re —— STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chier BULLETIN OF THE Illinois State Natural History Survey URBANA, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. VOLUME XIV 1921—1923 PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS 1925 STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION A. M. SueEtton, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION A. M. SHELTON, Chairman WLLIAM TRELEASE, Biology JoHN W. Atvorp, Engineering JoHN M. Coutter, Forestry Kenpric C. Bancock, Representing the Epson 8. Bastin, Geology President of the University of 11li- WiiuiaAM A. Noyes, Chemistry nois THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION SrePHEN A. Forses, Chief ea ScHNEPP & BARNES, PRINTERS SPRINGFIELD, ILL. 1925 30259—600 CONTENTS ARTICLE I. THE ORCHARD BIRDS OF AN ILLINOIS SUMMER. BY STEPHEN A. FORBES AND ALFRED O. GROSS. (1 Map, 6. PAGE PE eASUH SS) yA MAIL PL Orlistat «er alste keto Naver ayaa hts, ava\e le aloyat ave Sa ata/nyeie, wiadSiwie dlalate 1-8 In Southern Illinois: _ PIpMMUAACEVOLDITOS «10 SONETAL foie a,c oscars) ove wie) iv ard Sivee Wio.e oo. sles sieicre RH CEINONCTADUNGANT -SDCCIGS s-cre/eie a cia ere aiejeiafsia oie cle stole ole le» a.0%si0,4 alae ahs Farm and commercial orchards compared.............+c+eeeeeeeee Men anGe DINGS UT COLCELLEMCE vic. .\oisiaaisie ors. 4) 5/200 c s\eisicie'se aioe’ ote sie sean Matsa Cu CLALIOUA Malacie's c/sfeisie cis ccs: sje.s aleiu lee 'vieiele bac, obese ew ciele.sre oe eve © arn onrow pw ARTICLE II. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FRESH-WATER SPONGES OF NORTH AMERICA. BY FRANK SMITH. June, 1921 9-22 SULSADRIVGGTL “oh otis cas eins pain CINEREA CAR Ine et ie 9 SP SELIGITG 6 Gch Sica oe OICae ScD SRA CIE BOR STC. SERIA igor Ge Pa a 10 HEV EETN OS) STSCI) be Ot Gadi ripen ey cI RCaonE SC POINT AIR acne 12 PMI IOALNOLEH AMMGTICAN: TECOLGS®. 221. \-\olc)s icles o's oeceies.e's'ee 0 Sees seis ee 14 Tabular presentation of distribution data.............cceceeceeeeeeee 16 Literature dealing with fresh-water sponges of North America........ 18 ARTICLE II]. A STUDY OF THE MALARIAL MOSQUITOES OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS. II. OPERATIONS OF 1920. BY STEW- ART C. CHANDLER. (1 Map, 2 Trext-ricures, 2 Grapus) NoveMBER, BLED ea Me crest Meet ot ai fu gsieiscts wo latest aiaust oda s-te tats ol Ve: ctiaysiselaliavetele:\eis opeta, # aie ke nip .'erahalet whe, 23-32 MOSCONE CHE OLIN cea tals o's cha lelaveres oiste o sicicvole else tec wisps b\eie'e We slele we sys e eeges wiacls 23 Description of the breeding places at Herrin..................-..0005 23 PM CMULOUICTION «Oly INOSOUITORS aisle sire cvelacns i -alsicils iwi slo G siars ie lous w/sia\e lave, oreyatevess 26 MaMNALrInOTOl MECEGINE | PIACES 45 os con icpisynolnve. 0.0 eier'e -e.'0ls,e/s aie oie es st oais 27 PERMA eID ELOR LNT sera icia tm cine s epeleisre «| elu tayhlo elie svefelere-s byalele ethia'els oe elalee le dais 29 Relation between malaria and the malarial mosquitoes............... 29 MUECIES OL GHOSGUALORS: ab ELerrin, LOZOQ WIS. cis cee cleanest vases sce 30 BRESILCTNES LODE OTA ois oft e eYeIeclie clare >: Clvve weave lalsee Snveiers Bi oeatac Nard evalatanatstatetavecls 32 ARTICLE IV. CHANGES IN THE BOTTOM AND SHORE FAUNA OF THE MIDDLE ILLINOIS RIVER AND ITS CONNECTING LAKES SINCE 1913-1915 AS A RESULT OF THE INCREASE, SOUTH- WARD, OF POLLUTION. BY ROBERT E. RICHARDSON. Dercem- Pea eres LD Uae toll eleetstciiny lala, ole aie init 154 Notes concerning selected individual saltants....................0- 155 } epHpralmdiscussian) Of ‘SaltaniON= ais ac aisetacyes aisle gre draverels oda cable deri 157 Tae ESENNST ESOT techn beta cada Parga tel al er Fhe aleset od Mele she oeiwsle oa dine y-aleld Seles 164 RO POEICHU EEL OER oe ayaa ose teiafole iazshakatoranoe sisi alleys, ce elelate obeeidievaie:s\ oie wave re csevele boos bile 168 SUHITERENAY Dodo pepe COMO OU DOD OE O.COn tICSn DOM AO Ce ROO Ee Oa eerie aeret 168 Muiterature Cited .2...6..si0<< Ses Oo ea hao o OCR OG: ue EE eee 171 Appendix: MUN EPEES (Emmet eed eee tc ey saad cfislc fore fet Cocoa Tol al ats atictn fereyeTsraieis Yopctarcsanchava avait wha autotetd 179 List of Helminthosporiums used for purposes of comparison........ 181 Discussion of foregoing list with several brief descriptions......... 184 ARTICLE VI. THE NUMBERS AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION IN SUMMER OF ILLINOIS LAND BIRDS OF THE OPEN COUNTRY. BY STEPHEN A. FORBES AND ALFRED O. GROSS. (36 PLATEs) BAM ReN eG ere a rat svectg stat vite tokcunitat’o1/-as ste! pile! aunhielsr chsia, ofs.5 iv Sige dei sip averore aieiicvers auda0e 187-218 ; Numbers of gregarious and solitary species, respectively............. 190 Minera bh SUCCICS, DOCS CALS 6 cry.taraaialever soo ova ofc ae. siete o)eliele: slc:'eiehe olalle 192 The most abundant birds by sections of the state.................0.-- 194 The most abundant species of the whole state.....................45. 196 @hanre or mumbers from North tO SOUL... .csi0 joc os vais et lalele es eee es 197 RSE AMM MVC CUALION ALCAN sycfoic/s-slereieistaisvalend sl ciaielsielaysi eis sonic 8 salerd c¥eie s-ole¥ed 199 PGE RITOMIOrOL, LLIMOIS PASLULES drinicls. © 0'sle/ce o14ie wdc ave |e'e o°e'eib'cle dled vlevelvie 6 200 BERTIE NTRIS ALLO OVARIES ete ctevavere sos ey euaychstel ousiei ey o\cards anayevetnresol syelavmnote: oalee aide Wi olalele tele 201 Birds in small grain and in stubble........ ofa} VsteyoresaYerovete" eles) osrete ial ea a's 203 Mhe birds, Of the Corm eld ........0..o60 cece. Sra ites tarate ans Wi aiclaceldatar dems 8 205 PAGE Birds on plowed serous ,..:)sicveeivers a wva.c-a ere ale aie acale a canahbunlOe aie et eee 206 The birds Of the: SwWATADS)s 315 5; «:ccjedss sles ereveye oud overevavaler's 'oveiate-s ths sues eee Rae 207 Binds OL stHevOpPeM AWOOGS sy iepetes «revere cranciejsters coc, sreyercvs.o:« acne adios aley sees 207 BUNS TOL CATO Soe ys care cue sesa jets) oleisuare) staseijeve otivi'e) ee) miele evavece ekelescik) Geena 209 Birds An) Shrub Deny, ..< otis icteyctts.scstevere:e levers aveio/a ilaveire)jajg vvaleceneinve, «abe stele eee eee 210 Birdsiof the farmivard ames ard ewe. eyes eve cress eters crete chelsleistioyelSvaraeeersenee eee 210 Wiastesand! fallow? Tanid's:5 .viysiccreieeve cb chars ate ie uw love oF ee Sale luce Sa eee 212 Summary sand) disetissiony oc 4.l-asenc tienes nee oc eee 213 ARTICLE VII. CODLING-MOTH INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST’S OFFICH, 1915, 1916, 1917. BY PRESSLEY A. GLENN. (8 Trext-rigures, 7 GraPpHS, 3 CHarts) AuGust, 1922..... 219-289 MerOMuUctoOny aStaheMenmty esque avetore cc ee ove te4e ass caye-cacecrstis elect eee one one eae 219 Definition ob termsiei seis ete cic tore: fe cisrese sersseausnese, 40k oie oe 219 GeneraliCGonclusion's sepvecctessseye cleus Ataid «octet eee ace ee eee 221 Houipmentvand ammethods of eworks,..2 201. «sc sac ess. o oe eee 223 WoaT BO-CAB S| SOMIOS | ols aya nite as.oceneie ere.aiess/ wisnelet a: et bTe raga\e ot Svallace svete OPA Oe er eRe 227 TeHEG-DISTONY: "SOTICS ei. sca ters sie 3 ene 2o a clseasavency revere tor dra PRerU ne arate ee 228 Banid Lecor dies CLLOS waiteteteratslele!-vaherais ievishe vei siscere « levavete stot tetele a eee eae 231 Influence of climatic conditions on the egg, larva, and pupa of the (fofilbbotecseaXs) No ors nos DO OnE De aee EO eee como ckincicn acon 231 ZONES LOL COMP SMALUTEs Gis tsites wie ie coc susie yess yas rye joauey cys tect Oe ee ee 232 General procedure in the study of temperature relations............ 233 Relation of temperature to development of the egg................- 234 Relation of temperature to development of the larva............... 239 Relation of temperature to development of the pupa................ 246 Conclusions from the foregoing discussicnis......... ss aceeeeee 252 Observations on the life history of the codling-moth in 1915, 1916, UENCE Ne cchece ten eReyecercolete ict c's! setelenstra’s Spsve:'e shayeiajele cialeye'e ORT Reena Tee 253 UMC UPAGLO WM SV OTI OG! atc te jere ene tanecasye ere: cue-one 16 avere98 toe reisvelnive dads TO ee 254 ABE NUE HoxsscrhoYel pl mn et CORA OL DOD AGRO OIE LGRIncinos ccicoancg jc os 254 EP AtaiTy AU TN OVO Uehitea stare teres e ailes ¥o13.8 (oe ates 0. ave 76 ec Sxareve versie AVON ES Sieh ereT ee 256 Combined ere alarval; and pupal) periods... ........-. esses pneeeeeeee 256 POURED Siero Ocho COST OO ODOOI ORO OME EOC OnIOE ne toes aoc ste 257 DO tALAITHE HPETIOG Ss sass) cvmtelevevsress. sis. ausps ta.0ss 4.5 sao esa are are kai Oe ae 257 OAD O SUG Gaeayatet erecta te fel woleve tet afore s nye)-azeh srcisyeve: evotrencpa’e. worefareiel one teicher on ere aeaanen 258 Relation of temperature to length of development period............ 258 Seasonal history sOLecmercodline-mobhy LOT svse cls eleveicn mrerenceeneneteienen 259 MU ATIAS= CH SSMS OLIEH ra arderesyeusysscys arlene 0s, 0 foaaKcbe sate donor Nelsciaren Ore eee ena % © 259 LEY sh de le(efoy Keyes Keynes) Meche eee c EDO. UOMO OHIO GROUND NOUNS GOGMGmat Ar ono 262 Summaryaot theyseasonal: history, 9115. 5 is2-.» cent creterrereto eee 263 Records for other points than Olmey:.cr.-..cys\oeln toe cle ciel sete eee ee 264 Generali: remarks) oniithe Season 2.52%... cinic sss ievelsselletel siete oie eration etnies 264 Seasonal history of the icodling-moth, 916% <5. 1.c)..«ecleels oeheiceiereieiene 265 ba S C2CAE Ch SOLOS orey eters ferent a yes ete le estore ls onailasesel ai stele tate eevee a ner re Rone nee 265 Banid eibeiesdyovbiene Riegece 295 MBS OMGlaesiCationme its) cie ne co seliondinsiete csig sauna nied wer womnceave 296 The forest: ERS EO Teviee tears re pareione) olistatoYe ei Micra ieweiciter eS 7G te eine ee! ote colon Siew arel ere feeiocey srimcel a 297 [GESTR (RW TGR aoa ble cin ® BOER IOEIOO EA OGIO? Itc Or EO nie, RECS Rei Recreate 298 Detailed exhibit of stand of types, by counties, for area surveyed, MUONS MECC La Oba ta, Od Oe rparete! ately er aaiee 317 Physiographie features: Fim @ISite any” 5 a GOR o sh ators Bo GeOnton anit meer a aOneeT D patie htc 318 pre TY STS COMETS ot hata tate af eve ola t st alaetor eV aiis feiss aia ey aaiial nani cand) ol'a)@\\nvoha e'oye yale sheccye 319 (Gch SA. aan Oe ORD BOOT nat On oac a et, LaLa OU REO TODOS ARTO 320 Shou! TATE Geen cS cca th Oe OTR AG CAINS COREL ORE EMER TON ROI ere cose 324 CHINES 6 Goto Sab dOCabOOO NE DIO CEG DH CIRO CT CLIO CECE CRCNCR A Sat 327 Il. Milling and logging operations and wood-using industries in south- ESUSTAMMLIANN SCO LEM Pe ope tctedete ai cy rye chavs cet acl sinner el stare cera sie: e oo/vyu/a'n:cbracevalela's: syerey slalielocen 327 MARE OL IMIS. With LOGAUION. M10) OULD Gs eye oye ose) 0.0) sie)o1s1e ine acniayvie 2-2 ¥ 1010 330 SaaS GEIGORMITOMIAL EV? tic ipa rethe efeeti ol eyatet ate olete seta) cisisterecevelaie\otarwisre Meio sisleaisleva 331 Manufacturers in the region, and products..............ceeeeeaee 332 Necessity for a local supply of “softwoods” for veneer purposes. . 333 Charcoal-making: Processes and yields...... Besrvievehsverd cbeie: ssrsaratabalene 334 Ties and mine timbers: eNO A CLOSS-LICS yayciuie els sieruieles.ele vie\es ans Sig SSL OCT Oe ACEI Cor area 335 Specifications, grades and sizes, species........ ie osiauas ieeieehtet enter 349 The OVETrHOW DOttOMIATGS)..2../5 ec orci eters n ose 2's o acaye mielte te, erepetene ohne tera 350 We Voliime anid! ‘Srowith "Studies ss. <0 cl ete1s i: <.;0.05%severallauere! sieleaelel aisha taeeeaanele 350 SSG Sry ATA SAG tela c avaiable sve el vin'»is/erecele la; «in ars 8ta) ciaie aievotesecskahel ete ete teneeamamn 351 PU DITOR ADU: isctetsees axe enol cet ole «01 se) ota} aisva ote araysie ate te tapas lerate theta) cetera ean 354 Appendix: Volume tables for leading species, and taper and growth apie and graphs for white and black oak..................... POCA o ¢ 357 ARTICLE IX. THE DETERMINATION OF HYDROGEN ION CON- CENTRATION IN CONNECTION WITH FRESH-WATER BIOLOG- ICAL STUDIES. BY VICTOR E. SHELFORD. (1 Trext-ricure, 1 GRAPTED)) TREBRUABY: 1928555 ite: os eileen ersyeieieye » ns) e-ayeievaparelelorateletal eal Eee 379-395 TELE PIGLAONE 5 coe ace cytes Perper at avp © sal ecepinyice aoe ica a: oahxval ecalovatle elaine Senha eR Rn ean 379 Methods of determining H ion concentration (pH)................... 380 The influence of hydrogen ion concentration on fertilization, develop- ment, growth, and survival in water deficient in oxygen.......... 381 Reactions of fish to differences in hydrogen ion concentrations....... 385 An examination of certain Illinois waters with special reference "to hy @rogsens TON CONGEMULATION .. «ceric ieee oes aie) cine ole oeeloielei sve sere ee 386 General relations of hydrogen ion concentration to other factors...... 388 DIscussion and SuMMALyY. Of TESUITS . oic.ci..01 nies se ace acre stelete enslereteneeeotemane 391 GOTEGTU SEONG ey ratere lore elerctolete. crete sy bi sjuetol deste Ww niiele sel sls eve 12 ete Toros at net ae oe 392 WWGkNGWICASMENCS! Miele eieic asics + ole vie eyece.w aise obs 01.100 Ble area seer ee eee 394 Bipliosraplyeuc ye coe cya + cheaierse\s sare, c'eyoreva eve /e ls alcis/aycte, eee siarenerer eters enter 394 ARTICLE X. ON THE NUMBERS AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF ILLINOIS LAND BIRDS OF THE OPEN COUNTRY IN WINTER, SPRING, AND FALL. BY STEPHEN A. FORBES AND ALFRED OAGROSS: MOGTOBER, G28). , s | 1s i i | 5 | L 1 wee oe i & ie bangs ae ie SW ey We sag SS pt--7 2 Pe tl ae tHe i = me = i § a Se = i} - Beit eee 4 i beech (5 ' | eee i f 5 | = EE | ie | npan 4 Y 1 ETT se ORNITHOLOGISTS IN LINES OF TRAVEL OF THE FIELD 1906, 1907, AND 190 AND , 9 POINTS FROM WHICH THEIR TRIPS RADIATED IN 1908. STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief Vol. XIV. BULLETIN Article I. Hide ORCHARD BIRDS OF AN ILLINOIS SUMMER BY STEPHEN A. FORBES and ALFRED O. GROSS, PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS June, 1921 STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION W. H. H. Miter, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION W. H. H. Mutter, Chairman WILLIAM TRELEASE, Biology JoHN W. AtyorbD, Engineering Joun M. Coutter, Forestry Kenpric C. Basecock, Representing the Rotimn D. SALispury, Geology President of the University of Illi- WittiamM A. Noyes, Chemistry nois THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION STEPHEN A. Forses, Chief ScHNEPY & BARNES, PRINTERS SPRINGFIELD, ILL. 1921 47054—1200 tid ArticLtE I—The Orchard Birds of an Illinois Summer. By STEPHEN A. ForBES AND ALFRED O. Gross. From 1894 to 1917 the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History (since merged in the Natural History Survey of the State), of which the senior author of this paper was director, was active in quantitative studies of the plankton of the rivers and lakes of Illinois, making common use, in securing collections, of a ring net of very fine mesh, hauling it definite distances and at a fixed rate, measuring the product of each haul, identify- ing and sometimes counting the plankton organisms collected, bringing into comparison by this means the yield of different waters, situations, and seasons, and drawing such inferences as to cause and condition as were warranted by the data so obtained. Having realized for many years the urgent need of numerical data concerning the species of birds in the state as indispensable to their valu- ation as ecological, and especially as economic, agencies it occurred to the senior author in 1905 that an equivalent of the plankton method might be used in the ornithological field by putting in place of the plankton net two men who should walk in parallel lines a definite distance apart, should identify and count all the birds flushed by them or crossing their track on a strip of a given width—say 150 feet—and should make at the same time a precise record of the kinds of surface and situations which they were traversing, of the distances traveled over each successively, and of the kinds of birds seen and the numbers of each kind on each such sec- tion of the 150-foot strip. The product of such a series of expert observa- tions would be like that of a huge net a hundred and fifty feet wide, ‘drawn in straight lines across every kind of crop or other surface vege- tation,* by which all the birds found there should be caught and held until they had been identified and counted. The data so obtained would evidently be quite as useful for their purpose as those of the plankton net, and the results of their collation and analysis would be quite as dependable. A satisfactory test of the method having been made during the sum- mer of 1905 on a 400-acre grain and stock farm belonging to the Uni- versity of Illinois, two assistants were engaged, both students of the Uni- versity at the time—one the junior author of this paper, who was respon- sible for the identification and counting of the birds, and the other a companion whose duty it was to walk at a measured pace at a fixed dis- tance to the left of his leader, and to count and record the number of * Forests of tall trees were avoided, since the birds there could not be listed ex- haustively ; and in orchards, the more open woods, patches of close shrubbery, and the like, the strip surveyed was usually narrowed to sixty feet. steps taken over each kind of situation. It was the original plan to devote a single year to these observations, dividing each of the successive sea- sons between the three sections of the state—northern, central, and southern—in such a way that we might have a detailed and carefully shaded picture of the bird life of each section in all four seasons of the year. This plan was carried through successfully for a year beginning August 29, 1906; and additional trips were made for special purposes dur- ing the late summer of 1908 and the entire summer season of 1909. The distribution throughout the state of the trips of the bird observers dur- ing these years is shown in the accompanying map. These trips, all taken on foot, aggregated 2,825 miles, and on them 64,685 birds were recog- nized and counted. Two brief papers have been published by the senior author on parts of the product of these trips, as preliminary examples of their use; one on “An Ornithological Cross-section of Illinois in Autumn,* and the other on “The Midsummer Bird Life of Illinois,’+ the first based on a trip across the center of the state from the Indiana line to the Mississippi River, and the second treating of the summer data of the year 1907. The widely separated residences of the present authors, one of us liv- ing in Maine and the other in Illinois, and the many engrossing preoccu- pations of both, have made it impossible until now for us to have the per- sonal conferences or to provide for the cooperation necessary to a com- plete treatment of our subject; and it is with pleasure that we at last find ourselves in a position to work together through the mass of tables long ago made ready, and to avail ourselves, in their discussion, of the copious field notes and valuable reminiscenses of Professor Gross, often quite essential to an interpretation of our data. We now hope to prepare, without undue delay, a series of papers, the first of which is here pre- sented. In SOUTHERN ILLINOIS Abundance of Birds in General—In the summers of 1907 and 1909, statistical data of the bird life of southern Illinois were obtained by the methods above described, in the form of a record of the species of birds and the numbers of each found on 5,527 acres of land chosen entirely at random, and this showed that orchards were decidedly the favorite places of bird resort at that season and in that part of the state. While the general average number for the whole area studied was 768 birds to the square mile, the number to that area in the orch- ards traversed was 2,969—or nearly four times the general ratio. Wood- lands came next in density of the bird population, with 1,794 birds per square mile; yards and gardens third, with 1,339; and shrubbery fourth, with 1,054 to the mile. The high rank of yards and gardens as a bird resort was due mainly to the semi-domesticated English sparrow; and with this eliminated, orchards, open woodlands, and shrubbery— * Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 305-335. 7 Ibid, Vol. IX, pp. 373-385. the “forest edge,” in short—were found to be by all odds the favorite places of resort of the native southern Illinois species. The only other situation in which the numbers were above the average was pasture land, with 937 to the square mile. The ratios in corn and oats were 423 and 419 to the mile, respectively. Other situations studied, and ratios in each, were stubble fields, 606; wheat and rye, 580; plowed ground, 626; waste and fallow, 708; and swamps, 710. The more Abundant Species—The most abundant bird in the area traversed was the English sparrow, about 14.5 per cent. of all the birds seen belonging to this species. Its average density in the whole area was 92 to the square mile, while in orchards it was 42%—that is, this species was between four and five times as abundant in orchards as its average for the general range. It was of course more abundant in yards and gardens, averaging there 597 to the square mile. In pas- tures and fields of small grain its numbers were 103 and 178 to the mile, respectively. These data are in evident agreement with what we know of the habits of the sparrows. As they both feed and nest most commonly in yards and gardens—that is, in the neighborhood of the house premises—they naturally resort to orchards most frequently for perching places—that is, for rest, shelter, and refuge. They are at- tracted to pastures by the fragments of grain to be found in the drop- pings of stock, and they turn to grain fields for food at harvest time. In meadows, on the other hand, they find little of either food or shelter, and hence average there only 53 to the square mile, or one sparrow to each twelve acres. English sparrows are not injurious in orchards, and their abundance there may be of some small benefit in their capture of insects, especially as food for their young. Next on our list in order of abundance in orchards is the mourn- ing dove. With a general average density of 60 to the square mile for the whole area, its ratio in orchards was five times as great, or 297 to the mile. Its other ratios larger than its general average were stubble fields, 111; small grain, 102; plowed ground, 74; yards and gardens, 67. The number of this species in the orchard seems to have no economic significance, as the mourning dove feeds mainly on seeds of wild plants, and to some extent on grain. It nests largely in trees, and this is prob- ably why the orchard is its favorite resting place. The common quail, or “bob white,’ came next in order of numbers, according to our data derived from 241 quails seen on these trips, so distributed as to give us ratios of 289 to the square mile in orchards, 48 in shrubbery, 43 in stubble, 35 in woodlands, and 29 in grain fields, the other numbers being smaller than the general average for the whole area, which was 28 to the square mile. The number seen seems small for general conclusions ; but the preference of the quail for orch- ards in southern Illinois is still more clearly shown by our more abund- ant data from commercial orchards, given on page 7%. Evidently it is not the trees that attract it, but the cover afforded by an undis- turbed growth of grass and weeds between the rows. Several nests 1% of quail were found here, and’ this was the only situation in which the parent birds were seen with downy young. If we may judge of the fitness of the common name of a bird from the outcome of our statistical tabulations, we should say that the next one on our list, commonly known as the field sparrow, ought to be named the orchard sparrow or the bush sparrow instead, (the last, indeed, a name given it by John Burroughs,) for it was more abundant in orchards and in shrubbery than anywhere else, numbering 251 and 257 respectively to the square mile in these situations. Those in which it was next most abundant were open woods, with 88 to the square mile, and pastures and fields of waste and fallow land, with 57 to the mile in each. The average for the whole area covered was 37 to the square mile. There can be no doubt of the correctness of the name of the orchard oriole, our data for which gave us an average of 168 to the square mile in orchards, with a general average for the whole area covered of only 12. Its only other habitat worth mentioning is yards and gardens, in which there were 44 orioles to the square mile. Our good little friend the robin, of which 164 were seen, was also largely an orchard and woodland bird, its density ratio being 145 to the mile in orchards and 89 in woodlands, with only 19 as an average for the whole area. Other notable ratios were 27 to the mile in pas4 tures and 46 on plowed ground. Its frequency in farm orchards is probably due, like that of the English sparrow, to its general abund- ance about the home premises, from which an orchard is often the near- est available resort for shelter, rest, and nesting places. The next species in order of abundance in orchards was the crow blackbird, or bronzed grackle. As represented by the 274 of these birds seen, it was more abundant in orchards than in any other place. With a general average density of 32 to the mile, its numbers stood at 137 in orchards, 70 in open woods, 47 in farm yards, 46 in pastures, 32 in corn, and 31 in fields of wheat and rye, and it fell below its general average in all the other situations. Next, the blue jay, although less frequently seen in orchards than any of the birds already mentioned, averaged there 114 to the square mile. It was still more abundant in open woods (195 to the mile), and much less so in pastures (24). Its general average for the whole area was only 13 to the square mile. It is thus essentially a woodland bird, resorting to orchards mainly because of their likeness to woods. The mocking-birds seen on these southern Illinois trips numbered 115, and the brown thrashers, 137, equivalent to 13 to the square mile for the mocking-bird and 16 for the brown thrasher—numbers perhaps too small from which to draw definite conclusions as to their preferred surroundings. So far as our data go, however, they indicate a decided preference of both these birds for orchards, the orchard ratio to the square mile being 84 for each. The mocking-bird was still more abundant in farm yards (113) and above its general average in gardens (38) and _—_ ss cree ee i ta a pastures (20); and the thrasher was quite as frequent in open woods (88) as in the orchard, and above its average in waste lands and in pastures (23 in each). - There were 42 species of birds seen and recognized in orchards on these summer trips in southern Illinois, and these taken together averaged 2,971 to the square mile in that situation. On the other hand, the just-mentioned ten species taken together averaged 2,096 to the square mile in orchards; and we have only 875 to the square mile of orchards for all the other 31 species. That is, 72 per cent. of all the birds found in orchards belonged to 26 per cent. of the species, and all the others taken together average only a little more than one to the acre of orchard—much too few to have any great importance in that situation. Farm and Commercial Orchards Compared—tThe foregoing dis- cussion of orchard birds is based on the data of a general survey of the country made without particular reference to any special kinds of crops, orchards being brought into the account only as they chanced to lie in the lines of travel taken. The entire orchard area surveyed, in fact, aggre- gated only 84 acres, which was about 1.5 per cent. of the whole area from which all the birds were determined. In order to get material for a better knowledge of the bird life of the southern Illinois orchard, a visit was made in 1908 to a commercial-orchard district extending from Centralia to Olney, and there the time was spent from August 19 to- September 15 of that year, exploring orchards primarily, and other situ- ations only as these were crossed in going from one orchard to another. The area covered by this survey aggregated 1,369 acres—about a fourth as much as was covered in the two summers of 1907 and 1909; but the orchard tracts examined aggregated 774.5-acres instead of the 84 acres of the more general surveys, and taken together made more than 56 per cent. of the total area studied instead of the 1.5 per cent. in the other case. The distances traveled on all these several journeys were 7.8 miles through farm orchards and 129 miles through commercial orchards, and in both cases all the birds on a strip sixty feet wide were deter- mined and counted. Several interesting differences were made out by a comparison of the products of these two kinds of surveys. In the first place, the num- ber of birds per square mile of all crops was, as we should expect, con- siderably greater in the commercial-orchard district than in the farm- land area—945 as compared with 769—a difference of nearly a fourth in favor of the commercial-orchard district. Nevertheless, the number of birds per square mile of orchards was much greater in the general farm surveys of 1907 and 1909 than in the orchard district survey of 1908—2,969 to the orchard mile in the former and only 945 in the latter. That is, a square mile of commercial orchards contained only about a third as many birds on an average as a square mile of farm 6 orchards. It is easy to see why this should be so. If, as we have already found to be the case, there are birds which resort to orchards for special purposes, we should expect to see them coming together in larger numbers to the unit of area in small, scattered orchards than in large orchards rather near each other. Indeed, we might well have expected that this concentration of birds in the orchards of a general farming district would have gone much farther than it has. In di- minishing the ratio of orchards to other lands some thirty-seven times, we have increased the density of the bird population of the orchard only three times—evidence that the orchards are at best a convenience rather than a necessity to most of the birds which are found in them. Comparing the lists of dominant species in the orchards of the two surveys, we find that while there were 42 species found in our 84 acres of farm orchards, 11 of which species made up 72 per cent. of the whole, there were 72 species found in the 774.5 acres of commer- cial orchards, 9 of which made up 87 per cent. of the whole number, and that 6 of the 9 dominant species were common to both lists. These were the quail, field sparrow, blue jay, mourning dove, brown thrasher, and English sparrow. It was rather surprising to find the English sparrow first on the list of the most abundant farm-orchard birds and last on the corre- sponding commercial-orchard list, with 407 to the square mile in the first situation and only 56 in the second—seven or eight times as abund- ant in the farm orchard as in the commercial orchard; but this was no doubt due in great part to a fact already mentioned, that the center of abundance for this bird is in yards around the house and barn, and that it simply spreads from these to the adjacent orchards for shelter and refuge, with the result that its numbers per square mile of orchards is much smaller in a district where orchards are large and numerous than where they are small and few. The fact that the number of mourning doves to the square mile was but 77 in commercial orchards, while it was 297 in the small orchards of the farm, may have a similar explanation, the orchard being one of the favorite nesting places of this bird. On the other hand, the quail, the field sparrow, and the blue jay were even more abundant to the mile in the commercial than in the farm orchard, and the brown thrasher was but little less so; but the orchard oriole and the robin, occurring in farm orchards at ratios of 168 and 164 to the square mile respectively, were not once met with in the 129 miles of travel through these commercial orchards. This fact was due in all probability, to the relatively late period of the observations of 1908, falling, as they did, beyond the nesting season of these birds. Orchard Birds par excellence—In view of the fact that in the commercial-orchard district only 56 per cent. of the area studied was actually in orchards, the remainder being made up of the usual variety of farm situations, it seems to us that if there were distinctive orchard species of birds, they should be distinguished here by their much larger Le one 7 numbers per square mile in orchards than in miscellaneous situations ; and an application of this test gives us the eight species of the follow- ing table, which may be taken, according to our data, as southern Illinois orchard-birds par excellence. PRINCIPAL ORCHARD BIRDS PER SQUARE MILE, SOUTHERN ILLINOIS SURVEY, SuMMER oF 1908. Orchards compared with all other situations. Per square mile Number of birds Not seen In orchards in orchards (774.5 acres) (G55 acres) PUPAE Sere ieka: ST | OT | aye] [oodseary | :je0y 9—Z sydep ‘eueary Z eal sea oe y aaoqe sayel pue[-W0I10q-11V¥ S66 or | PLT 06 auoz yJ-1—P | | | BUeART | ie ( 0} joodaaary “F 096 gy 009 | 00T | i 02 jouueyo | | | |] ra 861 | | | Lg auoz “1J-¢—T | ae | | | real | | | (eye] 1aAoy) CoC | | | | eaten fests | +)|09 | 8h OUl0Z YJ-L—P qesayg Aqaroqry | 0} OSNOYYIOA\ “g | | | Nl l PPG | | | | +} + }e+] Le | 6et Jeuueya : PS | | | | | | | | rs aUuoz “\J-g—T | | | | | Sm (aye T0é | | | | 09 |e auozZ “W-L—F Sopp) yale oose1 —_———___ =aaleee Bal | IL : TV 0} O[[TASsoq °Z | 96 | | | | ra Jeuueyo ee) I ol | | | wiht SRE SI | | ys | | 0Z “1-)— | ost | Z6T | 0zz |euoz -33-L—F | Sa T ; - pdeddn) Avg suds ‘ | 0} OTOOTITYD * STZ'T | | 9t | 008 jeuweya | } OTOONLYO T Woe = (Sy SSH oul (oN rey allel, C loz se ited esloglisglesitsiasiisiagiss SS as FSIZSIITIST CFT SslSFisSlssisslssl(s$ (Ss iss suumjoo |SS SES ESISS AE AIS /Ssieslaslssiss|2siss amypoo JES /2S/FS/9S Ss FE les lSS SS S$ (S$ l|S$/Oe/s § elduy j2%|/=8 Zelwelise sel@s ae las |se 2 Sela jas jou ‘sny To) a S o a z ce 2 nh ne Oo an on 8 a al tc a y = n eye uyey |S it |S Big |e i ee eee ee SBUBALET 0} OPOOTTITD -daoun jo |" a OS lo |o- = NG B ‘QYyeT LOod PUL LAT STOUTTIT sayoeds | & Fame || Es! le auy N A \2 Be -pnyouy | eo |2 TEL gE SR hee bo | sojoods seyoeds BAYSUOS BAO JUBIO[O} 10 1B seloeds [RUOT NI[[Od O10] “U“OLyn[[od ssary ‘ « e _ 2 INNO UNV WIA SIONIITT WO SAW, WOdogE MO (ULVOTNONOMIUD) avAVET, CLOUT AT 73 ALL SMALL BotroM-ANIMALS, STEWART LAKE, 1915 anp 1920 MUD BOTTOM, 2 TO 5 FEET Number per square yard Pounds per acre 1915 1920 1915 1920 Viviparidae and : Pleuroceridae 21 0 41 0 Sphaeriidae 32 4 13 2 Amnicolidae, Valvatidae, etc. 37 0 12 0 PRESS ILANIS rete crcds ole) v0 Gel tre alsl| 'o/3: 910 WolelersPelelatgleywie(diis afore die'e « «'- 66 2 Chironomidae 8 74 2 28 Oligochaeta 3 12 0.1 0.4 Other insects, worms, Crustacea, etc. 43 0 6 0 See OL Vote ct icteeterefteso eo lietniettis ekeere els eps c.2 ie eereyetga ct ace 74 30 | Ercan Tarero hepiiaitsin 9 eee |eeitelets se atavalsicls © 'sic.s creole bia a's 89.1 6.5 Estimated Reduction of Midsummer Surplus Stocks in the Com- bined Acreage between Chillicothe and Lagrange Dam (103 Miles) since 1914—1915 While the necessarily restricted range of our bottom-and weed-fauna survey of 1920, compared with that of July—October, 1914 and 1915, leaves more gaps to be supplied by estimate in any general comparison than is perhaps best, it has seemed worth while, as a conclusion to the present paper, to make some computations of the approximate total loss since 1914—1915 in surplus bottom- and weed-fauna stocks*as of the midsummer period for the entire acreage of river and lakes in the former- ly enormously rich middle Illinois Valley district between the head of Peoria Lake and the Lagrange dam. These calculations have involved a partial reapportionment, by estimate largely, both of acreages and of acre-yields, as of 1908—1915, as published in a preceding paper,* these *The Small Bottom and Shore Fauna of the Illinois River and_its Connecting Lakes, Chillicothe to Grafton: its Valuation; its Sources of Food Supply; and its’ Relation to the Fishery. By R. E. Richardson. Bul. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv., Vol. 13, Art. XV. 1921. 74 being here estimated as actual, outside of levees, and not as in the virgin valley—for the purpose of comparison with the 1920 data rather than with the fish-yield figures of 1908; and involving as well, the application in some cases of both river and lake acre-yield-figures for limited areas studied in 1920 to much larger acreages not collected in that year. For these reasons, only general results are given here, and tabulation is avoided as giving too much of an air of certainty to figures that are at the best only approximations. In the 60.5 miles between Chillicothe and Havana in July—October, 1914—15 it appears, then, that there were surplus stocks of both bottom and weed animals, after deduction of shell weight, amounting to around 27,500,000 pounds in a combined open river and lake acreage, including Peoria Lake of about 29,000 acres at an approximate gage of ten feet, Peoria, or eight feet, Havana. Of this total I have estimated that about 2,700,000 pounds were in the bottom muds of the river and the wide waters of Peoria Lake between Chillicothe and the dam at Copperas Creek ; about 3,800,000 pounds in the river muds between Copperas Creek dam and Havana; and about 3,000,000 pounds on the lake and other backwater floors between Copperas Creek and Havana. Considerably more than half of the total, that is, over 18,000,000 pounds (65 per cent.) of it, seems to have been made up of the small weed-living species, of which Peoria Lake apparently furnished more than 4,000 ,000 pounds a few years ago, and the rich lakes between Copperas Creek dam and Havana, around 14,000,000 pounds. Applying to these same acreages such average weights per acre as are suggested by the findings of August—September, 1920, we note first an estimated reduction since 1915 in the bottom fauna of Peoria Lake and adjacent river between Chillicothe and Copperas Creek that amounts roughly to 50 per cent., and that affects about 10,000 acres at the lower gages of the ten years preceding 1920. Next are calculated reductions of 92 to 93 per cent. in the bottom fauna of some 1,400 acres of river and some 17,000 acres of lakes between Copperas Creek dam and Havana; and, last, reductions to practical nullity in the case of the acre-yield figures of small weed-animals both of the weedy acreage of Peoria Lake, estimated at 2,000 acres in 1910 i 10,000 acres of shallow weed-area in the lakes between Copperas Creek dam and Havana. The total loss in poundage of surplus stocks between Chillicothe and Havana in five years appears indeed to have surpassed 25,500,000 pounds, or to have amounted on the average for both river and lakes, including both bottom and weed populations, to over 93 per cent. The extent of the loss is better appreciated when it is known that it is usual to figure that the weight of fish living on animal food can be increased about one pound for each five pounds of such food eaten. From, this view-point the loss in potential fish-yield apparently stands at some- thing like 5,000,000 pounds yearly for the section, if also it be true, as is 75 generally assumed, that stocks of the kind in question in the run of years at least reproduce themselves in weight once annually. Below Havana we lack data for carrying out computations in the detail or with anywhere near the exactness attempted for the 60-mile section to the north, particularly in the case of the bottom and weed fauna of the lakes, having collected in only one of these in 1920. We note, first, of the 4,500 odd acres of river between Havana and the dam at Lagrange, an apparent slight gain over 1915 in the bottom yields, which is, however, probably no greater than the normal error to be expected with the apparatus and methods used. Offsetting this gain further, to the point in fact of rendering it negligible, are suggested losses of enormous size since 1914—1915 both in the bottom and weed fauna of the lakes and other backwaters in the 42.5 miles, which, combined, seem to have amounted to fully half the total stocks in the entire river and lake acreage open a little more than five years ago, or to more than twenty times the total bottom-fauna stocks of the section. This result, or a loss in the lake weed- and bottom-fauna of around 9,000,000 pounds, is simply arrived at if we estimate the loss in both the bottom- and weed-fauna stocks since 1915 at only 50 per cent. If we base conclusions for the entire acreage between Havana and the dam, on the recorded kind and extent of change in Stewart Lake since 1915 we must estimate the combined loss in both bottom and weed animals as even greater than 50 per cent., since it appears that on the weed-fauna side both the acreage and its average yield have probably been reduced that much. And as most of the lake acreage between Havana and the dam at Lagrange has since 1915 been north rather than south of the lower end of Stewart Lake, and therefore probably equally with it exposed to invasion by foul water and sediments, the estimate of a nine-million-pound loss in this district since 1915 may be allowed to stand as a minithum probable figure. Combining a minimum loss in the first 42.5 miles south of Havana of 9,000,000 pounds with one of 25,500,000 pounds between Chillicothe and that point, we have, then, it seems, to reckon on not less than 34,500,000 pounds total reduction in the midsummer stocks of small bottom- and weed-animals in five years in about 103 miles; or, putting it another way, on about 7,000,000 pounds potential fish-yield missing from any new cal- culations we wish to make about the more recent value of a 103-mile sec- tion of the Illinois River fishery that was, only a‘few years ago, among the richest of its kind in the fresh-water stream systems of the world, being then uninjured, so far as could be seen, by the increasing pollution from the population and industries to the north that has recently so nearly overwhelmed it. It will be noted that 7,000,000 pounds is little less than a third of the largest total fish-catch ever taken from the entire Illinois River (catch of 1908), more than half of estimated total yields in 1912 and 1913, and not improbably more than the total yield for the whole year 1920. 1 oi Pi r a & bh » Laie Nae Tie Pi ae a ya ‘ ’ > = e i = : al i re > Rn mi ef ‘ a = * f + ; dl ‘ : 4 r : ; ie LW tS ee Le ae oe = or “ 4 Vaca) Viked { + it a ‘ pe ed tae i yea - yes ia ' : ~ ries » Zs ‘ : eA\are 24 aia SAU shiny * f " , Fasa ‘ rN 4 n « , Feet . we ’ ' . . : Li ' at Le Ges ( ’ ! Lard tet 5 / : A “ » i . iy fs ’ Original isolations of the foot-rot Helminthosporium made in May, 1919, from bits of tissue from wheat grown in Madison county, Illinois. STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES, Cheif Vol. XIV. BULLETIN Article V. The Helminthosporium Foot-rot of Wheat, with Observations on the Morphology of Helminthosporium and on the Occurrence of Saltation in the Genus BY F. L. STEVENS PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS June, 1922 STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION W. H. H. MiLter, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION W. H. H. MILter, Chairman WILLIAM TRELEASE, Biology Joun W. Atvorp, Engineering Joun M. Coutter, Forestry Kenpric C. Bascock, Representing the Roiiin D. SatitssBury, Geology President of the University of Illi- WitiiaM A. Noyes, Chemistry nots THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION STEPHEN A. ForsEs, Chief (52929-1200-7-21) CONTENTS PAGE Laaadineiony “ig 6 seeila » BCR Bok ef I. A foot-rot of wheat and its causal fungus: So LOS ee ce MMM te fy yl ie eh te a ee oe Fungi present . . . RE te cri he eae a ay Ce HO Growth of the causal fencer ah on various meat = CBO ee es rs ee ae) Various agarsas media. . . PEE iy Wo Ry SNe eo OO Summary concerning growth on agars . . 5 RB) Rice and similar substances as media, with ecu mere of Pee Ber emer! 86 Summary concerning growth on rice and similar substances . . . . . 88 Miscellaneous vegetable media he ee Tena gel ee at er ibo Summary concerning the foregoing Reeeeable ea. eS ag tate nn OU Cereal shoots grown from aseptic seeds as media . . . . . . . . 90 Environmental factors which induce variation. . . . . . . . . . 9/1 Wvantinvrolnuttiimentueey Mem See eet ON cay ss 2 fe Om «OL ALDI LObye Ue CesmatL- weer) Mesto Meneses) fee cel ayes eae, ee 98 UmnCKoyOtmmediqnt tear asrmen Meer sc si Fk eee 3) OS EN UNTALCCy a OL cae eT Re ie Wer ees oe OF MenineratuLnenclablOolsmer Meters Sea Gh «bays as ee ye 98 ILHSIMES Go Se oh an RN Oat ee MOT ce ee Carbohydrates . . Wee era LOO Nutrients as affecting conidial eae Peed ead Sines an LOL Summary concerning environmental factors which induce variation . . . 102 Morphology of the foot-rot fungus’ 4°.) . =e: . «© «+ « «. = « 103 Mycelium seg Ae | on ae Poe - hee, 105 Senescence Aeneas of: pene fuadtine ree ge be te we i nS LOT Conidiophores ear ee me bee ee re BG OD Gonder Eee Caer ws co hace Sah Ciba eval es «110 Etiology of foot-rot: Evidences of etiological relation of H. No. 1 Re er els es oe Constant presence ofthe pathogene =. . . «'. . . °. . . » 124 Absencelofiother constantwparasites. 2+. 2). . . « . . = » M24 Identity of pathogene proved by-culture . . . .. .. . . . 124 Evidence of infectiousness . . Sy ee Rei PB Ne ee ray Co bed Conidia produced in moist- ptember eulpiiee Ape) da re ON ee etl 25 Pid eaCeMromuncaculatOnu Gees ea ts ss) fs sf se. es 125 RECOMEnV AO MOLE AMICI er wp eMEC Me a ee Mays ot 4 ove 28 Infection phenomena on wheat... A ee seas! ee wee, Susceptibility of various hosts to ifectian Vee es Rear Ln yo e tLOs Summary concerning etiology of foot-rot ae ty Ba the a LOD, IV II. Evidence and discussion of the occurrence of saltation within the genus Helmin- thosporium: PAGE Introductory. oe 6 US ch ©.5e ees Characters of Palemiee as Showa in eaneiers etal eo ae, Aaa Tendencies:inssaltation.- + (2 2 @ = 8 5 =) « GR «4 2 eo leo Stability of the saltants . . pe ES ee EE Stability of the saltants through the comida og i OS es Apparent reversions . . be be Gone ae As Supposititious causes of the variant sectors pike hl en cee Saltations from single conidia eer me eee tai a i Hal Frequency of saltation ah sted Gtlj est pias beh Kho a Se SPR Saltations occurred on various set Pe Se > Yl eS, eee Saltations and modifications occurring in test- onlbs eaters TO, ee ees Saltations in nature. . Se ge ay a he) een ae ee tel Notes concerning selected acetal hens Pree ee se ake. 2 SS (Een Ghsehesoal@:caliaisol fe bo ala 5 os 5 G 6 6 5 » U7 Maxonomy. wo A ee Nake de a Conclusion -2 ea ei eet i ey re a a Stimmiatiyy coh yee Me ee ets RP ere eT Ree ite ct We sa Diterature/citedy 2-05 ee hs, ee ee) Tere een gm Appendix: Methods eee. Peete ede, a) List of Hin ognavinns eal fain purposes oe comparison =| 72) oan see Discussion of foregoing list with several brief descriptions . . . . . . 184 Graphs: Figures A Plates: VII—XXXIV. ArTICLE V.—The Helminthosporium Foot-rot of Wheat, with Observations on the Morphology of Helminthosporium and on the Occurrence of Saltation in the Genus. By F. L. Stevens. INTRODUCTORY The present study of wheat disease is based upon a foot-rot, or rot of the basal portion of the stems, of wheat plants, as it occurred in Madison county, Illinois, in 1919 and subsequently. This disease was first reported in United States Government publications as “‘take-all’’ (Ophiobolus gram- inis) ; later, merely as ‘“‘take-all,’’ no cause being assigned; and for some time past, in Government publications it has usually been designated as ‘‘so- called take-all... An annotated bibliography of nearly one hundred titles concerning foot-rot disease of wheat, prepared by the writer, was presented before the Cereal Pathologists of America at St. Louis in June, 1919, and this, expanded to one hundred and eighty-eight titles, was published in October, 1919 (116). As early as May, 1919, cultural studies quite clearly pointed to Helminthosporium as the true cause of the disease, and at the December meeting of the American Phytopathological Society I announced this fungus as the probable cause. In May, 1920, in a note in Science (117), I published the statement that it had been conclusively established that this foot-rot of wheat is caused by Helminthosporium. One purpose of the present paper is to present the evidence on which the foregoing conclusion is based and certain facts concerning the mor- phology and parasitism of the fungus; but far transcending in interest the disease itself—which now appears to be one of much less alarming nature than was at first feared—is the fact that very striking phenomena of variability are found in this and related fungi. In the following pages, therefore, appear (I) an account of the Illinois foot-rot of wheat and its causal fungus; and (II) evidence and discussion of the occurrence of salta- tion within the genus Helminthosporium. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In this study I have been assisted financially by grants from the Illinois Natural History Survey and from the University of Illinois. I am indebted for specimens to persons mentioned in the list of species used for comparison (pages 181-184), and to W. P. Snyder for compu- tation of data embodied in several of the graphs. I wish also to express my thanks to Prof. J. A. Detlefsen, who kindly read the manuscript and offered valuable suggestions regarding genetic questions. 78 I. A Foot-rot of Wheat and its Causal Fungus SYMPTOMS As the name implies, the most obvious symptom is a rotting of the basal portion of the stem of the wheat plant, that is, the lowest portion of the lowest internode. In earlier stages than that of actual rotting, minute yellow or brown lesions occur on the stem (PI. VII), while the roots, if diseased, are slightly yellowed and largely or quite devoid of functional root-hairs. No weft of superficial mycelium or black incrus- tation, such as is so frequently described in articles concerning take- all, was seen. The diseased tissues, however, were invariably ramified by an internal mycelium. Certain cases of diseased wheat came under observation in which the plants had attained a nearly normal growth and were eighteen inches high, when they suddenly died throughout. In such cases there was a slight darkening of the lower node and a mycelial invasion at this point. The opinion of those who observed this wheat in the field was that the death was due to frost injury. It is probable that the actual cause of death was foot-rot following the frost injury. FuNGI PRESENT Direct microscopic observation of the diseased tissues, in all cases of foot-rot examined, revealed the presence of an internal hyaline or faintly tinted mycelium in great abundance permeating the diseased tissues. Mycelium of different character was also occasionally found, but so inconstantly as apparently to have no actual relation to the disease. Isolations of the fungi present in the diseased tissues were made by two methods: 1. Direct planting of bits of diseased tissue on poured agar (corn- meal agar or wheat-straw agar). The diseased tissue was secured in as clean condition as possible by stripping back the enclosing sheaths, ex- cising the diseased part with sterile tools, and tearing it apart in a sterile Petri-dish. 2. Direct planting of similar bits of diseased tissue after surface- sterilization in mercuric chloride (1-1000, 10 min.). Dilution plating was unsatisfactory owing to the paucity of conidia and the presence of numerous soil bacteria, particularly “spreaders.” As might be expected, the methods employed gave rise to colonies of many genera and species, including Phyllosticta, Septoria, Fusarium, Epicoccum, Alternaria, and Helminthosporium. A striking fact, however, 79 was that with the exception of the Helminthosporium, these fungi were very rarely present, and then only a single colony or part of a mixed colony on occasional plates. Alternaria occurred with remarkable rarity; only two or three colonies among several thousand. Fusarium was found in only a few colonies and so mixed that it was isolated with difficulty. Ep- icoccum occurred in two colonies; Phyllosticta also in two colonies (two species). A Helminthosporium, however, appeared in every plate and from nearly every bit of tissue used, no matter how great the care in securing the inoculum. On many plates this Helminthosporium (which throughout this article I designate as H. No. 1) appeared in pure culture Thus it may be said that the Helminthosporium was universally present in the plates; that it was the only organism that was present with any constancy; and that all other fungi were obviously strays.* Though conidia were never found in great numbers on plants brought in direct from infested fields, when the plants were placed in moist chamber for two or three days conidia developed in abundance. This was also the case with portions of wheat stems which had been placed in bichloride of mercury for ten minutes and then placed in moist chamber for several days. In passing it may be remarked that although great numbers of nematodes and amebae appeared in the plates there is no reason to believe that they had any relation to the disease under discussion or to any diseased condition. GROWTH OF THE CausAL FunGuUS ON Various MeEptIa Since the characters exhibited by various Helminthosporiums when growing in artificial culture have been considered as of importance as a means of distinguishing one species, variety, race, or strain from another, many media were employed in the present study. This was done in part for the purpose of comparing the growth characters of the Helminthosporium with characters reported by others in connection with other forms; in part with the hope that some of the media tested might give emphasis to cer- tain characters and thus serve to differentiate between species or strains of the forms under observation. The following notes are, in the main, statements of the characters presented by the foot-rot Helminthosporium (H. No. 1), though for the purpose of comparison notes are added regarding the growth of several *A letter from Professor Hoffer written in May, 1919, tells me of a similar result from platings of wheat foot-rot from Indiana, and similar reports reach me from several other sources. 80 species or strains of Helminthosporium. These are throughout referred to by number rather than by name, partly for brevity and partly because the species of many of the races had not been determined, while in some cases the names were of more or less doubtful reliability. That the reader may formulate his own judgment of these forms, introduced for comparison, a complete list of them is given in the appendix (pages 181-184) together with certain notes regarding them. VARIOUS AGARS AS MEDIA Corn-meal agar in Petri dishes.—This medium, prepared after the di- rections given by Shear and Stevens (104), was found to be admirably suited to Helminthosporium and was the medium chiefly used. The fungus grew rapidly, the colony being at first nearly hyaline both in the submerged and aerial parts, but when a diameter of about 2-3 cm. was attained the whole colony became much darker. Profusion of conidia was the chief factor in giving the dark hue to a colony, the slight darkening of the mycelium having little to do with it. The aerial mycelium varied largely with change of conditions, sometimes being very scant and at other times 5-6 mm. high, with windrow effects corresponding with the zones. After the colony was about 3 cm. in diameter zonation became quite pronounced, the zones corresponding approximately with the growth of each day. At room-temperature the colony attained a diameter of about 4.5 cm. in six days. Conidia-production was quite uniform over the surface of the colony unless checked by some growth- inhibiting cause, as drying, cold, or the antagonism of another colony near by, when it was much increased, as evidenced to the eye by black bands in such regions. By transmitted light the mycelium, and to some extent the conidia at certain ages, had a distinctly greenish tinge. H. No. 1 could be distinguished from H. Nos. 5-8, which were paler and produced fewer conidia. H. No. 6 approached nearer to H. No. 1 in these regards than did the others. H. Nos. 3, 4 (see Pl. IX), 6, 15-17, and 18 typically developed more.aerial white mycelium than did H. Nos. 1 and 14. H. No. 36 was of very distinct character owing to large development of aerial mycelium (see Pl. X). Corn-meal agar in Freudenreich flasks.—Vhe flasks, of about 100 c.c. capacity, each received 50 c.c. of agar and were slanted. The large amount of nutriment available and the sustained moisture gave noteworthy characters. At 7 days, with H. No. 1, the surface of the slant was com- 81 pletely overgrown and of an even black color, largely curtained by an abundant, even overgrowth of white aerial mycelium. At contact with the glass a sharp, black line gave clear evidence of the black surface-coat. No clumps or balls of mycelium were present. At 22 days a few clumps developed, though not so many as on H. Nos. 9, 13-16. Cultures of H. No. 1 on corn-meal agar in large flasks, as those of Kolle or of Piorkowski (Pl. XI-XIII) gave colonies very different from those on the ordinary Petri dish, due presumably to the larger quantity of nutrient available and to different humidity relations. These flasks gave increased density of colony and conidia-formation, more aerial mycelium, and some clumping of the mycelium. Though colonies of H. No. 3 and H. No. 1 d‘ffered in these characters in these flasks (Pl. XII, XIII), portions of the colonies of these strains were indistinguishable. Corn-meal agar made at various temperatures —Corn-meal agar was made in the usual manner excepting that the temperature in three cases was held at 43°, 85°, and 100° respectively, instead of at 60°, before filtering. Duplicate plates were made. The four resulting agars are designated according to the temperatures held, and colony data for each are presented in the following table. CORN-MEAL AGAR MADE AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES Temperature Growth in Zonation Density Colors 8 days 43° USS) oc ; 43° 72 distinct thin pale 60° 5.5 F 60° sharp thick dark 85° 6.5 In above characters, ranks between 43° and 60° agars 100° 8 : 100° 7.8 none very thin very pale The 100° agar is most favorable to linear growth, 43° agar stands next; 43° and 85° agars give growth of poorer color than 60° agar, but 100° agar ranks lowest in this regard. Color is directly due to quantity of conidia, and it is uniform in the mycelium on the four agars. In general, it in 100° agar was very little better than in plain agar. Nutrition 82 appears that their order of nutritive value for this fungus, from poorest to best, is 100°, 43°, 85°, 60°. Evidently a temperature of 43° is in- sufficient to extract the nutrient proteids sufficiently, while 100° pre- cipitates too many of them. While leucosin, a prominent proteid of the embryo, is largely precipitated at 52° and a second coagulum goes down at 82°, no more is precipitated even by boiling (Osborne, 89). Graphs 1-4 (Fig. A), indicating conidial length on these four agars, show that although the quantity of conidia produced varied materially, the length and general variability are not greatly influenced by varying the composition of the agar—done in this case by change of temperature. The conidial length of all these agars is, however, considerably less than that on wheat shoots (cf. graphs in Fig. A and Fig. K). Graphs of conidial breadth and septation on 43° and 60° agars given in Fig. B also show but little influence of these agars on these two characters. FED HD (aks RO a4 ae’ Bs Sore Bes C o CA eS SUG Ne 107 aerial mycelium of some races produced clumps (PI. XIII, XXII, XXIII), which under the microscope are seen to be due to a peculiar distortion and abundance of the aerial mycelial tips (Fig. 6, d). This peculiar behavior of the terminal parts of the mycelium shows some similarity to the branch- ing figured by Ward (123) in Botrytis in the early stages of development of attachment organs. Anastomosis is very common with this fungus (Fig. 5, a and b), and Ward (123, fig. 19) has figured anastomosis of very similar character for Botrytis. Many citations of its occurrence are given by Beauverie and Guilliermond (13). (See also their figures 4 and 8.) The nuclei in the mycelium are extremely small, but may be seen readily when stained with gentian violet, and still better if stained with iron-hae- matoxylin. They vary in number, but are never less than two and usually more; they do not typically group in pairs; and they are irregularly dis- tributed in the protoplast. Nuclei apparently in mitosis are frequently seen, but since they are so small no details were noted except that the mitoses of all of the nuclei in one cell seem to be simultaneous, and mitosis was probable in adjacent cells. Reports on the nuclear conditions in the fungi imperfecti are few and unsatisfactory, doubtless owing to the extreme difficulty of the subject. Dangeard (39) notes nuclei and mitosis in the rather anomalous genus Bactridium; Beauverie and Guilliermond (13) in Botrytis; while Higgins (66) gives quite satisfactory figures for Mycosphae- rella. Senescence phenomena of aerial mycelium (Fig. 7, a—b).—When the aerial mycelium is young it constitutes a more or less abundant, loose, arachnoid, fluffy mass. In quite old cultures it is observed to mat down close to the surface of the medium in a thin, glazed, dead layer. Inter- mediate between these two extreme conditions interesting phenomena occur. The first observable change from that of the normal, vigorous mycelium is that certain cells of a filament, often many adjacent cells, be- come nearly or quite devoid of protoplasm (Fig. 7,7, 0, and g), though cells at each end of such a series still appear normal (see 7 and j). Quite fre- quently the fungus re-grows from a protoplasmic cell, through the empty threads, as is shown in » and 0. In other instances, and much more com- monly, the empty cells gradually collapse until they remain as very thin, smooth filaments (¢, 4, and m), apparently of gelatinous texture. Where two filaments undergoing such dissolution cross they blend (a, 0, mu); and where several meet, rather large amorphous unorganized masses are seen, superficially much resembling a plasmodial structure (a). There was, indeed, at first, suspicion that there might be present a plasmodial 108 parasite preying upon the Helminthosporium mycelium; but numerous tests convinced me that such was not the case, but that what really occurs is that the old aerial mycelium dissolves (probably by auto-digestion). All stages of this disorganization can be followed under the immersion lens in stained preparations, where the disorganized filament stains with the gen- tian violet but is seen to be amorphous and without protoplasmic content. These phenomena appear to be limited to the aerial mycelium, but were Fic. 7.—Various views (a and b, low power, c—o, high power) of mycelium of H. No. 1 in senescence: a and b showing dissolution to fine threads, 6 with a conidiophore still attached; c—h and m, empty mycelial cells adjacent to cells nearly dissolved; i and 7, protoplasmic cells adjacent to empty cells; k and /, fine mycelial outgrowths from protoplasmic cells; » and o, fine mycelial threads growing from the protoplasmic cells and through old empty cells; p, bits of mycelium, as seen with the immersion lens, showing the nuclei. observed on many strains of Helminthosporium. Autodigestion of my- celium doubtless occurs in the case of wood-rotting fungi, as is evidenced by the absence of mycelium where it was previously known to be, and it may be of common occurrence in other fungi. It certainly occurs when two hyphae join by anastomosis, and in the union of sexual organs. Grow- ing-through of the mycelium, as noted above, and even conidia-formation within the old cell are common in Saprolegnia, and have been noted in 109 several other genera: Botrytis (Beauverie and Guilliermond, 13); Alter- naria, Epicoccum, and Botrytis (Linder, 78); Inzengaea (Borzi, 23); De- matium, Botrytis, Oidium (Klécker and Schiorming, 75); Chaetomium (Zopf, 129, figs. 24, 25, A, B, Tab. 16). The phenomenon, as described, is always associated with senescence. Sclerotia are described by Bakke (6) and by Noack (87), who seem to have found them common on old straw- cultures, varying in length from 200 to 600 uw. I have not found them at all on straw, though on old rice-cultures they are abundant. Pyenidia and pycnoconidia, as seen by Ravn (91) in HZ. teres and as described by Bakke (6), I have not seen. CONIDIOPHORES On standard wheat-shoots —The conidiophores are in no sense clustered but arise singly as lateral branches, each from an ordinary mycelial cell, and differ from the mycelium chiefly in that they grow erect and straight instead of declined and crooked, and are darker in color than the mycelium. Usually this branch in its basal region is mycelium-like, but it rapidly thickens and darkens to true conidiophore character, and is usually 2.5 to 5 win length. Sometimes the mycelial cell from which the conidiophore arises also darkens. The conidiophore-cells contain protoplasm, and the protoplast plasmolizes under the usual reagents. When mature the conid- Fic. 8. —H. No. 1, showing variation in conidiophores, geniculation, conidia-scars, and septation. 110 iophores are pale straw-color to smoky brown from tip to, or nearly to, the base, the color being due to the outer wall—which is very brittle. Upon the production of the first conidium, which is strictly terminal, the conid- iophore grows onward, with a slight bend where the first conidium was produced, and proceeds to bear another one. This may continue until many conidia have been borne by the same conidiophore. If the conidia are undisturbed, the cluster may have a botryose effect, but if disturbed, only the youngest conidia remain, and scars and geniculations mark the places of origin of the fallen conidia (Fig. 8). | The number of conidia borne per conidiophore in count of 24 was as follows: Frequency, 15, 5, 4 Conidia, 12S ’ Much higher numbers than this occasionally occurred under standard con- ditions (see appendix, page 180); and much higher numbers were the rule on corn-meal agar. The number of septa below the first scar varied from one to four, while the length in seven measurements from base to first scar was 78— 88 uw. The length above the first scar is entirely dependent upon the num- ber of conidia borne on a given conidiophore; in some cases it is equal to or even greater than the length below the first scar. Conidia develop very rapidly upon the conidiophores. One of the latter kept constantly under observation was first observed at 11 o’clock to have a diameter of 6.8 uw; at 11:15, 13.6 w; at 11:30, 20.4 w; at 12, 37.4 y; and at 12:30, 44.2 uy. The conidiophores of certain other numbers, for example H. Nos. 2, 21, and 29, are of such very different character that the conidiophores alone serve to distinguish them markedly from H. No. 1. The conidiophores of H. Nos. 3, 5, 15, 16, and others, however, are closely like those of H. No. 1; indeed no real distinction could be found between them. Attempts were made to distinguish between these strains or species by plotting conidio- phore length, septation, length of cells, etc., but nothing came of such at- tempts. The length of the conidiophore is markedly influenced by air- humidity (page 95), and it is probable that the rudimentary conidiophores may be changed into aerial mycelium by a lowering of the air-humidity. CONIDIA The conidia and their attachment to the conidiophores are shown in Plate XVII. From the basal end of the conidium to the conidiophore there is an exceedingly short (24 uw) black stipe. As the conidium falls 111 away from the conidiophore the stipe remains attached to the conidium, and as it can always be seen readily when the conidium is in suitable posi- tion, it serves as a ready means of recognizing the basal end of the conidium. The stipe is equally obvious and distinguishable in H. Nos. 3, 4, 5, 13-16, etc., though in H. No. 2 and certain other numbers the stipe is of somewhat different type. While in very rare instances catenulation of conidia was observed (Fig. 9, b), this is apparently much less frequent than in the forms Fic. 9.—H. No. 1: a, portion of a conidiophore bearing conidia; b, catenulate conidia—rarely occurring. described by Ravn. The apical end of the conidium is always obtuse, and is marked by a pale spot that was mentioned by Ravn (91) as occurring in H. teres, etc. Being of so distinctive a character, this end is always recog- nizable when the conidium is in a suitable position. We have, then, reliable means of identifying each end of the conidia: the basal stipe and the apical spot (Fig. 10). The latter, though not characteristic of all Helmintho- sporiums—for example, H. Nos. 2, 29, and others lack it—is characteristic of H. Nos. 1, 3, 13-16, and others. The color of the conidia of H. No. 1 ranges from pale-straw to light brown, and under some conditions shows a slight bluish-green tinge. While H. Nos. 2 and 28 were distinctly and constantly different from H. No. 1 in color, H. Nos. 1, 3, 13-16, etc., were indistinguishable on a color basis. The conidial outer wall—This wall (the episporium of de Bary, 9), which gives the color to the conidium, is extremely thin and very fragile 112 (Pl. XVIII). It is so brittle that by gently tapping the cover-glass over conidia the outer dark wall of every one of them may be broken in frag- ments, much as a peanut is broken if stepped upon. This character is common to H. Nos. 1, 3, 5, 13-16, etc., as well as to H. No. 2, and many other species, though in some the wall is less brittle than in others. The conidial wall that is left after the solution of the endosporium by sulfuric acid is entirely without sign of septation, but shows the apical spot clearly differentiated as a thin pale region. Fic. 10.—Variation in conidial shape and septa- tion of H. No. 1, and showing also the dark spot, stipe, at basal end, and the pale apical spot. Conidial contents.—Within the thin colored wall are the protoplasts, usually several in number (Fig. 11), and between the protoplasts and the outer wall is a thick hyaline layer of substance that is somewhat soft, usually appearing almost gelatinous (Pl. XVIII). This hyaline soft layer represents morphologically, I believe, a second cell-wall, the endosporium of de Bary (9). I shall so speak of it. That this wall is soft is shown by the way the conidial contents issue from the end of a cracked conidium under pressure Fic. 11.—Conidia of H. No. 1: a and b, with outer wall cracked open by pres- sure, the inner hyaline wall and the pro- toplasts emerging; c, another conidium with the outer wall crushed by pressure, the two protoplasts walled and touching; d, similar to c, but with the protoplasts separate; e, immersion-lens view of two protoplasts within a conidium, showing thickening at their point of nearest approach to each other; f, a longitudinal microtome-section of a conidium from which both sides have been cut away; g, a cross-section of a conidium showing much clear space between the protoplast and the outer wall. (Fig. 11). De Bary (9) remarks that the endosporium often shows great softness and delicacy but is by no means always thinner than the other wall. That the outer conidial wall has no internal ridges, and takes no part in forming septa, is shown both by direct observation and by inference from the way in which the conidial contents slide, unobstructed, length- wise of, and out of, the outer conidial wall. Ravn (91) states that in the three species studied by him the walls and septa are very thin, but when treated with glycerine, etc., the outer wall becomes prominently thickened, 114 as also the cross walls where they meet the outer wall. In making this statement he refers to the episporium and endosporium as constituting two layers of one wall. In some instances the endosporium is clearly seen to extend between, and to separate, the protoplasts (Fig. 11, b), while in other cases the protoplasts appear to touch each other (Fig. 11, a), yet when the conidial contents are pushed from a crushed conidium there is always a line, though sometimes it is very thin, separating the protoplasts. Since the protoplasts are distinct from each other, and are thus separated by the endosporium, it seems justifiable to assume that this second cell-wall forms the septa, sometimes obvious though very thin, between the protoplasts. Treated with concentrated sulfuric acid the conidial endosporium dissolves rapidly, and by the generated pressure the episporium is ruptured, invari- ably at the basal end first, this often opening trap-door-like, though fre- quently the pressure is sufficient to tear the wall of the conidium open throughout its length. With the solution of the endosporium the proto- plasts issue from the case of the conidium and appear to be unattached. The individual protoplasts vary much in shape, sometimes being nearly spherical; in other cases nearly cubical. - Each protoplast is surrounded by a differentiated layer which in some cases is so clear, distinct, and thick as to appear to be a third wall (Fig. 11). Perhaps it is. Under gentian violet and many other aniline stains, while the protoplast takes a strong stain this layer refuses to stain. Microtome cross-sections and longitudi- nal sections of conidia verify the foregoing conclusions (Fig. 11, f). In cross-sections (Fig. 11, g), with Fleming’s triple stain the protoplast stains as usual, but the second cell-wall refuses to stain; under Bismarck brown it takes a very faint stain. Under action of aniline blue, iodine, fuchsin, mal- achite green, Pianese, or chlor-zinc-iodine it remains unstained. In longi- tudinal sections cut so thin that two sides of the conidium have been cut away, mature conidia show no continuity of the protoplasts (Fig. 11, d). When plasmolized the protoplasts all shrink and lie quite separate from each other, and it is in such condition that the appearance of a third conidial wall is most evident (Fig. 11, a, 6). Previous to plasmolysis the proto- plasts are frequently seen to touch each other on the median longitudinal axis of the conidium, and a very faint line (plane) is observable extending across the conidium (Fig. 11, a, b). This probably represents the true septum, following nuclear division. The protoplast wall bears a small dot-like thickening (Fig. 11, e) adjacent to its sister protoplast, which may also be residual evidence of nuclear mitosis. The characters as here given for H. No. 1 are found also in such re- 115 lated forms as H. Nos. 3, 13, 16, etc. That the internal structure of Hel- minthosporium conidia has not been clearly understood is shown by nu- merous published figures. Conidial germination.—The conidia germinate readily in water, in hanging drop, or on the surface of wheat shoots (Fig. 12), and germination, Fic. 12.—Germinating conidia of H. No. 1 so far as I have seen, is very rarely lateral but usually from the ends, most commonly from the basal end. Thus twenty-seven basal germinations were counted as against fourteen apical ones. The germ-tube is hyaline, richly filled with protoplasm, and forms abundant branches and septa (Fig. 12). Bakke (6) states that ‘germ tubes first come from basal and apical cells; later other germ tubes may arise from the remaining cells under favorable conditions.” Kirchner (72) states that germination in H. gramin- eum is usually terminal, but Noack (87) shows that for this species the germ-tubes are as often lateral. The viability of the protoplast was not injured by crushing the epispore; indeed such cracking seemed to facilitate emergence of the germ-tube. Anastomosis of the germ-tubes is not uncom- mon (Fig. 13). As the germ-tube enlarges there is frequently, though not 116 Fic. 13.—Conidia of H. No. 1: a, showing septa from two depths of focus; b, two germinat- ing conidia with germ-tubes anastomosing. always, shrinkage of the protoplasts such as is shown in Fig. 11, this shrink- age being usually most pronounced in the end of the conidium showing most vigorous growth. To all appearance the endosporium serves as a stored food and is consumed in germination, since its presence in much diminished quantity in germinated conidia is evident when such conidia are crushed. The conidiophore-cells also occasionally function as conidia by sending out a germ-tube. Here, too, the inner cell-wall seems to serve as reserve food. Longevity of conidia.—It is not known how long conidia live, but on wheat straw that had remained air-dry for fourteen months they germi- nated normally. Noack (87) mentions germination ‘‘after many months.” Ravn (91) says of three species that at eight months they germinated but sparingly or not at all. Frequency of conidial septa—H. No. 1 under standard conditions (see appendix, page 180) gave the graph in Fig. J, while similar data for H. Nos. 13-16 are given in Fig. T. 117 Septa Differences of means of septa He Noss) andi 3)2-2. Yoyo te eereithe a pshe 0.27 + .16 INosiy dr and atsit: vhs acces at 0.80 = .12 lal INGoysseeibernl Ghee cogaueccnmor SOD Great Fe NOst Seandinll Oneness (0,2) = itil It is to be noted that the differences between Nos. 15 and 16 are quite as large relative to the probable error as are the differences between Nos. 1 and 3. Ravn(91), speaking of three species of Helminthosporium, says that the septa are very variable, and that specific differences can not be derived from them. Very abnormal septation was frequent; for example, on green- wheat agar (Fig. 14) and other uncongenial media. Fic. 14.—Various abnormal conidia of H. No. 1 as grown on green-wheat agar. Conidial shape-—The shape of the conidia, together with their size and septation, are in the genus Helminthosporium the three most-used charac- ters in description. Indeed in published descriptions of many species these are the only important characters mentioned, and often one or more of these is lacking. Conidial shape in certain species is very characteristic, partic- ularly in H. inaequalis, H. geniculatum, H. ravenelii, and also in my H. No. 29. Much stress has been laid on conidial shape as a means of distin- guishing certain cereal Helminthosporiums, particularly in distinguishing H. satwum from H. teres. Merely to look at two lots of conidia with the microscope, even with the aid of a comparison ocular, is not a satisfactory means of ascertaining the prevailing conidial shape. Many strains of Helminthosporium vary greatly as to conidial shape, and conidia of one shape are mixed with those of another (Pl. XIX—XXI). The important question is, what is the relative frequency of the various shapes? But before any fair estimate of this can be made, standards must be established as to what are the essen- tial characters of the various shapes. One factor of preponderating influence in determining these conidial shapes is the position that the point of greatest diameter occupies on the 118 Fic. 15.—Diagrams elucidating conidial shape. longitudinal axis of the conidium. In diagrams I and II, Fig. 15, the point of greatest diameter on the line a—a’ is midway between the base and apex of the conidium; while in diagrams III and IV it is nearer to its base. If the conidium tapers from the point of greatest thickness toward each end a fusiform (Diagr. III) or elliptical (Diagr. I, 1, 2) conidium re- sults. If for a sufficient distance on each side of the line a—a’ the conidium remains of uniform diameter it approaches more nearly the form of a cyl- inder (Diagr. II, 1, 2}. When the maximum diameter is nearer to the base than to the apex, somewhat rapid tapering gives a fusiform conidium ( Diagr. III), but if (asin Diagr. IV) the diameter lessens very gradually, as from the point a to point y, the conidium may be said to be subcylindrical. 119 Mere casual observation of many strains of Helminthosporium showed that the point of maximum diameter was usually near the basal region of the conidium, occasionally near the middle region, while in extremely rare cases it was near the apical quarter, the ratio of these cases being for H. No. 1 about 30:14:4. A more accurate determination of what may be termed the longitudinal eccentricity of the conidium—that is the range of variation in the position of the line of greatest diameter (a—a’, Diagr. I—IV) may be made by measuring (along the longitudinal axis) the dis- tance from the base of the conidium to the intersection of the line a—a’ with the longitudinal axis. This distance divided by the total length of the conidium may be known as its coefficient of longitudinal eccentricity. This coefficient for H. No. 1, based on 65 conidia taken at random, was found by the above method to be .43+0. In other terms the point of maximum diameter was distant from the base of the conidium 43% of the total length of the conidium. Bakke (6) says that the conidia of H. te- ves are widest at the middle. The coefficient of longitudinal eccentricity based on 11 conidia of H. No. 1 which were of typical subcylindrical ap- pearance (approaching that shown in Diagr. IV) was .45 as contrasted with a coefficient of .43 for 11 conidia of elliptical appearance (Diagr. I). Co- efficients of longitudinal eccentricity for H. Nos. 5, 20, and 4 of subcylin- drical shape, were respectively .35, .39, and .37, showing that in these forms the point of maximum diameter is slightly nearer the base than it is in H. No. 1. None of the conidia of H. No. 1 was truly cylindrical, that is, the sides were not parallel for any appreciable distance. Many were subcylindrical, the form approaching that shown in Diagram IV. Of 65 conidia taken at random 81%-+ of the conidia were elliptical; 17%-+ subcylindrical; and 1% otherwise. To secure a coefficient which would indicate with some degree of ac- curacy the curvature of the conidial wall (as from point a to point y, Diagr. xy h I—IV) determinations were made of the ratio : (Diagr. I—IV). The line cd was tangential to the surface of the conidium at the point of maxi- mum diameter, and was parallel to the longitudinal axis of the conidium, the line ef being 3.4 « from the line cd and parallel to it. Then the points x and y are where the surface-line of the conidium cuts the line ef. It is obvious that as the line xy increases in proportion to the length of the conid- ium, gh, the conidium more nearly approaches the form of a cylinder; and as the line xy becomes proportionately shorter the conidium becomes less : : ae) She like a cylinder. The ratio on may therefore be termed the coefficient 120 of cylindricity. For these determinations only conidia of approximately modal length were used, and to obviate unconscious selection, measure- ments were made of only the left side of the conidium, the basal end being toward the observer. Determination from 11 conidia of H. No. 1 of sub- cylindrical shape gave a coefficient of .74, while that from 53 elliptical conidia was .67. The above findings for H. No. 1 are as follows: Coefficient of longitudinal eccentricity FEMI OLINCLIcleete ieee eay ste rece Peheys eratals Sciavs iehal's, t's, a-@ aleia dee: ava. 3e 43 elton CON nian, tere san Wee ore sre ake soietn evsib ease vas 42 Siiieesiiie abated | eeyatel han 5 > Gores Onc Gi ce cere Ciera 45 Coefficient of cylindricity PMMINGOMLGI Netra cree etre ice temichae eae esis bald ose 70 Bilin iical conidia, wate cis Sata ct ence cters st taeeh .67 Sup oylincditealNCOmidicns er teeeckisrs atte veyhvs © Ststars oxeresevsi ates 74 Determinations of the coefficient of cylindricity made from drawings of Dr. Ravn (91) gave for H. gramineum and H. avenae respectively .86 and .95, showing a much higher coefficient than is given by any of the forms in my collection. A convenient method of measuring conidia for coefficients is given on page 179 of the appendix. Conidial length.—From five separate plates, a, b, c, d, and e, inoculated with H. No. 1 under standard conditions, Graphs 36-40 (Fig. K) of conidial length were made. Two additional graphs were made from plate e, one of which is designated as e’. The data pertaining to these graphs are given with the others (Fig. K). The differences between the means of conidial length on plates a to e and e’ are as follows: - Plates Differences between means Plates Differences between means a—b +0.70 + .21 b—e’ —0.19 + .16 De +0.62 + .24 c—d +0.16 = .23 a—d —0.78 + .23 c—e +1.40 + .24 a—e +2.03 + .24 c—e’ +0.11 + .17 a—e’ +0.50 + .16 d—e +1.24 + .25 b—c —0.07 + .22 d—e’ —0.28 + .18 b—d +0.08 += .23 e—e’ —1.52 + .19 b-e +1.32 + .24 Since the various plantings on these plates were all from the same in- oculum, made at the same time, and under as nearly identical conditions as possible, and so kept, the rather large difference in means seen, particu- 121 larly in a—e, b—e, c—e, d—e, and e—e’ is significant. If plate e be left out of consideration, the others agree reasonably well, with differences greater than the probable error in six out of ten cases, the difference being but slightly above the probable error in two cases, about twice the probable error in two cases; and about thrice that, in two cases, the largest excess, in plates a—b, being 0.70.21. Plate e deviates widely, with a difference in case of a—e of 2.03 +24, the difference being more than eight times the probable error. The great difference in plate e must indicate variability of the fungus on this plate (cf. with page152),modification due to influence of some unknown factor of environment, or error in sampling. But since such a variation did occur in a series of plates made with the greatest care and with the same organ- ism, it is clear that the occurrence of such a differenee can not properly be interpreted as meaning specific difference. Data from the combined rec- ords of a, b, c, d, and e’ (omitting e as questionable) give the most reliable data I have on length of conidia of H. No. 1 under standard conditions (cf. with Graph 42, Fig. K). To determine how wide a variability occurs in specimens collected in the open, on the natural host, H. ravenelii (P|. XX) a well-marked, easily recog- nized species of wide geographic distribution, growing on Sporobolus, was stud- ied in conidial-length graphs made from specimens listed in connection with the graphs (Fig. L). The tabulated results of this study of H. ravenelii follow: Nos.* Differences between means Nos.* Differences between means 43—46 0.48 + .26 46—50 0.50 + .28 43—47 0.59 + .24 46—51 0.70 + .28 43—49 0.62 + .28 46—52 1.46 + .28 43—48 0.62 + .29 46—53 2.43 + .27 43—50 0.98 + .27 47—51 0.59 + .26 43—51 1.18 + .27 47—52 1.35 + .26 43—52 1.94 + .27 47—53 2.33 += .25 43—53 2.92 + .26 48—S1 0.56 + .30 44—48 0.45 + .31 48—52 1.32 + .30 44—49 0.46 + .31 48—53 2.30 + .29 44—50 0.81 + .30 t 49—51 0.55 + .29 44—51 1.01 + .30 49—52 1.31 + .29 44—52 1.77 + .30 49—53 2.29 + .29 44—53 2.75 = .29 50—52 0.96 + .29 45—50 0.80 += .24 Si—52 0.76 + .29 45—51 1.00 + .25 D153 1.73 + .28 45—52 1.76 + .25 52—53 0.97 + .28 45—53 2.74 + .24 *For significance of numbers, see Figure L. —— — 122 A difference of 0.97+.28 between the means of two samples from the same specimen (Nos. 52 and 53)—a difference more than three times the probable error—shows clearly the difficulties of sampling, and that such differences between samples of the same species grown under the same con- ditions may be expected. The differences in several instances, notably between Nos. 44 and 49, 44 and 48, and 46 and 51, are no greater than those between two samples of the same specimen and may well be due to sampling, and to this extent show the fungus, over a wide geographic range, to be remarkably uniform. In several other instances, however, there is a wide difference of means, above the probable error—notably in all cases involv- ing sample No. 53. These differences are often four, five, or six times the probable error, and occasionally run as high as eleven or twelve times the probable error even with this remarkably uniform fungus. While these differences may in part be attributed to sampling they probably represent also morphological changes due to environmental differences, and differ- ences of nutrition or humidity, but do not necessarily indicate racial dif- ference in the fungus. To determine whether various cereals, autoclaved, influence conidial length differently, plates of H. No. 1 were prepared under standard condi- tions except that in the same Petri dishes were placed shoots of wheat, rye, barley and corn. The resulting graphs of conidial length are given in Fig. M. The differences in means are as follows: On rye and wheat, 0.40 + .29 On rye and corn, 0.45 + .20 On wheat and corn, 0.02 + .22 The mean length on rye, corn, and barley is in close agreement with ‘that on wheat, and, apparently, under these conditions the species of shoots counts for little in its influence on conidial length. Conidial-length graphs (Fig. N) made from H. No. 1 grown on fresh wheat-stems, on young wheat shoots, on wheat leaves, and on young wheat plants, all autoclaved in test-tubes with a few centimeters of water, show a considerable increase over those under standard conditions (Graph 42, Fig. K); also, in Graphs 58, 60, and 61 (Fig. N), they show a much larger standard deviation and coefficient of variability, probably due to the va- riable humidity under these conditions. The small number of conidia measured, and the lack of control over humidity may be presumed to ac- count for such variation as is seen. Live wheat inoculated in rag doll showed at the 6th day 100% infec- tion. These infected seedlings were placed in a Petri dish on moist filter- 123 paper and the conidia allowed to develop to maturity. Conidial length here (Graph 64, Fig. O) was somewhat less than under standard conditions (see Graph 42, Fig. Kk), and the coefficient of variability was a little high. Conidial breadth—H. No. 1 was quite constant in conidial breadth as follows: M o CV 6.03 + .04 0.55 +.34 9.13 =.57 The ratio of conidial length to conidial breadth is an important one as determinative of shape. This ratio for H. No. 1 is as follows: mean length 22.62 + .05 mean breadth 6.03 + .04 = 3.74 + .03 In a description of H. No. 1, written in May, 1919, for my own use, and prepared with considerably more care than is ordinarily used in specific descriptions of fungi, I noted the conidia as 3—8 septate and as 52.6—67.2 *19.2—24 uw long on wheat; and as 48—8418—21.6 w on corn-meal agar, whereas my more extended study now shows the mode on wheat as 78.2 u, the mean as 76.8 uw, and the range from 34 to 98.6 yw; the breadth as ranging from 17 to 23.8 uw, with the mean as 20.4 y; the septa with a mode of 8, a mean of 7.9, and ranging from 4 to 10. I may here note also that Bakke (6) in his description of H. teres gives the conidial dimensions as 150 [or 105*|—130 x 15—20 », and theseptaas7—14. Thusheseems to have found conidia considerably longer than I did, as also narrower ones. It should be said that the data obtained by this study of graphs of H. No. 1, though involving several thousand measurements, fail to record the longest conidium observed, and the one with the most septa, because these were both seen during observations which rendered their inclusion impossible; which is to say that to include them would have been to consciously select these unique conidia for inclusion. Anent the shortcoming of my own brief description cited above may be quoted the Saccardian de- scription of H. ravenelii: ‘“‘Spongiosum; hyphis flaccidis flexuosis nodosis ramosis, inarticulatis; conidiis cymbiformibus, 3-4 septatis, fuscis, 50 uw longis, endo-chromotibus isthmo connexis.”’ Though the mode is approx- imately at 50-54 u the conidia really range from 13 to 71m (see Fig. L). Very similar errors, due to brevity of description, exist regarding many or all known species. *See Pammel, King, and Bakke (90, p. 180). 124 EtroLtocy oF Foot-rot EVIDENCES OF ETIOLOGICAL RELATION OF H. NO. 1 Constant Presence of the Pathogene In all cases of American foot-rot of wheat that have come under my observation the rotten basal portion of the shoot bore and was to a large extent occupied by a mycelium, which grew luxuriantly within the wheat tissue though very sparingly upon its surface, coursing lengthwise within the diseased cells. This mycelium was hyaline, septate, vacuolate, irregular in thickness, and, in short, agreed in all characters with those of H. No. 1 when growing in rotting wheat-tissue (page 105). Absence of other Constant Parasites No other organism which might be considered as a possible parasite was present in any large number of cases in or on the wheat tissue. Amebae and nematodes were present in great numbers in the soil, but appeared to bear no relation to the rot of the wheat. Various fungi, as Fusarium (two species), Rhizoctonia, Epicoccum, Alternaria, were occasionally found on the roots or stems, but each only rarely, in a fraction of 1% of the cases, and with no evidence of etiological relation to the rot of the stem. Identity of Pathogene proved by Culture Very numerous isolations were made by taking bits of tissue (1) from diseased sheaths, (2} from diseased stem-lesions, and (3) by stripping away the sheath, disinfecting the remaining surface with mercuric chloride and taking out diseased bits, with precautions against contamination. All such diseased bits were laid on the surface of corn-meal agar plates. Hun- dreds of these were made, with the result that in practically every instance the diseased bit gave rise to Helminthosporium conidia in general aspect like those of H. No. 1. Other organisms, as mentioned, occasionally occurred on these plates, but in only a small per cent. of instances. It seems entirely conclusive that the mycelium constantly found in the rotting basal portion of the diseased wheat-stems is that of a Helminthosporium. Evidence of Infectiousness Several bags of soil that bore diseased wheat in 1919, near Granite City, Illinois, were brought into our greenhouse in July, 1919. In this soil was planted ‘‘Sultzer Pride’ wheat, and the planting kept liberally watered. At the end of some weeks the plants were removed, and on examination all 125 showed browning and incipient rot of the basal portion of the stem. Micro- scopic examination and agar platings from these stems gave results identical with those stated above. One plant that was so badly rotted in the pot as to fall over was found bearing Helminthosporium conidia on its surface. Conidia produced in Moist-chamber Culture While stems with diseased lesions, either from the field or greenhouse, when placed in an ordinary moist-chamber rarely gave Helminthosporium conidia (or, if they did, only in small numbers), if the diseased stems were placed on wet filter-paper in moist chamber and rather closely covered with wet filter-paper Helminthosporium conidia invariably developed in quantity on the lesions, the fungus eventually spreading throughout the available wheat-tissue and producing conidia over the whole surface (cf. with page 95). Evidence from Inoculation Severed, live wheat-shoots, grown under aseptic conditions, were placed as under standard conditions (Appendix, page 180), except that the shoots were not autoclaved but put, living, upon the inoculated agar. All such shoots rotted rapidly and completely, the shoot being eventually covered by Helminthosporium conidia. Since direct examination showed no contamination, it is evident that H. No. 1 can cause rot of the wheat tissue. To determine the relative rotting power of this organism and other Helminthosporiums under these conditions, fresh aseptic shoots of corn, wheat, oats, barley, and rye were laid on washed agar with the growing tip toward the circumference of the dish, and the cut end in contact with the outer edge of the spreading mycelium of a colony about 5 cm. in diam- eter. These were examined after 2 days and again after 5 days, and the rate of browning was carefully calculated. In this way seventeen strains of Helminthosporium were tested as to their ability to produce rot in live, severed cereal-shoots. H. No. 1, the foot-rot organism, showed high rotting ability, completely rotting a wheat shoot 11 mm. long in 5 days, while H. No. 2 (H. ravenelii) produced no rot on any cereal. H. No. 1 rotted corn also, but much less rapidly than it did wheat, and its rate on oats, barley, and rye was still less. Several other numbers showed strong rotting power on wheat shoots, notably H. No. 10 (labeled H. teres), isolated by Dr. Stakman from barley, H. No. 9 isolated by him from wheat, and H. No. 13 (labeled H. sativum), isolated by Dr. Durrell from barley. 126 The results from this preliminary work indicate also a very wide dif- ference in the susceptibility of these cereals to rot by the various strains of Helminthosporium. Oats, on the whole, are less injured by them than any of the other four cereals tested. Corn and wheat were most often first in susceptibility to certain of the strains, and were also highly susceptible to more strains than were barley and rye. Seedlings in Petri dishes imoculated—Aseptic wheat-seedlings were placed on moist filter-paper in sterile Petri-dishes and were inoculated in their basal region in three ways: by placing upon them (1) wheat tissue rot- ted by H. No. 1 (pure culture), (2) conidia of this organism, and (3) agar bearing an abundance of growing mycelium. No difference was observed in the effectiveness of the three modes of inoculation. Each gavea 100% infection, always visible with a hand lens in 2 days (Fig. 16) as a small spot, which could usually be seen at the same time without a glass. A longer time than two days was necessary to demonstrate that this spot would develop into a general rot, but so it did in all cases when the environ- ment was favorable. Seedlings in rag doll inoculated—Wheat seedlings with shoots 2-3 cm. long were placed in a special form of rag doll (Pl. XX XIII) and inoculated with H. No. 1 by placing an oese of conidia-suspension on the base of each shoot without wounding. Infection was apparent to the naked eye in every case in two days, and the results in six days are shown in PI. XXXIV. Rotting occurred in 6-12 days under favorable conditions. At 6 days the roots were often more or less blackened for long distances and the cortex filled with mycelium. Views of cross-sections showed a heavy infection of the second leaf, and the sheath completely occupied. With excessive moisture, seedlings were killed by the Helminthosporium in 6 days; but if in comparative dryness, only small lesions resulted. Seedlings similarly placed in rag-doll but atomized with conidia-suspension also gave 100% infection, and the infection was much more widely distributed. Inoculation by diseased tissue or by fungus-bearing agar was in no way superior to inoculation with conidia. Control, or check, rag-dolls, made in the same manner but without inoculum, at 2 and 6 days showed no lesions even under microscopic ex- amination. In a very small number of cases there was infection by Hel- minthosporium in the checks, and in a few instances overgrowth by a Helminthosporium similar to H. No. 29, with geniculate conidia. Roots of wheat inoculated —Conidia of H. No. 1 were placed on the root- hairs of wheat-seedlings in rag doll. At the end of 4 days all roots so in- 127 oculated were yellowish or pale straw-color, as contrasted with the white, uninoculated roots, and they had scant root-hairs. Under the microscope Fic. 16.—Lesions on unwounded wheat-seed- lings two days after inoculation with conidia of H. No. 1. The shaded portion of the shoot was yellow to brown. 128 the cortical tissue was seen to be crowded with Helminthosporium myceli- um coursing mainly in the longitudinal direction of the root. The mycelial threads within the root cortex were remarkably thick—13y. Wheat seedlings 2 cm. long, atomized with conidia suspension of H. No. 1, in 6 days were covered with infection spots over their whole surface. Inoculations in soil—Vials 12X70 mm., prepared as described on page 180, were used as containers. Wheat seeds were germinated asep- tically, and when the shoot was about 2 cm. long they were inoculated and transferred to the soil ina vial. The results differed in no essential way from those described for the rag-doll inoculations, though the plant could be kept longer under observation since it was not solely dependent on the seed for food. Aseptic wheat-grains were also planted in these vials with the inoculum placed in three different positions: (a) on the seed; (b) 1.5 cm. above the seed; (c) 1.5 em. below the seed. When on the seed, lesions occurred low; when above the seed, they were higher; when below the seed, no lesions were on the stem in early days but the roots were heavily infected. Duplication, in pots and in benches, of all the above experiments made in vials gave identical results. Recovery of Organism After all the types of inoculation mentioned above, the organism used in the inoculation was clearly evident in the tissues and producing conidia upon them, and by dilution-plating it was recovered from them. During such recovery. there was sometimes evidence of bacterial or other contami- nation, but in most cases of each type of inoculation no contamination occurred, and the pathogenic changes noted were clearly attributable to the fungus used in the inoculation. . INFECTLON PHENOMENA ON WHEAT Conidia of H. No. 1 and of H. No. 14 when placed on wheat in rag doll germinated from one or both ends as described elsewhere. The germ- tube grew rapidly, branching freely, and oriented itself lengthwise of the shoot more frequently than crosswise or obliquely, often following length- wise the boundary between two wheat-cells. At certain places where this mycelium touched the wheat-surface it swelled slightly, producing a round or oblong appressorium. These appresoria sometimes, probably most often, arose by the simple swelling of a cell of the main thread (Fig. 17), though frequently also from short lateral branches (Fig. 17, d) or where the terminal 129 cell of a thread abutted against the wheat tissue (Fig. 17, g). So far as observed they differed from the usual mycelila cells only in shape. The appressoria are very numerous (Fig. 17, 6). They are usually produced only after the mycelium has grown to considerable length; not, as is the case with some fungi, immediately on emergence from the conidium. In See. Fic. 17: a, H. No. 1 on wheat, 24 hours after inoculation, showing mycelium arising from a conidium, an appressorium, and penetrating mycelium; 6, c, d, H. No. 14, showing appressoria, penetrating points, and ‘‘callus’’; e, f, g, h, H. No. 1: e, mycelium within cell, and with a penetrating mycelium reaching into an adjacent cell, a ‘‘callus’’ there resulting; f, mycelium ending squarely against a cell- surface, penetrating it and then being covered by ‘‘callus’’, and eventually penetrating this and the next cell-wall, the latter being thickened; g and h, similar to e. most cases the penetrating mycelium, viewed from above, appears as a minute bright point, or as if a minute hole had been pierced in the wheat cell-wall, much as is seen in the hyphopodia of Meliola (82) or on the appressoria of Gloeosporium (64) where penetration organs arise. Viewed laterally, the bright point of the appressorium is seen to mark the emer- gence of a haustorium-like strand which I shall continue to call the pene- trating mycelium. This structure is much thinner than the usual mycelium (see Fig. 18) and of different staining reactions. It penetrates the wheat 130 cell-wall, and is sometimes simple, sometimes branched. At the place where the penetrating mycelium pierces a wall and enters a healthy wheat-cell there is developed, on the inside of the wheat-cell and surrounding and covering the penetrating mycelium, a callus-like structure (Fig. 17, e-g) which for brevity I shall term the “callus”. As the penetrating mycelium continues to grow, the ‘‘callus’’ grows pari passu. Where many penetrating mycelia develop near each other this “‘callus’’ may become very large Fic. 18.—H. No. 1: a, large ‘‘callus’’-formation, with many penetrating mycelia piercing the cell walls; 6, mycelium spreading over the wheat surface, and at many contact points producing appressoria and penetrating mycelia; c, penetrating mycelium of unusual form, and the ‘‘callus” rough. (Fig. 18, a) and complicated. The ‘‘callus’’ formation seems to be of the nature of a precipitation, probably resulting from toxic action, and a badly intoxicated cell can, in its protoplasmic disorganization, make numerous such deposits at points other than those of mycelial entrance. Thus in some instances the whole inner surface of a cell's walls may be thickly 131 studded with small dewy drops, apparently of precisely the same character as the “‘callus.’’ (See Fig. 23, page 135.) The host's cell-wall at and near the point of penetration, is markedly altered chemically, as is shown by various stain-reactions. Thus, adjacent to the point of infection several different regions giving different chem- ical reactions may be distinguished, as is indicated in Fig. 19. Region 3 gives the usual chlor-zinc-iodide reaction and stains like normal cellulose. None of the other regions do this. Region 4 stains darker with the usual Fic. 19.—H. No. 1: regions of a young diseased spot: 1, mycelium; 2, penetrating mycelium; 3, normal wheat cell-wall; 4, region of darker staining; 5, region of lighter staining; 6, diseased inner lamella; 7, middle lamella; 8, ‘‘callus.”’ stains, but not so dark as normal cell-wall. The “‘callus’’ and penetrating mycelium stain faintly or not at all. The middle lamella stands out clearly in all of the diseased region, and on each side of it the inner lamella is seen to be thickened and of altered stain-reaction. Though penetration is some- times directly through the wall it is much oftener into the middle lamella, and the mycelium shows a strong tendency to follow along the line of division between two cells, thus giving a gridiron effect to the mesh. This is possibly due to chemotropic attraction by the middle lamella or, possibly, because this is the weakest place in the cuticle. No case of stomatal entrance was observed; indeed, on the sheaths of “Golden Chaff’ wheat stomata are seldom present. Once within the host cell the mycelium grows rapidly, soon nearly or completely filling it (Tig. 20), and often forming a mass so dense that it resembles a pseudoparenchyma. Both longitudinal and transverse sections 132 show clearly that the mycelium is within, not between, the host cells. Penetration into adjoining live cells is attended by the same phenomena of penetrating mycelium, “‘callus’’ formation, and wall-changes, though appressoria were not observed in such cases, possibly on account of the difficulty of observation. Penetration into dead cells is not attended by these phenomena. The chronological history of a lesion from a simple infection begins with the attack on one cell, which is soon overcome and occupied, and at 24, or, better, 48 hours after inoculation, observation with a 16 mm. objective shows regions with one to several cells diseased and browned, a Fic. 20.—H. No. 1 on wheat: a, mycelium in cells and penetrating the side walls; b, mycelium running lengthwise within the wheat cells. and the protoplasts undergoing disorganization and becoming browned. Owing to the length of the wheat-cells, the diseased regions are much longer than broad, and in many instances two diseased cells or two rows of them are seen with a quite healthy cell between them (Fig. 21). Under action of Javelle water the healthy cells plasmolize beautifully, while the sick cells show no plasmolysis. Treated with acid fuchsin in glycerine, normal cells show no stain, while in diseased cells the entire protoplast becomes pink and the inner lamella, which is swollen, also stains pink. This softening and swelling of the lamellae was extensively studied by de Bary (8), Ward (123) and Biisgen (30). De Bary, who, in 1886, was first to separate a cytolytic enzyme from fungi (Sclerotinia libertiana), states that as the inner lamellae undergo partial dissolution they continue for a time to give the cellulose reaction, but eventually swell, disorganize, and lose this property (8, page 420). He also describes the fungus as growing in the middle lamella. Ward (123) describes the cellulose as swelling and soft- ening under action of the enzyme produced by Botrytis. Here, too, the 133 mycelium grows in the middle lamella. Jones (71), working with Bacil- lus carotovorus, reports that the enzyme produced, attacks more strongly the middle lamella, but he noted also a softening and swelling of the inner lamella, but found that the cellulose stains (e. g., chlor-zinc-iodide) “‘give clear blue reactions with these fully softened walls.” Van Hall (63), working with Bacillus omnivorus on Iris, reports a similar condition. The inner lamellae, swollen by Helminthosporium, no longer react as cellulose under this test. Blackman and Welsford (18), who describe in detail the entrance of Botrytis cinerea into bean leaves, state that neither before nor after penetration did the staining reactions of the cuticle give any evidence of its being softened or swollen or in any way altered chemically (though the subcuticular walls usually, if not always, swell), and no swelling Fic. 21.—H. No. 1 on wheat shoots, second day after inoculation. Shaded portion was colored brown. of the subcuticular cellulose was observed before the passage of the invad- ing hypha through the cuticle. Pathogenic changes in the inner lamella precede those in the protoplast, that is, no toxin acts upon the proto- plast prior to the swelling of the lamellae. The subcuticular layer swells. Penetration of the cuticle is by pressure. Gardner (58) mentions no changes occurring normally in staining reaction of host cellulose in leaves attacked by Colletotrichum, though in cases of delayed penetration he notes that the cell-wall under the appressorium retained safranin bet- ter than did normal cell-walls. In fruit penetration, however, he found that, characteristically, the inner lamella was so altered as to retain saf- ranin. The action appears to be different in both quality and quantity from that described by Newcomb (86), who, studying enzymes in seeds, states that ‘‘with all the ferments the walls at first become hyaline, appear 134 gradually more transparent and finally ‘melt away.’ ’ In Colletotrichum Gardner (58) found the fungus similarly seeking the ‘‘depressions bounding the epidermal cells." This place of entrance is characteristic of many fun- gi—see Biisgen (30), Behrens (15), Ward (123), Noack (87), Miyoshi (83), Nordhausen (88), Schellenberg (99), and Aderhold (1). The last three named, believe this to be due to chemotaxic influences. Noack in describ- ing the entrance of H. gramineum into the host mentions the appressoria. Similar structures have also been described in the anthracnose fungi by Hasselbring (64) and by Gardner (58), the pore in these structures being such as I find in Helminthosporium, though the appressorium in the anthrac- nose fungi is a mere swelling and is hyaline. Similar extreme narrowness of the mycelium at the actual point of penetration of host-walls is shown Fic. 22.—H. No. 14 on wheat, showing fan-like mode of branching, see p. 105. also by Ward (123, fig. 57), Gardner (58, page 27), Hasselbring (64), Biisgen (30), and Noack (87). Bakke (6) says of H. teres that the mycelium ‘“‘penetrated the epidermis directly and made its way through the intercellular spaces,’’ but he gives no further details. Conditions very closely resembling the ‘‘callus’’ formation are figured by Dastur (41, figs. 8, 9), depicting the entrance of smut into sugar- cane. This appears to have occurred only occasionally, and Dastur re- gards the ‘‘callus” (‘‘plug’’) as probably a means of preventing infection. Conditions somewhat resembling that of the ‘‘callus’’ formation are de- scribed and figured by Wolff (128, figs. 2, 3) and by Brefeld (25, fig. 2) in the penetration of smuts into cereal tissue. Wolff (128, p. 20) de- scribing this says: ‘‘Es tritt hierbei der eigenthiimliche Umstand ein, 135 dass der Faden, sobald seine Spitze in das Innere der Zelle tritt, nicht frei in dieses hineinwachst, sondern von den inneren Schichten der Zell- wand, welche sich gleichsam aus sttilpen, wie in eine Scheide von bald grésserer bald geringerer, oft sehr betrachtlicher Starke eingeschlossen wird und in dieser bis zur nachsten Zellwand weiter wachst.’’ Brefeld describes very similar conditions, including much thickening which is of yellow color, but instead of interpreting it as an enclosing sheath he regards it as wholly due to thickening of the walls of the mycelium itself. He moreover states that this phenomenon is indicative of conditions in the host, as too great age, that are unsuitable to infection, and that it is not in evidence when the host is in fully susceptible condition. Which- ever may be the true interpretation in the case of cereal smuts, I am convinced that in case of Helminthosporium the ‘‘callus”’ is produced _by Fic. 23.—Infection by H. No. 1, 24 hours after inoculation, showing thickening of the wheat cell-walls by deposition on their inner surfaces. (Text citation at top of p. 131.) the wheat-cell, and is not part of the mycelium. Ravn (91), describing the reactions to the intercellular mycelium of Helminthosporium in cereals, states that a thickening appears upon the cell-wall of the host, resembling a drop segregated from the cell, and that several such thickenings may be seen upon one cell, sometimes filling the intercellular spaces completely. They seem to differ from those that I describe (Fig. 17), however, in posi- tion, since they are without, not within, the cell, and in composition, as those noted by Ravn take aniline stains readily. Ravn (91, fig. 23) describes an appressorium very much like that which I find and states that the mycelium from it enters the epidermal cell, where it so increases that it may fill the cell; then makes its way to the intercellular spaces and grows there exclusively, never again entering any of the cells even by means of haustoria. It therefore appears from his statements and figures that the Helminthosporiums with which he 136 worked, differed in a very fundamental way, as pathogenes, from those which I am studying, his forms being intracellular (except as regards the first cell invaded), and not at once killing the adjacent cells. That is, the condition pictured is much like that presented by Albugo, Perono- spora, Puccinia, etc., except for the absence of haustoria. The forms with which I deal, on the other hand, though they enter through the middle lamellae, immediately become intracellular and at once kill the protoplast of the invaded cell, and proceed similarly with other cells. These differing- conditions, if substantiated by further study, probably indicate funda- mental differences in the fungi in regard to their production of toxins or enzymes, and certainly indicate an entirely different type of pathogenicity. In these early stages the disease is properly a spot and not a rot. Whether it will develop into a true, general rot depends upon conditions. Phenomena like those described under the present heading, though differing in de- tail, were noted with H. Nos. 6, 8, 9, 14, 21, 36, 39, 40, and 41. Action of various strains of Helminthosporium on wheat shoots —Tests in rag doll, at medium moisture, with H. No. 1 and H. No. 3 gave at 2 days 100% infection for both; at 6 days there was no appreciable difference between the two; while at 10 days all shoots were rotten under H. No. 1 and some, but not so many, under H. No. 3. The test was repeated with 14 strains of Helminthosporium. All strains at 2 days showed 100% infection; the controls, no infection. The infection phenomena with all of these strains were all of the character described on pages 128, 129, showing penetrating mycelium, “‘callus,’’ etc. At 6 days H. Nos. 1, 4, 5, 8, 13-16, 20, and 21 had all produced some rot. The roots also were distinctly yel- lowed by H. Nos. 15 and 16, while H. No. 20 showed less rotting than the other numbers mentioned above. H. Nos. 29 and 39 produced no rotting, and the lesions were visible only through a lens, but thus viewed, showed 100% infection, as indicated by the usual infection phenomena. H. Nos. 3, 6, 9, 17, and 18 remained local, as at 2 days. H. No. 29, a Helminthosporium with geniculate conidia, germinated abundantly from both ends of the conidium, and on wheat produced many penetrating mycelia and an abundant mycelium within the host, though the mycelial invasion reached only a few cells, and while extending for a considerable distance lengthwise, made but little progress laterally. The appressoria were usually pyriform, as was also the penetrating mycelium, differing thus from H. No. 1 (Fig. 17). Similar tests were made with three saltants, M6, M8, and M38. Notes at 2 days showed 100% infection, and at 6 days much rot by M6, and considerable rot by the other two. 137 Though infection can be determined with certainty, I have as yet no means of accurately measuring rotting power, or of determining whether differences noted in rotting are due to environment, host, or fungus. It seams clear, however, that H. No. 29 is capable of causing only local spotting; and that the other numbers, perhaps even the saltants, vary somewhat among themselves in rotting capacity, most of them causing rot- ting to some extent under favoring conditions. The fact that so many and diverse races of Helminthosporium are able to cause rot of wheat, led me to test the ability of Alternaria to para- sitize wheat seedlings. An Alternaria, found commonly on wheat seed, was isolated and inoculation made in rag doll on wheat seedlings. At 24 hours many wheat cells showed diseased spots, being in every way like those described on pages 128, 129, including the swollen middle and inner lamellae, browning of the cell-contents, and formation of the ‘‘callus’’ and penetrating mycelium. The Alternaria mycelium crossing several middle lamellae, usually produced an appressorium and penetration at each middle lamella. The Alternaria mycelium was also seen to enter the wheat-cells, killing a few of them, but in no instance was this fungus observed to cause rotting or to produce a spot large enough to be visible to the naked eye. It was seen, however, to penetrate the cclls of the root cortex quite extensively, causing a slight browning. Sterigmatocystis, Penicillium, and several other fungi supposed to be mere saprophytes, were treated in similar manner, but produced none of the phenomena of infection. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF VARIOUS HOSTS TO INFECTION Tests in rag doll with H. No. 1 Corn.—Three seedlings showed no infection at 2 days, though conidia were present and had germinated. At 6 days all three plants were in- fected, the infection being confined to one or two cells, though the myce- lium was clearly evident in these. Pammel, King, and Bakke (90) report negative results regarding infection trials of H. sativwm on corn, but their tests were limited to leaves. Barley.—At two days one plant was slightly infected, showing sev- eral lesions. In these the mycelium was abundant within the cells. Eight were not infected. At 6 days the infection showed no further progress. Rye.—At two days three plants were infected; six not infected. At 6 days the infection showed no progress. The mycelium was observed with- in the cells and infection phenomena were as on wheat. 138 Sorghum (Holcus sp.) —There was 100°) infection of both roots and stems, with pronounced rot. The same phenomena were observed as on wheat, including the appressoria, penetrating mycelium, and ‘‘callus."’ The sap of the infected cells was strongly tinged with red, and the ‘‘cal- lus’’ and appressorium were deep red. Adjacent colorless walls soon be- came swollen and reddened. The red coloring-matter is absorbed by the nucleus, which becomes as brilliantly colored as by an aniline dye. At six days the shoots and roots were heavily infected, the diseased regions assuming a deep red, almost black, color, and conidia formed abundantly over the lesions. When such specimens were placed in alcohol, the red color diffused to the alcohol, coloring it strongly. This red coloration by the host is a response common on invasion of either bacteria or fungi on the sorghums and sugar-cane, and on corn in the case of some diseases. Sudan grass (Holcus sorghum sudanensis)—At ten days 1 seedling gave positive and 5 gave negative results; at six days, 5 positive and 4 negative. Infection was slight on a few cells, but the mycelium was evident within the cells, and infection phenomena as on wheat were observed. Common millet (Chaetochloa italica)—At two days 10 gave positive results. At six days the rot was progressing into the roots faster than into the stem, though black spots 3—4 cm. long were apparent. Infection phenomena were observed as on wheat, and much mycelium was seen within the tissue. German millet (Chaetochloa italica germanica).—The results were prac- tically the same as with common millet. Amber cane (Holcus sorghum).—-Results were much as on sorghum. Red top(Agrostis palustris) —No phenomena of infection were observed. Beans.—No rot was produced, no ‘‘callus’’, nor any other of the usual signs of infection; nor was it certainly determined that the mycelium entered the host-cells, though it seems probable that the fungus killed some of the bean cells. Inoculation of leaves —Pots of well-established seedlings of wheat, oats, rye, barley, corn, German and common millet, and sorghum were placed in a humid atmosphere (above 90% relative humidity) and atomized with suspension of H. No. 1 conidia. Well-defined spots occurred fre- quently on barley, less frequently on wheat. Leaf-spots due to a Helmin- thosporium, apparently H. No. 1, also occurred naturally on wheat in the greenhouse. Such spots were first pale; later with a mummified dark center surrounded by a pale zone; and were oval in outline. In rye the mycelium was seen to be abundant within the cells, and complete death 139 of the affected leaf, and also rotting without spotting, resulted. On the leaves in the humid air of the rag doll occasional spontaneous infections were noticed. In such cases the infection rapidly spread, involving nearly all of the leaf, which first turned pale, then very slightly brown. Aerial mycelium and conidia were profuse over the diseased portion. SUMMARY CONCERNING ETIOLOGY OF FOOT-ROT The evidence is conclusive that Helminthosporium is the cause of the basal rot of the wheat-stems. It is the only parasite constantly present, and has been repeatedly, and by many methods, proved capable of causing such rot. This conclusion is in accord with the findings of Beck- with (14), who as early as 1911 showed that Helminthosporium is a very common parasite within the tissue of wheat-plants. Bakke (6) in 1912 reported that when conidia of H. teres were placed on barley seeds, “At the end of two weeks’ time there were not over seven seedlings to the row [originally there were twenty-five]. The roots were not in any sense indicative of a healthy state of growth.’’ Oats and fescue-grass were not susceptible. A seedling blight of wheat observed since 1910 has been described by Stakman (113) in Minnesota, where in 1918-19 it became seriously injurious. The symptoms include dwarfing, foot-rot, and root- rot. The disease appears to be closely like, if not quite identical with, the one which is the subject of this paper. She proves conclusively that the cause is a Helminthosporium. A foot-rot of wheat due to a Hel- minthosporium having quite different morphological characters is also known in Sudan (see No. 46, page 184). Certain of Ravn’s experiments (91) conducted by inoculating seeds on wet filter-paper in a Petri dish, gave conditions much like those in the rag dolls. He makes no mention, however, of infection of the sheath nor of the occurrence of rotting of the basal region. II. Evidence and Discussion of the Occurrence of Saltation within the Genus Helminthosporium INTRODUCTORY Early in my study of this Helminthosporium of foot-rot of wheat (herein designated as H. No. 1) it was noted that occasionally certain sectors of a colony growing on an agar plate differed more or less from the rest of the colony (Pl. XXII, 5; Pl. XXIII,1). This phenomenon is of rather common occurrence in work involving Petri-dish cultures of either fungi or bacteria, and little significance was at first attached to it; but later, when 140 the frequent recurrence of these variant sectors commanded attention, trans- fers were made from several of them to freshly poured agar-plates, and a transfer from the normal portion of the colony was added to each of these plates at a distance of about 2 cm. from the other transfer. The variant transfer was then marked on the bottom of the doubly occupied plate as M (indicating mutant), and the normal transfer as O (indicating original). In all the early transfers the M transfer resulted in a colony (M1) of decid- edly slower growth and more profuse conidial production than that pro- duced by the O transfer. The two colonies also differed markedly in general appearance owing to minute single differences which were often difficult to analyze, but which in the aggregate constituted distinctions which were so well-marked and obvious that at first sight one would say that the two colonies were those of two distinct fungi (Pl. X XIII, lower fig.; Pl. XX VII). When these colonies grew to fill, or nearly to fill, the plate, transfers from them were made to new agar plates, and later, transfers from these second plates, and so on, the series of transfers being a long one. It was found that the differences appearing in the M1 and O1 colonies were usually maintained on succeeding plates. These findings led to the tentative assumption that forms in the variant sectors were mutants or saltants of a more or less permanent nature, and a more serious study of this phe- nomenon was undertaken. In their origin the variants or saltants always appear as sectors which differ from the portion of the parent colony adjacent to them (see Pl. XXII —XXV). To the naked eye the most common deviations from the orig- inal type are in density, color, and rate of growth. Closer observation, with the microscope, frequently shows variation in the grouping, size, and shape of the conidia, and in the branching of the mycelium. Quite often many small sectors of divergent character appear at the edge of a large colony, especially on a plate that is beginning to dry. Many of these divergencies are merely modifications due to local environmental changes, and whether they are more can be determined only by close study of their behavior in subsequent transfer or transfers. Closer consideration of the characters involved in these saltations is best deferred to the following topic. In following this discussion it must be borne in mind that M refers to the variant sector on the plate on which it originated; M1, to the colony re- sulting from the first transfer from M; M-2, to that resulting from the first transfer from M1, and so on; and that O refers to the original colony in which the M arose. It is my custom to give the saltant a serial number (writing this on the plate in which it was found), and, usually, to transfer 141 both the saltant and the original to the same plate so that they may have the same environmental conditions, the identical quantity and quality of agar, and by growing close together may render comparison easy. Notes on the origin and subsequent behavior of the saltants were made under the serial number, ard the transfers were designated by additional numbers Thus, M98-7 refers to saltant No. 98, transfer 7. CHARACTERS OF SALTANTS AS SHOWN IN TRANSFERS General appearance.—The colonies of the saltant and of the original when grown on the same plate were usually so strikingly different in gen- eral appearance (Fl. XXII, XXIII) that a mere glance sufficed to give the impression that they were colonies of two different species. This dif- ference in general appearance is, on analysis, referable to one or more of the individual differences mentioned below. Fate cf linear growth.—Frequently the saltant was of much slower growth than the original, resulting in an M colony of much less diameter than that of the O colony, being often less than half of it (see two ex- amples: one given in Pl. XXII and one in Pl. XXIII). In some instances, however, the M colony grew faster than the O colony. Cemidial production.—Frequently the M colony, especially when slow- growing, was much more productive of conidia than the O colony, so much so as to give the colony a decidedly perceptible darker color. In several instances, however, the M colony was of the opposite character, producing few conidia or, in some cases, going to the extreme of appearing to pro- duce none at all. Generally speaking, rate of linear growth was in inverse ratio to that of conidia-production; while those saltants that were pale and possessed much aerial mycelium were usually of rapid linear growth and low conidial production. Conidial clusters-—Some saltants varied strikingly from each other and from the originals in the mean number of conidia borne per conidio- phore. Conidial length, breadth, septation, and shape.—TYhese characters, as evidenced by casual observation or by a study of graphs and the data derived from them, are shown to be strikingly different in various saltants. For clearness I present in this connection records concerning only a few saltants, giving graphs and data for others later. Graphs of conidial length of saltants M35, M36, and M40, those which show greatest deviation from originals in this regard, are given in Fig. P with the essential data. It is to be observed that the modes of M35 and 142 M40 are 57.8 and 64.6 » respectively, far below the mode of the original, which was 81.6 u. M36 shows less striking difference, but this is still marked. Comparison of the means shows those of M36 and M40 to be approximately 17 and 18 divisions (1 division=3.4 u), while the original was 23 divisions. In other words, the conidia of M36 were only about three fourths the length of the normal conidium of H. No. 1. Such dif- ferences as they appeared in the microscope are shown in I'l. XXVI. The difference in variability is also strikingly large. Striking variation in conidial breadth, both relative and absolute, was observed. Graphs and data of the more pronounced cases are presented in Fig. Q and others are given later. In connection with Fig. Y (Graphs 114-138) are given summary data on the conidial length of saltants in- cluded in this study. It is to be noted (Graph 6A, Fig. B) that whereas the mode of the ordinary conidium stood at 20.4 w and no conidia exceeded a thickness of 23.8 uw, the modal thickness of M8-7 (Graph 75, Fig. Q) is 23.8 w, with many conidia 27.2 win thickness, one even 30.6 uw. Such dif- ferences between saltants and the parental form are presented to the eye in Pl. XXVI. The ratio of conidial length to conidial breadth is perhaps still more striking than the mere variation in length. In such variants as M6 (PI. XXVI, >) and M8, while increased greatly in thickness the conidia were at the same time absolutely shorter, thus emphasizing to the eye both differences. The ratio of length to breadth in H. No. 1 is as follows: mean length 22.62 = .05 mean breadth —-6.03 + .04 = Hees se while in a sample of one of its saltants this ratio is mean length 20.67 += .22 = — = 2.64 + .04* mean breadth Hasyeess sili and in another sample of the same saltant it is mean length 19.58 + .30 a ae - = = - = Dior SS Ae mean breadth 7.30 += .06 a \2 (Vy) =+ pe EL ie A *Probable error was computed according to the above formula kindly furnished me by Dr. J. A. Det- lefsen, where a = probable error of A; b =probable error of B; and E =probable error of me 143 Variations in septation were also noted; thus in Fig. R, Graphs 79-82 are quite different from Graphs 83 and 84, while all of these are lower than the results gotten from H. No. 1 in Graph 35, Fig. J. I attach but little value, however, to these variations because they seem inconstant. Variation in conidial shape is common, some saltants showing the sides more nearly parallel than others, and the conidium as a whole less elliptical or fusiform. Variation in submerged mycelium.—Aside from rate of growth and variation in branching which resulted in changes in density of the colony, differences in the submerged mycelium were observable in but two cases, most strikingly so in M26. In this saltant certain hyphal threads near the edge of the colony appeared to be much more vigorous than their neighbors, becoming a trifle thicker, and lengthening with such rapidity as far to outstrip the others, reaching out as single strands to a consider- able distance beyond the usually even frontier of the colony, beginning then a dense, bushy branching in all directions, reminding one of witches’- brooms in trees. Numerous outposts of this kind give a peculiar lumpy appearance to the colony as seen by the naked eye. This peculiar mode of branching was clearly to be seen in M26, where it originated, and was frequent throughout subsequent transfers. Instead of single threads reaching out in this way, the mycelium sometimes formed fascicles which would grow out rapidly into new territory without branching, then sud- denly branch profusely, forming a dense brush. ‘These two rare characters were striking in effect both to the naked eye and under the microscope. Nearly every transfer from M26 or its descendants gave colonies with very strikingly marked sectors, characterized essentially by abundant conidial production, and therefore dark in color. The other sectors bore few conidia, were pale, and being a trifle less rapid in growth they were usually crowded out (Pl. XXX, lower fig.). These characters were main- tained through many transfers. (See Pl. XXXI.) Variation in aerial mycelium.—Saltant sectors and their progeny often differed from the originals in the abundance and character of the aerial mycelium. In some cases it was so scant as to be unnoticeable; in other cases so abundant and floccose as to obscure from vision the colony beneath. In character it varied from loose and fluffy to “‘ropy,” the latter term indicating a tendency of many mycelial strands to twine together (Fig. 5, c, p. 104). In other cases it collected in clumps, the process being attended by peculiar distortions (Fig. 6,e). In some saltants these clumps were abundant and aggregated; in others few and scattered (PI. 144 XXII, XXIII). The occurrence of clumps of mycelium upon the surface of the cultures has been stressed by Rayn (91) as of taxonomic importance (cf. also with Pl. XI, XIII, XXIII (below), XXVIII). H. No. 13, in one small sector, showed eight white clumps; the balance of the plate, none. In transfer M71 the clumping character seemed lost, but the following transfers were pale in type. In other cases the clumping habit seemed to be fixed and characteristic (Pl. XXVIII). Variability in colony color.—The color is mainly due to abundance or scarcity of conidia or to abundance or lack of aerial mycelium, or to both. The white aerial mycelium is practically without conidia. Transfers from sectors with much white, sterile aerial mycelium were not always constant in these characters, but in many instances they were so; for example, M72, derived from single conidium C1-1, and M78, derived from M26. Differences quite comparable with these were noted by Crabill (36). Zonation was well marked in some saltants and almost entirely lacking in others (Pl. IX, 3, 4, 5, 20). Some saltants formed sclerotia abundantly though the originals did not do so. Density of colony also differed, some saltants producing colonies of much denser growth than others. Variability —Variability itself was a distinctive character in certain instances. Thus, while the original of any given saltant is usually fairly constant in its characters and only occasionally gives rise to saltants, one saltant, M26 (Pl. XXX, below; XX XI), was definitely characterized by the fact of its inconstancy (see page 143). Many saltants were tested as to their infecting power and their rotting power, but no real difference in these respects was noticeable between the different saltants, or between the saltants and H. No.1. Since many species of Helminthosporium can infect many cereals this power may be rather fundamental in the genus and thus not be so readily subject to saltation as are less fundamental characters. I have no means as yet to measure slight differences in either virulence or rotting power. It may be mentioned here that Ravn (91) states that culture upon dead substrata diminishes the vir- ulence of Helminthosporium. Whether such diminution was permanent or merely a temporary modification he did not determine. Edgerton (51) reports that different races of Glomerella differ in virulence. Correlation of characters in saltation.—Certain correlations of characters are noticeable; thus, colonies of slow linear growth were usually high in 145 conidial production and vice versa. Correlations observed are indicated as follows: Slow linear growth+——high conidia-production Much aerial mycelium—-— low conidia-production Pale colony——rapid growth Thickening of conidia—— shortening of conidia Pale colony——low conidia-production Clumping of mycelium—-— low conidia-production The differences in colony-color and growth-rapidity here noted, are much like those described by Edgerton (51) in Glomerella plus and minus strains. Crabill (36) notes also a correlation in that his minus strains were always of more rapid growth than the plus strains. TENDENCIES IN SALTATION Saltants showing very low conidia-production, verging on sterility, coupled with paleness of colony, occurred with the greatest frequency. A type with increased conidia-production and of slow growth was next in frequency. The latter of these types was the most frequently thrown dur- ing the early period of my work though it has been rare recently. On the other hand, the former type, which rarely appeared at first, is now the most common. A type characterized by thickness of conidium, as M6, M8, etc., has been frequent all the time. These three types were by far the most common, and may be said to show the three tendencies. Markedly short- conidia saltants were few, as were also clump-bearing types that possessed permanence. Strains that threw either of the two types first mentioned above were very likely to continue to throw similar types. The same may be said of clump-bearing types. STABILITY OF THE SALTANTS Many saltants have been tested in various ways to determine, to some degree, their constancy. Through numerous transfers on corn-meal agar the O colony and the M colony of many saltants have been carried side by side. Under such conditions, though the original may give rise to new saltations or the saltant may saltate further, the main portion of both the O and M colony, as a rule, maintains its characters. It is manifestly impossible to test all the saltants to ascertain what their future behavior will be. All that can be done at present is to record certain observations concerning them. Several saltants possessing strongly distinctive characters have been repeatedly transferred and have maintained their characters through all of these transfers; and as far as can be foreseen 146 are as stable in their present form as are other fungi. Thus, saltants with short conidia (as M35 and M40) and saltants with broad conidia (M6 and M8) have been cultured and graphs of conidia repeatedly made, the sal- tant maintaining its character. For example, a determination of measure- ments of conidia of M35—made after several transfers and the lapse of some weeks—gave the following data: M o CV 17.31 + .25 2.51 + .17 14.50 + 1.05 Comparison of the above data with data of Graph 65, Fig. P, shows that this saltant not only remains far below H. No. 1 in length but is also constant. It is particularly to be noted that all comparative conidial meas- urements were made under standard conditions. Other characters ex- hibited by saltants, such as color, zonation, and aerial mycelium, are sim- larly permanent when strongly marked. Saltants are, however, subject to further saltation and indeed in some instances are exceptionally liable to it, for example, M26. Not all suspected examples of saltation afforded by variant sectors proved to be permanent in character, and some lost their distinguishing marks after one or a few transfers. Such instability was not observed in cases of conidial length and breadth, or of pronounced pale colony-color, but was more commonly noted in cases of slight differences of aerial mycelium, slightly pale color of colony, clumping, etc. While all cul- tures were carried, for convenience, on corn-meal agar, and their differences were observed on this medium, all that were studied critically were passed through other media—autoclaved wheat-shoots and live-wheat—to deter- mine whether such passage would alter the character of the saltant. The saltant characters were apparent on other media, as green-wheat agar or beef agar, though the general colony-character of both original and saltant was changed by the medium. After passage through these conditions, or through wheat, they were inoculated under standard conditions for all graphic comparisons. There is no evidence of alteration of the characters of the saltants by such procedure. In other words, the saltation is not a phenomenon associated with the medium and ended when the fungus gets back to its normal habitat. STABILITY OF THE SALTANTS THROUGH THE CONIDIA Dilution platings of conidia of well-marked saltants gave colonies all alike and with all the characters of the saltant, showing permanence of these characters through the conidia. 147 APPARENT REVERSIONS In several instances where colony color, aerial mycelium, or partial sterility was the saltant character, small sectors of the colony were so changed as to resemble closely the originals, and as far as tests were applied could not be distinguished from them (Pl. XXXII); in no case, however, where true saltant character was proved by constancy through several trans- fers did the whole stock revert; what appeared as reversion was limited to occasional sectors of the colony, and in no case did such change occur in the entire margin of a colony. SUPPOSITITIOUS CAUSES OF THE VARIANT SECTORS Several alternative suppositions other than that of saltation may be briefly discussed as possible causes of the variant sectors. The mycelium at a certain point may become weakened, or die, and the change in equilib- rium resulting may cause the variant sector. Spores of another Helmin- thosporium or of some other organism may fall into the colony from the air, and the variant sector may represent merely a contamination. The in- oculum used on a plate that shows saltation may have consisted of more than one strain or elementary species of Helminthosporium. The first supposition is open only to crude experimentation, while the second, if valid, implies a wonderful Helminthosporium-richness in the air of my laboratory as well as very faulty technique. Since saltation occurred after the fungus, H. No. 1, had been transferred many times by lifting a small bit of agar from the edge of a colony, the presumptive evidence that no mixture then existed is very strong. The following experiments bearing on these suggestions may, however, be worth recording. Wounding.—A culture of H. No. 1 on corn-meal agar was allowed to grow to a diameter of about 4cm. Then by means of a hot iridium wire the mycelium was killed at the points indicated in Pl. XXIX, above. In all cases the uninjured parts soon entirely outgrew the wounds, and the whole colony presented an entire, normal outer border with no evidences of saltation. In some instances a clear straight line extended from the point of wounding nearly to the edge of the colony. Evidently disturbance of equilibrium such as this did not cause saltation. Mixed planting.—Acting on the knowledge that the saltants were frequently slow-growing, and thinking that possibly ordinary transfers might be mixtures of two or more races, of which the slower-growing one ordinarily remained masked, M8, a well-characterized saltant, was planted 148 yn a corn-meal agar plate and allowed 24 hours to grow, by which time a vigorous mycelium had developed. A goodly quantity of conidia of H. No. 1 was then placed in the midst of this young but well-established M8 -olony, but it remained uniform to full occupation of the plate, showing no altations. Iniplanting conidia of H. No. 1 in a partly developed colony of the same irain.—This experiment was conducted like that of wounding except that nstead of using the hot wire conidia of H. No. 1 were implanted at the soints indicated in Pl. XXIX, below. All implants within the colony yrew sparingly and resulted in small clumps 1—2 mm. in diameter and lighly sporiferous (Pl. XXX, above). Implants at the edge grew poorly, nut those a few millimeters outside the colony became established and grew vell, each implant developing as an independent colony and inhibiting ad- vancement of the old colony, but bearing no resemblance to a saltant. [n one case, however, such implants showed marked change in characters und are still under culture as saltants (M70, Pl. XXX, upper fig.), though sfforts to produce other saltants in this manner were fruitless. Implanting other Helminthosporiums.—I\n a way similar to that of the ast experiment numerous other species or saltants (e.g. H. No. 2 and M6) vere implanted in an H. No. 1 colony, and always with the result that the mplant either failed utterly to establish itself or developed as an entirely ndependent colony that did not blend with the main colony, being in this unlike a saltant sector in character. If implants were put about 3 mm. be- yond the tips of the advancing mycelium, the conidia were observed to yerminate before the mycelium of the H. No. 1 colony arrived, but even such implants became entirely submerged and lost. Two entirely distinct types of Helminthosporium, found intermingled mn a single grain of wheat, were planted together—an oese of suspen- sion of the mixed conidia—on an agar plate. The resulting colonies gave the two types of Helminthosporium, but did not give the sectors so char- acteristic of saltants. Saltation not due to parasites —The saltant sectors and their transfers often differed so strikingly from their originals, particularly when they bore few conidia and had much white aerial mycelium (see Pl. XXVII) is to suggest that perhaps the great difference was due to a parasite srowing in the Helminthosporium colony. Close microscopic inspection of saltant sectors showed that there was only one type of mycelium present, that it was all indistinguishable from Helminthosporium mycelium, and 149 that no conidia indicating contamination were present, therefore, if the colony were parasitized it must be either by a mycelium like that of Helminthosporium and without conidia, or by some virus of un- known character. To test this possibility well-established colonies of H. No. 1 were inoculated with such striking saltants as M84. Transfers of M84 were also made to points near the circumference of the H. No. 1 colony. If M84 bore a parasite of any kind this parasite might be ex- pected to invade and overgrow the H. No. 1 colony. This it did not do, but the two colonies halted a few millimeters apart in the manner char- acteristic of two Helminthosporium colonies. It is quite clear that the idea of colony parasitism is untenable in this connection. Position of inoculum.—Since it was possible that the differing appear- ances presented by the various sectors might be due to the position of the mycelial strands in or on the agar, that is, on top of it, in it, or below it, tests were made in three ways: 1, by placing conidia in an oese of water on the surface of poured agar; 2, by similarly placing conidia, without water, in a shallow scratch made in the agar; 3, by so cutting the agar that a flap about a square centimeter could be lifted and inoculated on the lower side, that is, the side in contact with the glass, the flap being then put back in place. These three modes of inoculation resulted in colonies of indistin- guishable character. SALTATIONS FROM SINGLE CONIDIA Eight separate pure cultures were made from single conidia. The eight colonies were under careful microscopic control from the time of planting the conidia, through germination, and until the colony was well developed, and it is certain that in each instance the colony was from a single conidium. These pure strains, all alike in colony character, were labeled C1, C2, C3, etc. Well-marked saltants appeared in four of them as follows: ( P Caren. { | 110 108 (ere 100s wena emcee en | 120 Thus, it will be seen that single conidium 3 gave rise to sixteen clearly lefined saltants; C5, to one; C1, to two; and C2, to seven—demonstrating ibsolutely that these saltants were not due to impurity of cultures. Evi- lently the saltant sectors do not result from contaminations. FREQUENCY OF SALTATION It is impossible to give any mathematically accurate statement as to he frequency of saltation in Helminthosporium. One hundred and wenty-six variant sectors were selected, transferred, and more or less tudied; and this number could easily have been doubled or trebled. It s not probable that all the forms in these sectors were truly saltants; loubtless some of them were mere modifications, but the number that were Jermanent in character is large. How many of these saltants agreed with ‘ach other in observable characters it is also impossible to say, but since hey arose independently it may be that they do not often agree absolutely. [he percentage of saltants, based on those theoretically possible, is, how- ‘ver, small even in races that are most actively saltating. Thus in a colony ) cm. in diameter there are probably more than 5,000,000 cells, and theo- etically it appears probable that saltation occurs in a single mycelial cell, yr perhaps by the union of two cells, yet saltations occur with even less requency than one to each 6-cm. colony, therefore less than once out of },000,000 possibilities. In this connection, though no direct comparison s possible, it may be noted that East (47) considers the occurrence of twelve nherent variations in observations made on 100,000 hills of more than 700 varieties of potatoes, that is, about 1:10,000, as an unexpectedly high rate 151 of frequency. In tobacco only one bud variant was noted in 200,000 plants. Penedict (16) regards the production of 50 new Boston ferns in fifteen years as rapid. East (46) notes that all of the asexual variations have been losses of characters. The pedigrees of the various Helminthosporium saltants which I have studied are indicated in the following table: PEDIGREE TABLE OF SALTANTS ( 65 | 81 ee Okeoas He | 53*, 56*, 57*, 58 5 ote GO NG! es | go* s 7 | go* ae suave eae 74 6 HNo. te tue Wee Ue 76 aa 69 98 een ORCS e yer H.No.8...4 99 a 100 a 69 ae H.No.9..:4 101 Ch sae 88b Ws 88a 88c 88d me Tee ge oR a oy. 74 ERINos 132s 75 15*.,...... -.64* ry, He Nord ss aeee eee 70 HNo 14... 67 Bene tien ae a 91 ees EIN HI nao 129 fei wee teres ( 105 i 77 gia Unknown...... Oe 4 184 ie ae at | 387 134 : < ee EH No. 34) ee57 H. No. 39...Gave many sal- 49. esses 80 tants not num- / 118 bered. Si ees ee dy 198 | 124 1*, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16-19*, 20, 21*-25, 28-30*, 31*, 32*, 33*, 34*, 38*, 39, 41-48, 50, 51, 70* *Numbers followed by an asterisk are pictorially represented in the plates. The apparent paucity of saltation in the strains other than H. No. 1 may be due in large part to the fact that these strains have been cultured to much less extent, though there is also evidence that H. No. 1 really is more actively saltating than are the other strains; indeed several strains, as H. No 2 and H. No. 29, have given no evidence of saltation. Saltation seemed to be as frequent in cultures derived from single conidia as from other cultures. SALTATIONS OCCURRED ON VARIOUS MEDIA Saltation was not confined to corn-meal agar, but was seen to occur also on green-wheat agar and on washed agar. The discrepancy in conidial measurements on two shoots (one in plate e and one in e’, cited on p. 121) may have been due to saltation on the washed agar. H. No. 34 as well as H. No. 1 showed saltation under standard conditions, that is, on washed agar on which wheat shoots were laid. Several of the shoots bore only sterile, white aerial mycelium, while the others were black owing to the usual number of conidia. Repeated transfers demonstrated the perma- nence of these characters. SALTATIONS AND MOopIFICATIONS OCCURRING IN TEST-TUBE CULTURES Certain cultures received from correspondents under the label Hel- minthosporium remained largely or quite devoid of conidia. The fol- lowing are brief descriptions of such Helminthosporiums. H. No. 11, of which graph of conidial length is given in Fig. S (cf. with Graph 42, Fig. K) and conidial-breadth in Graph 101, Fig. V, dif- fered in general colony-characters from H. Nos. 1, 3, etc., but most mark- edly in that it remained for the most part without conidia. Conidial septation is given in Fig. T, Graph 87. : H. No. 12, which was received under the label “‘H. gramineum (?)” evidently had sometime borne conidia, but transfers to many media under many conditions gave me none in any case. H. No. 17, also labeled H. gramineum, under standard conditions on wheat and corn usually produced mycelium with no conidia, though in one case one wheat shoot gave conidia, while five others in the same dish gave none. From this one shoot the conidial-length Graph 97 (Fig. U) was made. It seems to me that the three cases just mentioned should be regarded as those of saltants which have outstripped their originals in the test- tube conditions, while the rare cases in which they do bear conidia, par- 153 ticularly in the case of H. No. 17, given above, are to be regarded as fur- ther saltation or as reversions. In all of these cases of sterile cultures the mycelium, so far as can be judged, is like that of Helminthosporium, but the colony-characters are altered in ways easily compatible with the changes following loss of conidia-producing power and consequent change in vegetative vigor. Ravn (91) mentions frequent sterility of cultures in connection with Helminthosporium. H. No. 18, labeled H. avenae, gave conidia only once, on one wheat shoot, although numerous trials were made. Its case is almost exactly like that of H. No. 17. From the very few conidia, though inadequate, Graph 98 (Fig. U) was made. H. No. 19, labeled ‘‘H. gramineum,” rarely gave conidia under any conditions, though somewhat more freely than either of the two preced- ing numbers. (See Fig. U, Graph 99.) H. Nos. 13 and 14, labeled H. sativum, and Nos. 15 and 16, labeled H. teres, are particularly interesting as showing variations in test-tube culture. H. No. 13 is a lineal descendant of H. No. 14 while H. No. 16 is a similar descendant of H. No. 15. Graphs of these four strains also are given in Fig. U (Nos. 93-96). It will be observed here that the differ- ences between Nos. 15 and 16, which are separate cultures from the same original isolation, are greater than the differences between strains known to be quite distinct. Graphs of conidial breadth of H. Nos. 13, 14, 15, and 16 are given in Fig. V. H. No. 20, labeled H. teres, appears to be an excellent example of saltation in test-tube culture. It was so markedly different from other cultures that during the several months in which I was ignorant of its origin I thought that here was a clear case of difference between the Eu- ropean and the American species. Subsequent word from Dr. Wester- dijk advised me of the American origin of this strain, and that she had received it in 1914 from Bakke, isolated from barley. It thus seems that this culture from Dr. Westerdijk is a direct descendant of the culture on which Pammel, King, and Bakke based their description (90), and that it now differs markedly from that description as well as from a culture (H. No. 3) which I received from Dr. Bakke which was also taken from the same plots that gave the original culture and was regarded by Dr. Bakke as being identical with H. sativum. Among my notes made before I knew of the origin of the culture I find this memorandum: “H. No. 20 is quite distinct from all other forms in my cultures in its quite uniformly 6-septate conidium with its squarish middle cell. Its colony-characters 154 are also distinct.’’ (See Pl. IX, No. 20.) Conidial length is given in Fig. U, Graph 100; breadth, in Fig. V, Graph 102; septation, in Fig. T, Graph 88. (See also photomicrographs of conidia in Pl. XXVI, d.) By comparing these graphs and data with those of H. No. 3 and H. No. 1 it will be seen that the conidia are quite short and a trifle thick. The coefficient of cylindricity—78 for subcylindrical conidia, 74 for the more elliptical ones—is the highest coefficient shown in any of my strains (cf. with page 119). It seems very probable,therefore, that either the culture was contaminated in Dr. Westerdijk’s laboratory or the other culture in Dr. Bakke’s hands; or that Dr. Bakke’s description was erroneous or that one of the cultures was contaminated by me; or that the facts represent a real hereditary change in morphology during a long series of transfers— and I incline strongly to the last of these alternatives. H. No. 23 showed what appears to be a modification rather than a saltation, in that in the original culture received from Miss Weniger there were many abnormal tri-pointed conidia (see page 101). It is suggested that a change somewhat like this, if permanent, may have given rise to the forms with unequal central cell, for example, to H. No. 29. All of the above-mentioned examples appear to represent clear-cut cases of change in morphological character in test-tube culture. The only essential difference between these changes in test-tube culture and the saltation reported in Petri dishes is that in the cases of the Petri dish selection of the saltant was voluntary, while in making transfers from tube to tube the selection was accidental. = SALTATIONS IN NATURE That changes do occur under my culture conditions renders it highly probable that they also occur in nature—in the fields. Thus a saltant strain may become established on one wheat plant, form large numbers of conidia, gain foothold in a region, and then enlarge this foothold, per- haps to cover large areas. That one strain may thus outgrow another has been shown by Crabill (36) and is evident in my own work (PI. XXX, XXXI, lower figs.). The fact that so many strains of Helminthosporium differing slightly but distinctly from each other, yet agreeing closely in gen- eral, can readily be isolated from cereals, indicates that probably this also has naturally happened, and that in the fields we have today large numbers of races or strains of closely related forms derived more or less recently from acommon parent stock. To test this hypothesis experimentally, in field or greenhouse, by inoculation with pure cultures, and later isolating organ- isms to search for differences, does not seem a promising line of research because negative evidence would be valueless, while positive evidence would be obtained only most rarely, even though saltation is very com- mon. Since, even in my most rapidly saltating strains, changes occur in only 1 out of 5,000,000 cells, and re-isolations from soils would give col- onies from single conidia only, that is, from a small group of cells, the evidence of saltation by this method of investigation could reasonably be expected only once in several thousand platings. NOTES CONCERNING SELECTED INDIVIDUAL SALTANTS Unless otherwise noted the permanence of the saltant characters were tested by repeated transfers. Colony-characters were determined on corn-meal agar; measurements of conidia and other conidial characters, under standard conditions. M1. Origin slightly zonated (Pl. XXIII, 1), few conidia. M1-1 grew faster than its origin; ratio, 6.5:8; characters maintained through several transfers. Mo-1. Much like M1, but with decided difference in conidial breadth (Graph 70, Fig. Q). M8. Growth slow; conidia few, pale, and thick (Fig. Q); septa few. The squarish cells very striking; differences apparent also on green- wheat agar. M12-3. Quite distinct in septation and breadth. As toconidial length, see Graph 121, Fig. Y, and data. M17-3. A distinct variant in thickness, septation, and shape. As to conidial length, see Graph 138, Fig. Y, and data. M26. (See page 143, and Pl. XXX and XXXI1.) M35. Characterized by its very short conidia (see page 141 and Fl. X XVI, c). M36. Derived from a single-conidium culture; conidia thick. M38. The colony had much aerial mycelium and was quite white, though a shade of black from the surface-agar showed through (Pl. XXVII). It continued through many transfers as a pale form with scant conidia. M533. (Pl. XXX). Very different from its origin, being covered with much loose, white, aerial mycelium, rendering the whole colony white and fluffy in appearance, while the original colony was neither white nor fluffy. M54 and M55. These also were two white, woolly colonies. M56 (origin, Pl. XXX) and M60. These were from a dark fast- growing sector of M26 and maintained character. 156 MS7 (Pl. XXX, below)—M61 were from pale, fluffy, slow-growing sectors of M26. M61 eventually split up into many pale and dark sectors. M62. The colony grew faster than its origin, and bore but few conidia. M64 (Pl. XXVIII). The colony was entirely white and fluffy from much aerial mycelium. It originated as a pale sector in M15-1. M65 and M68. These were much like M62, and maintained character through many transfers. M70. This arose where two colonies of H. No. 1 had been implanted just outside the edge of a colony of H. No. 1 (Pl. XXX, upper fig.). Both these colonies were strikingly different from the original, with much white and fluffy aerial mycelium Transfer from one of them showed the char- acter permanent through several transfers (Pl. XXV), but whether this saltation was actually induced by the implanting or whether a saltant was unconsciously selected for implanting can not be told. M72. Origin a most striking, fluffy, white, sterile sector. Characters transmitted. M75. A non-clumpy sector from an original that bore many clumps. Grew faster than its original. M78. Very loosely growing, stringy, white, few conidia. Character maintained, but the saltant soon threw many strongly contrasting light and dark sectors, which, however, did not show permanence after several transfers. M79. Origin like M78, but character soon lost in transfers. M80. Very fluffy and white and rapid-growing. M81. Hada narrow (1 mm.) pink line parallel to the colony-edge and about 5mm. from it. This line advanced, remaining narrow, as the colony grew. M83. Originated on green-wheat agar as a black irregular sector of smooth surface, the remainder of the original having a fluffy surface. M85 and M86. Two very fluffy white sectors. One of these main- tained its individual character; the other did not. M87. Whitish in its origin, and in succeeding transfers this character Was intensified. M88. Very fluffy and white; permanent through many transfers. M88a. A pale sector, a transfer from which threw numerous variant sectors, some light, some dark. M92. Originated in thin, sterile sectors (strands) which produced sclerotia at their outer ends. In transfers the colony bore many sclerotia. M93. White and fluffy. M94. Very pale and with many clumps. M95. Rapid-growing, pale, with few conidia and many clumps. . Several sectors later reverted to an appearance like that of the original. M101—M105 were all fluffy, with white aerial mycelium. The discussion of the causal fungus of foot-rot has so far been based, for simplicity, upon H. No. 1. Other strains of a Helminthosporium of the same general type have been isolated from cases of foot-rot from Madi- son county and have been proved capable of causing foot-rot. For ex- ample, in the spring of 1920 five isolations from one lot of material were made. These I designate as H. No. 1a, H. No. 1b, H. No. ic, H. No. 1d, and H. No. le. All of these, in colony character and morphology, agree closely with H. No. 1, but H. No. 1a, 6, c, d, have graphs of conidial length as shown in Fig. W, while H. No. 1e differed materially. It is obvious that the first four may be considered as of one strain, the last, e, of another strain, both strains differing somewhat from H. No. 1. The conidial breadth of H. No. 1a was as follows: f M o CV 13 5.88 + .07 0.39 + .05 6.79 + .89 Conidial septation of H. No. 1a, H. No. 16, and H. No. tc, is given in Figure X, Graphs 111-113. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF SALTATION The existing differences in definition and usage of the term mutation, as also our very limited knowledge of cytological conditions in the genus Helminthosporium and our ignorance as to whether it has sexual stages, have led me to select the term saltation for the variations here discussed. The term mutant is defined by Dobell (43), following Wolf (127) and Baur (11), as follows: ‘‘By mutation, accordingly, I mean a permanent change—however small it may be—which takes place in a bacterium and is then transmitted to subsequent generations. The word does not imply anything concerning the magnitude of the change, its suddenness, or the manner of its acquisition. The term denotes a change in genetic consti- tution. All other changes which are impermanent—depending generally upon changes of the environment—and not hereditarily fixed, are called modifications. The word ‘mutation’ has been used with such different meanings by so many bacteriologists and others, that the foregoing state- ment seems called for.’ Brierley (28) defines a mutation as “‘a genotypic change in a pure line’; and Vaughan (121), as ‘“Those changes in form or 158 function which persist through one or more generations after the cause of the alteration has ceased to operate.” Since the variations herein reported occur in structures purely vege- tative and result from no intervening sexual act, they are in kind compar- able with vegetative variation known elsewhere—bud variation, etc.— with the exception that since the mycelium, consisting of a single row of cells, is the seat or origin of the variations the case is morphologically simpler than where tissues are involved, as in bud variation. De Vries (122) classes bud variations in general with mutations in that they appear as clear-cut discontinuous variations. Many examples of vegetative variation have been studied extensively and reported upon under the terms mutation, saltation, sporting, etc. Cramer (37) gives a very com- plete summary of the known cases in 1907. East (46), Stout (120), Ghys (61) and Shamel, Scott, and Pomeroy (102, 103) give reports, with ex- tended bibliographies, concerning bud variation in the potato, Coleus, chrysanthemum, and lemon among the phanerogams. The transmission of such variations in the potato has been carefully studied by East (47, 48, 49) with the general conclusion that these asexually appearing varia- tions concern characters that Mendelize in sexual reproduction. In the Pteridophytes, Benedict (16) reports saltation in the Boston fern. Dobell (43) summarizes the evidence from some twenty-eight papers concern- ing variability among the bacteria, discussing them in two categories: (1) physiological mutations, that is, changes in power to produce ferments or pigments; and (2) morphological mutations. He closes the first part of his discussion as follows: “It seems legitimate to conclude from the foregoing facts that some races of bacteria are able permanently to acquire new characters under certain conditions.”” He considers only two cases of morphological mutation, citing the work of Barber (7), who produced a race of long bacteria by single-cell selection, and of Revis (94), who claims to have produced a new race of Bacillus coli by the use of malachite green. Both Laurent (76) and Le Poutre (77) conclude that by passage a harmless bacterial species may acquire real virulence. An extensive résumé of the question of mutation in the bacteria is also given by Baerth- lein (5). Numerous variations of yeasts, both morphological and phys- iological, are reported by Guilliermond. (62). The validity of the conclusion maintaining that there is mutation among the bacteria and yeasts has been attacked by Brierley (28) on the ground that the changes reported as mutations are merely due to segre- gation of organisms of aberrant type from an originally mixed popula- = on Ke) tion. The very large mass of corroborating positive evidence, though really conclusive only when based on single-organism cultures, makes it extremely probable, to say the least, that such saltations or mutations do occur in these groups. Among the Eumycetes several examples occur of what appears to be saltation. Edgerton (50) in 1908, writing of Glomerella rufomaculans, states that ‘‘of the more than thirty collections studied from over twenty hosts, with less than a half-dozen exceptions all gave at least slightly different characters. Even the two collections on apples from Missouri and Illinois did not give exactly the same characters, but the differences were slight. The two collections from apples in the north, however, gave entirely distinct characters from the more southern forms on the same host. The southern form, especially on sugar medium, was characterized by very rapid growth and a very dark greenish-black color of the sub- stratum and aerial hyphae; while the northern form grew more slowly and had very little dark color. Generally in the latter the aerial hyphae were colored pink from the profuse development of conidia. Even the form on quince collected in New York did not give the same characters as the northern form on apple. The forms on orchid, Coffea, and Sar- racenia, collected in the same greenhouse at the same time, were not exactly alike in culture media.” Other examples were given by Edgerton (50) in 1908 of what appears to be the same phenomenon as that under discussion here, but as there is no evidence that he worked with single-conidia cultures* his apparent variations may have been due—though it is highly improbable—to segre- gation of elementary species. His general conclusion follows: ‘“The only explanation of the phenomenon is that one or more individuals of the original form changed quite suddenly their course of development under cultural conditions. It is undoubtedly a Gloeosporium of the Glomerella type, with the development of the perithecia considerably different from other known forms. Mutations, so far as is known by the writer, have not previously been recorded among fungi, but the form just described seems to be one without question.”’ Here, too, should be mentioned the plus and minus strains of Glom- erella studied and reported on by Edgerton (51) from single-conidia cul- tures, though this may represent a differentiation of sexes rather than of races. He gives several citations which indicate that other workers have *In a personal letter dated February 7, 1921, he writes regarding this as follows: ‘“‘All of the cultures that I used in that work were obtained by the dilution plate method and presumably came from single spores.” 160 studied these strains, and records the belief that the culture mentioned above “‘as a possible mutation . . . . was really the minus strain of the bitter-rot fungus.” In 1909 I reported with Dr. Hall (Stevens and Hall, 118) for the genus Ascochyta variant sectors in Petri-dish cultures quite like those reported in this paper; but since the study was not made from single- conidium isolations it is possible, though not probable, that I had merely a segregation of elementary species. Shear and Wood (105) in 1913 reported that in cultures of Glomerella started from a single ascospore ‘“‘an important variation or mutation sud- denly occurred in the fourth generation and was transmitted through three following generations.”’ They cite other variations, less permanent, which they regard as fluctuations. Burgeff (31) in 1914 reported results from an extensive study of asexual variation in the genus Fhycomyces. Working from single-spore isolations he got great diversity in many characters. Crabill (36) in 1915 described two strains of Coniothyrium pirinum which he designated as plus and minus strains that differ markedly in several characters, particularly in size and abundance of pycnidia (verg- ing on complete sterility), and in color of colony. He says: “The cultural studies show that minus strains may arise from plus strains by a sudden sporting or mutation. An objection might be raised that these cultures were impure, i.e., mixtures of two strains. In antici- pation of such an idea it seems desirable to state that freqyuent pourings of dilution cultures were used to preclude such a possibility. Progeny were then selected only from well-isolated plant, microscopic examination of which showed that each was derived from a single spore. : Both strains have repeatedly arisen from the progeny of a single pine spore. When once purified the minus strain remains constant from gen- eration to generation. The variation is apparently occurring in only one direction. . . . . The only explanation which remains is that the minus strain is a sport or mutant arising from the plus strain at irreg- ular and unprognosticable intervals.” The plus strain by sudden sporting gives rise to the minus strain, but minus strains were not seen to give rise to plus strains, that is to say, the saltation is orthogenetic. He states also that the variation apparently occurs in the spore and not in the mycelium, which is quite the contrary to my findings. He finds, in agreement with my work, also with Kleb’s law (74), that the minus strain, that is the sporiferous one, grows faster 161 than the plus strain. The sectoring and the colony differences which he pictures are much like those shown for Helminthosporium in this paper. He also adduces evidence to show that these plus and minus strains occur in nature and have been isolated by independent workers. He attempted in four ways to induce saltation artificially but met with no success. Crabill (35) has reported, in abstract, ‘‘a somewhat similar mutation in a fungus belonging apparently to the genus Phyllosticta.’’ Blakeslee (21) reports: “*. . . in 1912-13 I found numerous variants of various de- grees of distinctness in the offspring of a single plant (Mucor) obtained by sowing non-sexual spores.’’ Writing of Mucor genevensis he says (20): “In all, somewhat over 38,000 colonies from individual sporangiophores have been inspected and a relatively large number of variants of different degrees of distinctions have been obtained . . . . the mutants tend eventually to revert to the normal type. Two, however, have seemed more stable.’’ He concludes: ‘‘They add to the evidence, already obtained from other groups, that mutations are not restricted to processes involved in sexual reproduction.” Brierley (27, 28) reported an albino Botrytis cinerea which was a form with pale sclerotia though the parent form always had black sclerotia. This albino was observed to arise from a colony derived from a single conid- ium and from a race that had been under culture for considerable time, always producing black sclerotia. | The purity of his culture seems to have been carefully guarded, and this case, though standing alone, would furnish positive evidence of the sudden occurrence of a hereditary difference in this fungus. Dastur (40) in 1920 described saltations in Gloeosporium piperatum consisting in the absence or presence of perithecia, acervuli, or setae, and in the development of aerial mycelium. He says: ‘““Thus all of a sudden the original sterile culture broke up into two different strains, one producing only perithecia on sterilized chilli stems and the other forming acervuli with and without setae.’’ Some of these strains were not constant in character, but others persisted through many transfers. He states that great or sudden variations have never been observed from conidial strains, but that “in cultures made from perithecia of the strain of Gloeosporium piperatum incredibly large and often very sudden variations have been obtained.’’ Burger (32) in 1921 reported mutation of several types in Colletotrichum, involving permanent changes in many characters. He found these occurring in cultures derived from single spores and showed that they were permanent through the spores. Jennings (70), who worked 162 with the shelled rhizopod Difflugia, states that most of the work on uni- parental reproduction has yielded the result that during such reproduction the hereditary constitution (genotype) appears not to change though the organism may differ much in outward character. Many papers cited support this view though some are opposed. Jennings says with regard to his own results: ‘After many generations of descent from a single progenitor, such a single family . . . . has differentiated into many _he- reditarily diverse stocks.’’ These diverse stocks differ hereditarily not only with respect to particular single characters but also with respect to the combination of characters. Many individuals of uniparental reproduc- tion have shown a marked permanence of hereditary character in single lines of descent, all the progeny being like the parent in hereditary consti- tution; and further, many such lines, diverse in hereditary constitution may exist in a population, and the effects of selection consist mainly, if not entirely, in the isolation of such diverse lines. East sees no reason to believe bud variation different from germinal mutation and says that it may be progressive, digressive, or retrogressive. Bateson (10) holds that bud variations are due to qualitative cell-division in somatic tissues, giving somatic segregation of unit factors. East points out that in the large majority of cases of bud variation there has been simply the loss of a dominant character and hence the appearance of a re- lated recessive character. In some cases there is absolute disappearance of the dominant character; in other cases it appears to be latent, and it may reappear. Variations in color constitute over 70% of all bud variation. Colony color in Helminthosporium is also a very common variable but this is, in all probability, entirely incomparable with color variation in flowering plants. Brierley (28) holds, for Botrytis, that even if sexuality occurs, the fungus is “‘on all evidential criteria, an asexual homozygotic organism in which the isolation of a single spore strain necessarily implies the isolation of a ‘pure line’’’. Aan A genotypic change in a pure line is a mutation.”’ Similarly, Shear and Wood (105) regard individuals orig- inating from single spores of Glomerella as homozygous, though on reason- ing differing somewhat from that of Brierley. Crabill (36) also holds that since his fungus “‘reproduces asexually segregation from heterozygous parents cannot explain the origin of the strains.’’ Accepting Brierley’s criteria, my Helminthosporium single-spore isolations are equally homo- zygotic. In at least three forms on cereals Helminthosporium is known to be the conidial stage of the ascigerous genus Pleospora. As ascigerous 163 stages are known in many cases to arise sexually, it may be expected that all perithecia represent sexual stages and a sexual act. The particular forms with which I am working, that is H. No. 1 and derivatives, have given no evidence of perithecial formation nor is it actually known that they possess sexual stages. The presumption, however, is that they do, so it is quite possible that my culture of H. No. 1 is derived from an asco- spore, that is, may be the result of sexual parentage; and this sexual act may have occurred in the not distant past. This is all hypothetical but it appears to me to point to a possibility of an heterozygotic condition in Helminthosporium, as well as in Glomerella as reported by Shear and Wood (105) and in Coniothyrium as reported by Crabill (35), since so few generations may have elapsed since fertilization that the heterozygosis has not yet been eliminated. Such supposition in the case of Botrytis is less tenable. It is suggestive to note here that Dastur (40) found variation a com- mon phenomenon only in strains that were recently derived from perithecia; also that bud variation is more common in hybrids (East, 46). It is there- fore thinkable that such of my strains of Helminthosporium as are saltating are of recent ascigerous origin, while others that are not saltating (for example H. ravenelat and H. geniculatum) are of distant ascigerous origin. If heterozygosis be eliminated from the discussion two other possible explanations, suggested by Brierley regarding Botrytis, may be considered here, namely, that of nuclear transference during mycelial anastomosis ( Fig. 5, p. 104) or that of cytoplasmic contamination by such anastomosis. Evi- dence on these questions, both from cytology of the mycelium and from knowledge of sexuality, is quite lacking. Accepting none of the above hypotheses, the saltation would be a mutation in the strictest sense of the term. Reported mutations in Aspergillus and Penicillium described by Arcichovskij (2), Waterman (125), and Schiemann (100), and said to be in- duced by environmental changes, are quite extensively discussed by Brierley (28), who, repeating much of their work, concludes that when the fungi showing these changes are returned to their original environ- ment they resume their original aspect; that in fact the changes were mere modifications due to environment. The cases reported by Brierley, Burgeff, Blakeslee, and Crabill, and my own work reported herein, all based on single-spore culture and car- ried under observation for sufficient time to give assurance of permanence, constitute complete proof of the occurrence of the phenomenon of sud- 164 den change in character among the fungi. The evidence from Edgerton, Shear and Wood, and Dastur, while not so complete, is strong collaterally. It would seem from all this evidence that this phenomenon is common and widely distributed among the fungi, though unquestionably it is more common in some species and races than in others. TAXONOMY The classification of these Helminthosporium “‘forms,’’ indeed of all the fungi imperfecti, presents unusual difficulties. That they are only “forms” of which we do not yet know the ‘“‘perfect’’ stage, is no more relief from the necessity of classification than is incomplete knowledge adequate reason for delay in attempts to classify other plants. In the present instance some well-defined ‘“‘species,’’ in the old sense of the word, stand out—for example H. ravenelii—while, on the other hand, several of the strains of Helminthosporium in my collection differ in one or more slight ways yet agree with each other closely in general type. For ex- ample, my H. No. 1, H. No. 11 (isolated by Stakman from wheat in Min- nesota), H. No. 13, isolated by Durrell in Iowa, H. No. 23, isolated by Weniger in North Dakota, and an unnumbered one isolated by Hoffer in Indiana, are all clearly the same general type of organism, and yet they differ from each other in minor particulars. It is evident that we have in the genus Helminthosporium large numbers of races that vary consistently and constantly, though but slightly, from each other. These variations may be morphological in the usual sense of the term, or as shown in cultures, or as demonstrated biomet- rically. It is quite probable that here, too, there are, as elsewhere in the fungi, differences in virulence, and therefore in biologic relationship, and physiologically. Examples are numerous among the fungi where such comparatively minor differences are regarded as of specific rank and the new group is designated by a new binomial. There are also numerous examples where such slightly variant types are regarded as varieties or races of the species. These varieties or races have been variously desig- nated as follows (or by the equivalents of these terms in other languages): Physiological species (Hitchcock and Carleton—67) Species sorores (Schroeter—101) Biologische Spezies (Klebahn—73) Biologiske Arten (Rostrup—95) Schwester Arten (Schroeter) Biologische Rassen (Rostrup—?5, 96) Specialisirte Formen (Eriksson) 165 Formae speciales (Eriksson—55) Gewohnheitsrassen (Magnus—80, 81) Races specialiées (Marchal) Mikrospecies Biotypes Elementary species (de Vries) Pure lines (Johannsen) Biological forms Biological races Fischer (56) adopts the practice of recognizing as distinct all forms which differ in their choice of hosts in so far as the hosts belong to dif- ferent genera; a procedure that leaves the specific rank and name of the parasite subject to vicissitudes arising from subsequent changes in the conception of the taxonomy of the host. It is yearly becoming more evident that distinctions such as these are common in the fungi within what were previously regarded as groups of specific rank. Biologic specialization in the rusts was announced in 1894 by Eriks- son (55), and has since been abundantly attested by Stakman (109), Stakman and Piemeisel (111), Stakman, Piemeisel, and Levine (112), by Arthur (3, 4), and by others (57, 68). Abundant evidence that it occurs in the powdery mildews is afforded by Neger(85) ,Salmon(98),and Reed (92). The first demonstrated cases in the fungi imperfecti were probably in Helminthosporium, reported by Ravn (91). It was demonstrated in Septoria by Beach (12). Reed (93), summarizing regarding biologic specialization, cites papers to show its occurrence in the following genera: Synchytrium, Albugo, Peronospora, Taphrina, Claviceps, Dibotryon, Rhytisma, and Colletotrichum. Evidence that there is differentiation morphologically, slight but measurable and constant, has been found among the rusts by Arthur (3, 4) who, writing of Uromyces on Spartina, says that “the four races of this species exhibit not only physiological specialization but a certain amount of morphological differentiation.’’ Similar findings are reported by Bisby (17) concerning Puccinia epilobii-tetragoni, by Stakman and Fiemeisel (111) regarding Puccinia graminis, and by Arthur (3, 4) regard- ing Dicaeoma poculiformis on Phleum. Brierley (26) has demonstrated by single-spore cultures the existence of elementary species, morphologic- ally distinct, within the species of Botrytis, Penicillium, and Stysanus. Gaumann (60) has shown Peronospora parasitica to consist of very numer- ous races separable on both biologic and morphologic grounds. Similar findings regarding Plasmopara are reported by Wartenweiler (124). Pes- 166 talozzia guepini was reported by Bartlett and La Rue (unpublished paper) to consist of numerous distinct strains. Ascochyta chrysanthemi was shown to consist of at least two distinct strains by Stevens and Hall (118). Crabill (34) states that there are four distinctly different types of Phyl- losticta pirina, and that Contothyrium pirinum (34) is similarly composed of distinct races. Burger (32) demonstrates a similar condition in the genus Colletotrichum. Wiedemann (126) has published species of Peni- cillium based on differences shown on culture media—a procedure very common in dealing with the bacteria. The wide-spread occurrence of slightly but constantly differing varieties within the species of fungi is apparent; also that two diametrically opposed methods of procedure are in vogue to meet the situation. One method gives specific rank to each elementary species, or race, or strain; the other restricts binomial desig- nation to the larger groups (the collective species), recognizing that the latter consist of numerous smaller groups—the elementary species (or races or strains). Lotsy (79) suggests that the terms ‘‘Linneon’’—defined as ‘“‘a total of individuals which resemble one another more than they do any other individuals’’—and the term ‘‘Jordanon’’—for the elementary species—be employed. This suggestion, in that it recognizes the ele- mentary species as properly in one category, and the group of elementary species as belonging in a larger category, both subordinate to the genus, is in accord with the general discussion of ‘‘Aspects of the Species Ques- tion’’ (29)—see particularly conclusions of Britton and remarks by Coul- ter. The difficulties regarding elementary species that beset the taxono- mist in dealing with the flowering plants are manifoldly increased when the classification of the fungi imperfecti is in question. Thus in the genus Septoria there are more than 1200 named species usually delimited from each other by barely three or four characters, and these extremely variable. Many other genera present conditions equally bewildering. The result is that it is absolutely impossible, even with the type speci- mens in hand (and they are usually unobtainable), to determine species accurately. It is highly probable that many of the forms now listed as species in the fungi imperfecti are either identical or merely biologic races —that is elementary species. To designate each elementary species either in the fungi imperfecti or elsewhere by a binomial defeats the very purpose of the name and renders it not only useless but cumbersome. The conceptions of Lotsy and of Britton and Coulter as noted above, seem particularly applicable here and indicate the advisability of using a binomial to designate a group which shall comprise many elementary 167 species—a course that I have already followed in the case of Colletotri- chum (115) and which was followed by Elliott (53) in dealing with Al- ternaria. My H. No. 1, H. No. 1a, H. No. 16, H. No. 1c, and H. No. 1d, the cause of foot-rot in Madison county, IIl., as well as my Helminthosporium num- bers 3-9, 11-19, 22-27, 34, 37, 38, 42, and 43, all belong to the same general type and are characterized by a conidium that tapers toward each end from a point of greatest thickness which is nearer to the base than to the apex of the conidium. The conidia are therefore not typically cylindrical or even subcylindrical. While all of these numbers agree in general type, many of them differ somewhat from others in the collection. Thus Nos. 1 and 3 differ as is shown in Plates IX, XI-XIII, and, so far as observed, in this character only, and only under the conditions described. Others differ in modal spore-length or septation, in distinctness of zonation, or in other minor colony-characters (Pl. IX). Number 13 differs slightly even from No. 14, though both are derivatives from the same original culture; and the same may be said of Nos. 15 and 16. These differences which now actually exist, are probably due to unconscious selection of saltants in trans- ferring from tube to tube. All of the numbers listed above which show constant, though but slight, differences from other numbers I regard as elementary species, the Jordanons of Lotsy. They need not be further characterized or differentiated than has been done in previous pages. One of these elementary species, H. No. 3, is derived from an Iowa culture prob- ably identical in character with that from which Pammel, King, and Bakke described H. sativum, and this culture, No. 3, still agrees essentially with their description. All of this group of elementary species may therefore be regarded as belonging to the Helminthosporium sativum group, or Lin- neon. The question of the possible identity of this group with the H. teres and H. sorokinianum groups I shall not now discuss further than to point out that so far as can be judged from the picture of H. sorokinianum given by Sorokin (107) that species is not characterized by longitudinally eccen- tric conidia; also that subsequent to the publication of the species H. sati- vum, Bakke (6) states that “cultural experiments have determined that the disease is due to Helminthosporium teres Sacc.”” He adds: ‘‘He [Dr. Ravn| further substantiated my opinion that the disease was due to H. teres and similar to what had been so prevalent in Denmark during the years 1898 and 1899.” Bakke, in a foot-note, however, adds: ‘‘A. G. Johnson, of Madison, Wisconsin, considers H. sativum and H. teres distinct forms.”’ Saccardo, who examined H. sativum, sent to him by Bakke, expressed the 168 opinion that the disease was due to Helminthosporium teres. It may be remarked here that Ravn (91) says that leaves are the only substrata on which conidia are developed; which is certainly a marked distinction from the H. sativum group which sporulate so freely on agar of many kinds. There is no question whatever in my mind that by means of biometry and a study of biologic relations and cultural characters, tenable distinctive diagnoses can be drawn up for many races of Helminthosporium on the five leading cereals. How many of these should be designated by binomials and how many left unnamed appears, on final analysis, to be a question of the utility of such naming, which, in turn, may hinge upon their economic or other importance rather than upon the magnitude of their morphological or other differences. H. No. 20 is particularly interesting in that it is—if no error exists in its history—an example of saltation so great as to remove the organism entirely from the group under discussion (the forms with tapering conidia), and consequently to place it in a group (Linneon) different from that to which its known relatives (H. Nos. 13 and 14) belong. CONCLUSION The present study was undertaken with two leading objects: (1) to determine the efficient cause of the rotting at the lower part of the wheat stem; and (2) to throw light on questions of morphology and parasitology in the genus Helminthosporium. The questions arising from saltation injected an additional interesting series of observations. The evidence is complete that Helminthosporium can and does cause foot-rot at the base of wheat stems. The study has also shown the Helminthosporium (H. No. 1) to be a root parasite. This phase of the disease has been studied only incidentally, but it is worthy of searching investigation since it may lead to the rosetting often associated with foot-rot, and thus predispose the plant to foot-rot. SUMMARY 1. In the rotting base of the wheat a Helminthosporium is the only organism constantly present (p. 124). 2. The culture characters of this fungus were studied on many me- dia (p. 79) and under many and various environmental conditions. Slight changes of nutriment, as afforded by small differences in agar formulae or by the temperature at which the agar was made, produced marked effect on growth-characters. Of many agars tried, corn-meal agar proved most useful. Cereal shoots autoclaved, served as a still more favorable medium. 169 3. Morphological characters are largely altered by environment. Quantity as well as quality of food produces change in characters. Humid- ity has an important influence on the production of conidia, on the aerial mycelium, and on sclerotial formation (p. 93), influencing even conidia length (p. 95). 4. The optimum temperature for growth is about 25° (p. 98). 5. Carbohydrates in the medium favor production of a dark cclor (p. 100). 6. Marked effect of nutrition conditions on conidial length, septation, and shape was noted. 7. From the above findings it follows that collections to be compar- able must be made under similar conditions as regards the factors men- tioned (p. 102). 8. A procedure to secure standard conditions for study of the fungus was devised (p. 180). 9. The mycelium, aerial and submerged, is described. The cells bear several nuclei. The senescent mycelium undergoes autodigestion (p. 108). 10. Conidia show distinct basal and apical markings. The wall is in two layers: the outer (episporium), thin and brittle; the inner (endospo- rium), thick and gelatinous (p. 111). 11. Germination is usually terminal; anastomosis of germ-tubes is common (p. 115). 12. The conidia are thickest at a point between the base of the conid- ium and its middle point. The concepts ‘‘coefficient of longitudinal ec- centricity” and ‘‘coefficient of cylindricity’” are introduced for purposes of more accurate description (pp. 117-120). 13. Conidial length, breadth, and septation are studied biometrically. 14. For comparison, a biometric study was made of H. ravenelit (pa2i): 15. The etiological relation of the Helminthosporium (H. No. 1) to foot-rot was demonstrated by its constant presence, by the absence of other parasites, and by its proved ability to cause infection and rotting under various conditions, as by inoculation of seedlings in Petri dishes, in rag doll, and in soil (pp. 124-128). The fungus was shown to enter cells of leaf- sheath, stem, and root. 16. A study of the infection phenomena shows important changes in the cell-walls of the host; and the development of appresoria and a callus- like formation (p. 128). 170 17. Many strains of Helminthosporium, some very different morpho- logically from others, can produce some or all of the phenomena of infec- tion (p. 136). 18. Alternaria produces some of the marks of infection, including the changes in the host-cell, the ‘‘callus,’’ and entrance into the host-cell. Penicillium can not do this (p. 137). 19. Wheat, corn, barley, rye, sorghum, Sudan-grass, and millet are more or less susceptible to rot by Helminthosporium. 20. Saltation, possibly mutation, is common in certain races of Helminthosporium (p. 139). 21. Saltation is evidenced in general colony-character; rate of growth; conidial production; conidial clusters; conidial length, breadth, septation, and shape; mycelial characters, color, zonation, and sclerotial formation (pp. 141-144). 22. Certain saltants differed so markedly from their parent as to far exceed the usually accepted specific limits (p. 141). 23. Certain correlations and tendencies of characters in saltation were noted (pp. 144-145). 24. The saltants were, in the main, permanent in character (p. 145). 25. They were permanent through the conidia (p. 146). 26. What appeared to be reversions sometimes occurred (p. 147). 27. Efforts to produce saltation artificially failed (pp. 147-148). 28. The saltation was not due to mixed plantings, and can not be induced by implanting or wounding (pp. 147, 148). 29. Saltations are not due to parasites (p. 148). 30. Saltations in abundance were derived from single-conidium cultures (p. 149). 31. Saltation is very frequent as compared with bud-variation noted on potatoes and tobacco (pp. 150-151). 32. Numerous variations in test-tube cultures are reported as prob- able examples of saltations (p. 152). 33. 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Wetensch. Amsterdam, Verslagen Natuurkundige, 21: 33-38. 178 WIEDEMANN, C. (126) 1907. Morphologische und physiologische Beschreibung einiger Penicillium Arten. Centr. f. Bakt. II. 19: 675-690. Wotr, F. (127) 1909. Ueber Modificationen und experimentelle ausgeléste Mutationen von Bacillus prodigiosus und anderen Schizophyten. Zeit. indukt. Abstamm.- u. Vererbungslehre 2: 90-132. Wot rr, R. (128) 1874. Der Brand des Getreides. Halle. Zorr, W. (129) 1881. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Ascomyceten. Chaetomium. Nova Acta der k. Leop.-carol-deutschen Akad. Naturf. Vol. 42. APPENDIX METHODS For measuring conidia.—The following procedure was found con- venient. An ordinary bacteriological iridium wire was plunged into vaseline and then so laid across a microscope slide as to leave on it two complete, narrow, thin streaks of vaseline about 6 mm. apart. A small drop of water was then placed between these two vaseline lines and the conidia-sample added and evenly distributed. When the cover-glass was placed the vaseline prevented the conidia from scattering, and ren- dered it possible by means of the mechanical stage to measure every conid- ium, thus securing a more representative sample than would be the case if some conidia, perhaps of some particular class, were allowed to float away. In sampling from standard cultures for purpose of conidia-measure- ment, a portion of a shoot about 6 mm. long that was evenly and densely covered with conidia was removed to the slide. Shoots were all evenly and abundantly sporiferous except in cases where entire shoots or parts of shoots were paler and bore more aerial mycelium. To avoid unconscious selection in measuring conidia a mechanical stage was used, and all conidia encountered in certain predetermined posi- tions in the field of vision were measured. Length was measured from extreme tip to extreme base; breadth, at the thickest point. Meas- urements falling exactly between two classes were temporarily so recorded, and later distributed equally between the two adjacent classes. Measurements for coefficients are easily made by projecting the outline of the conidium, by means of a camera, upon quarter-section paper of convenient ruling. The paper may readily be oriented with the conidium in any desired relation. The rag doll for inoculations.—An adaptation of the rag-doll seed-tests was found useful in inoculations. The doll was made of a strip of cloth, 6X50 cm. which was rolled to a cylinder about 62.5 cm. and placed in a test-tube 2.525 cm. with water, and autoclaved. In use the roll was removed to a sterile Petri-dish 17 cm. in diameter, the water removed to the desired degree by wringing, and the doll unrolled by the use of sterile forceps (Pl. XXXIII). Seedlings raised aseptically were 180 then laid on the unrolled doll and inoculation made in the desired man- ner. The doll was then rolled up, inclosing the seedlings, and placed again in the test-tube. For purposes of root inoculation the doll was suspended in the test-tube about five centimeters from its bottom. Inoculations in soil—In addition to the usual pot and bench inocu- lations, it was found convenient to use wide-mouth vials, 1270 mm. (see page 128), which were lined with stiff paper (so cut as to open easily, Pl. XXXIII), filled with soil, and autoclaved. The paper envelope with the enclosed soil could readily be withdrawn from the vial, and opened in order to insert the seed, seedling, or inoculum, and later repeated exam- inations could be made without greatly disturbing the plant. Imbedding conidia.—Conidia were raised under standard conditions (see next paragraph) and the entire shoot bearing them, together with the adjacent agar—a strip about 4 mm. wide—was removed to chrome- acetic killing-fluid, and imbedded in the usual way. Procedure to secure standard conditions.—Petri dishes of 12 c.c. washed agar, when solid, were inoculated in the center with the desired organism. When, in the course of a few days, this had attained a colony-diameter of 2 to 3 cm., wheat shoots, autoclaved in water, were laid on the surface of the agar, the basal ends of the shoots touching the edge of the advanc- ing colony. Usually about six shoots were used per plate, resulting in ample material. Aseptic wheat shoots were secured by the method described in the next paragraph. The shoots were cut for autoclaving when they were about 2-3 cm. in length. This medium was selected as being of appropriate composition and only very slightly variable. The washed agar in uniform quantity in Petri dishes of the same depth gave a uniform humidity, while the mode of inoculation was also uniform, doing away with many errors that arise when the quantity of the inoculum is a variable factor. Growing aseptic seedlings—Seeds were treated three hours in 20% fresh Javelle water, rinsed with sterile distilled water, and germinated on damp filter-paper in moist chambers (44). In the latter part of the study para-toluene-sodium-sulphochloramide was substituted for Javelle water in seed-disinfection. It was used in 0.5% aqueous solution, the seeds being immersed for twenty minutes. Such preliminary tests as we have made, indicate that a solution of 0.25 to 0.5% is efficient as a fungicide, while such solutions may be safely used without injury to the grain. It certainly possesses value for such uses in the laboratory, and may be of service as a fungicide in other connections. A rather 181 extensive test of its utility against the cereal smuts is now in progress. Para - toluene - sodium - sulphochloramide is a chemical of the formula (p)CH3CsHsSO(NCI)ONa. My supply was secured from the Abbott Lab- oratories in Chicago, where it is manufactured. Preparation of potato plugs.—Instead of the ordinary potato plug it was found useful to place a glass slip in a test-tube as in Fig. 2, p. 94, then to crowd into the tube a potato slice, bringing it into contact with the glass slip, and, at its angles, with the walls of the test-tube. This gave, in addition to the usual surface for observation, the places where the potato made contact with the glass slip and with the walls of the test-tube. A device for the study of humidity.—To study the effect of changes of humidity on conidiophores and conidia, test-tubes were fitted with glass slips, and sterile wheat shoots laid across them (Fig. 2, p.94). The region 1 is of about 90% relative humidity; that of region 2 is below 90%. Com- bustion boats full of agar were used (Fig. 2) to secure high humidity for the whole culture. List OF HELMINTHOSPORIUMS USED FOR PuRPOSES OF COMFARISON H. No. 1. Isolated by F. L. Stevens May 18, 1918, from wheat dis- eased with foot-rot, from Madison Co., Ill. H. No. 2. H. ravenelii, isolated by F. L. Stevens Jan. 17, 1920, from specimen received from A. B. Seymour, collected at Lake Charles, La., Oct., 1919, by E. E. Barnes. This specimen was thoroughly typical, and no doubt as to the determination can be entertained. H. No. 3., labeled H. teres. Received from A. L. Bakke Jan. 5, 1920. Culture isolated Jan. 9, 1911. H. No. 4. Isolated by F. L. Stevens Jan. 16, 1920, from specimens from Iowa labeled H. teres. H. No. 5. Isolated by F. L. Stevens Jan. 16, 1920, from barley, from specimen from Iowa labeled H. gramineum. H. No. 6. From E. C. Stakman, Jan. 20, 1920. Isolated from blighted seedling of Marquis wheat. H. No. 7. From E. C. Stakman, Jan. 20, 1920. Isolated from Marquis wheat. H. No. 8. From E. C. S. (E. C. Stakman), Jan. 20, 1920. Isolated from Marquis wheat growing in sterile soil. H. No. 9. From E. C. S., Jan. 20, 1920. Isolated from roots of Marquis wheat seedlings. 182 H. No. 10. From E. C. S., Jan. 20, 1920. Isolated from barley, Madison, Wis., ‘‘2-1919.” H. No. 11. From E. C. S., Jan. 20, 1920. Isolated in 1914 from wheat in Minnesota. H. No. 12, labeled H. gramineum, from E. C.S., Jan. 20,1920. Isolated from barley, Carver, Minn., 1914. H. No. 13, labeled H. sativum. From L. W. Durrell, Feb. 6, 1920. From barley grown on the agronomy farm, Ames, Iowa. Isolated by Durrell about 1918 “from spots or lesions pointed out as typical by Dr. A. G. Johnson.” No. 14, labeled H. sativum. From L. W. Durrell, Feb. 6, 1920. From barley. Same origin as No. 13. H. No. 15, labeled H. teres. From L. W. Durrell, Feb. 6, 1920, dated May 22, 1918. Same data as No. 13. H. No. 16, labeled H. teres. Same data as for No. 13. H. No. 17, labeled H. gramineum. Same data as for No. 13. H. No. 18, labeled H. avenae. Same data as for No. 13, except that isolation was from oats, grown in rust nursery. H. No. 19, labeled H. gramineum. From H. Coons, Feb. 16, 1920. Isolated from barley in 1918. H. No. 20, labeled H. teres. From Centraal Bureau voor Schimmel- cultures. Culture of Feb. 11, 1920. Isolated from late blight of barley by Bakke and sent in 1914 to Dr. Westerdijk, who wrote me _ that “the fungus had since been cultured on oatmeal (roll culture) and ears of barley.’ H. No. 21, labeled H. interseminatum. From Centraal: Bureau voor Schimmelcultures, March 12, 1920. Culture of Feb. 11, 1920. Received by Dr. Westerdijk from Miss Dale in 1912 and cultured on oatmeal or on corn-meal. H. No. 22. From Wanda Weniger, Mar. 24,1920. Isolated April 28, 1919, from kernels of Arnautka wheat in North Dakota. Used in field studies in 1919. H. No. 23, labeled H. teres. From Wanda Weniger, Mar. 24, 1920. Isolated Feb. 27, 1920, from blade of barley collected at Mandan, N. Dak. July 1919. H. No. 24. From Wanda Weniger, Mar. 24, 1920. Isolated Feb. 28, 1920, from first node of Red Durum wheat collected at Fargo, N. Dak., Aug. 1919. 183 H. No. 25. From Wanda Weniger, Mar. 24, 1920. Isolated Nov. 20, 1918, from blade of rye collected at Fargo, N. Dak. Used in field studies in 1919. H. No. 26, labeled H. sativum. From Wanda Weniger, Mar. 24, 1920. Isolated July 12, 1919, from blade of wheat collected at Fargo. H. No. 27. From Wanda Weniger, Mar. 24, 1920. Isolated from blade of ‘“‘De’’ wheat collected at Fargo. Isolated Aug. 18, 1919, and used in field studies in 1919. Cultures 22-27 were grown on 2 or 3% potato-agar with 2% dex- trose from the time of their isolation until received by me. The spe- cies determinations were stated to be based on the host; not on morpho- logical characters. H. No. 29. From G.N. Hoffer. ‘Culture B. 201a.”’ Isolated froma broken corn-stalk from Ft. Branch, Ind., Aug. 13, 1919. H. No. 30. From G. N. H. (G. N. Hoffer). ‘“‘Culture B. 180.” Isolated from brown, water-soaked lesions on the sheath of a corn-leaf. Flant was collected at Sullivan, Ind., Aug. 12, 1919. H. No. 31. From G. N. H. “Culture B. 170 A.” Isolated from small brown spots on corn leaves. Collected at Delphi, Ind., Aug. 8, 1919. H. No. 32. From G. N. H. ‘Culture B. 165.’ Was isolated from small yellow spots on corn leaves collected at Battle Ground, Ind., Aug. 7, 1919. H. No. 34. From G. N. H. “Culture B. 124." Isolated from dark brown, irregularly shaped lesions on corn stalks collected at Ames, Iowa, July 25, 1919. H. No. 36. From C. E. Kurtzweil. Labeled “3% oat 206 5-40.” Isolated from a dead corn-stalk in Tennessee. H. Nos. 37 and 38. Isolated by F. L. S. (F. L. Stevens) Aug. 8, 1920, from wheat grains after treatment with Javelle water. H. No. 39. Isolated by F. L. S. Nov. 20, 1920, from Chaetochloa (millet). Conidium short, 3-septate. H. No. 40. Isolated by F. L. S. Nov. 20, 1920, from same plant as No. 39. Conidium long, narrow. No. 41. Isolated by F. L. S. Dec. 3, 1920, from sorghum. . No. 42. Isolated by F. L. S. Dec. 10, 1920, from millet. . No. 43. Isolated by F. L. S. Dec. 10, 1920, from sorghum. . No. 44. Isolated by W. L. Blain Dec. 20, 1920, from wheat. . No. 45. Isolated by F. L. S. from association with H. No. 44. ae tort acitaetled = 184 H. No. 46. From E. J. Butler, Mar. 10, 1921. Isolated from wheat by R. E. Massey in Khartoum in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The state- ment is made that ‘‘the straw was completely rotted through the base, and broke off short when handled. The fungus was present in pure culture on the crown and roots.’’* DISCUSSION OF FOREGOING LIST WITH SEVERAL Brier DESCRIPTIONS H. Nos. 29-32, though perhaps not quite identical, agreed closely with each other. They were mostly 5-celled, with the central cell in- equilateral and the two end-cells pale. In conidial measurements they approached rather closely to H. inaequalis Shear, H. tritici P. Henn., and H. geniculatum T. & E. H. Nos. 13 and 14 were of identical parentage. H. Nos. 15 and 16 were from one strain though separated by several transfers. The original strain (15) was sent because the growth (16) did not look characteristic. H. No. 11 usually gave no conidia at all and was quite distinct in culture characters and in color and septation of conidia. H. Nos. 36, 40, and 41 are closely alike in morphological characters. H. Nos. 40 and 41 differ from H. No. 36 in that they do not possess the abundant aerial mycelium. Nos. 40 and 41 differ in zonation and in amount of aerial mycelium, and all three of these forms differ somewhat in their conidial graphs. They also differ in mycelial characters and in the way in which they penetrate wheat cells, though all three do the latter vigorously, completely occupying the cells and causing rotting. The three had best be regarded as elementary species of the same Linneon. Description of H. No. 36.—Conidia mostly long and slender (Pl. X XI,a) but very variable in length. Stipe short but distinct. Apex pale. No constrictions at the septa. Septa usually thick and obvious. Conidia tapering very slightly from point of maximum thickness toward each end; straight or slightly arched. Episporium brittle; endosporium gelatinous. Conidiophores uniform; sterile portion thin, slender, quite long (350 yu), about 4 yw thick, smooth, brown, cells 24-28 uw long, not constricted at the septa; fertile portion slightly thicker and darker, cells short, there- fore geniculations crowded, growth on agar characterized by abundant aerial mycelium (Pl. X)—more abundant than in any other form studied— as was also evident under standard conditions. *From letter from E, J. Butler dated Feb. 28, 1921. 185 Isolated from dead corn-stalk in Tennessee by C. E. Kurtzweil. Data on conidial length of H. No. 36 are as follows: Frequency, 1 2 3 3 6 11 12 10n 12 ef | 9 Microns, 34 37.1 40.8 44.2 47.6 51 54.4 57.8 61.2 64.6 68 71.4 Frequency, 10 15 12 11 7 6 3 3 0 2 1 Microns, 74.6 78.2 81.8 85 884 91.8 95.2 98.6 102 105.4 108.8 Conidial breadth ranged uniformly from 10.2 to 13.6 microns. Data on septation are as follows: Frequency, 3 3 6 13 17 8 6 1 1 Septa, 4 5 6 7 8 0. 10! “arate Description of H. No. 39—Conidia short, quite uniform in size, cylindrical or very slightly tapering from point of maximum thickness (PJ. XXI, 6). Hilum usually evident. Setpa thick, usually three; no constriction. Apical spot barely perceptible. Episporium brittle. Endo- sporium gelatinous. Conidiophores uniform; sterile portion 190-250 yu long, smooth, 3.5 yw. thick, not constricted, cells about 17-24 up long; fertile por- tion much darker and nearly twice as thick as the sterile part, genicula very congested, numerous, usually 35-70 w long. Conidia remaining at- tached in very large clusters. Data on conidial length are as follows: Frequency, 1 1 1 2 13) 19) 19 9 3 2 0 1 Microns, 6.8 10.2 13.6 17 20.4 23.8 27.2 30.6 34 37.4 40.8 44.2 Conidial breadth was quite uniformly 10.2 uz. Data on septation are as follows: Pirequencyamse arth 3 1 31 Septalircy.cctiecriicecn| al 2 3 This organism produced on wheat many infection points with the appressoria and “‘callus,’’ but differed from H. No. 1 in the minute characters of the infection spot. H. No. 46 is very closely like H. No. 39. Data on the conidial length of H. No. 46 are as follows: Frequency........... 1 3 4 8 15 4 1 IMiGrOnSi, awa ere 8 20.4 23.8 27.2 306 34 37.4 Conidial breadth was uniformly as follows: TEGUENGY an miners 2 11 1 Microns=ceimancen te cete 0:58 eel Od te tS:6) The data on septation are: erequenGync ieee racer ail 1 15 Miicrons ir c.ccneen tetera 2 3 GENERAL EXPLANATION OF GRAPHS All graphs on a’ page are drawn to the same scale. In all graphs of length and breadth the class value is 3.4 w. All computations are based on class values. These in case of length and breadth can be converted to microns by use of the factor 3.4, or by the following table of equivalents: Class Microns Class Microns Class Microns 1 = 3.4 13 = 44.2 25° = ‘85. Zo = 6.8 14 = 47.6 26° = 88.4 3 = 10.2 t Bo) ae Ie 27 = 91.8 4 = 13.6 16 = 54.4 28) = 19522 Soe ae foe ae sy aes) 29 = 98.6 6 = 20.4 LSS 2 2615.2 30 = 102. a2 2558 19 = 64.6 oie LOS Sie 21.2 20 = 68. 32, = 10878 9 = 30.6 PA fet Sys} AAG, 10 = 34. 22 ia AS, 34 = 115.6 igen 5 ih: Di SS SEY i= 4058 24 = 81.6 The customary symbols are used in presenting the data of the graphs, f, designating frequency; M, mean; oc, standard deviation; and CV, co- efficient of variability. FiGuRE A Conidial length of H. No. 1 grown on corn-meal agar made at different temperatures: Graph 1, on agar made at 100°; Graph 2, on agar made at 85°; Graph 3, on agar made at 60°; Graph 4, on agar made at 43°. Graph f M o CV 1 132 Bil Ney 25~ ANG) 2.84 + .11 12.03 = .54 2 113 2 IG ==se 13 2.18 = .09 9.93 + .44 3 129 Zope Sil 2.89 = .12 13.68 + .58 4 149 22502 == 2A 3.10 = .12 14.09 + .56 FIGURE A GRAPH NumMBERS FicuRE B Conidial breadth of H. No. 1 grown on corn-meal agar made at different temperatures: Graph 5, on agar made at 60°; Graph 6, on agar made at 43°. Graph M o CV 5 5.50) = 04 .22 = .03 4.06 + .61 6 5.50 = .03 als SS (OV; 3.31 + .40 Graph 6A, conidial breadth of H. No.1 grown under standard conditions. (See app., p. 180). Graph f M o CV 6A 57 6.03 + .04 0.55 = .34 9.13 = .57 Conidial septa of H. No.1 grown on corn-meal agar: Graph 7, septa on agar made at 60°; Graph 8, septa on agar made at 43°. Graph M a CV 7 7.302 1.58 = 14) ) 821. eo 8 7205 = 2 1d 2h00 eh 15 Boral oe FIGURE B Fs Se ca | ae Se) (lai No 7 meal agar: Graph 9, length on plain agar; Graph 11, on plain agar 44, plus 14 corn-meal agar; Graph 12, on plain agar Graph 9 10 11 12 f 66 63 59 65 FiGurRE C Conidial length of H. No. 1 when grown on plain agar and on agar with various amounts of corn- M 19.51 + .18 20.36 = .21 21.03 + .18 21.76 + .29 q ols) 14 ales} .20 CV 11.67 + 12.13 = 10.01 + 16.15 + Graph 10, on plain agar 34, plus 14 corn-meal agar; Y plus 34 corn-meal agar. 61 73 62 98 FIGURE C GRAPH NUMBERS FIGURE D Conidial breadth of H. No. 1 grown on green-wheat agar of differ- ent compositions: Graph 13, on washed agar 14, green-wheat agar 34; Graph 14, on washed agar 34, green-wheat agar 14. Graph f M o CV 13 14 6.10 + .06 0.38 = .04 6.32 = .80 14 44 5.98 = .07 0.71 + .05 11.87 = .86 Conidial septa of H. No. 1: Graph 15, grown on washed agar 14, green-wheat agar 34; Graph 16, grown on washed agar 34, green- wheat agar 14. Graph f M o CV 15 65 3.83 = .18 2.22 = .13 58.02 + 4.10 16 46 5.63 = .15 1.56 + .11 27.80 + 2.10 Figure D O-UNUNtTNOKRHDO SEPTA IGURE tp) oY) Ld ra) 2 2D Zz g Q O Conidial length of H. No. 1 grown on corn-meal agars of different quantities in standard 100 mm.-Petri-dishes: Graph 17, on 66 c.c. of agar; Graph 18, on 12 c.c. of agar. Graph M 17 18 CV 23.45 + .95 15.51 + .91 FIGURE F ” a Wl 0 2 5 Za 2 o <{ Q oO Conidial length of H. No. 1 on old wheat straw at different humid- ities: Graph 19, grown in comparatively dry conditions near the top of the test-tube; Graph 20, grown in humid conditions near the bottom of the tube. Graph f M o CV 19 —- 15.67 + .33 4.77 = .24 30.46 + 1.66 20 147 22.39 + .18 3.04 = .13 15.22 + .61 FIGURE G Conidial length of H. No. 1 grown on live wheat shoots at three temperatures: Graph 21, fungus grown at 15°; Graph 22, fungus grown at 20°; Graph 23, fungus grown at 30°. Graph f M o CV 21 265 24.30 = .12 3.01 = .08 12.38 + .36 22 225 PPR THN ES e113} 2.97 = .09 13.08 = .42 23 41 19.92 = .29 2.76 = .20 13.86 + 1.05 FIGURE G SNOAIIA Ficure H Conidial length of H. No. 1 grown on plain agar with various nutrients added: Graph 24, with saccharose added; Graph 25, with “buckwheat flour’ added; Graph 26, with corn meal added; Graph 27, with wheat flour added; Graph 28, with corn-starch added; Graph 29, tapioca added; Graph 30, rice added; Graph 31, Brazil-nut fragments added; Graph 32, wheat fragments added. Graph 33, conidial length in the region of inhibition near the edge of the colony on plain agar. Graph 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 f 54 67 99 42 53 101 106 53 88 43 10. 41 21 21. 23. Sor KY. OF 22. 23. 41 21 37 80 21 37 70 72 64 03 ttt ttt ht he RE 26 oA 24 21 .20 sil 2S 34 m9 sak) 83 64 66 11 tht tht kt kt kt ta NwWW FH NH WH PD i) ns Dif 37 12 16. .09 59 08 48 oat!) 87 8. 35 81 79 CV + 1.19 ee) .82 .66 62 1.31 88 1.11 61 -63 tt tf t Oe OF OF Figure H lary a G @ | 3 iW a 2 5 Zz ag 5 © ons Coe nes © = io} Oo Miceons Ficure I SREP MSBDSEaT Ses SREB ft | if a 2 ss a asa ee a a ESRB SRaS SEES se ef Length of 1646 conidia of H. No. 1 grown on corn-meal agar. See also pp. 120-121. Graph M o CV 34 14.34 + .08 5.35 + .06 37.35 = .70 Graph 35 FIGURE J Conidial septation of H. No. 1. M o ole a08 99 + ._— Figure K Graphs of conidial length of H. No. 1 grown under standard con- ditions (see app. p. 180): Graphs 36-40 represent respectively plates a-e; Graph 41 represents plate e’; and Graph 42 is a composite of plates a, b, c, d, e’ (see p. 120). Graph f M o CV 36 123 23.21 += .15 2.36 + .10 10.02 + .46 37 107 22.51 = .15 2.54 + .10 11.28 + .49 38 142 22.59 + .16 2.87 + .11 12.70 = .51 39 180 22.42 = .17 3) 2G) eS i) 15.25 = .55 40, -— 21.18 = .18 3.55 = .13 16.80 + .63 41 647 22.71 = .05 2.26 + .04 9.95 = .01 42 1199 22.62 + .05 2.76 = .03 122 aeelG FIGURE K UTERUS UTI TITER LEN NY GRAPH NUMBERS Figure L Graphs of conidial length of H. No. 2 (H. ravenelit). Graph 43, Seymour and Earle, Economic Fungi, No. 399, Florida, 1890. Graph 44, Ellis, North Americam Fungi, No. 368. North Carolina. Graph 45, A. B. Seymour's specimen as grown by me on corn-meal agar. Graph 46, deThi:men, Mycotheca Universalia, No. 1468. Caro- lina, 1876. Graph 47, A. B. Seymour’s specimen from Louisiana, 1919. Graph 48, Bartholomew, Fungi Columbiana, No. 3026. Nova Scotia, 1909. Graph 49, Ravenel, Fungi Americani Exsiccati, No. 165. Florida. Graph 50, Ellis and Everhart, Fungi Columbiani, No. 4633. Flori- da, 1914. Graph 51, Ellis and Everhart, Fungi Columbiani, No. 465. Caro- lina, 1894, Graph 52, Rabenhorst, Fungi Europeai, No. 3082. Argentine, 1878, sample 1. Graph 53, Rabenhorst, Fungi Europeai, No. 3082a. Argentine, 1878, sample 2. Graph M o CV 43 14.97 + .18 Wo 58) 22 18) 16.89 + .89 44 14.80 + .22 S08 = lo 24.17 = 1.73 45 14.79 = .14 2.27 = .10 15.34 = .69 46 14.49 + .19 2.19 = .16 Gy, il Se 1 0)7/ 47 14.38 + .16 2 38 lid 16.54 = .84 48 1435) = ne 8028215 21.04 += 1.15 49 14.34 + .21 DAtra 19.10 = 1.18 50 13.98 + .20 2.82 += .14 20.15 = 1.50 S1 Sir fies SS 7X0) 3.49 + .14 25.31 = 1.08 52 13.02 = .20 SLOP == al 24.25 = 1.18 53 12.05 + .19 3.10: .13 25.7235" 1.22 FicureE L Ficure M Conidial length of H. No. 1 grown under standard conditions but on various cereal shoots: Graph 54, as grown on corn; Graph 55, as grown on rye; Graph 56, as grown on barley; Graph 57, as grown on wheat. Graph M 54 22.49 + 06 55 23.06 + .19 56 23.00 + .19 ol 22.66 = .22 w& wr rs wSDo rN Go t t tH HA Coe 04 13 13 15 12.57 11.44 13.43 14.82 tt te oS 20 109 .60 69 GRspH NUMBERS igure M 2g Go ——9¢ FIGURE N GRAPH NUMBERS Conidial length of H. No. 1: Graph 58, length on fresh wheat- stems; Graph 59, length on wheat leaves; Graph 60, on wheat shoots; Graph 61, on wheat plants. Graph f M o CV 58 82 23.36 = .30 4.10 + .21 17.58 + .95 59 42 25.30 = .27 2.68 + .19 10.60 + .78 60 124 24.10 = .25 4.27 + .18 Wf Ld2 2s Ths} 61 175 25.64 + .20 4.04 + .14 15.79 + .58 FIGURE O n a Ww a 2 5 f= r a < qa Oo Three graphs (62, 63, 64) of conidial length of H. No. 1: Graph 62, length of conidia in bank of same produced near edge of colony grown on corn-meal agar in Petri dish, but dried till growth had stopped; Graph 63, length on washed agar 34, plus green-wheat agar 14; Graph 64, on live wheat from rag doll. Graph f M o CV 62 95 8.95 + .18 2).68)-=.,.13 29.99 + 1.59 63 —_— 20.35 + .16 329) = yi 16.19 + .59 64 —_— 20.30 + .14 2.97 = 210 140620-2e ou Ficure P Conidial length of M35, M36, and M40, with that of H. No. 1 for comparison: Graph 65, M35-1; Graph 66, M36-2; Graph 67, M40-2; Graph 68, H. No. 1. Graph f M o CV 65 179 16.80 = .18 S78) Sei) 22035) oe 83 66 156 AMPs 25 ANG Se Se ily 14.09 + 54 67 97 Wi VO) 25. 3 i17/ Piproilen=a le) 14.19 = 70 68 123 Baictil == ils) Ph 6) == 11K) 10.02 + .46 *1199 22.62 = .05 2.76 = .03 UD YS osl(6) *H. No. 1 of Graph 42 (Fig. K). Sce also p- 120. FIGURE P GRAPH NUMBERS oO a FIGURE Q Graphs of conidial breadth of saltants and originals under standard conditions: Graph 69, M1-5; Graph 70, M6-1; Graph 71, original from same plate as M6-1; Graph 72, M6-5, a week later; Graph 73, M8-3; Graph 74, original from same plate as M8-3; Graph 75, M8-7; Graph 76, M8-10; Graph 77, M36-2; Graph 78, H. No. 1. Graph f M o CV 69 25 7.50 + .07 .52 = .05 7.05 = .67 70 58 6.29 = .07 .80 + .05 12.86 + .81 71 72 5.43 = .04 .59 = .03 10.99 + .62 72 35 WPPX == (09) 56 + .04 7.81 + .63 73 37 7.45 + .10 91 + .07 12.30 + .97 74 23 Syepee 2a 3(0i/ .90 = 05 9.18 = .91 75 67 7.32 = .04 .58 = .03 8.04 = .46 76 24 7.10 = .06 45 += .04 6.41 + .62 77 33 7.83 = .03 .31 + .02 4.05 + .33 78 57 6.03 = .04 .5d = 34 9.13 = ,57 FIGURE Q | TT | Boe ineE | BESSEOSSaas8 Ficure R Graphs of conidial septation of saltants: Graph 79, M4-6; Graph 80, MS-5; Graph 81, M6-5; Graph 82, M37-2; Graph 83, M1-5; Graph 84, M12-3; Graph 85 .M12-4. Graph 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 f 32 25 49 55 45 61 81 “aJum Wms ss 7 09 28 .28 38 44 oUt 43 Wet te ie tele Ik ses 14 18 13 oil lls 12 10 ee 5248) 37 41 30 .32 48 AS ft t HOH OH 9 tt .10 13 09 08 09 09 07 Wile 18. 19% 17. 24. 28. 19. 39 84 41 61 35 99 57 tt tt tt RO ee ry son! 86 oil .16 83 91 07 FIGURE R 0 19 0 4 O-ant¢bohkao® o-uNHmyFHOoORnDTD O-rntnoroce O-umyHOrODGCS | Ficure S Graph of conidial length of H. No. 11. Graph f M c CV 86 134 18.85 + .20 3.58 + .14 19.03 = .81 FIGURE S | GeaPH NumBee Ficure T Graphs of conidial septation of several Helminthosporiums under standard conditions: Graph 87, H. No. 11; Graph 88, H. No. 20; Graph 89, H. No. 13; Graph 90, H. No. 14; Graph 91, H. No. 15; Graph 92, H. No. 16. Graph f 87 30 88 48 89 90 90 83 91 81 92 57 bedi We lie ip tie Rs 20 50 02 36 19 86 ie die die he ies) 10 03 05 07 16 05 * =3 FicureE T Figure U Graphs of conidial length of several Helminthosporiums under standard conditions: Graph 93, H. No. 14; Graph 94, H. No. 13; Graph 95, H. No. 15; Graph 96, H. No. 16; Graph 97, H. No. 17; Graph 98, H. No. 18; Graph 99, H. No. 19; Graph 100, H. No. 20. Graph f M o CV 93 - 404 22.04 = .10 3.03 + .07 13.76 = 94 597 24.78 = .09 3.53 = .06 14.24 + 95 461 22.54 + .10 3.49 + 07 15.51 + 96 445 23.75 + .12 3.80 = .08 16.03 + 97 «252 24.39 + .15 3.63 = .10 14.88 + 98 97 23.03 = .28 4.10 + .19 17.81 + 99 205 24.59 + .19 4.15 + .13 16.89 = 100-315 18.84 = .12 3.30 + .08 17.53 + 508) 28 eu) 37 45 88 i 48 Ficurr U I LO o) SU3IGWAN Havan Microns Figure V Graphs of conidial breadth of several Helminthosporiums under standard conditions: Graph 101, H. No. 11; Graph 102, H. No. 20; Graph 103, H. No. 13; Graph 104, H. No. 14; Graph 105, H. No. 15; Graph 106, H. No. 16. Graph f M o CV 101 39 5.19 + .04 40 = .03 7.74 = 159 102 58 5.11 + .14 .o2 = .'03 OPES 268) 103 79 5.97 + .08 1.06 + .05 17.85 = .98 , 104 oo 5.59 + .08 74 + .06 13.30 + 1.14 105 88 5.39 + .04 -56 = .02 10.50 = 53. 106 45 5.88 + .05 .56 = .04 9.61 + .68 FIGURE V PEE EEE EEE | 7 taf elalclelate Graphs of conidial length—under standar la (107); H. No. 16 (108); H. No. Graph 107 108 109 110 f 111 130 160 153 FiGurRE W M 21.20 517, 21.52 = .16 20.09 + .12 19.26 + .11 F oC 2.66 + .12 2.86 = .11 2.29 + .08 2.12 = .08 d conditions—of H. No. 1c (109); H. No. 1d (110). CV NOS Smee) 13.30 = .56 11.42 + 43 11.03 = .43 FIGURE W re) 0) WW a) 2 > Zz BE es o [Oj FiGuRE X Graphs of conidial septation—under standard conditions—of H. ; No. 1a (111); H. No. 16 (112); H. No. 1c¢ (113). Graph if M o CV 111 49 6.71 + .10 12 07 ily Ay == abe a7 112 65 6.61 + .09 1.15 + .06 152) = 1508 113 17 6.64 + .09 .98 = .06 8.85 + 1.02 FIGURE X | a g:0¢ 2Lle ge? +02 ou! 39 be 211 ON | ICRONS ¢ fe) LV) M FIGURE Y Saltant Graph f M o CV MES) 4 160) | 23240) SS 5Si==als el See eee WIPES LSS GIGS eT ES SIE Gigi ES QA GVA Ba = 5 Si M3-4 116 131 22:66 = .20| 3.50= 14 15.48 = 266 M4-6 117 168 22.72 = .21 4.04+ .14 17.80 + .67 IMS=5)) 1S 4S 238/20 -E 1 Os Ono) eS On—=a GOO) M6-5 > 119) 166) 232605)-= 220) 138554 16. 2ee-—w ol IM8=8)) 1209156) 9232925 8 Seas eel Oe oo eee MUD = 30 121 AS28649? Olan oe n Oe dees M13-3 122 173 MO tsps silty Sow Ss ie 15.90 + .69 IMG14—3 91255 262252 ll 2). ele to fe] Mil5-3 9) 1245 134923251 220 e325 1 OS ea IM36-2) 125°) 156) 9227316 Gn eae eel 1 OnE Ms7-2)"" 126)8 1315 22503"-=). 21) 604) Se Oe 55s —ae0 M32-2 127 86) 23500) elG) 2533) le OA? WIR aI Ibo WR Sil BOR ES pill Geese AW M40-2 129 OF ieOm = ie 2a ie ee OR eG M41-2 13 OM LAS e222 O Re LOS eo ml 15.05 = .60 IM42-2 Seis 9125) 22036702 oe OS) se Seo Ole eOo IM43-2) 31327) 139) 220 00F-= 1909 3300s See oc Ono M44-2 133 IBY BIE) 25 oil) BD SS iil 1227 == ok IM45-2) 13456142) 9 222887216 Soul ope On oe OM M46-2 135 15 Se 22 Stee Sli) io ote eel 14.66 + .56 IMA7=2)) S1SG 2 23a 55-22) eS eon OMe SD em Oo M48-2, 137 146) 922500) = S16. 3202 i Se /Se-eo Mi 7-3) 138) 128) 22756) 145 92258-00756) Heo Ficurre Y | Setdos: Go. 5, Go meee 3 5 Ca3EGNNN Hdva “97 a ‘ _< . P = ne voll et ein _ - PLATE VII Several wheat stems showing characteristic diseased spots; also diseased portion at the node in one shoot. Prater VIII Diseased plant, showing numerous dead leaves and leaf-sheaths, also more than a dozen new shoots issuing from below the diseased portions. These shoots varied in height from a few millimeters to several centimeters. PLATE IX H. Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 20, and 22, growing on corn-meal agar. H. No. 36, showing very floccose mycelium. —— PLATE XI H. No. 3 (left) and No. 1 (right) as grown in Piorkowski-flask culture. PLATE XI Piate XII H. No. 1 as grown in Kolle-flask culture. PLATE XII ss sets Se PLATE XIII H. No. 3 as grown in Kolle-flask culture. PLATE XIII PLATE XIV Petri-dish cultures of H. No. 1 on different amounts of agar: 14, on 12 cc 15, on 30 c.c. . PLATE XIV PLATE XV . | . H. No. 1 growing in tubes of rice with different amounts of water. Note abundance of sclerotia in the drier tubes at the left. PLATE XVI Brazil- nuts Corn- meat a.gor Tapioca H. No. 1 grown on washed agar with nutrients added as indicated— fragments of Brazil-nuts, rice, tapioca, and corn-mealagar. (Circles indicate approximate limits of growth at various periods.) PLaTeE XVII Photomicrographs of H. No. 1, showing attachment of conidia to conidophores. PLATE XVIII Photomicrographs of H. No. 1, showing the fragile nature of the outer brown spore-wall and the gelatinous texture of the hyaline mass enclosed. (Three different magnifications.) PLATE XIX | Photomicrographs of H. No. 1, showing conidia under different magnifications. PLaTE XX Photomicrograph of conidia of H. ravenelii, PLATE XXI Conidia (a) of H. No. 36, showing variation in size and shape; band ¢, conidia and a conidiophore of H. No. 39. PLATE XXII Two saltants: upper one showing origin of M5; lower one showing a white clump and slow growth. PLatre XXIII Two saltants: upper one showing origin of M1; lower one of slow growth and bearing clumps. PLATE XXIV Upper figure showing origin of M2; lower figure showing origin of M30-M34. PLATE XXV Saltants growing with their respective originals. PLATE XXV PLATE XXVI Photomicrographs (same scale) of conidia of several Helminthosporiums: a, H. No. 1; 5,4M6; c, M35; d, H. 20. PLATE XXVI By PLATE XXVII Saltants growing with their respective originals. PLATE XXVIII M34, characterized by abundance of sclerotia and white mycelial clumps, the latter a constant character of this saltant. PuaTE XXIX Above, H. No. 1 wounded by hot wire at points shown; below, H. No. 1, with H. No. 1 implanted at various Stes within and without the colony. eal PLATE XXIX PLATE XXX Above, two implants of H. No. 1—one of them the origin of M70—in H. No. 1 colony, showing some white floccose aerial mycelium; below, M26, with origins of M53, M56, and M57. PLATE XXX PLATE XXXI M26-1 as it appeared on two separate plates. a PLATE XXXI PLATE XXXII M125. Pale colonies, showing dark sectors which were apparently reversions to the original form. at Bt PLATE XXXII PLATE XXXIII Showing method of using rag doll in inoculations (a, b, c) and also (d) vial and paper cylinder for soil inoculation: a, the rag doll unrolled in sterile Petri-dish, and aseptic wheat seedlings in place, ready for inoculation; 6, doll in place in tube and seedlings growing; c, showing development of root hairs in condition for inocu- lation below the doll; d, as stated above. PLATE PLATE XXXIV Rag doll opened for examination 6 days after inoculation. All the seedlings show beginnings of foot-rot. we | > — ey i Del STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief Vol. XIV. BULLETIN Article VI. The Numbers and Local Distribution in Summer of Illinois Land Birds of the Open Country BY STEPHEN A. FORBES and ALFRED O. GROSS PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS April, 1922 i STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION W. H. H. Miter, Director > BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION W. H. H. Mutter, Chairman WiLL1AM TRELEASE, Biology JoHn W. Atvorp, Engineering ; JoHN M. Covutter, Forestry Kernpric C. Bascock, Representing the Rottin D. Saispury, Geology President of the University of Ili- Wi11am A. Noyes, Chemistry _nois THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION STEPHEN A. Forbes, Chief ScHNEPP & BARNES, PRINTERS *, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. 1922 a 62354—1200 ARTICLE VI—The Numbers and Local Distribution in Summer of Illinois Land Birds of the Open Country. By STEPHEN A. ForBES AND ALFRED O. Gross. In 1913 the senior author of this paper published the product of a Statistical study of the midsummer birds of Illinois,* based on a part of the data collected by the junior author in the summer of 1907 by methods already repeatedly described, and of that paper the present - one is to be taken as a revision and continuation. The data of 1907 were derived from 7693.5 acres (almost all in farms) traversed in 428 miles of travel on foot, of which 41 per cent. was in northern, 26 per cent. in central, and 33 per cent. in southern Illinois. The fact that only tentative general conclusions could be drawn from a single year’s study was clearly recognized in the beginning, as is shown by the following state- ment in a first paper on the general subjecty: “The circumstance that the data of this paper are summarized in numerical tables must not be permitted to obscure the fact that they merely present a fixed picture of a fleeting condition; that they are to be taken only as numerical generalizations of the observations here recorded, and do not, in themselves, warrant much by way of inference beyond their immediate contents * * *. Definite conclusions of permanent value concerning the numbers and signifi- cance of the bird life of the state evidently can not be drawn until many such ure as these have been assembled, compared, and adjusted in their right relations.’ It was hence particularly desirable that additional data should be collected during at least a part of a second year in order that it could be seen to what extent those of the first year might have a somewhat general application, and in order also that by a combination of the two sets of data a broader basis might be had for generalizations of more stable value; and this was done by a substantial repetition, during the three summer months of 1909, of the summer program of 1907. _ There was a further special reason for repeating our first mid- “summer observations. The length of the State of Illinois from north to south brings its extremes into materially different climates, and neces- sitates its division, for comparative purposes, into northern, central, and southern sections; but these differ also in the time of onset of the * The Midsummer Bird be ae Pe eae By Stephen A. Forbes. Bul. Ill. State “} An Ornithological Cross-section of Illinois in Autumn. By Stephen A. Forbes. Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, p. 332-333. 188 prevails.t The observations of the summer of 1907 were made in the early part of the season (June 4 to July 1) for southern Illinois, at the middle of it (July 9 to 24) for central Illinois, and during the latter part of it (July 29 to August 3) for the northern part of the state. By this program observations of the early summer in southern Illinois were brought into comparison with those of late summer in the northern section, and it was hence not possible to distinguish clearly in all cases between regional and seasonal differences in the bird life of these sections. To minimize differences due to season merely, in order that those due to climate and other sectional factors might stand out more clearly, the field program of the second summer (that of 1909) was so arranged that observations were made in early, middle, and late summer in each section of the state, those for southern Illinois June 8 to 17, July 13 to 21, and August 17 to 26; those for central Illinois June 22 to 29, July 23 to 31, and August 28 to September 4; and those for northern Illinois June 30 to July 8, August 4 to 13, and September 6 to 15. Furthermore, in order to give greater variety and validity to the whole body of observa- tions of the two years taken together, those of the second year were given different location and range from those of the first. In 1907 continuous trips had been made between widely separated points, but in 1909 certain places were chosen as centers of characteristic districts, and from these relatively short trips were made in various directions. In this second summer the total distance traveled by the observers was 654 miles, and the area covered by their observations was 11,624 acres—an increase of 51 per cent. over that of the earlier year. Forty- one per cent. of the total area of 1909 was in northern, 33 per cent, in central, and 26 per cent. in southern Illinois. The area covered in the two summers was 19,317.6 acres. Notwithstanding the effort made to give a different range to the later observations, the general features of the country traversed in the two years were very similar, as is shown by the following table of the Crop AREAS, PER CENT., SUMMERS OF 1907 AND 1909 Northern Tllinois Central Illinois Southern Illinois Crops 1907 1909 1907 1909 1907 1909 Corn 31 31 46 43 23 28 Small grain* 27 24 26 28 21 35 Forage crops 37 38 27 25 44 33 Miscellaneous 5 7 1 4 12 14 *Including stubble and plowed ground. {+ The significance of the north and south extension of the state is further illus- trated by the fact that three faunal zones are represented in its area, the lower austral in southern Illinois, the upper austral in central, and the transitional in the extreme northern part of the state. tly gp ears ahinant La ee wage ee somes * —- lad 189 _ percentage of the whole area of observation for each year which was in each of the principal farm crops. For the northern and central parts of the state the agreement between the two years is remarkably close, but there are noticeable differences between them in southern Illinois, due to the larger area in small grain in 1909, an increase evidently made at the expense of the forage crops. The comparison just made assures us, however, that any differences of importance noted in the bird life of the two years in the different sections were not attributable to differences in agricultural conditions. The most striking general difference was in the seeming greater abundance of birds in 1909, in all three sections of the state. It is best shown in the following table of the numbers of birds recognized and counted and the number per square mile in each section of the state and in the state as a whole. NUMBERS OF BIRDS SEEN AND NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE, SUMMERS oF 1907 anp 1909 Number of birds Numbers per square mile Section PLES ole. ari O 1907 | 1909 | Both years 1907 | 1909 Both years Southern 2667 3973 6640 682 841 769 Central 2047 6368 8415 650 1071 925 Northern 3026 7647 10673 610 1021 857 State 7740 17988 25728 644 990 852 From this it appears that the number seen per square mile averaged 54 per cent. larger for the whole state in 1909 than in 1907, and that the increase was especially striking in central Illinois, where it amounted to 65 per cent. That this was a general and not a local phenomenon in Illinois is shown by our tables of the number of birds per square mile of different crops in different sections of the state. From these it appears that the numbers per mile recorded in 1909 exceeded those of 1907 in fields of corn, oats, stubble, plowed ground, pasture, orchards, woodlands, and yards and gardens and fell short of the 1907 numbers in wheat, meadow, shrubbery, and waste and fallow, and that the total of the areas of the first of these lists was 14,872 acres and that of the second list 4333 acres, the birds being more abundant in 1909 than in 1907 on tracts aggregating nearly three and a half times as great an area as those in which the 1909 numbers were smaller than those of 1907. The possible causes of so sudden and so great an apparent increase in the bird population of the state are too numerous and too wide-spread to come within the range of our inquiries ; but the fact itself is important, especially as showing the need of prolonged investigation as a basis for 190 generalization in this field. Among the minor illustrations of this fact is the disagreement of the second year’s data with a conclusion reached in an earlier paper* already cited, to the effect that the total number of our summer birds increases from north to south in Illinois. This seemed to be true by our data of 1907, but it was not at all so by those of 1909; and when the averages for both years are brought together, as in the preceding table, we see that the numbers per square mile are larger for southern Illinois than for northern but are largest of all for the central part of the state. NuMBERS OF GREGARIOUS AND SOLITARY SPECIES, RESPECTIVELY In a search for possible causes of the marked increase of numbers throughout the state noted in 1909, we have tabulated separately the data for our nine principal gregarious species, namely, the English sparrow, quail, mourning dove, crow, bobolink, cowbird, red-winged blackbird, crow-blackbird, and goldfinch, and have brought these into comparison with the data for the solitary species remaining, with the result that the increase in numbers in 1909 is found almost wholly in the gregarious group.. While the numbers of the solitary species per square mile in 1909 average for the whole summer and the whole state 6 per cent. larger than in 1907, those for the gregarious species are 2.39 times as large. This fact raises the question whether the indicated increase in num- bers was real, or only apparent and due to the insufficiency of our data. The unit of observation of the solitary species is the single bird, while that of the gregarious species is often a group of companions varying from a small flock to many hundreds. A record of a thousand solitary birds thus represents a larger number of separate observations than one of the same number of gregarious birds, and the averages in the latter case are less likely to be valid than in the former. The social birds are not always gregarious, however, most of them scattering during their nesting season and often when in search of food, assembling only at the time of the spring migration and in late summer and fall after their young have become independent. That the actual number of gregarious birds to a single observation is much smaller than might be supposed, is shown by one of our tables which enables us to make a comparison between seven gregarious species and seventeen of the most abundant solitary species with respect to the average numbers recorded for each field or other unit of area covered by the summer survey of 190%. By this table it appears that the gregarious birds ranged in number per record from 2.4 for the mourning dove to 9.1 for the crow-blackbird, with an average of 6 per record for the seven species ; while the corresponding numbers for the seventeen solitary species ranged from 1.3 for the brown thrasher and the red-headed woodpecker *The Midsummer Bird Life of Illinois, loc. cit., p, 375-376. : 4 a ‘In other a the number of gregarious ‘birds to the observa- i tion: was less than three times the number of the more abundant solitary _ species ; but it follows from even this fact that for equally valid averages and generalizations the number of observations of gregarious birds way further examination of the details of our tabulated data concern- ing the most abundant gregarious birds leads us to believe that, with _ three exceptions, the variations in numbers at different times and in the several sections of the state are not unusual as compared with the range of corresponding variations in the numbers of the solitary species, and ACREAGE OF SURVEY AND NUMBERS OF MOST ABUNDANT GREGARIOUS BIRDS, SUMMERS or 1907 anv 1909 1907 h 1909 Both years aay Acreage of Survey: Southern Illinois 2504.08 3023.11 5527.19 Central Illinois 2017.09 3806.80 5823.88 Northern Illinois 3172.39 4794.14 7966.53 Totals : 7693.56 11624.05 19317.60 <- _ Numbers of gregarious birds recorded: : English sparrow 1414 4239 5653 Quail 91 224 315 Mourning dove 461 670 1131 Crow : 89 287 376 Bobolink 119 631 750 Cowbird 102 1845 1947 Red-winged blackbird 347 573 920 Bronzed grackle (crow-blackbird) 900 2455 3355 Goldfinch 158 231 389 < Totals | 3681 11155 14836 Birds per square mile 306 614 492 _ Numbers of above birds with three 2560 6224 8784 doubtful species omitted Birds per square mile 213 | 343 | 291 192 that with these exceptional cases eliminated our recorded numbers of gregarious birds per square mile may be accepted as fairly representa- tive of the actual facts for these two years. The doubtful species are the cowbird, the crow-blackbird, and the bobolink, to be dropped from the computation for the following reasons: The crow-blackbirds recorded, numbered 900 in 1907 and 2455 in 1909, and we omit the species from this comparison because the excess was found mainly in September in two situations in a single section of the state—that is, in yards and in corn fields in northern Lllinois. The cowbird is omitted for a like reason, its numbers being 93 in 1907 and 1845 in 1909, of which 1302 were in large flocks seen in September in yards and corn fields, in northern Illinois. The bobolink is dropped merely because of the restriction of its summer range to the northern part of the state, where the numbers seen were 743 for the two years together as compared with seven (doubt- less caught in migration) in the two other sections of the state. With these three species omitted, we have remaining 235 gregarious birds to the square mile in 1907 and 343 to the mile in 1909, an increase in the latter year of 46 per cent., which we are disposed to take as actual, but of the causes of which we can offer at present no explanation. Most ABUNDANT SPECIES, BOTH YEARS The list of birds recognized and counted in the summer months of 1907 contained 85 species names and the corresponding list for 1909 contained 117 names. Most of the species were seen in both years, the entire list for both numbering only 125; or if we include the species noted in an orchard survey of 1908, the total is 133. Many of the species of these lists were represented by relatively insignificant numbers, 21 of the species seen in 1907 and 19 of those seen in 1909 making up 85 per cent. of the total number of birds seen in those years. The 21 most abundant species of 1907 aggregated 550 to the square mile, and the remaining 68 species only 95 to the mile; and the 19 most abundant species of 1909 aggregated 842 to the mile, and the remaining 88 species only 148. The 19 most abundant birds of 1909, making up 85 per cent. of all the birds seen in that year, are all on the corresponding list for 1907, the latter differing only by the addition of two names, grasshopper sparrow and upland plover, not on the 1907 list. When we com- pare the numbers, and especially the ratios, of the different species (the base of the percentages being the total numbers of birds seen), we find a fairly good agreement for the two years, with a few somewhat striking differences, largely of the more gregarious species, as shown by the following table. The most marked discrepancies between the two years are in the percentages of the cowbird, bobolink, and dickcissel, those of the cow- bird in one year being about nine times those in the other, and those of 193 THE MOST ABUNDANT Birps, SUMMERS oF 1907 aND 1909 Per cent. of Ranking as to Number seen all birds seen numbers Sueciee 1907 1907 1907 1907 1909 and |1907 |1909 jand |1907 | 1909 | and 1909 1909 1909 English sparrow |1414 | 4239 5653 | 18.2 | 23.6 | 22.1 1 1 ik Meadowlark 1025 1434 | 2459 | 13.2 8.0 | 9.6 2 4 3 Bronzed grackle* 900 | 2455 3355 | 11.6 | 13.6 | 13.0 3 2 2 Mourning dove 461 670 1131 6.0 3.8 4.4 4 5 5 Dickcissel 393 353 746 5.1 2.0 2.9 5 11 8 Red-winged black- bird 347 573 920 4.5 S25 o.o 6 7 6 Prairie horned lark 296 414 710 3.8 2.3 2.8 7 9 9 _ Flicker 197 419 616 2.5 2.3 2.4 8 8 10 - Robin 194 417 611 2.5 2.3 2.4 4) 10 ial Field sparrow 186 294 480 2.4 1.7 1.9 | 10 12 12 Goldfinch 158 231 389 2.0 alse) ial sulk 15 13 Kingbird 126 184 310 1.6 Pe Lae |e a2 18 17 Bobolink 119 631 750 1.5 8.6 | 2.9 | 13 6 7 Grasshopper spar- row 110 0 110 1.4 0.0 ; 0.4 | 14 LS 20 _ Brown thrasher 104 204 308 a LS Yi leas Uo APA abs) 17 18 Red-headed wood- | H pecker 99 259 358 is 14] 14] 16 14 15 Barn swallow 96 159 255 1.2 0.9 1.0 | 17 10 19 _ Cowbird 102 | 1845 1947 1.3 | 10.3 7.6 | 18 3 4 Quail 91 224 315 #2) 182 127 || 19 16 16 _ Upland plover 2 0 89 14 0:05) 0:3) |, 20 21 Crow 287 376 11 1.6 16), | 21! 13 14 Totals 500 15,292 | 21,888 | 85.3 | 85.0 | 85.1 | | _ the other two species two and a half times. By combining the numbers _ of each species for both years, we get the most authentic record obtain- able from our data, and by this means we see that the eleven principal _ species of the summer birds of the whole state, were the English sparrow, ; crow-blackbird, meadowlark, cowbird, mourning dove, red-winged black- bird, bobolink, ‘diskcissel, prairie horned lark, flicker, and robin, abundant 2 in the order named. These eleven species taken together aggregated 74 per cent. of all the birds counted in the summer months of the two _ Per square mile | 549 | 842 | 725 | | | | | * Commonly known in Illinois as the crow-blackbird, or common blackbird. 194 years and averaged as a group 624 to the square mile, while the num- bers of the 114 remaining species amounted to 228 to the mile. THE most ABUNDANT Birps By SECTIONS OF THE STATE Eighty-five species and one variety of birds were recognized and counted in southern Illinois in the summers of 1907 and 1909 and twenty-two of these were so abundant as to comprise 83 per cent. of the total number of birds, leaving but 17 per cent. for the other sixty- four species. Otherwise stated, twenty-two species averaged 250 birds each while the remaining 64 species averaged only eighteen each. The more common 25 per cent. of the different kinds of birds were about fourteen times as numerous per species as the less common 75 per cent. The commoner group of 22 species averaged 638 birds to the square mile, and the less common group 130 to the mile, the former with one bird to the acre and the latter with about five acres to the bird. NUMBERS OF PRINCIPAL SUMMER BIRDS OF SOUTHERN ILLINOIS IN 1907 AND 1909 (22 SPECIES) (83 PER CENT. OF ALL THE BIRDS SEEN) Meadowlark: 7s. a..tccm cite tee ce ie aero ears 1293 TONES TISH AS PALLO Weyretersic peicds areroreeateta steve crete 795 MOuTHIN | WOVE Xie aa sons ee ee Oe 518 Hield ASPATTOW) Sistas c's cccte acie a cisiecstotere isin te 322 IDiekcissel!y sii... .c-xsel-tavemiarviclciate ase ' Pastures 5196.06 | 1068 Shrubbery 93.31 | 1056 Meadows 2763.02 910 Wheat, rye, and barley 822.36 827 Waste and fallow 654.17 787 Plowed ground 300.16 670 Stubble 1069.46 669 Corn 6433.63 593 Oats 2485.57 514 Miscellaneous 29.16 329 * The general state average of all birds, both BOPRBGEE, taken together, was 852 to the square mile. Half of these 14 classes of area carry a bird population exceeding tures and meadows stand highest, with corn and oats falling much below the average. Generally speaking, the smaller areas attract the a of a single kind of vegetation area are scattered where the area is large, and concentrated where it is small. Of these smaller areas, ee and life of man. aaa and open woodlands are 10st the only approximately wild places on our list, and these contain “The Orchard Birds of an Illinois Summer”, by Stephen A. Forbes and Alfred Gross. Bul. Ill. State Nat. Hist. Survey, Vol. XIV, p. 1-8. 200 as many as the areas of human neighborhood. Their total of some 200 acres is, however, rather small for any definite inference. Tue Birp Lire or ILLINOIS PASTURES On the 3796 acres of pasture whose bird population was accurately ascertained in the two summers, an average of 1068 birds to the square mile was found—1041 in northern, 1274 in central, and 937 in southern Illinois. If we separate the data for the different years, we find an average for the state of 881 to the square mile in 1907 and 1194 to the mile in 1909, the excess for the latter year being 36 per cent. in northern Illinois, 29 per cent. in central Illinois, and 30 per cent, in southern. The 6335 birds identified in pastures belonged to ninety-six species, but 85 per cent. of these belonged to twenty-three species, leaving but 15 per cent. for the other seventy-three. There was thus no small dis- tinctive group of pasture birds, such as were found in some other habi- tats, but the pasture was merely one of the preferred resorts of a rather long list of species, every one of which was, in fact, found in one or more other situations more frequently than there. The English sparrow stood at the head of the list of pasture visitants, but the meadowlark led the native birds in each year and in each section of the state, and was found in southern Illinois pastures more than twice as common as the sparrow. The crow-blackbird, or bronzed grackle, was third in order of numbers in both years and in the whole state, but it was surpassed in the southern part of the state by the field sparrow and the mourning dove, and in central Illinois by the cowbird. Among other more prominent birds were the flicker (which was, how- ever, only about a third as common in southern Illinois pastures as farther north), the robin, also much the least abundant in southern pastures, the prairie horned lark, much the commonest in northern IIli- nois, and the red-winged blackbird. Comparing the data of the two years, we find 13 of the 23 most abundant species represented by notably larger numbers per square mile in 1909 than in 1907, two of them by fewer, and 8 by virtually equal numbers. The group of pasture birds thus gives the same indication of increased numbers in 1909 as do the combined data from all situa- tions. Additional particulars concerning these species may be gathered from the following table. From the known food habits of the more abundant pasture species it appears that the meadowlark and the crow-blackbird are the kinds most serviceable, under ordinary conditions, as a pasture police for the control of injurious insects. When a considerable outbreak of a destruc- tive species occurs, many other birds attracted by unusual chances for “loot” will come to the aid of the regular force; but it is to the less conspicuous services of constant residents and frequent visitants that the farmer must look for a steady pressure upon the multiplication SS PRINCIPAL PASTURE BIRDS PER SQUARE MILE, SumMMERS oF 1907 anp 1909 : Species Southern} Central | Northern| 1907 | 1909 | ${a¢*, years _ Meadowlark 240 168 WSs © fe” | ibs - Bronzed grackle 46 101 72 49 88 72 — Cowbird 16 162 22 11 85 55 _ Robin 27 72 53 35 60 50 _ Prairie horned lark 21 27 m2, 47 48 48 - Flicker 19 53 63 29 59 47 _ Mourning dove 50 76 14 31 47 41 _ Red-winged blackbird 34 ae i! 35 23 39 33 Field sparrow 57 : 27 8 41 19 28 _ Red-headed wood- : pecker 18 36 27 22 29 26 Bobolink : 2 1 53 8 35 24 English sparrow 102 244 191 176 178 177 Goldfinch 8 9 37 17 24 21 _ Barn swallow 2 45 25 17 27 23 Brown thrasher 23 26 15 14 24 20 Kingbird 21 21 17 20 19 19 Crow 8 19 27 14 19 19 _ Bluebird 17 ia} 25 14 23 19 Quail 28 11 8 14° 15 15 Killdeer 6 8 19 15 10 12 Dickcissel ~ 18 21 4 13 12 12 Blue jay 15 9 10 11 11 11 _ Grasshopper sparrow 9 12 10 9 10 9 IRM Sa Maes te lee eek te ey oh - Totals | 787 | 1186 | 886 | 773 1038 932 Per cents. of all birds | 84 | 93 | 86 | 88 eae 7H 87 of cutworms, grasshoppers, May-beetles, and other ordinary insect pests of the pasture. THE MEApow Birps In Illinois meadows the meadowlark justified its name by an abundance virtually double that of any of the other “most abundant” birds—194 to the square mile as compared with 100 for the dickcissel and 94 for the _ English sparrow. In northern Illinois it was surpassed by the bobo- (201 to the square mile and 102 for the meadowlark), but the absence of the bobolink from the more southern sections reduced its meadow average for the state to 96. Fourteen species made up 82 per cent. of all the birds identified in meadows, and more than half the whole number of birds belonged 202 to the four species mentioned above. Next in order came the crow- blackbird, red-winged blackbird, and grasshopper sparrow, found in nearly equal numbers per square mile, those for the seven other more abundant species ranging from 31 to the mile down to 9. PRINCIPAL MEADOW BIRDS PER SQUARE MILE, WHOLE STATE, SUMMERS oF 1907 AnD 1909 Whole Species : Southern | Central | Northern) 1907 1909 poe years Upland plover 4 67 + 22 19 30 25 Mourning dove 36 35 22 81 27 29 Flicker 7 51 40 37 26 81 Kingbird 10 i 21 19 11 15 Prairie horned lark il 5 41 23 2) 21 Bobolink 0 0 201 12 166 96 Red-winged blackbird 80 32 18 50 34 41 Meadowlark 319 204 102 204 185 194 Bronzed grackle 18 85 55 81 grail 49 English sparrow 54 85 126 112 79 94 Grasshopper sparrow 19 64 48 56 29 41 Dickcissel 155 179 29 122 81 100 Barn swallow 0 10 16 12 7 0 Robin 7 13 17 17 10 alg Totals | 710 837 | 758 | 795 725 749 Per cents. of all stall 78.7 83.9 | 87.1 | 86.8 81.6 83.4 Compared with pastures, meadows were distinguished by the some- what greater prominence of the meadowlark (194 to 151), the exclu- sive habitation of the bobolink (96 to 0), the much greater prevalence of the dickcissel’(100 to 12) and the grasshopper sparrow (41 to 10), and the greater abundance of the red-winged blackbird (41 to 33). As against this list of distinctive meadow birds there is a much longer list of those to which the meadow was less attractive than the pasture. The principal of these are the English sparrow (94 to the square mile in meadow and 177 in pasture), the crow-blackbird (49 to 72), the robin (18 to 50), the prairie horned lark (21 to 48), the flicker (13 to 47), and the mourning dove (29 to 41). With the possible exception of the last, these differences are fairly consistent with the known food and habits of the several species. This obvious preference of the species mentioned for pastures over meadows is reflected in the average for the whole state of the meadow and pasture birds respectively (meadows. 910, and pastures, 1085, to the square mile). — we 203 Birps In SMALL GRAIN AND IN STUBBLE Wheat and oats, judging by our data, offer very similar inducements (or lack of special inducements) to birds, but with one notable exception, that of the mourning dove, of which ten times as many to the square mile were found in fields of wheat as in oats (141 to 14, respectively). Differences seen in the numbers of the gregarious and erratic cow- birds and grackles seem to have little significance, and may probably be attributed mainly to the mere chances of unequal distribution, but with these species eliminated, the numbers of birds in wheat exceed those in oats by about 34 per cent. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF PRINCIPAL BIRDS IN SMALL GRAIN AND STUBBLE, WHOLE STATE, Summers or 1907 anp 1909 (Wheat, rye, and barley, 822 acres; oats, 2486; stubble, 1069.) Species Wheat*| Oats Stubble Quail 14 4 9 Mourning dove 141 14 40 Prairie horned lark 24 5 11 Crow 21 12 11 Bobolink 4 16 23 Cowbird 121 11 at Red-winged blackbird 26 21 1 Meadowlark 47 50 89 Bronzed grackle 156 92 4 English sparrow 147 163° 159 Goldfinch 8 10 10 Dickcissel 27 28 1 Cliff swallow 2 3 12 Robin 3 4 8 All birds 827 514 669 * Includes rye and barley. Fields of small grain would seem to undergo so great a change as bird resorts as the grain is cut and shocked, that we might well have anticipated a marked contrast in the species and numbers found in them after harvest, but our table does not confirm this expectation, the differences between stubble fields and those of uncut grain being chiefly in the gregarious cowbirds and blackbirds, and otherwise not noticeably greater than those between fields of oats and wheat. As a further test of this conclusion, we have tabulated separately the numbers of all species found in fields of small grain, before harvest and after the grain had been cut and shocked, but we find few consistent 204 or significant differences, variations in numbers in the contrasted situa- tions being generally erratic and in different directions at different times. A comparison of the columns of our table for the two years gives us, in fact,-an impression that the grain fields are resorted to by most birds for occasional and temporary reasons, such as the superabundance of easily accessible and especially desirable food in the shocked wheat, or a scarcity of the ordinary food of the species elsewhere. The marked preference of the mourning dove for harvested wheat over any other of the situations of our table, and the unusual abundance of meadow- larks in 1909 in fields of harvested oats are probably to be thus accounted for; but the apparent preference of the dickcissel for standing grain is not so easily understood. Its uniform averages of 42 to the square mile in this situation, of only 6 or 7 in fields of shocked grain, and virtually none in naked stubble fields mean, on the face of the figures, that it finds in the growing grain important advantages which largely disappear when the grain is cut; but in view of the habits of the species, it seems to us more likely that the difference is due to the mere advance- ment of the season. The nesting period of the dickcissel is practically over by the time the grain is all harvested, and by the first week in August most of the birds have assembled in secluded roosts for their postjuvenal and postnuptial molts, soon after which they leave for the South. In fact, less than 10 per cent. of our dickcissels were seen after July 31 in fields of grain, either cut or uncut, and their relative scarcity in shocked wheat or oats is very likely due to their gradual withdrawal from the open country. ACREAGE SURVEYED OF WHEAT AND OATS, UNCUT AND CUT, WHOLE STATE, MiIpSUMMERS OF 1907 AND 1909 1907 1909 Uncut Cut Uncut Cut Crops Acres Acres Wheat | 134.52 151.14 201.15 123.90 Oats 531.41 601.07 | 454.28 669.13 2 oe ae ee LSS Te 205 ALL Birps, PRINCIPAL SPECIES, AND NATIVE Birps IN WHEAT AND Oats, CUT AND UNCUT, MipsuMMeEkrs oF 1907 anp 1909 1907 Wheat | Oats Uncut | Cut | Uncut | Cut Birds Num-| To |Num-| To |Num-| To /|Num- To bers | sq. mi.| bers | sq. mi.| bers | sq. mi.}| bers | sq. mi. English sparrow 77 371 9 _ 38 55 66 | 231 245 Mourning dove 20 95 57 241 13 16 6 6 Meadowlark 12 57 12 51 32 39 57 61. Prairie horned lark 0 0 8 34 0 0 14 15 Dickcissel 9 43 3 13 49 59 6 6 All birds 153 728 291 | 1228 | 385 469 | 422 445 Native birds 76 362 | 282 1194 | 330 397 | 191 203 | 1909 English sparrow 25 80 15 7 | 611 861 | 417 379 Mourning dove 8 25 29 150 9 13 16 15 Meadowlark 12 38 0 0 23 32 75 72 Prairie horned lark 23* 74 0 0 8 4 1 i Dickcissel 10 32 1 5 29 41 6 6 All birds 133 423 128 635 | 813 1145 | 842 805 Native birds 108 344 113 584 | 202 285 | 425 426 * Twenty in one flock. Tue Birps oF THE CoRN FIELD With the exception of occasional raids made on fields of corn by flocks of crow-blackbirds and cowbirds in fall to feed on grain torn from the tips of the ears, there is little in our data to indicate that our Illinois birds find any special lure or attraction in corn fields. It is true that the English sparrow was found there in numbers averaging 130 to the square mile, but this was less by 57 than the average of the sparrow for the whole state. The blackbird, on the other hand, was more abundant in corn fields than its general average (138 and 111 to the 206 square mile respectively), as was also the cowbird (88 in corn fields and 64 in the state at large). None of the eleven remaining “more abundant” species necessary to bring the total up to 82.5 per cent. of all the corn field birds, was present in greater number than 29 to the square mile, the ratio of the mourning dove. The heterogeneous composition of this list of fourteen species and the moderate average numbers of each in- corn fields suggests, indeed, that their presence there was “accidental” rather than purposive, and we find no evidence in our records, with the two exceptions mentioned, that there is any group of corn field birds, properly so-called. In other words, we can not say that the corn plant either profits or suffers from the visits of birds to the fields in which it is growing (again excepting, of course, the cowbird and the crow-blackbird) to any extent which we have been able to discover. PRINCIPAL BiRpDs PER Square MILE or Corn, SUMMERS oFf 1907 anD 1909” Species Southern| Central| Northern| 1907 | 1909 | Both years Quail 24 4 5 2 9 6 Mourning dove 50 32 14 26 32 29 Red-headed woodpecker 10 6 3 4 7 6 Flicker 5 9 14- “i 12 10 Prairie horned lark 6 29 16 - 20 19 19 Crow 3 9 14 4 13 10 Cowbird 15 213 2 6 141 88 Red-winged blackbird 14 7 30 9 23 18 Meadowlark 225, 7 2 10 9 9 Bronzed grackle 32 133 206 60 188 138 English sparrow 49 120 189 50 181 130 Goldfinch 4 5 19 12 9 10 Vesper sparrow 1 3 18 5 10 8 Brown thrasher pet) 9 2 % 6 6 Birps oN PLowEep GrouND Ground plowed for planting but not yet planted can scarcely be said to resemble any natural habitat, or be expected to serve as a place of assemblage for any definite group of birds, and our data, derived from three hundred acres of plowed fields, chiefly in southern Illinois, are in accord with this supposition. A record of 314 birds occurring on this area, equivalent to the very respectable average of 670 to the square mile, is attributable mainly to the prairie horned lark, which has an unex- plained but well-known preference for bare earth as a resting place. On plowed ground it was usually feeding. busily on tiny weed seeds lodged in the soil, as shown by its actions and by the contents of crops examined. It was more than twice as abundant in plowed fields (162 to the square ——_— 207 mile) as any other species, the next in order being the mourning dove (77) and cowbird (49). These and four other species—the killdeer (58), robin and upland plover (34 each), and English sparrow (30)—together made up 86 per cent. of all the birds recognized on plowed ground. The occurrence here of two species of shote birds in some numbers (22 examples of the killdeer and 14 of the upland plover) was probably due to their search for earthworms and insect larvae in the soft earth. Tue Birps oF THE SWAMPS Open swampy lands are so scarce in Illinois that in 1070 miles of travel made in the summers of 1907 and 1909, only 4.6 miles were over swamps. In the area of 83.66 acres thus covered, 258 birds, belonging to thirty species, were identified, an average of 1974 birds to the square mile—about two and a quarter times the general average for the whole state. Two thirds of the swamp area was in northern Illinois, and there more than three fourths of the swamp birds were found. All of our thirty speciees were represented in this northern list, while on the nine- teen acres of southern Illinois swamp there were but five species (the red-winged blackbird, crow-blackbird, meadowlark, dickcissel, and Mary- land yellow-throat) ; and in 234 acres in central Illinois there was but one—the red-winged blackbird. The six species of the following table made up 82.6 per cent. of all the birds identified in swamps. PRINCIPAL Birps oF ILLINOIS SWAMPS, SUMMERS oF 1907 anpD 1909 NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE Red-winged blackbird 1125 Bronzed grackle 207 Bobolink 130 Quail 76 Green heron 46 Long-billed marsh wren 46 Brrps OF THE OPEN Woops Our data concerning the woodland birds are rather meager, mainly because it was impossible to use our method of identification and enumer- ation in any except open woodlands of comparatively small trees, and the one hundred and twelve acres accurately covered consequently made too small and too special an area to be fully representative. Furthermore, the southern Illinois forest area surveyed was more than twice as large as that of all the rest of the state, and hence the forest birds of the southern section predominate strongly in our lists for the state as a whole. About half of the fifty species recorded from woods were distinc- tively forest birds, rarely if ever seen in the open fields, and especially adapted by habit, preference, and sometimes by structural endowment 208 also, to life among trees. Nothing of the sort can be said of the birds of the pasture or the stubble field or of other distinguishable vegetation areas of the open country. The forest is a more complex environment: than the meadow or the grain field, and its bird society is less dominated by a few con- spicuous species. Thirty-one of the fifty species of our list were, in fact, necessary to bring our total of the more abundant kinds up to 85 per cent. of the whole number of birds; and the most abundant of these, the blue jay and the field sparrow, averaged only 194 and 131 to the square mile respectively. These were followed by the flicker, with 97 to the square mile, the robin, with 86, the brown thrasher and crested flycatcher, 69 each, and these, in order of numbers, by the wood pewee, crow, and mourning dove, with other species in ratios gradually decreasing to 17 to the square mile. The aggressive and presuming English sparrow, usually at the top of our lists, was in PRINCIPAL WOODLAND BirpS (85 PER CENT, List) IN ORDER OF NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE, WHOLE STATE, SUMMERS OF 1907 AND 1909 Blue jay 194 Field sparrow 131 Flicker 97 Robin 80 Crested flycatcher 68 Brown thrasher 69 Wood pewee 63 Crow 63 Mourning dove 51 Red-headed woodpecker 51 Towhee 51 Indigo bunting 51 Tufted titmouse 51 Bronzed grackle 46 English sparrow 46 Cardinal 46 Bluebird 46 Redstart 46 Goldfinch 40 Quail 34 Downy woodpecker 34 Cowbird 34 Red-winged blackbird 34 Maryland yellow-throat 34 Bewick’s wren 34 Dickcissel 23 Black and white warbler 23 Wood thrush 23 Turkey vulture 17 Sparrow hawk 17 Yellow-bellied flycatcher 17 ee a a 209 the fourteenth place of this series, with an average of only 46 to the mile, and no more abundant than the bluebird or the cardinal. The yearly ratios of these woodland birds (2187 to the mile in 1909 and 1441 in 1907) confirm our general conclusion that birds were much the more numerous in Illinois in 1909. Birps IN ORCHARDS We have already reported on the orchard birds of a southern IIli- nois summer, with some reference to other parts of the state, in a paper* in which we made special use of data obtained in August and September of 1908 by a trip through a commercial orchard district of that section; and we have here to report more fully on the product of a survey of 117.69 acres of farm orchards only, of which 71 per cent. was in southern, 18 per cent. in central, and 11 per cent. in northern Illinois. In these orchard belts, 825 birds were identified, equivalent to 4026 to the square mile. The English sparrow, however, made up more than half this number, leaving 1987 native birds to the square mile. Next to the sparrow, the more abundant species were the mourning dove (256 to the mile), quail (212), field sparrow (190), crow-blackbird (158), robin (152), brown thrasher (125), orchard oriole (120), blue jay (114), catbird (103), mockingbird (77), and flicker (76). The birds of these twelve species made up 80.4 per cent. of the aggregate number belonging to the 52 species found in these farm orchards. It will be seen from the table following that, as in other vegetation areas, the English sparrow decreased rapidly in numbers from north to south, and that both it and the native birds were much more numerous in 1909 than in 1907 (1255 native birds to the square mile in 1907 and 1746 in 1909) ; and this notwithstanding the fact that there were evidently no flocks of gregarious birds to confuse the record in the orchards visited. Although the orchard is, like the open woodland, essentially a field of closely set trees with a ground cover more or less deep and dense according to its treatment, and might hence be supposed to attract the same species of birds in something like the same average number, it is really so different from a forest in the relatively small variety of foods and situations which it offers, and especially in its human environ- ment, that the two make a widely different appeal to birds. In the comparatively simple orchard, a smaller number of species dominate, 13 out of 52 native species comprising 70 per cent. of the whole number ; while in the complex forest 20 out of 49 must be taken to make up this 70 per cent. Moreover, a comparison of the corresponding species lists illustrates the wide difference of the two environments, as is shown in the table on page 211. In the first column are the numbers per square mile of birds found in farm orchards, and in the sceond are the numbers * The Orchard Birds of an Illinois Summer, by crepoee A. Forbes and Alfred O. Gross. Bul. Nat, Hist. Survey, Vol. XIV, Art. 1, June, 1921. 210 PRINCIPAL BIRDS PER SQUARE MILE oF ORCHARDS, Summers or 1907 anv 1909 Both Southern | Central | Northern} 1907 1909 years Quail 289 31 0 15 327 212 Mourning dove 297 218 49 310 224 256 Flicker 53 187 49 74 77 76 Blue jay 114 124 98 14 172 114 Orchard oriole 165 0 0 177 86 120 Bronzed grackle 137 342 0 192 138 158 English sparrow 426 4607 8373 592 2882 2039 Field sparrow 251 62 0 163 206 190 Mockingbird 84 93 0 30 103 17 Catbird 84 124 49 14 129 103 Brown thrasher 84 249 196 118 129 125 Robin 145 187 147 148 155 152 Totals 2129 | 6224 | 8961 1847 4628 3622 in woodlands multiplied by 2.14 to compensate for difference in density of the total bird population in orchard and woodland, and thus to make the averages comparable directly. Birps IN SHRUBBERY On ninety-three acres of shrubbery, 85 per cent. of it in southern Illinois and nearly all the remainder in the northern part of the state, 154 birds belonging to 35 species were found, a number equivalent to 1056 birds to the square mile. The only especially notable item of the record is the fact that nearly a quarter of these birds were field sparrows (Spizella pusilla), present in numbers equivalent to 254 to the square mile. Indigo buntings and yellow-breasted chats were each about a third as numerous as the sparrows; and then came goldfinches (55 to the square mile), quail, towhees, cardinals, and Maryland yellow-throats (each 41 to the mile), blue jays, brown thrashers, and red-headed wood- peckers (each 34), bluebirds and cowbirds (27 each), and mourning doves (21), crested flycatchers, crows, meadowlarks, and robins (21 each), making in all as beautiful and interesting a group of birds as we shall find mustered in any one situation. BirDs OF THE FARMYARD AND GARDEN Five hundred and fifty-seven acres of the area covered by our bird survey were made up of patches of yards and gardens of the farm premises, and on these 2977 birds were identified, a number equiva- lent to 3418 to the square mile. Here the English sparrow was, of 211 COMPARISON OF NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF THE MORE ABUNDANT BIRDS IN ORCHARDS AND IN OPEN Woops, SUMMERS oF 1907 AND 1909 (IN ORDER OF NUMBERS IN ORCHARDS) Birds Orchard | Woods (weighted) * English sparrow 2039 98 Mourning dove 256 109 Quail 212 73 Field sparrow 190 280 Bronzed grackle 158 98 Robin 152 184 Brown thrasher 125 148 Orchard oriole 120 24 Blue jay 116 415 Catbird 103 13 Mockingbird 77 0 Flicker 76 208 Red-headed woodpecker 44 109 Chickadee 33 109 Crested fly-catcher 16 148 Indigo bunting 0 109 Wood pewee 0 135 Crow 0 135 Towhee 0 109 Cardinal 0 98 Tufted titmouse 0 109 Redstart 0 98 *To get the actual numbers per square mile found in woods, divide the numbers of this column by 2.14. course, enormously predominant, making nearly half the total number of birds seen. The bronzed grackle was about half, and the cowbird about a third, as abundant as the sparrow. These three species together averaged 2820 to the.square mile, leaving but 598 to the mile for all the other fifty-nine species seen in this situation. If to these three super- abundant birds we add seven others, of which the robin, meadowlark, flicker, mourning dove, mockingbird, and chimney swift were the most numerous, we shall include 90 per cent. of the whole number of yard and garden birds on our survey list. The record is much distorted, however, by the occurrence in fall of large flocks of blackbirds and cowbirds during the period of their assemblage for migration; but even if we ignore these flocks, the crow- blackbird still stands next to the sparrow in numbers, although the cowbird drops quite out of the list of the more abundant species. If we omit the sparrows, we have remaining native birds equivalent to 1883 to the square mile, and if we exclude also the flocks of cowbirds and crow-blackbirds as merely aimless visitors which chanced to settle on the trees of the farmyard as a temporary convenience, we have a residue 212 of 1757 birds to the square mile which may be supposed to seek, or at least not obviously to avoid, the companionship of man. WASTE AND FALLOw LANDS Under the heading of waste and fallow lands we have brought together a heterogeneous variety of situations which have in common only the negative character of a lack of growing crops, at least for the year, and the fact that they can not be classified under any of the other vegetation areas of our grouping. These wastes and fallows seem, how- ever, to make an appeal of their own to a more or less definite group of birds, or to many birds, perhaps, under certain conditions, for we find in them a marked inverse relation, such as we have called attention to in discussing other situations, between the acreage of this habitat in each section of the state and the birds found in it per square mile. The smaller the percentage of waste and fallow land to the general area the greater the density of its bird population, as is seen in the table following: Section Acres surveyed Birds per square mile Southern Illinois 479 708 Northern Illinois 147 > 955 Central Illinois 28 1236 It is perhaps in the central part of the state, where this special kind of surface is smallest, that we shall find among the commonest species those which may be distinguished as birds of the waste lands, and these our MS table shows to be the crow-blackbird (247 to the square mile in that section), red-winged blackbird (202), quail (202), English sparrow (157), field sparrow (112) dickcissel (112), and Maryland yellow-throat (90). In northern Illinois, it is true, the English sparrow leads the list, and the bobolink stands next, the sparrow being, in fact, most abundant northward in nearly all situations, and the bobolink confined in Illinois to that part of the state by the limitations of its general range. Ii, on the other hand, we take the larger area and more numerous observations of southern Illinois as furnishing a better index to the true relations of birds and their environment, we shall find the hetero- geneous character of wastes and fallows (particularly evident in that section) reflected in the absence of any strongly dominant species or group of species, and the consequent large number of species which we must take into account to include any large majority of the whole num- ber of birds. Of the 61 species identified on 479 acres of our southern waste and fallow lands, 19 are needed to make only 72 per cent. of our total number of 804 birds from that situation. First among these more abundant species of southern Illinois stands the meadowlark, with 182 to the square mile for the southern section and 142 for the state at large, averages to be compared with 319 for meadows in southern Illinois and 194 for those of the whole state. 1° ee~ oa Pe eae Nggl 213 Next after the meadowlark comes the red-winged blackbird, (93 to the mile), prominent by reason of its numbers in northern and central Illinois. This is followed by the English sparrow (57), much the least abundant in the southern section, the field sparrow (47), mourning dove (37), dickcissel (29), goldfinch and quail (27 each), and ten others in numbers gradually diminishing from 26 to 10 to the square mile. The species are, as a whole, derived from the prairies as repre- sented in pastures and meadows, with only a minor invasion from forest or marsh. Most ABUNDANT BIRDS IN WASTE AND FALLOow LANDS, WHOLE State, SUMMERS orf 1907 AND 1909 NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE Meadowlark 142 Red-winged blackbird 93 English sparrow 57 Field sparrow 47 Mourning dove 37 Dickcissel 29 Goldfinch 27 Quail 27 Bobolink 26 Bronzed grackle 20 Kingbird 19 Brown thrasher 17 Bluebird 16 Maryland yellow-throat 15 Red-headed Rae 13 Blue jay 11 Crow 10 Oy Short-billed marsh wren 10 Total , 616 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION A compact summary of our most general averages of the numbers of our most abundant birds, as found on distinguishable vegetation areas, is given in the following table, an examination of which will enable u to point out certain conclusions not otherwise readily arrived at. The totals at the bottom of the table show the relative densities of the bird population (both with and without the English sparrow) in the thirteen recognized situations and in the total area of the survey which stands for the state as a whole. 214 THE More ABUNDANT SPECIES IN HABITATS NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE, WHOLE STATE, SUMMERS OF 1907 AND 1909 i=} > a o ES o =| o ir vo a ° 4 so ay a|s = H SB] a] 2 z 3 ‘ a| as eS 5 bo Species g| 4 o| 5 oq Di oo | 2 alam! ,| &] & | oo 2 o| & 4 vo i] = ov a Aj) 3s] 6] 4] 2 a S| 3) »] #] 2 tal o| so a 8] 2 3 aQ Vig a] 2 n e| 2| 3/2] a] al oO] a] A] @|] FE] oj S| 2] 8 21a] Oo] 3 cet |) 2) Re Je) see oat Or Sena o| & o| F e| oo] S| = ol] a| 8 B| a] S| a] a} FE) FE] 6] S| a} a] EB] Oo] a] & PAIGE CAD Cia ciate en|ararata eis feisietnie mister sisTe tetas seas) see /2763/5196] 84) 654) 822/2486/6434/1069| 300) 112) 118) 93) 557 HNG1ISH/SPALCO Wea. once cjnteni nie poise) 5653] 187) 94) 177) 23) 57] 147) 163] 130] 159) 30} 46/2039) 0/1535 Grow-blackbird seven nscrieieeutases 3355] 111] 49} 72) 207) 20) 56) 92] 138] 4] 28) 46/ 158) 0) 761 Wickit akb el seas aanoctaccouscanuasEs 2459) 82) 194] 151) 31) 142} 47) 50) 9) 89) 21 O| 44) 21) 55 Cowbind ie nescence eaeeneoeiaeeeee 1947} 64] 3] 55) 0} 10) 121] 11] 88} 1{| 49) 34) 22) 27) 524 ito) rigobkat=s(s Koy ehan ceooo7paucea sara 1131} 37) 29) 41 0} 37) 141) 14) 29) 40) 77) 51) 256] 21) 31 DICKCISSELA nase wean eee eee 746] 25) 100] 12] 2] 29) 27) 28) 5) 1) 0} 23] 11] 20) 6 Prairie Horned) Larkin yc aciss sues 710} 24) 21; 48) 0; 1] 24 5) 19) 11) 162} 0} OO}. OF 22 BODOMH een cme ise ceeeceenene et 750) 24) 96] 24] 130} 26) 4) 16) 4) 23) 6) O} OF OF 1 IN Fer eng aac onacmecnanoa sabe .----| 616} 20) 31) 47 0 7 4 6| 10 2 0} 97; 76] O} 36 Red-winged blackbird 920} 20) 41) 33/1125} 93] 26) 21) 18) 1) 2] 34) 11) OF} 1 Robinteeeea 611] 20] 13] 50} 8} 59) 3) 4) 10) 8] 34] 80} 152) 21) 59 Field sparr 430] 14) 10] 28) 0} 47; 9) 4 5] 4) 13) 131) 190) 254) 4 Golofinchet romeacesedtes 389) 13) ‘7 21) 15) 27] 8] 10) 10) 10) 11) 40) 38) 55) 14 Red-headed 5 358] 12] 9] 26) 0} 13) 10) 5) 6] 5] 6] 51} 44) 34) 26 CLOW scnsceaecmineeceeecamae 376} 12] 13] 19} 0} 10) 21) 12) 10) 1 63) 5) 21) 2 Quail cease eee 315] 11) 8] 15] 76] 27) 14) 4) 6) 9) 3) 34) 212] 41] 13 Grasshopper sparrow........ 298} 10) 41) 9) 23) 8) 12) 5| 1) 5) oO} OF} OF OF O Brown thrasher.............. 308} 101 6) 20! O} 171 9} 5! 6 I! 9 69) 125) 34!) 20 L.Ghel=soyteslPreqersecberndboooboOECe 310} 9{ 15) 19/ 0} 19] 2) 5] 6) 1] 11) O| 27) Of 21 Barn swallow .........s0sse005 S55/" 8] 19! 23h Ol Ses ai) /Sies 38 |i] eee |e ee ee) Wiplanciep lowers seesteeses 218) 7] 25) 8 0} 0} 2 2 2 65) 34 OF 6} 6} 66 IMS Ch Ae yoaooobooonoana oon oG 200; 7] 2) 11] .0} 11] O} 1) 2. 1] Oj 194 114) 34) 23 BIUEDICG oe. sn ercee seein ae 197) 7 4| 19) O} 16 1) 1) 2) 2) 15) 46) tt) 27) 7 BONGGEr e- sseeecineeetae 174) 161) 10} 121) 8) 1 Ole Ol 2) Ole 58] vO) 0) aol eee Chimney swift... .......... 181; 6! 12) 9] O| 11) 2) 3) 2 oF 4 OF 5) Of 88 Vesper Sparrow.......ss.0+s WTA} SG] sea) eS 10)) 4: AT STS] eel a S| eee) | ced Cliff SwallOWw Jiccceeessesccne 151} 76] 2] TOO 0) 21 FSi] 1210) nO] Ol nO ete Orchard oriole.............. 112) 4} 1) 1) O} 4) 2 ob] 1] Of Of 11) 120) 14) 2 Indigo bunting ............. 116) 4) .1| 3} 8) 9) 4) 2) 4) a) (Oo) (Bi) 988) 82) 40 Mocking bird) fitiniems isles an 120) PAP 10), ae 1) ON BHO] 13s 0] ee tO | eea Lark Sparrow..........6+ 106| 3h Alie GOhe OlieeSie eb etek» Slr S10) CG (One eee Oley SOME SPALEOW oie seein viele 93} 3} 3} 4 38 6 1 1 3) 1 (Oe wets alll 5 Maryland yellow-throat . 1041 3) 4! 5) Ii 15) 64!) 2) 2} 6 6O} 6C} 6384) 68 4d 2 Wood pewee............. 46) 12) TB FSI sO] 0] sO} 2) 0/63) eee 0 ae Cardinal.,... 54 2 1 1 0 7 (¢) en) 1 0 0} 46) 38] 41 0 Catbird BF APO! Bie Ol |S Op) 1) Sak] vO] Peet a6 e103 | o |e Green Herons... 32; 1} 2] 2) 46) J Os Ol) 2h 0). 10) SkC lab eC eo Downy woodpecker. ; BA a Ol) LF YO eT LO} 0]! SPO) ieee] neta oe) eed Crested flycatcher...... 25] 1] O|.. 1). OF OF OF Of OF 1) «OF 68) 16) 2tiemd Mohan pene. Guanacocans 30 1 0 1 0 0) en) 0 0 0} Oo; 51{ 16) 41 1 Yellow-breasted chat .. 20| Ah ONS Sa 20 i ONO} O68) 10) S50) iO) Gs ae Short-billed marsh wren 12\ LN) 'O} oO} 15], 10} 10) 10], 10); (0) 0)" 0)e 0) 0] ea Long-billed marsh wren.......... 10; 1) 0} Of 46) 4) OF OF OF OF OF OF Oo O oO Tufted titmouse.............. vwielve 18 Ly) Ol Ll LO 0) 05 0} 0)” SO). Ol Ole Sl) ee5 peels DOTA aciaverctardistctelo atatalststals ovoivtetetsterni= ....| 793} 856/1004)1824) 773) 715) 488) 560) 483) 609)1471|4026) 933)3314 Motalimiative SPECIES erjeretelseelse| ebainte 606) 762) 827/1801) 716) 568) 325) 430) 324) 579/1425)1987| 933)1779 .---| 18] 19] 22] 41) 18] 16) 11) 13) 11) 14) 33) 92) 21) 75 AY eae aD vee ee { 14] 17| 19] 42] 16] 13] 7] 10] 7| 13] 33] 45] 21] 40 = Arranging these totals in series, we find that orchards stand at the top of both lists and stubble fields at the bottom, the former con- ee fee a het motional ere >: + ev a, 215 taining nearly nine times as many birds per square mile as the latter if the English sparrows are counted, and about six times as many if they are not. Fields in crops of wheat, rye, barley, oats, or corn, and those from which the small grains have been harvested, are the least attractive to birds of all the situations listed, their numbers of native species per square mile ranging from 324 to 579, while the other areas rise from 716 for waste and fallow to 1987 for orchards. We further notice that our two series do not differ materially in respect to the order of abundance, the dropping out of English sparrows having the effect only to shift six of the habitat names one place up or down, and leaving the positions of seven of the thirteen unchanged. BIRDS PER SQUARE MILE or 44 ofr THE ABUNDANT SPECIES, THE WHOLE STATE, SUMMERS OF 1907 AND 1909, IN ORDER OF NUMBERS All species Native species Orchards 4026 Orchards 1987 Yards and gardens 3314 Swamps 1801 Swamps 1824 Yards and gardens 1779 Woods 1471 Woods 1425 Pastures 1004 Shrubs 933 Shrubs 933 Pastures 827 Meadows 856 Meadows 762 Waste and fallow 173 Waste and fallow 716 Wheat, rye, barley 715 Plowed ground 579 Plowed ground 609 Wheat, rye, barley 568 Corn 560 Corn = 430 Oats 488 Oats 325 Stubble 483 Stubble 324 An inspection of our preceding general table (page 214) shows that some birds have but a single favorite haunt or set of closely related haunts, that others have two very different places of principal resort, and that still others have a wide and rather indiscriminate range of local preference. Thus the English sparrow is seen to be mainly a bird of the orchard and the yard and garden; the meadowlark of the meadow, pasture, and waste lands; the dickcissel of the meadow only; the prairie _ horned lark of pasture fields and plowed ground; the bobolink of swamp and meadow; the field sparrow of shrubbery, orchard, and woods; and other local concentrations within one situation may be readily made out for the blue jay, orchard oriole, indigo bunting, song sparrow, cardinal, catbird, green heron, downy woodpecker, crested fly-catcher, towhee, the two marsh wrens, the red-headed woodpecker, and the mockingbird; while a distinctly double or multiple local. allegiance is 216 apparent in our records of the crow-blackbird, found especially abundant in swamps, corn fields, orchards, and yards and gardens, of the cowbird in wheat and yards and gardens, the mourning dove in wheat and orchards, the flicker in meadow, pasture, and woods, and the upland plover in meadow. and plowed land. This seems, in most cases at least, mainly a matter of the relations of feeding and breeding places, identical for some birds and for others more or less separate and unlike. If we may assume that the present meadows and woodlands most nearly resemble the primitive prairie and forest as homes and haunts of birds, we see that in bringing the last two under cultivation we have greatly diminished the areas most desirable to birds, and must have reduced the total number of birds accordingly except as these unfavor- able effects may have been compensated by more favorable conditions established at other points. Such compensation appears in the substitution of pastures for prairie, as may be seen by a comparison of a total of 1004 birds per square mile of pasture with that of 856 for meadow; and in the sub- stitution of orchard for forest, the numbers of which per square mile (English sparrow excluded) are 1987 and 1425 respectively—gains of 17 per cent. in the first case and nearly 39 per cent. in the second. By a more detailed comparison of our tabulated data, one habitat column with another, we may get more precise ideas of the apparent affiliation of habitats as related to birds. These affiliations may be inferred from an examination of the following table, made by dropping from each column of the preceding general table the numbers per square mile which are smaller than the general average for the habitat, those remaining showing the species which are equal to or greater than the habitat average for all the species. It will be readily seen that this table is divisible vertically into three more or less definite areas or bands, made up respectively of (1) meadows, pastures, swamps, and waste and fallow lands, the nearest approach remaining to us of the primitive prairies of the state; (2) fields of cereal crops together with plowed and stubble fields which have lately borne them; and (3) areas of forest, orchard, and shrubbery to which the exceptionally and radically new habitat of yards and gardens may be appended as more nearly related here than anywhere else.* For convenience’ sake these may be distinguished as pasture- meadow, cereal-crop, and tree-shrub associations; and the numbers of birds per square mile of each were as follows: cereal-crop, 602, pasture- meadow, 923, and tree-shrub, 3111, related to each other respectively as. 1, 1.65, and 5.17. By a more detailed comparison of our tabulated data, one habitat column with another, we may get more precise ideas of the apparent affiliation of habitats as related to birds. The cereal-crop area is evidently *For more significant tures of this relationship, see the detailed general table on ¢hewepposite page. yd . f 217 CONDENSED GENERAL TABLE WITH SUBSTITUTION OF AN ASTERISK FOR ALL NUMBERS LESS THAN THE AVERAGE OF ALL BIRDS FOR THH HABITAT 3 Bie a 2 Y : Species ols n n wn a iS) 2 ied eed Meal [es ° ry 3| 3| 8] S| 3 3| 2| | 3| 3] 2 o| 3| E 3 Sial|a| Fl ES English sparrow 94| 177) «| 57] 147) 163 Bronzed grackle 49) 72) 207) 20] 56) 92 Meadowlark 194) 151} | 142] 47) 50 Cowbird . *| 55) O; «f 121) 11 Mourning d 29) 41) 0} 37) 141) 14 Dickcissel. 100} «| «| 29) 27] 28 Prairie ho 21) 48) O} «| 24) « Bobolink 96) 24) 130) 26 16 Flicker . 31] 47) O| x * Red-wing 41] 33/1125) 93] 26] 21 Robin.. 50) | “59 * Field spa 23| 0} 47 * Goldfinch. *| 27 * Red-heade 2 Oo] x * Oo} «| 2 12 7 27 ~ ~w SCOCCCOCOOe COXRRXRHHHHKR He * *% OF HUH HH HH KH HH HH Killdeer.. Chimney s Vesper sparrow. . Cliff swallow . Orchard oriole. Indigo bunting. Mockingbird . Lark sparrow Song sparrow........ Maryland yellow-thro Wood pewee....... ... Cardinal. ..... Catbird..... Green heron ......... Downy woodpecker ... Crested flycatcher . MOWHEC si sce=> <= Yellow-breasted chat.....2.1121 Short-billed marsh wren ..... Long-billed marsh wren.. Os Miufted titmouse ......:..0s.000s SouemseH eS a nw COKKRRKKHKHEHXEHRHERKRHR ER RHEE OHHH HE AE > im Ome COCCOSSC##*# COOH OCOOCSCF COOCSCSSooCFSe Ox * * COs * & HH HH He HH OH HH HH OX OFX *€ eoooooococ[eoce * * H * * ee OF OX HH Ke HH HH HH Ee KDHE = SOCOCOCCOCOKKER*e CHHHEHHREEHRARHHRHRHEHHRHREHRHE HARE DE * Stubble Sadie 54 B43 we _ _ Q Soowoe*e COOCOCe OF OCO* OCWF# COMRKRRHRHRH HH —H HK HH He ORK _ oO VLA CA ablcin yw tivicslsldsivisele'sinicic.sann'ec.s.e ww wile rs = _ oo _ a ese tie pe is Oem eg hee a ee ae i _ _ aw _ _ Plowed ground 162 _ Ox Ox ne Be ox wo UCohLO*x * oooooot OF COCO#K € OOCSO#e * Ey Orchards 194 LES. * EBRooots eooso ou =—oOoot 11 _ 2 _ OOOH HHH Bee ete SOOKE OH BOO Shrubbery 09 ee mReOSOOrOrk cote ooo * ook Yards and gardens a derivative of the pasture-meadow association, differentiated to the advantage of the former, but to the detriment of the birds; and the ornithological preponderance of the tree-shrub association may be more clearly shown by a comparison with the first two associations thrown together as one, giving us an average of 762 birds per square mile for the combination against 3111 for the tree-shrub association. stated, we have found the summer-time birds? of Illinois more than Otherwise 218 four times as abundant to the unit of area in the tree-shrub association as in the remainder of the state. In this connection, however, we must recall the fact that the woodland area of our survey is not the dense and full grown forest of the wilderness, but is rather to be taken as equivalent to the forest edge; and the further fact that the limited acreage of our tree-shrub formation, 880 acres in all as against 18,408 of the other habitats, has probably led to a certain concentration of the normal forest birds, and especially of those which nest in trees and shrubs and seek their food largely in the open fields. As a most general outcome of this final discussion, we may con- clude that the remaining birds of the Illinois wilderness have adapted themselves to civilization, and especially to agriculture and horticulture, not so much by a change of choice or of habits, as by searching out under the new conditions the places which most nearly resemble their original nesting sites and which offer them food the nearest to that which, by hereditary inclination, they were impelled to choose; that in pastures, orchards, and yards and gardens they have found situations more favorable, and in the vast areas devoted to the cereal crops less favorable, to their maintenance and multiplication than their original habitats; and that while certain species have suffered heavily, in some cases nearly or quite to extermination (mainly, however, by the deliberate acts of man), others have greatly increased in numbers, the numerical make-up of the bird population of the state having thus shifted its balance in response to an increase of some resources and a diminution of others. Their remarkable success in self-maintenance under changes of environment which, from their viewpoint, may be called revolutionary, is not due to any flexibility of organization and consequent power of physical adaptation to new conditions—for which, indeed, they are much too highly and rigidly specialized—but to their remarkable sensory endowment and unequaled powers of locomotion, by the use of which each species is enabled to search out and occupy the most satisfactory ecological situations still to be found in the area of its geographical dis- tributiom. al is» ~~ PLATE XXXV Southern Illinois landscape near Cave in Rock, Hardin county. On the Ohio River—indistinctly seen at the extreme left. PLATE XXXVI Typical view in farming area of southern Illinois, Hardin county. PLaTE XXXVII Typical central Illinois pasture near Ogden, Champaign county. Upland plovers in this field. » Pirate XXXVIII Boggy pasture, characteristic of lowland fields near marshes in northern Illinois. Libertyville, Lake county. ee el PLaTE XXXIX i ‘ ’ Clover field, cut and pastured, near Midland City, Dewitt county, central Illinois, July 16, 1907. Containing red-winged blackbirds, robin, upland plovers, meadowlarks, prairie horned larks, and brown thrasher. e < . ‘ i 4 Pirate XL i ; - 5 Meadowlark, from life, April 1, 1907, near Bismarck, Vermilion county, central Illinois. p | ¥ f f Pirate XLI Meadowlark’s nest with two eggs of the meadowlark and three of the ecowbird, Urbana, Champaign county, central Illinois, May 20, 1908. Pirate XLII Meadowlark's nest and young, near Benton, Franklin county, southern Illinois, June 11, 1907. f Pirate XLITI ~ Meadowlark’s nest and eggs, near Easton, Mason county, central Illinois, May 1, 1907. Meadowlark’s PLATE XLIV nest and eggs, near Urbana, Champaign county, central Illinois, May 30, 1907. ome PLATE XLV Meadowlark’s nest and eggs, near Elkville, Illinois, June 21, 19 pees county, southern PiLaTeE XLVI Meadowlark’s nest and eggs, near Clinton, Dewitt county, central Illinois, May 16, 1907. win toad “ow —— Piate XLVII Nest and eggs of prairie-hen, near Clinton, Dewitt county, central Illinois. A few yards from nest of meadowlark shown in preceding picture. PLatE XLVIII : es ; J ; Typical oats field, Lee county, northern Illinois, August 7, 1907. Pirate XLIX : i * Wheat field near Emery, Macon county, central Illinois, July 18, 1907. . PLaTE L Nest and eggs of red-winged blackbird, July, 1909. PAY ee PLaTE LI Nest and eggs of red-winged blackbird, in timothy meadow near Benton, Franklin county, southern Illinois, June 4, 1907. ow - Pirate LIT Nest and four eggs of grasshepper sparrow in alfalfa field, Urbana, Champaign county, central Illinois, May 27, 1907. Puate LIII Typical Illinois corn field near Buffalo Hart, Sangamon county, central Illinois, July 24, 1907. a ———— a peer ar ety a Pirate LIV Nest and eggs of prairie horned lark in oats field near Ogden, Champaign county, central Illinois, May 28, 1907. PLATE LV Marsh near Davis Junction, Ogle county, northern Illinois, July 30, 1907. Home of the short-billed marsh wren—of which young birds were seen at this date. Bobolinks and red-winged blackbirds common here. ns -_= Piate LVI Tamarack swamp near Wauconda, Lake county, northern Illinois, March 4, 1907. Pirate LVII Woodland forest near Mulkeytown, Franklin county, southern Illinois, June 20, 1907. Wood thrush and towhee common. Great crested fly-catcher, yellow-bellied cuckoo, cardinal, red-bellied woodpecker, and tufted titmouse seen here. 4 4 PLATE. LVIII baw ~ Se Ne central Mason county, Prickly pears on the sandy plar City, 1907. Field sparrow and towhee here. May 2, soil. Bur oak woodland near Po Illinois, : d 4 3 ; TPAD AGEID, IE IDSC 4 Te, et lM a ee So Lowland forest near Cave in Rock, Hardin county, southern Illinois, July 1, 1907. Wood thrush and red-eyed vireo very common here. Pore we Fe et Lays. ; : PreatE eX Mourning dove’s nest and eggs, near Thompsonville, Franklin county, southern Illinois, June 5, 1907. Pirate LXI Mourning dove’s nest and eggs, near Mount Vernon, Jefferson county, southern Illinois, June 14, 1907. Ne ET ey ee ee % “fi : F : z = : ¥ & ; ; : : B: poet v PLate LXII Mourning dove'’s eggs in old robin’s nest, Olney, Richland county, southern Illinois, September 7, 1908. Pirate LXIII Mourning dove’s nest and eggs near center of large corn field, July 16, 1907. | PLATE LXIV Mourning dove’s nest and two young, near Mount Vernon, Jefferson county, southern Illinois, June 14, 1907. Pirate LXV Shrubbery near Clinton, Dewitt county, central Illinois, April 26, 1907. Prate LXVI Sassafras thicket near Golconda, Pope county, southern Illinois, June 28, R 1907. Prevalent condition throughout this county. Maryland + yellow-throat, indigo bunting, and field sparrow very common. Two adults and three young of Kentucky warbler seen in woods near by. Pirate LXVII ; Open woods and shrubbery near Mt. Carmel, Wabash county, southern ‘a Illinois, April 9, 1907. Near the limit of density ; permitting the counting of birds. Pirate LXVIII Old corn field near Farmer City, Dewitt county, central Illinois, March 29, 1907. Prairie-hens flushed in this field, and two mallard ducks arose near by. June, 1909. Pirate LXIX Southern Illinois fallow, acini os ~ Fe el PLATE LXX Fallow field near Tamaroa, Perry county, southern Illinois, June 19, 1907. Meadowlarks abundant, two of their nests with eggs and one with young found within fifty yards of each other. STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief Vol. XIV. BULLETIN Article VII. CODLING-MOTH INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STATE ENTOMOLOGIST’S OFFICE 1915, 1916, 1917 BY PRESSLEY A. GLENN PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS August, 1922 STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION W. H. H. Mivter, Director pee BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION W. H. H. Mitirr, Chairman ; WILLIAM TRELEASE, Biology JoHN W. Atyorp, Engineering JouHn M. Courter, Forestry Kewnpric C. BABcock, Representing the Roxirin D. Sarispury, Geology ‘ President of the University of Illi- - Wittram A. Noyes, Chemistry nois ; THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION SrerpHen A. Forses, Chief (64922—1200—6-22) PHILLIPS BROS.* PRINT. ey SPRINGFIELD, LLINOIS. Cie : PAGE PP COdItCLOnVaISta tem CNwE rc. ful esi Mu Mylene w fieisRa aie eee da aye. et pes cee 219 BSE OMe Ole LOLIMNS sar. c)oet west. ees irs Spee s Was the ete Rs OR 219 BERIECHELAINCODCINSIONG cise uiileteren fut ie tle Wo date ere estat Laicleuabis cae ghee 221 Beetiduipmoent. andsmethod. of: work.......c0:ce.s.s0l- heel gecees teens cs ceen 223 : BEAT DeeCAP OME SECS ea ae aye ne A MR onl) OSS, 227 Heit e-NIStOlye SCLIN -2.csceke vioe Leke ee ode lacne ERROR Gok IS Ie 228 , PREG RECOLGESCDLCS ptinn ferevs chee as 8s tsetse Nat tals (sia sile Stove-o' dg ced ceangnie 231 ‘Influence of climatic conditions on the egg, larva, and pupa of the codling- moth). i457 Sec cB ORR Ota at cs ae han SE EG Ce ee aoe 231 ASHES Ol LOM OLa GIT Giac.c cyclen i hiocye ae nko min re ckeeecelakine CHEE eee 232 _ General procedure in the study of temperature relations.............. 233 Relation of temperature to development of the egg................... 234 Relation of temperature to development of the larva.................. 239 Relation of temperature to development of the pupa.................. 246 Conclusions from the foregoing discussion..............0..ccceeeeeuee 252 Observations on the life history of the codling-moth in 1915, 1916, and 1917. 253 EET AULO NE NO BLOC Wy aeerars Peau cars NPT Tc era ey etace, aie Sessile avisarovellers ik einem aba nts ote 254 Larval period: WWANSTOTOUINE, lave so. ays o0 aioe Calero staat Megs atchshaisijscgnacie Wels stv ee- i oka MEAS 254 AR POUNAEIN Pal Vy coe rallale data cen ates apeiettsta to alc she aels musinvetil. Sar chel septate d 255 EIDE SDOLLO Me catesae rays ec yersts shes cian ons weeinay este ates oc ap o¥e ethereal cheese ames 256 Combined egg, larval, and pupal periods...............-.ccceeeceucs 256 PRU DOLL OMS seis ai-carendne cco has ate hraole naval a hacaee ars © Spnic wie velataas od agate 257 BUY eU eRe O-TOLT OC wopercrs ats ha tenor techs Mee eho tans Se ee ePaaa nie die iki tiele he sietee a bone aw 257 BES TIOSLULOM Meh te ferc fe io-=faarteis &Sicteh oe oie Mare eusiche Rise neta ant tis rata woh btele oie alors 258 Relation of temperature to length of development period.............. 258 Seasonal history of the codling-moth, 1915................cceeeeeccecess 259 AA CAE Om SOY OG meric skater verbo ainis or Nee aloe a ols e sieivie rae wad heye as’ «-<, Aetoné hs, oe 259 MAT OHONAL I OM 10 Uo cic Mae olete setae ck siete fasratRate denis ciieve Shs vlergvesa 260 RECOUME AON OLA OON lO Lin seeicrsc, vlctemrarere oie lcistare cha paratoie: wich stelasevwielale nidvels 261 SEM SOU OLATLOT ON LOD iacithe vve'clt chajact eters savers cxtic clayavardys*acerd\tuslate latte 261 Band collections: : PPOrnaAtine -POnerAttOn LO TAL OMB ok fale, sare. 0 ofsve cues gioce.s sleievad.ele eels 262 MONG CMOMS PIECE MITT MLO MO tera anvata: shelats orcuate cea, kus yetelesarby aller aiplaletoeioterte 262 PETTITT SL Coit eP a fofat« (3,cuete ts.i0y ot oSlaes c ata ale) eration bi maja.) arareqa’e «lard. Wigaionte tate 263 Summary of the seasonal history) L9UG. 0. 6. dee. ie ee cept ee ens oe 263 ZECOLGBITOL) OLUCTADOUNUSELILAED (OLNGY: cima «aye sis tie.c.e sles alaceroveverelale s:0¥tce: 6 bless 264 General MOMMA TK Se Ole CNG. HOARD. =, ctspayhere\nie aie) vy ewaulate a/charels ro-8 dubia arate share leas 264 See Ab a Sage : , Eas ines =? a a i ‘ pt Le whe ii rad IV Seasonal history of the codling-moth, 1916..............0.e.ececeeeeeeee “ Large-cage series ..... OO Or EO rer Hibernating generation; 1915-1916 soe Fo rer wcylaciele o's wmusiioa eee . WixSb: SCMeEraACLON sav raperalp meen Moser: oper theta e Make Paria ree PS Nest ry Second , Ua Te onoeereye 245 4217 Clay ®) FLA 6-7 ae aes 'y » 424K. Fic. 2. Pupa cage open, showing arrangement of larve and method of numbering. 226 When it was desired to observe only the emergence of moths, larve were placed in a 4-0z. condiment jar containing a bundle of strips of strawboard. (Fig. 3.) These cages will be designated as emergence cages. Fic. 3. Emergence cages. Strips of strawboard removed from jars to show arrangement of cocoons and pupa cases. To secure eggs and note length of life of adults, pairs of moths were confined in cages consisting of a cylinder of screen-wire closed at one end with screen-wire and at the other end with an apron of cheese-cloth which permitted the cage to be fastened over the top of a branch of a tree. (Fig. 4.) These will be called oviposition cages. Sh ee 227 The experiments were carried on in three series, kept as nearly independent as possible so that each would serve as a check on the others. I shall designate them as the large-cage series, the life-history series, and the band-record series. Fic. 4. Two oviposition cages in place on tree. LARGE-CAGE SERIES Cages used in this series were large enough to cover entire trees, the largest cages being 18 feet square and 18 feet high. (Fig. 5, 6, and 7.) The plan was to use two cages each for the first and the second genera- tions and one cage for the third generation—if a third generation appeared. The framework of the cages, consisting of 24 scantling, was erected over the trees before they were in bloom, and wire cloth, 12 wires to the inch, was tacked over the frame as soon as the time of full bloom was past. Each of the cages had a tight-fitting screen-door provided with hasp and padlock. The trees thus screened in were examined very carefully for larve and two inches of the soil in each cage was removed. The first moths to emerge from the hibernating larve were placed in cage No. 1, and the last moths to emerge in cage No. 2, to rear the first and the last individuals of the first generation; the first moths reared 228 in cage No. 1 were liberated in cage No. 3 and the last moths reared in cage No. 2 were liberated in cage No. 4, to rear the first and the last individuals of the second generation; and the moths reared in cage No. 3 were liberated in cage No. 5, to rear the third generation. In this way it was possible to ascertain approximately the dates when each genera- tion began and ended. Fic. 5. Large screen-cage in course of construction. LIFE-HISTORY SERIES In the life-history series, pairs of adults of each of the broods were enclosed in oviposition cages (Fig. 4), and the number of eggs laid daily by each female and the dates of the death of the adults were noted. The eggs obtained were numbered and allowed to remain on the trees until the black spot appeared. They were then removed to small vials on the bits of leaf or bark on which they had been laid, and, as they hatched, the larve were transferred to apples with a camel-hair brush, some to apples on the trees and others to picked fruit. The apples were tagged and each was given a number corresponding to that of the egg, and when they showed conspicuous signs of worminess they were transferred to jars, in which were placed strips of corrugated strawboard or small pupal cages in which the larve might spin up. The dates were noted when the larve left the apple, when Eo pupated, and when the adults emerged. ‘ ie at alert es ea. ie ES ee % ebsphlndt eyo weirs J bia “oh sy, My Pape sarketny =e 229 Fic. 6. View of orchard showing screened trees. Fie. 7. Large cage completed. Rain-gage and atmometer in foreground. Fic. 8. Rain-gage (left), and atmometer (right) for determining rate of evaporation. 231 BAND-RECORD SERIES 2K Paaiber of trees were banded each year at each of the places e observations were made, both sprayed and unsprayed trees being ally included. The bands used were mostly two or three-ply burlap, uit 4 inches wide. They were placed on the trees about June 1 and mined every day until the first larve were found; and after that : y third day. A record was kept of the number of male and female larvee collected. All the larve collected were placed either in pupal cages or - emergence cages for further observation, and a partial record of pupa- _ tion and a complete record of the emergence of moths were kept at - Olney. In cases where both pupation and emergence were noted the upal periods of those under observation were determined, and the data _ thus obtained were used in connection with studies on the influence of _ climatic conditions on the development of the pupa. eries, but the combined results of all of them have been used in our studies on climatic relations, life history, and seasonal history. Since ‘a knowledge of the influence of climatic relations will assist in interpret- _ ing our life-history and seasonal-history data, a discussion of the climatic INFLUENCE OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ON THE Ecc, Larva, AND PuPA OF THE CODLING-MOTH We ascertained by observations during 1915, 1916, and 1917, that the - incubation period varied from 4 to 15 days, the pupal period from 7 to _ 46 days, and the larval period from 18 to 45 days, and that the time of - the appearance of the first brood of larve may vary as much as 19 _ days, and of the second brood 7 or 8 days in different seasons in the _ same locality, and that the variation in the time of the same events in _ various parts of the state in the same season may be as much as 20 or P25 days. These variations in length of the periods and dates of appear- a ance of the broods are due principally to climatic conditions, and "especially to temperature. It is the purpose of the present study to ascertain the relation of climatic conditions to the rate of development and to the time of the appearance of the broods and, as far as possible, _ to suggest methods by which these relations may be turned to practical eecount. - Under out-of-door conditions, temperature is the predominating Eiactor in determining rate of development of the codling-moth. Evapora- tion and humidity have so little influence that they may be disregarded, except, perhaps, in seasons when there are prolonged periods of extremely re high or low humidity. 232 The fact that a certain degree of warmth is necessary for develop- ment of animal and vegetable life and that the rate of development is hastened by warm weather and retarded by cool weather has apparently always been known, but it is only within recent years that efforts have been made to ascertain the relative effects of different degrees of temperature. ee ZONES OF TEMPERATURE The entire range of temperature may be divided into six zones with respect to life and development, as shown below: eT a ni, Zone 64 Fatal temperatures; fatality due to heat. L Minimum high fatal degree |— Tone 5 J Estivation temperatures; not fatal, but unfavorable for development. Zero of estivation = Temperatures stimulating development, Zone 4+ the rate of development decreasing as the temperature rises. Degree of maximum rate | development r 5 ‘ me P Temperatures stimulating development, Zone 34 the rate of development increasing as the temperature rises. : 3 L Zero of development bere bo 5 P E Hibernating temperatures; not fatal, but Zone 24 unfavorable for development. . Maximum low fatal degree ~|—_ ip Fatal temperatures; fatality due to lack 5 Zone 1 : of heat. The limits of these zones differ for different species, for different stages of the same species, and for different phases of the same stage of the same species. 4 The limits of the zones of temperature of a species will be affected by the latitude to which it is acclimated, and it is possible that they will — vary for individuals of the same species which are acclimated to different — latitudes. Generally speaking, the limiting temperatures of the zones of — species in low latitudes may be expected to be higher than of species in higher latitudes. The temperature at which an insect comes out of hiber- nation is in many cases quite different from that at which it becomes dormant in the latter part of the season, because heredity has an impor- tant influence in. determining the time when insects begin the dormant period which lasts through the winter. The temperatures on which these studies are based fall within zones — 2, 3, and 4, the purpose being to determine for the codling-moth the zero of development, or the point at which development begins in spring as __ 233 _ the temperature rises; the degree at which development proceeds most rapidly ; and to find a temperature constant for each of the stages and for _the whole period of development which will apply to all temperatures, and a method by which that constant can be determined. Before proceeding very far it was discovered that the character of _ the climatic data obtained under field conditions was not well suited to _ studies of this kind, because the temperature varied constantly throughout the day, and consequently the deductions had to be made from averages of widely varying degrees of temperature. Early in the season the tem- perature during part of the day was in the zone of hibernating tempera- tures and during the remaining time in the zone of temperatures which stimulated development, and later in the season the temperatures during part of the day were in the zone in which the rate of development increased as the temperature rises and during the remainder of the day in the zone in which the rate of development decreased as the temperature rises. For scientific accuracy it is of interest to determine the relative effects of each degree of temperature, but from data of the kind here used this could not be undertaken. It has already been pretty well established that the rate of develop- ment increases, approximately at least, as the temperature rises above the zero of development, until the temperature at which the rate of develop- ment is at its maximum is reached; and our studies have led us to con- clude that as the temperature rises above the degree of the maximum rate of development the rate of development decreases directly as the tem- perature rises. ] The day has been used as the unit of time, and the day-degree as the unit of accumulated temperatures; and it has been assumed that, within certain limits of temperature, the period expressed in days multiplied by the average daily day-degrees above the zero of development will approximate a constant, or at least that the average products of a large number of observations will approximate a constant. GENERAL PROCEDURE IN THE STUDY OF TEMPERATURE RELATIONS The first step taken was to prepare temperature tables from the thermographic records, showing the mean daily temperatures. In com- puting the mean daily temperatures, the day was regarded as beginning and ending at 5 o’clock p. m., that being the hour when observations for _ the day usually ended. All mean daily temperatures were ascertained by dividing the sums of the temperature readings for the even hours of the day by 12. Mean temperatures above 50, 52, 85, 86, 87, and 88 degrees _ were computed in the same way. q The second step was to tabulate in detail all the data relative to the - length of the egg, pupal, and larval periods, tabulating the data for each generation and year separately and arranging the data in chronological order with respect to dates when the periods began and ended. 234 z The average mean daily temperatures and the length of the periods were determined for each observation. In all the groups of eggs, larve, and pup which began their periods on the same date there was a con- siderable variation in the recorded length of the period of individuals, due, no doubt, partly to the fact that individuals differ somewhat in respect to the amount of time required for them to develop even under identical conditions as to heat, light, moisture, and environment; and partly to errors of observation due for the most part, especially in case of eggs and pupe, to the use of the day as the unit of time, on account of which the recorded period may, if the observations are made at the same hour each day, be almost a day longer or shorter than the true period, and, if the observations are not made at the same hour, the recorded period may be more than a day longer or shorter than the true period. To avoid these variations the observations beginning on the same dates were thrown into groups, and the average period and average mean daily temperature were determined for each group. These smaller groups were then thrown into larger groups, using the mean daily temperature as the basis, all those passing through the period at an average mean daily temperature of 60 and 61 degrees or fraction thereof forming one group, and those passing through the period at temperatures of 62 and 63 degrees or fraction thereof forming another group, etc. The mean daily temperatures and the average length of the periods of these groups were then computed. All averages are weighted and all periods were averaged harmonically. The detailed tables which it was necessary to prepare for the purpose of making the computations are voluminous and would not be of special interest. Only summaries made as above indicated will be given. The reciprocal curve was used, with the mean daily temperature for the horizontal axis and the reciprocals of the periods for the vertical axis, to help locate approximately the zero of development and the degree of maximum rate of development; but this had to be supplemented by other methods on account of the displacement of points at the upper and lower ends of the line because of temperatures above the degree of the maxi- mum rate of development and temperatures below the theoretical zero. RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG The eggs used for observation were obtained from pairs of moths isolated on branches of trees in small wire cages. These cages were examined morning and evening. The day was used as the unit of time. Eggs found in the cages in the morning were recorded as having been laid the preceding day and those found in the afternoon were recorded as having been laid the same day. It is possible, therefore, that in some cases the recorded length of the period may be either almost a day longer or shorter than the actual period, but the averages of a large number of observations should approximate the true period very closely. he e's oy yes Mee at the x ; , €9L | 99T S816 OL'TS bos LoL GLIP ate ; GOL 88L FS 6% 99°F 00'FS OO'FS LO8v gS 9P S8-#8 fe ri LOL T8T L6G FL& 98'S 98°C8 €18t 6S’ ThL €8-28 : ; T9L GLL T2'83 ec GOL bt: wr0s | FL 08 0SLT TLS 882 T8-08 ao S91 TLL raed 96 1L'8z Pe bhi.) =P e198 ger 6b 61-82 atin’, aor. | ¢ 99r Lr98 96" “ere ert | — 999t° 20'9 a4 BEDE ; xi ; ‘ T9T POL LP #S Gy 98°F6 98 FL 4 sist 09°9 G&S GL-#L e o9T Z9L TV&2 TO" GL&S GL EL Scr 00°L 6LS §L-ZL i ae GOL SOT EE 1s s SE 1S SeTL S6cL° GLL STs TL-0L : ) ‘ : ; 3 S9T GOT TO°6L 10'6r 2 10°69 $STL L9°8 G6S 69-89 €9T Jt. SO} LYLT ; LYLT 8FL9 690° SE6 SOS 19-99 i T9L T9L 61ST ; sTST F6'F9 8860" ‘ 99°0T 89 S9-#9 | .; OLT OLT TS él TS°&L Tre9 8810" LYST 635 9-29 ’ Pi an mee cu og'Z1 ogat 09°19 FILO 00°F oF 19-09 i, =cs8 | pai ler Mee | SPO 1 ema oped en | ied ee hivalt F a Aqrep pA eet aSeIOAR jo pla oP seeigep-Aep AjIep asev10Ay uve , oIUOmIeH | IquUInNN rd awa 4 ae eee 236 Table 1 is a final summary of the data on the relation of temperature to development of the egg. For the present we are concerned only with columns 4 and 5—the reciprocals of the periods and the average mean daily temperatures. In preparing Graph 1, convenient fractional parts were laid off on the vertical axis corresponding to the reciprocals of the periods and divi- sions were made on the horizontal axis corresponding to the mean daily temperatures, and the one was plotted against the other. .20 Je 00 Ee cittatiis alts : sad S333 Sth TEE + $353 2533 Hi SCT Teme) 6G 68 70 78 FO wi B Rr KGa Grapru 1. Incubation period. Reciprocals of the periods plotted against average mean daily temperatures. The points below 76 degrees fall approximately in a straight line, those above 76 are displaced to the right because for part of the time during the periods the temperature was above the degree of maximum rate of development. The reciprocal curve determined by the points below 76 degrees crosses the temperature axis at 49.32 degrees. Since it is probable that some of these points used are somewhat displaced, the upper ones somewhat to the right on account of temperatures higher than the degree of maximum rate of development, the lower ones to the left on account of temperatures below the zero of development, this line is probably a little too flat and the true line will cross the temperature axis above 49.32° rather than below it. Fifty degrees was taken as the approximate zero and was found to be nearly correct. The average daily day-degrees above 50 degrees were computed for the different groups, and the results are recorded in column 6 of Table 1. Next, the averages in column 6 were multiplied by the length of the 237 4 _ various periods (column 3) in order to get the total accumulation of day- degrees. These are recorded in column 9. If, in column 9, we disregard the accumulations for the first two groups at the top of the table, the accumulations are fairly constant till the 78-79 group is reached. Below this the accumulations rapidly increase, owing to the fact that the aver- _ ages in column 6 contain some temperatures that are above the degree of the maximum rate of development and so retard development. It _ was necessary, therefore, to ascertain the degree of maximum rate of _ development, and to make the necessary corrections in the daily day- degrees column, so as to get only the effective day-degrees. In deter- “mining this point and making the correction, it was assumed that the products obtained by multiplying the average daily effective day-degrees by the periods would be nearly the same for all temperatures. It will ' not be necessary-to give the details of the process by which the degree _ of maximum rate of development and the effects of temperatures above _ this point were determined. Suffice it to say that they were found by making guesses and testing the guesses out. It was found in this way _ that if 88 degrees were taken as the degree of maximum rate of develop- ment and twice* the number of day-degrees above this point (column 7) _ were subtracted from the average day-degrees above 50 degree, values _ for the daily effective day-degrees (column 8) were secured which when _ multiplied by the periods gave products that very nearly filled the condi- tions, giving about the same accumulation of effective day-degrees for _ the high temperatures as for the low. ; By plotting the average daily day-degrees obtained in column 8 against the reciprocals of the periods, the points all fall somewhere near the established line (Graph 2). The average accumulation of effective _ day-degrees for the incubation period is, therefore, about 163. __ No good reason can be assigned why the accumulations for the 60-61 and the 62-63 groups should be higher than the average unless it may have been that in assuming in 1915 that eggs found in the forenoon of one day were laid the previous evening, too long a period was assigned to many of them. The weather during the early part of 1915 was very _ cloudy and a larger per cent. of the eggs were laid during the daytime than in the other seasons. U , : ’ * Twice the number of day-degrees above the degree of maximum rate of development » is subtracted from the total day-degrees above the zero of development because one degree _ rise in temperature above the degree of maximum rate of development retards the rate of development at approximately the same rate as does one degree fall in temperature below this point. Grapu 2. Incubation period. TABLE 2—DISTRIBUTION OF THE EGcs AS TO NUMBER OF THE TOTAL EFFECTIVE DAY- Reciprocals of the periods plotted against average daily effective day-degrees. DEGREES ACCUMULATED DURING THE OBSERVED PERIOD Number of eggs Range of effective day-degrees 35 29 119-128 129-138 149-158 159-168 169-178 179-188 189-198 239 The variations in the total of effective day-degrees in the cases of individuals shown in the above table arises from several causes. Some of the extreme variations resulted, no doubt, from inaccuracies in obser- ions; but for the most part they resulted from the use of the day as e unit, from which cause the recorded period may exceed or fall short of the true period by almost a day. Since in midsummer the daily accu- ‘ulations may reach 27 effective day-degrees, the variations from this cause alone may be from 136 to 190. The variations from this source are so large that they overshadow all the lesser ones and make it impos- sible to estimate the errors which probably arise from them. This source of error might have been avoided by using a smaller unit of time. There is also a difference in eggs as to the length of time required for the cubation period. Moisture, evaporation, and light also may have a pene influence on the rate of development. _It is probably true that variations arising from individual differences are comparatively slight and that the wide variations shown in the tables are due to the first two causes above mentioned. The extreme variations py therefore be regarded as of little significance and the average of the arge number of observations may be relied upon as being approximately the true heat factor. of” RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO DEVELOPMENT OF THE LARVA The conclusions arrived at are based upon observations made on 44 larve reared in apples on the tree and 214 larve reared in picked apples. It was found that larve reared in picked apples had a shorter period relative to the temperature than those reared in apples on the tree. _ These data were first tabulated in detail and the periods and mean daily temperatures averaged for each of the observations, then for groups of larve which began the period on the same day, and lastly for groups al ranged according to average mean daily temperatures.’ A summary of the results thus obtained from the observations on larve reared in apples on the tree is given in Table 3. €19 6TL GL’GG 9ST T&'Fs TEFL 8E80° 10°63 a €89 86L $6 SZ 98°F 0€'0€ 0g°08 86LE0° €€°92 et 899 SOL LLSZ 69'S 68°62 68°62 SS8s0° 6°S2 889 92L FESS Ort FL9Z FL'9L ¥89E0° tT LE ; T89 OL 61°83 tL’ 69°06 eg rl S6PE0° 69°82 g99 989 9L°6S (any 8h ES 8P'éL bCPEO 02°62 + g99 FL9 89°06 0S? 88°06 88°02 T6080" 63°3E 089 G69 TT 6T ts cP 6L cr'69 T&S820° LS°S$ (+98)2 (+48)z Beene) +09 | Sie) | (+9802 FOS. le drntamad= | ¢anojmea \eceseD me sporaed Jo ey IED SO STED, OSBIOAR seerZep-Aep [10,1 seersep- w hoe 4 8 SB os 5poes aos hee) ice 18)% z 520 ee ad oF Re 5 ARE | BH] +88 tos | (44895) (C493 | je | tee | too | BBE | ge | evga | Bee Res Pi . Boe | BS | g2Re | 28 | # fer Vee i |e 8 | See savidep-Aep [810L sovidep-dup Ajrep asvaaay ao 5 Aas . 248 Graph 5 was prepared by plotting the reciprocals of the periods against the mean daily temperatures (columns 4 and 5, Table 7). No three of the points in this graph appear to lie in a straight line. The points at the lower end of the line are too far to the left because in computing the mean daily temperatures temperatures below the zero of development were included, which prolongs the temperature axis too far to the left. Points at the upper end of the line are too far to the right because in computing the mean daily temperatures temperatures were included which were above the degree of the maximum rate of develop- ment and which, therefore, retarded development. The use of the mean daily degrees in this part of the graph prolonged the temperature axis too far to the right. CT A 60 GrapH 5, Pupal period. Reciprocals of the periods plotted against average mean daily temperatures. The points from 60 to 68 degrees are lower than they should be normally because these represent the portion of the hibernating genera- tion which did not pupate until from two to six weeks after pupation began in the spring, and were consequently disturbed daily until they pupated by having their cocoons torn open to make observations possible. The energy expended in repairing their cocoons daily seems to have devitalized them somewhat, on account of which a relatively longer period was required. Those which pupated last and hence were dis- turbed the most had the longest periods relative to the temperature. These points should, therefore, be disregarded. 249 Because all the points seem to be displaced more or less on account of using ineffective and retarding temperatures in the temperature axis, they afford no means of determining the true reciprocal curve. The two points that are least affected are the middle points from 68 to 72 degrees. The line determined by these two points cuts the temperature axis at 51.92 degrees. By using 50, 51, 52, and 53 degrees in turn as the possible zero of development it was found that 52 degrees more nearly satisfied the conditions than any other of the points. To ascertain the degree of the maximum rate of development 86, 87, 88, and 89 degrees were tried in turn. 87 most nearly satisfied the conditions. The average daily day-degrees above 52 were computed and the results recorded in column 7 of Table 7. Twice the average daily day-degrees above 87 degrees were computed and the results placed in column 8. By subtracting twice the average day-degrees above 87 degrees from the aver- age daily day-degrees above 52 degrees we got the average daily effective day-degrees in column 10. By multiplying the daily effective day-degrees by the periods, we obtained the total accumulated effective day-degrees recorded in column 14. It will be noted that with the exception of that portion of the hibernating generation which pupated late, between 60 and 67 degrees inclusive, the total effective day-degrees are quite uniform for all temperatures. The retardation of the late portion of the hiber- nating generation due to the daily disturbance to which they were sub- jected is shown by the increased accumulation which was necessary to bring them through the stage. We concluded, therefore, that the effective day-degrees for the pupa might be computed by subtracting from the sum of the average daily day-degrees above 52 degrees, twice the average daily day-degrees above 87 degrees. The average of the effective day- degrees as thus determined is 240.7. Graph 6 was prepared by plotting the reciprocals of the periods against the average daily effective day-degrees given in columns 4 and 10 respectively of Table 7. It will be noted that all the points with the exception of those which represent the late portion of the hibernating generation (10-16) lie nearly in a straight line, which shows that there is a quite constant relation between the average daily effective day-de- grees as above determined, and the rate of development. Observations on the pupal period were made at such a wide range of temperatures that the data exemplify very nicely the hyperbolic form of the curve of development formed by plotting the periods against the average daily effective day-degrees. Graph 7 has been prepared to show the different positions of the points occasioned by the use of different factors as coordinates and also the curve of development. 250 Graph 7 combines Graphs 5 and 6, and also shows the curve of development. The circles show the position of the points when the reciprocals of the periods (Table 7, column 4) are plotted against the average mean daily temperature (column 5) ; the dots show the position of the points when the reciprocals of the periods are plotted against the average day-degrees above 52° (column 7); the dots with crosses show the position of the same points when the average daily effective rres sSaand Sears gessaest Ht + a T rs rf + Blsnefases jeseees f t + nr a a a a a, ae a |e MT ay aL aa TT) Grapu 6. Pupal period. Reciprocals of the periods plotted against average daily effective day-degrees. day-degrees after corrections were made for retarding temperatures above 87° (column 10) are substituted for the average mean daily tem- peratures in the temperature axis; and the concentric circles show the position of the same points when the periods in days are plotted against the average daily effective day-degrees. The latter gives an hyperbola of which the equation is EP=241, in which E—average daily effective day-degrees and P=period in days. PUPAL PERIOD OF Carpocapsa pomo rella Pa ee Ssooiyza + + | Sal 62 OF 66 68 70 72 74 76 23 % AV. DAILY TEM? 50 © 52 o4 56 58 60 0 $2 AV. TEM?(500- 2/8 7+) o) 2 oe 6 8 10 12 14 16 1% 20 22 24 26 28 50 ‘ ba Grap HH 7. The time-temperature curve, reciprocal curve and different positions of points resulting from the use of yh different factors as coordinates, as indicated by the numerals under points. ; phir i ee by Bass | taaliera tA iery (she “ acest RA ligne | yt4-) -Segrh iss bie Get es *® by " P Tete toe eek Oks Ai eo ee Se as Se ee | reLahl but tiahperdy MAATOMN LLG MT omarise con) Hie coneetbrio elyley: Siva (tie periads in Hays sis plotted agai __ There was a considerable variation in the observed length of periods of individual pupe. Table 8 gives the distribution of pupz with respect i to the average accumulation of effective day-degrees of groups beginning the period on the same date. TABLE 8—Disrrisution or PurpAE WITH RESPECT TO THE AVERAGE ACCUMULATED EFFECTIVE DAY-DEGREES OF GROUPS BEGINNING THE PERIOD ON THE SAME DATE Number of pupe Day-degrees 1 166 if 185-194 4 195-204 3 205-214 110 215-224 602 225-234 2238 235-244 553 245-254 170 255-264 18 265-274 7 ; 275-284 qj 285-294 2 : 295-304 Recorded accumlations of less than 205 and more than 274 day- degrees are probably due to errors in observation. The lesser variations _ are probably due to individual differences, differences in humidity, and to the fact that the day was used as the unit in measuring time. The last factor mentioned may cause a variation of 27 from the average and is _ sufficient to account for nearly all of the variations. If we make a cor- rection in the variation due to the use of the day as the unit, we still i have left a variation of from 232 to 247 due to other causes, or a maxi- _ mum difference of 9 from the average, which is 241. 252 the zero of development is 265, and the variation due to causes other than the use of the day as the unit gives 256 as the minimum and 274 as © the maximum. CONCLUSIONS FROM THE FOREGOING DISCUSSION 1. There is a fairly constant relation between temperature and the rate of development of different stages of the codling-moth. ‘2. Only temperatures above the zero of development are effective. 3. The rate of development increases as the temperature rises above the zero of development until a temperature is reached at which the maximum rate of development takes place. 4. For the first few degrees, at least, above the degree of the maxi- mum rate of development the rate of development decreases approxi- mately as the temperature rises above this point. 5. The average daily effective day-degrees are found by subtract- ing from the average daily day-degrees above the zero of development twice the average daily day-degrees above the degree of maximum rate of development. 6. The product obtained by multiplying the average daily effective day-degrees by the period, expressed in days, or other convenient unit, is fairly constant for all temperatures. 7. Variations in the total accumulation of day-degrees recorded foul individuals from the average accumulation, may result from the follow- ing causes:—l. Use of too large a unit of time. 2. Differences in hu- midity. 3. Individual differences. 4. Errors in observation. 5. Slight differences of temperature between the individual under observation and the recording instrument, due to difference of locality. 6. Abnormal environment and treatment of the individual. 8. The zero of development for the egg stage is about 50 degrees F. and the degree of the maximum rate of development is about 88. The equation of the curve of development is PE = 163, in which P = period in days, and E = average daily effective day-degrees. 9. The zero of development for the larva is about 50 degrees and the degree of the maximum rate of development is about 85 degrees. The equation of the curve of development for larve reared in apples on the tree is PE =- 673; that for larve reared in picked applies is PE = 587. 10. The zero of development for the pupa is about 52 and the de- gree of maximum rate of development is about 87 degrees. The equation of the curve of development is PE=241. For practical purposes it will be more convenient to use 50 as the zero of development for the pupa when applying the data to the whole life cycle, and the error that will result from so doing will amount to only a fraction of a day in the length of the period. The equation when 50 degrees is used, is PE. —— 200) TA vi HAL ore Pi tu on es eee OUNEY. 1915. > te :. abe. Bie 5. % Mt Srapetete rs ae CE aE wh a ee oO Poe BS a s. 4 : LOG 7 ae |} Igs9 | Tes si ener G Rater Pega 8 fay OO) on q-} 3 a Tee B30 | 7pae | 1308 & Ch ge BS eR ae AOL oe OL le a t ) a8 i? rf Tee Sad ; B@Q | THO | THESE E te Eh Oe ea 1 ee ee 3 as Tee Rie 587 rage = «Ipi 4 ae Ser eee «| Serome | Pare aes { Dee a a 9a.) 3a logh Teg | 825 352 | 1599 . oat bw $: Hie Thy w Tt « a % $2 | Hi |-R8 | dee | gee | BS | Tyga) F730 3 = « Ebi wa). ow « a g Be | 7@ |. Bh ree 4 3e3 «00S = «ENB Sees: eee ie | a a tt | ig | 20 | Jee Bat Tee =| 1035 . ae See deere « FB} # @ G-+-as 1-90 |. 86 yee: ae aig.) F0i2 =» «Teas ‘we $/ 19S Th YH? 5F/) TTR TQ p 53,73 | fi | ee 488 > Rea. 2888 | [eRF Sa i « Wt & TS) ce BA EVAR of T1585 1~FS-f 88 i28 eoe | GeO | T39e | Ieee gE . { « $2 Pr tet ua SBF IG 33°; Th + Bt Tes eet | a8 § Fes = Tee i ees. 3 eas: rt ce 32} 16 i at Oe | Rk 185 Qos | B88 . TQS ; i925 | eee ee See»: te ER) ee STP HO 3); 10 20 185 er? | 388 | FOMs | Toee se el eh B) ow Bt oe. T8E 76 Pap he. RS = 44 123 225, 32 aaa aae Ts Ems cGera (1c oe eee ieee ee ee ee ee ae 2d Tea 2k2 pee ana aae hy ; TT} 9008 Sh 9 oe TE 0: ee Ee oe 183 445 | Bet 202 ade a we Bho ms See an dal ce Shee 1-98-14 Tee ate set. -ISLT | Fase : Ly Se, Wan are Sa SO SETA} ae ae be fia gor; 32@ | WBW | Is vr Be BY TOL gs SEE = Oo) BRS RS SOT 4 Ok ype t Nae) “see ee 1330 = b —hrenienes Ganighe Feg pl peaiet oe TD | eet fone abs see FE Ti53 ie _w- i eS een ye ae { ee ae ta a fITs3 eu hy} Bt Sk: a Aa} a SORE es eae ae ae oe ypa~" "die ok Oe |_.1708 = Ve Qi Bi ow TE ww STP 8p SS ey ae) OT BE 12a e253 5 3de > FORA |= HORT m3 XP UHthOl jesedl: andl 6 * BO) Mek Bh TO | OFae FRB GAT sae - 708@ j= ed ; 7) 5 i i met an a ae hai a F ¥ ; ine 4 Es GUE > . i t T = 9 a Se & | Ss q Le be ¥ * i : \= LR ee oS MOIR 2d 13 30} 4: SP poe" eee” oe Seo] Riga | Sepe)| esas | fee Toee w . ‘ Be = 8-4 ly 7 tan a rf a n [suey eee aes nt Ge ee Ae ae | 3 Bis iS t {| 49 ce 3 "Resnkores a TABLE 9—Lire-History DATA ON First GENERATION, OLNEY, 1915. LARVAE REARED IN APPLES ON TREE Life periods in days. Total effective day-degrees. F i= i ee | Larva a | Adult | 2) Se rs | eel Sex| fa fasten. | apple, [oummten.|emorera.| | | 38) 38)288| 2 | fe] 48) ote | u olsa a - ype a | 4°) 8%la "| & ene cay ees 2 une 29| June 30 July 13} 13 | 26| 1 27 | 13 | 53 | 174 | 559 | 955 | 988 | ggo arr bere bermrrl emcee beret il js laf | 580 | 264 1018 | 1017 2 1 ees ta eis 54 | 174 | 1018 | 1017 PRT Re DM OSG) | Oe 30 | 18 | 56 | 174 | 621 | 284 | 1079 | 1078 “atl “ 3] 29) “ 4) © de] 43)! 267) bl Bil) foul i56 ||) zal cso al em GoM melo OM mEIOZN “oul 3) 3ol © 5] & de} sy) 27 lm | sae tert tbe Nh size} eGk si lemon Rin mnie melas “ 21/ “ "8)July 1| “ 7/ “ 48] 18 | 28] 6 | 34 | 11 | BS | a7 | G83 | 984 | GiaD dies “ a1] “ 2) * 6] “ 10) “ 18/42 | 33] 5 | 38) 8 )9bR | doy |) o7no)|e sap eae CET |p A ES CG iG) 36 | 10 | 59 | 174 | 719 | 274 | 1167 | 1165 “27 “ 3) June 30 eG} Coie yt fe} 9 36 10 59 174 719 274 | 1167 1165 a1) “ 3iguly 6| “ 12| “ 221 73 6 | 39 | 10 | 62 | 474 | 787 | 271 | adage | aee9 Bowes aici 8 Ttrmeys 0) asia ee samt | } 4 | 31 18 | 56 | 459 | 636 | 299 | 1094 | 1098 “ 999) «© 3) July 7) << 12) “© 921) 12 5 | 39 | 9 | Go| 159 | 787 | 252 | 1198 | 1196 “ 93) « 4 : bE Ss Qe cree es BBRUUeNES Sete see nee TY ms 28 pepe A AE PS WiRSE~ | OO BF ei 3 5 ” "= aes * Ee yase w <5 joe TS) | rea . ee ee te “ | 4a -T a | a 4ai2-« ig Pa ~« 3e}nwA or), ee, rae | 2 2 " , ysa6 7 | 1978 3 eet i2> « ¥ Po « BF) ue 30) TOA SB we OTS i a? i : TG) a. » STi WBE se qowEese =. 2 $ ) o at } ) ad II i tr $I f oa » 30, ut $ é* aa a. 30 * 0 OO ah A TT) 30) = a P ADISD (ithe t220 wigteat | Dare We : = 2 ; 9 I ge Bm ge he E+ +p Soe. 304 TA] 39 ~ Pass 1 ‘ eg eee te FC | cre js = ; Ress Fitry (62°00) sae tf Rui eB = r WBS § gate ts t pugat a8 jemw pel j at 5 : : * Sart} tame rt e $s ; res ee ee? i JUly abl uly Fs inive3S noo Soom | July einen nae eta 8 ote = ; Inky —r A ea ~~ ate SBE TI AD gle Wy SMD TOES SG eh tes Leaves ns EA ieee ace aay wth We PS ee ‘ ox (ro Sir) ol ew. ~ 3 $4.3) 88: War 88 38 oT} €!) (a8: et Bs 12 So) 44 3Rh~3rt Say 30) 3: SS1> Fel a me } #4 i 30) 3 {338 Yes we 20} 2, 32 41-49: -pe- ttm 00 fe be bac 00 Sead ot ci OOo . mS 88 2. eh en es aH eeNOK= Fado c~ ta ee ree mee 5 8 HP & f- DW oo f , ALLSsssss ssse: bs bt lathes cas od 4 jo SF ss op = Est 1 Sige @eo mo rile cs ng fhe ies lr raroge 9G Sem te fad any — i- TABLE 10—Lire-History DATA oN First GENERATION, OLNEY, 1916. LARVAE REARED IN APPLES ON TREE | | Length of life periods. ‘Total effective day-degrees, : Larva | | | | es ee eS sa | E L La Adult Adult Seal oS ; ; 3} ~al A ~ Ba lee: & laid. hatched. annie Sapareds _ Sault, | died. az a3 B83 | =3 ea 2s oF 3 +t eins at be sagt oo | | §8| 52/222) FE $22) 22 | 222 |ue<| £5 |2S5| ge | sass 2 BA aoe ie | gS he ee Se ee = aa = = 2 [ \ | | | 8 iS) F. "May 19 | May 27 |\July 3 July 7 July 16 | July 26] &| 37) 4| 41 9| 68| 10! 68] 174) 795) 245 | 1214} 1211 M.; “ 20) “ 27) aC) 7 | | 50 | 160 | | 1014; 1007 M.| “ 20| “ 27) June26|June29| “ 10} “ 16] 7] 30) 3 ald i 6 57] 160} 591' 289! 1040] 1038 1 tee cee i ee ICL TCS ibs eee ry il Sill! 2 11) 51) 10! G1] 160) 591| 289; 1040] 1038 ie OPES Nan ghee ee TI, S| eet Sa) 9 51 6) 571 160, 644) 234) 1088) 1038 sen | alec) peek OITA fault Ot CCR eT Ma cat Cp a) Ba} ok 8] 51 160, 670, 207; 1037) 1038 i | BI DANY |e | CHET Mes Si eC apa COSA t Ge cari vp 9; 53 4 57] 160) 698) 232) 1090] 1087 Ta | een RS Meas ‘ DE i me bs 7 32 3 12 a4 160, 644 314; 1118 1112 Mima 27 | Iuly, Malle <2 3) eta fil BS] B 10) 54 160) 698) 257) 1115) 1112 om SO aah icrsas fae Comr eC R RBCS) lira Sts] 8) 10| 55 5) 60] 160} 723) 260; 1143] 1140 REEMO NS 27 oe gl ee Oe <6 20 cmos eS eo 10' 61 3 64] 160! 870) 281) 1311] 1308 M.| “ 21| “ 28|June27|June30| “ 10| 7| 30) 3 10) 50 : 165| 597| 263) 1025] 1019 a us 2 eeO Tame ce DOV aly, |) C612) cme 741 HW 10| 52 5 57| 146| 670) 261| 1077) 1078 Mimmematin <2 27" «8 ei cea 12) | 6| 32) 3 11} 52 146) 644) 289} 1079) 1078 Ha Mee Le 28 Bis IP ete Tl 52 6| 58| 16 Hevea 1 ty |) OR SCC SY RC} aC Glee Yl Pell Qi Se) in 49 | : 56 169 589 262 1010 1005 Mm | “ 23/ « 30] “ 99] « 1] « 12] “ 15] 7] 30] 2] 32] d1| 50] 31 53) i159] 589) 289] dos7| 1037 Mame sinew sty) 29) 9 8) Tai) 8)|) 129] 4 essay adeeb ey 173, 629) 285) 1087; 1084 REM emnesi| ce 80) 29) 6 8) 1a 28 a SOl Males RET 52h ieeeo)] icon | eb O)lied a) ms 4b) mAs gimme OS el eo meSOY | S580} | ai ad OY AG es 4) 35) 10) 52 2 54] 159) 668) 260; 1087) 1084 Ms} 23 “ 30]guly 4) “ 7] “ 17] “ 23 7] 35] 98) 738) fo) Spi 9G Gil bo) (740) Brae dirs aneo & PERC OO ai ogi) ag) 6 nig ob 9 55) 9) 64] 159| 764| 247} 1170) 1169 a eel eee 8 0) OTE 1G Ve ysl | 3 11} 56| 8) 64] 159| 740| 303] 1202] 1197 CR emo mecemSON 5) 8) 18) 823 ees) eel OG 5 159| 764) 276} 1199| 1197 4h as e SRRCON IME eT a on - 3 « ¥8 a we oe - e { 35 Br ey 99 i Lar ; 342 } = >) Teh Hie ds WT) Hi) Bi) m0) Be) B | go oi Bi iw | el THe) | 1125 | > a ee 8) » is} ie 10 | 3%] @ | zp | | 88t | 358 a ww = ee tel. tn Tk 3 Se ee e 3,1 Teo | ose | | IYIS. | JIB yr | tT team IT} o> TC] 33 ; 32) 2 | or) 1 | 99 120 | 503 | Taas | ry5t 2 ay eB ew Ne 2 3i wie; 30! HF) 20 ea¢ | sea | THs | 7 oe ' .. Xt ee } | 37 | 8 T20 | | 1333 | FiB¥ ; i; « 38} i ® | 52} 2 } Qe 3Bi | oe oe i Win We] Bel 8 | a | 8 | | 120 | 173 | 7T3e > }. oi-;..- aot a: $2 ° 30 : | Gat 339. 3 et os) ee ce se] « ES yo | 4 | 4e0 ; ase ; 1083 «Tope Bede Sat gaa S aj Ws gel o | 38 2 | 3a} ar | wo 4 qe0 | ees | 388 | 1083 1988 2 et joo, TH) 18)» SBP F @ 38) | HT Feo | | 32 | FO8s | eae be Tk owe TO! » | S812 | Se) | rt aes) | s Ae ee ee cee or oe a ee a} wt reo} ene | ; . 198e Bi» yh] « thy 19! ae) eS ¢} 32) } aS] ye | Bt | a4 e-~ WE jess. SB |svee TA] ge, 7a; « MP | 33] 3 ft ae iy re | ope \ Sage ee W]e oR Tow St} TO 33 | 3 ge) | | Te | eo aye a | PUTA ESOR GL ERE BBS Le ae s i331 € 5 38 | + @00 . BAO | ; ib ni + ae oe eee 3S | tr | 48 | 1B0 . | 1030 | TOFS 9 : a t FR e770 | BO | rae sR Mg Bla eR ew | ge | be | ae | ie = 4 | ee ee ae ee Teo 800 | 380 | 108) | 108s fF eee 8 S35] 20 | | 3 | as | as | ve 160 | eee | See Toon ore So g er Ree 3 we es : é = | % ef . | 32 W 2 7e0 H 383 ast | 392 i cre | i TABLE 11—Lire-uistory Data ON First GENERATION, OLNEY, 1917. LARVAE REARED IN APPLES ON TREE SSS Length of life periods. Total effective day-degrees, Larva * ln ie le E La Lary Adul 5 |8 ; A A a Sex. lait. hatched! left priate oaae ee Pr At eae oa +5 enett +i apple. » | S| ES|SEE] 2 | eES] wom | bse | gob Ba) a2 242) 2 Bee] Bes | s85 Bes F. May 24/June 4/June30| July 3/tuly 15] 11 | 26) 3 | 29 | 12 | 52} 153) 600 | 276 | 1029 | 1033 F.{ 924) “ 4|July 3] “© 7/ a7] 11 | 27] 6 | 33 | 10 | 54 | 153°] 6R4 | 957 | 3064 | 4070 | eae acetal ce ciel ty ok | ret | 11 | 55 | 153 | 684 | 249 | 1086 | 1093 Rh ate 4|June30} “ 7) “ 19] 11 | 26] 7 | 33 | 12 | 56] 153 | 684 | O74 | 4111 | i148 “ 94| 4{July 5] “ 9] “ 24] 11 | 31] 4 35 | 12 | 68 | 153 | 735 | 275 | i163 | 1174 F.| oo“ a4} # ato gl gf 81 aa | 81/4 | 35 | 18 | 69 | 458 | 785 | gos | aioy | ae0n 24; 4) By at pa aa (arte | 37 | 18) | “OL uf ete emer ener Rea a eg M. 31; “ 9/June30| “ 4; “ 16] 9 | 21| 4 | 25 | 12 | 46 | 164 | 510 | 978 | 962 | “op7 M. 31 9] “ 30/ “ 5] “ 16] 9 | 21] 5 | 26 | 40 | 46 | aoa) '5a1 || 9257 | O52 | doz KF] “ 31) “ 9 1 5] = a6 <9) leap) 4 || eenliertel| Aon eared 531 | 257 | 952 | 957 M. 31 eo) 1 is 5 ei tr 9 | 22 4 26 | 12 47 164 531 | 276 | 971 | 976 M. 31 ee 1 ston <5 18 9 22 4 26 | 13 48 164 531 298 993 998 M. 23 et) 1 7 18 9 22 6 | 28 | 11 48 164 579 249 | 992 998 M. eek se 9) Me 2 een rt Haile 951/23 5 28 10 47 164 579 227 970 = «976 F. & +81 ALON ee eaD 8 LG) 9 26 3 29 11 49 164 605 247 1016 1024 M. 31) Sear) Billy So" ESI e ee B22) 9 | 26 4 30 13 62 164 629 | 303 1096 1106 M. 3 9 6 10 22] 9 | 27| 4 | 31 | a2 | 52 164 | 652 279 | 1095 | 1106 hi ES ERS STSI oR aK OPE eh rl ii cst |) Fer |) Ga 164 652 | 308 | 1124 | 1135 F. et G) ed 6 RL 24 9 27 5 32 | 13 54 164 672 315 1161 | 1163 F. Gieryl 9 2 7 oe eu 24 9 28 4 | 32 13 54 164 315 1151 1163 F. Lats 9 Af if ‘12 pier 4 | 9 28 5 By 12 54 164 290 1151 | 1163 F. “3 9 a 6 “12 Se26: 9 27 6 33 14 56 164 344 1205 | 1217 F. zien | 9 a ahh 26 9 32 56 164 1205 | 1217 June 1 KY SA 9 21 9 25 4 29 12 50 167 | 611 275 | 1056 | 1064 F. cy 3 11 re 6 8 ee!) 8 25 2 27 | 12 47 159 567 273 | 1001 1005 M. e338 a atl a MG : 8 20 8 24 3 Pap || ak 48 159 567 299 1025 | 1035 3 11 9 naa 8 26 3 28 12 48 159 591 275 1027 3 F. 3 11 10 «23 8 | 22 7 | 29 13 | 50 159 | 614 308 1081 ane F. > te 4 at 10) 128) 8 26 3 29 13 | 50 159 | 614 308 1081 1 M. ee! ie 12 | “ 7 «18: 8 21 4 | 25 | 11 44 167 | 517 249 | 933 939 & s lyons = 8 re 2 8 2 i 26 | 18 7 re 544 273 984 991 M| “ 4) « 42] 12} « 94] 8 | 26] 4 | 30 | 12 | 50 167 |, ese 290 18 alae ih | ae) 12| “ 24] 8 | 26] 4 | 30 | 12 | 50 167 | 635 | 290 | 1092 | 1105 F. i 4 12) oo Oh: “265 8 | 27 5 | 32 11 51 167 | 679 271 1117 1131 F. 4 2 12| Cras} 5 26 8 | 2 3 167 | 655 | 323 | 1145 1158 a 3 ‘ : 33 | ; a3 ‘ 28 | 23 2 167 | 655 | 380 | 1202 | 1215 || ase oR 29| 6 167 | 739 | 296 | 1202 | 1215 M. 4 4 ne be ‘ 29 8 | 30 i 167 | 1232 1243 M. i 4 12 = ey, 20 . 30 8 | 33 A 167 812 | 279 | 1258 1271 F. | - 7 16 5 9 « 20 9 19 4 | 150 | 622 | 248 920 | 928 F. 7 16 5 - 8 nes ey) ae) 3 150 | 498 | 299 | 947 | 958 may ea, 16 Tish 0} inte aS la |e 150 | 545 | 279 | 974 | 985 i 6; are 8) eee Lt +4 9 | 22 3 | 150 | 565 | 259 974 985 M. 7 17 a 7 SaeeeLO, “ 221 10 | 20 3 | 160 | 5385 | 279 974 | 985 M. a 7 i 8 it) oe 22] 10 21 2 160 535 | 279 974 | 985 M. “e 7 SSG) « 7 See ahl “23 9) 21 4 150 565 | 288 1003 1014 ay 4 5 re 3 ‘ fe + 2 2 | 23 3 | 150 | 290 1030 1042 : s pe only} 9 23 3 P 7 ae) 9] « a3] « aa 8 | a8] 4 150 | 270 | 1030 | 1082 F. ts 7 ak) i 9 ry 3 pars: 9 23 4 150 | 270 1030 1042 F. | 7 17} 8 13 “ 241 10 21 5 160 270 1030 | 1042 M. a 7 omemelas ve) ks} re 10 22 4 160 270 1030 1042 F. sf Ie: LT ate 0; os ole) 24] 10 23 3 160 270 1030 1042 F. - 7 17 24] 10 160 | 1030 | 1042 F. < 7 aa by ( - 20 mre 2 10 23 4 160 245 1029 | 1042 F. See: it (}) peOrer hi) “ 16) “ 25] 10 24 5 160 230 1055 | 1068 M. en nds 16 het) eae Seer) 9 23 5 150 299 1083 | 1096 F. YY 7 cael6 10 15 2 9 24 5 150 276 1083 | 1096 F. eect 16 11 16 2 9 25 5 150 258 1083 1096 5 Oh Si Aas 16 11 17 26 9 25 6 | 150 | 239 1083 1096 M. pea tests 16 so Ma “16 er 9 26 5 | 150 | 287 1112 | 1124 a ier SaeLO Buen 6 CO akg Sy 52 9 2! 4 150 | 268 | 1112 1124 M. 7 17 11 17 “271 10 24 6 160 | 268 1112 1124 M. u 17 12 17 Le at} ai) 26 5 160 | 268 | 1112 1124 M. 7 11 13 18 eas 9 27 5 150 274 | 1140 | 1152 s 7 EE oi’ fa ct ai) ee 43 9 2 5 150 248 1139 | 1152 F. Aes een al Os Pt) 9 2 4 150 | 343 «1168 1180 ml « 7| « a7] « 10] « gel « 99] 10 | 28] 6 160 | 343 | 1168 | 1180 M. 7 foi AG) beeen he: i) “129 9 28 5 | 33 | 10 52 150 | 276 1167-1180 M. 7 tk ue 18 eat) “29 9. 28 5 | 38 | 10 62 150 | 276 1167 | 1180 F. t 7 cull oy 14 oak) erty at) 27 5 32 | 10 52 160 276 1167 1180 F. OM co G6: ee Al 29 9 | | 52 150 | 250 1167 1180 rN ee Gate as Path CP Oo \ BN Pe 52 | 150 | 223 | 1164 | 1180 Me 7 8 ty) 0 oo) aol Om meaalTO 3 | 160 | 279 | 1195 | 1208 Ba) 8 a7)]) eS) 6) eG esol ee) eo eS na 53 ] 150 | 252 | 1193 | 1208 15 Fy te cl eA eres 8 P/N all) | RNY 55 | 160 | 284 | 1251 1266 i oad Meee ecie eat Ch Ci See yl ey | 5 Ng | 55 | 150 | 228 | 1251 | 1261 MCE rT) et ite Sen Noa” Mel ese mea Om mea | ed 56 | 160 | 230 | 1279 | 1294 F. oe 7 SA Git reruns “26 re 2 9 | 36 3 56 150 | 230 1280 | 1294 M. 44 tf Ge aly) Me Eg AEE 1a) ee 4} 10 34 4 | 58 160 278 1327 | 1343 M. H 8 at) fe AL “16, July 27] 11 23 4 | 49 175 | 626 287 | 1088 1101 F, a a8 EAD) Le S20 Pet} | alt 27 4 51 175 | «718 250 1143 | 1156 F. es on ae lions “or! “ 30] 11 2) 7 52 175 742 | 262 | 1169 1184 M. es © AS Eells) SH cect) | abil 26 6 52 175 | 742 252 | 1169 | 1184 F. nges WAN “ 26] 11 46 180 1021 1035 10) id <7 18 BG fie 22 5) 27 9 47 180 | 625 | 246 1050 1063 M. 10 29 49 180 | 1104 1119 M. 11 ne ot “ 26 9 20 4 | 24 12 45 137 | 566 | 299 1002 | 1015 Jom 11 9B) O18), ie 28 9 22 4 | 26 12 47 137 | 607 315 1059 | 1071 M. ot ph} Coe FP} 9 23 6 | 29 9 47 137 673 248 1058 | 1071 M. I Lr AE LU) PEK each I) “ 28 9 23 6 29 9 47 137 673 | 248 1058 1071 F. ae (| “ 20 ee || ee |} « (29 9 24 5 29 | 10 48 137 | 678 276 | 1086 | 1098 F. sees [i (He gy 8 15 20 “ 29) 10 24 6 | 29 | 9 48 160 676 250 1086 | 1098 KF. AeA), 0" 20) 16 21 ert) 9 26 5 31 8 48 187 | 728 | 228 1088 1098 M. rai bh “ 20) 15) 21 ae t}1) 9 26 6 31 9 49 1387 | 723 | 262 1112 | 1126 M. eee | 420 Le : “ 98) 6 gO) 9 25 | 7 82) 8 49 137 749 224 | 1110 | 1126 M. ee ti] “ 20 see!) “ 23 N81 9 29 4 88 | 8 60 137 T17 | 226 a4 | ss ; | ot 20g A. Stil) oir |28) 50 | 187 | | : Jeet “ 21 19 | “ 98 Aug. 1] 10 28 4 82 | 61 160 | 7h4 | 264 1168 | 1186 r, My At “ 21 1 A 2] 10 26 4 80 | 62 160 | 700 340 ait | sane F. Mae | se a. 21 3 9 31 53 187 | F. On “20! 22 “ 26 Sa: 9 82 | 4 86 9 o4 187 868 261 | 1246 | 1262 F. ‘omit ret A “ 28 Gt 0 82 6 88 9 56 160 889 | 246 1295 | 1812 | = | “ a —— a a SUMMARY OF TABLE 11 : — tue. Larva in fruit, |Larva in cocoon.| Larva, | Pupa, Pee, larva, and pupa. . 7 —s a a bee Ieee ea Ge” 1, ig Total effective | day-degrees. Mex Perlod riod Perlod Period Porlod No. in No, In No, In No. In No. In | daya, days. days. dnys. days. “4 an | 4 a1} 296 | 41 10.9 | a4 | 49.8 ih 44 46 | 46] 20.5 47 | 10.9 61 | 60.6 104 P 8 8 | 30.6 | 9 | 11.0 9 616 | | o6 | 96 | 40.1 | 97 | 10.0 | 104 508 | 1100 | tit OF ae abet TNE “ ¥ Tah, hewn nw OS S232 we jon Sorecot= FO 4 AessSss= orcred ct abe CS ete TABLE 12—Lire-uistory Dara on First GENERATION, OLNEY, 1915. LARVAP RBARED IN PICKED APPLES i | | Length of life periods. Total effective day-degrees. EB Larva | “arya | | Adult eels ; Leese Gs rae Sex? lata, hatched: ae pupated) emerged, asl ue 33 se ga ety lesa wate ad 3 BS apple. = a Es 3 5E 26] whe wie | LHSZ| ayow wes weet a | §@| 9 )se5) Fa gas Bern | Jara | Fa rn go> |\Barn M. June 5/June13 July 3 |July 18] 8 | 25 | 10 | 43 157 501 265 | 923 919 M. a PON oe aS 18 8 | | 25 | 10 | 43 157 | 501 | 265 923 919 FE. a) “— 13} July 3 i : aks 8 | 20} 5 | 25 | 10 | 43 157 | 501 | 265 | 923 919 M. ab 13 ae} eeelO pers) 8 20| 7 27 | 10 | 45 1657 | 541 279 977 973 S| es 13 oF aut “ar 8 28 | 10 | 46 157 | 563 276 996 991 Mia) = 6 Peas} Beat} “22 8 | | 29 10 | 48 157 | 586 271 | 1014 | 1010 PF. | 5 ee OU oe ae} ae “221 8 | 25 4 29 | 10 47 157 586 271 1014 | 1010 F. 5 <9 fips 8 Bo 3 3 “23 8 25) 5 30 10 | 48 157 | 613 264 | 10384 | 1030 M. | 5 ~ as A Heer “24 8 28 3 | 31 | 10 | 49 157 | 642 256 | 1055 | 1052 M. ae em pe 3 aamikO, a es eee 8 | 27) 4 | 81 | 12] 61 157 | 642 | 304 | 1103 1100 Retr aSy) SS ATS amt Bile {5 SOR 8 | 85 10 | 53 157 | 759 235 | 1151 | 1153 eit OS il OEE sts “10 Te mLG |e gat Gas 8 | 25] 3 28 | 10 | 46 151 | 5672 264 987 984 F. 3 “22 eG} =tG: “291 9 21 3 24 13 46 195 | 505 325 1025 | 1026 NES) 1S 20 “291 18 | 27 | 11 | 46 173 586 264 1023 1026 F. Saeko § (20) 29 7 | 28 | 11 | 46 148 610 264 1022 | 1026 LN Hen G} gee pes | 29 8 | 24 3 | 27 | 11 | 46 173 | 586 264 | 1023 | 1026 F. eae Miaiienae 3 | “30 8 28 | 11 47 173 | 613 266 | 1052 | 1055 M. ae Lt ee iy ae 8 | | 22 10 40 173 | 447 256 876 874 F. et rere | ed |] 25 11 | 48 151 627 269 947 949 F. mei “22 | “28 8 | | 25 11 | 44 173 | (547 265 985 975 by Nears | “22 iy aay, “30 8 | 24 2 26 12 | 46 173 | 576 | 293 1042 | 1033 ze] 14 “ 23 “ 30 9 | 2 12 | 46 191 | 558 293 | 1042 | 1033 FE. 14 non SL lime lt) “ 30 8 | 24 3 27 | li 46 173 | 591 266 | 1030 | 1033 F. | 15; “ 23 ae E3 pee tj Paid 3 8 | 20 3 23 10 | 41 172 | 488 | 249 902 903 M. | “15 23 pole: |) mmc 29 8 Dal) 9.9] 135 | 11 | 44 172 | 558 | 264 984 985 F. ~ 48 24 ey eo 513 26 9 19| 3 | 22 | 10 40 170 | 470 242 882 884 | “ie “23 a8) “ 28 a | } 25 | 10 42 153 558 235 946 937 M. | 16 a as I) 7) } 26 | 11 43 153 558 264 975 966 M. AG" eck 24i) Ponies ass HY Aug. 6 8 | 28] 4 | 32 | 11 | 53 170 | 710 272 1152 | 1154 F. | 16 ae ee 5) as aay 30 7 23 3 | 26 | 11 44 163 «B73 266 992 996 | 16)" “ gi In Aline LOT) V7, | 37 11 | 55 153 | 837 259 | 1249 1248 | | , i SUMMARY OF TABLE 12 Larva in fruit. |Larva in cocoon. Larva. Pupa. Egg, larva, and pupa. | | | Total effective Period Period Period Period Period Bec eTERe: No, In | No. in ° In No. {in is aoe eee ie 50 days days days. ys. etapa: (8 Ls 7 | 24.9 7 3.7 14 | 27.2 | 14 10.6 14 | 465.9 1002 | 999 9 | 22.4 9 3.6 | 17 |} 27.1 17 10.8 17 | 45.7 | 1013 1012 16 | 23.5 16 3.6 31 | 27.1 31 | 10.7 31 45.8 | 1008 © 1006 oped ported | \ eee : sae | poten | | ported powod | powoa “poyzad we oanoeg9 (OD ba | waaery | “aooo0o wy BAIU||"]]NAJ Uy wAIwT, eis on TOL a ~ -gdnd paw ‘aru ‘SI bhi = —= ————— eee ae YZ S1avi 40 xXuvwreas | | | | ie “a ———_ x | A ee sin, (Ok eh = | So OE 06 y jst |8 |9 » ae on 8% » ” 5 So |e aa Oe EEE ea mn Aras q a » [98 » a 696 196 Peale et }o9 ct |8h |IE | 6a re eo Ween a ny eke esp ‘ GIZE | 9TZT | STE | FL | 92 1g | Re non NA IG We NOG 7 a Ae 92 l LOS EIS LS Ce Eee Oe Ne ihe Gis \8 |8 » z i By a yn | a ga |e fame jeu at ||, (8 i 1 |e a [ecm oer lee ee ed TeIT g | : ¢ TE | 92 Bisa Ss a sort /@trr | 608 10 ee tey eerie: alge: alah eee eels Bay | OE so ealieeege jog [St » |W gor |roor | | \eet j2y [tt ec (2 lor [p49 in lee Glee lee Be Nee ane 201 a 0 Tr |01 % “ae. feate| Pn UI Wyn | ” uw Se Nene pee eee sevoley {Klee | reeelion) 1s) eel eats aaelee Nee oo. ey ela ae ene aoe ere (see (era (oor [cy | | ee i ose 8 (gt orlt anvieg nto, ot LE (a wy 8F 1% «| HF : Ame 1Z Te ye ” aA T90F |T90T | 662 619 88T | 8b or je |* jer |tT}oe Ar ime lat ;, jet» |e a |St » | Se ee ieee (lb treo. lee nie ene Nex a alge lor Gale eee oe GcOT | PSOT (TL2 | 6LS | $0e eae \t TS Of |08 {8 |2o |TLITT » KOT us) RCL. 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(8 u or Y a OTOL (OTOL | 922 y ay {TE |e |S (0 j|TTiae » Hee Ae ig ral lip, Moe lane OLOT ZtOT | 808 Gh YD SAB | Ra IBE, | BEIBE oi 2 we 9) 8 ec a BBG | 3s6 Be go jz jay Or re |e Ke ue ie Semen ay 4 i |e i 3 a 4 c Pp . ~ 2 ¢ Ame!2Zt . » gc6 | 8c6 | Fz Seeds a a ea fe) eat ea I eat aE |T eum) a seg 886 =| LZ | STS hes c ey One ire ie isn Er ST » Le seas NGF obser (OTe vas | ES ena een 018 =| 698 492 | BFF | 69 a9 2 (8) Tr |e oF fee lorie: » [et » |2 Ze OL, a ES ae ene L2Or 620T_ = 80E | FLE | BST |G 1 for jae je lee lor LT 5 z Amrlor , |is » | Ww I eal Cag Pa i a ee BE. oy JE» 19 pe ROO Ha W TS pS SS SEI a | al OUP ER oy) Ot se (Se aa Vico |e sean GL6 | #46 =| 962 | 928 | UST TO Gh) NSS) OL MNCS) Saree OL (OSes, ice ; }or » |08 » | @ FEE GE RR one reat caemlse: dues eae lanemalice ete ee aalceienee te 6 Viera lnm Nhe Re ere ae Er a ee lhe na eo eae TS ea 2 Terra Oe Se THOT |OFOT 928 | 669 | s9T ee 6 yer Nor yee Ne Nee. Te i, eR Is 1S lot los, WW tor | etor | Fez | ¥LE | oT , lay jor jo jy lez [melee «, jars, |p 3 ut Hane |e age lose |eee leva (aor lec jac. (ar lor |oe ip (ee |utlze 3 [ar a 1 (in UR Ce aaa allies i ease ast la |9° |oy lor ise |e. te eo ie g Ame }Or » [08 | a 9c6 Gg @ 2 { Z i (ee Ilya Y n | » {08 » i Ge om et fe nly oa ys Geomege om: 3 9¢ S6 oo F ; 2G eI | » i Pe PEO Gd Sea NiPc Nee els Ts IES #1 PaeR Pare mia Calis 97 Sh |0L |¥e | ral $ ,» jogeunr lor 3 10 i 126 136 096 0¢ ) ep (3 | 8% & |0¢ (TL}6T » ” lg Pye ene hese a LLOT 0 7 5 c | G orj9S ” Ww LLOL | LLOL 9x /2e9 | F9T [oo 8 Be Ei ER TS BG EARS aoa Hee 8 & |W LLOT LOT 9L@ | LE9 | pT | ze Lea ti a =i we Se ES Cd jet» |b on |B on a LLOT | 6LOT | 80 | ZT9 | F9T | Re oo jot los |+ joe jorjee , jax, [2 4 [8 ss = 6FOT | 0S0T | F2z |ZI9 |¥9T Jos 9 PS pn lh ea lo a 2 266 6 66 |The |n89 | yor |ze |¥ SF Roan reales oat g TL Aine) 2 4 266 6-966 g9z |F9g |¥oT Jos |8 BF Pe Ps HIRES thee & 6 < 286/986 [use jars [rox ta |g joy {0 ee ee Gee all i a aee deed ioe ae eee oe SLOT 6LOT | 68% | S29 |a9T |sa | 9 cee ee | Paha Coen W Sor a20r gor lueaiimecel ss o| > wliog kta ee 1 aes dal Se wl 61OT |892 | 269 | Be lege eae |PB on a 866 T00L £92 | eLg | a9T ee jor |ze |g ¥ fo ae ee : $96 96 89g [sha jaot Jos 8 ey jor | Te ’ ue h CES ya eee ale aetya hss Shy W 896 916 £92 |8h9 | Got zo + ' 4 iy) Se) SS ea (eae eee eee ] Te E| oak |watleck |eoflleee| & lent] 2 leed| eblek lg | ease | BER 538 leon loan |BRS a Ben 3 BEE sq|s2 |" ‘pap *posaeuro | spoyudnd | “oLddw ee) ihe Axes ir) FP | ar wed ae (BFE) & PELE BE) Pe | afioy Sinby? | Tetnwn | Ber | aason | Sh ie! fel eae ikl | i \ | \ u | ‘ " *seaafap-Aup oapyoogo 1uj0q, AUP Uy Bpoptod ayy ee Bae rT in nape i lf : PEELE EET & e258: ane » % uiccey 1) aR SERERETS ete S55 g ae #3 $ z _ Pr S Zessgeseei ERRRRRERRRAR o oo] Beet < 4 AFR EE ARE | Ye We | 3 Meu 7 aa t 2eWREPRERRMERRROMR REY ba J Lendird SO PD PE ee i) Van pe pos eo by Se be line. ex be ro bev Ia og oo SEsrRseesese Ta V | at ot Fe % Mop Da MS ed SOO me ee fo ial te T Set ie OS fe £9 00 OF 9 UA ake & oh ‘~ S by a cu bee eee =» ee PTO oh ctype oem he es. dO Om Oe re ae mbes eb ae a opi WB ys pe ih Be a ee es 2s a t BOaRHRE te) ink KE $ Reise 3 ~ ae sapas nae RSResee 2H ESS SRS bh gesse PESEERESSESHE: S & i Set ey ae i pW SS ce on ee age Se EMT ED ar an bo | igen pense ats a sn Sanat eal, 2 eA 7 oy + ee. Sexo EOE PB DS RODS ee pre ies . a oO ha on 3 3 35 ee ee seat teen wes peated g8553 23 99 ro lees > eas. Bip ae em ea) Pe Yi eas we | ots a ao Te} & 32] @ Fe) ek 80) 2) Ble) BSE tS < = foe 4 ati a et *8s} on BB) fe} ome fete srt ag cess ieS::) 4p i age ape nae ae re 20 we (gu aoe & 35 Bam atts ye 22 Se | &28 | "ate — se tg ay eee dictate niet eee Poh he a Te 0°38 + 340 ona {x0 ” 3} eee" +*a 4 a rs ie eee ily ap 7 | asiue 58 eee 2 pe . . 32 ee _ RO eRe - aT SR BS a ace eae a ie foes sen de K i eR elrenk aa are aah nee ie wee os Fae at aes Se ea ce a | Ki | z ta Lowy a af ites - — | i i wd J se 3s . es Re e : *s . ~~ —pwerseg: oa Ss ao oainiee-| _— .- YAMper of GER peg quiz’ T $0.9-G7Ae GLPEr GMELREDTS —__— | - | 2 $s Leaeth o! life of (cole FmDQQEvURRE DOFTHG, EIB@L LEU DYAR VLLEE BRERORYCE OL EFM VTE Nameher of G2. E 9 BPEorspatboe tien van: peenemeee on ee: Ob EIRPRL Sagreo: oruez’ iere" #3 Sother of days from emerszesce ttl! ene-lay bg cdared. ti Sep tavies pericd in Gave... .. ‘ aie : _~e : : 4 ‘ty Se Namber of eeev intl. ty one femsle.._...._..... << : mi itt aa Avertge ween dally owpersture pth : ae ash nm: Az Average daily rainfall In inches. - TABLE 13—OyiposiTIoN AND LIFE PeRiop OF ADULTS OF First GENERATION, OLNEY, 1915, AND WEATHER DURING FIRST TEN Days AFTER EMERGENCE OF FEMALE Hmerged. Died. Days lived. Number of eggs laid daily 1 to 9 days after emergence. a af Eo s* iss a2 | 55 Male. Female. Male. Female. | Male.| Fem. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ¢( 8 9 | Total ee Gr} i ol] EP Gees| | eae |e seals July 1) June 28 qT | 9 aad 68.8 | .291 a ae as 13 12 case 68.9 | .40 os a ae eae] { 10 238 70.2 | .346 t a | 5 | 9 gioco 72.3 | 846 LO Sone end 6 8 was 75.4 | 314 Se 9y| a 49) Shits Base 17.6 | .285 ok) | 11 5 Rage 78.2 | 181 SALT 11 Ac sialebs 78.2 | 181 3s} rat S}l 4 5 sam 77.0 | 106 15] “ 16} 5 5 poeo 75.2 | 106 Vr coat iy 4 6 fete 73.9 | .043 ees: OP Ah aoodbe |e Et aaas 5 Saets 73.5 | 062 18 18 8 10 sicfel 73.5 | 063 20 “| 520i) 6 6 cians 73.8 | 059 S +20) “20 0 16 Scat 73.8 | .059 22 “ 22 4 4 ace 75.9 | 116 23 23 1 11 anos 76.7 | 120 pons a 48 7 6 Sieisis 75.8 | 130 ee) 2B, BS 6 6 esas 74.2 | 110 pe) “129 6 4 sforete 73.8 | 110 Aug. 5 | Aug. 5 4 8 SaaS 70.9 | .164 aD, gas uf 9 eiaiets 70.9 | 164 6, SAT yee ai 1 10 [verevets 72.4 | 321 fl WTS) etn 7 3 fosas 72.4 | 321 eee) ee) 4 | 5 acd 71,0 | 362 “A pe Ut 2 12 atatele 69.6 | .599 eit i 6 7 42 A ipo 69.6 | .599 sé“ vl3}|, “eas 9 9 a5 |) aan 69.4 | .599 A MYA) ate 218 | 15 niatate 69.4 | 599 Say | AS 64.5 | .016 21 q 7 | | | Totals.. | .... 20 | | | { r SUMMARY OF TABLE 13 Se Items. 4 Max. Min. Ay. Length of life of male moth in days...............0000005 cacti tee dake Cee eee 4] 8] 72 Length of life Of femal sine bHa/ ORIN. ests aceane es 5 16 2 7.6 Number of days from emergence till egg-laying began. . : 9 1 | 23 Number of days from emergence till egg-laying ceased. . Ac 10 3 | 4 Egg-laying period in QAYB os nea eeeeeesecatenneses es : ax 4 | Ts) es Number of eggs laid by one female. : sts 167 | 1 39 Average mean daily temperature... Wa 73 Average daily rainfall in inches...... emma SYR Tee tbe d etnies + rele bb od mappa tieeie dermis aes y eee wee ete meee eer eens enna ah a A Age Reale io 4 a ye ‘ean MJ PHOS $0 FAVS Of pier eRe" * ee aa Satin Sone abcess ‘envaregce fo peraqare OF meer 6ER: we IRN ta Mik ipa! se aga baa he pir ils oh eV eeinaye {o qv.e- ee ee ee Ochre fey Bid Plarhints Se veep 4 mye WANT TT GvAW Bp Wr) ecw Ss, hasPips wi lbh ih otioges “a-Apowddy alow avant fe af MVEVBL Ob LYErE J¥ X#0usTH-aaY NO ViL¥ ie TOT 8 33 Mee ce ae 2 zi) se 38 + : enki. 8 ¥ : ey E To; i ) TI \t ory a7 Wa 8 z #2 } ‘ : ; Roteeh ie 31 8 2 sa 2 ‘ : cae Pe, We. Were" oe a ; i 7 03 J ; a * B Di mel Ae) WOE a) 8 tt . ne at sn SC) ks 88) 4 |. 03 Peed 19 5 os ) Mela 190) on 3). 2 t : 38 | m2 RN Se t | ba ta > 2 ? 53 el > Q sey q ee BE on 88 2 1 i ee FI a Hi MAG st EL ve RES Ba fae Ba ha aie Bj 0 oof a, 8 ee sq ii BS i BY 30; @ R) Bay russ ' : < ve Oe 54 e id “= ee a 2 OF Mee a es 5 ale ri 5) : t nos t t +) #89 “the Ae TT ; } fea 32) 3e ¢ 8 38 PS i323 Hy « feet vo 38) 8) Be ; 3} 3 U Zi on 3@ ee ios Duta ; "3 ; hs e - : he ee ee et 4 sob : 33 ef " : ( , a0 « 3B ; 4 ‘ a3 ¢ i ye 5 \. iy FET a eed 28 (St ato Baia ' ra : H . & oe ety : 3 ww ; Sh sis ORY ie’ 38) Ok I 3 . ! ae To! fe) Boies 2 2 # |' . : _ = “i ees « > x o3 «2a B | v5 7 ; ‘Wer 4 ‘ iam > ye Ts) 2 oh} ee iT —— Se es OS co oS ak oe ee ore “*“SABD Ul I[Npe s[emMe] Jo ajt] Jo yWsuayT ssc £ TeTiee esresscreseerstsres ole sipie1s olsie’sjole'winlulelsie/ereljovejeieinitinivieieis/sisjesayejeie(™isieic */ne/e\eje SSBp U] WNpe efem jo esq] Jo WISUeT 2 = 2 Av Bits re “sure}] = | | #L Alavi ao AYVWHKOS j - = =— mle Ts | sth | tse | cat | 28 | SLL | Tee | sar | ESE: | cereke {28a \ 18) 6 | 6 TSS: | LST ess) a 1's lcs 198: | Let | 28 | TLL | v5G Soles ese | Zr | €8 | 9° ae ae |) ise ESE LST Bae ie aA seit 1 We tse | Let | 28 | TLL | oS Das GG Te jase (pee | eee sal oe eae oro” | Tue | ez | Tes elie | a He tee |heki oto’ | z'9z| 2 | T's | OF 2 pee Bu By iene 010’ | #92 | S£ | LTS | ss aie ais las) la O10 | ¥9%| &L | LI8| 2g BATES uu v || oto” | 2°9¢ | 82 | LIS | & > fee Do oes o 692 | 3L T8\| 10 sal (es Baw | 8 9 oO | 698] aL "T8 | 8F sate. ge L L 0 | 692) ZL | S18] 8 Bi Fea Sb 6) 6 o | 692) ZL | SI8| er pe orp 6 | 9 o | 69% | ZL 18 | 8 ei see 9 9 sto | ¥9z| ez | S18 | 8 BOs FS eae ze 4 \9 sto | v9z| eh | S08) 8 ee ie 3 sto wae | FL | S6L | ZT yee 68 | 8 u sto | 79%] FL | S61) ¥8 ae ap Slane sto’ | 292 | SL | Tel) oF P| PS ek ot ae 6 | 9 sto | Live | SL | ToL | 9 0019 9 | 9 | 9 Sto’ | 68s | SL | 882 | 96 Seals a pe ie sto | 68% | SL | 882 | 6 salen: Oa a sto" | 682 | SL | 8’8L| £2 Beye? Be le sto | 682 | LL | SLL | & ee a ae S10’ | sez | 9b | 882 | 68 poe Pe 7 sto’ | stz| 22 | esr | 8 Benies ee u a10° | S12 | LL | 68h | @ dell | 3 | | sro’ | et] sb | 68e} sor |* °°) 7: feeee ties = ||eeeabes i RN att alae 80 | ZLE| 82 | 682 | T 62 liste | 0z Tan (OS (Tee aaa Puleult cele aaa ele AGO | an) s s bah ee ie * "1 Aine|¢ sine) - Aine STiou\ePOra er Lal) aly) ct | | g |e Ane |6 me I yf z a2 Ze gh “1R10L 6 ‘mog |equry| ‘oemed | ‘O1V | PROET | “lV Ba woe | Bo | ap 5 5, Wea =e = s a - TAS Oy: *poSzaura 8470 i -souadzeme JO 8p WoIy SAP G 0} T AIBD DIVI 5940 Jo 1oqQUINN pores “PoP S00 P TOR NAL LSHLt ONTHOd WAHLVEAA INV aOIm GAT ANV NOLISOdIAQ—FT A IAVL AIVKGA 10 GONSDMENY YaLAV SXVC ‘9161 ‘AGN IO ‘NOLLVUANGS Tsay 10 SITNdy 40 TABLE 15—Lire-H1story DATA ON PorTION OF SECOND GENERATION WHOSE LARVAE TRANSFORMED, OLNEY, 1915. LARVAE REARED IN APPLES ON TREE Length of life periods. Total effective day-degrees. RSS ee ee eee Ege Larva 1th Larva | Adult A ad Ee af ay ae ES gel: Bex: laid. hatched. aah. pupated emerged. a s as 8 35 iB sa te ate Pypetss sa | at b | BE) GS/s) 5 | we] wes | ESS | BSS | Be gees #189) §oiaes| aca lao | Sse) ae ee — = July 2)|July 11| July 31) Aug. 5 9 20 5 25 161 628 F. Areal “ 14/ Aug. 3 «8 | Aug. 19 7 20 5 | 25 11 43 162 616 231 1009 1009 M. hae AT i 4 cee | «kU «24 uf 24 oe me 14 48 162 664 273 1099 1099 F. Snel aS) Se 338. ee | eer 6 27 4 3 14 51 132 750 257 1139 1140 M. noe -HL eae liege ideale! uf | 45 162 1041 1041 F. ii | ove a] co ALO se Pa ai 22 Be ik 2. 13 47 162 664 250 1076 1076 M. ee Of aS) Gi aera | SANG «24 7 21 6 | 27 14 48 162 664 273 1099 1099 F. cae | eral! ee bes: Se | 7 26 Ee fangs 1 14 51 162 721 257 1140 1140 M. an | “4 big If “ 17/|Sept. 4 7 31 3 34 18 59 162 815 277 1254 1253 F, eek fe sae 37.) «3 | Aug. 16 6 19 al 20 13 39 144 520 270 934 934 M. eas} «14 “22 6 | 45 144 1089 1039 F. fee ee a Te e 19 SG cement 6 26 7 33 11 50 144 791 188 1123 1122 F. ike) aie Kc! eI} “ 17|Sept. 2 6 30 4 | 34 16 56 144 815 238 | 1197 1197 KF. apr! Kt) oT, “14 “ 17|Sept. 3 He 28 3 | 31 17 55 196 127 255 | 1178 1175 SUMMARY OF TABLE 15 Degg. Larva in fruit. | Larva in cocoon. Larva. Pupa Degg, larva, and pupa. Total effective Sex. Period Period Period Period Period Period eae a No. in No. in No. in No. in No. in No. in days days. days days. days. days. Sum for | (50+)— | stages. | 2(86+) M. 5 6.8 3 25.3 3 4.0 3.| 29.3 | 3 15.3 5 49 | 1106 1106 F. 8 6.5 8 24.8 8 4.1 8 | 29.0 | 8 13.6 8 49 1100 1099 Und. 1 9.0 1 | 20.0 1 5.0 1 | 25.0 0 0 M&F. 14 6.8 12 24.5 12 4.2 12 | 28.7 11 14.1 13 49 1102 1102 one ee or aes [A * Ipeneg| 7109 Me | pauiog | age Bey BEL | Beto grin qeticar | eA cp ak Ps ae BA ee . LOpsy Syecgya PULAT 1 LATE | wLar yw coceon™ | peLsas Babu RE Jsx29 ong babs SHANVEX O% LVBYE TP ‘ ! . Sy Se SIs Be PEI TRS Pe ; ela me) oC Ki) oe ae). Tieebe of a Yaad -e jor | | a2 f Tag} Ass | see | Tre . Tre eg S 8} « W] @ W) « Tsjeebr 3] @ | BO) t | BF) We | Pe | We Bre | $98 | Tad } 1788 nen See toa Sie Te] m8] we TR oy BATS OSES jas | UE TBO ee fo sar awry ee | 1IS3 ” awe re a cia Tt) 35 ‘4 ‘ , { ww? Tt { i } Te3a be 5 y ae Bl, TE nF] ce SUVA Ob @ | 8) T | se TS 88-4 Tee BSD | Sa r mt Al adel. oa- et “a | eer $1.37} % | 3% | TB | Be yes | #72 | Bid | Ise | THOs i as aaa Sr cA ee SR MB ec ee eg Med R : Mi lw TH we Fw OT a EP LT ese Te | ee Tee Bee Bae ; TOR T0a8” St on ey wi 1G) a RI Ors SBP 8 | ISP! | Sk awe ek TP resp eet | Bee} TOaey Tose | Weiw Sf a Te tS TEES A ieee ae ee ge _ Iot | Tou : Bob Bw TB) Bh TO we BAL Rol BR) 4 BT He | BF | Jas | keh) SB 1¥30 > TT# S Jo ae esa Se Bt} A | SR, 8 3A.) ra) ¥e@ | Jes |) eet Be ae Fh Fee me a ey Te ,vee 2). Ri yma $j 30) eae torr | as | aes) ere |© Se } aooR | 008 : jaa 5 |WIN TF WMA BT VaR 9) ss Dell ete Oe Le ter | ese || . . : | ae] de lSex =| a be ie | ee ke ee yarepe | ODI | babegen | omerkeg: “i | $8355) ane =e sts | > bel? ; wer SH Peng | -J0F | peeks | yanyr Perea ry 1 Cbd: Sey le | v1 S jest ‘ | pera | { ; ' | ae a oes << z ai~ } : { { I t 3 [mere {= 4 ge ST oe Be — Joa. k . ’ - | | . . tS Boa) aes Se 78 RRVWSD.TA YEETES on Zee eh wet ALES ¥VBrEe oh > On. BI € ieener hire im AHO. Peeve a PSR sto) e105 See) i ee _ oy ‘ u 35e . <4 2 Beh ow SS ae hae ee is | By aoe 3 ee ; Ste Se & a ny + | oe OT my, FR i # Be ro we sa ‘ a 3 ty Ty i EE a mre.) Sosa b } A u ere | : 1 | i oe By : CORE oo . oS Pag ~ t o> ~ 6 ak aa Mabe OS a 5th 2 : & ry nn . ee A : a 4 Tis, - 2 j ~ An a "th A Se, 22 i i? 2) re . - 7 id ; LG ae . Te} geben J ate iy oi * ‘ ae. ; a 3 . we a * ee «| on .. 2 ae, s a ‘a “ a , — 10 +. : , ae A « 184 38 ‘ 2 * i’ | ; 1 - a . , ‘ u | “ a. 4. an : Ss 7 2 ” Ta A | af 1 Lag TR] VOR 33 ys} 2 . kL - a ie «| ie $ ; @:. 33} 2 371.2 e ¢ i a> a = 1 09 FF | eo TABLE 17—Ovieosirion AND Lars Pestop or Aputts or SEconD’ GE AND WEATHER DURING FIRST TEN DAYS AFTER EMERGENCE NERATION, OLNEY, 1915, or MorH t~1O f+ aie 1s He” seo JORL 10st aae TOPS ara) T3308 TIe3 nee P| Tid JIT Toe] yOnT 100 JOD roe THOR a85 T3Ra {jee TIS thes iy2e 183 tO TABLE 16—Lire-nrstory DATA ON PoRTION OF SECOND GENERATION WHOSE LARVAE TRANSFORMED, OLNEY, 1916 LARVAF REARED IN APPLES ON TREE | Length of life periods. ‘Total effective day-degrees, Larva = 5 Larva i} S| cel 225 Init. hatehed, oe pupated. aed Aguit alla 3 = 25 3 w| ES) ESSER] & Upstate |staral M. Aug. 6| 19] 8 | 22 9 M. | f 6| 19| 4 | 23 9 M. 6 M. y 6| 20 | 4 | 24 | 10 F. us 6| 23 | 4 | 27 | a1 ry I7A\\ eae, ( $B ieee ML F. id 7| 25] 4 | 29 | 11 F. Aug. 5| 22) 4 | 26] 11 | F. | a FS PENIS | PS |) all F. a 5| 23] 5 | 28 | 10 F. | a PASI) nas Gy Tal Wea) EO) 8 F. nag PX RGD TSI Tai) a eS Si) tr «= 49) « 99 00 na edie fe) M. Canstyhlly Lee GX) 4] 6| 24] 4 | 28 | 12 F. | gS TRA col 5| 6] 2 3) || (25) 3 F. | Sept. 1 10] 6) | F. | Aug, 20 . 27) 5} | | M. oF eh) 5 ciel 3] 5) 20] 5 | 265 9 eid 2] 6| 20| 4 | 24 9 cas 5| 6\ 20] 4 | 24 9 sata 2A] Bi | 125.) alo Basi 7| 5| 21] 4 | 25 | 40 | cae 27] 6) 20] 4 | 24 | 10 | 40 3 | 43 | 173| 620) 255 eb, | 6] 6| 21] 4] 25 | 9 | 40 | 13 | 53 | 173] 641) 235 12)|| <8 16] 26] “ 5] 65] 28] 4 | 27 | 10 | 42 | 10 | 52 | 146] 693] 251 12 4] 6| 22] 4 | 26 | 10 | 42 | 9 | 51 | 173) 668| 251 3 5] 6| 28] 4 | 27 | 10 | 43 9 | 52 | 173] 692) 241 13 | 21] 5| 24] 4 | 28 | 11 | 44 | 24 | 68 | 146] 718) 255 13 5] 7| 22] 4 | 26 | 11 | 44 8 | 52 | 198| 679| 255 13 | 3] 5| 24] 5 | 29 | 12 | 46 | 4 | 50 | 146) 746) 254 13 B| 24| 5 | 29 | 12 | 46 146| 746| 254 2 10] 5] 23] 6 | 29 | 12 | 46 | 11 | 57 | 146) 746] 254 14) 9] 6) 24] 4 | 28 | 12 | 46 | 10 | 56 | 178] 720] 254 12 10] 5| 25 48 9 | 57 | 146] 13 | 5| 24] 6 | 30 | 14 | 49 146} 774) 283 13 14] 6] 23) 3 | 26 | 17 | 49 | 12 | G1 | 173) 668) 369 17| bi R28i | (6 (4a) 2am 146| 874| 253 9| 10] 5) 19) 3 | 22; | 11 | 38 | 18 | 56) 142) 58a) 278 10 27]| 5) 20, 4 | 24 | to | 39 3 | 42 | 142] 621) 254 12 30} 5] 22| 4 | 26 | 9 | 40 5 | 45 | 142| 669| 230 | 5| 6| 21 | 10 | 37 | 12 | 49 | 161) 549) 255 i 10 5] 6| 17] 4 | 21 | 11 | 38 | 11 | 49 | ter) 549) 277 | 10 | | 5] 5] 18] 5 | 23 | 10 | 38 | 11 | 49 | 135] 593) 257 J 11] | 6] 18 | 4 | 22 | 1 | 39 161) 569| 278 | 12] 13] 6] 19 | 4 | 28 | 10 | 39 | 18 | 57 | 161) 596) 251 F. | a “4a7| “ 28) “ 10) 6| 19) 5 | 24 | 41 | 41 | 18 | 54 |) W61)| 621) 255 F. 15 18) 29 6] 22) 8 | 25 | aa | 42) | 161) 649| 239 M. 3 1g} “ 30] “ 3) 6] 20| 5 | 25 | 12 | 48 | 4 | 47 | We61| 649) 254 F 16), 5 19) Sh) 16) 22) A) 26 | a ee bien SeiiT eas M. 15] “ 19]| Sept. 2} 5 231) 4) |) 27 la) ae 135| 701] 283 M. 14 20 ecm 6] 21] 6 | 27 | 18 | 46 161) 705| 253 F. | LT) BO PB te) ONT Teh) ae Bh 1) sir ee ary 7) a ete mich ne 077; 0) ce 6| 24) 3 | 27 | 15) | 48) | 161| 705] 297 AGH co El) i} 6)1)(33) 1) 15) 88) |) dSebe 161) 917} 291 11] “ 14] Aug. 23 6: 17] (3) | e200 ior eRe 158| 525] 236 TMP aah alys| eran y pms ral rall eT IE Zk heey | Thy) Se 9 | 48 | 158] 597) 241 ry) eco 0: ae 1 Yammy) VCs Pee a eer Cant Wy Gh See CE |) TIS) Geis)! BEE 13)‘ 18)“ B81] . “ 30)]) 16!) 19!) Bo) (24) ||) a asen to asin etbe Gan me 14] “ 18) “ 31) “ 5] 6/ 20) 4 | 24 | 13 | 43 | 5 | 48 | 168) 625) 274 TUG ETI) A Say ei aN 3 | 25 | 12} 43 9 | 52 | 158] 653) 243 16) <= A9\WSeptae| = PMG apie) | Pane eons me 3 | 47 | 158| 653) 262 18) aay a) fe oN e240) ia) | ca7) || rae ea ziali bi 620 ecto Si ymemO Teas matey) eS: ERIS GHP RS I BY Mt SU NR 6 | 54 | 158] 733] 273 ale) PA aN 6] 28) 6 | 28 | 14 | 48 168| 733) 273 Pia! Pee) OES Ua 6| 25 | 4 | 29 | 15 | 50 | | 158| 753| 309 Ce Asif Sao PPA Bs 6| 26| 4 | 30 | 14 | 50 158| 772| 290 CESAR Bommel Whe COS he SA (3 6} 2 5 | 32 | 13 | 52 | 158| 815) 268 BB} te) oa RR ari ec eet 6} 27] 6 | 38 | 15 | 54 | | 158| S831) 310 26) Wa Mort Gl eco 9) eee ee Gar h 8) 2a) eas 3 159| 628) 262 13 emer) RCMP CON ey Gri a PRM] ues || TY || 28 9 | 53 | 159] 656] 253 CEPA KOM TIP TT OU 7) 22) 3 | 2b | 15 | 47 | 187| 660) 298 GEOR CAS ET tS HN) CHI ater Sis] He afl] ASAP EEE) 14 | 48 9 | 57 | 187] 705] 282 87) 6 9) te weg) HS Tei, SORA zal eo lez SSD Na mele meas 8 | 56 | 187| 767] 219 “ 96) “ 20) “27 9 "© “20 6) 25.1. 7 I) 32°) 18) by a) Vea eS) esr 269 OSPR SOT) CS SEN RM ARO tre 1g 5 | 35 | 13 | 55 | 8 | 68 | 187} 845| 291 1 ee yf lee alg WM I NES 6)) 195) 13) 722) | ay so! 161| 577) 239 JL date DL fun tll Ble Sore 8 lenis 0) 6} 19y| "3 | 22" | 12.) 40 161| 577| 254 Fe) oat |) pet) 8 6) 91) 'Seepty a) 9 RAN A Ban es is a ne 4 | 46 | 190| 579| 262 1 a2 Ef rawsl 6 44 161 We PBT) ESB) Margy) Ae fat) ates Nora) REST 1 weet | ars te a | 7 | 52 | 161! 685) 244 ph) ne ie yl eae) RS RT dle ae P| ey 6] 21] 5 | 26 | 14 | 46 161) 685) 273 1 MR civ 22 i me) Re SRLS BD 8} 24] 4 | 28 | 13 | 49 220) 714| 268 F.| “ 21] “© 297] © 293/Sept. 1| “ 18] “ 24] 6] 27] 9 | 36 | 22 | 54 | 11 | 65 | 161) 864) 272 F,| “ 22] “ 98] “ 34] Aug. 17| Aug. 26 Gy] clecah| ss tn| best uO | Sb 164) 523) 225 | i. ee OOTY Paya spite Camincit-yDMN UTI FU aA sy | CY SIPC Sab abet sala) 5 | 45 | 164) 579 248 Mi. | 690) es 8 | eee) ee 20) Septn 8] 6| 19] 4] 28 | 24 | 438) | 164) 608) 275 F.| “ 92/ « 98| « a9] “ a2] “ 6] “ 20] 6] 22] 8 | 25 | 14 | 45 | 15 | 60 | 164) 659) 278 cA MAMM CH SOE Set) A CT Te 1) 6] 28) 6 | 29 | 14 | 49 164) 741) 286 F.| “ 22/ “ 99] « 91] « 26] “ 9] “ a9] 7) 28) 5 | 28 | 14 | 49 | 10 | 59 | 195) Za) 286 F.| “ 99] « 98] « 90] “ a7] “ a1] “ 211 6] 28] 7 | 30 | 16 | 51 | 10 | 62 | 164) 758) SLO Fj} “ 22} “ 98! “ g7/Sept. 3) “ 17| “ 26] 6| 80] 7 | 87 | 24 | 67 | 8 | Gb | 164) S81) 268 ie. ull OY (We ML | eee eA ce PE See SUMMARY or TABLE 16 — LL Yes. Larva in fruit, |Larva in cocoon Larva, Pupa, er Bagerlarraend pupa. sem i caer, Bex, Perlod Period Period |. | Period | | | Period |. / Peptod yas e in pn , Dn iO, n . se = si ay re feos. wld days. days. days. days. ie Wi ts. stayres. - = = a ——— a — — = SS | Geel eae. 1 1098 M. 26 5.8 | 38 |. 21.6 | 82 4.2 | 88 | 26.0 | 88] 11.8 | 36 | 48.0 084 PF, | 64 | 6.0 | 61 | 22.9 | 61 4.8 27,2 | 61 | 12.0 | 64 | 44.9 1119 1133 Und, | 2 6.5 2 | 20.5 2 3.0 2 | 23.65 2] 10.6 2 | 40.6 1071 1088 M&F, | 92 6.0 | 86 | 22.8 | 86 4.2 | 86 | 26.4 | 86] 11.9 | 92 | 44.1 1106 1118 i} TABLE 17—Oviposirion anp Large Pregiop or ADULTS oF SECOND’ GENERATION, OLNEY, 1915, AND WEATHER DURING FIRST TEN DAYS AFTER EMERGENCE OF MoTH Bmerged. Died. Days lived. Number of eggs laid daily 1 to 8 days after emergence. ‘si a =| >: s* | 33 Male. | Female Male. Female. | Male Fe- 1 2 3 4 5 6 “f 8 Total ae 35 i. - . i. . male. . pa ar} qe qe Aug. 17| Aug. 16 | Aug. 23 | Aug. 25 6 9 Bie rt Decale Serpecien Renee 78 Be lische 86 | 66.7 5375 Fal « 20) “ 30] Sept. 3 9 1 ee one ; 10 62 65 : 6 |.....| 148 | 64.6 347 ees) “« 23) “ 30) Aug. 30 7 HG 56 Allee) St aioe , s oh brates efs 65 | 63.5 .0105 “ 27) “ 27) Sept. 2|Sept. 3 6 7 4 5 @ouruhvete 3 Sree | rt ees cial Lakeyareta 9 | 65.6 -008 irae a ees ae) C 12 se lae ite | eioters ee ice ee mid stesthiers es! | OBLG .008 sly Hd RO, ss SO ED iar sueteye ||. AUG), Near eyocate ravemal ne 50 31 35 |. 5 23 139 | 65.6 008 SOD.) Ohio - Sept.12 has oe TOON ome - Sl teeavsl eoest, | Petneters si E Eee |imarata sere : an Sept. 2;Sept. 2; “ 8 mA. 8 6 CO ero eal sc OOCe lien Thies THB a livmente ls =f) aeepave 74.1 .088 pli eae | 7 aes Uy HS ope UWA eee bch |nransiret| cecesers 32 26 al deere 58 | 78.0 -0067 art “9 | Sept. 14 oo oA 5 Buch enter tare Oiler ete alba cei 3 hae i 30 | 76.8 -0867 ere 82} aS et ae Ah eer i ! .0727 Total 60 36 | 19 112 128 139 14 23 531 * Killed Sept. 5, by larva of lacewing fly, } Escaped. SUMMARY OF TABLE 17 Items. Max Min. Ay. Length of life of male moth in days................... 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PS PEST OCT ODN OTM Abello ome |S 1S hee Oy | gk jos" Fol cast oS Ps Strate iA mat Ud G6 | TIE | 18 | 289 | 26 | °°" 6 |9 3des|¢ ados iF =, (Fe » st |z'er | 62 |o'89 | z 6 Tey | TS a 2S | Be sre eT | 08 99h | BL | F |9¢ “3nVy|oz ‘BnV | 9T “Snv 91 “BTV | | 22 | 25 25 5a | Se EY Te}0L) ot “a |W | eleMed ‘a[UT | ‘apBMeg ore <8 Be | E 32° BS <= B= = sd -aouadsamia Jo ayBp Wor SABP ZT 0} T Alyup prey s93e Jo roqUON ponen “pad *pasomg dO JONGOWANY LAV SAVQ NGL ISHld ONINOd aAHIVaM INV ‘916 ‘XANIQ ‘NOILYHaNaH aNOOIS 40 svioaqy 40 dora AAP] GNV NOIISOATAQ—8T WTAVL ele 2 See ee * RRranne . ae & Aare = 2 tom 2OF SI 69 84 oy FO OO © 99 DOA OO + & oS oO ow a | | | Ta: AO ee) 4 a2 | 28A ZL . 7A; i 3 ae | oe ee tee | gi « 78! ¢i ww. 78) 8 Te] Bg 3 ee £e e | a. Te! : 19 8) a 18] VDE qe) 3! a 38) 4 30) 14; at 8) ow 4) Bi « iF | Ws) & 3]; a Tei whe 5¢/ 8 : “ T3 | it 2 ; 34 WA yy Sih re eu, ae ee pe St at ie Ss we 3 Ey) Stee Shi he FR] pet Ta 3) » 3) 3) « 78) vt Te! SI} « Ta) WeA Jo SEi ou =F OE a SEE ae ER St iw Oe 3O| « 7 a Of 80| » 38] 30 | gebr’ 18 a aA 3a) Wak 5a | Be! Ts 3B Tw? wera 32 Tt 34! 30) qn06 A OF Ad ba] DOR OGM PESO TORR PEPE SwOaN 12 Co i HS FS CD LD LO He Ee he Oe FO ay ges Cl ome oo o> a TABLE 19—Lire-nistory Data ON HIBERNATING GENERATION, OLNEY, 1915-16 ; Length of life periods. 3% 2 wes |) BRE | weestea.| « beree | Cheeni ieee TE ff s8 joi, | Soi | SpPle | PUBie "| “tore. | i916, a 28 a z i6 ss 3 3 aes b ex is 3B ot |? | 32 [288] 2 | ge | = | Seb ieeeé eae ee Vie sa SG = F. |June 3 May 15 9 | 36 | 276 | 312 | 26 | ga7 165 mM. {July 2 “ 1 | May 9 | 29 | 248 | 277 | 98 | g14 9 | s29] 115 Re eka “ 41 24, 9 | 81 | 246 | 277 | 28 | 314 | 18 | 927 | 145 meg “ 48 9 | 22 | 255 | 277 | 29 | 3156 115 wy “3 “ 418 9 | 27 | 262 | 279 | 28 | 316 129 = “ 9 “ 14 9 | 25 | 255 | 280°| 28 | 317 140 Mu. « 3 “ 14 9 | 29 | 251 | 280 | 28 | 317 140 ae «9 “414 9 | 30 | 251 | 281 | 27 | 317 147 a 15 9 | 381 | 250 | 281 | 28 | 318 147 ae «9 “15 9 | 22 | 259 | 281 | 28 | 318 147 oe ula “15 9 | 81 | 252 | 283 | 26 | 318 165 = « 9 “ 18] “ 25 9 | 27 | 256 | 283 | 29 | g21 7 | 328 | 165 ai “9 20 9 | 31 | 257 | 288 | 26 | 328 196 F. 2 1) ans 9 | 29 | 263 | 292 | 23 | 324 6 | 330 | 205 « 8 ers 10 | 30 | 260 | 290 | 23 | 328 205 “4 9 21 | 260 | 281 165 9 | 302 356 “4 May 17 7 | 34 | 247 | 281 | 27 | 315 183 = “ils 45 7 | 32 | 247 | 279 | 26 | 312 165 F. WG S19) aaa 6 | 26 316 7 | 323 F. “ 8 “ 20/June 1] 6 | 31 | 258 | 289 | 22 | 317 | 12 | 329 | 205 a Hei “ 15| May 2 6 | 278 | 27 | 311 | 10 | 322 | 1651 F. “ 9 26 | June 7 | 38 | 268 | 296 | 19 | s22 | 41 | gg2] 297 F. “4 26| “ 2 6 | 26 | 269 | 295 | 19 | 320 7 | 327 | 297 M. “ 18 “44 6 | 30 | 243 | 273 | 27 | 306 147 F. “138 “ 44|May 2 7 | 31 | 242 | 273 | 26 | 306 6 | 312 | 151 M. “« 43 CEU) EC) 6 | 46 | 227 | 273 | 27 | 306 | 41 | 317] 147 a “«“ 43 “ 15 6 | 35 | 240 | 275 | 26 | 307 165 i “« 43 «21 6 | 33 | 251 | 284 | 23 | 313 205 Fr. “44 “ 21] “ 281 6 | 36 | 242 | 278 | 28 | 312 7 | 319 | 192 M. 7 ade 7 | 84 | 284 | 268 | 26 | 301 147 M. ley uh y a) 7 | 41 | 224 | 265 | 30 | 302 125 M. ily “ 44] 7 | 23 | 302 M. NT oh an 7 | 36 | 233 | 269 | 26 | 302 151 M. Be hy “ 165 8 | 19 | 250 | 269 | 26 | 303 165 M. cot S15 7 | 36 | 233 | 269 | 27 | 303 151 F. “417 “15| “ 26 7 | 36 | 284 | 270 | 26 | 303 | 11 | 314 | 165 F. fray Bl siaei Th) 1) TH) 32! 8 —— x a e ot a tog “ — em Bere eth « $318 | Oh ee ga be better}... 33|30\ 115 | So Sekt ata Mae ok Raat ida | fe - ro |, « OBL; i seirri se «Jj» nr eh * Hi et ip i Di, MOCO w SP)THITS pede Byer i galt ghee ie 1) a oR ie a st) 4¥/ 77 + eh T) Yoicts ee ay Nf vie ae var mar an Oy » Bi 2) 8 TSP SSN Sry Tei Tt Kee . " } a tO) “ o/i7 3 l kee ose 1 ese ese po tw oa PO MUee Ge SOLON TS 2 | SR OR Nr pg rel WR ahs gies “ “i 2 OB S| 8) 8/10 83) 8) Pe HT] ‘eel 72 ane . } ote ft AQ; By S38 2 ST ne ig Kn oe ~ 0; 706 3 ! 4) 8) g } a8 ® tat a a Si. 4 S04 ye! y2iye 13)" 5 b 3 10) *2 73 | i) ¥ ay” ae od ES OF (pal Gece Vda eee Road! 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Be ported “so9adap-4up poyied poysed port9 poyted polled Poyled x08 qTwOX = eee 8A{099 [B}0T, SL TEIOL apy ‘udnd pue ‘ware, ‘Sag, “vdnd “BAIUT “m00009 Uy BAIUT *}yNay Uy VAIL’ PF ice ha — aga], NO SHIday NI aaVIa TVAaVTT ‘ViVG AXOLSIH-GaIT JO AUVNWOS—f7Z A TIAVL “fa TS SS ce oem Sco DvEr ETRE Quanerat0 (VvBATE BEVBED SO sEENOY LEED ee ea nt gma fe) ae ar) i , aes 4 - i $84 3 3h3 $$ | 4.4 He 1.26 os) [= ; é 2e2 = pate Seat iz 57 eet #1 267; 58 i 4.41 G6) 26.4 6h } tees 5 = St cia j 3007-) 108 3 he out =<} ~_ ee Te oe ens ee 3 a8 iad | tis | 8.8 | 213 40s 5 fe | 4.2 fh terep es 8h aa pe Fas iis Sksle and femate: 118; 2.1 i> 32,2 | Gepare E' : r 4 aoe c as eS me i ao 5 ae ree ee — ren a ae - ea of = eee a nied = — oe 2 4 \ aa ay ( * 1 +a P4 J = oe n vtab} a Br abtites | 9~ Bevel ie ‘al, an has ag TABLE 25—SumMary or Lire-History Data. FIRST GENERATION LARVAE REARED IN PICKED APPLES 7 | 1 | Egg, larva, and pupa. | Ege. Larva in fruit | Larva in cocoon Larva. Pupa. Total effective Adult. Total life period | | day-degrees. Year. Ser, | Perlod {- | Perlod Perlod Perlod Perlod Perlod | No. in Sum | -~+ Perlod Period No in No in | No. in No. in | No in days. for +o No. In No. in | days days. | days. days days stages oz days. days. = =I Sa Male 14/ 8.0 7 | 24.9 tf 3.7 14 | 27.2 14 | 10.6 14 | 45.9 | 1002 | 999 1915 |Female 17 | 7.8 9 | 22.4 9 3.6 17 | 27.1 17 | 10.8 17 | 45.7 | 1013 | 1012 Male and female ol | 79 16 | 23.5 6 3.6 | 31 27.1 31 | 10.7 31 | 45.8 | 1008 | 1006 Male 37 9.7 $2 | 21.2 32 4.6 33 | 26.0 33 | 10.1 | 37 | 46.0 | 1018 | 1018 30 5.3 30 | 51.6 1916 |Female 50 9.4 50 | 20.4 49 4.6 49 | 24.8 49 | 10.0 50 | 44.4 | 1005 | 1006 44 6.4 44 | 50.5 Male and female 87 9.5 82 | 20.7 81 4.6 82 | 25.3) 82]|10.1| 87 | 45.1 | 1011 | 1011 74 5.9 74 | 50.9 Male 51 9.2 39 | 21.9 39 4.4 47 | 26.4 47 | 10.2 | 51 | 45.9 | 1014 | 1013 30 5.3 30 | 51.6 aa18 Female | 67 9.0 69 | 20.7 58 4.4) 66 | 25.4 | 66 | 10.2 67 | 44.7 | 1007 | 1008 44 6.4 44) 60.5 1916 |Male and female) 118 9.1 | 98 | 21.2 97 4.4 113 | 25.8 113 | 10.2 118 | 45.2 | 1010 | 1010 74 6.9 74 | 50.9 253 disregarding the slight differences in the units due to the use of 88, 85, and 87 as the degree of the maximum rate of development of the egg, larva, and pupa, respectively, we have for the equation of development ‘of the three stages PE = 1101. Since the larval period is about equal to the egg and pupal periods combined, the use of 86 degrees as the degree of maximum rate of de- velopment for all three stages will give about the same results and will give units of the same value for all three stages. OBSERVATIONS ON THE Lire History oF THE CODLING-MOTH in 1915, 1916, anv 1917 Continuous observations were made on the life history of individuals j throughout the seasons of 1915, 1916, and 1917. The methods employed | : 11.. Taking 50 as the zero of development for all three stages and : : in making these observations are described on page 228 of this article. The following tables give the principal facts as to length of the periods, oviposition, and number of effective day-degrees which accumu- lated during the entire period of development. In computing the effective day-degrees for the stages, 50 degrees F. was taken as the zero of develop- ment and 88, 85, and 87 as the degree of maximum rate of development of the egg, larva, and pupa, respectively. By reason of the slightly dif- ferent degrees of the maximum rate of development used for the dif- ferent stages, the effective day-degrees of the different stages are units of not quite the same size and strictly speaking can not be added, but they differ so slightly that their sums, which are recorded in next to the last column in the tables, will serve as a basis for comparison. In order that we might have a common unit in terms of which to express the accumulated effective day-degrees of the whole period from the deposition of the eggs to the emergence of the adult, it was necessary to use as the degree of the maximum rate of development a single point instead of 85, 87, and 88, and 86 was selected as the nearest integral r degree to the weighted average of the three. Using 50 as the zero of : development and 86 as the degree of maximum rate of development, the effective day-degrees which accumulated during the combined egg, larval, and pupal periods were computed and recorded in the last column 3 in the tables. All of the tables bearing on the life history of the insect - (Tables 9—25) follow. Erratum: P. 253, last line, for “follow” read “precede this page.” 254 INCUBATION PERIOD Eggs of the first generation hatch during May and June. The ~ period varied from 13 days during the cooler period early in May to 6 days during the warmer parts of June, the average being 9 days for the 243 eggs used in the life history series. In a larger series of observa- tions consisting of 2664 eggs the period varied from 15 days to 6 days and the average was 9.3 days. Eggs of the second generation hatched during July, August, and the early part of September and the incubation period varied from 5 to 9 days, depending upon the temperature, the average for 106 eggs from which transforming larve hatched being 6 days. The eggs of the trans- forming larve hatch prior to the middle of August, during the warmest part of the season. Their incubation period is shorter than the period of those from which the hibernating larve hatch later in the season. The average period for 1748 second-generation eggs was 6.6 days. Eggs of the third generation hatched during the latter half of August and during September. The period varied from 6 to 15 days, the average for 302 eggs observed being 8.2 days. Eggs of the hibernating generation, which consists of a very small per cent. of the first generation, a larger per cent. of the second, and all of the third generation, hatched during July, August, and September. The incubation period varied from 5 to 15 days, the average for the 242 eggs used in the life-history series being 6.7 days. There was practically no difference between the incubation period of male and of female eggs; the average period of 340 of the former belonging to all generations was 7.9 days and of 395 of the latter 7.8 days. Early in May and late in September the incubation period is com- paratively long, varying from 12 to 15 days. It decreases in length till midsummer, when it is only 5 days, and then increases in length till the end of the season. The relation of temperature to the length of the in- cubation period is shown in Table 1, page 235. LARVAL PERIOD Transforming larvae.—The larval period of the first generation of larve reared in apples on the tree varied from a maximum of 42 days in the fruit and 9 days in the cocoon to a minimum of 18 days in the fruit and 1 day in the cocoon, the average period in the fruit being for males 27.6 days, for females 28.3 days, and for both males and females 27.9 days, and in the cocoon 4.2 days for both males and females. The larval period of larve reared in picked apples averaged 21.2 days in the fruit and 4.4 days in the cocoon. The average total larval period of 227 first-generation larve reared in apples on the tree was 32.5 days and of 113 larve reared in picked fruit 25.8 days, the differ- ence being 6.7 days. It was shown in Tables 3 and 4 that the accumula- 255 tion of effective day-degrees was 86 greater during the period of larve reared in apples on the tree than during the period of larve reared in picked fruit. Since the average daily accumlation of day-degrees shown in these tables is approximately 22.75, the difference in day-dgrees repre- sents a difference of about 4 days in the period. That is, larve of the first generation may be expected to mature, on an average, about 4 days earlier in picked fruit than in fruit on the tree. The difference of 6.7 days shown above is, therefore, partly due to differences in temperature as well as to difference in the condition of the fruit in which the larvee fed. The period of transforming larve of the second generation varied from a maximum of 33 days in the fruit and 7 days in the cocoon to a minimum of 17 days in the fruit and 1 day in the cocoon, the average period in the fruit being 22.6 days and in the cocoon 4.2 days. The average total period for 36 males was 26.3 and for 59 females 27.4, the average for both being 26.8 days. The larval period of the female was about one day longer than that of the male. Hibernating larvae—In treating the larve of the hibernating genera- tion no distinction has been made between larve of the different genera- tions of the season which compose it. The period of the larve varied from a maximum of 46 days in the fruit and 269 days in the cocoon ta a minimum of 16 days in the fruit and 209 days in the cocoon, the average period in the fruit being 29.0 days and in the cocoon 236. The average total period of hibernating larvee was 264 for the males, 269 for the females and 265 for both males and females. The length of the larval period is affected by temperature and the character of food. It also varies in length in different individuals, even when they are under the same conditions as to temperature and food. The individual variations are well illustrated by the following examples. The periods of 16 larve which hatched on May 31, 1917, varied from 25 to’ 33 days and the periods of 16 others which hatched June 11, 1917, varied from 24 to 38 days, though the environment of the individuals of each lot was as nearly the same as it was possible to have it. It is not infrequent that in lots of individuals kept under the same conditions as to light, food, heat, and moisture the variation in the period from the average for the group equals 30 per cent. of the average period. The relation of temperatures to the length of the larval period is shown in Tables 3 and 4, pp. 240, 243. A comparison of these two tables also shows that development is more rapid in picked apples than in apples on the tree. According to Table 3, at an average mean daily temperature of 74.31° F., the average period is 29.07 days in apples on the tree; and according to Table 4, at an average mean daily temperature of 74.08° F., the period is 25.69 days in picked fruit, or 3.4 days less than the period in apples on the tree. 256 PUPAL PERIOD Pupe of the first generation were present from about the middle of June to the middle of August and the period varied from 8 to 14 days, the average being 10.6 days. Pupz of the second generation were pres- ent during August and the first part of September. The period varied from 9 to 18 days, the average being 12.1 days. None of the third-genera- tion larvee pupated. The pupal period of this generation is therefore dis- cussed in connection with the hibernating generation. Pupe of the hibernating generation were present during April, May, and the first part of June. The period varied from 39 days to 18 days, the average being 30.9 days. The average pupal period of the males and the females is practically the same. The period of the hibernating generation is much longer than that of the other generations because pupz are present during early spring when the weather is cool. COMBINED EGG, LARVAL, AND PUPAL PERIODS The whole period of development is of the greatest importance since it is an index to the time which elapses from the deposition of the egg to the emergence of the adult. Since the deposition of eggs frequently begins within one day after the emergence of the female, the addition of one day to the period of development will give the time which elapses from the deposition of the egg of one generation to the deposition of the first egg of the following generation. For 103 males of the first generation the period varied from 40 to 59 days, the average being 51.1 days; for 131 females, the period varied from 43 to 62 days, the average being 52.4 days. For both males and females the average was 51.8 days. The period of development for the individuals which hatch first in the spring is much longer than for those which hatch later, the minimum period for those hatching earliest being 50 days. We may expect, there- fore, the deposition of the first eggs of the second generation to follow the deposition of the first eggs of the first generation in an average of about 51 days, though the average for this same period for the entire generation is only about 53 days. The above applies to individuals whose larval period was passed in apples on the tree. The period would be about 4 or 5 days shorter for those whose larve fed on picked apples. The development period of 41 transforming males of the second generation varied from 38 to 50 days, the average being 43.7 days, and of 62 females from 33 to 56 days, the average being 45.4 days, the aver- age for males and females being 44.7 days. The minimum period for the first individuals of the second generation was 37 days. We may, therefore, expect the deposition of eggs of the third generation to begin about 38 days after the deposition of the first eggs of the second generation. The period from the first eggs of one generation to the first eggs of the next will vary with the season. The time which elapsed between j 257 _ the deposition of the first eggs of the first and second generations was 59 days in 1915, in 1916 it was 53 days, and in 1917, 43 days. The time which elapsed between the deposition of the first eggs of the second and the first of the third generation in 1915 was 46 days, and in 1916, 39 days. The total development period for 97 males of the hibernating genera- tion varied from 266 to 318 days, the average being 301 days, and for 103 females from 271 to 324 days, the average being 305 days, and the average for both males and females being 303 days. ADULT PERIOD As shown in Tables 13 and 14,* 60 male adults of the first generation lived a maximum of 14 days, a minimum of 3 days, and an average of 6.4 days and 63 female adults a maximum of 15 days and an average of 7.4 days—an average of 6.9 days for both male and female adults. The averages given in Table 24 are for a smaller group and the averages are somewhat smaller. Twenty-five male adults of the second generation lived a maximum of 12 days, a minimum of 3 days, and an average of 6.1 days; and 28 female adults lived a maximum of 24 days, a minimum of 5 days, and an average of 10.3 days (Tables 17, 18). The averages for a different and somewhat larger group shown in Table 24 are 9.7 days for the males, 10.2 days for the females, and 10 days for both males and females. Ninety-one males of the hibernating generation, according to Tables 21, 22, and 23, lived a maximum of 24 days, a minimum of 3 days, and an average of 10.5 days, and 95 females lived a maximum of 27 days, a minimum of 5 days, and an average of 13.05 days. The averages of a smaller group, shown in Table 24, are smaller, being 10 days for both males and females. TOTAL LIFE PERIOD The total life period of 24 males of the first generation, the larve of which were reared in apples on the tree, varied from 40 days to 68 days, the average being 57.4 days; and that of 29 females varied from 43 days to 68 days, the average being 59:8, and the average for both males and females being 58.7. The total life period of 30 males of the first generation, the larve of which were reared in picked apples, varied from 42 to 60 days, the average being 51.6 days, and that of 44 females varied from 42 to 58 days, the average being 50.5 days, and the average for both males and females being 50.9 days. : Of the second generation the total life period of 25 males whose larve transformed, varied from 42 to 61 days, the average being 51.3 days, and that of 38 females varied from 45 to 65 days, the average being 53.6 days. *See group of tables following p. 253. 258 The remaining portions of the second generation and all of the third generation belong to the hibernating generation. Of the hibernating generation, the total life period of 24 males varied from 286 days to 329 days, the average being 312 days, and that of 60 females varied from 288 to 330 days, the average being 314 days, and the average of both males and females being 313 days. The maximum periods are for individuals whose larve left the fruit early in August, and the minimum periods for those whose larve left the fruit late in the fall. Larve which left the fruit late in the fall pupated and developed into moths at the same time as those which left the fruit earlier in the season as will be shown later on. OVIPOSITION Most of the first-generation females began to deposit eggs on the first or second day after emerging. The maximum number of eggs were laid on the second day. Oviposition ceased after the ninth day. The ee number of eggs laid by each female was 39 in 1915 and 47.3 in Oviposition by females of the second generation began later, but a majority of the moths had begun to oviposit by the third day. The maximum number of eggs in 1915 was laid on the sixth day and in 1916 on the second day after the emergence of the adults. This difference was no doubt due to the lower temperatures which prevailed in 1915. The average number of eggs laid by each female in 1915 was 66.3 and in 1916 it was 68.7. Oviposition by females of the hibernating generation takes place in the spring when the weather is cool. Very few females begin to ovi- posit on the first day after emerging, and a majority do not begin to oviposit till the fourth day. The maximum number of eggs was laid on the fourth day after the emergence of the female in 1915 and 1916 and on the fifth day in 1917. Oviposition practically ceased after the tenth day but a few eggs were laid as late as the sixteenth day. The average number of eggs laid by each female varied from 30.5 in 1916 to 42.4 in 1917. Low temperatures and heavy precipitation delay oviposi- tion. Adults when confined in small cages do not act normally. They attempt to escape from the cage and soon become disabled. Doubtless in the open the females live longer and deposit a larger number of eggs than the averages above given. The maximum number of eggs laid by a single female was 172, the next highest numbers were 167, 156, 143, 136 and 120. RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO LENGTH OF DEVELOPMENT PERIOD The total effective day-degrees which accumulated during the three development periods were determined in two ways: first, by adding to- gether the total effective day-degrees of the egg, larval, and pupal periods 259 _ as determined by the use of 50 degrees F. as the zero of development and 88, 85, and 87 degrees F. as the degrees of the maximum rate of develop- ment of the egg, larva, and pupa respectively; and, second, by using 50 as the zero of development and 86 as the degree of the maximum rate of development for the entire period. The results are recorded in the next to the last and the last column, respectively, in the tables. The average total for the first generation, as shown in Table 24, computed by the latter method, was 1122, or 4 more than the total computed by the former method, and for the second generation it was 1119, or 15 more computed by the latter method than by the former method. The maximum differ- ence amounts to less than half a day in the development period and hence the latter method may be used for practical purposes, and the fol- lowing discussion will have reference to results obtained by it. The average total day-degrees for the female is about 20 greater than for the male and 10 greater than the average for the male and the female, which indicates that the female has a slightly longer period than the male. There is a large variation in individuals as to the length of the de- velopment period and hence in the total effective day-degrees which ac- cumulate during the period. In individual cases these totals varied from 814 to 1475, but less than 4 per cent. of them were below 950, and less than 2 per cent above 1350. Since some of the extremely high and extremely low totals recorded were probably due to errors in observations, 950 and 1350 may be regarded as the approximate extremes, 1120 being the average. The total day-degrees which accumulated during the development period of individuals whose larve were reared in picked fruit, as shown in Table 25, were 1010, or 109 less tham the average for individuals whose larve were reared in apples on the tree, showing that larve de- velop more rapidly in picked fruit than in fruit on the tree. SEASONAL History oF THE CopLING-MoTH, 1915* The seasonal history of the codling-moth was determined at Olney by large-cage experiments, supplemented by data secured from band col- lections and the life history studies. LARGE-CAGE SERIES The cages (Fig. 5, 6, 7) used in these experiments were large enough to cover entire trees and were used for the purpose of keeping the genera- tions under observation separate, so that the number of generations, the time of beginning, and the time of ending could be definitely determined. The events especially noted were dates when the first and the last moths * A preliminary report on the observations and experiments of the year 1915 was_pub- lished in the 29th report of the State Hntomologist of Illinois, issued in January, 1916, and also in the annual report of the State Horticultural Society for 1915. That panes (“On the Life History of the Codling-moth,” by Stephen A. Forbes and Pressley A. Glenn) contains some data and discussions not repeated in the present article. 260 were liberated in their respective cages, dates when the first and the last larvee left the fruit, when they pupated, and when the moths emerged. First generation, 1915.—The first moths which emerged from hiber- nating larve were liberated in cage No. 1, as follows: Date Males Females May 1 4 a: satay} 2 ee 8 4 Sine 0 1 CP amt) 4 2 een’) 12 6 The first eggs were found in the cage on the morning of May 6. They had probably been laid during the evening of the preceding day. These eggs hatched May 17. There was a heavy June drop of apples all over the orchard and the drop was especially heavy from some of the trees caged. In cage No. 1, 275 apples were picked up May 20 and placed in battery jars. They averaged only about one-half inch in diame- ter. June 4, 800 were picked up, June 9, 700, June 12, 300, and June 19, 150. At this time only a few apples remained on the tree. Larve began to leave the fruit in this cage June 22. In another cage; in which moths had been liberated on May 12, or 12 days later than in cage No. 1, larve began to leave the fruit June 22. Judging from this, had normal conditions prevailed in cage No. 1, larve should have begun to leave the fruit 11 days earlier than they did—that is, on June 11. This date corresponds very well with the date when the first larvee were taken under bands, which was June 12. The last moths of the hibernating generation were liberated in cage No. 2, as follows: Date Males Females May 31 11 9 June 1 4 5 Le) 3 4 : 3 5 8 8 6 12 9 2 3 10 il 1 Ue siti 1 3 a alP) 2 3 seals} 1 4 Se 15) 1 1 Larve began to leave the fruit in cage No. 2 on July 6 and continued to leave the fruit till August 1. Pupation continued till August 4, and moths continued to emerge till August 17. Two larve which left the fruit July 17 and 19 respectively, hibernated. All other larve kept under observation transformed or died. 261 Second generation, 1915.—The first moths from cage No. 1 were liberated in cage No. 3, to rear the first of the second generation, as fol- lows: Date Males Females July 1 2 3 a eo iL 1 - 5 11 11 6 5 10 The first eggs were laid July 3, the first larvee hatched July 11, the first larvee left the fruit August 2 (these larve were lost), the first pupze were found August 7, and the first moths emerged August 17. The first larvz to hibernate, left the fruit August 9. All larvee which left the fruit after August 15, hibernated. The last pupa was obtained August 19 and the last moth September 2. The last adults of the first generation to emerge from materials reared in cage No. 2 were liberated in cage No. 4, to rear the last of the second generation, as follows: Date Males Females Aug. 2 4 2 Sie S) 3 4 3 ‘0 5 8 SoG 4 4 oc v4 2 Ses 5 6 Cage 4 1 1 AS 1 i alan k: | al 1 che ATG ry Sept. 6 1 The last eggs were laid September 12. The last of these eggs hatched September 17. Larve began to leave the fruit in this cage September 12 and continued to leave the fruit till November 1, the date of the last observation. All of the larve reared in this cage hibernated. Third generation, 1915.—To rear the third generation, moths which were reared in cage No. 3 were liberated in cage No. 5, as follows: Date Males Females Aug. 22 2 4 5-03 4 4 SS mad 7 4 Be A35 2 1 LHS 2 1 29 ul 1 Sept. 3 2 “ee 5 aL The first eggs were observed August 26 and the first larve left the fruit September 28. The last egg observed was laid September 1 and hatched September 9. Since adults of the second generation continued 262 to emerge till September 5, oviposition no doubt continued till about Sep- tember 15 and hatching till about September 25. Larve continued to leave the fruit till November 1, the date of the last observation. All the larve reared in cage No. 5 hibernated. BAND COLLECTIONS Hibernating generation, 1914-1915.—Hibernating larve were col- lected at Centralia and Olney April 12, 13, and 14. About 1400 were kept at Olney and the remaining 600 were kept under observation at Ozark, From 5 to 10 per cent. of the larve collected on the above dates had pupated. Judging from the time the first moths emerged, pupation began about April 9. Pupation was very irregular owing to variable weather conditions. It was at its maximum at Olney from April 22 to April 29, and continued till June 2. Larve kept under observation at Urbana, Illinois, 100 miles north of Olney, began to pupate April 20 and continued to pupate till May 24. The first moths emerged at Olney April 27, the maximum emergence occurred May 14 and 15, and moths continued to emerge till June 26. A record of pupation and emergence of adults at Olney will be found in Table 26. Collections made in 1915.—The bands used at Olney were two-ply burlap bands about 4 inches wide. They were placed on the trees about June 1 and examined daily until the first larve were found. After that they were examined every third day. When collected the number of males and females were recorded, and, at Olney, they were preserved for the purpose of observing pupation and emergence (Table 26). Larve of the first generation began to leave the fruit June 12. The maximum number were leaving the fruit about June 25. The larve of the first and second generations overlapped during the last week in July and the first week in August. Development was greatly retarded during August on account of unusually cool weather, and was greatly accelerated during the second and third weeks of September on account of unusually warm weather. These weather influences are indicated in the band records by the relatively small number of larvz collected during August and the large number during September. The falling off in band collec- tions after September 21 was due largely to the fact that apple-picking began at about that date. A daily record of the band collections, life-history observations, and climatic conditions at Olney in 1915 have Been brought together in Table 26 for ready reference. TABLE 28—Srasonau History oF THE CoDLING-MOTH AT OLNEY IN 1915 TABLE 26—Dara oBTAINeD FROM BAND COLLECTIONS AND Lirp-HISTORY OBSERVATIONS, WITH ACCOMPANYING CrimatTic Dara, OLNEY, 1915 From Wael Tacved Life history data. hibernating collected a larve. 1915. Third Climatie data. First generation, Second generation. generation. Date. & | 3 |: & ae ~ = 3 1 1 ¥ ‘ 1, 0 ‘ Foe v ’ CI . A =I to ~ . bear} S Z|] 83 Fi z ¢ |PS 18s 8. ; |@3 /@3 (se .| « |88 | as |S¥te] S| as | = eB 3 Es 5 3 8 BS ob] & Seo] 2S op S |Sea) Boa / SS) co | keel sg | shown) 8.) so] s 5 3 aa 5 3 50 Sq} aq|/Skq a Saiafqa|/Sha| %® )a8a| So |Hse~| SP! bal Ss . 3 z 3a is o g as] Ses sos] gS | 958) §a8|958] gs | S48] s8 |asval p=] Ba] = . OAR RASH ODOM OWDOUIADRHHNIWHHOD ~ w DOW PI tHDINNRDRWOWMNONIWOSOHDOONM CHOARATEWHH AAAD SAP Woo co > BO OD He OO 00 He dl ell well dl ed PEM sont octalPsaigaal'vrats ba oteee Fett. rae Perea ree eee (ears cas ees eens ; “2S Re eo nee feweealis-cwehads2 weve [asec |ecscpetees [eee [eee levee leone | coon d 45 ‘ | Be tl pewadircetan| Wee es [45% ees Bang Mate Sci hes Fea REND Jose [eee] --+ | 46. 6 | 58 ' os ~ oe A = oo CORK MoH: 4 5 PN ORWOINODONORDUIPS ANWAAARAAAAMAIAIAININE RO DNN NDE HR EE Maem oly Ih se. {erates Dewalt heed liaonas, ames eee pane heyane) Camel Bee O | 62 DD Mie oes Ars. a%.52 Seo cleats, | (ese tesrcesl Semele lesion aa tot aceon eee Rote eer Inrocac . : 65 yi >] | Esme gece Saltioaseln | aeieicnsice| ease | lcsemeeel Rasen (LOCI Rois Marra see jenn e | 72. . 59 oe, Ser eae eee ee ese SS "3 | 54 ESTE | eT st eee = rs ~ es Ce a Ts sar TABL ue with AcoOMPANYING Cromartie Dara, OLNEY, 1916 26—DarA OPTAINED FROM BAND Conteorions AND Lirpanisrony OnseAvATIONE, Date rom ornating Jara, Life history data. Third Firat generation, Second generation. generation. Adalta. Larre under bands, Climate dat Rainfall Beer Sash eoe Rohe hehan = Bas Sans ty Hiintsmotion a S ~ romesrsnsHt! 1 a 5] = RS wis & ey kA cy got rab Bee me Sar ae) © to to im be & ~2 H bo & o OO Sate a 3 S 79 | 14 34 78 | «13 06 2 2 © 83 | 12 AB wewrasaan Aiko! Gig eral Bis Bre RaasereanmEHsueas Ons 68.3 72.2 7,7 137 774 80.3 82.6 $2.3 © Ss & BSASHASESSRarsS Hire aneatsnmonwan Peeler 60, (at 0b6 aa. he) O08 te ts ten REEBo ee = ES CEES SEE ERR ERE RO RR EEE RPE Basan SseSkeSsSa5osesesSaas 21.7 23.7 27.1 28.8 | 30.3 30.6 | 29.7 ret a3 tomers p> te bo NS bS tO BS BSAA Seo BANAT BH Demmi nieh SR m isccomis bes to to ns BS ps aes ws to BERSS= See eee Se ne ee eek eer en ered Pasezsnnesaaane 3” Se Pts neSo rise ee ee tts mis eo Fad peo ce SBeSSeoSSeoanaenrarssS bie a Sue nesunonaeen nu a6 68 10.0 M7 120 wT 10.6 at 70 1.27 yaw I- 3 we DET « Se3t « JS-T9 » FtT2 “ B10 {ah 5-3 « Seis 7 Fone $1-3¢ 5e-38 Soc yar- ara aDPoy 13 is 183 42 an 1% a> ee Swr nea soe * 50H D> Ba, Goconees ‘on AO TABLE 27—NumMBperR OF LARVAE COLLECTED ON VARIOUS DATES IN 1915, NUMBER TRANSFORMING AND NUMBER HIBERNATING. Number | Numb f , Number Per cent, Deteer janyen collected 3 transforming. transforming. pated leaving A A) A 34 7 apples. | Total a anbee ¥ of cach Ee 1915. 1916. 1915, 1916. 1915. 1916. number. | per day. na Bex. ae M. 10 2 8 IB se ADORED, Olea Nee 7 June 11-16 18 Dae 8 2 Geld cc: ltet adil LOO Mn oe a a 4 é M. 26 1 Ee lh eases eee RIGO Open eta 21 1-19 48 LG |) any 22 7 Titi oe LOO HS ais 14 fi M. 50 6 44 |. LOOM lah ees 41 20-22 96 32 | oF 46 16 Rial sia vl etoesesccete 24 z M. 17 14 Cale TOO) gril ater ee 63 85225 Pal BU Oe eae 134 34 100. |... LODE Al seat ee 99 tae, M. 86 26 GOMeI ee 100%: AA irra ae 50 26-28 189 63 Fr 103 35 GSuae LOO. | Oi Naeetiss ae 66 ah Mee BA lle ain 46 6 HO LOO Ni veruee teen 40 29-July 1 113 38 r. 67 15 52 TOO) elaeeeeesee 52 Ao M. 48 8 400 [28 00 eee eee 40 July 2-3 101 BLN oe. 53 6 AT. Ih ee ee GeO eek Sea 47 a ght 133 ‘ M. 57 5 49 3 94.2 5.8 49 3 a F. 76 15 59 2 95.1 383 59 2 i ees | , M. 29 15 A ees Scie Ome Aaa 14 e10 eS pr sal 37 8 De elles pelle ao sat eee 26 cae 7 aa ate 19 7 We cre eases se gC era ae 11 yes , Bey iat 18 6 2g | eos en |e Oh rea | Sac 12 te le = M. 2 3 AURA eee e MUD Fe ok 20 ka a | a ea 23 6 Ga Ware (slag ee we a ii “ 47-419 3 M. 18 3 Lt eee ee RUDE SB os 12 171 ee Bab ip 21 1 LO! Ne ee oh lt CO zest caterercanen 10 “20-22 40 ‘ M. 20 4 ape goee | Lee PEA 16 13 Wig aa 20 1 UE Tab baooce || 2k he ise 19 | «, “pai94 Zak alt | M. 14 0 14 stew eee 100. on 14 3 | Lo a 17 4 Vessels es 13 “ 25-28 40 | M. 19 6 13 Atos oo 100. oe 13 y [°° a 21 6 u4 1 | 9me8 14 1 “ 99.31 19 | 6 | M. 9 4 a ein Jota pata 100. Sooo uote 3 [ema 10 1 Di easier 8 A ae § il) | 7 | M. 6 0 ican eee | LOOT tie ' 6 ae ee | fry ss 15 6 Baran cee Me lomes ic ce y 4 eT 65 | 99 M. 2 4 26 2 92.9 7.1 22 2 a F. 33 17 15 1 93.8 6.2 W 1 «“ 7.9 100 aq | M. 46 8 34 4 89.5 10.5 31 4 | : 1 54 9 45) Il scrthatesd| nee a al eee 45 | “10-12 82 27 M. 4() 12 17 11 60.7 39.3 17 11 2 F. | 2 16 20 6 77.1 22.9 20 6 etget4 54 | oq | ME. | 26 i 13 6 68.4 31.6 13 6 * ia 25 12 3 81.3 18.7 13 3 “45-18 145 36 | M- 75 34 34 17.4 81.9 6 31 |) sar 70 36 2: ae 70.6 4 20 “49.91 136 M. 74 18 53 5. 94.6 3 53 2 ae eee 62 19 3 14.0 86.0 6 3 “«“ 99-94 174 Pl ee 89 40 48 FESS iyi one 1 48 hy ase F. 85 39 44 Boe 95.6 2 44 Seo 161 54 - 75 8 65 o- 97. 2 oe “28-30 139 M A a “ 31-Sept. 2 143 : a Sept. 3- 4 176 i ie 58 434 5 ia ; 9-11 369 : 407 “12-14 393 } ia “45-17 395 : : iso 8 232 a “91-23 118 . he “ 24-25 111 : 4 “ 26-29 205 0 = 0 35 “ 30-Oct. 5 169 0 o 0 Oct. 6-11 67 4 0 “ 1218 128 > “ 19-25 19 0 24 0 32 “ 26-Nov. 1 4B 0 22 0 15 4 } M. 2480 596 548 1386 29,09 70.91 515 1009 Totals 53871 ee 2891 825 622 1444 30.04 69.96 589 1031 | M.& , GA71 1421 1170 2780 29.64 70.46 1104 2040 es a TABLE 28—Srasonat History oF THE CoDLING-MOTH AT OLNEY IN 1915 Generation Period Hibernating First Second Third * The last eggs observed were laid June 26. + The latest hatching-date record is June 27, the egg having been laid June 18. Pupe Adults Eggs Young larve Mature larve Pupe Adults Eggs Young larve Mature larve Eggs Young larve Mature larve Darliest Relatively numerous Apr. 9 Apr. 19 ee aT May 10 May 5 Yea, p= aly ¢ “ 26 June 12 June 19 “ 17 “ 25 “28 July 10 July 3 « 43 “ 11 “« 13 Aug. 2 Aug. 18 id 3 “ 16 “ce 22 29 Sept. 22 $¢Larve were collected Nov. 1, the date of the last observation. § These dates are from materials collected from cage! Aug. 30, and moths to emerge till Sept. 16. Maximum Apr. 26 May 15 June 25 oe 29 July 12 Sept. 17 Aug. 10 Relatively numerous May 4 « “99 oa pak June 12 July 7 oa i ie) Latest “47 Aug. 18§ Sept. 5§ but larve from the much larger band-collections continued to pupate till No doubt egg-laying continued till about Sept. 26 and hatching of larve till about Oct. 7. WSENLS JOT AS o ROSE yssA8 263 Data based on the band collections give in a general way the dis- tribution as to relative numbers of individuals of each stage throughout the season; the life history data indicate only approximately the general periods during which the different stages of each generation occurred. Since only a small number of individuals were used in the life-history observations as compared with the number of individuals in the whole _orehard, activities in the orchard, no doubt, began somewhat earlier and continued somewhat later than the life history data indicate. This is especially true in regard to the date of the deposition of the last eggs, the hatching of the last larve, etc., of each generation, because usually the last individuals were very few in number and were mostly females, many of which died without oviposition or laid infertile eggs. Hibernation, 1915.—The first larve to hibernate left the fruit be- tween July 3 and July 7. There was a period of three cool days, includ- ing July 4, 5, and 6, when the mean daily temperatures were 65.2, 61.1 and 65.5 degrees F. respectively. For the remainder of July the tem- perature was much higher. The cool days no doubt account for the early hibernation of some of the larve which left the fruit from July 3 to July 7. Hibernation proper began with larve which left the fruit between August 3 and August 6, after which the per cent. that hibernated in- creased rapidly until August 20. Practically all larvee maturing after this date hibernated. The weather during the second week in September was unusually warm and it was expected that larve would again begin to transform, but only three out of about 1000 which were under observa- tion responded to this increased temperature. Of the total number of larve collected, 46.2 per cent. were males and 53.8 per cent. were females; 29.1 per cent. of the males and 30.1 per cent. of the females collected, transformed; and 70.9 per cent. of the males and 69.9 per cent. of the females hibernated. SUMMARY OF THE SEASONAL HIsTory, 1915 From the foregoing data the seasonal history of the codling-moth at Olney in 1915 may be constructed quite accurately (Table 28, preceding this page). , 264 In Chart 1, these same details of the seasonal history are shown. An attempt is made here to show in graphic form the relative numbers of pupe, adults, eggs, young larve, and mature larve that appeared from day to day, all of which have been averaged for three-day periods. The chart is divided vertically into columns for the months from April to October and longitudinally by lines representing elevations above certain base lines, the degree of elevation being represented by the figures in*the column to the left of the chart. The average numbers of pupe, adults, eggs, young larve and mature larve which appeared daily during each of the three-day periods are represented by the black vertical columns. At the top of the chart the three broods of pupz are represented, next comes the three broods of moths, then the eggs, then young larvee, and lastly, the larvee leaving the fruit. The three broods are indicated very distinctly in the parts of the chart representing different stages. In the lower part of the chart the mean daily temperatures above 50° are represented, also averaged for three-day periods. RECORDS FOR OTHER POINTS THAN OLNEY Thus far the discussion has been confined almost entirely to the Olney records. A few words additional will suffice for the less complete records at Ozark, Plainview, and Princeton. The codling-moth was so scarce at the last-mentioned place as to render the records of little value. A distinct third generation was detected at Ozark the same as at Olney. Since only band records were kept at Plainview no evidence of the third generation was noticed there, though it doubtless occurred and would have been detected if a daily, or even a weekly, record of the emergence of moths from the larve collected under bands had been kept.. The first moths observed at Ozark emerged April 28, or one day later than at Olney. The first larve of the first generation were taken under bands at Ozark June 2, at Olney June 12, and at Plainview June 25. The first of the second-brood moths emerged at Ozark June 20, or 8 days before the first moths of this brood emerged at Olney, and the first of the second-brood larvee hatched at Ozark July 2, or 9 days before they hatched at Olney. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SEASON March and April, 1915, were dry months and much warmer than normal, causing the pupation of the hibernating larve to begin early, but during May, June, July, and August the temperature averaged from 4 to 7.5 degrees cooler than normal, and the rainfall for these months was much above normal. These months were characterized by many cool, cloudy, rainy days, all of which tended to retard the development of the codling-moth, and to reduce the numbers of each generation that sur- vived. This threw the beginning of the pupation of the first third-brood pupze as late as August 7, which was only two weeks before pupation ended for the season. For this reason the third generation was very small. ct et et ne YY Ye sa tne a ys. ah SSGES. 3-2 BBS eee | Tg el a | 29] as! s FSF «8 4 2a #8 a | a9 |tas [lz 7 * x a s $ ‘* Chart 1. Seasonal hist A TP I EU A of codling-moth at Olney, 1915. iz i a WG, Bi: os one a : 265 SEASONAL History OF THE CoDLING-MOoTH, 1916 The plan of work pursued in the 1915 studies was continued in 1916. An effort was made to make the records at Ozark and Plainview a little more complete, and another station was established at Springfield. The observations at Princeton were discontinued. The spring months were cold and the season backward. April was about 3 degrees below normal and about 9 degrees below what it was in 1915. The temperature for May was about normal, for June about 5 degrees below normal, July and August one degree above normal. Rain was fairly well distributed throughout the season. The pupation of the hibernating larve began rather late. Development was normal during May, slower than normal during June, and proceeded at the maximum rate throughout July and August. On the whole, development was not quite so rapid as it would be in a normal year, the total accumulation of monthly degrees above 50 degrees, based upon mean monthly tempera- tures for April, May, June, July, and August, having been 89 while the normal accumulation for the same period is 93.3. As compared with 1915 the year 1916 was more favorable for development, the accumula- tion of monthly temperatures above 50 degrees from April to August in- clusive in 1915 having been only 85.5. LARGE-CAGE SERIES Hibernating generation, 1915-1916.—The hibernating larve began to pupate April 16 and continued to pupate till June 2. Moths began to emerge May 10 and continued to emerge till June 23. First generation —tThe first eggs observed were laid May 14. These eggs hatched May 25. It was not necessary to use a large cage in order to secure the first pupze and adults of the first generation, since they could be obtained from the first larve collected from the bands. Larve of this generation began to leave the fruit June 20, to pupate June 24, and moths began to emerge July 3. To secure the last individuals of the first generation, the last adults which emerged from the hibernating material were liberated in cage No. 1, as follows: Date Males Females June 1 12 0 tes 9 8 ‘ 6 a} 3 Les 6 3 Sl 1] 5 4 12 11 11 malt; 1 3 Leeds Is: 1 ety 2 “20 3 pa ar 6 2 Ye OES SS A = a 266 Larve began to mature and leave the fruit July 11 and continued to leave the fruit till August 9. The last pupation occurred August 14, and the last emergence on August 20. All the larve of this generation trans- formed. Second generation.—For the purpose of getting the earliest individ- uals of the second aoe, the first moths of the first generation were liberated in large-cage No. 2, as follows: Date Males Females July 6 3 3 ee ay it peat 1 3 era) 2 1 He 30) 3 2 Mgt 7 5 7 SA ds 8 Seah 2 12 July 20, many apples in the cage were showing signs of worminess. Larve began to leave the fruit August 3, to pupate August 7, and moths began to emerge August 16. To rear the last individuals of the second generation, moths which emerged from cage No. 1 on or after August 10 were liberated in cage No. 3 as follows: Date Males Females Aug. 10 11 head 6 Urea} ee 5 ets ri “ 18 «20 1 Larve began to leave the fruit September 20 and continued to leave it until observations closed, October 12. All the larve reared in this cage hibernated. Third generation—To rear the third generation, moths which emerged from cage No. 2 were liberated in cage No. 4 as follows: DHE ROR HH 0 00 op Date Males Females Aug. 16 1 1 18 2 ae” (20 1 i 23 5 A: ned. 1 3 e525 4 aeer At L eos int 2 Si) i it Sept. 2 1 2 og 8°: 2 al: The adults liberated September 8 were from the second generation of the life-history series. TABLE 29—Revarion or Tre oF LEAVING THE va te aving Sex May } i2 1 i 15 | 16 | 17 18 19 0 875 c 3-7 M 4 EF. $-10 11-13 14-16 7-19 20-22 >< 23-24 = 1 7-3 tpe4 7-39 -: 10-12 Bleed 5. 1 1 10-12 Be i 1 13-14 1 I 13-14 = . i 15-18 4 1 1 2 bat bat CO Cre pes 6 4 Ag eR ; 1 3 9 19-21 1 2 1 1 8 22-24 rt ee oy Mee oe 8 5 22-24 : 1 1 1 1 6 25-27 2, 1) 3) 20) 9 Le a: 25-27 BY a8 C} 9% 15 28-30 a 3 ss 4 2 28.30 Tet o2 2) 1 2 82 Sept. 1-2 Nt ae . 2 1- 2 ae 4 oh Reape 2 34 ot peed eae Beau Pane Wee et 54 2a 1) Ee beaces BSE e eee) Oe 5&8 11; 23 3 4 2| 19; 138 5-8 1} 13) 22 2 5 1} 19) 25 $11 i0 1 1 a) Ot: 8 $11 6 14 1 2 2 (eee) 12-14 4} 22: 14)... 2 3| 17 7 12-14 1 | 2 3 5 2| 19; 21 15-17 2 5 8 5 1 1 6 t 15-17 : 2/ 3 en 2 5 2 12-20 i en Art ees 3 7 13-26 4 OP ae 2 9 21-22 2 1 5 3 3 3 4 3 WH OR Be: Sees esis OA ee DT Ne aR: © WN NYH WHO iy it OWE HMM OANW AME: C1 S22 tS ney ket ks BR BR Pd Bd ft Pa dd dd dd md dd a dd de te to w NS) Ry ert ei Mr * weo: 6 136 122 18 20 20/120) 91! 4| 46\ 68) 13 me 2.6 4 2 Grand totals 5 6 4 10 182 al 31 : : H Ai WOME Nib es Rie 19| 14] 38) 126 | 112 92) 77 ad 34/208 217|192|171)| 127 Fruir vo True or BMerqunce or Moris oF tH HiBERNATING GENERATION OF 1915-16, Otnry, 1916 Dates of emergence and number teil et 1 Average June. Totals. Wales of ——- eS EE otherg _ — — : — ype —-— SS Tae <= ones 91 | 22} 28 24 | 26) 26/27/28} 20) 30)81) 1} 2) 3) 4) 5 6 |'7 8 | 9 j30 11 12/30/14 | 15 5|16| 17 | 18 19 | 20 | 21 | 22| 23 | 24) 25 | yw F. 1 Mar 2 bo © pe n mb: 2b creo Nie re ho: rie ore bo js et A — cs wo Ge @.O¥e Rows vo o woreda. nO ee bo DO 1 DO ee +. Come: co C1 eS wort: © eo 09 C1 BS Weis. “es ee bo Co RR COR eR OID Re 1 3 2 Sahil 1 1) se - 7 7 - ae ovah © 1 7! 1} et) 3 1 ae ; = 127 * 68 5 Biiev, FEO a ee 2 > = 9 CORY pees | 15| 1 4] 10 7H eo i Pir 1 pee 1 1 % | ce cy LL! waco 9 2 2 ify fet [ae 1 1 wiles | : *4 92) -22.) = 8 22) 21) 10| 11 1| 3. rar 1/2) 1 salen A és bes raveh 1h = 0 4 Sat ame Det eae, | occa aatditrace Mac) | epee es] Rep eal Tera 1 1 1 ahs - 6z}....| © & 6]. 41 6 zg S10 A$) Sr ee BS Ps Pe hea | Pe a Peat (ae a oan ot Fa Ws aL -: Sor Ghee CR A Wi 5 Renee ee sO Pa ae De Da Pk ES Ne E aa | a) EAM i SR be oa abe ee BU f<~<- eee 64. 6) le 6121 2 Neal aed te teenie I Fe (Oct. seed POC) Ue (ee faa Oe ee 2 ae v=) StS A Bie SL 7S less | cose chest sical eed lai te Dihaetls eae OY Bev 5) hee Pe icieg ea hee “ 40... 0 z BBY 4 Bh 218) 4] Wea dn oil gal cle ame” | de eet ao Ble ial as seh ey a pe cod a Tai 9 Vi 4 ee ea a se] Une ec Ar ese) Bee! ct hg ha ie Amel PPR . a 3.0 °F 7D) Fi Nef) facts tae) I UV Pe Vf wr ca S|! | | a hee recs ; ots get ee So ee ee | Bi CQ) Qi A] cL] Bh) BH coe [ck ]) SPAT aah rea LNG ST gp atcre IMT tienes Pca) be eed Joel ee]- tee 48} ~< << : 3 a ah ah ge HN sos]: Bh cco AE | | elie ee Ea on es fig (TP cece] Peipeat a/..}*4|....| $5) June! By SY Sh aN Bice | Bl Te Lda Li] oll oT ae TDD a rae at i Peah ea) xf 60, ..../ May 38 BST Bicwa taal ala). <1 al cit Bi tl cal pe) tel eniaee ieee eee eieg' Pocale 1 earl c ed ed pee SAW aa rT PPT Me hc ee a Cre wo, [owe] | a Reo mate Wares Mesa | eye [ecco ieee |<: Sete od ers 7A Ae ar) ene) OR a eA eG Ms a Pano) Seca tees / be, beartee : SS ialieed ee A Genel etl seal Piet | alee | [-«a,| ie Ve, omic Mere GR eli) e) Rt es Ee $2) .-5- 1. oe PW Bie One Seite) Sic. Lael ales 1 cL eed ca apa ee a ioe foe sels er ted ne DN sph ra oP Wea Ree cl Ue el Wa Se | Sor | FeePal bea ee ee ies es : yl a CF Pe he NES erty VRE ee Ee Dee nT La inal eed ais Pa) ee -| 2 2 Pie hee acc Malin Alc Teele. se hie cal Paait ai] coe ao (F(R! 2 2 ANE VEER Pe ED ie ee pe fe Pp ra hens oan = 79| 79| 50) 25/26/26 38 8/16/15|18| 5 12/11) 2] 3] 1 3. |_77 | _ 77} 49 | 44 8/ 18/12/11) 7| 9) 12 7 5] 1) 1) 3} 102 7 16] [a1 29/12 Ey 2 6 7 2| a ] 2 PEE io OL a aa : jE rane AD o> 2 he: 2 é tea, ‘ears. Ne 213 ae ieee pine so 4 os : 3 = fuk leased tidied terea stl as ea eee =e SSF ED i a oes ee < $e eee ae z eee Sal , guanes iacnaaneeeiels : Pees cee Pianos Tene epee won) 4, AM a eet: SS ig S oe asta cea neem ees eet . ‘ ee - fic wed eo Sal SS ee ee ee ee SS —~< . aie es, aoe ee eae | Abound aude iiegaidandnnsaclanaamonee. Se Se: aie: et ag Sh amines a Se Soa eS 267 The first eggs were observed August 19. These hatched August 23. The first mature larve left the fruit between September 26 and October 3, and larve continued to leave the fruit till October 23--the date of the last observation. Thus the presence of a partial third brood was again demonstrated this year at Olney. Larve of the first generation were entering the fruit from May 25 to about July 4, and larve of the second generation from about July 13 to September 1, and larve of the third generation from August 23 to about September 15. BAND COLLECTIONS Hibernating generation, 1915-1916.—Pupation of the hibernating larve collected from bands in 1915 began at Ozark April 10, at Olney, Plainview, and Springfield April 13, and closed at Ozark May 31, at Olney June 17, and at Springfield May 26. Moths began to emerge at Ozark and at Olney May 11 and at Spring- field May 10. They continued to emerge at Ozark till June 19, at Olney till June 30 (Table 29, foot-note), and at Springfield till June 28. Pupa- tion was very irregular on account of changes in the weather conditions. The dates when the larve left the fruit had no appreciable influence on the time of pupation and emergence the following spring. The aver- age date of the emergence of males was May 21, and of the females May 23. We should naturally expect that hibernating larve maturing in July would develop into moths earlier in the spring than those matur- ing later in the season, but this is not the case. The male moths in three collections emerged an average of from one to five days later that the females; in two collections the average dates of emergence of both sexes were the same; and in the other eighteen collections the miales emerged an average of from one to seven days earlier than the females. For the whole series the average date of emergence of the males was 2.6 days earlier than that of the females. Collections made in 1916.—Band collections were made at Ozark, Olney, and Springfield. The results are shown in Table 30. The first eggs were observed August 19. These hatched August 23. While the first moths of the hibernating generation observed at the three places emerged at about the same time, the first larve of the first generation matured 10 days later at Olney than at Ozark and 9 days later at Springfield than at Olney. The first pupz were observed at Olney June 24, and at Springfield July 2; the first adult at Olney emerged July 3, and at Springfield July 11 (Table 31). The second and third broods of pupz and moths are very clearly indicated in these pupa- tion and emergence records. The pupation of the second brood at Olney began June 24 and continued till the first or second week in August, at which time the beginning of the pupation of the third brood is indicated by the increase in the number of pup. The second brood of moths began to emerge July 3 and continued to emerge until about the second 268 week in August. The beginning of the emergence of the third brood is indicated by the increase in the number of moths emerging daily after the 16th of August. Judging from the above data the third brood was about equal in number to the second brood. TABLE 30—Recorp of LARVAE COLLECTED UNDER BANDS AT OZARK, OLNEY, AND SPRINGFIELD IN 1916 Date Ozark Olney eae Date Ozark Olney pita June 10 PL lads ce ath aol eonhoteterarede Aug. 16 24 344 28 12 Taare Ss agen] aetna ce 19 16 315 14 Gath ae Ses arse enemas 22 31 350 42 ized! Ya Nas Be sas oar 25 22 490 44 20 15 (SASS aaa ee 28 30 412 46 23 50 Wi keleecniaact Bie aa 37 516 26 31 Yeah REE Sich Sept. 2 | 43 354 45 29 53 i 5 6 24 797 55 July’ 1 | 56 65 27 Gaia 28 515 91 5 45 213 20 12 45 551 79 Bye) 5) 228 17 ison 37 566 ine 48 225 32 18 22 399 14 | 30 110 33 21 15 388 nfend| 56 121 33 DEY fel 31 276 20 73 138i! 30 25 28 217 132 24 | 36 76 | 41 28 21 26 | 22 197} 22 \(Octi= Blt 37 136 29 28 2a 15 6 | 8 Aug. 1 61 43 | Bota ee chars 10 | 8 142 4 52 70 36 13;. cal 5 cata 40 125 59 16) 4 5 10 | 538 phil | 67 19. | 1 71),)) 53 230 | 86 D4? al 92 | Totals 1407 9086 1085 | Hibernation, 1916.—Table 32 shows the dates between which the transition was made from transforming to hibernating larve. Hibernation began with larvee which left the fruit between August 4 and August 7, but hibernation in considerable numbers began with larve collected between August 16 and August 19. Practically all larve collected after August 28 hibernated. This was fully a week later than the date on which active hibernation began in 1915. It will be seen, then, that a large per cent. of the larvee which left the fruit during the first three weeks in August transformed; it will also be seen by refer- ring to Table 30 that larve of the second generation were leaving the fruit in large numbers during this period. This accounts for the tala tively large size of the third generation in 1916. Of the 9088 larvz collected at Olney, 4100, or about 45 per cent., were males, and 4988, or about 55 per cent., were females. nan Ce thew a aw I ' 99 hee ome bbe Be he ef OAD OO od ee row 33 ia @& a OO wy oe be a TABLE 31—Rvecorp snowrina tub Numper or Larvar PUPATING AND Morus IMERGING DAILY AT OLNEY AND SPRINGFIELD FROM Bann Contrerrons in’ 1916 | No. of larvae No. of moths pupating. emerging. Date. a le Olney. Springfield. Olney. Springfield. | June 20 ie Coes eae) cee 2 eat 5 eG 2 a 5 ces 3 F 038 6 es 2 Uiihye pal pe) 9 Ae 3 11 4 1 . S 4 42 5 1 ts 5 22 2 4 = us 6 7 5 “ 7 15 4 3 " 8 19 x, 4 es 9 46 7 3 en 10 40 2 5 Oe AU 47 6 5 5 poten 4 54 8 14 1 “ 18 44 2 v4 10 oY 14 32 2 23 9 crue lb) 82 4 22 6 te 16 63 6 7 He 18 62 34 14 sf 19 26 23 13 720 36 34 17 “ 21 36 he paie ctor als wie 37 re 22 15 Bs Moneyslels Givers eee 32 Cee 26 Nal yess stata senate ae 31 37 : 24 HEAR Sil Hie tic SoOeae 39 : en, G25 39 Caetuiocare sioie Maleate 37 f 26 BOie i) eRe ae ate otc: 47 14 ‘i 27 BB 6 Rb s Ae el Le 34 ‘ey sh 28 26% WR eneereeree Br (atlas 33 7 B29 38 i cage 25 6 = 30 Oy AR aaa ie rye dete tS 37 7 ool 30 pustadu ans lage Sease 20 9 Aug.’ 1 33 SWipronotioce 14 8 Ee 2 23 the acs le Seep ens 18 14 2 3 |: EAR | oat Se Spohrer 26 8 Ly 4 18 BED OF it 3 24 “ 5 G3 We ens ees e 5 (Oren 29 23 es 6 17 shoved ssaeeyeiegatene : 10 - if ao), Wier ie ehettaied sites 33 15 ee 8 16 Soesins Sas ell peers 29 5 S 9 8 ONS IS chic 28 13 ad 10 AGN ee reer tears wine eek 28 2 ae 11 28 Ercineehonereecene 17 2 12 5 Seton a 11 3 1 3 ze ra ee Et ihe J S cq al i—_— t > op LA) yom f- ¢ . 8o°-vak 7 » 8d°50 i3 af « 3-30 ' » TPid rani gy) SP aR Stara eas 9 eons a ~ a a ee 2 * = ae To ne = 190" k Foo" ae 00" 100° Tren as WO res in Bi, ; Noveress T00 25 ere J Or ett; «= +! PF vies ee S552) ved = 3 toners Pee ” pags Cones eS NM ORS FW a 2 4 OA &+ red CO Cr D> SD 00 ty ees ay eo jo veh ~ 2G TABLE 32—NumbBer or LARVAE COLLECTED ON VaRIOUS DATES IN 1916, NUMBER TRANSFORMING AND NUMBER HIBPRNATING i te oe ee tearing ee aie eet Be ‘ones Oe | Begs] aa | ee ends | een ea | ea| S | Ses | 2"s | & E 5 a ae & pees June 15-20 7] ee “ 9128 1) 8 te) ee ee ee “ 2426 20 30) ae las | a an | eee eee “ 2729 7) 88 eae | | ae ea cee " somy 2) 88 | ee | os July 2 3 38 | BE | dos | aa a2) oe ee + 8 08] 78.) | aes | 3p | gs |e ae “gat 225 98] | ar | ae] deel eed “ qe44 eam rae | “1547 a) 40) | ae | at | geo ae “ 18-20 me) 48) mo] a6) ee een eee! “21-22 MMe mt PE “meas ftom) 48) | coe | oa) ae a "2729 78) | go | ap | ay ee eee ee ee * eau) | 48M ae |) ae re Aug. 24 70) 28) | ge | sina] eae eae gee ee cee uated 125 4g | M. 64 20 43 The} ERS 33 1 F, 61 20 Cot Gel Weta ersee | du) sree 34 “$10 au) 70) | as | ge | ee ae “nay 230) 15 1 ae | too | gk] dea) pee ee " 13:46 a4] 88) | age | te | ae | ee “ arag a5) 305) | iee.| os | ape] ogy) gee nes aba | Sagat Wwe dees 49 24 75 | 24. 76. 16 69 F, 202 79 29 94 24. 76. 22 80 “229 #90) 165.) | gee | ae | a8 | der | cai) een ee “ 2628 42) 4 | gat | ee | tea a Be sub | 2) | ate | ee) al ger | esl Sept. 1-6 ae) 1 | | au | ge || tte cc Bet 797 | 199 | ML | 346°) 200 75.020.) aby) < 258) eso cone tiie F. 451 318 |...... nies $s Sa Wc neee, PLAINS Sead 89 ei Bb | 2) | ae | aan Me) ee * 1042 po. | tee | | soe | amp [ccc] a0] 0.2. ae cece B66) 180 fy | een earn aaa te Sei 88 “ 1648 399 | 222 | 08 |oosss) aa ccna a ey ses | 129 | | 280 | 388 cece joadom | cca ee ean eee as ae | 108 | | ies | dg) dee | ce een ann oh ee “ 24-26 aut noo ee ge ee 105 igi ee? es OM CR lier) eee Deboaeae Ma) ie | ECS eee RN Es “44-94 92 7 | 87 20 ae ALT) sins eee 7 1681 959 | 1460 783) 1258 Totals 9088 2277 956 1755 1429 M-I* | 9088 3968 1915 8215 2687 ® 6 Or ed 2) CP eT comies tLe ea) be 4 fo HN cD e- oO STO 7 7 *¢ : seo . * 10 62 ie me > i . ’ . : - - a - ‘Tut - vo . a : ee een ‘ ‘ . . ' . Die Lb. * : : oa a * ay : (es ame te i ° ' cot eg . ° vs . nal, we . « be és “+ da “e 23 “ ate, = + Me ts oo Be or +. +69 a 0 hed os ~~ 2 oe 8D ore a 6 > ys " - ° . . alt : . : “tion - - a Se eH - “ + + “a 7O oO TABLE 88—Davra onrariney rom BAND CoLtrorions AND Lire-tistony OnseRvATIONS, WITH ACCOMPANYING CLIMATIC DATA, Otney, 1916 z ] a Life-history data. S34 Climatic data | cotiscted 018 collected "1010, First genoration. Second generation. Foe 2 Ks | i g | — ell et a SF) ; 5 3 ; 5 3. jEe-s) 3 =| 3 ; 5 Pile 3 3 3 2 z é 2) Ge |Z ejeele/a] 2] el blab] a | bleh at lecleel ae elie fad os SFI rial Wat gE is a2 a8 | a | $8 | 98 | 38 | a2] 93 Sell aees wale 36.8 ; BT aa lite Bil ese Ss leckgue! 53.3 | 7.5 See lence | (rea | eels aioe Ball oer 65.7 | 16.7 pened | asl Cee eters Boag Papen 69.8 | 19.3 | 67 a ee | 2" 5 |e cea ina Baaneil (Scie 59.7 | 9.7 | 72 | 20 . . : Ba| (ont Boor ini 51.1 4.3 | 66 | 18 Sa” Sine hea ‘ Boosnci|| oa0| vawsen!| (oibaiee 60.9 | 10.9 | 67 | 24 oie Seal Rte Bits Irie |linasel| sinviete lie ni 56.0 7.2 | 56 | 86 ee eee Peas ae orl Sisae enna 62.0 | 4.8] 57 | 18 | .o8 eres Salle Ha s| sae | ete Jvtrae | snente 64.0 | 13.8 | 55 | 49 © : : Sek el eee 67.8 | 17.8 | 69 | 22 | 37 | ok lease 61.2 | 2.3 | 76) 4 ats Range foisao 49.5 | 3.8 | 61 | 27 01 all eS ee eee eet 50.0 | 3.8 | 68 | 15 5 3 50.0 | 3.3 | 70 | 18 | 10 eee soll ease 47.0 | 2.6 | 71 | 14 | laa | 4418 -3 | 81) 4) Jos 3 r 48.2 | 1.4 | 82 9) 01 | a a 50-0 | 5.0 | 72 | 18 ees , | 54.8 | 8.8 | 70 | 22 | 61.5 | 11.6 62.3 | 12.3 08 FY ia 50.6 | 1.8 +23 Ballo 60.8 | 2.2 125 oY = 63.9 | 4.6 : : 3 Iereatia| he sa5q| |acaoan | naces 62.0 | 12.0 65.5 | 15.5 a 74.0 | 24.0 | 67 | 36 : 72.0 | 22.0 | 64 | 36 ar 62.0 | 13.4 | 40 | 38 73.0 | 23.0 | 49 | 48 64.0 | 15.0 | 50 | 30 | .02 cal 58.5 8.5 | 66 | 18 08 59.5 | 9.6 | 76 | 16) 12 ; 76.5 | 25.5 | 67 | 37 eos 69.2 | 19:2 | st | 4| .40 ; e 61.2 | 11.2 | 64 | 16 : 53.3 | 5.8 | 66 | 19 | .o2 ; 68.5 | 6.5 | 60 | 22 en 53.7 | 8.4 | 64 | 24 | 64.1 | 14.1 | 62 | 26 | = 63.9 | 18.9 | 73 | 8 | .25 a [lass 70.4 | 20.4 | 80 | 17) [05 71.6 | 21.5 | 70 | 20 | 36 71.3 | 21.3 | 71 | 20 | 76.5 | 25.0 | 67 | 30 : 78.9 T1.2 A 68.8 6 16 . 6 24 coe 3 63.5 5 2 67.0 2 21 74.1 5 23 ve |seee]) 66.8 10 | 64.0 a tees | 65.6 i 3 ++ |eeee] 64.5 | 14.5 | 89 | 16 | 2:78 uW aai| evael | aeasd 06 2 poe [asian | nchaet =) lenstel| ROLE i 5 =| leatetel| MBBES 01 2 | : 5 | 8 cal 58 ialss)| piel GBS 16 | ie 47 | 20 | . Hl Geil py 68.0 05 oe 9 is - 43, | at a3 70.2 2 | 4 [fertente)| Keogtel| creel | erie 2 3 15 , snc ieee oce’ laowal | hin 15 4 | 12 S500 (Beco ts 65.0 64 Sa 2 | ; 10 Sat 65.0 3 5 | 27 4 He E | 66.6 -12 2 ih) a 5 é weve} 67.0 62 4 7 6 | 27 ae : 68.5 1 | a 5 : 67.4 83 Shise 28 i 66.6 2 : 2. Al calle q E 723 1.37 i : 5 1 . 2 a Sell eg el | = 29 | 2 18 oo : af 5 5 1 6 . 1 ea 3 2 . . . 47 | 6 5 : 1 see 2 . - on | | 65 sz | 9 - . . eee Pets |] A Atel | saa | | 1 si}ie 5 we 4 cll osee rae | 23.6 5 | ies mths ie 23.9 4 5 | 3 ey nil omen oes 25.3 228 4 . ayers veel] ae ae ae eae prac (e ; se 26.2 2 5 sere 3 sail 27.1 oa 14 6 c 4\f5 | 26.6 -80 : 7 4 25.4 01 110 23 | 3 0 eee 32 22 pan) - Sid ; : 28.9 121 : . . a oe 5 | 28:6 : 26.9 ss 26.4 15 j (oe 24.4 : a | 24.6 16 5 20 42 141 .) ‘fice 25.0 | 2 31 | a 45 Pr 5 au) 30 5 70 é Be | 27: PAlpete ; 2 84} 10 x a 26.4 es 17 38] 24 BAI |e 27.0 : 72 pov fh 26 33 | 64 ail lee 27.4 | 2 | ‘ 28 35] 52 Eos 3 28.8 ; 43 | | i 2 16)| eee. mG [Pt | 27. Aug, : a0 Seca [acieia | | sits 20 1h) | Gegnae Bact cD | 27.4 10 cs I reeetcal| star | eee 8 26 Jo : 26.8 Cy yl ; 70 | Ree hoe CBee eee " ; | 2 7 20) |e oe | awcilines | 28.2 A | 17 ua Goooor| Cl ocotline estes Sal kel5 Pe ‘ |. | 29. | LS |) rea ieee me | 30.3 * || ] 128) | Wee Bean Ba hos | 28.2 02 221 | : agi i740 e555) Shalem | 27.9 18] 145 |.....| 24 a Gites! le 29.0 E 230 3 18) 149 |....| 7 re | 27-4 “58 eal ee 36 1 Re ‘ 8) [p18] ee 47 atu ke | 13.6 a2 6 3 31 rip lobe bs 20.6 2.31 4 2a) 165} eee | ee | 27.2 20 |.. Cail Wea | Nae 26.4 ae aI) 23 |e 29] 8) |e} 28.9 5 315 Ud bigs 67 | 16] 78 ana - . Seo VW Meo : : aia 19) 26li [ican 21.3 i 350 | ‘ Caohe 091} | ice . ¢ | eye 7 Brberalonrent) ae) en ook 19.8 #3 sales Pierce {acesall adel! veaell se Mid | 21.4 18 } | en Boats | eee eet OM | ame i 66.8 | 16.8 58 he 42 Rests | 2 | 45 | 74 68.8 | 19.8 10 72 | ole is -] ob} a7 | ae 62.9 | 12:9 | : 23 ae 5.)| Sut aural | (ie 65.4 | 15.4 ; cn 4 , 24 es 5 7| 28] 5 69.8 | 19.8 ; Salt 6 | 22 | 55 68.9 | 18.9 1.06 i), BAL eae (Bee Sears Ree ere 4 22 | 74 70.8 | 20.8 3 : a aero | Cae: | To meee Ea ee 71,6 | 21.6 | | an Pss'sictl eee Saesan 78.9 | 28,2 +22 "a97 1505] : ‘ eaten 78.4 | 27.2 ales ee i Pal etertn| lector TU || 27.7 1,00 Sta e a a | 71.6 | 21.6 42 | B16) | : : 5h, | 67.6 | 17.6 ; ; 2 Bas fi fsociaay fines Sue 67.7 | 17.7 pecs hae SHO is cash 72.8 | 22.8 7) Bt cele aa aa nel Wtearel Kaan Bit Rosen |e 64.9 4.9 “500 | .: AL Sepa lsc 68.3 | 8, ote mere | eed nea Be al eA 50.0 | BA ses BPD ese rT NSE eae 2 (RR nol7 | a2 ae eel javelin vec pee | cea revel 66.0 | 16.6 a Nise pie pean Zeenat Red eteacebs | Eee ee 63.2 | 12.2 oh gc Nae. Fecavns'| iaabael econ iit dnteeet | Meee ea 66.3 | 8.8 eae aie Pdi al ashe Paice | atignest | Naccniecel ate 63.9 | 9,1 ret Re eta’ | acetyl Geaeahe) | eeteck a | RIPE | ag Us [Ranga G40 | 14.0 ease f aa visit [ated Aen | Moric | aged | ean hits | 72,0 | 22.6 bie ry Wieiedns| SEBEL (aitata oll aeaxtae Fapeaameel |e an’: c rea aie ec 0.6 | 2.3 WAR ral eect WAS iat, fy] ea eae (eee Bins rans |rcees a7 ea | (ere tal Lsectnol boorriced aca ltises aI ae | | iaie wird P| ee Fs Sorrell L eyes! “eanial “eon | “woao [nove \xpnol rane] anim fur | rom | vor | town |” wna | non | non [won | apn 269 Of the males, 39.6 per cent., and of the females, 35.3 per cent. trans- formed, 60.4 per cent. of the males and 64.7 per cent. of the females hibernated. Altogether, 37.3 per cent. of those collected transformed and 62.7 per cent. hibernated. Undoubtedly a much larger per cent. hibernated than the above figures indicate, since the collections do not include all the hibernating larve that left the fruit late in the season, after collections had ceased. It is probably true that three fourths or more of the larve which develop during a given season hibernate. This being the case it is very evident that if a very large per cent. of them did not perish during the winter, the first generation in the spring would be much larger than it usually is. A daily record of the band collections, life-history observations, and + climatic conditions at Olney in 1916 have been brought together in Table 33 for ready reference. SUMMARY OF THE SEASONAL History, 1916 From the foregoing data and an occasional reference to original notes we can summarize quite accurately the seasonal history of the codling-moth for 1916 (Table 34). Chart 2 gives a graphic representation of the seasonal history of the codling-moth in 1916, the daily temperatures above 50 degrees F., and the monthly rainfall. The number of pupations observed daily are shown in the top sec- tion of the chart, the number of moths emerging daily in the second section from the top, the number of eggs deposited in the third, the number of larve hatched in the fourth, and the number of larve leaving the fruit in the fifth. The daily temperatuzes above 50 degrees F. are shown in the bottom section, beneath which is given the rainfall for each month. The order of events in the seasonal history is indicated by the num- bers from 1 to 12 in the chart. Thus: 1 indicates the first brood of pupze 2; © adults 3 ce “ ce “ “ eggs 4 a eat “— ““larve hatching and leaving the fruit 5 i “second “ “ pup 6 a3 “oe “e oe iss adults 7 ce “ o iad “e eggs 8 7 aes “““larve hatching and leaving the fruit OR aa Sethirds “ pup 10 s re “i “ adults 11 of ase es “ eggs 12 < ee < “Jarve hatching and leaving the fruit. 270 “MOT}BALESqO ysery 4 *pojnduios sazeq x 4s “PO it *~pO BAIR] oinjzeyy 3 St "ydeg &L "deg GL “ydes 8% ‘sny x06 ‘“sny waiel sunox PAIL T@ “ydeg OT “ydeg 6% “any Si ‘sny «PL ‘“Sny s33q xPL “ydeg L "dag 93 ‘shy Gt ‘sny él “sny s}Inpy € ‘ydesg eZ ydeg LT “sny IL ‘sny § “any edn tse 390 GZ “dag OL ‘ydeg 8 ‘sny Te Arne BALB] 9.IN} BIA puooasg Tz “ydeg 12 ‘sny ji ‘SnVy Tz Arne Alia 4 @BAIvl SunoZx b “ydag Sl “sny 92 Arne Gt Arne 9 Ane Soil «PZ “SNY OL ‘sny 92 Arne Pr «Arne € Ane synpV PL ‘“sny 6 ‘sny ct Ane py 6 Ane 0Z@ oun wvdng 6 “any 9g Ane 8 Ayne 62 oun 02 oune BAIR] VINCI WILT «87 A[nge 6 oun g oune 92 API Gg API BAIv] SUNOZ x0E Arne Tt ount yo) | (AR IN 6— AR tL «ARI s33q og sunt 1g «ASIN ST Av PL «ARI TL Avi s}vINpy LE aune TL sey OZ lady 9L Tady 8 Tady edng peda! " snoi3emnu sno1emnu 4s9]e'] ATOATILTOY UWINUWIxe ATOATIVION ysorl[1eq poreg Mol}e19TIe+4) 9T6T NI ‘AGNIO LY HLOW-DNITAOD AHL TO XYOLSIE] TYNOSVaS—FE ATAWL = > —_s. J ad h ? > F — t > Z ¥ ‘ - * » - “ OT tk > + 5 au 7 Qe Re <3 Ci Lo APRIL MAY | oe 5_/0 15 20 25 (0/5 20 25 34 5 /0 /5 20 di VERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURES ABOVE 50 Ot So ee Cuart 2. Seasonal histo Pav won. ULY AUG “4§ 20 25 30 5 70 /§ 20 25 39 9 10 : id 8 12 D FROM BANDS: 8 70 /§ 2025 5 4/0 (5 206 of. 1.25 4.C/ ! codling-moth at Olney, 1916. SEP 5 /9 /5 20 25 3 —) F.27- 5 OCT, 70 /25 100 a Spadaanneresé. sees Pete = Sageuas DEEL sysalO Susi bonarst s 271 The third brood of pupe is very clearly indicated by the marked increase in the number of pupations observed after August 8 or just after the second brood of larve began to leave the fruit, and the third brood of adults is as clearly indicated by the increase in the number of nioths which emerged after August 15. The third broods of pupe and of adults were nearly as large as the second broods, and no doubt the same held true for the third brood of larve. The black lines drawn obliquely downward through the chart connect the dates when each of the broods began, and the broken lines connect the dates on which the broods ended. The pupation of the first brood was very irregular, being frequently interrupted by cold periods. Owing to the cooler weather during April, May, and June, development was slower while the first brood was developing than later in the season, and for this reason there is little or no overlapping of the first and the second broods. The bulk of the first brood of pupz, adults, eggs, and young larve had appeared fully a month before the second brood of each began to appear. The development of the second and third broods was much more rapid, and as a result there was a considerable overlapping of the broods, so much so in fact that pupe, adults, eggs, and larve appeared daily, with little interruption, from the date of the appearance of the first of the second brood to the date of the appearance of the last of the third brood. The average temperature for the month of June was about 5° below normal. This delayed the appearance of the second brood of pupe, adults, eggs, and larve. Had normal temperatures prevailed during June the second and third broods would have appeared about one week earlier, and as a result the third brood would-have been much larger. RECORDS FOR SEVERAL LOCALITIES TABLE 35 Generation Stage | Ozark Olney Plainview ae Pupa April 10 ‘April 13 April 13 April 13 First Moth May 10 May 10 May 11 May 10 5 Egg May 14*| May 14 May 20 Young larva May 25 May 25 May 28 Mature larva | June 10 June 20 June 26 June 29 Pupa June 10 | June 24 Julys ee Moth June 25* ouLy: = +3 July 8 July 11 Second Egg June 29* July 6 July 10 July 13 Young larva July 4* July 12 July 16 July 18 Mature larva | July 26* Aug. 3 Aug. 5 Pupa July * 31* Aug. 7 Aug. 9 Moth Aug. 8* Aug. 16 Aug. 17 Third Egg Aug. 10* Aug. 18 Aug. 19 Young larva Aug. 16* Aug. 23 Aug. 29 Mature larva Aug. 26* Othe ew * Dates followed by an asterisk were computed. ek Sal 272 Dates of the appearance of the different stages at Olney and other points in 1916 are given in Table 35, immediately preceding. Olney is 75 miles, Plainview 108 miles, and Springfield 150 miles north of Ozark. The overwintering larve began to pupate at Ozark April 10, at Olney, Plainview, and Springfield April 13. The first moths emerged and the first eggs hatched on nearly the same dates at the four places. Larvz of the second generation began to hatch about 8 days later at Olney, 12 days later at Plainview, and 14 days later at Spring- field than at Ozark, and larve of the third generation began to hatch 7 days later at Olney and 13 days later at Springfield than at Ozark. Three generations were recorded at all four points. The third genera- tion at Springfield was small as compared with the third generation at Olney. SEASONAL History OF THE CopLING-morTH, 1917 The methods of work pursued during 1915 and 1916 were continued in 1917. The work at Olney was closed in July, so complete records were not kept of the second and third generations at that place. The season was not favorable for rapid development. While the mean temperature for April was about normal the temperature during the first half of the month was much below normal. May and June were cold months. The total accumulation of monthly degrees above 50 for April, May, June, July, and August was 86.9, the normal being 93.3. LARGE-CAGE SERIES First generation—The material collected from cages in 1916 was not preserved, hence no record of the pupation and emergence of hiber- nating material was secured from cages. Hibernating larve collected from bands in 1916 began to pupate April 3. Moths began to emerge May 17 and continued to emerge till June 24. The first moths to emerge were not liberated in a large cage because the dates when the first eggs, larvee, pupze, and adults of the first generation appeared could be easily ob- served without using a cage; but the last moths to emerge from the hibernating band material were liberated in a large screen-cage to get the dates when the last eggs, larvee, pupz, and adults of the first genera- tion appeared. The first eggs of the first generation were laid May 19 and hatched June 1. The first mature larve left the fruit June 23 and pupated June 26, and the first moths emerged July 7. The last eggs of the first genera- tion were noted in the large cage June 27. They were probably laid two or three days earlier. They hatched July 1. Mature larve were found under the band on the tree in this cage from July 13 to August 13. No observations were made to ascertain the dates of the last pupe and adults. Ouney, 1917 TABLE 36—Rewation or Ture of Leaving rae PRuit To Trate or EMence xce oF Morus oF THE HIGERNATINO Generation oF 1916-17. Number emerging and dates of emergence, 1917, ———— = -— — ~— ~ — Totals. Dates of Leaving | E May June | Average lesa = = = 7 Ale ] i lwaall lel = ] : jaz | as] 19 | 20 at | 2 zs [ou | 25 [26 [or [28 [20 [0 [or | | be] fe fe] +] s| o [so [se [a [as] as] 6 | se) ar [as | x0 | 20] an [ae [2s fon | x. | & + = ; ? a “ 7 es a rest Lar la ae - 1 rar ) Cae | ' | 1916 | les] 1 May 26 Aug. 47 a eeell y : M. 1| 1 2 June 4 $10 F. | M. if. : 1 Hee i ake 1 an ; M. aaa Fr. pe EH sah | eal Lipsey] heed eran Be “ } M. 1 5 8) 1 ATs ete he Bes had WEEE NN rs ue 3) 5) 4 ga |bon) 1 ii ag) , eo 1 9) 9) 2 al Bisacd Sie rbesodess ; eos FE 3 79) 9 a} t[8) 4 sales) U) Hang y M. 5 18 9| 11 4) 3] 2) 4 c 3 2 F. 5 11| 21) 19 10) bE G6 4) a) a) ay 4 Fi M. 1 6 10) 15 4 8 4 2 ar ac FE 6 11 11) 16 8 5| 6 7 5 ee) YG | Po 29-31 M. wea fece|alTp cao} 13 m) -8)/5) 6 Pe eed it aye | Fr. rg ey IC) kd [ose] a] ja} 3] a 1) 8).-2) 3) 3 5 : M. Spread] Vlg 6 Pa et fess Be ae Feel hoes q Senki? Er 2 9 17) 16 3] sii} 9) a 1 ios 36 M. 2 1 10 12 3] 9|°3) (2-4 Pal fac: te F | Tl. 2/10, 6 8) 6| 6) 7)... 1} ale 7-9 M. reed fab Cy oh eet Far Si eee] eS eazile ri} stl k= FL 1 ae ial 02), 06 uy 3) 8) 8) 2 “ala “40-12 M. 1} oH UES eae Pe} to 2) 2) had } | | F =stifectft 1B (84) 08) TBI pea ay 1010 ie ead: a 3) 1) “ 4145 M Fr. Bor.) 184 dif 8) 20) 8) ae alo see 1618 M. 36 6) 8) 2) 5]... 4) 8] i) 3)...). all (a Fr. 5}. A ARTY ob) dy Began) Bee tie : «7983 |) a aie a otal cal dla) Payig 5) 03 | 9)s.5 7%) 1a} a0}! In| Ef Sl nom eet aes: “s903 | ML. 4) ce) PSE 61 Meh ere|: A] e AI IB) ay Fr. Glee) 7) Ma] 7).00)) (21 8] 8) Bh.) hs "24-05 M. FB) Ud Pd Peaks ae Tees Peon) bess Poet Peed (et F. FU (Bee i eo Ue (0) Met To ate g/d ee) " 960ct. 2) M. Ba (c Spey at ed Pond becuear diary) yer F. 2). Fone er) bet peel Ce RTE ol ltd eed le Oct. 3.10 M. a). OS Well Foard Deee§ Beee 0 Rel ene ef mtd beard F vt (ha eed Pc [erat ped J : “ 41-4 M. . 5 Te 2 2 3) nil) FE 5 Jane | | | | == a tT ee u. | 3 aE 211/210) 32 8| 44| 36] 27) 31) 13) 9 —=7 = a — — |—_ —. Totals | F 1) 44/128|146| 31 10) 72| 69| 65, 68) 21) 21 IMeF. 3) 92/174 939 | 256° 63, 282| 288/252 | 295) 18|116|105| 92 94 34) 80) 18) 28) 27) a1| 84) 17 ] | zs) ae Lm | p ‘inal anr oni aa 10 0 9 i a on wr ges Sg 08 | ety) (896 (te os)! az |! er } Lot raw Ee Be ORES Oars MMI WLR TARE 9.5 {é t : eo j i t fates NA lly Seren a a, | ay rl ty & g eae ° Ib Peak eet : ap sil CEN vhs he ees LE ne SH ee NN eR Ug : CAD SS aD t He hoa eand Mat A ORR See UA am a VE. SO) OURO. rie Ok eee OS PE ng Jem De 48 1 Mae gag aD a f if Bi FE y OVS) WB) wpe {Bt ad ae ‘ iin! t ay LOL wy ree'he a ae ec) 4 Hae ! OTE Bhd Rew Bt ikl s cle aN i ‘ We HN apr Pe Va eC \ t NOR SSM oh Oe RAI A SER Sn SS LR 1 eeu g Hehe g on ORR ORS ME Se tae Ue zj ra ae ! 1 PF Oe OU Ba Bie ht ae ty, Ps i he HD g a Nae ibe ae Ae ea i bay) ws Bib. PRA cae es VERE CAD oO PBAS Rs Rt A LE eer wd PORE ies) LC) ie ei ee: Tes tina ie eis 2c a a Oe ND a PR ea ee CM Re ‘ y oT gee) aM! : feist ees) ob bes eens baainh Dh eae W Sy OS Abe a Be ae Sere ees Ob Ma ait we Ma bs ¢ AS aha Ba eR OURE > Wet AEs Sater, Be Ooty ORE EAMES Ope be Le er Be by & OS Biel ag VPLS) eee Oe eee 18 Neg t Fowas ae Man ea treme Ce Wake ce | | eee ReN eee f RIT ae ees it pape me Ls Bel yrhty ae Pa LAP Ta : I tigger | § Bed. (PSetO My owes 3S wid . f E Bi LL PREMISE: HOE ie / : t [ f Bobet te Ba 4 i a. 8 ety? Ss ! g Hy t ou bee I & } ! i es : Ty dh FR ke Mth, bene My ; Boren if Pr wme ott pene SM Si) YR 8 LL f whee ee Sey Oem ced TEP hg RR ee ha che hue de bp diebie wie hres r { | i] pnp pnd ttl VBR Or P82 98-8 39 ORE Se rid Os sab b) he bee sLnor Ort ue SR et cee a ee Oe es ater genome em ee HE oct saa ll AS | FS | 805 pad] 20.1. vie sor }oan pers port (08 28 be. ge teron parr! Bt pase ieaspsdeiess i. ' , “ea , * 273 Second generation.—The first moths of the first generation were _ liberated in cage No. 2 to rear the first individuals of the second genera tion. Moths were liberated in cage No. 2, as follows: Date Males Females July 8 ib iL: eee) 1 1 cers) 4 3 rag ba 4 1 Oye 8 1 Go lis) 6 6 Cea 9 12 Eggs were found July 11 and young larve July 17. Daily observa- - tions ceased before larve began to leave the fruit in this cage. Third generation.—The first eggs probably were laid about August 16 and hatched about August 22. BAND COLLECTIONS Hibernating generation, 1916-1917,—Of the 2687 adults of the hiber- nating generation emerging in 1917, 1258 were males and 1429 were fe- males (Table 36). The average date of the emergence of the males was May 25, of the females May 27, and of the entire brood May 26. This was five days after the date of the maximum emergence. There was practi- cally no difference between the dates of emergence of moths from larve which left the fruit in August and the emergence of those from larve __ which left the fruit later. Collections made in 1917 (see Table 37)—The first mature larvee __were taken under bands at Springfield only two days later than at Olney. The second generation of larve began to leave the fruit at Olney between July 23 and July 30, but, unfortunately, there was a period of seven days here between the records, and the exact date can not be accurately deter- mined. The bands at Springfield were torn from the trees some time be- _ tween August 4 and August 12 by some one unknown, and hence the date when the second generation began to leave the fruit at Springfield is also uncertain. ‘The falling off in the number of larve taken at Springfield after October 6 was due largely to the fact that the apples were picked from half of the trees soon after that date. Complete records of pupation, and the emergence of moths from band material were not preserved. At Ozark the first larva left the ‘apples June 18 and the first moth emerged July 1. At Olney the first larve left the fruit June 23, and pupated June 26, the first moths emerg- ing July 7. At Springfield the first larve left the fruit June 25, and pupated June 28, the first moths emerging July 9. (Table 40, p. 277.) 274 Observations ceased too early to get complete data on pupation and emergence of the second generation, or on the third generation. There is no doubt, however, that there was a third generation at Olney. Larve of the second generation began to leave the fruit about August 4, and since transforming of larve usually continues till the end of August, no doubt many of the first larvee of the second generation transformed and pro- duced a partial third generation. The first eggs of the third generation were laid about August 23 and hatched about August 31. TABLE 37—ReEcorp OF LARVAE COLLECTED UNDER BANDS AT OZARK, OLNEY, AND SPRINGFIELD IN 1917 Number of larve collected Date Ozark Olney Springfield June 21 2 ae) 2 3 “24 aL 825 3 hoe ers 9 26 Soc 29) 8 43 fep ici) 29 July 2 ea) a5) uli ly? | baal | 3 55 65 peeaa fil 4 91 teoenadich 5 96 STs 46 Se aby 6 26 eRe IC) 23 reel 116 ote ile 7 8 ae 2 4 Ter) 2 125 “e 30 44 Aug. 2 6 62 ¥ 6 9 182 Bands off* ae ails} 3 243 Bands off* see Lf 14 age) 362 22 12 “24 11 114 29) 13 365 Sept. 1 13 . eo Eee 544 goer) 42 earth 31 1860 28 14 1334 Oct. 6 16 1395 vet I} 299 18 500 Hares ii) 54 51 *See p. 273, line 13 from bottom. bo a p) es"T st’ Lat wer Th: 621 To" 1 | or” 10° og" 9° Goad veer | Laos ital 7 5 Hoess saaddowrssecacan leemein men ceee eH h hence = = = S aSaenes “Qpm0n wep om Seow sac Sooree nieces 58 Ca 0 09 29 Sd On C9 09 3 C9 C2 OF SF Od ON Od CF Cd Od OT Od SSe2SSaensssssesus “Cd ee)e BE SESS ORS PSHE NOASAST OE ABO ATO ASTHSOMS IMM SSHANSOE SE KH AASBAAAANA ACL + au ba o FA RRR RRR MA RARN SAAN Ban saass i-ees Sass a e ee oe se a ee eee el ee i ee Ssescuxnanecsoencer SSSSISSSSESSSSSESSES SOR SN SI ONE SEI SI SR MO WOM HOMO ON NAL AL ANHANNHAN Nie ON mIAS SSESSSS SSS SES SSS SSSES ESS S SSH CSS SES SSE S SSS SSSSE SES SEEPS GSE SEE EEE SEE EEE See BOeSR EAH RONAN MeN oeee KHAN c oer IRN os 9 +L 26 T aOR z I don oer LOL “aepy: Dre SS sudo “atopy. ‘add ‘N10, VALVE OLIV WII ONTAN poroojoo"anset woayt poroo}t0o rato, MOsyt WWODOY LTA WNOLLY OGG AIOLMEIDSUIE, (NY ANOLLOUTTOD ONVEL WOT HONTWIMO VIVE gp OV, ow ui SN RBW RMA: aaanaeeande seesaentes eanS55nhstezsseseeRe Praal haY ae CPD) Far 08 Hee a ee b Oh SO kD cys rED OP aD a < es amie telat. vltsistoe rei 4M Wh 1 Up & igh ee Pah OO aa eu i St Oe CaP Fee & HOSS SBBS Beha 922 See 3 bees a ri Elatow Pn ee apap hind acetate iat wre )Y Bd Sy: Chl Po eo sABp OT EF8E 9982 6886 G66 S&66 8962 - L866 FO0E LEOE &@ PS Wy LOSS PEE T9&S 8886 SLE PES 6946 9646 €6S6 LG pS wy LO8T Pest T98T 888L ST6L GPOL 696T 9661 $206 LG PS qas 9TET Bret S9ET post OZFT OFFL GLPL 86FT FEST 96 PZ WP org 089 0s9 0L9 069 OTL Osh Osh OLL 06 4st PE 90F GSP B&F var OLY 98P 60S 81g PEs 9T 4ST DZ #487 skp 6 skep § sfep b sep 9 skep ¢ shtup | sep ¢ skBp Z ‘sep T Seizen SS nies avaIvl | ceads TD | pug | = ‘argeq prnoys Suarsvads may soersep-Avp aaAtjoayo JO mol} B[NUnIOy yauxou nears: 1 UT pezerdui0s aq 0} a aSBIDAV | wysoud Xvid§—TS WIAVL ER ao bo Si a eo hates TNS TS i rare STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief’ Vol. XIV. BULLETIN» Article VIII. FIRST REPORT ON A FORESTRY SURVEY OF ILLINOIS BY ROBERT B. MILLER PRINTED-BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS March, 1923 es STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION A. M. Suerton, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION A. M. SHELTON, Chairman WiiiiaAM TRELEASE, Biology Joun W. Atvorp, Engineering Joun M. Coutter, Forestry Kenpric C. Bascock, Representing the Epson S. Bastin, Geology President of the University of Ilinots Wuu1am A. Noyes, Chemistry THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION STEPHEN A. Forses, Chief elived li IQ lrAie PHVA VS ak YoOrtAa aM, eter re vw wett carer Lee weGtade - TTA (Ray UA BP ae AA cps Vill amen were eae Lule ag ¥ a peas t a tte ORM JtiTAc ae” & a, =" reat i _ A ol pier yt CONTENTS os EAN UUSOT So cal nge omen 5 Reed SOU Bt ODE A DOROS BOOTHS MEA Aa nCa rere CER EEOLE HREATIO LIES Sete tncaetaie Sessa oie iat Sister ote’ Stojeye"e aieis cle wii wie ob ieiaiele-wiele ieee @ I. Land classification The forest: TRINGLIET AA tay cic eR REE noe CRORE IO CIO AIOE OC tenure Per eee te IBOLEStERVPES: corey Maye cre cia arse ovis 6.2 ai sVoialoiavers uu’ sive eliieie sieisieieia Detailed exhibit of stand of types by counties for area surveyed, and aper Genito fedt wOGUEO sla cits aicisis nie.) vie oye ocere cicic,e elolelela, cleseials Important trees and their main uses: EFANG WOO Samos, sia syderere cio sete foes vais ieiel braseishetaleis atsis stave awe. a10 0.0 Ses Tabulated data obtained by a study of types of upland and Pottomilandentim bens sath ae oa lerctereie ates a eiele niyo teveleersiale Selene siete Annual cut in board feet Physiographic features: Topography Drainage REO Ova vel olealapriets i svafacere felicia eal vcs arava ie’ Sis, acete caning ne ieieleceienderSchoioye SSISEMMLVIAG Simro crore Meeete Ces eteCole eterats eer cyoiware, eke soi se ove a aterel ogpa trelavelay are: shat MUA ALC eerste cere ei isicrtis stare ones oie ce iraiere Sees cities s cacaieee ees vets Il. Milling and logging operations and wood-using industries in South- UMN IONS teste rarereheaievatarerc racers reheat caprolevoteione eisistelesre Sieweiowle, a areale List of mills, with location and output SMEAR VEMCOL NING ISLEY veiste ie cysrle.ote sialsvoiein es clelsisls Sisielé wsialsve Wiersizi ab 'e'eie'e sts Manufacturers in the region, and products ............-+eeeee- Necessity for a local supply of “softwoods” for veneer purposes Charcoal-making: Processes and yields Ties and mine timbers: asia GuESLOSS=tlESa actersia ta ais tej ciatene ote cavers Gaga #1 auauwle, © eaeeeloyal eve) erelereteerersia Specifications, grades and sizes, species ..............+-- Wood preservation and tie-treating plants in Illinois Timber used in coal mines III. Forest problems: eT G Ales pete oe \ar nner acolo erase’ “ooye\Wieyeia oo. <.2i6 re) sve! #\s) oe ol ayes evare ca (stacd Sin,‘0id;e svelecsie Direct effects of fires injury to reproduction Minny tiraye tO EHOM SON cpos:c.c lo; eicieysafeel cre ayewis, oe Srviale, vie wine) « plave lets Sava sine lehaca Injury to productive power of the forest ........... 3 Effect of severe burning upon young stands Erosion “COIS TR O06 COO OBED OOS COC OE COLOR OCne TSE ICE Ome Dee aCe ae nrmtccar IV. Forest policy and management MMUeai Otani: titer DELL cs, ee 345 much smaller yield—9.8 cords per acre for the Ava stand and 20.63 cords for New England. The mean annual growth at Ava was only 21.3 cubic feet per acre for the 35-year period as against 48.6 cubic feet in New England. TABLE 9.—DaTA ON THREE 14-AcRE SAMPLE PLoTs—35-YEAR STAND, UPLAND Tyre. Location, Sec. 8, Tr. 8 S., RANGE 4 W., Ava, ILL. (Licht Burn 8 YEARS AGo) ; : ¢ : Basal area Diameter,|} White Black anes Miscel- Triches 5h Sale Hickory Elm lancons Totals 4! pe No. | Vol. | No. | Vol. | No. | Vol. | No.| Vol. | No. | Vol. |No. Trees i 3 jeu. ft.| 2 jcu.ft.| 24 jcu. ft.) 3 |cu. ft. 1 |cu. ft. 33 198 2 14} 2.8] 4 ol adOnle=3.8) 1 || op? A 40 .880 3 AJeeS cies PLO} “6: |) 2:4) VSP 12 8 83 4.117 4 Ai Nee LO ts2\ As 322 Al) SG) Selo 27 74 6.438 3 40 | 56.0} 15 | 21.0) 2] 2.6) 41] 5.6} 4] 5.6 65 8.840 6 BenQ ets SOLO eNO c clin or d2-5)] a Olea. 30 5.880 7 2 AO 8)" 9) 1.30:6) OF fie oe. |) 3! 100.2) 2), 34 25 6.665 8 fSoaiezie es Ses, 2 8:8" OF...) | BA 18 6.282 9 NSO) 2 Heeeroaa | | Ps DBI ce |e ke be erly Seam 12) 5.304 10 Beate mea fe Stine |llsrs ceil 's4ci.a|leqe cscs B e)rehel| aor Ey 2.725 11 Oi eer em Oia eowiteyetees| serene \Nere sails tors SE S| eee 0 12 ibe W291 0) Vol EET eae as Al bees lefieseo|[iscaaey (Cetin Ales a Hee 1 785 Totals |199 ben 91 |144.9] 59 | 34.6] 23 | 34.3) 14 | 17.3] 386 48.21 TABLE 10.—COMPARISON BETWEEN AVA (ILL.) STAND AND ONE IN NEW ENGLAND* Total Total Total Mean number|basal area io volume averare Age sae annual ae of cea in feet an inches | ¥'**| cords growth rees sq. ft. Cue at. cu. ft. Ava (Iil.) | %4-acre basis 386 48.2 30 558.2 S10") 35 7.30 15.9 One-acre basis} 441 60.2 30 747.7 5.0 35 9.8 Pas} New England _ l-acre basis, second- growth hardwoods..| 1,515 85.3 34.4 1,460 3.21 30 | 20.63 48.6 EFFECT OF SEVERE BURNING UPON YOUNG STANDS The effects of fire upon one stand are shown by the following figures, which were carefully taken on a quarter-acre plot in a thirty-year old stand where a severe fire had occurred in 1917. The trees were tallied, according to diameter, under two headings, “alive” and “dead,” the diameter ranging from one inch to eight inches. We saw trees of this *See Table 9 and pages 344-345. 346 latter size which had been injured beyond any hope of recovery. As can be seen from the final figures, 70% of the stand had been killed, reducing the living trees from 632 to 188 per acre. A quarter-acre stand examined under similar conditions, but unburned, showed that there were on it 200 trees six inches and over in diameter, or 800 thrifty trees per acre. TABLE 11.—SHOWING FIRE DAMAGE ON 14-ACRE SAMPLE PLOT, BURNED IN 1917, Section 8, Tr. 8 S., fas 4 W., NEAR AVA. sy rare Alive Dead White oak? 5.72 sc nts eee aon 16 26 Blackioak. voeto|[ pen Sous lneresroe lor canr : p |soziee ltb ler loss] Z a aa eas gg oe ol Hoots (gen ces 8 |07|87|G6E Dr ES |Sp9)9 Bee ore eeearsve | ects regal eweaercseiss| Uae) etatel | euezereseed | eu cence och) ade eerpt= sell se paxaratnlsiccarecteal| tesretet= ce |tzloelos|es iz9 lpz \sts|s SOAS BED | Ga TeNees | eaeto ios BW naa | iertomaacy eto oemar lotletloe|zp|ts | zo loz lez | oe} +> eine |, cai Pa ee JTI|GS@/Se]TS |e9|89 |pL jO8 | 68) € acre Jie || fs akte,| peel is intel OIG] Ne ties (Maa coe a lc a a 61 |/TE|Sb | HS |89]SL |S8 06 [S26 | Zz Oe aes |g) Sete Ee Soa (oo creee) Imes gpentes| |Mocomual at rexcrens| | aedeetovn| oucworo om! kueyenctiena SI zz | rb les |oz | 08 | 16 | 86 bor lott ltr | 1 IZ 0Z 61 81 Lt oT ST tI €1 (ae IT or 6 8 L 9 S b € (4 T $9 ao (sayout) sapeoeq Aq Burg 0} 19395 wiosj snipeay I9deJoAY UO sdUe ASIC, 37 yaay € “QYUSFIEY Gumn}S—69 ‘ON IZ6I ‘8 ‘390 ‘97"C a01}-dyny ‘seroeds stout] ‘eAy ‘47172907 LAHHHS-CATaIA SISATVNV WHLs 353 stump for different diameters breast-high. It can be seen that with such a table, which is a “taper table,” the size of the average tree can easily be ascertained, and that all the data are in hand necessary for scaling its contents by any log rule or for computing its volume in cubic feet. 5. Plot curves of total and merchantable heights based on D. B. H. for both black and white oaks. Also make up tables from curves show- ing the board foot and cubic foot contents of trees based on D. B. H. 6. To get volumes based on age, plot the measurements taken under the heading “Distance on average radius from center to ring by decades” shown on the field sheet. Taking the stump section first, plot the diameter grown in ten years, by doubling the radius measurement each time. Diameter inside the bark is used as the ordinate and age as the abscissa for the curve. 7. Repeat the same procedure for the other sections, or logs, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, on separate sheets of cross-section paper, and finally assemble all of these curves on one sheet. In this case the curves for different lengths are moved out to the age corresponding to the number of years required to grow up to that height from the ground. 8. With such a set of curves of diameter-growth at different heights, read off the time required to grow a log of any length or any top diame- ter inside the bark by following with the eye a line from the D. I. B. across to the curve representing the length desired. Project a line down from that curve to the base line and read the age required for the growth from the ground of such length of log. 9. After this set of curves is made, the results can be read off to form a table, and the volume of the logs can be computed, since their top diameters and lengths are known. As stated by Pegg (’19), working up the data from stem analysis sheets can be greatly facilitated by the use of an adding machine and a slide rule. BIBLIOGRAPHY Andros, S. O. 1915. Coal mining in Illinois. Bul. 13, Il. Coal Mining Investiga- tions. Baker, Willis, M. 1921. One cord an acrea year. Jour. Forestry, 19 (No. 7) : 755-756. Chapman, H. H. 1921. Forest mensuration. Wiley & Sons, New York. Colyer, Frank H. 1922. The geography of the Ozarks. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 14: 36-43. Deam, Charles C. 1915. Fifteenth Annual Report Indiana State Board of Forestry. Conservation Commission of Indiana. ; 1921. Trees of Indiana. Department of Conservation, State of In- diana, Publication 13. Indianapolis. Dunlap, Frederick N. 1921. Growth of oak in the Ozarks. Research Bul. 41, Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Columbia, Mo. Fuller, George D., and Miller, R. B. 1922. Forest conditions in Alexander county, Illinois. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 14: 92-108. Gee Wau: 1907. Wood distillation. Forest Service Circular 114, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, D. C. Graves, Henry S. 1921. New Hampshire and the new movement in forestry. Pub- lished by the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, 4 Joy Street, Boston. Hall, R. C., and Ingall, O. D. 1911. Forest conditions in Illinois. Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vola ixeyArts IVs Hawley, L. F., and Palmer, R. C. 1914. Yields from the destructive distillation of certain hardwoods. Bul. U. S. Dept. Agr. No. 129. a Hawley, Ralph, C. 1921. The practice of silviculture, with particular reference to- its application in the United States. Wiley & Sons, New York. Lovejoy, P. S. 1919. The segregation of farm from forest land. Jour. Forestry, 17 (No. 6): 645, 646. Moore, Barrington 1922. Influence of certain soil factors on the growth of tree seed- lings and wheat. Ecology, 3 (No. 1): 69-70. Palmer, R. C. 1914. Distillation of hardwood. Compiled from bulletins of the U. S. Forest Service. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin. Pegg, Ernest C. 1919. Mechanical aids in stem analysis. Jour. Forestry, 17 (No. 6): 682-685. Recknagel, A. B. 1916. A practical application of Pressler’s formula. Forestry Quar- terly, 14 (No. 2) : 263. Ridgway, Robert 1883. Notes on the native trees of the lower Wabash and White River valleys in Illinois and Indiana. Proc. U. S. Nat'l Mus. 5: 49-88. 1895. Additional notes on the native trees of the lower Wabash Valley, Proc. U. S. Nat’l Mus. 17: 409-421. Sampson, Homer C. 1921. An ecological survey of the prairie vegetation of Illinois. Bul. Ill. State Nat. Hist. Surv. 13 (Art. 16) : 547-548. Savage, T. E. 1908. The Lower Palaeozoic formations in southwestern IIlinois. Am. Jour. Sci. 25: 431-443. 1909. The Lower Palaeozoic formations in southwestern Illinois. Ibid. 28: 509-519. 1910. The Pre-Devonian of southern Illinois. Yearbook III. Geol. Surv., 1909, Bul. 16: 304-341. 1920. The Devonian formations of Illinois. Am. Jour. Sci. 49: 169-182. Savage, T. E., and Shaw, E. W. 1912. Geological atlas of the United States, Murphysboro-Herrin folio. Surveyed in co-operation with the Geological Survey of Illinois. 356 Seerey, Daniel F. 1918. Small sawmills, their equipment, construction and operation. Bul. 718, U. S. Dept. Agr. Contribution from the Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Spaeth, J. Nelson 1920. Growth study and normal yield tables for second growth hard- wood stands in New England. Harvard Forest Bul. No. 2. Peter- sham, Mass. Trelease, Wm. T. 1896. Juglandaceae of the United States. Seventh Ann. Rep. Mo. Botanical Garden, p. 25. Weller, Stuart, et al., in co-operation with the U. S. Geol. Survey 1920. The geology of Hardin county and the adjoining part of Pope county. Bul. 41, Ill. State Geol. Survey, pp. 43-44. Urbana, Illinois. ante it + APPENDIX VoLUME TABLES FOR LEADING SPECIES, AND TAPER AND GROWTH TABLES AND GRAPHS FOR BLAcK AND WHITE OAK From measurements taken on felled trees of leading species it was possible to make local volume tables for white and black oak. Since the number of field measurements made on trees of other species was not sufficient for the formation of a satisfactory basis for volume tables, it was thought wise to collect in the appendix the best tables extant for the other species which the wood-lot owner would ordinarily encounter. [or convenience in citing to this article these tables are numbered consecu- tively beginning with one (1), but the original, author’s, table-number, if any, is retained as facilitating reference to the table in its original con- nection. TABLE I* TaBLeE VII.—SnHow1nG ToraL HEIGHT, CLEAR LENGTH AND VOLUME FOR CYPRESS OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS. Mississipp1 BOTTOMS > Diameter Total Volume Breast High Height Clear Length {Doyle Rule] Inches -Feet Feet Board Feet 10 78 43 89 11 82 46 116 12 85 49 147 13 88 53 184 14 90 56 231 15 93 59 280 16 95 62 336 17 97 65 399 18 100 68 468 19 102 71 546 20 104 73 632 21 106 76 715 22 108 79 817 23 109 81 928 24 111 83 1,037 25 113 85 1153 26 114 87 1,277 27 116 89 1,309 28 107 91 1,551 29 119 92 1,700 30 120 93 1,840 31 122 94 1,986 32 123 95 2,139 33 124 96 2,290 34 125 97 2,450 35 126 97 2,620 36 128 98 2,800 *From the Woodsman's Handbook, Part 1, by Henry S. Graves, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 36, 1903. — 358 — TABLE II* TuLip TREE (YELLOW PopLar) DB abls Volume Age Outside Bark Height {Doyle Rule] Years Inches Feet Board Feet 60 10 78 22 68 11 82 32 75 12 86 47 82 13 89 63 90 14 92 87 97 15 95 113 104 16 97 150 112 17 99 190 120 18 101 238 128 19 103 290 136 20 104 352 144 21 105 420 152 22 106 490 160 23 107 565 169 24 107 644 178 25 108 725 186 26 108 813 195 27 109 905 204 28 109 1,002 212 29 110 1,106 221 30 110 1,215 230 31 111 oo 240 32 111 1,445 248 33 112 1,563 258 34 112 1,685 267 35 113 1,811 276 36 113 1,940 286 37 113 2,074 296 38 114 2,210 306 39 114 2,342 317 40 115 2,475 *From measurements taken on 403 trees in Scottfand Anderson counties, Tennessee, by F. E. Olmsted, of the,U. S. Forest Service. — 359 — TABLE III* “Table 8 gives cubic contents of hickory trees according to diameter and merchant- able length. It is based upon the measurements of 630 trees. By its use the total contents of a tree may be estimated without reference to the individual logs.”’ TABLE 8—Cubic contents of hickory according to diameter and merchantable length. | Merchantable length—feet . ‘ Diam- Diameter eter preset 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 | 50 | 55 | 60 | 65 puma inches top— e inches Volume—cubie feet LAA 1.0 HUY) PE eer 4 6 Re SiO) |) yell! HS2G) Lacie eels 5 une 1.6 3.2 4.2 5.0 ad) 6 8.. 2.0| 4.0] 5.4] 6.5] 7.5 6 wo 2.5) 4.8] 6.6] 8.2] 9.6 7 10.. 3.0] 5.8] 8.1} 10.0 | 11.5 8 ae 3.5 | 6.9] 9.7} 12.0 | 14.0 8 12. 4.1 8.0 | 11.5 | 14.5 | 17.0 9 13.. 4.8] 9.3] 13.5 | 17.0 | 20.5 10 14.. 5.5 | 10.5 | 15.5 | 20.0 | 24.0 11 15.. 6.2 | 12.0 | 17.5 | 23.0 | 27.5 11 16.. 7.0 | 14.0 | 20.0 | 26.5 | 31.0 12 a 8.0 | 15.5 | 23.0 | 29.5 | 36.0 13 18.. 17.5 | 25.5 | 33.0 | 40.0 14 aoe: 19.5 | 28.5 | 37.0 | 45.0 14 20.. 21.5 | 32.0 | 41.0 | 50.0 15 21.. 24.0 | 35.0 | 45.0 | 54.0 16 22... 26.0 | 38.0 | 50.0 | 60.0 16 23.. 28.5 | 42.0 | 54.0 | 65.0 17 ee. 31.0 | 45.0 | 59.0 | 70.0 18 25.. 34.0 | 49.0 | 64.0 | 76.0 19 26 36.5 | 53.0 | 69.0 | 82.0 19 we Ses) Bechet Gere 57.0 | 74.0 | 89.0 : 3 20 «RE a eee 61.0 | 80.0 | 97.0 | 112.0 | 125.0 | 1387.0 | 149 161 173 185 197 20 *From Bulletin 80, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, ‘The Commercial Hickories,"’ by Anton T. Boisen and J. A. Newlin, 1910. 360 TABLE IV* TaBLe No. 16—VoLUME TABLE FoR RED MAPLE Diam- Total height of tree (feet) eter, Bas} breast T ] | ( ts) high | 20 | 30 40 50 60 70 (inches) Cu.Ft.| Cu. Ft. | Cu. Ft. | Cu. Ft. | Cu. Ft. | Cu. Ft. | Cu. Ft Ds ORZ5n |e Onso: 0.55 - = - = 59 ay: .60 Lyfil 1.00 1e2 = ~ - $1 4, 100N) i530 1.65 220) — = - 36 By - 2e15) 2.40 3.0 an0: - - 38 6, - - 3.45 4.3 5.2 Ge - 42 ie - - 4.70 bE Theil 8.4 - 25 8, - - 6.05 7.8 9.4 10.8 11.8 39 9, - - 7.65 10.1 12.0 eo) 14.8 28 10, - - - 7 1510 16.7 18.2 20 ibe - - - 15.6 18.5 20.5 22)30 23 lizeees - = - 18.9 22.5 24.8 26.4 10 13, - - - 22.6 26.8 29.7 31.4 9 dao eae Site ee <1 i| ous) |’ ated: 3500") ewetees 15s - ~ - S15 37.0 40.7 42.7 3 16532 - - - 36.6 43.2 47.0 49.7 4 lee - - = = = = 58.4 yA 397 *This volume table was constructed by E. E. Carter and first published in the Bulle- tin of the Harvard Forestry Club, Vol. 2, 1913. A revised and enlarged form of it ap- peared in ‘‘The Northern Hardwood Forest: Its Composition, Growth and Management,”" Bul. 285 of the U. S. Dept. of Agr., pp. 61-63. 361 TABLE V CoMPOSITE VOLUME-TABLE FOR WHITE OAK CONTENTS IN BOARD FEET D.B.H. | Ava table |Maryland table| By Doyle. |By Doyle-Scrib- inches (Maine rule)| (Maine rule) | Scribner rule Pee ee 8 9 4 2 2 9 18 15 + 5 10 28 20 10 12 11 41 25 16 20 12 ait 50 24 30 13 77 65 34 42 14 97 80 48 60 15 120 100 65 81 16 147 150 84 105 17 172 175 105 131 18 222 210 143 169 19 245 235 168 210 * 20 285 260 207 259 pats 323 295 243 304 #¥) 366 325 281 350 b 23 413 465 329 411 ; 24 464 510 372 465 25 520 560 426 | 532 j 26 582 600 467 584 é N. B.—The figures in column 4 of the table give what an average tree of a certain diameter should actually saw out at the mill. The difference between what it saws out and its scale in the woods or on the log-deck is called “‘over-run."’ The figures in column 2 were derived from contents of trees measured at Ava, Jackson county, scaled by the Maine rule. The figures in column 3 of the table were secured from State Forester F. W. Besley, for white oak trees in Maryland which were scaled by the Maine rule. at ComMPosITE VOLUME-TABLE FOR BLACK Oak 86a TABLE VI* CONTENTS IN BOARD FEET D eae Ava table Morland By Doyle. | BY Doyle Seana inches (Maine rule) (Maine Stes Scribner rule Me eee 0 8 20 12 4 5 9 39 15 15 19 10 51 20 20 25 11 64 30 28 35 12 83 45 37 46 13 103 55 51 64 14 129 70 70 88 15 154 105 89 101 16 185 120 111 136 17 215 140 148 185 18 263 165 184 230 19 289 240 217 271 20 344 275 259 324 21 394 315 304 380 22 455 355 376 470 23 506 400 409 $11 24 560 445 464 580 25 621 490 515. 639 26 695 550 605 756 27 770 605 651 814 28 845 665 720 900 29 920 725 798 998 30 1,000 805 900 1,125 *The explanations below preceding table for white oak, are also applicable to this table. Nem 363 TABLE VII* VoLUME TABLE FOR RED OAK (BASED ON 130 TREES MEASURED AT NEW HAVEN, Conn.) Height of tree in feet Diam- eter j | breast PAA AS) | 30 | 35 40 | 45 | 50 | 55 high, | | ye Le inches Merchantable cord-wood in cubic feet [Tt] 5 1.23 1.61 1.91 2.24 2255 2.91 Sige) 3.40 6 1.78 2.31 2.83 SEow cel? 4.22 4.61 5.04 Der aebs ccc: Salle ershe = 3.79 4.40 5.08 5.68 6.25 6.79 Ne 5 ee 4.88 5.75 6.56 Ure 7.99 8.75 RRND er StS ooh! eee italic secs .oie:.l|'viveteaer oe 8.31 9.27 10.13 10.97 LEO OS ee 2 tases el | EE ila arena Levees ee Ine eee (CRA eee (ae 12.62 13.64 “IT: 7AGa 5 Seas eet ae ae Ue Sate Se eee Ot Se epee 15.70 | 16.87 | TABLE VII* (continued) Height of tree in feet Diameter ic | 6 | 65 | 70 | 75 | 80 | 85 | 90 inches Merchantable cord-wood in cubic feet 5 SIE alleseiaa aoe 6 5.45 5.81 7 7.32 7.81 P 8 9.43 10.07 10.70 11.31 HE Sap ete peta eieye al lives terete Save 9 11.76 12.62 13.31 14.04 1 Fae ia | Weer eee (eee am aie 10 14.63 15.62 16.52 17.42 18.30 LO ZO Nel. eae 11 12 13 18.04 19.16 20.18 21.17 225US, i, 23:12 24.06 12.33 23.62 24.90 26.04 27.15 28.16 29.14 27.33 28.85 30.34 31.62 32.98 34.21 35.40 *From ‘Forest Mensuration,” by Henry S. Graves, +Cubic feet can be converted into cords by dividing by 90. — 364 — TABLE VIII* TABLE 7,—BLAcK WiLLOW—M«ississipPI VALLEY |DoYLE RULE] Total height of tree—feet : Diam- - yeeee bresct. | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | 120 | 130 | inside | Basis hoes | | bark high of top Volume—board feet Inches Inches | Trees 14 52 64 82 100 130 PAO), |Reectr se | esas LO) Si eee 15 60 80) | © 100)" 1203) S07) 160) Fern clase 11 2 16 68 97 120 150 170 180 U0) a occroe 12 3 17 ds) |) a SISO af ON MO 220) oe 12 11 18 79 | 130] 170} 200} 220) 240) 250) 270 13 9 HO) al Wat oe 150 | 200] 230) 250; 270] 290] 310 14 6 20S emeere 180 | 230} 270) 290) 310] 330] 350 14 12 DM Neh ctsrspa 200 | 260} 300] 330) 360] 370} 390 15 23 DO WW eicerncts 230 | 290} 340} 370| 400) 420|] 440 16 25 DS wo lpescgey stoke 260 | 330] 380} 410) 450 470 | 490 17 23 AAW Nise eps 290 | 360] 420] 460) 500) 520] 540 17 23 BSe eerie .clencmeeree 400 | 470] 510] 550} 570} 600 18 15 Pain epee Pan eye 450} 510} 560} 600} 620} 660 19 15 OM Weel 2 Seco 490 | 560} 610] 650] 680} 710 19 16 Ne Mis eeB| Aas oe 540 | 610 660 710 740 770 20 9 DOE lh teigchase chetavtta 590 | 660} 720} 760) 800] 840 21 7 SOY Wee eal oot 650 710 770 | 820 860 900 22 8 StU Eero seogl tara. tee beeen crea 760 820 | 880 920 970 22 8 32m dl leracteancel ercieetetstemiaye 810} 870} 940} 990 | 1,040 23 3 ROM | Glee aes Soe lene Sigseco | enum on 860 920 | 1,000 | 1,050 | 1,100 24 6 SAE PINS eeucrsli| ote aaa | leks eRe eee 920 | 980 | 1,060 | 1,120 | 1,170 24 3 Bee ile au Mane yolnon eae 970 | 1,030 | 1,120 | 1,190 | 1,240 25 1 i Oke sel ieee sported le eee Baill wee cece 1,020 | 1,090 | 1,180 | 1,250 | 1,310 26 1 229 *From Bul. No. 316, U. S. Dept. Agr.: ‘Willows: their Growth, Use and Importance,"’ by George N, Lamb. = 365 TABLE IX VoLUME TABLE—BEECH Frothingham, 1915 U. S. Forest Service Bulletin No. 285 Michigan: Based on 285 trees d Merchantable Volume in Board Feet ue ob Number of 16-foot logs inches 144 2 2% 3 3% 4 10 32 47 67 87 110 11 36 52 77 100 130 12 42 61 91 120 150 170 13 50 74 110 140 170 200 14 60 92 130 170 200 230 15 75 120 160 200 230 270 TR [Osetia recess cific css slave 150 190 230 270 310 AVM erste ou tckl| scorers, ets 180 220 270 310 360 TS. 1) S58 SS cee eer 220 260 310 350 410 162) i) aperogh eel ea Oe cI cenG] (Cae eeaenenn 290 350 400 460 ORE) N38 SP SS eee ens (eS eae 330 390 450 510 Bil 1 eras ttl (CRE Rear (Eee 370 430 500 570 PEE erect ee |e pay a) sinus xi] ee irahera «ous 400 470 560 640 MMM Se Rte TaN ose in (Syste avai'a| [rong metas 5s 3% 440 520 610 710 Am er aos Wow [ae ay an 6s, woes fle domes. see 490 570 670 780 RIMM eh eee ee (cles aie cars. Soll sm igen eter e 2 530 620 740 870 * TABLE X VoLUME TABLE—BEECH Waha and Cheever, 1903 ‘New York: Based on 485 trees Merchantable Volume in Standard Railroad Ties Number of Number of D.B.H. ob, inches |. _ standard ties, D.B.H. ob, inches standard ties, 7x9" x8" : 7”x9"x 8’ 12 1 22 7 13 2 23 8 14 3 24 9 15 3 25 10 16 3 26 11 17 4 27 11 18 4 28 12 19 5 29 13 20 6 30 14 21 7 366 TABLE XI* TABLE 9.—SHOWING ToTAL HEIGHT, CLEAR LENGTH AND VOLUME FOR DIFFERENT DIAMETERS OF COTTONWOOD GROWING IN MississipP1 BOTTOMS Diameter F Totalheight Clear length, Volume eee feet feet board feet [] 6 58 24 7 65 28 8 72 31 9 78 34 10 83 36 11 86 38 20 12 93 40 40 13 97 42 60 14 101 44 85 15 105 46 115 16 109 47 145 17 113 48 180 18 116 50 225 19 119 51 275 20 122 52 340 21 125 53 405 22 127 54 480 23 130 54 560 24 132 55 645 25 134 56 735 26 136 56 820 27 138 57 910 28 140 57 1,000 29 141 58 1,090 30 143 58 1,175 31 144 58 1,265 32 146 59 1,360 33 147 59 1,450 34 148 59 1,540 35 149 59 1,635 36 150 59 1,725 37 151 59 1,820 *Compiled by S. J. Record. tDoyle Rule ~~ TABLE XII.—TAPER TABLE FOR WHITE OAK, Ava, ILLINOIS Feet above the Stump 42 367 STAN MODWMDMOMAHMN SKAARSHANDHHS Se ole ion iho ihonl 40 Fr tt tNQMOtHNOORMMHON Dieser radaacdananntuws See ieee Bee ee oe oe ee eel [MWOHNOWDMNNANOHANQHOA LON ADASDSH NOM HHHON ie ee eee nen halen! HANSBDOANOCWDOANAGQHMAN DSN BHAS HAAG HONK Seer Ses SN oN SI han es DSOSGKrAASSHAMHHH SOKA Se onion as iaaniennanthan inane! LADHWDOAHNOBDOANOWOAHNSG OSM DHACMANMAMNMOMAD Oe Bh elon nie onion eh enieieel 10 Diameters inside Bark (inches) FOP OAT NY HAM NM IAM ING I Oh IH WOM NADAS HAAG HUM Cr HAD eh! PHHAMMMAOWDOAMOMMMAOWOT HM Sr AASST AM AHH MHONABWAS Ce ee eee een) PMAADAMMANSCHAWOARAOMONMAOAD IHW SR AASSH AHO OM EASCSH SSS SSS SSNS INOSWOAHNQHWDOANOWOMMAOHM ISR ARSSH AGH HHOKAASSH Salata Smee RHIAN AATMMMAOMMMAAMMMAODOANAA HHH SCRAAASRANAGHHOKKRADASHH ee ls io i MAHWDOAHNOHAMNMNMAOSAMMOMAOOMYH FBHHBOKARASSKAAnAwHHSOKRAASSHA SSS SS SS NNN COHMMAOAMMMASCHMOMMAVHDW™ NY HHSRADASCHAMHHHOKRDAASHANG SSS tt NINN It also affords the data for computing the contents of trees in cubic feet or breast-high outside the bark (0.b.) its size inside the bark at 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, etc., feet above Volume tables in board-foot or cubic-foot units can also be easily made from good taper tables. de the bark at specified heights above the stump, the average stump height in this case being taken as two gth log by any log rule. th a given diameter insi i the stump, and look up the board-foot contents of a certain len; With such a table one can read for a tree w estimating top diameters of railroad ties. NOTE.—A taper table shows the diameter feet. TABLE XIIJ.—TAPER TABLE FOR BLACK OAk, Ava, ILLINOIS Feet above the Stump — 368 — DR SESS ees ae te ORO UG SP hes On ae NN HINO OMm-ONnS Nee na! 40 36 IHNMAQMNMAOWOW TSN AM tw CON OA AS ee OSS SSS SSS RIN Det ocenwnnoMmetad “DOAANMHAMHOn”r-DADAGH “ ee ee ee | 24 LOHMNOSWMOANOWOAHMAOWO PWASHAAGH II SMWOASSH Sa oe Be Ee Be ae oe oe oe De oe ee se | TAAMMMASCHDOHNOWMOANODH LWHASTAMMHINOM NM DASdA MN NNR ATNAN PMMA OCAMOHNOWDOAHNOHAMNMN ea LOM WBASSCHAMHH MON WDASHA areas RANA HAAN AN PMMADAMMANOSDOANOAMMNMAVHAYD LOMWHAAHASTHAMMHANOMNAASOKAA MAA ANNANH 20 MMAAMMMASCMDOAHNOWDOANAAMwMHS WON AKASOAANHMHAHOSKAADSOHAN MRT TNNANNN 14 12 10 Diameters inside Bark (inches) SAMMMNMAShHMMNACWHOAHNOWMHMNMNAS SSK AKASOKHADHAHHSOKNADAKRSHAMH ANAT RTNNNAN HANSWMOAHNOWOSCHANAAMMMNAAMNMN SNAHASHAAGHWHOSNWAASSAAGDH ANNAN TBH ANNANNNNN MMMASCMOANOWDOANOWONMAAMY SRARNSSCHAMHAHHONDOAOKAAHH SAAN AAA AAT AANNANNNNN DSHOHAGCMHOHNQHOM MAAN OAAOH ~RrODONAOTMANMANMOMWDAAGOAAM AHH TRB HRANNANNNNN NAAM MM AAM OWNS OO 0 IA Qi 19 eh NOSDASTHANDHAH SKK DASCKHAHHH ANAT NANNANNANNANNANNS — 369 — TABLE XIV Brack Oak GROWTH-TABLE, SHOWING ToTAL HEIGHT, AGE ON STUMP, AND VoLUME IN CuBIC FEET AND BOARD FEET BASED ON D. B. H., Ava, ILLriNnots D.B.H. Age on Total Total Merchant Volume in No. of ea stump, height, volume, Atl board feet, trees sHeAes years feet Guetts © (Ava table*)} measured | 6 45 35 7 51 39 8 56 43 7.00 4.00 20 1 9 62 46 7.50 6.00 39 1 10 j 67 50 11.50 8.00 51 1 i 73 53 15.00 11.00 64 1 12 76 57 19.50 14.50 83 1 13 79 60 25.00 18.50 103 1 14 | 83 64 30.00 22.50 129 6 rey EI wets 67 35.50 26.00 154 6 16 89 70 42.50 30.00 178 7 17 93 72 49.50 35.50 215 il 18 96 74 57.50 41.00 263 3 19 99 76 65.00 47.50 298 8 20 102 78 72.50 54-00 344 6 21 106 80 80.00 61.00 394 4 AY) 109 81 87.50 68.00 455 4 23 112 82 95.00 75.00 506 2 24 114 83 103.00 82.50 560 Z 25 117 84 110.00 90.00 621 1 26 119 84 117.50 97.50 695 1 27 121 84 125.00 107.00 770 1 28 123 84 137.50 117.00 845 1 29 125 84 157.50 127.00 920 2 30 127 85 178.00 140.00 1,000 1 Tot. 68 *The results in column 6 were obtained from averages of trees scaled by the Maine rule. 370 TABLE XV WuitEe OAk GROWTH-TABLE, SHOWING TOTAL HEIGHT, AGE ON STUMP, AND VOLUME IN CUBIC AND BOARD FEET BASED ON D. B. H. Ava, ILLINOIS | | Volume in cubic feet DEH || simp | [oe 5 Board feet | Nutr inches years height Tot: Merchant- (Ava table) measured otal able 6 60 34 os) 4 on 2 7 63 39 8.5 520 a) 4 8 66 44.5 9.5 6.5 9 4 9 70 48 11.0 (iss 18 7 10 74 52 12 8.5 28 6 11 80 54.5 14.5 10.5 41 10 12 86 LY5S) 16.5 1255 57 8 13 94 59.5 20.5 15 77 1 14 103 62 25.0 18 97 1 15 111 64 32.0 23 120 1 16 120 66 39.0 PH fees) 147 2 17 130 68 46.5 33 172 4 18 140 69.5 54.0 38 222 3 19 150 71 61.0 43 245 0 20 160 TES) 68.5 49 285 2 21 170 13.9 76.5 55 323 4 22 {80g eI etaeo 82.5 61.5 366 2 23 191 (Sos) 90.5 68 413 2 24 201 76.5 99.0 75 464 1 25 211 (les) 107.0 82 520 3 26 222 78 116.0 89 582 1 Tot. 68 | i t *The results in column 6 were obtained from averages of trees scaled by the Maine rule. i 371 TABLE XVI TAPER TABLE FOR BLACK OAK (ALL-AGED STAND) READ FROM GRAPH V Diameter| Diameter on stump] breast- Diameter at 8 ft. |Diameter|Diameter|Diameter Diameter} Volume Age nee F above | at 16 ft.| at 24 ft. | at 32 ft. | at 40 ft. in years Bete Bee aut: stumpin-| above | above | above | above cubic fnches gp eide ‘\sidebark,| stump | stump | stump | stump feet ~ | inches 10 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 2.0 aS 1.0 0 0 a) 0 .112 30 ice 32 2.4 as Bs 0 0 .88 _ 40 5.0 yet 4.0 Spal) 1.9 sah 0 1.70 50 6.6 6.8 Sh 4.6 2.6 2.5 (0) Sie 60 8.4 8.6 Di ies! 6.2 Sel 4.3 2.0 tf gpl 70 10.2 10.5 9.2 8.0 6.8 6.0 4.4 12-75 80 13.0 1352 11.4 10.2 9.0 8.1 6.8 PAS | 90 16.2 16.2 13.9 12a 11.6 10.4 9.2 33/51 100 19.2 19.2 16.2 eye 14.1 12.8 11.8 48.3 110 22.0 221 18.8 pl 16.4 15.4 14.2 67.2 120 24.5 24.9 Tice 19.8 18.6 17.4 16.3 83.9 130 26.2 26.6 22.8 PAV) 20.4 19.3 18.2 98.56 | TABLE XVII TAPER TABLE FOR WHITE OAK (ALL-AGED STAND) READ FROM GRAPH VI Diameter) Diameter Di Di Di Di . on stump| breast- iameter| Diameter|Diameter|Diameter|Diameter| Volume Age Bee pea eres Mea 8 ft. 16 ft. 24 ft. 32 ft. 40 ft. in years Bare: Le pane above | above | above | above | above cubic ere aehee ’| stump | stump | stump | stump | stump feet 10 Sy? 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 1.7 1.0 0 0 0 0 0 40 3.0 Ze 1.0 0 0 0 0 50 4.8 3.8 tat 1.6 0 0 0 .96 60 6.8 6.2 4.6 3.6 Jf) A 0 2.61 70 8.8 9.0 1.3 5.9 4.7 TPE ih fab?? 80 1) 10.1 9.0 tig) 6.3 4.4 3.0 11.79 90 13.0 12.6 10.2 8.8 de 5.9 4.2 15.96 100 14.1 13.8 1a as 9.8 8.4 7.0 me? 20.32 110 15-3 14.9 1222 10.8 9.4 8.0 6.2 24.16 120 16.3 16.0 ret hiked 10.2 8.8 ffeil 31.3 130 oY les 17.0 14.0 12.6 Pind 9.6 7.9 S2ain 140 18.2 18.0 14.9 13.4 11.9 10.4 8.6 *|'\ 37,65 150 19.2 18.9 Lay 14.2 ET bey, 9.4 42.03 160 20.2 19.9 16.6 15.0 135 12.0 10.2 47.24 170 ZANE | 21.0 17.4 15.8 14.3 12.8 11x08 | 52252 180 22.0 21.9 18.3 16.6 1531 13.6 11.8 58.26 190 22.8 22.9 19.1 17.4 15.8 14.3 U2, 63.80 200 23.8 23.8 19.9 18.2 16.5 15.1 JEAN, 68.90 210 24.7 24.7 20.7 19.1 1M AB) 15.8 14.3 (GEE 220 20 25.5 21.5 19.9 18.1 16.4 15.0 | 82.58 — 372 — HPO AOA PUL OITYAA JOJ “HAC UO paseq ‘sqYSwH [eIOL Ybity4 saad BAG 4ALIM21G ] Havay GrapH II oO saa acess z i speregesengeges gensee wa puwer ae aooeoe fee St Ht H Seeeea! ie EH H Peed ar ayreaes Ha H HH a eeee! 4 He ieneeazeeyeas PE HL Ee Esieaaes age or Stourmpe( Years) eter Growth outside Bark at D.B.H. for White and Black Oak. Gagne Seri Diam 374 *“(QINY suley_) APO ACT pue oz1yAA 103 “H"g'C UO paseq ‘jaaq PreOg Uy sawNjOA (SEG2UT) EI] +SCOLG 43948 IIT oe 8F gF £2 2l BF QW tf 2 or Ij] Hdvad 375 "ARO HO[ Pure oy 105 “H'g'q UO paseq ‘3994 DIqND UI soMINjOA IQeJUeYIOW LY bly ies aed LPABLAENT. 82 Se Al Hdvua‘yy Bit aman — 376 — GRAPH V 26} + 2 22 53s 20 sesasss a8: i 1 ogeeaul ai 18 gonad eeseseeaas gecuugaaa H /6}8 z H padeea + sea + 12 + segegaes sass , ebesvesceeraes eagaees pagers! senses s3 sons Gees eeucse cs pea oe eEpes fly t THEE: ae eo 4 e +H gts rae 3 Say fas AV Ay, Giat sd eh oO PF 2 hes) 25 rgasecan x ¥ 20 Fo 60 0 00 120 140 Age /77 YAKS Diameter Growth inside Bark for Black Oak at different Heights. *S}YBIaH WasyIp JB FLO oy AA 10} WAVY aplsur yWMosry szajaweig sio ah uy 27 OL2 027 007 _0B/ — 377 — ised dogs’ bes a ae JA Hdvar) On/ 7e/ OO; 08 o/ */ a/ o/ og eZ PLATE LXXIV “ 5 7] wo =I D co o a ° S a 2 s Cy) 3S PS) The dense grow it makes fire protection d adrangle. too much nickory forest, Clear Creek region, Jonesboro qu Pirate LXXV fire. The former stand was made up or white oak, k growth of weeds which greatly increases the liability to Notice the ran Cut-over land in the Caney Creek region, Jonesboro quadrangle, Union county. beech, and tulip-tree, *S][IY 8Y} UO TequIt} SurMoys ‘ajsuvipenb o1oqsauof jo pues UsoyzNOsS oy} 4e AjUNOD Japuexe[Y Ul Ag[eA MOTIeNy IAXXT @LV1d *a]SuespeNnd O1oqsauof Jo adpa usayjz1OU ‘AjUNOD UOIUL) ‘YaeID AouvD Jo AaT[eA ay L IIAXXT 4L1V1d PLATE LXXVIII Cypress swamp. Limestone outcrop, Ava, Jackson county. *a910daS 1SadOy *S *) 24] [0 KsajAnoo Kq ojoyT *PUNOIFI10} 3j2] FY} Ul ,,S9eUH,, SS9IdAD oy} pue ‘seseq Us]JOMS Burmoys Sae1} ssoidAo preg XIXX7T 4LV1d “y2tmSpag “f jnvg &q oj04g *SSO] AUId JealzIOYS Jo I[INq ‘AjJUNOD UOTUL ‘ayxeT J[OAA 3e asnoy plo XXX’ ALVIg *ysImspas *f jnvg &q ojoyT *Su0}}0q IGCISSISSITT 94} Furyoop1aAo ‘AjuUNOD UOT) ‘AxeT J[OAA 7e auid yeayjyoys *sABMUIPI} UO papeO] aie SSO] pooMprzey aiayAr ‘AjuUNOD uUOsyeL ‘orOGsAYdinyY vou ‘YeeID uelpuy ye ABMpLS IXXXT1 dLVId PLATE LXXXII S) & ) "wa > =) a 2 1S) Logs going to the mill on a tramway, at Inc *Ajunoo uolUy) OTe M 3e [IU 0} SpuRpuI0}}0q WIOIJ YONIZ-10}0U Aq sso] Sulyneyy ¢ TBE 4 ft vrs IIXXXT FLVId Sulaq Fo] ‘1ejdod Moy[ad 410 ‘9014 AIXXXT SLV1d -AYNL *a[Na 1aUqIIoS-e[A0q ay} Aq 3a2j OOS [BIS P[NoA pue suo] joaj OZ SEM BO SIyL “VAY 7 [[!Ur oy} OF Bulpney 10} Apvor ,,AeIp,, 10 ‘UoseM DO] B UO papLoT ‘sejdod MojjeA 10 ‘991}-dijn} adie] & JO SO] WN AXXXT SLVId PLATE LXXXVI These men are usually financed by a tie contractor. at Alto Pass, Union county. A “tie-hackers’ camp -Ayunod uowy ‘sseg oy Ja}01d 0} Avd pynom 4f YOIYA SUTBUTAI Iequity Jo pueys Ivy B FLY} BION *Sel} 1OF paj[No usaq sey YOIYA Taquiyy yeo yov[q PUL eo 9M | TIAXXX] SLVId *sSO[ YOaeq WOT Sat} peosyrer SUMS Uaas SI OM ‘asIOPT *y ‘S {q pazesado *AjUNOD UOIUL) *peoOd , [TH 3NC,, 94} UO [[lur ayqeyiod |peus y HIAXXX’T &LV1d PLaTE LXXXIX Small portable sawmill near Alto Pass, Union county. Photo by Paul J. Sedgwick. PLATE XC Larger, stationary, sawmill near Indian Creek, Murphysboro, Jackson county. IOX SLlvid *AqUNOD UOIUL ‘o1OGsaUOL ‘AueduIOD adeyxoeg ,SI9MO0I4)-}INIY IY} JO [[lul 1aauaA a “geile a? 2 uw OX aLvId *SPUL[WI0}}0q WO] AOD esa} JO JSOJ *S}]0q OUT dn 4ND aq 0} Apea quejd 1d9UaA B Je SBO] pOOMpre}y “SQUIYORU-199UBA 41VJOI OY} OF UOYL} DUloq a1OJoq Buluwazjos 1OJ saxoq WwIzS oY} 07 05 OF ApBor MUS YO-F19 OY} Wor} S}OG 1oVHO A AIOX SLV1d *so]e10 338 OJUI dn apeul aq [[IM asay “Spays Japun SulAip ,,‘syooys,, 10 ‘sprvoq uly AOX FLW 1d *painoas Jonpoid A]UO ayy SI [BOYD puL ‘YdL1q JO ING o1e asayT, “SUI!] [BOOIRYD VaIY} JO Ata}yeq VW IADOX 4LV1d *Ajyunoo uosyoRfL ‘dIysuMo} BUOLO UI ,,Aj}IOJ,, B UO UOISOIG IADX SLV1d PLATE XCVITI Erosion near Alto Pass, Union county. Photo by Paul J. Sedgwick. XCIX a PLATI This is typical of the appearance of most cut-over lands. Legging slash left after a logging-and-tie operation. *a1y 9Y} JO APaAas oY} Buljeotpur ‘sves}-dijny ua][ejJ OY} pue punoss ay} Jo vouvIvadde a1eq 9Yy} AION "]1Os Ajseyo uo ‘AJUNOD Olu) ‘sseq O}Y }e odO|S-apIs JaA0-pauing VW £ "6 AA rs ih & MAP OF TIMBERED AREAS EXTENDING FROM | THEBES TO CHESTER, ILLINOIS. LEGEND UPLAND TYPES ee > eres bs MS os ee \ i \ BEE ere FE esc czotertmen . j y Sw = ’ \ yaar y a. #thtand rw 16,000 tear ft owe ‘ S im My =~ t | BOTTOMLAND TYPES. Az } I | epee rr seer a] Nie, 1B-Stand wo to 2000 beard feet Bet Mo, 4B—Stard var 10,000 beard feet o9r Hoe ma Ne. 18 Cyovesy—Stand wp to 2000 beard int pa acre oa. foal Ne: 18 Cyorese—Slan tre 2000-8200 basi fet om nr Ie STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief Vol. XIV. BULLETIN Article IX. The Determination of Hydrogen Ion Concentration in Connection With Fresh-Water Bio- logical Studies BY VICTOR E, SHELFORD PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS February, 1923 STATE OF ILLINOIS . DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION A. M. SHeEtton, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION A. M. SHELTON, Chairman Wit1iAM TRELFASE, Biology Joun M. Courter, Forestry Epson S. Bastin, Geology Wiru1uM A. Noyes, Chemistry JoHn W. Atvorp, Engineering Kenpric C. Bascock, Representing the President of the University of IM- nois THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION SrerHen A. Forses, Chief : PHILLIPS BROS.’ PRINT SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS. 715481200 % CONTENTS Introduction Ae IO erie asta ho he aaa he el cachiare arana arahcha)'s oon and survival in water deficient in dissolved oxygen......... tions of fish to differences in hydrogen ion concentrations.......... examination of certain Illinois waters with special reference to hydro- BeartiGntcatrantraitinde ear cee u ese ai cnsic ny ol mentees, DA yo eneral relations of hydrogen ion concentration to other factors........ _ Discussion and summary OLSrERn Caan wee eae ie oi ee ees EeeConclusions: -;o.c..csi<;--2) seven - imowledgmenta CY foe. SP EROL CE PRICE eer a ae ea i ee ee cc a ec aT ° t eg vA ) ~ a ' = 4 e = y ty > Articte IX—The Determination of Hydrogen Ion Concentration in Connection with Fresh-Water Biological Studies. By Victor E. SHELFORD. INTRODUCTION Generally speaking, the significance of hydrogen ion concentration . and its determination are among the most complicated problems con- fronting students of fresh-water ecology. Determinations of carbon dioxid, “alkalinity,” and dissolved oxygen have long been among the means used for ascertaining the suitability of a water for organisms, as well as its suitability for domestic and industrial purposes, but the rela- tions of these properties of a water to each other chemically or to organ- isms have never been fully investigated. There is great confusion as to methods of measuring and express- ing so-called “alkalinity.” It is expressed (a) in terms of a carbonate of a predominating alkaline metal—for example, as CaCO, ; (6) as bound and half-bound CO,; (c) as alkali reserve; and (d) as buffer value. It is from time to time confused with CO, tension, total CO,, and the normal acid used. It is not possible to straighten out this confusion. The investigator can only ascertain the methods used by different writers and carefully translate their records and statements into the terms he himself has elected to use. There is almost as great confusion in the use of terms and methods in connection with hydrogen ion concentration. This grows out of the fact that the turning points of various standard indicators have been referred to as “neutral,” notably in the case of phenolphthalein, the turning point of which is decidedly alkaline. There are now improved methods of determining hydrogen ion concentration, including true neu- trality. These have been used in the work here reported, which has con- sisted chiefly of (1) observations on the hydrogen ion concentration over fish breeding-grounds in several Illinois localities, July to June, 1919-20; (2) studies of the reactions of fishes to hydrogen ion concentration; and (3) studies of the effect of different hydrogen ion concentrations on the survival of fishes in water of low oxygen-content. This work has been supplemented by studies by Fenner Stickney on the resistance and re- actions of a dragon-fly nymph to various hydrogen ion concentrations and by experiments by Miss Ada Hall on the effect of hydrogen ions in the development of toad and whitefish eggs, carried on under the auspices of the Department of Zoology and of the Graduate School of the Uni- versity of Illinois. The author’s acquaintance with the questions dis- cussed has also been extended by a series of determinations of hydrogen ions in rivers and lakes in the following drainage systems: Puget Sound, Columbia River, Interior Basin, Colorado River, and Arkansas River. These determinations will be published elsewhere. 380 These studies have been made by the author largely with a view to ascertaining whether or not hydrogen ion determinations give indica- tions of value in the field of animal ecology. The author’s answet is in the affirmative. It is accordingly the purpose of this paper to show (1) that hydrogen ion concentration is one of the factors governing the movement and distribution of fishes, its importance on the whole probably equaling that of well-known factors; (2) that breeding places of fish are characterized by differences in hydrogen ion concentration; (3) that hydrogen ion concentration has marked influence on the survival of fishes under adverse conditions. METHODS OF DETERMINING H Ion CoNcENTRATION (pH) The methods in common use are the colorimetric and the electro- metric. The former is based on the colors assumed by solutions of various dyes in the presence of various hydrogen ion concentrations. The latter is based on measurement of the differences of the electric po- tential between the solution to be tested and a hydrogen electrode. In this process it is necessary to bubble hydrogen through the sample, and as this withdraws CO, it is not practicable as a field method. It is de- sirable to dip the apparatus into the mud or water and measure while in situ. This might be possible except for the additional fact that the pressure of the hydrogen (gas) must be maintained at one atmosphere, or corrected to this pressure, which renders the use of the electrometric method impracticable in the field. Colorimetric standards may be color charts for rough work or for work on soils—those published in Clark’s book (’20) may be purchased separately—but for use in fresh water greater accuracy is necessary. For this purpose “buffer” solutions of known hydrogen ion concentration are placed in hard glass tubes, a standard amount of indicator added, and the tubes sealed up and used for comparison with water samples with the same amount and kind of indicator added. Several firms make such sets of standards, but the range at present is limited, and others must be added for some waters. These additional buffers may be made by a competent chemist. Standard- ization of buffers electrometrically is quite essential; also the purchased sets must be checked electrometrically at the beginning and end of each series of readings. 381 Hydrogen ion concentration is expressed as pH—the logarithm of NG the reciprocal of the normality of free hydrogen ions. The pH scale a and relative amounts of free hydrogen ions are as follows: ig >) 4 = A ; fc 5 F a Oo =i = 7 | ne, RO ren alt eee Lisi icc 7.4| 7.7-7.1| 8.0 (7.4) 6.8 Tet |rteeeeees d fagepdauacs 6.8 8.0-7.1 7.6-6.8 msisia einlersi (0) an | 3's lente ae lho tele t ll egal ee Pode l | | Notropis umbratilis .........'...... 1.5 Brey alread aa ie (ee at DRAG {EPS 2a aage 7.5 7.6 (7.5) 74 Hoasaap aan : Octgy ooonn| anton BL (nce crare| ( ui | ; Doe Pilleiadaaaan : saat | me | eae | (10) T.1-7.5 [eee ore a fugniate\@¥axa)= Pimephales notatus ......... 7.5 i on ap poe | 8.2 mG On ane pec ee uae sss 7e| s.o7.5| s:4 (7-75) a1 2 Heat Omsfist2at| amen cl lle ener 7.8-7.1 8.0-7.4 om see Notropis eoiie BOOP EBCR Ea | Haaniaian : Si Rea | Rem Lerten at ee Malo ee nt NOLTOPIS COTNUTUS ......-.66 DOr a0 Cy he res (oor yar, pt 7.4 Lie | ae cree CN a) gy (Cit err seeeel fw tte meee g.4 (1.7) i Hsanaae oH ante 8.4-7.1 8.3-7.0 big eta es boca 7.8 | 8.4-7.4 (12) EEC abe, 4 aaa 8.47.6 a ee ORTauTRoTingiith: « ee is ies a ie fh eel oceans aa etasdeete vena Hoc rece Beas ono ie alleen: aeae (7.85) 7.3 Reeaig ¥ aise sect ast Letaee| henge 7.9| 8.4-7.6] 8.4 (7. a 8.4 7.6 COLT | me RM coer we setae *The movements on which this table is based RyereieneonT _—————— oe of this series—and {no articles cited th 9 phed according to a method used b. Wells (’15 d by the aut! 7) ST ga coil ig Ta Wt Wuhan a eae ete et a PLATA AM SPN esentutl ot a DUD i 0, e average of a number of selections not reser. 8 : fh and ai pek and forth; in the second double column, 7.2 is evidently not the mean between ments were made in the type of water indicated, but the fishes cleast Reavy able; in thefifth and sixth double columns no range in sete tl sin stahecauneisah or two experl- as the fishes went to the end of the tank on the ae IMIR selected 7.1 as the resting point—as shown in the mean column. In ‘the CANES RTL umn, r : Li nellus, fifth double column, tinued to swim back and forth between the extremes Indicated. Inspeotiog Of the Brapha eee cgutG be recorded: in the seventh double column, no selection (a talented because the fishes con . —_—_—_Slllll of this table, th utsnotieee wither Forbes nnd ich © gue nth perverted reps See > or etree ae 2 a ee aa ae aaa se eoetes } ‘aii wsiew bello | teiaw ballofi ee p oat lexharomai ope and hoes Mie ate reoM} | pM | Mena ae TXB ve ets — t ‘ tae. es ad i } dw! igmbee iO [itak } = Pe: bo Spey oh M eee : roi tral ee re el ~ hy: . | | : . aft: - . AS LONDEN RV aces AN eu ncuaeneal ani sae ag ae . wera aN 4 4 vrerdder Sy esolomone. asses 2 Re ee) Pa iste sepa. Gani | Is wis Me os meet i } } ; suey i cho tabi ee Be cee mes OR TRU RED, } [ gat-e: y ; a R . tassel ¢ LN tt ae ¥ : Le pe. i hee by Oey £:3).. | SES = Ee: SSN LEE ea RCM oF To ere ns eae pears: WSEAS cor | : fe 10 et | avy te a ie I hae ay dy retin: en * oh ees ere ol Dyntithe N ide shaw Alera Aes Ww Sth atk CTE... [280 estaiigata ae our ie aaa Pie ‘Rates OD ce aan a aS RT Bee 6 aia | nae gee ee has fae oe Spay eer eye a icky ong ¥o0 ables prise yb el ens ; 4 pee Oe “ i Rae Rae A 1.36.8 CUTE EN Hea j in bo. Shoe rally Ae IN a oom el eatin yep SF if s aa ey caremahe re | a au ec ; Neti 4% A if , Jens ot fy : " ! a 6 0 howe ait xe ORD be i J HAIN VATE) EO rapes wc Wi ila aunleotitiyga: ae ra Alaaisiy Ady: i Ls NE Bway a) AO) i, omeadt Teh. (batrrognh ct he ‘ nEgay lve wt, he Pothnn ae ai du cl ut a ls OY : ; 4 , 385 It seems abundantly demonstrated that various fresh-water fishes will live in pH 9.0. This is shown by the work of Miss Hall on white- fish and by the observation of Garrey (716) in connection with the St. Louis city water. The resistance of forms other than fish, especially ~ stagnant water bottom-forms may be great. Stickney (’22) found that a dragon-fly nymph, Libellula pulchella, lived in very high H ion concentrations. It tolerated pH 1.0 for 12 hours or more. Miss Hall found toads’ eggs very resistant as compared with those of whitefish. REACTIONS OF FisH TO DIFFERENCES IN HyproGcEN Ion CONCENTRATIONS A large series of experiments was conducted by the author* with ten species of fish and a number of types of water; aerated well-water, boiled water, distilled water, rain-water, etc. The results are given in Table V and in Figure 1. In nearly all cases the fishes reacted definitely to differences. With any given temperature, salt content, etc., they usually behaved consistently, and with any one set of conditions could be depended on to select a given hydrogen ion concentration; but as conditions were varied and the number of readings increased the results _ varied and were as represented in Table V and Figure 1. The selections tend to fall in two or three places, which with a larger number of read- ings would probably be reduced to one maximum. Each species will be seen to have a definite range which differs from every other species— as shown by the polygons. All figures run higher with the Na,CO,. An average of approximately twelve experiments were run with each species (the exact number is given in Table V). Fishes accustomed to live in clear open waters, especially the minnows, select the lower hydrogen ion concentrations. It is evident from the range of concentrations se- lected by them that all these species might be found in the same small stream during non-critical periods. The order in which the species arrange themselves corresponds to the frequency of their occurrence in the bodies of water mentioned (Fig. 1). The range selected by each species is rather wide, though with a few exceptions the fishes show unmistakable evidences of reacting. Some of the reasons for the broken character of the curves, irregularities, wide range selected, and variation from time to time are as follows: (1) differ- ences in salt content of the water, both experimental differences and those due to differences in aeration in storage reservoirs; (2) difference in steepness of the gradient—a difference of 6.5 to 8.2 would not be en- countered in so short a distance in nature. The following additional reactions have been estimated from pub- lished graphs and by calculations by one of the equations of Greenfield and Baker (’20), which are presented on page .388. * For methods see Bul. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. 11 (Art. VI), page 293. 386 Bluegills (Lepomis pallidws), Wells (715): .........-sc.sscvevsancsees 7.7-7.9 Bullhead! (Amevrius anetas)) Wells, (C215) ccm wrecteic ates orciereeustatenenene ale erie » 1.47.7 Crappie (Pomozis annularis), Wells ((15)..............2. cee eeeee sees 7.38-T7.4 Rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), Shelford and Allee (’11).......... 18) Golden shiner (Abramis crysoleucas), Shelford and Allee (’11)........ Tot *pH calculated by Greenfield and Baker equation mentioned on p. 385. Lepomis humilis Micropterus salmoides Micropterus dolomieu Ambloplites rupestris Abramis crysoleucas Lepomis megalotis Lepomis cyanellus Pimephales notatus Notropis whipplii Notropis cornutus Fic. 1. Showing the range of hydrogen ion concentrations selected by ten species of fish (about 12 experiments per species). The actual selections are plotted, and a broken line indicates the author’s impression as to the probable range in which they would be found. The polygons fall approximately in the order of occurrence in swift water. The letters indicate occurrence in creeks (C), small rivers (S), and in lakes and ponds (L). When two or three letters are used in connection with a polygon, the first one indicates the type of water in which the species is most numerous, and a single letter signifies that the species is commonly found only in that one type of water. An EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN ILLINOIS WATERS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO HyproGen Ion CONCENTRATION A study of fish breeding-grounds was conducted by the author in 1919-20, and the pH values observed are shown in Table V1; the oxygen, in Table VII. There was a marked difference between the carp and bass breeding-grounds; in no case were they the same either at the top or bottom. The bass breeding-grounds were characterized by clean sand bottom; the carp grounds, by dark mud. Table VI shows sharp differ- ences in oxygen content at the bottom at all dates on which they were examined. 387 TaBLe VI Showing oxygen in c.c. per liter and per cent. of saturation on fish breeding- grounds, 1919-20: Round Prairie, carp breeding-grounds; Warners Cut, bass breeding-grounds; Hickory Creek, a typical unpolluted stream; ponds at the head of Lake Michigan. é July 16| Sept. 4 |Nov. 28 Apr. 2 June 3 Mean Locality hs oe te aed AS) oS PSE he a ce ec 2 e.c.| % | ¢ c.| % |\c. c.| %| ce|% | «| % ¢.c.| % ‘ | | | Round Prairie..|9.75| 12 ary | dry | 5.5 584.1 52 |4.6*| 71*| 3.45| 44 Warner’s Cut... |8.0 |150| dry | dry |9.2|}95/5.4 TAVIS NCD ed ice ein Maan ng ism fal 05) Illinois River... | 3.7 61 AO [ease ate 6.0 77 |4.8 | 78 4.2 64 Pon dls 7.53 20% Milbea cit nes PAA a com eS OA ds ae | alee w | 0, 9) | 110 9.8 | 146 Pond Vescss5. «6 wee fee. | 7.3] 135/7.5| 88|8.1*| 183*| 4.5 70 6.4 98 ond! MT, Wes <2] os a) ses LT 38')) (330 8.1, Sole ee ee le be (120) Wate LS tse Pond XIV ..... veee| | 12.4] 230) 6.8) 81 Sere | Ooae | kta 8.7 | 141 * Not included in the mean. i 7 High on-shore wind prevented our reaching this station. The strong waves should have given a 100% saturation. Tas_e VII Showing the hydrogen ion concentration in different fish-waters, July, 1919, to June, 1920. Bottom Top iJ~) ao (=) a Locality crs (oar od Fa a ea Be | olde PlBIS/ 8/8 (a /2/8|8) 8/8 la Sheds [pepe ts a la] 4/4 +s Dake | Michisans seek <<8] od svee[c ee, fice |) s iar 7.9|-7.917.917.8 |'7.9|7.9 Round Prairie... |7.15| dry|7.3)7.3|7.3-|7.27]7.2| dry |7.3/7.4 |7.6|7.4 Warner’s Cut.../|7.95| dry |7.9/7.4 7.7518.2| dry |7.9/7.5 7.8 Ill. Riv., Jefferson hice EAU AMES 12 1| CoB | i0r< cu fze are POPS Nicaea lef GNC I ig Ge: ik PRS Cal i fey dT) BOOM EDV Ole rer itn Lee leceici a [Mebetes[ oer aioivetore Leet UO Ce Oi oct s, | Ceo Tas DO Hickory Cr...... Tey MeO aCe Dike At TeSth VoOr Nh led | aS beD | GO | 687.7 Rand Tet ots. % 6 Me OD hate MuleOiese Tesla dre ol Ce Gi ukeS | tO) | soe | hod | 1.8 L2G) (GL Sheree RIE I So Sa |i Gea fae AP AS (57 OS Peay ey GS bl Nr GP Bir QL 3 Pond VII, W.....|8.5 | 7.85} 7.91). TA \ 7.9 18.2) 8.2)-7.9)...:. | 7.9'|8.05, Pond XIV ...... 7.85|7.5 |7.6} eB ah sO | Geo-| S224) 09) GE ORY Pond. Vit, 6.8 |6.8 |7.3 OAc Nh fe Mod Ue i 2 an a | 7.3 F 7.7|7.4 * Not included in the mean. The series of ponds was quite fully studied in 1909-1911 (see Bio- logical Bulletin, volumes 21 and 22). Pond I at that time contained bass, sunfish, and perch. Bare sand breeding-bottom. Pond V contained perch and chub-suckers. Bare sand breeding- bottom. 388 Pond VII contained chub-suckers, golden shiner, bullhead, and mud minnow. No bare breeding-bottom. Pond VII, E, is much older than VII, W. Pond XIV contained black bullheads. No bare breeding-bottom. A few observations were made on pH at bottom under certain types of vegetation: Under white water-lilies, 6.9-7.2; under yellow water- lilies, 7.7-7.9; under duckweed and smartweed, 6.8-7.3. GENERAL RELATIONS OF HyprRoGEN Ion CONCENTRATION TO OTHER FACTORS . 1. Relations of pH to dissolved oxygen.—There are nearly always ; correlations between CO, content and dissolved oxygen, at least with a fairly constant ‘alkalinity.” A fairly constant alkalinity exists in the sea. Relative to the sea, McClendon (’17a) states that “in so far as the sea is a closed system O, varies inversely with CO,, due to the action of organisms, the possible error being 30 percent.” He presents a chart showing the amount of oxygen to be expected in sea water of various “alkalinities,’ etc. Bélow the thermocline a lake in summer is a closed system, and in so far as alkalinity remains constant there is an inverse relation of O, and CO,, which is, however, by no means constant. In some cases the sum of O, and CO, in c.c. per liter is a constant, but the relation is always an inverse one. This stability of the O, and CO, values probably depends upon circulation, diffusion, changes in alkalinity, etc., but in all the work described herein there is a direct relation between pH and O, (cf. Table VII and Table VI). When hydrogen ions content decreased, as indicated by higher pH figures, oxygen increased. 2. Relations of pH to carbon dioxid and “alkalinity” —In waters of about the same alkalinity the amount of free CO, is as good an index of its suitability for fishes as hydrogen ions (Shelford and Allee, ’10). The amount of CO, means nothing, however, unless alkalinity be meas- | ured. The work of Greenfield and Baker (’20) shows that the HT ions may be calculated. The equation is 4 CO, X 10-7 , H+ = Be i a (es (HCO,— ) a when CO, is expressed in p.p.m. and bicarbonate as p.p.m. CaCO, but when both bicarbonate and free CO, are expressed in c.c. per liter* the equation is 35 xX 10z NEO; A (H+) =—_____—_— + 1 10-8 GICOR) “To check the accuracy of these calculations, several samples of water, from a variety of sources and varying widely in mineral and : organic content, were examined. Bicarbonate and free carbon dioxide * Total must be used, i. e. bound and half-bound. P a - 389 “were Hetecnined according to ‘Standard Methods of Water Analysis’. _ The free carbon dioxide titrations were continued to a faint pink which was persistent for 3 min. The hydrogen ion concentration was _ determined colorimetrically, using standard buffer solutions which had been checked by means of the hydrogen electrode. * * * “Tn only one case [out of 63] was the difference between the deter- mined and calculated p,+ greater than 0.3, and the mean variation is about 0.1. It will also be noted that the wider variations occurred in the cases of low bicarbonate content, which is to be expected from the assumptions made in the development of the equation. * * * “From their experience with the colorimetric P»+ determinations, the authors do not feel that determinations can be made much more ac- curately than 0.2 P.t+, using open tubes and ordinary methods of trans- ferring the test sample to the tube. The effect of aeration of such un- _ stable solutions as natural waters should amount to this much or more. It is advisable in all cases to make several determinations. “The formula cannot be applied to waters which are alkaline to phenolphthalein. An attempt was made to develop such an equation, but no waters naturally alkaline to phenolphthalein were available for checking the calculations. For unusual cases of this kind and cases of low bicarbonate content, it may be better to use some more complete and more complex equation, such as has been developed by Prideaux (Proc. Roy. Soc. London (A) 91, 535).” “Equations are developed for calculating H+-ion concentration, in which the carbon dioxide and bicarbonate are expressed in the manner in which they are ordinarily determined. These equations are less ac- curate with low bicarbonate concentrations, and do not apply to waters alkaline to phenolphthalein.” Taste VIII ~ Comparison of calculated H ion concentrations with those determined colori- metrically. (Excerpts from a table by Greenfield and Baker.*) Res. Free Set, Pp SF ; on co, eee det Ph Error Source of sample evap. | P. P.M. |"Gac0, F calc. 375 0.0 154 yt) 8.00 | —.10 Vermilion River 375 7.0 152 420 7.54 .04 Vermilion River 375 15.5 152 Trax 7.28 .08 Vermilion River 375 16.5 152 yal 7.29 mat Vermilion River 375 29.5 152 6.9 7.05 15 Vermilion River 384 6.0 100 7.3 7.47 cue, Kankakee River 384 14.0 100°) |s 27.5 7.18 -08 Kankakee River 384 25.0 96 6.7 6.94 24 Kankakee River 206 15.0 44 6.9 6.83 —.07 Ohio River 206 29.0 44 6.5 6.52 .02 Ohio River 206 | 30.0 44 6.5 6.52 02 Ohio River 225 11.0 90 453 7.23 —.07 Miss. River * Jour. Industr. and Eng. Chem., Vol. 12 (No. 10), p. 991. 1920. 390 TasLe IX | Values of pH corresponding to varying concentrations of free carbonic acid and bicarbonates calculated by the mass-law equation. (Table prepared by Greenfield and Baker.) Near-neutrality in bold-face figures. V. E. 8. CO., parts per million HCO, p.p.m. CaCO, 0 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 30 | 40 Ge SY EE as Ne i 10 8.00 | 7.30) 7.05) 6.77 |6.60|6.48| 6.39 | 6.31/6.24/6.19 | 6.09 |5.92/5.79 20 8.00| 7.52) 7.30|7 05|)6 89|6.77| 6.68)| 6.60/| 6.54 | 6.48 / 6.39 | 6.21) 6.09 40 8.00) 7.70) 7.52) 7.22|)7.15|7 05) 6 96/|6.89/6.82|6.79 | 6.68) 6.51) 6.39 60 8.00| 7.78| 7.63 | 7.48 | 7.380] 7.20] 7.12|7 04|6.98|6.93| 6.84) 6.68) 6.56 70 8.00| 7.80) 7.67| 7.48 | 7.385| 7.25) 7.17) 7.10|7 04) 6.99 | 6.90/| 6.74/| 6.62 80 8.00| 7.82) 7.70|7.52|7.40|7.30| 7.22) 7.15|7.10|7 05| 6.96 | 6.80) 6.68 90 8.00) 7.84) 7.72 |7.56| 7.43 | 7.34) 7.26) 7.20|7.14|7.09|7 00) 6.84) 6.73 100 8.00| 7.85) 7.74) 7.58) 7.47| 7.388) 7.30] 7.24) 7.18] 7.13 | 7.05) 6.89| 6.77 120 8.00) 7.87) 7.78 | 7.63 | 7.52 | 7.44) 7.36] 7.30] 7.25| 7.20) 7.11| 6.96| 6.84 140 8.00| 7.89] '7.80| 7.67] 7.57| 7.48 | 7.41] 7.35] 7.30| 7.25| 7.17| 7.02) 6.91 160 8.00) 7.90} 7.82|7.70| 7.60] 7.52 | 7.46] 7.40] 7.35] 7.30) 7.22} 7.07} 6.96 180 8.00| 7.91| 7.84] 7.72| 7.63] 7.56) 7.49| 7.43] 7.39| 7.384) 7.26) 7.12|7 00 3. Relations of pH to putrescibility and pollution—Under ordinary conditions putrescibility accompanies high free CO,. This is determined partially, however, by alkalinity, but with a constant alkalinity, CO, usually varies directly with the putrescibility. In the Illinois River, with an alkalinity of 100 to 140 p.p.m. of CaCO,, samples show pH values up to 7.2 with CO, at 8 p.p.m. several days after being shipped from points above Chillicothe. Here the calculated values were about 3 points too high, which was probably because the formula gives incorrect results in the presence of free ammonia. The low CO, values are surprising for the Illinois River.* Farther down the stream, at Chillicothe, September 6, 1919, I found pH 6.8 at the surface, and 6.9 at the bottom with green algae in evidence, and O, .9 c.c. per liter at the bottom, 20 feet from the west shore. On September 3, at Liverpool we found pH 6.9 at the bottom and O, .96 c.c. per liter, with the bottom fauna destroyed. The fact that CO, values appear to be small in this stream makes the calcu- lated pH values too high. In this case, therefore, pH determinations would appear more significant than CO, determinations. Calculated values should not be used except where determinations are not practi- cable—e. g., in working over old data. Too many waters contain ammonia or other disturbing substances. * Weston and Turner (’17) found high COs. in a polluted stream, but fail to give the alkalinity. 391 DiscussIoN AND SUMMARY OF RESULTS Present-day methods of determining hydrogen ion concentration in detailed manner have been developed by biochemists, bacteriologists, and - oceanographers; not by physical chemists, as one might expect. Its im- portance in the study of fishes came to the author’s attention in course of experiments performed in 1911 (Shelford and Allee). This work was followed by that of several students. The important papers by - Palitzsch and Sorensen—see bibliography in Clark (’20)—were over- _ looked by the writer until 1916. These important papers appear not to _ have been appreciated until 1915. The aid and advice of physical chemists was sought, but these investigators regarded differences in pH of less than unit value—e. g. between 8.0 and 9.01—of little importance, though they made important contributions to the subject. The turning-point of phenolphthalein was stated by Washburn (’15) to be pH 9.0; its turning- point in water analysis (faint pink lasting 3 minutes) is pH 8.0; all depends upon the method employed. The summary of Wells’ paper (’15) previously referred to, should read about as follows: 1. Hydrogen ion concentration is an important factor in determin- ing the reaction and resistance of fishes. , 2. Most fresh-water fishes select slightly alkaline water in a gra- dient, but when offered a gradient from the turning-point of phenol- phthalein to higher hydroxyl ion concentrations (pH 8.0-9.0) the more alkaline end is selected. 3. The optimum CO, varies from 0 (pH 8.0) for bluegills to 6 c.c. per liter in water with about 200 parts per million alkalinity (pH 7.4-7.6) for sunfishes and crappies. Optimum sulphuric acid was not determined because of carbonates in the distilled water used. 4. The distribution of plankton in Wisconsin and New York lakes shows fewest animals in the stratum at the turning-point of phenol- phthalein (pH 8.0), suggesting a negative reaction to water with pH 8.0. : 5. No good results were obtained with once-distilled water because of carbonates present. The chief occasion for criticism of Wells’ paper is the confusion relative to neutrality. A repetition of his experiments, which was one of the purposes of the present paper, and a close study of his work shows that he regarded the turning-point of phenolphthalein (pH 8.0) as neutral, or “near enough” to it. The avoidance of pH 8.00 when this accom- _ panied higher alkalinity, as found by Wells, has been confirmed by Miss Hall in case of young whitefish. The table constructed by Wells showing the avoidance of pH 8.0 by plankton (New York and Wisconsin lakes) is correct in this respect, but the columns to the right and left of the phenolphthalein neutrality are by no means comparable in hydrogen ion concentration. The statements by Wells relative to CO,, together with those in the paper of 1911 by Shelford and Allee, are correct only for the “alkalinities” used, which varied around 100 p.p.m. of CaCO, or 120 p. p. m. of HCO,. Several statements quoted from Wells (715) and 392 Washburn (’15) in my chapter in Ward and Whipple’s “Fresh Water Biology” are erroneous. Shull’s “Principles of Animal Biology” (page 277) includes statements of a similar nature which should be corrected. These various statements relative to CO, optima, etc., are not to be re- garded as errors when made; later evidence has merely shown that hy- drogen ion concentration is a better index than CO,. There are a number of general reasons for determining hydrogen ions, such as the close regulation of their concentration in the animal body and their apparent great physiological importance in vertebrates. The writer does not, however, wish to give the impression that he means to advocate the use of pH determinations to displace any other determina- tions now in common use unless it be CO,, and not even in this case until further investigations have been conducted. CoNnCLUSIONS Hydrogen ions should be determined for the following specific reasons: 1. The effect of various concentrations of oxygen are modified by the hydrogen ions present, particularly the ill effect of low oxygen on survival and development, which is increased by the high hydrogen ion concentration which accompanies it in waters of low alkalinity. In a general way the hydrogen ion concentration varies inversely with the oxygen content in bodies of water with stable alkalinity (e. g., see Tables VI and VII and Graph 1). 2. With the same oxygen content, different hydrogen ion concen- trations have definite effects on the rate of development and time of survival of aquatic animals. 3. Many animals react definitely to hydrogen ion concentration (fishes, crayfishes, Entomostraca) in a manner similar to their reactions to temperature. Each species tolerates a rather wide range with a fairly definite optimum. 4. The determination of hydrogen ions is to be preferred to CO, determinations because it is the free hydrogen ions which are most effec- tive, and, as shown in Table IX, column 6, for example, while the CO, — remains constant (6 p.p.m.), hydrogen ions concentration changes by tenfold (pH 6.6 to 7.63) owing to difference in alkalinity. 5. Colorimetric determinations of pH are about as accurate as CO, determinations and can be made on the spot very quickly. With some simple device for collecting (see Richardson’s Fig 6, page 372, Vol. XIII of this series), aeration can be reduced, and very small quantities of water used as contrasted with the usual 250 c.c. samples. 3 6. The distribution of plants and animals is correlated with hydro- gen ion concentration. 65 70 ys a Totes 1. 100 320 100 320 100 032 010 GrapH 1. Showing the range of hydrogen ion concentration accompanying a >< trace of oxygen in Wisconsin lakes. Calculated from data obtained by Birge and Juday (’11). At the left, alkalinity is shown as y CO, and CaCO,; below, hydrogen ions, as pH and as ? grams per million liters. Ad 394 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer is especially indebted to Mr. R. E. Greenfield, of the Illinois State Water Survey, for numerous suggestions throughout the course of the investigation. The paper would have been deficient at several points but for his assistance. Acknowledgments are also due Messrs. R. E. Richardson and G. C. Baker for advice in various con- nections. I am also indebted to Mr. Ralph Bradford, Chief State Fish and Game Warden, for the black bass used; to the United States Fisheries Station at Fairport; Iowa, for bluegills furnished me; and to Dr. F. W. Mohlman, who kindly gave me the results of determinations of shipped Illinois River water. BIBLIOGRAPHY Birge, E. A., and Juday, Chauncy 11. Inland lakes of Wisconsin. The dissolved gases of the water and their biological significance. Bul. XXII (Sci. Ser. 7), Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Clark, W. M. 20. The determination of hydrogen ions. Baltimore. (Contains an extensive bibliography.) Forbes, S. A., and Richardson, R. E. 708. The fishes of Illinois. Vol. III, Nat. Hist. Surv. Ill. Sec. ed., 1920. Garrey, W. E. 16. Resistance of fresh-water fish to changes of osmotic and chem- ical conditions. Am. Jour. Physiol. 39: 313-329. Greenfield, R. E., and Baker, G. C. 20. Relationship of hy drogen ion concentration of natural waters to carbon dioxide content. Jour. Industr. and Eng. Chem. 12: 989-992. Hall, Ada R. 21. The effect of oxygen and carbon dioxide on the development of certain cold-blooded vertebrates. (To be published.) Jewell, M. E. 20. The quality of water in the Sangamon River. Bul. Ill. State Water Surv. 16: 230-246. 22. The fauna of an acid stream. Ecology, 3: 22-26. Juday, Chauncy 20. Behavior of the larvae of Corethra punctipennis Say. Anatom- ical Record, 17: 340. 395 McClendon, J. F. .. 17. The use of the Van Slyke CO, apparatus for determination of total CO, in sea water. Jour. Biochem. 30: 259-263. 17a. The standardization of a new method for the determination of hydrogen ion concentration, CO, tension and CO, content of sea water. Ibid., 265-288. Matthews, A. P. 15. Physiological chemistry. New York. Powers, E. B. 21. The variation of the condition of sea water, especially hydro- gen-ion concentration, and its relation to marine organisms. Pu- get Sound Biol. Station Pub. 2: 369-385. 21a. Experiments and observations on the behavior of marine fishes toward hydrogen-ion concentration of sea water in relation to their migratory movements and habitat. Ibid., 3 : 1-22. 22. The physiology of the respiration of fishes in relation to the hydrogen ion concentration of the medium. Jour. Gen. Phys., 3: 305-317. Richardson, R. E. 21. The small bottom and shore fauna of the middle and lower Illinois River and its connecting lakes, Chillicothe to Grafton; its valuation; its sources of food supply; and its relation to the fishery. Bul. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv., 13 : 372, Fig. 6. Stickney, F. , 22. The relations of nymphs of Libellula pulchella to acid and temperature. Ecology, 3 : 250-254. Washburn, E. W. 15. Introduction to the principles of physical chemistry. New York. Wells, M. M. 715. Reaction and resistance of fishes in their natural environment to acidity, alkalinity, and neutrality. Biol. Bul. 29: 221-257. Weston, R. S., and Turner, C. E. 17. Studies on the digestion of a sewage-filter effluent by a small and otherwise unpolluted stream (Coweeset Cr.). Contr. San. Res. Lab. and Sewage Exper. Station, 10: 1-96. Wherry, E. T. 21. Soil acidity and a field method of measuring it. Ecology, 1: 160-173 STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief Vol. XIV. BULLETIN Article X. ; On the Numbers and Local Distribution E of Illinois Land Birds of the Open Country in Winter, Spring, ' and Fall : : BY STEPHEN A. FORBES and ALFRED O. GROSS - PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS October, 1923 ae Cn STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION A. M. SHELTON, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION A. M. SHELTON, Chairman Wiii1AmM Treveast, Biology Joun W. ALyorp, Engineering ‘ : Joun M. Courter, Forestry Kenpric C. Bascock, Representing the 3% Epson S. Bastin, Geology President of the University of IWi- Wirrtam A. Noyes, Chemistry nois - oa THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION SrepHEN A. Forbes, Chief ee Scunepep & BARNES, PRINTERS SPRINGFIELD, ILL. 1922 876—1200 D ~— ArticteE X.—On the Numbers and Local Distribution of Illinois Land Birds of the Open Country in Winter, Spring, and Fall. By _ STEPHEN A. Forspes AND ALFRED O. Gross. ; Probably nothing can seem further removed from the sources of - interest in ornithology which attract the general bird lover to an observa- tion and study of birds than a mass of statistical data concerning the _ numbers of the different species in different seasons, regions, and habi- tats; but with a sufficient exercise of the imagination one may translate this dull array of figures into a captivating vision of the actual bird life _ of the broad areas from which the data have been drawn—a vision which _ should add immensely to our conception of the significance of birds in . the life of the world and of their interest to the observer and the student _ of nature. We commonly think of a robin as one of a small, scattered _ group on a little part of a lawn, searching, with captivating grace and individuality of attitude and action, for the earthworms and insects of its breakfast menu; or of a single meadowlark as piping its lovely lay _ with generous abandon in the dewy morning from a fence post beside i: the meadow; but we may multiply our pleasure in the recollection a ¥ _ thousand fold if we can think at once of hundreds of thousands of each, re spread over a vast area, their numbers thickening here, diluted there, sf according to situation and circumstance, like a delicately shaded pig- Bi + _ ment used to paint a robin picture or a meadowlark picture of the State _ of Illinois. The reader of our papers must supply the colors, it is true, _ but that will be easy if he is a well-equipped colorist. It is ours to ~ show where and how and in what depth of tint they must be laid on to i _ make the picture as true as possible to the life of field and forest, thicket : and swamp, summer and winter, north and south, It has been our general plan to work at first with broad strokes of a the full brush, refining upon our neutral background by degrees and ie _ ending, as we hope to do in a paper following the present one, with the ; e final details for each species faken up separately and followed all over Be the state and around the year. This one time more, however, we must aes resume our method of blocking in the skeletal outlines and the basal agi features of the local ornithology, as intelligently as we can with some- what inadequate materials, leaving it to others to give life and finish to the sketch. watt | Tue WINTER Brirps a | In planning the presentation of the products of a partial survey of Ba _ the land birds of Illinois made in 1906, 1907, 1908, and 1909, it seemed : best that we should first discuss the species resident in the state in sum- a mer and in winter, respectively, following with the much more difficult ny £ ~ j: 398 treatment of the birds of the transition periods covering the spring and fall migrations. Our report on the summer residents has already been published*, and we have next to report on the winter residents of the state, so far as they were observed in a single season’s travel. The winter season is, of course, in strong contrast to summer in respect to the dominant species of birds and their numbers, and in the greater freedom of their movements, since they have only their own pleasures and welfare to seek, quite free from responsibility for a follow- ing generation which in-summer individualizes their interests, chains them to one locality, and dominates most of their activities. In winter their gregarious tendencies can assert themselves unchecked, and they move much more generally in flocks, sweeping widely from place to place, as the weather changes, in a free search for shelter and a com- paratively scanty food supply. The extremes of the state are also much more unlike at this time than in summer, the southern Illinois birds living under conditions approaching those of the perpetual summer of the tropics, while the northern Illinois birds pass their winter not far outside the edge of a frigid zone. How these differences are expressed in the number of species as well as the population densities of northern and southern Illinois respectively, will presently be shown. The winter dates of our Illinois bird survey extend from November 23, 1906, to February 21, 1907, the northern Illinois observations having been made from November 23 to 30 and January 2 to 16, those for central Illinois from December 3 to 18 and January 16 to February 1, and those for southern Illinois from February 6 to 21. They show set- tled winter conditions in each section of the state except that three fall migrants, the Canada goose, Wilson’s snipe, and pipit, were seen in northern Illinois in November in very small numbers—2, 1, and 8 re- spectively. The distances traveled on these winter trips, the acreage covered by the survey, the numbers of birds identified and counted, and the average numbers per square mile are shown in the following table. ACREAGE OF SURVEY AND NUMBER OF BIRDS WINTER OF 1996 AND 1907 : Miles | Acreage “ No. Numbers per Section traveled | covered | Fee of birds square mile Southern 88.9 1422.40 1 1858 836 Central 147.6 2638.76 1.86 1815 440 Northern 130.1 2317.21 1.63 1520 420 State 366.6 6378.37 5193 520 * The Numbers and Local Distribution in Summer of Illinois Land Birds of _ the Open Country. By Stephen A. Forbes and Alfred O. Gross. Bul. Ill. State ~ Nat. Hist. Surv., Vol. XIV. Art. 6, p. 187-218, Pl. 35-70. 2 399 Comparing winter and summer birds of our record for the three ~ sections of the state in the year 1906-07, we find that the winter birds _ per square mile were fewer by 32% than those of the summer time for central and northern Illinois (430 and 630 respectively), but that the southern Illinois birds were 22.6% more numerous per square mile in winter than in summer (836 to 682). This southward concentration of the birds of the winter will, of course, vary greatly according to the character of the season, severe fall and winter weather equalizing the Illinois distribution by driving the more sensitive species quite beyond the boundaries of the state. WINTER AND SUMMER BIRDS PER Square Mie, 1906—07 Winter Summer Southern 836 682 Central 440 650 Northern 420 610 State 520 644 The complete list of the winter birds of our survey numbers fifty- two species, forty-two of which were in southern, twenty-nine in central, and thirty-one in northern Illinois, or thirty-seven in both the latter taken together. Northern and central Illinois were closely alike in the species of their winter birds, differing mainly in the fact that the horned lark and redpoll came down in very small numbers into the northern part of the state without reaching central Illinois, that another northerner, the Lapland longspur, was very abundant in northern Illinois but rare in central, and that the cardinal, most abundant in the’ south in winter, Was seen in central Illinois but not in northern. In southern Illinois, on the other hand, sixteen species were found which were not seen far- ther north. Some of these doubtless occurred in central and northern Illinois, but the fact that they were not seen there in 278 miles of travel but were found in southern Illinois in less than a third of that distance, is an indication that, if not wanting in the north, they were at any rate much more abundant southward. Furthermore, the numbers of winter birds per Square mile were virtually equal in the two northernmost sec- tions, 100 birds in northern Illinois corresponding to 105 in central, but in southern Illinois the number was virtually twice as great as that of the other sections united, 100 of the latter corresponding to 199 of the former. The following thirteen of our fifty-two winter species are required to make up 85 per cent. of the total number of birds seen and counted in the state, and these taken together averaged 445 to the square mile, or about two birds to every three acres, leaving seventy-five birds’ to the square mile for the remaining thirty-nine species, or more than eight acres to the bird. 400 NUMBERS OF THE MorE ABUNDANT WINTER BIRDS OF ILLI- wots, 1906 ann 1907 (85 PER CENT. LIST) Nos. seen Nos. per eS -and counted sq. mile Crow 768 77 Lapland longspur 677 68 Junco 567 57 Prairie horned lark 476 48 English sparrow 414 42 Goldfinch 336 34 Tree sparrow 303 30 Meadowlark 269 27 Quail 234 24 Blue jay 114 11 Cardinal 93 4) Mourning dove 88 9 Chickadee 87 9 Totals 4426 445 Tue Data BY SECTIONS OF THE STATE - Turning now to the sections of the state, we find 1858 birds recorded Fourteen from southern Illinois—an average of 836 to the square mile. of the forty-one species are needed to make up 85 per cent. of the whole number. These more abundant species totaled 706 to the square mile, and the twenty-seven less abundant species, 130 to the mile. Otherwise stated, the fourteen prominent species averaged 112 birds each and the twenty-seven less abundant species averaged fourteen each. The numeri- cal data for the more abundant birds are as follows: NUMBERS OF THE More ABUNDANT WINTER BrRDS OF SouTHERN Ixtrnors, 1906 anp 1907 (84.5 PER CENT. LIST) Numbers Species seen and cece Sls counted Junco . 416 187 Meadowlark 268 121 Quail 180 81 Bluebird 82 37 Mourning dove 81 36 Blue jay 79 36 Turkey vulture 70 31 Prairie horned lark 63 29 Tufted titmouse 62 28 Carolina chickadee 60 27 Purple finch 58 26 Tree sparrow 53 24 Cardinal 51 23 Song sparrow 44 20 Totals 1567 706 401 Bs ie Sixty-nine per cent. of the birds belong to 34 permanent resident oe ae. and 31% to 7 species of winter residents, the latter mainly _ juncos, purple finches, tree sparrows, and white- throated sparrows. ‘ “Central and northern Illinois resembled each other and differed from we a Illinois in the fact that although they are widely unlike in the g = tatistical particulars of our survey, the winter fields of both were swept vy ranging flocks of virtually the same gregarious species, which made by _ far the greater part of the bird population of both sections. Six species out of thirty recorded composed, in these northern sections, 8% and 88 “x cent. of the whole number seen. The two following lists of species of principal winter birds differ only in the substitution of the junco in _ central Illinois for the Lapland longspur in northern ; and their combina- tion into one improves our picture of the winter bird life of these parts & of the state. NUMBERS OF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER Birps or CENTRAL Inurnots, 1906 AND 1907, (88.5 PER CENT. LIST) - - Numbers Numbers per _- . _ Species | seen square mile i _ Crow 526 128 os Prairie horned lark 338 82 be = English sparrow ~ 332 81 ‘Sea ; — Goldfinch 153 37 = : Junco ; 141 34 — ; Tree sparrow 113 27 yess aaa, ot ae = ; Total ~ 1603 389 ? 1g@ te ; * NUMBERS OF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER Birps or NorrTHEeRN “" ILLINOIS, 1906 AND 1907, (87 PER CENT. LIST) q : Numbers Numbers per 3 ~ Species seen square mile . Lapland longspur 675 186 = Crow 207 57 Goldfinch 179 49 oa! Tree sparrow 137 38 5 Prairie horned lark 75 21 English sparrow 50 14 Total | - "1328 365 402 ComBinrp Most ABUNDANT List, 1906 AND 1907, CenTRAL AND NORTHERN ILLINOIS, (83.3 PER CENT. LIST) é Numbers Per square Species counted mile Crow 733 95 Lapland longspur 675 87 Prairie horned lark 413 53 English sparrow 382 49 Goldfinch 332 43 Tree sparrow 250 32 Junco 141 19 Total 2926 378 Comparing the foregoing ratios with those of southern Illinois, we see in the winter birds of the southern section a difference from the northern sections in the number of the more dominant species like that to which attention was called in our discussion of the summer birds of the state. To make 85 per cent. of the total number of winter birds we must take for southern Illinois more than 36 per cent. of the species, and for central and northern Illinois only 19 per cent—fifteen species in southern Illinois as compared with seven in northern-central. The rela- tively greater ecological complexity of the southern part of the state is thus reflected, in winter as well as in summer, in the greater number of species of birds with numbers large enough to make them important as members of the ornithological community. The winter birds of central and northern Illinois taken as one area, were fewer per square mile by 32 per cent. than those of the summer- time (430 to 630), but the southern Illinois birds were 22.6 per cent. more numerous per square mile in winter than in summer (836 to 682). Our general averages per square mile for the state as a whole were 520 for the winter and 644 for the summer—the winter Sey: nearly 24 per cent. smaller than the summer. RESIDENCE CLASSES AND THEIR SEASONAL MovEMENTS From this point onward, we shall make much use of tables show- ing the residence classification of the species dealt with, and a few words of general information seem necessary. Although the birds of a locality or of an area of moderate size and fairly uniform ecological condition, are somewhat definitely divisible into the four classes of permanent residents, winter residents, summer resi- dents, and migrants (the last term being used for those which pass en- tirely through the area in migration), a strict classification on this basis is impracticable since the northward and southward range of a species . _ may vary Peptaderabiy in different years if the critical seasons are much Pate and the numbers of a species diminish so gradually as the boun- _ daries of its range are approached, that it is usually impossible to draw them distinctly. We have made as definite a residence classification of 5 the birds of our lists for each section of the state as our data will permit, using not only our own observations but all available information both published and unpublished, ignoring, however, merely occasional occur- -rences and scanty numbers, since these are ecologically insignificant ; and we have drawn upon our statistical data to determine as accurately peas possible the movements and numerical relations of the different classes in the four annual seasons and the three sections of the state. 2 It is an interesting fact that only 17.1 per cent. of the 41 midwinter _ species of our list were winter residents in southern Illinois, the remain- ing 82.9 per cent. being permanent residents in that region. In central’ Illinois, on the other hand,-permanent resident species were 64.3%, and in northern Illinois 57.2% of the whole number, the ratios thus dimin- & ishing rapidly northward. While the winter residence ratios remained fairly uniform (17.1, 17.9, and 19.0, south to north), the summer species present in winter increased i in numbers northward (0.0, 14.3, and 19.0), = and the migrant species were either absent, or present in only insignifi- cant number. Fe _ ComPaRIsoN or ResipeNcn RATIOS IN SECTIONS oF THE STATE, WINTER oF 1907 Species : Permanent Winter Summer Migrant 3 Northern 57.2 19.0 19.0 4.8 , Central 64.3 17.9 14.3 3.5 Southern 82.9 ar (ail 4 0.0 0.0 All Birds | 4 Northern 62.9 35.5 1.3 0.3 Central 84.3 + 15,0 0.6 0.1 Southern 69.4 30.6 0.0 0.0 Natives Northern 61.4 37.0 1.3 0.3 - Central 80.8 18.4 0.7 0.1 Southern 68.9 Bilt 0.0 0.0 a This is all, of course, what we should expect, more species of birds _ remaining throughout the year in the more equable southern climate, x and the number driven southward in winter increasing as we pass to areas of greater cold. The agreement of our statistics with this obvious inference tends to give us confidence in their sufficiency, although the validity of the exact numbers of our tables is nevertheless left in doubt. It may seem strange at first that species properly classed as summer residents throughout the state should be more largely represented in Be 6 Ba 404 winter in northern Illinois than in central, and more so in central than in southern, but evidently the larger the number of summer species re- tiring southward in winter the larger will be the number that will leave a few representatives in especially favorable haunts. The summer resi- dents which seemingly linger into winter are very likely migrants from the northern edge of the summer area of the species, accustomed to a lower temperature throughout the year than their fellows. It seems possible, if not probable, that the whole mass of a species moves in migration, not as a mob, but as a more or less fixed array, those northern- most at the beginning of the movement being also northernmost at its end, each part of the array seeking the kind of climate to which it has become accustomed. If this is the case, the summer birds of northern Illinois whose area of summer residence extends farthest northward will be most likely to leave a recognizable number of representatives in northern Illinois in winter, and this will be especially likely if the species contains a large number of birds. Other things being equal, members of the migrating species represented by the largest numbers will be most likely to be found in winter farthest north. Our tables of residence classification for the three sections of the state and the four seasons of the year show the effect of change of season on the geographical distribution of the species tabulated, and the first division of each table is thus the essential part of it; in this the species is the unit and not the bud. The number of birds belonging to a species is a secondary matter in determining its geographical distribu- tion, and as the second and third sections of our tables deal with such numbers, they have relatively little significance in a residence classifica- tion. WINTER Brrps IN Hasitats The acreages of some of the vegetation areas covered by the winter operations of our bird survey—namely, swamps, 22 acres, orchards, 38 acres, yards and gardens, 26 acres—are so small as to be of doubtful value for our purposes, but those of cereal and forage crops, woods, shrubbery, and waste and fallow lands, ranging from 250 to 1790 acres each, may be used to fair advantage. There is, of course, much less to differentiate them as bird resorts when vegetation is dead over all of them and the ground is often covered with-snow than there is in the varied and fruitful summer season. The gregarious habit of most winter birds calls for a larger number of observations as essential to dependable averages ;.the character of the season has much to do with the abundance and southward range of several of our typical winter residents ; and it is only by rare chance that the data of a single winter can approximate an average for the winters of a decade. Nevertheless our recorded numbers from different habitats seem worthy of report as a means of depicting the contrast in the bird population of the state 405 in the seasonal extremes of the year, a view of which is necessary to an understanding of the transition periods of spring and fall. ACREAGES OF WINTER Birp SuRvEY or 1906 anp 1907 = Southern Central Northern eee Illinois Illinois Illinois Syate Corn 229.75 876.12 683.93 1789.80 Wheat 289.29 259.42 76.83 625.54 Stubble 161.99 342.25 305.62 809.86 Plowed ground 18.30 325.31 223.41 567.02 Pasture 184.34 501.58 498.43 1184.35 Meadow 114.34 198.48 305.00 617.82 Swamp LRT Met Kee ete heats WW |e Avalon ele hae 22.27 Woods 209.55 48.99 58.64 317.18 Orehard 19.02 16.36 2.44 37.82 Shrubs 33.09 11.66 17.95 62.70 Waste and fallow 116.41 35.40 97.86 249.67 Yards and Gardens 8.18 5.47 12.30 25.95 Miscellaneous 15.87 17:72 34.80 68.39 Total 1422.40 | 2638.76 2317.21 6378.37 In the search for food and protection, the winter birds of the state (mainly seed eaters) were found in the largest numbers in corn fields, _ pastures, and woodlands—about a fourth of all in the first, a sixth in the second, and an eighth in the last of these situations. In numbers per square mile, the ratios were of course very different, corn fields, wheat, stubble, and pastures having about equal averages, meadows and fields of plowed ground considerably smaller, andthe tree and shrub associa- tion (orchards, woods, and shrubbery), nearly five times as many to the unit of area as the open country. Indeed, from our numbers per “square mile for the whole state it would seem that there are in winter but three classes of bird habitat, the open fields, the woods, wastes, and orchards, and yards, gardens, and shrubbery, represented in our survey by the very unequal areas of 5596, 605, and 89 acres, respectively; the first with 423 birds to the square mile, the second with 1153, and the third with 2676. To what extent the higher densities are related inversely to the smaller areas of the classes of habitats in which they occur, the birds characteristic of the less extensive habitats being found merely to con- centrate there, it is impossible for us to say. The same general rela- tions as to density ratios hold in the sections of the state taken sepa- rately, although differences of winter climate and the occasional occur- rence of flocks of juncos, tree sparrows, and Lapland longspurs so over- weigh the averages in many cases that the detailed figures have little significance. This disturbing effect of the gregarious habit of winter birds is illustrated by the enormous number per square mile found in the 5% 406 acres of yards and gardens surveyed in central Illinois—an overplus wholly due to English sparrows—and by the large northern [Illinois averages in wheat and meadows, due to flocks of Lapland longspurs encountered in these fields. ; NuMBERS SEEN AND COUNTED OF ALL WINTER Birds IN THE SEVERAL HABITATS a“ Southern Central Northern Habitats Illinois Illinois Illinois pias Corn 497 660 225 1382 Wheat 59 28 3267 413 Stubble 134 135 2587 527 Plowed ground 3 160 30 193 Pasture 164 390 272 826 Meadow 99 23 1937 315 Swamp 42 apts aon 42 Woods 521 52 41 614 Orchards ‘ 65 14 1 80 Shrubs 104 80 25 209 Waste and fallow 158 110 127 395 Yards and Gardens 10 150* 2 162 Miscellaneous 2 13 20 35 i Total ASbS oy a IRIB 1520 5193 * All English sparrows. + Mainly Lapland longspurs,. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF ALL WINTER Brrps IN THE SEVERAL HABITATS , Southern Central Northern ' Eiaietats Illinois Illinois Illinois Stabe Corn 1384 482 211 494 Wheat 131 69 271 423 Stubble 529 252 540 417 Plowed ground mice LOB 315 86 218 Pasture 569 498 349 446 Meadow 554 74 405 319 Swamp 1207 Seisie cachet Hao Orchard 2187 548 aie 1354 Woods 1591 679 447 1239 Shrubs 2011 4391 891 2133 Waste and fallow 555 1989* 831 1013 Yards and Gardens 782 175507 1041 8995 Miscellaneous 81 469 368 328 * Mainly tree sparrows. + English sparrows only. 407 WINTER BIRDS PER SQUARE MILE IN Groups oF HABITATS Southern. Central Northern Open fields 626 357 402 Woods, waste and or- _chards - 13880 1112 680 1153 Shrubbery, yards and : e ae _ 1768 8593 7849 2676 The corn field in winter ‘cvdbdtly presents a less dreary aspect to _ birds than to man, as is shown by our state average of nearly 500 birds to the square mile in that situation. To a winter bird what we call a es field may often seem to be rather a field of weeds, mainly seed- bearing grasses of the kinds which are likely to take possession, espe- _ cially in a wet season, after the corn is “laid by.” Comparing the corn- _ field ratios of birds with the winter averages for all habitats we find them only half as large in northern Illinois (211 in corn to 420 for the whole area), a little larger in central Illinois (482 to 440) and 65 _ per cent. larger in southern Illinois (1384 to 836). The high ratio in Saher Illinois corn fields was mainly due to flocks of juncos, ranging in number of birds from 3 to 24, only 4 of the 133 corn-field juncos recorded having been single birds; to equally large flocks of meadow- larks in corn fields (3 to 36 in numbers, only 2 of 134 of these birds _ shaving been seen singly), and to one flock of 74 mourning doves. Next to these dominant species came quails in two covies of 18 and 27 each, crows, solitary or only 2 to 5 together, red-headed woodpeckers, single of course, and tree sparrows in one flock of 8 but otherwise scattered. s In central Illinois the crow was the dominant species in our corn _ field records, mainly however, by reason of two large flocks, one of 44 and another with an estimated number of 400.* The next in order of _ prominence was the English sparrow, but with a number per square mile only half the general winter average of the species for the state (41 to 81). An interesting minor item is the occurrence of twenty a cardinals in corn, a much larger number than in any other central Illinois situation, and nearly twice as large as was found in the corn fields of southern Illinois. a In the northern part of the state the leading species were the Lap- land longspur, mainly 2 to 4 in a place but with one flock of 38, and a - flock of 55 goldfinches. * = * These were seen December 18 in fields which were probably not yet husked, = and the crows were very likely helping themselves to corn kernels from the tips of the ears. To the larger grain-eating birds, husked and unhusked corn fields are of course very different habitats, but unfortunately our field notes contain no records of this distinction. r ot >= Sd ) pe me Sea rs 408 NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER Brrps IN CoRN ; Species Southern | Central | Northern State Quail 75 | 13 | 0 16 Prairie chicken 0 | 0 | 18 vf Mourning dove 220 x | 6 | 31 Flicker 50 | 0 | 0 } 6 Crow 39 | 341 28 183 Meadowlark 373 0 0 | 48 English sparrow 0 | 41 12 25 Goldfinch 8 0 54 | 22 Lapland longspur 0 0 | 61 | 23 Tree sparrow 33 24 | 5 Uy 23 Junco 370 29 | 0 | 61 Total | 1168 448 | 196 445 * Present, but in trivial number. Our sectional data for weat are greatly distorted by flocks of Lap- land longspurs in northern Illinois, bringing the general average in wheat fields there to twice that for the southern and four times that for the central section. ‘These birds were in three flocks of 9, 13, and 175, re- spectively. The prairie horned lark was the only other species especially abundant in northern Illinois wheat fields, where it averaged 317 to the square mile, a ratio mainly due, however, to a single flock. The wheat fields of central Illinois were nearly destitute of birds, the leading species there being juncos, found but three times, in numbers from 1 to 9, and the tree sparrows, found but once, in a flock of 5. In southern Lllinois,. on nearly half a section of wheat, only 59 birds were to be found, juncos in the largest number (31 to the square mile) and next these the prairie horned larks, meadowlarks, and bluebirds, each in about two-thirds the above average. In the table next following, gross irregularities of the sectional lists are smoothed down somewhat in the column of averages for the state as a whole, but they are still too large to have much if any value as statistics. They show what was actually found by a limited number of observations in one winter, but warrant no inference that they would be duplicated in any similar area in another. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER BIRDS IN WHEAT Species Southern Central Northern State Prairie horned lark 24 5 317 52 Crow 0 7 | 33 i¢ Meadowlark 24 * 0 11 Lapland longspur 0 0 2366 291 Tree sparrow 0 12 0 5 Slate-colored junco 31 32 0 28 Cardinal 0 5 0 2 aA Bluebird 22 0 0 10 ? Total 101 61 2716 406 409 The record for fields of stubble is quite as irregular as that for wheat, quails and meadowlarks dominating in southern Illinois, prairie horned larks in central, crows and Lapland longspurs in northern, and the last of these in the state as a whole, with prairie horned larks and crows next in order. An interesting item is the occurrence in southern Illinois of sufficient numbers of song sparrows and bluebirds to bring these species into the “more abundant” list. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER BIRDS IN STUBBLE * { Southern | Central Northern | peegles | Illinois __—_Tlinois Titinois. (bn State Quail 142 19 3 | 40 Prairie horned lark | 79 131 31 | 83 Crow 8 52 119 69 Meadowlark 158 * 0 33 English sparrow 0 34 * | 15 Lapland longspur 0 0 335 127 Tree sparrow 36 6 13 | 14 Song sparrow | 24 0 0 5 Bluebird 24 0 0 5 Total \ 471 \ 242 | 506 391 * Present in only trivial numbers. On plowed ground, the most striking feature was the dominance of the prairie horned lark in central Illinois—211 to the square mile on the 325 acres of that habitat. Over four-fifths of these birds were in two flocks of 37 and 48 respectively, the remainder occurring in scat- tered small numbers. The other important averages were 55 juncos and 33 English sparrows to the square mile in-central Illinois. Only three birds were found on eighteen acres of southern Illinois plowed land, while on 223 acres in northern Illinois there were approximately equal numbers of prairie horned larks and Lapland longspurs, with about half -as many English sparrows. The leading species for the state as a whole (really only central and northern Illinois, since the southern acreage of plowed ground was very small), were the prairie horned lark with 130 to the square mile, junco with 32, and English sparrow with 24. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER BIRDS ON PLOWED GROUND 4 Southern Central Northern Specs Illinois Illinois Illinois eats Prairie horned lark 0 211 23 lie 130 Crow 0 0 s = English sparrow | 0 33 11 | 24 Lapland longspur 0 S 20 | 10 Slate-colored junco 0 55 0 32 Undetermined 0 0 20 8 Total 0 299 74 204 * Trivial numbers only. 410 The winter data of our pasture area of nearly 500 acres are espe- cially interesting and much more satisfactory than those just discussed, the only important irregularity being excessive numbers of prairie horned larks (186 to the square mile in central [linois as compared with north- ern and southern, which are 14 and 80 respectively). It is true that the tree sparrows were more abundant to the northward and juncos to the southward, but this is consistent with the winter distribution of the species, the juncos going as far to the south as the Gulf States and the tree sparrows tending to linger in the latitude of Kentucky and the Carolinas. Otherwise the numbers of the more abundant species are fairly similar in central and northern Illinois, only the chickadee being notably commoner in the northern section. That quails, flickers, meadow- larks, purple finches, cardinals, and bluebirds should be much the most numerous in southern Illinois pastures was to be expected for various reasons—the greater abundance of birds in general to the southward, the usual avoidance of rigorous winter weather by meadowlarks, cardi- nals, and bluebirds, the much larger area in forests in southern Illinois, and the more abundant ground-cover of kinds sought by the quail. For the state as a whole, we found birds of the winter pasture prominent in about the following order: goldfinch, prairie horned lark, English sparrow, junco, crow, tree sparrow, purple finch, chickadee, meadowlark, quail, and bluebird, in averages ranging from 133 to the square mile for the first to 8 for the last of this series. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER BIRDS IN PASTURES " Southern Central Northern Species Illinois Illinois | Illinois State Quail 56 0 0 9 Turkey vulture 21 0 0 3 Flicker 21 7 0 6 Prairie horned lark $020} 186 14 97 Crow 14 22 36 27 Meadowlark | 59 0 0 9 Purple finch 108 0 0 16 English sparrow 0 45 40 36 Goldfinch 0 167 149 133 Tree sparrow 7 5 55 27 Slate-colored junco 87 41 0 31 Cardinal 14 10 0 7 Chickadee 0 6 | 21 11 Bluebird 45 0 bY 8 Total 512 489 315 420 * Only trivial numbers. Meadows differ from pastures in our winter record in the smaller number of birds per square mile (319 as compared with 446); in the — smaller number also of the more abundant species (6 and 10 respectively) 411 necessary to make up the 85 per cent. list; and in the much greater irregularity of numbers per square mile in the different sections and habitats. Meadows seem, in short, from our data to be a much less attractive situation for birds than pastures in winter as well as in sum- mer, most of those found there being wandering flocks of gregarious _ species. The contrast was especially strong in southern Illinois, where the more abundant list contained three species in meadows and eleven in pastures. The inadequacy of our data for meadows is especially shown, however, by the numbers in central Illinois, where, with a meadow _ acreage two-thirds that of northern Illinois, the number of birds per square mile was less than a fifth as large, a fact of which we can offer no plausible explanation except that the data of our record are too few to give us fair averages where the birds ate so largely gregarious.* NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE oF THE PRINCIPAL WINTER Brrps 1N MEADpows Southern Central Northern Bpeties Illinois Illinois Illinois ae Quail 122 0 0 19* Prairie horned lark 14 23 6 13* Blue jay 0 10 0 3 Crow . 0 6 40 23* Meadowlark 340 0 0 54* Lapland longspur 0 0 332 169* Tree sparrow 0 10 6 6* Slate-colored junco 0 10 0 3 Total 476 59. lp 384 290 *The figures starred make up 85 per cent of the total number of winter birds in Illinois meadows. The southern Illinois area of 22% acres of swamp brought under observation yielded 42 birds of eleven species, of which three, however, were hawks and one a turkey vulture. The others, excepting a single bluebird, were ~-all distinctively woodland species. The acreage is so small that the frequency figures have but little value. ; Our woodland area of 317 acres, two-thirds of which is in southern ‘Illinois, was well stocked with birds for the winter season—1591 of them to the square mile in southern, 679 in central, and 447 in northern Illinois. The general state average per square mile was 1239, representing thirty-one species, twenty-nine of which are in the southern Illinois list, eleven in the central, and ten in the northern. The commonest species was the junco, the next the blue jay, the next the turkey vulture, and then the tufted titmouse, all prominent on the state list because of their dominance in southern Illinois. Seven of the 87 per cent. woodland list were, in fact, seen in southern Illinois only, namely, the quail, turkey *For a discussion of gregarious and solitary species, see Article 6, Volume XIV, already cited. a 412 vulture, purple finch, junco, song sparrow, Carolina chickadee, and blue- bird. The tufted titmouse, occurring there at an average of 131 to the square mile, was noticed in woodlands elsewhere only once. The promi- nence of the goldfinch in the central Illinois list, (287 to the square mile), with only one record additional, is deceptive, being due to a single flock. Indeed, the actual numbers of birds seen in the woods of central and northern Illinois are so small (48 and 35 respectively) that the species ratios there have little meaning. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF THE PRINCIPAL WiyTeR Birps IN Woops Southern Central Northern See Illinois | Illinois Illinois Saag ae Quail | 70 0 0 47 Turkey vulture 156 0 0 105 Downy woodpecker 27 * 66 29 Blue jay | 162 13 11 113 Crow | 37 118 164 74 Purple finch 40 0 0 27 Goldfinch z 287 0 47 Tree sparrow 28 0 44 27 Slate-colored junco | 431 0 0 289 Song sparrow | 12 0 | 0 8 Cardinal 61 52 0 ‘ 49 White-breasted nut- | | hatch 12 105 ; 33 37 Tufted titmouse 131 * 0 90 Chickadee | 0 39 66 19 Carolina chickadee | 110 0 0 74 Bluebird en 107 0 0 72 i Total | 1384 | 614 384 1107 * Number negligible. The winter orchard area of thirty-eight acres was also too small for any but a few hints of general tendencies, that of northern Illinois being, in fact, quite negligible. Eighty birds of thirteen species were recorded from orchards, 65 of them (eleven species) being from south- ern Illinois, and 14 (five species) from central. Only the southern list has any special significance, and here juncos make up more than half the total number. Purple finches, field sparrows, and Carolina chicka- dees, next in order, were all seen the same number of times, and English sparrows and cardinals nearly as often. The general southern Illinois winter average was 2187 birds to the square mile of orchards, and of this number 1245 were juncos. The species were essentially those of the woodlands, only the English sparrow being reported from the orchard and not from the forest. As is to be expected in winter when shelter is a prime necessity, our sixty-three acres of shrubbery contained more birds to the square mile s ‘ 3 7 413 — than any other habitat—2139 for the state at large and 2008 for south- ‘x aa ars ae bed BS ae| ern Illinois, in which more than half of our shrubbery area was found. The central Illinois data are comparatively worthless because two flocks of English sparrows and chickadees respectively contained 73 of the 80 birds noted in the shrubbery of that section. English sparrows and quail numbered nearly half of all the birds of the state list in shrubbery, and the other more abundant species were chickadees, juncos, and blue jays, these five taken together making 82 per cent of all the shrubbery birds, leaving but 18 per cent for the other twelve species of the com- plete list. The special southern Illinois list—one made up, that is, of birds not seen in shrubbery farther north—comprises the quail, red- bellied woodpecker, purple finch, tree sparrow, junco, song sparrow, fox sparrow, tufted titmouse, Carolina chickadee, and bluebird—10 species out of 17 for the whole state. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE oF ALL WINTER Birps FounD IN SHRUBBERY F | Southern | Central Northern ppebied Illinois —_—‘Tilinois Illinois Le J Quail 715 0 0 3TT* Hairy woodpecker 0 0 71 20 Downy woodpecker 19 55 71 41 Red-bellied woodpecker 19 0 0 10 Blue jay 0 165 429 155* Purple finch 174 0 0 93* English sparrow 271 2744 0 653* Tree sparrow 58 0 0 31 Slate-colored junco 464 0 0 248* Song sparrow 38 0 0 20 Fox sparrow 58 0 0 31 Cardinal 19 55 0 20 White-breasted nut- | hatch 19 109 35 41 Tufted titmouse 38 0 0 20 Chickadee 0 1262 284 317* Carolina chickadee 58 0 0 31 Bluebird 58 0 0 31 Total 2008 4390 890 2139 __.* The numbers starred make up 86 per cent of the total number of shrubbery birds in the state at large. On our 250 acres of waste and fallow lands, 395 birds, representing nineteen species, were found,—equivalent to 1012 to the square mile. Much the most numerous of these were the gregarious tree sparrows and juncos, the latter about two-thirds as abundant as the former, (224 and 364 to the square mile respectively), the two together making 58 per cent. of the whole number of birds. All but one of the nineteen species were represented in the southern Illinois list as against 7 and 8 414 in central and northern Illinois or 10 in both sections together, leaving 9 species seen in southern Illinois and not farther north. Most of these, however, are usually to be found in central and northern Illinois in | winter, but no doubt in smaller numbers than in the southern part of the state. As usual, the southern Illinois bird fauna was not only more diversified than the northern, but the leading species were each repre- sented by a smaller number of birds. While three northern Illinois species were sufficient to make up 85 per cent of the whole number in that section and two central Illinois species were more than enough, eight were needed in southern [llinois—namely, the junco, quail, tree sparrow, song sparrow, blue jay, and cardinal and either the prairie horned lark, meadowlark, or bluebird. NUMBERS PER SQUARE MILE OF ALL WINTER BIRDS IN WASTE AND FALLOW LANDS , Southern Central Northern SPAS Illinois Illinois Tilinois State Quail 127 199 72 115* Red-tailed hawk 5 0 0 3 Hairy woodpecker 5 0 0 3 Downy woodpecker pil 36 7 15 Red-bellied woodpecker 11 0 0 6 Flicker 11 0 0 6 Prairie horned lark 22 0 0 12 Blue jay 88 0 13 46* Crow 11 0 216 90* Meadowlark 22 0 0 12 Tree sparrow 99 1121 405 364* Slate-colored junco 225 470 70 224* Song sparrow 99 54 | 13 60* Swamp sparrow 5 0 0 3 Cardinal 66 72 0 48 White-breasted nut- hatch is 0 | 0 3 Tufted titmouse 17 36 0 13 Chickadee 0 0 39 15 Bluebird 22 0 0 10 Unrecognized 0 0 0 6 Total 857 1988 835 1054 * The numbers starred make up 85% of the entire number. Our data for yards and gardens in winter call for bare mention only. On five northern Illinois patches so classed, amounting to 534 acres, the only birds were two chickadees, and these were in a hedge beside a barnyard and not in the yard itself. In 5% acres of central Illinois and 8%4of southern, English sparrows, in numbers averaging about a dozen — to the acre, were the only birds seen. A comparison of these numbers with those of the sparrow in other situations indicates that even in winter Passer domesticus is almost wholly a domestic species—3938 to ee Se S|) ee 415 _ the square mile in the yards and gardens of the whole state in winter _ as compared with 653 to the square mile in shrubbery and 42 to the am -same area for the state as a whole. Tue Sprinc Micration Pertop * Tue Birps or Marcu, Aprit, AND May, 1907 The spring birds of each section of the state are divisible into » permanent resident species, representatives of which remain in that _ section the year round; winter residents lingering for a time in the lap of spring; summer residents gradually arriving from the south; and Ss migrant species which pass beyond the section to their breeding grounds _ farther north. As everything is in a state of flux from the beginning to the end of spring, and as the currents of bird life flowing northward 4 are strongly influenced by highly variable local and temporary condi- tions, those of the weather especially, the product of our survey is like * a moving picture rather than a stationary scene, and we can have no ~ assurance that any feature of it will be definitely reproduced i in any other year. A single season’s record is, in its details, one sample only of many courses of events which may run through the same season of successive years; but even a single sample is doubtless to be preferred to none. The state was incompletely covered in the spring of 1907 by four . ase one across its northern end from Waukegan to Scales Mound _ (March 2 to 15); two in central Illinois, from Bloomington to Cham- paign (March 19 to 21) and from Danville to Warsaw and thence back by a more southerly route (April 19 to May 31); and one along the eastern border from Harvey in Cook county to Brownsville in White county (March 26 to April 11). The whole distance thus traveled was 442.8 miles, and the birds were recognized and counted on areas amount- ing to 7858 acres, of which 1875 were in northern Illinois, 3923 in central, and 2060 along the eastern border. The central Illinois area was thus about equal to the two others taken together. The total of 7276 birds counted and listed belonged to 117 species, 23 of which were found on the first or northern trip, 108 on the two central Illinois trips, and 68 on the trips along the eastern border. Five of the northern Illinois species, 33 of the central section, and 21 of the eastern, contributed 85 per cent. of the total number of birds from their respective parts of the state. The numbers per square mile were 341 for northern, 547 for central, and 859 for eastern Illinois, with 593 to the square mile as an average for the whole area. If we arrange the numbers of birds per square mile in the order of the successive dates of the four trips, we find them increasing rapidly from March 2 to April 5, but falling off in the period from April 20 to May 29 to approximately the same number as that for March 19 to 21. This may be taken as evidence of an increasing local density of the bird population as the wave of the spring migration proceeded north- ~ -- 416 ward, birds from the south coming in more rapidly than winter resi- dents left for the north, until about the middle of April, at which time the crest of the wave had passed on, to be followed by a downward slope in its rear as the winter residents hastened their departure and dwin- dling numbers of the latest migrants and the summer residents came in. Brrps per Square MILE IN SuccEsstvE NortTH- ERN AND CENTRAL ILLINOIS TRIPS, Serine or 1907 March 2 to 15, Northern Illinois 394 March 19 to 21, Central Illinois 543 March 29 to April 5, Central Illinois 790 April 20 to May 29, Central Illinois 549 The details of the migration movement can best be shown by taking up the separate trips in order, and dividing the eastern Illinois trip from north to south into three sections corresponding to our usual divisions of the state. So proceeding, we shall have two sets of data for northern Illinois, three for central, and one for southern, the areas covered in these sections being respectively 2215, 5055, and 588 acres. The most abundant species in northern Illinois at the time of the trip from Waukegan in Lake county to Scales Mound in Jo Daviess county (March 2-15) were the English sparrow, Lapland longspur, crow, prairie horned lark, and prairie hen, these together making up 85 per cent. of the whole number of birds. This is essentially a winter list to which small numbers of tree sparrows, juncos, and both varieties of horned larks may be added, together with woodpeckers, nuthatches, and an occasional hawk. The spring migration was represented by a few meadowlarks, rusty blackbirds, bronzed grackles, red-headed wood- peckers, bluebirds, robins, and mourning doves and a single song sparrow. Tue Most AnuNDANT Birps (85 PER CENT. List), WAUKEGAN TO ScaLtes Mounp, Marcu 2 To 15, 1907 Species No, of each | Ratio to total No. English sparrow 475 41.2 Lapland longspur 188 16.3 Crow 151 13.1 Prairie horned lark 131 11.4 Prairie hen 42 3.6 All birds per square mile, 394. Of the 1107 birds recognized, 846, or 77 per cent., belonged to species classed as permanent residents, 218, or 19.7 per cent. were winter residents, 3.3 per cent. were summer residents, recently arrived from the south, and 5 (rusty blackbirds), or less than one-half per cent., were migrants. The spring infiltration thus amounted to less than four | : | ; ; a 417 per cent. of the whole number identified. The English sparrows were much the most abundant, their number amounting to nearly 43 per cent. of all the birds seen on the trip across the northern end of the state. The prairie hen was represented by 42 birds, equal to 3.6 per cent. of the whole number listed. RESMENCE CLASSIFICATION, WAUKEGAN TO SCALES Mounp, Marcu 2-15, i907 NUMBER AND PPR CENT OF SPECIES Permanent Winter Summer Migrant’ All Number fal 4 8 1 24 Per cent. 45.8 16.7 Bees 4.2 100 NUMBER AND PER CENT OF ALL BIRDS Permanent Winter Summer Migrant All Number 846 = PASS 38. 5 1107 Per cent. 76.4 19.7 ono 0.6 100 NUMBER AND PER CENT OF NATIVES Permanent Winter Summer Migrant All Number Die Ss 218 38 5 632 Per cent. 58.7 34.5 6.0 0.8 100 That the spring migration movement was in progress in extreme northern Illinois during this first half of March, 1907, may be seen by comparison of the species ratios of the residence classes of March 2-15 with those of January 2-16 as follows: RATIOS oF Specias, NORTHERN ILLINOIS, WINTER AND SPRING Permanent Winter Summer Migrant January 2-16 Bihie 19.0 19.0 4.8 March 2-15 45.8 16.7 BoD 4.2 The sum of the ratios of permanent and winter resident specie for the spring period is less by 14 than that for the winter period, and the summer resident species ratio is greater by the same amount. A comparison of the numbers of native birds in the several classes, gives much the same result, although the differences are less conspicuous. The permanent and winter total for January exceeds that for March by 5.2, and the summer and migrant total falls short the same number. Ratios or Native Biros, NorruHern ILLiInois, WINTER AND Sprine, 1907 Permanent Winter Summer Migrant January 2-16 61.4 37.0 1.3 0.3 March 2-15 58.7 34.5 6.0 0:8 From the foregoing statements, we may infer that certain species of permanent and winter residence had lost in the early spring so many of their numbers to the north that representatives of them were not found on the March trip across the northern end of the state, but that 418 other species of these classes had received accessions from the south in larger number than their losses by the northward movement. The bird list of the short trip from Bloomington to Champaign (March 19-21) gave further evidence of the advent of spring in the addition of the red-winged blackbird to the list of summer residents, and the number of species necessary to make up the 85 per cent. list was also increased from five to fourteen. The prairie horned lark, rusty | blackbird, junco, and meadowlark made up about half the total number, juncos and tree sparrows remaining to represent the winter residents. Much more definite evidence of the increased effect of spring conditions "is given by the ratios of the several residence classes as compared with those just given. Against 3.3 per cent of summer residents and less than 1 per cent of migrants for the first half of March in northern Illinois, we now have 30.9 per cent. of summer residents and 14.4 per cent. of migrants during the second half of the month in central Illinois, while the winter residents remaining were 19.7 per cent. northern and 16.6 per cent. central. The ratio of spring arrivals: (summer residents and migrants) on the central Illinois list was thus more than ten times that of the slightly earlier northern Illinois list, the ratio of winter residents being at the same time less than a sixth smaller—another illustration of the fact previously referred to that birds from the south come up in the spring migration earlier and in much larger numbers than those of the northern birds which are leaving for their summer homes, with the result that a wave of condensation rolls northward, to be followed presently, like any other wave, by a “trough” of diminished numbers. RESIDENCE Ratios, NUMBERS OF Brrps Permanent Winter Summer Migrant Northern Illinois, March 2-15 76.4 1Oe7 3.3 0.6 Central Illinois, March 19-21 38.1 16.6 30.9 14.4 THE Most ABUNDANT Brirps (85 PER CENT. List), BLoom- INGTON TO CHAMPAIGN, Marcy 19 ro 21, 1907 Species No. of each cadet total 0. Prairie horned lark 82 | 14. Rusty blackbird 75 12.8 Junco 67 11.5 Meadowlark 57 9.8 English sparrow 32 5.5 Bronzed grackle 28 4.8 Crow 25 4.3 Bluebird 25 4.3 Tree sparrow 24 4.1 Red-winged blackbird 22 3.8 Song sparrow 19 3.3 Flicker : 17 2.9 Robin 14 2.4 i Prairie hen 13 2.2 r All birds per square mile, 543. 419 If ‘we divide the eastern Illinois trip (113.4 miles) into three sec- tions corresponding to the divisions of the state, we find that in the Be. northern Illinois section from Harvey to Grant Park, (March 26 to 28), three of the most abundant species (Lapland longspur, English sparrow, and prairie horned lark) were winter birds which together made up about 54 per cent of the 559 birds seen, and that the Lapland _longspur stands at the head of the list. Other winter species still lingering in small numbers were the junco, Smith’s longspur, and tree _ sparrow, but a much larger number of the following species, mentioned here herein in a diminishing order of numbers, had already come up from the south, viz., meadowlark, Wilson’s snipe, rusty blackbird, Canada goose, - bronzed grackle, robin, red-winged blackbird, vesper sparrow, migrant shrike, killdeer, cowbird, pintail duck, and phoebe. It has often been noticed that birds in migration concentrate at the southern end of Lake Michigan, passing thence northward along the western shore as by a high road, and an unusual number of birds were -found in this northern section of eighteen miles. These were mainly a flock of thirty-two Canada geese seen in a muddy pond in a plowed field, several small flocks of Wilson’s snipe, and large numbers of Lapland _longspurs still remaining, and of meadowlarks, prairie horned larks, and rusty blackbirds, all of which taken together made up 731 of the 1061 birds to the square mile recorded from this northern section of the trip. Of the 24 species recognized, 14 were summer residents, 2 were migrants, 5 were permanent residents, and only 3 were winter residents ; or, taking account of the actual numbers of birds seen, 32 per cent were summer residents, 34 per cent were winter residents, 27 per cent were permanent residents, and 7 per cent were migrants. . RESIDENCE CLASSIFICAION OF SPECIES, NORTHERN ILLINOIS, HArvVEY To GRANT PARK Marcu 26 To 28, 1907, Eastern ILLinois Tri Species — Permanent Winter Summer Migrants All Numbers 5 3 14 2 24 Per cent. 20.8 12.5 58.3 8.4 100 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF ALL BIRDS Numbers 150 190 179 40 559 Per cent. 26.8 34.0 32.0 Tie 100 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF NATIVE BIRDS © Numbers 83 190 179 40 492 Per cent. 16.9 38.6 36.4 8.1 100 420 ‘ NUMBERS OF THE More ABUNDANT SPECIES, HARVEY TO Grant Park, Marcu 26 To 28, 1907 Ratio to total No. of each ING! Lapland longspur 182 32% English sparrow | 67 12 Meadowlark { 51 | 9 Prairie horned lark | 46 Wilson’s snipe i 45 9 Canada goose 32 6 Rusty blackbird 32 6 Bronzed grackle 14 2 Prairie hen 13 2 All birds, 1061 to the square mile. In the central Illinois division, (March 29 to April 5) the number of birds to the square mile (719) was only 70 per cent that in the north- ern division, although the number of spécies was more than twice as large (54 for central and 24 for northern). Of winter residents there still remained the Lapland longspur, tree sparrow, junco, and golden- crowned kinglet, which taken together made less than 10 per cent of the birds of the area. The summer birds had already come to predomi- nate in this transition period, and the total number. of birds per square mile recorded on this central Illinois trip (719) was much above the average of this region for the winter season, (440), and greater even than the July average (650) of the same year. If, however, we take into consideration the permanent and summer residents only, we see that the summer population had not yet arrived in full strength, the total number averaging only 445 to the square mile. The crest of the spring wave already referred to was thus made up of all four of the residence classes in the ratio of 23% of permanent residents, 9% of winter residents, 30% of migrants and 38% of summer residents. If we omit the English sparrows, the corresponding residence ratios are permanent 17%, winter 10%, summer 41%, and migrant 33%. RESIDENCE CLASSIFICATION, CENTRAL ILLINOIS, SPRING, MArcH 29—Aprin 5, WATSEKA TO FLAT Rock, EASTERN Ittinois (CENTRAL) NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF SPECIES Permanent Winter Summer Migrants All Numbers 19 4 20 alpl 54 Per cent. 35.2 7.4 37.0 20.4 100 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF ALL BIRDS Numbers 289 115 489 392 1294 Ve Per cent. 23.0 8.9 37.8 30.3 100 " 421 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF NATIVE BIRDS Numbers 207 115 489 392 1203 Per cent. 17.2 9.6 40.6 32.6 100 NUMBERS OF THE Morr ABUNDANT BrRpDS, WATSEKA TO Fiat Rock, Marcu 29 ro Aprit 5, 1907 Ratio to total No. of each NO. Meadowlark 175 13.6 Buff-breasted sandpiper 170 13.2 Smith’s longspur 96 7.4 English sparrow : 91 7.0 Pipit 82 6.3 Field sparrow 78 Bene Bluebird 68 5.3 Vesper sparrow 58 4.5 Lapland longspur 55 4.3 Junco 52 4.0 Flicker 48 3.7 Prairie horned lark 39 3.0 Mourning dove 28 2.2 Robin 22 a Weg Crow 21 1.6 Cowbird 20 1.5 Crow blackbird 15 1.2 Savannah sparrow 15 1.2 All birds per square mile fits) Turning now to the southern Illinois division (April 6 to 11) of the eastern Illinois trip, we find that although the number of species re- corded was the same as for central Illinois, the effect of a lower latitude and slightly later date is shown in a number of birds, (1004 to the square mile), 37 per cent larger than that of the central Illinois list of the week before, and materially larger than thai of the summer seasons of 1907 and 1909 (925 to the square mile). The principal winter spe- cies remaining were the savannah sparrow and juncos, and there was also a sprinkling of tree sparrows, golden-crowned kinglets, and four other species to be clasesd as winter birds in southern Illinois, the total number of this class amounting to 12 per cent of all the birds seen. 5.7 per cent were of migrant species, of which the pipit was much the most abundant, but about four-fifths of these April birds were permanent or summer residents, 65.5 per cent of the first and 15.7 per cent of the second. The ratio of permanent residents was nearly as large as in the dead of winter (see p. 403) and the 31 per cent of winter residents of that season were now represented by 12 per cent., the remainder being replaced by migrants and summer residents. 97 species. 422 RESIDENCE CLASSIFICATION, SOUTHERN ILLINOIS, LAWRENCEVILLE TO BRowNSVILLE, Aprit 6-11, 1907 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF SPECIES Permanent Winter Summer Migrants Al Numbers 28 8 10 8 54 Per cent. Biles) 14.8 18.5 14.8 100.0 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF ALL BIRDS Numbers 601 109 140 52 902 Per cent. 66.6 12.1 1525 5.8 100.0 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF NATIVES Numbers 571 109 140 52 872 Per cent. 65.5 12.5 16.0 6.0 100.0. NUMBERS OF 'rHE More ABUNDANT Birps, LAWRENCEVILLE To BrRowNSvILLp, Aprin 6 To 11, 1907 Meadowlark Bronzed grackle Field sparrow Quail Cowbird Savannah sparrow Mourning dove Vesper sparrow Pipit Junco English sparrow Robin - Flicker Goldfinch Blue jay Bluebird Cardinal Towhee Crow Tufted titmouse All birds to the square mile No. of each Ratio to total No. 124 87 72 65 64 63 51 37 32 31 30 26 22 20 16 15 14 12 alae 10 1007 3 Erte PE Re RO oe 6 Cp ies Ora oa USS WwWARADPHOWRMNOMDMOOOERE 11 85% = 785 The fourth and longest trip of the spring of 1907, made April 20 to May 29, crossed the state from Danville to Warsaw by way of Clinton, Havana, Burnside, and Hamilton, and dropped back thence by rail to I.incoln, whence it returned to Danville by Clinton and Urbana, with an excursion from this last point south to Tuscola. The distance traveled was 180.6 miles and the area covered was 3235.17 acres, from which = record was made of 2773 birds (549 to the square mile) belonging tome, : Eighty-three per cent. of the acreage was in oats (22.6 per cent.), plowed ground (21.7 per cent.), corn (20.6 per cent.), and 423 pasture (18.1 per cent.), the remainder being in wheat, stubble, meadows, woods, and waste land, with very small tracts of shrubbery, orchards, ~ and farmyards. Twenty-nine of the species of pede: gave us 85 per cent. of the whole number, an average of 81 birds to the species, the remaining 68 species averaging only 6 birds each. A third of all the birds belonged, in fact, to four species, the English sparrow, bronzed grackle, meadow- lark, and prairie horned lark; and if to these we add three more, the golden plover, robin, and cowbird, we have nearly half the whole num- ber. Eighteen Smith’s longspurs and 23 juncos were the only repre- sentatives of the winter-resident group found still lingering in central Illinois, the juncos seen April 23 and 26 and the longspurs May 1. Twenty of the 97 species noted were migrants on their way to points beyond our area, leaving 75 species normal to the summer season in central Illinois. Stated in numbers of birds, 0.9 per cent of those seen on these forty days of late April and May were winter residents, 14.5 per cent. were migrants, and 84.6 per cent. were summer birds, includ- ing permanent residents. RESIDENCE CLASSIFICATION, SPRING 1907, Apri, 20—May 29, CENTRAL ILLINOIS NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF SPECIES Permanent Winter Summer Migrant All Numbers 16 1 54 25 96 Per cent. 16.7 1.0. 56.3 26.0 100 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF ALL BIRDS Permanent Winter Summer Migrant All Numbers 803 23 1464 389 2679 Per cent. 30.1 0.9 * 64.5 14.5 100 NUMBERS OF NATIVE BIRDS AND PER CENTS Permanent Winter Summer Migrant All Numbers 537 23 1464 389 2413 Per cent. 22.3 0.9 60.7 16.1 100 That spring was now nearly merged in summer is further shown by a comparison of the present 85 per cent. list with the corresponding central Illinois list for July 1907, from which it appears that all the twelve birds of the latter list are among the first thirteen of the former. That the movement northward of these characteristic and dominant summer species was, however, far from complete seems probable from the fact that their total number averaged 553 to the square mile for July, 1907, and only 319 to the mile for April and May of the same year. But 58 per cent. of what we may call the final summer number of the birds of these species were on the ground by the end of May. -Just what this difference may mean, however, it is impossible to say, since the summer average covers some of the young of the year, (of the number of which we have no record), as well as later accessions from the south. Regn eo ae GR ae: a a 42 SPRING Brrps In Hapitats The difficulty of determining the habitat preferences of a faunal group as sensitive to environmental conditions, as alert in readjutsment, and as capable of free and rapid locomotion as birds, 1s very great even in the comparatively stable summer season when their obligations to their young anchor them to their chosen breeding places; and it is many times multiplied when the period of their migration converts the semi-stagnant pool of bird life into a swirling stream whose very banks change and shift from day to day as the season advances. Our tabu- lated data of numbers per square mile in different habitats during the spring migration give us, therefore, little that is worthy of record. A few tentative generalizations may be made, however, from a comparison of numbers in the principal central [linois habitats in April and May, 1907, with those of July of the same year. That the number of mourning doves in wheat should be 22 to the square mile in spring and 313 in July, and that the number of the most abundant birds per square mile of wheat shoud be 360 in spring and 837 in summer, can be readily understood as due to the food resources offered to birds in the fields of shocked grain. Of the seven areas large enough to appear in our central Illinois averages of the late spring, pastures and meadows were much the most thickly populated (1091 and 1086 to the square mile respectively), and stubble field were next (877 to the mile), while corn, wheat, oats, and plowed ground were curiously similar in their averages to the square mile, (312, 363, 302, and 332). These last figures perhaps ex- press the numbers attributable to a mere chance distribution of birds not yet settled for the summer season, and the large numbers for pas- tures and meadows may be taken as evidence of a choice of habitats most nearly like the original prairie of central Illinois. Their prepon- derance is further shown by the fact that it was true not only for birds in general but also for 14 of the 18 species on our most abundant list. Our woodland area of only 43% acres is too small for satisfactory inference, especially as only eight of our 18 more abundant birds were found there; but these were numerous enough to give us an average of 1487 per square mile. Only three of them, however, were characteris- tically woodland species, and this average and also the even less depend- able ones of still smaller tracts of orchards, shrubbery, and yards and gardens had probably best be ignored. Tue Fatt Micration PERIOD Our available data of the fall migration period were obtained in 1906 in central and southern Illinois only, in the former from August 2 to October 26 inclusive, and in the latter from October 31 to No- vember 16. In central Illinois trips were made from Urbana past Danville to the Indiana line, August 29 to September 1, from Cham- 425 paign to Downs in McLean county, September 4 to 7, from Champaign Mississippi River, September 17 to October 17, and for short distances about Urbana, September 12 to 15 and October 23 to 26. In southern Illinois a single trip was made from Cairo northward to Pana. The area surveyed in these periods was 5,890.58 acres, of which 70 per cent. was in central Illinois. On this entire area 9,387 birds were recognized and counted (1020 to the square mile), 5.408 of them in central Illinois, and 3,979 in southern. The number per square mile in central Illinois was only two-thirds of that in southern (883 to 1467), a difference at least partially attributable, no doubt, to the later period of the southern observations and the concentration there of birds in the act of migration. The percents of permanent and winter resident species, taken to- gether, were in early November about three times as large in southern Illi- nois as in central in September and October, and those of the summer and migrant species were about three times as large in central Illinois as in southern. In numbers of native birds the permanent and winter residents together were nearly twice as abundant south as north, and the summer residents and migrants were about twice as abundant north as south. The great predominance of English sparrows in central Illinois, as compared with southern, obscures the contrast in the numbers of the table of all birds by its over-weight of permanent residents in the cen- tral section. . RESIDENCE CLASSIFICATION, FALL, CENTRAL ILLINOIS, AUGUST 28 To OcroBErR 26, 1906 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS, OF SPECIES Permanent Winter Summer Migrants All Numbers 21 6 aye 24 102 Per cent. 20.6 5.9 50.0 23.0 100 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF ALL BIRDS Permanent Winter Summer Migrants’ All Numbers 3367 270 2161 553 6351 Per cent. 53.0 4.3 34.0 8.7 100 t NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF NATIVE BIRDS Permanent Winter Summer Migrants All Numbers P2Go ue os 270 2161 553. 4247 Per cent. 29.7 6.4 50.9 13.0 100 RESIDENCE CLASSIFICATION, Fatt, SOUTHERN ILLINOIS, OCTOBER 31 To NOveMBER 16 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF SPECIES Permanent Winter Summer Migrants All Numbers 32 9 8 56 =< 7 Per cent. 57.2 16.1 14.2 12.5 100 across the state by way of Decatur and Jacksonville to Quincy on the wo 426 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF ALL BIRDS Permanent Winter Summer Migrants All Numbers 2034 875 936 124 3969 Per cent. 51.2 22.1 23.6 Bal 100 NUMBERS AND PER CENTS OF NATIVE BIRDS Permanent Winter Summer Migrants All Numbers 1961 875 936 124 3896 Per cent. 50.3 22.5 24.0 Bee 100 RESIDENCE CLASSIFICATION Ratios, FALL Prriop, CENTRAL AND SouTHERN ILLINOIS COMPARED SPECIES Permanent Winter Summer Migrants Central Illinois 20.6 bag 50.0 2305 Southern Illinois 57.2 16.1 14,2 12.5 NUMBERS OF ALL BIRDS Central Illinois 53.0 4.3 34.0 8.7 Southern Illinois 51.2 22:.1 23.6 3.1 NUMBERS OF NATIVES Central Illinois 29.7 6.4 50.9 13.0 Southern Illinois 50.3 22.5 24.0 3.2 The large ratios of permanent resident species and natwe birds in southern Illinois is of course attributable to the fact that many species of general summer distribution are driven by the cold from the northern sections into, but not beyond, the southern part of the state; and other differences are doubtless due in part to an advancement of the season by about six weeks when the southern Illinois observations were made. The southward concentration already referred to is most clearly shown by a tabulation of species and numbers of the fall birds of cen- tral Illinois which were found also in southern Illinois in fall. Such a. list comprised 48 native species, and the total number of birds of these species seen and counted in central Illinois was 3,919, and in southern Illinois 3.844,—equivalent to an average of 608 to the square mile for central and 1,392 for southern Illinois. That is, relatively late fall birds of southern Illinois were nearly 21% times as abundant to the unit of area as the somewhat earlier birds of the central Illinois fall. The greater abundance of birds in southern Illinois in winter than in summer re- ferred to on page 421 was thus already well marked in the latter part of the migration season. The stage of migration covered by these observations can be told by comparing the numbers of birds of definitely transient species (that is summer residents and migrants) on the fall lists for central and_ southern Illinois respectively, which were found in both sections of the — state. So doing, we find 11 such species in which central Illinois num- bers per square mile exceeded those for southern Illinois and 19 in ae observations were ee but in the fatter it was Pat least nder way and may have passed its climax at the time of the n n Illinois observations. NATIVE. Species Common To CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN is ILLINOIS, Bes or 1906 Central Southern** Killdeer 70 + Quail e. pite 365* Prairie chicken. 12 oe Mourning dove 207 : 30* Lae - Turkey vulture eo 7 8+- sae ‘Marsh hawk ~~ 3 1* ss Red-tailed hawk 4 5* wih i Teen Pigeon hawk af 1+ Wt Sparrow hawk 9 6+- Re oy Downy woodpecker iat 26* ne Red-headed woodpecker Bu 4+ - Flicker 86 41* 77) tl f Prairie horned lark | 329 104* ait 5 Blue jay 71 38* ca Crow , ; 243 380* irs _ Cowbird 365 6+ “7 Red-winged blackbird 16 2+ > Meadowlark 377 128+ Rusty blackbird 20 8+ ‘Bronzed grackle 677 862+ _ Goldfinch 144 S77 =P Vesper sparrow 82 3+ : Savannah sparrow f 9 13+ Ke Grasshopper sparrow 67 : 1+ = ; Henslow’s sparrow 2 " 1+ Merny pr ae White-crowned sparrow 5 8 2+ y Png White-throated sparrow 93 156+ Tree sparrow 10 20+- Chipping sparrow 2 4 5+ m Field sparrow 84 58+- Slate-colored junco 238 624+ ss _ Song sparrow ‘ 30 85* > Lincoln’s sparrow 6 T+ ale Swamp sparrow 157 46+ r 5 Fox sparrow 8 14+ ae Towhee “ 15 6+ fe i? Cardinal 3 42* ‘oa — Migrant shrike 6 4* 2 ot Myrtle warbler 112 30+ % : _ Pipit 48 68+ “~< _ Mockingbird 2 9-F . eM Dy Me nmin eel ee 5 ¢ Apne, | Bee 8 GAD 4 leg a ie a ag | see a cen eee (iS lta Ml easel ie ey PE ee dee I eee Se ee Se 636 ea octet pees Nee Ne Rn = TR hee ler BE IS SOP NS a bee eee Cle al cee Rater em jr Ey Wg pee os Soe Ee = GT] a ets Pee ae ee FOB agate | eae SE eee pee ihe ee 704 eS ee ee Cpe ec TQ oe J NS ee ae Sr ce ae Pace gh a pane fe aren eae Nee peo Fe eR eRe ao Cg SS yh | Cb SP Pe SN re ti a bt ee ee 1255 | | ER a ea ee ea ale eee ZBL joa) |S eae i ae Re ae a eae a 5B. | od Se Se | re ey ne ee (CA a ame Ca A (ag Pome Pe SO) Ie PRE oh st NS Ss oe eye 266: 2 | Se eae |e a ah Re ee es ee ee ae ee Sp. 48/124 20 lo8 | S879 as) a a easel eae ee 435 ote title them to consideration as actiial though temporary residents, but as it is, we can only say that in our judgment somewhere between 50 and 75 per cent. of our 166 recorded and counted species were found in numbers sufficient to make them worthy of note as effective agents, for good or evil according to their habits, at some time and in some part of the state. In this very general statement, however, we are making no sex application of the well established fact that birds in great variety of 6 a widely different ordinary habit and habitat may concentrate locally and “oA for a considerable time in a habitat which through some exceptional development offers them unusual inducements.* On the whole it may be reasonably said that the general outcome of our survey warrants the statement that few kinds of birds are really ' insignificant everywhere and always and that it is a rational economic ; policy to preserve and protect all not known to be on the whole posi- - tively injurious and to decimate, and exterminate if possible, the few ae which can be definitely and positively so classed. | CONCERNING THE METHODS OF THE SURVEY We have frequently remarked upon the discretion to be used in applying the results of our survey, and we have ourselves frequently refrained from drawing seemingly warranted conclusions because of the obvious deficiencies of our data. Unable, of course, to make a com- .) plete census of the birds of the state at any time, we have resorted to # the method of random sampling; and unless this process is often re- Bi peated under every variety of circumstance and condition, the question ; may always be very properly raised whether the samples chosen ade- quately represent the whole. We have reason to regret the shortness A of the period over which the survey extended and especially the un- equal distribution of our data of observation in both time and space, largely due to our limitation to a single field party and the consequent = impossibility of making parallel observations in different places at the same time. As the phenomena we were studying were peculiarly sub- ject to seasonal changes, less rapid in summer and winter, but perplex- “4 ingly so in spring and fall, it was logically necessary that we should 4 have had at least three parties in the field at once, one for each section aoe of the state, all operating on similar programs especially as to times and 3 areas. This being impracticable for us, profitable comparison of our =n data has been narrowly limited and considerable ingenuity has been called for in the adaptation and assimilation of data of different origit : in a way to make them fairly comparable. These differences were at- ‘ tributable to the conditions under which our methods of observation and record were used and not to the methods themselves, which seem to . . Oy us so well adapted to the end in view that we should not know how Stir — eee a *¥For an illustrative instance, see “The Regulative Action of Birds, upon eee Insect Oscillations’ by S. A. Forbes, Bul. Ill. State Laboratory of Natural History, a. Vol. I, Art. 6, pp. 1-32, May, 1883. i 1: 436 to improve upon them if we were to continue or repeat the survey. Their special value was in the substitution of precise data, recorded in figures and hence available for accurate comparison and capable of being expanded by subsequent addition, for the vague and variable ex- pressions of degrees of abundance and scarcity now commonly used. The principal features of method to which we would call atten- tion are: 1. A careful selection of the sample tracts surveyed, with a view to making them as nearly as possible fairly representative of the whole’ area from which they are chosen.* 2. The accurate recognition and complete enumeration by two observers of all the birds present on long strips or belts of uniform width, one observer recognizing and counting the birds seen on each kind of habitat, and the other recording the distances traveled over each.f 3. The form of field notes written on uniform slips day by day for each trip, the slips being numbered consecutively for convenient reference. 4. The method of tabulation of the observations in a way to make them available for consolidation in various ways and for complete dis- cussion. 5. A species index of the numbered notes such that all the data for each species may be readily assembled. 6. The grouping and tabulation of “residence classes’. 7. Use of the tables thus formed in comparing the composition of the bird population in different seasons and especially in different stages of the fall and spring migrations, and the tracing in detail by this means of the successive steps of each migration. GENERAL SPECIES LIST The following list of 195 species of which 166 have been statistically treated, comprises all the birds seen and recognized in the entire course of the Illinois survey. The letters in the first three columns of the table indicate a residence classification of the species based primarily on our own observations but taking into account also the published and unpublished observations of others available to us. As our main ob- ject is ecological, we have attached relatively little importance to the exceptional occurrence or comparatively insignificant numbers of a spe- cies outside its usual range or season of residence, but have classified it only when and where it was found in numbers sufficient to give it some appreciable significance as a feature in the bird life of the time and place. * We have repeatedly made mention of the fact that our method of enumera- tion limited us to birds of more or less open country, excluding us from aquatic situations and from dense forests or lofty trees. 7 To make sure that practically all the birds were seen by these observers, several trial trips were made with a third person walking between and some distance behind the two; with the result that the number of additional birds thus flushed was altogether negligible. ers used have the following meanings: manent esident. . a ad, ¥- Ps re we a : ae “4 at List OF SPrcIES RECOGNIZED WITH THEIR RESMENCE CLASSIFICATION. FOR Eacn 438 SECTION OF THE. STATE, TOGETHER WITH DATA OF THEIR OCCURRENCE IN Eacu SECTION AND HACH SEASON OF THE YEAR Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification Illinois Ilinois Illinois 3 n hao 3 Dn m is mn Ss) Ss | LS lels| |Slelg] |Slejel | Se) -B 9 |e |e 2/2 5\_l4lal ells B= | 64 | 6S B|SISI ES StS Sel Sele BB 107 | ZF |W IElAlAle le lala la le 6. Pied-billed Grebe Podilymbus podiceps iS) S bs) 51. Herring Gull Larus argentatus WwW W W J 77. Black Tern Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis M M M x 120. Double-crested Cor- morant, Phalacrocorax auritus auritus M M M J J 132. Mallard, Anas platy- rhynchos 12) Ie 12 xX J 140. Blue-winged Teal Querquedula discors 5 iS) 5 x 143. Pintail Dafila acuta M M xX 144. Wood Duck Aix sponsa 1p) P J 149. Lesser Scaup Duck Marila affinis W W W J 172. Canada Goose, Branta canadensis canadensis W M M x x xX 190. Bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus S Ss S x 191. Least Bittern Ixobrychus exilis S SS) SS) A) 194. Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias herodias} § S S x x x 201. Green Heron Butorides virescens virescens i) SS) Ss xX X| X} X X|X 202. Black-crowned Night Heron, Nycticorax nyc- a ticorax naevius S Ss 5 J x 208. King Rail Rallus elegans S Ss SS) J Xx 212. Virginia Rail 4, Rallus virginianus Ss 8 Ss X| X 214. Sora Porzana carolina s i) ) xX) | xX X| X 219. Florida Gallinule Gallinula galeata bs) S) ') J 221. Coot Fulica americana iS) NS) S) x we 228. Woodcock Philohela minor Ss Ss iS) X| xX 230. Wilson’s Snipe Gallinago delicata M M Si Ex x x x 439 List oF SPECIES RECOGNIZED WITH THEIR CLASSIFICATION, ETC.—Continued eo Dowitcher Macrorhamphus griseus griseus Pectoral Sandpiper Pisobia maculata Greater Yellow-legs Totanus melanoleucus Yellow-legs Totanus flavipes Solitary Sandpiper Helodromas solitarius solitarius Upland Plover Bartramia longicauda Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularia Golden Plover Charadrius dominicus dominicus Killdeer Oxyechus vociferus Bob-white Colinus virginianus virginianus Prairie Chicken Tympanuchus america- nus americanus Mourning Dove Zenaidura macroura carolinensis Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura septentrionalis Black Vulture Catharista urubu Marsh Hawk Circus hudsonius Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipeter velox Cooper’s Hawk Accipeter ecooperi Red-tailed Hawk Buteo borealis borealis Red-shouldered Hawk Buteo lineatus lineatus Southern Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification Illinois Illinois Illinois n — Bly i} Pat I 6 | Se] Ss lms] [Slele! |sielal |8 2 | 24 | BS [2] E/SIElalSIgIEEEISIE A )O7 ] 2? lnlalelelalaleslE lola i= M M M x M M M x x M M M J M M M J M M M X| XIX 4 iS) iS) s x xX) X Ex _M M SEX Ss Ss Ss x x x M M x SS) s Se XK] | OK! KX] P P P |X| XX) KIX) XX XX) XX) KX P P. eae | NGI S| SST | Ropes | De ORO iE ie i 2a >.>, 4.4. @ >. <>. ¢ . (i (ee Icterus spurius S Ss Euphagus carolinus M M Euphagus cyanoceph- alus M M M x Quiscalus quiscula aeneus Ss SS) S |X| X)xX) |X) Xx) |X) xix Carpodacus parpureus purpureus Ww W 12 x x Acanthis linaria linaria Ww W W x Astragalinus tristis tristis iP X. English Sparrow ; Passer domesticus P X) X| X| X} -X) XX) X} X} X) XX X}X| XX) XY) XK) XK] XX) XK) XK) KK ae] Spinus pinus Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis WwW W Calearius lapponicus lapponicus WwW WwW She oot een ore rect A Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification Illinois Illinois Tllinois Southern Illinois Northern s gramineus 5 Shas Sparrow a -Passerculus sand- -wichensis savanna _ Ammodramus savan- narum australis -Henslow’s Sparrow _ Passerherbulus hen- _ slowi henslowi ‘sis, Leconte’s Sparrow Passerherbulus lecontei Nelson’s Sparrow — _ Passerherbulus nelsoni nelsoni Lark Sparrow _ Chondestes grammacus : -gTammacus “1 White-crowned Sparrow _ Zonotrichia Jeucophrys Jeucophrys White-throated Sparrow pat ofa Aijarneaialia albicollis XK) | XXX] |X a 859. Tree Sparrow _ Spizella monticola ; _ monticola x) |X)X/X) |X) xXix a Chipping Sparrow _ Spizella passerina TS) X|X|X) |X) XX x x XK} |X) |x xX Pp Spinche nasil ill S x} x] X|x| xx] x a a pusilla - : 367. Slate-colored Junco ‘ ¥ ‘Junco hyemalis tea x| |x}x|x} |x|xlx x hyemalis a ekienar s Sparrow - ; _ Peucaea aestivalis bachmani j X| X x Song Sparrow , Melospiza melodia * melodia : XI} |X| XX] XX) X) X] XXX 583. Lincoln’s Sparrow | Melospiza lincolni lincolni | ».4 x 444 List oF SPECIES RECOGNIZED WITH THEIR CLASSIFICATION, ETC.—Continued Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification Illinois Illinois Illinois falaa| Bally is 5 ao| 82) 22 js |Sisie) (gig ie ea | 24 | 5a [ESSE SIS EEE A? | OF | 27 |AAe|E lal alse lala ale Swamp Sparrow Melospiza georgiana WwW M S) XX XK KY | KY | DE Fox Sparrow : Passerella iliaca iliaca | W M M X|X| XxX) |X 87. Towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus c erythrophthalmus| P _S8 S |X) X| X) xX] x) xX xX x Cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis 324 12 P- |X) XN) X| XX) XX) KX] |X Rose-breasted Grosbeak Zamelodia ludoviciana | M S S) x x Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea 5 SS) Ss x X| X} X xX) X Dickcissel Spiza americana S S S x xX} X| X XxX) Xx Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea I 5 >) x x Summer Tanager Piranga rubra rubra Ss S SS) x Purple Martin Progne subis subis S S SS) x DEES X|X Cliff Swallow Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons S s s x X| XIX X|X Barn Swallow Hirundo erythrogastra} $8 Ss Ss |x|x X| X} XX xX) X Tree Swallow Tridoproene bicolor S) S ) BN ot ENE Bank Swallow Riparia riparia S SS) 5 xX X| X| X x Rough-winged Swallow Stelgidopteryx serripennis 8 S 5 J Bohemian Waxwing : Bombyeilla garrula W W 12 x Cedar Waxwing Bombycilla cedrorum 12 P 12 x 622e. Migrant Shrike Lanius ludovicianus migrans ip) 12) S |X} X} XX) X] KX KX] Ky XK) AX Red-eyed Vireo Vireosylva olivacea SS) s 5 x X| X| X x Philadelphia Vireo Vireosylva philad el- ar phica M M M x we 627. Warbling Vireo Vireosylva gilva gilva Ss Ss Ss x xX xX| X 445 List oF SPECIES RECOGNIZED WITH THEIR CLASSIFICATION, ETC.—Continued Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification Illinois Illinois Illinois is n —,2 £ nD a ol tH 35 | S'S | 8S Jeol S| | Bleol S| | Slals 5 a a 4 8 = =| 2 & = $2 | 28 | £8 /ElalS|SrE| slSIElElale|e a | OM | A len co || lon] cn || [coo | 628. Yellow-throated Vireo Lanivireo flavifrons S NS) iS) J 629. Blue-headed Vireo Lanivireo solitarius solitarius M M M x 631. White-eyed Vireo Vireo griseus griseus S S) tS) x 633. Bell's Vireo Vireo belli belli SS) s s J 636. Black and White Warbler Mniotilta varia NS) 5 S) X| X| X X|X 637. Prothonotary Warbler Protonotaria citrea Ss S s J a 638. Swainson’s Warbler Helinaia swainsoni S 5S NS) J 639. Worm-eating Warbler Helmitheros vermivorus 5S Ss Ss x 641. Blue-winged Warbler Vermivora pinus s S Ss J J 645. Nashville Warbler Vermivora rubricapilla rubricapilla M M M x X|X 646. Orange-crowned a Warbler u Vermivora celata celata M M M x 647. Tennessee Warbler Vermivora peregrina M M M xX X|X 648a. Northern Parula Warbler Compsothlypis ameri- cana usneae SS) S Ss Xx 650. Cape May Warbler Dendroica tigrina M M M x) X 652. Yellow Warbler Dendroica aestiva aestiva S S NS) x x 654. Black-throated Blue Warbler ; Dendroica caerulescens caerulescens M M M Xx] X 655. Myrtle Warbler Dendroica coronata M M M xX} |X x 657. Magnolia Warbler Dendroica magnolia M M M xX XxX X| X 659. Chestnut-sided Warbler Dendroica pensyl- vanica M M ) X} X X| X — b., List oF SPECIES RECOGNIZED WITH THEIR CLASSIFICATION, ETc.—Continued ese ee 446 661. 662. 663a. 667. 671. 672. 674. 675a. 676. 677. 679. 681d. 683. 684. 686. 687. 697. 703. 704. 705. Black-poll Warbler Dendroica striata Blackburnian Warbler Dendroica fusca Sycamore Warbler Dendroica dominica albilora Black-throated Green Warbler Dendroica virens Pine Warbler Dendroica vigorsi Palm Warbler Dendroica palmarum palmarum Oven-bird Seiurus aurocapillus Grinnell’s Water- Thrush Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis Louisiana Water- Thrush Seiurus motacilla Kentucky Warbler Oporornis formosus Mourning Warbler Oporornis philadelphia Maryland Yellow-throat Geothlypis trichas trichas Yellow-breasted Chat Icteria virens virens Hooded Warbler Wilsonia citrina Canada Warbler Wilsonia canadensis Redstart Setophaga ruticilla Pipit Anthus rubescens Mockingbird Mimus polyglottos polyglottos Catbird Dumetella carolinensis Brown Thrasher Toxostoma rufum Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification Illinois Tllinois Illinois 5 n —.@D | Ld mw 22) 23 | 23 |x/8| |sll2] |elalel 1s BE | B= | 5S (2) S/S/E/5| SSl Sle) Sale a @) A AALS lala le |= loll | M M M KX M M a NS) S Ss J M M x X|X 12 S S x M M M xX} |X D.dp.¢ S S S J M M M x |X] xo 5 J iS) iS) J M M M J S SS) Ss xX X| X| X ox Ss s xX xX s Ss SS) J M M M J Ss s NS) X| XX X| xX M M 1\Y) Gd >. Ge fm ¢ ine >. Ca ip 4 iS) X| X} XX) XK x Ss SS) x X| X) Xx x} xX NS) NS) S |x1x X| X| X xX) xX 447 List oF Spectrs RECOGNIZED WITH THEIR CLASSIFICATION, ETC.—Continued Carolina Wren Thryothorus ludovici- anus ludovicianus Bewick’s Wren Thryomanes bewicki bewicki Western House Wren Troglodytes aedon parkmani Winter Wren Nannius hiemalis hiemalis Short-billed Marsh Wren Cistothorus stellaris Long-billed Marsh Wren Telmatodytes palustris palustris Brown Creeper Certhia familiaris americana: White-breasted Nuthatch Sitta carolinensis carolinensis Red-breasted Nuthatch Sitta canadensis Tufted Titmouse Baeolophus bicolor Chickadee Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus Carolina Chickadee Penthestes carolinensis’ carolinensis Golden-crowned Kinglet Regulus satrapa satrapa Ruby-crowned Kinglet Regulus calendula calendula Blue-gray Gnatcatcher Polioptila caerulea caerulea Wood Thrush Hylocichla mustelina Veery Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification - Illinois Illinois Illinois Ea) .2| fa 5 Sell lh celle] ee (el eee 22 | 52 | BE /2/Sts/ElE|S/SIE(E|S/zIE RM OF | 47 AIAISIElAAISIE la alee P S Ss X| X|X S S) iS) OX] EK | ENGI | “es s 8 x Slee e Xx W W M Dé Ww NS) Ss x I ai X| X Ss S) s x| X Ww M M MIX |X x ie ie) Poop |) KK) EX) KY RT | M M x P P P X |XX) XxX) |X xX ip 1 P x XK} | XXX) X) XX 12 12 X| XX) X] X| XX W W M >. dha. 4 be a1e.8 M M M xX x Ss Ss Ss S NS) S xX x ‘*M M Ss x pape me ee 448 List oF SPECIES RECOGNIZED WITH THEIR CLASSIFICATION, ETC.—Concluded SSS Residence Southern | Central | Northern classification Illinois Illinois Illinois 3 Q oe 3 nm tM Me be 23 (so | 3S jule| [sm el [Sloe] 18 SS je8 | 54 fElels| Se] SlSlSlslelsie An OF | ZR Aaa |S A Aale|Aale |= 757. Gray-cheeked Thrush Hylocichla aliciae aliciae M M M J 758a. Olive-backed Thrush Hylocichla ustulata ; swainsoni M M M xX! +X 759b. Hermit Thrush Hylocichla guttata pallasi WwW M M x 761. Robin Planesticus migratorius migratorius P. S) SS) X| X} XX) XX). | XM XI 766. Bluebird Sialia sialis sialis id s NS) X| XK] XK KI |XX EXAMPLES OF Fretp Notes, INDEX Carps, AND PriINncIPAL TABLES Mabe up FRoM THEM. FIELD NOTES The following copies of four note slips will sufficiently illustrate the method of recording the field data. The number following the date at the head of the slip, is the serial number of the slip itself. The figures opposite the names of habitats (“pasture”, “stubble”, “corn stalks”, etc.) show the number of paces taken in crossing a field, the observer counting the birds on a 50-yard strip except where the habitat name is followed by the expression “30 yards”. The number and kinds of birds seen in each field on the 50-yard or 30-yard strip are shown by the figures under the habitat name, the first the number of birds and the second the A. O. U. number for the species name.* (8-289 means 8 bob-whites or quails seen in crossing a pasture 310 paces wide.) Feb. 14, 1907 507 (Broken trees) Brownfield, Illinois 13-567 Fair, cold, wind N. E. Weeds 34 Ground not frozen. 8:00 A. M. 30 yd. Pasture 310 8-289 Feb. 14, 1907 508 Stubble 80 C. Stalks <0 93 1-567 8-501 : Pasture 92 24-567 * The symbol X is used for the English sparrow. 449 3-766 1-4746 Timothy 42 (Grasshopper, a butterfly, and small gnats found) Shrubbery 312 30 yd. 2-559 7-567 1-517 19-289 Timber 242 30 yd. 3-567 1-718 1-727 2-731 2-409 Pasture 394 (Some shrubbery) Stubble 570 1-581 C. Stalks 100 10-501 Feb, 14, 1907 509 Pasture 56 C. Stalks 116 Pasture 120 Stubble 220 Waste Ld. 214 Road—12:10 Timber 288 30 yd. 1-559 1-567 C. stalks 37 Weeds 306 (A few apple trees) 30 yd. Orchard 80 Stubble 294 Orchard 94 : (Yg. wheat) Road 11:00 A. M. Pasture Timothy 3-501 Plowed Gd. C. Stalks Beans (garden) Shrubbery 30 yd. 2-766 Pasture (Weeds) C. Stalks C. Stubble (corn) Wild grass Wheat Stubble Barnyard 2-X Feb. 14, 1907 Waste Gd. Timber 30 yd. 2-563 18-567 1-731 1-593 Wheat C. Stubble Pasture Shrubbery 30 yd. 1-394¢ 8-517* Wheat Timber 30 yd. 2-736 Weeds Pasture (Horses) Waste Gd. Golconda, Ill., 2:30 P. M. *3 males, 5 females, INDEX CARDS The black-face figures on the following cards indicate the 332 82 294 154 88 25 64 75 97 47 134 117 152 510 372 989 species names (305, prairie chicken, and 444, kingbird) and the other figures refer to the serial numbers of the field note-slips on which the is mentioned. The index cards are filed in the numbers. 305- 48, {Ke 217, 281, 285, 324, 328, 330, 588, 589, 592, BO Uap als 291, 309, 316, 336, 6544, 6570, 601, 614, 616, order of their species species 617, 687, 825, 1131, 1295, 1580, 1928, 444- 1459, 1472, 1514, 1569, 1591, 1624, 1640, 1649, 1680, 1714, ale 1818, 1829, 1853, 1884, 1909, ¢ 1947, 1990, 631, 710, 831, 1162, 1343, 1582, 2039 1440, 1460, 1475, 1520, 1574, 1597, 1625, 1641, 1667, 1697, 1719, 1775, 1819, 1835, 1859, 1888, 1918, 1960, 1994, 450 642, 735, 833, 1185, 1488, 1798, 1443, 1462, 1481, 1530, 1580, 1601, 1626, 1642, 1671, 1701, 1734, 1781, 1820, 1842, 1862, 1890, 1932, 1961, 2000, 648, 739, 834, 1198, 1490, 1809, 1447, 1464, 1493, 1545, 1583, 1608, 1628, 1643, 1675, 1702, 1742, 1785, 1824, 1843, 1868, 1895, 1933, 1964, 2016, Tasie IIT 650, 651, 806, 819, 848, 849, 1204, 1220, 1555, 1570, 1813, 1856, 1448, 1454, 1467, 1471, 1497, 1515. 1554, 1565, 1585, 1590, 1612, 1614, 1634, 1636, 1645, 1648, 1677, 1679, 1703, 1704, 1747, 1751, 1802, 1812, 1827, 1828, 1844, 1845, 1872, 1876, 1896, 1904, 1934, 1944, 1967, 1980, 2027. NorTHERN ILLINOIS, SEPTEMBER 6-15, 1909 Most abundant species, amounting to 85% of whole number identified; with ratios of each number to total number of birds. Number | Ratio to total Species of number of birds each | Per cent. x 1369 34.0 511b 1321 33.0 494 428 10.7 761 105 2.6 498 100 2.5 412 84 21 Total 3407 84.9 Whole number = 4017 85% = 3414 451 TABLE IV Norraekn ILLINOIS, SEPTEMBER 6-15, 1909 Showing distance traveled over each crop, acreage of each crop, and ratio of acreage of each crop to total acreage covered. ee es | Yards “891 22.2 | 17.82 H 11409 Gardens 63 1.6 | 1:19 765 Waste and fallow 19 0.5 0.64 408 Swamp 14 0.3 | 1.03 657 Wheat 4 0.1 | 1.00 640 Total 4017 100. 2.27 1458 Exawrie of Pancant Taucarion ‘Tho following table 1s made up directly from the fleld notes, It is the foundation table from which all others are derived. Nowrienx Iccwvois, Seer. 6-15, 1909 Species 3S7 | 390 | 333 401 | 465 495 | 408 | GOL | b5O1 | b511 | 529 | 540 | n542) 546 | 560 | 563 | 581 | B84 | 508 | BOF GIL | 612 | O13 | e622) 627 | 636 -_ 2 38 36 100 4 7 10 “ 4 4 3 —— 4 2 4 2 7 a 2 70 55 1 2 40 10 1 3 5 1 15 6 2 1 1 Kaew 1 2| 283 8 1 2 1 aan 1] 2 as] 4 7} 1] i] oo] 2 2 1 8 1}| 2 4 2 Poet od 2 1 1 AG 1 1 = 1 3 1 1 mp 8 Face and Fale 1 2 2 1 = | alle a = _ mob 6} 3] 1] | 4] 7] st] 20] 0 | 42g] 4] 100] es] 3 iitaar || o2\// a7] 4) 6] [a] se] 2] apy (x) as al ai) aii ow per waa 451 TABLE IV Norraern ILLINOIS, SEPTEMBER 6-15, 1909 Showing distance traveled over each crop, acreage of each crop, and ratio of acreage of each crop to total acreage covered. Distance Ratio to Crops traveled eee total acreage in miles Per cent. Corn 28.23 | 513.22 29.3 Pasture 23.76 | 431.96 24.6 Meadow 12.61 229.25 13.1 Stubble 19.68 | 357.78 20.4 Orchard 1.29 9.38 0.5 Timber 0.99 7.18 0.4 Plowed ground 2.34 42.54 2.4 Yards 2.75 50.00 2.8 Gardens 2.90 52.72 3.0 Waste and fallow 1.64 29.82 ath Swamp 0.75 13.64 0.8 Wheat 0.22 4.00 0.2 Oats 0.80 14.54 0.8 Total 97.96 1756.03 100. ° TABLE V NorTHERN ILLINOIS, SEPTEMBER 6-15, 1909 Showing the number of “All Birds” in each crop, per cent. in each crop, birds per acre, and birds per square mile. Number Ratio to total | Birds Birds per Crops of No. of birds per Square Birds Per cent. | Acre Mile Corn 1551 38.6 3.02 1937 Pasture 681 17.0 1.58 1010 Meadow 321 | 8.0 1.40 895 Stubble 254 | 6.3 0.71 455 Orchard 171 4.2 18.23 11712 Timber 20 0.5 2.78 1786 Plowed ground 28 0.7 0.65 420 Yards “891 22.2. 17.82 11409 Gardens 63 1.6 1.19 765 Waste and fallow 19 0.5 0.64 408 Swamp 14 0.3 1.03 657 Wheat 4 0.1 1.00 640 Total 4017 100. | 2.27 1458 4.52 TABLE VI (a) NoRTHERN ILLINOIS, WINTER, NOVEMBER 23-30, 1906 AND JANUARY 2-16, 1907 Showing the number of each principal species that was observed in each of the principal crops. us! q re s Es} An ca | a mn oO 3 2 & é 3 a | 2s eee S) q ‘a S a] BS 5 33 2s S) 2 5 2 g § | 38 S. | Be. arial n 1S) n Au = Ay es n ic 583, 55, 58, 60, 62, 63, 69, 73. Bactridium, 107. i _ Amphipoda, 36, 71. Baeolophus bicolor, 47. _Anacharis canadensis, 12. Barley, 90, 91, 125, 126, 137, 138, 139, _ Anas platyrhynchos, 438. 1538, 170, 181, 182. as Ancylidae, 37, 50, 55. Bartramia longicauda, 439. ~ Ancylus sp., 36, 37, 50, 55. Bass, 386, 387. Anopheles, 23. Large-mouthed, 382. crucians, 30, 31. Rock, 382, 386. guttulatus, 30, 31, 32. Basswood, 309, 314. punctipennis, 31, 32. Beans, 138. _ Anthus rubescens, 446. Beech, 293, 297, 308, 304, 318, 314, 315, _ Antrostomus vociferus vociferus, 441. 316, 332, 336, 387, 339, 365. Apple orchards, 291. Blue 311, 312. ‘rust, 307. -maple type of forest, 298, 343. Aquila chrysaetos, 440. Berries, 291. 456 Birch, 303, 339. Birches, 336. Birds, 1-8, 187-218, 397-453. Bittern, 438. Least, 438. Blackbird, Brewer's, 442. Crow, .190, 191, 192, 193, 200, 202, $05, 206, 207, 209, 211, 212, 214, 216, 421, 431. See also Bronzed Grackle. Red-Winged, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 200, 201, 202, 203, 206, 207,, 208, 212, 213; 2114, 217, 418, 419, 427, 4382, 442. Rusty, 416, 418, 419, 420, 427, 442. Blackbirds, 430, 431. Bluebird, 194, 197, 201, 208, 214, 217, 400, 408, 409, 412, 4138, 414, 416, 418, 428, 429, 433, 448. Bluegills, 383, 386. Blue-grass, 324, 347. Blue Jay, 4, 6, 7, 194, 209, 210, 211, 213, 411, 412, 413, 414, 442. stem, 347. Bobolink, 190, 191, 192, 193, 198, 201, 202, 203, 207, 214, 215, 217, 432, 442. Bob-white or quail, 3, 6, 7, 193, 194, 197, 198, 201, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214, 217, 400, 407, 408, 411, 412, 418, 414, 422, 429, 431, 432, 439. Bombycilla cedrorum, 444. garrula, 444. Boston Fern, 158. Botaurus lentiginosus, 438. Botrytis, 107, 109, 132, 162, 163, 165. cinerea, 133, 161. Branta canadensis canadensis, 438. Bronzed Grackle, 4, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202; 203; 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 213, 217, 416, 418, 419, 420, 423, 427, 428, 213, 411, 422, 209, 410, 421, 197, 214, 422, 201, 217, 427,: 208, 400, 428, 196, 212, 197, 213, 190, 203, 212, 409, 427, 191, 206, 213, 410, 428, INDEX ) Bronzed Grackle—Continued. 429, 431, 432, 442. See also Crow Blackbird. Bryozoa, 36, 45, 52, 54, 57, 67, 71. Bullhead, 386, 388. Black, 388. Bunting, Indigo, 194, 197, 208, 210, 211, 214, 215, 217, 433, 444. Snow, 442. Buteo borealis borealis, 439. lineatus lineatus, 439. platypterus, 440. Butorides virescens virescens, 438. Butternut, 313, 315, 336. Cc Caddis larva, Sand-case building, 45, 54, 67. : Caenis, 52. Calearius lapponicus lapponicus, 442. pictus, 443. Campeloma subsolidum, 36, 37, 50, 55, 60. Canada Goose, 398, 419, 420, 438. Cardinal, 7, 208, 209, 210, 211, 214, 215, 217, 399, 400, 407, 408, 410, 412, 413, 414, 422, 427, 433, 444. Cardinalis cardinalis cardinalis, 444. Carp, 386, 387. Carpinus caroliniana, 312. Carpodacus purpureus purpureus, 442. Carterius latitenta, 13, 14. tenosperma, 17. tubisperma, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17. Carya porcina, 305. Catalpa, 336. Catbird, 209, 210, 211, 214, 215, 217,-446. Catharista urubu, 439. Cathartes aura septentrionalis, 439. Cedar apples, 307. Cedar, Red, 302, 307, 312. Cedars, 336. Celtis mississippiensis, 310. occidentalis, 310. Centurus carolinus, 441. Ceratophyllum, 46, 72. Cercis canadensis, $11. INDEX Certhia familiaris americana, 447. Ceryle aleyon, 440. Chaetochloa, 183. italica, 138. italica gérmanica, 138. Chaetomium, 109. Chaetura pelagica, 441. Chara, 13. Charadrius dominicus dominicus, 439. Cherry, 336, 346. Wild Black, 309. Chestnut, 336, 339. ; Chickadee, 400, 410, 412, 413, 414, 447. Carolina, 7, 211, 400, 412, 413, 428, 433, 447. Chironomidae, 33, 36, 40-44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72-73. See also Midges. Chironomus crassicaudatus, 40, 42. decorus, 40, 42, 51, 56, 64, 65. digitatus, 56. dux, 56. ferrugineovittatus, 51, 56, 64, 65, 72. frequens, 40, 42. lobiferus, 41, 42, 51, 56, 65, 72. maturus, 40, 42. modestus, 51, 65. nigricans, 42. plumosus, 40, 42, 51, 64. plumosus, var., 40, 42. sp., 51, 56, 64, 65. tentans, 41, 42, 51, 56, 65. viridicollis, 41, 42, 51. Chondestes grammacus grammacus, 443, Chordeiles virginianus virginianus, 441. Chrysanthemum, 158. Chub-suckers, 387, 388. Cireus hudsonius, 439. Cistothorus stellaris, 447. Claviceps, 165. Clover, Japanese, 347. Red, 324. Sweet, 324. Coccyzus americanus americanus, 440. erythrophthalmus, 440. 457 Codling-moth investigations, 1915, 1916, 1917, 219-289. Colaptes auratus luteus, 441. Coleus, 158. Colinus virginianus virginianus, 439. Colletotrichum, 133, 134, 161, 165, 166, 167. Compsothlypis americana usneae, 445. Coniothyrium, 163. pirinum, 160, 166. Coot, 438. Coregonus clupeiformis, 384. Corixidae, 35, 52, 57, 71. Cormorant, Double-crested, 438. Corn, 90, 125, 126, 137, 138, 170, 183, 185, 291. Cornus florida, 311. Corvus brachyrhynchos chos, 442. Cottonwood, 293, 294, 299, 302 311, 331, 333, 334, 337, 339, 350, 366. Black or Swamp, 310. Common, 311. Cowbird, 190,191, 192, 193, 197, 200, 201, 203, 205, PAVE apa re 2 ba ae eae Reap by 422, 423, 427, 428, 432, Crappie, 386. Crayfishes, 392. Creeper, Brown, 447. Cricotopus sp., 42, 56. trifasciatus, 51, 56. Crow, 190, 191, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 201, 203, 206, 208, 210, 211, 213, 214, 217, 400, 401, 402, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 414, 416, 418, 421, 422, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 442. Crustacea, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 58, 67, 69, 73. Cryptoglaux acadica acadica, 440. Cuckoo, Black-billed, 440. Yellow-billed, 440. Cucumber-tree, 297, 303, 308. Cucumbers, 291. brachyrhyn- 02, 308, 340, 194, 206, 419, 442. 195, 207, 421, 458 INDEX Culex apicalis, 31. degustator, 30, 31. pipiens, 31. restuans, 31. salinarius, 31. saxatilis, 31. territans, 31. Culiseta inornata, 31. Cutworms, 201. Cyanocitta cristata cristata, 442. Cypress, 293, 299, 300, 302, 305, 306, 311, 317, 327, 336, 357. Bald, 306. D Dafila acuta, 438. Dematium, 109. Dendroica aestiva aestiva, 445. caerulescens caerulescens, 445. coronata, 445: dominica albilora, 446. fusca, 446. magnolia, 445. palmarum, palmarum, 446. pensylvanica, 445. striata, 446. tigrina, 445, vigorsi, 446. virens, 446. Diatomaceae, 13. Dicaeoma poculiformis, 165. Dickcissel, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202, 208, 204, 205, 207, 208, 212, 218, 214, 215, 217, 433, 444. Difflugia, 162. Diobotryon, 165. Diospyros virginiana, 311. Dogwood, 311, 346. Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 442. Dosilia palmeri, 17. Dove, Mourning, 3, 6, 7, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 208, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 216, 217, 400, 407, 408, 416, 421, 422, 424, 427, 428, 432, 439. Dowitcher, 439. Dragon-fly nymph, 379, 385. Dryobates pubescens medianus, 440. villosus villosus, 440. Duck, Lesser Seaup, 438. Pintail, 419, 438. Wood, 438. Duckweed, 388. Dumetella carolinensis, 446. E Eagle, Bald, 440. Golden, 440. Earthworms, 207. Elm, 293, 299, 313, 214, 315, 316, 331, 333, 344, 345, 346. American or White, 310. Slippery or Red, 310, 316. Winged, 310. Elms, 336. Empidonax flaviventris, 441. minimus, 441. trailli alnorum, 441. virescens, 441. Entomostraca, 392. Ephemeridae, 36, 52, 57, 71. Ephydatia baileyi, 17. crateriformis, 14, 15, 16, 17. everetti, 17. fluviatilis, 11, 12, 138, 14, 15, 16, 17. japonica, 11. mexicana, 17. japonica, 11. millsii, 17. miulleri, 11, 12; 13, 115, 16, 17. japonica, 11. robusta, 17. subdivisa, 17. subtilis, 17. Epicoccus, 78, 109, 124. Euphagus carolinus, 442. cyanocephalus, 442. F Fagus grandifolia, 303. Falco columbarius columbarius, 440. sparverius sparverius, 440. Feseucgrass, 129. Finch, Purple. 400, 491. 410. 412, 413, 282. Flicker, or Northern Flicker, 193. 194. 206, 208, 205. 216, 211, 214, 216, 217, 408, 410, 414. 418, 421, 422. 477, 428, 422, 441. Piyceteher, Acadian, £41. Alder. 441. Ves : Imperfecti, 164. 16. Pangus of 2 foot-rot of wheat, 77-153. Fusarium, 78, 79, $6, 88, 124 Biperaium. 161. Giomerelia, 144. 145. 159, 168. 162, 162. Tufomaculans, 1598. Gua2icaicher. Binceray, 447. Golden Shimer, 236, 2838. Goldfinch. 7, 190, 151. 153. 1%. 197. 291, 263, 206, 208, 210, 213, Zit ’ ) ) | : Ispex 437 £>i. 433. RE , 124%, 152, ravenelii, 117, 121, 123, 125, 163, 164. 165, 131 sativam, 117. 125, 137, 153, 167. 182, iss. group. 167. 168, 170- sorokinianum,. 167. group, 167. 460 Helminthosporium—Continued. teres, 98, 105, 109, 111, 117, 119, 123, 125, 134, 139, ‘153, 167, 168, 181, 182. group, 167. tritici, 184. Helmitheros vermivorus, 445. Helodromas solitarius solitarius, 439. Hemlocks, 336. : Heptagenia, 52. Heron, Black-crowned Night, 438. Great Blue, 438. Green, 207, 215, 217, 438. Heteromeyenia argyrosperma, 13, 16, ie macouni, 17. pictouensis, 17. repens, 13, 15, 17. repens, var. 13. ryderi, 15, 17. Hexagenia, 52. bilineata, 54. Hicoria, 304, 308. glabra, 305. microcarpa, 305. odorata, 305. villosa, 305. laciniosa, 304. minima, 304. ovata, 304. pecan, 304. Hickories, 304, 308, 336. pignut, 305. water, 304. Hickory, 293, 297, 299, 304; 313, 315, 316, 326, 341, 344, 345, 346, 351, 359. Big Scaly Bark, 304. Big Shellbark, 304. Bitternut, 304. Eastern Pignut, 305. Pecan, 304. Shagbark or Shellbark, 304. Hirundo erythrogastra, 444. Holeus sorghum, 138. sorghum sudanensis, 138. sp., 138. INDEX Hornbeam, Hop, 311, 312. Hummingbird, Ruby-throated, 441. Hyalella, 45, 47. knickerbockeri, 52. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis, 438. Hydropsyche sp., 45, 52, 54. Hylocichla aliciae aliciae, 448. fuscescens fuscescens, 447. guttata paliasi, 448. mustelina, 447. ustulata swainsoni, 448. I Icteria virens virens, 446. Icterus galbula, 442. spurius, 442. Idae, 13. Insects, 7, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 538, 58, 67, 69, 73, 207. Inzengaea, 109. TIridoprocne bicolor, 444. Isopoda, 36, 45, 71. Ixobrychus exilis, 438. J Judas-tree, 311. Juglans, 308. cinerea, 308. nigra, 308. Junco, 400, 401, 402, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 418, 414, 416, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 428, 429, 481. See also Junco, Slate-colored. hyemalis hyemalis, 443. ? Slate-colored, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 427, 428, 429, 432, 443. Juniperus virginiana, 307. K Killdeer, 194, 197, 201, 207, 214, 419, 427, 428, 432, 439. Kingbird, 193, 194, 197, 201, 202, 214, 217, 432, 441. Kingfisher, Belted, 440. Kinglet, Golden-crowned, 420, 421, 428, 447. Ruby-crowned, 447. 217, 213, INDEX L Lanius ludovicianus migrans, 444. Lanivireo flavifrons, 445. solitarius solitarius, 445. Larches, 336. Lark, Horned, 399, 416, 441. Prairie Horned, 193, 195, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 914, 215, 217, 400, 401, 409, 410, 411, 414, 416, 420, 421, 423, 427, 428, 432, 441. Larus argentatus, 438. Leeches, 36, 45, 52, 54, 67, 71. Lemon, 158. Lepomis cyanellus, 386. humilis, 385 (opposite), 386. megalotis, 385 (opposite), 386. Libellula pulchella, 385. Libellulidae, 52. Lioplax subcarinata, 36, 37, 50, 55, 60. Liquidambar styraciflua, 305. Liriodendron tulipifera, 303. Locust, 299. Black, 309, 336. Honey, 309, 336. Water, 316. -borer, 309. Longspur, Lapland, 399, 400, 401, 402, 406, 407, 408, 409, 411, 416, 419, 420, 421, 482, 442. Smith’s, 419, 421, 428, 443. M Macrorhamphus griseus griseus, 439. 197, 206, 408, 419, 431, 196, 205, 402, 418, 429, 385 (opposite), Magnolia acuminata, 308. grandiflora, 327. Mallard, 438. Maple, 293, 313, 314, 315, 316, 331, 339. Hard, 297, 303, 307, 308, 336, 339. Red, 360. Soft, 293, 297, 299, 302, 307, 308, 336, 337, 339. Maples, 308. Marila affinis, 438. Martin, Purple, 444. 461 May-beetles, 195, 196, 201. Meadowlark, 193, 194, 195, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 206, 210, 211, 212, 213, 217, 397, 400, 407, 408, 414, 416, 418, 419, 420, 421, 423, 427, 428, 429, 431, 432, Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 441. Meliola, 129. Melons, 291. Melospiza georgiana, 444. lincolni lincolni, 448. melodia melodia, 443. Meyenia calumetica, 12, LB: fluviatilis, 11, 12, 13. Micropterus dolomieu, 385 (opposite), 386. salmoides, 385 (opposite), 386. Midges, larval, 36, 38, 41, 44, 45, 49. 57, 64, 65, 66, 72. See also Chiro- nomidae. Mildews, powdery, 165. Millet, 170, 183. common, 138. German, 138. Mimus polyglottos polyglottos, 446. Minnow, Mud, 368. Minnows, 385. Mniotilta varia, 445. Mockingbird, 4, 194, 197, 198, 209, 210, 211, 214, 215, 217, 427, 4383, 446. Mollusca, 36, 40, 45, 53, 54, 68, 71. Molothrus ater ater, 442. Morus rubra, 305. Mosquitoes, anopheline, 23, 26, 27, 28, 30. culicine, 23, 26, 27. malarial, 23-32. Mucor, 161. genevensis, 161. Mulberry, 293, 313, 317, 346. Red, 305, 336. Musculium jayanum, 37, 50, 60. transversum, 36, 37, 38, 50, 55, 59, 60, 71. Mycosphaerella, 107. Myiarchus crinitus, 441. 196, 204, 214, 410, 197, 205, 215, 411. 422, 442. Myiochanes virens, 441. 462 N Nannius hiemalis hiemalis, 447. Nelumbo, 72. Nematodes, 79, 124. Nighthawk, 441. Nitela, 13. Notropis cornutus, 384, 385 (opposite), 386. umbratilis 385 (opposite). whipplii, 385 (opposite), 386. Nuthatch, Red-breasted, 447. White-breasted, 412, 413, 414, 428, 447. Nuthatches, 416. Nyctiecorax nycticorax naevius, 438. Nymphaea, 72. Nyssa aquatica, 305. sylvatica, 305, 306. O Oak, Black, 293, 297, 303, 304, 313, 314, 315, 316, 326, 344, 345, 346, 350, 351,. 357, 362, 368, 369, 371-376. Black-jack, 302. Bur, 299, 302, 340. Cow, 302. Pin, 299, 303. Post, 302, 326. Red, 299, 303, 339, 363. Scarlet, 303. Shingle, 303. Sour, 303. Spanish, 303. Swamp White, 297, 302, 305. Water, 303. White, 293, 297, 299, 302, 303, 314, 315, 316, 326, 329, 337, 344, 345, 346, 350, 351, 357, 367, 370, 371-3875, 377. Yellow, 303. Oak-hickory type of forest, 298, 343. Oaks, “black,” 303. Ted ioo Gs “white,” 302, 336, 340. “willow,” 303. Oats, 90, 91, 125, 126, 137, 138, 139, 182. Odonata, 36, 52, 54, 67. 313, 340, 361, INDEX Oidium, 109. Oligochaeta, 46, 47, 48, 52, 53, 57, 58, 66, 69, 71, 73. Ophiobolus graminis, 77. Oporornis formosus, 446. philadelphia, 446. Oriole, Baltimore, 442. Orchard, 4, 194, 197, 198, 209, 210, 211, 214, 215, 217, 432, 442. Orthocladius sp., 42. Osage Orange, 305, 309. Osprey, 440. Ostrya virginiana, 312. Otocoris alpestris alpestris, 441. alpestris praticola, 441. Otus asio naevius, 440. Oven-bird, 446. Owl, Barred, 440. Long-eared, 440. Saw-whet, 440. Screech, 440. Short-eared, 440. Oxyechus vociferus, 439. 1 Palpomyia sp., 72. longipennis, 51, 56, 64, 65, 72. Paludicella, 57. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis, 440. Parnidae, 52. Passer domesticus, 414, 442. Passerculus sandwichensis savanna, 443. Passerella iliaca iliaea, 444. Passerherbulus henslowi henslowi, 443. lecontei, 443. nelsoni nelsoni, 443. Passerina cyanea, 444. Peach orchards, 291. Pecan, 331. Penicillium, 137, 163, 165, 166, 170. Penthestes atricapillus atricapillus, 447. earolinensis carolinensis, 447. Perch, 387. Peronospora, 136, 165. parasitica, 165. INDEX 463, Persimmon, 303, 311, 3438, 346. Pestalozzia guepini, 165-66. Petrochelidon lunifrons lunifrons, 444. Peucaea aestivalis bachmani, 443. Pewee, Wood, 208, 211, 214, 217, 441. Phalacrocorax auritus auritus, 438. Philohela minor, 438. Phleum, 165. : Phloeotomus pileatus abieticola, 441. Phoebe, 419, 441. Phryganeidae, 36, 52. Phycomyces, 160. Phyllophaga, 196. Phyllosticta, 78, 79, 161. pirina, 166. Physa spp., 37, 50, 60. Physidae, 36, 37, 50, 60. Pimephales notata, 385 (opposite), 386. Pine, Longleaf, 306. Shortleaf, 302, 306, 326. Southern, 334, 340. Yellow, 341. Pines, 336. Pintail, or Pintail Duck, 419, 438. Pinus echinata, 306. palustris, 306. Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythroph- thalmus, 444. Pipit, 398, 421, 422, 427, 428, 429, 446. Piranga rubra rubra, 444. olivacea, 444. Pisidium sp., 37, 60. Pissobia maculata, 439. Planarians, 36, 45, 52, 54. Planesticus migratorius migratorius, 448. Planorbinae, 36, 37, 50, 60. Planorbis parvus, 50. spp., 37. trivolvis, 50, 60. Plasmopara, 165. Platanus occidentalis, 311. Plectrophenax nivalis nivalis, 442. Pleiomeyenia calumeticus, 12. Pleospora, 162. Pleurocera sp., 36, 37, 50, 55, 59. Pleuroceridae, 37, 38, 39, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 58, 62, 63, 69, 73. Plover, Golden, 428, 439. Upland, 192, 193, 202, 207, 214, 216, 217, 439. Podilymbus podiceps, 438. Polioptila caerulea caerulea, 447. Pomoxis annularis, 386. Pooecetes gramineus gramineus, 443. Poplar, Swamp, 310. Yellow. See Tulip-tree. Populus deltoides, 311. heterophylla, 310. Porzana carolina, 438. Potamogeton, 46, 72. pectinatus, 70. Potato, 158. Prairie Chicken, or Prairie Hen, 408, 416, 417, 418, 420, 427, 439. Procladius concinnus, 56, 65, 72. culiciformis, 72. sp., 65. Progne subis subis, 444. Protonotaria citrea, 445. Prunus serotina, 309. Pteridophytes, 158. Puccinia, 136. epilobii-tetragoni, 165. graminis, 165. Q Quail. See Bob-white. Quercus alba, 302. coccinea, 303. faleata, 303. imbricaria, 303. macrocarpa, 302. marilandica, 303. michauxii, 302. minor, 302. palustris, 303. platanoides, 302. rubra, 303. velutina, 303. . Querquedula discors, 438. Quiscalus quiscula aeneus, 442. . 464 INDEX R Rail, King, 438. Virginia, 438. Rallus elegans, 438. virginianus, 438. Redbud, 311. Redpoll, 399, 442. Redstart, 208, 211, 446. Redtop, 138. Redwood, 336. Regulus calendula calendula, 447. satrapa satrapa, 447. ‘ Rhizoctonia, 124. Rhytisma, 165. Rice, 87. Riparia riparia, 444. Robin, 4; 191, 198, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211 214, 217, 397, 416, 418, 419, 421, 422, 423, 428, 429, 431, 433, 448. Robinia pseudacacia, 309. Root-rot of Wheat, 139. Rusts, 165. Rye, 90, 125, 126, 187, 138, 183. Ss Salix nigra, 311. Sandpiper, Buff-breasted, 421, 439. Pectoral, 439. Solitary, 439. Spotted, 439. Saprolegnia, 108. Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied, 440. Sassafras, 303, 313, 315, 343. sassafras, 309. Sayornis phoebe, 441. Scirpus, 46. Sclerotinia libertiana, 132. Sedge, 347. Seiurus aurocapillus, 446. motacilla, 446. noveboracensis notabilis, 446. Septoria, 78, 97, 165, 166. Setophaga ruticilla, 446. Shrike, Migrant, 419, 427, 444. Sialia sialis sialis, 448. Siskin, Pine, 442. Sitta canadensis, 447. carolinensis carolinensis, 447. Sludge-worms, 36, 38, 44-45, 46, 49, 52, 57, 66, 71. Smartweed, 388. Smuts, 134. : cereal, 135, 181. Snails, 36-40, 45, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 59-63, 68-69, 71, 73. Snipe, Wilson’s, 398, 419, 420, 438. “Softwoods,” 2938, 297, 302, 331, 350. Somatogyrus sp., 37, 50, 60. Sora, 438. Sorghum, 138, 170, 183. Sorghums, 138. Sparrow, Bachman’s, 443. Chipping, 427, 443. English, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 400, 401, 402, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 412, 413, 414, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421. 422, 423, 425, 428, 429, 482, 442. Field, 4, 6, 7, 193, 194, 197, 198, 200, 201, 208,. 209. 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 217, 412, 421, 422, 427, 428, 432, 443. Fox, 413, 427, 444. Grasshopper, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202, 214, 217, 427, 428, 432, 443. Henslow’s, 427, 443. Lark, 197, 198, 214, 217, 432, 443. Leconte’s, 443. Lincoln’s, 427, 443. Nelson’s, 443. Savannah, 421, 422, 427, 443. Song, 215, 217, 400, 409, 412, 413, 414, 416, 418, 427, 429, 432, 443. Swamp, 414, 427, 428, 444, Tree, 400, 401, 402, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 418, 414, 416, 418, 419, 420, 421, 427, 432, 443. INDEX 465 Sparrow—Continued. Vesper, 196, 197, 198, 206, 214, 217, 419, 421, 422, 427, 428, 432, 443. White-crowned, 427, 443. White-throated, 401, 427, 428, 429. 431, 443. Spartina, 165. Sphaeriidae, 36, 37, 38, 39, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 58, 60, 62, 63, 69, ioe Sphaerium simile, 50. stamineum, 37, 50, 55. striatinum, 37, 50. Sphyrapicus varius varius, 440. Spinus pinus, 442. Spiza americana, 444. Spizella monticola monticola, 443. passerina passerina, 443. pusilla pusilla, 210, 443. Sponges, fresh-water, 9-22, 36, 45, 52, bv. Spongilla aspinosa, 17. fragilis, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. calumetica, 13. heterosclerifera, 17. igloviformis, 14, 16, 17. lacustris, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. mackayi, 17. novae terrae, 17. wagneri, 17. Sporobolus, 121. Spruces, 336. Stelgidopteryx serripennis, 444. Stenelmis, 52, 57. Sterigmatocystis, 137. Strix varia varia, 440. Sturnella magna magna, 442. Stysanus, 165. Sudan grass, 138, 170. Sugar-cane, 138. Sumach, 343., Sunfish, 387. Swallow, Bank, 444. Barn, 193, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202, 214, 217, 433, 444. Cliff, 203, 214, 217, 444. Rough-winged, 444. Tree, 444. Swift, Chimney, 211, 214, 217, 441. Sycamore, 297, 302, 311, 316, 331, 332, 3338, 336, 337, 351. Synchitrium, 165. ay Take-all, 77. Tanager, Scarlet, 444. Summer, 444. Tanypus dyari, 40, 42, 72. illinoensis, 51. monilis, 51, 56, 65, 72. Taphrina, 165. Taxodium distichum, 306. Teal, Blue-winged, 438. Telmatodytes palustris palustris, 447. Tern, Black, 438. Thrasher, Brown, 4, 5, 6, 7, 190, 193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 201, 206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 218, 214, 217, 4383, 446, Thrush, Gray-cheeked, 448. Hermit, 448. Olive-backed, 448. Wood, 208, 447. Thryomanes bewicki bewicki, 447. Thryothorus ludovicianus ludovicianus, 447. Tilia, 309. americana, 309. Titmouse, Tufted, 208, 211, 214, 217, 400, 411, 412, 413, 414, 422, 428, 433, 447. Toad eggs and embryos, 379, 381, 385. Tomatoes, 291. : Totanus flavipes, 439. melanoleucus, 439. Towhee, 208, 210, 211, 214, 215, 217, 422, 427, 444. Toxostoma rufum, 446. Trichoptera, 71. Trochospongilla horrida, 14, 17. leidyi, 14, 15, 17. Troglodytes aedon parkmani, 447. Tryngites subruficollis, 439. Tubella pennsylvanica, 14, 15, 16, 17. Tubifex, 44, 52, 57, 66. 466 Tubificidae, 36, 44, 52, 57, 66. Tulip-tree, 293, 297, 299, 303, 309, 313, 314, 315, 316, 331, 332, 346, 351, 352, 358. Tupelo, 299, 305, 306, 308, 332. Tympanuchus americanus americanus, 439. Tyrannus tyrannus, 441. U Ulmus.alata, 310. americana, 310. pubescens, 310. serotina, 310. Unionidae, 50, 57. Uromyces, 165. Utricularia, 12, 13. V Vallisneria, 46. Valvata bicarinata, 37, 50, 60. spp., 36. tricarinata, 37, 50, 60. Valvatidae, 37, 38, 39, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 58, 60, 62, 68, 69, 73. Veery, 447. Vermivora celata celata, 445. peregrina, 445, pinus, 445. rubricapilla rubricapilla, 445. Vireo belli belli, 445. Bell’s, 445. Blue-headed, 445. griseus griseus, 445. Philadelphia, 444, Red-eyed, 444. Warbling, 444. White-eyed, 445. Yellow-throated, 445. Vireosylva, gilva gilva, 444. olivacea, 444. philadelphica, 444. Vivipara contectoides, 36, 37, 50, 55, 60. subpurpurea, 37, 50, 55, 59, 60. Viviparidae, 36, 87, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 538, 54, 55, 58, 60, 62, 63, 69,73. INDEX Vulture, Black, 439. Turkey, 208, 400, 410, 411, 427, 432, 439. WwW Walnut, 293, 316. Black, 297, 299, 308, 313, 314, 315, 336. “Satin,” 305. White, 308. Walnuts, 308. Warbler, Black and White, 208, 445. Blackburnian, 446. Black-poll, 446. Black-throated Blue, 445. Green, 446. Blue-winged, 445. - Canada, 446. Cape May, 445. Chestnut-sided, 445. Hooded, 446. Kentucky, 446. Magnolia, 445. Mourning, 446. Myrtle, 427, 428, 445. Nashville, 445. Northern Parula, 445. Orange-crowned, 445. Palm, 446. Pine, 446. Prothonotary, 445. Swainson’s, 445. Sycamore, 446. Tennessee, 445. Worm-eating, 445. Yellow, 445. Water-Thrush, Grinnell’s, 446. Louisiana, 446. Water-lilies, White, 388. Yellow, 388. Waxwing, Bohemian, 444. Cedar, 444. 4 : Wheat, 90, 91, 125, 126, 128, 138, 139, 170, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 291. Arnautka, 182. De, 183. foot-rot, 77-139. Golden Chaff, 131. INDEX Wheat—Continued. Marquis, 181. Red Durum, 182. seedling blight, 139. Sultzer Pride, 124. Whip-poor-will, 441. Whitefish eggs, 379, 381, 385. Willow, 293, 294, 299, 334, 337, 340, 350. Black, 311, 364. White, 311. -fly nymphs, 54. Willows, 311. Wilsonia canadensis, 446. citrina, 446. Woodcock, 438. Woodpecker, Downy, 208, 214, 215, 217, 412, 413, 414, 427, 440. Hairy, 413, 414, 440. Northern Pileated, 441. Red-bellied, 413, 414, 441. Red-headed, 190, 193, 194, 195, 198, 201, 206, 208, 210, 211, 214, 215, 217, 407, 416, 427, 441, 197, 213, 432, 467 Woodpeckers, 416. Worms, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 58, 67, 69, 73. Wren, Bewick’s, 208, 428, 447. Carolina, 447. Long-billed Marsh, 207, 215, 217, 447. Short-billed Marsh, 213, 215, 217, 447. Western House, 447. Winter, 447. Y Yeasts, 158. Yellow-breasted Chat, 210, 214, 217, 446. Yellow-legs, 439. Greater, 439. Yellow-throat, Maryland, 194, 197, 198, 207, 208; 210; 212, 213, 214, 217, 433, 446. Z Zamelodia ludoviciana, 444. Zenaidura macroura carolinensis, 439. Zonotrichia albicollis, 443. ' lewcophrys leucophrys, 443. SAE” ek thal aha 5 apa tey ’ ‘ : or. ane - i BE ages = eer = be os : rea ae ‘ : ‘4 . a » of . " a 3 N STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY STEPHEN A. FORBES, Chief Vol. XIV. BULLETIN Article I. - THE ORCHARD BIRDS OF AN ILLINOIS SUMMER BY STEPHEN A. FORBES and ALFRED O. GROSS PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS URBANA, ILLINOIS June, 1921 Tenens oe es ‘ a yaraG io, ai ‘ A ‘ ah coat ae : at ; 4 ‘ , ied ity oe ; res : - : eye i ‘ : , peewee GN eam : a abe fale - 7 a , ‘ wes _ fa 10 ‘ : : Bin oy yh ir ae . on r ted % 4 ean : ’ . ' - ‘ I : i : : ; f : , ' i 7 ‘ i@ a 1 ‘ : iy) F DLS Fen : i ' ; ; ' F : ' 7 i i i 1 rs} ‘ ; . ’ ‘ : > I , dene : : | 7 ' 7 ton ’ vel : - i ke de i ' : re ¥ . ¥ a