis Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense td hyemale ae s var. inter- medium Selaginellaceae Selaginella rupestris fs apus Typhaceae Typha latifolia Sparganiaceae Sparganium eurycarpum a angustifolium Najadaceae Potamogeton zosterifolius Alismaceae Sagittaria latifolia 2 graminea Alisma Plantago-aquatica Gramineae Andropogon scoparius ee furcatus Sorghastrum nutans Digitaria sanguinalis Leptoloma cognatum Paspalum Bushii ee circulare Panicum capillare ss dichotomiflorum virgatum perlongum Lindheimeri huachucae implicatum tennesseense praecocius Scribnerianum pseudopubescens < Leibergii Echinochloa crusgalli Setaria viridis 7 glauca Cenchrus carolinianus Zizania palustris Leersia oryzoides Phalaris arundinacea = =r = —h =k =F bh = hbk =f = aes fs fe =r =a =) = =} =}: —|- | & | Tae iets as ! 7 t al 7 as eee | egal Tela) .* ! | + ! 5 el a # ifs hat toto le te [ek 7 Nall (ea » | + a as ! Heda ax (Pashiic Mae due et 7 a* ! +. Tealonte ete ilieat 7 es ! 564 S.f.a Leguminosae—concluded Lespedeza capitata Vicia americana Lathyrus palustris Apios tuberosa Linaceae Linum sulcatum «medium Oxalidaceae Oxalis violacea rs corniculata Polygalaceae Polygala polygama sanguinea 38 verticillata f “ var. ambigua Euphorbiaceae Croton glandulosus, var. septentrio- nalis Croton capitatus Crotonopsis linearis Euphorbia Geyeri Preslii oe maculata ne humistrata sé corollata iY dentata Callitrichaceae Callitriche autumnalis Malvaceae Callirhoé triangulata Hibiscus lasiocarpus Hypericaceae Hypericum punctatum “ ellipticum e mutilum af Drummondii of gentianoides Cistaceae Helianthemum majus Lechea tenuifolia Violaceae Viola pedata - papilionacea “ pedatifida sagittata lanceolata Cactaceae Opuntia. Rafinesquii =! a. S. M. a. = ad|ad}g]/a|% S| e)a| a | a Ol/ald\ds/s s&s | & | Cie laa | Talo i Pellak Sala Pasa | lla T - | & Het Seat sollte feat ele 7/7 7 | 7 - rie | feet Voila i { ; te ! Wea } feat itn at et i at ! le a Pe eat 7 me ‘ ! Toa i ste [att chim | pat —}° ==. —[- f° =|: =|: =[- =|- =I =| =| —h =f —|- —]s I= —
    Antrostomus carolinensis, 126. Ants, 55, 102. Anychia polygonoides, 562. Apateticus, 161, 176, 197, 199, 218. bracteatus, 199, 200. crocatus, 199, 200. eynicus, 199, 200, 201. maculiventris, 199, 201. modestus, 199, 200, 201. placidus, 199, 200. serieventris, 199, 201. Aphids, 345, 355, 357. Aphis maidis, 64. rumicis, 355. Aphonus pyriformis, 83, 84. Apios tuberosa, 564. Aplodinotus grunniens, 230. Apocynaceae, 565. Apocynum cannabinum hypericifolium, 539, 555, 565. Apodes, 230. Apoecilus, 199, 219. bracteatus, 200. crocatus, 200. cynicus, 200. Apple, 173, 174, 181, 201, 355. Araceae, 561. Aradidae, 161. Aradus, 161. Archimerus, 160. Aristida oligantha, 556, 560. tuberculosa, 549, 560. Arma bracteata, 200. modesta, 200. Army-worm, 295. Fall, 295. Army-worms, 117. Arribalzaga, 320. Arrowhead, 325. INDEX 581 Artemisia caudata, 568. Arthropods, 228. Arvelius, 159, 178, 183. Asclepiadaceae, 565. Asclepias incarnata, 554, 555, 565. sullivantii, 556, 565. syriaca, 565. tuberosa, 556, 565. verticillata, 556, 565. Asellus, 440. aquaticus, 443. sp., 477-479, 481, 484-488, 504, 505, 515, 516, 519, 520. Ash, 181. Asilid larvae, 53, 99. Asilidae, 55, 56, 57, 58, 87, 89-96, 97, Asilus, 89. lecythus, 96. paropus, 96. Asopinae, 158, 159, 161, 163, 165, 166, 196-202. Asparagus, 185. Aspidium thelypteris, 555, 559. Aster depauperatus, 556. parviceps, 567. ericoides, 556, 567. lateriflorus, 567. linariifolius, 556, 567. multiflorus, 556, 567. paniculatus, 555, 567. ptarmicoides, 567. sericeus, 556, 567. tradescanti, 567. Wild, 76. Astragalus canadensis, 563. Atomosira sordida, 182. Aulacostethus simulans, 171. B Bacteria, 440, 441, 442, 443, 572. Badger, 129. Banasa, 159, 178, 180, 181. calva, 181, 182. dimidiata, 181, 182. euchlora, 182. imbuta, 181. sordida, 182. Baptisia bracteata, 563. leucantha, 555, 563. Barley, 260, 261, 262. Bartramia longicauda, 125. Bass, 34. Black, 150, 152. Large-mouthed, 27, 154, 155, 230. Small-mouthed, 27, 230. Calico, 27. Rock, 27, 29, 150, 152, 230. White, 150, 152. Yellow, 150, 152. Bee-fly, tawny, 87-88. Bee-killers, 89, Beetles, small, 516, 521. Berries, 214. Berytidae, 160. Bethylidae, 55, 5 Betula, 558. Bichaeta, 49. Bidens aristosa, 293. frondosa, 568. spp., 293, 568. Biomyia, 55, 56. lachnosternae, 107, 114-115. Birch, 335. Birds, 53, 55, 56, 58, 124-127, 232. Blackberry, 188, 335. Blackbird, 124. Crow, 124, 125. Red-winged, 125. Blackbirds, 125, 126. Black-foot, 260, 262. or black-stem of wheat, 262. Black-stem, 260. Blarina brevicauda, 129. Blepharida rhois, 198. Blissinae, 160. Blister-beetle larvae, 101. Blueberry, 335. Bluebird, Eastern, 125. Bluegill, 228, 230. Blue Jay, 126. Bluestem, low, or short, 551, 570, 571. tall, 541, 551, 569, 570, 571. Bob-white, 125. Boltonia asteroides, 567. 582 Bonasa (see Errata) umbellus, 125, Boraginaceae, 566. Borer, European Corn-, 287-291, 293 (see Errata), 294, 298-302. Nelumbo-, 302-303. Smartweed, 291-294 3038-304. Botrytis tenella, 123. Bouteloua, 550. curtipendula, 551, 560. hirsuta, 551, 552, 556, 560. Bowfin, 155. Brachyplatys sp., 162. Brauneria pallida, 556, 568. Breeze-fly, 99. Brepholoxa, 178. Briseur de chaumes, 260. Brochymena, 159, 160, 163, 165, 172- 174. arborea, 172, 173, 174. eariosa, 1738. 4-pustulata, 172, 173. Bromus, 262. kalmii, 560. mollis, 262. sterilis, 262. Broom-corn, 290. Brown-tail Moth, 173. Brusone, 260. Bryozoa, 365, 380, 440. Bubo virginianus, 125. Buffalo-fish, 25, 150, 151, 152, 155, 475. Mongrel, 230. Small-mouth, 230. Bufo americanus, 129, 231. Bullfrog, 231. Bullhead, Black, 27, 154, 230. Speckled, 155, 230. Bulrushes, 570, 573. Bunch-grass, 205, 552. Pioneer, 550, 551, 553, 556, 558. Buteo borealis, 125. lineatus, 125. platypterts, 125. Button-bushes, 419. Buttonwood, 332. (see Errata), INDEX Cc Cabbage, 187, 188. Cacalia, 538. atriplicifolia, 556, 568. tuberosa, 555, 556, 568. Cactaceae, 564-565. Caddis larvae, 373, 387, 391, 401, 407, 435, 440, 442, 477, 478, 480, 483, 493, 496-501, 503-505, 507, 510, 511, 515-521. Caenis larvae, 520. nymphs, 497, 498, 507, 518, 514, 515. Calamagrostis canadensis, 533, 534, 535, 537, 538, 539, 542, 548, 545, 547, 553, 555, 558, 560, 570. inexpansa, 555, 560. “Calamovilfa longifolia, 550, 560. Callirhoé triangulata, 556, 564. Callitrichaceae, 564. Callitriche autumnalis, 564. Callosamia promethea, 201. Calosoma calidum, 101. lugubre, 101. scrutator, 101. Camassia esculenta, 562. Camirus, 169. Campeloma subsolidum, 440, 443, 477, 478, 480-491, 498-505, 507, 509-511, 517, 520. Campsomeris, 89. dorsata, 73, 89. Canarsia hammondi, 201. Canis latrans, 128. Canthophorus, 203. Carabidae, 55, 56, 57, 100-101. Carassius carassius, 27. Cardamine bulbosa, 563. Carex, 534, 542, 553, 554, 558. bebbii, 555, 561. bicknellii, 561. crus-corvi, 561. festucacea, 561. filiformis, 561. frankii, 561. gravida laxifolia, 561, grisea, 561. INDEX 583 Carex—Continued. lanuginosa, 533, 554, 555, 561. lupulina, 554, 561. muhlenbergii, 551, 561. pennsylvanica, 554, 561. rostrata, 554, 561. sartwellii, 554, 561. schweinitzii, 561. scoparia, 555, 561. shortiana, 561. spp., 542. squarrosa, 561. stipata, 554, 561. straminea, 554, 561. stricta, 537, 538, 554, 561. decora, 561. suberecta, 561. tribuloides, 554, 555, 561. vesicaria, 533, 554, 561. vulpinoidea, 554, 555, 561. Carp, 150, 152, 154, 467, 475. Common River, 230. Crucian, 27. European, 149, 151, 155, 230. Carpiodes carpio, 230, 232, 233, 236, 238, 242. velifer, 230. Carpocoris, 180. Carrot, Wild, 186. Caryophyllaceae, 563. Cassia chamaecrista, 556, 563. Castilleja coccinea, 566. Catalpa, 181. Catbird, 126. Catfish, 150, 151, 152. Catorintha, 160. Catostomus commersonii, 27, 243, 245. Cats, 132. Cattail-flag, 305. Cattails, 311, 317, 324, 325, 326, 573. Cauliflower, 185. Ceanothus, 15. americanus, 214, 550. Cedar, Dwarf, 183. Celery, 214, 290. Cenchrus carolinianus, 550, 559. Centrorhynchidae, 235. Centurus carolinus, 126. Cephalanthus occidentalis, 554, 567. Cephalobus (7?) sp., 119. Ceratophyllum, 380, 418, 435, 437. Certatopogon, larvae, 517. Ceraturgus, 89. cruciatus, 96. Chaenobryttus, 155. Chalecid parasites, 345. Chamaemyia, 346, 347. elegans, 347. Channel-cat, 230. @hara; 433; 516, 517; 518. Chelydra serpentina, 231. Chelysoma, 169. Chenopodiaceae, 562. Chenopodium album, 293. Cherry, 173. Chickens, 130-131. Chinquapin, 294. Chironomidae, 375, 435, 476. larvae, 391, 438, 440, 442, 477-479, 482-521. Chlaenius tomentosus, 101. Chlamydomonas, 441, 442, 443. Chlorochroa, 176, 179, 183, 184. congrua, 184. ligata, 184. persimilis, 183. sayi, 184. uhleri, 183, 184. Chlorocoris, 178. Chlorophyceae, 440. Chrysanthrax, 55, 56. fulvohirta, 76. Chrysemys marginata, 231. Chrysopsis, 3, 183. villosa, 567. Chub-sucker, 230. Chuck-will’s Widow, 126. Chufa, 205. Cicindela 12-guttata, 89. Cicuta maculata, 555, 565. Ciliates, 440, 441. Cimbex americana, 116. Cimex bioculatus, 198. ecaeruleus, 202. 584 : INDEX Cimex—Continued. carnifex, 188. custator, 185. ictericus, 194, lugens, 188. nitiduloides, 210. pennsylvanicum, 181. pugnax, 188. pyrrhocerus, 192. quadripustulata, 173. Cirphis unipuncta, 117. Cirsium discolor, 568. lanceolatum, 568. pumilum, 568. Cistaceae, 564. Citellus franklini, 128. tridecemlineatus, 128. Citrus-bug, Mealy, 348. Cladocera, 440. Cladosporium herbarum, 260, 261, 263. Clam-worm, 29. Clams, 34. Clematis viorna, 563. Clemmys guttata, 242. insculpta, 242. Clisiocampa americana, 201. disstria, 201. Clover, Sweet, 74, 76, 203. White Sweet, 77, 78. Coccyzus erythrophthalmus, 125. Cocklebur, 293. Coelastrum, 441, 442, 448. Coenomyia ferruginea, 97. pallida, 97. Coenus, 160, 178, 180, 195. delius, 195. Colaptes auratus, 126. Coleoptera, 3, 100-101. larvae, 2, 479. Colinus virginianus, 125. Colorado Potato-beetle, 173, 201. Coluber constrictor, 231. Comandra umbellata, 555, 556, 562. Commelina virginica, 549-50. Commelinaceae, 561. Compositae, 567-568. Coneptus sp., 127. Conifer zone, 531. Coniosporium, 261, 263. Convolvulaceae, 565. Convolvulus sepium, 565. Copepoda, 440. Coptosomidae, 159, 162. Cordyceps, 123, 124. herculea, 123. melolonthae, 123. militaris, 123. ravenelii, 123. sp., 123. Coregonus clupeiformis, 237. Coreidae, 160, 161, 162. Coreopsis palmata, 556, 568. tripteris, 568. Corethra larvae, 493, 517. Corimelaena, 163, 164, 207, 211. agrella, 213, 216. anthracina, 211, 213. ciliata, 208. denudata, 210. extensa, 213. harti, 212, 213, 215-216. interrupta, 212, 214, 215. lateralis, 212, 213, 215, 216. minutissima, 212, 214-215. montana, 212. nanella, 212, 215. migra, 210. obtusa, 208. polita, 211, 213. pulicaria, 212, 213, 214, 215. renormata, 208. sayi, 209. Corixa, 510. Corizus, 161. Corn, 185, 187, 188, 194, 288, 290, 291, 292, 294. -borer, European, 287-291, 293 (see Errata), 294, 298-302. Ear-worm, 294, 295. Sweet, 290, 298, 294. Cornus, 555. amomum, 555. stolonifera, 554. INDEX 585 Corvus brachyrhynchos, 124, Corythuca, 161. Cosmopepla, 160, 176, 179, 188. bimaculata, 188. lintneriana, 188. Cotalpa lanigera, 81. Cotinus, 132. nitida, 89, 117. Cotton, 189, 195, 295. -worm, 189. Cottonwoods, 536. Cowbird, 125. Coyote, 128. Crappie, 150, 152. Black, 27, 155, 230. White, 27, 155, 230. Crassulaceae, 563. Crataegus, 555. Crayfish, 365, 484. Crickets, 102. ‘ Cristatella jonesii, 531-532. Cristivomer namaycush, 237. Crotalaria sagittalis, 555, 563. Croton capitatus, 564. -glandulosus septentrionalis, 564. Crotonopsis linearis, 564. Crotophaga ani, 126. sulcirostris, 126. Crow, 53, 55, 58, 124, 125, 126, 127. Blackbird, 124, 125. Cruciferae, 187, 563. : Crustacea, 228, 364, 365, 376, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, 427. Cryptochaetum, 345, 346, 348. iceryae, 348. Cryptomeigenia, 55, 56. aurifacies, 107, 110. theutis, 107-110, 112, 113. Cuckoo, 125. Cucumber-beetle, 12-spotted, 201. Culex, 310. jamaicensis, 320. pipiens, 320. ° salinarius, 320. saxatilis, 320. Culex—Continued. sp., 3205 territans, 320. Culiseta inornata, 320. Currant, 188. Cutworms, 88, 99. Cyanocitta cristata, 126. Cyclocephala, 59, 97, 99, 125. Cycloganoidea, 230. Cycloloma atriplicifolium, 562. Cyclopidae, 457. Cyclorrhapha, 345. Cyclotella, 441, 442, 443. Cydnidae, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 167, 202-216. Cydninae, 160, 165, 202, 206. Cydnini, 164, 203-206. Cydnoides, 207, 208. ciliatus, 208. renormatus, 208. sayi, 208, 209. Cydnus bilineatus, 204. mirabilis, 205. sp., 205. spinifrons, 206. Cyminae, 161. Cynodon, 260. Cyperaceae, 560-561. Cyperus cristatus, 560. esculentus, 205. filiculmis, 556, 560. ovularis, 560. * schweinitzii, 551, 552, 560. strigosus, 555, 560. Cyprinus carpio, 230, 232, 236, 238. Cyrtocorinae, 158, 162, 166. Cyrtomenus, 203, 204, 205. mirabilis, 205. D Dactylis glomerata, 560. Danthonia spicata, 556, 560. Datana ministra, 201. Datura stramonium, 293. Dendrocoris, 176, 178, 180, 183. humeralis, 183. Depressaria ‘heracleana, 297. 586 Deromyia, 89. discolor, 95. umbrina, 95. winthemi, 94-95. Desmodium illinoense, 555, 563. sessilifolium, 555, 563. Dexia abdominalis, 84. Dexiids, 78. Diabrotica 12-punctata, 201. Diatoms, 440, 441, 442, 443. Diceraeus euschistoides, 193. - Didelphys virginiana, 128. Diemyctylus viridescens, 239. Digger-wasps, 57. banded, 73-78. black, 53, 59-73. yellow-banded, 53. Digitaria sanguinalis, 559. Diodia teres, 549, 556, 567. Diolcus, 168. Diospyros virginiana, 335. Diplogaster aerivora, 119. Diplotaxis, 107. Diptera, 57, 88, 345-361. Discocephala, 175. Discocephalini, 174, 175. Discocerini, 196. Dodecatheon meadia, 556, 565. Dogfish, 155. fresh-water, 230. Dogs, 131-132. Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 126. Dorosoma, 231. cepedianum, 226, 230, 245, 246. Draba caroliniana, 563. Drum, 151, 155. Dryptocephala, 175. Duckweed, 317. Dumatella carolinensis, 126. - Dyscinetus, 59. Dysdercus, 160, 161. E Earthworms, 128. Echinochloa crusgalli, 298, 559. Echinorhynchidae, 235-239. INDEX Echinorhynchus, 232, 233, 235-236, 241. agilis, 247. angustatus, 233. clavaeceps, 233, 251, 252. clavula, 234. coregoni, 234, 235, 237, 254. gadi, 233, 234. gigas, 130. hexacanthus, 249. proteus, 233, 237. salmonis, 234. salvelini, 234, 235, 236-237, 254. thecatus, 228, 230, 282, 234, 236, 241, 254. truttae, 234. Edessa, 175, cruciata, 196. lateralis, 195. Edessinae, 159. Edessini, 174, 175. Eel, American, 230. Eels, 150, 152. Elasmostethus cruciatus, 195, 196. Elaterid, 102. Elder bush, 335. Eleocharis acicularis, 554, 560. intermedia, 554, 555, 560. obtusa, 554, 555, 560. palustris, 554, 555, 560. wolfii, 560. Elis, 53, 55, 56, 57, 85, 89. atriventris, 76, 77. illinoisensis, 77, 78. interrupta, 76, 77-78. obscura, 78. 5-cincta, 73-76, 77, 125. sexcincta, 76. spp., 73-78. Elm, 173, 174, 330, 332. Winged, 332. Elymus canadensis, 555, 560. glaucus, 560. virginicus, 555, 560. Emys serrata, 242. Entomostraca, 457. Eorhynchus, 241, 245, 246. INDEX Ephemeridae, 407, 414, 435. Epicoccum neglectum, 261. Equisetaceae, 559. Equisetum arvense, 559. hyemale, 559. intermedium, 559. Eragrostis megastachya, 560. pectinacea, 551, 552, 560. trichodes, 560. Erax, 89, 90, 99. aestuans, 93-94. albibarbis, 94. cinerascens, 94. interruptus, 92. lateralis, 92. maculatus, 92-93. Erigeron annuus, 567. philadelphicus, 567. ramosus, 567. Erimyzon sucetta oblongus, 230. Eryngium yuccifolium, 539, 556, 565. Esox lucius, 242. Eudorina, 442. Eupatorium perfoliatum, 554, 567. purpureum, 567. serotina, 567. Euphorbia corollata, 549, 556, 564. dentata, 564. geyeri, 564. humistrata, 564. maculata, 564. preslii, 555, 564. Euphorbiaceae, 564. Eupomotis gibbosus, 230, 233, 236. Euptychodera, 168. European Corn-borer, 287-291, 293 (see Errata), 294, 298-302. Eurygaster, 167, 168. alternatus, 168. Euschistus, 158, 160, 165, 177, 189-194. euschistoides, 190, 191, 192, 193-194. fissilis, 193. ictericus, 190, 191, 194. impictiventris, 190, 193. luridus, 192. pallidus, 192. 587 Euschistus—Continued. politus, 190, 192. pyrrhocerus, 190, 192-193. servus, 190, 191, 193. subimpunctatus, 190, 191-192. tristigmus, 190, 192. variolarius, 191, 194. variolarius, 191, 194. Euthyrhynchus, 197. Eutrixa, 55, 56. exile, 107, 110, 112-114. masuria, 112. Eutrixoides jonesii, 107, 110. Evening Primrose, 293. Eventognathi, 230. Exoprosopa, 55, 56, 69. fascipennis, 69, 71, 72. pueblensis, 72. Eysarcoris, 180. F Falco sparverius, 125. Fannia canicularis, 118. Fauna, small bottom- and shore-, of middle and lower Ill. R. and its connecting lakes, 363-522. Festuca elatior, 560. Field-mice, 129. Filicollis, 237. Fir, 569. Fish-yields, 376, 463-467, 469-471. Fishes, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 158, 154, 155, 156, 225, 227, 228, 232, 238, 237, 238, 239, 240, 251, 2538, 317, 326, 431, 578. bottom-feeding, 365. carp-like, 467. game, 155. Flagellates, 440, 441. Flicker, 125. Flycatcher, Crested, 125. Scissor-tailed, 125. Fogheta, 260. Fokkeria, 167. Fox, 128. Fragaria virginiana, 555, 563. 588 Fragilaria cells, 442. Fraxinus americana, 556. Froelichia floridana, 562. Frog, Leopard, 231. Froghopper, Sugar-cane, 122. Frogs, 129. : Fundulus eggs, marine, 32. Fungi, 35, 56, 572. and foot-rot of cereals, 261, 262, 263, 264. Fungous diseases, 55, 58, 122-124. Fungus, green muscardine, 122, 123. take-all, 261. white muscardine, 123. Fusaria, 262. Fusarium, 263. nivale, 261. rubiginosum, 262. Fusskrankheit, 260. G Galgupha, 207, 209. aterrima, 210, 211. atra, 209, 210. denudata, 209, 210. nigra, 209, 210. nitiduloides, 209, 210-211. Galium boreale, 566. claytoni, 566. tinctorium, 566. Gamasidae, 102. Gar, Long-nosed, 230. Short-nosed, 155, 230. Gastropoda, 365, 375, 381, 382, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 404, 408, 409, 412, 414, 427, 439. Gaura biennis, 555, 556, 565. Gentiana andrewsii, 565. flavida, 565. puberula, 565. Gentianaceae, 565. Geocorinae, 161. Geocoris, 161. Geotomus, 204. pennsylvanicus, 204. Geotrupes splendidus, 117. INDEX Gerardia paupercula, 566. Geum triflorum, 563. Giant Thorn-headed Worm, 130. Gigantorhynchidae, 235. Gigantorhynchus hirudinaceus, 130. Gizzard Shad, 154, 226, 228, 2380, 232. Glyceria nervata, 537, 555, 560. septentrionalis, 554, 560. Gnaphalium polycephalum, 567. Goldenrods, 185, 293. Goldfish, 27. Gomphid nymphs, 491-493, 515-518. Goniobasis, 34. sp. 519. Gopher, 128. Gracilisentis, 240, 241, 245. gracilisentis, 230, 232, 234, 245, 254. Grackle, 125. (See also Crow Black- bird.) Grackles, 126. Gramineae, 559-560. Grape, 173, 181. Graphosomatinae, 160, 162, 163, 166, 171-172. . Graptemys geographica, 242. pseudogeographica, 231, 242. Grass, 311, 317, 324, 325. Barnyard, 293. Foxtail, 293. Kentucky Blue-, 541. mixed, 547, 550, 551, 552, 558, 558. Grasses, 183, 185, 188, 535, 539, 569. blue, 214, 528, 538, 540, 541, 542, 550. 551, 552, 573. meadow, 545. pioneer, 552. red top, 535, 540, 541, 542. sea of, 522, 525. slough, 5438. swamp, 536, 543. timothy, 541, 542, 545. Grasshoppers’ eggs, 101, 120. Ground-beetles, 101. Grouse, Ruffed, 125. Grub-parasite, West Indian, 89. Gryllidae, 55, 56. INDEX 589 Gryllus assimilis, 102. Gull, Franklin’s, 125, 126. Herring, 125. Laughing, 126. Gulls, 125, 126. Gum, Black, 335. Sour, 335. H Hackberry, 335. Hairworms, 88-89. Haloragidaceae, 565. Halydinae, 160, 162, 165, 166, 172-174. Halys punctulata, 189. Haplotaxidae, 44, Haplotaxis, 43. ascaridoides, 43. emissarius, 43-44, 46, 47. forbesi, 43, 44-48. gordioides, 43, 44. menkeanus, 43. Harpalus caliginosus, 101. pennsylvanicus, 100, 101. Harmostes, 161. Hawk, Broad-winged, 125. Red-shouldered, 125. Red-tailed, 125. Sparrow, 125. Hedeoma, hispida, 566. Hedgehog, 129. Helenium autumnale, 568. Helianthemum majus, 564. Helianthus, 88. annuus, 293. doronicoides, 568. grosseserratus, 556, 568. mollis, 556, 568. occidentalis, 556. illinoensis, 568. petiolaris, 568. scaberrimus, 568. Heliopsis helianthoides, 556, 568. scabra, 556. Hemiptera, 3, 159, 201. Hemp, 288. Hendersonia, 260, 263. Herbs, coarse, 547, 553. Herring, 33, 34. Toothed, 230. Heteroptera, 159, 160, 161, 162. Heterosceloides, 196. Heuchera hispida, 563. Hexagenia bilineata nymph, 485, 487, nymphs, 478, 488, 489, 491-493, 503, 505, 507, 510, 515-519. Hibiscus lasiocarpus, 564. Hickory, 189, 330, 332. Hiodon tergisus, 230, 232, 236. Hogs, 55, 130. Holoquiscalus brachypterus, 126. Homaemus, 163, 167, 168, 169-170. aenifrons, 169, 170. bijugis, 170. parvulus, 169, 170. proteus, 160, 162, 169. Honey-bees, 89. Honey locust, 330, 332, 333. Hops, 288. Hordeum, 261. jubatum, 560. murinum, 262. Horse-chestnut, 158. Horse-flies, 58, 97-100. Horse-fly, Autumn, 97-99. Black, 99-100. Horsemint, 203. Houstonia caerulea, 567. lanceolata, 567. Hyalella, 436. knickerbockeri, 28, 435, 478, 479, 481, 486, 497, 498, 502, 505, 508-521. Hydropsyche sp., 387. sp., larvae, 440, 442, 482-484, 487-493. Hylocichla guttata, 126. mustelina, 126. Hymenarcys, 160, 178, 180, 194. aequalis, 194. nervosa, 194, 195, Hymenoptera, 2, 55, 56, 73, 85-86. parasitic, 1-24. Hypericaceae, 564. Hypericum drummondii, 556, 564. ellipticum, 555, 564. gentianoides, 556, 564. 590 INDEX Hypericum—Continued. mutilum, 564. punctatum, 556, 564. Hyphantria cunea, 201. textor, 201. Hypoxis hirsuta, 562. I Icerya purchasi, 346. * Ichneumon-fly, 85. Ictalurus punctatus, 230, 232, 236. Ictiobus bubalus, 230, 232, 236, 238. urus, 230, 238. Illecebraceae, 562. Ilysanthes dubia, 566. Indian Mallow, 293 Insect larvae, 228, 364, 365, 366, 373, 384, 431, 439, 440. nymphs, 481. Insects, 376, 381, 382, 3838, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, 415, 416, 417, 427, 428, 429, 430, 432, 434, 435, 436. forest, 345-361. predaceous, 89-102, 317, 326. Iridaceae, 562. Tris, 542. versicolor, 555, 562. Isaria, 101, 124. densa, 123, 124. farinosa, 123, 124. vexans, 123. Ischnorrhynchus, 161. Isospondyli, 230. J Jalysus spinosus, 160. Jimson-weed, 293. Joint-grass, Blue, 570 Juncaceae, 561. Juncus, 534, 542. acuminatus, 561. balticus littoralis, 561. nodosus, 555, 561. tenuis, 544, 555, 561. torreyi, 555, 561. June-beetle, Green, 89. Juniperus sabina, 183. K Kermes, 352. Killdeer, 125. Killifishes, 29, 34. Koeleria cristata, 551, 556, 560. Krigia amplexicaulis, 568. Kuhnia, 183. eupatorioides, 556. corymbulosa, 567. Kyllinga pumila, 560. L Labiatae, 566. Labidesthes sicculus, 27. Lachnosterna, 53, 85. Lactuca canadensis, 298, 556, 568. ludoviciana, 568. seariola, 568. Lamb’s quarters, 293. Lampsilis parvus, 441. Largus, 160. Lark, Horned, 125. Larus argentatus, 125. atricilla, 126. franklini, 125, 126. Lasius niger americanus, 102. Lathyrus palustris, 555, 564. Lechea tenuifolia, 564. Leeches, 477-491, 493-511, 515, 517, 519, 520. Leersia oryzoides, 554, 555, 559. Leguminosae, 563-564. Lemna minor, 317. Lepachys pinnata, 556, 568. Lepidium virginicum, 568. Lepidopria, 55, 56. aberrans, 110. Lepisosteus osseus, 230. platostomus, 230, 2382, 236. Lepomis cyanellus, 27. humilis, 27. pallidus, 230, 233, 236. Leptoloma cognatum, 551, 552, 559 Leptosphaeria, 261, 262. herpotrichoides, 260, 262, 263. er, ee INDEX 591 Lespedeza capitata, 183, 549, 555, 556, 564. Lesquerella argentea, 532, 563. Lettuce, Wild, 293. Leucopis, 345, 346, 348, 349, 357. americana, 350, 354. bella, 350. bellula, 349. fiavicornis, 349. maculata, 349. major, 350, 352, 354. minor, 350, 354. nigricornis, 355. orbitalis, 349, 352, 355. parallela, 350, 353, 354. pemphigae, 349, 350, 352. piniperda, 349, 351. simplex, 349, 350, 353, 354. Leucopomyia, 346, 349, 355. pulvinariae, 355, 356-357. Leucotermes lucifugus, 120. Libellulid nymphs, 498, 501, 505, 508, 510, 512, 514, 515, 516, 517, 520. Libellulidae, 431. Liatris cylindracea, 567. seariosa, 556, 567. spicata, 539, 555, 556, 567. squarrosa, 556, 567. Lichens, 569. Ligyrus, 59, 73, 123. gibbosus, 61. tumulosus, 89. Liliaceae, 561-562. Lilium canadense, 561. philadelphicum, 561. superbum, 561, Lily-bed, 419. Limenitis ursula, 201. Linaceae, 564. Linaria canadensis, 566. Linum medium, 564. suleatum, 564. Liodermion, 179. Lioplax subcarinatus, 477-490, 496-500, 502-505, 509. Liotropis humeralis, 183. Lippia lanceolata, 555, 566. Lithospermum arvense, 566. canescens, 566. gmelini, 549, 566. Lobelia cardinalis, 554, 567. inflata, 567. spicata, 567. Lobeliaceae, 567. Lobolophus, 203. Locust, 335. Black, 355. Honey, 330, 332, 333. Loxa, 178, 181. sp., 181. Ludvigia alternifolia, 565. palustris, 554, 565. polycarpa, 565. Lumbriculidae, 49. Lycopus americanus, 555, 566. Lycosa helluo, 118. Lygaeidae, 160. Lygaeinae, 161. Lygaeus, 161. Lythraceae, 565. Lythrum alatum, 555, 565. M Macroporus, 204. Macrosiagon, 56. 8-maculatus, 73. pectinatus, 72, 73. Macrosporium cerealium, 261. graminum, 261. Mal del piede, 260. Mal do pé do trigo, 260. Maladie du pied, 260. Mallow, Indian, 293. Mallows, 419. Malvaceae, 564. Mammals, 58, 55, 56, 58, 127-129, 232. Maple, 189. Martin, 129. May-beetles, 58, 101, 102, 103-118, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129. May-flies, 414, 435. May-fiy larvae, 373. nymphs, 401. 592 INDEX Meadorus lateralis, 195. Meadowlark, 125, 126. Mecidea, 174. longula, 175. Mecidiini, 174, 175. Melanaethus, 204. picinus, 204. Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 126. Melilotus alba, 74, 563. officinalis, 563. Meloid larvae, 101. Melosira, 441, 442, 443. granulata spinosa, 145. Menecles, 161, 177, 180, 189. insertus, 161, 189, 201. Mephitis mephitis, 127. Skunk.) Mermis, 55, 56, 88. Mermithidae, 88-89. Metapodius, 160. Metarrhizium anisopliae, 122. americana, 122. Micrococcus nigrofaciens, 121. Microphthalma, 55, 56, 57. disjuncta, 78-81, 83. nigra, 78. pruinosa, 78, 81. Microporus obliquus, 205. Micropterus dolomieu, 27, 230, 233, 236, 242. salmoides, 230, 233, 236, 242. Millet, 288. Mimulus ringens, 554, 566. Mineus, 197, 201. strigipes, 201. Minnow, 154. Mint, 188. Mites, 55, 56, 102-103. Mochlosoma lacertosa, 85. Modiola, 438, 439. Mole, Common, 128. Moles, 128. Molluga verticillata, 562. Mollusca, 365, 366, 373, 374, 376, 381, 407, 412, 414, 415, 416, 417, 427, 428, 429, 430, 432, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 457, 472, 476. (See also Molothrus ater, 125. Monarda,, 3. fistulosa, 566. punctata, 203, 566. Mormidea, 160, 176, 177, 179, 188. lugens, 188. Morone americana, 2386. Mosquitoes, malarial, 307-328. Mosses, 569. Moxostoma aureolum, 27, 230. Mugil, 251. auratus, 248. cephalus, 247, 248, 251. sp., 248. Muhlenhergia mexicana, 560. Mullein, 187, 188. Moth, 188, 195. Murgantia, 158, 160, 165, 177, 179, 187 histrionica, 187. Muscivora forficata, 125. Musculium jayanum, 478, 494, 498, 499, 509, 511, 520. transversum, 477-503, 505-511, 516, 520. Mussels, 34. pearl-button, 365. Mustard, 188. Mutilla castor, 76. ferrugata, 76. Mutillidae, 55, 56. Mutyca, 196. Myiarchus crinitus, 125. Myiocera (Myocera), 55, 56. cremides, 78, 84. Myodochinae, 160. Myriophyllum, 435, 437. Mytilus, 438, 439. Myzine sexcincta, 73, 125. N Najadaceae, 559. Navicula, 441, 442, 443. Negro-bugs, 206. Neididae, 160. Nelumbo-borer, 302-303. Nematode parasites, 538, 55, 56, 58, 118-120. INDEX 593 Nematognathi, 230. Nemobius fasciatus vittatus, 102. Neoechinorhynchidae, 225, 232, 233, 235, 239-252. Neoechinorhynchus, 241-242, 245, 246, 249, 251. agilis, 241, 248, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250-251, 252. crassus, 234, 241, 243-244, 254. cylindratus, 230, 232, 233, 234. 241, 242, 254. emydis, 231, 234, 241, 242, 253. gracilisentis, 240. longirostris, 240, 246. rutili, 233, 234, 241, 251-252. tenellus, 234, 241, 242, 254. Neoleucopis, 349, 357. pinicola, 357. Neorhynchus, 240, 245, 246. Neotiphia, 3, 9. acuta, 4, 6, 9-10. Neottiglossa, 166, 176, 179, 186. cavifrons, 186, 187. sulcifrons, 186, 187. undata, 186, 187. New Jersey Tea, 214. Nezara, 159, 160, 176, 178. Noctuidae, 295. Notropis atherinoides, 154. Nut-weevils, 104. Nyctaginaceae, 562. Nysius, 161. fe) Oak, 174. Black, 332. Black-jack, 2, 183. Red, 335. Spanish, 335. Oats, 260, 262. Ochteridae, 159. Ochthiphila, 346, 347. polystigma, 347. Ochthiphilinae, 345-361. Octospinifer, 241, 244. macilentus, 230, 232, 234, 244, 254. Odonata, 431. Odontoscelis pulicarius, 214. Odontotarsini, 167-168. Oedancala dorsalis, 160. Oenothera biennis, 293, 565. pratensis, 565. rhombipetala, 565. Oligochaeta, 477-480, 490-494, 496, 498, 508-511, 516-520. Onagra biennis, 201. Onagraceae, 565. Oncopeltus, 161. Oncozygia, 171. Onoclea sensibilis, 555, 559. Ophiobolus, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264. graminis, 260, 262. herpotrichus, 260, 261, 262, 263. Ophion, 55, 56, 57. bifoveolatum, 85-86. Oplomus, 196. Opossum, 128. Opuntia fragilis, 532, 565. rafinesquii, 183, 184, 564. Orchidaceae, 562. Ortalid flies, 103. Orthoptera, 3. Ostracoda, 440. Otocoris alpestris, 125. Otus asio, 125. Owl, Barred, 125. Great-Horned, 125. Screech, 125. Oxalidaceae, 564. Oxalis corniculata, 555, 564. violacea, 564. Oxybaphus, nyctagineus, 562. Oxyechus vociferus, 125. Oxypolis rigidior, 565. Oxytropis lamberti, 563. Oyster-beds, 30. 484, 486-488, 502, 504-506, Oysters, 35. ie Pachycoris, 169. parvulus, 170. Pachygronthinae, 160. Padaeus, 180. 594 INDEX Paddle-fish, 150, 152, 230. -Palaemonetes, 28. Palmella, 440. Palpomyia larvae, 496, 503, 505, 506, 509-511, 516, 517, 520. Pandorina, 442, 443. Pangaeus, 208, 204. bilineatus, 204. Panicum, 189, 541, 555. capillare, 559. dichotomiflorum, 559. huachucae, 555, 559. implicatum, 555, 559. leibergii, 559. . lindheimeri, 555, 559: perlongum, 559. praecocius, 555, 559. pseudopubescens, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 556, 558, 559. seribnerianum, 551, 555, 556, 559. tennesseense, 555, 559. virgatum, 532, 533, 534, 536, 538, 539, 542, 543, 545, 547, 550, 551, 553, 555, 556, 558, 559, 570. Paraleucopis, 346, 348. corvina, 348. Parasites, 225-257. chalcid, 345. hymenopterous, 1-24. of May-beetles, 103-118. of Phyllophaga larvae, or white- grubs, 53, 54, 55, 57, 59-89. tachinid, 58. Parasitidae, 102. Parasitus sp., 102. Paratiphia, 3. algonquina, 24. Parietaria pennsylvanica, 562. Parsnip, Wild, 3. Parthenium integrifolium, 556, 568. Paspalum bushii, 559. ecirculare, 559. setaceum, 549, 551, 552. Passer domesticus, 125. Pastinaca sativa, 565. Peach, 173. Pear, 173. Pecan, 330, 332. Pediastrum, 441, 443. Pedicularis canadensis, 566. lanceolata, 566. Pelecinus, 55, 56, 57. polyturator, 86. Pelidnota punctata, 117. Pelocoris, 512. femoratus, 512, 514, 515. Pemphigus, 351. Pentatoma, 179. aequalis, 194. arborea, 173. bimaculata, 188. calceata, 184. calva, 182. cincta, 203. cynica, 200. delia, 195. dimidiata, 182. exapta, 198. hilaris, 181. inserta, 189. maculiventris, 201. nervosa, 195. picea, 185. semivittata, 186. serva, 193. tristigma, 192. undata, 187. variolaria, 194, Pentatomidae, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165-202, 205. Pentatominae, 158, 159, 160, 163, 165, 166, 174-195. Pentatomini, 161, 174, 175, 176-195. Pentatomoidea, 157-223. Penthorum sedoides, 554, 563. Pentstemon hirsutus, 556, 566. Peppergrass, Wild, 188. Perca flavescens, 27, 230, 233, 236. Perch, 150, 152. Common, 155. Yellow or American, 27, 230. Peribalus, 160, 177, 179, 185. limbolaris, 185. piceus, 185. a Perillus, 161, 164, 196, 197. bioculatus, 198. clauda, 198. circumcinctus, 198. exaptus, 197, 198. Perlid nymphs, 491. | Persimmon, 335. Petalostemum candidum, 555, 568. purpureum, 555, 563. Phalaris arundinacea, 554-55, 555, 559. Phanurus, 55, 56. emersoni, 100. tabanivorus, 100. Phidippus aulax, 88. Phimodera, 168. binotata, 168. Phlegyas abbreviatus, 160. Phleum pratensis, 544. Phlox bifida, 565. glaberrima, 556, 565. pilosa, 556, 565. Phoebe, 125. Phragmites communis, 554, 560. Phreoryctes emissarius, 43. Phyllophaga affabilis, 333. anxia, 81, 84, 106, 112. arcuata, 105, 106, 107, 112. balia, 106. bipartita, 105. burmeister, 114. calceata, 106, 114. clypeata, 333. congrua, 118. crassissima, 106. crenulata, 106, 114, 336. cribrosa, 58. drakii, 85, 107, 112, 329. dubia, 106, 112. insperata, 81. ephilida, 114. farcta, 117. fervida, 105, 106, 107, 112. forbesi, 114, 333. forsteri, 114, 333. foxii, 329, 334-335, 338. fraterna, 105-106, 107, 112, 330, 331, 334. INDEX 595 Phyllophaga fraterna—Continued. mississippiensis, 329, 330-332, 338. fusca, 106, 107, 112, 118. futilis, 104, 106, 107, 112, 118. gibbosa, 106, 107, 112. grandis, 107, 112, 329. hirticula, 106, 107, 112, 337. comosa, 329, 337, 338. hirtiventris, 106. ilicis, 106, 107, 112. * impar, 329, 335-336. implicita, 106, 107, 112, 117, 118. infidelis, 334, 335. inversa, 106, 107, 110. karlsioei, 329. lanceolata, 58, 116. luctuosa, 114. micans, 107. natural enemies of; 58-138. nitida, 84. nova, 114. n. sp., 112, 114. n. spp. and varieties, 329-338. parvidens, 336. hysteropyga, 336-337. pearliae, 329, 332-3338, 338. perlonga, 329-330, 338. postrema, 338. profunda, 112. prununculina, 114, 335. Pygidialis, 336. quadrata, 338. quercus, 114. rubiginosa, 336. rugosa, 84, 106, 107, 112. soror, 333-334, 338. tristis, 106, 107, 112. vehemens, -06, 107, 112, 114, 118. vilifrons, 112. Physa sp., 477, 479, 505, 507, 508, 510- 516, 519-521. Physalis heterophylla, 566. virginiana, 566. Physidae, 431, 432, 435, 435, 436. Physostegia virginiana, 555, 566. Phytalis smithii, 59. Picea, 558. Pickerel, 155. 596 Ee INDEX Pied noir des céréales, 260. Piesma, 161, Piétin, 260, 262. du blé, 260, 262. Piezodorus, 178. _ Piezosternum, 163. _ Pigeons, 126. Pigs, 129, 130. Pigweed, Prostrate, 293. Rough, 293. Pike, 150, 152. Wall-eyed, 150, 152, 155. = Pine, 352, 357. seedlings, 81. ; Pinus scapulorum, 351. Pisces, 229, 230, 231, 234. Pisidium spp., 477, 478, 479, 481, 494— 502, 504, 505, 506, 507-511, 515- 517, 519, 520. Pitcher-plants and Phyllophaga, 124. Plaice eggs, 29, 31. Planaria, 440. Planarians, 442, 491, 499, 500, 519, 520. Planesticus migratorius, 125. Plankton, 363, 375, 418, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 448-450, 454, 455, 457. -feeders, 440, 441, 442. Planorbis spp., 501, 502, 511, 513-517, 519. trivolvis, 431, 479, 481, 483, 486, 511- 514. Plantaginaceae, 566. Plantago aristata, 566. rugelii, 566. virginica, 566. Platycarenus, 175. Plea striata, 521. Plectana stellata, 118. Plethodon glutinosus, 129. Pleurocera, 34. sp., 477, 478, 480-490, 503-505, 507. Pleuorceridae, 375, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, 414, 435. Pleurococcus, 440, 443. Plover, Upland, 125. Plum, 332. Poa compressa, 537, 538, 560. pratensis, 534, 537, 538, 540, 542, 544, 560.- triflora, 560. Podisus, 199, 219. crocatus, 200. maculiventris, 201. modestus, 200. placidus, 200. serieventris, 201. strigipes, 201. Podops, 171. cinctipes, 160. parvulus, 172. Pokeberry, 188. Polemoniaceae, 565. Polycentropus larvae, 516, 517. Polygala polygama, 564. Sanguinea, 555, 564. verticillata, 555, 564. ambigua, 564. Polygalaceae, 564. Polygonaceae, 562. Polygonella articulata, 562. Polygonum, 419. acre, 562. amphibium, 554, 562. exsertum, 562. hydropiper, 293. hydropiperoides, 554, 562. muhlenbergii, 554, 562. pennsylvanicum, 562. persicaria, 562. tenue, 562. Polydon spathula, 230, 231. Polypodiaceae, 559. Polytaenia nuttallii, 565. Pomoxis annularis, 27, 230, 232, 236, 238. sparoides, 27, 230, 232, 236, 238. Pomphorhynchus, 227, 285, 237. bulbocolli, 230, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 253. laevis, 233, 234, 237. proteus, 237. Pond lilies, 326. INDEX 597 Pontederia cordata, 554, 561. Pontederiaceae, 561. Poplar, 332. Populus deltoides, 555, 562. grandidentata, 555. tremuloides, 555. Porthetria dispar, 201. Portulacaceae, 563. Porzana carolina, 126. Potamogeton, 380, 395, 418, 419, 433, 435, 437. zosterifolius, 559. Potato, 188. -beetle, Colorado, 201. _Potentilla arguta, 563. canadensis, 563. monospeliensis, 563, Prairie Chicken, 125. Prenanthes aspera, 556, 568. racemosa, 568. Primulaceae, 565. Prionosoma, 180, 189. podopioides, 189. Proctacanthus, 89. milbertii, 89, 96. Procyon lotor, 128. Promachus, 89, 96, 99. bastardii, 92. fitchii, 90, 92. vertebratus, 90-92, 98, 96. Prosena lacertosa, 78, 85. Proserpinaca palustris, 565. Protozoa, 440, 441, 442, 443, 457. Protozoan parasite, 53, 55, 56, 120-121. Proxys, 160, 177, 179, 189. punctulatus, 189. Prunella vulgaris, 566. Pseudemys concinna, 242. elegans, 231, 242. scripta, 242. troostii, 231, 242. Pseudodinia, 345, 346, 347. nitida, 347. polita, 347. pruinosa, 347. varipes, 347. Psorophora ciliata, 320. sayi, 320. Ptilodexia, 55, 56, 57. abdominalis, 78, 84. harpasa, 78, 82-84. tibialis, 82. Pulvinaria vitis, 346, 356. Pumpkinseed, 230. Pycnanthemum, 187. flexuosum, 556, 566. pilosum, 566. virginianum, 566. Pyralidae, 297. Pyrausta ainsliei, 305. caffreii, 304-305. nubilalis, 287, 297, 298-302, 303, 304, 305. obumbratilis, 291, 297, 298, 301, 302, 303-304, 305. penitalis, 297, 298, 301, 302-3038, 304. Pyraustinae, 297. Pyrgota, 53, 55, 56, 58, 103. undata, 103-107. valida, 103-107. Pyrophila poranlacitel, 201. Pyrophorus, 55. luminosus, 102. Pyrrhocoridae, 160. Quail, 125. Q Quercus falcata, 335. rubrum, 335. Quillback, 230. Quiscalus macrourus, 126. major, 126. quiscula, 124. aeneus, 126. aglaeus, 126. R Raccoon, 128. Ragweed, 293. Giant, 293. Rail, Virginia, 126. Rallus virginianus, 126. Rana catesbeiana, 231. pipiens, 231. 598 Ranunculaceae, 563. Ranunculus, 188. delphinifolius, 554, 563. fascicularis, 555, 563. septentrionalis, 555, 563. Rape, 188. Raspberry, 188. Red-horse, 27, 154, 230. Reeds, 317. Reptilia, 229, 231, 234, 240. Rhacognathus, 197, 202. americanus, 202. Rhadinorhyncus, 238. ornatus, 238, 254. pristis, 234. tenuicornis, 234, 238-239, 354. Rhipiphorid beetles, 72, 73. Rhipiphorus, 55, 73. Rhizoclonium, 443. Rhizoglyphus phylloxerae, 102. Rhomboganoidea, 230. Rhopalinae, 160. Rhus canadensis illinoensis, 198, 550. Rhytidolomia, 179, 184. belfragii, 184. Rice, 199, 262. -bird, 126. Robber-flies, 89-96. Robin, 58, 125, 126, 127. Robinia hispida, 335. Roccus americana, 236: Rosa blanda, 563. carolina, 563. setigera, 563. sp., 335. virginiana, 563. Rosaceae, 563. Rose, Wild, 335. Rotifera, 440, 441, 442, 443, 457. Rubiaceae, 566-567. Rubus nigrobaccus, 335. Rudbeckia hirta, 555, 556, 568. subtomentosa, 568. triloba, 556, 568. Ruellia ciliosa, 556, 566. INDEX Rumex altissimus, 562. , crispus, 562. verticillatus, 554, 562. f Rushes, 317, 5438. Rye, 260, 261. s Sabatia angularis, 565. | Sagittaria graminea, 559. latifolia, 554, 559. Salamander, Slimy, 129. Salicaceae, 562. Salientia, 231. Salix amygdaloides, 536, 554, 562. cordata, 554, 562. discolor, 554, 562. humilis, 562. longifolia, 554, 562. nigra, 554, 562. sericea, 562. Salmon, 25. ova, 34. San Jose Scale, 339-343. Santalaceae, 562. Saponaria officinalis, 563. Saprophytes, 263. Sarcophaga, 163. cimbicis, 116. falculata, 117-118. helicis, 117. n. sp., 116, 117. prohibita, 116. tuberosa sarracenioides, 116, 117. utilis, 117. Sarcophagidae, 55, 56, 58, 115. Sarracenia catesbaei, 124. Satureja glabra, 566. Saw-fly, Willow, 116. Saxifraga pennsylvanica, 563. Saxifragaceae, 563. Sayornis phoebe, 125. Scale, Cottony Maple-, 356. insects, 345. San Jose, 339-343. Scalopus aquaticus, 128. Scarabaeidae larvae, 2, 83, 123. Scenedesmus, 441, 442, 443. INDEX 599 Sciocorini, 174, 175. Sciocoris, 175. microphthalmus, 175. umbrinus, 175. Scirpus atrovirens, 554, 561. fluviatilis, 533, 584, 537, 538, 542, 553, 554, 555, 558, 560. lineatus, 561. pedicellatus, 561. validus, 554, 560. Scleria triglomerata, 561. Scolia dubia, 89. Scrophularia nodosa, 188. Scrophulariaceae, 566. Scutellaria aenifrons, 170. binotata, 168. dubia, 172. galericulata, 554. laterifolia, 566. parvula, 556, 566. Scutellerinae, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167-171, 186. Sea-urchin, 29. eggs, 31. Sedge-root, edible, 205. Sedges, 543, 569, 570. Sehirini, 202, 203. Sehirus, 160, 163, 208. cinctus, 203. Selachostomi, 230. Selaginella apus, 559. rupestris, 549, 550, 559. Selaginellaceae, 559. Senecio aureus, 555, 568. balsamitae, 555, 568. Serica, 78, 85. Serinetha, 161. Setaria, 189. glauca, 293, 559. viridis, 559. Shad, 25. Sheepshead, 150, 151, 152, 155, 230. Shiner, 154. Common, 29. Shovel-fish, 155. Shrew, 129. Short-tailed, 129. Shrimps, 28, 29. fresh-water, 28, 435. Sialia sialis, 125. Sialis larvae, 517, 520. Silene antirrhina, 563. Silphium, 538. integrifolium, 568. laciniatum, 539, 556, 568. terebinthinaceum, 539, 556, 568. Silverside, Brook, 27. Sisyrinchium angustifolium, 555, 562. Sium cicutaefolium, 554, 565. Skunk, Common, 127. Spotted, 127. White-backed, 127. Skunks, 53, 55, 58, 120, 127, 128, 129. Slider, 231. ‘ Smartweed, 291, 292, 293. Borer, 291-294 (see Errata), 304. Snails, 364, 365, 374, 382, 384, 401, 407, 414, 427, 431, 434, 435, 437, 440, 463, 472, 476. gilled, 34. Snake, Black, 231. Snakes, 232. Snapper, Common, 231. Solanaceae, 566. Solidago altissima, 567. canadensis, 567. graminifolia, 556, 567. missouriensis, 567. nemoralis, 544, 556, 567. riddellii, 555, 567. rigida, 556, 567. serotina, 555, 567. 303- sp., 293. Solubea, 160, 177, 179, 188. pugnax, 188. Somatogyrus sp., 478, 479. Sora, 126. Sorghastrum nutans, 545, 546, 551, 555, 556, 559. Spanish needles, 214, 293, 295. 600 INDEX Sparganiaceae, 559. Sparganium angustifolium, 559. eurycarpum, 554, 559. Sparnopolius, 55, 56, 57. fulvus, 87-88. Sparrow, English, 73, 125-126. Field, 125. Spartina michauxiana, 532, 533, 534, 537, 538, 542, 548, 545, 547, 553, 554, 555, 558, 560. Spermophile, Franklin’s, 128. Sphaeriidae, 365, 375, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 404, 408, 409, 412, 414, 415, 416, 417, 427, 428, 429, 430, 434, 435, 439, 440, 474. Sphaerium sp., 519, 520. stamineum, 478, 480-482, 486. striatinum, 440, 441. Sphaeroderma damnosum, 260. Sphaerotilus natans, 145. Sphyrocoris, 168. Spiders, 55, 56, 88, 118. Spilogala interrupta, 127. Spiraea vanhouteii, 355. Spiranthes cernua, 562. Sponges, 365, 380. Spoonbill Cat, 155. Sporobolus, 539. eryptandrus, 205, 551, 560. heterolepis, 539, 540, 545, 546, 551, 556, 560. Spruce, 569. seedlings, 81. Squamata, 231. Stachyocnemis, 160, 161. Stachys, 188, 203. palustris, 555, 566. tenuifolia, 554, 566. Stalk-borer, Common, 295. Starfish, 29. Starling, European, 125. Steironema ciliatum, 555, 565. lanceolatum, 554, 555, 565. quadriflorum, 565. Stenophyllus capillaris, 560. Stethaulax, 168, 170. marmoratus, 170-171. Stipa spartea, 551, 556, 560. Stiretrus, 196, 197. anchorago fimbriatus, 197. violaceus, 197. Stizostedion vitreum, 242. Strachia histrionica, 187. Straw blight, 260. Strawberry, 214. Strix varia, 125. Sturgeon, 150, 151, 152. Sturnella magna, 125. argutula, 126. neglecta, 125. Sturnus vulgaris, 125. Sucker, 232. Common, 27, 155. Suckers, 29, 150, 151, 152. Surirella, 442, Sumac, 198. Sunfish, 34. Bluegill, 155. Blue-spotted, 27. Orange-spotted, 27. Sunfishes, 150, 152. Sunflower, Common, 293. Western Tickseed, 293. Symphylus, 168, 171. Synchaeta pectinata, 441. Synedra, 443. Syrphidae, 345. -, Tabanidae, 55, 56, 57, 58, 91, 97-100. Tabanus, 99. atratus, 97, 98, 99-100. sulcifrons, 97-99, 100. Tabellaria fenestrata, 145. flocculosa, 145. Tachinidae, 13, 53, 56, 58. Tachinids, 78, 107-115. Talinum rugospermum, Tanaorhamphus, 246. longirostris, 230, 232, 234, 241, 246, 254. Taraxacum erythrospermum, 568. officinale, 568. ; 563. INDEX 601 Tautogolabrus, 28, 29. Taxidea taxus, 129. Tephrosia virginiana, 550, 556, 563. Tessaratoma, 161, 162, 163. Tessaratominae, 158, 159, 163, 166. Testudinata, 231. Tetyra, 169. alternata, 168. cinctipes, 172. fimbriata, 197. grammica, 170. lateralis, 213. marmorata, 170. Tetyrini, 167, 168-171. Teucrium canadense, 566. occidentale, 566. Thalictrum dasycarpum, 563. Thistle, 355. Thrasher, Brown, 125. Thrush, Hermit, 126. Wood, 126. Thyanta, 160, 176, 179, 180, 183, 184, 216. é antiguensis, 218. brevis, 218. calceata, 184, 217. casta, 217. custator, 184, 185, 216, 217. elegans, 217, 218. pallidovirens, 216. perditor, 217. punctiventris, 217. rugulosa, 217. Thyreocorinae, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 202, 206-216. Thyreocoris, 206, 207, 208. albipennis, 209. scarabaeoides, 206. Tiger-beetles, 89. Tineidae, 295, 297. Tingitidae, 161. Tiphia, 1-24, 58, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 73, 74, 85, 87, 125. acuta, 4, 6. . affinis, 6, 8, 19, 22, 23. - arida, 8, 20. aterrima, 8, 19-20. Tiphia—Continued. caniculatus, 4, 10. clypeata, 4, 7, 11-12, 69. clypeolata, 5, 7, 16-17. conformis, 6, 8, 22, 69. egregia, 6, 22. floridana, 6, 23-24. illinoensis, 6, 24. imitatrix, 8, 22. inaequalis, 6, 8, 22-23, incisurata, 7, 17. inornata, 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12-13, 59, 60, 61, 68-69. luteipennis, 6, 10. occidentata, 4, 5, 17-18. odontogaster, 4, 7, 13-14. parallela, 59. punctata, 1, 2, 6, 9, 16, 17, 19, 20-21, 22, 23, 24, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65-68, 69. intermedia, 8, 21. relativa, 23. reticulata, 8, 23, 69. robertsoni, 8, 21, 23, 69. rugulosa, 5, 7, 15-16. similis, 5, 18, 19. spp., 59-73. subcarinata, 4, 15. tegulina, 7, 21, 22. texensis, 9, 20. transversa, 4, 6, 11, 59, 60, 63, 66, 67, 68. tuberculata, 4, 7, 13, 14-15. vulgaris, 5, 6, 12-13, 60, 63, 69. waldeni, 23. winnemanae, 5, 23. Toad, 231. Common, 129. Tobacco, 295. Tomaspis varia, 122. Tomato, 395. Toxostoma rufum, 125. Tradescantia reflexa, 561. virginiana, 561. Trichodrilus, 49. allobrogum, 49, 50-51, 52. 602 INDEX Trichodrilus—Continued. pragensis, 49, 52. sanguineus, 49, 52. Trichopepla, 167, 177, 179, 186. atricornis, 186. semivittata, 186. Trichoptera, 375, 435. larvae, 435, 438, 440. Trifolium pratense, 563. Trissolcus murgantiae, 174. Troglodytes aédon, 125. Trout, 32, 239. Tumbleweed, 293. Turkeys, 130. Turnip, 188. Turtle, Leather-back, 231. Map, 231. Painted, 231. Turtles, 239, 253. Tussock-moth, 158, 173. Tylospilus, 218. Tympanuchus americanus, 125. Typha, 305. : latifolia, 534, 542, 554, 559. Typhaceae, 559. Typhula, 261. graminis, 263. Tyroglyphus armipes, 102. U Ulmus americana, 555. fulva, 555. Umbelliferae, 565. Unionidae, 365,.440, 477, 483, 490-493, 504, 505, 509, 511, 516, 517, 519. Uranotaenia sapphirina, 320. Urnatella gracilis, 440, 442. Urolabididae, 164. Uropoda, 102. Urticaceae, 562. V Vaccinium sp., 335. Valvata spp., 478, 479, 481, 495-5038, 505-515. Valvatidae, 427, 431, 432, 485, 436, 515- 520. Vanduzeeina, 168. Verbascum, 188. blattaria, 195. Verbena angustifolia, 566. hastata, 566. striata, 566. Verbenaceae, 566. Vernonia altissima, 554, 555, 567. fasciculata, 555, 567. illinoensis, 556, 567. missurica, 556, 567. Veronica perigrina, 214. virginica, 555, 556, 566. Vicia americana, 564. Viola lanceolata, 564. papilionacea, 556, 564. pedata, 564. pedatifida, 556, 564. sagittata, 556, 564. Violaceae, 564. Viviana, 114. lachnosternae, 114. ‘ Vivipara contectoides, 440, 443, 472— 473, 477-481, 483-490, 494-509, 511. subpurpurea, 482, 4838, 484, 485, 487,. 488, 489, 491, 504. Viviparidae, 375, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 398, 401, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, 414, 415, 416, 417, 420, 427, 428, 429, 430, 432, 484, 435, 486, 440. Vulsirea, 178. W Warmouth, 155. Wasps, Banded or Yellow-banded Dig- ger-, 53, 73-78. Black Digger-, 53. Water-birds, 229. Water-lilies, 317. Water-lily, Nelumbo or Western, 294. Weasel, 129. Web-worm, 128. Weda, 171. Weeds, farm, 544. Wheat, 189, 214. foot-rot of, 259-286. Whitefish, 25. eggs, 34. INDEX White-grubs, 1, 2, 3, 58, 58, 118-124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129. (See also Phyllophaga. ) White heads, 259. Wigglers, 309, 310, 317, 326. Willow, 173, 332. -flies, 407. Willows, 419, 536. Wireworms, 99, 128. Wolf, 129. Woodpecker, Golden, 126. Red-bellied, 126. Red-headed, 126. Worms, 226, 365, 381, 382, 388, 384, 385, 387, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 409. tubificid, 440, 443. Wren, House, 125. xX Xanthium spinosum, 293. Xyloryctes satyrus, 124. Xysticus gulosus, 118. M6 Yorkey-nuts, 419. Z Zicrona, 197, 202. caerulea, 202. cuprea, 202. Zizania palustris, 559. Zizia aurea, 565. 603 ye ey, Nr eee ‘s ; t { 4 ne , : Me ) * pe y ‘ v7 rf J ? a i bet i ) r ay STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES Chief Vol. XIII. BULLETIN Article I. THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS TIPHIA (HYMENOPTERA, ACULE- AA) IN EE COLLECTION OF THE ILLINOIS STATE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY BY J. R. MALLOCH PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS September, 1918 sty wt ar mee ey ae Ahi 4 i 5 i iy ‘dl