EIT i LE GEE Zee Lie Z ZZ, tj, tip Z yyy GAEL Z Z Z 4A Z g thi; Gy Ze ti iy Ze titty SIE. Z Sh Z Chg WN NS AS NX ANN WOON WY Wiis LL Lig YI jj a r af | Pe A i, ie) if * ' ' ny ticle (hee Ly ied! au re HEMT a tee CU iy aS A ak iy eeu ‘ , ee ie? ‘ =" {a i } ue) } ; ‘\ a AE ( ple } 7 Thor eo) . ' Th SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN BRITISH GUIANA By CLIFFORD EVANS and BETTY J. MEGGERS UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1960 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Bureau or AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, Washington, D.C., June 25, 1959. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled “Archeological Investigations in British Guiana,” by Clifford Evans and Betty J. Meggers, and to recommend that it be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Very respectfully yours, Frank H. H. Roperrs, JR, Director. Dr. Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. pa : >¥ se aN H JUL 10 198 \ Teepaee Jp \. SBRART A CONTENTS Page apOIOA CT Oe ee ee ae ee RS Lee a eee eae cca es XIX NEVER OD CTO Nie ae hs ale ie ee a ee ee ee 1 Background of the British Guiana archeological survey_------------ 1 [tineranyeand tel dsconditionss- se — eo o= — see eee ee eee ee 2 IRbresentationiOmuneiGataeasns sos 8 see Seca ee ae eo eS 9 (CnrmOoGRAPHICAT, DESCRIPTIONS = So otic 5 a see ee ee Ce 14 hep Northwestrlowlandsi. 22. S25 5.2922 ey eee oe 17 SIS Many Jbl mCEMe etic ean Se ee oe a ee Re A 18 Mb PECL P MseQ utes [oe te eos ae on ee ee ies 19 aS eu AES Aye eee ee ee es fe ee ie eee 19 CONC IUISI OT eee eee a ee ata es ek uD Se ee eh 20 PehCrnAMIC HITHIC HORIZON Mane. os2- 95 loe) 22 SB 5 a 21 SItestan Ge aT tiLac uses ee Sew = ooo ae py EO oe 21 Barimashiv.ere NOrtiwesh Districts =- seo aes oe ee 21 Cuyunar River; Mazarunt District... 22nee oe 2 ooo. eases all ireneiiver, Hupuntinig Districts 225 5..o25 ok es 22 Paikasa, Creek, Rupununi. District. .=.4.. 2. 5 oso et 22 Tabatinga River, Itupununk District <2 ooo Les ; 22 Comparative data, conclusions, and interpretations_--.--_---_------ 23 eee) NORTHWEST LOWEHANDS 2s 94 0F 23ers 25 fbherAlakarbnaseue sel se. Bae sais te se es 8 as ore SE 25 Description of sifes.and excavations...c.¢-+_==..2 4 .--=-==-=- 25 IN=6hittlepwentaballimwit soa ey Le Se eee De oS 25 IN= So Ad alcas (reel. yet a a ee eg Ap 27 IN=9 > Algkavisland==J5220 20258 528 8 22 de 29 IN 102s Sandu@reekss 2 a2 a8 a tee oo eee apes 31 INI Hosororo:@reek 5.3 5 boon 8 Ss 32 N-16: Akawabi Creek Shell Midden____..__.-_---_------ 33 Data from other investigations__.....----- ie a es oe 2 ae 34 Barambinanbarabina) Mid denss ese = eee oe eee 34 Miscellaneous Northwest District shell middens_-—-_---___-- 35 WaramrurwShell Middens= 22+. .22 2542140632 -.e2 oe os 35 Cabseaburr biel Madden... 22 5...2.5..2.* 229s. 2p 2.5.2 37 Akawanit Shells Wound) 335. 22e ree 3 es lee Le 37 Sinks oVOunG ee eee eee eek eae i a ee ee! he 37 irdccamMiddenie ss 2522 2. esse ee aes eee ee ee 38 AMAL Vain Ob MIA terET IG Ta) 22 Sic hoe te 2. eye ee yee 38 Gbjectaef bone and: teeth. <=. os228 02 be ee ee 5 38 yi el SO ee PI SO oy SERS, ea ie ee 38 Bavich iv ae 20 es cate eee Le ee EA eS 38 Drillédishark’s tooth.os. e244 oo eo nee ton 38 IV CONTENTS THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS—Continued The Alaka Phase—Continued Analysis of materials—Continued Page Stone artifactitypess joo S20 de ee eee 38 Percusston-madeicore) toolss2= 2224-22 see ee 40 Choppers ty etageues anh ee 40 @hopper-hammerstones..— 242 5)2222 255 eee eee 40 Hammerstones:) 2 bo 2 ae eee 40 ifafted hammerstones2 22422) S22 eo ae 40 I QeRe Sie bette a eee oe 43 ar pe (COre picks 452 secu te ye 74 sa ao ee 43 Percussion-made' flake ‘tools 2222222) 2222225222502 43 Bla ea cite oct rs Sie caper) § 281k mee Oe eee 43 Bible pyre less boc yee Fb ON OE AS PR 43 Scrapers) eho ss ele sore cal ee ee 47 Percussion-made tools with some abrasion____-_-______- 50 Celtes tis fase RS A ee 50 Wir air eisai oe oh hie le Se oe ee 50 | ee [2's Salad gpg NES fa peg pg yi Parga Si Syd AA el 50 Rubbing stones2e aise ee ee ee ae 50 Polished tools 2s iijiy hs Sih it ogo oh a a SE re ae 50 Ce cae rs ee na oak sae denen eae eT a 50 Chisels ior gouges ts oe Ale eke I A ee 50 1a ao A A Ms Lk PR RE St NE Se Be 8 53 Vie Carte ne sniaisiceantin ht At Sees ee ets ae Td Ae ee es ee ee 53 Miscellaneous polished tools...__---------------- 53 Pottery;type deseriptions! Soo 22 ec whe ee ee eee 53 SPN (6 Nl Oa ge cpesbts gy bh owe Saal lige Ee le RS aE te nee 55 VVATVALT ye LAT TT eee ene Hee! AA Ie BA LSE A 5) ee bp Unclassified Cariapé-tempered Plain__----.___-------- 57 Unclassified Clay-tempered Plain__------------------ 57 Mackissifiedsecorsbeds 227 soe te ee ee eee 58 Trade sherds from the Mabaruma Phase__-_-_-_____-_-- 58 1 BY ites ghigdre a gt Lift $e hs pepe Mle ata le gla OR ape rh AES ENO 58 The site sequence and its implications.._._.._..-_------------- 59 Diagnostic features of the Alaka Phase___-___._-__.___-------- 63 ‘The Mabaroma\ Phases sono oe ee eae ree eee 65 Description of sites and excavations_.-.._-------------------- 65 Ns1: -Mabaruma: Headquarters’ 22 22022 ee Oe 65 IN-As-iMoeriabo Pointy 223s hoo. oe See ee ee 67 IN=A DS PEVOSOLOLO MELaL Us 2 eee a Nar LNs het aI Eager aah ean pea 68 INF Siero bod etait: fate ei BP Efe eae cen Oe 71 IN=14: }Hobodeia Schooliss 242204 Bo ae eee 71 N-15: Hotokwai (Hotakwaia, Hotakwai)-..-------------- 72 N=16: Akawabi- Creek: 222. oo. ee eee 73 NaI: Waunal Ree ae ee SU TPO tT OS tS tan te ee The site sequence and its implications.____-.----------------- Diagnostic features of the Mabaruma Phase_____-_--_--------- iiedseriaborPhases6<-. Wie-wie-tau, Villape, Loo ne ete tS 278 R=94te Wie-wie-tau,: Villate:22.>— 22-8 s See tosaee 278 R=25:> Wie-wie-tau, Village 3.2.22-252--.--..------=- 278 R=267 Wie-wie-tau,; Village 42.280 ee = ao =. 278 R27 Mantiowas (Villapeiow Ss nee BS 279 hve Naibi-wau, Villige 2: Soe ee a eae 279 R290. Mabilewau, Villaeeiseus 2 - Senos. oo eo oe 279 Race Maibiewall, Viliee o2* ooo eos See oee 280 Regt Maubi-wany Vilave soe) oes oe 280 B32 Maubiawau, village O-°_* ~~ - 3 so22 22S 2 oS 280 IR=ootWielaln OLGl sere & hese tiene ee oe ee eae 280 Rss Mormiswausblerd=s=-=2ee2l5- oes eeee ea eee= 281 Ries DISMMOUTIURINE D2 eo Reet at Sc ee ig 281 Pao AWE Wee OR nce ome ton 2 Ss 284 (OTE 2 PELE SH eNO GT RS «fants Raven led eh alae fl tested Sey ge AR 284 Ral eIVOCOMMOCONS Helter a= neem te ate See 284 RUS ROCKIE Olt Ss en ee ee ee eae tera eae 285 Rolo. iarssa pal rales eee ee eee sa ae 287 R=-16: Upper Karakara Cemetery. .--/ = 2-2 === =<. -- 287 R-18: Lower Karakara Cemetery_.....--------------- 288 ota bei, puelver t)-co fe Seo ee ee ee 290 Beas SOel-bau, Seer oon cis oo oe Ree Coe e ee 293 Rote Perr Wall ne eo ee oon acct 293 R=sGs WOrMISWwaUc lend «so Ss ee fet ew eee eee 297 COroriiiinl Bibenoe ee ee een oe etn tae ee ee i ae 297 Re2leSMarkaunwaldaec sss n= ase sae oe eee en 297 Ros) Matie-en-thU nee ees eee ee ee eee 297 Ate from Guler INVesiipanons.—. 8. o-oo tae coe neo 298 Pabivablonisites see eo ee ee eee eee eee eae 298 RAO Arias eo re eke ee Ne mye Seer ee se 298 \SLELTT SR Sh pc 2 pegaapee apt iedatiatid ne of bile cs nlee tchanaepepi e 298 CATA aT hence Gali ong tg te fendi aches) hens Aa aha Ai 298 UNGU TERRA CO a a 2s eS: Be 2 oot ee el Ss oe ees 299 Ceremanminh sipeseser iit 22s ae eal So ee ci ell 300 x CONTENTS Tue Rupununr SAvANNA—Continued The Rupununi Phase—Continued Page Anpilysis.ot materiales 2000 ee 2 eee 300 Stonelartifiact’ by pesesa sass ea te ee ee ee eee 301 SPRSEN RNY 2a ta wn cet se ia 301 DO Ce eee eee een a ee eS oon te Sea oe a 301 Bow]s..oeeeis onde doenthe ieee ete etek eee eee 302 (COMPS Bact a oa ae ae ae ae Seat ee 303 Hlammerstonmes 222-2522 2— oe oe ee eer 303 18 ay): ee an Es a ER a YR SE ee eee 303 Man0sid sconces oh ap eee a sam ete ae aS ere are 304 MBbAtRS He 22255 nico at ie ta 304 Shanispolisher’ 20 2 oe eh oe heel ee ee 304 Cores and. flakes... 2.2. - 2263-25 ease se eo 304 Natural stones... 14). woe ee ee eee ieee 306 Pottery type descriptions — --.- 6. 422 ee ee aoe 306 WamulsuPlain os oce/2h oe ett le Eek ee a 306 Ripa Plann o-oo eee eek ee 309 Unclassified Cariapé-tempered_._.....--------------- 310 Unclassified) Decorated=. 2229 oot be 8S Eee 311 PRCISION Soe ae a et coe ee oe 311 WiMGG Abst Se ee eee Ste es eee 311 Appliques.:- 2023 s2- se snc tees ape eo eee eee 311 Punctatessc2 he cen aoe bet ee ee 311 White slipio.\ e.25o-. steno ot dees oe ee 311 Red fila: aa ceo og ga ae ee Sle Trade pobterys.< josie eta ee ee 312 Taruma,Phase types. 22.22.25 4c ee oe ee 312 Koriabo, Phase typesen.00 45-22 -——e eso oe eee 312 PGtlGEy AT UllaCtes. 22ers 312 Potsreste. oie cule ese ek is We ee ae Se See 312 Higurines. 05! 0 oka a oe ek ee 312 Dipko.) 2 pees oe ad tS ee 314 Blatupoushers. 22022 052 oft ee eee 314 Rubbing tool - nea So ee Se ce 314 Bone artifacts! <22c22 0) = eben ee pce ee 314 Objects:of European origins .,<- 20 jo ee es ee 314 The site sequence and its implications_-_--------------------- 317 Ethnographic evidence. 2 =. ee ee eee 323 Subsistence. 2 3). - 2 eh oe Se ee eae eee 323 Settlement pattern..-.- oe ye oe eee ee eee 323 Houses. wc okeck elec eae ee ea See ees 323 Potber yee tata oes CE ee at oe ee 324 Spindle; whocle- 225 oe ee ee 325 Disposal of jhe dead... 222 ee ee ee 325 Diagnostic features of the Rupununi Phase__..---------------- 325 Comparative data, conclusions, and interpretations_---------------- 326 Tus CurtuRAL SEQUENCE IN BriTIsH GUIANA: GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND VEN irs Coy Us ap 69 f= eee espa on pe aN UN ee ee ee tee sto eae sc ss 333 airenatTurs, Crrep.. 22.) es Se ee ee ee ee eee 348 fot feb fod ped bed RwODH © 15. 16. OOAD MP hy ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES (All plates follow page 418) . Travel by foot on the Rupununi savanna. . Travel by horseback on the Rupununi savanna. . Travel by Fordson truck and Land Rover on the Rupununi savanna. Old and new forms of transportation. . Hxpedition housing. . Facilities on the upper Hssequibo. . Travel by watercraft. . Projectile points of the preceramic, lithic horizon. . Views of the Northwest lowlands. . Choppers: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase. . Blades: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase. . Picks: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase. . Type sherds of Wanaina Plain, Alaka Phase. . M-1: Mabaruma Headquarters, a habitation site of the Mabaruma Phase. Habitation sites of the Mabaruma Phase. Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 1: low relief, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 2: high relief, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 3: Barrancoid adornos, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barrancoid adornos, Mabaruma Phase. . Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled of the Mabaruma Phase re- covered from sites of the Koriabo Phase. . Type sherds of Aruka Incised, Mabaruma Phase. . Aruka Incised bowl from M-1. . Sherds of Mabaruma Phase decorated types recovered from sites of the Koriabo Phase. . Type sherds of Hosororo Plain, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Hotokwai Plain, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase. 27. Type sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Koberimo Plain, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Mabaruma Incised, Mabaruma Phase. . Type sherds of Mabaruma Plain, Mabaruma Phase. 31. 32, 33. N-7: Warapoco Mission, a habitation site of the Koriabo Phase. Type sherds of Barima Plain, Koriabo Phase. Type sherds of Koriabo Incised, Koriabo Phase. 34. Type sherds of Koriabo Plain and Warapoco Plain, Koriabo Phase. 35 36 . Type sherds of Koriabo Scraped, Koriabo Phase. . Sherds of Koriabo Phase decorated types recovered from sites of other Phases. xI Ooon CONTENTS . Sherds with Koriabo Phase types of decoration and form from the Charlesburg site, Dutch Guiana. . Habitation sites of the Abary Phase. . Decorated sherds from Abary Phase sites. . General views of the upper Essequibo River. . Type sherds of Kanashen Incised, Taruma Phase. . Type sherds of Kanashen Incised, Taruma Phase. . Type sherds of Kassikaityu Punctate, Taruma Phase. . Pottery types of the Taruma Phase. . Type sherds of Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase. . Type sherds of Onoro Stamped, Taruma Phase. . Type sherds of Yocho Plain, Taruma Phase. . Habitation sites of the Wai Wai Phase. . Pottery vessels of the Wai Wai Phase. . Pot rests of the Wai Wai Phase, showing the manner in which they are used to support a vessel over a cooking fire. . Wai Wai pottery making. . Wai Wai pottery making. Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Ceremonial sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Stone axes of the Rupununi Phase in the collections of the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. . Stone hoes of the Rupununi Phase. . Type sherds of Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain, Rupununi Phase. . Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase cemetery sites. . Rupununi Plain and Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase cemetery sites. . Rupununi Plain and Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase sites. . Griddles from the Rupununi Phase. . Shaft polishers from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. TEXT FIGURES . Map of British Guiana showing general itinerary during archeological IN VEStI SATO ME a bi es a i i he . Map of British Guiana showing principal geographical features____.-- . Worked stones from the nonceramic site of R-4: Tabatinga, on the Rupunuinl savy oe ae aa ele a . Map of the Northwest District, showing the location of archeological . Objects of bone and teeth from Alaka Phase sites__.....----------- . Choppers: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase__-_-.------ . Hammerstones: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase-----_- Page CONTENTS . Hafted hammerstones: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase__ Mbteranr ube, Alsat: Pbase. 22. oo es eT ED ae Bs poe . Blades: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase____________- . Large, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase___________-_- . Large, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase________---_-- . Small, percussion-made flake picks of the Alaka Phase___________--- . Percussion-made flake scrapers of the Alaka Phase__________._____- . Percussion-made pestles of the Alaka Phase showing surfaces worn by SrINGIN Ges es Be SEE AS | wily) ace) Mee eeieienete Te. walt . Alaka Phase stone tools showing polishing__.._....._...-.---------- . Mano and metate fragment from N-11, a site of the Alaka Phase_-__- . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Sand Creek Plain and Waraina) Pisin pAlaks Phase jos. faaern ye cool hsh jeaog es . Sketch map showing the location of N-11: Hosororo Creek, a shell midden of the Alaka Phase, and N-12: Hosororo Hill, a habitation siteion thedMabsruma Phasero..s484edslor slot Jo sdul dele . Detailed map of the Aruka River area, showing the distribution of hills in this part of the Northwest District__....._.._._..__-_------ . Sketch map of N-15: Hotokwai, a habitation site of the Mabaruma . Sketch map of N-16: Akawabi Creek, showing the location of the Alaka, Phase shell midden and the subsequent Mabaruma Phase Na bIGa MOE Stes 22 eM 8h ber peer) nee AS yee! ory tilt . Stone tools from the Mabaruma Phase__..__._._._....---------.--- . Grinding tools from the Mabaruma Phase___.-____________-__------ . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 4)..__.___.__---_---- Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 3: Barrancoid adornos, Maba- Berne pe paa ros) satin fost Selene lh bude boosie) lee ul Ate at . Anthropomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non+barrancoid,: Mabaruma) Phases.) (22a 52te2eb en eens. 22 . Anthropomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barrancoid, Mabaruma Phase._....._._.____.-__-.-------- . Zoomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non- Barrancoid,; Mabaruma Phases ous entess_ seit vue Aad Sous - Zoomorphie adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non- Barrancoid, Mabarunia) Phase 2. oss 2) omit alot Jouzam_sete . Zoomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non- Barrancoid)Mabarums Phases ))/2u2@ losses Poe jo eee oe cage Bird adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barran- omg. Mabaruma PHAR. oo eee ee lt SE . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Aruka Incised, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 6)_....-..------------------ . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Hosororo Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 8)__...._._____--------- . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Hotokwai Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 9)____.._______--------- Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 10)_._.____-----_-_-- XIV CONTENTS Page 42. Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Motif 1: incised lines ending in punctates, Mabaruma Phase... .----.--- sekt adele sab Be ees 106 43. Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase_____.._..-.------ 107 44, Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Koberimo Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 12)_----_---_---------- 110 45. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Mabaruma Incised, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 13).......-.--.---_--------- 111 46. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Mabaruma Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 14)__-.-_--_--_-_------ 113 47. Pottery artifacts of the. Mabaruma Phase_-.---25-J.--bi-se82035_2a2 118 48. Seriation of Mabaruma Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table 3) 244_ besaisvecibes the Se ees 118 49, Temporal distribution of vessel shapes and decorative motifs of Mabaruma Phase decorated pottery types, and base forms of Mabaruma Phase plain pottery types-..-..-------------2----22 120 50. Sketch map of N-2: Koriabo, a habitation site of the Koriabo Phase-- 125 BL... Kerisbo Phase stone! tools) 5. seer Sek ee Nee ele Te soe eee 129 52. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Barima Plain, Koriabo Phase;(Appendix, table I) iets te eat) ae to So eae eee 131 53. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Koriabo Phase decorated pottery types (Appendix, tables 17 and 19)---_--------- 133 54. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Koriabo Plain, Koriabo Phase (Appendix, table 18)_.--.-.-. = 5. sel ULeeSe 135 55. Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Warapoco Plain, Koriabo Phase. (Appendix, table 20).-0.1.5_---2_ eee 140 56. Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled of the Mabaruma Phase recovered from sites of the Koriabo Phase_._-_...--------------- 141 57. Seriation of Koriabo Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table 16)2.2-22482 su. suse oes see 142 58. Coast of British Guiana, showing the areal distribution of the archeo- logical Phases and the location of sites recorded by other investi- gators. 2 Veeitet Tose a silt ofl Beas Delia le) Bite Bae ee eee 146 59. Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled from sites between the North- west District‘and the Abary Riverje.co ihe 2oncdh ee eee 149 60. Rim profiles of sand-tempered (fop) and cariapé tempered (bottom) sherds from the Charlesburg site near Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, collected by Peter Goethals and deposited in the Peabody Museum, Yale Universityiolsy iol Se De ek Tae ee es ane, aes 151 61. Map of the Abary River region, showing the vegetation pattern and the location of the archeological sites of the Abary Phase._.--_---- 155 62. Sketch map of B-1: Tiger Island, a habitation site of the Abary Phase’. 22200 4 Panes Pua ire ee ne Sete 156 63. Sketch maps of B-3: Taurakuli, a habitation site of the Abary Phase._ 157 64. Decorated disk said to come from a burial site on the Abary River (after W.E.. Roth, MSipl 33-0) 22 2 eee ee eee ee 160 65. Stonerartifacts of the Abaryi/Phasesie lel sehen se Dae 2 eee ae 161 66. Stone artifacts of the Abary: Phase. 2452 iso ao24) 2 tees eee 162 67. Stone and pottery artifacts of the Abary Phase_-.-...-------------- 163 68. Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Abary Plain, Abary Phase (Appendix, table.26) 2 lzcesetwesce liek selene ee Se 165 CONTENTS . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Taurakuli Plain A bary, Phase (Appendix, table. 27):.._..-=2------5-2=-~--2- . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Tiger Island Plain, Abary Phase (Appendix, table 28) .=+-==..-=--=-----.- . Sherds of Unclassified Incised from the Abary Phase__.--_---------- . Sherds of Unclassified Modeled from sites of the Abary Phase_.-.---- . Sherds with Unclassified Modeled decoration from sites of the Abary . Adornos of Abary Phase manufacture showing influence of Akawabi Incised and Modeled decorative style of the Mabaruma Phase----- . Sherds with Aruka Incised decoration from sites of the Abary Phase. . Sherds with Mabaruma Phase types of decoration from sites of the 1ST Al OC ea ee ae | ee a eee . Seriation of Abary Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type freauioncyy (Appendix, stable. 25): 65. oo -Sa— anna ne ones . Wattle-and-daub fragments from sites of the Abary Phase__.-_------ . Map of the upper Essequibo River showing the approximate location of archeological sites included in the survey___.----------------- . Sketch map of E-3: Yoché, showing the Taruma Phase fabintion area and limit of the former field clearing..-.........-----.------ . Sketch map of E~7: Manakakashin, a habitation site of the Taruma . Sketch map of E-9: Kalunye, a habitation site of the Taruma Phase--_ . Sketch map of E-13: Tari Tari Tulu, showing the Taruma Phase habitation area and the limit of the former field clearing---------- . Sketch map of E-16: Watawatarit6, showing the two Taruma Phase habitation sites and the limit of the former field clearing--_-...------ . Sketch map of E-19: Cholyolyoliwat6, showing the Taruma Phase habitation site and the limit of the former field clearing---_-------- a Petroglyphs on, tne. Wassikeityi River :..52.2-2—=5-.---=-—--===5 TSLOneariiacts othe (Laruma, Phase... 21 25 oe et he oe ne . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kalunye Plain, Taruma Phase (Appendix, table 31)_-......-.--.--------.- . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kanashen Incised, hartnia boase: (APpenGix, AIG oo) 22 8. oooh bee a ee . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kassikaityu Punctate, Tarnma Phaser(Apoendim, table, so)... <6 5.9 eee . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Taruma Phase decorated DOLCE Tmt, DOS sats en = ee ee 8 a A 2 . Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase.__-__..-------------- . Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase__.-___--------------- . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Mawika Iai, PAPUININ DMRS ee ee Se i . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Onoro Stamped, ve Gotta Sapp Bo 05 127s tence de Nie en” eet ce NN aN ee A ON Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Yoché Flain, Laruma;Phase (Appendix,, table, 35):..=.--.-.--_.-~2--=<: eiraements of Laruma Phase pot reste.._-- 2-2 soe ee ee ee . Pottery spindle whorls of the Taruma Phase_..__.__--------------- te Pottery whistle of the Taruma Phase:-..0-c. 12s ee ee CONTENTS .) Werked Buerds, Paruma Piase. cee ok se sk ee eee eee . Seriation of Taruma Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table BO)EL C2. a eo eee . Brefoimo Incised; Wai War Phaseleso ares 2 eae oo ee . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Erefoimo Painted, WW SIE ASO ase ere eae mre perce Sgn ties SPR ake ee ems Weel en . Sherds of Erefoimo Painted showing typical motifs, Wai Wai Phase__ . Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Hrefoimo Plains Wisi Witte Mase rren faeces copa err ier en In I Teteey ec Us Bere: Sve ea 2 Artifacts of the. W alowed dase! io 2 ee ee . Sketch map of the Wai Wai village of Yaka Yaka, showing the location of the modern house, the size of the garden clearing, and the area occupied by the Taruma Phase site of E-4___._-_-------------- . Part of Farabee’s map of the upper Essequibo area showing the location of Taruma villages at the time of his visit in 1914 (after Farabees Onis. a Muon ure L ie |i ala pees Oy Oe Oem ce a ae eats eee . Map showing the location of sites of the Rupununi Phase____-___-- . Sketch map of R-5 and R-6, habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase- . Sketch map of R-36: Mormiswau Head, a habitation site of the Kupununt ‘Phases o> +0 eee Se eee ee eee ee . Sketch map of R-37: Bis Mountain, a habitation site of the Rupununi . Sketch map of the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-1: Moco Moco Shelter, showing the position of the burial jars-__..------------- . Sketch showing the position of the burial urn and its contents at the Rupununi Phase site of R-14: Rock Point--__.__------_------- . Profile sketch showing the position of the burial jar at the Rupununi Phase site of R-16: Upper Karakara Cemetery_---------------- . Profile sketch showing the position of the burial urn at the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-18: Lower Karakara Cemetery -------- . Sketch map of the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-34: Bei-tau, Shelter 1, showing the position of the burial urns and associated ATE RSO Se nee thn + a 9 he PR trae SOR ened, eer oe See ee re . Sketch map of the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-35: Tamrio- wau, showing the position of the burial jars-_.___.__-_------------ . Stone axes from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase_---------- . Stone choppers from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase- - ----- . Stone hoe fragments from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase_-- . Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain, Rupununi Phase (Appendix, tables 38-39) - ----- . Modeled sherds from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase-_------ . Glass beads from Jar A at R-34, Shelter 1, a cemetery site of the Rupununi Phases ee ee ee . Seriation of Rupununi Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table:3/)-s2os cesses ee . The reconstructed archeological sequence in British Guiana, showing the relative chronological position and approximate duration of the Various, Phases =o Se eer es oe . Routes of migration into British Guiana reconstructed from analysis of the affiliations of the archeological Phases__...----------------- 260 HimO A OO WP 12. 13. CONTENTS TEXT TABLES Frequency of pottery types at Alaka Phase sites_........_..._----- Sequence of Alaka Phase sites derived from the distribution of pottery ANCSLONEHCOO LMU PES Seine ae oe: ea ees Sele eee ny ee ee ee Distribution of shellfish species at Alaka Phase sites...___________-- . Occurrence of Mabaruma Phase trade sherds in Koriabo Phase sites_-__ Duration of Abary Phase village sites estimated from rate of refuse HECUMIU ALLO eee | er Mera SEO Renee Caen es Ae Pe a Occurrence of trade sherds or sherds showing Mabaruma Phase char- aicterisuicssau Abary Phase sites! 22 no eee Poe IP eee . Additional Taruma Phase slash-and-burn field clearings__..___.____- Objects of European origin from Taruma Phase sites. _.._._._------ Durations of Taruma Phase sites derived from sherd refuse accumula- TAOTAPORUT ee see Att CP Tae EAS 5) SO ee ee eee Duration of the Taruma Phase calculated on the basis of a 10-percent change:inarequency ofukslunye Plain. 20S Slee eee Duration of the Taruma Phase calculated on the basis of a 10-percent changelin frequency of Yoché'Plaint) 2. bub ey Sos te Objects of European origin from Rupununi Phase sites___-_.-_-_---- . Correlation between dated and seriated position of Rupununi Phase sites with European trade materials._......../..-L--L------L--- Correlation of geographical and historical data on Rupununi Phase APPENDIX TABLES . Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at sites of the Alaska Phase. . Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic excavations at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. . Frequency of decorative motifs of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. . Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Aruka Incised at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. . Frequency of decorative motifs of Aruka Incised at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Hosororo Plain at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. . Krequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Hotokwai Plain at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. . Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Kaituma Incised and Punctate at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. . Frequency of decorative motifs of Kaituma Incised and Punctate at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Koberimo Plain at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Mabaruma Incised at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. 513186—60——_2 XVII 319 330 XVIII CONTENTS 14. 15. 16. ure 18. 19. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Mabaruma Plain at sites of the Mabaruma Phase. Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at sites of the Koriabo Phase. Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic excavations at sites of the Koriabo Phase. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Barima Plain and Koriabo Incised at sites of the Koriabo Phase. Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Koriabo Plain at sites of the Koriabo Phase. Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Koriabo Scraped at sites of the Koriabo Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Warapoco Plain at sites of the Koriabo Phase. . Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at sites of the Koriabo Phase. . Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Aruka Incised at sites of the Koriabo Phase. . Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate at sites of the Koriabo Phase. . Frequency of stone artifacts by site, level, and rock material at sites of the Abary Phase. . Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic excavations at sites of the Abary Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Abary Plain at sites of the Abary Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Taurakuli Plain at sites of the Abary Phase. . Hrequencey of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Tiger Island Plain at sites of the Abary Phase. . Frequency of stone artifacts at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequency of pottery types from surface collections and stratigraphic excavations at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Kalunye Plain at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequency of rim and vessel shapes and decorative motifs of Kanashen Incised at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Kassikaityu Punctate, Manakakashin Red and Manakakashin Red-on-White at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequeney of decorative techniques of Kassikaityu Punctate and deco- rative motifs of Manakakashin Red-on-White at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Yoché Plain at sites of the Taruma Phase. . Frequency of stone artifacts by site and rock material at sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Frequency of pottery types from surface collections at sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Kanuku Plain at sites of the Rupununi Phase. . Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Rupununi Plain at sites of the Rupununi Phase. PREFACE The presentation of any archeological report covering a large area brings to the authors the duty and the pleasure of calling atten- tion to the many other individuals whose advice and assistance made it possible. In this case, the ready cooperation and friendly aid that we encountered everywhere in British Guiana makes acknowledgment of our indebtedness an unusually pleasant task. Our research was made possible by financial support from a United States Educational Exchange Research Grant under the Fulbright Act and by a grant from the Smithsonian Institution. By the terms of the Fulbright Act we were required to work under the auspices of a recognized local educational institution, and the University Col- lege of the West Indies agreed to undertake sponsorship. Their representative in British Guiana, Mr. A. A. Thompson, made a hotel reservation for us in Georgetown and offered his services if they should be needed to facilitate our work. A more logical institutional sponsor was the British Guiana Museum, and largely because of the personal interest of the director, Mr. Vincent Roth, it was with the Museum that we worked most closely. From the day of our arrival until the day of our departure, we were guided and assisted by Mr. Roth. He put us in touch with the local officials, and his personal introductions made them predisposed to help us as much as possible. His intimate knowledge of much of the Colony, acquired during years as a surveyor for the Government, helped us to plan an itinerary that gave us a maximum archeological return for the time available. In addition, he allowed us to store our specimens and equipment at the Museum, which was not only a convenience but an insurance of their safety. Beyond this aid fur- nished in his capacity as director of the Museum, we are indebted to Mr. Roth for his personal hospitality, including a memorable, belated Christmas dinner in February at hishome. For all of these and many smaller kindnesses, we wish to express our deepest gratitude. For the solution of many of the frustrating problems that con- front archeologists in a strange country, we are indebted to Ram S. Singh, chief taxidermist of the British Guiana Museum. Whatever was required, Mr. Singh always knew where to find it better, cheaper, and faster than anyone else. He piloted us through the intricacies of purchasing tickets, opening a bank account, and arranging for the export of our collections. During a visit to Plantation Lusignan on east coast Demerara, he was an indispensable interpreter from English to Guianese. Our final trip to the Abary River was organized by him from start to finish. He introduced us to many aspects of Guianese life we would otherwise have missed, and his generosity and xIx SMITHSO! ii i | 119 INSTITUTION ¥¥ES 5 ~ xx PREFACE unfailing good humor contributed in large part to create the fond memories we have of British Guiana. Among the Government officials who received us graciously and facilitated our work are: Mr. J. L. Fletcher, then Acting Colonial Secretary; Mr. J. B. Bamford, Commissioner of Interior; Mr, W. T. Lord, Commissioner of Lands and Mines; Mr. W. A. Angoy, District Commissioner, Rupununi District; Mr. J. Young, District Commis- sioner, Northwest District; and Dr. C. R. Jones, Medical Officer to the Amerindians. These gentlemen introduced us to local residents, helped us with transportation, and in several cases took considerable interest in our work. Their cooperation was invaluable and we regret that public acknowledgment has taken so long. Although much of the area in which we worked is public domain, we occasionally had to seek permission to trespass from private owners, especially in the Rupununi District. This was readily granted, and in most cases was accompanied by an invitation to come as guests of the owner. For a warm welcome and generous hos- pitality, we wish to express our thanks to Mr. B, L. Hart and his family of Pirara, Mr. and Mrs. Caesar Gorinsky of Good Hope, Mr. and Mrs. Harry Turner of Dadanawa, all on the Rupununi savan- nas; to Mr. and Mrs. Robert Hawkins and Miss Florence Riedle of Kanashen on the upper Essequibo River; and to Mr. Alfred Read of Taurakuli on the Abary River. Among the many others who gave us help, we should like to mention Sgt. Cornelius Douglas and Con- stable Leslie Chin then of the Annai Police Station, Father J. V. McKenna of Sand Creek, Mr. Edward E, Melville of Lethem, Mr. James Brown of Dadanawa, Mr. Lawrence Hart of Pirara, Mr. W. M. ©. Bagshaw of the Forestry Department, Northwest District, Mr. Harry Madramoto, Department of Agriculture, Hosororo Sta- tion, Mr. and Mrs. Claude W. Leavitt of the Unevangelized Fields Mission, Mr. R. J. McKenzie, Manager of Plantation Lusignan, and Col, A. J. Williams of British Guiana Airways. A special word of thanks is due Robert and Florine Hawkins, missionaries of the Unevangelized Fields Mission among the Wai Wai Indians of the upper Essequibo. Without their invitation, it would have been impractical to try to do archeological work in that region in the short time available to us. They placed a boat at our disposal, acted as interpreters between us and the Wai Wai, allowed us to make their mission our base of operations, and cooperated in many other ways, with the result that this part of the survey was one of the most successful. When we took a picnic lunch with sandwiches of Florine’s homemade bread, it required some mental effort to real- ize we were actually in the heart of the Guiana forests. We met many other Guianese in all walks of life and of all races. We found them delightful companions, friendly, helpful, cheerful, PREFACE XXI and willing workers, even though in many cases we shared no common language. Although we cannot list them all by name, we can truth- fully say that they have not been forgotten, and that they have each contributed to our image of British Guiana as a charming as well as a beautiful country. The drudgery in archeology falls to the lot of those who must wash and number the sherds preparatory to analysis. For carrying out this monotonous task efficiently, we wish to thank Mr. Charles T. Terry, Jr., and Mr, Robert C. Jenkins of the Division of Archeology, U.S. National Museum. Line drawings of specimens were done by Miss Betty Baker and the manuscript was typed by Mrs. Jeraldine M. Whitmore, also of the Division of Archeology. Various members of the U.S. National Museum curatorial staff provided identification of faunal, floral, skeletal, and cultural remains, including Dr. T. D. Stewart of the Division of Physical Anthropology, Dr. Harold Rehder of the Division of Mollusks, Dr. A. C. Smith, then of the Department of Botany, Dr. Tucker Abbott, now on the staff of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, Mr. C. Malcolm Watkins of the Division of Cultural History, Mr. Edgar M. Howell of the Divi- sion of Military History, and Mr. George Metcalf of the Division of Archeology. As a basis for interpreting the archeological remains in British Guiana, it was necessary to examine materials from adjacent areas. We are greatly indebted to Dr. Peter Goethals, Dr. John Goggin, and Dr. Irving Rouse for generously permitting us to review sherd col- lections from unpublished fieldwork in Dutch Guiana, Trinidad, and Venezuela, and thus greatly facilitating the task of comparison. Students who may wish to use the British Guiana materials in comparative studies will find type collections of sherds representing all but the rare pottery types at the following museums: University Museum, Philadelphia; American Museum of Natural History, New York; Peabody Museum, Yale University, New Haven; Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge; Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago; University Museum, University of California, Berkeley; Goteborg Museum, Goteborg, Sweden; and the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown, British Guiana. A complete collection of sherds, stone, trade materials, and miscellaneous objects can be found in the Division of Archeology, U.S. National Museum, Wash- ington, D.C. C. E. B. J. M. Division of Archeology U.S. National Museum Smithsonian Institution Washington 25, D.C., April 1, 1959 ARCHEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN BRITISH GUIANA By Cxiirrorp Evans AnD Brtry J. Mreccrers INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE BRITISH GUIANA ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY Contributions to the archeology of British Guiana can be traced sporadically for nearly a hundred years. The pioneer was W. H. Brett, whose interest in the local shell middens was aroused during his residence as a missionary in the Pomeroon District in the latter half of the 19th century. During approximately the same period, KE. F. Im Thurn devoted considerable time to the investigation and re- porting of ethnography and archeology in the colony. Since the bulk of our own monograph deals with pottery, it is somewhat sur- prising to note Im Thurn’s comment that “up to February in the present year (1884), in the course of much digging and collecting of the stone and other implements of the old inhabitants of Guiana, I had met with surprisingly few pieces of pottery; nor had I even heard rumors of any large deposits of such objects” (1884, p. 123). As is typical in the development of scientific archeology, the attention of most travelers was attracted principally to petroglyphs. Unfortu- nately, they are among the most difficult type of archeological remains to place in a chronological or cultural framework and therefore of little use in the reconstruction of local prehistory. During the 20th century, a number of coastal sites were visited by A. Hyatt Verrill, Walter E. Roth, J. E. L. Carter, Vincent Roth, and Cornelius Osgood. ‘These people laid the basis for a generalized picture of coastal archeology, leading to the formulation of various theories about the racial, tribal, and linguistic affiliations and origins of the people who left the sites. The data accumulated up to 1945 and the hypotheses they inspired have been admirably summarized by Osgood (1946, pp. 21-42), and the reader who wishes more details on the history of archeology in British Guiana will find them in his report. As long as intensive archeological work remained largely restricted to the Andean portion of South America, there was little reason to 1 Z BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [BulL 177 devote more attention to British Guiana. Flowever, the past decade has brought an increased interest in the lowlands, with the result that the Guiana coast has shifted from a marginal to a strategic position for the solution of problems of South American prehistory. The work of Rouse, Cruxent, and Goggin in eastern Venezuela and Trini- dad has permitted the construction of a detailed cultural sequence to the northwest. Similar investigations by Meggers and Evans have established a chronological framework at the mouth of the Amazon. Several hypotheses about cultural development in the Guiana area have resulted from these new data, and knowledge of the archeology in the intervening area is important for their evaluation. This was the primary consideration behind our decision to undertake fieldwork in the Guianas. The selection of British Guiana rather than one of the other two European colonies was motivated by two principal factors. Although archeological research should not be limited by artificial boundaries, the formalization of international relations in modern times makes it practical to remain within one country. British Guiana, being the largest of the three Guianas, provided the maximum areal coverage. In addition, it presented the most promising topographic characteris- tics. The Essequibo River and its tributaries constitute a ready route of access to the center of the Guianas, and it is only a short distance from their headwaters to the sources of major tributaries of the Ama- zon. During the rainy season, it is possible to pass from the Rupununi River in the center of British Guiana to the Takutu on the border with Brazil in a canoe across the flooded savanna. If evidence of prehistoric communication between the coast and the interior was to be found, British Guiana seemed to be a logical place to look for it. Our itinerary was planned to include parts of the colony where evidence of migration or diffusion might be expected to show up if it existed: the Rupununi savanna, spanning one part of the watershed between the Atlantic and Amazonian drainage systems; and the upper Essequibo, which forms part of a similar intersection somewhat to the southeast. Survey of each of these regions was continued until more than 80 sites had been investigated, and the results made it ap- parent that neither had been occupied until very recently by pottery- making groups. The final portion of the survey was devoted to the coast, in the effort to trace movements from west to east, and to secure chronological information that would help to establish the relative antiquity of settlement of the coastal and interior portions of the colony by sedentary peoples. ITINERARY AND FIDLD CONDITIONS Among the more interesting aspects of an archeological field trip is the story that is seldom told except in informal gatherings of BH d near ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 5) anthropologists: the story of the problems, “adventures,” and inci- dental experiences that are encountered by anyone who ventures off the usual tourist paths. Since the lowlands of South America have attracted little attention from archeologists, an account of the manner in which fieldwork was conducted in British Guiana may serve to show that while the way is not always easy, neither is it exceptionally difficult or dangerous. The satisfaction of placing new facts in the archeological record and of visiting interesting people and places more than compensates for any discomforts that may be temporarily endured. We arrived at Georgetown, British Guiana, on October 15, 1952, by air (fig. 1). Interviews with the director of the British Guiana Museum and with officials in various Government agencies produced such ready cooperation that 9 days later, on October 24, we were able to take a British Guiana Airways plane for the interior, where we remained for more than 8 months. The 114-hour flight by DC-3 cargo plane from the coast to the Government administrative station at Lethem on the Brazilian border was a pleasant surprise, since we had expected to go by river, a trip that because of the numercus portages consumes several weeks. In Lethem, we were given permission to make the Government rest house our headquarters, and trips to various parts of the north sa- vanna were arranged from this center. On November 23, we moved to the south savanna, where we were invited to make our base of oper- ations at Dadanawa, headquarters of the Rupununi Development Company. Transportation on the savanna was by foot (pl. 1), horse- back (pl. 2), Fordson truck (pl. 3, a), Land Rover (pl. 3, 6), tractor and trailer, or bullock cart (pl. 4, a), whichever method was available or suitable. We hung our hammocks in schoolhouses (pl. 5, a), police stations, ranchhouses, Indian verandas, abandoned thatched huts, cattle outstations, or in the house of a resident priest. When we were not guests at a ranch, we usually cooked our own meals on a small Swedish kerosene primus stove, with corned beef and rice as the staple diet. Army C-rations were ideal for cold lunches at the sites, since they were tasty and no time was lost in their preparation. Our guides were ranchers, Indians, a schoolteacher, a medical aide, and on occasion we scouted around by ourselves. We were in the Rupununi during the early part of the dry season, when the grass was still green and the weather was ideal. The beauty of the landscape was enhanced by a bright blue sky and magnificent, fluffy white cumulus clouds in the afternoons. Although the days were hot, the nights were cool and pleasant. We spent many an evening chatting with the ranchers about local and international topics, and were amazed to find a lively interest in the outcome of the 1952 United States presidential election, which took place during BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {Bull. 177 cS SS ee | / MABARUMAS,_*- ey red eas @. $ ?t <3 =e BS Xo. ~Sy ‘ \ ‘ v eth Yo \ OY 3-9-53 itd © ™ a 0 PERE R sto pe hey, ~26-s3\ \. o \\ v 7 ) ~ > GEORGETOWN &y NN 2 FNe4- 12-53 N oF & ! 2 f A 4-3-53 Ss we a t on © ‘ ”» ‘ * TIPURU 1-52 GOOD HOP PIRARAT of 10- a /WICHABAI =----ll- 26-52 BRAZIL DADANAWA®==. ‘ 1-23-52 i ‘12-2-52 LuMID PAU I 1-30-53 \ x parle 83 \ ¥ oa ss i, eS) remy KANASHENS 12-12- 52/ 21-53 a aia a a ) Ficure 1.—Map of British Guiana showing general i itinerary during archeological investigations. our stay. The Indians, acculturated into the British colonial pattern of life, generally kept their distance, but on one occasion we spent several days in the house of a Wapisiana family with a total posses- sion of four words of English. Gestures served very well in most situations, except when it came to calling a halt on the sherd collecting, and, as a result, we always ended up with a load for every man, woman, and child. B d oaae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 5 The greatest problem of savanna archeology was transportation of the specimens. People of the Rupununi Phase practiced secondary burial in large urns, and it seemed desirable to collect some of these complete specimens for the British Guiana Museum and the U.S. National Museum. Burial sites were always relatively remote rock shelters accessible by foot or at best by horse. The form and size of the jars made them ill adapted for carrying lashed to a pack saddle on a horse or bullock, but we managed to transport some of them this way. Once we resorted to a bullock cart (pl. 4, @), which jolted and twisted so badly that it was necessary to ride with the load of vessels and sherds resting on specimen bags filled with grass to keep it from being thrown to the ground. The iron wheels transmitted the resistance of every pebble, tuft of grass, or ant hill to the riders and this method of transportation was unquestionably the most un- pleasant that we encountered anywhere in South America. On December 11, we boarded a chartered DC-3 plane at Wichabai, and landed half an hour later in a small clearing called Gunn’s Strip (pl. 4, 0), an hour’s walk from the bank of the Essequibo River. We were met by Wai Wai Indians, who carried our baggage, with that of our hosts, representatives of the Unevangelized Fields Mission, to the water’s edge. Here it was placed in dugouts and taken upriver to Kanashen, the missionaries’ home (fig. 1) and our main base of operations for the next 6 weeks. Work in this part of British Guiana was simplified immensely by the generous cooperation of the mis- Slonaries, who spoke the Wai Wai language and thus were able to con- vey our wishes to the Indians and to arrange for one or more of them to accompany us as paddlers, hunters, and guides. This part of the trip was a unique and delightful experience. We traveled both up and down the Essequibo River and minor tributaries, locating and excavating sites and stopping to camp wherever night- fall caught us (pl. 6, a). For the most part, we were out of contact with other human beings. Yukumé, our Wai Wai guide, was an excellent hunter and kept us provided with a variety of fresh fish, fowl, and occasional small mammals and monkeys, which he roasted by night on a badricot over a smoky fire with delicious results. A1- though we were working during the “little rainy season,” the rain fortunately came almost exclusively at night. Waterproof nylon tarps stretched over our hammocks protected us from the torrential downpour that frequently came before dawn. Lack of insects at this time of year made sleep possible without nets. When we camped near a Wai Wai village, the Indians showed friendly interest in us and our belongings. The canvas water bucket was a source of constant amaze- ment, and the primus stove was always an object of much discussion. We were offered pepper pot and cassava bread (pl. 6, 6) or one of 6 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 their slightly fermented drinks when we paid a visit to any village, and in return we offered the Wai Wai whatever exotic foods we had at the moment—cookies, sugar, crackers, guava paste, or fried plantain strips. Traveling along the river in a dugout (pls. 7, a; 40, a), we always joined in the paddling, partly to avoid the necessity of taking addi- tional paddlers and thus diminishing the space available for potsherds, and partly for enjoyment. The first day a few muscles ached but afterward we made long trips with constant paddling and felt little or no fatigue. We learned to hit the hull at each stroke of the paddle in good Wai Wai fashion, and engaged in several races with the saucy otters who sped ahead underwater and then raised their heads and jeered at us for falling behind. When we came to rapids, the Indians took over and steered us skillfully through fast water and between the rocks. Once through, they always wanted to stop to try their luck at catching the large, flat, red paku (Myletes setiger; M. paku), a delicious fish that lives in the rushing water and puts up a strong fight when shot with a harpoon arrow. Locating sites in this area would have been difficult and slow without a guide. The river banks are densely forested, and vegetation con- ceals the ground so effectively that hills are often not visible from the river. An interview shortly after our arrival with the Wai Wai chief, the oldest man in the tribe, produced a long list of places that he said were “old villages.” On questioning, he was firm in his identification, although he had never seen potsherds at any of them. We were con- sequently somewhat dubious as we proceeded to the first such spot. Testing revealed sherds, however, and we found this to be true of all the places listed by the chief with rare exceptions, which probably were old field clearings. Tests on high spots above the flood level not mentioned by the chief always proved sterile. The return from Kanashen to Lumid Pau on the southern Rupununi savanna took 8 days. The first 4 were by dugout with three Wai Wai paddlers plus the two of us, down the Essequibo and up the Kas- sikaityu River to a point where the trail began (fig. 1). We had radioed for two savanna Indians to meet us on a specific day with bullocks to carry our essential equipment, leaving all archeological and ethnological specimens and expendable baggage at Kanashen for later removal by plane. Miraculously, the bullocks arrived shortly after we did, and we began the second part of the trip on foot. The trail was generally clear and passed through virgin forest, now and probably always uninhabited. The only living things we saw during the first 3 days of walking were a tortoise and a few birds. On the third night we emerged into savanna and slept at the Wapisiana village of Tararton. The following day we reached Lumid Pau, E a Evang an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA € consisting of two adobe huts beside an airstrip where British Guiana Airways landed on a regular schedule once every 2 months. We were 214 days early, but hung our hammocks and stuck close to them to be sure we would not miss our plane. The flight to Georgetown in the DC-3 cargo ship was routine. Stops at Lethem and Annai gave us a glimpse of the savanna at the end of the dry season, with the grass burned brown. We landed at Atkinson Field on February 3, 1958, and spent the first evening in Georgetown walking around admiring the bright lights, having seen nothing stronger than a lantern for nearly 3 months. The manager of the Hotel Woodbine greeted us with joy, having concluded weeks before that we had succumbed to one of the numerous perils that all coastal inhabitants are certain abound in the interior. Since our research time was now running short, we arranged to take the next coastwise steamer for the Northwest District, which left on February 16. Although the trip took only 20 hours, the ship was subjected during this entire time to constant lateral wave action, which rocked and rolled it severely and rhythmically from side to side and reduced most of the passengers to a state of acute misery. On arrival at the district headquarters at Mabaruma (fig. 1), we were once again permitted to stay at the Government Rest House. The District Commissioner and other Government officials were very coop- erative, which greatly simplified the problem of transportation. Travel is by water, and without access to a motor launch we would have had to restrict our investigations to the immediate vicinity of Mabaruma. As it was, we accompanied several officials on trips up the Waini, Barima, and Aruka Rivers, making shorter trips up shallow, narrow creeks and between sites in small dugouts (pl. 7, 6). Dry land is so infrequent that camping is almost impossible, and small rest houses have been constructed by the Government for the use of traveling officials (pl. 5, 6). We slept in these or we hung our hammocks in a schoolhouse or store. The inclement weather in the Northwest District made up for the conveniences of travel. Heavy showers fell almost daily, often sev- eral times a day. We frequently had either to suspend work, covering the excavation with a waterproof tarp and awaiting the rain to pass, or to continue digging in soil that soon turned into muck. The sherds were usually wet in any case, and the bags had to be watched carefully for traces of mildew. When the sun came out after a shower the humidity was intense. Partly because of the high humid- ity, nights were frequently chilly enough to make us shiver in our hammocks in spite of a woolen blanket. A number of the sites of the Alaka Phase were surrounded by mangrove swamp and accessible only on foot. After making our way 8 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 to several of these, sliding off slippery logs and sinking above our boottops into the ooze, suffering the attacks of mosquitoes, and inhaling the smell of decaying vegetation, we were able to understand why the tapirs enjoy this environment, but not why it was sought out by man as a place to live. We had with us on several trips a boatman who felt it his duty to warn us nightly of the perils that surrounded us. He maintained that it was unsafe to sleep anywhere except on the launch, and described in detail a few of the creatures that might attack us as we slept on land. In addition to “turtle tigers,” “labba tigers” and “warakaubra tigers,” there was a monster in human shape with a globular head, flat on top “like a military cap” and darting fire from its eyes, and another river-dwelling beast with 20 horns on its head. We personally felt that the mosquitoes were more likely to do us in than the “jumbies,” and used our nets for the first time in the Colony. On March 18, we returned to Georgetown by the coastal steamer and made arrangements for the final trip eastward along the coast to the Abary River (fig. 1). This trip was organized by the British Guiana Museum taxidermist, Ram Singh, who decided that we should have the experience of one “real” expedition before leaving the Col- ony. He hired a cook, Ivan Vyphius, who brought an assistant, and we laid in a huge quantity of supplies, including a tin of “biscuits” (soda crackers) 18 inches in diameter and a foot high. We went by train from Georgetown to the Abary River on March 31, and then by the milk launch upstream, stopping at the sites. Ivan prepared fancy salads and other gastronomic delights, including a fine stew of howler monkey. In the evening, he regaled us with the story of his life, and especially the experiences of a Negro Guianese with Colonial British officials, using such inimitable phraseology that we were completely convulsed with laughter. On April 12, we returned to Georgetown and spent the rest of our time finishing notes on the collections in the British Guiana Museum, packing specimens for shipment, and attending to other details. The rainy season was in full force by then throughout most of the colony, and in Georgetown rain fell in remarkable quantities, taxing the 3- foot-deep gutters to their capacity. One of our last duties was an interview with the press, purportedly for the benefit of science and the British Guiana Museum, following which one paper reported that we had deposited in the Museum “10 complete Indian chiefs” (we said “nots”) ! At 10:30 a.m. on April 20, we took off from Atkinson Field, and 14 hours later landed at Idlewild Airport in New York. After 6 months’ absence, it took only one Jook at the traffic to convince us that the interior of South America holds less hazards than a modern Evan ad Mesperel ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 9 United States city. We wholeheartedly support the comments made by another visitor to the tropical forests of South America more than 50 years before us: Whenever a Huropean hears that a traveller has buried himself in the solitudes of Amazonia, he willingly believes that this is a most exceptional exploit, and that the lucky mortal who returns from it has been in countries where never before has the foot of civilised man been set. It must be admitted that the tales of adventure which now appear as if they were serious stories of travel, are likely to spread these gross errors. Let us hasten to warn these imaginative persons, who are too prone to credit the picturesque and the marvellous. The authors of the books to which we refer only journeyed through parts inhabited by Brazilians, or by foreigners established in Brazil, where reside Government officials, merchants, soldiers, and very sociable human beings. As to the famous Indians of whom such wonderful tales are told, they remain almost always out of sight, unless they can make themselves useful by their special knowledge of the country. In any case they are generally much less to be feared than... the savages in the great Huropean cities. [Nery, 1901, p. 308.] PRESENTATION OF THE DATA The writing of a large archeological report always raises the prob- lem of how to organize the material to permit both easy reference to data by the technical scholar and quick access to the major conclu- sions by a reader concerned only with the general results. It is prob- ably impossible to achieve maximum compliance simultaneously with two such different requirements, but as a step in this direction, we have tried to separate the factual and interpretative portions of the report as completely as possible, and to subdivide the presentation of data in a logical manner. The two chapters following the Introduction deal with British Guiana asa whole. The geographical description is designed to high- light differences and to bring out the major topographical, vegeta- tional, and climatic features that may have influenced aboriginal set- tlement, and it does not aim to be exhaustive in its coverage. The preceramic lithic horizon is treated in terms of the colony as a whole rather than by geographical subdivisions because what little informa- tion is available makes more sense viewed on a larger scale than the areal subdivisions permit. The remainder of the report is organized under four geographical areas: the Northwest lowlands, the Abary River, the upper Essequibo rain forest, and the Rupununi savanna. Each of these is distinct geographically and each exhibits a unique archeological sequence. The order of presentation is chronological throughout. The Northwest lowlands was the first region to be occupied by pottery-making groups, the Rupununi savanna the last. Within each area, description of the archeological phases begins with the earliest, and presentation of the data follows a standard order. Except for the section on “The site sequence and its implications,” the 10 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 content under each Phase is purely descriptive. AJl of the archeolog- ical data resulting from fieldwork and laboratory analysis of the materials collected are included. For the reader interested mainly in the overall results, there are two principal places to look: the conclusions to each geographical section (pp. 28-24, 145-153, 183-190, 326-332) and the last chapter of the volume (pp. 333-347). The final chapter on the cultural sequence in British Guiana summarizes the general conclusions and appraises their significance not only in archeological terms but also in terms of anthropological problems of various kinds. The reasoning upon which these statements are based can be found in the conclusions to each of the four major sections of the report. Here, archeological, ethnographic and historical data are brought to bear on the problem of reconstructing the origin, duration, and nature of each of the archeological phases and through this the prehistory of the region. Presentation of the data follows generally accepted lines of current archeological monographs and needs no detailed explanation. We would like, however, to say a few words about the methods of analysis and classification used for the artifacts. Whenever possible, the arti- facts are described as types showing their range of variation as well as their most typical features rather than as individual specimens. It has been our experience that this is not only the most practical method of dealing with a large bulk of material, but also it objectifies and clarifies the data and makes the results easier to assess. Unfor- tunately, stone tools usually were not sufficiently abundant to permit the substitution of type descriptions for the description of each ex- ample, but where possible this has been done. All pottery was classi- fied into types, and those few sherds that were distinctive but rare were called “unclassified” and not given type names. The theory of pottery type classification has been set forth by many others (e.g., Ford, 1949, pp. 38-44; 1954; Krieger, 1944; 1949, pp. 71- 80; Spaulding, 1953) and there is still much controversy about which system is the “best.” This report is not the place to debate the issue. However, in order to leave no confusion in the mind of the reader about our purpose or procedure, we will describe briefly the steps followed in handling the pottery. The principal reason for making pottery type classifications is, in our opinion, to detect significant differences that will permit the recognition of cultural and temporal change. Consequently, the first question we ask in beginning the classification of a new batch of sherds is, “Are there any readily ob- servable differences?” From extensive experience with sherds from Tropical Forest cultures of South America we have discovered that temper differences are often easily distinguishable and generally re- flect change through time. Thus, we first attempt to classify the eae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 11 sherds on this basis, recognizing such widely divergent temper ma- terials as cariapé, crushed potsherds, crushed shell, sponge spicules, crushed steatite, mica, or less distinct differences such as fine sand and coarse sand. When temper variations are not present or do not show a consistent trend of change through time, the problem is to find some feature or combination of features that will. Under Tropical Forest conditions, in contrast to those in the Andean and Mesoamerican culture areas, the surface erosion of the sherds is always sufficient to make surface treatment unusable. Consequently, a choice of a primary basis for classification must be made from the characteristics manifested by the paste. Aside from temper, firing differences are easiest to recog- nize and define with consistency. It has been our experience that separation of sherds into those that are completely oxidized, produc- ing a totally orange, tan, or brown cross section, and those that are incompletely oxidized, leaving a gray core of variable width, fre- quently provides a basis for seriation. After the primary features of the sherd types are established, the type categories are refined and other features are sometimes discovered to be additionally significant in showing change through time, such as rim shapes, vessel shapes, or even at times surface treatment. In making these classifications of plain pottery types we are not concerned with the significance, if any, of the type distinctions to the potters (in fact, we are not sure how this could be determined on pure archeological materials without ethnographic correlations), but only with the ability of the types to reflect change through time. If the pottery types from the successive levels of a strata cut do not show consistent trends through time, the first classification is aban- doned and another is attempted. It should be emphasized that the classification finally presented is not superior to other possible classi- fications in theory, in the criteria employed, or in terms of ceramic technology, but only in its ability to reflect chronology. During the preliminary classification all decorated sherds were set aside to be handled later, and the sites and levels of strata cuts were seriated on the basis of the plain ware trends. Subsequently, the de- corated sherds were examined by level and classified into types, but with decorative technique taking precedence over paste characteris- tics as the basis for classification. Theoretically, it would be feasible to combine the two criteria but in practice this often works to multiply the number of decorated types (sometimes reduced to a few sherds per type due to the scarcity of decorated sherds) with no compen- sating advantage. For example, such a classification would create four decorated types in the place of Akawabi Incised and Modeled in the Mabaruma Phase, since the same decoration was applied at 513186—60——3 12 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 various times to all four of the plain wares. Such a subdivision would reveal the same trends as the plain wares themselves show, however, and while obscuring any change in popularity of the decora- tive techniques and motifs. It might have been possible in a few cases to subdivide decorated types on the basis of differences in motif, but when the technique was uniform and the sample was small we preferred to consider the complex as a single type characterized by the presence of several motifs. When some evolutionary change can be detected, this is mentioned in each pottery type description under the heading, “Temporal differences within the type.” In contrast to the plain wares, decorated types rarely show any clear-cut changes in popularity in cultures of the level of development represented by the archeological phases in the Tropical Forest area of South Ameri- ca. Consequently, this test of classificatory validity does not apply, and the principal consideration becomes one of separating combina- tions of technique and motif that appear to have some descriptive unity. The adoption of this philosophy of pottery type classification inevi- tably colors our approach to the discrimination of archeological phases. The ceramic complexes by which the phases are principally identified are composed of continuously changing pottery types. These changes may be either evolutionary or the effect of outside in- fluence, but in either case the alteration is usually slow. Such a point of view emphasizes the continuum rather than the innovations, and makes subdivision of a phase seem exceedingly arbitrary or even un- realistic. While the combination of traits at the end of a phase sequence may be easy to distinguish from that at the beginning, the transition from one to the other is very gradual. This orientation should be kept in mind when our descriptions of the British Guiana archeological phases are compared with the styles distinguished by Cruxent and Rouse (1959) for eastern Venezuela. These authors have followed another approach, which emphasizes differences rather than similarities, with the consequence that a sequence of change such as that encompassed within our Mabaruma Phase, for example, may be represented by two or more styles in their scheme. It should be recognized that this is not a situation in which one result is neces- sarily right and the other wrong, but a consequence of approaching similar data from different theoretical premises. Several devices for recording and presenting archeological evidence that we use consistently appear in this report. An archeological cul- ture has been called a “Phase” because this term carries no specific ethnographic connotations (see Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 138-14). All sites are designated by a key letter and number, the letter referring to the geographical area in which the site is located (N=Northwest E d ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 13 District, B=Berbice Province, E=upper Essequibo River, R=Ru- pununi District), and the number to the particular site in question. In two cases where the correlation is unquestionable, phases were given the names of the actual tribe to which they correspond. Other- wise a local geographical term was chosen. Pottery types were named according to the binomial system, coupling a proper noun of the region with a descriptive adjective. Color terms, such as red or white, in the name of a pottery type indicate the use of a slip; unslipped surfaces of whatever color are referred to as “plain.” In the figures illustrating vessel shapes and rim profiles, solid, blacked-in rims are used for plain wares and outlined ones for decorated types. Where the data were sufficient, we have tried to apply and to test the formula for calculating site duration from rate of sherd accumula- tion that we first proposed in an earlier monograph (Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 245-257). We have brought this method up again not because we are convinced of its validity, but because we feel that it cannot be either accepted or rejected without further testing, and that if we do not make the effort to apply it we cannot expect others to do so. Finally, an explanation of the system of measurements should be made. Because the metric system is easier to use and is the accepted system in Latin American countries, we measured all distances and altitudes in meters and kilometers and all specimens in centimeters and millimeters. However, British Guiana being a British colony, all the published geographical descriptions and current linear meas- urements are in miles, feet, and inches. As a compromise, geograph- ical references were quoted in both systems, while our own measure- ments and observations are given only in the metric system. Spell- ing of geographical names follows British Guiana usage except in the case of the sites of the Taruma and Wai Wai Phases. ‘These words are unwritten and no attempt has been made to provide an exact phonetic equivalent. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION British Guiana is the largest of the three European colonies sur- viving on the northeastern coast of South America. It stretches in a north-south direction for a distance of about 800 km. (500 miles), between 1 and 9 degrees north latitude. Width varies from about 160 km. (100 miles) near the center to nearly 480 km. (300 miles) in the north. To a larger degree than is usual, the boundaries of British Guiana coincide with distinct natural features. The northeastern frontier is the Atlantic Ocean. The Courantyne River makes the separation from Dutch Guiana on the east. The southern and southwestern boundaries follow the continental divide, formed by the low moun- tains of the central Guiana range. Only in the northwest is the border partly an arbitrary line joining sections of several different rivers. As a consequence of the coincidence between political and natural boundaries, the drainage pattern of British Guiana is dominated by a single large network. The colony is almost bisected by the Esse- quibo River, which flows from the southern border in a generally northward course to empty into the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the other major rivers are its tributaries: the Rupununi, the Mazaruni, and the Cuyuni, all flowing from the west. Each of these is fed by a multiplicity of small streams, many of which cease to flow in the dry season. A number of smaller rivers drain the coast. All are com- paratively short except the Berbice which runs generally parallel to the Essequibo between it and the Dutch Guiana border. The lower courses of the Barima, Waini, and Pomeroon Rivers parallel the coast for some distance before emptying into the sea. None of the larger rivers is navigable uninterruptedly for its entire length, although there may be long stretches where no portage is necessary. The rapids were not an obstacle to aboriginal travel, and their major effect is to eliminate tidal variations except near the coast. The headwaters of the Rupununi and Essequibo come within a short distance of the headwaters of rivers flowing into the Amazon. The transition from the Rupununi River to the Takutu River and thence to the Rio Branco and into the Amazon is particularly easy, since there are no moun- tain barriers. It was this situation, seemingly providing a ready 14 E d yen ay ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 15 Venezuela Curren; ai je SEORGETOWN fsse9u 4, Dutch Guiana Brazil KEY MOUNTAIN SAVANNA SWAMP Ficure 2.—Map of British Guiana showing principal geographical features. route for aboriginal contact or migration, that prompted the choice of British Guiana for archeological investigation. In very general terms, the colony can be divided into three geograph- ical zones (fig.2). The narrowest is the tidal swamp along the coast, a band of some 50 miles in width. This is dominated by mangrove vegetation and dissected by countless small creeks, most of which are emptied during low tide. Travel overland is laborious because of the combination of densely intertwined branches and above-surface roots with fine-grained muck that offers no resistance to weight. Oc- casional elevations ranging from small rises to high hills occur in this 16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 zone, the most prominent being in the Northwest District (fig. 4; pl. 9). For the most part, however, except on occasional high spots along the rivers, the coastal zone became desirable for habitation by agricultural groups only after extensive drainage operations had been introduced subsequent to European occupation of the area. The largest part of the colony is rolling, rather low terrain covered with forest. The elevation at 1.5 degrees north latitude on the upper Essequibo is only about 152 meters (500 feet) above sea level. To- ward the west, in the drainage of the Mazaruni River, the landscape is more rugged and is dominated by high plateaus. The frequency of rivers and streams is an obstacle to overland travel, and even today transportation is principally by water or by air. The present population of the forest zone is predominantly Indian, and this region shelters several groups that retain their aboriginal pattern of life largely unaltered. The land is exploitable by slash-and-burn agri- culture, but does not lend itself to intensive utilization. In the absence of outstanding commercially valuable vegetable or mineral resources, except bauxite near the coast, there has been little penetra- tion of European settlement, and the forest areas, which represent the major portion of the colony, remain unaltered from their aboriginal condition. The third zone is the Rupununi savanna, occupying the south- western portion of the colony between the Pakarima range (pl. 2) and Marudi Mountain, and extending westward into adjacent Brazil. The savannas cover an area of approximately 13,934 square km. (5,380 square miles), and have an elevation of 91.4 to 213.3 meters (300 to 700 feet) (Baldwin, 1946). They are divided into two nearly equal parts by the Kanuku Mountains that run in an east-west direc- tion for about 120 km. (75 miles), measure 40 to 48 km. (25 to 30 miles) wide, and rise some 609.6 meters (2,000 feet). The terrain is generally level north of the Kanuku Mountains, becoming more roll- ing and broken by small tree-covered hills to the south. The vegeta- tion is also more open in the north, although large areas devoid of scattered trees are few even here. In the south savanna, groves of trees become increasingly frequent, gradually blending together and replacing the savanna entirely. Much of the savanna floods during the rainy season, when the rainfall exceeds the capacity of the rivers to drain it off. At this time the Takutu River rises about 12.2 meters (40 feet) above its dry season level, and other rivers overflow their banks. During the dry season, the clay and laterite, which are the dominant soil types, bake into a hard mass that offers little nourish- ment to the grass and is unsuitable for agriculture. In spite of its poor pasture quality, the Rupununi savanna is the most developed and most populous interior region because of the cattle industry. Evan d ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 14 During the aboriginal period, its use appears to have been restricted to hunting grounds for groups inhabiting the adjacent forests. These three geographical zones are correlated to some degree with differences in climate, particularly rainfall. The contrast is especially pronounced between the savanna and the forest. Records of average rainfall over a period of 10 years give a figure of 148.2 cm. (56.4 inches) at Bon Success (now Lethem) in the center of the savanna and 173 cm. (68.2 inches) at Annai, 11.2 km. (7 miles) from the edge of the forest. At Kurupukari, on the Essequibo River within the forest zone, the average for the same period is 209 cm. (82.4 inches) (Baldwin, 1946, p. 7). On the coast, rainfall averages around 228 em, (90 inches) with a maximum of 492.5 cm. (193.89 inches) recorded in 1922 (Colonial Office, 1952, p. 104). Records kept for the 3 years 1954-57 at a station on the upper Essequibo, above the mouth of the Kassikaityu, give an average annual rainfall there of between 254 and 382 cm. (100 and 150 inches) (Leavitt, Pers. commun.). In ad- dition to a difference in total annual rainfall, there is a difference in the distribution of the rain over the year. The savanna not only receives less rain than the forest but most of it is concentrated during the wet season from mid-May to the end of August. Elsewhere there is a “little rainy season” in December or January, a long rainy season from March to August, and occasional showers during the other months. In the upper Essequibo, monthly records show a fall of between 5 and 20.3 cm. (2 and 8 inches) during the “dry season” months. More evenly distributed rainfall was probably as im- portant as differences in soil fertility in explaining the concentration of aboriginal habitation in the forests. Temperature differences between the coast and the interior are not pronounced. The coastal annual mean is about 26.8° C. (80.3° F.) with extremes during 87 years ranging from 20 to 35.6° C. (68 to 96° F.) (Colonial Office, 1952, p. 104). Temperature records on the Rupununi savanna during 1942 gave a mean maximum of 31.2° C. (88° F.) and a mean minimum of 23.6° C. (74.5° F.) (Baldwin, 1946, p.7). Archeological survey and excavations were undertaken in four separate parts of British Guiana, representing all three of the geo- graphical zones: the coastal swamp, the savanna, and the forest. A detailed description of the particular regions investigated will assist in understanding the differences in aboriginal settlement. THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS The area administratively known as the Northwest District occupies the northwestern corner of British Guiana and includes the drainage systems of the Barima, Barama, and Waini Rivers. Archeological survey was confined to the lowland zone, occupying the coastal half 18 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 of the District. The rivers are placid, the water flowing gently back and forth with fluctuations in the tide except during the rainy season when tidal effects are minimized. Black-water creeks have surfaces like a polished black mirror, reflecting the overhanging vegetation. Between the rivers extend the mangrove swamps—mucky, slimy, and insect-ridden. ‘There are scattered forest-covered elevations, most of them rising less than 10 to 15 meters (32.8 to 49.2 feet) above high tide level. However, in the west along the Aruka and Koriabo Rivers a series of high hills (fig. 4) rises from 39 to 96 meters (130 to 320 feet) in elevation (Osgood, 1946, fig. 7). The summit of such a hill affords a fine view over the surrounding lowland (pl. 9). The hills are steep-sided and have rather small, flat or rounded summits. A1- though most have no water supply on the summit, many were used aboriginally for village sites. Soil composition on the hills is mainly coarse decomposed granite and red clay with abundant lateritic concretions. Except for citrus trees and coflee, the hilltops or hill- sides are little used for agriculture today. The swamps presented little attraction for habitation in aboriginal times. The only sites are small shell midden accumulations. The soil is relatively fertile when drained, however, and efforts are now being made to drain and exploit it. This is done by the construction of a large, high dirt bank along the river’s edge and the excavation of deep drainage ditches, which lower the water table sufficiently for crops to grow. There is no way to determine whether small scale operations of this sort were undertaken by the aboriginal groups, although it seems doubtful. The high land, although scattered, was probably sufficiently extensive to serve their needs. The rivers supplied fish and the forests the usual variety of game. THE ABARY RIVER The Abary is a small river that weaves back and forth across the - boundary separating Demerara and Berbice Provinces. Its lower course passes through the low coastal plain, which in this area is grassy rather than covered with mangrove swamp. During the rainy season the entire area is flooded and the banks of the river are in- distinguishable. Between the mouth of the Abary River and the margin of the high land, about 90 km. (56 miles) inland, elevations above flood level are few (pl. 88). Houses today are frequently raised on stilts, and during the rainy season stand in water 3 to 4 feet in depth. The Abary savanna is comparable to savanna in the Rupununi District in general appearance. Both have scattered trees, and the erass gives way to forest when the land increases slightly in elevation. Both are flooded during the rainy season. Both appear to have offered little attraction to aboriginal habitation. Both have been uti- Meese ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 19 lized in recent times for cattle, now being superseded in the Abary by the cultivation of wet rice. THE UPPER ESSEQUIBO The upper Essequibo River and its major tributaries, the Kassi- kaityu and Kuyuwini, flow through forest that extends unbroken in all directions except to the northwest, where it fades into the Ru- pununi savanna. Along the Brazilian border, a ridge rises to 304.8 meters (1,000 feet) elevation, but the rest of the area slopes gradually from 152.4 meters (500 feet) in the headwaters to sea level at the coast. In keeping with the generally low and level character of the terrain, riverbanks are typically low and the major part of the area floods at some time during the rainy season. Sticks and debris lodged in the overhanging branches of trees showed the level of the Essequibo to rise annually 4 to 5 meters (13.1 to 15.4 feet) above its lowest level, or about 3 meters (9.8 feet) above the December-January water level. The banks are not uniform in height, but in most places their elevation is low enough to flood at the peak of the rainy season. Above the mouth of the Kassikaityu, two small rapids interrupt the smooth flow of the river. Rock outcrops are more frequent below the Kassikaityu mouth, where they often jut spectacularly into the Essequibo River. The riverbanks form dense walls of vegetation, whose composition varies with the elevation (pl. 40). Tail slender palms, their trunks bristling with downward pointing spines, grow where the land is readily flooded. On high banks, the large trees are festooned with clumps of epiphytic plants whose long, slender aerial roots hang down like streamers. Behind this wall, where sunlight is filtered out by the high canopy of tree tops, undergrowth tends to be spindly, delicate, and sparse. The forest shelters a variety of animal life, the majority of which is rarely visible. Birds and monkeys are most commonly seen, but tapir, peccary, and smaller mammals are hunted for food by the pres- ent Indians. The river contains quantities of many varieties of fish, which are easily caught. Land high enough to escape flooding and thus suitable for agriculture is available along the river, but such areas are typically small and may be isolated by wide stretches of low land that is inundated during half of the year. THH RUPUNUNI SAVANNA The Rupununi savanna is the eastern edge of a formation that ex- tends over adjacent Brazil and into parts of Venezuela. In British Guiana, it divides naturally into two parts. The north savanna lies between the foothills of the Pakaraima Mountains and the Kanuku Mountains. The northern part is flat and contains wide treeless ex- 20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY panses (pls. 53; 54,a@). Moving southward, scattered trees or groves of trees occur and the terrain becomes increasingly rolling. Toward the east, trees are more concentrated and there is an almost equal division between grass and forested areas. Between the west side of the Kanuku Mountains and the Takutu River, the land is rolling low hills thickly sprinkled with trees, with intervening depressions that tend to be swampy. ‘The south savanna, south of the Kanuku Moun- tains, is relatively open and flat only in the northwest. Several moun- tains rise steeply from the savanna floor (pls. 55, a; 59, a). Moving eastward, the terrain becomes rolling, and low hills covered with bare, weathered, black granite outcrops and trees are characteristic. Groves of trees increase in area toward the south, until forest gradually re- places the grass. The 59th parallel marks the approximate limit of the savanna on the east. The Rupununi savanna straddles the continental watershed. Trib- utaries of the Rupununi River interlock with creeks flowing into the Takutu and Ireng Rivers, which contribute their waters to the Ama- zon system (fig. 2). A consequence is a marked annual variation in water level, and hence in the navigability of rivers. In the wet season, river cargo boats can reach a point almost midway into the south savanna. In the dry season, a small canoe cannot travel above Annai, at the base of the Pakaraima Mountains. Correspondingly, creeks and waterholes overflowing in the rainy season become stagnant or dry in November and December. The vegetation of the savanna offers little in the way of subsistence resources. Animal life is difficult to assess now that cattle have been introduced, but it is probable that deer were once more common. Several small shallow lakes contain arapaima (Suds gigas or Ara- paima gigas) and other fish, as well as cayman. The forest provided the major hunting and gathering as well as the only possibility for agricultural exploitation in aboriginal times. Even today, savanna- dwelling Indians have their fields in the forests and spend part of the year living at their gardens to plant and harvest their crops. CONCLUSION Although the coastal, forest, and savanna zones of British Guiana differ strikingly in superficial features, their potentialities for human exploitation are generally similar. None has outstanding soil fer- tility? or other natural resources. All offer a variety of subsistence possibilities, but all of them are time consuming in their realization. The geographical setting is consequently highly significant in explain- ing the archeological picture and reference will be made to its role in the conclusion to this report. 1 For detailed analysis of soils and agricultural potential, see Duthie, 1939 a and 1939 b, and Evans, 1939. More specific data on vegetation can be obtained from Fanshawe, 1952, PRECERAMIC LITHIC HORIZON SITES AND ARTIFACTS Evidence of early lithic remains in British Guiana is very slight. With the exception of a chipping station encountered during the 1952-53 survey, finds are restricted to a few scattered projectile points. All these specimens apparently have been recovered independently and accidentally. Consequently, nothing is known of their associa- tions, and provenience is usually vaguely stated in terms of a river drainage. All specimens are from various districts in Essequibo Province, and all projectile points are in the collections of the British Guiana Museum. BARIMA RIVER, NORTHWEST DISTRICT The only example from the Northwest District is of red jasper (W. E. Roth, 1924, pl. 36 A, right). It is a large parallel-sided blade tapering to a short pointed tip that is missing, with a short par- allel-sided stemmed base. The chipping is grossly done except for delicately retouched edges. The total existing length is 16 cm., maximum width at the junction with stem 5 cm., stem length 2 cm. and stem width 2m. CUYUNI RIVER, MAZARUNI DISTRICT Four stemmed projectile points, all of slightly different size and shape have been recovered from the Cuyuni River. A broad, thin specimen of quartz (pl. 8, d) has a slightly contracting stem with a flat base. The edges show careful secondary chipping, producing a marked slope at the sides of the stem. The length is 10.6 cm. and the maximum width 4 cm. Another point (pl. 8, 6) of chalcedony is slightly narrower and thicker. The shoulders are much less pronounced and the stem con- tracts to a rounded base. All edges show secondary retouching. The tip of the point is broken off. Existing length is 11.7 cm. and maximum width 3.5 cm. The third example is chert (pl. 8, ¢c). It is more even and sym- metrical than the others but is of the same general form, with pro- nounced shoulders and a slightly contracting stem. The length is Sem. and the maximum width 2.5 cm. 21 22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 The remaining point is of chalcedony with the same general form and complete secondary chipping as the others, but with a more crudely executed stem contracting to a rounded base (W. E. Roth, 1929, pl. 1 A, a). The length is 5.8 cm. and the maximum width 2.8 cm. IRENG RIVER, RUPUNUNI DISTRICT A beautifully chipped, symmetrical projectile point of red jasper is reported to have been dredged from the bed of the Ireng River near the Good Hope ranch on the northern savanna of the Rupununi District. The specimen (pl. 8, a) has a long stem with parallel sides and a rounded base. The blade narrows from the base to the point, the tip of which is broken off. The margins are straight for almost half the distance from the base, where the even edge is broken by three serrations on each side. Above the serrated area, there is a small expansion producing a slightly bulbous outline, followed by contraction to a long, narrow, tapering point. Existing length is 14 cm., stem length 2.6 cm., stem width 1.4 cm., width at base of blade 3.4 cm., distance from base to serrations 4.0 cm., length of ser- rated zone 2 cm., width at serrations 2.4 cm., width at upper end of serrations 2.0 cm., width at broken tip 0.7 em. PALIKUA CREEK, RUPUNUNI DISTRICT A point of quite different form is described by W. E. Roth (1929, p- 9 and pl. 1 A, c) as coming from Palikiia Creek, a tributary of the Rupununi River. It is short and broad, and has shoulder barbs and a narrow, straight-sided stem with a straight base. The material is said to be a kind of agate. The length is 6.7 cm. and the width 3.8 cm. TABATINGA RIVER, RUPUNUNI DISTRICT The only nonceramic site discovered during the 1952 survey of the Rupununi savanna was R-4: Tabatinga, a small chipping station about 100 meters in from the left bank of the Tabatinga River, some 500 meters above its junction with the Takutu (fig. 109). Fragments of felsite, chert, and quartz were scattered over a small rise in the savanna. No well-defined artifacts, either complete or fragmentary, were found, and there was no pottery. Two stones show evidence of chipping. One (fig. 8, a—c) is an ovoid flake of felsite with a bulb of percussion near the center of one long edge and slight retouch along the opposite edge. Surfaces measure 4.5 by 2.8 cm., with the thickness 1.2 cm. at the center tapering down toward the edges. The other (fig. 3, d-/) is a trianguloid flake of chert, smooth on one sur- face as a result of the natural concoidal fracture, and chipped on the opposite face. The smooth surface has slight use retouch along one EH d = ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Pa: Figure 3.—Worked stones from the nonceramic site of R-4: Tabatinga, on the Rupununi savanna. side. The fragment is 3.5 cm. long, 2.5 cm. wide at one end, tapering to 0.8 cm. at the other end. Maximum thickness is 1.1 cm. at the wide end and middle, tapering toward the point. ‘Two small quartz chips were associated, but these show no evidence of working. COMPARATIVE DATA, CONCLUSIONS, AND INTERPRETATIONS The preceramic lithic artifacts in British Guiana present a problem when it comes to interpreting the significance of the finds. Although the evidence of this cultural horizon is meager, the fact that no similar stoneworking tradition occurs associated with any of the pottery-making cultures of British Guiana indicates that it repre- sents a separate and earlier occupation. ‘There is no indication of how much earlier it may have been. Comparative analysis is ham- pered by the fact that the shape and size of the points, type of work- manship, and stone material are different from those of any of the other known preceramic lithic complexes in South America, includ- ing scattered finds from the Gran Sabana of eastern Venezuela in the region adjoining British Guiana (Dupouy, 1958). This does not mean that resemblances cannot be seen in isolated specimens from the lithic complexes of the caves of the Sierras Centrales and the pampas of Argentina (Gonzalez, MS.; Holmes, 1912, pl. 18), Palli Aike Cave in Patagonia (Bird, 1946, figs. 20-27), or the early sites of coastal Peru, such as Pampa de los Fésiles (Larco Hoyle, 1948, pp. 11, 63), 24. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Pampa de Paijan (Engel, 1957, pl. XX XIV, lower), or the caves of the Lagoa Santa region of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Walter, 1958, figs. 9, 16, 22, 88). However, when the total complex of features in each of these areas is considered, differences loom larger than similarities and no direct relationships can be postulated with the possible excep- tion of the specimens from eastern Venezuela. In view of the wandering life associated with a hunting economy and of the unexcelled opportunities for concealment of artifact re- mains provided by the forested terrain, it is doubtful that our knowl- edge of these hunting cultures in British Guiana will ever be much more complete than it is at present. Discouraging as the situation may seem by contrast with North America or the stratified cave sites of southern South America, it is surprisingly good by contrast with the rest of Tropical Forest South America where evidence of early hunting groups is completely negative. The British Guiana finds suggest that more widespread appreciation of their significance might bring similar artifacts to light in other parts of the South American lowlands. THE NORTHWEST LOWLANDS THE ALAKA PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS Two types of shell middens occur in the Northwest District, but only one belongs to the Alaka Phase. Mounds consisting mainly of small, striped snail (Veritina) shells mixed with no dirt and little ash appear to be associated with one of the pottery-making cultures. Alaka Phase shell middens are densely compacted refuse composed of shells (oyster, clam, mussel, snail, etc.), crab carapaces, and fish and animal bones and containing very crude percussion-made stone tools. Occasionally potsherds occur on the surface or in the upper- most levels, and sometimes human skeletal fragments are scattered haphazardly in the midden. Six Alaka Phase sites were investigated (fig. 4). N-6: LITTLE KANIABALLI A few kilometers downstream from its junction with the Barama River, a series of small tributaries drains into the Waini River. Their mouths are concealed by heavy growth of mangrove trees along the swampy bank. Little Kaniaballi Creek, one of these streams, drains into the right bank of the Waini. Near its headwaters, several kilometers from the mouth, a truncated conical shell mound rises prominently out of the surrounding swampy land. The first mention of this site is by Brett (1868, pp. 435-486), who speaks of a shell midden discovered by an Indian while hunting near the “Comonoballi,” above the confluence of the Morebo and the Waini Rivers. In 1920, the site was visited by Vincent Roth. His unpublished journal describes the difficulties in reaching it, the arma- dillo holes that riddled the surface, and the mucky conditions of the surrounding swamp. Digging in the black dirt and shell refuse with machetes and sticks, he and his companions found a “portion of a human thigh bone and several fish-bones and similar relics” (V. Roth, MS.,p. 110). At the time of our visit in 1953, the shell mound measured roughly 10 meters in diameter at its flattened top and 30 meters in diameter at its base. Asa result of an irregularity in the surface of the swamp, elevation ranges from 4 meters above the swamp on the south to 5 meters above it on the north. The mound, like the surrounding area, was overgrown with trees and bushes. The surface was disturbed in 25 2°26 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 several places by animal burrowing, and a depression on one side suggested previous excavation. Shell, ash, and bones were en- countered in all parts of the site. A 2- by 1-meter cut was placed in the summit and carried to a depth of 1.50 meters, at which depth it was no longer practical to dig in so small a hole, owing to the necessity of using a pick on the hard compact refuse. To test the entire midden to its core, however, overlapping test holes were dug on each meter down to sterile ground. These demonstrated that the midden was a 4-meter-thick accumulation of shell refuse resting on a natural knoll of medium-gray clay that rose about a meter above the surrounding low swamp. Cut 1, dug in 8-cm. levels, had the following characteristics: Level .00-.08 m__ Black loose humus containing few shells. Level .08-.16 m__ Badly broken, pulverized shells and crab claws inter- mixed with ash; fish and human bones scattered in refuse ; compact masses of shell cemented together. Level .16-.24 m__ Same conditions. Level .24-.82 m__ Entire level compacted into hard layers 2-5 cm. thick; some dirt mixed in the refuse. Majority of shells are mussels and clams with some striped snail (Neritina) ; crab claws and carapaces also very common. Level .82—.40 m__ Mussel shells pulverized into fine, flaky particles inter- mixed with dirt and ash; occasionally the shell refuse is cemented into large hunks. Level .40—.48 m__ Same conditions. Level .48-.56 m_. More dirt mixed with shell than in previous level; other- wise conditions the same. Level .56—64 m__ Same as previous level. Level .64-—.72 m__ Similar conditions to above. Level .72-.80 m__ Refuse less compacted and without cemented layers. Level .80—.88 m__ Same conditions. Level .88—96 m__ Pulverized shell intermixed with ash, dirt and fire-burnt stones suggests a hearth. Level 0.96-1.04 m_. Dirt more abundant; a dark-gray loam intermixed with finely pulverized shell. Level 1.04-1.12 m__ Same conditions. Level 1.12-1.20 m__ Light-gray soil with tiny fragments of shell and fine ash. Level 1.20-1.27 m__ Hard layer of cemented shell. Level 1.27-1.50 m_. More abundant shell refuse below the cemented layer, with much of the shell in whole fragments rather than pulverized ; soil light-tan to gray. Cut 1 was not carried below this depth owing to the problems of digging, explained previously. The other tests were not controlled by levels but it was observed that the same general conditions con- tinued to the bottom of the deposit. Broken stones occurred through- out and were saved to be examined later in the laboratory for traces of use. 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Magee Deval, nieowiig the Heating of, lie i ' E d 0 Bvensian ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 27 A sample of shells from the various levels was identified? with the species listed generally in their order of most frequent occurrence: Neritina zebra Bruguitre—a common brackish-water, intertidal snail, herbiv- orous, ranging along the north coast of South America from Honduras to Brazil. Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin—a common intertidal clam preferring warm, sandy mud, usually not far from mangroves. Although a marine species, it can tolerate intermittent fresh water. Mytilus falcatus Orbigny—a common mussel of brackish water. Melongena melongena Linné—a common conch of the West Indies living in marine to slightly brackish water not far from mangroves; carnivorous, likes sandy mud. N-8: ALAKA CREEK The Morebo River drains into the left bank of the Waini River a few kilometers upstream from the junction of the latter with the Warapoco River. Alaka Creek is a small tributary on the north (left) bank of the Morebo River. On the right bank of Alaka Creek, near its headwaters, are two large shell middens. Although the sites can be reached by water, they are also accessible overland from the Warapoco River. This site came to the attention of Brett in 1866, and he sent his representative, Mr. D. Campbell, to investigate it. He described it as “about sixteen feet in height, with a base of 400 feet in circumference. It stands hard by a small stream, called after it ‘Alaka,’ the shells . . .” (Brett, 1868, p. 485). The site was visited by Vincent Roth (MS., pp. 184-135) on September 21, 1920, and his general de- scription coincides with ours except that during testing he uncovered fragments of human skeletal material intermixed in the midden refuse. The Alaka Creek shell middens are located at the edge of a long ridge 3 meters in elevation, which extends from the Warapoco River to Alaka Creek. There are two distinct knolls (fig. 5), the margins of which overlap slightly giving a continuous deposit. Mound 1, the smaller of the two, is 8.0 meters in diameter at the base and 4.5 meters high. It rises at the edge of the slope, where the land drops down to the Alaka Creek, 5 meters away. The opposite side of the creek is swamp. Mound 2, 12 meters in base diameter and 6 meters high, is farther back from the edge and separated from the slope by Mound 1. It has a flattened top 4 meters in diameter, perhaps leveled by agricultural activity, since the high land including the site was under cultivation by the modern inhabitants. Several tests were made to determine the limits of the refuse deposit, and these produced a variety 2 All identifications of the shells and statements about their habitat throughout the entire section on the Alaka Phase were made by Dr. Harald Rehder, curator of the Division of Mollusks, U.S. National Museum, and Dr. Tucker Abbott, Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, formerly on the staff of the U.S. National Museum. 513186—60———4 28 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 —— SITE LIMIT =x Ww uw « o ALAKA MOUND | MOUND 2 Ficure 5.—Sketch map of N-8: Alaka Creek, a shell midden site of the Alaka Phase. of miscellaneous rocks, 1 plain sherd, and quantities of shell, bone, and carapaces of crustacea. Cut 1, a 2- by 1-meter stratigraphic excavation controlled in 25 centimeter levels, was dug in the summit of Mound 2. Sterile soil encountered at 2.60 meters, indicated that the mound was built on a small, natural rise of the same sandy, decomposed granite as the natural soil of the surrounding area. The contents of Cut 1 by levels are: Level .00-.25 m_. Loose black loam; scattered fish bones, stone chips, small striped snail shells, a few mussels and clams. Dis- turbed by cultivation. Shell not common until after a depth of 16 cm., but fish bones rather abundant. A small drilled shark’s tooth found from 16-24 ecm. (fig. 7, e). Seven sherds came from the surface and 1 small sherd was found at a depth of 8-16 cm. Natural quartz spalls and limonite and hematite concretions very abundant. Level .25-.50 m__ Fish bones and stone chips less abundant from 25-82 em. than in previous level, but pulverized mussel shells in- crease in frequency; all intermixed with considerable dirt. From 30-32 cm. there is a stratum of cemented shells, crab carapaces and claws, and fish bones in the southwest and northeast corners of the cut. Otherwise, the composition is a rather even intermixture of shell, fine ash, iron concretions, fire-burnt gneiss fragments, and gray-brown soil. From 40-50 cm. in the south half of the cut, there was an unusually large concentration of crab claws and carapaces. onaend ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 29 Level .50-.75 m_._ Up to 70 cm. the conditions are the same as above, with a rather even intermixture of well pulverized shell, bone, crab claws and carapaces, ash and dirt. At 70 cm. there was a deposit of well compacted shelis of many species, intermixed with fish bones, remains of crabs, palm seeds and a minimum of dirt. Level 0.75-1.00 m__ Pulverized, broken shells abundant. All bones are so in- crusted with calcium carbonate that they are uniden- tifiable in the field. Dirt still intermixed with the shell in streaks of black to gray-brown. Hard layers from 2-3 em. thick are scattered throughout the level suggesting that when a basket of ashes was dumped, chemical action caused by water filtering through the ash and onto the shell cemented the mass together. Level 1.00-1.25 m__ All conditions the same except at 1.10 meters, where a cemented layer of shells, ete. from 2-3 cm. thick, ex- tends across the entire cut. Natural, unworked pieces of quartz, feldspar, andesite, and limonite concre- tions also present. Level 1.25-1.50 m__ Dirt and shell intermixed ; at 1.25 meters there are large hunks of cemented material reaching 10 cm. thick. Level 1.50-1.75 m__ Dirt and pulverized shell continue but stone less com- mon; fire-burnt piece of quartz. Level 1.75-2.00 m__ After the removal of several large hunks of cemented materials at 1.75 meters, no more compacted material was found. Dirt and pulverized shell with the dirt now tending to be a lighter tan and brown. Fire burnt hunks of granite. Level 2.00-2.25 m__ Streaks of orange, fire-burnt areas containing black and gray ash intermixed with dirt, pulverized shell, and fire-burnt andesite rocks. Level 2.25-2.60 m__ Same conditions as above layer. At 2.60 meters sterile, natural soil of light-gray sand containing coarse, large, decomposed-granite particles appeared. The shells from the midden include: Veritina zebra Bruguiére, My- tilus falcatus Orbigny, Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin, Melongena me- longena Linné, and Thais coronata Lamarck. The last species is the first record for this type of snail in the Guianas. It is an estuary, brackish-water snail that clings to the roots of mangrove trees. De- tailed comments of distribution and ecological adaptation are found for the other species under the discussion for Site N-6 (p. 27). N-9: ALAKA ISLAND The land around the mouth of Warapoco Creek is mangrove swamp. Thirty meters inward from the bank of the Waini, on the left side of Warapoco Creek, is an elevated spot with large granite outcrops. Black dirt and shells were scattered widely, churned up by the burrow- ings of armadillos and their hunters. Although the midden was over- grown principally with small trees, hanging vines and shrubs, a few trees measured up to 1 meter in diameter. In addition to shells, a few 30 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 plain sherds were on the surface. A large granite boulder rising 5 meters out of the ground marks the northern limit of the site, which extends 30 meters to the south and 25 meters in an east-west direction (fig.6). ‘The 1.50 and 2.00 meter contour line above high-water level outlines a small rise. The midden deposit is smaller in area than the natural knoll, leaving a sterile strip 2 to 15 meters wide around the (STERILE) \x MANGROVE SWAMP x TEST: ——— LIMIT OF MIDDEN \nunoat i ee ee es o 2 4 6 8 I0M Ficure 6.—Sketch map of N-9: Alaka Island, a shell midden site of the Alaka Phase. border. The midden surface is irregular but rises generally to the north. The highest part, near the large rock, has an elevation of 4 meters above the surrounding swamp. The depth of the refuse accu- mulation is 2.50 meters at the location of the strata cut, but on top of the mound it decreases to 1.25 to 1.50 meters. The area was tested extensively to determine the limits of the midden. A 2- by 1-meter strata cut, controlled in 25 cm. levels, was placed in a level place near the middle of the southern flank, in an area apparently free from animal burrows. The refuse deposits had the following characteristics : Level .00-.25 m_. Rich black loam and shell in a mixture that contained over 80 percent dirt. 16 potsherds were recovered from the level, and 8 potsherds were found on the surface. Level .25-.50 m__ Black dirt; shells rather sparse, mostly oyster; 12 sherds. eneast ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 31 Level .50-.75 m__ At 65 cm. the dirt turns grayer. Oyster and clam shells are still present, but small, striped, snail shells (Neritina) are now more common. 10 potsherds seattered in the refuse. Fragments of badly broken adult human bones (patella, distal end of femur, fragment of a lower jaw with a few teeth in place) were scattered haphazardly throughout the refuse. Level 0.75-1.00 m_. Soil now gray; Neritina snail and oyster shells com- mon; 1 sherd, and 1 egg-shaped fired clay object. Level 1.00-1.25 m__ No change in conditions up to 1.10 meters. At this point several large hunks of rotten granite were found and the soil changed to light tan and gray tan. Large oyster shells abundant. Evidence of an old armadillo burrow ran horizontally across this level at one end of the cut. Level 1.25-1.50 m__ One oval-shaped piece of fired clay. Tan ash and sterile sand mixed with shell suggests a load of clean river sand had been dumped in one area. Level 1.50-2.45 m__ At 1.50 meters the amount of shell increases notice- ably, but the bone and stone fragments decrease. Crab claws and carapaces appear for first time below 2.00 meters. The soil is now a distinct tan color. These conditions continue until sterile, brown, sandy soil appears at 2.45 meters. Whereas the other shell middens contained several species, this site produced only two: Weritina zebra Bruguiére and Crassostrea rhizo- phorae Guilding. The latter is a common, intertidal, brackish-water oyster that usually grows attached to mangrove trees. N-10: SAND CREEK Three-quarters of the way downstream from Warapoco Mission School, Sand Creek enters the left bank of Warapoco Creek. This small tributary drains an area that at high tide is completely flooded and during low tide is swamp, except for a few scattered high spots surmounted by large granite boulders. Several of these outcrops, 4 to 5 meters high, are located 85 meters inland from the left bank of Warapoco Creek in a northeasterly direction. Behind these rocks the land rises 8 meters above the surrounding swamp and is sprinkled with small granite boulders. The soil is black and flecked with de- composed mussel shells. Oyster, clam, Neritina snail shells, fish bones, crab claws, and carapaces are intermixed. Testing over the area re- vealed a midden accumulation similar to that at N-9 except that the quantity of pulverized mussel shells was greater. The depth of the deposit ranges from 0.75 to 1.00 meter on a foundation of decomposing granite rock. The extent of the midden refuse is irregular, covering an area 40 by 25 meters above the 2-meter contour line. AKAWABI CREEK SHELL MIDDEN Akawabi Creek flows into the Wauna River, which in turn is a tributary of the Koriabo River. A shell midden is located on the left bank of Akawabi Creek at the first sharp bend above the mouth (figs. 4, 22). The bank here rises to 3 meters above creek level and then levels off over a rather large area. At the front, along the creek, there is a knoll a meter higher in elevation than the bank (fig. 24), and the shell midden is located on the northeast part of this rise. Later, 2 Mabaruma Phase village reoccupied the site and the sur- rounding area (see pp. 73-75). More recently, the whole area has been under cultivation, and the part occupied by the site has been leveled and a school constructed. In 1953 there was a house on the high knoll, northwest of the edge of the shell midden. Verrill (1918 a, pp. 18-15) visited Akawabi Creek and tested the shell deposit. He found it to be 3 to 6 feet in thickness and “in most places it was very barren of relics” (op. cit., p. 14). The three burials he encountered appear from their associated pottery (op. cit., figs. 10-12) to belong to the later Mabaruma Phase occupation (see p. 75). At the time of our visit, the shell midden was 12 meters long by 5 meters wide (fig. 24). Test A, at the center of the site near the edge of the 4-meter contour line, showed the deposit to be 85 cm. deep. Soil was mixed with ash, shells, crab remnants, and rock chips throughout the entire deposit. Sherds were encountered only in the upper 10 cm. In contrast to the dark-gray midden refuse, the sterile soil was granular, gray-brown sand containing particles of decom- posed granite. Cut 1, a 2- by 1-meter excavation, was placed near the high knoll, 25 meters from the margin of the major shell midden concentration. Each 15-cm. level had the following materials and characteristics: Level .00-.15 m__ Disturbed soil from recent leveling of the land for agri- cultural purposes; 124 sherds, quartz chips, fragments of stone tools; black loose loam with numerous lateritic concretions. Level .13-.30 m__ Soil conditions the same; 33 sherds; 1 bone fragment. Level 30-.45 m__ Black soil: no shell: 6 sherds; lateritic rocks abundant. 34 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Level .45-.65 m-._ Same conditions as previous level; no sherds. Level .65-.90 m__ Reddish, rusty-brown with black granules, giving it a dark-grayish tint. Sterile. The stone artifact types from this excavation are counted in the Ap- pendix, table 1. The shell refuse included Mytilus falcatus Orbigny, Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin, Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding and Neritina zebra Bruguiére. DATA FROM OTHER INVESTIGATIONS The shell middens of the Northwest District and Pomeroon District attracted attention in British Guiana as early as 1845, and the litera- ture referring to them ranges from serious discussions and speculations about these “man-made” structures to fanciful comments by travelers, public officials, missionaries, and teachers. The best summary of our knowledge of the subject has been made by Osgood (1946, pp. 28-87). He suggests that not all of the shell middens belong to the same cultural periods. Only those that belong to the Alaka Phase are considered in this section. BARAMBINA (BARABINA) MIDDEN The most carefully studied and described site in A. Hyatt Verrill’s archeological explorations in British Guiana in 1917 is Barambina shell midden (fig. 4, adjacent to N-23), which extends over an area 150 by 300 feet on the extreme western slope of Barambina hill in the Northwest District (Verrill, 1918 a, pp. 13-14; Osgood, 1946, p. 34). Verrill tested the area extensively with pits and trenches. He found no fancy, modeled pottery but mentions many fragments of plain, poorly made pottery from the surface to the bottom of the deposit, which he determined to be as much as 5 feet in depth (loc. cit.). At three places in the digging, complete human skeletons were found in sitting or kneeling position, facing east, with a rough slab of earthen- ware over the occiput (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 18). Osgood revisited the site in 1944 and excavated a trench 2 meters wide and 12 meters long, controlled in 25-cm. levels (Osgood, 1946, p. 49). This check con- firmed Verrill’s observations with one exception; Osgood found sherds only in the first level (0-25 cm.), even though he carried the excava- tion to sterile soil at a depth of 1.50cm. These sherds were not deco- rated. The details of Osgood’s work and the tabulation of the artifacts, etc., should be consulted for comparative purposes in the original source (Osgood, 1946, pp. 49-50). Although these sherds and stone artifacts were destroyed in the Georgetown fire of 1945, the general characteristics of this midden conform to those we ex- amined, and it can be identified as belonging to the Alaka Phase. ema ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 30 MISCELLANEOUS NORTHWEST DISTRICT SHELL MIDDENS Certain other sites listed by Verrill (1918 a, pp. 18-17) and by Osgood (1946, pp. 61-63) can be classified as probably belonging to the Alaka Phase. However, the site and artifact descriptions are too sketchy to do more than expand the distribution of the Phase. Un- doubtedly, other sites could be found by systematic survey. A concentrated effort was made by us to relocate the sites of Hobo and Atopani (Attibani) on small tributaries of the left bank of the Aruka River near the Government Headquarters at Mabaruma (Os- good, 1946, Sites +6 and +7, p. 61). Unfortunately, even with the help of the present inhabitants of the region, the search was in vain, and yet all the local guides knew what we were talking about for they constantly made reference to Barambina shell mound. Other Alaka Phase sites described by Verrill, and also classified from his descriptive data as shell middens by Osgood are Simri (Simiri), Hotohana, and Hotokwaia (Osgood, 1946, Appendix: Sites #64, #16, and +412, respectively). Our guides and workman reported that middens of approximately the same size and shape, with the same type and amount of shell refuse, rocks, bones, crab remains, and crude tools as those in which we were working occurred in the following places (fig. 4): (1) at the head of Bamboo, or sometimes called Kamuata Creek, which is the next tributary of the Waini River below the Little Kaniaballi Creek; (2) at the head of the Waiwa River, a tributary of the Barama River; (3) about 15 km. above the mouth of the Waiwa River; (4) at the head of the Morebo River; (5) on the Querow (Quiaro) Creek, a tributary of the Waini River below Kwabanna Creek. WARAMURI SHELL MIDDEN Waramuri shell mound was discovered in 1844-45 when the hill was cleared for a mission among the Warrau Indians in the Pomeroon District. A 20-foot-wide trench was dug into the mound by a school teacher, D. Campbell, at the direction of W. H. Brett, a missionary interested in the ethnography of British Guiana. The discovery created such excitement that the Governor of the Colony came from Georgetown in 1866 to view the site. E. F. Im Thurn and W. H. Brett both wrote extensive descriptions and it is from their data that Osgood drew the information for his excellent summary (1946, p. 25). The midden is approximately one-quarter of a mile from Moruka near the junction of the Moruka (Moruca) River with the Haimara- Cabura (Haimara-cabra) Creek (fig. 4). The midden has also been referred to by the name of this Creek. It is 120 feet in diameter and rises 20 to 25 feet above the surrounding sand dune, which is 80 to 90 36 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 feet above the surrounding swamp. A clear pool of fresh water fed by a spring offers a constant water supply even during the driest season. Excavations in the mound were carried to sterile sand through shell deposits consisting of striped Neritina snails, oysters, conchs, clams, crab remains, and mussels, with bones scattered throughout. Near the bottom of the refuse, ashes, charcoal, shell, and bones had cemented into a hard conglomerate. Human skeletal materials were scattered throughout the refuse, except for the upper 5 to 6 feet. Their hap- hazard arrangement is described by Brett (1868, p. 423) : . -- human bones [were encountered] in irregular positions, and at unequal depths. These bones were not found stretched out, either in horizontal or perpendicular positions, but huddled and jumbled together in a manner impossible to describe. The skulls, some of which were of great thickness, were in fragments ;—the long bones had all been cracked open and contained sand and dust. Each mass appeared to have been deposited without ceremony in the common heap. There they had become welded into singular clusters during the lapse of years. An elbow bone, for instance, was found so tightly fixed in the spinal vertebrae, that the brittle substance would break ere they could be separated. Bones from various parts of the body, and in some instances of more than one body, were dug up in masses, which also had fish-bones and shells adhering to and consoli- dated with them. Scarcely any were found in natural juxtaposition. In the extensive diggings by various people no pottery has been discovered. However, there is a discussion about “baked clay” in the writings of Brett (1868, p. 422), Im Thurn (1883, p. 414), and Osgood (1946, footnote 34, pp. 25-27), which should be mentioned. Brett (loc. cit.) describes “some hard slabs of clayey substance which re- sembled the baking-pans or plates used by the wilder tribes at the present day and which the shells, &c., plentifully adhered to and encrusted.” Im Thurn interpreted these as parts of burnt surfaces stretching in several parallel strata over the mound and resulting from Indian fires. Osgood’s comments about the fact that careful excava- tion would have solved the point are well taken, but his further state- ment that lumps of clay and platter fragments have been excavated by him from British Guiana sites is not wholly relevant. From our brief excavations in various Alaka Phase shell middens in British Guiana, it is our firm conviction that Im Thurn’s interpretation is the correct one. We found burnt areas in the shell midden refuse and attribute them either to a large fire for roasting purposes built immedi- ately on the spot, or the dumpings of a cleaned-out hearth or firepit on shell refuse. Although at times the clay has been fire burnt, the fragments do not resemble griddle sherds known in any of the ceramic sites of British Guiana. Unfortunately, descriptions of the stone artifacts leave much to be desired. Brett (1868, p. 438) illustrates and describes stone axes as “rude ... even those with sharpened edges.” The collection of arti- E a 3 Evans an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 37 facts from “Waramuri Mound” and “Haimaracabra Shell Mound” (two names for the same site) in the British Guiana Museum suggests both selectivity for better-made specimens and mixture with some of the later occupants of the site during the past few centuries. Types of polished tools not found in any other sites in the Northwest District are mixed with these collections along with cruder, percussion-made specimens. CABACABURI SHELL MIDDEN Aside from Waramuri, the best-described shell midden in the Pomeroon District is Cabacaburi, on a hillside at the mission of the same name about 40 miles above the mouth of the Pomeroon River (fig. 58). Although both Brett and Im Thurn visited the site, neither gives the dimensions. Brett (1868, p. 441) dug several pits and a large trench. He found skeletal remains haphazardly scattered through the lower levels of refuse, with some of the bones cracked open (op. cit., pp. 440-442). In the upper 3 feet, the skeletons were better preserved and the bones uncracked. Since European red bricks were uncovered at a depth of 3 feet, Brett interprets these upper bones as recent intrusions, perhaps dating from the Dutch coloniza- tion (op. cit. p. 442). The nonceramic artifacts include broken axes, quartz chips, a small stone chisel, and lumps of red pigment. 5 E : alee ; | : _|6 Sere gl) el eleisisielels|818)o] 81 Sle Ba Shi | Gl ce ise |e 3 3 Slee ise ES MS iaes s Alysi2\islilsalsaildio a |o}] od |dilo i co be PleIP Sle (lela (eT 1 8/S/ ei] 6 1S ise Aare) ele | etal et! ies Ae Pe ett |: 24 wy} HIB Alaka Phase types: Sand Creek Plain__-__- 7 Dee LOS 80! Sree ieee See S| eee S| ee al ee eee 48 Unclassified Clay- tempered, Plains 23 eee |S soi i 2a 2 - Ba ee | ee 2S |e) (fee fee 16 Unclassified Cariapé- tempered, Plain sed a5 oe SS a | eS ei oe eee ee 2 Wranains Plain. = seer fe roe eS BAN a” eke 145 26s 2100612 8| 2] 476 Unclassified Deco- TES 310 Mee oe pa Peete RRR PD Pen Hee te pA (ea nesee ment (acest (ene tenn pa epepetied tn janes | (Mall | | toe | 1 Mabaruma Phase types: Hosororo) Plalips 2 Sees ©) 2 ee EM eR S OSs ee ee) oa ee Lp] 22 eee ae 21 6; 1] 48 Hotokawall [Pidin = 22-35 | 2222) S22 S Se Shae ee cee eee hee | eee 7h lh a i os | fea 25 Koberimo: Plain... 2-22 ]-25-}2.--)-225]22- 4) --—ajesse te 2] 3. ee Tal Satter sleeve 34} 10] 1 52 Miabarume Pisin 2 poo se Soibe ose al oe See oe eos £1 et ese |e | bard 35 7 eh 200 Aruks Incised 22+). 230/242 ELE Ee BEDS EUR seh ea Sees 9 Stans 18 BY senal 22 Akawabi Incised and Miadeléd =): ae7 . Seale Sate seelis® Oe | Se ee a ee ee 4:\.2c (Meee Syjusseeyseee 7 Kaitima Incised and Pametatee. _- 2. fe eee ean oe cee celp ose eee bees oeene| poe 13 Difeecc), “el eectees ees 16 Mabarumaineised litt | G2o)b. we) 2s Suiet sees en | See eee a ee a ee 1 Pee ee ee 2 Total per level___.- 7) D8 P8522) Op Di) oe 1) 259) | bd) 214) | GIS eS Sar Ger POTTERY ARTIFACTS An egg-shaped lump of sandy-textured, yellow to bright-orange pot- tery was found at N-9, level 1.00-1.25 meters. The surface is rela- tively smooth, although with some irregularities. Length is 4.4 cm., E d Hyane ay ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 59 diameter 3.5 at the center, tapering slightly toward the ends. A frag- ment of what appears to be a similar object comes from level 0-25 cm. of the same site. If these are artifacts, their use is problematical. THE SITE SEQUENCE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS The Alaka Phase is represented by six sites, five of which were tested stratigraphically. Although the deepest deposit reached 2.60 meters, the number of stone implements per 25-cm. level was too small for a percentage analysis of artifact type frequency. There are, how- ever, two kinds of evidence that make it possible to distinguish sub- periods within the Phase. These are the presence or absence of pottery and the presence or absence of stone implements showing abrasion in their manufacture or use. The data reveal several interesting ten- dencies in the development of Alaka Phase culture and these are outlined as a basis for future investigation. It should be emphasized, however, that the evidence is not sufficiently strong or clear-cut for the interpretations suggested here to be considered final. Five of the Alaka Phase sites produced pottery (tables A,B). No sherds were found at N-6. N-8 produced pottery only in the upper 16 cm. of a 2.60 meter deposit, indicating that pottery was introduced into an earlier non-pottery-making culture. The sherds from N-8 and N-10 are all Sand Creek Plain. Although not of outstanding quality, this sand-tempered pottery is by no means experimental and is more reasonably explained as derived by trade than as the beginning of pottery making in the Alaka Phase. The very small quantity of sherds from these early sites suggests a scarcity of pottery vessels that is in keeping with this interpretation. Further support for the trade theory comes from the pattern of pottery-type frequency at the remaining Alaka Phase sites (table A). The stratigraphic excavation at N-9 produced a majority of sherds of Sand Creek Plain, but in addition each level contained a few sherds of Wanaina Plain, a more crudely made, shell-tempered ware. Unlike Sand Creek Plain, Wanaina Plain has certain characteristics that suggest it may be of Alaka Phase origin. The readiness with which sherds break along coil junctions indicates handling of the clay when too dry to form a good bond, and improper kneading together of the coils. When these features are added to the irregular thickness of the vessel walls and superficial hand swiping to smooth the surfaces, the total impression is one of incomplete mastery of the pottery- making technique. Another argument for Alaka Phase manufacture rather than derivation by trade of Wanaina Plain is the fact that it is the only ware in the Northwest District employing crushed shell as temper. This tempering material would seem a natural choice for a group living on middens largely composed of shells. In keeping 513186—60-——6 60 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 with the conclusion that Wanaina Plain is of Alaka Phase origin is its great increase in frequency at N-11 after what seems to be a “slow, experimental” beginning at N-9 and N-16. The presence of both decorated and plain sherds of types belonging to the Mabaruma Phase in association with Wanaina Plain at the late Alaka Phase sites of N-11 and N-16 provides further indication that Wanaina Plain is an Alaka Phase ware. The Mabaruma Phase pottery was unquestionably acquired through some kind of contact. However, since shell tempering is not found in the ceramics of the Mabaruma Phase, Wanaina Plain must either be of Alaka Phase origin or trade from another source. It is difficult to conceive of a primitive shellfish-gathering group carrying out extensive commerce simultaneously with two separate pottery-making groups. When we consider that Wanaina Plain is much inferior technically and artis- tically to the pottery of the Mabaruma Phase, and to be derived by trade it must have come from a more distant source, the alternative conclusion that it is of Alaka Phase origin seems more likely. The fact that the cruder Wanaina Plain is more abundant than the Mabaruma Phase types also supports the inference that it is of local manufacture. TasLe B.—Sequence of Alaka Phase sites derived from the distribution of pottery and stone tool types Pottery Stone tools Pee ae awe nn (eA a cag ay Phase Perecus- Period Site Alaka and Percus- sion- Absent Phase Maba- sion- made types ruma made and only Phase only abraded types Mabaruma Phase contact __--.2_-_------- JSF 8 age PS ae le PA ae a ea DX fyi. Ree eee *< INK1G) = tile cee 5 Ae = oe Kee x Incipient .ceramicys.- eps. eee fest vine | eee Seer DK Me es gee ee x IN=Si Sees is DX 22 35 2 ee x IN=LOUS © ole ee ea WK xp |sasoe see XK. please sees IPTOCOPSINIC Sapo) eet ee eae ata uae N-6 Py ae Na | Mie Wlisenaeeeeee The distribution of pottery types divides the Alaka Phase sites into three periods: preceramic, incipient ceramic, and Mabaruma Phase contact (table B). Incipient ceramic includes the sites that have only what may be termed “Alaka Phase types,” that is, Wanaina Plain and the early trade wares of unidentified origin, Sand Creek Plain and Unclassified Clay-tempered Plain. Alaka Phase sites showing con- tact with the Mabaruma Phase produce Wanaina Plain in association 3 The only other shell-tempered pottery reported from this general region is that of the Bontour style on Trinidad. This, however, is dated by Rouse (1953, p. 97) as proto- historic and historic, and consequently could not be related to the Alaka Phase occurrence. BE d pyeusen ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 61 with typical plain and decorated types of the Mabaruma Phase. Pre- sumably, this contact eventually resulted in the assimilation of the Alaka Phase population. Analysis of the stone artifacts from Alaka Phase sites shows a parallel pattern of change. Crude, percussion-made tools, such as choppers, core picks, flake picks, and scrapers, occur at all sites and are diagnostic of the Phase as a whole rather than of any of its parts (Appendix, table 1). Implements showing abrasion or polishing occur only at the pottery-producing sites. The only abraded tool from N-8 is a small flat object that may have been part of the polished bit of a chisellike tool. However, the remaining three sites, N-9, N-11, and N-16 have celts, manos, metates, mortars, and pestles in sufficient quantity to indicate a significant change in the stone-tool inventory. This change, although not exactly correlated with the pottery sequence of innovations, nevertheless is sufficiently parallel to it to suggest that a general alteration in the total culture was taking place (table B).° The addition of manos, metates, pestles, and possible hoes to the stone-tool inventory implies the appearance of a new subsistence resource in the latter part of the Alaka Phase. Since it does not seem likely that this new tool complex would have developed to exploit a previously unused wild food, it must reflect the introduction of agriculture. This conclusion could be strengthened if it were possible to show an alteration in the wild food diet or settlement pattern corresponding with the appearance of these artifacts. Unfortunately such evidence is not clear-cut. Two kinds of locations were selected for habitation by the Alaka Phase people. Four of the sites are surrounded by mangrove swamp where the ground surface is subject to inundation at high tide and in the rainy season, and covered with slippery, soft mud and roots when the water is out. ‘Two of the sites are on high land at the edge of the swamp. Since the shellfish food supply was no less accessible to one location than to the other, a reasonable excuse for swamp living seems to be superior advantages for defense. This being the case, the acquisition of incipient agriculture would not necessarily be accompanied by an exit from the swamp as would be expected if swamp living were primarily motivated by accessibility to the food supply. 4The major portion of this site 1s preceramic and a more refined seriation would have to distinguish between the preceramic and incipient ceramic aspects. However, for the purposes of this analysis, sites are classified in terms of their total artifact sample. In the case of N-8, this technique suppresses the preceramie component, while the analysis of shellfish species brings it out (table C). 6 Osgood’s (1946, p. 50) tabulation of the artifacts from the Barambina stratigraphic excavation shows the same addition of pottery and ground and polished stone tools to a preceramic, percussion-made tool industry. 62 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY _ [Bull. 177 Analysis of the shellfish species composing the midden refuse is not conclusive, but there is some evidence to suggest that a dietary change was taking place. In addition to crabs, fish, and occasional mammals and birds, six types of shellfish were eaten by people of the Alaka Phase: two species of snails (Veritina zebra Bruguiére and Thais coronata) Lamarck), a brackish-water mussel (A/ytilus falcatus Orbigny), a mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding), an intertidal clam (Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin), and a marine or brackish-water conch (Melongena melongena Linné). However, not all these species occur at all sites, and when the sites are grouped in the order indicated by the pottery and stone artifact analysis (table B), the result shows that four species occur throughout the sequence but two others were exploited only at the early sites (table C). Geo- graphical distribution will not account for this difference since N-9 is in the vicinity of N-8 and N-10. The alternative explanation that the two species are absent from the later sites because they became extinct owing to overharvesting by the Alaka Phase peoples does not receive support from either malacologists or archeologists, since these two species were not eaten in any greater quantity than the ones that continued to thrive and be eaten. In view of these factors, it seems probable that the decrease in the variety of shellfish exploited is related to an addition of other kinds of food to the diet. TABLE C.—Distribution of shellfish species at Alaka Phase sites Species of — Site | Melon- Thais | Neritina |Phacoides| Mytilus | Crassos- gena trea INSYS Stat sotto. Pee eee eh cee een ose A eal eet ee be x x Xx x NEG siesenteboot tote cle aeecee tuesatelovonebose LB ces aos x x x x DN Fes [ee ee a ee es See ol eee | |e ee hm, Meee ee Moyo | Jscee yee eee x N=Si Ee. os Aue eee ae eS x x x x paisa (pi it Pe sae N=10 es 2h be ee sede. ee 4 x x > S| PoP er eee Eterna x SYS EES SP se al sg i ra Se! Spee a ae x x OS Wy) SES Sees’ In addition to a decline in the number of species utilized, there is a notable decline in the density of the shell refuse in the late sites, particularly in N-11 and N-16. N-11 is somewhat unique because of the disturbance it has suffered from drainage and cultivation, but if the shell refuse had ever been as densely compacted and cemented together as in the earlier sites the disturbance would have had to be greater than it is to destroy this evidence. At N-16 the shells are loosely mixed with dirt and other refuse in a manner similar to that at N-11. In the four earlier sites, by contrast, shell was very con- centrated, with little dirt intermixture. Percolating water produced chemical action in which lime was dissolved and redeposited, resulting E d aeases ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 63 in a series of cemented strata. The absence of this condition of the refuse at the late sites, while not conclusive in itself, supports the interpretation of a decline in shellfish eating and its replacement by a different food. The only other evidence about the culture of the Alaka Phase comes from the presence of human bones haphazardly scattered in the midden refuse. If these are burials, the body was interred with little care and possibly disarranged by continuing habitation of the same spot. Bones found in the excavations were frequently broken several times, and it could not be established whether this damage occurred before or after burial. Brett also mentions finding human remains scattered in the refuse of the Waramuri midden. Verrill (1918 a; Osgood, 1946, pp. 38-34) describes burials in a sitting or kneeling position, but it is probable that the sites in which these occur were subject to Mabaruma Phase influence, especially since pottery bowls are often associated with the skeleton. In any case, this type of burial does not appear to be characteristic of the Alaka Phase, nor is there evidence of its presence in the early part of the Phase. Whether or not cannibalism was practiced in the Alaka Phase, as has sometimes been suggested because of the condition of the human bones (e.g., Im Thurn in Osgood, 1946, p. 29), cannot be settled on the basis of the present evidence. Data on dress and ornament are confined to a single shark tooth drilled for suspension, probably on a necklace, and two awls of fish bone whose exact use cannot be established, but which could have been employed in the manufacture of articles of apparel or basketry. DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE ALAKA PHASE Alaka Phase sites are shell middens, typically located in, or ad- jacent to, mangrove swamps. They have been built up as a result of people living on a foundation provided by a small natural elevation that did not flood during high water. The middens vary from small, conical mounds 12 meters in diameter to large deposits 80 meters in length by 30 meters wide. Maximum height is 1 to 15 meters; the Waramuri and Sirika middens are reported to be several meters higher but it is not certain whether this is an estimate or a measurement. The deposit is composed principally of snail (Neritina zebra Bru- guiére and Thais coronata Lamarck), mussel (Aytilus falcatus Or- bigny), oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding), clam (Phacoides pectinatus Gmelin), and conch (Melongena melongena Linné) shells, mixed with crab carapace fragments, mammal, bird, and fish bones, fire-cracked rocks, chips, ash, and a little dirt. Percolating water has dissolved calcium carbonate from the shells and redeposited it, creat- ing thick, hard cemented layers of refuse in the midden. Occasional human bones in the refuse possibly represent burials. 64 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Typical stone artifacts of the Alaka Phase are crude, percussion- made tools showing little shaping except at the working point or edge and no secondary retouching. Most commonly employed rocks are andesite and micaceous schist, with occasional use of quartz, gneiss, and concretions of limonite and hematite. Characteristic percussion- made core tools include choppers, hammerstones (sometimes with a slightly pecked groove for hafting), and large picks. Blades, small picks, and scrapers were percussion-made from flakes. The majority of these tools are probably employed in food gathering and prepara- tion. Except for a few rubbing stones, implements showing abrasion in manufacture or use are restricted to the late part of the Phase. They consist principally of celts, mortars, pestles, manos, and metates, all of which suggest the introduction of a new subsistence resource, probably agriculture. The sequence of Alaka Phase sites is based on the presence or ab- sence of pottery, and the pottery types represented. Pottery is ab- sent at the early part of the Phase, labeled “preceramic.” This period is followed by a transitional, “incipient ceramic” period, characterized by a few sherds identified as trade and the beginnings of pottery mak- ing by the Alaka Phase in the form of a very crude, shell-tempered ware given the name of Wanaina Plain. In the third period, “Ma- baruma Phase contact,” Wanaina Plain increases greatly in abundance and is associated with plain and decorated pottery types of Mabaruma Phase origin. There is no means as yet of dating the inception of the Alaka Phase in the Northwest District, or its duration as a preceramic cul- ture. The diffusion and adoption of pottery making and probably also agriculture seems to have preceded the arrival of the Mabaruma Phase and perhaps stemmed from.a different source. Strong Maba- ruma Phase contact in the late Alaka Phase sites suggests that the Phase ultimately succumbed to domination and probably assimilation by the immigrants. THE MABARUMA PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS Fourteen sites in the Northwest District produced pottery that has been classified as belonging to the Mabaruma Phase. All are on the Aruka River except one, which is on the Barima River. All are habi- tations. Six had refuse deposits of sufficient depth for stratigraphic excavation. N-1: MABARUMA HEADQUARTERS This large habitation site on the summit of Kumaka hill (pl. 9, a) is one of the best known in the Northwest District (figs. 4,22). It has been occupied in recent years by the District Government Headquar- ters (pl. 14), and during building construction, road grading, drainage ditches, and other improvements, many specimens have been recovered. Asa result of its accessibility, the site has been visited by a number of people interested in the archeology. Walter E. Roth (MS.) made a collection and described some of the materials. Verrill (1918 a, p. 16) “obtained a very large collection of heads, many fine pieces of decorated pottery and a number of stone implements,” in 1917. In 1944 Osgood (1946, pp. 44-48) made a stratigraphic excavation by the flagpole between the District Commissioner’s house and office, but the results were destroyed by the Georgetown fire in 1945. To avoid future confusion with other sites on Kumaka Hill, Osgood called the site “Mabaruma Headquarters,” and we have followed suit. In spite of the modern occupation, many parts of the site remain undisturbed below the surface. Limits of the refuse accumulation are readily perceived by examining the profile of the drainage ditches. These show the deposit to be approximately coterminous with the level top of the hill, an area 251 meters east-west by 70 meters north-south. Beyond the north and south limits the land slopes rapidly, dropping 2 meters in a distance of 15 meters. The slope is considerably steeper at the east and west sides, dropping precipitously some 265 meters to the swamp bordering the Aruka River (Osgood, 1946, p. 44). There is no fresh water supply on the hilltop. Today the inhabitants collect rainwater for domestic use. At the time of our visit a new sewage ditch had been dug in back of the District Commissioner’s Headquarters to a depth of 1.00 to 1.50 meters, exposing a good profile of the soil conditions. The lateritic clay in the upper 20 cm. was a darker grayish red due to the presence 65 66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 of ash; below this the natural, undisturbed lateritic clay was a bright orange red. This same color line is evident in ditches throughout the site, the only difference being that in some places the refuse deposit extends to a depth of 50 cm. A stratigraphic excavation was placed in an undisturbed sector of the lawn near the northeast corner of the Government Rest House (pl. 14, 6). This was near the center of the site and not far from a drainage ditch in which potsherds were exposed. The cut was laid out 2 meters in a north-south direction by 4 meters in an east-west direction. The grass layer 1 to 2 cm. thick was removed and then the excavation was controlled in 8-cm. levels. Conditions were as follows: Level 0-8 cm___---- Soil compact, dull reddish-orange with a gray hue. Iron concretions abundant. Sherds rather small and very soft due to the damp soil. Level 8-16 cm_____-_ Soil conditions the same. Level 16-24 cm___. No change in conditions; refuse concentrated in the eastern 14 of the cut. Level 24-32 em____-_ Eastern end of the cut produced 90 percent of the sherds of this level. This area shows decided soil discolora- tion with a blackish red-orange hue. Level 32-40 cm_____ Concentrations of dark soil and fine ash intermixed continues in the east end of the cut. Level 40-48 cm_____ Except at the east end of the cut, the soil has turned to sterile, bright orange red, lateritie clay with abundant iron concretions. Hearth area with fire- burnt rocks in east end, 1 meter from the east wall and 25 cm. from the south wall; the area measured 20 em. square with rocks arranged to form a bed 7-9 em. thick. All the sherds in this level came from either the hearth itself or within a radius of 50 cm. around it. Level 48-56 em___-_ Sterile, bright red-orange lateritic soil appears at 52 em. A complete Aruka Incised bowl surrounded with fire-burnt rocks and miscellaneous sherds came from this level, partially embedded in the southeast corner of the cut. Since the adjacent drainage ditch was 80 cm. deep and a nearby sewage channel went to a depth of 1.50 meters, it was not necessary to test the sterile soil of the bottom of this cut beyond making a few test holes to guarantee that the entire cut had reached the red-orange lateritic clay composing the natural hill. East end extension_. In order to increase the sherd sample the east end, which had produced the darkest soil discoloration and greatest refuse concentration, was extended 50 em. to the east by 1.25 em. wide. Soil conditions identical to the rest of cut. All the specimens from this extension placed under a_ separate eatalog number. E d iraneae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 67 The only restorable vessel from N-1 is an Aruka Incised bowl, now in the collections of the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. It has the following characteristics : Aruka Incised Bowl (pl. 22).—All sherds were found except the annular base, but wear showed this to be an old break. The remain- ing portion is 7.2 cm. in diameter and 8 mm. high. The vessel walls slope outward to a maximum diameter of 18.5 cm. at a height of 4. cm., then curve inward to a constricted mouth 9 cm. in diameter with a flattened lip. Total height is 10 cm. All features of paste and decoration are typical of Aruka Incised. The interior is smoothed and quite even; the exterior has been polished, giving a low luster. The surfaces are light tan except where small fire clouds darken one side and half of the bottom. Decoration is on the ex- terior of the insloping upper wall and consists of bold, broad (2-3 mm.), U-shaped incisions ranging in depth from 1-3 mm. The lines are not equally spaced or regularly parallel, and the freehand execu- tion of the curved lines and spirals gives a pleasing effect. N-4 : KORIABO POINT A short distance below its junction with the Koriabo River, the Barima River makes a sharp bend creating a point on the right bank. N-4 is on a 4-meter high bank above this bend, separated from the point by a low area (fig. 4). A small creek flows along the base of the high bank, emptying into the river just below the site. Habi- tation refuse extends 25 meters inward from the Barima River and 35 meters along the bank. Recent clearing for a garden left the whole area covered with a tangle of low secondary growth sprinkled with lemon, papaya, and banana trees. Adjacent to the east (inland) edge of the habitation area is a large shell midden, about 20 meters in diameter and rising 5 meters above the natural surface of the ground. The top was originally slightly higher but had been flattened off to plant 6 lemon trees. This deposit was tested by digging small holes on the summit and at every meter contour on the slopes. The composition was uniform throughout: burned and unburned shell (predominantly Neritina zebra Bru- guiére), ash, fire-burnt stones, quartz spalls, a few animal and fish bones, with very little dirt intermixed. Weathering had caused ce- menting together of the shell into hard masses. A few Mabaruma Phase sherds were found on the surface and in some of the test holes. No artifacts of the Alaka Phase were encountered, suggesting that this midden may have been accumulated by the occupants of the adja- cent habitation site. However, none of the other Mabaruma Phase sites contain any shell refuse. This is the only Mabaruma Phase site found on the Barima River. However, nearby Koriabo Phase sites contain much Mabaruma Phase 68 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 trade pottery so that it cannot with certainty be identified with the “Koriabo Hill” visited by Verrill (1918 a, p. 17). The fact that he specifies “no shells” suggests he must not be referring to N-4. A small stratigraphic cut 2 by 1 meters, controlled in 8 cm. levels, was placed in the center of the sherd area. It had the following characteristics: Level 0-8 cm___. Disturbed by modern tomato cultivation; soil a black loam mixed with large quantities of natural float quartz, iron concretions, granite fragments, and large hunks of mod- ern charcoal from recent slash and burn clearing. Sherds fairly abundant. Level 8-16 em__. Same conditions. Level 16-24 em_. Rocks more abundant, sherds sparse. Level 24-32 em... Soil continues dark gray until 32 em., where it changes to light gray. Sherds sparse; small, angular, granite frag- ments becoming more common. Level 32-65 cm_. Sterile; from 32-45 ecm. the soil is light gray; 45-55 cm., orange gray; below 65 cm. very sandy clay. N-12: HOSORORO HILL This site is on the summit of a hill in a chain southwest of the one occupied by N-1 (figs. 4, 22) and, being nearly as accessible, it has been visited repeatedly. It is mentioned by Walter FE. Roth (MS.), Verrill (1918 a, p. 16), and Osgood (1946, p. 33). As Verrill notes, there are two sites (fig. 21): an Alaka Phase shell midden at the base of the hill, which we have desigated as N-11: Hosororo Creek, and a Mabaruma Phase site high up on the slope, which we have designated as N-12: Hosororo Hill. c =~ Z / 10) aa | / : a 3JAOUMDNYA | J ee | a N3CQIN TISHS sr a= yvauy auaHs --—— E d Erenags ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 75 abundance to a depth of 40 cm. Associated were quartz chips, fire- burnt stones and a few bones incuding the shaft of a human femur. Since this was the most productive part of the site, the bank was cut inward to enlarge the sample. This excavation, designated as Test B, covered 3 square meters. An attempt at a controlled stratigraphic excavation proved unsuccessful. A 2- by 1-meter cut was placed in the high part of the site as far as possible from the area of intense Alaka Phase occupation, but Alaka Phase refuse was nevertheless intermixed with Mabaruma Phase artifacts from each level. The sherd sample was small, and analysis showed it to be contemporary with the material from Test B, so the two collections were combined to increase the sample for seriation purposes. Although we encountered no burials, Verrill (1918 a, pp. 14-15, figs. 7-12) reports excavating three skeletons on his visit to N-16 in 1917. These came from the shell midden, but Verrill concludes that “the condition of the shells proved that the dead had been placed in graves dug in the shell mound” (op. cit., p.15). Further evidence that the burials belong to the later occupation is the association of a pottery vessel with one of the skeletons. It had been placed inverted over the occiput. The type of plain pottery cannot be identified from the photograph (op. cit., fig. 11), but the shape is typical of the Mabaruma Phase. The three skeletons were side by side, with the legs flexed and the faces toward the east. Verrill (op. cit., p. 15) identifies the central skeleton (which had the bowl) as male and the others as female. A few crude stone implements were found in the vicinity, but Verrill is probably correct in suggesting that these are accidental associations from the shell refuse midden rather than burial offerings. Verrill’s “very careful search of the entire hill” (loc. cit.) failed to locate any other burials. N-17: WAUNA In 1917, Verrill searched the hills near Akawabi for additional sites and found only one place that produced “several earthenware heads and fragments of decorated pottery” (1918 a, p.15). This may be the same place we discovered on the bank of the Wauna River, just above its junction with Akawabi Creek (figs. 4,22). Here, the bank rises 2 meters and then slopes back up the flank of the high Wauna Hills that rise to the west. The site covers an area 65 meters along the bank by 20 meters wide. A modern settlement occupied the same area in 1953 and the ground surface had been cleaned of all vegeta- tion, exposing the black soil and sherd refuse. Tests showed the de- posit to be 10 to 20 cm. deep, but erosion and modern habitation made it possible to collect only a small sherd sample. This identifies the site as belonging to the Mabaruma Phase, but is not large enough to use for seriation. 513186—60——7 76 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 N-18: HOBO HILL Hobo Hill is a finger of the same chain on which N-1 is located (figs. 4, 22), lying southeast of Kumaka Hill. The northwest side rises steeply, flattening out just below the crest. Here sherds were found over a gradually sloping area 15 meters in diameter in a manioc field. The nearest fresh water source is the headwaters of the Attabani Creek 100 meters to the northeast. The soil was slightly darker in the site area than the surrounding bright orange laterite. Sherds occurred only from the surface to a depth of 5 cm. and were all badly eroded. A few glass and earthenware fragments from the same area appeared to be associated with recent gardening activity. The 199 sherds include the Mabaruma Phase types, Mabaruma Plain, Hosororo Plain, and Koberimo Plain. N-19: KUMAKA CREEK Kumaka Creek was visited by Verrill in 1917 (1918 a, p. 16). He describes the site as located on the eastern slope of Kumaka Hill (figs. 4, 22). The reddish soil produced no shell refuse, only pot- sherds and stone. In 1920 Vincent Roth spent half an hour at the site in the company of a geologist, J. A. Bullbrook. At that time, a road had been cut through the slope and Roth noticed that “a small portion of the road has been metalled with the material removed from the midden so that one can now find pieces of pre-historic pot- tery in the middle of the road” (V. Roth, MS., p. 12). On the afternoon of September 19, 1944, Osgood dug on the slopes of Kumaka Hill, collecting sherds that included examples of a decorative style not found at Mabaruma Headquarters (N-1). Osgood (1946, pp. 48-49) searched for a place with sufficient depth of refuse to show the relative age of the two sites, but was unsuccessful. In 1953 the site was essentially as the earlier visitors reported it. The road, which leads from Mabaruma Government Headquarters to the dock, has been paved but its course has not changed. It runs down the steep western slope of Kumaka Hill to the base of the hill, skirting the tidal swamp, and passes close to Kumaka Creek, which flows along the base of the hill before turning into the swamp (fig. 95). The site is on the slope, beginning at the bend in the creek and extending 70 meters to the northeast. The lower edge is bounded by the flat and the upper limit is 17 meters up the hillside, between 5 and 6 meters above the creek level. ‘The northeast third of the site is occupied by the Kumaka Spirit Shop, surrounded by a lawn. Large clumps of bamboo grew along the southeast side of the road. The southwestern part of the site was covered with orange, guava, and banana trees entangled with abundant thorny vines. A group of large iron concretion boulders marks the western edge of the site. E d ees ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA la -~ CLUMP OF BAMBOO N + x ——— LIMIT OF SITE 20M TIDAL SWAMP te} i \ ae 25 R K KUMAKA CREEK x SHERDS— 5, Ficure 25.—Sketch map of N-19: Kumaka, a habitation site of the Mabaruma Phase. Although sherds were found throughout the 70- by 17-meter site area, the major portion of the surface collection comes from the southwestern sector where there was no grass cover. A few scattered sherds were found in the flat between dry land and the creek bed, in the region traversed to reach the water source at low tide (fig. 25). A small strata cut, 1- by 1 meter, was excavated in 15 cm. levels about halfway between the road and the upper edge of the site, where recent disturbance seemed minimal. The following conditions were ob- served : Level 0-15 cm__ Soil medium gray with numerous lateritic concretions to a depth of 12 cm., changing to light reddish-brown loam with more abundant concretions at 12-15 cm. Sherds abundant in upper 10-12 cm., absent below. Level 15-80 cm__ Sterile, reddish-brown soil color continues to 25 em., where soil changes to orange-red clay (the soil profile in this excavation is the same as that revealed in the road cut). N—20 : KOBERIMO HILL (KOBARIMA, KOBERINO, KOBARINO) Koberimo Creek skirts the south edge of Koberimo Hill before flowing out into the swamp to empty into the Aruka River (figs. 4, 22). N-20 is on a nearly level shelf at the base of the hill next to the creek, The bank rises rather steeply to a height of 4 meters above the swamp level before leveling off, and the site begins about on the 4-meter contour. The refuse deposit extends 75 meters along the creek and 25 meters inward. The surface was free of undergrowth and the site limits were easily definable by the contrast between the black soil of the habitation refuse and the reddish-brown sterile soil of 78 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 the surrounding area. In previous years the site had been under manioc cultivation, and an old resident recalled finding a number of pottery heads at that time. In 1953 it was occupied by an abandoned citrus orchard. Several large clumps of bamboo grew east of the site and another was between the site and the creek. Behind the site, to the northwest, Koberimo Hill rises to a high summit. In addition to the collection of a surface sample, a 2- by 1-meter strata cut was excavated in the southeastern part of the site, the side nearest the creek. Controlled in 8-cm. levels, it had the following characteristics: Level 0- 8 em___ Soil black with abundant small reddish iron concretions whose presence gives the soil a lighter hue. Sherds common; one piece of modern chinaware. Level 8-16 cm___ Conditions the same except soil more compacted with a high percentage of concretions. Level 16-24 em__. Lateritic soil so hard it has to be loosened with a pick. Sherds still abundant. Level 24-82 em___ Soil acquires a yellowish tinge at 30 cm., becoming yel- low-brown clay with abundant iron concretions at 30—- 32 cm. No sherds below 380 cm. Level 32-75 cm___ At 35 em. the clay becomes very compact, changes to a yellow-orange color and concretions become larger. These conditions represent the natural structure of the hill. N-—21° KOBERIMO HILLTOP SITE NO. 1 At the crest of Koberimo Hill (figs. 4, 22), two separate areas with sherds were located. N-21 is on the northwest side of the summit. Pot- sherds were scattered over an area 75 by 80 meters in a manioc garden. All surface sherds were fire marked from the burning of the field and badly eroded. A few were found toa depth of cm. Large to small iron concretions were concentrated throughout the soil, almost like gravel paving, reminiscent of the badly eroded areas of the Rupununi savanna, and the reddish-brown soil was not discolored by habitation. A total of 512 Mabaruma Phase sherds was collected from the surface and tests. N-—22 : KOBERIMO HILLTOP SITE NO. 2 On the southeast side of the summit of Koberimo Hill (figs. 4, 22) there is another shallow habitation site comparable in all respects to N-21. Sherds are scattered in a manioc garden from the surface to a depth of 2 to 3 em. over a circular area 85 meters in diameter. The surface collection numbered 216 sherds of Mabaruma Phase types. Verrill (1918 a, p. 14) mentions finding “a few earthenware heads and numerous pieces of highly decorated pottery” on the “highest and most barren portion” of Koberimo Hill, which may correspond to either N-21 or N-22. E sand Evans an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 79 N-23: BARAMBINA HILL At the summit of Barambina Hill (figs. 4, 22) near the house of Jose Torres a few sherds were found in an area that was formerly a garden but had reverted to grass and brush. The surface was paved with small iron concretions, and only 25 sherds were collected in the limited time available at the site. Torres had found two modeled animal heads when digging a pond down the slope where a spring furnished his water supply. A similar source must have been used by the aboriginal occupants, for otherwise the nearest water is at the base of the hill near the headwaters of some of the small tributaries that drain into Kumaka Creek. Owing to the surface conditions the limits of the site could not be determined. The sherd sample includes typical Mabaruma Phase pottery types, but the collection is too small to include in the seriated sequence for the Phase. When Osgood visited this area in 1944 and excavated Barambina shell midden, he mentions receiving from Jose Torres some decorated sherds that he had found near his house (Osgood, 1946, p. 50). Al- though no other details are given there is no doubt that these are Mabaruma Phase sherds from N-23. DATA FROM OTHER INVESTIGATIONS Although the Northwest District has been the object of greater archeological interest than any other part of British Guiana, the ac- counts suffer from vagueness and subjectivity. In some cases, sites can be identified with those we visited, and this documentation is given under the site descriptions. Although there is a slight danger of con- fusion with the Koriabo Phase, the rest of the sites that produced “pottery heads” can probably also be assigned to the Mabaruma Phase. Four of these have been recorded by Verrill: Waunina (Wanaina) Hill.—This hill is the west end of the chain in which Hosororo Hillis located. It is separated by a strip of swamp from the left bank of the Koriabo River. The site produced “very fine” stone implements, pottery adornos, and highly decorated sherds (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 14; Osgood, 1946, Site No. 9, p. 61). Hanaida Hill—Wanaida Hill is an isolated rise in the swamp some distance inward from the right bank of the Aruka River (Osgood, 1946, fig. 7). The lateritic surface produced a few fragments of pot- tery heads, sherds and several stone implements (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 17; Osgood, 1946, Site No. 10, p. 61). Anabist Hills—On the red, lateritic hills on the Anabisi River, a tributary of the Kaituma River, there is a site from which fragments of decorated pottery, modeled heads, and stone implements were re- covered (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 17; Osgood, 1946, Site No. 21, p. 61). 80 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Maruiwa Hill—A site on red, lateritic hill about 6 miles below Mt. Everard on the Barima River produced incised and modeled pottery and stone artifacts. A site in this vicinity was similarly described to us in 1953, at which time the name was given as Drum Hill (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 17; Osgood, 1946, Site No. 15, p. 61). Two other sites, said to have produced only plain sherds, probably also belong to the Mabaruma Phase, since certain of the shallow sites lack the elaborate types of decorated material. These are Simri Hill, the location of which is not given, and Hotahana Hill on the Kaituma River (Verrill, 1918 a, p. 17). The rest of the published and manuscript data on the archeology of the Northwest District helps to confirm the definition of the arche- ological cultures but cannot be used for deriving it. 'The major con- tributor is Walter E. Roth, who describes Mabaruma Phase pottery in his publication on the arts and crafts of the British Guiana Indians (1924, pp. 184-5, pls. 238-26, 31-32, figs. 32-35) and in a manuscript filed in the archives of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Wash- ington, D.C. (1930). The published work is based on specimens in the British Guiana Museum, the majority of which were brought in from time to time by the public without exact information on association or provenience. The manuscript is the result of fieldwork done in the early part of 1930 with “the sympathetic and generous assistance of the Smithsonian Institution” (W. E. Roth, MS., p. 4). Roth’s method of investigation consisted of sinking pits 2 to 3 feet in depth and diameter into sites, sifting the dirt, and placing the sherds in labeled bags. Afterward the sherds were cleaned, and considerable time and effort was spent in trying to piece them together. After decorated fragments were separated from the plain sherds, the final step was: “when satisfied that they were not wanted to complete an article to discard the latter” (op. cit., p. 5). Out of almost 10,000 sherds, Roth was able to reconstruct only four vessels, positive proof that he was working in habitation refuse. Unfortunately, when the manuscript was written and the illustrations prepared, provenience data was omitted for the majority of the sherds. Consequently, al- though this was a significant contribution to archeology at the time the work was done, it is difficult to use for comparative purposes today. ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL The artifacts from Mabaruma Phase sites include only stone objects and pottery. These will be described according to types, rather than as individual objects, but exact provenience of each artifact is given in tables 2 and 3 in the Appendix. In these tables the stone artifacts are listed according to the rock material out of which they are made, as well as by type. E d presenn ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Sl STONE ARTIFACT TYPES Forty-six stone artifacts and 69 flakes were collected from sites of the Mabaruma Phase. Celts, polished (fig. 26) —Celts are rectanguloid and well polished with a sharp bit. The butt end is sometimes battered from use as a hammerstone. The majority of the fragments are small, but the larger ones suggest reconstruction of dimensions as 10.0 to 21.5 cm. in length, 5.0 to 6.5 em. in width, and 2.0 to 3.5 em. in thickness. The butt and the bit are slightly tapered so that they measure only 3.0 to 4.0 cm. in width. Rock material includes extremely fine-grained micaceous schist, quartzite, and andesite. Choppers (fig. 27, a-b).—Blunt-edged tools that appear to have been used in pounding or chopping were roughly shaped from cobbles by percussion blows. They fit easily into the hand. Size appears to be controlled by the dimensions of the original cobble or fragments of rock. ‘The tools measure 6 to 12 cm. long, 4 to 6 cm. wide, and 2 to 3 cm. thick. The large percussion flakes struck off to give the tool its rough shape measure from 2 to 3 cm. in diameter and have a clearly marked bulb of percussion. All the choppers were made from ex- tremely fine-grained micaceous schist. Flake blades or knives (fig. 28, a-b).—Flakes struck off by percus- sion from quartzite, fine-grained micaceous schist, quartz or felsite have had the thin edge opposite the bulb of percussion shaped for use as a blade or knife. In most cases, the thin cutting edge has been rubbed and abraded; occasionally the edge was slightly reworked by percussion chipping. The form is irregular. Although the tool size varies according to the size of the percussion-struck flake, the majority are 3.0 to 4.0 cm. by 4.0 to 6.5 cm., by. 0.5 to 1.5 cm. thick. Tlammerstones (fig. 27, c-d).—Tools classified as hammerstones were made from either cobbles of quartzite or roughly shaped pieces of fine-grained micaceous schist. One or more places on the surface show heavy battering, which is easily distinguished from the natural waterworn surface or the freshly fractured, percussion-struck areas. The battered area ranges from a small circle 1 cm. in diameter on the end to a broad area 3 to 5 cm. long on the edge. The size of the hammerstones varies considerably, ranging from 2.5 by 5.0 by 3.0 cm. to 2.5 by 5.5 by 6.0 cm. Hoes (fig. 28, c).—Five fine-grained micaceous-schist fragments have been classified as hoes because they have a polish on highly irregular surfaces that can be obtained only by extensive digging in the ground. These stone artifacts show less shaping than any of the other stone tools of the Mabaruma Phase. They consist simply of a large cobble with a few percussion flakes struck off the end or a piece of micaceous schist roughly shaped by percussion flaking into {[Bull. 177 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 82 C Frcure 26.—Polished celt from the Mabaruma Phase. oO Ww Evans and Meggers] ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA ae ; gc LA CELL) AK OK Ui 246 = Ficure 27.—Stone artifacts of the Mabaruma Phase. a-b, Choppers. c—d, Hammerstones. a long rectangular form. The digging edge is irregular, ranging in width from 3.0 to 5.0 cm. The high polish from abrasion in the dirt extends along the shank of the hoe for as much as 2 to3cm. Dimen- sions are 10 to 15 cm. long, 4 to 6 cm. wide, and 1.3 to 3.5 em. thick. Knife, polished (fig. 28, ¢).—A large percussion-strike flake of fine- grained quartzite measuring 4.6 cm. long, 2.5 cm. wide, and 5 to 9 mm. thick has one of the narrow edges abraded on both surfaces to pro- duce a straight cutting edge. Mano (fig. 29, c)—A fragment of a rubbing stone of granite has one surface worn flat from backward and forward grinding motion. The other surfaces are broken so the form and dimensions of the original artifact cannot be determined. The existing grinding area is 6.0 by 3.5 cm. 84. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Oo 256M Ficure 28.—Stone tools from the Mabaruma Phase. a-—b, Flake blades or knives. ¢, Hoe. d, Polishing stone. ¢, Polished knife. Metate (fig. 29, a-b).—Two fragments of granite with one surface well smoothed and slightly concave were probably used for grinding. They measure 7.5 by 7.5 by 2.0 to 3.0 cm. thick and 7.0 by 11.2 by 3.2 cm. The grinding surface in each case is slightly smaller than the surface of the fragment. The contours do not suggest that the com- plete artifact was very large. Polishing stones (fig. 28, d)—Small, waterworn pebbles of quartz and fine-grained micaceous schist have been used for polishing stones. The particular type of wear suggests they probably were used as pol- ishers in pottery making. The roughly oval pebbles measure 2.4 by 2.7 by 2.0 cm., 3.0 by 2.4 by 14 cm., and 5.8 by 2.4 by 0.8 cm. The BH and eee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 85 Ongls 2c) 40 5CM Ficure 29.—Grinding tools from the Mabaruma Phase. a-b, Metates. c, Mano fragment. high polish from use usually occurs only on the rounded edges in small areas not exceeding 0.5 by 1.5 cm. in diameter. Flakes and natural rocks—The percussion-struck flakes and frag- ments of unworked rocks from the various levels of each stratigraphic excavation and the surface collections were classified by rock material (Appendix, table 2). The most significant result of this analysis is the different popularity of certain rock materials in the Mabaruma Phase in contrast to the Alaka Phase (Appendix, table 1), although the two occupy the same geographical region. Whereas in the Alaka Phase the predominant material was andesite, this is rarely used in the Mabaruma Phase. Limonite and hematite concretions, broken in various ways and used as tools or as rubbing stones in the Alaka Phase, were also rarely used in the Mabaruma Phase. The most common rock material regardless of tool type in the Mabaruma Phase is a very fine-grained, micaceous schist. The other rocks, listed in 86 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 their order of popularity, are fine-grained quartzite, granite (usually biotitic granite rather than muscovite granite), felsite, quartz, ande- site, a few miscellaneous large fragments of mica of the muscovite variety, and feldspar. PoTTEeRY TYPE DESCRIPTIONS The ceramic study of the Mabaruma Phase is based on the analysis of 9,610 sherds of local manufacture of which 1,323 or 13.8 percent are decorated. Only one complete vessel was found. The pottery was classified into four plain and four decorated types. The frequency of each type by level and site is given in the Appendix, table 3. Pot- tery types are described in alphabetical order, followed by description of unclassified and trade sherds. AKAWABI INCISED AND MODELED Paste: This decorated type was placed on all four of the plain wares of the Mabaruma Phase—Mabaruma Plain, Hosororo Plain, Hotokwai Plain, and Koberimo Plain. Apparently no preference occurred, and whatever plain- wares were most popular at the time were used. At sites reflecting the early part of the sequence this decorated type is found more commonly on Mabaruma Plain, while in the late part of the sequence the decorated type appears typically on paste of Hosororo Plain and Koberimo Plain. See the above- mentioned plain pottery type descriptions for details of temper, color, and firing. SurFraces: Both in color and treatment, the surfaces are typical of the particular plain pottery type except that the surfaces of the decorated sherds are always better smoothed and more even. ForM: Rim: Direct with rounded or slightly tapered lip; everted with rounded lip ; rarely, everted to produce a wide flange with rounded lip. Body wall thickness: 3-11 mm. ; majority 5-6 mm. Body diameters: Range 20-32 cm. Base: No bases have decorations on the adjoining lower portion of the side walls, therefore it is not possible to associate definitely any particular base sherd with the type; however, bases must be of the forms found in the plainwares: flat, flat pedestal, and annular. Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Open bowl with outslanting to vertical sidewalls and a direct rim, usually with rounded lip but sometimes slightly tapered or flat- tened. Body wall thickness 3-9 mm., majority 5-6 mm.; mouth diameter 12-26 em. Bowl depth reconstructed as shallow, from 8-15 cm., with a few possibly 5-6 cm. Decoration on exterior, occasionally on interior (fig. 30-1). 2. Bowl with incurving sidewalls, direct rim, rounded or flattened lip. Body wall thickness 5-6 mm.; mouth diameter 12-32 em. Dec- oration on exterior (fig. 30-2). 8. Large open bowl with walls outslanting, then upeurving to a broad, sharply everted, flange rim with a rounded lip. Body wall thick- ness 8-10 mm.; rim up to 15 mm. thick and 2.3-3.5 cm. wide, with a flat or curved top. Inside mouth diameter 26-34 cm. Large eee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 87 adornos on rim top, often connected to vertical or horizontal loop handle (fig. 30-3). 4, Jar with globular body, short collarlike neck with a convex profile, and short everted rim with a rounded, flattened, or tapered lip. Junction between neck and body is typically a sharp angle. A decorative rib frequently runs around the body at the maximum diameter. Neck height 4-5 cm.; mouth diameter 18-32 cm. Low relief and large adornos ornament exterior, incision on flat inner rim edge (fig. 30-4). Appendages: Vertical loop handle beginning at an adorno affixed to the rim and looping down to the body wall of a vessel of form 3. Cross section is generally round, measuring 1.3-1.5 cm. in diameter (fig. 30-8). Two horizontal strap handles, oval in cross section, measuring 4.0 by 1.2 em.; one has a plain nubbin 8 mm. high on the center of the loop, the other a Barrancoid adorno. DECORATION (figs. 31-37 ; pls. 16-20) : Techniques: Modeling employed in conjunction with incision, which is either superimposed or associated. Incision: Incised lines typically rather broad (2-3 mm.), U-shaped groove; depth ranges from 0.5-3.0 mm. but is typically 1.0-1.5 mm. Incisions are often sloppy with dragged margins, and unequal in width and depth. Modeling: Varies from a slight rib giving a sculptured effect to the sur- face and emphasizing parts of the design, to large adornos sculptured with the sureness and boldness characteristic of the Barrancoid styles from the mouth of the Orinoco in Venezuela. Adornos are typically solid. Some show clean breaks as a result of application to the vessel or rim surface after the clay had begun to dry, others appear to have been applied when wet and so well kneaded into the vessel surface that they break off with a jagged edge taking away part of the vessel wall. Features of the adorno modeling were first roughed out by finger manipulation and then accentuated with incised lines and sculpturing. Motif: The attempt was made to separate the differing combinations of modeling and incision represented in Akawabi Modeled and Incised into several pottery types. If was found, however, that although a few adornos have no incision on them, others do, and the gradation in work- manship was such that no significant subdivision could be made. Five combinations of modeling and incision can be distinguished, some of which may occur together on the same vessel : 1. Low relief (pls. 16, 20, a-f).—Applique modeling in form of curved bands or irregularly shaped areas, 0.7-2.5 em. wide, raised 2-4 mm. above the vessel surface. Some variation in degree of relief on a single sherd frequently occurs because of the presence of bosses, nubbins and other prominences on the bands. Raised areas are set off by incised lines, which are frequently slightly broader than the incisions composing the rest of the design. Incised decoration is typically applied to the surface of the applique, but also some- times occurs in the intervening areas. This is the most abundant and characteristic form of Akawabi Modeled and Incised. 2. High relief (fig. 56, a, b; pls. 17, 20, g, h). Applique modeling in the form of ribs, bosses, or ‘masks,’ which rise 0.5-2.5 em. above the vessel surface. The larger ones differ from adornos in being an integral part of the vessel wall rather than free standing. This SS BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 S/N) eee eee Oo 4 8 12 CM VESSEL SCALE Pare Eee OF ra som RIM SCALE Ficure 30.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 4). BE d araanae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 89 Ficure 31.—Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 3: Barrancoid adornos, Mabaruma Phase. 90 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Figure 32.—Anthropomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non- Barrancoid, Mabaruma Phase. type of modeling is typically treated in the same way as low relief, set off by and decorated with incised lines. The majority of high relief appears to occur at or near the maximum vessel diameter. 3. Barrancoid adornos (figs. 31, 56, c,d; pl.18). Large anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, and geometric adornos modeled in the round for appli- cation to the rim or vessel wall. Workmanship is normally beautifully sculptured but occasionally crude. Incisions usually outline features or ornament the surface. The larger examples are hollow and one attached to a rim of vessel shape 3 has a rattle inside. 4. Non-Barrancoid adornos (figs. 32-47; pls. 19, 20, i, 7). Anthropo- morphie and zoomorphie adornos of smaller size and cruder work- manship than the Barrancoid style. Anthropomorphic examples have large bulbous noses and coffee-bean eyes with a narrow slit across the center, giving a myopic effect reminiscent of the movie E d Mle ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 91 Oo t 26M Ficure 33.—Anthropomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non- Barrancoid, Mabaruma Phase. 513186—60—_8 92 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Oo ICM Ficure 34.—Zoomorphic adornos Bs Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barran- coid, Mabaruma Phase. .a-d, Froglike. e-f, Unidentified creature. E d Ma be ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 93 Qo-sid -o-32 50M Ficure 35.—Zoomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barran- coid, Mabaruma Phase. 94 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Ficure 36.—Zoomorphic adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barran- coid, Mabaruma Phase. cartoon character, “Mr. Magoo.” ‘The head is typically large in proportion to the body, and arms are often shown raised with the hands on the cheeks or chin (pl. 19, h, i; figs. 32-33). Zoomorphic forms include froglike (fig. 34, a, d@), reptilian, and unidentified creatures (figs. 34, e, f, 35-86; pl. 20, i, 7) and various kinds of birds (fig. 37), some of which are modeled in a semisquatting posi- tion (fig. 37, a, e). This type of adorno appears to occur princi- pally on the upper body wall, between the rim and maximum diameter, on vessel shape 4. 5. Conical nubbins. Plain nubbins measuring 6-12 mm. high and 10-15 mm. in diameter at the base, sometimes with a punctate in the middle. An incised line occasionally surrounds the base of the nubbin. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Vessel shapes 1, 2, and 4 appear to be restricted to the middle and upper part of the Mabaruma Phase sequence, although this may be the result of the small rim sample from the earlier levels. Form 3 is limited to the lower part of the sequence (Appendix, table 4). Design motifs that show a distinct temporal difference are adornos: Barrancoid adornos are restricted to the lower and middle part of the sequence, while the non-Barrancoid adornos and conical nubbins occur only in the middle to upper part (Appendix, table 5). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Present throughout the Phase, reaching its maximum frequency in the upper part of the seriated sequence (fig. 48). ARUKA INCISED Paste: The incised decoration is found on the paste of whatever plain pottery type is common in the Mabaruma Phase at the time of manufacture, with no apparent preference. Thus at sites belonging to the early part of the sequence BE d Leta? ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 95 oO ! 2 3 6M Ficure 37.—Bird adornos of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barrancoid, Mabaruma Phase. c, Adorno found at a Koriabo Phase site. 96 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 when Mabaruma Plain is the most common, the majority of the Aruka In- cised sherds has that paste; whereas in the upper part of the sequence the incision is most frequently found on the paste of Hosororo Plain and Koberimo Plain, the popular plainwares of the late Mabaruma Phase. See these pottery type descriptions for details of temper, texture, and color. Surraces: Both in color and treatment, the surfaces are typical of the respective plainwares; there is no better treatment or handling of the surface than that represented by the better finished plain sherds. FORM: Rim: Direct with rounded or slightly tapered lip; unthickened and everted with rounded lip; interiorly thickened, or exteriorly thickened, with rounded or slightly tapered lip. Body wail thickness : 4-10 mm. ; majority.5—6 mm. Body diameter : 12-36 cm. Base: Those forms typical of the plain pottery types: flat, flat pedestal, and annular; flat the most common. Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds : ae Open bowls with outslanting to vertical sidewalls, direct rim, usually rounded but sometimes slightly flattened or tapered lip. Mouth diameter 18-26 cm. Incision on exterior; rarely, on interior (fig. 38-1). . Bowls with sharply everted, unthickened rim and rounded lip. The sidewalls range from almost vertical to incurving, but the rim is always strongly everted producing an insloping band 1-2 cm. wide with an incised design on the inner face. Mouth diameter 16-26 em. Incision on inner rim surface (fig. 88-2). . Open bowls with interiorly thickened rim and tapered lip. The rim is 1-8 mm. thicker than the body wall, and 1.38-2.0 em. wide. Incised designs are restricted to the inner surface of this thickened rim area. Mouth diameter 12-26 em. (fig. 38-3). . Bowls or jars with incurving sidewalls, constricted mouth, direct rim, typically rounded but sometimes slightly tapered lip. Mouth diameter 9-24 em. Incision on upper exterior (fig. 38-4). . Bowls or jars with constricted mouth, incurving side walls and ex- teriorly thickened rim with either rounded or slightly tapered lip. Rim thickness 6-12 mm., rim width 1.0-2.2 cm.; mouth diameter 12-36 em. Incision on upper exterior (fig. 38-5). DECORATION (pls. 21, 22, 23, h-k). Technique: The incised lines are smooth and well made, with a broad, U-shaped channel. Width varies from 1.5-3.0 mm., with the majority 2 mm.; depth ranges from 1.0-1.5 mm., with the majority 1 mm. The incisions were made when the clay was medium dry, neither too dry nor too wet, and as a result the lines are clean cut and unusually even. A few are less carefully done, suggesting individual variation and careless workmanship, which is not characteristic of the type. So-called “parallel lines” were made with individual strokes and hence these lines are not always exactly parallel. Motif: Five distinct design motifs are characteristic. Since only one com- plete vessel and a few large sherds were found that showed the overall pattern of decoration, it is possible that two or more of these motifs are often combined on the same vessel. 1. Unzoned, rectilinear incisions, commonly in paired units or parallel lines (pl. 21, a, b). Hu d eee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 97 LAW I Kd LLM NIN Ce roan eae 12 CM VESSEL SCALE Ficure 38.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Aruka Incised, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 6). 98 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 2. Unzoned, curvilinear incisions, commonly in paired units or parallel lines (pls. 21, cf, 22). 8. Zoned incisions, consisting most commonly of rectilinear elements, parallel lines, or gashes typically in a triangular zone set off by incisions (pl. 21, g-i). 4. Band of incised lines on the sloping interior of everted rims. Hither rectilinear or curvilinear, usually parallel lines broken into sections around the rim by diagonal or vertical gashes or short parallel incisions, so that the diameter is partitioned into 2, 3 or 4 sections (pl. 21, jl). 5. Lines on the exterior of rims. Usually this consists of a single or double line running around the rim of the vessel about 1.0—2.5 em. below the lip. Variations of this motif consist of vertical or diagonal parallel lines spaced at varying intervals around the rim exterior (pl. 21, m-o). TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Rim forms 3, 4, and 5 appear to be restricted to the middle and upper part of the seriated sequence (Appendix, table 6), but this may be the result of the poor rim sample from the earlier levels. Design motifs 8 (zoned) and 4 (lines on the interior of everted rims) are restricted to the middle and upper part of the sequence (Appendix, table 7). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Aruka Incised is found throughout the Mabaruma Phase, but shows a steady increase in popularity from the lower (earlier) part to the upper (late) part of the sequence (fig. 48). HOSORORO PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling. Breaks along coil lines often distinct. Temper: The clay has extremely fine sand particles as natural inclusions and does not appear to have any added temper. Texture: Extremely compact; not friable, but weak and breaks easily. Color: Ranges from orange tan to gray tan to gray through cross section. Some sherds have a black core with paper-thin to 3 mm. thick bands of orange along the interior and exterior. Firing: Incompletely oxidized. SURFACES: Color: Majority light to dark tan, some orange tan. Interior and exterior usually the same color, but on a few the interior is gray. Treatment: Both interior and exterior are scraped smooth and fairly regular and even. Faint crackle lines and a light film of clay on the surfaces sug- gest the clay was handled when fairly wet. Fine pits on both surfaces result from unevenness that was not erased in the smoothing. Hardness: 3.5-4. FORM : Rim: Direct with a rounded or slightly tapered lip; exteriorly thickened with a flat top; sharply everted with a flat insloping flange, rounded lip. Body wall thickness: 4-10 mm. ; majority 5-6 mm. Body diameters: Range 20-34 em. Base: Three forms are of equal popularity; in the absence of complete ves- sels it is impossible to associate these with a particular rim shape. A. Flat, unthickened or thickened to as much as 1.5 cm., joining the sidewall at an angle of 40 to 50 degrees; diameter 8-12 cm. (fig. 39, A). Fivans and ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 99 SAN oS 1s HS 1S a ee See) o 4 #8 '2 CM Q.;;1 2 3 CM VESSEL SGALE RIM & BASE SCALE Ficure 39,—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes. of Hosororo Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 8). 100 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 B. Flat pedestal, thickened, usually 1.0-1.3 em., joining the body wall at a 80- to 40-degree angle, diameter 6-10 cm. (fig. 39, B; pl. 24, g). C. Annular, with the cross section of the annular foot ranging from tri- angular, to rounded, to rectanguloid with rounded edges, to taper- ing (fig. 39, C; pl. 24, e, f). Vertical height 1.5-2.0 cm.; central portion of the base either unthickened or slightly thickened with a convex or flat center ranging from 6 to 15 mm. thick. Diameter of the annular base 7-12 cm., majority 10 cm. Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Open bowls with outslanting sides, direct rim and typically a rounded lip, but sometimes slightly tapered or slightly thickened. Side walls vary from almost vertical to outslanting as much as 50 degrees from the vertical. Mouth diameter 18-30 cm. (fig. 39-1). 2. Bowls with vertical to incurving walls, usually a direct rim, but sometimes slightly tapered or thickened; rounded lip. On those bowls with vertical walls the mouth and body diameter are the same, ranging from 20 to 24 em., while bowls with incurved walls have a constricted mouth opening of 14-20 em. with the body diameter 20 to 26 cm. (fig. 39-2; pl. 24, c). 3. Bowls with outcurving sides and externally thickened rims. The thickened rim ranges from an extra coil added to the exterior making the rim 1.0-1.5 em. in cross section to a slight pinching out of the side wall to form a thin ridge. Rim top typically horizontal and coneave. Mouth diameter 12-26 cm. (fig. 39-3; pl. 24, Bb, d). . Jars with constricted mouth, sharply everted rim and rounded lip. The short rim joins the interior of the body wall at a 90- to 110-degree angle, from which it rises 1.0-2.5 em. Usually the rim is no thicker in cross section than the body wall but occasionally it is slightly thickened to as much as 1.5 ecm. Curvature of side walls suggests the body is either globular or carinated. Mouth diameter 20—28 cm. (fig. 89-4; pl. 24, a). 5. Jars or bowls with externally thickened, broad flanged rim and rounded or tapered lip. These rims are formed by the addition of a wide coil to the exterior of the body wall. Upper rim surface slopes outward and is typically convex, 2.2-3.5 em. wide. Mouth diameter 22-32 em. (fig. 39-5). Rare vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Small bowls with slightly incurving walls and exteriorly thickened rim, ranging from a small applique rib to a slight ridge making the rim 8-15 mm. thick in cross section. Mouth diameter 14-18 em. 2. Griddles. Flat, circular, with direct rim and rounded lip. Diam- eter 28 cm. ; thickness 1.5-1.8 em. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Common Form 5 is popular in the middle to earlier part of the sequence but absent later. Among the three base shapes both Form 1 (flat) and Form 2 (flat pedestal) are late, while Form 3 (annular) occurs only in the lower (early) part of the sequence (Appendix, table 8). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Hosororo Plain increases in frequency from the early part of the Mabaruma Phase sequence until it becomes one of the most popular types in the late part of the Phase (fig. 48). a rhea tens ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 101 HoToKWAI PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling; breakage along coil lines quite distinct; coil with 1.0-1.8 cm. Temper: Crushed steatite schist. Samples of steatite schist rock found in the refuse and the crushed material in the pottery were analyzed by EH. P. Henderson, Division of Mineralogy, U.S. National Museum. The steatite schist crushes easily into irregular shaped fibrous particles ranging from fine, flourlike material to large 3-6 mm. hunks. There was no attempt to sift out the larger hunks from the fine particles so that irregularity of temper particle size is one of the characteristics of the pottery type. Paste includes a high percentage of temper; the fine silky particles permeate the clay. Texture: Fine, silky, silvery particles of temper throughout the paste give a slick, silky, talclike feel. Good tensile strength; not friable. Cross section of sherd always has a fibrous appearance. Color: Very irregular and spotty color patches throughout the paste, ap- parently caused by the size of the steatite temper particles and unequal heat transfer. Half the sherds are mainly a tan to brown to orange throughout the entire cross section; others have orange to tan to brown bands 0.5-1.0 mm. wide along the exterior and interior with a gray core. All sherds have a mottled appearance due to the contrast between the gray silky fibers of the steatite temper and the splotchy orange, tan and browns of the clay. Firing: Oxidized, incomplete to complete; fire clouds common. SURFACES : Color: Interior and exterior are the same color on most sherds, but for the type there is a range from tile orange to orange to tan to brown to gray with a few black fire clouds. The silky gray sheen of the fibrous steatite schist temper stands out against the background color, giving a distinctive, unmistakable appearance to the sherd surfaces. Some of the sherds with an unusually high percentage of temper tend to have a light steel-gray hue. Treatment: Both surfaces are smoothed and scraped, erasing the coil lines but leaving scraping lines visible. On the whole the surfaces are fairly smooth to the touch, but irregularity of body wall thickness on the same sherd is typical. The thinner walled sherds (4-7 mm.) usually have better smoothed and more even surfaces than thicker sherds. Occasionally a lump of steatite temper protrudes from the surface; small pits often occur where the clay was not smoothed over or scraped well. Hardness: Majority 2.5; a few 2, and a few 3. Those sherds with the highest percentage of well pulverized steatite-schist temper tend to be 2.5-3 while those with unpulverized hunks of temper tend to be 2. Hardness of the steatite temper particles is 2-2.5. Form: Rim: Direct with rounded, flattened or tapered lip; exteriorly thickened with a flat top; sharply everted, tapering or expanding to rounded or flattened lip. Body wall thickness: 4-15 mm. ; majority 6-8 mm. Body diameters: 24-40 cm.; majority 26-384 em. 102 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 et hl BS WA a Lie at Lae) BOT o 4 8 12 CM Oe yike 429 36M VESSEL SCALE RIM. & BASE SCALE Ficure 40.—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Hotokwai Plain, Mabaruma Phase (Appendix, table 9). hee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 103 Base: A. Flat, unthickened or slightly thickened, rarely with a convex in- terior, joining sidewalls at an angle ranging from 25 to 55 degrees ; diameter 5-10 cm., maximum thickness 1.2 em. (fig. 40, A). B. Flat pedestal; thickness 2-10 mm. greater than the body wall; pedestal 8-15 mm. high; diameter 12-14 cm. (fig. 40, B). Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Open bowl with outslanting sidewalls, direct rim and usually rounded but sometimes slightly tapered or flattened lip. Body wall thick- ness 4-10 mm., majority 8 mm.; mouth diameter 10-28 cm., with the majority 18-22 em. (fig. 40-1; pl. 25, a). 2. Bowl or jar with vertical to incurving walls, direct rim, usually rounded but sometimes flattened or tapered lip; body wall thick- ness 4-12 mm., majority 6-8 mm.; mouth diameter 15-34 cm. (fig. 40-2; pl. 25, g). 8. Globular jars with a constricted mouth and an‘exteriorly thickened, flat-topped rim. A coil, usually 1.0-1.5 em. thick, is added to the exterior of the body wall at the rim to produce a broad flat and usually level rim top 1.0-2.3 em. wide; mouth diameter 18-36 em. (fig. 40-3 ; pl. 25, 6, f). 4. Jars with constricted mouth, sharply everted rim and rounded or flattened lip. Rim forms an angular junction with body on in- terior and a rounded one on the exterior. It projects 1.5-2.6 cm. Mouth diameter 20-36 cm. Apparently a globular body is most common, but a few are carinated (fig. 40-4; pl. 25, d-e). Less common vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Small open bowls with a flat flange produced by interior thickening of the rim; the flange is 1.0-1.4 cm. wide; lip rounded; mouth diameter 12-22 cm. 2. Griddles. 0 \ Q a N-14 aS \ a a \ N-15 a N-4, CUT |, 0-8 GM fees oy aes | \ a 5 a 1 N-I,CUT I, 8-16 CM SSS SSS = \ 0 Oo \ 16-24 _———— —<——— [ase] Oo QO S N-21 Sasa) oe 0 0 | ' a ' N-4,CUT |, 8-16 CM [eee reread] eames end \ 4 \ = \ 16-24 ae) eee a 1 ' N-I, CUT |, 24-32 CM ——— == = ' \ o ' oa 32-40CM }) ST = (SSI oO 0 ial i | 40-48 CM SS = eI o fs) Oo a N-22 Sanaa —————3 i} 8 8 0 0 0 N-1, CUT |, 48-56 GM Ss SSS =| a 0 O \ \ N-Il,CUT I, 0-25 CM [et ne et em co om o coo o \ a o 25-50 CM [eco te ce ta a =| [| (ere ces on es oo ot OI =A | ' ! 50-75 CM o D LAS SS Se SSS Smo maemo ' ' 7 ‘ ; . ? ; ; ' ; ; ; MABARUMA HOSORORO HOTOKWAI KOBERIMO WANAINA UNCL, ow < a a a ao BARIMA KORIABO © 10 20 30 40% PLAIN PLAIN PLAIN PLAIN PLAIN PLAIN z,% ze ae fu w @ PLAIN? _ INCISED ALAKA PHASE TYPE eRe <5 zoe zo a a8 KORIABO PHASE ¥ oa <= «22 = z 26 TRADE Ficure 48.—Seriation of Mabaruma Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table 3). ul ~4 ATES per a) rvs + are ati s sina eit Se eae) Selah wie (AS SDM ES FBS BAD wid aie Ut (i et a oy (1s jaca yl MH ie iL siiny a va wire 0..1 THO RIAN ial my wd wae | s : MO eS @ 4 b~hs " “ MOUe8.-5 Ry WoO OF Si! MX er - in LE MD O8-+8> 8-4 -) meee '<8 YF PUD Fo oT MDURM IO FD TU BH d eases ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 119 percent. The pattern of change shown by these plain wares makes it possible to divide the Mabaruma Phase sequence into three distinct parts: an early period with Mabaruma Plain dominant, a middle period with Hotokwai Plain very abundant, and a late period with Koberimo Plain and Hosororo Plain in the majority. This situation makes it easy to identify the general chronological position of any unselected surface collection. Decorated sherds comprise 13.8 percent of the total pottery from Mabaruma Phase sites. These were classified into four decorated types, three of which occur throughout the Phase. Mabaruma In- cised, with one to three broad incisions along the top of strongly everted rims, is most popular in the early part of the sequence, where it reaches a maximum of 4.5 percent. It declines in popularity to 0.1 percent at the latest site. Aruka Incised shows a steady trend of increase from 1.9 percent at the lowest level of N-1 to between 11.7 and 15 percent in the latter part of the Phase. Two of the design motifs are restricted to the middle and upper part of the sequence: Motif 3—Zoned, and Motif 4—Lines on the interior of everted rims (fig. 48). Akawabi Incised and Modeled, in which modeling is com- bined with incised designs, shows a similar increase from 1.2 percent to a maximum of 11.7 percent, but declines slightly toward the end of the Phase. Three of the motifs of this type are time markers: Motif 83—Barrancoid adornos, characteristic of the early and middle part of the sequence, is replaced by Motif 4—Non-Barrancoid ador- nos and Motif 5—Conical nubbins in the later sites. The fourth decorated type, Kaituma Incised and Punctate, is restricted with the exception of three sherds to the latter half of the sequence, where it fluctuates between 0.7 and 4.9 percent without showing any directional trend. The various unclassified decorated sherds are too few and too sporadic in occurrence to be of value as time markers. Trends in vessel shape popularity are difficult to detect because of the small rim sample per level. Furthermore, any apparent tem- poral difference in vessel shapes between pottery types is more likely to reflect the differential frequency of the types than a real difference in the popularity of the vessel form. Koberimo Plain, for example, produces only late shapes because it is a late pottery type. To elimi- nate such extraneous factors, similar forms in the various pottery types were combined and the totals tabulated by levels in seriated order. The results indicated that most of the plain ware vessel shapes were made throughout the Phase, a popular form being transferred to a new ware as an earlier one died out. Since all of the decorated types occur throughout the Phase with very minor changes in frequency, with the exception of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, the vessel shapes were analyzed by presence or 120 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 absence in each pottery type. Except for Mabaruma Incised, where the same two forms are found throughout the sequence (fig. 49), the appearances and disappearances form a pattern that divides the Mabaruma Phase into approximately equal thirds. Characteristic of the early period are: Akawabi Incised and Modeled Form 3 and Aruka Incised Form 4. The middle period introduces Akawabi In- cised and Modeled Form 1, Aruka Incised Forms 1, 2, 3, and 5, and Kaituma Incised and Punctate Form 1, all of which appear almost simultaneously. About half-way through the middle period, 4 more vessel forms appear: Akawabi Incised and Modeled Forms 2 and 4, and Kaituma Incised and Punctate Forms 3 and 4. The late period begins with the appearance of Kaituma Incised and Punctate Form 2. Stone artifacts are too infrequent to be reliable indicators of culture change. Their scattered distribution suggests that most of the types occur throughout the sequence. One possible exception is the hoes, all of which came from three sites in the middle of the Phase (Ap- dendix, table 2). The most commonly used rock material is fine- grained, micaceous schist. Since habitation sites of the Phase vary considerably in size, the area of habitation was calculated and the results arranged in the order of seriation in the hope that this might reveal some change in the settlement pattern. However, of the five largest sites with an area of 5,674 to 17,570 square meters (N-1, N-12, N-16, N-21, N-22), three are in the early part of the sequence and two are late. The remaining sites range from 875 to 3,850 square meters in area. These differences reflect localized factors unrelated to a change in settlement pattern or community size during the Mabaruma Phase. Elevation of the terrain was of no significance as long as it was above flood level. Many of the sites are on the summit of very high hills, some of which seem to have no water supply for domestic use except at the base (e.g., N-1). Others are on river banks or the flank of a hill. Appar- ently a high and well-drained location was preferred for the village. This would explain the clustering of Mabaruma Phase sites in the Aruka River drainage, which contains most of the high land near the coast in the Northwest District. Only two sites (N-4 and Verrill’s Maruiwa Hill) were found somewhat removed from this nucleus on the Barima River. The house type utilized by the Mabaruma Phase is problematical because of the absence of any direct evidence in the form of postholes, which are not detectable under tropical conditions. The rather steep slope of several of the sites, particularly N-19, suggests that raised floors may have been used. The subsistence base of the Mabaruma Phase is suggested by several characteristics of the sites and artifacts. No shellfish remains occur, 120) 513186 O -60 (Face p. ARUKA KAITUMA k INCISED INCISED & PUNCTATE ue: at Ke Ae ey N- N- we aé er ss, and base forms of Mabaruma earliest and latest appearances of livision of the Phase into early, KORIABO PHASE TRADE EAT E MIDDLE EARLY ; . f ath Te bee ud A ; j { ‘ i ( f . vet j 74 i ‘ t 14H ’ ‘ 4 | aya J } i Si es j sn] ‘ ‘ : Lit i h H i" ae ' j y Mul) y ; vem ft ’ , i yt J 1 om i, if é i ive P i f ’ ; " er ar Ak imate Ary j Laue ree irri Tae. l ‘ tu foe ofa siete, ine ’ § oa ne vi ve ; 7 moe te FG eg) al j ; , re Te ane | ane a ae a f ry Af H j j ¥ t ‘ay ny % sep (fl ey \ ee ; Ly nf yeni ¢ } \ =~ ra) hee fil 7.2 rie ' ae 5 aD 513186 O -60 (Face p. 120) eS eer ea, Pl alae | Tela | KAITUMA MABA- PLAIN WARE AKAWABI ARUKA KAITUMA KORIABO NadELED ED INCISED & | RUMA BASE FORM INCISED & INCISED ‘NGiREDWE ARlee PUNCTATE INCISED MODELED PUNCTATE TRADE N-12: 0-8 & SURFACE -12: 8-16 CM N-12: 16-24 CM -12:24-326M -12:32-400CM : N-19 z N-20; 0-8 CM N-20: 8-16 GM -16 N-20:16-24 CM N-20: 24-32 CM -13: 0-15 CM -13:15-306M W -13:' 30-45 CM A N-13: 45-60 CM = = N-1:0-86CM N-14 N-15 N-4:0-8 CM N-1: 8-16 CM N-1: 16-24 CM N-2I N-4: 8-16 CM > N-4:16-24 CM x -1: 24-32 6M s N-1|: 32-40 CM N-1: 40-48 CM N-22 N-1: 48-56 CM PEDESTAL n a a De) ow a a ro er) aS nm FLAT ANNU- LAR Ficure 49.—Temporal distribution of vessel shapes and decorative motifs of Mabaruma Phase decorated pottery types, and base forms of Mabaruma Phase pottery types. Sites and levels are arranged in seriated order shown in fig. 48, and the bars connect the earliest and latest appearances of each trait. The tendency of changes to cluster at two principal points in the sequence forms the basis for subdivision of the Phase into early, middle and late periods, ae eon szooM |) at ae i | 20aNRdel iD B= 2RERM Yoo a= @. ai | wo ea al PM te oe aa et-ss | shew i Ng el el ee a) uo 8-0 108 nail mee Nie vey = Hh : Ps Mowe ~ Ol OS aw WeOo Re 08'"Ad) | Me Aint «Bios a eal ame a aie i deed: eb we 09-88 bie M, . oP wo b- 01 owe ; ee Mo eS Ub ee Bee ta, i MaOe ee uF J : ? igh | 2" ye eb Oe a merry, Het aE wo pelo f ae ae ae E d ieee 35 ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 121 except at site N-4, indicating that this food resource so thoroughly exploited by the Alaka Phase was not utilized by the Mabaruma Phase. Although no direct evidence exists, it can be concluded that the major food supply was derived from agriculture. Indirect evidence in the form of pottery griddles suggests that the staple crop was manioc. One mano fragment and two metate fragments may reflect a supple- mentary use of maize, although the reconstructed size of the metates is smaller than that usually associated with maize grinding. There is little evidence of burial pattern. The only skeletal remains identified with the Phase are three found by Verrill (1918 a, p. 15) at N-16. These were lying side by side, with the legs flexed and the faces toward the east. The central one, identified as a male, had a pottery bowl over the occiput. Since no burials have been found in other habitation sites, it is possible that this is an exceptional rather than a typical example of burial practice. Sites in the latter third of the Mabaruma Phase sequence produced trade sherds of Koriabo Incised (fig. 48). Both the paste and the characteristics of the decoration identify these as of Koriabo Phase origin. These sherds are significant because they reflect a commerce between the two Phases that is better documented in the other direc- tion by a considerable amount of Mabaruma Phase trade pottery in Koriabo Phase sites (see pp. 139-141). The unequal balance of trade is readily explainable by the superiority of the Mabaruma Phase ceramics both technically and artistically to those of the Koriabo Phase. Trade sherds of cariapé-tempered Barima Plain occur at sites throughout the Mabaruma Phase in a small frequency (fig. 48). This type has been tentatively identified with the Koriabo Phase, but it is possible that both Phases received it from an unidentified third source (see pp. 151-152). Site N-11 of the Alaka Phase has been placed at the bottom of the Mabaruma Phase seriation chart (fig. 48) because it shows the gradual replacement of the Alaka Phase shell-tempered Wanaina Plain with Mabaruma Phase pottery types. Although N-11 is in drained mangrove swamp and the lower levels are below the water line so that migration of specimens could have occurred, it is diffi- cult to believe that the trend of change would have remained so consistent if there had been much of this kind of disturbance. The decline in popularity of Wanaina Plain from 94.3 percent to 53.0 percent to 14.8 percent is correlated with the increasing frequency in the same levels of the three early Mabaruma Phase plain wares, Mabaruma Plain, Hosororo Plain, and Hotokwai Plain. This does not represent the origin of the Mabaruma Phase, but rather trade or contact between it and the Alaka Phase. The presence of a small percentage of sherds of Koberimo Plain and Kaituma Incised and 122 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Punctate, both of which are typical of the middle to late part of the Mabaruma Phase, suggests that this contact may span a rather long period of time after the arrival of the Mabaruma Phase in the Northwest District. If the upper level of N-11 is taken as indicative of the proportions of the pottery types in the contemporary Mabaruma Phase site, it would correlate approximately with the upper two levels of N-1 (fig. 48). Perhaps the contact between the two Phases spans the occupation of N-1. It seems to have been characterized by gradually increasing intensity culminating in the disappearance of the Alaka Phase (cf. pp. 59-63). It should be noted that the distinction made by Osgood (1946, pp. 48-49, 58) between the pottery at Mabaruma and Kumaka has not been followed with the same emphasis here. Seriation of the strati- eraphic excavations shows that these two sites are connected by a con- tinuous pattern of ceramic evolution, so that they represent different portions of a continuum rather than distinct complexes. Our inter- pretation supports Osgood’s conclusion that the two sites are chrono- logically separated and further documents the similarities that he recognized between them. DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE MABARUMA PHASE The 14 habitation sites representing the Mabaruma Phase exhibit wide variation in size and depth of refuse deposit. The area ranges from 875 to 17,570 square meters, with sites of all sizes found through- out the sequence. Village permanency is extremely variable, judging from the fact that four sites have refuse deposits of 5 em. or less in depth, and six of 30 cm. or more, with a maximum of 65 cm. All the sites are on land that is above flood level, but the location may be anywhere from a riverbank 1 to 2 meters above high water to the summit of a hill some 90 meters in elevation. Rapid decay of organic materials that were used in house construction makes it difficult to reconstruct the type of dwelling. The existence of sites on a sloping hillside like N-19 suggests that houses may have had raised floors. No cemeteries have been discovered, and the only evidence of burial pattern comes from a few skeletons found by Verrill (1918 a, p. 15) at N-16. These were lying with the legs flexed and the faces toward the east. One had a pottery bowl covering the back of the head. The seriation of the Mabaruma Phase sites is based on changes in the relative popularity of four plain and four decorated pottery types. Coarse-tempered Mabaruma Plain, dominant in the early part of the sequence, gives way to fine-sand-tempered Hosororo Plain. Steatite- tempered Hotokwai Plain reaches a climax about the middle of the Phase, and mica-tempered Koberimo Plain is a diagnostic late type. Kaituma Incised and Punctate, in which incisions are combined with E and mvena an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 123 punctates to produce the decoration, is characteristic of the latter half of the sequence. The other three decorated types show slight changes in popularity but are present throughout the Phase. They are Mabaruma Incised, with incised lines along the top of broad, everted rims; Akawabi Incised and Modeled, which combines inci- sions with low to high relief modeling; and Aruka Incised, in which the rim or vessel surface is ornamented with incised designs. Vessel shapes are typically bowls with a variety of thickened, unthickened, and everted rim forms, and rounded jars with constricted mouths. Base forms include annular, flat, and flat pedestal, with the annular base characteristic of the early part of the Phase. With the possible exception of pot rests, both pottery artifacts and stone implements are rare. The latter include choppers, flake blades, hammerstones, pos- sible hoes, fragments of manos and metates, and polished celts. The inception of the Mabaruma Phase is estimated at about A.D. 500 (p. 147). It is intrusive into the Northwest District and appears to have originated in a migration from the delta of the Orinoco. Changes in the popularity of pottery types, vessel shapes, and decorative motifs make it possible to subdivide the Phase into three periods (figs. 48, 49). The early period is characterized by a predominance of Barrancoid characteristics, the middle period by the introduction of a different style of modeling and several other innovations in vessel shape and decorative motifs, and the final period by contact with the Koriabo Phase. Since no archeological complex was found in the survey that follows it in time, the Mabaruma Phase presumably lasted until European contact. However, no objects of European origin were found in any of the late sites. 513186—60——_10 THE KORIABO PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS The Koriabo Phase is represented by 4 sites, 3 in the Barima River drainage and 1 on a tributary of the Waini River. All are habita- tions and all had sufficient depth of refuse for stratigraphic excavation. N-2: KORIABO A high bank on the right side of the Barima River, just below the mouth of Koriabo Creek, has been occupied for several decades by a Government Rest House, used by officials and travelers on government business. Probably because of this, the archeological site on the same spot has come to the attention of a number of visitors. The first report appears to be that of Elias Toro, a Venezuelan anthropologist who was a member of the 1905 British Guiana-Venezuela boundary commission. He describes the site as containing an abundance of “utensils of quartz, clay adornos .. . and the remains of pots and burial urns of baked clay” (in Osgood, 1946, p. 82). Verrill (1918 a, p. 17) describes Koriabo as “a lateritic hill of decided red colour,” which produced “no shells but numerous pieces of decorated pottery, heads and many finely finished stone implements.” He illustrates several decorated sherds from the site (op. cit., fig. 18), all of which are Mabaruma Phase trade material. / fay Po “4 4 A a b CHATEAU MARGOT MON REPOS ENMORE | 6*) e SEBA recorded by other investigators. S$13186 O -60 (Face p_ 146) 4 8° 7 ( — = \ aN oe / 4 SS ° 7 XY 6° D ye ° a ¢ \ 4° %, aa N\A KAW INT \s1RIK! o\\\piracca 4 “ang CABACJABURI cuy yet If v CHATEAU MARGOT MON REPOS ENMORE an > aes o on i / 8 S) o u ry yy 60° 69° Ficure 58,—Coast of British Guiana, showing the areal distribution of the archeological Phases and the location of sites recorded by other investigators. Site locations are from Osgood (1946, fig. 1) and Carter (1943, fig. 13). D “entyne oS 57° ean Oe ae att " ari an Aid Was : wh MWD Is) ’ : ieee Pane’ ee Pie AS hci? LAI a Reema (ARTO fit , ; pee tana md me mercer ae “x moi. —— bes ng ~ waft ‘ eer oe } } an d \ Cy fei ia! ‘ ee be Ve if Ca tay Bs ey Yom Nig Nero tw en / alt s Nel -— 5 , Y \aeo ¥) \ \ 7 ‘ a y be” =, - : a L roe \ b . Ver } J ' } / > " a err { Cr ' ’ 5° } } men ha i by pti a yon Pinnine atid ae Ce ee eye hits fa, 3) enc. Carter (A983, Bp: 10. Nye ’ ‘ 4 puaneand ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 147 Phase, which soon dominated the Aruka River area, displacing or ab- sorbing the already semiacculturated, earlier inhabitants (fig. 58). The origin of the Mabaruma Phase can be determined with unusual precision, thanks to the work of Cruxent and Rouse at the mouth of the Orinoco River. The sequence of pottery-making cultures in that area begins with Saladero and continues through Barrancas, Los Barran- cos, Guarguapo, and Apostadero styles (Cruxent and Rouse, 1959, pp. 211-237). The characteristic features of the early Mabaruma Phase equate most closely with those of Los Barrancos, where incision pre- dominates over modeled-incised decoration (rather than the reverse which was typical of the earlier Barrancas style). The fact that Los Barrancos style is one of the most widespread at the mouth of the Orinoco suggests that this time was one of expansion of the culture, of which the movement into British Guiana is an expression. The carbon 14 date for Los Barrancos style at the mouth of the Orinoco is 1,370+90 years ago or ca. A.D. 575 (op. cit., p. 230), which seems reasonable in terms of the British Guiana sequence and is acceptable as an approximate beginning date for the Mabaruma Phase in British Guiana (fig. 126). There is quite a bit of change in Mabaruma Phase pottery during the estimated thousand years or so that the Phase appears to have en- dured in British Guiana. This change tends to be gradual, although there are several points at which a number of new vessel shapes and decorative motifs appear almost simultaneously, suggesting that an outside influence may be involved. This clustering was the basis for subdividing the Mabaruma Phase sequence into early, middle, and late segments (fig. 49). The existence of an initial date of around A.D. 500 (by correlation with the lower Orinoco date for Los Barrancos) and a terminal date of about A.D. 1600, when European settlement began in the area, makes it possible to establish a tentative estimated time scale. Assuming that the changes of pottery frequencies are generally equal throughout, the sequence can be arbitrarily divided into 100-year intervals. This subdivision gives guess dates of A.D. 500-850 for the early period, A.D. 850-1250 for the middle period, and A.D. 1250-1600 for the late period. The early period is characterized by such typical Barrancoid traits as modeled-incised adornos, broadline incision on a broad flange rim, annular bases, and sand temper. The middle period is marked by the introduction of a number of simple rounded bowl and jar forms and several new decorative motifs, including a cruder form of adorno and new combinations of punctate and incision. The large number of innovations that appear almost simultaneously at this time sug- gest some kind of outside influence, but the origin of this is difficult to trace. The only really unique element to appear is the small, 148 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 caricaturelike adorno, with large coffee-bean eyes, exaggerated nose, and applique construction. Adornos of similar style are known from the Corobal Phase on the Ventuari River, a tributary of the Upper Orinoco in the interior of Venezuela (Evans, Meggers, and Cruxent, 1960, pp. 359-369). Contact between this area and that occupied by the Mabaruma Phase would have been easy via land and the inland waterways of southeastern Venezuela. The fact that no similar modeling is reported from coastal Venezuela, the other Guianas, or the Amazon suggests that the style is not wide- spread in northern South America and tends to strengthen the im- portance of the Corobal Phase resemblances. If this is the correct explanation, it follows that connections between the two groups were less close or intense than those between the Mabaruma Phase and its neighbors in British Guiana. This would explain the absence of trade sherds between the Corobal and Mabaruma Phases and the failure of either to adopt the most typical forms of decoration used by the other. The Mabaruma Phase is unusual in the strength of the influence that it exerted on its coastal neighbors. The most striking example is the Abary Phase, the pottery of which shows considerable evi- dence of acculturation in both vessel shape and decoration. ‘The abundance of trade sherds of Mabaruma Phase origin in the earliest Abary Phase site can be used to arrive at an approximate date for the beginning of this contact, which is estimated to have started be- tween A.D. 1000 and 1200. Since no comparable Abary Phase influence on the Mabaruma Phase can be detected, evidence of the relations between the two Phases has been discussed in detail in the analysis of the Abary Phase (see pp. 182, 185-186). Mabaruma Phase trade sherds also occur in sites of the Koriabo Phase, a late arrival in the Northwest District. In this case, there is evidence of trade in both directions because Koriabo Phase decorated sherds have been recovered from late sites of the Mabaruma Phase. The late portion of the Mabaruma Phase sequence is, in fact, characterized by this evidence of Koriabo Phase contact as well as by the loss of virtually all the diagnostic early Barrancoid features (fig. 48). At atime not precisely identifiable, but probably during the middle period, the Mabaruma Phase expanded its territory eastward (fig. 58). Several sites have been reported from Hast Coast Demerara, all of which are characterized by the typical late Mabaruma Phase vessel shapes and forms of decoration (this bulletin, fig. 59, pp. 186- 187; Osgood, 1946, figs. 12-13; Im Thurn, 1884, pp. 126-187 and pls. 15-17). The descriptions do not specify details of temper and paste, but the implied abundance of decoration is far greater than that in the Abary Phase so that it does not seem likely that the sherds are of trade Evans and ana a ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 149 Ficure 59.—Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled from sites between the Northwest District and the Abary River. a-d, Chateau Margot. e-g, Mon Repos. h-i, Moruka River. All after Walter E. Roth (MS.). 150 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 origin. Nothing is known of the coast between the Mahaica and Abary Rivers so that the exact limit of the late Mabaruma Phase expan- sion cannot be specified at present. Survey of the Abary River produced sites of a different culture, designated as the Abary Phase (fig. 58), which shows clear indications of contact with late Mabaruma Phase sites, possibly those of the adjacent East Coast Demerara (see pp. 186-187 for details). A somewhat comparable expansion into the Orinoco delta has been postulated by Cruxent and Rouse (1959, pp. 237, 262) to account for the appearance of their Apostadero style, which closely resembles the late Mabaruma Phase pottery in decorative technique and motif (op. cit., pls. 102-104). Since Apostadero is separated from the earlier Los Barrancos style by an intrusive culture using sponge spicule tempered pottery and designated as the Guarguapo style, these authors do not recognize the Apostadero style as a continuation of the Barrancoid tradition. The situation in British Guiana, however, makes it quite clear that the Apostadero style is a variant of the late Mabaruma Phase. Cruxent and Rouse (op. cit. pp. 233, 287) date its appearance in Venezuela as post-European because of the presence of European trade sherds. In terms of the British Guiana sequence, this dating is within the realm of possibility. The last group to settle in the Northwest District was the Koriabo Phase, whose area of occupation centers on the Barima River (fig. 58). In paste, vessel shape, and decoration, the pottery of this Phase is distinct from that of the Mabaruma Phase, with the result that trade sherds are easily recognized. While all Koriabo Phase sites contain a considerable quantity of Mabaruma Phase trade sherds, Koriabo Phase trade sherds are limited to sites in the late part of the Maba- ruma Phase sequence, making it possible to estimate the time of arrival of the Koriabo Phase in the Northwest District of British Guiana as somewhere around A.D. 1200 by correlation with the estimated Mabaruma Phase time scale. In searching for the derivation of the Koriabo Phase, the distinc- tive nature of the ceramic complex is helpful. Vessel shapes include flaring rim bowls (e.g., Koriabo Scraped Form 1) and angular rimmed jars (e.g., Koriabo Scraped Forms 2 and 3). Bowls frequently have lip ornamentation in the form of lobes (pls. 34, 35). Incised and scraped decoration consists of simple patterns, sometimes embellished with low relief (pls. 38, 35, 36). Sherds with features very similar to these have been recovered from the Charlesburg site near Parama- ribo on the coast of Dutch Guiana by Peter Goethals (MS.), who kindly allowed us to examine his material and manuscript in detail. The same complex associated with the Koriabo Phase occurs here, including rim lobes, incised and scraped decoration accompanied by B d aces ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 151 Tf Ficure 60.—Rim profiles of sand-tempered (top) and cariapé-tempered (bottom) sherds from the Charlesburg site near Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, collected by Peter Goethals and deposited in the Peabody Museum, Yale University. occasional relief (pl. 37), outfiaring bowls and angular rimmed jars (fig. 60). The only major difference between this pottery and that of the Koriabo Phase is in temper. Classification shows the sample of 332 shreds to be almost equally divided between those with sand (44.5 percent) and those with cariapé (41.8 percent), with the remain- ing few containing particles of black ash. In the Koriabo Phase, cariapé-tempered sherds never exceed 6.8 percent of the total, and this maximum is near the middle of the seriated sequence rather than at the beginning (fig. 57). Nevertheless, in view of the other close sim- ilarities between these two complexes, and in the absence of any evidence of affiliations to the west in Venezuela or to the south, deriva- tion of the Koriabo Phase from Dutch Guiana seems the most logical conclusion. Although the chronological position of the Charlesburg site is unknown, this inference is strengthened by the extension of the distribution of outflaring lobed rims and similar styles of incised and scraped decoration along the Guiana coast as far as the Aristé Phase in the northern part of the Territory of Amap4. On the basis of the chronological position of these traits in the Territory of Amapa, it has been concluded that their geographical distribution corresponds to a northwestward path of diffusion in relatively late times (Meggers and Evans, 1957, fig. 206). The movement of the Koriabo Phase into the Northwest District is in keeping with this interpretation and 152 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 represents the western limit of the penetration. Interestingly, there have been no sites with similar ceramic traits reported in the region between Paramaribo and the Northwest District. Both the Mabaruma Phase and the Koriabo Phase include in their ceramic complexes a small percentage of sherds with cariapé temper. The highest frequency occurs in the Koriabo Phase, and in view of the postulated origin of this Phase, its presence here can be interpreted as the residue of what was once a major ware. However, the case of the Mabaruma Phase is more complex. The sherds here are too rare to suggest anything but a trade origin, and this conclusion is strength- ened by the fact that cariapé tempering does not exist in the Barran- coid style from which the Mabaruma Phase is derived. It would be easy to conclude that the Mabaruma Phase cariapé-tempered sherds were acquired from the Koriabo Phase by trade except for two factors: (1) Barima Plain is not a major Koriabo Phase ware at the sites identified in the Northwest District, and (2) decorated sherds known to have originated in the Koriabo Phase are limited to late Mabaruma Phase sites, whereas cariapé-tempered plain sherds occur throughout the sequence (fig. 48). Since pottery complexes in which cariapé temper is characteristic are not reported from the lower Orinoco, coastal Venezuela, or the coast of the Guianas during the period represented by the early part of the Mabaruma Phase sequence, the only apparent conclusion is that these sherds reflect contact with an unidentified interior group. Cariapé is the dominant form of temper used in the Nericagua Phase of the middle Orinoco, and carbon 14 dating gives this Phase an antiquity comparable to that of the Mabaruma Phase. In view of the probable later influence on Mabaruma Phase modeling stemming from this area, this interpreta- tion seems possible. The termination of the aboriginal occupation of the Northwest District is assumed to correlate with the initiation of European settle- ment around the beginning of the 17th century. The survival of either the Mabaruma Phase or the Koriabo Phase into the post- European period cannot be proved since no trade items were encountered. However, the fact that many of the Rupununi Phase sites lacked such objects in spite of their 19th or even 20th century date suggests that the absence of this kind of evidence cannot be taken as reliable indication of pre-European dating. European china is reported by Cruxent and Rouse (1959, pp. 286-237) in association with the Apostadero style at the mouth of the Orinoco. This site also produced a Koriabo Phase trade sherd, implying the survival of both Mabaruma and Koriabo Phases into the post-European period in that region. Whether these Phases continued to exist as long in the Northwest District of British Guiana cannot be determined on E d aanean ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 153 the basis of present evidence. The possibility that the Koriabo Phase may have retreated toward the interior is raised by the presence of sherds of Koriabo Scraped (pl. 36, f/-2) and Koriabo Incised (pl. 36, 7) at Site R-40 of the Rupununi Phase. However, the fact that this site dates from the middle of the 19th century (table N), more than 200 years after the presumed termination of the aboriginal period in the Northwest District, suggests that the Koriabo Phase sherds may not be associated with the Rupununi Phase occupation. Historical accounts and archives relating to the Northwest District frequently mention Indians, but the descriptions are too general to be tied in with the archeological remains. Although Warrau and Carib groups still constitute a large component of the local population, there is no way of determining whether they are deculturated descend- ants of the prehistoric inhabitants or later immigrants into the area. THE ABARY RIVER THE ABARY PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS Three sites were excavated along the course of the Abary River (fig. 61). All are habitations with sufficient depth of refuse for stratigraphic excavation, and all belong to the same culture, the Abary Phase. B-1: TIGER ISLAND The majority of the land along the lower Abary River is low and subject to flooding in the rainy season. About 43 km. above the mouth, there is a low rise on the left bank known as Tiger Island (fig. 62; pl. 38, a). Its nearly flat surface is 1.5 meters above high water level. During the rainy season the surrounding area is flooded except for a stretch of about 100 meters along the riverbank just south of Tiger Island, which remains exposed but somewhat soggy. Tiger Island is rectanguloid, with sloping edges. Its eastern side is 25 meters from the river channel. The summit, which corresponds to the area of the site, is 60 by 180 meters, with the longer dimension paralleling the shore. The island was occupied in 1953 by a house and a rice barn. The northern half had been used for gardening, and the southern part was in grass closely cropped from grazing cattle. Sherds were abundant on the eroded slopes and on the surface where the grass was short and worn away. Two small stratigraphic excavations were made in the south half of the site, where the disturbance appeared to be minimal. Cut 1, 3 by 1 meters, was placed on the highest part of the southern half of the site, in the quarter nearest the riverbank. It was excavated in 8-cm. levels. The following features were observed : Level 0- 8cm__ Black, loamy clay, packed hard from trampling of cattle; a few quartz chips and hunks of fire-burnt clay; sherds small and abundant. Level 8-16 cm__ Soil looser black loam; sherds larger. Level 16-24 cm__ Conditions same. Level 24-32 cm__ Conditions same. Level 32-40 em__ Soil still black; sherds sparser; clear quartz chip. Level 40-48 cm__. Black soil streaked with tan to yellowish particles, more compact and damper; sterile at 40-45 cm.; sterile soil below 45 em. is light tan to grayish tan. 154 155 ATLANTIG FOREST SAVANNA 23 4 5 KM PILI dana ol TIGER ISLAND LANDING ew 0B vss ig oD ere) ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA location of the archeological sites of the Abary Phase. 513186—60——12 Evans and Meggers] Ficure 61.—Map of the Abary River region, showing the vegetation pattern and the 156 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 FLOODED SAVANNA Ficure 62.—Sketch map of B-1: Tiger Island, a habitation site of the Abary Phase. Cut 2, 1 by 1 meter, was placed in the southwestern quarter of the site. The surface here was covered with grass. This excavation showed the following characteristics of the refuse deposit: Level 0O- 8cm__ Soil very hard; light gray at the surface, becoming darker below 4 em.; sherds small. Level 8-16cm__ Soil medium gray. Level 16-24 cm__ Conditions same. Level 24-32 cm__. Conditions same; traces of charcoal and bone. Level 32-40 cem__ Conditions same. Level 40-48 cm__ Sherds larger and more numerous. Level 48-56 cm__ Soil lighter gray flecked with orange; majority of sherds from west half of cut; very compact, sticky, light-tan sterile clay below 54 cm., except for small area on west side where sherds continue to 57 cm. B-2: DR. HO’S LANDING About 72 km. above the mouth of the Abary River, the land begins to rise slightly, and forest replaces the swamp vegetation. On the left bank at this point is a small, irregularly shaped, natural elevation in the flood plain. It was originally covered with trees, which were cut when a vacation cottage was erected by Dr. Ho (fig. 61). The elevation is somewhat hourglass shaped, with a length of 69 meters generally paralleling the river. Two wide parts, 30 and 26 meters in width, are separated by a narrow neck. Two small knolls reach an elevation of 1 meter above flood level. Sherds visible on eroded parts of the surface and in drainage ditches indicate that the site occupied all but the low, northeast end of the elevation. A 1- by 2-meter strata cut, controlled in 8-cm. levels, was placed on the southwest knoll with the following results: pene ana ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 157 Level 0- S8cm__ Grass roots heavy. Sandy, light-tan to gray soil streaked with orange concretions. Sherds scattered and badly eroded. One fragment of clear glass from recent mixture. Level 8-16em__ Soil darker gray in northeastern third of the cut; traces of charcoal and streaks of orange; soil in remainder of cut a light-brown, sandy loam. Level 16-24 cm__. Continuation of darker soil in northeast part of cut; majority of sherds come from the other end, where sandy loam continues. Level 24-32 em__ Conditions same as previous level except for appearance of hunks of bright orange clay ; sherds sparse. Level 32-40 em__ Conditions same. Level 40-48 em__ Conditions same. Level 48-56 cm__ Sterile at 50 em. in northeast part; at 55 cm. elsewhere. Sterile soil light-gray, sandy clay with large bright red- orange iron stains and occasional small iron concretions. B-3: TAURAKULI About 95 km. above the mouth of the Abary River, a relatively high hill extends to the margin of the left bank (figs. 61, 63). The opposite shore is low and floods in the rainy season. The whole region is forest except a clearing for some distance in from the left bank for pasture and gardening. The site is on the highest part of the bank, a knoll that rises 5 meters above flood level (pl. 38, &). It extends for 62 meters along the summit of the hill and 40 to 42 meters inward be- ginning at the 1-meter contour line above high water level. The area Ficure 63.—Sketch map of B-3: Taurakuli, a habitation site of the Abary Phase. 158 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 has been exploited for a number of years by Alfred Read for small- scale cattle raising and agriculture. In digging fence posts for build- ing the house (which is south of the site), the owner found sherds, a stone ax, a mano, and a hammerstone. Two stratigraphic excavations were made in the refuse deposit. Cut 1, 2 by 2 meters, was dug near the southwest edge of the site near the top of the sloping river bank. Excavation in 8 cm. levels produced the following results: Level 0- 8 cm_. Black loam with frequent small hard clay lumps of ir- regular shape; many grass roots; sherds sparse. Level 8-16 cm__ Black loam with lumps of clay continues; 2 quartz chips; sherds more abundant. Level 16-24 em__ Conditions same as preceding level. Level 24-32 em__ Conditions same. Level 32-40 cm__ Soil more compact at 32 cm., with more abundant clay lumps. A few sherds to 40 cm.; sterile below. Sterile whitish sand appears at 75 cm. Cut 2, also 2 by 2 meters, was placed on the summit, 12 meters from the west edge of the site. The surface here was covered with tall grass. Excavation in 8 cm. levels revealed the following characteristics: Level 0- 8cem__ Dark gray, sandy loam, not as black as in Cut 1; scattered clay lumps. Sherds sparse. Level 8-16 cm__ Soil color slightly darker than in preceding level, sherds more abundant; tiny quartz fiakes. Level 16-24 em__ Soil black and sandy; clay lumps less frequent than in Cut i. Sherds small but very abundant. Level 24-32 em_. Soil black, sherds abundant. Level 32-40 em__ Conditions same as preceding level. Level 40-48 em__ Conditions same. Level 48-56 cm__ Conditions same to 50 cm.; between 50 to 70 cm., the soil is slightly lighter in color and more compact; between 70 to 85 em., scattered flecks of white sand appear and clay lumps are abundant. Below 85 cm., the amount of white sand increases steadily. Sterile below 50 ecm. DATA FROM OTHER INVESTIGATIONS The only other previous investigations on the Abary were under- taken by Verrill (1918 b). Unfortunately, the exact locations of the two sites he visited are not specified, and the map (op. cit., fig. 5) shows too little of the area for orientation. The first site is on “some fairly dry verdured land further up the river [than his previous searching], which formed a sort of cape or peninsula extending for several miles across the savannah and bordering upon the river” (op. cit., pp. 21-22). It produced potsherds, stone implements, rounded and polished quartz pebbles, and a bead made by perforating an ame- thyst pebble (loc. cit.). The stone implements illustrated (op. cit., fig. 1) include a parallel-sided, side-notched ax with a flat butt, two petalloid celts, three almost parallel-sided axes with both blade and BH d ane an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 159 butt slightly convex, a long slender pestle and two objects unidenti- fiable in the photograph. The second site was a cemetery. It was located on a knoll “several hundred feet from the river and . . . surrounded on all sides by a deep swamp and almost impenetrable high grass. It rose about 10 or 12 feet above the river [and savannah] level and formed a spur or promontory to a low ridge [about 6 feet in height] extending parallel with the river for about one thousand feet. . . . Close to the first knoll the ridge was broken by swampy spots or sloughs, thus isolating the knoll . . .” (op. cit., p. 22 and figs. 2,3). Excavation re- vealed a series of burial urns just below the surface. Their situation is described as follows: In each and every case a thin layer, about 6 inches, of loam, covered a heavy roughly fashioned piece of baked clay,—evidently the cover to a large vessel, and directly under this were the remains of an immense pot; collapsed and broken to be sure, but easily traced, with the bottom resting on a bed of char- coal, black mud and lumps of burnt clay. This same material also surrounded each pot and there could be no question that the pots had been placed in the midst of a fire, the whole had been surrounded by a wall of earth and that in the process of burning the fire had baked the irregular lumps of clay in the earth to semibrick. In many cases two, or even three, layers of these pots and fires were found, and in every case deeper excavations revealed the undisturbed bed of clay and sand of the savannah. ... No traces of bones, stone implements or other utensils were found within the pots, but each was filled with a fine, pasty, black material which might well have been the re- mains of incinerated bones or flesh. [Op. cit. pp. 22-23 and fig. 4.] The area occupied by the cemetery is described as very large. Urns are said to extend for nearly 600 feet along the ridge over a width of 150 feet. Tests showed them to be so close together that the sides touched (loc. cit.). Although Verrill estimates the total number of urns as approximately 30,000, experience with other urn burial cemeteries suggests that this figure is entirely too high. Unfortunately no description is given of the burial urns, except that they are “immense.” One shown in a sketch (op. cit., fig. 4) has an annular base, a rounded body, and an everted rim. Walter E. Roth (MS., p. 46 and pl. 83-1) speaks of a “chest orna- ment” from the Abary. The illustration (fig. 64) shows a flat disk with a sprawled figure incised on the surface. Its provenience is unknown, its material is not stated, and it resembles nothing else from the area. ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL All Abary Phase artifacts are of pottery or stone. Pottery is by far the most abundant, although fragments of stone implements came from all three sites. This material will be discussed by types; details of ie and provenience are given in the Appendix, tables 24 and 25. 160 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Ficure 64.—Decorated disk said to come from a burial site on the Abary River (after W. E. Roth, MS., pl. 33-1). STONE ARTIFACT TYPES Only 46 stones showing working were found, and only 21 are arti- facts, the others are cores or chips (Appendix, table 24). All the tools are ground or polished. Rock materials include andesite, granite, fine-grained schist, quartzite, and gabbro. Limonite and hematite were used for rubbing stones. Adz (fig. 65, 6).—The only example of an adz is well polished with the sides slightly convex, tapering from the greatest width at the blade end toward the butt, which is battered from hammering. The faces are parallel, the butt flat and the blade off center. The corners of the blade have been broken off. Length is 6.5 em., width at the blade 5 cm., width at the butt 3.3 cm., thickness 1.8 cm. Axes or celts (fig. 65, a, c).—Seven ax fragments were identified, the majority too small to reconstruct the size of the original object. One complete specimen has parallel sides and a convex blade and butt. Both ends are battered from chopping and hammering. The surfaces taper from a maximum thickness of 3.2 cm. at the center toward both ends. Length is 9.2 cm., width 5.5 cm. One fragment of a butt tapers to a small end. Surfaces are polished on all the examples. Several complete axes from the Abary are illustrated by Verrill (1918 b, fig. 1). The excavated fragments suggest that the majority have a parallel-sided or petalloid form. One is aberrant, having deep, side notches a short distance from the butt end; this form is typical of the Rupununi Phase (cf. fig. 119; pl. 61). EB d Huansian ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 161 Ori a Sim, 4 CM Ficure 65.—Stone artifacts of the Abary Phase. a,c, Axes. b, Adz. d-e, Hammerstones. Bead (fig. 67, d).—A single example of a polished, cylindrical bead is made of feldspar with traces of serpentine impurities. The sides are parallel and the outline is circular. The ends are flat but cut at a slight angle so that length varies from 7-9 mm. Diameter is 1.15 cm. The hole is biconically drilled and tapers from a diameter of 3 mm. at the surface to 2.5 mm. on the interior. Hammersiones (fig. 65, d-e)—Five hammerstone fragments are made from rounded natural pebbles or portions thereof, which show battering on the edges. One is andesite, the rest granite. The bat- tered ends are ovoid and measure from 5.8 by 3.5 cm. to 2.2 by 1.5 cm. Manos (fig. 66, a-c).—The four stones showing use as manos are made from three different kinds of stone: granite, andesite, and 162 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bull, 177 Ficure 66.—Stone artifacts of the Abary Phase. a-c, Manos or mano fragments. d, Metate. gabbro. One has two flat faces on an otherwise rounded surface. All parts show some wear, including the flattened ends. The original stone was apparently a rounded pebble. Length is 9.2 cm., maximum width tapers from 6.5 cm. at one end to 6.0 cm. at the other. Another is rounded with slightly flattened ends and is of the proper size and contours to have been used with the metate fragment described below. It is 5.2 cm. in maximum diameter and 4.0 cm. thick. Most of the wear is on the rounded ends. pezegana ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 163 2 j Ficure 67.—Stone and pottery artifacts of the Abary Phase. a-c, Pottery bead. d, Stone bead. e-g, Hematite rubbing stone. /-j, Limonite rubbing stone. Metate (fig. 66, d)—A disk-shaped piece of granite is worn on both surfaces as though it had been used for grinding, perhaps as the metate for the mano mentioned in the previous paragraph. The edges are worn, suggesting that the same tool may have also been used as a pestle. It is 9.5 to 8.2 cm. in diameter and 2.0 to 3.5 em. thick. Rubbing stones (fig. 67, e-7). —Small pieces of limonite or hematite were used as rubbing stones. They are irregular in shape and all 164 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 surfaces are scratched or worn. The two examples are 2.3 by 2.0 by 1.0 cm. and 2.5 by 1.5 by 1.3 cm. Chips and cores.—Fragments of andesite, felsite, quartzite, granite, and quartz occur in the habitation refuse. Some show a bulb of per- cussion, a few may have been used as scrapers, but the majority are apparently discards. It is of interest that the majority are of quartz, a rock that was not used for any of the artifacts (Appendix, table 24). POTTERY TYPE DESCRIPTIONS A total of 15,039 sherds of unquestioned manufacture by the Abary Phase provide the basis for the classification and description of the pottery types. Less than 1 percent of these were decorated. No complete or restorable vessels were found, hence all the vessel shapes have been reconstructed from the characteristics of the rim, base, and body sherds. The pottery types were named according to the binomial system, and are described in alphabetical order. The provenience and quantity of the sherds are given in the Appendix, table 25. ABARY PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling; sherds frequently break on coil line. Coils are typically 1 cm. thick. Broken edges are concavo-convex or beveled. Temper: Quartz sand, with most particles 1 mm. or less in maximum dimen- sion; rare grains are 2-5 mm. Size of temper particles tends to vary only slightly in a single sherd, i.e., if one grain is large the majority will be above 1 mm. Temper is sufficiently abundant to give a sandpaper texture to eroded surfaces. Texture: Sandy; temper generally well distributed but occasionally clus- tered. Breaks with irregular, angular cleavage. Tiny air pockets common. Color: Complete range from bright-orange throughout cross section to dark- gray core fired orange only on the immediate surface. The majority of the sherds are orange for 2 mm. inward from both surfaces with a gray core in an even, well defined, band. Firing: Incomplete to complete oxidation. SURFACE: Color: Typically light cream to orange on both surfaces, whether the core is gray or orange. A few sherds have gray surfaces, possibly from fire clouding. Although the small size of the sherds (typically under 3 by 4 em.) limits the accuracy of observation, fire clouds do not appear to be frequent. Treatment: Unfortunately, sherds with uneroded surfaces are not common. They are smoothed sufficiently to obliterate coil junctions and to depress the temper grains, giving a smooth texture similar to that of Taurakuli Plain. The surface is characteristically uneven, varying from minor undulation to considerable irregularity with scars, lumps, and other small defects, more easily seen than felt. There seems to be a slight tendency for one surface to be better smoothed than the other, suggesting that Evans and Weavers] ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 165 Ee ES o 4 8 12 CM VESSEL SCALE RIM SCALE Ficure 68.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of the Abary Plain, Abary Phase (Appendix, table 26). bowls were better finished on the interior and jars on the exterior. One sherd shows smoothing tracks on the exterior, a feature that may have been relatively common but is now obliterated by erosion. Hardness: 2.5-3.5. IorM : Rim: Direct, with rounded lip. Body wall thickness: 5-11 mm., with bases occasionally 1.5 cm. thick. Base: A—Flattened (rare); B—rounded and slightly thickened on the interior, so that it is flatter than the exterior. Vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Shallow to deep bowls with outsloping to nearly vertical side walls, direct rim and rounded lip. Rim diameter 12-28 cm.; majority 16-24 em. (fig. 68-1). 2. Rounded jars with walls insloping to slightly constricted mouth with direct rim and rounded lip. Mouth diameter 12-22 cm. (fig. 68-2). TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: There is a tendency for the size of the temper grains to decrease, so that sherds of Abary Plain from B-3, the latest site, contain finer sand than those from the two earlier sites. There are no temporal differences discernible in vessel shape (Appendix, table 26). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Abary Plain occurs throughout the Abary Phase in an increasing frequency, growing from rare and sporadic appear- ances in the early levels to a maximum of 38.5 percent at the last site (fig. 77). TAURAKULI PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling; frequent breaks along coil lines show coils 1.0-1.5 cm. wide, with the majority 1.2-1.3 cm. wide. Temper: Fragments of crushed potsherds, from minute grains up to 6 mm. in diameter. A few show the flat surface of the original sherd. Orange, angular sherd particles are very distinct in gray-cored sherds, giving a splotched appearance. Reddish-orange particles appear to be natural iron impurities of the clay. 166 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Texture: Soft, clayey, fine texture; porous because of poor admixture of temper; cleavage irregular. Color: Core varies from orange to tan through the cross section to a gray core fired orange along the exterior and interior for a depth ranging from paper thin to 2mm. A splotched appearance is typical, resulting from color contrast of temper with matrix. Firing: Oxidizing, varying from complete to incomplete. SURFACE: Color: Tan to orange to light, tile orange; some eroded sherds have a grayish hue from the exposure of the unoxidized core. Fire clouds are rare. Treatment: Both interior and exterior typically uneven and irregular as a result of hand smoothing. Surfaces tend to be higher around hard temper grains. No indication of the use of scraping tool. Hardness: Very soft : 2-2.5. TorM: Rim: Direct with flattened or rounded lip; exteriorly thickened to produce a flat or rounded ridge, terminating in a flattened or rounded lip; rarely, everted and interiorly thickened to produce an angular bend; very rarely, exteriorly thickened producing a broad, sloping flange. Body wall thickness: 5-10 mm.; majority 6-8 mm. Bases occasionally thickened to 1.7 cm. Base: A. Flat, joining the side wall with a typically rounded junction, but occasionally with a low pedestal formed by a more vertical slope before joining the side wall. Diameter 5-16 cm. (fig. 69, A). B. Rounded, often slightly thickened at the center (fig. 69, B). C. Annular, height 1.6-2.5 em., diameter 8-12 cm. (fig. 69, C). Common vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Bowls with outsloping to nearly vertical side walls, direct rim, and flattened or rounded lip. Walls sometimes expand or taper slightly to the rim, apparently the accidental result of poor workmanship. Rim diameter 14-28 em. (fig. 69-1). 2. Bowls with nearly vertical walls, exteriorly thickened rim tapering slightly to flattened or rounded lip. Rim diameter 24-26 cm. (fig. 69-2). 8. Rounded jars with walls incurving to constricted mouth, direct rim and rounded or flattened lip. Mouth diameter 16-34 cm. (fig. 69-3). 4. Jars with upper walls insloping to constricted mouth with exteriorly thickened rim and flattened or rounded lip. Mouth diameter 14-36 em.; majority 24-386 cm. (fig. 69-4). Rare vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Griddles with tapered or slightly upturned rim and rounded lip. Diameter 28-38 em. (fig. 69—Rare Form1). 2. Bowls with everted rims, slightly thickened at the bend on the in- terior. Exterior rim diameter 16-26 cm. (fig. 69—Rare Form 2). 8. Bowls with broad, everted, flange rims. Mouth diameter 24-28 cm. (fig. 69—Rare Form 8). Appendages: 1. Handles. Three fragments of vertical, loop handles show consid- erable variation in form and size. One has a circular cross section, 1 cm. in diameter. The other two are ovoid, one 3.3 cm. wide by E d meena an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 167 (LIES ES ET A Red Le | Oo 4 8 I2CM ot 2. .3CcM VESSEL SCALE RIM & BASE SCALE Rare Form | Ficure 69.—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Taurakuli Plain, Abary Phase (Appendix, table 27). 168 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 2.1 cm. thick and the other 1.8 cm. wide by 7 mm. thick. One example attached to the body wall is expanded at the junction. 2. Lugs. Three sherds have a horizontal ornamental lug attached at the maximum body diameter. Horizontal width is 4.5 em., pro- jection from the body wall 8-11 mm. Thickness decreases from a maximum of 10 mm. at the body wall to 3 or 4 mm. at the edge. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Common vessel shapes 2 and 4 are restricted to the first half of the seriated sequence. The same appears to be true of Rare Forms 1 and 3 (Appendix, table 27). Although the sample is small, it suggests that flat bases decline in popularity and round ones increase during the time span of the Abary Phase. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Taurakuli Plain is the dominant pottery type of the Abary Phase, except at the earliest levels of the earliest site (fig. wie TIGER ISLAND PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling, breakage frequent along coil lines. Width of coils 1.0-1.5 em. Temper: Cariapé, with some particles 1-2 mm. wide and 5-10 mm. long. Color is white or black. Temper is very abundant and readily visible to the naked eye. Particles lie at all angles in the cross section, but larger ones tend to be parallel to the surface. Texture: Soft and nonabrasive ; compact with air pockets rarely visible. Color: Light tan to light orange to orange gray to light gray to dark gray. Color gradations are gradual. The majority have a gray core with a broader band of orange along the exterior than along the interior. Firing: Oxidizing, usually incomplete. SURFACE: Color: Both exterior and interior are typically orange tan, occasionally tile orange or reddish orange. Uneroded surfaces are rarely gray, but eroded ones sometimes have that appearance because of exposure of the gray core. Treatment: Both interior and exterior are very uneven and irregular sug- gesting smoothing with the hand to obliterate coil junctions, but little if any use of a scraper. Temper particles exposed on the surface erode away leaving pits. Because of the softness of the paste, uneroded surfaces are rare. Hardness: 2.5. ForM : Rim: Direct with rounded or flattened lip; interiorly thickened and slightly everted with rounded lip; strongly everted producing a broad flange. Body wall thickness: 5-20 mm.; majority 6-8 mm. The upper extreme represents flat, thickened bases. Base: A. Flat, thickened or unthickened, rounded or angular junction with sidewalls. Diameter 8-14 cm. (fig. 70, A). B. Rounded and slightly thickened (fig. 70, B). C. Annular, height 1 cm., diameter 12 em. (fig. 70, C). Common vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Bowls with outsloping to nearly vertical side walls, direct rim and flattened or rounded lip. Rim diameter 12-32 em.; majority 20-32 em. (fig. 70-1). 2. Bowls with interiorly thickened rim, typically also everted, with a rounded lip. Rim diameter 20-38 cm, (fig. 70-2). E d ayenn an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 169 Liber Oo 4 8 12CM VESSEL SCALE wf Ficure 70.—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Tiger Island Plain, Abary Phase (Appendix, table 28). 170 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 3. Bowls with broad flange rim formed by the addition of a coil to the upper body wall. The rim top is flat or convex, nearly level or sloping, with a rounded lip. Mouth diameter 18-34 em.; majority 24-34 em. (fig. 70-3). 4, Rounded jars with upper walls insloping to constricted mouth with direct rim and rounded or flattened lip. Mouth diameter 20-38 cm. (fig. T0-4). Rare vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Bowls with nearly vertical walls and exteriorly thickened rim (Taurakuli Plain, Common Form 2). 2. Jars with upper walls insloping, then upturned or slightly everted producing a slight neck, ending in a direct rim with a rounded or flattened lip. Mouth diameter 22-32 em. 8. Jars with upper walls insloping to a constricted mouth with an ex- teriorly thickened rim, flattened lip (Taurakuli Plain, Common Form 4). Appendages: Handles. Rarely, vertical loop handles with flattened or ovoid cross section, expanding slightly at the point of attachment from the dimensions at the center. Size varies from 2.1 cm. wide by 0.9 cm. thick to 4 em. wide by 2 cm. thick. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: None observable (Appendix, table 28). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Tiger Island Plain is diagnostic of the first half of the Abary Phase sequence. It shows a steady decline in fre- quency, becoming a minor ware in the latter part of the Phase (fig. 77). UNCLASSIFIED PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling. Temper: The characteristic feature of these sherds is the presence of black ash or charcoal, with particles ranging from flecks to hunks up to 3 mm. Some sherds also have small amounts of finely crushed sherd temper. Texture: Fine-grained paste with pinhole air pockets ; temper shows a slight tendency to cluster, but mixture is generally good. Color: Light- to medium-gray core typical; rare sherds have an orange core. Gray-cored sherds are fired orange in a band along both surfaces. SURFACE: Color: Light tan, cream or orange on both surfaces; occasional gray fire clouds. Treatment: The majority are eroded, however those with surfaces remain- ing show large pits and other irregularities. A few sherds have surfaces well smoothed and even. Hardness: 2.5-3. ForM : Rim: Majority direct with flattened or rounded lip; very rarely, everted and thickened with a broad convex upper surface. Body wail thickness: 3-15 mm.; majority 5-8 mm. Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Bowls with outsloping to nearly vertical walis, direct rim and flattened or rounded lip. Rim diameter 16-24 em. 2. Rounded jars with upper walls incurving to constricted mouth, direct rim and rounded lip. Mouth diameter 8-26 cm. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: None observed in small sample available. ea ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 171 CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Black ash temper appears toward the middle of the Abary Phase sequence, and is most common at B-2. Its seriated position (fig. 77) suggests that it may represent an effort to find a substitution for cariapé that was unsuccessful since it dies out toward the end of the sequence. UNCLASSIFIED DECORATED Decorated sherds of the Abary Phase constitute only 1 percent of the total sherds. Techniques include incision and modeling, but there are no well de- fined combinations or motifs that warranted the establishment of named pottery types. A few sherds are red painted. The frequency of the various techniques by levels is given in the Appendix, table 25. Red Painted: Rich red applied over the exterior surface, or in a band on the top or interior thickening of the rim. All but one example are on cariapé- tempered ware. ‘The painted surface is slightly better smoothed than the remainder of the vessel. Eleven sherds. It is possible that this type of decoration is the result of Mabaruma Phase influence, although it persists longer than other decorative techniques of Mabaruma Phase origin. Unclassified incised (fig. 71): Incised sherds occur at all sites, but there is no consistency of technique or motif. Sherds are typically small, with one or two incisions. Lines vary from thin scratches to broad, deep cuts. They are on the interior, exterior, or rim edge. Straight or curved, parallel lines are the most frequent motif. Intersecting lines also appear. Masses of criss-crossed scratches occur at the latest site. Three sherds from B-3 have unsmoothed coils on the exterior, with the junctions emphasized by incisions producing a series of horizontal parallel lines. The coils are 8-10 mm. wide. Incision occurs on all the plain wares of the Abary Phase. Unclassified modeled (figs. 72-73: pl. 39, a—b, g) : Relief nubbins on the rim top or projecting from the lip comprise most of the modeled sherds. The nub- bins are circular (1.0-1.5 em. diameter) or ovoid (2.5 by 1.0 em.; 2.0 by 1.3 cm.) and have a punctate or a gash in the center. Occasional nubbins are treated as stylized faces with gashes representing the eyes. Crudely modeled zoomorphie heads are rare. There are two examples of handles, one (B-1, cut 2, level 40-48 cm.) rising from the rim surmounted with a crudely modeled head, the other (B-1, cut 1, level 0-8 cm.) apparently horizontal and deco- rated on one surface with circular nubbins. MABARUMA PHASE DECORATED TYPES Fifty-two sherds, the majority from B-1 (table F; Appendix, table 25), have decoration that is similar in technique and motif to decorated types of the Mabaruma Phase in the Northwest District. Some of the sherds are tempered with fine sand or steatite, indicating that they are probably of trade origin (figs. 75, b, d, f-h; 76, a-c). Others, however, are tempered with cariapé or crushed sherds, and must consequently be of Abary Phase manufacture (figs. 74, 75, a, c, e, 76, d-e; pl. 39, c-f). The types represented, and the decorative motifs are as follows: Mabaruma Incised. Aruka Incised, motifs 1, 2, 4, and 5. Akawabi Incised and Modeled, motifs 1, 2, and 3. Kaituma Incised and Punctate, motifs 1 and 2. White slipped. 513186—60-——_13 L72 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 Oo t! 2 CM Ficure 71.—Sherds of Unclassified Incised from the Abary Phase. E d Hp ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 173 Figure 72.—Sherds of Unclassified Modeled from sites of the Abary Phase. 174 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {Bull. 177 Ficure 73.—Sherds with Unclassified Modeled decoration from sites of the Abary Phase. a-d, Handles. ¢, Adorno. Brenaant ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 175 Ficure 74.—Adornos of Abary Phase manufacture showing influence of Akawabi Incised and Modeled decorative style of the Mabaruma Phase. 176 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 O Ficure 75.—Sherds with Aruka Incised decoration from sites of the Abary Phase. 4, ¢, e, Abary Phase manufacture. 5, d, f-h, Trade sherds of Mabaruma Phase origin. E d yest ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 177 Ficure 76.—Sherds with Mabaruma Phase types of decoration from sites of the Abary Phase. a-c, Trade sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate. d-e, Sherds of Abary Phase manufacture resembling Mabaruma Incised. 178 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 MABARUMA PHASE PLAIN TYPES The only plain ware of Mabaruma Phase origin identified in the Abary Phase sites is Hotokwai Plain, tempered with pulverized steatite (Appendix, table 25). The sherds are typical of the late form of Hotokwai Plain, in which the steatite is very finely ground and well mixed throughout the paste. The pottery type description is given under the Mabaruma Phase (pp. 101-103). Potrery ARTIFACTS Pottery artifacts are very rare. A few hunks of fired reddish-tan to orange clay have one finished surface, or a rounded junction of two walls, suggesting they may be parts of pot rests. Base diameter is estimated as 8-12 cm. Three sherds of Taurakuli Plain from level 8-16 cm., Cut 1, B-1, may be worked. Two are rectanguloid, 4.5 by 3.0 cm. and 3.3 by 2.1 cm., and one is irregularly ovoid, 4.5 by 3.3cm. Although the eroded condition makes observation difficult, there appears to be wear at the ends, suggesting use as a polisher or abrader. One crude bead of Taurakuli Plain from B-1, Cut 1, level 0-8 cm. is approximately circular in cross section, 1.2 cm. in maximum diam- eter by 1.8 cm. long (fig. 67, a-c). The ends taper slightly. The perforation is 4 by 5 mm. at one end, but on the other the edges are folded over making a narrow slit 1.5 by 4.0 mm. The surface is not well smoothed. THE SITE SEQUENCE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS The Abary Phase is represented by three sites, all of them exca- vated stratigraphically. All of the cuts were used in the seriated sequence except B-3, Cut 1, which shows a distorted picture because of the small number of sherds per level. The four other excavations show a similar pattern of change. The dominant early plain ware is . cariapé-tempered Tiger Island Plain, which has a frequency of 79.1 and 88 percent in the earliest levels of B-1 (fig.77). It declines rapidly to 14 percent by the middle of the sequence and in the latter part fluctuates between 1.4 and 7.3 percent of the total sherds per level. Corresponding to this decline is an increase in sherd-tempered Tau- rakuli Plain from between 10 and 19 percent at the beginning to 93.4 percent at the middle of the sequence. Thereafter it declines to about 65 percent (the latest level with 74.3 percent contains only 70 sherds). Abary Plain, tempered with coarse sand, has a sporadic history at the two earliest sites, where it fluctuates between 0 and 8.5 percent. Toward the end of the sequence, it shows a more consistent trend of increase, reaching a maximum of 29.9 percent. An unclassified plain ware tempered with black ash appears when Tiger Island Plain has undergone considerable decline. It reaches a maximum frequency of 513186 O -60 (Face p. 178) B-3 CUT 2 B-2 CUT | 0-8 CM 8-16 16-24 24-32 32-40 40-48 48-56 0-8 CM 8-16 16-24 24-32 32-40 40-48 CUT |, 0-8 CM CUT |, 8-16 CUT 2, 0-8 CUT I, 16-24 CUT I, 24-32 CUT 2, 8-16 CUT 2, 16-24 CUT 1, 32-40 CUT 2, 24-32 CUT 2, 32-40 CUT 1, 40-48 CUT 2,40-48 CUT 2, 48-56 ae a a a S| ——————— ere ssrart pete leer] CARE ARTES TS —SSE——Ees PES: a aE ————— TAURAKULI PLAIN Ficure 77.—Seriation of t Finer “vEOKW, UtcleeO meet emernsten > Reteeunititale Cs Aiebiil via: shi RRMA md ie ” CZ 4 (SLAND: a oe E d Eranean ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 179 12.3 percent and then fades out. Its seriated position suggests that it may represent an experimental effort to find a vegetable substitute for cariapé, a search that was not deemed successful. The decorated sherds of the Abary Phase constitute less than 1 per- cent of the total ceramic remains. The majority have incised lines or small modeled nubbins; a few have red paint allover or in bands and one has a thick white slip. The modeled sherds show the greatest consistency of execution and are most abundant during the first half of the seriated sequence (fig. 77). Incision occurs throughout in small amounts fluctuating from 0 to 2.5 percent, but little can be said about it except that it is very crude in technique and simple in motif (fig. 71). The most typical vessel shapes in all the plain wares are open bowls and constricted-mouth jars with direct rims. These are the only forms present in Abary Plain, which is characteristic of the late part of the Phase (fig. 77). Bowls and jars with exteriorly thickened rims occur in Taurakuli Plain and in Tiger Island Plain, but are almost exclu- sively confined to the earliest site. Broad, flange rims are rare, but their appearance is also typically early. One form, interesting be- cause of its rarity, is the large, flat griddle. Only a few sherds of griddles (Taurakuli Plain, Rare Form 1) were found, and these are all from the earliest site. Of the three base forms (flat, rounded, and annular), annular bases are rare and, with one exception, early; flat bases occur throughout the sequence, and rounded bases appear to be increasingly frequent in the late sites. Stone tools associated with the Abary Phase include polished celts and axes, adzes, hammerstones, manos, metates, and rubbing stones. None is abundant, and several are represented by a single fragment, making it impossible to detect any trends even in terms of presence or absence. A single cylindrical stone bead and one crude pottery bead are the only ornaments found. The characteristics of the habitation sites and their seriated sequence suggest a few interpretations about settlement pattern. Since the survey was limited to the riverbank, nothing is known of possible sites farther inland. All three sites are on land high enough to escape flood- ing in the rainy season. Two have an area of less than 2,500 square meters, and one (B-1) has more than 10,000 square meters. If the largest site had been B-3, which is located on the edge of a ridge, it might be concluded that the small size of the available land limited the village size. However, the largest site is the earliest one, which occupies a small elevation that becomes an island in the flooded savanna for several months of the year. The only suggestion of house construc- tion comes from a few fragments of clay in the refuse that show twig and cane impressions (fig. 78), suggestive of wattle and daub. The 178) 513186 O -60 (Face p. B-3 CUT 2 B-2 cuT i — ABARY PHASE TYPES sl MABARUMA PHASE TYPES 0-8 CM (22227 ZZZZ ZIZZO [Ser a iva} 0 = (zZzZZTZZTFZZTZZT 8-16 EF ET 7 7 = i] ] CUT |, 32-40 SSSI 0 See ' 0 | ' | CUT 2, 24-32 ee eS | ' CUT 2, 32-40 aa) | 8 ) | ' ' ! CUT I, 40-48 ——— Oo JS t} GUT 2,40-48 = = Sa) 1 | | CUT 2, 48-56 aw aa eae) i 1 | ! 1 ' : oO o TAURAKULI ABARY TIGER ISLAND z a fa) ° PLAIN PLAIN PLAIN a a a a? a a Ww Ww w w w w we ow fae orm Ur eC i metal (tay ere & ok Su ¢g Te aon 02 G3 aa = Zp (fa = nt o- ow nn ow =a O° =) ce aa se Se So fa” z 35 G8 & 0 25 50% ao a= iat eee x Sn ofa) 5 z z z az. & Ee - a LC > 2 E) 23 o 86 x x x < Ficure 77.—Seriation of Abary Phase sites on the basis of changes in pottery type frequency (Appendix, table 25). MABARUMA INCISED 180 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bull. 177 Ficure 78.—Wattle and daub fragments from sites of the Abary Phase. seriated sequence places the sites in consecutive position. B-1, the farthest downriver, is the earliest, while B-3, the farthest upriver, is the latest. If these sites are representative, they suggest an upriver movement of the population. All three of the sites have refuse deposits of 48-56 cm., suggesting a relatively high degree of village permanency. In order to compare village duration with that in other Phases both in British Guiana and at the mouth of the Amazon, the rate of refuse accumulation was com- puted from a formula based on density of sherds per standard area (Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 250-257), except that for greater con- venience the values were changed to apply to a 1- by 1-meter cut rather than one measuring 1.5 by 1.5 meters. The formula as modified B d Myangan ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 181 reads: 1,156 sherds per 1 by 1 meter equals 100 years. The values ob- tained for the Abary Phase sites are given in table E. TaBLE E.—Duration of Abary Phase village sites estimated from rate of refuse accumulation Site area Size of Total Adjusted | Duration Site and cut in square cut in sherds total per in years meters meters per cut 1 by 1m. Toth ae Ste ae ee oe a er EO} SOO Ri aoe ee Ie ee eI ee OU a LOATH Lnctee 2 etal os teleost pet ete yal pe eg a ea by 1 3, 276 1, 092 94.5 OTe ee ee ee eee ee by 1 2, 463 2, 463 213.5 RENEE ELS SOIR SAIS TOD TRY |e acer lag ae ol late Me A ee i A OR Tae yr a ee ee ee eh bee 1 1,159 579 50.1 ees Samia wancne cease ontatnecenacme ass 2, 480" | See ean ets! |saetcccns see taseecaeeee beneeseeeeas (Ch ae ee ee oe eee Lee See by 2 66 14,4 RC Gee ee re ee ae eee one 2 by 2 7,108 1,777 153.7 The durations derived from density of sherds in the refuse raise several interesting points. One is the contrast between the almost equal depth of the refuse deposits at the three sites and the great difference in the number of sherds contained in this depth, which leads to estimated durations varying from 14.4 to 213.5 years. Even within a single site, for example B-1, the variation in sherd density may exceed 100 percent, indicating a considerable difference in the amount of dirt that may be deposited with the sherds. The even greater discrepancy between the two values for B-3 can be explained by the fact that the conditions involved in the deposition of the refuse in the area represented by Cut 1 were untypical. The small sherd sample showed a pottery type distribution that could not be seriated into the Abary Phase sequence, implying nonrandom deposition of refuse. Since the cut is unreliable in this respect, it cannot be con- sidered reliable for other purposes. With the elimination of this figure, the estimated durations range from 50.1 to 213.5 years. All of these are unusually long in comparison to the village durations typical of ethnographically recorded Tropical Forest tribes, but such long durations are in keeping with the pottery type seriation. This shows a very great amount of ceramic change, with an almost complete altera- tion in the plain wares, and must have required a relatively long period of time for its realization. The total duration for the Abary Phase can be calculated by adding the durations of the individual sites, since the pottery type seriation shows them to have been occupied sequentially (fig. 77). For this purpose, only one duration for each site can be used. In the case of B-3, the choice of Cut 2 is dictated by the reasons mentioned above. Determination of the best value for B-1 is more difficult. The seriation shows that the two cuts cover the same time span, and there is no evi- dence to indicate that the difference between the durations reflects differential length of occupation of the two parts of the site. Since 182 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 there is no way of deciding which duration is more representative, two totals have to be given, one using each of the figures for B-1. Adding the longest durations for B-1 and B-3 and the single duration for B-2 gives a total of 417 years for the Abary Phase. If the shorter duration for B-1 is used, the result is reduced to 298 years. There are very few data on the Abary Phase other than those pro- vided by the habitation refuse. The only evidence of burial pattern comes from Verrill’s (1918 b) report on the excavation of an urn cemetery on the Abary River. The description is difficult to evaluate, but some of the vessels were apparently buried and others exposed. All appear to have been plain. One illustrated is reconstructed as having an everted rim, a globular body, and an annular base. Everted rims are extremely rare in the ceramics of the habitation sites, and if the reconstruction is accurate it suggests a special shape may have been used for burial. Verrill estimates that the cemetery contained some 30,000 urns, which is undoubtedly a gross exaggeration. It ap- parently contained a sufficiently large number of burials, however, to indicate that it was used by a number of villages or for a considerable period of time. One of the most interesting aspects of the Abary Phase sequence is the chronological position of pottery types of Mabaruma Phase origin or showing Mabaruma Phase influence (fig. 77). These occur only at the earliest site, except for one sherd of Akawabi Incised and Modeled style on a plain ware of Abary Phase manufacture that was found at B-2. The frequency of the trade sherds and the degree of influence exerted on Abary Phase pottery, manifested in the copying of vessel shapes and decorative styles, implies rather close and con- tinuing contact between the two Phases. The possibility of using this evidence for estimating the time of arrival of the Abary Phase will be discussed elsewhere (see pp. 185-186). DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE ABARY PHASE The Abary Phase is represented by three habitation sites along the left bank of the Abary River between 43 and 95 km. above the mouth. The site area is typically small, but the refuse deposit of 50 cm. suggests a relatively high degree of village permanency. Fragments of stick-impressed clay may indicate wattle and daub house construc- tion. The only evidence of burial pattern comes from Verrill’s (1918 b) report of excavation in an urn cemetery on a knoll near the riverbank. The pottery of the Abary Phase was classified into three plain wares, comprising 99 percent of the total sherds. Tiger Island Plain, tempered with cariapé, is the dominant early type. It gives way to Taurakuli Plain, tempered with crushed potsherds, and this type is the majority ware during the remainder of the Phase sequence. In the E d eae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 183 late period, sand-tempered Abary Plain begins to increase, but it never reaches the maximum frequency of the other two types. Deco- rated sherds of Abary Phase manufacture utilize incision and applique modeling. Incised sherds are crude in execution and simple in motif, while applique is confined to nubbins with punctate or gashed centers. Neither type is abundant and both occur throughout the Phase sequence. Polished stone tools are characteristic, and include adzes, axes, and hammerstones. A few manos, metates, and rubbing stones also occur. One stone and one pottery bead are the only evidence of personal ornament. The presence of plain and decorated sherds at the earliest site show- ing Mabaruma Phase influence or derived by trade from the Mabaruma Phase can be used to suggest the time of arrival of the Abary Phase. No European trade materials were encountered at any of the sites, so that the survival of the Phase until European contact cannot be proved although it is probable. COMPARATIVE DATA, CONCLUSIONS, AND INTERPRETATIONS Our brief survey of the Abary River produced evidence of a single archeological complex, designated as the Abary Phase (fig. 58). No shell middens have been reported from this region, nor is there any other indication of an earlier nonceramic cultural occupation. The relatively inhospitable nature of this part of the coast, with its sea- sonal inundation, probably explains its failure to be more intensively inhabited in aboriginal times. The Abary Phase makes its appearance at the earliest site in a fully developed state, and a number of features of the pottery suggest that it is intrusive not only into the Abary River area, but also into British Guiana. For one thing, the major plain wares are characterized by kinds of temper that are rare or absent in the other archeological Phases established in the colony. The sherd temper of Taurakuli Plain was encountered nowhere else, and the cariapé temper of Tiger Island Plain is paralleled only in occasional sherds of the other Phases. In the Northwest District, on the Rupununi savanna and on the upper Essequibo, the principal tempering material is sand. A second clue to the origin of the Abary Phase lies in the occurrence of features suggesting influence from the Mabaruma Phase of the Northwest District. These consist of certain kinds of decoration and distinctive vessel shapes reproduced in the paste of the plain pottery types characteristic of the Abary Phase, as well as of sherds from trade vessels of Mabaruma Phase manufacture. Detailed examination of this evidence will help to reconstruct the origin of the Abary Phase. To facilitate interpretation of the significance of sherds with Maba- ruma Phase styles of decoration, table F was prepared, listing the 184 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 number of sherds of each kind and their chronological position. All but one of the sherds are from the earliest site, and the levels have been arranged in the order indicated by the Abary Phase pottery type seri- ation (fig. 77). This tabulation shows several interesting features. Only one of the Mabaruma Phase plain pottery types could be iden- tified, the distinctive steatite-tempered Hotokwai Plain. All four Mabaruma Phase types of decoration are represented, but subdivision into trade sherds (on Mabaruma Phase varieties of paste) and locally made copies (on Abary Phase varieties of paste) shows that the pro- portion of the two is different for each type. The chronological dis- tribution of the sherds, whether plain or decorated, is too sporadic to allow any inference about changes in popularity during the time period represented. TABLE I'.—Occurrence of trade sherds or sherds showing Mabaruma Phase characteristics at Abary Phase sites Akawabi In- Kaituma In- | Mabaruma Total cised and j|ArukaIncised| cised and Incised decorated Hoto-| Modeled Punctated sherds | Total Levels in seriated | kwaij/_ _ | Showing |sherds order Plain, Maba- | per trade Local Local Local Local ruma_ | levels Trade} manu- |Trade| manu- |Trade] manu- |Trade] manu-| Phase facture facture facture facture | influence B-2: Dr. Ho’s Landing: Cut 1, yeues 16- Datong aes en he ea ot eae b peared EP nee pees | (BR pemmege tak] (EEL OPEL 1 130 B-1: Tiger. Island: ak 1, level 0-8 steel Sel eae 16 1? 1 4 PH ye | eS SET a Se 2 10 | 1,001 cut 1, level 8-16 PPO a >A eee as 3 P| ee FSS a ee ele 5 840 cut: 2, level 0-8 SoS oe eS ee She ae Le ee a ee a a a ne a ee re 263 cut, level 16-24 NesTIee Sa shee SBN 2h See eee Se 3 1 PAN BEE Ripee | ake oa 1 7 658 cut 1, level 24-32 a De Ra Va at) Re ea |e oe Ee Lg] Sees See 1 2 367 Cut 2, level 8-16 poe ie ends sre Tg es Nee eee a ead byte Bd Uy a) eee eee se ol ae Ee 1 3 242 cut 2, level 16-24 Mi SoS S2eC eh eyed ce - see obs as ene to se | oe shel. Soe ee a | el ee 231 cut, level 32-40 See Ae wie 5 igh fee a | 2 =| es nS ae | parece! ae 1 2 293 out 2, level 24-32 Ee ee eee el eee bere dere eee | ae Ae Mee ened Peres [Stee meen eee ore ee here nS 251 Cut 2, level 32-40 pit Putt Bed Reh ae a aera ok | Pp pariees SB eo | ie EM ae ell 2 387 cut: 1, level 40-48 Sa ee Ses eee | ee eee pees | ee b besskeeleees 1 2 117 Cut 2, level 40-48 Pa ee eee | [eer eRe Rens Sree) arate) | ees erupee Peete) trope Br eae) Ener oN, 1 il 618 Cut 2, level 48-56 Or ee reer (ieee a | Cee iy ee are oe! (amo SO eee meer oe eens 1 2 471 Total trade sherds______- 22 1 Wyn pees tee LOR aceene se ih) Peaaegeeten 5 Oeeer eee Da eas Total sherds of local manufacture showing Mabaruma Phase char- acteristics2a)e eee (| pee Sea Cites Ones 9 22 es od Grand total_..| 22 7 17 4 9 37 | 5,869 ween ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 185 Use of these data for determining the time at which contact between the two Phases occurred involves several assumptions. Of primary importance is the question of whether the relative frequency of trade sherds can be considered representative of the relative frequency of pottery types manufactured by the donor culture at the time the trade took place. In our own culture and in archeological cultures where evidence of trade is most familiar, such an assumption would not be valid because occupational specialization and systems of marketing, with associated attitudes of commercial competition between sellers and of securing the best product at the lowest price among buyers, provoke various kinds of selection on the part of both the makers and the customers. Ethnographic data on the Tropical Forest cultures suggest, however, that on a lower level of cultural development selec- tion is of quite a different kind, if it occurs at all. Reports on British Guiana emphasize tribal specialization in which certain tribes are reputed to excel in the manufacture of certain kinds of objects, such as pottery, graters, or bows (Im Thurn, 1883, pp. 271-2; Farabee, 1924, pp. 21, 52, 57). Selection is on a tribal basis and range of choice is limited to what the members of the tribe have to offer. There is nothing to suggest that the donor tribe makes any modifica- tion in the objects to be traded that would differentiate them in quality or style from those for home consumption. Since all evidence indi- cates that the Abary Phase is a culture of the Tropical Forest level of development, we have made the assumption that the relative fre- quency of the trade sherds reflects those proportions existing in the Mabaruma Phase at the time of contact, and that a correlation between the two cultures can be made on the basis of the pottery type repre- sented and their relative frequency.® For the purpose of establishing such a correlation, only the trade sherds can be used. The existence of locally made imitations is im- portant in assessing the strength of the influence exerted by the Mabaruma Phase ceramics on Abary Phase potters, but the relative frequency of the types copied is more likely to reflect Abary Phase cultural preferences or the technical and artistic limitations of the Abary Phase potters, than are the trade sherds. Any individual pref- erence that may have influenced the selection of pottery vessels re- ceived by trade can be minimized by using the total trade sherds of each type rather than the level to level occurrence in the comparison. These totals show Aruka Incised to be the dominant decorated. type, with Kaituma Incised and Punctate second, Akawabi Incised and 6 The validity of this assumption can be tested in the case of the Koriabo Phase, whose correlation with the Mabaruma Phase sequence can be checked by the presence of trade sherds in Mabaruma Phase sites. In this case, the sherds of Mabaruma Phase origin traded to the Koriabo Phase reflect reasonably well what was being made at that time (cf. fig. 56 with fig. 31; pl. 20 with pls. 16, 17, 19; pl. 23 with pls. 21, 22, 26). 186 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Modeled third, and Mabaruma Incised absent. Hotokwai Plain is the only plain type represented, and by inference must have been a major type in the Mabaruma Phase at the time of contact. Comparison of this distribution of relative frequencies with the Mabaruma Phase pottery type seriation (fig. 48) makes it possible to rule out at once the early part of the sequence as the time of contact. During this time, Mabaruma Incised is popular and Hotokwai Plain is present only in alow percentage frequency, the reverse of the situation implied by the trade sherds. The latter quarter of the Mabaruma Phase sequence can also be eliminated because at this time Hotokwai Plain is very rare and Koberimo Plain, tempered with mica, is common. Although Koberimo Plain is distinctive and readily recognized, not a single example was identified among the trade sherds from the Abary Phase. The proportions of the trade sherds correspond rather well to those existing in the remaining portion of the Mabaruma Phase sequence, represented by the levels of N-13. During this time Hotok- wai Plain is the dominant plain type, and among the decorated types Aruka Incised is most common, Kaituma Incised and Punctate sec- ond, with Akawabi Incised and Modeled next, and Mabaruma Incised rare to absent. Various inferences put the estimated dating of this portion of the Mabaruma Phase sequence at between approximately A.D. 1000 and 1300 (see p. 147 for details). The presence of sherds of Mabaruma Phase origin throughout the period represented by the occupation of B-1 suggests that contact was of considerable duration. If trade sherds had been limited to the early levels, it might have been concluded that contact took place when the Abary Phase entered British Guiana and was lost when the group moved farther to the east and settled on the Abary River. Examination of the archeological situation on the portion of the coast between the Abary River and the Northwest District shows that com- munication between the two Phases could easily have been maintained. In addition to sherds of undocumented provenience, information is available on three sites between the Demerara and Mahaica Rivers, in the region known as East Coast Demerara (fig. 58). Mon Repos and Chateau Margot were visited by Osgood, who made sherd collec- tions. These were unfortunately lost in the Georgetown fire of 1945, but notes and illustrations indicate that typical Mabaruma Phase forms of decoration were present (Osgood, 1946, pp. 52-54). At Mon Repos, they included Aruka Incised, Kaituma Incised and Punctate (op. cit., fig. 12), and Akawabi Incised and Modeled. The adornos are said to be “of a simple modeled type, not ornate with patterned incising as in the Barrancos style” (op. cit., p. 53), which would correlate best with the latter half of the Mabaruma Phase, when the adornos have lost their Barrancoid characteristics. The E d Pyeng an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 187 apparent frequency of Kaituma Incised and Punctate also favors such a correlation. The site at Chateau Margot, slightly to the west, appears to have produced a similar pottery complex, although Osgood mentions that there was more of the “Barrancos style of incising and more sherds appliqued with wavy strips” (op. cit., p. 54). Pottery collected from the same two sites earlier by W. E. Roth (MS.) also includes adornos of the late Mabaruma Phase style (fig. 59, a-g). Another site was reported in the late 19th century by Im Thurn (1884, pp. 126-1387) at Enmore, some 24 km. east of Mon Repos. Decorated sherds are said to be very common, and the illustrations (op. cit., pls. 15-17) indicate that Aruka Incised and Akawabi Incised and Modeled were represented. One sherd is from a vessel of Akawabi Incised and Modeled Form 4, which is restricted to the latter half of the Mabaruma Phase sequence (fig. 49). Unfortunately, there is no information on the temper of the pottery from any of these Kast Coast Demerara sites. The apparent frequency of decorated sherds is comparable to that in the Mabaruma Phase, however, so these sites probably can be interpreted as representing extensions of that culture eastward rather than as examples of trade. Since they appear to be of the same general time period as that in which the Abary Phase- Mabaruma Phase contact is deduced to have taken place, they could have a source more accessible than the Northwest District for trade. The attempt to reconstruct the history of the Abary Phase prior to this period of Mabaruma Phase contact is hampered by the general absence of detailed archeological information from the surrounding area. The pottery shows no similarity to that of the Taruma Phase on the upper Essequibo or the Rupununi Phase on the Rupununi savanna. The situation to the east is not much better. Peter Goethals, who did fieldwork in Dutch Guiana in 1951 under the auspices of Yale University, kindly allowed us to make a preliminary classification of his sherds. Three sites in the vicinity of Paramaribo produced a complex of pottery in which sherd tempering was pre- dominant. Associated were a few sherds with cariapé or sand temper, and even more rarely with shell temper. These frequencies are most similar to those prevailing at the end of the Abary Phase sequence and consequently if any relationship exists it must be with the terminal rather than the initial portion of the Phase. The only remaining direction to look for affiliations is northwest. The presence of trade sherds of Mabaruma Phase origin at the earliest Abary Phase site has already been used to demonstrate communica- tion between the two groups. The question now arising is how this was initiated. The conclusion that it happened during the passage of the Abary Phase through the Northwest District is supported not only by the absence of any evidence that the Abary Phase came from any 513186—60——14 188 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 other direction, but also by the strength of the Mabaruma Phase in- fluence on the pottery of the Abary Phase. In addition to the copying of Mabaruma Phase types of decoration already mentioned, there is evidence of acculturation in vessel shape. The most striking example is the diagnostic Mabaruma Phase bow] with a broad horizontal to downsloping flange rim (figs. 45-2, 46-3) which appears as Form 3 of the Abary Phase Tiger Island Plain (fig. 70-3). Although in- fluence is detectable in both decoration and vessel shape, there is no indication of any borrowing of Mabaruma Phase varieties of temper, suggesting that this may be more resistant to acculturation than other aspects of pottery making. When the attempt is made to retrace the course of the Abary Phase beyond the Northwest District, the connections become more tenuous. Projection of the trends in pottery type frequency (fig. 77) back- ward in time indicates that a complex ancestral to the Abary Phase should be characterized by a predominance of cariapé tempering com- bined with a less than 10 percent frequency of sherd-tempered pottery. If Mabaruma Phase influence is discounted, Abary Phase vessel shapes are reduced to simple bowls and globular jars with direct or exteriorly thickened rims. Only about 1 percent of the sherds are decorated and decoration is limited to incision, varying from broad lines to crudely applied scratches, and modeling in the form of small nubbins, usually located on the rim exterior and often embellished with gashes. An assemblage of traits almost identical to what would be expected in an ancestor of the Abary Phase occurs at the site of Mayo on Trinidad. Rouse and Goggin, who did the excavation, generously permitted us to examine the sherds and to make a preliminary anal- ysis. Five samples, representing several squares and levels, contained more than 90 sherds, and classification showed these to be composed of 97.6-100 percent cariapé-tempered sherds, 0-1 percent sherd-tem- pered sherds, and 0-1.5 percent decorated sherds. Bowl] shapes are similar to those of the Abary Phase, with direct or exteriorly thick- ened rims, but jars have short necks instead of insloping rims. Dec- oration is typically small nubbins embellished with a series of nicks. The Mayo and early Abary Phase ceramic complexes are so similar that it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that they are related. The question of relative chronology, however, presents a problem. Al- though we do not have any means of absolute dating, it can be safely concluded that the arrival of the Abary Phase in British Guiana took place in pre-European times, and probably at least as early as A.D. 1000 to 1200. If the Mayo complex is ancestral, it should have a com- parable antiquity. Unfortunately for our theory, the Mayo site has been tentatively identified by Rouse with the historic mission of Mon- serrate, which existed between A.D. 1687 and 1789 (Rouse, personal EB d meena at ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 189 correspondence, 1956). There is a possibility that this identification is incorrect, or that the sherds represent an earlier occupation not as- sociated with the historic community. In any case, the derivation of the Abary Phase from this direction is the most logical conclusion on the basis of the distributional evidence as it is at present known. Assuming for the moment that this identification of the origin of the Abary Phase is correct, it is of interest to try to connect its emigra- tion from Trinidad with historical events there. In late prehistoric times, the most important event in the Antilles was the invasion of the Carib from the mainland. Unfortunately, their arrival is poorly dated, partly because of the difficulty of correlating archeological re- mains with linguistic differences, and partly because little work has been done in the Lesser Antilles, where Carib settlement was most concentrated. On the basis of Carib traditions that place their arrival in the West Indies as recent, Rouse has tentatively dated their occupa- tion of the Lesser Antilles during his Period IV, between A.D. 1200 and 1500 (Rouse, Cruxent, and Goggin, 1958, figs. 1 and 3; Rouse, personal correspondence, 1959). Whether or not they passed through Trinidad is not archeologically demonstrable at present. However, the fact that the estimated date for the departure of the Abary Phase corresponds rather closely to that estimated for the arrival of the Carib in the Lesser Antilles makes it seem possible that the two movements are related. The coincidence that Carib tradition gives as the motiva- tion for their invasion the conquest of the Arawak (Rouse, 1948, p. 564), and the suggestion that the Abary Phase may be identified with Arawakan speakers (see below) also fits such an inference. The dif- ficulties inherent in finding archeological evidence on Trinidad are such, however, that this interpretation may never be capable of more direct proof. The duration of the Abary Phase cannot be fixed by absolute dates, but estimates can be made from two different kinds of evidence. One is by correlation with the Mabaruma Phase in the Northwest Dis- trict. Contact between the two Phases took place shortly after the middle of the Mabaruma Phase seriated sequence, which is estimated to date between A.D. 1000 and 1300 (see pp. 147-148 for details). A second estimate is derived from rate of refuse accumulation computed on the basis of the density of sherds in the deposit. This gives the Phase a duration of between 298 and 417 years on the Abary River (see pp. 181-182). If it is assumed that B-3 was abandoned around A.D. 1600, or shortly before European contact in the area, this would place the arrival of the Abary Phase at between A.D. 1200 and 1300. European settlement of the Berbice River, adjacent to the Abary on the east, began around the middle of the 17th century. Two Arawak villages near the headwaters of the Abary were visited in 190 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 1671 by Van Berkel (1948, frontispiece map), who made several over- land trips between the Berbice and the Demerara. Abary Village was about 18 km. due south of B-3 but somewhat farther away by river. Ouden-amen Village was about 17 km. west of B-3 on Andabo Creek, a tributary of the Abary. Such close proximity to the last reported site of the Abary Phase makes it likely that the Indians seen by Van Berkel may have been descendants of those responsible for the archeological remains. The ethnographic data are unfortunately very general, but what is reported on house type, dress and ornament, food and drink, dances, marriage and other aspects of the culture fits readily into the Tropical Forest pattern (op. cit., pp. 20-28, 70). At this time, European influence was still limited to the introduction of a few glass beads, iron arrowpoints, and knives. A little farther to the west, however, in the vicinity of the Demerara River, white settlement was already dense enough to cause more basic alterations in the Indian way of life (Van Berkel, 1948, p. 34). THE UPPER ESSEQUIBO RAIN FOREST THE TARUMA PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS Habitation sites of the Taruma Phase were encountered through- out the part of the upper Essequibo River included in the survey, that is from Black Water Creek northward to a point between the mouths of the Kassikaityu and Kuyuwini Rivers (fig. 79). This area has not been accurately mapped, and contains no permanent points of reference to which the site locations could be related. Con- sequently, figure 79 is derived from small-scale maps plus our own observations. Distances between sites in the descriptions are given in paddling time. Translated to the map, this gives a general idea of the site distribution. Since the landscape is uniform and the height of the bank often is not evident from the river (pl. 40), it is impossible to describe any of the sites well enough to permit their relocation without the aid of a local guide. Twenty-four habitation sites of the Taruma Phase were visited and the majority were excavated stratigraphically. Additional evi- dence on the Phase comes from 11 former field clearings. No ceme- teries or other clues to burial pattern were encountered. HABITATION SITES E-1: KANASHEN A small creek flows into the left bank of the Essequibo at the west edge of Kanashen, the 1952-53 headquarters of the Unevangelized Fields Mission (fig. 79). On the opposite side of the creek from the mission buildings is a higher rise, which had been cleared for a field. Digging holes for planting cassava and bananas revealed sherds, a large sample of which was collected by the Hawkinses prior to our visit. The site is on an elevation 5 meters above the December water level, a sufficient altitude to prevent it from flooding in the rainy season. From the edge of the site, the land slopes down- ward slightly toward an inlet 250 meters away along the river’s edge. The hilltop, which parallels the river and is coterminous with the site, is an elongated ovoid area 90 meters long by 50 meters wide. The surface collection was made over the major portion of this area, where the sherds had been exposed by cultivation. 191 192 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 ABOUT 3 HOURS PADDLING HABITATION SITE FORMER FIELD RAPID Ficure 79.—Map of the upper Essequibo River showing the approximate location of archeological sites included in the survey. E nd yaaa ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 193 Cut 1 was placed 2 meters from the southwest edge of the garden clearing, where the brush remained and the soil was undisturbed. It was 1 by 1 meter, excavated in 8-cm. levels. The first level was sterile, medium-gray, loose, granular soil containing small roots and fragments of charcoal from the recent burning of the field. Soil conditions remained the same throughout the habitation layer. Sherds first appeared at 8 cm. Level 16-24 cm. produced in addition small lumps of unfired clay and tiny stone chips that may relate to the manufacture of manioc graters. In level 32-40 cm., the soil became hard, compact clay, was still gray in color, and contained a few sherds and scattered flecks of charcoal. At 40 cm., the color changed sud- denly to light orange, and then to white sandy clay, the color and texture of the sterile soil of the area. No sherds were encountered below this depth. Cut 2, also 1 by 1 meter dug in 8-cm. levels, was placed 10 meters east of Cut 1, in an area previously cleared but now overgrown. As in Cut 1, the first 8-cm. level was sterile. Level 8-16 cm. had loose, dark-gray loam with abundant sherds. In level 16-24 cm., sherds were increasingly numerous, and often bunched together. Level 24— 32 cm. was less productive, and sherds were more irregularly dis- tributed. Two pockets with clustered sherds may correspond to depressions in the former house floor. Black, compact, sterile soil was encountered at 30 cm., and tests showed it to continue to 50 cm., where it was replaced by light orange to white, sandy clay, the natural soil formation of the area. E-3: YOCHO E-3 is located on a hill on the right bank of the Essequibo River, 114 hours’ paddling upstream from E-1 (fig. 79). Dense foliage completely conceals the elevation of the bank, which rises rather steeply to its maximum elevation, an elongated knoll 70 by 20 meters that parallels the river (fig. 80). Sherds occur over this high area, with a slight concentration over the center third. The hilltop drops off about 1 meter at the sides and back of the knoll over an area some 200 meters in diameter, then sloping downward. Most of this area is covered with secondary growth consisting of trees less than 25 cm. in diameter and quantities of spiny palm, suggesting a former field clearing. The surface of the ground is very rough and irregular. Cut 1, 1 by 1 meter, was placed in the southeast part of the site, outside the area of greatest sherd concentration. The soil was loose, granular, gray loam, sterile except for small fragments of charcoal for the first 8cm. Level 8-16 cm. produced so few sherds that it was decided to enlarge the excavation area to 1 by 2 meters. Conditions continued uniform to 25 cm. where the soil became more compact, 194 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 ESSE QUIBO —> —--—-— SHERD AREA —- LIMIT OF FORMER FIELD CLEARING eet ee ee te SOM ik N Ficure 80.—Sketch map of E-3: Yoché, showing the Taruma Phase habitation area and limit of the former field clearing. slightly darker gray, and ceased to contain sherds. At 57 cm. there was a transition to very hard, whitish sandy clay, the natural soil of the area. Cut 2 was excavated northeast of the center of the site, 5 meters in from the riverbank, within the area of maximum sherd concentra- tion. Dimensions were 1 by 1 meter. As in Cut 1, the first 8-cm. level was sterile. Soil conditions duplicated Cut 1, in both refuse and sterile zones. The major difference was that the sherds were larger and more abundant in Cut 2. E-4° YAKA YAKA On the left bank of the Essequibo, half an hour’s paddling down- stream from E-1 is the Wai Wai village of Yaka Yaka (fig. 79). The house, which is on the 3-meter contour above the December water level rather than on the summit of the knoll, is at the front of a large garden clearing, which extends over the hill and down the other side. Ex- ploration ‘revealed sherds over an area about 16 meters in diameter on the eastern part of the highest elevation, 4 meters above the Decem- Erpuyand ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 195 ber water level (fig. 107). During the previous rainy season, water had come part way into the Wai Wai house, but did not reach the older site. The soil was gray brown, containing iron concretions, and no difference could be detected in coloration between the site and the adjacent area. A 1- by 1-meter test was made toward the east edge of the site, where the sherd concretion seemed greatest. Even here, however, the sherds were sparse and badly eroded. A sterile layer of lateritic iron concretion gravel was encountered at an irregular depth of 8 to 15 cm. E-5 ; ONORO FALLS On the right bank of the Essequibo, just below and opposite the mouth of Onoro Creek (fig. 79), the land rises to an elevation of 5 meters and remains nearly level over a considerable area. According to Wai Wai informants, the summit had been inhabited by the Taruma, and the existence of a former clearing was attested by secondary growth of smalltreesand many spiny palms. The ground was littered with moss-encrusted dead trees, branches, and leaves so that no sherds were visible on the surface. Tests showed the soil to be brownish gray, loose loam, sterile for the first 8cm. Sherds were intermixed in level 8 to 16 cm., below which the soil was more compact and sterile. The diameter of the old clearing was roughly 100 meters, but all parts did not produce sherds suggesting that the habitation area was associated with a field clearing. E-6 : MASAKUKINYERE This site is 214 hours’ paddling downstream from E-5, with no others reported in the intervening area (fig. 79). It occupies a high steep bank on the left side of the river, some 6 meters above the De- cember water level. The habitation area, 35 by 20 meters, occupies the major portion of the relatively level summit, which was covered by secondary growth, all the trees under 35 cm. in diameter. A 1- by 1-meter cut was placed one-third of the distance from the southwest end of the site and excavated in 8-cm. levels. The first 8 cm. were sterile and mostly composed of thick root mat. Level 8-16 cm. was brownish-gray loam with abundant sherds and a few iron con- eretions. In level 16-24 cm., conditions continued the same except that the sherds were more concentrated. At 24 cm. pockets of iron concretion gravel were encountered. Below these the soil changed to a lighter-colored, sandier clay, the natural formation of the area. E-7 : MANAKAKASHIN On the right bank of the Essequibo, just below Manakakashin Falls, is a steep-sided, 10-meter-high hill (fig. 79). A small creek runs along the north edge. The dense vegetation contains a few trees 75 196 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Ficure 81.—Sketch map of E-7: Manakakashin, a habitation site of the Taruma Phase. cm. In diameter. The ground was thickly covered with leaves, but a few sherds were visible scattered on the surface. The site area is 60 by 20 meters, slightly narrower than the hilltop (fig. 81). Cut 1, 1 by 1 meter, was excavated in the northeast end of the site in 8-cm. levels with the following characteristics: Level 0- 8em-_- Soil dark, brownish-gray, loose loam, containing flecks of charcoal and small sherds. Level 8-16cm_- Soil conditions similar; sherds fairly abundant, a few small stones and irregularly shaped concretions. Level 16-24 cm_. Soil same, roots still frequent, sherds sparse. Compact, sterile soil, slightly lighter in color than the occupation horizon occurred from 24 to 35 em. Below this was hard clay containing abundant, fine, iron-concretion gravel. Cut 2, also 1 by 1 meter, was dug near the opposite end of the site at the edge of the slope. It was also excavated in 8-cm. levels: Level 0- 8cm-_- Soil dark, grayish brown with a few small iron concre- tions; roots abundant. Sherds in good condition. Level 8-16cm_- Soil conditions same; sherds more abundant. Level 16-24 cm__ Sherds still abundant, soil slightly darker gray. Below 24 cm. was sterile, compact, hard clay containing iron concretion gravel. Evans and Byansan ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 197 Ficure 82.—Sketch map of E-9: Kalunye, a habitation site of the Taruma Phase. E-9:; KALUNYE This site is half an hour’s paddling upstream from the Wai Wai village of Mawik4, on the left bank of the Essequibo River (fig. 79). The hill rises gradually so that the summit is 40 meters from the edge of the bank, but falls off more steeply to the rear. Sherds are distrib- uted over an area 60 by 25 meters, corresponding approximately to the extent of the elevation above the 5-meter contour (fig. 82). This hill had been cleared by the Wai Wai chief for a garden some years previously, and had since grown up with dense small brush and small trees 4 to 15cm. in diameter. A few trees, apparently faster growing species, were 30 cm. in diameter. Cut 1, 1 by 1 meter, was dug in 8-cm. levels toward the southeast edge of the site, near the beginning of the slope. The soil was black loam, containing numerous small iron concretions and sherds in a good state of preservation. This condition continued uniform through 4 levels. Between 28 and 32 cm. iron concretions became very abundant but sherds were present to 34cm. Below this the gravel was compact and sterile to a depth of 50 cm., where the cut was abandoned. A large core of felsite, the kind of rock used for the manufacture of manioc grater teeth, came from level 16-24 cm. It was trianguloid, 9 cm. long, 8 cm. wide at the base and 3.5 cm. thick. 198 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Cut 2, 1 by 1 meter, was placed on the highest part of the hill, near the center of the site and about 20 meters northwest of Cut 1. The soil color was slightly lighter than that in the vicinity of Cut 1, but otherwise characteristics were similar. Sherds were present in the first level, which also yielded an iron nail (probably dating from the Wai Wai field) and a quartz crystal. In level 8-16 cm. sherds were much sparser than in Cut 1 and small concretions were very abundant. Below 16 cm. the gravel became more compact and sterile. E-10: MAWIKA-TO The Wai Wai village of Mawika, on the left bank of the Essequibo, occupies the site of a former Taruma village (fig. 79). Sherds were visible on the bare surface of the clearing around the Wai Wai house, where the absence of vegetation encouraged erosion. The limits of the former clearing were not ascertainable because of the dense secondary growth resulting from more recent Wai Wai clearing of the same area. However, tests produced sherds from an area con- siderably larger than that used by the Wai Wai village, correspond- ing to the western half of a knoll 5 meters above the December level of the river. Dimensions of the site are 35 by 45 meters, with the major sherd concentration near the center of the area or just east of the Wai Wai house. The bank rises gradually so that the site is 30 meters from the river’s edge at low water. A i- by 1-meter strata cut was placed at the northeast edge of the modern clearing, near the center of the Taruma Phase site. Excava- tion was in 8-cm. levels. The soil was brownish-gray, sandy clay. In addition to sherds, level 0-8 cm. contained charred palm nuts and fragments of charcoal, which probably relate to the Wai Wai occupation. In level 8-16 cm., soil conditions continued the same and sherds were large and abundant. In level 16-24 cm., the soil became more compact and contained scattered lateritic concretions, which had been absent from the upper levels. Sherds were less numerous. Sterile, compact clay appeared at 24 cm., but was not distinguishable in color from the occupation layer. The quantity of sherds from this excavation in the Wai Wai side yard caused considerable amazement among the Indians, who exclaimed, “Look at what we have been walking over all this time and didn’t know it!” E-11: KUKWA MUTUTO On the left bank, 40 minutes’ paddling upstream from E-10 (fig. 79), the land rises sharply to a height of 6 meters above the Decem- ber waterline. The level surface was covered with short grass and scattered bushes over a strip 25 meters wide that came down to the edge of the bank. Fallen rafter poles and posts marked the former 10) d oe ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 199 location of a house at the water’s edge, and a few other posts were scattered farther back. Uruci, cotton, and cannalike bushes were still growing in the clearing. In the forest outside the grass area, stumps of large trees provided evidence of former clearing now in secondary growth. This site had been reported to us as a Wai Wai village occupied for 3 to 4 years and abandoned in 1948, and the condition of the clearing seemed to verify this claim. However, testing produced no sherds in the major portion of the area and it was only toward the rear of the clearing, far from the remnants of the recent house, that any concentration was found. On analysis, these sherds proved to be Taruma Phase rather than Wai Wai pottery. The Taruma Phase occupation was brief, judging from the fact that a 1- by 1-meter test produced only 35 sherds, all in the upper 2.5 cm. of the soil. Below that was sterile, hard, compact, tan clay. E-12: MANARI TULU On the right bank of the Essequibo, 1 hour and 20 minutes’ paddling upstream from E-11 (fig. 79), a large area of secondary forest oc- cupies an elevation about 100 meters in diameter and 5 meters above the December water level. Undergrowth was unusually dense and most of the vegetation consisted of small trees and spiny palm. Oc- casional trees measured 60 cm. in diameter. Extensive testing pro- duced sherds only in two places, 8 meters apart, near the center of the former clearing and one-third of the distance inward from the front edge, on the highest part of the site. One of these spots produced only three sherds. —— —— LIMIT OF FORMER CLEARING ——-— SHERD AREA Ficure 83.—Sketch map of E-13: Tari Tari Tulu, showing the Taruma Phase habitation area and the limit of the former field clearing. tree. Most of the sherds were concentrated in an area 15 meters in diameter in the north half of the site, where the soil color was darkest. Cut 1, 1 by 1 meter, was excavated in the north half of the area of greatest refuse concentration. Level 0-8 cm. produced abundant sherds and roots in dark-gray soil containing scattered lateritic concre- tions. Level 8 to 16 cm. continued the same conditions. In level 16-24 cm., sherds were fewer and concretions more numerous. The soil be- came lighter in color and sterile at 26 cm., changing to light-tan sandy clay at 40 cm. E-15: MASHUKROTHO A short distance below E-7 (fig. 79), the right bank of the Esse- quibo River rises steeply for 6 meters forming a large nearly level area not subject to flooding. Although trees reached 75 cm. in diameter, the Indians recognized the vegetation as secondary growth over an area some 200 meters long by 150 meters deep. Sherds were encoun- tered in only one place, which was slightly higher than the rest of the area and 30 meters from the shore. A 1- by 1-meter excavation pro- duced sherds only between 8 and 16 cm. below the surface. The soil was light gray and sandy in the occupation layer, becoming a little lighter in color below. E d eer ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 201 A considerable number of large sherds was found at and just below water level on the riverbank a little upstream. The source of these sherds could not be located, but it was evident that they had been washed down from the bank, which retreats into a small inlet at this point. This inlet is probably of recent origin and the sherds ap- parently came from the bank now washed away. E-16: WATAWATARITO E-16 is about 45 minutes’ paddling downstream from E-15, just below the junction of Watawatarité Creek with the right bank of the Essequibo (fig. 79). The bank rises steeply for 6 meters above the January water level, then levels off. An area about 350 meters long by 200 meters in from the edge of bank is covered with secondary growth marking the existence of a former clearing. Sherds were found in two places toward the front of this clearing, and an excavation was made in each (fig. 84). Cut 1, 1 by 1 meter, was placed in the center of an area of sherd concentration 10 meters in diameter, the edge of which was about 10 meters from the bank. The soil was medium-gray loam, sterile and full of roots for the first 8 cm. level. Level 8 to 16 cm. produced sparse sherds. Below this, sterile, compact, light gray, sandy clay appeared. Cut 2, also 1 by 1 meter, was placed in the center of the second habita- tion area, some 35 meters northeast of the first. The soil was slightly darker than in Cut 1 and sherds were more numerous. Sterile, com- pact, light gray, sandy clay appeared at 30 cm. and continued to 60 cm. Below this was light, whitish-gray sand. E-17: TUTKO MUTUTO Low land separates E-16 from E-17, 50 minutes’ paddling down- stream on the right bank (fig. 79). Here several large rocks jut out from the shore and a narrow gulley bounds the hill on the upstream side. The bank rises steeply to 6 meters above the January water level and maintains this elevation over a large level area, the major portion of which is occupied by secondary forest growth with a large proportion of palms. Although the former clearing measured 150 meters long by 75 meters deep, sherds occurred only on the western edge, in an area 10 meters in diameter and 15 meters in from the river bank, opposite the rock outcrop. A 1- by 1-meter cut here showed the dirt to be sterile, medium-gray loam for the first 8 cm. Sherds were present between 8 and 16 cm. Below 16 cm., the soil became compact, whitish clay, also sterile. E-18: YERKA MUTUTO E-18 is a considerable distance downstream from E-17, on the left bank (fig. 79). Here the land rises gently to a small summit 5 meters [Bull. 177 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 202 ‘Zulleapo Poy JowIoF ayy Jo Wu] ay pue sous uoneiqey osryg eunsey, om} oY3 Surmoys ‘ouseIvMEIE AA *9T—q Jo dem Yor9xg—'Fg aang SNIYV319 ySWuOs JO LIWIT ~~ vayv dgusHs : ——S ogino3assa 30} d peaean ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 203 above the January water level. Secondary growth of dense small brush, especially palm, and trees under 25 cm. in diameter covers the area roughly 150 meters long by 75 meters wide above the 4-meter contour. Sherds were found in only one place, at the edge of the highest spot. The refuse accumulation was not more than 4 meters in diameter and lay immediately below the surface under the light root mat. The soil was sandy and light gray. Fragments of glass and iron, and two hearthstones with burnt soil underneath, were encountered in the testing. E-19: CHOLYOLYOLIWATO The high bank occupied by E-19 is on the right side of the Essequibo, where it makes a 180° bend just below Baboon Falls (fig. 79). The slope is steep along the river and more gradual to the south and east, where a creek flows through a small ravine. ‘The summit, 18 meters above the January water level, is covered with small secondary growth with the majority of the trees under 10 cm. in diameter. An unusual feature of the vegetation was tall, large- diameter bamboolike cane, which the Wai Wai believed to have been planted by the Taruma. The former clearing was estimated to extend for about 500 meters along the bank and 200 meters inward. Sherds were found toward the eastern edge in a zone extending for 120 meters in from the bank by 80 meters wide, encompassing the area of highest elevation (fig. 85). Several large rocks jut out from this part of the shore. ‘Two stratigraphic excavations were made, one at the highest part of the site and the other closer to the riverbank. Cut 1, 1 by 1 meter, was 16 meters from the riverbank. The soil was dark gray and small lateritic concretions were very abundant. Sherds occurred from the surface to 18 cm., where the gravel became more compact and sterile. The soil continued dark gray until 24 cm., when it changed to light-brown loam. Bright-orange clay with large quantities of iron concretion gravel began at 40 cm. Cut 2 was 35 meters south of Cut 1, on the highest part of the site. It was also 1 by 1 meter, excavated in 8-cm. levels. The first three levels contained black soil with few lateritic concretions. Concretions became abundant below 20 cm. In level 32 to 40 cm., the soil was still blackish loam with abundant gravel, but contained no sherds. From 40 to 60 cm. the color was light brown and below 60 cm. it became bright-orange clay as in Cut 1. All the sterile soils had large amounts of concretion gravel. E-21: WEELYA-TO A large sloping rock jutting into the Essequibo from the left bank marks the location of K-21 (fig. 79). The river is about 70 meters 513186—60-——15 204 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 ESSEQUIBO \ \ | { l | \ ! ! | -— ——-— SHERD AREA - LIMIT OF FORMER CLEARING Ficure 85.—Sketch map of E-19: Cholyolyoliwaté6, showing the Taruma Phase habitation site and the limit of the former field clearing. wide here, not far above the mouth of the Kassikaityu. The rock was used as a landing for the Wai Wai village of Weelya, far back in the forest where the elevation of the ground was higher. The Taruma Phase site was along the bank, which rose 5 meters above the January water level. The area had been partly cleared for a house and garden, and was overgrown with dense, high, tangled grass. Further diflficul- ties in exploration were created by the presence of rotten logs and other vegetation debris. However, several tests indicated that the site was approximately 30 meters in diameter. A sherd collection was derived from two 1- by 1-meter tests, 10 meters apart. Sterile soil in the form of compact lateritic gravel was found at a depth of 40 cm. Above this the soil was medium-gray loam, disturbed by Wai Wai cul- tivation so that no effort was made to retain the sherd material stratigraphically. E d eeigan ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 205 E-22: TOTOYOGUYAOTONTO This site is on the left bank of the Kassikaityu River, about 500 meters above its junction with the Essequibo (fig. 79). The bank here rises steeply to 10 meters above the January water level to form a summit 200 meters long by 150 meters inward. Secondary growth occupies this area, with the majority of the trees under 15 cm. in di- ameter. Tests showed that sherds were limited to a small area 10 meters in diameter near the center of the former clearing. The soil was light-brown sand, sterile for the first 8cm. Sherds were scattered in level 8-16 cm., below which the soil became more compact and sterile. E-—23; KASSIKAITYU MOUTH On the north side of the junction of the Kassikaityu with the Es- sequibo (fig. 79), the land forms a high point 12 meters above the January water level. The summit shows evidence of a former clearing some 200 meters long by 100 meters wide. A slight depression about 75 meters wide separates this site from E-22. Sherds were found in an area 10 meters in diameter toward the south end of the site, op- posite an outcrop of large rocks in the Kassikaityu. A 1- by 1-meter test showed the soil to be sterile, light-brown sand for the first 18 cm., becoming slightly darker in the sherd zone between 18 and 31 cm., with sterile sandy soil below. E-24: FAHNATALUTO Half a kilometer below the mouth of the Kassikaityu, on the left bank of the Essequibo (fig. 79), several very large rocks stretch half way across the channel and form a little bay 20 meters wide (the river here is 75 meters wide). Sherds that had been washed out of the bank lay on the sandy beach where the rocks met the shore. The land rises in a series of shelves to an elevation of 7 meters above the January water level, reaching the summit about 100 meters inward from the shore. Secondary growth was more advanced than at many of the other sites, with many trees 30 to 50 cm. in diameter and a few larger. Undergrowth was minimal. The former clearing was about 250 meters in diameter, with its front edge at the 6-meter contour. Sherds came from an area 30 by 60 meters at the front of the highest summit. Cut 1, 1 by 1 meters, was excavated in 8-cm. levels toward the east- ern edge of the habitation area. Under the thin root mat, the soil was dark-gray loam. Sherds were present from the first level. No changes were visible until 32 cm., where the soil became light-gray sand. At 46cm. this changed to very compact, light yellowish-orange, sandy clay with orange streaks of precipitated iron. 206 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 E-25 : CHAFARIWAYUN Thirty-five minutes paddling below the Kassikaityu mouth, the Essequibo makes a 180 degree bend. On the north side of the bend, the bank rises to 16 meters above the January water level at a dis- tance of 75 meters from the shore (fig. 79). A dense growth of palm, cane, vines, and small trees covers the summit. The surface of the former field, 200 meters long by 100 meters deep, was very irregular and littered with dead, rotting trunks. Abundant charcoal on the surface and to a depth of 2.5 cm. was further evidence of former slash-and-burn clearing. The front edge of the field corresponded to the 14-meter contour, while the back and sides were on or above the 16-meter contour. The sherds came from an area 8 meters in diameter east of the center, at a depth of 24 to 38 cm. The soil was medium gray, becoming browner from 45 to 75 cm. at all spots tested. E-28 : YOUKUMNALULUM On the right bank of the Essequibo River, 6 minutes’ paddling below K-27, is a narrow inlet at right angles to the shore (fig. 79). The bank rises steeply to 5 meters above the January water level and forms a triangular plateau 60 meters in maximum width, bounded on the two arms by the inlet and river and on the hypotenuse by the hillside, which gradually slopes upward for 3 more meters to an elevation of 8 meters. Dense secondary growth covers the area above the 6-meter contour, and several old stumps 1 meter in diameter still remain from the former clearing. Cultural refuse, found only in one spot near the center of the summit, includes sherds, tiny glass beads, glass and bottle fragments, and manioc grater chips. The distribution sug- gests a habitation area about 9 meters in diameter. All objects were in or just below the root mat, at a depth of 1 to5 cm. The soil was light-gray sand. E-29: WANA WANA A small creek flows into the right bank of the Essequibo just below Wana Wana Falls, where the river is 70 meters wide and full of rocks (fig. 79). Below the creek, the land rises to a conical hill with a small summit 19 meters above the January water level and 20 by 30 meters in diameter. Secondary growth of brush, tall joint grass, and spiny palms interspersed with small open patches occupied an area about 100 meters in diameter above the 12-meter contour. The soil was light orange-brown clay and concretion gravel. Sherds and grater chips were present on part of the summit nearest the creek over an area of about 8 by 10 meters. Two sherds were on the sur- face, the rest between 8 and 16 cm. in depth. This site was identified by our guide as one visited by a “Father,” for whom the Taruma built a church. prnaant ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 207 E-30: EREFOIMO This site, 20 minutes’ paddling below E-29 (fig. 79), was the last one visited on the Essequibo survey. The river channel contains many rocks and the banks rise steeply to 5 meters on each side. At E-30, the hillside slopes gradually, attaining a height of 16 meters at a distance of 80 meters from the shore. The summit is small and the slope is steeper at the back. Vegetation includes large cane planted by the Taruma, joint grass, spiny palm, and thick brush. Trees were typically under 30 cm. in diameter. The limits of the former clearing correspond approximately to the 10-meter contour line, giving dimensions of 200 meters long by 100 meters in from the bank. Sherds were found on the summit over an area about 15 meters in diameter. Cut 1, 1 by 1 meters, was excavated in the eastern half of the refuse area. The soil was medium-gray sand, sterile for the first 8 cm. Sherds were sparse in level 8 to 16 cm., becoming more abundant in level 16 to 24 cm. There was no change until level 32 to 40 cm., where the soil suddenly became dark gray. At level 48 to 52 cm. sterile, compact, orange-brown clay appeared, which is the natural soil formation of the area. SLASH-AND-BuRN Fieip CLEARINGS Eleven of the places identified by the Wai Wai as having been used by the Taruma produced very little or no pottery in spite of extensive testing. It is highly probable that these are former slash-and-burn garden clearings, in some of which a small, temporary shelter was erected, and a pot or two was broken. This pattern is followed by the present occupants of the area, the Wai Wai, and is characteristic of Tropical Forest tribes in general. The fields producing sherds were given site numbers, but in most cases the sample is too small for use in the seriated sequence of the Taruma Phase. E-8 ; KULUPAL YEWKU Just upstream from E-7, above the Manakakashin Falls, the right bank of the Essequibo rises to an elevation of 7 meters (fig. 79). Sec- ondary growth that includes a few large trees covers the summit, and the surface of the ground is extremely uneven. ‘Tests over the general area of the former clearing, measuring 100 by 40 meters, re- vealed only two sherds, both in the same spot. B-14 : YEWARA-TO Upstream from E-13 and about 100 meters below the Wai Wai village of Yewar4 is a large area on the right bank of the Essequibo 208 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 that shows evidence of former clearing (fig. 79). The land rises to an elevation of 6 meters above the December water level, and secondary growth covers an area about 200 by 100 meters above the 5.5-meter contour. Widespread testing revealed sherds in one place only. E-20 : CHIKARIMA TULU Twenty-five minutes’ paddling below E-19 (fig. 79), the right bank of the Essequibo maintains an elevation of 4 meters along a consider- able distance. One section, opposite an outcrop of large rocks that rise 1 to 2 meters above the January water level, bears secondary growth indicative of a former clearing over an area about 100 meters along the bank by 150 meters inward, beginning 8 meters back from the edge of the bank. A few sherds were found in only one spot, 60 meters from the bank at the edge of a slight rise, 20 meters in diameter and 4.50 meters in elevation. E-26 : KECHEKRAI MUTUTO This site is on the left bank of the Essequibo (fig. 79), on an 18- meter high hill bounded on the north by a steep-sided ravine and inlet. The river here is 60 meters wide. Undergrowth was dense on the slopes, becoming sparse on the summit, which was dominated by small palms and trees up to 40 cm. in diameter. The general boundary of the former clearing corresponded roughly to the 18-meter contour and measured 175 meters wide by 100 meters deep. Near the center was a small rise, the front edge of which produced the only sherds that could be found in extensive testing. Only 8 were recovered, at a depth of 10 to 14 cm. below the surface. E-27: WOROKYM-TULU Seven minutes’ paddling below E-26, on the same (left) side of the river is another high hill showing indications of former clearing (fig. 79). The bank rises steeply to a height of 5 meters and continues at this level for 15 to 20 meters inland, after which it rises rather steeply to 20 meters above the January water level. The trees on the summit were comparatively large, many of them over 50 cm. in diameter. The surface of the ground was very irregular, a condition typical of former field clearings. The soil was orange brown and sherds were found in only one spot in spite of extensive testing. This was at the highest part of the site, on the slope facing the river. Only three sherds were recovered and these were at a depth of 16 cm. The former clearing, measuring approximately 150 meters in diameter, begins about the 11-meter contour and extends to the 16-meter contour at the sides and the 18-meter contour at the back. B d Hvausen ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 209 ADDITIONAL FIELD CLEARINGS Six of the places identified by our Indian guides as former slash- and-burn clearings produced no sherds in spite of extensive testing. However, the vegetation was comparable to that on sherd-producing sites, and the soil typically contained flecks of charcoal in the first few centimeters below the surface, making it seem probable that these are additional slash-and-burn field clearings exploited by nearby villages. They are indicated on the map (fig. 79) by the symbol (F). Locations and approximate areas are given on table G. TABLE G.—Additional Taruma Phase slash-and-burn field clearings Name Location on Essequibo River Approximate size Wanshiwayun.--__--_-_- Left bank, below E-28_-._..._..------- 100 meters in diameter. Amal Buluk - 522525555 Right bank, below E-21 - ..----------- Large, no dimensions recorded. Weniem6 Mututdé_-_-_--- Right bank, below E-17-_-_-_----------- 100 meters in diameter. Wanhakukus ..-<-2-=. Left bank, below E-6_...--.....------ 50X70 meters. Cinbity all eae se Right bank, below E-18- ------------- 200150 meters. INoinames=2.2<2=2.-=.. Right bank, below E-20-------------- No dimensions recorded. PETROGLYPHS No petroglyphs were detected on any of the rock outcrops in the surveyed section of the Essequibo River, although suitable places were frequent particularly below the mouth of the Kassikaityu. Several were observed, however, during 2 days’ travel up the Kassikaityu. When questioned about others in the region, the Indian guide asserted that there were none on the Essequibo but that some are to be found on the Kuyuwini, the next tributary to the north. The first group was half a day’s paddling up the Kassikaityu, on a rock jutting out from the left bank. The rapid here is called “Crab Falls” after one of the petroglyphs. The figures were on the nearly vertical face of a boulder just about the January water level, which means they are inundated during the rainy season. The marks were about 2 cm. wide and 2 mm. deep, eroded and almost invisible except when the sun cast a slight shadow. This group consisted of a crab (fig. 86, a), a stylized, rectanguloid face (fig. 86, d) in close proximity, and a bird (fig. 86, ¢) 2.5 meters to the left of the crab. Additional faint lines between the bird and the crab could not be identified. A short distance upstream was another rock in midstream bearing a petroglyph, and a little farther on near the right bank were two more figures, only one of which showed clearly. This was a face with up- standing hair (fig. 86, d). On the right bank of the Kassikaityu, half an hour below the junc- tion with the trail leading to the savanna, was a rock bearing another face with stylized, upstanding hair, along with two parallel lines and 210 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {Bull. 177 Oo 0 20 30 CM Figure 86.—Petroglyphs on the Kassikaityu River. a-c, Three figures in the same group representing a crab, a stylized rectanguloid face, and a bird. d, Face found upstream from group a-c. The line below the petroglyphs represents the water level in January 1953. an angular meandering line. These were also close to the January water level. An additional indistinct petroglyph was observed a little farther upstream. It is not possible to relate any of these petroglyphs to specific art motifs of the Taruma or Wai Wai Phases. When questioned, our Wai Wai guide Minguere contended that they had been made by Jesus. Evans and ener ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 211 DATA FROM OTHER INVESTIGATIONS With the exception of a few petroglyphs (see Osgood, 1946, figs. 3, 6), no archeological remains have been reported by previous visitors to the upper Essequibo. ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL The bulk of the material from the Taruma Phase is pottery. There are, however, a few stone objects that are either objectively or in- ferentially of cultural significance. Provenience of both stone and ceramic materials is given in the Appendix, tables 29 and 30. SToNE OBJECTS The Taruma Phase did not make any important use of stone for the manufacture of tools. Only two objects show any intentional shaping. The majority of the items are raw materials used in the manufacture of manioc graters or pottery, or stones whose cultural significance is inferred by analogy with the beliefs of the successors of the Taruma, the Wai Wai. Aw (fig. 87, 6).—A single polished ax of fine-grained sandstone was collected by the Hawkins from E-1. It is stubby, almost square, with a flat butt and sharp, convex blade. The form is comparable to axes from the Rupununi Phase, but this specimen lacks the lateral notches typical of Rupununi Phase examples. Length is 6.2 to 6.7 cm., width at the bit 5.4 cm., thickness at the butt 1.1 cm. Chopper (fig. 87, a).—A flat, rectanguloid stone with battering along one edge indicative of use as a chopper came from E-1. The material is fine-grained sandstone. Percussion shaping is limited to the blade edge along one of the long sides. Length is 10 cm., width 4.5 to 5.5 cm., thickness at the back 9 to 18 mm., thickness at the blade 5 mm. Griddle or metate fragments (?).—Several fragments of flat gran- ite spalls show slight smoothing and polish on one surface and rough shaping along the edge. Thickness is 1.5, 2.0,and 3.0cm. Although the griddles for baking cassava bread were typically made of pottery, it is possible that a granite slab of suitable size was occasionally substituted. The smoothed or polished surface suggests the alterna- tive explanation that these are fragments of metates. Unfortunately all are too small to make a definite identification. Rubbing stones (fig. 87, c-e) —Hematite concretion fragments and small waterworn quartz pebbles show traces of abrasion on one or more surfaces. Those of hematite typically have the surface worn flat and smooth. The maximum dimensions of a rubbing surface are 3.5 by 3.7 cm. The quartz pebbles are ovoid, 2.5 to 5.0 cm. long and usually polished on one rounded end. yA pe BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Ficure 87.—Stone artifacts of the Taruma Phase. a, Chopper. 0b, Ax. c-e, Rubbing stones. Quartz crystal—A single quartz crystal, broken at one end and waterworn on the edges, was found in excavation. Since such ob- jects are not natural inclusions in the soil, it presumably was brought to the site. Length is 4.2 cm., cross section 1.4 by 2.2 cm. One end comes to a natural pyramidal apex. Quartz pebbles.—Two small, waterworn, quartz pebbles, 2 cm. long by 1.2 and 1.5 cm. thick respectively, were found in excavation at two different sites (see Appendix, table 29). They show no evidence of use, but are similar to the pebble the Wai Wai shaman receives when he is notified by the spirits that he has been chosen. In view of this, and since such pebbles are not natural inclusions in the local soil, it seems possible that they may have had a similar supernatural significance to the Taruma also. Resin.—Two irregularly shaped hunks of hard resin, 3 by 4 by 3 cm. and 3 by 3 by 2 cm., are the same material used by the modern Wai Wai Bvans and Meggers] ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 913 to aid in starting fires in wet weather. The substance probably had the same use among the Taruma. Raw materials—Manioc grater chips, and stones from which chips had been struck, are the most abundant type of stone raw material found in Taruma Phase sites. Both chips and cores show evidence of percussion flaking. AIl are felsite. Represented among the frag- ments are large pieces of primary raw material, and the intermediate stage, large percussion flakes. The latter are further worked by per- cussion to produce tiny triangular chips that are set into the grater board. Large hunks of decomposed granite, which is the tempering ma- terial of Yoché Plain, were found in considerable quantity at a number of sites (see Appendix, table 29). The irregularly shaped hunks, the majority of them badly weathered and very “rotten,” vary from crude percussion-struck flakes 1 by 1 cm. to rocks 10.0 by 7.0 by 1.5 cm. Chips and occasional cores of chert, quartz, and sandstone appear to be the by-products of the manufacture of flake-scrapers, hammer- stones, axes, and perhaps other tools. Some may be the accidental results of hammering, since intentionally shaped tools appear to be rare. Portery TYPE DESCRIPTIONS Taruma Phase sites produced 14,364 potsherds, which were classified into three plain and five decorated types. The latter constitute 7.7 percent of the total pottery, or 1,115 sherds. No complete or restorable vessels were found, hence the vessel shapes are reconstructed from sherds. Frequency and provenience of the sherds are given in the Ap- pendix, table 30. The types are designated by the binomial system, and are arranged in alphabetical order. KALUNYE PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Numerous sherds are broken on the coil line, indi- eating construction by coiling. Coils are 1 to 2 cm. wide. Temper: Fine, quartz-sand granules less than 1 mm. in diameter, moderate in amount and well distributed. Occasionally, larger particles of sand or flecks of black ash occur. Texture: Compact and fine-grained appearance to naked eye. Under 14X magnification, numerous minute holes can be seen. Good tensile strength. Rings when dropped on pile of sherds. Eroded surfaces, exposing the paste, have a hard, sandpapery texture. Color: The majority of sherds are orange throughout the cross section. However, the full range from orange to gray is represented, including sherds orange half-way through from either surface and gray for the remainder, and gray with orange bands along both surfaces. The orange varies from bright orange to light orange to brownish orange; the gray ranges from light to dark. Firing: Incomplete to complete oxidation. 214 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 SURFACE (pl. 44, a-d): Color: Typically light tan to orange. Rare exceptions are sherds with solid-gray core or gray band along one surface, in which case the adja- cent surface is also gray. Treatment: Uneroded surfaces are smoothed and typically even, with faint, fine smoothing marks occasionally visible. 'Thinner-walled sherds are better smoothed than thicker ones; bowls are better smoothed on the interior and jars on the exterior. Finishing was sufficiently well done when the clay was still fairly damp to float fine particles to the surface, which conceals the sandy texture of the paste. Pits and other irregu- larities often remain. Hardness: 2.5 to 3.5. The variation may partially reflect poor conditions of preservation resulting from excessive exposure to moisture and acid soil. Form: Rim: Direct or slightly everted; thickening of any sort is very rare and possibly accidental. Rounded, tapered, pointed or flattened lip. Body wall thickness: 4 to 20 mm.; majority 6 to 7 mm. Body diameter: 16 to 34 cm. at the carination. Base: Four base types can be distinguished. In the absence of any com- plete vessels, the association of these with particular vessel shapes can be determined only by inference: A. Flat, with curved or angular junction to the body wall, which rises at one of two angles: 80-35 degrees and 60-70 degrees. The thick- ness of the base is typically equal to or less than that of the body wall, but in rare instances is greater. Slight thickening at the point of junction is optional. Diameters range from 6-12 cm. (fig. 88, A). B. Slight pedestal, formed by a vertical to outslanting rise, the angle of which is distinct from that of the body wall. Height of pedestal 5-12 mm. ; diameter 8-20 cm. (fig. 88, B). C. Rounded and unthickened. Diameters not determinable. D. Annular. Only one example; too fragmentary for measurement of height. Diameter at junction with body wall, about 9 cm. Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: In the absence of any com- plete vessels or large fragments, the forms of Kalunye Plain have been reconstructed from rims and diagnostic body sherds. The most frequent types of rim profiles suggest 4 major vessel shapes: 1. Shallow to moderately deep bowls with outslanting or upcurving walls, direct rim and a variety of lip forms, including rounded, pointed, flattened and beveled. Rim diameter is 6-30 cm.; major- ity 16-24 em. (fig. 88-1). 2. Carinated bowls, the lower wall joining the upper at a distinct but usually rounded angle. Rim is everted, sometimes narrowing slightly toward the lip, which is usually rounded. Rim diameter is 14-82 cm.; majority 16-22 cm. (fig. 88-2). 8. Globular jars, walls incurving to constricted mouth and direct rim with rounded lip. Mouth diameter 6-28 cm.; majority 12-20 cm. (fig. 88-3). 4, Globular jars with everted rim and rounded or pointed lip. Rim diameter 8-28 cm.; majority 16-22 cm. (fig. 88-4). OcCASIONAL DECORATION: A few rims of shapes 1 and 8 have a row of orna- mental nicks along the edge of the lip. E d ayang dn ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 215 SVP DS MMA TL (LA o\\\\ VESSEL SCALE eth On 2) (30CM RIM & BASE SCALE Ficure 88.—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kalunye Plain, Taruma Phase (Appendix, table 31). TEMPORAL DIFFERENCE WITHIN THE TYPE: The number of rims per level is too small to be used for percentage analysis and the determination of changes in shape frequency through time. However, the absence of Vessel Form 4 except in the upper third of the seriated sequence probably reflects an in- crease in popularity of this form rather than inadequacy of the sample. The single annular base (Form D) comes from an early level, suggesting that this form also has temporal significance (Appendix, table 31). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Kalunye Plain is the major plain ware in the latter part of the Taruma Phase sequence, increasing from 3.3 percent at the earliest site to 75.1 percent at the latest (fig. 101). 216 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 KANASHEN INCISED PASTE AND SURFACE: This type of decoration is found predominantly on sherds with a paste of Yoch6d Plain, rarely on Kalunye Plain and only once on Mawik4 Plain. All features of paste and surface are like those of these plain types and details may be found under their type descriptions. FORM: Rim: Direct, everted or exteriorly thickened with flat or rounded lip. Body wali thickness: 3-17 mm. ; majority 6-9 mm. Body diameter: 14-16 cm. at carination. Base: Since the decoration is confined to the upper part of the vessel wall, no bases can be identified; however, since the ware is predominantly Yoché Plain, the bases probably are the same forms associated with that type. Major vessel forms reconstructed from sherds: 1. Jars with upper walls incurving to everted and direct, or everted and exteriorly thickened rim with flat or rounded lip. Mouth diameter 12-34 cm. Decoration occurs in a band around the neck (fig. 89-1). 2. Deep bowls with walls curving up to rounded shoulder, then more vertically before flaring outward to direct or exteriorly thickened rim with flattened or rounded lip. Rim diameter 12-46 cm. Deco- ration confined to area above shoulder (fig. 89-2). 3. Relatively shallow bowls, walls outsloping to direct, everted or exteriorly thickened rim with rounded or flattened lip. Rim diameter 20-50 em.; majority 20-30 em. Decoration on exterior; rarely, on interior (fig. 89-8). DECORATION (pls. 41, 42): Technique: Incised lines of widely varying width and depth but consistent on a single vessel, indicating that the variation is associated with the dimensions of the stick used as an incising tool. The shape of the cut ranges from a deep (1 mm.) and narrow (0.5 mm.) V to a broad (4 mm.) trough. The majority of the incisions are 1-2 mm. wide and V- or U- shaped. Lines are typically straight, made with a single stroke, not equally spaced or perfectly parallel, but approximately so. Spacing is regular in crosshatch, producing equal-sized diamonds. Lines were drawn when the surface was sufficiently dry to leave a distinct, well-defined mark. Motif: All designs are composed of straight lines, which are arranged into three standardized patterns and a fourth more variable type of design: 1. Zoned, parallel lines (pl. 41, a-e). A broad band around the upper exterior (rarely covering the interior instead) is filled with paral- lel lines in zones, those in one zone running approximately per- pendicular to those in the adjacent zone. The direction is usually diagonal less often vertical and horizontal. The zones are some- times equal in size, other times irregular. Intersecting lines may overlap or fall short of meeting. The design area is sometimes bounded by incised lines running horizontally. 2. Crosshatch (pl. 41, f-k). A series of lines is drawn diagonally and parallel below the rim and crossed with another series of lines drawn diagonally in the opposite direction. Hither set may be done first. The spacing is controlled so that the result is a pattern of symmetrical diamonds. Differential spacing of the lines on specimens of the type results in considerable size variation in the Evans and ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 217 CH CUeqaocan ee fill oe | (> a) 2 3 CM ° RiM SCALE TV Ficure 89.—-Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kanashen Incised, Taruma Phase (Appendix, table 32). hachure, but the dimensions are consistent on a single vessel. In- cisions producing this motif tend to be slightly broader than the average for the pottery type as a whole. The design area is occa- sionally bounded by single, horizontal incised lines. 3. Zigzag (pl. 42, a—f). Short diagonal strokes are drawn alternately right and left to produce a vertically oriented pattern. The vari- ation in care of execution is greater than in the preceding motifs, and sloppily executed examples are relatively frequent. The zig and zag lines may meet, overlap or fail to join. Adjacent lines may be markedly nonparallel. Lines vary greatly in width but are consistent on a single vessel. Occasional additional ornamenta- tion above or below the incised area consists of rows of fingernail impressions and fingertip punctates. 4. Broad incisions or scrapings (pl. 42, g-j). Flat-bottomed incisions over 2 mm. wide are used to draw designs composed of squares, parallel or intersecting lines of variable spacing. The majority of the sherds are too small to reveal the overall arrangement in de- tail, but the standardized execution of the 3 previous motifs is not characteristic. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: None. Both vessel shapes and design motifs show great consistency in their distribution through time (Appendix, table 32). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Kanashen Incised occurs throughout the Taruma Phase, except at the very earliest sites, in frequencies that fluctuate between 0.5 and 7.3 percent. It exhibits no clear-cut trend of increasing or decreasing popularity (fig. 101). 218 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 (AIK pees Es ee ene) SSeS! 4 O01, 2) .5CM o 4 8 #12CM RIM SCALE VESSEL SCALE Ficure 90.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kassikaityu Punctate, Taruma Phase (Appendix, table 33). KASSIKAITYU PUNCTATE PASTE AND SURFACE: Predominantly on Yoch6 Plain paste, but occasionally on Kalunye Plain or Mawik4 Plain; see those type descriptions for details. ForM: Rim: Direct or slightly everted, with rounded or flattened lip. Body wail thickness: 5-15 mm. Base: The decoration is confined to the upper wall, so that in the absence of restorable vessels the associated bases cannot be identified. Since the majority of the decoration is on Yoch6 Plain, the bases are probably the common ones of that type. Major vessel forms reconstructed from sherds: 1. Large, thick-walled jars, with rounded body, short collarlike neck, direct rim and rounded or flattened lip. Mouth diameter 22-38 cm. (fig. 90-1). 2. Rounded jars with upper walls insloping to slightly everted rim with rounded lip. Rim diameter 14-22 em. (fig. 90-2). DECORATION (pl. 43) : Technique: The sherds included in this type have in common the fact that the decoration is produced by punching, poking or jabbing the surface repeatedly, producing a series of marks. However, the technique of their production is highiy variable. Tools include the fingertip, fingernail, a pointed, square or triangular-ended stick and a split hollow cane, the latter giving a semicircular imprint. These were manipulated in a variety of ways. Fingertip marks may be depressions made by pressing with the finger approximately perpendicular to the vessel surface, or by pressing at an angle so that the clay is displaced into a low ridge beside the depression. The depth of such depressions is approximately 2 mm., and the height of the intervening ridges, when present, about the same. In rare instances, adjacent punctations have been made from opposite angles, so that the intervening ridge is alternately prominent and absent. Fingernail marks are thin, curved lines made by applying the nail per- pendicularly to the surface. They occasionally occur simultaneously with fingertip punctates. Stick punctates are of two sorts: jabs 14 mm. deep hee ty ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 219 (relatively constant on a single vessel) produced by application of the tool approximately perpendicularly to the surface; and gashes 1-2 mm. deep and 0.5-1.5 mm. long, made by applying the tool in short strokes. The latter might have been classified as a variety of incision, but the pat- tern of application is comparable to that of the true punctates and it is therefore considered as a variant of this general class of decoration. Motif: Punctates of all the different types are typically applied in hori- zontal rows on the vessel neck, either immediately below the rim, or where the collar joins the body wall. Rarely, they are placed on a slightly raised rib. Occasionally only a single row appears; most fre- quently there are several rows forming a band 2-4 cm. wide. Thinner- walled body sherds, probably associated with vessel Form 2, have decora- tion extending down as far as the region of maximum diameter. Dis- tance separating both individual punctates and successive rows is variable for the pottery type, but relatively consistent on a single vessel. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Temporal analysis of the punctate techniques indicates that nearly all occur simultaneously throughout the seriated sequence, confirming the impression that they are variants of a single type. The only technique absent from the lower third of the sequence is fingernail punctate, suggesting that it may be somewhat later than the others (Appendix, table 34). No vessel shape changes are evident in the small rim sherd sample (Appendix, table 33). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Kassikaityu Punctate occurs in a fre- quency of less than 5 percent throughout the Taruma Phase sequence (fig. 101). MANAKAKASHIN RED PASTE AND SURFACE: Predominantly on Yoché Plain paste, less frequently on Kalunye Plain and rarely on Mawikaé Plain; see those type descriptions for details. ForM: Rim: Direct, slightly incurved or slightly everted, with rounded lip. Body wall thickness: 3-7 mm. Base: None identified. Major vessel forms reconstructed from sherds: 1. Relatively deep bowls, with steeply upcurving upper walls terminat- ing in a direct rim, or less commonly changing direction 1-2 cm. below the rim and curving either inward or outward. Rim di- ameter 10-32 cm. ; majority 16-24 cm. (fig. 91-1, top). 2. Rounded jars with walls incurving to direct rim with rounded lip. Mouth diameter 20-24 em. (fig. 91-2, top). DEcoRATION (pl. 44, e-j) : Technique: A dark, rich-red paint was applied to the vessel surface. Sherds exhibit variation from a trace of color to a film concealing the orange-tan undersurface completely, but this appears to be largely the result of differential erosion. No smoothing or brushing marks are visible. Motif: Application of the paint to cover one surface is typical; usually on the interior of bowls and the exterior of jars. The color may stop at the edge of the lip, or continue over the rim top to the opposite margin. On bowls it sometimes continues 1-2 em. down the exterior wall. One bowl rim sherd is red on both exterior and interior. Bowls 513186—60——16 230 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 (TE es CS o 4 8 12 CM VESSEL SCALE RIM SCALE Me Ficure 91.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Taruma Phase decorated pottery types. Top: Manakakashin Red (Appendix, table 33). Bottom: Manaka- kashin Red-on-White (Appendix, table 33). eons ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 221 being the most frequent form, the majority of the body sherds are red on the interior. In the absence of complete jars or even large fragments, it is impossible to say whether the red covers the entire exterior or only the upper portion on this form. No bases were included in the small sample. A rare form of Manakakashin Red has the color applied in bands or stripes rather than over the whole surface. A small sherd of Vessel Form 2 has the lip painted red, and two bands 7-8 mm. wide running horizontally on the upper exterior about 8 mm. apart. They begin to curve downward at one edge, suggesting that the motif was not simple parallel stripes. Two sherds from Vessel Form 1 have paired stripes, 3-5 mm. wide, running vertically on the interior. Occasional sherds have additional decoration in the form of a row of diagonal gashes along the lip or on the exterior just below the margin of the red painted area (pl. 44, g-7). TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Decoration in the form of bands occurs only in the early third of the Taruma Phase. No trends are dis- cernible in vessel shape (Appendix, table 33). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Manakakashin Red occurs sporadically throughout the Taruma Phase, but exhibits a marked increase in popularity in the latter third of the sequence (fig. 101). MANAKAKASHIN RED-ON-WHITE Paste: All paste features are typical of Yoché Plain, Kalunye Plain, and Mawikaé Plain, all of which were used for this type of decoration; see those type descriptions for details. SurFrace: Unslipped surfaces are representative of the range in the plain wares and do not show any unusually careful treatment. Slip: Color: White to cream. Treatment: Applied in sufficient thickness (maximum 0.5 mm.) to be readily distinguished and to form a distinct layer on the surface. Adhesion to the underlying sandy surface is generally good and there is hardly any tendency to slough off. No smoothing marks evident. Surface is relatively smooth and even. A few sherds have a waxy coating over the painted surface, perhaps resulting from the appli- cation of a resin to the surface after firing, as the Wai Wai do today. Hardness: 2.5-3. ForM: Rim: Typically direct, occasionally thickened on exterior or interior. Body wall thickness: 4-6 mm. Base: Fiat. Major vessel forms reconstructed from sherds: 1. Rounded jars with flattened bottom, walls curving outward to rounded slightly angular shoulder, then inward to direct or slightly upturned rim with rounded lip. Mouth diameter 16-26 cm. (fig. 91-1, bottom). 2. Bowls with flattened bottom, upcurving or upslanting walls, direct rim and rounded lip. Rim diameter 20-26 em. (fig. 91-2, bottom). 3. Bowls with flattened bottom, upcurving walls interiorly thickened 1.5-2.5 cm. below the rim and then tapering to the rounded, pointed, or slightly flattened lip. Rim diameter 18-22 cm. (fig. 91-3, bottom). 9)? BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Ficure 92.—Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase. a-c, Motif 1: intricate overall patterns. d-f, Motif 2: zoned, parallel lines. Eyans and ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 223 Ficure 93.—Manakakashin Red-on-White, Taruma Phase. a-f, Motif 3: broad lines. DECORATION (figs. 92,93; pl. 45). Technique: Thick, dark-red paint applied to white-slipped surfaces in lines. On some sherds, all or parts of the painted lines are black; however, close examination of the underlying pigment indicates that this discoloration is an accidental alteration of the normally red paint, either as a result of firing or of chemical action in the ground. Width of the lines varies from 0.5-10.0 mm., with the extremes not normally present on the same sherd. Hxecution is typically careful, without overshot junctions of the lines. Parallel lines approach true parallelism and inequalities in spacing are not pronounced. Although broader-lined designs have suffered more from erosion, it appears that they were originally less carefully executed than the fine-line designs. Motif: Red-on-white designs are normally placed on the exterior, although a few sherds have this decoration on the interior surface in addition to or instead of on the exterior. In the remainder the interior is plain or covered with a red wash. Three major types of motif occur with approximately equal frequency: 1. Intricate, delicate, all-over patterns of small, concentric diamonds, triangles and intervening parallel lines (fig. 92, a—c; pl. 45, a, c, d). In one case squares and triangles are filled with parallel lines. The 224 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bull. 177 painted lines are 0.5-1.0 mm. in width, 0.5-2.0 mm. apart, care- fully and precisely drawn. On a single sherd, width and spacing of lines show little variation. On one sherd, the lower edge of the motif is bordered by two parallel, broad (5 mm.), red-painted bands. 2. Zoned, parallel lines, arranged in a manner comparable to this motif in Kanashen Incised (see p. 216; pl. 41, a-e). Red- painted lines are 0.5-2.0 mm. wide and 0.5-3.0 mm. apart; with the finer lines correlated with the narrower spacing (fig. 92, d—f; pl. 45, b, e, g-h). 38. Designs composed of broad lines, 3-12 mm. wide (fig. 93, a—f; pl. 45, f, +). Parallel bands and large squares occupy large areas with no additional painting evident. Most of the sherds are too small to show more than a few lines, giving little indication of the characteristics of the total design. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Although a number of sherds were too eroded for classification by design motif, the distribution of the remainder through time (Appendix, table 34) suggests that Motif 1 is later than the other two types of design, both of which are somewhat cruder and simpler. No trends are evident in vessel shape (Appendix, table 33). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Manakakashin Red-on-White occurs throughout the Taruma Phase in a highly erratic frequency, but shows a slight tendency toward increasing in popularity in the latter half of the sequence (fig. 101). MAWIKA PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Probably coiling. Temper: Cariapé; fragments of siliceous cellular structure readily visible to the naked eye especially on eroded surfaces, although there is a gradation to small particles identifiable only under magnification. Quantity varies considerably, some sherds showing only one or two particles, others having large amounts. Fine sand is also present, but it could not be determined whether this was intentionally added as temper or the result of use of a naturally sandy clay. Texture: Sandy but not friable. Compact, with small to medium air pockets due to poorly kneaded clay. Color: Majority tile orange to red orange, but occasional sherds have brown- ish-gray to gray core. Firing: Oxidized, typically completely. SURFACE: Color: Tan to orange tan to tile orange. Treatment: Smoothed but not even. Majority badly eroded, so that details are obscured. Hardness; 3-3.5. ForM: Rim: Direct, with rounded or flattened lip. Body wall thickness: Cont \iners, 5-12 mm. ; griddles, 1.1-2.5 cm. Base: A. Flat, unthickened or slightly thickened, joining sidewalls at an angle of 30-40 degrees or 70 degrees. Diameter 8-10 cm. (fig. 94, A). B. Pedestal, rising vertically 1.0-1.2 cm. before joining outflaring side- wall. Interior surface slopes gradually from base to wall. Diam- eter 14cm. Exterior very uneven (fig. 94, B). E d ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 225 rs ere ene | OR 2's) GM RIM SCALE ebb o 4 8 #12 CM VESSEL SCALE Ficure 94.—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Mawika Plain, Taruma Phase. Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: 1. Griddles with irregular bottom, smooth upper surface, and upturned or slightly thickened rim. Diameter 30-60 cm. (fig. 94-1). 2. Deep bowls with upslanting to nearly vertical walls, direct rim, rounded to flattened lip. Rim diameter 12-38 cm.; majority 28-38 cm. (fig. 94-2). 3. Rounded jars with constricted neck and slightly everted rim with rounded to flattened lip. Rim diameter 20-36 cm. (fig. 94-3). 4, Rounded jars, walls incurving to direct rim and rounded lip. Rim diameter 20-26 em. (fig. 94-4). TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Sample too small for determination. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Present evidence suggests that Mawika Plain is absent from the earliest part of the Taruma Phase. Thereafter, it appears in small frequencies at scattered sites, reaching a popularity of more than 10 percent only at H-10, near the middle of the sequence (fig. 101). ONORO STAMPED PASTE AND SURFACE: Predominantly on Yoché Plain paste, with a few on Kalunye Plain; see those types for details. All features are typical, except that this decoration is not found on the extreme form of coarse-tempered paste found in Yoch6é Plain. Form: Rim: Everted with pointed lip; rarely, direct or thickened with flattened or rounded lip. Body wall thickness: 3.5-7.0 mm. ; increasing to 5.0-7.5 mm. at the decorated band. 226 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 INS oe Ki) hs a a Ose Be CM Oh 2 ae VESSEL SCALE RiM SCALE Ficure 95.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Onoro Stamped, Taruma Phase. Base: Fiat. Major vessel forms reconstructed from sherds: All rims are a variant of the same form, a small jar with a rounded or angular shoulder, nearly ver- tical to insloping neck, and everted or direct rim with pointed, rounded or flattened lip (fig. 95-1). Rim diameter 11.5-18.0 cm.; diameter at shoulder, 14-32 em.; base diameter (1 sherd), 18 em. The decoration is applied in a band at the maximum diameter when the shoulder is rounded, or just above the band when it is angular. The base fragment has a narrow band of decoration at the junction with the wall. DECORATION (pl. 46): Technique: After smoothing of the entire vessel surface, a thin (1-2 mm. thick) band of clay was added at or just above the point of greatest body diameter. Because of the dryness and smoothness of the underlying surface, the adhesion is not always good. This band, which varies between 1 and 3 cm. in width in the type, but is uniform on a single specimen, was decorated while the clay was still fairly wet by rolling the surface with a nut of Murity or Moriche palm (Mauritia fleruosa). This produces a pattern of diamond-shaped depressions separated by thin, low ridges, representing the negative impression of the nut, the surface of which has diamond-shaped raised areas separated by fine grooves. The clarity of the pattern suggests that the nut was rolled continuously around the vessel in the manner of a roller stamp. Variations in the size of the nut give variations in the dimension of the impressions on different sherds. Typical measurements of the diamonds are 3 by 5mm., 5 by 6 mm., 4 by 5mm. Depth averages 1 mm. A rare variant of Onoro Stamped is produced by using a stick with a flat end 2.0-8.5 mm. wide. This was dragged diagonally across the applique strip and jabbed every 3-5 mm. The general effect is com- parable to the stamping, but the details are distinct (pl. 46, f, 7). iyangand ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 227 Motif: The decoration was typically applied in a continuous band around or just above the waist of the vessel. The details reflect the character- istics of the surface of the palm nut used as a roller stamp. One base has a narrow row of stamping around the exterior at the junction with the body wall. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: None. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Onoro Stamped occurs in minor amounts throughout the Taruma Phase (fig. 101). YOCHO PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling ; a number of sherds show coil line cleavage. Temper: Abundant, large particles of decomposed granite containing quartz and mica, not always well distributed. Particles are typically larger than 1 mm., frequently reaching 6 mm. (pl. 47, i). No correlation between temper size and sherd thickness; temper is as gross in sherds 7 mm. thick as in those 20 mm. thick. Hunks of decomposed granite from which this temper was derived were found at a number of Taruma Phase sites (Ap- pendix, table 29). Texture: Poor kneading of the clay has resulted in a striated appearance of the cross section and occasional crevicelike air pockets 2-7 mm. long. Smaller temper particles give sandy texture. Color: Typically bright orange through cross section; rarely, light gray, me- dium gray, dark gray, or creamy white. Thinner sherds sometimes banded, with medium-gray core fired orange on both surfaces, or with a gray band along one surface and orange in the rest of the cross section. Firing: Incomplete to complete oxidation. SURFACE: Color: Cream, light orange, orange brown or brown, the color varying little on a single sherd ; occasional black fire clouding. Treatment: Variable. Well smoothed and even surfaces, especially on thin- walled vessels and griddle interiors. Griddle exteriors may be smoothed like interior or left rough and uneven. Pits, scars, and other small de- fects remain on surfaces of larger vessels. Occasional coarse smoothing tracks on interior parallel to rim. Hardness: 2.5-3. ForM : Rim: Direct, everted, exteriorly thickened or interiorly thickened, with rounded, flattened, beveled, or pointed lip. Typically uneven and irregu- lar, with the angle of the wall varying considerably on opposite edges of the same sherd. Body wall thickness: 4-20 mm. ; majority 6-8 mm. Body diameter: 18-52 cm. at carination ; majority 22-34 cm. Base: Generally poorly finished on exterior, consequently uneven and in Forms A and B not well flattened. A. Flat, joining sidewalls at angle of 35-40 degrees or 60-65 degrees. Thickness may be equal to, greater, or less than body wall. Point of junction may be thickened on interior. Diameter 6-20 cm.; majority 8-16 cm. (fig. 96, A). B. Slight pedestal, formed by a short upslope before the junction with the body wall. Height of rise is 3-12 mm. Body wall joins the pedestal at an angle of 25-35 degrees or 50 degrees. Diameter is 6-16 cm. (fig. 96, B ; pl. 47, g). 228 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 J Pec: Ny” oD” x Lotta Lititiys csi P o 1 2 36M 0 4 8 120M Ey RIM & BASE VESSEL SCALE i$ SCALE Ficure 96.—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Yoché Plain, Taruma Phase (Appendix, table 35). eae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 229 C. Rounded and unthickened or slightly thickened. One example has a series of perforations 3 mm. in diameter clustered in the center (fig. 96, C). D. Annular, outflaring, with rounded lower edge. Height 1-2 cm.; di- ameter at lower edge 6-12 cm. (fig. 96, D ; pl. 47, f). Major vessel shapes reconstructed from sherds: In the absence of any com- plete or restorable vessels of Yoché Plain, the analysis of form had to be made from rims, bases, and diagnostic body sherds. Coincidences in the distribution of rim and base forms give clues to the possible association (Appendix, table 35). This evidence suggests 7 major vessel shapes: 1. Rounded, shallow bowls, with walls thickened on the interior 1.2—2.5 em. below the lip, and tapering toward the lip, producing a flat band around the rim interior. Rounded or pointed lip. Rim diameter 16-28 cm. The temporal distribution of this form paral- lels that of the annular base, suggesting that they belong to the same vessel shape (fig. 96-1). 2. Shallow to deep bowls with outslanting or upcurving walls and direct rim with rounded, flattened or pointed lip. Diameter 12-44 em.; majority 14-32 cm. (fig. 96-2). 8. Bowls with upslanting to nearly vertical walls. Rims are everted or exteriorly thickened, often producing a flat rim top. The lip is rounded. Rim diameter 8-44 cm., majority 20-30 cm. (fig. 96-3). 4. Globular jars with short everted neck or exteriorly thickened rim, rounded lip. The thickened and everted forms both occur through- out the seriated sequence, suggesting they are variants of a poorly standardized rim treatment. Rim diameter 10-38 cm.; majority 18-30 em. (fig. 96-4). 5. Globular jars with direct rim incurving to rounded or beveled lip. Rim diameter 10-30 cm. (fig. 96-5). 6. Deep bowls or jars with concave or outcurving upper wall, everted rim and rounded, flattened, or pointed lip. The lower edge of one rim sherd extends down to a mild carination, indicating that body sherds with this form are associated with these rims. Rim diam- eter is 6-42 cm., majority 18-28 cm. (fig. 96-6). 7. Large, flat, circular griddles, with no standardized rim treatment. Variations include an upturned edge, interior thickening, expand- ing thickness at the rim, and direct rim. Thickness 1.1-2.8 em., rim diameter 32-52 cm. (fig. 96-7; pl. 47, h). OCCASIONAL DECORATION (pl. 47) : Applique: Ribs or small nubbins occur just below the rim on Form 2, or on body sherds. Height of projection is 3-5 mm. Nubbins are 1.0-1.5 em. in diameter. Examples are rare. Nicks: Rims of Form 2 occasionally have a row of small nicks along the lip, 1-5 mm. wide, 3-5 mm. deep and irregularly spaced 2-8 mm. apart. Ex- amples occur scattered throughout the entire seriated sequence. Unsmoothed coils: A few body sherds and rims of Form 4 and Form 5 have unsmoothed coils on the exterior, extending downward from the rim (pl. 47, a—-d). Fingertip impressions: A few griddles have a row of decorative fingertip impressions along the outer rim edge (pl. 47, e). TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Vessel Form 1 is limited to the lower half of the sequence, and Form 3 to the upper two-thirds. Form 5 appears to be absent from the latest sites. Base Form D is characteristic of the lower 230 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 half of the sequence, while Form C occurs only in the latter part of the Phase. (Appendix, table 35.) Occasional decoration of unsmoothed coils and applique is absent in the upper third of the seriated sequence. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Yoch6o Plain is the dominant pottery type in the early part of the Taruma Phase. Although it declines in popularity, it is present in all sites (fig. 101). PoTTeRY ARTIFACT TYPES Pot rests (fig. 97).—A considerable number of irregularly shaped lumps of pottery occur in most Taruma Phase sites. The larger frag- ments have one or more finished surfaces indicating that they are parts of solid pot rests in the shape of a truncated cone (fig. 97, c-/). The paste varies greatly. Some resemble Yochdo Plain, with abun- dant, coarse temper; a few are like Kalunye Plain, with fine, compact paste; others have an extremely sandy composition and crumble easily; some have a striated pinkish-orange and whitish structure with no temper particles evident. This variation suggests that pot rests were made from whatever materials were most available. If there was clay remaining from pottery manufacture, it was used; if not, a substitute was employed, probably clay from the nearest suit- able riverbank. Workmanship also varies greatly. Some examples are well made, with symmetrical form, smoothed surface, and occasional ornamenta- tion on the top by fingertip impressions (fig. 97, a, 6). Others are so sandy and so poorly kneaded that they have crumbled into irregularly shaped lumps. Although generally conical, the slope of the wall and the angle of junction with top or bottom vary considerably. Di- ameter of the upper end, which typically is slightly convex, is 6-14 cm. Diameter of the lower end, which typically is flat, is 8-16 cm., with the majority 12-16 cm. The walls instead of being straight are slightly to markedly concave on most examples, flaring outward at both top and bottom. A few fragments appear to have come from vertical-sided or tubular pot rests 6-14 cm. in diameter. The majority of the end fragments are plain. However, two frag- ments, one from E-15 and one from E-16, are unusual in both shape and decoration. They appear to be from the upper end, which in- stead of having the typical slightly convex contour is flat or slopes upward at an angle of 40 degrees. One has a depression in the center 4 cm. in diameter and 2.7 cm. deep, undercut at the edges so that the bottom is larger than the orifice (fig. 97, @). The 5 cm. wide, sloping edge of the top is decorated with short, curved grooves and dotlike depressions, both made with the fingertip. From a maximum di- ameter of 12 cm. at the end, the walls incurve strongly toward the body, which is broken off at a length of 6.5 cm. The diameter here is 8cm. The second example is similar in general form but larger, Tyan and ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 231 Ficure 97.—Fragments of Taruma Phase pot rests. a—b, Top with grooves made by fingers. c, Flat top. d-f, Basal fragments. 232 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 0 bse? SGM Ficure 98.—Pottery spindle whorls of the Taruma Phase. with an existing height of 12 cm., and an upper end diameter of 16 em. On this fragment, after incurving strongly, the sidewalls con- tinue straight downward with a diameter of 138 cm. The center of the top is broken out so that the existence of a central depression can- not be established. The edge of the sloping top is ornamented with fingertip impressions producing circular depressions and long grooves (fig. 97, a-b). A third very small fragment from E-3 seems to be part of a flat top. It is also decorated with finger-drawn grooves and dots. Diameter of the upper edge is 14 cm. The present-day Wai Wai Indians, who have replaced the Taruma Phase in the upper Essequibo area, utilize pot rests of similar size and form (pl. 50), judging from the fragmentary Taruma Phase examples. These are generally 15 to 16 cm. tall and occasionally E d pensiae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 233 1 CM es Ficure 99.—Pottery whistle of the Taruma Phase. a, Side view. 5, Cross sectional view made from an X-ray of the specimen. decorated with fingertip impressions on the top. They are used in threes to support cooking pots over a fire. Spindle whorls (figs. 98, 100).—T wo spindle whorls in the form of thick disks perforated through the center came from the surface of E-1. They are generally symmetrical but not perfectly circular. The faces are slightly convex, and taper toward the edges. The com- plete specimen is Yocho Plain. It has a diameter of 4.0 by 4.4 cm., and a thickness at the center of 14 cm. The perforation is 4.0 by 4.5 mm. on one surface and 5 mm. in diameter on the other. The other example has one edge broken off. It is Kalunye Plain, 3.9 cm. in diameter and 1.0 cm. thick. The perforation is 5 mm. in diameter on both surfaces, and was made by poking a stick through the damp clay before firing. A small, badly eroded disk made from a sherd and drilled somewhat off-center, may also be a spindle whorl (fig. 100, @). Existing di- ameter is 2cm., thickness 5 mm. The biconically drilled perforation is 5 mm. in diameter. A second small, approximately circular, worked sherd, 2.3 by 2.5 cm., and lacking a perforation, may be an unfinished spindle whorl (fig. 100, 0). Whistles (fig. 99).—Several small, thin-walled, irregularly shaped but sharply curved sherds would have remained unclassified except for their resemblance to pottery whistles in the ethnographic collec- tion in the University Museum, Philadelphia, made from the Taruma Indians before their extinction. The complete whistles have two 234 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 0) | GM Ficure 100.—Worked sherds, Taruma Phase. a, Badly eroded drilled disk, probably used as a spindle whorl. b, Unfinished spindle whorl (?). elongated, pecan-shaped, parallel chambers joined by a narrow “bridge,” at one end of which is a small, projecting, somewhat conical mouthpiece (fig. 99, a). A small perforation on each shoulder opens into the chambers (fig. 99, 6). These whistles vary from 4.0-8.5 cm. in length, 4-8 cm. in width, and 2.24.0 em. in thickness. Of the four sherds possibly belonging to this type of whistle, three are Yocho Plain paste (one with white slip) and one is Kalunye Plain. They are from E-7, cut 2, level 0-8 cm.; E-3, surface; E-10, cut 1, level 0-8 cm., and E-80, cut 1, level 16-24 cm. ES tt ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 235 OBJECTS OF HUROPEAN ORIGIN Five of the Taruma Phase sites produced objects of European ori- gin, attesting to the existence of sporadic contact. This material was examined by C. Malcolm Watkins, Museum of History and Technol- ogy, Smithsonian Institution; the descriptions are given in table H. TaBLE H.—Obdjects of European origin from Taruma Phase sites Site Object Quantity Remarks 1 a ee Sherds of brown earthenware-- 2 | Not diagnostic. KE ee Sherds of white earthenware -- 2 | Narrow green line along edge where rim joins bowl. 1 =) Square ironnailst 2522-3 1 | Length 6.5 em. fc eee ee 4 Fragments of clear glass bottle_ 4 | Not diagnostic. Fragments of badly rusted 3 | Possibly from a gun? mn. p OLDS oe Pa ee Small sherds of clear glass-_---- 2 | Probably mirror fragments. Small sherd of thick, olive- 1 | Not diagnostic. green bottle glass Opaque glass ‘‘seed’’ beads-__-- 131 | White, light blue, dark blue and pink. Donut-shaped; diameter 1.0-1.5 mm.; 0.5-1.0 mm. thick; hole 0.5 mm. in diam- eter. Fragments of cotton thread from stringing. Probably from a bead apron. THE SITE SEQUENCE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS The seriation of Taruma Phase sites (fig. 101) is based on the analysis of 16 stratigraphic excavations in 11 habitation sites. All show the same general trend: a decline in the frequency of Yoché Plain and an ‘Increase in the frequency of Kalunye Plain. Interdigitation of the levels of these cuts, and seriation into this framework of those sites represented by single levels or single collections, results in a relatively smooth pattern of change in the two plain types from the beginning to the end of the Phase. At the earliest site, Yochd Plain, with coarse, crushed granite temper, comprises 96 percent of the pottery sample. From this maximum, it declines to 17.8 percent at the latest site in the sequence. Kalunye Plain shows the opposite trend, in- creasing from a low of 3.3 percent to a high of 75.1 percent during the same period. The third plain type, Mawika Plain, with cariapé temper, is sporadic in occurrence, but most abundant near the middle of the seriated sequence. Its presence in only a few sites might be taken as evidence of trade or perhaps intermarriage with a woman from a group with different ceramic tradition were it not for the fact that the characteristic types of decoration for the Taruma Phase occur occasionally on cariapé-tempered pottery. This suggests that Mawiké Plain is a Taruma Phase ware, rather than one acquired by trade, although it may be a reflection of alien influence. The decorated types of the Taruma Phase comprise 7.7 percent of the total sherds. Decoration is generally well executed and applied in a series of well-defined techniques and consistent motifs. Kana- 513186—60-——17 236 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 shen Incised is characterized by a series of clear-cut and standardized patterns composed of zoned parallel lines, crosshatch, or zigzag lines. Onoro Stamped is a unique and highly distinctive ornamentation pro- duced by using the nut of the Murity palm as a roller stamp. Kas- sikaityu Punctate employs a wide variety of techniques, but the ar- rangement of the punctates follows a similar pattern of successive rows forming a band, usually below the rim. Manakakashin Red- on-White has three major motifs. Manakakashin Red has a red wash applied to one vessel surface. Of these types, only Manakakashin Red-on-White and Manakakashin Red show a slight tendency to in- creased popularity in the latter part of the Phase (fig. 101). The remainder exhibit a remarkable degree of consistency in both tech- nique and frequency from the earliest to the latest levels, making them valueless as time markers. It would have been impossible to determine the relative antiquity of the various sites without the de- tailed percentage analysis of the plain wares. Rim and base forms show little variation, perhaps because of the small size of the sample per level. Only in the plain pottery types can a few temporal differences be recognized. Yochdé Plain Form 1, a bowl with an interiorly thickened rim, occurs only in the early half of the sequence. Yoché Plain Form 3, a deep bowl with an exteriorly thickened or slightly everted rim, is absent from the lower third of the sequence. Kalunye Plain Form 4, a globular jar with an everted rim, is also absent from the lower third of the sequence. Kalunye Plain Form 4, a globular jar with an everted rim, is restricted to the upper third of the sequence. In both of these plain types, annular bases are early and rounded ones are late, whereas flat and slight- pedestal bases are found throughout the Phase. The absence of flat bases in Kalunye Plain in the early part of the seriation probably re- flects the relative rarity of that pottery type at that time, and the reduced possibility of base sherds occurring in a small sample, rather than the actual absence of the form. The majority of the remains of cultural significance other than potsherds are too rare to permit a temporal analysis even in terms of presence or absence. Those frequently encountered include pot rests and two kinds of raw materials: decomposed granite used to temper Yoché Plain, and felsite chips or cores from which cassava grater teeth were made. The distribution of these items indicates that the objects they reflect were present throughout the Phase (Appendix, table 29). Analysis of the site descriptions and the site seriation brings out several characteristics of the Taruma Phase settlement pattern. The majority of the village sites are surrounded by large field clearings, the exceptions being cases where the hilltop was too small to permit AVLGEEURURVEELESBEUHEELL Sr rrernrennnnnnnnnnnrmrnnscrsr[|fvvniuuuvassai Cae 1S eR A) ea ee WO 91-8 ‘11ND ‘b2-3 WO 91-8 WO 8-0 ‘11ND ‘OI-3 WO b2-91 ‘2 Nd ‘e-3 62-3 WO 91-8 ‘I LNd ‘2-3 WO 91-8 ‘2 LNO ‘e-3 81-3 Vv 1831 ‘22-3 WO Ze-be ‘1 LND ‘6-3 WO 91-8 ‘2 LNd ‘1-3 WO 91-8 ‘Z LND ‘91-3 WO ze-v2 ‘2 LNd ‘61-3 WO 91-8 ‘1 LND ‘61-3 WO 8-0 ‘2 1ND ‘91-3 @ is3i ‘22-3 WO b2-9! ‘| LND ‘6-3 Wo 8-0 ‘I 1nd ‘2-3 WO 91-8 WO 8-0 ‘I LNOD ‘6-3 WO 91-8 ‘I LNOD ‘21-3 WO 2-91 ‘2 LD ‘61-3 WO 8-0 ‘I 1nd ‘6I-3 WO 91-8 wo 8-0 ‘2 1nd ‘6I-3 WO 91-8 ‘| 1ND ‘oe-3 Sisal 8 “suns ‘11-3 (9¢z “d e0eq) 09- O 98TETS - o- » wAWOLYAR oJ ) ; : : AVOBIKVE LAN ; ~ t O50 . ary ¥ “4 1 { ° FLWAUTD I 4 ‘ ovoue wht is j : ~ “> * ’ i eS 4 a hn LD b KVHVGHEM : . \ - @ ” ” , ' oy : re vis co 758 \" 4 WUMVETKY Die ‘ 1 ae : = " GEOr OM- A i¢ Re { “~ PYOVRIKVSHKiM OC " oa : at 4 % “ } al -] . q a , or) 1) ae hy , no Bevoat By 4 ' ‘ i vive + ¢ -* b : ¢ ce > b ak a mat ” 3 i rh s pans ¢ 2. w %s * al m1 f re p ; < e wr a; 3 ae - See = ys isk 4 “ A ‘se ‘ \be t ie ep | d i me | \ i = ~ ¥ creas Sit ‘ nin wik kK Thee Bip poriation, = ae =e ca a te ah +1 a ig i! : , j 0 U 3 i i} 1 ‘tt ] ay at ag ‘nh that @ Ut { ' wae Bo sae geaitety | be \ See Lemlk: a f \ q} | 4 ‘1 ¢ ‘. \ 7 Be) A 1} 4 i nd if Naar ey ms ae i Rly U4 iS ' oe] j | ae ad th a 7 ‘ x | | i ti 9 3 , oO} H| { mG | | } &, A 4 1 TEE me 4 | i 4 Cr? and Ga tant a} 101) AB ae a Nd Py as av | ad if nat i! tun 4 i ™ + Aca pe yaa 1 E d ake a ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Zot cultivation. The excessive size of some former clearings suggests that the Taruma followed the same practice as the present-day Wai Wai in progressively extending the field (figs. 80, 83-85). Where the land area is sufficient, the Wai Wai field is first cleared next to the new house. As the yield begins to decline, the adjacent area is planted. It is only after suitable land in the immediate vicinity has been ex- hausted that a more distant location is farmed. This stage may be accompanied by the moving of the village if the distance is great enough. That the Taruma followed a similar practice is suggested by the fact that field clearings with habitation refuse tend to be larger than those not associated with villages. Only one independent field clearing reached 200 by 100 meters, whereas nine of those adjacent to villages were as large as this or larger, and only four were smaller. A puzzling factor in a number of the sites is the thickness of the sterile layer at the surface. This was frequently 8 cm. All of the sites are on high places, wel] above maximum flood level, which rules out the possibility of silt deposition subsequent to habitation. All are on the summit rather than the slope of the hill, eliminating sheet erosion as the explanation. This sterile overlay is present sporadically in sites throughout the sequence, rather than the early ones alone, indicating some factor other than time is responsible. Inquiry among botanists and geologists in the British Guiana Government service brought no clear-cut solution to this problem. Although it would be of interest to know the cause, the answer is not essential since the re- sponsible factor apparently is unrelated to the Taruma Phase culture or its antiquity in the upper Essequibo area. Seriation of the various strata cuts reveals that a number of the sites were occupied more than once. The large discrepancy in seriated position between Cut 1 and Cut 2 at Sites E-3, E-7, E-9, and E-16 is accountable only by this interpretation (fig. 101). If the whole site had been simultaneously inhabited, the pottery type frequencies in the cuts should overlap as they do at E-19. Further evidence in favor of the conclusion that reoccupation is involved comes from the spatial relationships of the cuts at the sites listed above. They are at, opposite ends of what was interpreted in the field as a single area of habitation refuse, except in the case of E-16, where the presence of two separate refuse areas was recognized. The ceramic seriation shows that the latter represent two different occupations of the site rather than the remains of two contemporary house structures. In the other three sites, the locations of the first and second occupations appear to have overlapped to some extent, giving a continuous sherd area. If a single excavation had been made in the center, it should have revealed this situation by an unusually wide spacing between successive levels of the cut. Two examples of this are provided by Q31vy0030 O31dISSVIONN 31LVLONNd NALIVAISSYH ——e “(O€ P1qe2 ‘xtpuaddy) Asuanbasy adAi Arayiod ur saSueyp jo siseq ayi uO sais aseYg PUINIe] JO UOMeagG—"][ QT JUNI z 3 => z ae % 0S Ob Of Oz O_O a= ae wes ee m= os =e °e 2 == NIVId NIWId z m=z YIM BANNTYX NIVId OHOOA oO 1831 ‘bi-3 oD 1 ino ‘21-3 i.) WO ZE-bz ‘2 1nd ‘1-3 = WO pz-91 ‘1 1nd ‘e-3 1 0 om WO Bb-O» ‘1 1nd ‘oe -3 D a WO 91-8 ‘2 LND ‘6-3 — WO 91-8 ‘1 1nd ‘S-3 A 1 ca Wo 8-0 ‘Z 1nd ‘6-3 0 oo WO Ob- Ze o o [estes] WO Z2E-H2'1 1Nd ‘OE-3 1 ' Ss ND bZ-91 1 SS WO 91-8 ‘11ND ‘9-3 ' S55 sz-3 ' WO ~z-91 ‘1 1nd ‘e1-3 1 WO 91-8 ‘| 1nd ‘e-3 oO WO 91-8 ‘1 ND ‘e1-3 a LU ! WO bz-91‘Z LN ‘1-3 1 c) WO 2E-oz 8 8 0 WO p2-91 ‘1 1nd ‘1-3 a WO 2-91 ‘2 1ND “2-3 . WO 91-8 ‘| 1nd ‘91-3 ' 1 1 WO 91-8 0 0 f) WO 8-0 ‘2 1nd ‘2-3 1 [—=} 41S31 @ 4UNS ‘p-3 ==) c=.) WO 91-8 ‘1 1nd ‘1-3 ic} 1 [exxaxexn} WO #z-91'l 11ND ‘OI-3 oa 1 WO 8-0 ‘I LND ‘¢1-3 a t 12-3 0 WO ZE- bz ' ' WO 2-91 ‘1 1ND ‘p2-3 o 2-3 8 ' WO bZ-91 ‘1 1nd ‘Z-3 o WO 91-8 ‘1 1nd ‘si-3 ! WO bz-91 ‘11nd ‘oe-3 ' WO 91-8 ‘1 LD ‘pz-3 fo} 1 Se WO 91-8 [==] [soc] fexxs) WO 8-0 ‘1 1nd ‘ol-3 ' WO »Z-91 ‘Zz 1nd ‘e-3 0 a 62-3 8 6 WO 91-8 ‘I 1nd ‘2-3 WO 91-8 ‘2 1nd ‘e-3 Ey =] 81-3 Oo 8 Vv 1is31 ‘22-3 =) J a a WO Zf-bz ‘| 1nd ‘6-3 i.) I ma a WO 91-8 ‘2 1nd ‘1-3 1 r WO 91-8 ‘Z ind ‘91-3 0 WO Z€-6% ‘Z 1nd ‘61-3 ' s WO 91-8 ‘1 1nd ‘61-3 i= = W9 8-0 ‘Zz 1N9d ‘391-3 1 o @ 18314 ‘22-3 = Q a ' WO &Z-9I ‘1 ind ‘6-3 = WO 8-0 ‘I 1nd ‘2-3 a wo am WO 91-8 mo ira} le) WO 8-0 ‘11nd ‘6-3 a co WO 91-8 ‘14nd ‘ZI-3 : : WO 2-91 'Z 1nd ‘61-3 W2 8-0 ‘1 1nd ‘6I-3 ; , ! Wo 91-8 0 W2e8-0 ‘2 1nd ‘61-3 WO 91-8 ‘| 1ND ‘oe-3 5 a a Sis3i 8 ‘guns ‘11-3 (9€2 “d a0e7) 09- O 98TETS 238 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 sites in which only one cut was made. E-30 embraces in five levels almost the entire span of the Taruma Phase, while E-1, Cut 2, covers more than two-thirds of the sequence. In E-30, Cut 1, the first and second levels are at the top and middle of the sequence respectively, and the third level is almost as far below the second as the second level is below the first. Levels 4 and 5 are very close to level 3, and obviously represent the same occupation. The spacing of the levels in Cut 2 at E-1 is similar, and here the reoccupation theory is bolstered by the presence of Cut 1, which correlates with the second level of Cut 2.. This indicates that the location of the second village was predominantly in the vicinity of Cut 1, which the earlier and later settlements did not overlap. Several of the other cuts show considerable separation between successive levels, but this seems partly a function of the large number of contemporary sites, whose inter- digitation pushes apart what would otherwise be seen as a continuous series of Jevels. This appears to be true of H-8, Cut 1, since the two levels involve no greater amount of ceramic change than those of E-3, Cut 2, although the presence of a considerable number of con- temporary sites and levels spaces them much farther apart (fig. 101). The situation at E-30, Cut 1, and E-1, Cut 2, however, is much too extreme to allow for any such explanation, and the reoccupation theory seems to be the best answer. The existence of a general dating based on historical records for both the Taruma and the Wai Wai occupations of the upper Esse- quibo region makes it worth while to reexamine our attempts to arrive at a formula for using the rate of pottery refuse accumulation to estimate village and phase duration in Tropical Forest sites (see Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 245-257). As applied to sites in the region around the mouth of the Amazon the formula was: 2,600 sherds per 1.5- by 1.5-meter cut=100 years. Since all the stratigraphic ex- cavations in the upper Essequibo area were 1 by 1 meter, the equation was reduced to conform with this dimension, giving: 1,156 sherds per 1- by 1-meter cut=100 years. Durations were calculated on this basis for all the Taruma Phase sites with stratigraphic excavations and controlled tests, and these are presented on table I, arranged in descending order. The probable number of occupations represented at: each site is also shown. Comparison of the estimated total years of occupation represented by each stratigraphic cut or test (table TI) with the number of occupations indicated by the separation of the levels shows that, with a single exception of 66.1 years, all cuts and tests with only one occupation have durations of less than 50 years. Eight cuts from various sites with two or three occupations have total estimated durations ranging from 24.8 to 128.8 years. ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 239 TABLE I.—Durations of Taruma Phase sites derived from the sherd refuse accumulation formula Total Number of Total Number of sherds Estimated | occupations sherds Estimated | occupations Site perl-by1-| duration | implied by Site peri-by1-| duration | implied by meter cut in years Seriation meter cut in years seriation or test of levels or test of levels E-9, Cut 1__- 1, 490 128,8 2 || E-17, Cut 1.- 241 20,8 1 E-19, Cut 2_. 1, 210 164, 5 _ 2 || E-16, Cut 2. 199 17,2 1 E-30, Cut 1. 8 77,2 3 || E-15, Cut 1. 193 16.7 1 E-24, Cut 1. 763 66, 1 1 || E-3, Cut 1.__ 180 15, 6 1 E-1, Cut 2... 762 66, 0 3 || E-23, Test__- 161 13,9 iT E-10, Cut 1._ 717 62,0 2 || E-22, Test A. 150 12,9 1 E-13, Cut 1. 592 51,2 2 || E-14, Test._- 139 12.0 1 E-7, Cut 2__- 582 60, 3 1 || E-4, Test_--- 106 9,1 1 E-1, Cut 1... 526 45,5 1 |) E-16, Cut.1.- 97 8,4 1 E-3, Cut 2__- 524 45.3 1 || E-29, Test__- 88 7.6 } E-6, Cut 1___ 454 39, 2 1 |] E-5, Cutgl. -- 45 3,9 1 E-7, Cut 1__ 441 38, 2 2 || E-18, Test__- 44 3.7 1 E-9, Cut 2___ 300 25.9 1 || E-11, Test_-- 35 3.0 1 E-19, Cut 1. 287 24,8 2 || E-28, Test..- 28 2.4 1 E-21, Test_.- 276 23.8 1 The problem of computing the total duration of the Taruma Phase from the individual site durations is complicated by the fact that many of the villages were partly or wholly contemporary, judging from the interdigitation of levels of the various cuts on the seriation chart (fig. 101).. Such repetition must be eliminated from the data used to arrive at the total duration of the Phase. Several attempts were made to do this by inspection, and one of the results corresponded closely to the historically attested duration of around 200 years (see pp. 263-264 for historical details). However, the procedure was too arbitrary for objective description and the calculation could not be repeated readily by another person. An effort was made to devise a more systematic method of making the selection of levels to be in- cluded in computing total duration by measuring ceramic change. Although levels representing contemporary occupations should ideally show identical pottery type frequencies, in actual fact some variation always exists. In using the Taruma Phase data for computing the duration of the Phase, chronologically significant change must be dis- tinguished from this normal variation during a single time period. Since there was no way of determining in advance how fast the pottery was changing, and consequently how much difference in percentage frequency of the major pottery types reflected how much time differ- ence, the problem was approached experimentally in the following way: Beginning at the bottom of the seriation chart (fig. 101) and work- ing upward, the length of the bars representing the frequency of Kalunye Plain was measured, and the intervals where the difference between the bars reached 5 percent were recorded. Since there is a slight fluctuation in the trends from level to level, the curve some- times had to be artificially smoothed in order to eliminate local dis- tortion, but this problem was not severe. The levels included within each interval were considered to be contemporary. The sherd density 240 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 formula was used to compute the duration represented by each of the individual levels, but the results often showed considerable variation. Since there was no way of knowing which of these individual dura- tions was most accurate, the best solution seemed to be to take the average of the levels included within the interval and this was the figure used (tables J and K). To arrive at the total duration of the Phase, the averages derived for each of the successive intervals isolated on the seriation chart were added together. The same pro- cedure was then carried out independently using Yoché Plain as an indicator of change, and although there were slight differences in the subdivision of the sequence, the resulting total duration coincided well with that based on Kalunye Plain. The experiment was repeated using 10 percent and 15 percent differences in pottery type frequency as a basis for subdivision of the sequence. In the case of the Taruma Phase, the total length of occupation based on a 10-percent change interval gave the closest approximation to the known duration of the Phase. The intervals selected on the basis of a 10-percent change in pottery frequency are given on table J for Kalunye Plain and table K for Yoché Plain, together with the duration represented by each inter- val, calculated by averaging the individual durations of the levels in- cluded within it (Appendix, table 30). These two independent cal- culations give very similar results: a total duration of 209.6 years based on Kalunye Plain and 204.4 years based on Yocho Plain. The Taruma Indians are reported at the mouth of the Rio Negro in Brazil in A.D. 1670 and on the upper Essequibo River by A.D. 1771. This places their entry into British Guiana within an interval of 100 years. The tribe became extinct in 1925. The total duration of 204 to 210 years estimated from rate of pottery change when converted into calendar dates places their arrival at between A.D. 1715 and 1721, or within the period designated by the historical evidence. TaBLE J.—Duration of the Taruma Phase calculated on the basis of a 10-percent change in frequency of Kalunye Plain Interval Duration in years WMrom WL Testis. oa ee ie a Rae 2G oo ee ne ene ee ee From E-30, Out 1, 8-16 cm. to E-19, Cut 2, 16-24 cm., inclusive. -.._..--.---------------------- From E-17, Cut 1 8-16 cm. to E-7, ‘Out uf 0-8 em., inelusive.,.224. se ae eee ee From E-9, ‘Cut its 16-24 cm. to E-16, Cut >, 8-16 cm., inclusive. i ~ dacs ites . sos ake From E-1, Cut 2; 8-16 cm. to E-7, Cut 1, 8-16 cm., inclisl Vee Lee 4h eal ae pied seal Pee From E- 29, Tests to E-30, Cut 1, 16-24 cm., Méelisivel VLC: ee OIL. WT Fe From E- 15, Cut 1, 8-16 em. to E-21, tests, Hnolaaive oct watt Bete PLC ui eee eat From E-13, Cut 1, 0-8 em. to E-10, Cut 1; 16-24 cm. inclusive ss bese chee 5. Se bee ee From E-1, ‘Cut 1 ‘8-16 cm. to E-7, Cut 2, 8-16 em., Anoluisive:_.2) ML CeeL ot.) wlikele an From E-18, Cut 1, 8-16 cm. to E- i, Cut 1, 24-32 cm., Inclusivec® {sees WE! Teese See AL oe From E-1, ‘Cut 2, 16-24 em. to E-6, Out 1416-24 emi inclusive: 622422202 es 2 ca ee ee From B-30, Cut Me 24-32 cm. to E-30, Cut 1, 40-48 cm., inclusive fos aee tee bos te ee eee From E-3, ‘Cut 1, ‘16-24 cm. to E-14 test, dincltsinge ee esis. Re eo hae achat es a fae pe ek ee arcrc) B| OF NSHSasPRahhe ao NWOONKOCSOWDWSLWO 8 =) Motal Curation iol Darumis Paseo ee le a eee i E d eens a ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 241 TaBLeE K.—Duration of the Taruma Phase calculated on the basis of a 10-percent change in frequency of Yoché Plain Interval Duration 21 From E-17, Cut ie 8-16 em. to E-9, ‘Cut I; 8-16 cm., iipluai welt ess. Resear aes Tee 25; From E-7, ‘Cut 1, 0-18 cm. to E- 16, Cut 2; 0-8 cm., dniclushveecs Ctlase ee ee ae 32 From E- 10, Cut i, 8-16 cm. to E- 22, Test A, inclusive Pee te ee en eee 5 Ste Bree eee SESE 18 From E-18, Tests to E- 24, Cut 1 , 8-16 cm., inaititeve nce wee Ree TN Sta ee 19. From E-30, Cut 1, 16-24 cm. to E- IS NCat) 10-8femtsinclusivess et Pe i es 16. From E-10, Cut 1, 16-24 em. to E-1, Cut 1, 8-16 cm., intuisiverst. soe eet ON et 10. From E-4, Test to E- 1, Cut 1, 16-24 cm., jachusivet med ots s0icecumibis puminp sige ate 13 From E-1, Cut 1, 24-32 cm. to E-6, Cut , G24) CIs ANCIUSIVO= 222 oo eee ee BE 16.4 From E-30, Cut i, 24-32 cm. to E-9, Cut 2, 0-8 cm., qnolisives.2 4204. oh Bee ea Te 17.6 From E-5, ‘Cut 1, 8-16 em. to E- 14, Tests, Mnclusivest2 tc ne a ee ee ee 10.5 hoOsalCurawOl Ol balun, Ease sen cock ae ake Lew ean eae ee eee oe ee 204.4 Since the agreement between the historically reported duration and that derived from refuse accumulation calculations described above is reasonably good, the experiment was continued with the new factor injected here, namely, rate of pottery change. The total amount of pottery change during the Taruma Phase seriated sequence (fig. 101) is between 63 and 64 percent. Yochdé Plain declines from 96 percent to 32 percent, a change of 64 percent. At the same time, Kalunye Plain increases from 3 percent to 66 percent, a change of 63 percent. If 63.5 percent is taken as the average amount of change and 207 years the average duration indicated by the amount of refuse accumu- lation, then the rate of pottery change is 1 percent per 3.26 years in the Taruma Phase. This rate can be compared with the Rupununi Phase, where both archeological seriation and historical data are also available, but where the refuse density formula could not be used. The Rupununi Phase is estimated from historical evidence to have existed in British Guiana for about 200 years (see pp. 326-332). Dur- ing the seriated sequence (fig. 125), Rupununi Plain increases from 11 percent to 79 percent, a change of 68 percent, while Kanuku Plain declines from 88 percent to 21 percent, an alteration of 67 percent. At a rate of 1 percent per 3.26 years, these changes in pottery type frequency correspond to 221.6 and 218.4 years respectively, and agree closely with the historically known duration, suggesting a rate of pot- tery change very similar to that in the Taruma Phase. To test further the universality of this rate of pottery change, the Abary Phase can be used. This Phase was estimated from the rate of refuse accumulation formula to last either 298 or 417 years, de- pending on which cuts were used to arrive at the total duration (see pp. 179-182 for details). Tiger Island Plain shows a change in fre- quency of 84 percent, declining from a maximum of 88 percent to a minimum of 4 percent, which at the rate 1 percent per 3.26 years gives 273.8 years. ‘Taurakuli Plain shows a 95-percent change in frequency, increasing from 19 percent to a peak of 94 percent and then declining 242 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 to 74 percent; calculated at the same rate, this gives 809.7 years. These figures are close to the lower total derived from refuse accumu- lation calculations, and suggest it may be the more accurate of the two. However, this rate of change does not give valid results for the Koriabo Phase. Here there is a change of less than 30 percent in the pottery type frequency in the two major plain wares giving a dura- tion of under 100 years, much less than is implied by other evidence. In this case, however, the total duration computed from the sherd re- fuse accumulation formula is also too low, suggesting that the dura- tion of the Phase in the area is not adequately represented by the sites included in the survey. Aside from this instance the results of these various calculations suggest that the rate of pottery evolution, measured by alteration in plain wares, may be relatively constant un- der undisturbed Tropical Forest conditions. However, this impres- sion, as well as the problems of interpretation and adequacy of site sampling, needs more investigation before the method can be consid- ered a reliable means of estimating the passage of time. An opportunity to check the rate of accumulation expressed in the sherd formula with ethnographic data came during the investiga- tions of the Wai Wai. Unfortunately, only one of the two former Wai Wai villages could be used because the other (K-11) produced too few sherds to be representative of a normal rate of refuse ac- cumulation (see pp. 198-199). At E-2, sherds were scattered on the surface of the ground inside and around the collapsing house. The number of sherds from a 2- by 2-meter area on the north side of the house was tabulated, and conversion of the total into the dimensions specified in the formula gave 177 sherds in a 1.5- by 1.5-meter area, the equivalent of 6.82 years (Meggers and Evans, 1957, p. 257). The actual duration of E-2 was reported by Wai Wai informants and resident American missionaries as about 6 years. This is remarkable agreement, but again the result cannot be considered proof of the validity of the formula without corroborating evidence from other ethnographic sites. A single instance could be just a lucky coinci- dence. It is our hope that these various attempts to derive formulas for determining rate of refuse accumulation, duration of Phases, and rate of evolution of plain pottery types will prove challenging enough to other anthropologists so that they will attempt similar studies with their data. Only thorough examination will make it possible to determine the reliability of this kind of approach. ETHNOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE The most. recent enthnographic account of the Taruma Indians is by William Curtis Farabee (1918) who traveled up the Essequibo River from the junction of the Kuyuwini River to the headwaters in the latter part of 1914. En route, he passed two Taruma villages, - Fane and ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 243 “Tohi” and “Kushar’s Village,” both of which he describes. He also made a number of observations on Taruma culture and made a col- lection of artifacts now in the University Museum, Philadelphia. About a decade subsequent to this visit, the Taruma were decimated by disease, leaving only a handful of survivors. One of these had been adopted by the Wai Wai chief and was living with the Wai Wai at the time of our visit to the upper Essequibo in 1952-53. No attempt will be made here to repeat or even to summarize all of Farabee’s comments on the Taruma culture. The major portion of the published data is mythology (Farabee, 1918), and this cannot be checked archeologically. However, certain of his comments on settle- ment pattern, subsistence, and material culture will help to round out the archeological record. Since much of this data is unpublished (Farabee, MS., Notebook A), its inclusion here will enlarge the published documentation of this extinct tribe. Agriculture.—At “Tohi,” the field was estimated as 5 or more acres, the major portion of which was devoted to manioc. Scattered about were a few banana trees, papayas, cashews, sugarcane, sweetpotatoes, and cara. There was no maize. Clearing involved cutting down all the trees, which did not burn and so remained scattered over the field. A field was productive for 2 or 8 years, after which a new one had to be cleared. Fields were sometimes 2 hours’ travel from the village. Settlement patiern.—Both Farabee (MS., Notebook A) and W. E. Roth (1929) describe Taruma villages as occupying high land along the riverbank. A creek frequently runs along one edge of the elevation. House.—The description of the Taruma house is very similar to that of the Wai Wai. Those at “Tohi” were circular, 35 feet in diameter. Vertical posts supported the roof poles, which radiated around a tall central post. In one house, the roof came almost to the ground, and the sides were open; in the other there was a 414-foot- high sidewall. The covering was tightly braided palm thatch, leav- ing no smoke hole. A single door provided access. The interior was not subdivided, but each married couple occupied one section. Ham- mocks were suspended between posts, the husband’s above the wife’s. Each woman had her own fire. Dogs were kept tied on platforms about 3 feet high along the wall. Racks and baskets suspended from the rafters or crosspoles held food and miscellaneous items. Bows and arrows were kept tucked into the thatch on top of the rafters. Pottery—tThree forms of pottery vessels are mentioned: griddles, and two shapes of cooking pots. The griddles were flat, sometimes with turned-up edges. They were three-quarters of an inch thick and 24 to 30 inches in diameter. To bake cassava bread, the griddles were placed on three stones or pottery supports. The latter are de- scribed as 7 inches high and 5 inches in diameter, in the form of 244 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 truncated cones. The same kind of support was used with cooking vessels. Cooking pots were either rounded with a slightly constricted neck and everted rim, or globular with a slight, pedestal base and an in- curving rim. The former variety is said to have been made in various sizes, while the latter was always about 12 inches deep and 12 inches in diameter. (Farabee includes sketches of these forms in his field notebook.) Half of a large calabash or a pot of about a gallon capac- ity was used for drinking. Pottery drinking vessels are said to have been obtained from the Wai Wai. Large jars for storing beverages were sometimes decorated by crosshatching around the rim (cf. Kanashen Incised, pp. 216-217). Watercraft—The Taruma used both dugouts and bark canoes. Dugouts were 15 to 25 feet long, 15 to 20 inches wide, and were made from a solid log. Both ends tapered to a point. From 3 to 4 feet from each end, the sides were cut down an inch or more, giving a characteristic profile. During the drying, three sticks were inserted crosswise to keep the sides apart. Farabee describes the result as “cranky,” but notes that dugouts frequently carry a husband and wife plus four or five dogs and provisions. The bark canoes were formed by making a cut some distance from each end and lifting the end piece thus separated so that the edges of the cut overlapped. These points were reinforced with cross sticks and sealed with resins to make them watertight. The result was a craft with upslanting and pointed ends. A stiff pole, 1 inch in diameter, was tied around the upper margin for stiffening and reinforcement. A third cross piece was placed in the center. Disposal of the dead.—Failure to find any burial remains for the Taruma Phase indicated that urn burial was probably not practiced. Farabee’s data permit a more specific statement that the principal method of disposal of the dead was cremation. On death, a friend or friends of a deceased man or woman took the body away to the woods. The corpse and a few personal trinkets were placed on a pile of wood about 214 feet high, then covered with more wood until the pile was 41% to 5 feet high. This was set on fire and left to burn down. Three or four days later, the Taruma returned and covered the ashes with leaves and brush. Children and shamans were buried, the former be- cause cremation was too much trouble, the latter because the people did not want to disturb the spirit and so disposed of the body as quietly as possible. Property of the deceased, such as canoe, bow and arrows, and dogs, was divided among the family. There was no ceremony and no mourning. However, the house in which an adult died was usually burned and another erected nearby (Farabee, MS., Notebook 2). Fivans and yvaneae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 245 Dress and ornament.—Men wore a cotton loincloth, which was long enough to hang down over the buttocks in back and half way to the knees in front. It was 8 to 9 inches wide and held by a series of three to six cotton cords tied individually around the waist. Nose, ears, and lower lip were pierced. Beads were worn around the neck and double strands around the shoulders. Bands of beads decorated the upper arm. Women wore a bead apron held by a small cotton string tied around the waist. Like the men, they wore beads on the upper arms and ornaments in the ear lobes and lower lip. DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE TARUMA PHASE The archeological description of the Taruma Phase is based on in- vestigation of 24 village sites and 11 former field clearings, 5 of which produced a handful of sherds. The site descriptions viewed in terms of the ceramic analysis and seriation suggest several characteristic features of the settlement pattern. First, villages were typically sur- rounded by garden areas, the only exceptions being those instances in which the hilltop was too small. Second, locations selected for either habitation or agriculture were always sufficiently elevated to escape flooding at high water. Third, the duration of the village was usually relatively short. Only one refuse accumulation exceeded 32 cm. in thickness, and this was at a site (E-30) that had more than one oc- cupation. On the other hand, this is a considerably deeper refuse accumulation than that occurring at any site of the Rupununi Phase, and in comparison with this Phase the Taruma Phase is characterized by relatively great village permanency. Fourth, the differential posi- tion in the seriated sequence of two strata cuts from the same site, as well as the excessive stretching of levels in a single cut (e.g., E-80, Cut 1), indicates that a number of the sites were occupied more than once. This practice may be correlated with the relatively small amount of high land bordering the Essequibo, but it also is subject to the in- terpretation that the Taruma were restricted to movement within a specified area either by choice or by the presence of inhibiting condi- tions farther downstream. Fifth, the conclusion that Taruma village stability was greater than that in the Rupununi Phase is fortified by the existence of separate field clearings. These fields were sufficiently close for exploitation after the fields surrounding the village ceased to be productive without making the movement of the habitation site necessary. Village sites vary considerably in area, with a slight tendency for the later ones to be in the smaller end of the range. Smaller sites generally have shallower refuse accumulations and by inference were of lesser duration. Field clearings are correlated in size with the amount of nearly level, elevated land, and range from 50 by 70 meters 246 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 to 200 by 500 meters. It is probable that the larger fields represent successive increases in the size of the clearing as the earlier portions ceased to be productive. Some of the fields were undoubtedly reused when villages returned to former locations, so that the dimensions reflect directly only the most recent clearing. A temporary shelter was often built in the field, as the finding of a few sherds in a single spot indicates. The pottery of the Taruma Phase was classified into two major and one minor plain ware and five decorated types. Yochdé Plain, tem- pered with fragments of decomposed granite, is dominant at the beginning of the Phase, and shows a relatively steady decline through- out the site sequence. Kalunye Plain, a fine sand-tempered ware, exhibits a corresponding increase and is the major pottery type at the close of the Phase. Mawik4é Plain, tempered with cariapé, has a sporadic distribution with a tendency to maximum popularity toward the middle of the sequence. The decorated types are well defined but useless for temporal distinctions within the Phase, since they show no . clear-cut trends. Decoration is by incision (Kanashen Incised), punctate (Kassikaityu Punctate), slipping and painting (Manaka- kashin Red and Manakakashin Red-on-White), and stamping (Onoro Stamped). Vessel shapes are simple bowl and jar forms. In the absence of complete specimens, evidence of crudity of form comes from the irregularity of the rim curvature and lack of consistency in pro- file at opposite edges of a single sherd. Base forms are typically flat or a slight pedestal. Annular bases are limited to the early half of the Phase and rounded bases are late. Diagnostic pottery artifacts of the Taruma Phase include pot rests of generally conical form, and thick, disk-shaped, spindle whorls. Pottery whistles are recorded ethnographically, and the peculiar con- tours of a few sherds suggest that they may have belonged to this type of object. Stone artifacts are often represented by a single specimen of each type and cannot be considered as characteristic of the Taruma Phase. Ethnographic data on the Taruma confirm the conclusion derived from archeological evidence that this group is a typical representative of the Guiana variety of Tropical Forest culture. The absence of burial sites is explained by the fact that disposal of the dead was by cremation or inhumation, neither of which can be detected arche- ologically under tropical forest climatic conditions. Documentary evidence establishes that the Taruma Phase became extinct in the second decade of the 20th century as a result of disease. In spite of this long post-Columbian survival, only five sites produced. European trade materials, supporting the ethnographic information that the Taruma had only superficial and sporadic contact with European civilization. | . THE WAI WAI PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS In recent years the upper part of the Essequibo River has been oc- cupied by the Wai Wai, a Carib-speaking tribe that has moved grad- ually into British Guiana to fill the void left by the disappearance of the Taruma. Their intrusion into the area covered by the 1952-53 survey is too recent to have left much archeological evidence. Two former village locations were investigated, one of which was in the process of transformation into an archeological site, and their descrip- tion is of particular interest for its bearing on the interpretation of archeological habitation sites in the tropical forest area of South America. E-2: EREFOIMO E-2 occupies the summit of a high hill on the right bank of the Essequibo, about half way between the Taruma Phase sites of E-3 and E-1 (fig. 79). The bank rises at about a 30-degree gradient to a height of 18 meters above the December water level. A narrow path led through the heavy growth to the hilltop, where the vegeta- tion was smaller and less dense. The former clearing (Area B), 15 meters wide and 25 meters deep, bore no traces of former house struc- tures, but our guide said that two houses, one large and one small, formerly stood there. Sherds were scattered on the surface, with slight concentration at the east and west ends of the clearing. For- merly cultivated plants were still observable, including maracujd (Passiflora sp.), tree gourds, wruct (Bixa orellana), castor beans, and tree cotton. There was no depth to the refuse deposit, and the soil contained large amounts of fine, lateritic concretion gravel. Tall, secondary growth separated Area B from Area A, 50 meters farther back from the river bank. This part of the site contained the most recent habitation area, including remains of a circular, com- munal house, and work shelters. The habitation clearing measured about 30 meters wide by 45 meters deep and was surrounded by dense, secondary growth indicative of a former field. ‘The main house stood near the rear of the clearing, surrounded and partly overgrown with ‘tall jointgrass, small trees, and vines. As in Area B, much of the vegetation was still composed of cultivated species, such as maracujé, tree gourds, tree cotton, wruct, papaya, and a plant with a black berry 247 248 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 used for fish bait. Scattered around the clearing were the remains of three small square work shelters. One was 5 meters to the north- west of the main house and measured about 2.5 by 3.5 meters, An- other, 2 meters from the front edge of the clearing (25 meters from the main house), was about 5 meters square. The third, 8 meters northeast of the second, was in poorest condition and its dimensions could not be determined. Twelve meters southwest of the main house were several graves. Sherds were scattered on the surface in the vicinity of the main house and more sparsely in other parts of the clearing. The main house was 10 meters in diameter. It had partly col- lapsed, but the roof settled intact and continued to protect the interior (pl. 48,6). Access could be gained through the rear door, the front one having been blocked by the collapse of the wall. Details of the house construction are not pertinent here,’ but the condition of the floor and refuse are of archeological interest because they indicate how the site was left by the departing inhabitants. The floor was not level, but retained the slight unevenness of the original ground surface. Three hearths were located along the south side, each com- posed of three to four irregular rocks surrounding a bed of ashes. Two other hearth areas were indicated by the presence of ashes, but the absence of rocks suggests they may not have been in use when the house was abandoned. A final hearth, marked by ashes and one large rock, was at the rear, north of the doorway. Scattered in the dirt of the floor were sherds and a number of other items, including a pottery spindle whorl, a large, heavy, wooden mortar and pestle, stones used for the manufacture of grater chips, and two large frag- ments of a bowl containing red, white, blue, and orange glass “seed” beads, some still adhering to bits of string. The refuse also in- cluded scattered animal bones, Brazil nut shells, small gourds, and debris fallen from the decaying roof. Sherds were encountered to a depth of 2 cm. in the dirt of the floor, and showed no concentration. The two graves near the south side of the clearing were those of children. A hole had been dug about 90 cm. square and 40 cm. deep. After the insertion of the body, the grave pit had been roofed with sticks 8 to 8 cm. in diameter and split palm trunks, laid parallel and then covered with palm leaves laid in the same direction. Grave 1 was oriented southeast-northwest, and Grave 2, east-west. Large sherds from a large cooking vessel lay on the surface at the southeast end of Grave 1. Tall secondary growth extended beyond the edge of the house clear- ing for about 500 meters to the north, east, and south, indicating that - 7A detailed description of Wai Wai settlement pattern and material culture is being prepared for separate publication. For additional data, see Farabee, 1924. E d Brpog an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 249 a large field had surrounded the village. The more advanced state of the secondary growth in the field than that in the habitation area is probably correlated with two differences in the preparation and main- tenance of these two parts of the site. The house surroundings are cleaned of vegetation and packed down by constant use, whereas in the fields the soil is loose and stumps remain that readily sprout into new growth. Grass seems to be most characteristic of the first stage of abandonment in habitation areas, whereas in the fields the trees return too quickly for grass to gain a foothold. Inquiry of the Wai Wai and of Robert Hawkins, resident Protestant missionary, elicited the information that Erefoimo was abandoned in 1950 after having been occupied about 6 years. The first house was built near the river in Area B, and was inhabited by about 15 people. After someone died, this house was abandoned and another built farther back. It is this house that was partially collapsed in Area A (pl. 48, 6). In 1949 the village was said to have contained 49 people, although the communal house is rather small to have shel- tered so large a population on a permanent basis. E-11:; KUKWA MUTUTO A grassy clearing on the left bank of the Essequibo, 40 minutes’ paddling above E-10, marks the location of a former Wai Wai village said to have been abandoned in 1948. Fallen beams near the edge of the 6-meter-high bank marked the location of a former rectangular house, and other posts were scattered farther back. Urucwt, cotton, and cannalike bushes were still growing in the clearing. That the adjacent forest had also been cleared was evident from the presence of large stumps still in sound condition in spite of the large size of the secondary forest trees. Considerable testing produced only five sherds of Wai Wai origin, although the site was reported to have been occupied for 3 to 4 years. Other artifacts included three fragments of pot rests, three felsite cores of the type used in grater manufacture, and one fragment of green bottle glass. At an earlier time, E-11 was occupied by the Taruma Phase (see pp. 198-199). DATA FROM OTHER INVESTIGATIONS No archeological remains have been reported by previous visitors to the area occupied by the Wai Wai Phase. ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL The only items of Wai Wai material culture that can be expected to survive archeologically are those made of pottery and stone. Stone was used only as a raw material, no stone tools having been made or used within living memory. Pottery was used for containers, pot rests and spindle whorls. 250 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Too few specimens were found to make an Appendix table; instead they are listed below by site: Site H-2: Erefoimo.—From inside the house: 130 sherds of Erefoimo Plain, 1 felsite core, 1 glass mirror fragment. From Area A: 45 sherds of Erefoimo Plain that appear to represent 4 vessels. From Area B: 228 sherds of Erefoimo Plain, 14 sherds of Erefoimo Incised, and 65 sherds of Erefoimo Painted, with 2 unclassified decorated sherds. Site H-11: Kukwa Mututo.—5 Erefoimo Plain sherds, 1 green bottle glass fragment, and 4 rock fragments. SToNE ARTIFACT TYPES Stone remains are restricted to cores and flakes of felsite, the ma- terial used for the manufacture of cassava-grater teeth, and irregular hunks of fire-burnt granite, representing rocks used for supporting vessels on the hearth. Portery TYPE DESCRIPTIONS The description of Wai Wai pottery types is based on the analysis of 489 sherds from E-2 and E-11, as well as sherds and vessels from functioning villages. The pottery is exclusively utilitarian and pre- dominantly undecorated. The pottery types have been named ac- cording to the binomial system and are described in alphabetical order. EREFOIMO INCISED PASTE AND SURFACE: On Erefoimo Plain, with no effort to produce a more even surface as a basis for decoration. See Erefoimo Plain for detailed description. Worm : Rim: Everted and exteriorly thickened, tapering to flattened lip. Body wall thickness: 7-13 mm. Base: None identified; undoubtedly same as Erefoimo Plain. Vessel shapes: 1. All sherds seem to represent vessels of Erefoimo Plain Form 1: an open jar with a flat bottom, rounded shoulders, slightly con- stricted collar or neck, and everted rim. The single rim sherd of Erefoimo Incised has a diameter of 60 em. Decoration is confined to the exterior of the collar or neck. DECORATION (fig. 102) : Technique: The few sherds of Erefoimo Incised in the sample show no consistency of technique. Surface varied from dry to wet, when worked, judging from the fact that incisions are sharp in one case and partially obliterated in another. The incision itself was made with a stick, either sharp producing a V-shaped mark, or blunt producing a rounded one. The lines tend to be wavy rather than straight, unequally spaced, not perfectly parallel, and overshot or undershot at intersections. Incisions are 0.5 mm. wide and 0.5 mm. or less in depth. Motif: Rectangular or triangular panels filled with large, diagonal cross- hatch. : TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: None. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Found only at E-2: Erefoimo. Not being made in 1952. wvanaand ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 251 Figure 102.—Erefoimo Incised, Wai Wai Phase. EREFOIMO PAINTED PASTE AND SURFACE: Typical of Erefoimo Plain; see that type for detailed description. Form: Rim: Slightly everted and direct or slightly thickened on exterior; rounded lip. Body wall thickness: 5-11 mm. Base: Slight pedestal, height 4-7 mm. Diameter 8-10 cm. Vessel shapes: 1. Bowl or jar with flat, pedestal base, walls outcurving to rounded shoulder, then incurving to constricted mouth, direct or slightly thickened rim with rounded lip. Rim diameter 18-30 cm. Deco- ration covers the exterior (fig. 103-1). 513186—60——18 252 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 EES Gare eee | Oo Wi 20 Som RIM SCALE Lp t | Oo 4 8 #(2CM VESSEL |! SCALE en ESE oO 8 6 24 CM VESSEL 2 SGALE Ficure 103.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Erefoimo Painted, Wai Wai Phase. 2. Jar with flat base, walls upsloping to a rounded shoulder, then insloping to concave neck, everted rim and rounded lip. Mouth diameter 54 em. Decoration on exterior of neck (fig. 103-2). DECORATION (pl. 49, f-g; fig. 104): Technique: Painted after firing with vegetable dyes: black derived from tree sap and red derived from uructé (Bixa orellana). After painting, the vessel is heated and coated with resin to give a glaze and protect the paint. The interior is sometimes painted but not coated so that decoration is more fugitive and tends to fade with use. Lines are unequal in width, ranging from 3 to 7 mm. on the same vessel, somewhat crooked and not equally spaced or perfectly parallel. On a few sherds the resin glaze was not applied to the entire surface but daubed on with the fingertip, creating a definite pattern due to the fact it turned a greenish black. Motif: Straight lines combined in a variety of ways. None of the vessels represented duplicates of any of the others in pattern. The motifs in- clude: (1) zoned parallel lines, in which a band is divided by a zigzag line into triangular areas containing parallel lines; (2) a band divided by a zigzag line into triangular areas, which are filled with V-lines paralleling the angle of the zigzag; (3) rectangular areas filled with diagonal cross- hatch (cf. Hrefoimo Incised) ; (4) double, square spiral, the arms of which are composed of two parallel lines Joined with cross lines forming a series of small squares. Designs cover the exterior and are carried across the bottom. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: None. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: A minor type in archeological and ethnographic sites. BH nd gies ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 253 [___] NATURAL suRFACE RED WASH ee BLACK RESIN Ficure 104.—Sherds of Erefoimo Painted showing typical motifs, Wai Wai Phase. 254 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 EREFOIMO PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling; coils formed by rolling clay vertically be- tween palms held out in front of chest (pl. 51, 0). In small vessels a coil - may complete the circumference; in large ones coils are joined end to end. Too dry surfaces and poor kneading of joints result in frequent fractures on coil lines, leaving both edges smooth. Coils 1.0-1.5 cm. wide. Temper: Waterworn sand of variable size; majority of grains 1-2 mm. in diameter, but hunks 6-S mm. in maximum dimension are not unusual. Typically small amount, but sherds with abundant temper are occasionally encountered. Temper unevenly distributed, with bunched areas separated by sparsely tempered areas. Occasional sherds have black specks from accidental inclusion of organic refuse in clay. Texture: Poorly kneaded, giving layered appearance, with layers running parallel, diagonal or perpendicular to the surface. Occasional small air pockets. Color: Typically bright tile orange, rarely grayish orange. Uniform color through the cross-section typical. Firing: Oxidized (see p. 261 for ethnographic description). SURFACE: Color: Typically either bright orange like cross section or black. Those black on both surfaces seem to have been treated with wax or resin, or smudged at the end of the firing, since the black does not enter the cross section. Variants include black interior with light-tan exterior, and orange-gray interior with black exterior. Orange surfaces frequently show gray ‘fire clouds. Treatment: Poorly smoothed, leaving lumps, protruding temper and ridges. Uneven, not smooth to feel. Occasional fine smoothing marks on exterior made by the edge of a gourd fragment used for scraping away excess clay and smoothing. Hardness: 3.5-4. Form: Rim: Everted and slightly thickened on exterior, with rounded, pointed, or flattened lip. Typically uneven, unlevel, and irregularly thickened. Body-wall thickness: 4-11 mm.; majority 6-9 mm. Base: A. Flat, joining sidewalls at angle of 40-60 degrees; base thickness equal to or slightly greater than body wall. Exterior of base oc- casionally slightly concave. Diameter 7-18 cm. (fig. 105, A). B. Flat, with the edges rising at a steep angle before joining sidewalls, giving the effect of a low pedestal. The pedestal is formed by a rise of less than 1 cm. at an angle of 60-70 degrees, at which point the walls slope outward at an angle of 30-50 degrees. Diameter 8-13 cm. (fig. 105, B). Vessel shapes: 1. Jar with flat base (Form A or B), walls upsloping to rounded shoulder, then inward to insloping or concave neck with slightly everted or exteriorly thickened rim. This general shape includes almost all Wai Wai pots used for cooking, storage, and eating, which differ in size and proportions but form a continuous series within the general shape. Rim diameter 16-50 cm., height 12-60 em. (fig. 105; pls. 49, a, c—e, 50). E d Eyans.an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 255 PaaS eres (GSES I es OF lee) (3 'CM Oo 4 8 12 CM RIM & BASE VESSEL SCALE SCALE Ficure 105.—Rim and base profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Erefoimo Plain, Wai Wai Phase. 2. Jar with flat, pedestallike base (Form B), walls upsloping to high, rounded shoulder, then curving inward to rim with rounded lip. This form, used for drinking, is rare and not represented in the Sherd collections. One specimen collected ethnographically has the following dimensions: mouth diameter 19 cm., height 18 cm., maximum body diameter 23.5 cm., base diameter 10 em. (pl. 49, b). TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: The time span represented archeo- logically and ethnographically in this Wai Wai sample amounts to only about 10 years, during which time no change in Erefoimo Plain can be detected. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Dominant at all Wai Wai sites. 256 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 PottrRyY ARTIFACT TYPES Fired clay was used for the manufacture of two types of objects in addition to containers. These are pot rests and spindle whorls. Pot rests (pl. 50).—Solid, cylindrical, crudely modeled pottery sup- ports were made for use in threes to raise the vessel above the cooking fire. The Wai Wai stated that “any old clay” was used for these, whereas the clay used for pottery making came from special deposits where the quality was better. Three complete specimens, collected from the Wai Wai in 1952, measure 15-16 cm. in height, 8-9 cm. in base diameter, and 7-9 cm. in top diameter. In spite of a flat base the pot rests do not stand vertical but lean slightly. The upper ends are not level but slope slightly. The sides are straight or slightly con- cave, with the minimum diameter a little above center. The tops are ornamented with a central depression and a surrounding circular groove, both made with the finger tip. Fragments from the arche- ological sites are similar in form and construction, and measure 8-10 cm. in diameter at the ends. Spindle whoris (fig. 106, d).—Flattened, globular lumps of pottery, perforated through the center for the insertion of a stick, were manu- factured as spindle weights. Of the two specimens available, one from E-2 has a dark-brown to black surface, smoothed insufficiently to remove all the rough spots. The other, from an existing village, has a brown to black mottled surface coated with transparent resin giving a glaze. Diameters are 3.3 and 4.0 cm., thickness 2.0 and 3.2 cm. respectively. The perforation is slightly off center in both, 4 mm. in diameter, and made by puncturing when the clay was soft. OBJECTS OF HUROPEAN ORIGIN The Wai Wai have had contact with Europeans for more than a century, but until the establishment of a missionary station in 1949 on the upper Essequibo, this contact was sporadic and intermittent. Trade materials consisted mainly of steel implements such as knives, axes, fishhooks, and hoes; objects of adornment such as glass beads and novelties; mirrors, plastic combs, glass bottles or chinaware. With their entry into British Guiana, the Wai Wai have had increasing access to metal containers, both iron cooking pots and enameled bowls, and their use appears to be reflected in the relatively small amount of potsherd refuse at E-2 and E-11 in comparison to Taruma Phase habitation sites. Items of European origin collected at E-2 are as follows: 1 frag- ment of the bottom of a pale-green glass bottle with a rounded base; 1 fragment of a mirror made of glass 6.5 mm. thick; and 1,144 glass “seed” beads, some still strung on twisted cotton thread. They include E d reagan ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 257 Ficure 106.—Artifacts of the Wai Wai Phase. a—b, Gourd scraper used in pottery making. c, Nut used as pottery polisher. d, Pottery spindle whorl. the following colors, sizes, and types: 280 dark-blue, almost black, and 240 bright-blue, doughnut-shaped, “seed” beads measuring 1.0 to 1.5 mm. in diameter and 0.5 mm. thick, with a hole ranging from a pinpoint to 0.5 mm. in diameter; 241 opaque, red, doughnut-shaped “seed” beads measuring 1.5 to 2.0 mm. in diameter and 1 mm. thick with a hole 0.5 to 1.0 mm. in diameter; 1 bright orange, 9 opaque white, 241 transparent white, 18 pale sky blue, and 75 dark-blue beads of the same form and dimensions as the red beads; 39 black to dark-green 258 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 hexagonal beads cut from a long tube, 1.0 to 1.5 mm. thick and 2.0 mm. in diameter, with the hole 0.5 to 1.0 mm. in diameter. THE SITE SEQUENCE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS The sequence of Wai Wai habitation sites is established by known times of occupation given by American missionaries who remembered the date of abandonment. HK-2 and K-11 are partly contemporary, E-2 having continued to be inhabited for about 2 years after E-11 was abandoned. In 1952 there were five Wai Wai villages, varying from 3 years to less than 1 year inage. Although the pottery sample from the archeological and ethnographic sites is smaller than would be ideal, it is unselected. Consequently, it does not seem likely that a larger number of sherds from the same sites would reveal more pro- nounced differences in paste, surface, vessel shape or other features. If this conclusion is valid, Wai Wai pottery is unusually uniform. However, it is probable that this appearance of uniformity partly results from lack of time depth in the remains, and that if the sites represented 100 years instead of only 10, a variation in one or more of the pottery characteristics could be discerned. A possible Taruma influence on the Wai Wai ceramic tradition is indicated by the similarity of Erefoimo Incised to Kanashen Incised. Kanashen Incised, a major decorated type of the Taruma Phase, con- tains several well-defined design motifs, one of which is diagonal crosshatch (pp. 216-217). Erefoimo Incised occurs in small fre- quency in the abandoned Wai Wai villages, and was not being made in 1952. It is a crude type of incision compared to Kanashen Incised and employs crosshatch in zoned panels rather than a continuous band. ‘The similarities between the two types of decoration may be coincidental. However, some such borrowing might be expected to have occurred during the long period in which the Wai Wai and the Taruma were in rather close contact (pp. 268-269). The size of the sherd samples from E-2 and E-11 ought to be useful as a basis for correlating site duration and population with rate of refuse accumulation. Indeed, the results of such calculations for E-2 appear encouraging (Meggers and Evans, 1957, p. 256 and table J). Further consideration, however, suggests that there are a number of variable factors that minimize the significance of any conclusion. E-2 was inhabited by a variable population, and the houses were moved around during the period of occupation. A standard test of 1.5 by 1.5 meters, used as a basis for calculating rate of refuse accu- mulation, is not necessarily correlated with the occupation period but may equate with only a fraction of it. If this is true, the fact that the formula for estimating rate of refuse accumulation® gives a 82,600 sherds per 1.5 by 1.5 meter area=100 years (Meggers and Evans, 1957, p. 252). 10} d crated ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 259 duration of 6.82 years while the actual duration is 6 years may be coin- cidental. On the other hand, if the pattern of use of E-2 is typical of Tropical Forest villages of this or longer duration, then the error is standardized and canceled out. If the refuse accumulation at H-2 is accepted as normal, that at E-11 cannot be so accepted.. Here, in spite of diligent search and knowledge of the approximate house loca- tion, no more than 5 sherds of Wai Wai pottery types could be found. The only explanations appear to be either an abnormally small popula- tion, or an abnormal pattern of refuse disposal. ‘The location of the house on the brink of a nearly vertical bank makes it as easy to discard refuse into the river as in some other direction, and perhaps this was done to some extent, if not completely. The location of the house deviates from the normal Wai Wai pattern in being so close to the bank. In all other cases, the slope of the hillside makes it necessary to set the house farther back to escape flooding, and rules out the disposal of refuse into the river without special effort. The pattern of refuse distribution at E-2, where the position of the house and work shelters was still evident, shows an accumulation of sherds both inside and immediately around the main house. The “major concentration was a little to one side of the habitation area, where large fragments and vessels damaged beyond use but not com- pletely smashed were discarded. A similar pattern of refuse dis- posal would explain differences in sherd concentration in different parts of other Tropical Forest archeological sites. Probably the most important result of attempting to treat the Wai Wai as an archeological phase.is the demonstration this pro- vides of the value of defining extinct cultures in terms of a number of sites spread over a considerable time span. The instantaneous portrait allows a description of the culture, but if this kind of analysis is attempted after working with a large series of survey sites such as compose the Taruma Phase definition, one has the impression of groping in the dark. It was not possible to isolate any consistent paste or temper differences in Wai Wai pottery that would warrant subdivision of the plain pottery into two or more types. It was also impossible to determine which features of the ceramics are significant as time markers, and the feeling is always present that something is being overlooked. The fact that archeologists rely upon a series of samples from different points in time to reveal the aspects that change and thus have descriptive value, emphasizes the problem involved in arriving at ethnographic pottery definitions that can be integrated with archeological pottery type descriptions. It is obvious that the solution to this problem is not an easy one, and factors inherent in the two frames of reference may prevent any but a superficial type of correlation. More intense investigation of the possibilities should be undertaken, however, before all hope is abandoned. 260 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 ETHNOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE Ethnographic information on the Wai Wai was collected by W. C. Farabee in 1913-14, when the tribe was only beginning to move across the divide into British Guiana. Farabee’s description is sketchy (1924, pp. 153-176), but is accompanied by a number of illustrations and supplemented by a collection of material culture objects in the University Museum, Philadelphia. During our sojourn in Wai Wai territory in 1952-53, we attempted to record as much ethnographic information as possible and we also made a collection of objects for the Division of Ethnology, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. A detailed report based on our field notes, Farabee’s published and unpublished materials, and Wai Wai collections at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass., and the American Museum of Natural History, New York, is in preparation. Consequently, only those aspects of the culture most significant to archeological interpretation will be dealt with here. Agriculture-——When a house is built, a slash-and-burn field is cleared behind it and planted. Each following year, the clearing is enlarged for a new planting, and this continues until the suitable land in the vicinity is exhausted. At this time a new field is cleared on another high spot. If this is more than about an hour’s travel away by dugout, the village is usually moved to the new location. Otherwise, if the old house is in sufficiently good condition, the people may remain at least until the old fields cease to produce. When the field is not by the house, it frequently contains a small lean-to for temporary shelter. When the garden immediately adjacent to the house is beginning to die out, a small area is frequently recleared and a second planting of manioc is set out. This practice is not extended to the entire field. In addition to manioc, food crops include card (Diascoria sp.), squash, bananas and plantains, and papaya and sugar- cane. Nonedible plants such as cotton, uruct (Bia orellana), and tree gourds are also raised, but none is planted in large quantity. The distribution of some of these crops in the field at Yaka Yaka is shown in figure 107. Settlement pattern.—The four main Wai Wai villages inhabited in 1952-53 were all located on a rise from 3 to 9 meters above the low (December) water level. The house on the lowest spot had partially flooded during the preceding rainy season. Three of the houses were along the river, set far enough back from shore to occupy high and. relatively level land. Access to the water was by a path through uncut forest, which screens the village from passers-by. The fourth settlement was some 500 meters inland where a nearby creek provided the domestic water supply. The house tends to be toward the river 513186 O -60 (Face p. 260) Ss] [SQUP ye OG Prra aa Spee OG we PO? SIH DG Sa, ndoio Or 3 Gl ae oH ey eon ry Sey OO ge S39 oe ao ogy ‘ Seow BS JOP Oem op BED Se CaO, Pw BOY O59 a G 3°92 Gil we ae C ‘FY Og Pa D AE ext: Tho C1 a Vin OOS EN aS Oe, Ge gs Gre) C34 Oo, < gy “ih 5 es ae © se BBY ce) ooe Spied | FOREST 33 &. ovr 3 Ca >¢ Bie MATURE MANIOC / S UEe ? 2 LS Ae NEW MANIOC 2 3 Oe a ee ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE = aia: - a eta SUGAR CANE ro v9} the garden clearing, and the PINEAPPLE BANANA OR PLANTAIN PAPAYA ee ee ae aoa Qawe oe! 5 7 Ce Stas otk oskat Cis wa miso ee stot Y % Vout essed Iw ‘ » CLEARING Be oa ORE Ae 2) ‘-' Vag - or ye G ae ~ ar, ES - ‘ . Qe Pr : im ne : Em, Bets ' OH Og G cde : swe y ; P19, "86 : Yea Taleo Orre'oa. FOREST MATURE MANIOC NEW MANIOG ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE SUGAR CANE PINEAPPLE BANANA OR PLANTAIN PAPAYA oC Ges rene! Doe ESSEQUIBO —> Bank at fo] low water Ficure 107.—Sketch map of the Wai Wai village of Yaka Yaka, showing the location of the modern house, the size of the garden clearing, and the area occupied by the Taruma Phase site of E+. 513186 O-60 (Face p. 260) — a i. eae ~ ey en ee Sn? eat ete 1 ah aera pee eet tle ll OAL LAN ANP LLL ee oe « E d pete ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 261 side of a large agricultural clearing (fig. 107). Village permanency is slight; two houses under construction in 1952 were abandoned in 1955. x House.—All the Wai Wai houses except one were 9 to 11 meters in diameter. The exception was 19 meters in diameter, almost twice the usual size. The steep, conical roof joins vertical sidewalls about 1.25 meters above the ground (pl. 48, a). Both roof and walls are covered with palm thatch. Two doors, at opposite sides, provide ac- cess and illumination. The inside has no partitions, but each family occupies a particular place along the side and keeps its possessions there. Since the interior of the communal house is too dark to be used as a work place for the making of baskets, arrows, bead aprons, and other objects, several small shelters are constructed in the clearing outside. These are typically triangular, with the roof coming to a high point at the front, and with no sidewalls. Population.—The 1952-53 adult population of four Wai Wai vil- lages was: Yaka Yaka, five men and five women; Yewarda, three men and three women; Mawika, seven men and five women; Weelya, three men and two women. Pottery.—Pottery is made by the women at irregular intervals, as needed. Each woman works alone. Clay is usually derived from special locations where the quality is superior to the usual river bank clays. No temper is added, so the various amounts of sand in the Wai Wai archeological material probably represent natural inclusions in clay from different sources. Large, football-shaped hunks of clay, dampened to the proper consistency for easy working, constitute the prepared raw material. Handfuls of this clay are taken for model- ing into coils, which are rolled vertically between the palms held in front of the chest (pl. 51, b). As each coil is prepared, it is added to the vessel and pressed tightly onto the previous coil. Only the flat bottom is made without coiling by stretching the clay to the de- sired shape (pl.51,a). After several coils have been added, the excess clay is scraped off with a piece of gourd (fig. 106, a, b; pl. 52, a). When all the coils have been applied and the vessel shape completed, both surfaces are given a final scraping to remove major irregularities (pl. 52,a). Asmall, smooth nut (fig. 106, ¢) may be used for further smoothing. The completed vessel is dried for about 4 days in the house near the cooking fire before being fired. For firing, the pot is placed mouth down on the ground. Bark and sticks are stacked on end around it (pl. 52, 5), ignited, and left to burn down. If the vessel is to be painted, this is done after cooling with red and black vegetable dye. The decorated exterior is usually covered with a transparent resin added to the reheated surface so that it flows easily and makes a hard glossy coating. __ 262 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {Bull. 177 Disposal of the dead—Inhumation or cremation are practiced, neither of which leaves any archeological evidence in the tropical for- est after a few years. DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE WAI WAI PHASE The archeological description of the Wai Wai Phase is based on two recently abandoned village sites and supplemented by informa- tion on four inhabited villages. Houses are typically small, circular, communal structures of pole and thatch, moved every 3 to 6 years. A single house constituting the village occupies a river bank usually but not always above flood level. The house is at the edge of a large garden clearing in which manioc and other food crops are grown by slash-and-burn agriculture. In settlement pattern, the Wai Wai Phase is distinguished from the Taruma Phase principally by the greater frequency with which the village is moved, resulting in a considerably shallower deposit of habitation refuse. The pottery of the Wai Wai Phase was classified into Erefoimo Plain, a poorly made ware, and two crudely decorated types, Erefoimo Incised and Erefoimo Painted. The poor quality of this pottery may in part be the result of its gradual replacement by metal cooking vessels and containers. Erefoimo Incised may be a pale reflection of Kanashen Incised of the Taruma Phase, which also utilizes crosshatch as a motif. Diagnostic pottery artifacts of the Wai Wai Phase are solid, cylindrical pot rests and thick, disk-shaped spindle whorls. No stone tools are made or used, nor was there any tradition of their having been used in the past. The presence of glass beads in the archeological sites confirms the fact that the Wai Wai have been recipients of Kuropean trade goods for at least since their entry into British Guiana around the beginning of the 20th century, although contact has not been sufficiently close to effect much alteration in the general culture. COMPARATIVE DATA, CONCLUSIONS, AND INTERPRETATIONS Archeological survey of the upper Essequibo River revealed only two successive cultural complexes. Both of these can be equated with ethnographically documented tribes, and have consequently been designated by their tribal names, the Taruma Phase and the Wai Wai Phase. The fact that such a correlation can be made is indicative of the short time that the area has been inhabited by semipermanent sedentary groups with a Tropical Forest type of culture. Prior to the arrival of the Taruma Phase, there is no record in either arche- ology or history that the region was inhabited, although it seems probable that wandering groups occupied it at least intermittently. _ A d menses ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 263 The first record of the Taruma is not in British Guiana, but at the mouth of the Rio Negro in Brazil. According to Nery (1901, p. 41): The first navigator of the Rio Negro seems to have been Pedro de Costa Favella in 1668-69, who went there in company with Father Theodosio, of the Order of Mercy or Redemption, and entered into communication with the Taruma Indians by means of the Aruaquys, and with their assistance founded the first town on this river. Brett (1852, p. 350) gives a similar account of their origin and elabo- rates on their subsequent history : The Tarumas formerly lived near the mouth of the Rio Negro. The Carme- lites had a Mission among them as early as 1670. Disagreeing with other tribes, and being ill-used by the Portuguese, a portion of them fled northward, and settled near the head-waters of the Essequibo. Death made such ravages among those who remained, that the tribe was considered extinct. Mahanarva, the well-known Caribi chief, brought the first information of their existence to Demerara, but his account was so exaggerated that they were described as amphibious, and taking shelter in caverns under water. They are about four hundred in number, and their language differs from that of the other Indians of Guiana. A map of the Guiana region by Juan de la Cruz Cano y Olmedilla, dating from 1771 to 1775, shows the Taruma in British Guiana, west of the Essequibo and north of the mountains (Cartografia Historica de Venezuela, 1946, p. 19). Another map made by Luis de Surville in 1778 shows them in the same location (op. cit., p. 21). ‘The position on these maps agrees with the archeological distribution of the Taruma Phase and establishes a minimum antiquity for the Phase in the upper Essequibo area. If the migration mentioned by Brett took place shortly after 1670, and was a relatively rapid one, the introduction of the Taruma into British Guiana must have taken place around the beginning of the 18th century. This documentation indicating an Amazonian origin for the Taruma Phase is difficult to check by archeological comparative data. The region from which the Taruma are said to have come, the left bank of the Rio Negro near its mouth, is unknown archeologically. Cer- tain ceramic traits of the Taruma Phase, however, suggests a southern origin, especially the delicate red-painted designs on a fine white slip characteristic of Manakakashin Red-on-White. Sherds very similar to these have been reported from Manacapurt, just above the mouth of the Rio Negro (Hilbert, pers. corres.). By contrast, none of the Taruma Phase pottery features relate to coastal complexes, where painting is absent, modeling is frequent, and incision is different in technique and motif. If linguistic evaluations that place Taruma as an independent language, or at least non-Arawakan and non-Cari- ban, are to be believed, this additional evidence would also support an intrusive origin into the central Guianas. 264. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 Since there are several detailed accounts of visits to Taruma villages in the 20th century, it is of extreme importance to try to identify the archeological sites to which these villages correspond. Success in establishing such a correlation would provide a rare opportunity to check the archeological sequence established by the seriation of strata cuts in terms of pottery type frequency, and to evaluate inferences from the archeological situation against contemporary descriptions. Schomburgk (1845, p. 35) claims to be the first European to visit the Taruma in the upper Essequibo. He saw five villages on the Kuyuwini and three on the Essequibo in 1837-38 (1841, pp. 167-169), but gives no details. The most complete description, amplified by photographs, of Taruma villages is that of W. C. Farabee who visited the region in 1914. Comparison of his published (1917) and 1914 notebook (MS.) data brings to light a number of contradictions that make correlation of the villages with the archeological sites difficult. The task is further complicated by the generalized character of Farabee’s map (1917) and the fact that the place names were given to him in Wapisiana, whereas they were given to us in Wai Wai (fig. 108). A few points of geographical similarity can be used for orientation, however. ‘The large stream entering the left bank of the Essequibo above the Kuyuwini, labeled “Duerwau” by Farabee, must, because of its size, be the Kassikaityu River. This identification is supported by the fact that there is a striking outcrop of granite just below the Kassikaityu mouth (at E-24), which is shown on Farabee’s map as “Howkiuki Rock.” The next landmark upstream is a falls (“Waboturia Cataract”), then a mountain on the right bank (“Kenai- mataua”), and above this another falls (“Unorwauwau Cataract”). The upper falls, associated with a creek of the same name flowing from the right bank of the Essequibo, is sufficiently similar in name to the present Onoro Falls and Creek to suggest that they are thesame. The only prominent hill, visible for some distance when traveling along the Essequibo River, now goes by the name of Manakakashin. It seems likely that this is the “Kanaimataua” mountain of Farabee’s map. If so, then the rapids opposite it must be Manakakashin Falls. For some reason, the other two rapids between this point and the mouth of the Kassikaityu are not shown on Farabee’s map. This correlation would seem to reduce sites potentially identifiable with Farabee’s villages to those on the right bank between Manakaka- shin and the mouth of the Kassikaityu River, namely, K-16, E-17, E-19, and E-20. The problem is complicated, however, by Farabee’s field notes (MS., Notebook A), which locate the first village as “on the Essequibo River, B.G. High ground on right bank (no rocks) an hour above the rapids & short distance below Duerwow River.” No village is shown below the Duerwow River on the published map (Farabee, E d dial ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 265 Srna | 6 PR a x4 = Pervez} Bl ie Sods. fy PNKARBADt Yrananievr nn : MARUDIKSTAUA % mies kKimigaruana a ALIR DAD “PErRoouvens fs MARIWIDWANTAUA aod? naun' Z ty] bs ant S Asuaina | KUOURUILAMIRE > $ A BURISHONAWA at wjy WARAIPURAU Me ee (ez < sae . 3 -= 9 RY te ° ‘ ¢ i = K > Fo y a g——~ATEw, a, ai f- WABOTURIA: CATy p. YARUMA V. > < : Te fs <= Bs WAMUAY pap Say 4] © ; By ae ese 5 4 iN Gg A y cpu 2 S igs i) 2 of e (Piniriny: Mr. aa ee penn . . y > bor ey gat > % S Ni ond wnat od ae. ga . s « $ ra Mages dy, mes aus le Ss Ay oo a - r)\) ants My : gyn UN Eas i Zaypad ¥S fie Re ie Lo es a wt Ne a. car eehl 2, a 7 Nels TW uy ta AY att Hn Pa ays Teg % ne et % bam sacs a Ficure 108.—Part of Farabee’s map of the upper Essequibo area showing the location of Taruma villages at the time of his visit in 1914 (after Farabee, 1917). 1917), but if the field notes are accurate, E-25 must be considered. The only other site in the area, E-28, seems too far below the “Duer- wow” (Kassikaityu) to fit Farabee’s description. In this ambiguous situation, an examination of the archeological sites may produce some helpful clues. Since Farabee’s visit came °266 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 near the end of the 'Taruma Phase, sites that seriate early in the sequence can be eliminated from consideration. This rules out E-25. K-20 produced too few sherds to be congruent with its identification as a village site. Since the archeological data agree better with the map than with the field notes, it must be assumed that the former is the more accurate of the two sources. If we may conclude that the Taruma villages seen by Farabee are located below Manakakashin and above the mouth of the Kassikaityu, the choice then lies between Sites H-16, E-17, and E-19. Since the two villages are described as “a short day’s journey” apart, E-19 is the most logical candidate for Farabee’s “Tohi,” except that there are rocks in the river at this point and Farabee specifies “no rocks.” Once again, however, the field notes contradict the published map, which shows rocks in the vicinity of the village, and again the archeology agrees better with the map. The description of E-19 equates in gen- eral with Farabee’s description of “Tohi.” He notes that it is on “high ground”; E-19 is on a bank 18 to 20 meters above the low water level. He estimated the clearing as “5 or more acres”; we estimated it as 500 by 200 meters, all of which was probably not cleared at the same time. He describes the houses as “near the river side of the clearing”; we found the sherd refuse to be toward the front of the area of secondary growth. The major point of disagreement is Fara- bee’s statement that “the clearing is 200 yards from the river,” whereas we judged it to extend to within 10 meters of the edge of the bank. This difference can be reconciled in one of two ways: (1) the clearing was extended forward after Farabee’s visit, a conclusion quite within the realm of possibility; or, (2) Farabee’s occasional looseness in estimating distance (cf. pp. 267-268) makes some of his figures unreliable. The relatively large size of the habitation area at E-19 is in keep- ing with Farabee’s (MS., Notebook A) description of the village in 1914: Here there are two houses—two shelters for casava work ete. and a visitors house. The two houses are each about 85 ft. diam. and circular. One has side wall 4% ft. high—the other comes down to ground like great straw stack. The roofs are all made of braided thorny palm leaves. Houses are about 20 ft. high with a long central pole extending from above the roof. The visitors house is 12 ft. in diameter & same height—6 side posts & one central post. The roof comes within 5 ft. of ground & no walls builtin... Only a very small bare ground about the houses, about double the area of houses. If we may tentatively identify Site E-19 with Farabee’s “Tohi,” then we are left with two possibilities for the second place, referred E d oane an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 267 to as “Kushar’s Village.” Farabee (MS., Notebook A) gives the fol- lowing description : A short days journey further up the HEssequibo & on same right bank is the 2nd T.V. situated on a little hill 45 ft. above the river and 4 mi. back. The houses are new & just in building—it is an old site reoccupied—an excellent location—a small stream passes near the house & to the river. Provided Farabee is correct, the reoccupation should be a diagnostic feature. K-16, one of the two possibilities, has that characteristic, while the small refuse area at E-17 shows evidence of only one brief occupation. K-16 also resembles “Kushar’s Village” in having a small stream running along the edge. The height of the bank and the distance of the habitation area from the river differ from Farabee’s specifications, the bank being 6 meters high and the refuse deposit of Cut 2 (the late part of the site) about 15 meters from the bank. The identification of E-16 with “Kushar’s Village” fits the seriation picture rather well. The lowest part of Cut 2 (Level 8-16 cm.) falls below the lowest levels of Cuts 1 and 2 at E-19 (Farabee’s “Tohi’’), which Farabee describes as the older village. However, the per- centage occurrences in these three levels are so similar that K-16, Cut 2, Level 8-16 mm. could as easily have been put above as below the two lowest levels at K-19 in the pottery type seriation (fig. 101). If this had been done, the sequence would have been exactly as Farabee de- scribed. In view of the general assumption that ceramic analyses and seriated sequences give only approximate and not absolute results, this discrepancy is minor. The archeological evidence permits us to add a postscript to Farabee’s account: “Kushar’s Village” was soon abandoned, whereas “Tohi” remained inhabited and perhaps was still occupied when the Taruma Phase came to an end. The last record of a Taruma village appears to have been made by Walter E. Roth, who visited the upper Essequibo in 1925. The village he saw, 5 days’ paddling upstream from the mouth of the Kuyuwini and below the mouth of the Kassikaityu (Roth, 1929, p. ix), is described as follows: This settlement is situated on the summit of the hill of that name [Wannawan- tuk] and consists of two huge houses built on a Wapishana model. The hill itself, some 300 feet high, fronts on the right bank of the Essequibo, is flanked on either side by a creek, and slopes down into a swamp, an ideal spot protected by natural defenses to withstand any surprise attack. :, . I was next led to an extraordinary structure at the foot of the hill, which was nothing less than a stepladder built up its steep declivity. It was formed of runners with wooden rungs tied crosswise, the former running zigzag at:°a greater or less angle according to the conformation of the slope. Extra support was afforded by a double handrail formed of vine rope attached to gaudily painted stakes driven into the ground at distances about 10 to 12 feet apart. In my climb up it to the top plateau I counted over 260 rungs and I have often pondered over the labor and skill entailed in their fixation and construction. 513186—60——_19 268 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 The only archeological site far enough down river to equate with Wannawantuk is K-30. Its seriated position is perfect for this iden- tification, but the description deviates slightly from Roth’s. E-30 and the site Roth visited are both on the right bank of the Essequibo, but the hill at E-80 was only 16 meters above low water level in De- cember 1952. It slopes off on all sides as Roth describes, but is steep only for the first 5 meters. A photograph in the original published version of Roth’s (1925, p. 4) article, however, gives reason to believe that the hill he saw may have been much lower than “300 feet.” It shows the “staircase” with an Indian climbing it. The incline is not steep and measured with a protractor is only 30 degrees to 40 degrees at the most. Roth mentions that the runners were laid “zigzag,” suggesting use of a switchback arrangement. Under these circum- stances 260 rungs would represent an elevation of much less than 300 feet. Thus, a combination of factors in his own data clearly implies that the hill must have been considerably lower than his estimate. Since we were not able to extend the survey downriver from E-380, it is impossible to determine whether there is another site more in agree- ment with Roth’s description, and the correlation must therefore remain tentative. However, Roth’s report supports the archeological evidence that the latest area of Taruma occupation is the region of the Essequibo below the mouth of the Kassikaityu River. Another comment in Farabee’s field notes (MS., Notebook A) con- firms one of the other archeological inferences. He mentions that the people at “Kushar’s Village” have fields “2 hrs. journey away where they have shelters but no houses.” ‘This is in accord with the identification of certain former clearings as fields with camp sites. Another of Farabee’s comments is less clearly substantiated by the archeological situation. He states that, “They formerly had single houses, now they often have several families in a single house.” Ref- use areas of less than 20 meters in diameter are suggestive of com- munal houses. Although they are most frequent in the latter half of the Phase in such sites as E-15, E-16, E-17, E-18, the trend is not wholly consistent. E-19, which is late, is as large as any of the early sites, and Farabee describes it as having two communal houses with outbuildings. Furthermore, sites with more than one occupation can- not be distinctly subdivided into the respective areas occupied on the basis of present evidence. The best that can be concluded is that the archeological picture, while it does not clearly support Farabee’s statement, does not completely rule it out. Before the Taruma became extinct as a tribal entity, the Wai Wai had already begun to move northward into British Guiana from the headwaters of the Mapuera in Brazil. In 1852 Brett reported that E d arangan ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 269 “the Woyawais are a distant tribe, inhabiting the mountains near the sources of the Essequibo” (Brett, 1852, p. 349). In 1914 Farabee found a few Wai Wai settled on the British Guiana side of the border, but farther south than the area they occupied in 1952. The extinction of the Taruma about 1925 opened the upper Essequibo to Wai Wai immigration, and the greater accessibility of European goods in British Guiana versus Brazil has provided an attraction. By 1952 there were about equal numbers of Wai Wai on both sides of the border, with the northernmost village on the Essequibo just above the mouth of the Kassikaityu. Given the historic fact that the Wai Wai were partly contemporary with the Taruma in the upper Essequibo, and that for at least 100 years the two tribes were in contact with each other, visited back and forth, and engaged in trade relations, it is of interest to examine what archeological clues exist that might lead to a reconstruction of this situation. Such evidence is very limited and indefinite in the area covered by the survey, which was predominantly Taruma Phase territory. Since Taruma Phase pottery is superior both technically and artistically to that of the Wai Wai, any trade in pottery vessels would probably have been principally from the Taruma to the Wai Wai. This would produce evidence in Wai Wai sites but not in Taruma ones, and the Wai Wai sites occupied when Taruma culture was a functioning entity are outside the area included in the survey. From the present archeological evidence, there is only one clue to suggest contact and that is the faint resemblance of Erefoimo Incised designs of the Wai Wai Phase to those of Kanashen Incised of the Taruma Phase. However, the points of comparison are so simple as to be easily explained as fortuitous, and in the absence of known contact the resemblance would be most safely regarded as such. Even with the knowledge that the opportunity for acculturation existed be- tween the two groups, the conclusion that it happened in this case is speculative. Archeological documentation for the Wai Wai is slight. Two sites were examined, both recently abandoned. The most conspicuous dif- ference between these and the Taruma sites was the relative amount of pottery refuse. In Taruma sites, the deposits were frequently 25 em. or more in thickness and sherds were relatively abundant. Neither of the Wai Wai sites produced sherds in any quantity or depth, indi- cating a high degree of village mobility or a decline in the use of pot- tery or both. Increasing reliance on metal containers and a consequent deterioration of the pottery-making art are evident at the present time, and Wai Wai village duration has been observed to vary between 3 and 8 years, indicating that both factors are involved. 270 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 At the present time (1959), the Wai Wai appear to be holding their own both numerically and culturally in the upper Essequibo in spite of intermittent contact with missionaries and other Europeans over the past 10 years. Their present area of occupation is between the mouth of the Kassikaityu and the Essequibo headwaters in British Guiana, with a few of the tribe still remaining on the Brazil side of the border. Acculturation has been slow because of the remoteness of the region and its lack of attractions for Kuropean exploitation, and there is no indication that this situation will change in the near future. If the European diseases that periodically ravage aboriginal groups in other parts of the tropical forest are not introduced, the Wai Wai Phase will probably continue to endure for a considerable number of years. THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNA THE RUPUNUNI PHASE DESCRIPTION OF SITES AND EXCAVATIONS All but one of the 89 sites investigated in the savanna and adjacent wooded hills of the Rupununi District belong to the same archeological culture, designated as the Rupununi Phase. Three major types of sites are represented : habitations, cemeteries, and localities of possible ceremonial significance. HasiTaTIon SITES R-2:.MOCO MOCO VILLAGE On the forested northwest flank of the Kanuku Mountains, on the upper course of the Moco Moco River, is a small habitation site (fig. 109). Sherds exposed on the surface of a path leading up the hillside were the first indication of its presence. Further exploration in an adjacent garden clearing revealed that the sherds were distributed over an area approximately 25 by 30 meters in diameter, correspond- ing to a slight knoll from which the land sloped toward the Moco Moco River some 500 meters to the west. Sherds were limited to the surface or in soil hilled around the tobacco plants. No other artifacts were found. R-3: MANARI CREEK A grassy hill about 1 km. northwest of the tree-covered slope of the Kanuku Mountains produced evidence of a Rupununi Phase vil- lage (fig. 109; pl. 53, a). The relatively flat summit of the hill rises some 30 meters above the adjacent savanna, providing a vantage point with a view toward the distant Pakaraima Mountains. Manari Creek runs along the base of the north edge of the hill. At the time of our visit, the site was overgrown with bunchy, bluish-green grass about 25 cm. tall and scattered small, scrubby trees. The ground surface was littered with iron concretions of pea size or larger eroded out of the lateritic soil. Sherds were concentrated in two areas, one 40 by 100 meters on the highest summit of the hill and the other 60 meters in diameter on the southwest end of the hill, which was about 2 meters lower in elevation. These two concentrations were about 500 meters apart, and sherds were thinly scattered in the intervening area. Sherds were abundant but occurred only on the surface of the hard, 271 272 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 compacted and stony soil. The surface collection represents all parts of the site and contains, in addition to aboriginal remains, a wide variety of objects of European origin. The presence of a worked fragment of glass eliminates the possibility of later reoccupation of the spot, and analysis of these materials (see table L, pp. 315-317) establishes a relatively recent date for the site. R-5: MARAKANATA WATERHOLE, VILLAGE 1 Sites R-5 through R-9 are in the approximate geographical center of the north Rupununi savanna, and on the watershed between drainages leading to the Amazon on the west and the Atlantic on the east (fig. 109). This area is characterized by uneven terrain and a vegetation pattern in which small irregular extensions of grassland are surrounded by large patches of forest (pl. 53,6). Site R-5 (fig. 110) occupies a tonguelike peninsula extending into a low area of Ité palm swamp. Ten meters below the summit, on the south edge of the rise, is a waterhole reputed among the local ranchers to have been dug by the Dutch. Whether or not it was improved by Euro- peans, this spring and swamp would have provided sufficient water for aboriginal use. The surface of the peninsula is composed of hard, compact, later- itic soil, which could be dislodged with a trowel only with great difficulty at the time of our visit in the early part of the dry season. The grass was bunchy and tangled, but had been burned shortly be- fore our arrival so that the ground surface was exposed. Sherds and stone artifacts were found in two places 300 meters apart, and in view of the possibility that these represented different occupations, the collections were kept separate and the areas given separate site numbers. R-5 is the smaller of the two sites, covering an approximately circular area about 25 meters in diameter. It is located on the neck of the peninsula some 50 meters from the steep drop leading to the waterhole. The surface is generally level and liberally sprinkled with small stones. The majority of the sherds were found on the surface, several tests revealing nothing deeper than 8 cm. A con- trolled excavation 1 by 2 meters placed in the center of the site pro- duced only 76 sherds. R-6: MARAKANATA WATERHOLE, VILLAGE 2 R-6 is 300 meters west of R-5, separated from it by a slight de- pression (fig. 110), and situated on top of a knoll 3 meters higher than the adjacent ground level. The gravelly lateritic soil and sparse vegetation are identical to the surrounding area (pl. 53, 6). Cultural remains were scattered over a roughly circular area 400 meters in diameter, and tests showed them to be restricted to the surface. 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Aw \ = Tu $% % é oS “ , % % Ds mo s Ny hw as =, “1, v Me 7 yy WW Fury % =. cot NS A 7% ZWE Oss iM : = € ily F Al NG lle gly : ee ae % WG = 5 2%, “ Mia, Su, * = S = ta “Gag S = y RY lg = z ° Uy - = A S = vt Zz Ry 2 Lal 2 4 % a D Tae, a? fiw, Ae we = he we fis agra In: ans Ags nL | ) ; My j ie i ny itty a SOMBER MOA eg apeeeeper er ul AG ites . prey! on > i» Nad Wola i coef tk SS ee - } " no’. | List ol ee ~~ nT atl eee enihenel (amroitntamnenen armenian air Ait 1) Evans and Mecserel ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 273 aSseh sae % P Dey, ey a Sai he Sey ARE Eads x § Seog 2 yy scl co tate: se ie SAVANNA Ficure 110.—Sketch map of R-5 and R-6, habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. addition to a large random surface sample of stone and pottery, a 2- by 1-meter square test was made, from which 93 sherds were ob- tained. The site produced an unusually large number of stone arti- facts, and a few items of European origin (see table L, pp. 315-317). R-7: LAKE AMUKU A few kilometers north of R-6 is Lake Amuku, a small, swampy, shallow, elongated body of water. High, thick grass occupies the area immediately surrounding the lake, with large patches of forest nearby. A narrow ridge running north-south a short distance from the west margin of the water produeed scattered sherds (fig. 109). The general area of their distribution was 200 by 500 meters, with a slight concentration toward the southwest part of the ridge. Collect- ing of a surface sherd sample was impeded by the tallness of the grass cover, but tests showed that there was no depth to the deposit. —8: QUATATA, VILLAGE 1 This site occupied the narrowest place in a strip of savanna between two large patches of forest (fig. 109). In both directions, the savanna opens out into a rolling, tree-sprinkled terrain. A swampy area in the forest to the southeast of the site may have provided the most -22 thru DISTRICT R 5) = Fp wns fenunday RUPUNUNI ihe $i a inp onin o ' 4 °o ' 4 May, -14 000 R 1 ee ae Pe yy Ficure 109.—Map showing the location of sites of the Rupununi Phase. Elevations are given in feet. Z Hm pa .é., 513186 O -60 (Face p. 272) a 274 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 accessible water supply, although the Quatata River is not far away. Sherds were scattered on the surface over an area roughly 40 by 80 meters, with the longest axis across the open strip. In addition to aboriginal materials, the site produced numerous glass and china fragments, pieces of tin and enamelware (see table L, pp. 315-317). Lawrence Hart, our guide, recalled this spot as a place where Indians lived some 20 years before, when he was a child, a dating that conforms to the position of R-8 in the ceramic seriation chart (fig. 125). R-9: QUATATA, VILLAGE 2 Just north of the patch of forest adjacent to the north side of R-8 is another habitation site (fig. 109). It occupies a section of savanna that is bounded on the south and west by patches of forest, but to the north permits an unobstructed view across.a nearby shallow ravine of the tree-dotted landscape to the distant peaks of the Pakaraima range (pl. 54,a). A swampy area in the ravine provides the closest water source. The soil is typical hard, pebbly laterite, and sherds were found on the surface only, scattered over an ovoid area 60 meters long by 25 meters wide. R-10: PIRARA LAKE About 2 km. south of the Pirara River and 1.5 km. south of Pirara Ranch is a small body of water known as Pirara Lake or E] Dorado Lake (fig. 109). Among the several smal] lakes in the north Rupu- nuni savanna, this one is most often equated by the resident ranchers with the mythical Lake Parima of E] Dorado fame. A low ridge dotted with cashew trees borders the lake on the south and west, pro- viding a suitable elevation for habitation during all parts of the year. The lake, although only about 500 meters in diameter and shallow, affords good fishing today and is frequented by numerous water birds. However, in spite of these seemingly attractive features, a survey of the vicinity produced no evidence of the existence of former villages of the type characteristic of the Rupununi Phase. One spot on the ridge west of the lake produced two sherds and a scattering of char- coal, representing a brief campsite at most. R-11: PIRARA ISLANDS Four kilometers south of Pirara Ranch are several slight forested elevations that do not flood in the rainy season (fig. 109). Nearby are small, shallow ravines in which water can be found throughout the year. An examination was made of this area because of the local belief that it was here that Schomburgk found Indian villages at the time of his visit in 1835. Only two sherds were found just inside the margin of a patch of very dense and tangled forest. Like R-10, these remains appear to represent a campsite rather than a village. E d arene ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 275 R-12: ANNAT A. rocky slope adjacent to the foothills of the Pakaraima Range (fig. 109), northeast of the present Macusi village of Annai, produced a few aboriginal sherds and others of European origin (see table L, pp. 315-317). The area they occupy is very small and its situation corresponds to that of existing scattered homesteads in the Annai area. No surface water is found in the immediate vicinity, but artificial waterholes dug in a low part of the savanna 250 to 500 meters away serve the present population and probably were used by the residents of R-12 also. The relative abundance of European objects and the location of the site in a relatively undesirable spot are in conformity with the seriation that places R-12 among the most recent sites in- vestigated on the Rupununi savanna (fig. 125). R-13: RBUPUNUNI LANDING The junction of the Annai River with the left bank of the Rupununi River forms a small peninsula bounded on 3 sides by water (fig. 109). Trees occupy the banks, but the land behind is relatively open savanna. Mud deposited on the ground indicated that this bank, although some 7 meters above river level in November, floods during the rainy season. Nevertheless, sherds were scattered over an area approximately 7 by 25 meters on the peninsula. The fact that unflooded places were typi- cal locations for Rupununi Phase villages, together with the sparsity of sherds, suggests that this may have been a dry-season camp for fishing in the Rupununi River. R-17: UPPER KARAKARA VILLAGE The Karakara River is one of a number of small streams that flows southwestward out of the Pakaraima Mountains into the Ireng River. R-17 is on the right bank of the Karakara (fig. 109), which in the dry season at this distance from its mouth should be more accurately termed a creek than 'a river. The site occupies a grassy knoll 2.0 to 2.5 meters above the level of the water 30 meters away. Rolling foot- hills are visible to the west and north about 1 km. distant. Sherds were scattered on the rise over an area 100 by 30 meters in which there were three small areas of somewhat greater than average concen- tration. Each of these was about 10 meters in diameter and probably corresponds to the former position of a house. On the west end of the site area were several recent graves covered with rocks. Sherds were on the surface, but several tests failed to reveal anything at greater depth. R-19: LOWER KARAKARA VILLAGE A second habitation site is located 1.5 km. from the left bank of the Karakara River, some distance below R-17 (fig. 109). It occupies a hilltop 15 to 25 meters above the surrounding terrain. The slopes rise 276 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 steeply on all sides and the summit commands an excellent view in all directions. In addition to the main summit, 160 meters long by 10 to 15 meters wide, there is a shelf 2.0 to 2.5 meters lower along the west side, giving an additional area of 100 by 15 meters. Both sur- faces are littered with small stones, and large granite boulders project from the edge of the summit except on the east side. Sherds were scattered on both the higher level and the shelf, with a slightly greater concentration on the latter. Tests showed no depth to the refuse. Abundant objects of European origin were also found, including glass bottles, nails, shotgun shells, and harmonica parts (see table L, pp. 315-817). Some of these may be related to a visit by Anglican mis- sionaries, which the guide said took place about 1902. R-20: UTETETA The lower slope of the Kawari-eng Mountain in the southern Pakaraima range has outcrops of large granite boulders. A forma- tion about 30 meters from the south side of Uteteta Creek contains several rock shelters (fig. 109; pl. 54, 6) that produced Rupununi Phase ceramics. Although such locations are normally burial places, the quantity of sherds and the small size of the vessels indicate in this case that the shelters were used for habitation. The unlevel floors and small size of the shelters do not seem to provide the most desirable liv- ing conditions. These defects, together with the remoteness of the spot in the depths of the forest, suggest that this may represent the retreat of a small number of people from more accessible places, per- haps to avoid European contact. Cave 1 is formed by a large flattened rock that projects forward from its supports for 4 meters at the deepest part of the shelter (pl. 54, 6). Except at this crevice the shelter is less than 2 meters deep. The floor slopes from side to side and is obstructed in several places with small rocks. Being somewhat higher than the adjacent ground, it remains dry at all times. Ceiling height varies from 1.25 to 2.00 meters. Sherds were recovered from three places in a distance of 5 meters, both on and just below the surface, associated with scattered bits of charcoal and bone fragments. Part of a badly rusted sword blade was found on a ledge in the rock and fragments of small bowls came from a small crevice higher up and to the west. Cave 2, about 15 meters west of Cave 1, is formed by a large granite, boulderlike outcrop projecting from the hillside at a 60-degree angle. The surface of the ground along its base is very irregular, sloping downward considerably from west to east, and strewn with good-sized rocks. Rounded rocks are exposed on the floor of the deepest part of the shelter. Dirt between them produced sherds to a depth of 5 cm., but this may be explained by the fact that the floor is lower than Evan d Mecreral ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 277 the adjacent hillside so that dirt washes in during the rainy season. This situation would make the site usable only during the dry part of the year. In addition to sherds, fragments of deer bones were found in the fine, powdery soil. A small, nearly complete Kanuku Plain bowl was wedged back under the ceiling rock, and near it were a few white glass beads. Cave 3 is west of Cave 2 in a deep depression under a large rock, which forms both the roof and one side. The upper tip rests on a second large rock, which forms the vertical southeast wall. A third rock forms the southwest wall. The only entrance is at the northeast, where a steep slope leads down to the floor 5 meters below. An open- ing 1 by 4 meters in the south edge of the ceiling admits light. Ceil- ing height varies from 2.75 meters at the south corner to 1.15 meters at the north side. The floor is rendered uneven by the presence of rock slabs of all sizes spalled from the roof. The dirt between them was dry, loose, and contained large sherds, deer bones, and turtle shell fragments. An area of burnt dirt at the north edge may indicate a cooking fire. Because of its low floor level, this shelter, like Cave 2, would not be usable in the rainy season. Cave 4 is on a level above the others, accessible through a passage west of the rock forming Cave 2 and also from behind the rock. Its rock-strewn floor is 8 to 4 meters above that of Cave 2, and its ceiling is formed by a capping rock 2 meters above the floor. Cracks between and behind the rocks contained many sherds as well as several nearly complete small bowls, four of which were Rupununi Plain and one Kanuku Plain. Other refuse included deer, tapir, fish, and turtle bones and the body of a glass rum bottle. Although its rock-strewn floor would seem to provide an uncomfortable living surface, this cave produced more sherds than any of the others. R-22: WIE-WIE-TAU CAVE Wie-wie-tau is a bald dome of granite near the eastern edge of the Rupununi savanna (pl. 55, a). Under a spur protruding from its northern flank is a large, low-ceilinged cave (pl. 55, b), whose entrance looks across a grassy inlet toward another spur 40 meters to the east. To the north, the inlet opens into savanna broken by patches of trees and outcrops of blackened granite. The cave itself is 30 meters wide across the mouth and 20 to 23 meters deep. Ceiling height decreases from 4 meters at the north side of the front to 2 meters at the south side, measuring only 1.5 meters in the rear. This is largely a result of the sloping floor rather than curvature of the ceiling. The mouth opens onto a granite shelf, which raises the floor above the level of winter flooding. Fine, powdery dirt covered the lower (north) end to a depth of 15 cm., while the remainder of the floor consisted of 278 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 sloping rock. Small spalls of granite were abundant in the dirt. Small sherds were scattered in the north half, with the greatest con- centration toward the front. This part of the cave, which is the region with the maximum ceiling height, also contained four hearths formed of half a dozen stones each, arranged in rings 50 cm. in diameter. A 2- by 1-meter test excavation was made 4 meters in from the fron and 6 meters from the north wall. The soil had the same powdery consistency down to 15 cm., the level of bedrock, and contained abun- dant small rock chips from the ceiling. Sherds were small and sparse. Occasional bone fragments representing small mammals and birds were too fragmentary to identify by species. R-23: WIE-WIE-TAU, VILLAGE 1 A small grassy clearing on the east slope of Wie-wie-tau produced sherds on the surface over an oval area of 20 by 40 meters (fig. 109). The clearing is bounded by small brush with dense undergrowth. The light tan, sandy soil showed no discoloration as a result of habita- tion use. R-24: WIE-WIE-TAU, VILLAGE 2 About a third of the distance up the northeast slope of Wie-wie-tau is a second small habitation site (fig. 109). It is divided into two small, unequal parts by a ridge of granite boulders now harboring a growth of scrubby trees. The larger part is 75 by 10 meters, the smaller 25 by 7 meters. Both had light-tan soil supporting grass, in contrast to the surrounding scrubby trees and brush. Sherds were sparse and confined to the surface of the ground. R-25: WIE-WIE-TAU, VILLAGE 38 Slightly farther down the hillside than R-24 and separated from the latter by a 5-meter wide strip of boulders and brush is another similar grassy clearing giving evidence of Rupununi Phase habita- tion (fig. 109). About half of this nearly level area consists of flat expanses of blackened granite flush with the ground surface. Where soil occurs, it is light tan, sandy, ‘and supports a low grass interspersed with occasional thin brush. One large sherd lay on one of the rocks and others were found partly buried in the dirt in the southwest part of the area. The somewhat irregular site area measures 80 by 30 meters. To the north the slope drops steeply, affording a fine view. R-26: WIE-WIE-TAU, VILLAGE 4 A small habitation site at the foot of Wie-wie-tau occupies a broad patch of savanna on the opposite (west) side of the granite spur in which R-22 is located (fig. 109). Bounded on three sides by the EK d peng an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 279 wooded and rocky slope, this site has sufficient elevation to;overlook the valley toward the mountain slopes on the north. A small stream flows from the hillside at the east. edge of the clearing. Surface sherds were scattered over an area 20 meters in diameter west of the center of the clearing. R-27: MAUBI-WAU, VILLAGE 1 Several kilometers north and a little west of the Wie-wie-tau area is another group of habitation sites. These are referred to as the Maubi-wau villages, after a small creek in the vicinity (fig. 109). This part of the savanna is somewhat rolling and the high places are generally covered by patches of forest. The sites are all on savanna adjacent to one of the patches of trees. R-27 is on a grassy rise 3 to 4 meters higher than the adjacent savanna and sprinkled with Sandpaper trees (Curatella americana). The western end of the rise is occupied by a patch of forest about 50 meters in diameter. The site covers the area between this forest and the base of a slope on the east that culminates in a hill 15 meters higher than the site elevation. The soil is light gray and packed hard. Sherds were scattered on the surface over an area 50 by 80 meters, the west edge penetrating a short distance into the forest. In this forested area, 4 meters in from the edge of the savanna, a large Kanuku Plain vessel was discovered protruding from the surface of the ground. The bottom, which was uppermost, had been broken out. The intact walls extended 15 cm. below the surface to the slightly incurved rim with a mouth diameter of 40 cm. R-28: MAUBI-WAU, VILLAGE 2 About 2 km. west of R-27 is another similar habitation site, occupy- ing the edges of a thickly forested knoll (fig. 109; pl. 56, a). The forested summit of the knoll measures about 100 by 30 meters. Grass- covered slopes incline gradually downward onall sides. The creek, Maubi-wau, runs along the foot of a high, forested hill 2 km. to the north. Sherds occurred in three places, one curving around the west edge of the forest, one at the southeast, and one at the northeast edge. Dimensions are 15 by 30 meters, 15 by 10 meters, and 25 by 10 meters respectively. Sherd refuse did not extend more than 1 to 2: meters into the edge of the woods. Sherds were on or protruding from the sur- face, and occurred only rarely between the areas of habitation. R-29: MAUBI-WAU, VILLAGE 3 One kilometer north of R-28 and separated from the latter by a low, damp, meadowlike area, is a ridge about 2 meters higher than the elevation of the surrounding savanna (fig. 109). The ridge is 250 meters long, extending in a southeast-northwest. direction, and 80 280 BUREAU’ OF AMERICAN BTHNOLOGY [Bull 177 meters wide. Its surface is broken in several places by groups of large granite boulders, which are especially prominent at the southeast end. Forest 100 meters to the north would have provided land suit- able for slash-and-burn agriculture, and water was available 250 meters to the northwest. The grass had been recently burned and the sherds were readily visible on the surface of the ground, together with a liberal amount of lateritic gravel. One place near the center of the highest part of the ridge produced a concentration of sherds over an oval area 30 by 70 meters, none more than 2 cm. below the surface. E-30: MAUBI-WAU, VILLAGE 4 This site occupies the northwest end of the ridge on which R-29 is located (fig.109). The elevation is slightly lower, but otherwise con- ditions are the same. Sherds were concentrated over a circular area 25 meters in diameter. Fragments of two stone axes were also recovered. “49 R-31: MAUBI-WAU, VILLAGE 5 One of the highest hills i in the Maubi-wau itadiieri is 1. =e sat of R-30 (fig. 109). The eastern end slopes gently down from the tree- covered summit. Here, sherds were scattered: over a large area of savanna broken by numerous large granite boulders, and*scattered Sandpaper trees. . The'rocks divide the habitation’area into two parts, the upper one 100 by 75 meters, and the lower one 75 by 30 meters. Sherds were unusually abundant over most of the site area, which is the largest in the Maubi-wau region. One small complete vessel was found 7 meters from the upper edge of the site, lying inverted with its rim a few centimeters below the surface. It is Rupununi Plain, a variant of Form 5 c. _A shallow groove 2. mm.: wide runs along the base of the neck or collar. Height is 11 cm., mouth diameter 14 cm., maximum body diameter 18 cm., base sists fatant 7 cm., neck height 2.5 cm., Tim thickness 5 5 mm., and ‘Ge shou inempor 6 fa R-32: MAUBI- Wao. VILLAGE 6 R-82 occupies, a rise 250 meters west of R-31 and 1 to 2 meters lower in elevation (fig. 109). The site shares the summit with two small patches of woods, which it abuts. Sandpaper trees grow in con-! siderable abundance on the sherd area as well as the adjacent:savanna. The site measures 100 by 40 meters and is comparable in all respects to the other habitation spots in this part of the Rupununi savanna, R-33 : WIERAMORE This site is represented by two complete jars brought to us by: two of. the local men, who made a trip up into the southern Kanukus’to get them. They were said to be on or beside a flat rock in the middle E d eeaaan ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 281 of an old village, where sherds were scattered around on the ground. The description suggests a site similar to R-36 or R-87. Both vessels were Kanuku Plain, one Vessel Form 6 a (pl. 66, e) and the other Vessel Form 6 b (pl. 66, f). R-36: MORMISWAU HEAD A patch of savanna high in the south Kanuku Mountains matches the extent of the largest Rupununi Phase site in the survey. It oc- cupies a basin composed of several rounded hills with a small] valley between (figs. 109, 111; pl. 56, 6). At the east end of the valley, palms and other tall trees mark the course of one creek, the Mormis- wau, while the Mouri-wau drains from the northwestern edge. Forest begins at a sharply defined line on the hillside and continues up to the peaks that surround the basin. The sharpness of the line of demarcation between savanna and forest, and the coincidence of the habitation area with the savanna suggest that this is a clearing of arti- ficial origin, dating back to the establishment of the village. Sherds were concentrated on the flatter hilltops and ridges, becoming sparser on the slopes. Four areas of most intense occupation were distributed around the basin and are indicated by the letters A, B, C, D (fig. 111). In addition to aboriginal remains, several objects of European origin were collected (see table L, pp. 315-317). This habitation site differed from others of the Rupununi Phase in having a group of funerary urns near the center of the east half of occupation area A. These vessels were partly buried in the ground from 0.90 to 2.00 meters apart, except for one that was 10 meters from the others. They were rounded jars 28 to 50 cm. in diameter. The mouth appeared to have been covered with an inverted bow] or open jar, and fragments of bone could be detected in the dirt inside. AI the burials seem to have been made at the same time, and perhaps represent an epidemic that caused the abandonment of the village, since burial in the habitation area is not characteristic of the Rupunini Phase. R-37: BIS MOUNTAIN On the southern side of Bis Mountain, just below the summit, are a number of grass-covered terraces and slopes (fig. 109). To the north, east, and west, the terrain rises to tree-covered peaks and ridges, while to the south the ground falls off rapidly affording an unob- structed view across the savanna far below. A small creek flows through a depression that separates the highest grassy summit from the adjacent forested hillside (fig. 112). The tall grass covering the ground impeded visibility of the surface slightly. The heaviest con- centration of sherds was on and around a small rock-studded knoll near the south edge of the savanna area, although the protruding {Bull 177 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 282 4s3uo4 NOILVUYLNZONOD GYU3SHS ‘aseyg iunundny ay} jo ays uoneiqey v ‘peozy NeMSIWIOJ] :9¢—Y Jo dew ynI0yG—T[] TuNoIy WSVM AYQ—7 f o*. 6429 Se ee - = gS B38 oe pai ; eS me "eo cate BAP eg area Pe ER OP SSE eine BETS 'o Tere a.. ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 283 Evans and Meggers] ‘aseyg lunundny oy} Jo ous uoneiqey e ‘ulelUNoy] sig :/¢-yY JO dew yoieyS—7]] auno1y ‘ VNNVAYS at OL NMOG MBIA asauoa [2..t¢-] NOON TIVAS i=) 3LIS 40 LIMIT sae YAdVdONVS QauaL1v9os evn ou 68 g ° DZ ° to} z is) m z 4 wD Pd 4 o z Ee eee 5PM, Gr aS F W8 "8? Se ee eee , «ft oA MSN 9" + bed uF POTS: 513176—60——20 284. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 stones would seem to make this spot ill-suited for habitation. The sherds continued to the north in a distribution that curved around a rise on the east and bordered the creek. Another sherd area occupied a small hilltop to the north, on the opposite side of the creek. Tests showed that habitation refuse occurred on the surface only. Survey revealed no sherds on the other slopes and knolls. The presence of savanna at this elevation in the mountains raises the question of whether it is of artificial or natural origin. Trees are sprinkled over the slopes, but it could not be determined whether or not this repre- sents a gradual return to a previously forested condition. R-39: DAWBAR-WAU Some 3 years prior to our visit to the south Rupununi savanna, the upper half of a Kanuku Plain vessel, Form 6 a, appeared on top of a large rock at the edge of a rocky, tree-covered hill in the savanna a few kilometers east of Dadanawa (fig. 109). It had been broken straight across on a coil line and the lower half was missing. Except for associated sherds from a bow] of Rupununi Plain Form 1 b, no other pottery could be found in the vicinity. It is probable that these vessels were recently removed from an unidentified habitation site and then discarded when they became broken. The jar has the following dimensions: rim diameter 10.5 cm.; neck height 3 cm.; maximum body diameter 47 cm. The bow] was rounded with a rim diameter of 26 cm. CEMETERY SITES R-1: MOCO MOCO SHELTER The southwest slope of the Kanuku Mountains near the headwaters of the Moco Moco River (fig. 109) is strewn with large granite boulders camouflaged by trees, thick undergrowth, and hanging vines. R-1 is located in a small shelter created by the juxtaposition of three big rocks and several smaller ones. The ceiling overhangs the floor by only 1 meter except where two narrow crevices lead back between the rocks. Dirt and rubble washed into these from behind, forming steep slopes covered with slabs spalled from the ceiling. Other large and small rocks had fallen down toward the front of the shelter, some of them damaging pottery vessels that had been placed on the floor. Ex- ploration revealed one complete vessel (pl. 57, a) near the front of the shelter and the base of a second jar 1.5 meters to the north (fig. 113). The majority of the sherds of this second vessel could not be found. Small groups of sherds in two places along the south edge of the deepest crevice belonged to Vessels 2 and 3, both Kanuku Plain but unreconstructable as to shape. Vessel 1, the complete specimen, is a Kanuku Plain jar of Form 3a (pl. 64,¢). Dimensions are: height 33 to 34 cm.; rim diameter 39 em.; shoulder diameter 41 cm.; neck height 13 cm.; base diameter 13 E d mene ae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 285 — BASE OF GRANITE OUTCROP =—--—— LIMIT OF CEILING OVERHANG <—=—_ f FALLEN ROCKS x CEILING HT. 3 RS CEILING ~K—— HT. 4M Ficure 113.—Sketch map of the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-1: Moco Moco Shelter, showing the position of the burial jars. cm.; rim thickness6 mm. Associated with this jar were a number of sherds of both Kanuku and Rupununi Plain, representing at least four smaller vessels, none of them reconstructable. It seems probable that this is a complex of funerary jars comparable to the better pre- served ones of R-34 and R-35. The post-European date of R-1 is established by the presence of tiny white glass beads with Vessel 1 (see table L, pp. 315-817). This specimen is now in the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. R-14: ROCK POINT Northwest of Annai Village at the base of the Pakaraima Mountains is an area known as the Aranapunta Valley (fig. 109). On the south side of the east end of this valley is a grassy knoll sprinkled with Sand- paper trees. Slightly higher than the surrounding area, it is not inundated in the rainy season. Excavation at a spot indicated by the chief of Annai Village revealed a completely buried vessel of Kanuku Plain Form 3 b (pl. 65, 6). It had been covered with an equally large vessel of Kanuku Plain Form 38 a, inverted so that its rim rested on the inner surface of the upper wall of the jar below (fig. 114). The bottom of this lid had once projected above the surface of the ground and had been broken with the passage of time. Four small rocks had been arranged along the east and southeast side so that their upper edges were from 9 cm. above the broken edge of the lid to 5 em. below this line. The dirt inside the vessel was wet at the top, becom- ing dryer and harder with increased depth. Scattered sherds from (Bull. 177 ETHNOLOGY BUREAU OF AMERICAN 286 ‘WUIOg YOY :F[-Y Jo ous aseyg tunundny oy} iv szUa}UOO sz pue uN [eLIng ay} JO uoTjIsod ayy SuIMOYS YoI9yS— FI] AUN 8-8 S3NO@ 937 ‘1943 17nxS @) S3NO8 WHV WO 02 Soe w-¥ git 30 3903 YaddN N3IxOUSs E d ae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 287 the broken lid appeared in the upper part. Badly decayed bones were found in the bottom of the jar, the leg bones on the west side, the arm bones on the northeast, and the skull on the south. No teeth could be found. The bones were impossible to preserve or to identify as to sex or age because of their bad condition. There were no associated objects. Both jar and lid were ornamented with four pairs of small conical applique nubbins, approximately equally spaced around the neck, 1 to 3 cm. above the shoulder. All features of paste and surface are typical of Kanuku Plain. The asymmetrical jar (pl. 65, 0) has the following dimensions: height 48 to 48 cm.; rim diameter 65.0 to 68.5 cm.; minimum neck diameter 56 cm.; shoulder diameter 61 cm.; neck height 21.5 to 22.8 em.; rim thickness 1.3cm. Thelid was badly broken and no rim fragments could be found. Diameter at the shoulder is 56 cm.; body wall thickness is 1.2 to1.4em. This jar is in the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. R-15: KARASABAI TRAIL Large sherds from a Kanuku Plain jar of Form 3 a were encoun- tered on the trail through the forest north of Karasabai Village in the southern Pakaraima Mountains (fig. 109). This vessel shape was frequently used for burial, and the adjacent hillside had many large granite outcrops with niches that would have been suitable for cemetery use, but a search produced no evidence that this vessel came from any of those investigated. It is doubtful, however, that it was brought from any great distance. Mouth diameter is 51 cm.; shoulder diameter 55 cm., and neck height 4to5cm. ‘Total height could not be reconstructed from the existing fragments. R-16: UPPER KARAKARA CEMETERY About 100 meters from the left bank of the upper Karakara River, opposite habitation Site R-17, is a low hill covered with grass and scattered, scrubby trees (fig. 109). Granite rocks are so abundant on the surface that one can easily step from one to the other. The most prominent feature is a badly fractured granite outcrop of large ir- regularly shaped rocks, about 7 by 10 meters and 4 meters high (pl. 58, a). This contains fissures and shelves of various sizes and elevations from the ground. One such shelter on the west side is formed by a large slab that projects freely for 1.40 meters over the sloping edge of a lower rock, making a triangular opening with a hori- zontal roof. A Rupununi Plain jar of Form 3 b had been placed in this crevice so that its rim was in contact with the capstone, covering the mouth completely. In order to maintain this position, a number of slabs were arranged along the rock beneath so that they formed a solid support under the pot (fig. 115; pl. 58,6). Subsequently, one 288 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 SLABS LAID TO SUPPORT JAR GRANITE OUTCROP ESS 2m TO GROUND te) 20 CM 4 Ficure 115.—Profile sketch showing the position of the burial jar at the Rupununi Phase site of R-16: Upper Karakara Cemetery. side of the vessel had been broken out. Parts of the shaft of long bones were preserved inside, but the epiphyses and other features used for the determination of age and sex were missing. All that can be said is that the size of the long bone shafts suggests the individual was adult. The jar had the following dimensions: height 31 em.; rim diameter 53 cm.; shoulder diameter 45 cm.; neck height 14 cm. Although none of the other fissures in this outcrop produced any evidence of similar burial jars, the guide reported that some 10 years previously this site was visited by another person, who removed a vessel from the south side. Six others are said to have been near the base on a wide ledge on the east (pl. 58, a). R-18: LOWER KARAKARA CEMETERY On the right bank of the Karakara River downstream from R-16 is a steep hill with abundant outcroppings of granite (fig. 109). Toward the top of the hill two large boulders, one leaning against the other, form a triangular cave, the mouth of which affords an excellent view of the grassy rise across the valley on which the habitation site R-19 is located. The main part of the cave has a maximum width of about Evans and Mearecat ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 9289 1.50 meters at an elevation 30 cm. above the lowest level, where the floor rises to form a bench or shelf along the left half. Height on the right side, where the floor is lowest and the ceiling is highest, is 1.80 meters. A complete vessel of Rupununi Plain Form 3 a was upright on the shelf, its base surrounded by slabs of granite to keep it from falling over (fig. 116). Its top was not flush with the ceiling and no ege ° 20 40 CM GRANITE OUTCROP GRANITE OUTCROP SLABS PROPPING VESSEL Ficure 116.—Profile sketch showing the position of the burial urn at the Rupununi Phase cemetery site of R-18: Lower Karakara Cemetery. sherds in the vicinity suggested the former existence of a lid. Human bones inside included the shafts of long bones and a few fragments of the skull, but the teeth, jaw, and diagnostic parts of the pelvis were missing. The sutures showed no closure and all the bones were grac- ile, suggesting the individual may have been a young female. The remoteness of the spot and the difficulties of transportation necessi- tated leaving this vessel in situ. It is a typica] representative of Rupununi Plain, the neck better smoothed and more symmetrical than the body, which was irregular and showed faint indications of coils 3 cm. thick. Rim and shoulder diameters are 46 to 47 em.; height 38 cm.; neck height 10 cm. Along the front of the outcrop was a pile of rubble and small boulders. The large sloping rock that forms the roof of the cave overhangs so that the ground is sheltered for about a meter out from the base. In this region a second vessel was found, broken and scat- 290 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 tered along the slope. The contents were missing. This jar is Rupu- nuni Plain Form 3 b, with a rim and shoulder diameter of 44 cm., a neck height of 12.5 cm., and a body-wall thickness varying from 11 mm. near the bottom to 5 mm. at the rim. Twelve sticks, 1.00 to 1.25 meters long, were lying beside what was identified as the original position of the jar. R-34: BEI-TAU, SHELTER 1 Toward the eastern margin of the south Rupununi savanna, the terrain is hilly and the grass is broken by patches of forest (fig. 109). One forested hill, known as Bei-tau (pl. 59, a), has a number of granite outcrops on the west side, two of which contained Rupununi Phase ceramics. Shelter 1, the largest and best preserved burial site included in the survey, was located at the base of a huge boulder, whose front surface curved outward and upward producing a shel- tered area a little over 3 meters deep. The relatively level earth floor some 4 meters long sloped upward at each side. These slopes were composed of rocks of various sizes mixed with dirt washed down from the hillside. Near the center of the level floor was a pile of thin granite slabs (pl. 59, 6), arranged so as to completely cover the protruding base of a large inverted vessel. South of this main jar (Jar A) were five small bowls, three upright and two inverted, all on the surface of the ground (fig. 117; pl. 59, b). Removal of the rocks covering Jar A revealed another small vessel by the northeast side. A few sherds were scattered on the surface, most of them belonging to these six small bowls. Excavation of Jar A revealed a large jar inverted as a lid over a completely buried upright jar whose mouth was 15 cm. below the present ground surface. This lower vessel was two-thirds full of leaves, bark, and dirt. Careful examination of the contents showed no remaining traces of bone. A variety of burial goods of European origin, including fragments of glass, part of an iron knife, a coin bearing the date 1809 and perforated for suspension and glass beads, establish this burial as recent (see table L, pp. 315-317). Further excavation of the floor of the shelter brought to light a second covered vessel, Jar H, which was completely buried. Rock slabs had been arranged over the lid in a manner similar to Jar A, suggesting that when the burial was placed in the shelter the ground level may have been lower and the lid may have protruded. The center of Jar H was 1.30 meters southwest of the center of Jar A, and Bowl F on the surface above overlapped the north side. Jar H contained a small amount of dirt, but no bone fragments remained. There was a clustering of small white glass beads on the southwest side. ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 291 Evans and Meggers] pue suin [eling oy} jo uorisod ay} Sulmoys “{ JoIeyg uve Iviuna ONIYaAO09 sevi1s C > YOO14 NI NOON WWUNLVN Gal “STOSSOA poreoosse ‘nel-log :$¢ ONVHYS ~y jo ous AJojowI99 sseyg junundny ey} jo dew yxoyG—/T] TUNOIY AO SONITIZD JO LIWIN 9 T3SS3A ROY id SOU3HS “ dOYDLNO SLINVYDS JO 3SVE 292 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Jar A and its lid are both Kanuku Plain. The jar, Form 2 a, is complete except for the bottom. It is not perfectly circular, so that the diameter varies. Height is 33 cm.; rim diameter 43 to 48 cm.; maximum diameter 49 to 54 cm.; base diameter 25 to 28 cm. Pairs of rounded applique nubbins are attached at four places around the exterior 5 cm. below the rim. These nubbins are 2.5 to 3.0 cm. in diameter, 1.5 to 1.7 cm. in height and 4.5 to 5.5 cm. apart. The lid is part of a much larger vessel, the upper part of which is missing. The present rim is a cleanly broken coil line. The diameter is 60 to 64 cm. and the wall thickness 1.3to1.8cm. Existing height is 30 cm. and the diameter of the flattened base is 29 cm. The existing portion has outstanding walls, which are characteristic of vessels of Forms 2 and 3 of Kanuku Plain. Bowl B, Kanuku Plain Form 3 c, was buried to the depth of the shoulder. Its center was 95 cm. south of that of Jar A. Complete and in an upright position, it was partly filled with dry, granular soil. Height is 10.8 to 12.3 cm., mouth diameter 22.6 to 23.1 cm., base diameter 8 cm. The wall thickness expands from 2 to 3 mm. at the flattened lip to 8 mm. at the upper wall. Vessel C, adjacent to Vessel B on the south side so that the walls were touching, was also upright and partly filled with dry dirt. It is Rupununi Plain Form 5c. Height is 9.3 to 10.8 cm.; rim diameter 18.2 to 18.5 cm., and diameter at the slightly flattened base approxi- mately 7 cm. The rim narrows from 6 mm. at a distance of 3 cm. below the lip to 1.5 to 2.0 mm. at the edge of the flattened lip. Vessel D lay inverted with its center 18 cm. southeast of that of Vessel C. It is a complete specimen of Rupununi Plain (?), repre- senting a variant of Form 5 ¢ in which the shoulder is slightly angular rather than rounded. Height is 11.2 to 12.6 cm.; rim diameter is 20.6 to 21.0 cm. and base diameter 10 cm. The wall thickness decreases from 6 mm. at a distance of 3 cm. below the lip to 2 mm. at the edge of the flattened lip. Symmetry is poor and the base is flattened at an angle so that the rim is not level. Vessel E was upright, its center 22 cm. southwest of Vessel C. It also was filled with dirt. It is classified as Rupununi Plain Form 1 b, with a flattened bottom slightly thickened at the center on the interior. Height is 4.0 to 4.5 cm.; rim diameter is 15.7 to 16.2 cm. and base diameter 7.0 to 7.5 cm. Wall thickness declines from 5 mm. at a distance of 2 cm. below the rim to 2 to 3 mm. at the rounded to flattened lip. Vessel F, upside down and nearly buried, had the exposed bottom broken out. Its center was 56 cm. west of the center of Vessel B. The pottery type is Rupununi Plain Form 2c. The base is flattened at an angle so that height is 8.7 to 9.5 cm, Mouth diameter is 19.0 to 19.5 cm. and base diameter 8.5 to 9.0 cm. E and Spek ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 293 Vessel G was adjacent tc the north side of the lid of Jar A, and had been badly broken by the rocks covering it. It was reconstructed as Kanuku Plain Form 5c. Height is 13 cm.; rim diameter 25 cm. Jar H (pl. 64, a) and its lid (pl. 64, 6) were both Kanuku Plain Form 2 a, the lid being slightly larger so that its mouth fit over that of the jar. Both were ornamented with two pairs of conical nubbins attached to opposite sides of the wall at a point approximately cor- responding to the maximum diameter, which is 5 cm. below the rim on the jar and 7 cm. below on the lid. The jar is not circular and the bottom is flattened at a slight angle so that the height is 27.5 to 30.5 em. and mouth diameter 45 to 47 cm. Rim thickness is 8 to 10 mm. The lid, also somewhat asymmetrical, is 36 cm. in height and 53 cm. in mouth diameter. Wall thickness ranges between 1.3 and 1.5 cm. All specimens from R-34 are in the collections of the Division of Archeology, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. R-34: BEI-TAU, SHELTER 2 Just north of Shelter 1 is a granite outcrop resembling a mammoth boulder, projecting from the hillside to form a sheltered area 4 meters deep and 25 meters long facing toward the west (fig. 109). The upper edge of the overhang is 15 meters above the floor level. The north half of the floor is a steep slope covered with large rocks, which also cover a small area at the south end. The central part is more level and less rocky. A single small bowl of Rupununi Plain Form 3 ¢ lay between the rocks near the lower edge of the north talus slope, 60 cm. out from the rear wall. No other vessels or sherds could be found ; if any existed they have been crushed and buried beneath the rocks spalled from the roof. Dimensions of the bowl are: height 11 to 12 cm.; rim diameter 24 cm.; base diameter 6 cm.; thickness of the flattened lip 2 to 3 mm. R-35 : TAMRIO-WAU About 2 km. south of R-34, in a small clump of trees on a rocky elevation surrounded by savanna, is another rock shelter with mul- tiple burial vessels (fig. 109). The shelter is formed by a large granite boulder with an outslanting front affording protection to an area 1.5 meters out from the base and 4 meters long. The opening faces northeast toward the edge of the savanna only 6 meters away. The vegetation was dense and full of vines, so that the burial area was not visible from the adjacent savanna. At the time of our visit, two small trees were growing on the floor of the shelter. Four large vessels were clustered near the center, with three small bowls wedged between them or placed nearby (fig. 118, pl. 57, 0). Three of the large vessels turned out to be inverted lids covering [Bull. 177 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 294 aj “szef Jetmnq ay2 Jo uortsod ay} Surmoys ‘nem-onure J, og €-¥ Jo a11s Arojaura9 asevyg wnundny oy jo deur Y194S—'St] enor a dOYDLNO JZJLINVYDS 40 woe ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 295 buried jars, duplicating the burial pattern found at R-34, shelter 1. The fourth large jar had a small mouth and was filled with partly cremated bones. Transportation problems caused Jar A and Jar D to be left in situ; Vessels B, C, and the lid of Jar D are in the Division of Archeology, U.S. National Museum; Vessels E, F, and G, and the lid (upper jar) of Jar C are in the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. Jar A represents a very large vessel of Form 2 a inverted over a buried jar. No sherds could be taken for paste analysis since it was intact. Maximum body diameter is about 50 cm. Jar B rested upright on the surface so that its wall was 25 cm. east of Jar A. It was complete except for the upper part of the neck and rim and represents Rupununi Plain Form 6 a. Jar B has the following dimensions: existing height 27 cm.; neck diameter 8.5 cm.; maximum body diameter 33 cm.; base diameter 14cm. The existing height of the neck is 2 cm. and wall thickness at the broken edge 5 to7 mm. Jar B contained the only cremated remains found in Rupununi Phase cemeteries. Large fragments of bone remained unreduced to ashes, but termites had entered the jar and built their nest. Their activity cemented the entire mass together and parts of the bones had been eaten away. T. Dale Stewart, curator, Division of Physi- cal Anthropology, examined the fragments and gave the following report : All of the bones included in this lot show signs of burning and boring by termites. However, burning has not been uniform and as a result a separation ean be made into (1) those parts which have been subject to intense heat with resulting yellowish-white color and vitrified texture; and (2) those which have been subject to less intense heat with resulting bluish-black color and somewhat chalky texture. The intensely fired bones show some distor- tions in shape with possibly some shrinkage in size. The less intensely fired bones are relatively unchanged in shape and size. In spite of such alterations, all of these bone fragments appear to be human; many pieces definitely are human and the rest have a decided human character. The only evidence for multiple burial is the separation into two lots accord- ing to degree of firing. The recognizable parts among the intensely fired frag- ments are rather small in size; they include the anterior portion of an upper jaw, the distal end of the left humerus (epiphyses united), and parts of the lower legs. The small size of the upper jaw is especially noteworthy. The permanent upper first molars and all the upper teeth anterior thereto were present at the time of death. The evidence as thus presented can be interpreted in two ways: (1) The heavily fired and the lightly fired bones represent two different individuals; and (2) all of the remains belong to one individual who was cremated in such a way that some parts were more intensely burned than others. Against the first interpretation and in favor of the second is the fact that there appears to be no duplication of parts in the two lots. Also in favor of the second interpretation is the fact that some of the epiphyseal surfaces are much more 296 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 intensely burned than others. The chances would seem to be against two in- dividuals of approximately the same age having been cremated. From all of this I am inclined to believe that the remains represent one individual, an adolescent male. Vessel C consists of a wide-mouthed jar inverted over a considera- bly smaller vessel, whose mouth projected about 15 cm. into the lid, which had its rim about the same distance below the ground level. In addition to this large jar lid, the burial urn was covered by the inverted base of a small broken bowl, which was placed immediately over the mouth. The urn contained only dirt. Both the jar and lid are exceptionally asymmetrical and lopsided, even considering the typical crudeness of Rupununi Phase pottery. The lid is a highly distorted example of Form 3 b of Kanuku Plain. Height varies from 31 to 37 cm.; rim diameter 48 to 49 cm.; base diameter 20 cm. Thickness of the lip is 5 to 8 mm. Half of the lower exterior is blackened by soot from use in cooking. The jar is also Kanuku Plain, and appears to have had a narrow mouth (Form 6). The neck has been broken off, possibly to widen the mouth enough for the introduction of the bones. Existing height is 386 cm.; diameter of the broken mouth 13 cm.; maximum body diameter 32 cm.; base diameter 18 cm.; body wall thickness 9 to 10 mm. The bowl frag- ment used to cover the mouth is Kanuku Plain, with a base diameter of 11 cm., increasing to 17.5 cm. at the existing height of 3 cm. Vessel D is another burial jar with a second vessel as a lid. It was in the center near the front of the shelter. The jar was buried with its mouth at the surface of the ground and the rim of the lid rested at the same level. Only dirt remained inside. The jar was tightly cemented into the soil and it was not removed. The lid was broken and partly missing. The pottery type of the jar unfortunately was not recorded. It had a globular body and was broken at the upper edge giving an irregular opening 15 cm. in diameter. It is probable that this is another narrow necked jar of Form 6 that was adapted for secondary burial by widening the mouth as was done with Vessel C. Maximum body diameter is 386 cm. The lid is Rupununi Plain Form 3 b, 22 cm. in height, 38 cm. in rim diameter and 16 cm. in base diameter. Vessel E (pl. 65, c) is a small bowl that was lying on edge between Vessels A and B, with its mouth toward Vessel B. It wasempty. The pottery type is Rupununi Plain Form 3 ¢, with a slight indentation or crudely incised line around the neck at the minimum diameter. Height is 11 cm.; rim diameter 21 cm.; maximum body diameter 20 em.; body wall thickness 5 mm., decreasing to 2 mm. at the flattened lip. The bottom is rounded. Vessel F (pl. 66, 6), another small bowl, was also lying on edge between Vessels A and B, just south of Vessel E. It was also empty. E d rocker ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 297 Although no cracks or chips revealed the paste color, the pottery type appears to be Rupununi Plain. The form is 1 a, with a height of 10.0 to 10.7 cm.; rim diameter 23.5 to 24.5 cm.; base diameter 6 em.; and rim thickness 4 to 5 mm. It is not circular when viewed from above. Vessel G (pl. 65, d) was to the west at the rear of the shelter, lying inverted and containing only a little dirt. It was classified as Rupununi Plain Form 3 c, with the following dimensions: height 10 em. ; rim diameter 22.5 to 23.2 cm., diameter at carination 20 cm.; wall thickness at rim 4 mm. R-36: MORMISWAU HEAD This large habitation site contained a group of burial urns in Area A. (See p. 281 and fig. 111 for details.) CEREMONIAL SITES R-21: MARIKANWAUDA Near the south foothills of the Kanuku Mountains, between the Rupununi River and its tributary, Sand Creek, is a wooded hill (fig. 109). ‘Trees, vines, and small brush grow over and around numer- ous lichen-covered granite boulders of various sizes. The largest has a nearly vertical surface 4 meters high facing toward the north. Small rocks and slabs are scattered at the base, and one forms a small ledge. A shallow bowl was standing on edge on this ledge, leaning face outward against the main rock (pl. 60, a). No other vessels or sherds could be located anywhere in the vicinity. A little dirt inside the bowl contained a few tiny, white, glass “seed” beads. The bow] is Kanuku Plain Form 1 b (pl. 66, a). It is very asym- metrical, with an unlevel rim and a rounded bottom. Height is 5 cm.; rim diameter 28 to 30 cm.; body wall thickness 7 mm., decreasing toward the rounded lip. This vessel was deposited in the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. R-38: MACHE-EN-TAU Southwest of R-21, on the opposite side of the Rupununi River, is a southern projection from the Kanuku Mountains (fig. 109). A low rise at the base of the eastern side of this projection is littered with small, blackened, granite boulders. The vegetation is grass, with scattered Sandpaper trees. Forest begins at the mountain slope 100 meters to the northwest. One of the boulders is rounded, 2 meters in diameter and 1 meter high. At the east side is a natural shelter created by a cut back in the lower part of the rock (pl. 60, 5). Here were found two large shallow bowls, both inverted and one 298 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 beneath the other. As in the case of R-21, no other vessels or sherds indicative of habitation or cemetery sites could be found anywhere in the vicinity. The vessels are both Kanuku Plain Form 1 b, with rounded bot- toms, irregularly curved walls, undulating rims and a contour that is not perfectly circular. The upper bowl is the larger: height 11.0 to 11.3 cm.; rim diameter 41 cm.; body wall thickness 1 cm., narrow- ing to 5 to 7 mm. at the flattened to rounded lip. The lower bowl is 8 cm. deep, 36 to 37 cm. in diameter and has a rim thickness of 4 to 5 mm., increasing slightly at the body wall. The irregular lip is flattened to rounded, depending on the area of observation. These two specimens are now in the collections of the Division of Archeology, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. DATA FROM OTHER INVESTIGATIONS Except for stone implements that have been found and saved by local residents, very little additional archeological information is available on the Rupununi Phase. However, what does exist cor- responds in all respects with the data gathered in the 1952 survey. HABITATION SITES R-40: ARUA Subsequent to our visit to the Rupununi, Dr. C. R. Jones, at that time Government physician to the Amerindians, made a surface col- lection of sherds from a site where the Arua Creek joins the right bank of the Rupununi River, some 30 km. above the village of Yupukari. He describes the area as follows: It is called Arua from the abundance of Arua palm (used in thatching) found there. These fragments were scattered on a small hill where present-day Macushi are cutting fields. The soil is covered with lateritic outcrops and all fragments were more or less on the surface. I dug one pit but found nothing. The Macushi just shrug their shoulders and say “old time stuff.” But no one can ever remember anyone ever decorating pots in this district. [Letter of May 19, 1954.] The latter remark refers to the unusual amount of modeled decora- tion represented in the sherd sample (fig. 123, a, c, d). The sherds were donated to the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C., and are now in the collections of the Division of Archeology. Subse- quently, the same site was visited by Jens Yde, who made a collection for the National Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark. CEMETERY SITES TIREKA : Tirka Mountain is on the southern flank of the Pakaraima Range about halfway between Annai Village and the Ireng River. At the time of our visit to the Annai area, we heard reports of a cave on the HE d teen ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH, GUIANA 299 slope of this mountain that was said to contain a pottery jar. We were unable to visit the shelter, but the description fits the Rupununi Phase burial pattern. More detailed information on Tirka comes from W. C. Farabee, who investigated archeological leads while he was collecting ethno- graphic material in the area in 1918. He describes a site of the kind reported to us: . .. John said he had seen a skull under a very large rock on the top of Tirka Mt. pass and we followed him for hours up a ravine and up the mountain... and just at sundown reached the place and from the top of a rock John pointed in the direction of an overhanging rock and said there itis. ... We found not only a skull but an urn burial of a man with the skull of a woman inside, and the rest of the skeleton on outside of pot. The pot had been placed in the loose blown earth under the rock where no rain could reach it and rocks piled about it and over it. One stone was off on upper side next. the woman burial.... _ In the pot was the man’s trinket basket and in it his knife and razor both almost rusted away; some beads and a paint stamp. ‘The basket was just below his head. .. . Apparently nothing belonging to the woman was in the pot. The skeleton of the woman was apparently in a bundle in the carrying basket. The bones as found could not have been in natural position when buried. However, the burial may have been disturbed by animals as it was not well covered with rocks. With the woman was a great many beads... several kinds—her spindle whorl, and hoe were buried with her and a gourd. From the position of the beads they could not have been around the neck or around the shoulders but must have been put in a bunch or in a sack of some kind. The woman was buried against the pot on the upper, or northern side and had originally been covered with earth and stones on top. When I found the two skulls in the pot I at once looked about for evidence of another burial but didn’t discover it until I was digging out the pot.... After taking out the pot I looked about the other rocks and a pile of rocks under the large overhanging rock near and in the photo. Upon removing the rocks a skull with nothing else about it was found—Skull No. 3. No other bones near. I had no time to explore the region. Urn No. 2 I dug up the next day after carrying the big pot down. ... The 2nd pot was inverted, but nothing found in or about it. An infant may have been buried in it—bones entirely disappeared. Both pots were sent home from Yupikari. [Farabee, MS., Field Notebook 22.] Both of these vessels are in the collections of the University Museum, Philadelphia. The largest is a variation of Kanuku (?) Plain Form 3, with a rounded instead of angular shoulder. Height is 56 cm., rim diameter 54.5 cm. The smaller vessel is Rupununi Plain Form 3 a, with a squat body so that the juncture of body and neck is about half way between rim and base (pl. 65, a). Height is 29 cm., rim diameter 45.5 to 47.0 cm. ANNAI AREA Subsequent to our excavation of the buried jar at R-14, we were told of similar vessels found accidentally in the vicinity. One was 513186—60——21 300 BUREAU’ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 found during the digging of a drainage ditch and reburied. ‘Two others were found during excavation of a waterhole and a house post- hole. The latter one was broken and the sherds were thrown out. The former was complete and reburied by the finder, who said it was similar in shape to the one from R-14 but lacked the decorative nubbins. This information suggests that isolated burials of the type represented by R-14 are relatively numerous in this part of the Rupununi savanna. Since there is usually no surface indication, they can be found only accidentally. CEREMONIAL SITES Several writers have mentioned stone alinements near the Ireng River in the vicinity of Sites R-16 to R-19. We did not see them, nor were they reported to us by loca] residents at the time of our survey in the area. No ceramics have been described in association, so that the identification of their affiliation is tentative. Similar structures occur in the Arua Phase of the Territory of Amapa, Bra- zil, and since this Phase has other features that relate to the north, the stone alinements in British Guiana have been correlated with its movement into the mouth of the Amazon (Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 88-48, 548-550). It seems reasonable to suppose that if they were of Rupununi Phase origin, other almements would have been found in the savanna, where there is an abundance of rocks for their construction. PETROGLYPHS Very few petroglyphs have been recorded in the area occupied by the Rupununi Phase. One group is mentioned by an early explorer as located in the region between the Rupununi River and Lake Amuku (Osgood, 1946, p. 21). Another is reported by Farabee (1916, pp. 88-89; pl. 1, a, ¢) in the savanna between Makatawa and Makamin- towa Mountains, 3 miles from the Wapishana village of Ishalton. Little can be said about their origin, since no ceramics are known to be associated. Farabee (1916, pp. 92-93) says the Wapishanas, the present inhabitants of the south Rupununi savanna, disclaim them and have no traditions about. them, which leads him to conclude they are the work of an earlier people. Judging from published descriptions (e. g., Osgood, 1946), petroglyphs appear to be less common in the Rupununi savanna than in other parts of British Guiana. | ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL Except for one fragment of turtle shell, artifacts of the Rupununi Phase are of stone or pottery. All Rupununi Phase sites produced ceramics, and 16 also had stone objects or percussion flakes. . This E and pees ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 301 material will be discussed typologically. The provenience data for each specimen can be found on tables 36 and 37 in the Appendix. Stone ARTIFACT TYPES The 76 stone objects from Rupununi Phase sites can be classified into 10 types of tools. Two cores and twenty-four flakes were col- lected from various sites. Method of manufacture is percussion flaking or grinding. The majority are of four kinds of stone: syenite, quartzite, sandstone, or felsite. Less commonly employed are granite, chalcedony, quartz, andesite, and chert. Anwvils—Two stones have pecked out depressions at the center of both flat surfaces, indicative of use as anvils. Both are quartzite pebbles with almost flat, parallel upper and lower surfaces and fiat sides. The smaller is circular and the edges show pecking marks left by shaping. Diameter is 7.4 cm., thickness at center 3.8 cm. Use has worn depressions 1 cm. in diameter and 1 mm. deep on both faces. The second example is rectanguloid, 10 cm. long and 5.5 cm. wide. Thickness varies from 2.8 cm. at the end to 4.2 cm. at the center. A double concavity has been worn at the center of each face. The depression on one side measures 3.0 cm. by 1.2 cm. and 2.0 to 3.0 mm. deep; the one on the other surface is the same except 3.7 cm. long. Both ends of this specimen are slightly battered from use as a hammerstone. Awes (fig. 119, pl. 61).—Fourteen complete or fragmentary axes were recovered from the site survey and three others were in the pos- session of local ranchers. With one exception, all are made from naturally rounded, waterworn pebbles, so that a minimum of grinding and polishing was required. The butt is flat or convex, the sides are straight and parallel, and the blade is convex. Both faces are rounded and the edges of the sides and butt are typically flattened. The upper end has notches at each side whose contour suggests that they were made by working a cord with sand abrasive from side to side until a groove 4-10 mm. deep was produced. The notches are approximately opposite one another, and their distance from the butt end varies from 1.7 to 2.3 cm., or between one-fourth and one-third of the length of the ax. This position of the notches enhances the stubby, squatty appearance of the axes, which is one of their diagnostic features. One specimen has a double set of notches, 5 to 7 mm. apart. The blade is frequently battered, suggesting that after it was damaged from cutting, an ax was often used for hammering. Less frequently, the butt end was used for this purpose. Where the blade is preserved, it is formed by the junction of the two faces along the mid line. Seen from one of the faces, it is not necessarily symmetrical, some- times curving farther up one side than the other. The smallest 302 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Ficure 119.—Stone axes from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. specimen is 5.5.cm. (plus about 1 cm. broken off), 4.8 cm. wide and 2.0 cm.:in maximum thickness. The largest is 9.5 cm. long, 8.5 em. wide, and 3.3 cm. in maximum thickness. A single ax from R-40 is a pebble of andesite shaped by percussion, leaving flaked areas along the edges. It is oval rather than rectangu- loid and Jacks notches. The bit is curved toward one face in the manner of an adz, and is narrower than the maximum width of the tool at the center. The butt end is broken. The length is 9.5 em., maximum width 6.0 cm., width at bit 3.5 cm., thickness 1.8 cm. Bowls.—Rim fragments from two stone bowls of syenite have slightly outsloping walls and a flat or rounded lip. One fragment is well shaped by abrasion on both interior and exterior. It has a mouth diameter of 34 cm. and an interior depth of 6cm. Wall thick- ness is 1.7 to 2.0 cm. at the rim, increasing to 8 cm. at the bottom. The other appears to have been percussion shaped and polished only E d Ee ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 303 on the interior. Rim diameter is about 30 em., wall thickness 2.5 to 3.8em. Depth cannot be estimated. Choppers (fig. 120) —Nine percussion-chipped implements of sim- ilar form have been classified as choppers. Two are syenite, the rest felsite. The form tends to be petalloid, with the sides converging toward a flattened or rounded butt. Two fragments have parallel sides and one specimen is irregularly circular. Chipping around the margin on both surfaces has produced a chopping edge on the sides as well as ends. One of the petalloid forms shows some batter- ing on the large end. The circular specimen was used on all edges indiscriminately. Complete specimens of petalloid-shaped choppers range from 8.5 to 11.3 cm. in length, 5.5 to 7.2 cm. in width at the broad end, 1.0 to 4.5 cm. in width at the narrow end, and 1.5 to 2.5 em. in thickness at the center. The irregularly circular example ranges from 6.5 to 7.5 cm. in diameter and averages 2.3 cm. thick. Hammerstones—Three waterworn quartzite pebbles show traces of use on one end as hammerstones. ‘T'wo red jasper (chalcedony) cores bearing some percussion flaking were used for pounding. Their smaller size suggests they may have been used in the manu- facture of manioc graters. A small, elongated chert pebble with use chipping toward one end may have also been employed in this way. In asomewhat different category is a barrel-shaped stone with flat ends and curved sides, symmetrically formed by pecking and abrasion. It is whitish-gray quartzite,.6.0 cm. in, diameter at the center, narrowing to 4.4 and 4.2 em. at. the ends, and 5.8 em. high. One end shows slight peck marks from use as a hammer, but otherwise the object is undamaged. Hoes (fig. 121;,pl. 62).—Hoes are the most abundant type of stone tool from Rupununi Phase sites, being represented by 32 frag- ments. All. but three are syenite. Slabs.of this material, 6 to 20 mm. in thickness, were percussion chipped to produce an implement of petalloid outline similar to that of choppers but flat surfaced and considerably thinner. The beveled blade shows a marked slickness and polish, produced by digging in the ground (pl. 62, c-f). The fact that the polish is more pronounced on one side than the other suggests the possibility that the hoe was hafted and its fixed posi- tion caused differential wear. No specimens were complete, but a number of fragments of similar thickness to the blade ends were found at the same sites, and it is likely that they represent the butt ends of hoes (pl. 62, a, 2). The sides taper toward a rounded or flat- tened end in a relatively symmetrical fashion. The length of these implements cannot be determined except by estimate from frag- ments. Several large pieces suggest that some were 12 to 15 cm. long., Maximum width is 6 to 10 cm., width at, the butt 2.8 to 5.0 cm. 304 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 Ficure 120.—Stone choppers from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. Manos.—Five pebbles, 4 of quartzite and 1 of quartz, have one surface worn from grinding. All appear to have been circular or slightly ovoid, 8.0 to 9.5 em. in maximum diameter and 3.1 to 4.5 em. thick. Three have wear on only one face, the other two on both. Metates—Fragments of 3 metates, one each of syenite, granite, and quartzite, are identified by a slightly concave, worn surface on one side. They are broken from larger slabs 3.5 to 4.7 cm, thick. One fragment from near the edge shows a marked indention where the concave surface is set off from the border. The small’ size of the pieces makes reconstruction of the original dimensions impossible. Shaft polisher (pl. 68, ¢)—A considerable number of potsherds were found with grooves on one or both surfaces, worn by abrasion. One quartzite pebble bears similar grooves. The pebble is 5.3 by 4.5 cm., and 2 em. thick. A straight groove has been worn across each surface, one 10 mm. wide and 7 to 10 mm. deep, the other 8 to 9 mm. wide and 7 to8 mm. deep. The latter surface also has a short depres- sion 6 mm. wide and 1 mm. deep with a pointed end, running at right angles to the main groove. : Cores and flakes——Two small cores and a number of percussion flakes were collected at various sites. They show little or no evidence of use and are probably either byproducts of the manufacture of Evans and Meggers] ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Ficure 121.—Stone hoe fragments from habitation’sites of the Rupununi Phase. ends. ¢-g, Blade ends. ~ a a-b, Butt 306 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 choppers and hoes or raw materials from which small chips were struck for insertion into manioc graters. Natural stones.——A globular, hematitic-clay concretion with a natural perforation through the center was found at one site. It shows no evidence of use for hammering or pounding, for which its perforation for hafting would make it suitable. It could have been used as a club head. Diameter is 6.5 cm. The hole, directly through the center, has a diameter of 1.5 cm. at one end and 2.5 cm. at the other. A naturally eroded stone has a long “handle” of convenient shape with a slightly downcurved end whose lower edge shows abrasion lines. This edge is parallel to main axis of the tool. The material is fine-grained quartzite. The length is 21.7 em., width at the center 1.8 cm., tapering to 1.2 cm. toward the rear end. The abrading edge at. the front is 3.2 em. long. Porrery Tyre DESCRIPTIONS A total of 8,468 sherds and 26 complete vessels, exclusive of trade pottery at, R—-40, form the basis for the classification of pottery types of the Rupununi Phase (Appendix, table 37). None of the vessels and only 29 of the sherds showed any kind of decoration (except for occasional small nubbins). The complete specimens were predom- inantly from cemetery and ceremonial sites, while the habitation sites produced the bulk of the sherds. The pottery types have been named according to the binomial system and the descriptions are arranged in alphabetical order. KANUKU PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: The use of coiled construction is attested by nu- merous sherds with one or two edges broken along the coil line (pl. 63, m-—-p). The break is clean, leaving one surface convex and the other con- cave, and indicating that the clay was handled when too dry to give a strong bond. Coils are generally 0.7 to 2.5 em. wide, in conformity with the typically large size of the vessels. Several bases also show coiled con- struction. Occasional base sherds have an impression on the exterior of a simple twilled mat upon which the vessel was placed during manu- facture (pl. 67, e). A few sherds from the necks of a few jars have the coils unerased on the exterior (pl. 63, g-h). Temper: Granitic sand, with a high percentage of quartz and feldspar. The rounded nature of the grains suggests sand rather than crushed rock. At some sites there is a considerable amount of mica in the temper, apparently reflecting the composition of the localsand. Typi- eal size range of particles is minute to 38 mm., with occasional larger hunks. Temper is very abundant and prominent in both cross sec- tion and surface. Particles of black ash were observed in rare sherds from R-3 and R-20, Cave 8. Details are the same as for this variant of Rupununi Plain. ea baa ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 307 Texture: Coarse, sandy and poorly kneaded so that temper particles are not evenly distributed. Pinpoint to fissure air pockets are characteristic, especially in thicker walled sherds. Ropy or laminated structure is also characteristic of thicker walls. Color: Reddish orange, orange, tan, reddish brown or brown through the cross section. Occasionally, a. laminated: orange and tan. Gray areas are sometimes present adjacent to the surfaces, but never in the center of the core. This absence of a gray core is the distinguishing character- istic of Kanuku Plain, by which it is differentiated from Rupununi Plain. Firing: Oxidized so that surface and core are some shade of orange. Oc- casional fire clouds appear on the surface. SURFACE: Color: Shades of orange, red and brown predominate, with gray areas very rare and mostly produced by fire clouding. Color range is from a light tan or tile orange to reddish brown and brown. A single vessel will show some color variation, but usually this is not over the entire color range associated with the type. Treatment: Ineomplete smoothing or smocthing when surfaces were too dry leaves them characteristically uneven, irregular, and gritty. On the lower exterior of jars or necks of jars, coil lines may not be completely obliterated (pl. 63, g, h). Where smoothing has been more complete, broad smoothing tracks can often be distinguished. Crackle lines some- times radiate from exposed temper grains. Even the best smoothed sur- faces are typically somewhat undulating and uneven. Smaller vessels generally have the better surface finish. Hardness: 3.5-4. FORM: Rim: Direct, everted, or slightly thickened on the exterior, with rounded or flattened lip. Body wall thickness: 4-12 mm. ; griddles 18-25 mm. Body diameter: 14-60 cm. ; majority 34-52 cm. Base: A. Flat, joining sidewalls at angle of 25-55 degrees; interior wall makes more gradual curve resulting in slightly increased wall thickness at junction. Diameter 9-24 cm. B. Slight pedestal formed by almost vertical rise of 1.0-1.5 cm. below junction with sidewalls. Diameter 12-18 cm. C.. Rounded, unthickened. No demarcation at which to measure di- ameter. “ Vessel shapes: The major difference between eating and deinking vessels on the one hand, and cooking and storage vessels on the other, lies in size. The four most common forms all have a range from “bowl” to “jar” dimensions, with slight variations in proportions: but no distin- guishing rim differences. Hence, although complete vessels can be identi- fied as one of the variant forms for a yessel shape, this cannot be done with sherds. ' 1. Shallow to deep bowls with outsloping to almost vertical walls, / direct rim, flattened or rounded lip. Rim diameter 14-64 cm.; majority 26-50 cm. (fig. 122-1). Sometimes lobes with rounded, scalloped edges or with deep notches extend outward along the Trim. They measure 46 em. long and 2.0-3.5 em. wide (pl. 63, a—d). 308 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull, 177 2. Globular bowls or jars with walls rounded and incurving to direct rim with rounded lip or rim slightly thickened on exterior. Mouth diameter 12-52 em.; majority 28-48 cm. (fig. 122-2). 8. Bowls or jars with a ridge or carination forming a sharp to rounded shoulder, above which the wall curves inward before expanding to a direct rim with flattened to rounded lip. Rim diameter 16-50 em. ; majority 28-42 em. (fig. 122-3). Liitiis Oo 4 86 '2 0M VESSEL SCALE Ficure 122.—Rim profiles and reconstructed vessel shapes of Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain, Rupununi Phase (Appendix, tables 38, 39). woe" ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 309 4, Wiat, circular griddles with slightly thickened or upturned edges. Interior relatively even, exterior typically poorly smoothed. Rim diameter 34-68 cm. (fig. 122-4; pl. 67). 5. Globular jars or bowls with everted rim and rounded lip. Rim diameter 16-50 cm. ; majority 22-86 cm. (fig. 122-5). 6. Jars with rounded body and constricted neck, vertical or slightly everted rim. Rim diameter 7-14 cm. (fig. 122-6). Appendages: Handles: Vertical strap handles have an oval cross section 24 cm. wide (fig. 122; pl. 68, 7). Only one is attached to a rim sherd and this is a vertical-sided bowl of Form 1. Fragments are rare, one each recorded from R--26, R-27, R-82 and R-86 A, and two from R-6. Applique: A horizontal rim lug attached to the rim of a shallow bowl comes from R-82. The lug is 5 em. long, projecting 2.5 em., with a nicked outer edge. A similar lug probably was attached to the opposite side of the rim. Conical nubbins 2-38 cm. in diameter and 1.5-2.5 em. high occur in pairs at four places around the circumference above the shoulder on burial vessels of Form 8 (pl. 65, 6) and on opposite sides below or on the rim of Form 2 (pl. 68, e-f). These are not firmly attached and readily slough off. OccCASIONAL DECORATION: Rarely, incisions (pl. 63, j) or fingertip punctations (pl. 68, 7, &) appear on the lips of vessels. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Pedestal (Form B) and rounded (Form C) bases appear to be most frequent in the early half of the sequence, although this may be a reflection of the small size of samples from later sites. Vessel Shapes 3 and 5 are slightly more characteristic in the latter half of the sequence, while Vessel Shape 2 tends to be more frequent in the earlier sites (Appendix, table 38). CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Kanuku Plain is the dominant pottery type at the beginning of the seriated sequence, representing 88.4 percent of the total pottery at the earliest site. It shows a steady decline in popularity to 20.8 percent at the latest site (fig. 125). RUPUNUNI PLAIN PASTE: Method of manufacture: Coiling; sherds with one edge broken on a coil line are frequent and a number show coil line breaks on two edges, one concave and the other convex (pl. 63, m—-p). Single coils range from 1.0-2.5 em. wide. Some base sherds have an impression on the exterior of a simple twilled mat on which the vessel rested during manufacture (pl. 67, e). : Temper: Coarse granitic sand, typically readily visible and abundant, with grains protruding on eroded surfaces. Mica flecks are sometimes present, and appear to reflect the local sand composition. Temper grains are typically under 3 mm. in diameter, with occasional larger hunks. Occasional sherds from. 7 sites also contained black ash, the particles ranging from pinpoint size specks to hunks 5-8 mm. long and 0.5-1.0 mm. wide. Quantity varies from sparse to abundant. In most cases all sherds from a site appear to belong to a single vessel. Sites that produced these sherds are: R-3, R-5, R-20, Cave 2, R-20, Cave 38, . R-22, R-36, and R-37. 310 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ‘[Bull. 177 Texture: Sandy or gritty; temper particles not always evenly distributed. Thicker sherds have irregularly shaped air pockets. Color: Rupununi Plain is distinguished from Kanuku Plain by the presence of a gray core. A typical cross section has a light to medium-gray core bordered by light tan 1-2 mm. ‘in from both surfaces. In some sherds the gray band is along one surface, in others the entire cross section is medium-gray or grayish orange. Firing: Incomplete oxidizing. SURFACE: Color: Irregular and variable. Range from gray through grayish tan, brown, tan, and reddish tan to bright orange, with both extremes not normally found on the same specimen. Irregularly shaped, medium- gray fire clouds of all sizes relatively frequent. Treatment: Poorly smoothed in general, leaving pits, scars and visible temper grains. Exterior of bases and of griddles unsmoothed and very uneven. Broad smoothing tracks on uneroded surfaces indicate use of a nut or stone polishing tool when the clay was fairly dry. Smoothing otherwise by hand, sometimes incompletely erasing coil junctions; some- times the coils of jar necks are unerased (pl. 63, g, h). Thinner walled sherds have best smoothing. Coarse, deep crackle lines sometimes present. Hardness: 4. Form: Rim, base, and vessel shapes: Same as Kanuku Plain (fig. 122); see that pottery type description for details. Appendages (pl. 63) : Handles: Vertical loop handles with oval (1.6 by 1.1 cm.) or circular (diameter 1.7 cm.) cross section. Only two examples, both from R-6, showing clean break at point of attachment to body wall. ” Broad, horizontal loop attached to deep bowl below rim. Hori- zontal length 4.1 em.; projection from wall 2.8 em.; width of loop (top to bottom) 2.5 em. At the center of the outer edge there is a small flat-topped nubbin 8 mm. high. One example from R-19. Applique: Horizontal rim lug projecting from rim of shallow bowl of Vessel Shape 1. The lug is 5.5 cm. long, projecting 3.0 cm., and has a nicked edge. This example from R-382 is very similar to a Kanuku Plain specimen from the same site. OcCASIONAL DECORATION: Rarely, incisions (pl. 63, j) or fingertip punctations (pl. 68, 7, k) appear on the lips of vessels. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Vessel Shape 6 tends to be more fre- quent in the latter half of the sequence. Base Form B seems to be most com- mon in the earlier half. (Appendix, table 39.) ! CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Rupununi Plain shows a steady increase from 11.6 percent at the earliest site to become the dominant ware in the latter half of the Rupununi Phase (fig. 125). UNCLASSIFIED CARIAPE-TEMPERED A few sherds with the cariapé added to the paste were found at four sites. Because the sample is small and may be'the result of trade, it was not broken down into named pottery types. PASTE: ‘Method of manufacture: No evidence. Temper: Whitish, fibrous structure of ecariapé relatively abundant. About half the sherds also have a large amount of medium-eoarse granitic sand. ea eae ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 311 Texture: Sandy to fine, depending on the quantity of sand present. , Color: About half are red, orange or tan through the cross sections. The remainder have a gray core. Firing: Incompletely to completely oxidized. SURFACE: Color: Orange to light tan. Treatment: Majority too badly eroded for description ; one slick on exterior. Hardness: 2.5-3.5. ) Slip: Some sherds have a thin white slip on the exterior, sharply Bettie cated in cross section from the ‘underlying orange paste. Texture is fine, sur- face eroded. Form: Rim: Direct or slightly everted, with rounded or eer erd lip. . Body wall thickness: 6-11 mm. Body diameters: 26-50 cm. Base: Fiat, joining sidewalls at angle of 20-25 degrees. Vessel shapes: 1. Globular jar with direct, slightly incurved rim and rounded lip. Rim diameter 24 and 44 cm. 2. Jar with slightly everted rim, diameter 28 cm. DECORATION : Two sherds from R—-5 bear narrow red painted lines on the exterior, one on a white slip and the other on an unslipped surface, One sherd from R-8 shows crude scratches that may be part of a design of diagonal lines. TEMPORAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN THE TYPE: Sample too small for analysis. CHRONOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE TYPE: Sporadic occurrence in the upper two- thirds of the seriated sequence (fig. 125). UNCLASSIFIED DECORATED The. pottery of the Rupununi Phase is characterized by an almost complete lack of decoration. The few ornamented sherds represent a variety of tech- niques, none of which is sufficiently frequent or well defined to warrant the establishment of a pottery type. Unclassified Decorated includes incision, applique, punctate, white paint, white slip and red film. Incision: The interiors of four flat base sherds from R-6 have straight parallel incised lines on the interior 7-12 mm. apart. The incisions are roughly drawn, sometimes jagged, 1-2 mm. wide and 1-2 mm. deep. The diameters of the bases are 10-12 cm. White paint: Four body sherds from R-2 have white-painted ornamentation. Three show fine brush strokes 1-2 mm. wide on the exterior, while one has white lines 5 mm. wide on the interior. Applique: Simple applique decoration occurs on occasional sherds. Three from R-6 have ribs 1.4 em. wide at the base, coming to a rounded top 1 cm. high, and one has a ring 3.2 cm. in outside diameter formed by an applique strip 1.cm. wide at the base and 8-9 mm. high (fig. 123, b). Hight sherds from R40 have relief modeling, in two cases on the ee surface. Punctate: The only sherd with tiatbteliky: decoration is a rim from .R-22 with a band of 3 horizontal rows of punctates bordered by incised lines _ on the exterior just below the rim of a vessel of Form 2. The punctates are 1.0-1.5 mm. in diameter and 1.0 mm. deep. White slip: Two sherds from R—40 are ‘white-slipped, one on the interior and the other on the exterior. The latter is a fragment of an annular base 8 cm. in diameter. 312 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY {Bull 177 Red film: A small number of'sherds of Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain have a deep reddish film on one surface that appears to be a conscious addition rather than an effect of exposure or firing. The majority are red on the exterior. The only rims are two of Form 1 from R-5. TRADE POTTERY Taruma Phase types: R-40 produced sherds of two Taruma Phase decorated types, both distinctive and unquestionably of Taruma Phase origin. Kanashen Incised is represented by 2 rim sherds, one with zoned parallel lines and the other with crosshatch (pl. 41, j). Four other sherds are from a single Onoro Stamped vessel (pl. 46, d, h). Detailed pottery type descriptions are given under the Taruma Phase (see pp. 216-217, 225-227). Koriabo Phase types: Several sherds represent pottery types of the Koriabo Phase. They include one modeled sherd with incisions of Koriabo Incised (pl. 36, i) from R-40, and four excellent examples of Koriabo Seraped (pl. 36, f-h) from the same site. Detailed pottery type descriptions can be found under the Koriabo Phase (see pp. 132-133, 136-187). PoTrrery ARTIFACTS Two types of artifacts made from pottery are found in the Rupununi Phase: objects of primary manufacture and reused sherds. Neither is abundant. Pot rests.—Three fragments belonging to the same pot rest came from R-8. The poorly mixed clay with abundant, large, granitic- sand temper and orange-tan color, as well as the base diameter of 12 cm. and the somewhat cylindrical form, are reminiscent of pot rests from the Taruma Phase (pp. 230-233). Figurines (fig. 123).—A fragment from R-6 appears to be the front part of a crudely modeled foot of the sort found on anthropo- morphic figurines from the Amazon area (fig. 123, e). The pottery typeis Rupununi Plain. Six toes of unequal width are indicated along the front edge by gashes 2 to 3 mm. wide and 4 to 5 mm. deep. The bottom of the “foot” is flat, the upper surface slopes upward toward the back. It is broken 4.8 cm. from the tip. Height at the toes is 1.5 cm., at the broken edge 3.4 cm. Three cylindrical legs came from R-40 (fig. 123, c,d). Two, both Kanuku Plain, have the foot attached. The third is Rupununi Plain. The foot is a slight forward expansion on which four grooves have been drawn to represent toes. All the legs have an anklelike protru- sion on the right side just above the foot, and the most complete fragment has a similar protrusion farther up on the back of the leg. Existing height of the latter specimen is 6.2cm. Diameter is slightly greater from front to back than from side to side. Two have dimen- sions of 2.1 by 1.9 cm. and 2.0 by 1.6 cm. These feet are quite differ- BH d aecean ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 313 Ficure 123.—Modeled sherds from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. a, Fragment of a figurine head or adorno. b, Applique ring. c-d, Figurine legs, probably animal. é, Figurine foot. ent in style from that from R-6, and suggested to the workman an animal rather than a human form. Another Kanuku Plain fragment from R-40 is part of a face (fig. 123, a). The long, low, narrow nose expands at the base to encompass deep punctates forming the nostrils. A wide mouth is drawn by a thin incision running from side to side. The eyes are formed by a short straight line encircled by another, producing an ovoid shape with the main axis directed downward. The right eye and the upper part of the forehead are missing. Broken edges all the way around indicate that the construction was hollow. » It cannot be determined whether it represents a figurine head or an adorno on the side of a vessel. Existing height of the face is 8 cm. 314 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Disk.—The coiled central section of the bottom of a Rupununi Plain vessel from R-3 appears to have been rounded into a small disk 3.8 cm. in diameter. Thickness is 11 mm. at the center and 7 mm. at the edges. The exterior surface is flat and the interior convex. Shaft polishers (pl. 68, a-~A). —Nineteen sherds of Kanuku and Ru- pununi Plain from R-5 and 46 from R-6 have one or more deep, straight grooves on the surface. The majority are flat griddle or base sherds 1.0 to 1.8 em. thick, but a few are only 8mm. thick. The grooves vary in depth from 3 to12 mm. The deepest have weakened the sherd so that it has usually broken along the bottom of the groove. Where there are two or more grooves on the same surface, they typically run ut right angles. Groove width varies from 6 to 14 mm. and is correlated with depth suggesting that the narrower and shallower grooves were worn by the edge of the shaft while the deep ones encompassed its total diameter. A few sherds show the end of a groove, which tapers to a rounded tip. One sherd has a groove on both surfaces. A stone with similar grooves also came from R-6 (cf. pl. 68,2). Rubbing tool—An approximately cubical piece of pottery with orange, sandy paste has scratches on one face suggesting use in rubbing or abrading. The squared edges look trimmed. The object is 4.5 by 5.0 cm. and 3.0 em. thick. The absence of coarse sand temper charac- teristic of Kanuku Plain and the unusual thickness rule out the possi- bility of this being a reused sherd and indicate intentional manufacture. Bone ARTIFACTS Either no consistent use was made of bone tools, or this material has not been preserved. Fragments of long bones and antler tips of deer from R-22 show no signs of use. Among a number of deer and rodent bones from R-20, Cave 4, only one showed such marks. This was a long bone that had been split down the middle with a steel knife. Four small fragments of turtle carapace were collected from R-20, Cave 3, one of which is worn along one edge suggesting use as a scraper, OBJECTS OF EUROPEAN ORIGIN Eleven sites produced objects of European origin, some of which were datable with sufficient precision to permit orientation of the ceramic seriation. Materials include glass, earthenware, iron, and tin. We are indebted to C., Malcolm Watkins and Edgar M. Howell of the Museum of History and Technology, Smithsonian Institution, and ‘George Metcalf of the Division of Archeology, Smithsonian Institu- tion, for the identification and estimated datings, which are) shown in table L. Hvyans and Meggers] ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 315 TABLE L.—Objects of European origin from Rupununi Phase sites Object Minute, white, opaque glass ‘‘seed”’ beads. Sherds of English white earthen- ware. Basal fragment of ovoid green glass bottle. Sherd of bubbly, thin, blown bottle of aquamarine glass. Sherd of olive-green, bottle. Tron blade fragment___--_.-..------- Wehin ew axeneeerr i SOMRG YD 4. 3 5 cylindrical Glin barre! ogee J80us) oa sosss. Sherds of hand decorated, Stafford- shire, white earthenware. Base section of blown cylinder wine bottle. Sherds of square, dark-amber bottle _ Window glass sherds_____-_-_-___--- Sherd of salt glazed stoneware._-_---- Sherds of hard earthenware jar, glazed white. Sherd of molded glass___------------ Sherds of green glass bottle_______-__- Sherd of emerald green glass___-_--_- Razor bladers. © {Sse ie). 3-28 Tip of knife blade. --<2 4._- 42-22. Sherd of olive-amber bottle glass - __- Sherds of heavy white earthenware_- Sherds of cylindrical wine bottle -_-- Sherds from stoneware gin jug_ _____ Clay-pipe fragments_____2______.___ Sherd of stoneware, glazed cream color. Miscellaneous glass bottle sherds, olive-amber and green. Sherd of flat surfaced amber glass___ Pale-green glass sherds_.______..__-_ Sherds from clear-glass bottles and jars. Small sherds of clear glass____._1___- Pieces of tinned iron spoons___--_.-- Triangular file blade:L_!0i2..._..._- Sardine Canikoyeons se ons A pbyviarl RSS ees 2 ee ee eee 513186—60—_22 Quan- tity 18 10 St = meleo we ~~ ee NoeKe ao GD Fe Remarks Diameter 1.5-2.0 mm.; thickness approxi- mately 1 mm., diameter of perforation 1 mm. or less. One shell edge; 2 blue transfer-painted. Dating, 1815-40. Not diagnostic. Glass of this type was produced in North America until about 1870. Probably earlier than 1850. Not diagnostic. Crude specimen designed for a round handle. It isa somewhat degenerate form of the late 17th or early 18th century trade ax found in Indian sites in the Eastern United States. This is presumably later, but not the prod- uct. of modern manufacture. Mercer (Ancient Carpenter’s Tools) shows numer- ous felling axes of English and American origin, the nearest to this in appearance being an ax found in Chester County, Pa. Hight-sided barrel of percussion cap gun, 58 bore (.675). Post-1819. Swags of half-red are discernible. Decora- tion, thickness of paste, and foot rim point to a date 1790-1815. This shape and size in vogue from 1780-1830. Probably snuff or gin bottle. Late 18th or early 19th century. Thinness indicates date prior to 1830. Not diagnostic. Container for preserves. Raised letters“... N’S... ENT. MADE ... CA... This probably does not date from before 1880. Raised letters ‘‘POP’’. century. Probably beer or mineral water bottle. Late 19th or 20th century. Type made by Wade and Butcher and others at the turn of 20th century. Not diagnostic. Late 19th or 20th Blown glass, but not encrusted. Probably 1815-40. Decorated with blue transfer painting. This is some of the ubiquitous products of the Staffordshire factories, made probably between 1820 and 1840. Comparable to base from R-6. Dates be- tween 1780 and 1830. Dutch, of a type made without much change of form or color from about 18380 to the present. From different pipes, all probably mid-19th century. One is molded in a corn pattern. Not diagnostic. Not earlier than 1850, but probably not later than 1900. Vertical ridges show that this was made in a mold. It is probably from a medicine bottle not earlier than 1830, but could be as late as 1900. ray from beer bottles. 1850 to early 1900’s. Turned lavender from exposure to sun. Recent, almost certainly 20th century. Not diagnostic. Typical, cheap, stamped tinware of the late 19th or early 20th century. Recent. Do. Do. 316 R-19—Con. R-20, Cave 1. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY (Bull. 177 TasLeE L.—Objects of European origin from Rupununi Phase sites—Continued Site Object Fragments of metal container --_-___- Q@valibrass plate.t--eiuiees---- 22. Tron wire-keeper.o....se ese e ewe ne Cast-iron facing of a knife______-____ Sections of harmonicas.-..----------- Spoutlike sheet-iron tube_--_-------- Piece of hard rubber... -~---+--------- Fragments of knife blades_-_------_--- Bling ih yl aksee ee bi bl Ue flay Tin ferrule-_-_-- Shotgun: shells? 6 suv settee Ves (front gumiparts:ted sc esse Bias Serap iron fragment_----2:--------- Fragments of a blade._-.---------.-- Sherd of pale-green bottle glass____-_- R-20, Cave Ze Small, opaque-white, glass ‘‘seed’’ bead. White, glass ‘‘seed’’ beads__.--.----_ R-34, Jar A_| Fragments of mirror___..------------ Parts of knife blade and ferrule_____. Silver coin, denomination 4_-_----- Scraper of bottle glass. -...-.-.------- Dark-blue, opaque, elongated, faceted glass beads. Ruby-red to dark-maroon, opaque, globular, faceted glass beads Lavender, opaque, spiral glass bead - Red-wine, opaque, faceted glass bead. . cylindrical, Large, opaque-white, glass beads____ Quan- tity ae Re HO — jo NRE ied oO}; mct;= rn 0200 | -9 Remarks Metal? Too small to be diagnostic. Possibly escutcheon plate on a box or part of horse gear. Six holes. Late 19th or early 20th century. Designed to resemble stag-horn. century. Reeds are secured by finely made small screws, representing developed workman- ship, but not stamped or riveted mass production of recent times. Probably from the last half of the 19th century or early 20th century. Recent. Fashion of manufacture suggests a date of te 1840, probably not later than early 1007s. Probably the ferrule on a chisel or similar tool. Probably later than 1860. Late 19th Back of a comb. Not diagnostic. Apparently chipped for use in flint-lock gun. From cane or swagger stick. Brass cartridges with replaceable primer caps; both marked ‘‘Joyee Ltd. London, Ejector;’’ One a ‘‘No. 12’? and other ‘‘ No. 16.”’> Manufactured from late 1870’s to 1906. From cheap trade guns. Possibly trigger guard fragments. Shows evidence of having been cut. Probably a sword. Appears to be from a blown-glass vessel. Circular beads apparently cut from a tube 4.5-5.0 mm, in diameter; length varies from 3-4 mm. Cireular with flat ends; diameter 3 mm., thickness 2 mm. Similar to those from R-1 and R-20, Cave 2. Silver reduced to traces. Not diagnostic. “Colonies of Essequebo Demarary Token 1209”’ (reverse); ‘‘ Georgius ... I Dei Gratia’”’ (obverse). Perforation at upper edge for suspension, probably on necklace. Well worn. 1 edge of a chip of pale-green bottle glass, pressure chipped from both sides to form a scraper. Length 2.2 mm.; width 1.3 mm.; thickness 3 mm. 1.8-2.0 cm. long; 6-7 mm. diameter at center; 3-5 mm. diameter at ends. Faceted sur- faces ground. Beads were cut, or snapped off from a longer tube, then ends ground down slightly. Surface covered with 3 rows of 7 diamond-shaped facets, plus 2 rows of 7 isosceles triangle facets near the ns Diameter of hole 1 or 2 mm. (fig. 124, a). Globular bead ground with many irregularly shaped facets ranging from 3-6 sided. Ends also ground slightly. 3 with maximum diameter of 6 mm.; 4 with maximum diam- eter of 5 mm.; length 4 mm, and 6 mm. Diameter of hole tapers from 1 mm. at one end to 2mm. at the opposite end (fig. 124, c). : Spiral or ‘‘snail’”? made in mold, with rough edges where the mold joined. Spiral be- gins at the hole and expands in height and width to the maximum diameter of the bead. Maximum diameter 9 mm.; thickness 5 mm.; diameter of hole 2 mm. (fig. 124, 6). Cylindrical bead with irregular facets ground lengthwise. Length 4.0 mm., diameter ads mm. Hole 2 mm. in diameter (fig. 124, d). Evans and 9 Weeeersl ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 317 TarLE L.—Obdjects of European origin from Rupununi Phase sites—Continued Site Object Quan- Remarks . tity co R-34,JarA—| Dark-blue, opaque, disk-shaped, Disk-shaped, both irregular in diameter and Con. faceted glass beads. height with ground facets, and ends slightly ground, Height 2-3 mm.; diameters 1.5- 4.5 mm.; majority 2.0 mm. Cut from a long tube. Length 2-4 mm.; oo Pale, bottle-green and light-blue, transparent cylindrical glass diameter 2.0-2.5 mm.; diameter of hole 1 beads. mm. (fig. 124, h). Red-wine, to dark-blue, opaque, 29 | Of unequal length, apparently cut from glass disk to cylinder-shaped, beads. tube. Length ranges from 1.5-3.0 mm.; diameters 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0 mm.; diam- eter of hole, 1.0-1.5 mm. (fig. 124, e-f). White, opaque glass beads_...--.__- 93 | Cylindrical, flat ended, cut from iong tubes, of various diameters and lengths. Diam- eters 2.5-3.5 mm.; lengths 1.0-3.5 mm.; diameters of perforation 0.5-1.0mm. Ends frequently cut at a slight angle (fig. 124, g, i). R-34, Jar H_| White, opaque, glass beads____.___-- 38, 048 | Cylindrical, fiat-ended beads apparently cut from tube; some slightly ovoid. Diameter 2,5-3.5 mm.; thickness (length) 1.5-3.5 mm. Diameter of perforation 0.5-1.0mm. Ends frequently cut at slight angle rather than straight across (fig. 124, g, i). Rr=36_l) es. Pieces of cast-iron pan__.-....----.-- Very thin and probably late 19th century. 2 STORRD DT HOOR See cas. ea ee 1 | Made of one-half inch round iron rod. End of 19th century or later. Rel Webosse oo 2 | Like modern shirt buttons. Could be any where from 1 to 151 years old. Base of stoneware preserve jar, 1 | Type used for distributing English marma- glazed over cream-white body. lades for past 100 years, although evidence of hand workmanship points to early phase. THE SITE SEQUENCE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS The seriated sequence of the Rupununi Phase (fig. 125) is based on the pottery type frequencies at the 30 habitation sites. The ceme- tery and ceremonial sites produced too few specimens to be statistically reliable. Because of the short period of habitation, all of the sites produced only surface collections, and no stratigraphic evidence was available for determining the direction of the trends in popularity of the pottery types. Consequently, after the percentage occurrence of the two major wares, Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain, was plotted on strips of graph paper, and these were arranged in the order of in- creasing and decreasing frequency, some external evidence had to be employed to determine which was the upper end of the seriated sequence. Fortunately, the associated European material was dat- able in several cases with sufficient preciseness to solve the problem. Twelve sites produced European trade material representing a con- siderable variety of items (table L), many of which are not diagnostic or are of types manufactured over long periods of time. Six of the sites, however, contain one or more items that can be dated more exactly, and these establish the approximate period of occupation. When these sites are placed in chronological order based on the Euro- [Bull, 177 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 318 Es TZ ( ® Q@Qq™@2®8oO 3 4 9 £ of the Rupununi 124.—Glass beads from Jar A at R-34, Shelter 1, a cemetery site FIGURE Phase. rageena ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 319 pean trade materials, the correlation with the seriated position derived from pottery type classification is very good (table M). Only two TABLE M.—Correlation between dated and seriated position of Rupununi Phase sites with European trade materials Dated sequence from European Seriated Dated sequence from European Seriated trade goods sequence from trade goods sequence from Went TOS Tee JISH aborigimhlOol) Oise too COO Gort OO || fabonginal pottery pottery Date Site types Date Site types 1880-1910... -......-.s Res R-12 Pre IRhi) 2 = soe oe eee IRoGr cases R-6 Late 19th century -____- R-36 B__..| R-8 Prerilssu ces BOA rit R26222.5.2 R-17 ISS Rages R-36 B AYS0s1850 oe eS Rei7 22-5 R-3 1820-40. BE. DATs WS R-12____-- R-19 sites are out of order. R-3 is third in the European dating and earliest in the pottery seriation, but this is not serious contradiction because the trade goods at R-3 give only a terminal date, and the period of occupation might well be several decades earlier, in which case the site could be placed lower down in the sequence. R-12 is more seriously out of line, being in the middle of the dated sites but last in the pottery seriation. Here, the discrepancy is more difficult to explain. The ceramic seriation and the characteristics of the site both establish R-12 as very recent, but the glass and earthenware are both dated as about 1820-40. The only explanation that suggests itself is that the European trade materials were used longer than would normally be expected or were received by the Indians after they were out-dated among the Europeans. Since the other identifications all confirm the ceramic seriation, this single exception cannot be con- sidered a significant argument against the validity of the sequence. The ceramic history of the Rupununi Phase is characterized by the decreasing popularity of Kanuku Plain, with an orange paste, and a corresponding increase in frequency of Rupununi Plain, with a gray core. During the period of time represented by the site survey, Rupununi Plain increases from 11.6 percent to 79.2 percent of the sherd total. At the same time, Kanuku Plain declines from an initial high of 88.4 percent to 20.8 percent. In all but five of the sites, these two pottery types comprise 98 percent or more of the total sherds, with the result that they show a smooth sequence of change. Only one site, R-40, fails to fit well because of an unusually high frequency of decorated sherds. A small number of sherds with unusual temper or some form of decoration appear sporadically, one or more kinds occurring at only 12 of the sites. In several cases, origin by trade is demonstrable or at least suspect. Cariapé tempering was detected at five sites, with the majority of the sherds from each site attributable to one or two vessels. The distinctive nature of this temper and of the process by 320 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull)177 which it is obtained makes it seem highly improbable that it could occur accidentally. The rare and sporadic occurrence suggests deriva- tion by trade, and in this connection it may be significant that cariapé- tempered sherds were found only at sites in the north savanna. How- ever, the sherds are too highly eroded and the potential area of origin too little known to venture any identification. A more positive state- ment can be made abcut certain decorated sherds from R-40. They are in every respect identical with sherds of Onoro Stamped (pl. 46, d, h) and Kanashen Incised (pl. 41, 7) from Taruma Phase sites in the upper Essequibo area and must have come to R-40 from that source. R-40 seriates between R-3, dated as pre-1850, and R-19, dated as 1850- 1900, suggesting that this trade took place around the third quarter of the 19th century. The archeological evidence for the Taruma Phase (pp. 263-269) makes this date reasonable. The only cause for surprise is that there is not more evidence of this kind of contact, since trade between the two groups of Indians is attested by ethnographical and other documentary sources. The only other archeological indication is a pot rest fragment from R-8, a site that seriates slightly earlier than R-40. The form resembles the common type of pot rest from the Taruma Phase, suggesting Taruma Phase origin. Sherds of Koriabo Scraped and Koriabo Incised from R-40 are less readily explained as reflecting trade because of the presumed difference in the chronological position of the Rupununi and Koriabo Phases (see p. 334), Unclassified decorated sherds are so few and represent. such a variety of techniques, each restricted to a single site or period, that external influence seems the only logical explanation. A single mica- tempered sherd. with a band of punctates bordered above and below by an incised line came from R-22. Jt is unparalleled in the Rupununi Phase, but both temper and decoration are reminiscent of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Motif 3, from the Mabaruma Phase. R-2, the site immediately following R-22 in the seriated sequence, produced sherds with white slip and no other surviving ornamentation. White slipping is also found in the Mabaruma Phase and its presence at R-2 might be attributable to continuation of contact with inhabitants of the Northwest District. The next appearance of decorated sherds is somewhat later at R-40, and this time modeling is the decorative technique employed. Vessel sherds with low relief on the interior or exterior and fragments of figurines are both present in an abundance that is without parallel in the Rupununi Phase sequence. Other in- novations at Site R-40 are incised lines on the interior of base sherds, and white slipping, one sherd of which hasan annular base. Model- ing was the only technique that was sufficiently popular to be carried on. Both R-9 and R-6, which follow R—40 in the seriation, produced a few modeled sherds or figurine fragments. 513186 O -60 (Face p. 320) R-20, CAVE 3 —SESESESE————————— R-12 ——__—___————————) R-5 SSS) R-8 SSS ae] Raia eed R-20, CAVE 2 SS aera] R-368 [SSS | R-20, CAVE 4 aS a Rtg [SSS a R-6 ———EESSS=——S R-9 SS R-20, CAVE | SSS] R- 40 Se R=Is SSS) R-36A SSS] R-17 EE R27 ae R-37 SSS] R-3 SSS R= _ SSS) Reese SSS] R-28 Ss R-3l [ae R-24 SSS R-29 ——————) R-32 — aaa R-23 =a R-30 nee R-26 = R-25 = | ie) 30% RUPUNUNI PLAIN IVVIVLINNNctaasttes ces. KAN PL Ficure 125.—Seriation of Rupununi Phase sit {Netcare 9 canny aN) ee atey me red nd ee ee ee P+ ont os) emnentng ey me le gy a 00 hme gear amin ” ~ ee , uiiiehaainie teas Se semaneebiemiinainbiarttemmeeremmnen Pe wy pets | ae heen ee ee nd peenbblijetbakniontpieeind PR A) tre ont «A RR te tl are mt Or Tete rem = Stem eraatattnser nae Ki) Pas 20 i heme ema apres wh em ty PERE elit) bom pe gmp immen any uty { , } Near oy, St elie eae worl Pe retogns eared — amewm ae , | ft: pre re yee 7 me ie Al hee ba it ‘See akg } Me i +4 Gh the baste of rhamges tw poreer type scala 2 et iH it j { ' . uf i rues) Le i t 4 gt S| ee LN La E d r pyane an ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 321 Types of ornamentation that seem indigenous to the Rupununi Phase, but occur only occasionally, are conical applique nubbins on large jars (pl. 65, 0) and nicks or finger impressions on the rim edge (pl. 63, 7-4). Sherds with a thin red film on one surface occur sporadically but are too frequent to have temporal significance. Analysis of the vessel shapes of Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain shows that the same forms are represented in both wares (Appendix, tables 88-39). However, a considerable difference in relative popu- larity is discernible. In Kanuku Plain, Form 1 is dominant, being almost twice as common as the two next most frequent shapes, Form 2and Form 4. In Rupununi Piain, by contrast, Forms 1, 2, and 3 are all equally represented and Form 4 is relatively rare. Form 6 is rare in both wares. ‘The’ total number of rims from each site is too small for reliable percentage analysis, but several tentative conclusions can be drawn from the range of occurrence and differential frequency of forms. It seems significant, for example, that Form 4 (griddles) is most abundant in Kanuku Plain; which is the earlier type. This vessel, indispensable to the baking of cassava bread, ceases to be made in quantity in the late part of the Rupununi Phase sequence although the type of food with which it is associated is still a major item of diet today among Rupununi savanna Indians. The dying out of this form is undoubtedly correlated with the introduction by Europeans of a metal substitute, and therefore reflects increasing Kuropean contact and consequent greater ease of obtaining the more durable type of griddle. Of the three kinds of base found on Rupununi Plain and Kanuku Plain vessels, the flat vase (Form A) is by far the most common throughout the sequence. Form B (pedestal) is next and appears to be largely restricted to the early half ofthe Phase. Form C (rounded) is rare and sporadic (Appendix, tables 38-39). Most types of stone tools are too infrequent to permit the drawing of any conclusions about changes in popularity. However, it may be noted that hoes occur only in the latter half of the sequence and only at sites in the northern savanna. They are sufficiently abundant here to suggest that they ought to be represented at earlier sites if they had been in use. Possibly these hoes are stone copies of Euro- pean meta] hoes received by trade and considered more efficient than the aboriginal digging stick. Axes, by contrast, are found throughout the Phase, except at the latest sites where they can be presumed to have been superseded by metal counterparts. The 'seriated site sequence (fig. 125) derived foun ceramic fre- quencies has an interesting geographical aspect. All of the sites in the lower half of the sequence are in the southern savanna except R-2 and R-8, which are on the north savanna near its southern boundary. R-20, CAVE 3 [0 = a ee | al R-12 ———— SS R-5 —SsS SSS 0 R-8 SSssssqSJJ SI | R-7 ————— = | R-20, CAVE 2 | = eS SS) R-368 ——————— SS R-20, CAVE 4 [| SS SSS] R-19 —————— Se SS R-6 (a Ss | \ 0 R-9 ——SS eee Sa) 0 R-20, CAVE | —— SS R-40 ——— [eax eae Oo _ o R-13 ————— SS R-36A EE es Se R-17 ——S—S— See SSS R-27 SS SSS R-37 [SSS BSzzz&SSq R-3 SS ; = | R-2 SS SSS fs) 0 R-22 | SSSsSsSSo | \ R-28 SSS SSS R-31 ee) ———— R-24 |S SS SSS SSS R-29 SSS SSS | R-32 SSS) rd R-23 a) | e R-30 I a a R-26 ees] pw ee § R-25 es] fee ee = \ | \ | \ ! : CO RUPUNUN| KANUKU UNCLASSIFIED RED UNCLAS- TARUMA ° PLAIN PLAIN PLAIN FILM SIFIED PHASE : DECORATED TRADE 3SWVHd VAVIV Ss et a Go1u3d WW3d0uUNS -3ud 3SVHd VANUVeVN 3SVHd 3SVHd oeviuox AUVEY 3SVHd 3asvid Vane. INOQNOdNS [3svua |} IVA IVA 14svoo NOIUSILNI Evans and x Meccers| ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 335 River, where the various species. of shellfish that provided the main food supply are found (fig. 58). At the time of this writing, no carbon 14 dates or other means are available for estimating the antiq- uity of this way of life in British Guiana. Shell middens occur in many places on the South American coasts, but few have been studied carefully or dated. Some have artifact assemblages similar to that of the Alaka Phase, others do not. These differences may be chronologi- cal or geographical or both. | Until information is more specific, all that can be said is that the Alaka Phase represents a general subsistence adaptation that was widespread along the coasts of the New World before the introduction of agriculture. During the period of its existence, the Alaka Phase underwent sev- eral important changes. The preceramic complex is characterized by the presence of percussion-made tools and the absence of pottery. Into this assemblage pottery was introduced, but its good quality as well as its sparsity suggest that the first examples were acquired by trade rather than made by the people of the Alaka Phase. A later innovation was the use of abrasion in the manufacture of stone tools. Finally, a new kind of plain pottery tempered with crushed shell (Wanaina Plain) appears in increasing abundance, associated with trade sherds of Mabaruma Phase origin (see table A). This sequence of changes has been interpreted as reflecting gradual acculturation, in which plant domestication replaced shellfishing as the focal point of subsistence, and pottery making, polished stone tools, and probably other traits not detectable by archeology were acquired. This con- clusion is supported by the fact that all of these traits are known to be much earlier on the coast of Venezuela and farther to the west, and must have diffused into British Guiana from that direction (fig. 127). The presence of trade sherds of Mabaruma Phase pottery types at a late Alaka Phase site implies that the migration of the first pottery- making group into the Northwest District came at about the time the Alaka Phase had completed its transition from food gathering to agriculture (fig. 126). The modeled and incised decoration (Aruka Incised, Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Kaituma Incised and Punc- tate, Mabaruma Incised), as well as vessel shapes and other distinctive ceramic features, leaves no doubt about the affiliation of the Mabaruma Phase with the Barrancoid style centering on the mouth of the Ori- noco. A number of carbon 14 dates have been derived for this ances- tral Barrancoid style, making it possible to place its expansion into British-Guiana at around A.D. 500. Contact with the Alaka Phase appears to have been peaceful, but the earlier culture was ultimately overwhelmed by the newcomers without leaving any visible effect on the latter. yt 336 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 The Mabaruma Phase presents a contrast to the other pottery mak- ing groups identified in British Guiana in the elaborateness of its ceramics. Surfaces are well finished and frequently polished, vessel shapes incorporate annular bases and broad flangelike rims, and deco- ration by incision and modeling occurs on 13.8 percent of the total sherds. Although there is variation in the size of habitation sites, the upper end of the range is much larger than in any of the other phases.?° These features suggest that population concentrations may have been larger and that sociopolitical organization may have been slightly more advanced than ina typical Tropical Forest culture. Un- fortunately there is no evidence of burial practices or ceremonialism, either of which might provide a clue to the existence of occupational division of labor or differences in social status. In view of this infer- ence of higher cultural development, it is of interest to note the influ- ence that the Mabaruma Phase exerted on two contemporary Tropical Forest groups with which it came into contact. Decorated sherds of Mabaruma Phase types exceed those of the lecal style in sites of the Abary Phase and the Koriabo Phase, but evidence of reciprocation is very slight. A considerable amount of change can be detected in Mabaruma Phase pottery during the time covered by the seriated sequence. Some decorative motifs died out and others were introduced (fig. 48), and several modifications occurred in vessel shape, not to mention the alterations in paste characteristics, especially evident in the plain wares (fig. 49). These changes appear to represent a gradual evolu- tionary simplification in vessel shape and decoration, but the possibil- ity of some external influence cannot be ruled out, especially with reference to the change in adorno style (cf. fig. 49). During the latter part of its existence, the Mabaruma Phase expanded along the coast toward the southeast, and also reinvaded its Orinoco homeland. Its termination was probably brought about by increasing European settlement, but there is no direct evidence of this in the form of his- torical documentation or trade materials in British Guiana. The third intruder into British Guiana was the Abary Phase, whose arrival is estimated to date at around A.D. 1100 (fig. 126). From a postulated origin in Trinidad, the group moved into the Northwest District where it came in contact with the Mabaruma Phase (fig. 127). A friendly relationship between the two peoples is suggested by the strength of the influence exerted on Abary Phase potters and the evidence of continuing trade after the newcomers settled on the Abary River. The small habitation sites and simple ceramics of the Abary Phase imply that it represents a typical culture of the Tropical Forest 1 Site R-386 of the Rupununi Phase is an exception, but dates from the 19th century and probably reflects influences not present in the aboriginal situation. 337 ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Evans and Meggers] “soseyud ]eorso]OayoIe 94} Jo SUOI]RITUZe oy jo sisA}eue Wolf ps}INIYsuOsaI BuPINne) Ystyiig Our uo visi jo So]NOY—*/ ZT ce: Fela a 3SVHd IVM IVA «= @@ am ae 3SVHd VANYVL OR 3SVHd INONNdNY NV3d0UN3-1S0d 3SVHd AUVEY © Commence 3SVHd OB8VINOX 3SVHd VWNNYVEVA em eo exe oO 3SVHd VAVIV eeceaeses NV3d0UN3-3ud Aan 338 BUREAU OF AMERICAN: ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 level of development. Disposal of the dead was by secondary urn burial in cemeteries. With the passage of time, the Mabaruma Phase influence on the pottery disappears leaving only the occasional and rudimentary decoration and simple utilitarian vessel forms native to the Abary Phase. As was postulated for the Mabaruma Phase, it seems probable that this culture survived until European times. An early description, dating from A.D. 1670, identifies the Indians in the vicinity as Arawak and there is a good possibility that they are de- scendants of the peoples of the Abary Phase, although this cannot be proved. The final coastal invader detected by our archeological investiga- tion is the Koriabo Phase, which arrived in the Northwest District dur- ing the latter part of the Mabaruma Phase occupation (fig. 126). The contemporaneity of these two groups is demonstrated by trade sherds in the sites of both, although the exchange was unequal and Mabaruma Phase sherds are far more frequent in Koriabo Phase sites than the reverse. The earliest indication of Koriabo Phase contact is slightly later in the Mabaruma Phase seriated sequence than the time at which the Abary Phase contact is postulated to have occurred, or about A.D. 1200-1300. Details of rim form and decorative technique point to a derivation from the east, with specific resemblances discernible on the coast of Dutch Guiana (fig. 127). Koriabo Phase pottery is sand tempered and is characterized by simple decoration by incision (Koriabo Incised) or scraping (Koriabo Scraped), both of which may be accompanied by small adornos or applique. Habitation areas are small, and there is no evidence of the method of disposal of the dead. The seriated sequence shows very little pottery change, sup- porting the conclusion that the duration of the Phase in the Northwest District was relatively short. Evidence of commerce with the Ma- baruma Phase continues to the end, which probably coincided with European domination of the Guiana coast. During the time the foregoing events were taking place on the coast, there is no-evidence to indicate that pottery making groups inhabited any of the interior portion of the colony. On the upper Essequibo, the earliest remains are those of the Taruma Phase, whose migration from the lower Rio Negro in Brazil (fig. 127) is dated historically as posterior to A.D. 1670 (fig. 126). Taruma Phase pottery is predomi- nantly sand tempered. Decoration includes incision (Kanashen In- cised), painting (Manakakashin Red-on-White and Manakakashin Red), stamping with a palm nut (Onoro Stamped), and punctation (Kassikaityu Punctate). Pottery artifacts are restricted to pot rests, whistles, and spindle whorls. Since the Taruma Phase survived into the 20th century, the archeological data can be correlated with ethno- graphic information provided by various European visitors to the Eve d Méegers| ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 339 upper Essequibo region. The Taruma are described as living in com- munal houses surrounded by slash-and-burn garden clearings, having a social organization based on kinship, and a rudimentary development of religious ideas. Disposal of the dead was by cremation or inhuma- tion, with the remains deposited in isolation, explaining the absence of any archeological evidence. The Taruma population, never very large, was decimated by disease and the culture became extinct about 1925, when the few individuals that remained went to live with other tribes. Four adult men living with the Wai Wai in Brazil and British Guiana were the only known survivors in 1952. For at least 100 years prior to their extinction, the Taruma are reported to have traded with the Wai Wai (fig. 126), a Cariban- speaking tribe living at the headwaters of the Mapuera River in ad- jacent Brazil. By the beginning of the present century, the Wai Wai had begun to filter across the Acarai Mountains into British Guiana and this migration has been accelerated since 1950 (fig. 127). Wai Wai pottery is sand-tempered and undecorated except for occasional crude incision (Erefoimo Incised) or painting (Erefoimo Painted). Neither stone nor pottery artifacts exist, except for pottery spindle whorls and pot rests. In recent times, accessibility of European trade materials has led to the deterioration of pottery making as well as some of the perishable crafts, and the Wai Wai Phase is consequently growing increasingly difficult to detect archeologically. Ethnographically, the culture is a typical representative of the Guiana variant of the Tropical Forest pattern and is in many re- spects virtually identical to that of the Taruma Phase. Introduction of Tropical Forest culture into the Rupununi savanna took place even later than on the upper Essequibo (fig. 126). Infor- mation derived from historical accounts and from the analysis of European trade materials at Rupununi Phase sites indicates that this group moved into British Guiana from adjacent Brazil sometime during the 18th century (fig. 127). The pottery is the crudest of all the archeological Phases in the colony, and decoration is almost completely lacking. Stone tools, however, are relatively abundant and include notched axes, hoes, and hammerstones as the most numer- ous forms. Habitation sites vary in area but the refuse is consistently limited to the surface of the ground, indicating a very slight degree of village permanency. Disposal of the dead was by secondary burial in urns placed under the shelter of a granite outcrop, and some- times accompanied by beads or other trinkets or by small bowls presumably once containing food. Shallow bowls found in isolated locations have been interpreted as representing offerings of a cere- monial nature. Although contact with Europeans appears to have occurred since the introduction of the Rupununi Phase into British Guiana, there was little acculturation until after about 1925. Since 340 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 then, the Indians have adopted European dress and other outward aspects of modern civilization, and have abandoned the burial prac- tices, stone tools, and to a great extent the pottery making that iden- tifies the Rupununi Phase archeologically. This reconstruction of British Guiana prehistory is based on de- tailed information from four portions of the colony, two on the coast and two in the interior (fig. 127). While this leaves large, in- tervening sections unknown, there is no reason to believe that future archeological investigation will materially alter the general conclu- sions presented here. Details of a particular phase may be expanded and other archeological phases may be distinguished, but it can be confidently predicted that no pottery-making culture will be earlier than the Mabaruma Phase in time of arrival and that all will belong to the generalized Tropical Forest pattern of culture. The only known archeological site that cannot be fitted into the phase classi- fication in this report is an urn cemetery at Seba, on the lower Demerara River (fig. 58; Carter, 1943), which may represent such an undescribed archeological culture, occupying the central British Guiana coast. Consequently, although the results of our survey and excavations do not exhaust the archeological possibilities in British Guiana, we feel that they provide detailed information on the areas most strategically placed with reference to potential routes of migra- tion and diffusion and thus provide a safe basis for inferences of broader scope. The cultural sequence in British Guiana has bearing on a number of theories and assumptions of general significance. Like the region at the mouth of the Amazon, this area acted as a recipient rather than an originator of culture traits and complexes. The late post- Columbian appearance of pottery making groups in the southern part of the colony substantiates the hypothesis that the Guianas func- tioned as a refuge area rather than a fountainhead of Tropical Forest cultural development as was once postulated (see Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 603-607 for a detailed discussion of the literature on this subject). The antiquity of settlement by Tropical Forest groups is greatest at both margins of the area—the mouth of the Orinoco and the mouth of the Amazon—implying primary migrations and/or diffusion down these two major rivers from the west. Spread along the coast of the Guianas appears to have been incredibly slow, and toward the interior practically nil. In fact, it is an open question whether the Rupununi savanna or the upper Essequibo would have yet been invaded by Tropical Forest culture had the aboriginal bal- ance not been upset by the arrival of Europeans. Infiltration had undoubtedly been farther inland than the immediate fringes, but what is known of both archeology and ethnography of the central part of British Guiana does not suggest that penetration was deep E d r Meeoenel ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 341 or that the populations involved were large (cf. Im Thurn, 1883, pp. 11-12, 202). In addition to providing a basis for the reconstruction of South American prehistory, the data presented in this report are applicable to several specialized problems. One is the relative priority of maize and manioc cultivation in northern South America. On the basis of evidence at Momil on the north coast of Colombia, Reichel- Dolma- toff (1956, pp. 270-272; 1957, p. 238) has postulated that manioc pre- ceded maize in that region. This conclusion rests on the fact that griddles of the type used for the preparation of bitter manioc in the Tropical Forest area today occur in the earlier part of the deposit, referred to as Momil I. In Momil II there is a sudden appearance of metates and manos, which are usually considered to imply the cultivation of maize. Cruxent and Rouse (1959, pp. 263-265) have analyzed their data on Venezuela for evidence on this point, and con- clude that a similar priority existed there, with maize diffusing from the west and replacing manioc in the Andean portion of Venezuela but never reaching the eastern part of the country. Their conclusion is based on the fact that griddles are characteristic throughout the archeological sequence in the east but are absent in the later western sites. Investigation of the occurrence of griddles and of milling stones in the archeological sequence in British Guiana shows very little temporal difference. Stone fragments identified as parts of manos or metates come from all Phases except the Taruma and Wai Wai, while griddle sherds occur in all the pottery making Phases except the Wai Wai, where metal has been substituted. In view of the assertion by Cruxent and Rouse that maize cultivation was not present in eastern Venezuela, the question arises as to whether milling or grinding tools necessarily imply maize. It has been shown in other parts of the Americas, notably in the southwestern United States, that such implements are characteristic of seed gatherers, so that the conclusion that they reflect maize agriculture is tentative in the absence of other supporting evi- dence, such as the introduction of Mesoamerican pottery traits found by Reichel-Dolmatoff on the Colombian coast. The presence of mill- ing stones in the British Guiana phases could be dismissed on the basis that they are associated with a method of wild food preparation were it not for their apparent late position in the Alaka Phase sequence. This Phase is interpreted as having initially had a nonagricultural economy based principally on shellfish gathering. Toward the end of its existence, pottery appears and there are indications that agricul- ture was also introduced. There are no artifacts to support this sub- sistence change except for the appearance of milling stone fragments at the latest site. If these artifacts were not restricted to use with cul- 342 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 tivated plants, then it would seem likely that they should be found in earlier sites when the economy was indisputably nonagricultural. In view of the small scale of Alaka Phase excavations, it is possible that the milling stones have a longer time span than existing data sug- gest. However, the fact that similar artifacts continue throughout the British Guiana sequence, in association with economies known to be based on agriculture, seems significant. In this connection, it should be noted that Rouse and Cruxent (1959, pp. 266, 229) also report a few grinding tools from both Barrancas and Los Barrancos styles at the mouth of the Orinoco. Thus, while it is obvious from archeological and ethnographic evidence that bitter manioc was a major staple in the Guiana area, it cannot be argued with equal validity that maize was absent here. The best that can be said is that the existing data are inconclusive so that either interpretation is possible. The correlation of pottery griddles with the use of bitter manioc is so widely attested ethnographically in lowland South America that the same correlation can be assumed when griddles are encoun- tered in the same area archeologically. It is more questionable, how- ever, to infer the absence of bitter manioc from the absence of grid- dles, since other methods of manioc preparation are still in use in the Tropical Forest area (e.g., Levi-Strauss, 1948, p. 363; Lipkind, 1948, pp. 181-182), and probably were more common in the earlier stages of domestication of the plant. In a discussion of the distribution and antiquity of griddles, it must therefore be kept in mind that these data reflect the spread of a particular technique of bitter manioc preparation and not necessarily the first spread of the use of the plant as food. In view of the ethnographic association of bitter manioc with the Tropical Forest area, it is interesting to note that the greatest antiq- uity of griddles appears to be marginal to that area. In British Guiana they appear earliest in the Northwest District, and diffusion along the coast toward the east was very slow. Cruxent and Rouse (1959, p. 244) report griddles from the earliest pottery making cultures in eastern Venezuela, which they date in the vicinity of 1000 B.C. By contrast, griddles do not appear at the mouth of the Amazon until the Arua Phase, which came from the north shortly before the first Euro- pean contact (Meggers and Evans, 1957, pp. 602-603). In the inte- rior of British Guiana they are even later, since the first pottery mak- ing groups here did not arrive before the end of the 17th century. This dating rules out the Guianas as the place of origin of griddles. At present, the earliest occurrences are Saladero at the mouth of the Orinoco and possibly Momil I on the north coast of Colombia. Rela- tively early dates, in the vicinity of A.D. 500, are attested from the Upper Orinoco (Evans, Meggers, and Cruxent, 1960, pp. 359-369). BE d apenean ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 343 and from eastern Ecuador (Meggers and Evans, MS.). More evi- dence from other parts of the northern and western lowlands is needed, however, before an attempt to pinpoint the origin of the use of griddles for bitter manioc preparation can be considered anything more than wild speculation. The fact that several of the Phases distinguished by archeological evidence in British Guiana survived not only into historic times but to the present day provides an unusual opportunity for the checking of archeological techniques of classification and analysis and the in- terpretations derived from them. Although we are less concerned with the reverse, this situation also permits verification of ethno- graphic reporting. The only instance that we will cite here is the conflict between archeological evidence that the practice of secondary urn burial existed on the Rupununi savanna well into the 19th cen- tury and contemporary reports that the only method of disposal of the dead known to the Indians was direct interment (see p. 325). However, in:view of the frequently encountered tendency of Indians to conceal customs that. are frowned upon by white people, especially missionaries or priests, this contradiction is easy to explain. The existence of ethnographic and historical evidence for the Ru- pununi and Taruma Phases provides an independent means of check- ing the seriated site sequences, and consequently the validity of the classification of pottery into types upon which the principle of seria- tion is based. For the Rupununi Phase, the absence of deposits deep enough for stratigraphic excavation made it impossible to identify the direction of the trends of pottery type change by archeological means. Fortunately European trade goods existed in a number of surface collections and these could be dated. The dates that were as- signed coincided very closely with the chronological order derived from the seriation of the percentage occurrence of pottery types at the habitation sites (table N). This striking correlation is rather strong demonstration that the method of ceramic seriation and the premises on which it is based are sound. Agreement between the seriated site sequence and the historical records was equally good for the Taruma Phase. Here it was possible to identify the archeological remains of two villages visited by Farabee and their position at the end of the Taruma Phase sequence is exactly as it should be. These results do not of course imply that the method of ceramic seriation cannot be misused or the results misinterpreted, but they do suggest that the method itself is a sound approach to the problem of building a detailed, relative chronology for a phase. Ears few techniques for arriving at ar cheological in- ferences are as objective and systematic as pottery type classification and seriation. Consequently, it is easy to go too far in making inter- 344 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 pretations or to be overly cautious and limit conclusions to those clearly supported by the facts. Since only a small fraction of the content of a living culture is preserved in the best archeological record, a conservative attitude means that inferences will be minimal. If archeologists have a goal beyond pure recording, it is necessary for them to push the data as far as possible in the direction of interpreta- tion. From this point of view, the principal question is at what point this effort ceases to be scientific reasoning and becomes unwarranted speculation. The difficulty of arriving at criteria for distinguishing legitimate from unwarranted inference is illustrated by the evidence of trade re- lations between aboriginal groups in British Guiana. The ethno- graphic reports are consistent in describing extensive and intensive in- terchange of products. A quotation from Im Thurn will serve as an illustration : To interchange their manufactures the Indians make long journeys. The Wapianas visit the countries of the Tarumas and the Woyowais, carrying with them canoes, cotton hammocks, and now very frequently knives, beads, and other European goods; and, leaving their canoes and other merchandise, they walk back, carrying with them a supply of cassava-graters, and leading hunting dogs— all which things they have received in exchange for the things which they took. The Macusis visit the Wapiana settlements to obtain graters and dogs, for which they give ourali-poison and cotton hammocks; and they again carry such of these graters and dogs as they do not themselves require, together with more of their own ourali and of their cotton hammocks, to other Indians—to the Arecunas, who give in return balls of cotton or blow-pipes; or to the True Caribs, who pay in pottery. In this way, travellers with goods and with news constantly pass from district to district. [1883, p. 273.] When the archeological records of the Taruma Phase and Rupu- nuni Phase are examined for evidence of this contact, the results are very disappointing for an obvious reason: the items traded are pre- dominantly of a perishable nature whereas the archeological remains are confined to objects of pottery and stone. Only one Rupununi Phase site produced a few sherds of Taruma Phase vessels, and no Rupununi Phase items were found at any Taruma Phase site. No archeologist would feel justified in inferring from this slim evidence that communication between these two groups was close and continu- ous. A similar contrast exists between the ethnographically recorded frequency of contact between the Taruma and the Wai Wai and the absence of any archeological indication of contact with the possible exception of a dubious hint of acculturation in pottery decoration. On the other hand, the archeological record sometimes clearly sup- ports an inference of close and continued intercommunication. The large quantity of trade pottery of Mabaruma Phase origin in sites of the Abary Phase and the Koriabo Phase is an example. The con- clusion that these three Phases were contemporary and engaged in ex- evens ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 345 tensive trading with each other is so abundantly documented that it can be presented as a fact rather than an inference. The difference between the coastal and interior situations can be summed up in one point: in the former area pottery figured as a major item of trade, in the latter it did not. This contrast epitomizes the problems inherent in making archeo- logical inferences. The small proportion of the original constellation of traits that survives in the archeological record is a fact that no archeologist is allowed to forget. However, it is also important to recognize that surviving traits may not maintain their original rela- tive importance. As in the case of the Taruma Phase sherds from a Rupununi Phase site, a small clue may reflect a situation of major significance and long duration. Any analysis of affiliations or recon- struction of routes of movement depends on magnifying and distill- ing such vague and tenuous bits of evidence. Even if ethnographic and historical facts can be cited in support, the interpretation may not be proved. Drawing of archeological inference becomes a tight- rope walk balanced betweeen the abysses of excessive scientific cau- tion and excessive creative imagination. Too conservative an ap- proach will miss important ideas that may guide or stimulate future work. Too free speculation will produce interpretations that are divorced from reality or cannot be checked by anthropological tech- niques. Avoidance of the extremes becomes easier when the body of cultural theory developed by other branches of anthropology is used to guide and evaluate archeological inferences. The benefits of such application accrue not only to archeology but to anthropology as a whole. The integration of archeological evidence on British Guiana with other kinds of data helps to place this part of South America in a realistic light. In a world view, the position of the Guianas today with regard to population density, economic development or political influence is certainly marginal. In the first few centuries after the discovery of America, however, expectations ran high. The early explorers spoke in glowing terms of the potential of the “rich Em- pire” and the “large and beautiful country” of Guiana. A quotation from Ralegh will illustrate their enthusiasm: The Empire of Guiana is directly East from Peru towards the Sea, and lieth under the Equinoctial line, and it hath more golde than any part of Peru, and as many or moe great Cities than ever Peru had when it flourished most: it is governed by the same lawes, and the Emperour and people observe the same religion, and the same forme and policies in government as were used in Peru, not differing in any part: and I have bene assured by such of the Spaniards as have seene Manoa the Imperial Citie of Guiana, which the Spaniards call El Dorado, that for the greatnesse, for the riches, and for the excellent seat, it farre exceedeth any of the world, at least of so much of the world as is knowen 346 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 to the Spanish nation: it is founded upon a lake of salt water of 200. leagues long like unto Mare Caspium. And if we compare it to that of Peru .. ., it will seeme more than credible . . . because we may judge of the one by the other. [Ralegh, 1811, p. 1238.] During the 17th and 18th centuries, European powers fought to gain control of the region, inspired in part by the tales of El Dorado. However, when exploration dissolved these tales into mythology and colonization revealed the harsh realities of exploiting the tropical lowlands, attention was turned to more promising lands and the Guianas sank into obscurity. In the 20th century, experts have been sent by the United Nations and other organizations to analyze the problems and potentialities and to suggest means of furthering eco- nomic development. Their reports are not very encouraging (e.g., Evans, 1939). Against the argument that this history is an accident, reflecting only the whims of fate or of mankind, there are two kinds of evidence. One is embodied in this book, which shows that in pre-Kuropean times the Guianas occupied a position similar to the one they hold today. They were far removed from the centers of New World civilization, and basic inventions and discoveries reached them not only centuries but millennia after their introduction to the western coasts of the continent. Once agriculture replaced hunting and wild food gather- ing, the foundation was laid for the kind of development that brought dense populations and elaborate sociopolitical systems elsewhere. In the Guianas, however, the primitive pattern of small, semipermanent villages and simple, kinship-based societies was never superseded. Historical records of the post-European period refute the implica- tion that this failure to reach a higher level of cultural development is the result of the marginal geographical position occupied by the Guianas with reference to the centers of New World civilization. With reference to Europe, the Guianas were more accessible than southern South America or western North America during several centuries. For a long time they were on a main trade route that sent ships to the mouth of the Amazon, then along the coast to Trinidad and the Caribbean Islands before turning homeward. When transportation was exclusively by water, their geographical position was ideal in terms of accessibility or proximity to the centers of civilization. The fact that nothing came of this suggests that geographical marginality was not the crucial factor in the pre-Columbian situation either. If population composition, accessibility to centers of civilization, and economic conditions are all variables between the aboriginal and the modern situation, none of them can be used to explain the fact that the Guianas then and now have remained underdeveloped in com- parison to other parts of South America. The explanation must lie Eva d 3 es ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 347 in some condition constant through time and directly related to ex- ploitation of the region by man. The most obvious factor is the en- vironment, and since agriculture is generally acknowledged to be the foundation of cultural development, the agricultural potential of the environment would seem to be particularly significant. It has been argued (Meggers, 1954, 1957) that the combination of temperature and rainfall characteristics of the tropical lowlands of South America is unfavorable to intensive agricultural exploitation. In the case of British Guiana, it has been shown further (Hvans, 1939) that the soils found in most parts of the colony are of low initial fertility, making intensive agricultural exploitation even more difficult. These data strongly suggest that the environment is crucial in explaining the secondary role of the Guianas throughout their occupation by man. The main purpose of this report has been the reconstruction of pre- history in a small portion of northeastern South America, rather than the solution of a complex theoretical problem like the interrelationship between environmental potential and cultural development. How- ever, the effort to explain the cultural complexes that were found forces us to consider it. It is important to recognize that archeology can make a major contribution to the solution of this kind of problem by providing time perspective in which the current ecological picture can be compared with others previously existing in the same area so that the variables can be sorted out and the constant factors isolated for investigation. For such a comparison to be made, the archeologi- cal data must be supplied in a form that geographers and other inter- ested scientists can use. Unfortunately, archeologists have not always done their best to supplement detailed description of sites and arti- facts with synthesis and interpretation of the kind that nonspecialists require. The contribution that our science is in a position to make is clear. We might take as our motto a statement once made by Patrick Henry, who pointed out that “I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided and that is the lamp of experience. I know of no way of judging the future but by the past.” | 513186—60——24 LITERATURE CITED BALDWIN, RICHARD. 1946. The Rupununi record. British Guiana Bureau of Publicity and In- formation. Georgetown. BirpD, JUNIUS. 1946. The archeology of Patagonia. Jn Handbook of South American In- dians. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 148, vol. 1, pp. 17-24. BRETT, W. H. 1852. The Indian tribes of Guiana; their condition and habits. New York. 2d edition, London, 1868. Butt, AUDREY J. 1958. Secondary urn burial among the Akawaio of British Guiana. Timehri, No. 387, pp. 74-88. Carter, J. EH. L. 1943. An account of some recent excavations at Seba, British Guiana. Amer. Antiq., vol. 9, pp. 89-99. CARTOGRAFIA HISTORICA DE VENEZUELA. 1946. Cartografia Historica de Venezuela, 1635-1946. Caracas. COLONIAL OFFICE. 1952. Report on British Guiana for the year 1950. London. CRUXENT, JOSE M., and Rousse, IrviNG. 1959. An archeological chronology of Venezuela. Soc. Sci. Monogr. 7, Pan American Union, Washington, D.C. Dupouy, WALTER. 1958. Dos piezas de tipo paleolitico de la Gran Sabana, Venezuela. Boletin del Museo de Ciencias Naturales, Tomos 2-3, Nos. 1-4, pp. 95-102, Caracas. DuTHIE, D. W. 1939 a. Report on the soils of British Guiana south of the 5th parallel, and of the North-west District. Submitted to the Refugee Hconomic Corporation of New York. 'Typewritten copy on file in the Library of the American Geographical Society, New York. 1939 b. 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Mimeo- graphed. FANSHAWE, D. B. 1952. The vegetation of British Guiana: a preliminary review. Imperial Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, Institute Paper No. 29. F'ARABEE, WILLIAM C. MS. Field Notebook 22. (Unpublished; dated 1913; on file at the Uni- versity Museum, Philadelphia. ) MS. Field Notebook A and Notebook 2. (Unpublished; dated 1914; on file at the University Museum, Philadelphia.) 1916. Some South American petroglyphs. Jn Anthropological Essays pre- sented to William Henry Holmes, pp. 88-95, Holmes Anniversary Volume, Washington, D.C. 1917. A pioneer in Amazonia: the narrative of a journey from Manaos to Georgetown. Bull. Geogr. Soe., Philadelphia, vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 57-108. 1918. The central Arawaks. University Museum Anthrop. Publ. vol. 9, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 1924. The central Caribs. University Museum Anthrop. Publ., vol. 10, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Forp, JAMES A. 1949. Cultural dating of prehistoric sites in Virii Valley, Peru. Jn Surface Survey of the Viri Valley, Peru, by James A. Ford and Gordon R. Willey, Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 43, part 1, pp. 31-87. 1954. On the concept of types. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 56, pp. 42-54. GOETHALS, PETER. MS. Archeological reconnaissance of coastal Suriname. On file at Depart- ment of Anthropology, Yale University, New Haven. GONZALEZ, ALBERTO REx. MS. The stratigraphy of Intihuasi Cave, Argentina, and its relationships to early lithic cultures of South America. Ph. D. dissertation, Co- lumbia University, New York, February 1959. HOoLpRIDGE, DESMOND. 1933. Pindorama (Jungle—to you!). New York. HouiMes, W. H. 1912. Stone implements of the Argentine littoral. In Early Man in South America by AleS Hrdlitka, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 52, pp. 125-151. HomeEtT, MARCEL. 1953. Das “Steinerne Album.’ Natur und Kultur, vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 2-18. Im TuHuRN, E. F. 1888. Among the Indians of Guiana. London. 1884. Notes on West Indian stone implements; and other Indian relics (illustrated). Timehri, vol. 3, pp. 103-137. IXRIEGER, ALEX D. 1944. The typological concept. Amer. Antiq., vol. 9, pp. 271-288. 1949. Analysis and interpretation. Jn Newell, H. Perry, and Krieger, Alex D., “The George C. Davis Site, Cherokee County, Texas.” Mem. No. 5. Soc. Amer. Archeol., Amer. Antiq., vol. 14, pp. 57-241. 350 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 177 Larco Hoye, RAFAEL. 1948. Cronologia arqueolégica del norte del Pert. Hacienda Chiclin, Trujillo, Peru. LEVI-STRAUSS, CLAUDE. 1948. The Nambicuara. Jn Handbook of South American Indians, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 148, vol. 3, pp. 361-369. LIPKIND, WILLIAM. 1948. The Caraja. In Handbook of South American Indians, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 148, vol. 3, pp. 179-191. Meraeers, Berry J. 1954. Environmental limitation on the development of culture. Amer. An- throp., vol. 56, pp. 801-824. 1957. Environment and culture in the Amazon basin: an appraisal of the theory of environmental determinism. Jn Studies in Human EKcol- ogy, Soe. Sci. Monogr. 3, Pan American Union, pp. 71-89. Meccers, Betty J., and CLirrorD EVANS. 1957. Archeological investigations at the mouth of the Amazon. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 167. MS. Archeological investigations along the Rio Napo, eastern Ecuador. (Manuscript in preparation.) Nery, F. dk SANTA-ANNA. 1901. The land of the Amazons. Transl. by George Humphery. London. OrsSICH, ADAM, and ORSSICH, HLFRIEDE STADLER. 1956. Stratigraphic excavations in the sambaqui of Araujo II, Parana, Brazil. Amer. Antiq., vol. 21, pp. 357-869. Osaoop, CORNELIUS. 1946. British Guiana archeology to 1945. Yale Univ. Publ. Anthrop., No. 36. RALEGH, WALTER. 1811. The discoverie of the large, rich, and beautifull empire of Guiana, with a relation of the great and golden citie of Manoa (which the Spaniards call El Dorado) ... Performed in the yeere 1595... 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Journal of an expedition from Pirara to the Upper Corentyne and from thence to Demerara. Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. 15, pp. 1-104. SPAULDING, ALBERT C. 1953. Statistical techniques for the discovery of artifact types. Amer. Antiq., vol. 18, pp. 8305-318. VAN BERKEL, ADRIAAN. 1948. Travels in South America between the Berbice and Essequibo Rivers and in Surinam, 1670-1689. Translated and edited by W. E. Roth, 1925. Guiana Edition, No. 2, 3d Impression. The “Daily Chron- icle,’ Ltd., Georgetown, British Guiana. VeERRILL, A. HYATT. 1918 a. Prehistoric mounds and relics of the North West District of British Guiana. Timehri, vol. 5 (3d series), pp. 11-20. 1918 b. A remarkable mound discovered in British Guiana. 'Timehri, vol. 5 (3d series), pp. 22-25. WALTER, H. V. 1958. Archaeology of the Lagoa Santa region, Minas Gerais (Rock-Shelter Pre-Columbian Indians). Sedegra, Rio de Janeiro. \ ee » a te A me yk Leas | Varia + eas i a | A an fang deine i a a al ’ rion ft Re cdl Het Wem Bie 6 My iy) uf thy Hy! Me ay ie ih) He “AH fh. Nt r ‘) ie uc } petit ah hana rh 5 ay OTT i yt ti iF Hanh a Aba f sie Fiat . me) Lak rail Tite Vane rit My Nal ati tf Det SA 4 bide AN ian nth ; [ear Phan ta y % bs ‘1 aay Mi i) (i Foe vie ra are ants rey iNet a: ven ‘ti wi aptinenian ¥} ae i “py 1208, STORE: 10H. AYO i ALIA of ' adit i oat iti? tradi anne uel A ciP SW Sa * reat Be ‘yy, Coa Piast asi wart iy | H bes jcc Seat a aoa ‘ned neat | ie ane sity 20H ae arte eal hi i Nee he ie j Woy i : (iy) gl yeh ih ay 11 pricy Ta shy nb } vey ip oH ii - A iM tf agg opin a4 a iit Bla : tse cs ori AM yew vas: ad T Bal 4 Hint at Sanaa dataanih sie nih hey etokt hi Po ang Den anturders. Oece AINE alestih ive Wr ai ed Vth i ue wou ras Oe a nd, ‘i goldinet honey BME oh TS fe lth ident, CoM hy ie wh! lil i Y eel Cycle ay, mitt 2 YH na ei hae ih . pirenage law LOS. 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AY PUNT it A i A he ah * ) i frokyrionsy or ie 4, sh oe an if 358 ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Bvans and Meggers] ayyeuey 10 9} UOWITT 4styos “voy IN] “U9 GZ-0 [9A9'T uapprur TOYS 21D VAVLY :8-N oysopuy Jo oyTuomyyT ayy euLeY qSIqOS “Bory “W19 GOT-ZL [PA0T oysopuy O}_C) & & |BB| 5 @ |BS) ¢ & n ee| 8 Oe) a "UD ZL-F% [OAO'T UsPPIU [[9Ys T[eqeulaey 9[}40T -9-N ee ISDYI DYDIY ay} fo saps yo JoLLaIDW YI0L puv “janap ‘apis fig spovfrz1v auojs fo houanbasg— | Gav, (68-I SHTGVL) XIGNUddV 9ysopuy Q I =) re S Oo oO ° & l89| 2 NE EA| op as| 3 Soe Pilg “UID $Z-0 [9AD'T ayIsepuy 93003 JO [estyO ‘$[00} 9100 opeUl-UOTssnd1Eg edA} oust [Bull. 177 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 304 Sete (SaaS (Peace FA || SReraa| Fesea| (tcnace > | ects acest (mee feacsmacie| [Sei \Secareeem | eestor jemmen ee OM (incl |r eee [alee [Meee (GE |felee | ea pe (I bam meal fe ae eB se pe Ee ee 9ysed pchanea| Nee bce she lis S eg | ea! i ar | etna la | Wee eG ag ae || lem (meme | as (emia) |" > Ua ae Ueeeee| leeemmcn |= pr | roe | on | ete il ee | ane ekeiemee | Seay eS) Ceiuekh so See Se ee. ouB/L wee |b i [a | eal a> as Ta aa mae | oe aD — gam ec ac ge | crim | | ape =a | ee eee | [| ee eee es Sey a 19D :s[00} OYBY 9peul-uoTssno10g ae na| ase eoalee cal eoe a oeealeee 4 MeN cee sana ec a |e Seah a sad cae | ac | ee Conoproniuay Se cee | fee | eect |e fgets ee | feet areca ine] teen tose gee |operates | ya el Fete fa | ei | tat nel S| te ee OS a eee 9U0}SLOWIUIG FT | eats |e el meg pee | fia Pe en | mn ee | Pi | Ente Pete fre fet eine | aera | tet Latte | feta |e | as | ee | ae foe eee ee euojsiomUeYy-1ed doy OH ee | agains Sta | ae am | ta een | esos oe ie Bed Pcl" area aaa to cals PAP vs Ae aired Tee. ge SSS eee ee Jeddoyo S100} 0109 OPBUI-UOISsnd10g oyISopUy ayIsopury as oyIsopuy a1tyeuLey Io oyruowLyy aqeurey Jo Oy WOWVT eyeuiey Io oyUOMIVT oi enIEy Jo oyTuomMVT JSTYOS “BOTTA 4sIyos “Roly qsIyos “BolyAy 4styos “BorTjAT od 49 oRIV “Ud SST—-00T [0A9'T “Ud DOT-EL [9A0'T “Hd ¢L-0G [9A9'T “Ud 09 -G¢ [9AO'T penuyu0g—ueppim [fos YD VYBLY °8-N ponurjyu0g—asvyq yn] p ay] fo saps yo ]DIUaIDUL YIOL puD “Jaaa) ‘aps fq spovfizLo auozs fo firuanbasy— | ATAV], 30 ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Evans and Meggers] .. 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(atatetatare Dateietciee! [orereernns [eerie Eeceeeiann |S tcccianens einen ESSE [nS ESS) HSSSSSSSSSSS SSSI SSS nS pas|ouy oqepioyy ee eo Se ae at Se Baa | Sa | lea fe il ea ee | ee | OS | eel aa | ooo oe Pee Reo an ca ey inal ce :A10440d opel, ------|------]------]------]------]------]------]------]------]------]------]------|------]------]------]------ O°G Get esa [5 seal ton sae DO] BODO EDO TISSETOEL Gi ------|------|------]------ 6° |e Speacesiaaa (Speman! | essa | cml | eal Iecsuscsasl(Gecoccacses eet [meee [Gece | ease ar ce a eR Hiro 8g ICUS Ssenan SScacr PT Ie 92 Ihe. Tose ce Gala, (OI te re | 3 ipo |! 256 iC Lees | peeeea tar SS ene ener a ere Oa DORy soscie||sotaaae ade me {le Bice Gl SL Sh 166 Le: — WS ier 1 OVGe ec. tea emaay | eimeaee || eae | Pisin | meee seinen ee eee DUSOM ae rns ------]------ 6° Zz Sao esear= | hence lem LY | oP | il 8 | Pate Mt) ji elin [le | = ee POLOpONN- pus posfouy tqeaiemy, wnnnn-|-=---- | se cei (etna |i | Ae cae (aa lf srg Se seal a bec free [ect aap eee eet Cre CTT ye eke ~-----|------]-2-=--]-7----]------]------ BS }r Pee ie bet o> 1 os*| er | On fig © [eres |rsesn-[=-=2--]-2<222|-=--="---=--gaqnoun gy: pas paso) MERMATOST. :sodA4 poyel00oq BCS | Sees | eet aes Totes ee Viel |Seeieaea Veal (ieee (lites aime (acetal Weise |Seihaai| (nsseateal bauuisas, | sigs (tao cele sie youn So2505 L SF Gre |e oan fie Fcc | BG pen | Sis ATs PCeRG PSS. EES TAIT (OLS ok, Ole Oe iter es |19 > |i aisenss ou bane aap eUleldeold oon Sass I Te 6 SENG PAG | VE SICS RO) G8 SES Skee PE tee PR er eal] Soi ep ee ere eee meme UTC TePOnO OORT =a P 9° | 1S | Oe | OST | See] 6h | Tee] 42 | 928] LIT | S'eh | LTS | 8'6E] OIL | 9:2e} G2 [PB ptt oped osososopy aaeeee fl | 0°99 | OF | Tes | 466 | OST | 42 | Set | te | Set] Op | SVT] 9 | S02] 99 | Lb] FE Pm] Bp cccccreoooeeo- reg eunegeyy ssod Aq uyelg tg Q sa] Q rg Q ia] a ye] Q yc) Q ty Q yc} Qa rg jo) rd Q PTELETEIEIEIZIELELELEI Ele ee leliiel al: Boece | Fee ee | 8 ee be | Bo ees ee ee Peele i) & S © iJ SS > J ia] is rc re ro rs oS i 3 rc re 8 ——— | — sod 4q Ai09}0q “m0 2g “TD £ “TO OT “TH g souying eozjIng eoujng | —FzoAeT | —9TJoaoq | —SfoaAoy | —O JoaoT Tm9 eoujing eovjing &0-N &3-N I0-N T 4D :02-N 6I-N 8I-N ZI-N penuryu0gj—asnyd vwuningnyy 2Y4} fo 89718 7D suotzwanoxa o21ydvib10.198 PUD 8U02;997]09 aonfuns ut sadhy fizayod fo fouanbesy—e AIAV, Hvans and ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 371 TABLE 4.—Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at sites of the Mabaruma Phase Total Sites in seriated sequence (fig. 48) Formi | Form2 | Form3 | Form4 moe per evel N-12, Surface and Level 0-8 em____--------__------_- 4 1 Dia BVGlG-10 Cll les sc scanc ek ca neae sete saa taca re eaeensns cal beacecceas|secotecess| speedy eet aSee N-12, HOV GWG 24 CMM sara s ae ne tee a ee ees e neuen cncos ce laceseaece | Seccccaune 3 3 rE UOVelos-Ge Clis a= 2. jo kone sce c cone cocceous 1 2 N-12, Wevelid2—-40 cms nso aoa Soke nee concn cee Dillcect eee Se |e ee 1 on Surface and Level 0-8 cm____._----..__-_--___- 1 4 N-20, Level 24-32 (ita (eee pata sete ou senneen) ete gaia ai Ai | ee SS (2 pase re) | See ee ee 2 SRS DAT AeL UST Gi Cc oa eee ee eed Sep ale ete Se eae ee ; (arene ee oy [sek SES ne 1 INES CET a) DLS Cc | eee lS ES Ce ES) (ee ee ee Be | ee ee oe 3 3 IN=IEE UOVElla0—66 CMin sect acnsaseeecusanacs cc seweesa|t scccwacesPecackcecsfesesouceed 1 1 N-13, Hee ye) 86 —CO Cee See ee ee ae ae ee | See e oe eaccenee es [oaeaccde se | Seeteeet eee testa se ney TEAS EY US ittiaoar RR aS BLE eS Sled ek i eel (ei maeaael Onc RUiaNY ehctan iia. Via ie aay | dei a N-1) Teal [5=2 hCG aa ae Ra ed ee eg age (ee meee |e ee ee 1 VN Fea aN TE WT SS SI Sep i iter epee gee a | ec beeen eb ee! | eS See eee wer Se See N-1, NGGVG lite S0 CIN eee se eee enn ee re Eee oP soba eae pi ae ees N-1; NGVGMA te CIN omen ast ates Hoa cob neocon eno soca ibeemotee oe (eee wenee| comes as [Bawa doce N-22 ING CT ca lie eae ae leant ah eae PRs ie al | hemi | ene eine, SR | pet ee gieemeniey |beenete SS ><) ieee ee T INSLE Mevel\ 0-20 tunis: se saa ast So eos ea ee a ee ee al eee cdc n= 5-2-8 N-11, 1D syst MTA 1) Coherent pe pS Mech os Seca et ela ae | Spee pe ae | | Ses eee eee | eral eee te eee TaBLE 5.—Frequency of decorative motifs of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at sites of the Mabaruma Phase Motif 1: | Motif 2: | Motif 3: | Motif 4: | Motif 5: Sites in seriated sequence Low Sculp- |Adornos—}jAdornos—j Conical } Miscel- Total (fig. 48) relief tured Bar- |Non-Bar-} nubbins | laneous | per level high relief} rancoid | rancoid N-12, Surface and Level 0-8 Cet ey eee. Se ee See 22 (i | == Bal | ae ee | ee es fee 32 N-12, Level 8-16 cm-_.-.-------- OME Moe Eee Bee fh eee eee 3 N-12, Level 16-24 cm-___..------ 20 Ay eee Sea 1 hi eter at 30 N-12, Level 24-32 em_..----_---- 9 Fb) | a RY cy ee ce Sot ree 15 N-12, Level 32-40 cm__.-------- pal | Sse ake ere | OE he aa | I Sl | atte (ea ee ae 4 phe Surface and Level 0-8 pk) ee Se 1 5 io | a Se 2 Bi | Pere phen 9 N20, Level 0-8 cm-.-.---_------ 21 4] | 3 Se ith Sse ee he eee ee 24 N-20, Level 8-16 em.--_-------- 11 Pa | eS | Se Seen eee ae | ee haa 13 BN GG See ees ae ee 39 aly Gi | St ee ed fry) (eS 1 62 N-20, Level 16-24 em-_-____------ 6 3 1 bah Vos Se ae eal ES ae 11 N-20, Level 24-32 cm-_-_.-------- 9 OE cook ee es SEE Senco! 12 N-13, Level 0-15 cm____-------- Tp | Ske tee | 2 5 1 9 N-13, Level 15-30 cm--.-------- 1 7 Saas ll 3 3 20 N-13, Level 30-45 cm-_-_..------- |B eh eee ee | See ee Vg ee ecpetened [Paci eho a 3 N-13, Level 45-60 cm__-._------ 6 0 a eee eee lobe eeeeeene pape ee 7 N-1, Level 0-8 em-_.-.---------- 11 0s | ee ee | Ti De oy | ae See rel fags 13 Tic ESS SAS a ee 2 2 i 1 A Tess 10 Dt EN He 2 SS a a | ete parry | Se Se | Sole i | ae pea ae Poppe emerge | A Se N-4, Level 0-8 em-__..---------- 5 1 1 2 gy eae aati 10 N-1, Level 8-16 cm__._--------- 5 5 jy |S [pie aa es (eal il N-1, Level 16-24 cm-_-_-.-------- 2 3 Dh be eee eee eta a se 1 8 IE ie SE We Ge eS Be ee a Sal | ee ee | Fenn eel fF Re | pe eal | we pl gp a (oe IN=4 evel 16 Git eee ee pee eennns fem e gD | obs S Ee eee ee 1 2 Daye ET Dayka | ee | | ea Se oe es 1 1 N-1, Level 24-32 em-_._--.----- | eel oD es oy eee aoa 4 N-1, Level 32-40 cm_.__-------- yt |e ee yl | Se a eo ee 2 5 N-1, Level 40-48 cm.____--~.----|---------- 2 pg (RS SE al [reel eck Ay 3 IN CUDA IR 3 al ae GL PFT EL ste ee lie! | ea | SE Se ft a cee (en 2 N-1, Level 48-86 cm_.._--------|---------- 1 | et aa at fee el (er ey 2 N-11, Level 0-25 em-_--_-------- ay | ee Se 5 | ae a a ee 4 INS Ii iive vel! 26-50 (Chien ae sees ee en | eee ee Ee ee ee ee eee nn cor Poem eee ae N-11) PO VEL OO Zo, OLN ee Se |e eee are | Deen ase ee eee ee | Peete» ee See Se Se ee ecole ea enon ————_$|—<—<$<_—]—_—__|/ VW“; __ | ————— | —_——_——_—_—_ 372 TABLE 6.—Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Aruka Incised at sites of the Mabaruma Phase BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull., 177 Sites in seriated sequence Form1 | Form2 | Form3 | Form4 | Form5 | Miscel- |Total rims (fig. 48) laneous | per level ———_ | —— | — | N-12, Surface and Level 0-8 em- 3 3 N-12, Level 8-16 cm_...-------- 1 N-12, Level 16-24 em__.-_------ 4 4 1 N-12, Level 24-32 em_.--.------ 1 IN=12; Level 82-40 em leie=sseess ree fos oe a eee N-19, Surface and Level 0-8 em_ 1 N-20, Level 0-8 cm-_-.-.---------- 3 ae Level 8-16 cm_...-.------ 2 1 N-20, Level 16-24 em_..-------- 2 N-20, Level 24-32 em__.-_------ 2 N-13, Level 0-15 em_...-------- : 1 4 3 bo ra to N-13, Level 15-30 cm...-------- N-13, Level 30-45 em______--.-- N=138) seveli45—60 cml 228 28 Bea sa see elt hg be ne ee pr are Salt ee 1 a Level 0-8 cm-__..---_------ 1 to CO DD CO CO et Or ht ST STD OD BT 00 RH Or 0 1 N-4, Level 0-8 em-_.__._-_-_---- 1 N-1, Level 8-16 em_..-_-_------ 1 a -1, Level 16-24 cm_____--_-_-- 3 N-4, Level 8-16 em_.__--_------ 2 N=45 Tevelhl 6-24) ers 2) hee ss bre ee Site Be a ee oS | ae een Se Sel eee N= TeV Glt24—S2) ems Fs Fe Os ene el eee ree eaten 1 IN=1 Hevelisa—40ieris st a8 oS ee a ee ba ern ees 1 N=1; evel 40-48) cmon) 24 so SO a Ne a eee ee ee Do) A oe SY Cee aT DOS RATE FT) EEE EOS | CR Mee oe igey Cae ee) eet p tea tala Mana enen gs foe Gla eA] IN= 15/0 Vell 48-66 Cnn er 9a Rese h tt heh ceo auth asl sr es a 1 IN=11, Level O-265 ern S oe haf eet ot ES eer a SS SSS eae eee N= evel! 26-50) Gm fo oe ee eee ee eee eee ieee eee eee eee ae eed ee IN=DIS LGV): 60975 Cn eee ene ce en ee ee ee Tee eee ee eee ease ss peae aoe | heed TABLE 7.—Frequency of decorative motifs of Aruka Inctsed at sites of the Mabaruma Phase Motif 1: | Motif 2: Motif 4: | Motif 5: Unzoned | Unzoned | Motif 3: | Lines on} Lines on} Totals Sites in seriated sequence (fig. 48) recti- curvi- Zoned |interior of] exterior per linear linear everted | of rims level rims N-12, Surface and Level 0-8 cm_.--------- 3 6 |e ee a 10 7 23 N=12; Level 8-16 em= 22-22-2221. 2-2 =. 2 1 i |S Se 4 if 8 IN=12;; Level’ 16-24 ems 2-2-5 ---b 522. =. 3 1 2 2 10 18 N=l2. Level'24-o2 cenit oo ole eee [ae eer 1 4 2 15 IN-12, Level’ 32-40) ents ios o = Se eee 1 Gl Page ena | Bae pe Bed | Peeper 2 3 N-19, Surface and Level 0-8 cm__--------- 5 bie | Se tO 5 3 14 N=20: Level'0-8 cma) 32 eh ee 1 [i | Seen | Se ee 1 4 6 IN=20;) Level’ S=16) emma oe ese se 4 0m | ee ee Silos ease 8 a Ft Us RR are oe Ps ee mal | wi ee ges ae HU alee, 2 4 Veen 4 6 16 N=20; Level! 16-24 ome ssi aose 2s SEL PUR | kd MPR PA) | Stee se tes oe ils 3 N-20, Level 24-82 cm_.__-.-_..-_--------- UH fe coma | Uae ae Ne) | Sein ee be 1 2 INEI3; Level Q=1hlem= 2224225 lee ee Pj | ees ae ae Se ee 6 1 9 N=13, Level 15-30 ome. 22.----.-1-2--2-2-2 12 1 1 18 5 37 INF-1S; | Lével'd0=-45 em $< 3802 bes PA) [pie eee 1 5 4 12 N-13; Level '45-60soms: Soest tease Ese S22 ja | eee eel | Speers 1 a Net, Level 0-6 em vse 15 yt | Seer | 9B Sade S SaaS! | ieee ecb egt| prey eee 5 Nek epee es ar eee tere sees We ee 1 C bal Pies ee 6 1 cs Ui Sok. de Rcedeneel Eh lil BRS AOS TE SEARS SI | UE esl | Ae Pe |S bof freee te 1 Nes Devel'0-8 em aes 4 Ph Vb ied ealeta) | eledeokiee et bel 1 7 N-1I, Level 8=16 emis Sob cob ese ee 4 WS. 235.5. Poe 4 8 N=}, Level 16-24) amt 2 issn eee 4 2 tetotesce|beeewenes 3 9 INS Dl es Pe SOOO Se ee eee ee ele US | aps Bie oe | Sea al | 5 ee 1 2 N45 Level’ s-18 em. oo esc eee 2 tp | Alek a yy Epes Sarat 3 6 N-4, Level (16-24 em: fo 25522 DN Paes inte Ie ale peed) bc) het ladelidte| [ems ele 2 N=1, Level 24-32 em. Bacher 1 ony se re Lie 1 4 IN=l, ‘Level'a2-40 Cit yi eee ee ne] cen eee | ere oe 1 1 N=, Devel 40-48 cm ts 222 ere cee eS ee re re a lee er ee ere re ere re | a aa ee NS 22. ttc out ueeelenocetneatanwostees 1 Pe pee eed fae tele h n, | ble eae a a 1 N=1, ‘Level 48-66 Cree oe eee oko eee bey (LEE RR be teed 1 2 N=11, Level 0-26 cit 2 252 Soe ie ee ea 4 PR ewe pial Pal be eee ah pape tebe 6 N-11, Level 25-50 em pane e cnet yi | Teeptia aon eT PYAR MES TAP pe Ahold oe a eel ee 1 IN=11 ES VEl 60-7 cine Pest ee ee EE eee cae eee acl ae enamel eeed otal saee asec le Saco neo ee we sees 72 29 6 67 63 237 373 ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA Evans and Meggers] FI-N m9 8-0 [9A0’T “I-N Wd 09-Gh [9A9T “EI-N ULd ZE-FE [9A0T ‘ZI-N Wo ¥G-9T [PAT ‘ZI-N Spuncnereb sr rserebrb- Fea Me ea areas Be tS U0 91-8 1940'T “F-N Se case alle Ceecieaee iit hmetaca| (i) CROs | ecient [ater |) aes |lN) aber | lee g gee ies a cut Re ee el ne WH) ¥G-ST [0A9'T “T-N : : : : oe | epaee-t Sc ReRaaes SO SRR Gee Sh Tee Der IS a bee Ud 9T-8 [242] ‘I-N z I I g | OME tee | es cas ares pes eaceas |r eases | BRET Toko 1 j| be Woes epee Gao ye an Rte ae. Wd 8-0 [9497 “F-N T ; Sonn annene | pennannans | Ressccrons | qe ecSeess | Roos rea na necr ae Seal tao aaa le og tem gr ns Bae ee eee Ee ae eee M10 8-0 [9A9'T “T-N | ue eed | GE Beas eas ea as SERRE DERES Sie eRe SNE CRON ee Le 0 09-SF [9A0'T ‘SI-N T Dh bell So Seana © GaeRRE se ete a Sao MS ae TH GP-0€ [949'T SI-N T ae end || SE EARNEST ERE Or ae Pe eS Ud OS-ST [9497] ‘EI-N phere deitthsn |b + SEEN SABRENT Ey (ey Se Sas Sg Te UI OT-0 [PAO “SI-N Te eae a ines aya eS I eee Sees | Spqesasr st |inessssssq|--a-9reeea| Sess reser eran Gress eye cs esse e Sa eee ent UDC CREO eee ‘00-N Bepeeesrns|app-aieers [armor need | ener kane Serer ance [p= sesteers|ceer ren ren apanecrnne in pe saer een Hceo rn ROgee cei press 7 BS a hie 20 ee ome eee WHO ¥-GT [PA97T hee ae se) eae gh ee ee ee ee ee p= oe) oom mae eee S gy ph aa ee eee rere ee Ee Reed tae Ser One are ae ae Se Re - 3 7 W190 9T-8 1940'T ‘0G-N eae era at pages: ieee T er TE epee eee ate ar ed (ater TST 2 nT a a aad ie nes PSR arp JPR Te Sees EA SED MINT SSS ee a) eer tere ee ee Re CE FI EIS eis a Je aie a (ae al anys ean Leal id able ake 19 8-0 [9AN7T Pus sovjITIG ‘6I-N CS OE IY EN ba a a a lai alee eae as Seas (ae EME REESE Bee eae poe ee WD 0F-ZE [9A9'T ‘ZI-N Ss Mera Sorc Meee eee Z I onan ewnwren|anennonnnn|annnnnannn| 7 eects eae |e bee Sees SESE BS nt ee Se BASIN, PII enna en nnn | ones e cena =| oon een ann | on meen en nn] 5 nnn nnn wee nnn |e nn wn nnn | mmm name | me mmm nnn me en se Ul $Z-9T [9A9'T “ZI-N Seer dai wl fase dees da ce ae eee z ee Rea Gace Wego Seas ge te SE RSE Ce Be In See nideal arp ah a Se Rta Se ER tr Ge a rae OE CHEM SIE Qieie Sst ---|----------|----------]-2----~---]---------- | ---------- | ------ 2+ = [enn nnn nnn | one nnn nnn | enn nnn enna} nnn nn nnn nnn nnnnnnnnonnnnnnnnanennoo--<<"<"-Ty Bf) BAIT PUB BBLING ‘ZI-N [OAT [RAST Zuo | T WIT : Jed soseq| gq ullog | VY UOg | od sWL jUOMMOD/UuOMMOH} FUOT | EUIOT | CUNO, | T UOT (8P °29) sdueNDes pojvlies UI S9jzIg Te10.L oseg oseg 1e10,.L sso'y ssay | |UOMMOD/uOM MOD |u0M MOD |uOmMI0D ee ee al ee ee ee a SSS Ee Se aSDYq DUnungnyy 2Yy} fo says jo UIDIg wayo,OF] fo sadpys jassaa puv ‘9spq ‘wis fo iouanbatsy—'6 AIAV I, Bvans and Meggers] ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 375 TaBLE 10.—Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Kaituma Incised and Punctate at sites of the Mabaruma Phase Sites in seriated N-12, Surface and Level 0-8 cm N-12, Level 8-16 cm N-12; Level! 16-24 cm xe Level 24-32 em N-20; Level 0-8 cm N-20, Level 8-16 cm Miscel- sequence (fig. 48) Form1 | Form2 | Form3 | Form 4 | laneous i es ae ee ee N-20, Level 16-24 cm N-20, Level 24-32 em N-13, Level 0-15 cm N-13, Level 15-30 cm N-13, Level 30-45 cm N-13, Level 45-60 em N-1, ‘Level 0-8 em 14 N-4, Level 0-8 em N-1, Level 8-16 cm Na Level 16-24 em No Level 24-32 cm N-1, Level 32-40 cm N-1, Level 40-48 em N-22 N-1, Level 48-56 cm N-11, Level 0-25 cm N-11, Level 25-50 cm N-11, Level 50-75 cm TABLE 11.—Fre quency of decorative motifs of Kaituma Incised and Punctate at sites of the Mabaruma Phase Motif 1: Motif 2: Motif 3: Lines Lines Areas of Totals Sites in seriated sequence (fig. 48) ending in | alternating] punctates | per level punctates with punctates N-12, Surface and Level 0-8 cm_-_-------_-------------- 15 5 5 25 IN=12> Level'8-16 em 2.5. - 5220 ee oo ok 1 eee ae ae 1 2 IN=1 25 eveliG-24'ons- 45.8 se oe a 18 5 of 30 N-12, Wevelet-o2 CM soso. = te oe Re SS DT) SR aS ee Se 4 16 N-12; evel 32-40 oma: soo ee ee eee (ah Ee ae ES ee |S eee Be 5 N-19, Surface and Level 0-8 cm__.-.-.---.---_-_-.-.-_- P)) ee he eee 2 4 IN=90: evellO-siemis-2- 2. Se et 10 | Sees VS 13 N-20, MeveliS-16 omizs- 22 ee es ee ees | ae eee eee! |e Aa 6 inhi Cg GASES Se GE Eee Oe Or OER EO OF OL Ske BIS tae Be 9 3 4 16 IN=20! Tievell 16-24 om 2.23 oo a ee Be ee 5 N-20, Devel 24-S2)0M 22-5 soe ee oe ct atten ja eee on ee ee ee 2 IN=TS evel 0-10 Cni 2 Ste ee eee ee eee 5 Die ee ee 7 N=18, Level 15-s0\em2--. -- 22-2 oe ae ane 11 6 4 21 IN=tS Level 30-35 emis: 2: 2. cele ie ee 4 Ph) See ee oe 6 IN=136 Dewel45-00.ems-2. 2: 8 eee ee ee 4 7A |e SRS Bl 6 ING IS evel 0-6 CMe 6 See oa ee ee ee ee a ee ee ee INS 14 oe Seb oe toe at tk See et cae ee ee eee INSU ie eee ee ek he ee Oe ee ee ee eS ee IN SAS ibe yell O-R Cit. 5S Se ee an ee aes a oS Se oe Sees |e ee ae 1 INST Le Veli S—1 Gein a3 oo as oo Se a ee SE eS Oe See eee IN-1 evel 16=24 emo. 5. oben he et a ee ee oe Ae Di fr) bees TS A SS ee ee ae Oe ee ee es ee eee ee ce Se ee oe | IN—4S evel'S-16 lems. o2 2) oe ek ee Ae i eee al a ee oe 1 IN=4; evel G=24 Ome so 2 oe a Ee oe Se I ee ie a ie RS el ncetscee N=, Level! 24-S2)emi. 2... 2- a Lj ees ee ee ek if IN=1, evel: 32-40) omibse. 6.05. oes ee Se he oe ee eee eet ee IN TiO Wiel S045 era = eh ee ial he ee ie cee DS a7 ae Soe ae ee a 8 Sn ey (Eee ee | (2 a | seme Sn) (Ee DE PG OT) UR En War ea ae ee RE he Se se a eee Cee | a 2 eee IN=IE, ‘Levelt0=25) cmt 2c. 0°. 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Lan le Sg Zs 4 (elas By dae 2s Sey ln Se nee es SS ef | os th 2 ae TE “U1 ZE-¥Z [940 ‘S-N a eae ta e's Eh ee py Pd ee Dee a ag ers See 9 ne FS ee "WO FZ-OT [9A] ‘S-N Spe tie eee ee a Pee ee Ree el ee ee U1 OT-8 [OAT “9-N Sipe Ee Ae eee | ees oe eel tee Te ee | ee “UH $Z-9T [OAPT 'Z-N sabe stl? ae I Neer ea Bi Saat fea OTS Oke CN z if I De ariel ee ES ead | I 4 7" WD 8-0 [940T 'Z-N Ss Saletan |. 5S et a JAS ts ie SL seal ai Seed | bert, are |S sano [WD ¥Z-9T [OAT *E-N be Beseeas [Rae ara Doe Pll eds Se soa a as | Bs ee | ee | ee Oa | T0 OT-8 [9A9'T *€-N Sie Santee ae ek |p fener Seas Se a a Stee | ee ee | = | ee U9 8-0 [940'T “E-N [@A°] [PAT yed sui | zuiog | { wI0q | 1edsuyI} ~mIOg | EmMI0g | ZmI0g | [ MIOg TPIOL 1830.L (29 *3y) eowenbes p2}e]Jes UT soqtg pesfouy oqeToy Uv eupeg asvyd 0qnr10 yy ay} fo sajis yD pas1ouUy oqnwoy pun umjqg vuriwog fo sadoys jossaa pun wis fo fouanbasy—)], Gav, E d saat ARCHEOLOGY IN BRITISH GUIANA 385 TABLE 19.—Frequency of rim and vessel shapes of Koriabo Scraped at sites of the Koriabo Phase Sites in seriated sequence (fig. 57) Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 | Total rims per level Ia OV GU <8 CUT Same ne ek I ee ee Bl a ee Pe AE De ee EG SEUNG ey a Se a ee es Se ee ae eee een ee eee (feet er./. S \Se ete ae See ToS Bertil dees Sa SS) Se Se eee a eee eel Reena) eee ea en 2 evelO-8\ emis 2 f. 22 2252S s soso necee ewan ouaens 3 1 2 6 LS Gl an ie ee eS eee | See 1 3 IN = 2B VON LG— 24) COO os oe ne ee ame sob omaaeeean namnsaca ae, Die eas 1 US 1 SLED GILGEN 1 3 a Se SS eee Se ee See ee en ee eS a ee ee Deli, LRG 2 ich Ba ys eee ER IE OS) Pe Se Mee) Jes eee yey (eer eee eee AA ee Jeclis L9QuGH 22 Ss?) ans Se Ee as ee a ees: Ee eames eee eee eee Dee meee 2 |! 8 ae Ne rop ETO VOU Ons! CL ee a ee Noses wend bene cecenncn|aecun adeeb EES Ty SS Ut ES LG} 6 ee ee ees een ee ee a a. TABLE 20.—Frequency of rim, base, and vessel shapes of Warapoco Plain at sites of the Koriabo Phase Sites in serlated Total Total sequence (fig. 57) Form 1 | Form 2 | Form 3 | rims per} Base A | Base B | BaseC | bases per level level NEG, OVell O-siert as ek wets ee ale a | eeese a eee ceed 2 2 fa .avaee=c 4 IN-3, Level Sa1S'omt= |. =. sts 3 3 ab (eee peered (See ps2 1 NES Fd bry cls S07 ce RE Se ee eel es ee Se ee : Le (eee! merce eye 1 N-2, Level 0-8 cm__- 6 2 2 10 4 |e nanan da | sae 4 N-2, Level 8-16 em-_- Lg Eee eee 1 6 4) Kae 1 3 NEZweeveliG—24 emt 2 eta SoS ae aoe ae Pl eoenete| eer Se LS 2 N-5, Level 8-16 em_- Cl Pees Set 2 Bil seesee=se>|anncoannse 1 1 N-5, Level 16-24 cm_ ys See erie eee eek 4 ccecsecene| paccenccad [oe ee lesen ts IN=5; Level 24-32 em -|=-2-=2s 52] so ca-ee =|bsaeseccl-|-=-25-5-2 el en eee ee 1 N-7, Level 0-8 em-_-_|---------- 1 5 6 1 (ee eee es ae ee 1 WG WENGE SG Gi et Se a Se ee eee ee Se (ce eee (eae Oe eee eee ee eee ee | ee Notalen 2222 16 3 13 32 14 2 2 18 TaBLE 21.—Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled at sites of the Koriabo Phase Sites in serlated sequence (fig. 57) Motif1 | Motif2 | Motif3 | Motif4 | Motif 5 Total Nea pUevelO-S CMb st at scaaeneseneans| pemee ae neal eee ne om te sees ae eee aoe Seen ooo aes IN=3; Level'S-16\om. . ..2..-..-2---2-2=-=-- SifmacasSsan2|essccesacs Sie sasesssos 11 INS Mevelni6-2% emi 2252222. -52-2 25. =25- 3 0 ee eee Seer 4 IN=2ibevenO-siem- ~~ oo... teteccanes i gl Eee 7 Ree eee 17 IN-2 evels—10.cm — 6.2 3055.5.2 22222525 2 5 ee eee |e Meaeeeeeenienn 3 INSTR USN et | ae a1 Ne ea as Se Se CS ee (eee sao (tae are ee ee ees IN=biplsevelelG.emi= 2522.5. 2 ce ae See eee ee eee ene ee a ee IN=-5; evelniG-24 em. 2. o2.--5.-c252-=- 1 of Eee D7 ee 6 NGG eveliet—e CM: 2.222.522.3222. cE ee Bo ee ee ee eee! (Cae 3 IN Te OVGlO-s8 Orns. 20 222 5 Soot eae 3 ibd (See See Se ee eee 4 Neveuuevene-1G\cm: 2. 5-22-23. 2 Eee oe 1 CS See ol eee eee ee 1 386 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull 177 TABLE 22.—Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Aruka Incised at sites of the Koriabo Phase Sites in seriated sequence (fig. 57) Motif1 | Motif2 | Motif3 | Motif4 | Motif5 Total -—————— | | — | | | IN=3, ‘Levell0-8 em. ..csesbsascacneeeo dena dete ces c| bloc See Ewe ct aes eee eee ee eee NaS pe yell S16 ions See ee eee eeeeoees 1 Dif ceceea So 3 N=3; Deyel16=24 em. 2 oa ae Galeotti 1 2 7 IN=2 evel 028i Cm = Sea ee ee ee ee eee tal Pane EY 7 1 9 N-2. Level 816:em. 2222.1 ee 3 Ma TER eae P28 3 1 9 Nao evelilé=24 emi. ot. hoses er ed 1! [eeeeseeee = oe | ee Lj. 2gatbse 2 N-6, evel 8716.0m. 2 2b bee hehehe cewee et eae La ccc ccene le eae IN=6; evel lG-24 emi ete ee 2 1 1 I (eee) eed a3 Fo 4 IN=6; eyel 24-32. emis 552 oe le Se 1 pil es 2 N= Level0=8 emis sla 5.2. a eee ey Gallia a Seo 2 [=a 2 IN-7, evel: S=16iems: 22-28 ee a Ee a ee La 2 ee | eee oe 2 2 TABLE 23.—Frequency of decorative motifs of trade sherds of Kaituma Incised and Puncetate at sites of the Koriabo Phase Sites in seriated sequence (fig. 57) Motif 1 Motif 2 Motif 3 Total IN=3,vevel (0-8 em! 20222220205. i sos he A ee ee 2 ee ee N-3, Level 8-16 em_.-.-.-..----.....--.- IN=3, Leveli16-24 emis. 5. 22253-52552 Poco a ee A ee ee N-2, Level 0-8 cm_____. N-2, Level 8-16 cm__ N-2, Level 16-24 cm_ N-5, Level 8-16 em_- N-5, Level 16-24 cm_ N-5, Level 24-32 cm. N-7, Level 0-8 cm-_-- N-7,; Level8=16 om 22) 3. 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Le 1 re ee S-H phe 77 na | Sey oes PE | eer 19 pada al | Sete (atpeaaamretaeayy [Reman rly alers 2 aaa ise agg | [cat a|h cs Sle|(o Ra ee St Sal elie eae ey bent Cll tal me 96 es| ae em eee ae | | ee 681 g epee | | amemoegers| (Saanae Ser | "15 ¥ oe oe ee el ee oa ym SO UGE (981 bY) aauanbas papnisas Ul 9}1s U017D719DFT OVS TOI eseq O Wiog | q MIOg | Y WIOY | sSpsloys 18104 peg gmi0g | Guo, | FUMIO, | E€WIOT | ZMIOg | T MI0T eS 1810, eseg eseg eseg 1810,L, wiry |-ssepouq]| yessoa | fossoA | TossoA | JeSssoA |} [asseA | [ossoA aspygq vunundny ay} fo sazis 3p winjg nynuny fo sadvys jassaa pup ‘aspg ‘wis fo fouanbaty—'gg ATAVY, [Bull 177 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 418 eseq | QO mIOg | g WO, | Y MIOg 1870, oseg eseg eseg ig ne ae ee I a a Se edaeee-— -- BO, Rina eae a: Nl RRR Serials! pres enase ne aces sere ess'=-p OSU eee SaanGagansranasRaeSaes=SHtrsoy oH gel OW Smee Doin TTS a TIRE Skee Se etic net a ee ee eee en ae 5 Wi ce etl: | ae en ani re eel mapa anima (eal a> [NAS BS ae Dea RS cog Tas f 8ans hiajauag Ree Sak te Ae See ewes re A | suaeeceoere age -H PeeeH Ene oe sae cape 1e-H g fe et oe tei nan ae aes et Spe RCT wee ewe wenn | - - ee ee ee i tater einem re 1 ' ' 1 ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 = “~ VY re AN 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ! ' 1 too) Re eae ent 1 ' ' 1 1 t ‘ 1 i) 1 ‘4 i 8 me ic a) % Soul ce« te toe Tht ' ' 1 1 ' 1 ' ' ' 1 FH) Var 4 wit (rer Rist Rowe tt ail Sif 1 ' ' 1 1 1 ' 1 ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ' ' ast mam ON ’ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' ’ ' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' bt N ee “~ "0-8 ae | eke | eater facie || ree wh | pe veseeees |ft ge Pa Ls Sakae | fh oem I [63 3 Sonn peor apace "7771 0aRy ‘0c-H Np a Bee cease IT 6-1 9 ae ee 4h eee: pee g Ee. eee eee cau es lee 7 sea raeeg) a sb ones bre eee [peices a Sepgead Ge E eI par toenaeee pine ease re gis Sou ae aR PREETI HO Na traees Spe eed ee eee ree ees HL SE ee So ore ABD ADGaEL aouanbas pajnrsas Uy 89718 UOLIDILQDTT 8 fesse acta | eect Steels) [it SERS | Pe aera | (ee ese | ate ester ays WOIy sp10y8 [8104 pIeg gmiog | gwmi0og | #mI0q | EMIOT | Z WIOT [e10.L wig |-tssepuq | jesse, | yessaA | [essoA | [esseA | JessoA OHS aspyd tunundny ay} fo sajis yp unig wunundny fo sadvys jassaa pun ‘aspq ‘wis fo houanbasy—6g ATAV], BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BUELEETIN 177 PEATE T Travel by foot on the Rupununi savanna. a, Emerging from the forest surrounding R-21. b, Descending the southern slope of the Kanuku Mountains. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 2 ‘Travel by horseback on the Rupununi savanna. a, Southern Pakaraima Mountains en route to Tipuru. 6, Fording a marsh at the foot of the Pakaraima Mountains. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 3 oF. ee a ‘ae ad ‘Travel by Fordson truck and Land Rover on the Rupununi savanna. a, Testing a creek bed for fording. 6, Stuck in a mudhole. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE Fe Pera Bale ~ te oe eee ys Wats a ne bo Old and new forms of transportation. a, Hauling Rupununi Phase jars from R-34 and R-35 on an ox cart. 5, A British Guiana Airways C-47 plane at Gunn’s Strip near the upper Essequibo River. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 5 Expedition housing. a, The church-schoolhouse at Tipuru in the southern Pakaraima Mountains. 0, British Guiana official Government Rest House at Koriabo Northwest District. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 6 Facilities in the upper Essequibo. a, An overnight camp of waterproof nylon tarps and palm thatch shelter. 0, Enjoying Wai Wai hospitality by eating pepper pot and cassava bread. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 7 Travel by watercraft. a, A Wai Wai dugout on the Kassikaityu River. b, A Carib dugout on the Barima River. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 8 x Projectile points of the preceramic, lithic horizon. a, Ireng River, Rupununi District. b-d, Cuyuni River, Mazaruni District. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 9 The Northwest lowlands. a, View of Kumaka Hill from Hosororo Hill across the lowlands bordering the Aruka River. 6, View looking southeast from the summit of Hosororo Hill, with the Aruka River in the foreground. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 10 Choppers: percussion-made core tools of the Alaka Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE Olas eu Blades: percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase. 11 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 12 Picks: Percussion-made flake tools of the Alaka Phase. a-h, Large. i-p, Small. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 13 Type sherds of Wanaina Plain, Alaka Phase. Note the crushed shell temper visible on the surface of sherds e, g, and h, and the holes left from leached shell temper in a, 5, d, and f. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 14 oo aS 1g TAL baie M-1: Mabaruma Headquarters, a habitation site of the Mabaruma Phase. a, General view showing the main street and government buildings over the central part of the site. b, Excavation of Cut 1 in the front yard of the guest house. Osgood’s excavations in 1944 were to the right of the two-story building. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 15 Habitation sites of the Mabaruma Phase. a, N-13: Hobodeia. b, N-14: Hobodeia School. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 16 Ce {| 2 CM Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 1: low relief, Mabaruma Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 17 Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled Motif 2: high relief, Mabaruma Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 18 Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 3: Barrancoid adornos, Mabaruma Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 19 Type sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barrancoid adornos, Mabaruma Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 20 Sherds of Akawabi Incised and Modeled of the Mabaruma Phase recovered from sites of the Koriabo Phase. a-f, Motif 1: low relief. g—h, Motif 2: high relief. 7-7, Motif 4: non-Barrancoid adornos. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 21 Type sherds of Aruka Incised, Mabaruma Phase. a-b, Motif 1: unzoned, rectilinear. c-f, Motif 2: unzoned, curvilinear. g—1, Motif 3: zoned incisions. j-/, Motif 4: bands of incised lines on interior of everted rims. m-—o, Motif 5: lines on exterior of rims. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 22 Cc Aruka Incised bowl from M-1; Motif 2: unzoned, curvilinear. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 23 | e b : & o d g | aa gers Sherds of Mabaruma Phase decorated types recovered from sites of the Koriabo Phase. a-g, Kaituma Incised and Punctate. h-k, Aruka Incised. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 24 f g Type sherds of Hosororo Plain, Mabaruma Phase. a-d, Rims. e-f, Annular base. g, Flat pedestal base. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 25 | O32 CM aad Type sherds of Hotokwai Plain, Mabaruma Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 26 Type sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase. a, c—h, Motif 1: incised lines ending in punctates. 6, Motif 1 combined with an adorno of Akawabi Incised and Modeled, Motif 4: non-Barrancoid adornos. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 27 € 2 CM ea h Type sherds of Kaituma Incised and Punctate, Mabaruma Phase. a, Motif 2: incised lines alternating with punctates. gj, Motif 3: areas of Ppunctates bounded or divided by incised lines. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 28 Type sherds of Koberimo Plain, Mabaruma Phase. a-e, Rims. 3, g-i, Particles of the mica temper sparkle on the surfaces. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 29 Type sherds of Mabaruma Incised, Mabaruma Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 30 Type sherds of Mabaruma Plain, Mabaruma Phase. a, d-e, Rims. c, Annular base. f, Large particles of waterworn sand temper visible on surfaces. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BUEEERING1 77, PEATE, 31 e N-7: Warapoco Mission, a habitation site of the Koriabo Phase. a, View of the site from the water’s edge. 0b, A boulder on the bank of Warapoco Creek at the foot of the site, used for grinding. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 32 Type sherds of Barima Plain, Koriabo Phase. a, Body sherd. b-e, Rims. d-g, Cariapé temper visible on surfaces. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 33 2 CM Type sherds of Koriabo Incised, Koriabo Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 34 Type sherds of Koriabo Plain and Warapoco Plain, Koriabo Phase. a—b, d, Ff, 1.) Rams: c, Coarse waterworn sand temper particles. e, g-h, j, Lobed rims. &, Sherd showing coiling. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BUECE RING 77 reAnE 35 Type sherds of Koriabo Scraped, Koriabo Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 36 Sherds of Koriabo Phase decorated types recovered from sites of other Phases. a-e, Koriabo Incised sherds from sites of the Mabaruma Phase. f-h, Koriabo Scraped sherds from R-40 of the Rupununi Phase. i, Koriabo Incised sherd from R-40 of the Rupununi Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 37 2 GM g Sherds with Koriabo Phase types of decoration and form from the Charlesburg site, Dutch Guiana. a-b, Lobed rims. c-e, Koriabo Incised decoration. f-g, Koriabo Scraped decoration. ¢, f-g, Typical Koriabo Phase modeling. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 38 Habitation sites of the Abary Phase. a, B-I: Tiger Island. 6, B-3: Taurakuli. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 39 f _ 2 CM Decorated sherds from Abary Phase sites. a-b, g, Unclassified modeled. c-f, Sherds of Abary Phase manufacture copying motifs of Akawabi Incised and Modeled of the Mabaruma Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 40 ne era General views of the upper Essequibo River. a, The river opposite E-1. 5, Typical scene along banks. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE « 4l Type sherds of Kanashen Incised, Taruma Phase. a-e, Motif 1: zoned parallel lines. f-k, Motif 2: crosshatch. 7, Recovered from site R-40 of the Rupununi Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 42 Type sherds of Kanashen Incised, ‘Taruma Phase. a-f, Motif 3: zigzag. g-j, Motif 4: broad scrapings. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE Type sherds of Kassikaityu Punctate, Taruma Phase. 43 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 44 h Pottery types of the Taruma Phase. a-d, Type sherds of Kalunye Plain. e-j, Type sherds of Manakakashin Red. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 45 Type sherds of Manakakashin Red-on-white, Taruma Phase. Designs are all badly eroded; see figs. 92, 93 for details. a, c—d, Motif 1: intricate, overall patterns. b, e, g—-h, Motif 2: zoned, parallel lines. f, 1, Motif 3: broad lines. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 46 Type sherds of Onoro Stamped Taruma Phase. d and h, Recovered from site R-40 of the Rupununi Phase. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 47 Type sherds of Yocho Plain, Taruma Phase. a-d, Rim sherds with unerased coils on neck. é, Finger-pressed rim. f, Annular base. g, Pedestal base. h, Leaf impression on griddle base. 72, Large temper particles of decomposed granite. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 48 "a, te toate. . ; ‘jae @ ' “ q ” S Habitation sites of the Wai Wai Phase. a. Yaka Yaka Village in 1952. 5, E-2: Erefoimo, an abandoned village showing the collapsed house marked by the tall center pole. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 49 Pottery vessels of the Wai Wai Phase. a-e, Erefoimo Plain. f-g, Erefoimo Painted. 6) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 50 Pot rests of the Wai Wai Phase, showing the manner in which they are used to support a vessel over a cooking fire. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 51 > & is ; 4 & Wai Wai pottery making. a, Adding the first coil to the prepared base. 6, Preparing a coil. Note the partially erased and scraped coils of the lower part of the vessel, and the finger impressions where coils are pressed together. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 52 Wai Wai pottery making. a, Smoothing the interior with a gourd scraper. 0, Firing the completed vessel with slabs of bark as fuel. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 53 roptensterdine idle hs J i Ser TRO TES, rong per gene nt Ma f _ . ‘ Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. a, R-3: Manari Creek, with a flank of the Kanuku Mountains in background. 6, R-5 and R-6: Marakanata Water Hole, with Sandpaper tree in foreground and termite hills in background. BULLETIN 177 PLATE 54 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY ima ge 2, with Pakara a Uteteta, Cave 1. ill J V ? Quatata R-9: 20: b a se. ation sites of the Rupununi Pha it Hab R= ? ance fountains in the dist N BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 55 Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. a, View of Wie-wie-tau, the location of habitation sites R-22 through R-26. 6, R-22: Wie-wie-tau, Cave 1. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 56 . +) oo oC Maubi-wau, Village 2. 6, R—36: Habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. a, R-28: Mormiswau Head. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 57 Pe : 7s ame ci. oe cee es Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase. A 25 cm. pointer in both pictures gives the scale. a, R-1: Moco Moco Shelter. 0, R-35: Tamrio-wau. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 58 Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase. a, R-16: Upper Karakara Cemetery, showing the granite outcrop and the guide pointing to a shelf said to have formerly contained burial urns. 5, Burial urn in situ at R-16. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE Cemetery sites of the Rupununi Phase. a, Looking across the savanna to Bei-tau, a forested hill where the rock shelters of R—34 are located. 6, R-34: Bei-tau, Shelter 1 the slabs covering burial jar A and its lid, and five small offering vessels in situ. , showing BULLETIN 177 PLATE 60 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 61 0 2 4 CM Stone axes of the Rupununi Phase in the collections of the British Guiana Museum, Georgetown. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULEERIN 177° PEATE 62 ba ees e 9 (2 46M 8 Stone hoes of the Rupununi Phase. a-b, Butt ends. c—f, Blade ends. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 63 Type sherds of Kanuku and Rupununi Plain, Rupununi Phase. a-d, Occasional lobes along the rims of Vessel Form 1—bowls. e-f, Applique nubbins. g-h, Unerased coils. i-k, Occasional decoration of incised or fingertip punctate rims. /, Loop handle. m-p, Sherds showing coiled construction. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 64 Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase cemetery sites. a, R-34, Shelter 1; Lid to Jar H, Vessel Form 2a, height 36 cm. 5b, R-34, Shelter 1; Burial Jar H, Vessel Form 2a, height 27.5-30.5 cm. c, R-1; Burial Jar 1, Vessel Form 3a, height 33-34 cm. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 65 d Rupununi Plain and Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase cemetery sites. a, Tirka; Rupununi Plain, Vessel Form 3a, height 29 cm. (University Museum, Philadelphia, Cat. No. SA 2444). 6, R-14; Kanuku Plain, Vessel Form 3b, height 43-48 cm. c, R-35, Vessel E; Rupununi Plain, Vessel Form 3c, height ll cm. d, R-35, Vessel G; Rupununi Plain, Vessel Form 3c, height 10 cm. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 66 Rupununi Plain and Kanuku Plain vessels from Rupununi Phase sites. a, R-21; Kanuku Plain, Vessel Form 1b, diameter 28-30 cm. b, R-35, Vessel F; Rupununi Plain, Vessel Form 1, diameter 23.5-24.5 cm. c-d, Wapisiana Vessels of Form 5c in the University Museum, Philadelphia; both Cat. No. SA 276, measuring 19.5 cm. and 23.5 in diameter respectively. e, R-33; Kanuku Plain, Vessel Form 6a, height 22cm. f, R-33; Kanuku Plain, Vessel Form 6b, height 22.5 cm. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 67 Griddles from the Rupununi Phase. a, Complete specimen made by the Wapisiana Indians in the University Museum, Philadelphia, Cat. No. SA 271, measuring 70-71 cm. in diameter. b-d, Rim sherds from habitation sites. d, Roughened exterior. ¢, Exterior with a mat impression. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 177 PLATE 68 Shaft polishers from habitation sites of the Rupununi Phase. a-h, Sherds of Kanuku Plain and Rupununi Plain. 7, Stone. Pye flak 7 hat ‘J adi ma ‘a a ‘Willi