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Bul. 151, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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(v. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 151—/62

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

FRUITS RECOMMENDED BY THE AMERICAN POMO-
LOGICAL SOCIETY FOR CULTIVATION IN THE
VARIOUS SECTIONS OF THE UNITED
STATES AND CANADA.

REVISED BY
A CoMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY,
W. H. Ragan, CHarrman.

Issurp JUNE 26, 1909. -

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WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1909.

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BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F, Woops.
Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES.

POMOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS.

G. B. Brackett, Pomologist.
W. H. Ragan, Expert in Pomological Nomenclature.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Bureau oF Piant INpDustTRY,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., February 26, 1909.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled
“Fruits Recommended by the American Pomological Society for
Cultivation in the Various Sections of the United States and Canada.”’
This catalogue has been prepared by the committee of the American
Pomological Society on revision of the catalogue of fruits, of which
Prof. W. H. Ragan, Expert in Pomological Nomenclature, Bureau
of Plant Industry, is chairman, and has been submitted for publication
by Col. G. B. Brackett, Pomologist.

The varieties of fruits included in these pages have been recom-
mended and rated by practical growers, who have tested them in vari-
ous sections of the country, and these lists can not fail to prove of
value to the planter who wishes reliable information as to what fruits
will probably succeed in his soil and locality.

This manuscript constitutes the third revised catalogue of fruits
which has been prepared under the joint auspices of the United States
Department of Agriculture and the American Pomological Society,
the others having been published as bulletins 6 and 8 of the Division
of Pomology, which became a part of the Bureau of Plant Industry
upon its organization in 1901. The bulletins mentioned have proved
of great value and several editions have been required to meet the
large demand for them.

I recommend that this manuscript be published as Bulletin No. 151
of the special series of this Bureau.

Respectfully, B. T. GaLtoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.
151 3

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PREFATORY STATEMENT.?

The revised catalogue of fruits recommended for cultivation in the
various sections of the United States and Canada, prepared under the
joint auspices of the American Pomological Society and the Bureau
of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture, is
herewith submitted.

In making this revision the chairman of the committee has availed
himself of all the practical information that could be secured concern-
ing the behavior of varieties in the several districts into which the ter-
ritory covered has been subdivided. Heretofore lists of this character
have been made up largely upon the recommendation of a compara-
tively few experts, while the masses of practical fruit growers have
been less freely consulted. In this case the expert has not been
ignored, but his testimony has been strengthened by that of a large
number of less known, though nevertheless worthy, fruit growers,
whose locations and practical experience entitle their opinions to
favorable consideration. These were reached and consulted through
a series of inquiries sent out from this Office. About two thousand
of these inquiries were mailed, and they brought many satisfactory
answers, which, being compiled by districts, form the basis of the
subjoined fruit lists; but with all this painstaking we are well aware
of the fact that infallible fruit lists have never been produced. So
variable are conditions that a variety which proves satisfactory in one
season or in one neighborhood may prove the reverse near by or even
another year with the same grower. These facts render hasty con-
clusions unsafe and should admonish the planter to cultivate patience
in deciding upon varieties.

It will be found, also, that honest differences may exist in regard
to qualities that combine in the formation of estimates we place upon
a given variety. Mere excellence of the fruit itself may be the basis
of one man’s ratings; another may consider its commercial value as

«It should be borne in mind that these lists are not merely the reflections of opinions
having their origin with the chairman and his colleagues in the offices of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, but are the deliberate ratings of practical fruit growers in the several
pomological districts, obtained through extensive correspondence, each speaking for
himself and from his own standpoint of experience with the variety under considera-
tion. The correspondence referred to was conducted during the first half of the year
1908, and this compilation of results is therefore as nearly up to date as possible.

151 5

6 PREFATORY STATEMENT.

its highest quality, while yet another will carefully consider a combi-
nation of qualities, such as hardiness of tree or plant, its fruitfulness
under varying conditions, ete., yet the rating of each must be given
as identical in lists like these.

The general plan of this catalogue is that of its predecessors that.
were evolved during many years of intelligent, patient labor by men”
like Wilder, Downing, Thomas, Barry, and Lyon, to whom we owe
debts of gratitude. In consequence of the growth and development
of our country, as well as of the greater number of varieties now cul-
tivated and the rapidly expanding industry of fruit growing, a stead-
ily increasing list of varieties forces itself upon us. What are there-
fore really select lists of fruits become apparently lengthy, but in
fact are not, since the varieties embraced in this catalogue actually
constitute eighteen separate lists. It will be seen, however, that
many varieties are only recommended ‘“‘for further trial,”’ thus indi-
cating that they should be planted with proper caution.

As heretofore, Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the University of California,
has had much to do with the preparation of the lists for the Pacific
Coast States, though a large number of individual fruit growers liv-
ing within that territory have been freely consulted.

Respectfully submitted:

W. H. Racan, Chairman.

OFFICE OF POMOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS,
Washington, D. C., February 19, 1909.

CONIGEN TS.

Page
EE MT OIMOTIC: eats oe en 8 ai Aa ee aL. Mind ce us 8 Sac. wieie Cewne eee Aime a
Pomological districts as defined by the American Pomological Society... ... -- 10
Fruits recommended for cultivation in the United States and Canada......... 14
Code of nomenclature of the American Pomological Society ..............--- 65
0 ee ra asc Benne rete ets Ss a idm ain't whee win a 67

ILEUST RATION.
Page.

Puate I.—Map showing the pomological districts of the United States and
RMUREME fac CN Site ar a cid.a ou Se teins Yas Oe oe ore oc. fa 6 Frontispiece.

151 7

B. P. 1.—458.

FRUITS RECOMMENDED BY THE AMERICAN POMO-
LOGICAL SOCIETY FOR CULTIVATION IN THE
VARIOUS SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
AND CANADA.

PLAN OF THE CATALOGUE.

This catalogue embraces species and varieties of fruits and nuts
recommended for cultivation in the United States and the British
North American provinces. These are arranged alphabetically in
two “ divisions, as follows:

Division 1.—Species and varieties mainly adapted to culture in the
Northern and Middle States of the United States and in adjacent
portions of the British provinces.

Division 2.—More southern, tropical, and subtropical species and
varieties.

Varieties known to succeed in a given district are indicated by an
asterisk (*); if highly successful, by two asterisks (**); if considered
promising, by a dagger (7); and if not reported on, by a dotted line
(__..). These conclusions are not, however, to be accepted as abso-
lutely correct and infallible, but <i: as pefections of the opinions
and experiences of pr ctical fruit growers within the district. On
account of the extended range of the districts and of the varying soil
and climatic conditions that prevail within them, the above caution
must be kept in mind in considering the recommendations made in
this catalogue. No planter should attempt to follow its markings
absolutely, but should rely rather largely upon the experience of
others within his immediate vicinity and a correct knowledge of his
own location and environment in the district.

Following the rules and recommendations of the American Pomo-
logical Society,” prefixes, suffixes, secondary words, and apostrophic
or possessive terminations, together with words whose significa-
tions are expressed in the descriptiv e columns, are eliminated from

aThe third division of a6 lists prev (oan printed is omitted from this publication
because of the lack of agreement among botanists as to the proper classifications of
the different species.
b See p. 65.
151 9

10 FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

the names of varieties when not required to insure their identity.
Synonyms are italicized and included within parentheses.¢ Foreign
names of varieties are only anglicized in the interest of brevity or for
convenience of pronunciation.

The entire territory represented is divided into eighteen pomo-
logical districts, with little regard to State or provincial houndanee but
with primary reference to the influence of latitude, elevation, pre-
vailing winds, and oceanic and lacustrine exposures upon their
adaptation to pomological pursuits (see map, Pl. I).

POMOLOGICAL DISTRICTS AS DEFINED BY THE AMERICAN
POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

District No. 1.—Maine above 500 feet elevation; New Hampshire,
Vermont, and New York north of latitude 44°; Ontario north of Lake
Simcoe and east of longitude 80°; Quebec, New Brunswick, and Prince
Edward Island. The dominant natural feature of this district is the
St. Lawrence Valley. Many of the hardier fruits flourish within its
borders.

District No. 2.—Nova Scotia; Maine below 500 feet elevation; New
Hampshire and Vermont south of latitude 44°; Massachusetts; Rhode
Island; Connecticut; New York south of latitude 44°, except Long
Island; northern New Jersey above 500 feet elevation; Pennsylvania
east of the Susquehanna River and above 500 feet elevation, north
of latitude 41° west to the Allegheny River, and all of that portion
of the State lying north of the Ohio River; Ohio and Indiana north of
latitude 40°; the lower peninsula of Michigan; and Ontario south of
Lake Simcoe. The Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, the North
Atlantic coast, the lake region of western New York, Ohio, Ontario,
and Michigan, and the Hudson River Valley are the leading features
of District No. 2. This may be considered the northern grape,
peach, and winter-apple district.

District No. 8.—Long Island; New Jersey, except a small portion
north; eastern Pennsylvania below 500 feet elevation; Delaware; and
Maryland and Virginia below 500 feet elevation. This is the Delaware
and Chesapeake Bay district. Though a small district, its productive
capacity of the fruits that succeed within its borders is great.

District No. 4.—Pennsylvania above 500 feet elevation and south of
latitude 41°; Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama above 500 feet elevation; West Vir-
ginia; Tennessee and Kentucky; Ohio and Indiana south of latitude
40°; southern Illinois below the general elevation of 500 feet, from the
Wabash to the Mississippi; Missouri south of a line from near St. Louis
and along the elevation of 1,000 feet to the southeast corner roe Kansas;

« Synonyms are used for the better identification of varieties.

POMOLOGICAL DISTRICTS. 11

Oklahoma below 2,000 feet elevation; and Arkansas north of lati-
tude 35°, also south of it wherever the elevation exceeds 500 feet.
The Allegheny and the Ozark mountains and the valleys of the
Ohio, the Tennessee, and the Cumberland, and portions of the
Wabash, the Mississippi, and the Arkansas rivers are embraced within
this district. Portions of it are noted fruit regions, while throughout
its vast territory the hardier deciduous fruits flourish. Many of the
varieties recommended succeed best in certain localities within the dis-
trict. An exception to the general character of the district occurs in
those portions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and southeastern
Missouri lying near the Mississippi River, where varieties adapted to
culture in districts 5 and 7 generally succeed.

District No. 5.—Fastern North Carolina, South Carolina, and Geor-
gia below 500 feet elevation; and Florida north of latitude 30° east of
the Chattahoochee River and above 100 feet elevation. This district
embraces the southern Atlantic seaboard, with its many frith-like
indentations and valleys. The climate is generally mild, and within
its borders many of the more tender deciduous fruits flourish.

District No. 6.—Florida south of latitude 30°, the remaining por-
tions of the State with elevations below 100 feet, and those portions
of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas lying below
the 100-foot contour line as it skirts the coast from Florida to the Rio
Grande. This is the southern peninsula and the Gulf Coast district.
The successful culture of citrus and other subtropical fruits and nuts
is restricted to the peninsula portion of Florida and to the Delta of
the Mississippi. Tropical species are only recommended for that por-
tion of Florida lying south of latitude 27°, and are indicated by the
letter s in connection with the starring.

District No. 7.—Florida west of the Chattahoochee River and above
100 feet elevation; Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas
above 100 and below 500 feet elevation; and Texas south of Red
River and above 100 and below 1,000 feet elevation. This may be
denominated the valley district. It embraces portions of the Chat-
tahoochee, Alabama, Pearl, Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, Sabine, Colo-
rado, and Rio Grande valleys. The climate in the eastern and larger
portion is warm and moist, in the extreme west more dry and tending
toward aridity. A wide range of the more tender varieties and spe-
cies is adapted to culture in the district.

District No. 8.—Illinois north of the 500-foot contour line as it
crosses the State between 38° and 39° latitude; a very small portion
of southwest Wisconsin; Iowa south of about latitude 42° 30’; the
Missouri River Valley portion of southeastern South Dakota;
Nebraska and Kansas below 2,000 feet elevation; and Missouri
north of a line drawn from near St. Louis and along the elevation

151

12 FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

of 1,000 feet to the southeast corner of Kénsas. The Missouri and
Mississippi valley sections of the district are its dominant features.
The hardy deciduous fruits succeed in most portions, and commer-
cial fruit growing is a rapidly developing industry.

District No. 9.—Wisconsin except the small southwest corner;
Minnesota; upper Michigan; Iowa north of about latitude 42° 30’;
North and South Dakota east of longitude 99°; and Canada west
of longitude 80° and east of longitude 99°. This district embraces
the upper lakes, including Winnipeg, the upper Mississippi and the
Red River valleys. Only the hardier fruits succeed, but fair progress
has been made in recent years in developing varieties adapted to this
region.

District No. 10.—Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma above 2,000
feet, and Colorado below 5,000 feet elevation; also Texas above 1,000
feet and east of longitude 103° and the Pecos River. This is the
central plain and foothill district. It lies on the eastern slope of the
Continental Divide. There are small sections, especially in eastern
olorado and farther southward, where the apple and other hardy
' fruits are successfully grown.

District No. 11.—Texas west of longitude 103° and the Pecos River,
and New Mexico south of latitude 35°. The Pecos and Rio Grande
valleys are the characteristic features of this district. Considerable
effort at growing fruit, especially of apples and the hardier vinifera
erapes, is being made in many localities.

District No. 12.—New Mexico and Arizona nerth of latitude 35°;
Utah; and Colorado above 5,000 feet elevation. This district
embraces the Continental Divide and the Great Salt Lake, and it
also embraces the valley and canyon of the Colorado and the sources
of the important streams south of the Missouri and Yellowstone.
It affords a great diversity of soils and climatic conditions, and hence
a wide range of fruit growing. The species successfully grown within
the boundaries of this district range from the vinifera grapes to the
hardy ironclad apples.

District No. 13.—The Dakotas west of longitude 99°; Wyoming;
Montana east of longitude 111°; and the British provinces lying
between longitude 99° and 111°. The upper Missouri and Yellow-
stone valleys are the distinctive features of the district. There is
perhaps no section of the district in which fruit growing has reached
a very high state of development. Leading causes of this condition
may be found in the comparatively undeveloped or unsettled state
of the country and its great elevation.

istrict No. 14.—British America west of longitude 111° and east
of longitude 122°; Montana west of longitude 111°; Idaho; Nevada;
and Washington, Oregon, and California east of the general coast

151

POMOLOGICAL DISTRICTS. he

contour line of 1,000 fcet elevation, commencing at the British
boundary near longitude 122° and southward on said elevation to its
intersection with the Southern Pacific Railway in the upper Willamette
Valley, thence along the line of said railway to the Sacramento
Valley, thence east and south on the eastern rim of said valley and
that of the San Joaquin at an elevation of 1,000 feet to latitude 35°,
thence east on said latitude to the Colorado River. The characteristic
features of this district are the upper Columbia Valley and the Sierra
Nevada Mountains. An exception to the general recommendation
will appear in certain portions of Snake River Valley, where the
vinifera grapes and other tender fruits succeed.¢

District No. 15.—The coast section of British America west of
longitude 122° and of Washington, Oregon, and California north of
about latitude 39° 30’, and bounded on the east by districts 15
and 17. This district embraces the highly developed fruit-growing
sections on Puget Sound and the lower Columbia and the Willamette
rivers.?

District No. 16.—The Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys,
bounded on the east by District No. 15 and on the west by the
western rim of this great interior basin. The diversified fruit and
nut products of this district are marvelous. There are localities in
which the semitropical species and other places where the apple, pear,
and other hardy fruits and nuts are grown to the highest perfection.?

District No. 17.—The coast section of California lying between
latitude 35° and about 39° 30’ and bounded on the east by District
No.17. Its characteristic features are the Coast Range of mountains,
the Russian River, and the Sonoma, the Santa Clara, and the Pajaro
valleys.°

District No. 18.—California and Arizona south of latitude 35°.
The dominant characteristics are the valleys of the Gila, the Colorado,
the San Gabriel, and the Santa Ana, and the Sierra Madre Mountains.
It includes the celebrated fruit districts of Santa Ana, Riverside,
Santa Barbara, the Salt River Valley, San Diego, and many others.?

a Recent developments of the fruit industry in several isolated localities in District
No. 14 have demonstrated the fact that many of the deciduous fruits can be grown
with perfect success. This is especially the case in the Hood River and Rogue
River valleys in Oregon, in the Wenache and Yakima valleys in Washington, and
in other favored sections.

b Districts 15, 16, 17, and 18 are peculiarly adapted to fruit and nut culture. Per-
‘haps no portion of the earth’s surface is more highly favored in climate and soil and
affords a wider range of crop products than that lying within the boundaries of these
four districts. The commercial value of the fruit and nut products of this section
is recognized the world over.

151

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

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Oe Scenics Ee. 2 ere ts (u0j709 fijinq ) uoioo
ROOM ec cae eee at oe (a6UDLO Opp10109 ) Ope10[og
Ss SOUM coche id cn cee eae eg (uoidwpyg ) surTfop
Pr OME Et cane sae (29UIND $,9709 ) <dUIN? VoD
SUG Rul os Sos we ceo ore (U1IDUL.LD9 J 119 NSH09 ) [[aMSZoy

a RNs sic ote: oan ee (Ajnpag aphj) ) epA[D
ASSES) 015 | eae iaaiage atch =~ <ieknot oleae = uo1 ABD
ee SHUR eae Ore poe (Wig $4st4y9 ) SeusiyD
Troe el iss Sen cere (ALuaqgnniygy obunusay9 ) osuvueyD
Dama | eae 2 age a tara fae eae ae yourepieyp)
DHA rks ee ete ee (ybnog smog) ureydurey)
PLOT ON |e atk Cae hare Meats We ck ae BIISOTAD
Sama yf Seah ie elsbos (NLT 8.197409 ) en{_ 101IeD
DoSINDuG co Seeks ee eee ke ea ac ee ysnopreg
SETONHARH rar aor cia ae ieee ohri (wouun) ) UreuTIve, UoUURD
Fela ANG (al |e yee (uiddig pppun) ) ayjouley BVpeuey
EOL OAlck ase ae gee Se a UIMp[eg eprury
MEAG) GING) Pts Skate We he tee (ING $,yoouiyy ) Yeurey
EANIOR i ce 1s ooo (UDuUMMaT 12IULA, pay) equtooUNg
-qoury |°-""""" 7" (jassny uapjoyn uDdLwUw YP) Yoong
Paege B2E) pest (pay slag ‘uaand Inq ) ureysurpng
SHRDINS ew ee os ee (unoLg UDybunjON ) UMOIg
SOOM ateewe Tie re (pang Jampvolg ) TaMproig
RAO a gam cgi es oe (9348 q JO 2UDYIiUg ) WURIT[ Wg
SASS sce So (wddig wojburnaig ) WoJSULMoIg,
BECO hl |b seg et aoa (yoouspay fhyonjzuay ) piojpeig
AGMWallic ae aoc 5 cae ee (ybnog aang) ysnog
= SND | lias ao cate a sc a (moolysnyy ) BYULAOIO
Sk iO] NI] aaa ae Suet (unuog wnuboy ) wNnuOg
eee pl ean aaa 5. Sie (jafdpuayiog ) Woylog
|" SOE cae, Arak ewer Rg se a ead? San > A yourps0g
i Ps eS ae ded a i OS UleUuLIveg On[ gd
Ber Lets erg ete (sbun.9 wiayua)g ) WIeyueT_
SEO h lars wc eke Soe (QyLLoangy S$ .a0spay gq) 9ospeTg
(6) [707 7 Gamoyinnyy pay) TEMOPUIID Wel
BCA CEM tae bx (UU S$. yon] g) BQoUTY Yor
Ey LESS CS) ISS ae ae i (yon) gq fiasiaf) Yovig
ee ot & (LDULSig 20U1L ) YOIVUISI EE
LAME) ee mo (saumvaybyarg pag) Ioulleysnelg
ma IN (MowA fo jayag) TOUT
“EBA | “(pang hayquag) Sopuog

| Sseyq Paton bee i kf eo oe == > TUOUe
|) (uiddig yuoX nay ‘vuyoung ) stavq wos

79155—Bul. 151—09——2

—————<—o

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

16

I oqo (g) proccess esictalatacuiete sa crs se eae -prouaey
SUT | OG O8 alts SS RAR I Seo oP 5 WO Oe Rema ceeaage SS jeAoy Uepies
I qor (CDE ice ene Cn eee [os A[rvou
AJOA 10 [BOIYUSP! JOY lo] ( {ua g yon) J) ouey)
ul COPS ream eee: se cen gl eae (wapjop $ JAvMaj}g ) UOYNT
ul OGOL" |TSSSCNE IF oo to ae ae ee (6uyjung) surppuno.y
Hig es sells Bey, al liens as a ea (qlaadng 8 WosUlqoy ) IVIIET
I GOT Saas Caan = 35S STE oe awanns see piece cir Auuty
UL OGOM ae GON |as ess ors coG (huwmog s.,pnozga yy ) A[rare
sur qor FUO18 (249 oll Regie an ac (addy moug ‘moug)) ssneure 7
[tw | qor COBIES Fees: (89.41 947 fo aur A 1104) SULA TRA
TAS | COlMOMe lt OUn Ws |lSrse bse esc s (uddig punog) widdig [Rl
I I BASS C INE lsu re aang sap (uddig urapjoy ) esUue1IO Tea
I DOCOMO) ul egress ae (buroury 72.7) sujouuor Tey
I OURS SSSSRING | atin s ha nie Sm 5 aa Sa Sista ies ADAIVET TRA
| ier a oe PNM atone oe ig crap phe to ae eam aso) Ta
JA ol Se" lea pam pee ere ame (uayr0yra] NT, ) IOVEMVT[CT
sul qo SH TN|| Sak ee eo Bo tats tpg Pager Aqivq SulUVA
I aD SA UUM Kc: cant we A ae eye ee uA[aAq
I CB) Gene ESO GIN Mle ee ee a= (GLaquazndg sndosgq ) sndosq
I CO Tent | ce OL Oh | Save SE SE EU EER ee eee osu
ul ol Celie (jassny paquirT-buoT) Jassny Ysysaq
Se phe Z (Cuyooun pag) Alaq Meg ATV
FO RIOS DAAC OSS TET Oi)... WIE aS ea oa Be CT yopivog ALE gq
ul qoi (saupiy ) oditspieg
JA ol (g) |(Qpouuag wwung ‘sayoyg) yoouusg Ape
OO en CR ES ae ole a ed te ales qoyIVW APIA
sul ; is assis agar Sane oe: aor ATIVA
ul ‘ aly $,20UIL ) ISOAIBH, ATIV|
Ur: | (Miog §.ado09 ) odooD Ate
CLT mer Meare eae octhigllicctape sie eke Pegs ee (Jnhoy awiuog ) AG
[ULE Te Mea (op = NE Coy ble ce ac emcee ad eumOUsIWy Gong
TUL olin alco OW kot ease ee oe (4aqquim s.fiaajpnqg ) Aejpud
Tse | Pacer Bot eer IAG tie Se came, icioerm Mocs cae 2 Lobe nr ee te uvysouu0g
Leo le US Gye |, (Cala aia ear (wUWdUoN UDIIU PF ) VUTULOG
ABB tam tlle make (Co}t Ke Migr 2 ha | Sa aaa (fqmanr ‘WImaq 40790q7) 10100q_
[CED CL Ol etl i= one ogee meee (ayzunfouyaay hg.waqd) Aqioge
wn q wa
e | 3 lead teu ese ee) g
8ST | ZT | OF lL SI Ae | WOE OE Gt A) Og GaN We Me eee ie) pean Pei lesa 8 oS.
: B ct 4 5
; S : < “QUIGN
*SJOLMSIP [BIVAS BY} 1OJ SUOIJVPUSUTULOIIY “uo diosa

*ponulu09—Sq Idd V¥—'T Nolwoasaag

‘ponunuoj—sajdd p— | uorjoagy

151

FRUITS MAINLY ADAPTED TO NORTHERN LOCALITIES.

es
es
BSI

AB--“S--Asas

sga-~ 2-5

Cees lala ea Lee ESS calles le eA oc he eins SSI |Sieciietii nis BL CSSID) seurjor

oBug--ge

my, Cg) Sy bee hapa *(burjaang saipv’T) yang Apre’T
Roe coupe oo wae (dy pauwog ‘ajddy fipvT) Ape'yT
Aa lial ees ae (YM abpisqysry ) aspliqysry
ROHUEC Tit le Dare malgaeaene (AN0YD §,paDUuULy ) prvunry
seeypy [occcrccccec escent teen “piaeq SUry
OU Wy ay aa nee eae (UNpoOg §,ynMNsSIY ) YOLMSIST
Be) ANI pete ate ee Oe ae (49}ULM 8,9/pOULay ) s[pou19ey
a al | ae (qni9 pay fiyonjuzy ) pay Axon IUAy
CELE SC ry | arena ea ae (Quay fo fignnag) Ajneeg yuey
SMUREAAGIL cy eet a eee a bee (dwnoy fssnpy ) duney
were Sas Se ues Soke Pee et saysnyeune
SIO aa ge ras a Se (Ayn fo yjsnoy) Ajog
SUBLET OT =f Rati ia aca tee (quuayny) ues
SOONGe cakes ao (6saquazndg may) ueyyeuor
MUNG an tnt none ae (ppaypon ) poy yjomor
eave Ee rg ote? ee (6upvang fiasia pf) yaamg Aasior
BES, 72 et (roca ee (mpyjuDn.y ‘bursags9ag ) Siaoyjor
SSSR leaner: (ang LayUL_AA ,SQoID >) JOBMS Sqoove
PeiSTAAS Wace” OR ares ee ee (JING Unysy ) ULEYST
Sa a0 fal a eat te he (dd yp yovag ‘yavad) YoRod UST
PIR MOIN see ae a a ee ee ysn[q @Moy
MEMO tsa aia oe er ee eee Aqneog BAOT
eri DEN IN intanaicier > & eae pane ee aINOAR YT euBIpUuyT
se SOU recto he the ae oe I (6unpaag s wo.buy ) wreis uy
AS) Mian e (789.4 ay) fo bury Ss aphzy) 8ury opAH
Sore O Wiel Yi ces ne (971000 7 8 UDUSyUNT ) UeUISyUN Fy
ScSSQnles co Csspjg fo assny wapjoy) yossnyy yuNnyT
DIC} RN Ga earners ere Ee (sabunzy ) adunyzy
BE SSRINT | Gnaicar (YONsSUON UWOJspLoggny] ) UO\spsKqgqnyy
CIMCON Stasi hoe ae (asLofT N07}9 ZX ) OSLOFT
Pre Wehyalcen sy eo (2L9Q9PUD A DUIJOLDD YJLON ) UIOFT
esl ech| |r ee (yobnnjD A{ “1009 490] TZ) IAAOOTT
FO Gl eh eae 2 ea (aN $ 779YI0FT ) YOXOT
PESO I aia eet (aun yang) yooMs doyysiyT
Re STEST Ti csv c civvahs cay comb ack a ee (INULISLO ) [RUIOGI FT
SARUM IO eee eee es ye ead oes (asmog ‘asnoq) Ao Mey
Fee G FN PES COPE ae” OE ee ee DAOISIV ET
ee 8 Je) ial | re eee ae (PAN 8 PH ) We
Ce OAL lk ap mera oer (90 801 ‘UDINE 21DJ) SVR
ee ge eg MOE |e ohC ae py aot a ss ae eae Oia as Sy TL
C1) apne eg am ates (LOWIASOLY PLO'T) LOUDASOIL)
BW ORR | So smae oo Se oe “*(Uapjoy) Saulti)) SOULLIY)
eA al |\ea aod ogee ees (UIILD 88D) )) SSVPD WeeIH
Pe 2} 914 (a a (ssai6uog hpi) Ule{sueARIyy
Apa NIe | sate “(uddig uapjoy unariut py) BUIp[OH
PeU 10 (210 TS eae eat ae (6urjamg abuviQ) WeMS UsploH
PA d La ia see oe Pe ee ek eee “-* (Gassny

wpop ysybugq) (X'N) dossny wepjoy
-seepa [ooo co (anupwmoy ayyrT ‘asnoyz0g) urd[ty
a ee 1 unp9g 8, WMD) OAD

151

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

18

(uiddirg yay) pry) Ynouru09 yj

‘SJOIIJSIP [BIOAVS OY} JO} SUOIZEPUaUIMIODEY

q3a | esq | qAd I
aes. setts IA I ECD) alls sant ae ee a “*(uphisg) UesI_ “SIP
3 SQ) STAM) EN |) Gor ir ssomn yy 2 ae (uiddig 1énossiy ) LINOSSTTT
ee ete reel ewe al er meet | ec | tS (ar retete aval Gor eC Mim cated ho cyan eres abate Shera aets artes e[Nosst
3 es | sid3d] uw erins||Yae as eee ee “(asanapuna sadwunyy ) sepa,
Base) SN WS Tee i OLGO) qsSSeINT Poo 2 a= A eo ae ane ro ese enini= JoySTUlyL
3 | es | sid I CSESUAM IS Se oh, oe eee SoS doyNVMITL
AN SO RUS eS | a: am ci (SurpiW ) UePtTT
3 | ed |nisiz|) sur (moj qoog hisny) wep
dA | eS SI I eS eS 5. ne at. (p{dpuauopyy ) uU0TaTT
qsA | esx | sid | [ur SUNG "RSS Soa aaa ng iabeemeaae ce (wopa $,U0}LON ) TOTAL
BA es Ip I oe Orca ghee ako (Lanoy7jag pay) pey TTeysreW
3 Sea EST At ||| Sure MOON eM emer uri |S cas < as (jaLobloyy pry hijipg ) yaresieyy
3 es A3 [ur INE RES his Soe See a (271q) uUuReyy
q3sA | es sad ul 33 ie ees ance (wnuog wnuboyy ) WNsueTY
3 eS 1h FUSBE eh aa Co PPS Ih Ns Care alanee gre ee ce (npuxyayy ) VpUlley
3 es | qAd | w (Ysnig swapwyy ) YSnT_ Uspreyy
3 vs sid ul Se Reer icyale sic aa (yna4yS pay bobnyy ) soseyy
BA eS RON yur SS eleer es Se (TON S,unutfinig) syeuseyy
3 es | MA I PSI SUANG| sees oa eta (RY M 8 woynyy oy ) TOUR
SA OSU ASDA eet Me OC OL: inc TICOR) We ohn tans nan oaanemene (4017919 IW) UBIO TOW
BA3 | @S |oIAM] [UW TATION ieee eee (pry ysojuzayy ) YSoyuoW
a all ional sede a Eee eo dec OND eee eae. os (22jULM 8 .19]1ND IPT ) JET NQVW
BA3 | wsul |osIBA} | Boe eye te (yansuon’ 8 ,2af PI ) Vey VOW
3 e qm | [UL ol "sny “*(U2IN| YsqnT) 2440UleYy Ysqu’T
3 es | six I COL iss ON Vial 52s Sea en ae cats (burjpaag s.fho'T) Ao'T
BA3 | eq A I OOTY a| ei ea eee (wmddig fisnaty) TPEMO'T
3 eS qu yur i}liten “Peto Oye [Pres eae eiae ai magic (astnoT ssaauidd ) WSINO'T
3 es qa yur FAS COE HESS) (bt [ RP OS ere e ae sain Sot (qJuvspaq pooy)) pleysuo'yT
3A | esur | sid wm, | o[qo | -sny | -(Auagdsny punjmoT) A1roqdsey purylarvy
3 G o1h3 | UL JOGISINE | eae eae (AimjaquaT pry) S1Mj10q WT
Be sae Ag | [Ur “EoD C ie Re ia ener alee Quay fo hynT) AWWT
3 es BA JA poeeS ie a | ie alee aa aig ao (buruaaiy ybrya'T) Ysiye'T
3 | esul] Ip I : (ajuLY pry atpMnjaq ) WAMC'T
3A | esd | sIm | w ol “ACN | 07 (Asaqnnuyg unin yp) AIG MPIYS 34V'T
3 esul | qd ul COE alsseXeaNs luke ee cet ee ee (wddig yooy ) Smqsutsue’yT
oe rae Sie es | qAd | jw {OOD Gites (6u1ppaag $.pLofyunT ) PAOyYUVT
Pe) ico Q i) hy fo)
foe fe) 8 ° s
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‘aon di10seq.

*penunu0o9—S a Tdd V—' I Nomoasang

‘ponunuoj—sapddy—'T uoroay

151

2
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3A | edi | exe | c oi : Kae (vssny hingroy ) Ainqxoy
8a3 | esid|niqd| uw | 14 7 (Gunpaag sani) Ayneeg euloy
3 RBS SI um | qo howe eee ge py dicta
; BA @ |niqAh| [ur ol Gaquoonyy ) onlow
2 BA eq | sd I oqor “(6 (usddig worsgry ) worsary
z 3 wert tee ! a rat U1U99.14) ) SuUlUe—IY) PURIST spoyy
ea 3a3 | esd | osim| uE | ogo. |--g:puE |--7--7777"- (Susipeas 217t7) SUCH SUdoH
5 BAB | esur | oIA | Sur DCO AILSA Ios Leas eee Gduig poy Duras) ) eduysped
< 34 | esq | ostX | ur | ogo ruuo |--=- ee eS 2 sont pad
3 gag al Ose eee py Bs 9) es (DI §.919918 pIY Dppuvny ) epRuey) pey
o 3 S | OSI | [UE | 9[qGo pate Cae (ujoourT gy) uByoRsy pey
Ss 3a |esu samc) we | qor 7 i "7 Guzumog fo wamg ysnbug ) tepsurey
$a3 | esd | osxk| ur | ogo~ |--2 aa [SSS FS seo SO Sed oad OB Li
va 3 sa | 3m | [A I Bay | Oe a ne
om 3a | esta | nas3| wu | gor |-- oan Gaang uydung $ woUhT) yems urydun
i) q3a | es | qu3 | UL oqol Boren Coe ee dig ied ilar
ea q3a |} es |! & yu atqo a ee EnGeh sneea semi
= Gan (wees ous gale oS fe. are (umpULsDd LIWUNY No7za A ) 12}.10,4
Bo af. peal be Calede he eee pee Pe est eA Ses a See (ajdd y fini) eosin euro,
= Silecccase git aaadh ace aL a eae “TTT (apig 8. quemid ) ply quintd
z 3aZ | esq | nat | wr ox | G * pee eae 5 cites wana ant Rene
3 es sit [A I aU Be EN HR ar UaplOD ) JeSSN Aud
° BA esd siz | I qol “UU Sia Dida paeionce pate ee EE bat eh
ha q3a | es) | qA3 | [ur Hl aa ee Meer Re eee oe pay es.
: Ba Sith ga | es de Wace eat acca (WUDSDT 8.49 ) Yd
a 3 gan | oui : ; rae C1] eae ( Yoda 109.jU0Ty ) (Teeaquoy, ) qovog
ee et tan ee dee ee ie feel wea tga | 2 1 eee RP Re ORE (wadaay 8 aufing ) euseg
: 2h Seal LE] ne ane sft enc “G “ON asnaWDy $ UI} ) SHEIWRA DEE
5 SA jesuiq| 14 I ol - wua | eee ie Se SOUL) Cae
md 3A3 | esq | Add | [ur | ofqor --"¢° 4 ene eres (eatin SAUL eae
a Nt — Rs SIAM I aqo ee fae hal «tg ee ee anY A ) AonO
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Bq | sik <Sting es 25 za
: 2 fw skin) ur | dos ssa o-7Ganmumo apron aangaopio
p gyi wd hae h 4 Sor Shun TO cae, 3. 2 (puaqyvO ) BuEqeyO
S 3A | esx | sx | tu | qor ome weseeee (uouunys) urddig oro
Z ay ee ume a Gores St ee (nasnduony s tafiyy ) \oreduon o1yO
3 = ey : ” thas an 9 cane (6u2U29LH 29U0IO ) BUD
$ ng et isa ae Ps i. She fo (Suruaasp UlISINYIAON ) UIOISOMYIION,
x A geil aS) all LS ef BW ERS (Ainvag preyyioN ) PPEUUION
& 3 eS sad I qo - “O Er wee eee eee ee eee eee eee (A 18) 3 ds BIg MON
5 Seauesea iste anetE amclh Guan Soto esac tae es *10eI9IN
z TR I oe go ae ahaa rh irs (a49a
z 2 Bed so) Ge, ean | AON, AHO CHAE) Sanaa
OTP i ea Boa ee (onuiat 26ud40 ) OMON
3 s | q43 | [ur | qor Soy aie agama: ( —— mene
ay GS Gu ll Tr OGOr, i Sam eo peng wont} CT) meas,
3 - Git |e ok slcedecse<=20=- SEA fynna gq PUOWISUDN' ) PUOUASUBN
q esr | sa ge A eee eR a cies ccs (pang uosunyy ) uosun
2 sadi} ip ur qo sn Bey oie p OW ool de poral wee
yt woe eee 5 ieee! [edi starn asin dae clsins Ver we
Osi I 1q0 ow -*(qamadoz ) acon

20

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

I wp | 3A es | sid I o1qo | 4°A'N \(Aqunog suryduoy, fo bury) Sury suryduroy,
IA 1p BA Ss |qhm! ur Or SS oan (pang UdU)DT, ) WeULLO,
oul | WY 3 BS || ST I TAOGO: | SgSTET t= ee Oe ee (dd y snjuy ) @4YA0{NY,

Wea oe Soe S| emer } Sa (dh hea ame (C8 il palabra cigs oth er Be age pery Sexo,
ou | Wy 3 8 | sId | sm OQ OL sy |AoeSh ew a al (Aysf072.Z, ) W{SJoVO I,

I wp | q3a | esq | IA s Os eee Opes cis 6 ot eee (49quig, Alia, ) ALT,
UO eae 3 @ | s1d3 I DOOM Sa LY. eo ke Co te rer oe eee Te ee uojuney,
ju | wp |] BA eS aN ul (OO N eNIE OS ip’ fille ete aera es st ---**-(s9ddajsing ) 1dZ}IMgG

| (gall ees cae 3A3 SI ol ul oqo |-"""eq |°----7-*- "> ""Gaamg Aiuazy) deseut\y oes

I xp 3A es | nis s Joos PSS ogy |2 Cee (ISD IWUMOT I1ZhDNY) BZABMG
Jur | 3p | q3a | esr 4&3 I (oC IPSS eal Nil | nee ar lanaiaaes sited mela ae (yaUmpivyT ) eVAs
yw | wyp] BA es josidd| [uw OO TI ESS B TAG toni wan ene See (ijnnag s,woyng) ueyng
oul 1p BA eS |siAM| sur qor |--"f°N | 77777777 (Aqiog Ss upwjooy ) esoy JIewUuINs
eur | wy | 3A Bl sik I Rt OUST RSI pel is ae eee ee (uaan® fjiog ) deen? JeuruiMg
oul p qsA jeurdi| os1d | uw J] CLO Tall ge LO DU Var | peciehaiein ce pole ea tase cert ge (uMUiDaT Laub

Ung Unda py) (Uy ) UleuLIeveg Jeuung
QUES seca esq | otf | [mw qo. (asaayO damwung) suLy Jeuuing
eur | uLyp| 3Ad | es |sIdM] [UL (Of 0 Fi ae a O19) pty |e eda es 2c (2026nz] ) Bo SVP JourumMg

OP" || ears 3x eS qa& | [ur [qo1 “--""BIYX q JeuUuNg

lina ese 3 s SI I OTe WER TO LN Seed epee me Anema ioaa aan ergs ase 9uol1g
[A wp | 3A BSI IA I ODeis lee SSVI eeper cde. aac aes (Ajnpag upaiiau Y ) BUIL1aS

Lowitgeee 3 esd | sxA3 | w qor (JaqULAA S “osuayda)g ) UoSUaYyde}g

I wp | 3a | erm | sido) [uw GO; 1 a SUBS i ltr aa = aisN (upufinig) Aesoul\ URWARIS
oul Bt 3 esd | M3 | [WwW RoC at FEST LS Cie SPE ao era 5 Ireyg
hui |) Quessp eee esd.| sadd | wi GO| Fa gO Aa eae oS oe Boake tae Me ee ae ae a AoyIVIS

I Wy, 3 esur | SIAB I ol (sjpa_q “wosurqoy ) HIBS
oul p 3 esd | sid uw I (auz_4 w2sdog) eur, Jo sdog
yu | wy 3 eS | osiA | [Ur ONG SOOM fall OP eae Coes (alanapunA pry) esnoyayourg
yur ul Fe] WSO Bach 4h got, i ayeloe eS ari day See O eae a (4aprgD 8. YU ) JepIo yaTUIg
ur yp | sas | es SI I OC OMe: |S teal BO) tueeien Maa eS (buly v.10]9 DjuDg) 1euULyYS
JA p BA | esuit) qIAd} sur’ OP a SI hh 9 el Pe ieee al (png as.oy ‘2ixiq’) Aeyyooys
ju | wp | 3A | esq | osIm| uw qor I “--"-"""(fnnag wnbuyaryy ) VSSVARIGS
JA | yur 3 e SI ul Ose wee se “"(49]ULM $9709) Tey Ay 9900S
JA | wyp}] 3a es |siXd | ur OGO) |G omar TTS linea Geos come eee ate tak as Gueaa ge S@ULO[BS
uL wp | 3A3 |} es | ost | UW DOTA 72S) eas as oe ha ((pa..QuOzY ) SOUGIA’'T JUICY

I | wyp| 3a S sik ul OTe a-Si eS ae a ee eas are Aimqsuyor 2uIeg

Te ea BNA lsat SI 1 ape eee ERE SOT lipae amie ase hs same gee ne Be aspayny

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, ‘(snuniT) SLODIWAVY—'S WoKHIeg ;

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FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

24

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‘uumrpour ‘ur {o,eT ‘T {Apreo ‘o euospag “yoyreur ‘ur Suey Of {yaessep ‘p -asQ “Aroa ‘A {poos ‘3 4ysoq ‘q -AgyonG “Mopod ‘A foqrqAr ‘MW Spar ‘1 Syouyq ‘q sroquue *w “40j0) ~~ ATOA
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‘(snqny) SHIMUAAMAC AGNV SAIMAATMOVTA—'€ WoTjO9g

25

FRUITS MAINLY ADAPTED TO NORTHERN LOCALITIES.

Tal pest | | ae et os el PT pene eee os lar eee lier bes tc ete | ed
Cie EOS Pe eeslecact eal cel atl on ltc ee j ad | bet a (Assaqnag sahyy ) AW
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FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

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27

FRUITS MAINLY ADAPTED TO NORTHERN LOCALITIES.

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wetegay [eveec eer ec cece cece ee tenses sees eteee ayn [eso
sgh arate | eo =a (puowmyny fying ‘foggy fijsog ) puourgoaryy
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cent Midis Fork: wets ct he ee eee ee eek aynpyory
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sig 1 A Ts i in el a ell (aauoyy O7jaL0py ) OAT TT o[Joreury

151

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

28

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ur ‘Ur fesre] ‘[ -azig) *pUNOI ‘I ‘[BAO ‘AO “WOT

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‘edoing “ing ‘puelsugq “sug ‘Bolloury “I0ULy uhitQO— AIM |

29

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*Ar0A ‘A {TTeuIs ‘Ss SuINIpout ‘ur fosIV] ‘] -az7g) “*pUNOI ‘I ‘[RAO ‘AO ‘BUO[GO [GO -WsQy “ojo ‘O1ILIUO “IUO *YIOX MON “A “N ‘puesug “Sug feoleury “seury -ubug—'xaM |

‘(saqiy) SUINAAAASOOD—'9 worIg

a — = = . )
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FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

30

eyIeUl “Ur SUeyoIIy ‘Y ‘q1essep ‘p -asQ

‘ur fesrey ‘T -az7g¢ “punor ‘I ‘Su0[qo [qo ‘[BAo ‘O -wWsLOT

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79155—Bul. 151—09——3

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

32

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DTIINOOUSNIT SILIA—S Nomwoasans

*ponuryu09j—sadnuy— £, worjo9g)

151

33

FRUITS MAINLY ADAPTED TO NORTHERN LOCALITIES.

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eur | wp | 3A AA ur

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Po BB Be Fm Ol Re Od" PR OO! PR Wb ie va He | a See a ened eee) eee ee eictiabuash TOISST

we) oe | ee 1, Jaan Se eee cinta shea Wig Wah: ete be: be BE PAD BS BS eh VE Ee er “ot (DODIOAT AnUA ) BSCE

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

34

SN eS Cy | eo WOES EOE a Ed oti | achoaa linea 4 tha | 4 |---- eal fags] tehrayate | eterna] btm enim bee sins | Aaa ey CE side paw aminice wicsisr ie minima Si SR LIOV LA:
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35

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151

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151

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FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

*SJOIIISIP [BIOAVS OY} LOY SUOIJEPUSTIUIODOY

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i a eae fare ee ae foe Cee er oe] ee re ra sees) Ce Oe 7 Oe) bea iz 1k CHOOn JESUIT On tokibatnn, nn cea ade sae (s2susuzg) esoulyD
Bor ECE A3 Tule gcaes 7 GeO ile: sacs Scere > Sho, eae pea ON OR BY
e a te ay a Na eae ib ceed dea de in aa eee fone eee eee ee 5 ca at ciate o Saeed anode pa ean ae qeasinog
7, oe ee lc egal cee Slag tS eae eae co sel lates Bes eee AZ occ eae Sel mc Gee ks uae ee ewe ae acre Bio ie sios uy a
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; “eS
[Azo ‘A furnypour ‘ur faze] ‘| {Ayrea ‘a cuospag “ayIeUL ‘wt Suayoyy “Y -asQ *Araa ‘A ‘100d ‘d Spoo3 ‘3 ‘ysaq ‘q -Ayyond “aorfoA ‘A SadueI0 ‘o '

fueeis ‘3 -10j09 *AIOA‘A ‘][eUUS ‘s SUINTpout ‘UT 1oBIR] ‘| caus) *pumos ‘a fursojAd ‘d fosnyqo ‘yqo ‘aye[qo ‘qo Sundog “O18 Qouvig “Ig ‘Rooury “weury -ubug— aay)

‘(nuophy) SHONINV—'ZT WoROIg |

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

48

| |

uty 3 |and I COLE GENOoNIN cements tees en SG a oe open iogeys
ULy, 3 ad ul Coie lao lcsNGn | Meuse tes Sere pes aarp doUeBIOy
: Wy, 3 aid ul I PRS ache Hee ee OC 2 ae aaa See ee Ba ery djepellyd
[eee ele ee Nie Cie een Es ea a EGE PCAC TES OLONS rs FRE Se CN Ee ie a ACEC ES NaS CSTE IC lps JoyVUAe EL
é Wy 3 nd ime I SEE Nip eae eon See Oo yt OA Sree uvIquin[og
ULy 3 & ul GOT) lsat Nile Pag Sprace ee eres oe SOS EET RS UTTOIeY:
xp 3 ii I I = e{S104 Poy Ey [carpe aa Bip aah AGM pias oli lea gle cm [eulpieg
“SOLOMIDEAN SAANU—SG NoWoasans
“spriqAy afqissod sepnyouy vo

¥3 yf Se | I xp BA & ul Cel sake aie! sol (ig oy ga acl lie CA ie Meare gs Meh deiaae qUOWIIO A
Yea aE Sale mags eae el | eect oe an te RON I fa) Pee TR U)y ae sis eres oe Tae ce Phe pra Coma aATyepiedng
Boa aa (ocala witb v2 up | qsA I I oI Oe (ie aie as et (diamjuy pay p70) Giaaquy pey
Poe Salas SiGe yw Pp qa & I OMe tee mGclglaeetee a ca es (abudlO 8 a]YOUIL } OBURIO
coe Wael se ul ul BA I I B) erat UTh | |eirouee os an (dianqu yy way uospn#{) Aly UOspn yy
ches al leona are oul ul BA ad I O} al acter a (vwop AT) BLUONTRI
Seok SS |e ler ul Pp BA do [A ol POC ONG Puls a5 Sy Sacacce Peas he gL eS (Ag?) Ose 7
ae T.2| eum | wp} 3A F jut en Goo eee ayIeTO

SE} 20 | OL) S| FE | Sl) or} ir) or; 6} 8) 4) 9 ¢ (Pea total 6 = 8 ° 3 veh

| | | 5 g 2 “gue N
*SJOLIYSIP [VIBAOS BUY 10] SUOTZBPUSUIULODO YT | “woTyd Losey

oSOAVGI SAANU—T NOWoasdas
{[uInipew ‘Ur
$048] a ‘Arvo ‘a swosnag “qoHreur ‘ur {Molo} Ty *Y {Jessop ‘p -asQ “Aida ‘A ‘100d ‘d ‘poos “3 “4saq ‘q Aqyon® “Moyo ‘A {par ‘a Setdind ‘nd ‘eyed “d Suosumo “o SyoRtq *q 10709 1S
AqoA ‘A ‘Tyeurs ‘s SUINIpYUL ‘UL saduvl ‘T -2zzg7 “puNor ‘I ‘osn}qo ‘qo {yeotu0o ‘0 ullog “ojo ‘OLIRJUO “YUO ‘oouRIY “IW fedoingy “amop ‘puepsug “sug, “uw2b40— AIM)

‘(snqny) SUIMMATASVA—'ST WoT09g

49

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= ae

51

FRUITS MAINLY ADAPTED TO NORTHERN LOCALITIES.

UWOPIIATOO AA
(Aunqry swospr At ) WOSTE AN
OF cite etait debates CA pens SULRITTEM,
PjoOgre A
we ee ee oe BVIOLSIT A

aN (uosdumoyy, fipo'T) uosdur0y y,
== SXF" Sexo
> ua, |" “=> (oY 2j04g aassauua Z) sassouud J,
Bess “(wordupy) avT .8u909}7g) SU®ANE

we eee cee e rer en enon pipusjdg
ssojdieyg

“ih sie © heer ee Ss ka ere [eAopurg
Be OOS a Se as te ee er ee ajdureg

BE SS ee at sqniy
i -"£VMSPNYT
te 6 aS (9PM JUapisalT) WUEPIsSelg
Tea eS Sete peas (Ajnbag 8 uosing) UOSIeg
Pah 1g aS ee eee es dB IOyIB
op a Ss apne See (ppj2U0L7 ) UOSAIQ
eee a ee te (jog swounay ) weuneN

a1}9ON
“(89M 1) fo YosDUOTY ) YorRUOW
““"(unbryayy fo apitq) UeSIYDIT
(Apng 8, PYIUT ) TOUS
om aie Seg Te ysre yy
ROS LSI Ioysoyoue yy
Soe ssi uo0oseyT
(L9yINT JsnbnF) IoyWT
cece terete ee eee eee tee Tete eee VAOT
stort (YNOLT 8 .Y2L0NbU0T ) YIOMZUO'T
Paes = oe aE Ree ED Joa taser epulT
cee eeee “--""9HIPUOTM es
-- "(004 $. rouy ) epunone
~“(fjipgq wosuyo sr) uosuyor
siecle esses eee eee eee olssor

ee eee

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

52

*S]0111SIP [BIOAOS OY} IO} SUOTYYpUEUIUI0NY

pig rset rl =taferetnninh=| siaielaisies/s SOE OT Ls i eanie ae Rais tlds nae ee eal OM AO TGNTaT | SERO\T;
ee ee es ydesor 49
Spee EE See ee eee Its eset hs SES enor ERASE Scr nena anti SAS tame mers UYOIT
esis i Sy (tae ten | resscemgt es [meee Fpl ig ian SIA or cis a maaan eal Gakic fad carck hele) Nt
Be Beso eae oeas| (Sas oscad sn Beene SE aaSeen Ss SROs Mee Orn am Ane ier Ree merce en a on ~uasse’]
poe eer q See TMG cle a ee ee Bl Ane: Sonia oa OO DON aan
SE PO AE aims | 6 Soesskcns cr eae an ai ai (unpLor niusofijyn9 ) Uepior
seecicee We lnaesyeg [ios esee es nn en ennn ees tenon nerg ege op
peeesin= [Una ee G Ahn oie seme ma 4s ohne gee aren S998) ODOR
A eae tee pcr ee | ee | oe nh oes eS Rs odin a cies esc bje Sein anieeioaies mentee eyomny
ask eae q SSB [ort Gunpaag §,2401q@) exvIg.
s I ee COA ea eee (bu1) p29 $ 401d] ) [BVIOIVULUOD
Pe eel eee ee eae ene | CB Sabet Co ae Spas ree darciny sin. nicoegsla is ee Seesle are sie os SoS ae mete asuarty.)
einicseamiers sia. inimia'as © DSS G Cyaan Bibi semis arisisiaasSosinl-in iil (art. DEhLO/t] 0p) Le OLOl] GO

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*(sIUNULULOD snypphhuy) SANOWTY—T Nolwoasang

“SLON—'ST Woroog

re
Ye)
ri

53

"7" *BATIBS “SD
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i i ee a quedng
Se Tee aie aoe SR oe ean Ree nee ee eee ssaoong

urate Ntenctneacce BRR SRT gee eS 00g
Jaisayooy
Bie eek ie toate Fel S s Sapezpry
*-oUBITOY

rari JOT
he ee UIE yy

A eee u0yoT
ase

FRUITS MAINLY ADAPTED TO NORTHERN LOCALITIES.

SER 2 eyuei a Ree eos “"-3RAIBS “CO 1ado0g
PAcdalall» \TULY wiieae seer PLUGS hn eae ae eR ee ee ho ee ee JIOJULOD,
eo ae | eae ee “Ss USiVBSi 24) (9]DQuLo) UoLLD]Y ) apequiog
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Sole a MAT thin Spon CaRGIMUOlOL iin ri shasta toe ieets se oc rn a ee a seed aIppig
ihe leeititee (Sees He RIM UO LO ipa are Pafeks = Nice he oo ope a ae ons oh in a are en Reg
Sy ele rao e Oe GUDIEES rap il ur ears MER En SORES ey Per ae Og eats WIBIVIV
HORT N ah ia Ml teaeecos “*""BATABS °C) uoslepuy
3 © SRG ISLLOAO GO) Hite y Seago Toe aon gta g apin Re aia a ae aera eudiy
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“(nounsvn) ) SLANLSAHO—% Nooasang
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a ee i - _ _ - er Se ee ee eee ec cre

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

54

Kee
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BO EO Os ela hang Sone © ces ae aR eR Sa ---Bunox
Bde poate ee cae (uoboi0g ) URUIa(] UB A

(@ULOS JO ‘4aYyIS}OLY ) BY],
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og TBO ies ream ee lie gle eS *(plaunjspg ) wens
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ween ee ee ee eee eee qemor
werent ees esse pee ee re eee (qaed ut ‘J0979g sjsod ) SIJOH
sete e eee e erste eee re eee eee eres (JUDLD vIb.L094)) BIB108+)
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wenn eee ee eee ee eee eee eee eee swing

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“(snjiio)) SLANTAZVH GNV SLUAATIA—€é Nowoasang

*penuryuoj—s)nvy — ‘GT worjoag

151

55

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“(npbas sumone) SLANTVM NV@dOUNA UO ‘HSITONG ‘NVISUAd—s¢ Nowoasaas

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

56

a Cai eed tall eal ee Papell ei Am | ek | ca ce ae eee atest ge” >a} weenie Wee coal iy coe & VERSE PON Ao | Ss qo Te ase TR ae Gee oa es AES Le eee LLB NT
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faye ‘| {Ayave ‘oe -uospag “yoyreur “tr ‘uayozTy “Y {quessep ‘p -asQ *Asoa ‘A {100d ‘d {poo8 ‘3 ‘48aq ‘q “Aiyon® “Moyes ‘A {par ‘1 fesueso ‘o {4y81] ‘T Syep ‘p -uojog = AIOA ‘A ‘]TeUIS
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UOTVAT}ND IOF popuowtUMOdaL o1B SB ‘oLOfatoy} ‘Yong -sjimayz pwordos ATJOUYS AURUT JO UOTJVATNO [NJssooons oy} 0}
qt ydepe 04 ATTvorpovad sv ‘Bey J[NH Juede[pe oY} Jo s19}VM pido} YSouTTR oY} JO oOUONTFUT SUTUAZJOS OY} YIIM 1oy}OS0}
‘goryisod 1eynsut-Twues sy Aq poypour IVF Os St opnyyR] YJLOU Zz JO YINOs SULA] VpLOpy Jo Uorjs0d oy] Jo oyVUUTPo OL,
. ‘SOUIVU [BVJOLIVA JOpUN poZIUsOdeI o1v Sod A} [RULSTIO VY} UOT]
Soinjiedop oY} JVY} PolVa IB] OS oAvY “OSTMJOYIO IO UOTPWANTNS Japun ‘sv ATUO satods Yous SepnypoUt UOISTAIP STY I,

‘SLING TVOICOUL GNV TVOICOULANS— II worstarq

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57

SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL FRUITS.

“(mnuoul) snind) SNOWAT—E€ NoWoasang

2 cll ald eal eee Ee Baca ea EE [esseceee|peeeeeteeee teres teens eeseeees ees UOMO AL
3 AT yu Tee ete le i a Se te Le oe er been sI9qye
iF: AT sur I see ela ee i i ee es ydumniy,
BA AT yur I SH [Allis ensa ek cees Gate at ok GS oe jeA0yy
SA AT JA I Ze1g Ye Si OS furan SE oe eS oonqd UIRWleg
poo SHS leah || ae a BET [rt (esaqpaag-yssnpy ) use
3A Ao l I TOU hegre a ae Aen es 2 yee en has quourMre py
3 Ay | s I we Ra Re ee Ve
ee ye Rae =) ee Paes le lence eka te LiGe cua an |i Oke noe Tek ee Se ene Pane Oe ee COUN CL
see e lec eee epee eee pee e ee |e ee eee |e eee eel eee Bla |r (oytjorg 8,4auuog) saun0p
Ce ee a ae usMOg

:SOTANOd—9 Nowoasdag

: ee - = eB
BA ol ur to) ATG Tl [Rae at ict ee k ehh pe aint I euolesUR J,
BA 0 ur (9) PS SG Tare acer ho eas s Gace en ga mn aie euins}eg
Bs) Rese Eee poor secc Seece bird Pelee ene Cette Cee Poe eee ern
B80) pees obcr| ona pasa eonoae | wp | ga | ao | yor Oo Ps = Gupiabuny houng) sous,
eee ele eee fete le cole ey liee 4s Dp Ba Oo! ul te) peel 5 Smaak a, ae ae ae et ag ae ae TL)
i |
SNIUVAGNVA—'S Noloasdas
mS aloo a ata iso | Roe) 3 aa q3a | AT I LOT mealies wk O, cam peer Na ceat NORA ty 2 Ie
5866) Sse el GS Gs. 656 uryp q3a | 10 ws re) ~ BIPUyT PaO SiS Sue See Cee ipip ieee a im PEO Val shir}
Beg aoa se SE SET ESS] Re Soe 6b REECE) ol CUS Ge aa oe ae ome OCC real eyt
we eeee bee eee SA AT ur AO “" "JOT pie. sik Ge RS bt en La leak ag Ee cae
Roary ceo 3 A] | Ww AO ron OUT Ce waa te. oa bet Sas Me at) dno ae hy te aeRO LS
sereeeleeeeee 3 Keo aaeT ROP Sica lOMt | getye ote ogo te has ae aati soe LIBCLALT,
i (Botti SS || es ty Ie | einai | Pie Sine lee sored Fgh ies Seal a aS SO ODS BES ee Oke ee ir ei eae CROs if ay
AWII— Ft Nowoasang

Sees See Sees See! Sees q3a A] yur AO Fi lO) |e eininipeee ether a hah. bee cinet kek oS OURS
ee eee renee COPEL) RSG gare ENGI PA REAR op eae te PTI te Te Sto a bei eee. |) (=
wel ee we we fase 3 A] yur AO “- 410g Lee er Lin a nen eas Sie ka & oe LOST
Sool Oa el aes 2 Sie sl ae 3 | 4] yur UIE Gee baleen cae oe gee ee eS 2 ROUSE
er d AT yur AO “=="180) PERERA eRe SaaS. seep tea OUT,
warafenseleerale see loess|-scevelewene- q | AT | yu ROT eeCMa hte epee a TOR

151

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

58

‘ARN UOjZuIYse AA “uLAUOUAS S}I JepUN 4Svod OYTOe Vt} WO UMOMY [Jo A\ v

ur oe Pera iewe oo cc oeeiei=isinisinieie “(snoulA WwopDn yy) SNOUT A
I I ROR bea TOW ln niaecitae 2 ms es Sg Ss (aqvT b2r0uUI7D 4 ) BVIOUITS A
ule [A KORN ESSa Ray lnaaeeies wees (parorduy uosdwmoyy ) wosdur0y, J,
UL ut I Se HONE oer naa tay gina oe con eo eS ee TeV 3S
ure ur i eRe Oil rom em fs ime open ee rn ee ae ae Se lg Aqny
ur [A I Sai) | bal te apa eee ae mer a eee -aiddevourg
fe) ur AON ol MSSSBT aS m2 So pe eee Sie cael (unoLg Uosing) UOSIeg
wy s AON 7 See O les lige © ar eis Rai (apyouyy 1S pury wadvg) pury rsdeq
wid I I SOS it Fall er aera Wen ae SoS Sin Sg el Cae Trorvduon
I I NOP Si Oil Sie ees ator (pINY UnIuUd.L1a}Ipa PY ) UBIUBIIO} IPO
ur ul a Pei T ii ase ate SERS RO eae (sag shop) SAV
ut us KOY, ieSAT ORT | see Seer ae Wee Sei ar as Se nee ie pool esei[eyy
uly NEL ee WE beak Glee ONT. le a nae aie a gemee > Se aes a ake seem a eololeyy
ur oi PS Ace aos Oh ll peeparns so etaete oe oa ea a OD eae eper
eS) LEO” || ii Cana A | Sere aa eed (poo? g Jviadwzy ) [ewedury
ul UE | ee Le a Tale |e yn Seat a emi ee Gece Seinicae cine Cintsie BSSBSOULO FT
JA CLEC | Per AO eel cr sl OMAN ig crweaiy v aig ee ae tee aay een eee te a (9DT S$ .71DF7) Wey
2 ODE EO SALE le YET! 2) Ui fal aa haces Pan Me a pela ace RM ae mes oe aaa I0]SO WJ
A) UL (ssappaag' astud.saquy ) eS11d.190qu
BRING REY OS 2S SY ORCS ORES OR SIE OO Sana Sarr cai oa Ce ae Cea a poOAT a
ttl | eae | Ms Ar lesen beets etnias eames en a niak Ge Si arn ays s So cima ain ae elsiaiecisin se siss qesnqg
Nace eae re fea PENS Sein EM Oa a he ae ii aie Celene iain aia (ssa)paag’ U0) IaUIOD
ule jeruueyueD
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| 2 & ; 5 “ouIUN
*S]OLI}SIP [VIBAVS 9I]} IOJ SMOTZEPUOUTUTOIE YY : “mor dirosaqy |

(sisuaurs WNYUDIND SNLND) STONVUO LAAMS—L Nowoasdag

‘ponurju0j—spinuf snujyy— I woyoay

151

59

SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL FRUITS.

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TAs La ee] eed ees Ue criti eee abealiee 3 * +k * Sad Cae | |e i Pelee ie a
pi NE eae Be ie a 2 ae Fe ae |e |---|.) ¥ -.--|----]--- it \pchor aod
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an a SoR ee es tee he ayoury] ¢ euler]
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Faeroe Vo gatas Sie: Soofm same RENT PEA) STON
APs Ska Te AIT Cake hig ke we (snginyy Uapj0H ) SNQIeN
Sees ee Peg ean sar Crea Pe, oouRIg, OORUOT

ew rere ee ee, (v1uL0ftyD ) WOISSTY

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| ia ry pa eT ee (701789}9,9 ) eYSETA)
PSG, SE ee ap ae a repo (nuuopnyy ) JOLMSUTLIGT
ssa] abl riage 3a shea einai ecm se elem ee aslyy) a} osselinog
lei lOM S| a ahabitira eae M) es Adan emi Stay VIYOST Youlg_
Bee tee | Otel a ave ta eal one a = Sfaralale sath ok Ree Ae eae ourjoosy
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‘(voLUD) SN) SHIA—"B Worjoag

{Saymo‘o -asg «AoA ‘A {100d ‘d {poos ‘3 f4saq ‘q “Azone
740J09 «“AIOA ‘A {]yeuISs ‘Ss SuIMIpour ‘ur fasuey ‘[ “zig

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Pieced | 3a ma Nk | (eta Ue eal cH a acme oe al) ede et se | myp/ sd 3 ul I COAT TREC Pig ASR oS Gaines en's 'aiairie (Assaqnn.yg) Sayyeo
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*mMoTpoA ‘A fuverd ‘3 210709

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‘(wnipsd) SVAVOY— > woyoag

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‘BOLIOULY YINOYg “Vy “g ‘oolxKeyy, “Xo, -u2b219Q— aay)

*S]OIISIP [BIVAOS OY} IO} SMOIBpUeUTUTODeRT

‘ur foje] ‘[T :Apive ‘e -uospag “yeyreur ‘ur f4y1assop ‘p -asq *AroA ‘A ‘100d ‘d {umnypeut ‘ur {poos ‘3 {4seq ‘q -Agynnd
ioj09 «*AJOA ‘A {][BUIS ‘S SUINTpout ‘UL ‘osRy ‘T az7g’ *punor ‘1 {poyujod ‘d fayeaogo ‘oqo ‘3uo[qo ‘qo ‘a}eiqo ‘oO ‘peotm0a ‘do swL0g

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Ip s Ol SECU Nea piee Sin oS ae. eels eee nS Ia eee 13097
AG) I Ose cept |e s Seatate ae Selene ae Seria mie ainsi. sialic afsciointe mould
Ip yu O1 PENG oT pa eet ae SO a al Oh a IA Leo Iqosioppo x
Iq I (OIG Kose 0 [Oy pa] PRES EPR SOROS She Soe Ie COC eK ninsy,
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d1q I Or 28S) (O6 oie sae ere Ser OO suey O
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ees | eerie | reese | erence se |e eet el Roce eee ik cee oC ee ee Eze Ty
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‘sexo, “xe, ‘ueder ‘der -w2duQ— say

61

SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL FRUITS.

H acikines | esau |i Mara’ | OE as |e lla ake a [eka Ss xp 3 AI yur I pk Ol aa se Se CR ee ee bhai wae (ysrundg paz) ysiaedg

- wl eee ele eee Sx ee es ee ee es ee ee ee ee ee eee uvent
Phe ee Sx psa ies tl ithe) armel aceite $s yp 3 & JA I Ee OR Mes Ee ait, MRO Sk? Sih aa hot ae ae Ge ae OOIY OWOdT
Beale ertene | Seeal cea eee ee era ee eae ale rien Ua alter cline elect oe cotta cs eee Maree se mate
soe eile eal pele ot arco 5 csc ca). co (ae, oe eepa | Etser sb eteae enue yest eer e as otis SoS wspIod
eee Pe Na Asser ieee a cee: [ieenicts ean] Rs, Ss xp qsa & JA a) cases! (0) Fo La ga fae Ay Mg > pce ate eo (auuahing yjoouls ) ouuVdARD
ieee alice Pek esters aloe RAO Fe s xP BA Ap jut qo east! (0) (tal Pie aot ee pein eee eink ene rer Fao (oyyxDQ PV ) Tyoeqy

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{-1euruins ‘s -wospag “Ueto TY ‘Y ‘41essep ‘p -asQ
*Ar0A ‘A $poo8 ‘3 {480q ‘q -Ayyon® “Mord ‘A {par ‘a iyrep ‘p -uojog «*AIOA ‘A SuIN pout ‘tH ‘aBIRy ‘T -az1g’ “puNor ‘I ‘suOTGO ‘qo {[eoluOd ‘Dd -wsogy “UsIEIOT “IO -UIb1.1Q— Aa]

‘(snayws spubuy) SHTAAVANIA—'9 Woroag

| | |
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25d (Se 6c Case) bos eae Secale BS SS SEE Sele Gers soel fe al Re ee Ses (aE ere ee pacer meee Wr eng vi aan ce ee
ecidilenea wat sliewe at <ect{pReshaladsosc[eama-| qd | we | oso |----dg |------7-7-7 27-77-77 (oownyg onrpoaagr) OTTIPBAON
| Ace) RAE Aaa ek eo as Rc wteeee qd yur AO Se aPCO) ae ae eens ke oe A ale Lea TOISSIPL
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sen) lie leeelseeicice sas gery es ses ns oe d JA | qoao ~~ ARAL. pig! ati se’ Nat tliat te oa Pa ehde soe mart ae hoy : £0 bi 138 Og)
Be SK oo fierafina rycen afatce ne nat -fanatnne wen | ain wa| tan amanalatnveswn|wawownaleeda dass acesserasacaarstos=-5 >> “OUBIDO MY
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‘(unpounlbd vung) SELVNVADYANOd—'L woroeg

*qaassap ‘p 3s
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SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL FRUITS.

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onaded nok Ciba) al clial kal Pops est Panga eo aad Coles paleo ob partoey ‘mena ieee Uhel | aSl= Cohe) [ROR ee SOS Ee Sor a eee Ses ce roa SoM OOM Ly
OS Ons Ce ae mea Sx Pr a ag en eee BA | nd | I NOR ges ike aoe ne oe el ee ee ce ae LE SOT OT:
in = leo. b og ire ioe) ci | : / “a fous ey :
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[-Aioa ‘A ‘poos ‘3 :Ayyone mores ‘& ‘ajdind ‘nd ‘uses3 ‘3 :u0ojog aSrey ‘[ :a2ag° “punos ‘a [RAO ‘AO {Su0[qo ‘[qo {yeormos ‘o smuog “eIMIOJ VO “Teg :ubuQ—ATy]

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79155—Bul. 151—09-——5

FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

64

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— ee — ————S Ss —— ———— s | | — —— | — ———_. ————ES SSS _—
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[-umnrpeut ‘ur :wospag) “ya0ssep ‘p :asQ *AIOA ‘A fpoos ‘3 sAyyMnG “MoTJoA ‘A sy IVp “P 10709 “AIOA ‘A fOSIV] ‘[ sazg’ “BUOTQO [qo -wiog “vuRIpuy “puy -uw2b2u9—Agdy | +
0

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ee ee a eS ae

CODE OF NOMENCLATURE 65

CODE OF NOMENCLATURE OF THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL
SOCIETY.

The nomenclature used in this bulletin is in accordance with the
rules of the American Pomological Society, adopted at Boston,
Mass., on September 10, 1903, the complete text of which follows:

PRIORITY.

Rute 1. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear the
same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the
accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been
applied in violation of this code.

A. The term ‘‘kind” as herein used shall be understood to apply to those general
classes of fruits which are grouped together in common usage without regard to their
exact botanical relationship, as apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, etc.

B. The paramount right of the originator, discoverer, or introducer of a new variety
to name it, within the limitations of this code, is recognized and emphasized.

C. Where a variety name through long usage has become thoroughly established in
American pomological literature for two or more varieties, it should not be displaced
nor radically modified for either sort, except in cases where a well-known synonym
can be advanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties bearing
identical names should be distinguished by adding the name of the author who
first described each sort, or by adding some other suitable distinguishing term which
will insure their identity in catalogues or discussions.

D. Existing American names of varieties which conflict with earlier published
foreign names of the same or other varieties, but which have become thoroughly
established through long usage, shall not be displaced.

FORM OF NAMES.

Rute 2. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single
word.

A. No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to existing varieties in
some important characteristic, nor until it has been determined to perpetuate it by
bud propagation. .

B. In selecting names for varieties the following points should be emphasized:
Distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation and spelling, indication of origin or
parentage.

C. The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived from a personal or
geographical name should be governed by the rules which control the spelling and
pronunciation of the name from which it was derived.

D. A variety imported from a foreign country should retain its foreign name, subject
only to such modification as is necessary to conform it to this code or to render it
intelligible in English.

E. The name of a person should not be applied to a variety during his life without
his express consent. The name of a deceased horticulturist should not be so applied
except through formal action by some competent horticultural body, preferably that
with which he was most closely connected.

F. The use of such general terms as seedling, hybrid, pippin, pearmain, beurre,
rare-ripe, damson, etc., isnot admissible.

_G. The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible.
151

66 FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

H. The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word, should be considered
only as a temporary expedient while the variety is undergoing preliminary test.

I. In applying the various provisions of this rule to an existing varietal name which
has through long usage become firmly embedded in American pomological literature,
no change shall be made which will involve loss of identity.

Rute 3. In the full and formal citation of a variety name, the name
of the author who first published it shall be given.

PUBLICATION.

Rute 4. Publication consists (1) in the distribution of a printed
description of the variety named, giving the distinguishing characters
of fruit, tree, ete., or (2) in the publication of a new name for a variety
which is properly described elsewhere; such publications to be made
in any book, bulletin, report, trade catalogue, or periodical, providing
the issue bears the date of its publication and is generally distributed
among nurserymen, fruit growers, and horticulturists; or (3) mn cer-
tain cases the general recognition of a name for a propagated variety
in a community for a number of years shall constitute publication of
that name.

A. In determining the name of a variety to which two or more names have been
given in the same publication, that which stands first shall have precedence.

REVISION.

Rute 5. No properly published variety name shall be changed for
any reason except conflict with this code, nor shall another variety be
substituted for that originally described thereunder.

151

INDEX.

Page.

UN a ee a ie Re ea ee ee er ere 52

American Pomological Society, code of nomenclature..................-.-.-- 65-66

pomological districts defined................. 10-13

SE CT Tg ea re

eo TS eT IS I at oe tn ogee Me Sel flee ing 2 a ae a 14-22

Semmmnmanncr VETICtied.. 62.2. 2.2) tet bebe e eur eis cnewee ce ceteacs 23

MEIER TETORVATICCICS 2k ion ec oes eee ee ieee een ec cbimensand 63

Spear IIMOEANIOULCH 2. 2 es 0 es cee ee WU ee So 62

Seemmmeeemerties, list of varieties... ...2.02-.202.2).26 2. o.oo eee eee 26

Beem Ole VArICtlCSo. 1s ese Boo ol ee hace dawned oc ceee 24-25

Satiega, muss adapted to cultivation, list-.................-.-2.-----0ie--ee 14-55

ERS 01 5 SURI Se ae en 9-10

SSDP ATT PO 26-27

PUINMNEMECICMRO WATICULES oo 22. Ss eetns tec ghee bed Seine ee nee se ecbe's 53

SUNS SO ap Ne We 56
Citrus fruits. See Fruits, citrus.

Crab apple. See Apple, crab.

5 ESS SS a ee 28

varieties of Ribes nigrum and R. aureum, list.....................-- 28

PUTT ALIS xy ter eee eee hie ea ae See ee er le 28

UGA? i er Pas,

Districts, pomological, defined by American Pomological Society............. 10-13

Supers, list i varieties. <..2.5..- 15-622. vene cnt ccd feds locmececeoece 27

NEIDIO heh ee ie ee ce ot OS Sarees g 59

eum ECOnTIOnes. . 2 = yo ck Peck kh on ot pete deeds bk WE ot 54

Fruits adapted to cultivation in the United States and Canada, list...........- 14-64

MORUMERMPLOCULIGLCHS LiShAnsee scenes a) eee de oe ee SAG

BUDROpIeS. OF FLOPIes, Tbe. e >. oP esses ocean kctw.c sole 56-63

UIs UCMCU AICS s 25.0002, 5 2. Lok oe sind be hak tee wkn wares dca a 56-58

ROME ROLIS IK OLE VALI CICA Se man see S205 i SEE Ben eg te kar 64

Sroasebetries, list. of varieties...............--.-s--+------- Powe RS Gea ee 29

varieties of Ribes oxyacanthoides, list..................--2...-- 29

REC MMA UMRMIS ene woe ee CS on es 29

MINISTER IRON 0. > Lefer. Sn. 2 ea a a Pim ad ge « ast Seek x ooh 30-33

WaMemMestOr Vitis aestivalis: lists. 22.02.22. k cece ees eee eee ede 30

PAD IUISGAHIS ESS Soo ty ees te ee ey vce PE 20s te 30-31

IMBECOnMI ISI: oat eek even ok Ropes ede ese 32

MOMIMEINO a Sts es eee na BOS Rt ke hw renee 32

Staltatrb Ceret2 ia) i= Ange Oe ae hn 5 SAU gee Sen erie te SA 32-33

SVU TSK UR MELIS Og. eects ye epee ee esac pie ee ee tree 9A 33

MMI DEE ECARUORICH 8 Moti oa, 5-5 wcninn Salaam dp OE EN orn 2 0s Pee = 60

MARIE IST IGE AMGIICG 2 dns aw ba Sec om sede de boeeecese+ty scaeee 54

SmePCMICETION, Wish@) VATIChICH. .. 0.2... . i «oo s endear esc eu Sac ueubscces 26

USGS Sy eres = rc a 56

INCI R ene 2 VOPR ne wd wre nes hb ee 57

151 67

68 FRUITS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION.

Page.
luimes; list of varleticettnk.-c\0.5-S2s, 2 Poe ee et ee eee eee 57
Loquais, list. of varieties¥s:. 2-52.26. - 2022s ee ee ee ee 63
Mandarins: list of varietiess: = 2.22... <. 42.20 seer eee ee oT
Mangos, list of varieties). 22! 22 fore. 2h ap oe EO es ee 63
Morello-cherries; listiofivanicties's: 2-2 ee ee ee ee 27
Mulberries, list of varieties: 2... -s:.sttc30 2 oe ee 34
Nectarmmes, list: of varieties... eic2cc~<s- 8s 8 Oe eee eer eee At)
Nomenclature of American Pomological Society, code.--.......-.-.....------ 65-66
Nats; dist (of varieties. 252.5 ccc. ety ee oe eer ere 52-55
Olives; list: of warleties: s.2 42... eee oe ee ee eee 61
Oranges, sweet, list of varieties.../ 25). i.) ages oe Spee ee 58
Papaw; Uncle Tom variety 2. ..2-.o.c2i a2. pA ee eee 64
Peaches; list of varleties!.n2 3233002 obs Se note eee eee eee 35-39
Pears list of varietiesss2.0 0. 66 A ede ge ee oe oe ee 40-41
Pecans, list of varieties... 2. .o2.-cc >. oo. eh ee ee 54
Persimmons, Japanese, list of varieties....... 242. 4.22.8 oc ee ee 60
native; list of-varieties. 25.2 -.2h..22) 25. ie eee 64
Pineapples, list-ofwvanieties....0.4.52 252 2ees Goto sop ne ee 61
Plan of catalogue:of fruttss. 05.000. o eect tet ae a kre we err 9-10
Plums; list of varieties. =. 22s. Yai art See Oe 42-46
Varieties of Prunus ‘americana. Wist-ss. 52) 5-4-2 aa ee 42
angustifolia, list 225.222.5047 AS 43
cerasifera; dist..25:2....2552) 22-252 ee eee 43
domestica, list: Slo. le 2 an eee 43-44
hortulana,; list 3306) ee eee 45

triftora, list. 2th scene Pe eee 45-46 .
Pomegranates, list of varieties. ...25..0. --f% se so 62
Pomelos, list of varieties)... eth. Lo ee ee 57
Prunts americana, listiof-vanieties. 4222. a uae oe oe Pee 42
angustifolia; ‘list of varieties = 2.5 4 2.2,.2 2222 ee =~ 2 Joe 3 43
eerasifera, list of varieties 2: 3 32 See 45 5 e ce eee eee 43
domestica; listief varieties: 2 2.22 eases vote ee ee eee 43-44
hortulana: list of varieties. -- 2) 52 jst teee- -- 2 esos eee 45
triflora, list of varieties... to LA eet ele ee ee eee 45-46
Quinces; list of varieties:.. 2452 iS ee ee te ee 47
Raspberries; list of varieties 2 2) sisis2-isi 22s. er ee eee oe .... 48-49
varieties of Rubus idaeus, list te di ee eee 48
merlectus, listheccese a eee mee SO ae ee 48
occidentalisthist {52-2 =e 49
strigosus, List... 2 sue <a ee 49
Ribes'aureum, list‘ofvarieties: ws..0. ote ee eee ee eee 28
MIPIM. Nish ol Varleticsa. 2s - eee es 3 ae 28
oxyacanthoidés, list of varieties... i..22 J25.22525- 5: 2. 29
reclinatum, ast of varieties 22 -Ss5 2 eee ee eee see ee eee 29
rubrum, list ob varilettes 2 ss eee eo ee 28
Rubus idaecus; hstofvarieties=\. cb eee Gee le ae eee hae) 48
nerlectis, list of varieties: .-. 5-2 552s ates ess ee 48
occidentalis, ist .ofivarieties. 2... 5. 282 we ee 2 ee 49
strigosus, lishvotcvarieties. . . .\. 02. ore. eeeee- Hele oc ns Se 49
Strawberries, list’oFwametios.... .. 2-2: Seseeiee ns. ses see 50-51
Subtropics, fruits .duitable, List. ... 2s... ysl cie| es Se eee er 56-63
Tropics, irutts stittaplevdish: ©. 050.2). ae <2 ee 56-63

151

INDEX. 69

Page.

United States, fruits adapted to cultivation, list..................-+--------- 14-64
SONGS, MS. 22. <a inenentmeg ene Ses ne ek eee 52
INN tre es. 2th Se re Es eae amtly oy 14-22
SPLPES A ME Re eee So oo a rere area a Ait & aired Ricbia nic, shag he 23

© TUG GMCS ET Ge ree eg ei Plana OE pa calms ae wh ie Te EE ee eae 63
(PUT EONS es Oe pret a ora ant es es a eae so ES 62

in LEVEN!) OCH ICTS WA ie Sata aces nie ees ee ae eae Rn ge eae ee 24-25
IMAM as Sse Eta: Ieee ee eee Sone Le SEI cu ee es 26-27
EHIME NIStie se ee 2. cecil oe eens he Pe see ee he ee an: 53

TT OEE Se es ee ee Ae aE RI af kee See hie att Seiad 56
INUMGIENEN Bereta owt =. pa tm I ache oe os ies 5 sles 28
“THETA |S Giatir GIST TRS Sige eee ee a te a 9 Al a Re a a 25
(EER Sp STR eee cae in Fea a ee 59

CEILS SYeG 9 IS ee oy nama Pe UE, feo 54
RIE MSG hor of rene SR a SoS Ses te fete cies DO-OS

iP aye REP sek Meet ie MOSES Scere men Sree Da eee ee ae 64

78 SL ISL Ss Cs Sy Se es kre ge a 29
RRR ere acon crte gory aq ate ete aes els P= see eee 30-33
0 SUSU 5 Saag ere 2c ae ee ee 60
Seeee es CHET Crip Et Depa eee ee eG oy aes eget soe 8 54
LED ESLE oa Sa ee ees a oe i a 56
WOT TS Eas UNS hea os Sal See eee ea re ie 57
LCS) NEI eS oye dics 2 en tS oe oe Re ce ee 57
uummaemMnnr remy ebrte or Seo Boo os Says oe Wael hone 34 oo See Sue 63

SST DLR Gin GSS ARE ts AR Se Ee, lg ee ee 57
Oo SURES BR OIA Soe ae ge eee 63
(3 | al = a rr oA ye eet SC eh aE ai ene 34
MERE SARIN SPER of O15 ace Pics hat BS pol oiE one sm Yat, Fz a VES , 80
ENR as et eT Ree gS 52-55
SEES Cg 8 hc MRE PE ge ah cen 61
ES SETS pal IT) ec a 58
LEE EE le oa hones > Sal Seer See ee ee 64
PIER peer A) ee a ese pao vee eke 35-39
Openers a5 Se elie ee Maes co eS ld. ae 40-41
peeans; list 22.2.2. 2255 25 ee te tee 54
RicrHEELUGEIS, MLE YO, Memes a ea eee gee Mia eo Le Lan ce enn 64
VADAMesey Wate e ate ene cod ete Soa 60

pineapples, list.........- et ee? ee ee ee Ie TRL ts ee 61
(TNE Rapes ee Ap Eli BR >) os io lene re ee 22 en See 42-46
70ST ICES oo eee ee oe ee 62
SEM POUIS Ue. e aes Te ee Ae oes 2 odin eeew et » i 57
Es LT Re OER a et eas By Csaba or 5 Rs Se eT 47
TTI LIS ceteris Fe Se ct. Men eee wee ye ne arches we we 48-49

BNP nene ce alligh- = eek ate eee ieee heeft Dita lag 50-51
ENR NR Pe aay, haa oh, Se ees ows cs oo oe ee eee 55
RCSL IV eI IStOL VOTICULCS'...<- 2. sce. Sn ate eSbeecs oes eevee ae tcavcce 30
DOPIGURC AMIBIMGEIVATICULCS. . 8.2 ices one ode cea scheme ake s es elec eben. 30-31
MIRC OMMMMMIIS TI OLTVATEOGICS 2... in s-c nets ance aees.scce cc locus Seesaccte 32
PimMMaM PRUNE CO VEIIOUIOS®. 2.20. 6. So eke bbe eee cee hehe tose 32
AMC CAPRIS ERE Ae GLOS Sees... 8 Comes Sees voice «See's bos ncparee bo BEERS
Oh LE aC UV Gil TS: a, 2 ae a 33
MN ERI REMUS ETO REV SDLOR se preemies . < f. . ok eles olen ooo cee eta ent nceev eaves 55

151

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 152. |

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY
AND WHEAT.

BY

E. M. FREEMAN, CoLiapnoraror,
AND

EDWARD C. JOHNSON, Paruonogist, GRAIN INVESTIGATIONS.

ISSUED JULY 12, 1909.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1909,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEvERLY T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops.
Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES HE. JONES.

GRAIN INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Mark Alfred Carleton, Cerealist in Charge.
William M. Jardine, Agronomist in Charge of Experiments with Dry-Land Grains.
Carleton R. Ball, Agronomist in Charge of Grain-Sorghum Investigations.
Charles E. Chambliss, Hxapert in Charge of Rice Investigations.
Clyde W. Warburton, Agronomist in Charge of Oat Investigations.
Edward C. Johnson, Pathologist in Charge of Cereal Disease Work.
Harry B. Derr, Agronomist in Charge of Barley Investigations.
John F. Ross, Superintendent, Amarillo (Texas) Experimental Farm.
Henry F. Blanchard and Harry J. C. Umberger, Assistant Agronomists.
Francis D. Farrell, Victor L. Cory, and Wilson G. Shelley, Scientific Assistants.
Cecil Salmon, Lyman C. Burnett, Fred J. Pritchard, Frank R. Babcock, and Frank Wolf,
Special Agents. 2
152
2

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. DepartTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BureEAv oF Puant INnpustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., April 1, 1909.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a technical paper en-
titled “‘ The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat,” containing the results
of recent researches by the Office of Grain Investigations into the life
histories of loose smuts and the determination of methods for their
prevention. These smuts have been on the increase in recent years, as
satisfactory means of combating them have been unknown. The
accompanying paper, prepared by E. M. Freeman, formerly Patholo-
gist in the Office of Grain Investigations, at present a collaborator of
the same Office, and Edward C. Johnson, Pathologist in the Office of
Grain Investigations, not only gives much new information on the
life histories of these important grain smuts, but also demonstrates
a practical method for their prevention. I therefore recommend
that it be published as Bulletin No. 152 of the special series of this
Bureau.

Respectfully, Bb. Garoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James WItson,
Secretary of Agriculture.

152

a

CONTENTS:

EL SE ee ee ee
Sunracds OF sgoce smut Of barley... .--- 22-52... 252-22 5-22-2222 22 ene es
EORTC 6) FT | Se ee ae
MENTE Gi LOOMS MUNTIM =. 2 22ers ae eo a nse sees
EEE SS oe Es
Experiments in life histories of loose smuts.............---------------
Influence of time of planting on loose smut........-..-.----------------
Se MERE MIT IIORPUIRER TIE oe co.5 ao oe ee ae oa aos eae oh eS ie

0 8s fo) en a a ee
Pt Maer GreaAcment Of WREAb nn oe eers oon Sos te ae es Sake eke
Effect on germination of drying treated seed ......--.-.----.-------
Effect of Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment on the yield of grain-
Test of the Jensen modified hot-water treatment on a large scale-----
Roguing treatment for the prevention of loose smuts of wheat and

on, eS a a ee eee ee ys ee ee ees eee

EPS ee ee
ireaument of the seed for the seed plat_..-...............-----.----+--
ge RST ST I 2 ae ee
SG De eee ES ee
a oe eee ee io

Puate I.
ie

VE.

LLUUSTRATLOMS:

PLATES.

Heads of wheat and barley, showing the common smuts.----..-----
Loose smut of barley, showing the various stages in the development
‘OL avsmuttedthead oo... cccc cee sesaeccenc eke e oe Se eee

. Loose smut of barley, showing various manifestations of smut ..-.--

Loose smut of wheat, showing the various stages in the development
of a smutted head =. -.'.....- ./-S222 ese esos. ee eee
Loose smut of wheat, showing heads from a sound plant and from
a smutted plant and a partially smutted head..-....-----------:-
Loose smut of barley, showing heads from a sound plant, a smutted
plant, anda partially smutted plamtic2 ==. esses.

TEXT FIGURES.

Fia. 1. Diagram showing the daily record of barley smut at St. Anthony Park,

Minn., in 1907

2. Diagram showing the effect on germination of drying barley and wheat

seed after the application of Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment
for looseismiUutt ..... cccsuceuds-Locsaass ao eee eee eee ee eee
152
6

16

29

B. P. 1.—464.

THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

INTRODUCTION.

The loose smuts of barley and wheat have often been considered
diseases of minor importance. Although this estimate may have been
justifiable ten or fifteen years ago, it certainly is not warranted at the
present time. In Wisconsin and Minnesota losses from loose smut
of barley of 5 to 10 per cent are not at all uncommon, while greater
losses sometimes occur. Loose smut of wheat often prevails to the
extent of 3 or 4 per cent in Minnesota, and considerably higher per-
centages have been observed in that State and in other States. Losses
exceeding half of the crop have been reported in a few cases, although
these are comparatively rare. Undoubtedly the greatest loss at pres-
ent is occasioned by the wide distribution of these smuts. They are
practically coextensive with their host plants, and though they occur
usually in small quantities the damage in the aggregate is large.
They often are entirely unnoticed on account of their earliness and the
absence of any conspicuous sign of them at harvest time.

The loose smuts of barley and wheat are to be considered enemies
to cereal culture not only on the basis of the present damage which
they cause, but also on account of the possibilities of their power of
increase under favorable conditions. The barley smut in particular
has demonstrated its power in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where the
farmers are now wide awake to the danger. The seed of wheat and
barley is infected one year, but does not produce a smutted crop until
the next season, while the methods necessary for combating the disease
are not simple or easily applicable. Such facts emphasize the dan-
gerous nature of these fungous pests and make the determination of
any successful method of prevention especially desirable.

DESCRIPTION OF LOOSE SMUT OF BARLEY.

There are two smuts of barley common in this country. The loose
smut (Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw.) is easily distinguished
from the covered smut by its earlier appearance, by its olive-green
spore mass as compared with a black spore mass in the latter, and by

152 f

8 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

the early shedding of the spores, which are blown off by the wind
almost as soon as the smutted head comes out of the leaf sheath. In
covered smut the spore mass is compact and often persists as smut
balls in the harvested grain. (See Pl. I, d, e, and f.)

The smutted plants head earlier as a rule than those not infected.
The heading in both infected and normal plants is prolonged
throughout a period of from four to fourteen days, depending on
external conditions. However, the period of maximum smut devel-
opment in a field always occurs at the maximum flowering time of
the barley. Scattering heads on both infected and healthy plants
appear until the time of harvest. Usually the smutted heads are ele-
vated rapidly above those of the healthy plants, thus giving oppor-
tunities for a wide distribution of spores by air currents. The light
weight of the smutted heads also assists them in maintaining an
upright position in a heavy wind. In general, when a plant is in-
fected every head is smutted. Occasionally, however, plants are
found with some smutted and some sound heads. (See Pl. VI.)

In a smutted head usually every spikelet and every kernel is
smutted. To this again there are not infrequent exceptions. When
spikelets in an infected head escape the smut they ordinarily occur
at the top. (See Pl. III, >.) In the field such heads are commonly
found late in the season, i. e., shortly before harvest. Sometimes they
occur in artificially infected plants when infection has taken place
previous to the full flowering period.

In a smutted head as a rule each spikelet is entirely transformed
into a smut mass. (See Pl. II.) The ends of the awns, however, fre-
quently escape. These often remain as weak threadlike bodies on
the end of the smut masses. The rhachis is never destroyed, and per-
sists as a naked stalk after the spores have been blown off. In a
smutted plant the smut occasionally extends to the top of the leaves,
and large bract-like bodies, likewise smutted, are sometimes formed
at the bases of the heads. These are probably the basal glumes or
entire spikelets stimulated to abnormal development by the fungus.
(See Pl. ITT, e.)

The smut masses when the head first appears are covered by a
delicate grayish membrane. ‘This soon bursts and sets free the pow-
dery spores, which in a few days are blown off by the wind. In some
seasons many of the latest formed smutted heads remain hard and
black and fail to release their spores. The head, therefore, does not
become powdery, but retains its mature form, and the spores are
apparently never distributed. (See Pl. III, d.) In a normal smut
head the smut mass is olive-green in color. The spores are approxi-
mately spherical and measure 5 to 7 by 5 to 6.5 » in diameter. Seen

152

DESCRIPTION OF LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT. 9

under the microscope they are lighter colored on one side than on the
other.

That there is a variation in the susceptibility to infection in differ-
ent barleys seems clear from the fact that in variety tests on one-
tenth-acre contiguous plats about equally exposed the different
varieties show varying amounts of smut. The order of susceptibility
in eight selected barley varieties, from the worst smutted to those
showing no smut in 1906, was maintained in 1907. Whether this is
due to an innate protoplasmic resistance during the stage of floral
infection or whether it is due to differences in the time of maximum
flowering period or to differences in the degree of opening of the
glumes in the several varieties is not yet clear, Practically all barley
varieties, both two-rowed and six-rowed, which have come under the
writers’ observation contain, however, some loose smut.

DESCRIPTION OF LOOSE SMUT OF WHEAT.

The loose smut of wheat (Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Jens.) in almost
all of its characters resembles the loose smut of barley. There is a
more striking difference between it and stinking smut, or bunt, of
wheat than there is between the loose and covered smuts of barley.
The bunt of wheat transforms only the kernels into smut balls, which
do not break until the wheat is thrashed and often remain intact in
the thrashed grain. The loose smut of wheat on the other hand dis-
charges its spores even earlier than does the barley loose smut. (See
Pl. I, a,b, and c.) The smut masses of the former are usually broken
before the head gets out of the sheath, a feature not common in the
latter. Loose smut of wheat is similar, however, to the loose smut of
barley in all of its essential features, as just described. (See Pls.
IV and V.)

The following slight differences may be noted: The smut appears -
at the flowering time of wheat, and thus usually in spring wheats
a little later than in barley. Nothing has yet been observed in wheat
similar to the bract-like or leaf-like bodies at the base of the smutted
spike of barley. (See Pl. III, ¢.) The smut mass in wheat is darker
than that in barley and approaches coal-black. The membrane cov-
ering it is even more delicate and breaks usually before the head is
exposed to the air. The spores are spherical, 5.5 to 7.5 by 5 to 6 » in
diameter, and under the microscope are lighter colored on one side
than on the other. The variation in susceptibility among wheat vari-
eties is perhaps more marked than among the barleys. Some of the
bearded spring wheats seem to be infected more easily than the com-
mon Bluestems. The smut is found, however, in practically all
classes and probably all varieties of wheats.

82318—Bul, 152—09

2

10 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

The following records of loose smut of wheat were obtained in 1906
at McPherson, Kans., by Mr. V. L. ee for the Office of Grain
Investigations:

The greatest quantities of loose smut in wheat occurred in two Japanese
varieties, a Roumanian wheat and a Kansas hybrid (Turkey Red X Zimmer-
man). The last-named variety gave 15 per cent. The appearance of this
amount of smut is not readily explained. One Japanese variety (G. I. No.
1184-1, Japanese No. 1) contained 9 per cent of smut, and Onigara, another
Japanese variety (G. I. No. 1695), 6 per cent. The Roumanian wheat con-
tained about 8 per cent. The last three wheats are all early, and it is possible
that on account of their earliness they are more easily subject to the wind-
blown spores of loose smut than the later varieties. This does not explain
the susceptibility of the hybrid mentioned above, as this was not an early
variety. In regard to earliness of ripening, the Japanese wheats mentioned
matured about June 22 or 23.. The earliest wheat at the station was a Zim-
merman which ripened June 16. It is an interesting fact that still another Jap-
anese wheat (Japanese No. 4), which ripened at the time of the Zimmerman,
was free from smut.

LIFE HISTORY STUDIES OF LOOSE SMUTS.
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF STUDIES.

In 18957 and 1896" Frank Maddox, of Launceston, Tasmania,
produced what appears as the first evidence of “ floral” or intra-
seminal infection in the loose smuts of wheat and barley. In experi-
ments undertaken to devise methods of prevention in the case of the
loose smut of wheat he demonstrated that the ovaries of the wheat in
the flowering stage could be “ artificially smutted ” by the application
of the spores of loose smut. The grains developed from these ovaries
were apparently normal, but when planted the following year almost
invariably produced smutted plants. Mr. Maddox states:

The loose smut germs on the grain or mixed with the soil are harmless and
will not produce the disease. Artificially smutted is putting the smut germs on
the ovary about the time the pollen is ripe, which will always reproduce the
disease the following year. Pots sown in 1894, with smut added gave sound
plants free from the disease, and the same pots sown in 1895 would reproduce
the disease when artificially smutted, and grew sound plants in one pot.
* #* * The smut gets on the ovary at flowering time, the grain matures with-
out any sign of being diseased. * * * Believe the spore is embedded be-
neath the epidermis or skin and is beyond reach of destruction by pickling.

The histological details of the infection were not worked out.

4@Maddox, F. “ Experiments at Eastfield.” Department of Agriculture, Tas-
mania, 1895.

> Maddox, F. “ Notes and Results on Agricultural Experiments Carried on
Under the Auspices of the Council of Agriculture of Tasmania at Hastfield,
Newnham.’ Launceston, Tasmania, 1897.

152

LIFE HISTORY STUDIES. tt

Hori,’ in discussing the question whether spores carried into the
flowers may cause infection, says:

Mr. S. Wakagawa, of our former branch station at Matsuto, carried out an
experiment on this point early in 1897. He introduced the matured spores of
U. tritici into the flowers of wheat in the same field by means of a forceps.
The infected seeds were sown in the ordinary time of the autumn of the same
year. In the following year the ears as soon as they appeared were found
to be all smutted. Similar experiments made by Mr. Kk. Yamada gave the same
result. Soon afterwards I obtained similar results in flower infection with
U. tritici and U. nuda. Hence I concluded that the spores of those smuts which
mature at the flowering time of the host, and may be scattered easily by the
wind, will be retained in the inner side of the seed and give rise to the smut
disease during the next flowering time of the host plant.

In 1903 Freeman ” described an intraseminal infection of the darnel
grass. The fungus which is very commonly found in this plant
seldom, if ever, produces spores. It lives in the growing point of the
darnel in a manner quite similar to that of the cereal smuts. Instead
of forming spores in the ovary, as most smuts do, it lies in wait for
the young embryo of the darnel and infects the growing point, thus
passing from one generation of darnel to the next, always living in the
stem-growing points and neglecting altogether, as far as is at present
known, to produce spores. The histological details of this intrasemi-
nal infection were shown.

Brefeld,’ in 1903, and Hecke,’ in 1904, working independently and
apparently without any knowledge of Maddox’s work in Tasmania
or Hori’s investigations in Japan, again demonstrated the floral
infection of the loose smuts of wheat and barley. The histological
data of the growing-point infection were added to make the evidence
of floral infection complete.

The life history of the loose smuts of wheat and barley may be
briefly described as follows: The smut spores in the field are dis-
tributed by the wind at the flowering time of the grain plant. They
are blown into the spikelets, find their way between the glumes, and
come in contact with the young ovary, or stigma. Here they germi-
nate; the germ tube penetrates the ovary wall and the fungus finds
its way into the growing point of the embryo. The mycelium then
continues to develop until the grain is ripe without giving any
external evidence of its presence. It lies dormant inside of the seed
until the grain germinates, when it continues to develop with the

“Bulletin, Imperial Central Agricultural Experiment Station, Japan, vol. 1,
No. 2. 1907. [English.]

> Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society of London, series B, vol. 196,
pp. 1-27. 1903.

¢ Nachrichten aus dem Klub der Landwirte zu Berlin, No. 466. 1903.

4 Zeitschrift fiir das Landwirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich. 1904.

152

12 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

seedling, keeping pace with the growing point until the head is
formed. It then invades all of the young spikelets and destroys
them, replacing them with the smut spores.

The life histories of the loose smuts of barley and wheat thus differ
widely from those of the covered smut of barley and the stinking
smut, or bunt, of wheat, where the spores are not distributed to any
extent at flowering time, but get on the seed either in thrashing, in the
bin, or in handling in sacks or in machinery. The spores of the
latter smuts are sown together with the grain and germinate at the
same time. The fungus then invades the young grain plant as it
emerges from the seed, grows along with it until maturity, and
forms the smut balls in place of sound grains.

EXPERIMENTS IN LIFE HISTORIES OF LOOSE SMUTS.

In order to test the validity of previous investigations, experiments
in inoculations were undertaken at St. Anthony Park, Minn., in 1906
and 1907. The seeds from the inoculated plants in 1906 were planted
in 1907, and the 1907 inoculations were tested in 1908.

The inoculations were made in the fields in 1906 and in special
plats in 1907. Various methods as described later were employed.
In testing the effect of inoculation at different stages of the flower,
the following letters were used to designate the condition of the
majority of flowers in the spike:

a—Before the stamens are mature.

b—At maturity of stamens.

e—Ovary just commencing to enlarge after fertilization.
d—Ovary one-third mature size.

e—Ovary two-thirds mature size.

The use of plus and minus signs serves to indicate intermediate
conditions. .

After inoculation some heads were covered with paraffin bags or
with tissue paper, while others were left uncovered. The seeds ob-
tained were treated before sowing with a solution of 24 parts of
formalin in 1,000 parts of water for two hours in order to insure the
prevention of any infection from clinging spores of either loose or
covered smut.

Fresh spores from mature smutted heads were always used as
inoculating material. The spikelets were prepared for inoculation
in some cases by cutting off the glumes near the base of the awns, thus
leaving a slight opening between the tips of the glumes. This usu-
ally resulted in the loss of a considerable number of seeds where the
flowers were in early stages of development. Other heads were left
with their awns intact. The smut was applied on some heads by rub-

152

LIFE HISTORY STUDIES. 13

bing or brushing the outside; on others it was placed directly on the
stigma and ovary by opening the glumes (as is done in artificial
cross-pollination) and applying the smut with a brush or forceps. In
a few cases the heads were moistened by a fine spray of water from an
atomizer. A six-rowed barley (Minnesota No. 105) and a bearded
spring wheat (Minnesota No. 188) were used as host plants. Both
varieties produced in the field tests an average maximum of approxi-
mately 3 to 4 per cent of loose smut.

Three loose smuts were used: Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Jens. on
wheat, Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw. on barley, and Ustilago
lorentziana Thiim. on wild barley (ordeum jubatum). Cross-inocu-
lations, i. e., from barley to wheat and wild barley, from wheat to
barley, and from wild barley to barley, all produced negative results.
The three smuts are therefore considered distinct species, incapable of
transfer to the other hosts. The covered smut of barley was likewise
found unable to produce infection in the flower of barley.

TABLE I.—Results cf inoculations of barley with loose smut of barley,
St. Anthony Park, Minn.

INOCULATIONS MADE IN 1906; PLANTS MATURED IN 1907.

Plants
Stage of | produced
Method of inoculation. flower | fromin- | Smutted plants.
inoculated. eevee |
seed,

Number. | Number.| Per cent.

Spores rubbed on the heads; heads not covered..........---- Vek doe oe | 29 | 14 49
(Ope a eee | 47 23 49
d-e....... | 55 0 0
Gri cine = oas | 48 0 0
Spores rubbed on the heads; heads covered...........------- Bebe. sous | 21 4 19
CARs ees 22 6 | *28
eS eee 118 | 0 +0
pores MINCE OD. OVATY; COVETED -<. .-- .-. cscs se dsacieemnacccn Eis] on ee 14 9 64

INOCULATIONS MADE IN 1907; PLANTS MATURED IN 1908.

Spores on ovary; heads'covered’................--...22-20---- E012 See ee 1 1 100
al see a eee 2 2 | 100
WO oe eee 12 12 100
C=0Re ae. < 3 9 8 89
Cisse 18 9 | 50
e and e+.. 7 0 0
Glumes cut; spores brushed on heads; heads covered.......- Deewyaae 52. 22 | 1 | 5
) (oe hy eee 40 ra 5
HG oe jes. 18 0 0
| Geaaeiacce l4 1 | 7
ike ee 30 3
Glumes not cut; spores brushed on heads; heads covered.....) @....-.--.--; 65 1 | 1.5
Glumes not cut, spores brushed on heads; heads not covered.) a.......-. | 4 0 0
Bnei a 6 0 0
| ae 16 0 0
Vocd). foo. 5 0 0
Glumes cut; spores brushed on heads; heads not covered...) a.......... 29 0 0
b 26 0 0
atic. Jo 70 1 1.4

* Heads sprayed with water when inoculated.
7 Part (37 plants) sprayed with water when inoculated.

14

THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

TABLE II.—Summary of Table I, showing the effect of the stage of anthesis on
infection with loose smut.

INOCULATIONS MADE IN 1907; PLANTS MATURED IN 1908.
Plants Healthy
produced Partially | heads in
Stage of flower at inoculation. from in- | Smutted plants. | smutted | partially
oculated plants. | smutted
seeds. plants.

Number. | Number.) Per cent. Number. | Per cent.

Band BaD: soce ciee ee ces eee ee eee Eatin s 64 27 42 22
Chand (Cae ee Ce Rete de Bore rcs ciate ae eee eee oe 3 | 69 29 42 Onl APS ee
Gen Ar BP weer A a sey Be * Cae | 55 0 04.2. A SRE | eee
Orn E a Ae Te ER cere ober eee ae soto ee me taceee | 166 0 | Oli. nae Se eee

INOCULATIONS MADE IN 1907; PLANTS MATURED IN 1908.
|
HOC OARS AAS Sida ce Ga est Seo eran dd abe seen Ea 40 1 2:15) || 22 dere cee tee Ce Seite
Dito aerate cake nee ee ne ee le emote enced 136 4 3.0 1 | 10
Gtcp cod. ewes en Cee ene ecu 149 23 15.0 4 | 30
GEtO\G—0 ee iste ao iss oe eae soe meee eee Soetic 62 11 7:10) ||, 02's sin ere eee
(De Bee RSS sonore naa ERA to sae ada asce SeeeA Sper eSeeee 7 0 ON Ae eee |ls acim aioe srchees
Taste III.—Results of inoculations of wheat with loose smut of wheat,
St. Anthony Park, Minn.
INOCULATIONS MADE IN 1906; PLANTS MATURED IN 1907.
| Plants pro-
Stage of
Method of inoculation. flower in- | duced from Smutted plants.
inoculated
oculated. ernal
Number. | Number. Per cent.
Spores placed on ovary; heads covered..............--- Coss e ees 2 31 26
Spores rubbed on heads; heads covered........-------- (Oca Ae 97 10 10
INOCULATIONS MADE IN 1907; PLANTS MATURED IN 1908.

Spores placed on ovary; heads covered........-.------- | b=¢..2 22522 | 22 | if | 32

In 1906 the inoculations recorded in Tables I and II, except that
on August 11, were made on July 10 and 11 and the seeds planted
May 11, 1907; in 1907 they were made on July 10 and 23 and the
seeds planted April 28, 1908.

The 1906 inoculations recorded in Table III were made on July 6
and the seeds planted on May 13, 1907; the 1907 inoculations (Table
III) were made on July 23 and 25 and the seeds planted on April
16, 1908.

The results as shown in these tables establish clearly the floral or
intraseminal infection of the loose smuts of barley and wheat in this
country. Inoculation in the flower produced in some heads 100 per
cent of infection.

On account of the variation in the stage of flowering found in
almost any head of wheat or barley, the stage designated in the table

152

LIFE HISTORY STUDIES. 15

is to be interpreted as the average in that head. A common condi-
tion illustrating this variability is the following: In many heads of
barley examined on July 11, 1907, stage d prevailed at the center of
the head and stage ¢ at the bottom. At the tip the flowers were
for the most part slightly in advance of the base, i. e., c-d. The
optimum time for infection is the full flowering period, viz, stage c.
Success is common in the earlier stages, even when the stamens are
green (a). Infection seldom, if ever, takes place in stage e, 1. e., when
the ovary is about two-thirds its natural size. The partial successes
in stages d—e are undoubtedly due to the d spikelets. It may be con-
cluded that inoculation succeeds best just after fertilization of the
egg cells, when the embryo has commenced to grow, as shown in the
enlargement of the ovary. This agrees with Freeman’s results with
darnel, where infection took place as soon as the embryo had devel-
oped the “anlage ” of a stem-growing plant.

At stage e and beyond, either the epidermis of the ovary wall or
the newly formed aleurone layer is perhaps impenetrable to the germ
tubes. The stigma, moreover, has dried and probably can not trans-
mit the germ tube. The conditions previous to stage ¢ present inter-
esting data especially in the 1906 inoculations (Tables I and II).
Here a striking difference is seen between the effects of inoculation
on stage ¢ and the earlier stages. (See Table II.) In the former
every seed inoculated produced completely smutted plants, i. e., every
head was smutted. In the latter 22 out of 27 plants were only par-
tially smutted, and the average number of sound heads was 35 per
cent of the total number. It is seen that this result was not dupli-
cated in the 1907 inoculations, where c stages exhibited a fairly large
number of partially smutted plants (4 out of 16), with 30 per cent of
sound heads. Whether this escape of heads in a smutted plant is due
to the initial condition of the flowers at the time of inoculation, to
the accidental escape of lateral branches in the subsequent growth, or
to weather conditions inimical to the best development of the fungus
can not be stated until the histological details of the infection and
subsequent development are fully understood.

In accordance with what would be expected, the most efficient
method of inoculation is that of placing the smut directly on the
stigma and ovary, although the rubbing method is also efficient,
producing 49 per cent in some cases. The rubbing tests were more
successful in 1906 then in 1907, as a result, perhaps, of different
weather conditions at the time of inoculation. The season of 1907
was abnormally dry. This may have prevented the spores from
being washed into the flower, or the moisture may have been insufli-
cient for spore germination. Covering the heads after inoculation
does not seem to be essential.

152

16 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

In spite of the remarkably close pollination in barley the glumes
may often be found open one-sixteenth of an inch (and in some cases
even more) at the time of maturity of the stamens. They are, of
course, forced apart a little later to allow the stamens to be extruded.
It is undoubtedly during these open periods that the smut spores gain
entrance to the flower, perhaps most frequently at the earlier one.
That the opening is as wide in all flowers as that stated above is
extremely improbable. Varietal differences based on the opening
habits are to be expected, though up to the present none have been
observed. In addition, the state of the weather during flowering time
in a field must exert a great influence on distribution. The results of
the following test are probably explainable only on the basis of un-

30 foals calety yee teat ape | = LOOSE SMIUT IN MINNESOTA N2 105 BARLEY.
—- — L00SE SMUT IN MINNESOTA N2&/05 BARLEY

fe = + £0056 SMUT IN MINNESOTA M2 142 BARLEY
ay Lata aes az COVERED SNIVT /N MINNESOTA N08 BAPLE YX

Tiske ete es Baeee 2
See raeVa ST AZINTTN
BECCA NEE ACE
A @0 0008 @ 488 468R 2523522838 0/0)

25745 6 7 @ YF 10N1 12 13 1% 1§ 16 17 18 19 20 2 22 2F 24 2E BELIZE ZIWW
SSE LE

(2)

Fic. 1.—Diagram showing the daily record of barley smut at St. Anthony Park, Minn.,
in 1907,

favorable weather conditions. Eighty-two seeds were obtained in

1907 from wheat heads in which the glumes had been cut as pre-

viously described. These were then left exposed to natural infection.

Less than 2 per cent of loose smut resulted, while 2 to 5 per cent was

found among uncut control plants in the same plats.

The flowering period in a pure variety is, of course, fairly uniform.
Stages c to d were quite general in the fields at St. Anthony Park in
the barley varieties known as Minnesota Nos. 105 and 142 on July 10
and 11, 1907. Figure 1 shows the number of smutted heads picked
from several one-fortieth-acre plats of barley which were rogued
carefully each day. There were two plats of Minnesota No. 105 and
one plat of Minnesota No. 142. One plat of Minnesota No. 105 con-

152

LIFE HISTORY STUDIES. 1

tained covered smut, as shown in the diagram, while the other, which
had been treated with formalin, had none. Minnesota No. 142 barley
did not have any covered smut. The approximate median date of
the maximum period of loose smut in 1907 was July 10 in Minnesota
No. 105 and July 12 in Minnesota No. 142. The corresponding date
for the covered smut was July 18, approximately one week later.

It will be seen that the full flowering period in 1907, viz, July 10
and 11, fell exactly on the median date of maximum smut. The later
appearance of covered smut is explained in its spore habit of clinging
to the grain, as do the spores of the stinking smut of wheat. The
effective formalin treatment previously mentioned is strong evidence
that this is the case.

The mere fact of close proximity of a head of barley or wheat to
a smutted head does not necessarily insure infection. Heads of
barley (Minnesota No. 105) growing close to smutted heads in 1906
were selected, and 324 plants from this seed matured in 1907 with an
average of 2 2 per cent of smutted plants—less than the field average
for this variety in the same year.

The phenomena of partially smutted heads introduce interesting
possibilities. In such heads on wheat, for instance, various conditions
may be found. In some spikelets observed in 1907 only the glumes
escaped the smut ; in some, the ovary alone was attacked, the ovary
wall remaining apparently uninjured; in others, no smut appeared,
but the ovary was aborted, and in still others apparently sound grains
were produced. In partially smutted heads the upper spikelets of
the head most commonly escape. Occasionally, however, the middle
spikelets are sound while the spikelets above and below are smutted.
No cases have been observed where the basal spikelets escape the smut.
In regard to partially smutted heads the following questions arise:
Do the sound grains entirely escape infection as the head develops or
do they contain the fungus in a dormant stage after an ineffectual
attempt to form spores has been made? The possibility of the latter
condition is actually paralleled in the case of the fungus of the darnel,
where the parasite regularly gets into the seeds and infects the young
embryos, but does not form spores. To test this possibility sound
seeds from smutted heads were collected in 1906 and 1907 and planted
during the following years. To avoid external infection these were
treated with Pocipalin before planting. From such seed from the
1906 crop 98 plants of barley developed 2 per cent of smut in 1907,
and 51 plants from seed from the 1907 crop developed 2 per cent of
smut in 1908. In each case the amount of smut did not reach the
average (3 to 4 per cent) in the field crop. It seems clear, therefore,
that the sound Ghd in a smutted head escaped infection as far as

»
v

$2318—Bul. 152—

18 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

the mycelium inside of the infected head is cancerned. Similar
results were obtained with loose smut of oats.

INFLUENCE OF TIME OF PLANTING ON LOOSE SMUT.

In Table IV are shown the results obtained by planting spring
wheat and barley at different times to determine what effect the time
of planting may have on the development of the smut. As infection
took place in 1906, this is merely a test of the development of the
fungus in 1907 in plants grown from the already infected seed.

TABLE ITV.—I/nfluence of time of planting on loose smuts of barley and wheat,
St. Anthony Park, Minn., 1907.

Barley, Minnesota | Barley, Minnesota Wheat, a, Aiinesotal WNede b, Minnesota

No. 105. No. 142. No. 188. | No. 188.
Date of planting. |—— = = = = “al
| Number| a | Number) | Number | Number
| of heads. | Smut. | of heads. | Smut. | of heads, || S™2ut- | of heads. | Smut.
| | |
; Sian | Soe \ ea
| Per cent. | | Per cent. | Per cent. | | Per cent.
IN PBs Be eee ERE We ease oa es Se ereieistsvore 759 | ONOST Se eae ole aeee eee 981 121
DD iasisis.2 Seis SSA i See lee e eee 901 | Dit= 16) PES SO Be Rar Jado amas 1, 038 1. 54
eel Ree Te eared r | 587 SSO ec a5 ost eee eeecee 761 1.3. | 2. osh See haeeree eee
IMleiy Ghee cee 5 Se 515 58 837 | 6. 81 672 | 1.33 887 2.14
Mie ore oe he eer ae | 517 1.35 1,097 5. 64 748 1.81 | 1, 002 - 89
Brine areeee ae 788 1. 65 774 | 5.42 831 1.56 | 933 1.50
Oe ae eens 324 2.79 | 743 6. 46 844 | . 94 | 848 94
Qe eottcdeie esis 392 1.78 551 4.53 324 | 2218 751 1.33
HL ey regs oft See tas 281 1.78 740 4.58 517 | 2. 70 | 1, 025 2.14
3 2 Stes Steers | 325 92 | 591 7.10 491 4.07 | 611 1.47
TU Siaaah een tee age 338 TAIT 1 a Gils or RRR | BU7"| \ QE5(r |S aye eee
LO setae ees | 110 2. 72 897 6. 35 581 1.37 954 3. 24
AOS ee Paice Poke 446 1.79 | 695 5. 46 598 3. 17 | 740 2.43
NS SS Sea net on eia 859 1.39 940 | 4.04 745 | 2. 68 882 1.02
DOP aren oe eee 217 3. 68 665 5.56 622 | 2.41 558 1.07
Doe eal a pein 249 2.81 662 | 5. 13 545 | 2.56 | 611 1.47
7 We Soi eres 342 1.16 | 843 3. 91 556 | 3.05 | 553 | 1.44
Dipper a rae Pee 191 S515 679 3. 94 441 3.40 | 428 | 2.33
BO ce leeioe ss = see | 240 1.20 | 712 5.05 362 1.93 3ol | 1.70
LP wie Seger Se | 262 1.14 | 571 | 3. 46 335 2. 08 426 — 1.40
PUNCH Sete eee | 200 3.5 516 2.32 252 1.98 276 -t2
Die bere tee ie 173 ie} 742 2.56 252 79 266 Leal?
[fe SORA a Roa eS 259 .38 306 2. 74 227 44 207 | 48

Barley (Minnesota No. 105) and wheat, a (Minnesota No. 188), were
planted in a dry, sandy soil with good drainage, while barley (Min-
nesota No. 142) and wheat, 0 (Minnesota No. 188), were planted
in a fairly heavy, low-lying, moist soil. The time of planting had
no marked effect on the amount of smut. Wheat on the sandy soil
contained on an average slightly more smut than that on the heavier,
low-lying soil, but the difference was not great. The latest plant-
ings showed a slight decrease. This decrease, however, is not con-
sistent, and is certainly too small to be of practical importance, since
comparatively few heads filled and the plants were badly stunted.
Similar results with the same wheat and barley (Minnesota No. 188
and Minnesota No. 105, respectively) planted at intervals of about
four to six days, from April 22 to May 28, were obtained in 1908.

It may be concluded, therefore, that the time of planting within
the range of dates attempted does not affect to any appreciable de-

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. 19

gree the development of the loose-smut fungus in the host plant as
far as spring wheats and spring barleys are concerned.

In regard to winter wheats and winter barleys the case may be
different. The following experiment was performed by Mr. A. H.
Leidigh, at Amarillo, Tex., in 1905 and 1906, with Tennessee Winter
barley. Plantings were made from the same bulk of seed on Sep-
tember 21, October 12, and November 11, 1905. In 1906 the three
plantings contained very different amounts of smut. The earliest,
that of September 21, developed 10 to 12 per cent of smut; the Octo-
ber 12 planting (about the usual time of planting for that section of
the country) developed 22 to 25 per cent of smut, and the November
11 planting showed less than 1 per cent. In the same season, 1906,
barley from the same bulk of seed developed at Chillicothe, Tex.,
about 27 per cent of smut. There seems to be no doubt that the time
of planting had in this case a very considerable effect on the amount
of smut. Results exactly similar to these were obtained with Jap-
anese wheat and barley by Hori,* who says, in part:

It is a peculiar phenomenon that if the seeds are sown early in the season
the smut proportionally increases, and vice versa. * * * In consequence
the smut is comparatively rare on wheat and barley cultivated in the rice
fields, because the labor of harvesting the rice, draining, plowing, and drilling
delays the sowing at least one to one anda half months. That fact is no doubt
due to the difference between the germinating temperature of the smut spore
and that of the seeds.

It is thus seen that the results in Japan were exactly similar to
those obtained by Mr. Leidigh, at Amarillo, since the Japanese wheats
and barleys were winter varieties. In general, the explanation given
by Hori seems probably correct, namely, that the mycelium of the
loose smut requires a higher minimum temperature for germination
and growth than does the wheat or barley seed. The fact that the
spring wheats and barleys do not show a decrease on the earliest dates
in the experiment outlined in Table IV is possibly explained by the
supposition that the required temperature difference did not exist
under spring grain conditions in that locality.

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS.
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF TREATMENTS PREVIOUSLY APPLIED.

All previous experiments with these smuts demonstrate that ordi-
nary seed treatment is of no avail. Jensen” (1887-1889) devised

“Bulletin of the Imperial Central Agricultural Experiment Station, vol. 1,
No. 2, pp. 168-176. 1907. [English.]

Jensen, J. L. Nye Undersogelser og Forsog over Kornsorternes Brands,
ISS7, p. 15; Propagation and Prevention of Smut in Oats and Barley, Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. 24, second series, part ony
Le Charbon des Cereales, Copenhagen, July, 1889,

152

20 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

what is known as the modified hot-water treatment, in which soaking
of barley in cold water for eight hours, followed by treatment in hot
water at 127° F. for five minutes, destroyed the smut. Kellerman
and Swingle “ cite the experiments made in Denmark by Jensen and
add: “ We therefore strongly recommend his latest form of the
treatment, which is as follows: Soak the barley for four hours in
cold water and then let it stand four hours longer in a wet sack.
Finally dip and drain, as directed in the treatment for oat smut, for
five minutes in water of a temperature of 126°-128° F., after which
dry and plant as in case of oats.” No recommendation of the
modified hot-water treatment for the prevention of loose smut of
wheat is made in this or in Jensen’s reports. Kellerman? records
numerous trials where the wheat was treated for five minutes at
various temperatures after being “ previously soaked.” He con-
cludes, however, that “no grounds, based on actual experiments,
appear to exist for recommending the treatment of the seed with hot
water or any other fungicide.”

Swingle,° basing his recommendations on experiments in Kansas
planned by Kellerman and Swingle, carried out by Swingle and
reported by Kellerman in 1891, in 1894 first recommended a modified
hot-water treatment for loose smut in wheat as follows:

Grain must be soaked four hours in cold water, then set away about four
hours more in wet sacks, and finally treated as directed above, but only for five
minutes, at 132° F. In planting use one-half more seed per acre to compensate
for seed killed by the treatment. For preventing both of the smuts affecting
barley the grain should be soaked as directed above and treated five minutes at
130° F., 2 degrees lower than for wheat. * * * It [loose smut of wheat]
can, however, be combated by treating enough wheat to furnish seed for the
following year, and this should be done when any considerable per cent of the
crop is affected.@

In 1898 the same author made the same recommendations for pre-
venting loose smuts of wheat and barley, but for the barley treatment
added that “ this treatment does not injure the seed.” ¢

Maddox,’ in 1896, found that by carefully picking out the loose
smut heads in wheat for two years in succession in a 4-rod plat seed _
was obtained for a half acre which was almost entirely clean of smut.

“Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Second Annual Report, 1859,
pp. 283-284.

4 Bulletin 22, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1891.

¢ Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1894, p. 417.

4Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1894, p. 412.

¢ Farmers’ Bulletin 75, United States Department of Agriculture, p. 14.

f Maddox, F.. Loe. cit.

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. 21

Moore,’ working on loose smut of barley in Wisconsin, obtained
favorable results by soaking seed for twelve hours in cold water,
draining one hour, and treating for ten minutes in water at 130° F.

Hori ¥ was likewise able to prevent loose smuts by soaking the seed
for seven hours in cold water, immersing it for a few minutes in water
at 122° F. (50° C.), and finally treating it in water at 181° F.
(55° C.) for five minutes.

EXPERIMENTS IN THE TREATMENT OF LOOSE SMUTS. .

Jensen’s treatment for loose smut was devised without knowledge
of the life history of the smut. Since there seemed to be a possibility
of further perfecting it, experiments were undertaken chiefly with
this method.

EFFECT OF TREATMENT ON THE GERMINATION OF WHEAT AND BARLEY,

Preliminary tests were made at Washington, D. C., in February,
1907, of the effect on barley and wheat of soaking, followed by hot-
water treatment. The germination tests were made in the Seed
Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry by W. L. Goss. Tables
V and VI present the practical results of these tests, showing the
duration of the soaking in cold water and the highest temperatures
of hot water used, with the length of time of treatment, which re-
sulted in a seed germination of 60 per cent or more. The results in
all cases show a very marked decrease in germination when the tem-
peratures are raised above those given in the table. Small quanti-
ties of seed were soaked in beakers for the specified time, then quickly
drained, placed in wire baskets and immersed in a large tub of hot
water in which the recorded temperatures were accurately main-
tained. The periods of treatment in hot water were 5, 10, and 15
minutes.

The percentages of the germination after treatment are also given.
Each table is arranged to show (1) the highest temperature and (2)
the longest duration of the hot-water treatments which gave a
germination of 60 per cent or more. The control germinations of
unsoaked seeds without any hot-water treatment were in all cases
above 90 per cent.

@Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 283d Annual Report, 1906, pp.
270-274.
>Loc. cit.

152

Do THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

TABLE V.—Effect on the germination of wheat (Spring Wheat Minnesota No.
169) of treatment with hot water preceded by a soaking in cold water, show-
ing the highest temperature and the time limits with various treatments,
Washington, D. C., February, 1907. .

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO TEMPERATURES.

|
| ; Tempera- |
eeted ef bute OL ROL | Duration of hot-water treatment with |
Bata sa ie | Gane little or no injury to germination.
| mum).
— | —— — —— —
|
Fours. CC Minutes.
12-13... .- 52.0 elas Corea liye
Ia e- 54.4 ids
G=7e sao 52.0 5, 10; or 15,
=U pees oa 5, 10 (70 per cent), or 15 (65 per cent).
a pepe ob. Oo.
a 52.0 5, LOSon se
A kere 54.0 5, 10, or 15 (60 per cent).
ye ee 56.0 5 (73 per cent).

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO DURATION OF TREATMENT.

Period of Duration of Temperature
soaking in hot-water | of hot-water Germination.
cold water. | treatment. (maximum).
oS a
Hours. Minutes. aCe Per cent.
De oee eee tker 15 52.0 81
| PIDEO Pees ee 10 | 52.0 86
|i ABE eens 5 54.4 84
WeiOaven <bean coe 15 | 54.0 65
A GEi/ias sae 10 54.0 70
OSU oak. bai 5 56.0 73
ie See 15 54.0 60
AL bcd brite, | 10 | 54.0 £6
AD'S ah eee 5 | 56. 0 73
| |

TABLE VI.—2£ffect on the germination of three six-rowed varieties of barley
(Oderbrucker, G. I. No. 587; Mansury, G. I. No. 170; Kiteing, G. I. No. 189)
of treatment with hot water preceded by a soaking in cold water.

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO TEMPERATURES.

= Tempera- | :
| ee of ture of hot | Duration of hot-water treatment with
: water (max- _ little or no injury to germination.
cold water. | imum)
|
Hours. | Os Minutes.
IP ee 52 | 5, 10, or 15 (Kitzing).
128s Hn ae 54.4 | 5 (Kitzing).
ote prt es 52 5,10, or 15 (except 15 minutes in Kitz-
bakes), |
(Sere. 54 | 5or10 (except 10 minutes in Kitzing).
fice eee pa 56 5 (except in Kitzing).
BO eave 52 5, 10, or 15.
4=§ eee. fe 54 5 or 10 (except Kitzing), and 15 in
| Oderbrucker.
4=6. sme 56 | 5 (except Kitzing).
| Nosoaking. 57 aay copes ly,
| Dopeees 58 5 or 10.

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. ys
Taste VI.—Lffect on the germination of three six-rowed varieties of barley,
etc.—Continued.
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO DURATION OF TREATMENT.

(O, Oderbrucker ; M, Mansury; K, Kitzing.)

Period of Duration of Temperature |
| soaking in hot-water of hot water Germination.
hot water. | treatment. | (maximum). | |
| | |
Hours. Minutes. ee Per cent.
W-1S. eae 15 52 K-88. |
1 ye oe ee 10 | 52 K-97.
1S eee ae 5 54 K-70.
i=: See ae 15 | 52 O-92, M-86, K-48.
Yh: 10 54 O-77, M-82, K-14.
i Ge 5 56 0-85, M-71, K-15.
OS oe ee 15 } 54 O-72, M-52, K-25.
Ca Sn 15 | 52 O-90, M-98, K-68.
Co, pee 10 54 0-92; M-97, K-54.
Ce SOC 5 56 O-84, M-71, K-24.
Nosoaking. 15 57 0-98, M-99.
Dome 10 58 * 0-96, M-96.
Mose: 5 58 * 0-95, M-97. |

* Probably not the extreme limit; no higher temperature was tried.

All of the seed used was good fresh seed of the 1905 and 1906 crops,
with the possible exception of the Kitzing barley, which, although
the control gave 96 per cent of germination, looked old and badly
weathered. The inability of the Kitzing barley to endure as severe
treatments as the other barleys may have been due to this fact. In
general, therefore, the treatments mentioned were accepted as the
maximum in severity which would prove at all practicable.

Experiments were then undertaken based on the results recorded
in Tables V and VI. These experiments with Jensen’s modified hot-
water treatment are shown in Tables VII to XII, inclusive. The treat-
ment in each case is designated by three figures
which the first figure gives the number of hours of soaking in cold

rater, the second the number of minutes of soaking in hot water, and
the third the temperature of the hot water in degrees centigrade.
Treatment 5-5-56 is therefore a five-hour soaking in cold water, fol-
lowed by a five-minute soaking in hot water at 56° C. Since small
quantities of seed were used, a draining of only a few minutes was
deemed necessary. The amount of seed was so small compared with
the bulk of hot water that the temperature of the latter was seldom
affected even slightly. The actual duration of soaking in some cases
varied slightly from that given in the tables, but never to the extent
of one hour’s difference (except where noted). These variations,
amounting mostly to fifteen and twenty minutes, are without doubt
negligible. The duration of the hot-water treatments is in every case
correct within a few seconds.

152

Se hall s{
€. g., 0-0—06— In.

24 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

The temperature record (except when otherwise noted) is correct
within 0.5° C. In all tests and treatments the centigrade scale has
been used. In many cases the temperature was held absolutely con-
stant throughout the treatment. As the tests were made for the most
part at intervals of 2 degrees, the slight variations of less than 0.5° C.
are likewise negligible, especially when the practical application of
the results is considered. The laboratory germination tests (made
by W. L. Goss in the Seed Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Indus-
try) are given in percentages. The field germination in most cases
is estimated as excellent (E), good (G), fair (F), poor (P), or very
poor (VP). In Table X the field germination is accurately computed
and given in percentages.

Some seed was treated at Washington, D. C., during the winter or
early spring months and kept thoroughly dry after treatment until it
was planted at St. Anthony Park, Minn. Other seed was treated
at St. Anthony Park just before planting and was not allowed to dry
completely before seeding, which usually took place on the same or
the following day. In 1907 the seeding was interrupted by snow-
storms, and the treated seed was then kept moist and cool for several
days in a tin box, which was packed in sawdust in an icehouse, so
that no germination took place before seeding. The varieties used
were those which had shown large amounts of smut at the Minnesota
Agricultural Experiment Station in previous years. No actual count-
ing tests of the amounts of smut had previously been made, and when
such tests were made in 1907 the standards of percentages used in the
Minnesota station’s previous records were found to be too high, so
that they could be used only in general comparisons. Particulars as
to the dates of planting, the germination in the field, and the details
of smut pickings have been omitted from the tables. The seeds were
in all cases planted at the usual time for these grams at St. Anthony
Park.

HOT-WATER TREATMENT OF BARLEY,

The results of the experiments with barley in 1907 are recorded in
Table VII. The barleys used were Minnesota Nos. 142, 144, and 145.
In 1906 No. 142 contained the most smut; Nos. 144 and 145 were
affected about equally and had considerably less than No. 142. In
1907 field plats of No. 142, according to careful estimates, contained
4.62 per cent of smut.

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. 20

Taste VII.—Results of experiments with Jensen's modified hot-water treat-
ment on barley, at Washington, D. C., and at St. Anthony Park, Minn., 1907.

|
Minnesota No. 142.* | Minnesota No. 144.* | Minnesota No. 145.* | Minnesota No. 142.+
[eI B A=! A Be am J ae Zi
; 3 , | 3 F 3 ee ae
me feole | 2] jseig |2| igelg | 2 ge/8 | 2 |
me Warts |r| 10 aa|sz| 5 sgiax| so sgiaz| 3S |
gne/qao a aa;\;/ao [a gsH#|/ao a gaeiqge ray
Pe ee) oD Feiner eh |) aOo\gh, o@ =e ec=| o |
AS/B8° | 2 | = |B8S/8° | 2) ws |RS|B | 2] = 1B) Q | 4
Sie 5 HS] uw ‘=I 5 mS] § 5 a = | 3
o o g & o o s i=} o cP) i 8 >) oO 2 g
o |S A jE ey Mc, 4 nan |Oo |S Z TAT We NS Ae | ace
PCs | P.ct.| P.ct
Control....| 97} E | 332 |6.95| 94] E | 512|0.78|} 98| E | 486 1,801 3.65
0-10-58....| 93} E | 469] 5.75) 91 E | 360 | 1.94} 90 E | 495 1,298 4.77
0-15-56....| 93 | E | 444] 7.20| 92] E | 494/ 0 96) E | 668 1,517 3.75
5-5-56..... 94!) F | 323 | 2.47) 86) F | 259 .38 | 96 | F | 462 844 14
5-10-54. 96 | F | 426 -93 | 92 | F } 292 .34 | 92] E | 274 1,295 07
5-15-52. 90! E | 467|0 | 88| E | 35710 | 96! E | 823 1,337 | 07
7-5-54..... 92] E | 4121/0 72) E | 295 |0 93 | E | 507 1,279 0
7-10-54....| 52] F | 205) 0 62 | F | 174) 0 90 | G | 421 992 | 0
7-15-52....| 87 | G | 303 | 0 78 | G | 280|0 94 | G | 366 1,186 | 0
Ra BREE eee ed Seeee Bobeeo Beto Smnod Bean forests aecm len = =|>- ee -| See 4
NP en esl ee darwct sen cde f alos slonats| sae - 1,178 | 0
15-5-54....| 63 | P | 230] 0 74 172 | 0 88 SUS (EOE ® Osi asclercose atm eeteto sre | vartnta
15-10-54...| 12 | VP | 77] 0 ha Wa a eae beef: Sa) BOM Vor | sete). ulercrates'larsrasilai|isratetmte am ah Stwraa/ae
15-15-52...| 60} P | 458 | 0 jeeree| WE) A186) 140 | 88 i BAO) ieee seen. etek eae es Oe ate
24-5-54....]..... aie weve HAO )e | cere mest| ataraiat| Giatajasaiawiafmsintts sies'ofak © x<i]'rc¥m ora 861 0
24-10-52...|..... ie eee ees BOSS s Gano! t Codomacesa Basan Hoare 1,262 | 0
24-15-52...|..... | 1a) ere HC it eS Ra, at | ema eR eal 2 1,091 | 0

* Treated at Washington, D. C., March Lb, OOF,
ae pe Ge Park, Minn., about May 4, 1907, before sowing, but thoroughly

The control and the “no-soak” treatment gave plants which
matured two to three days earlier than any of the other treatments.
Soaking more than twelve hours, even when followed by mild treat-
ments (ten to fifteen minutes at 52° C.), impaired germination
decidedly.

Temperatures above 54° C., e. g., 56° C. for five minutes, did not
prevent all of the smut but impaired germination both in the dried
and freshly treated seeds. The indicated treatment les therefore in
a previous soaking of between four and twelve hours, a hot-water
treatment of from five to fifteen minutes, and temperatures of 52°
to 54° C. A treatment of more than five minutes at 54° C., after
soaking from seven to twelve hours, injured germination in most
cases.

The most successful treatment, both in the prevention of smut and
in unimpaired germination, was a soaking of from five to seven hours
in cold water followed by a fifteen-minute soak in hot water at 52° C,
An even longer soak, e. g., twelve hours, did no damage to germina-
tion in freshly treated seed.

Drying after treatment was apparently not injurious to the smut-
preventing power of the treatment and did not seriously affect the
germination,

152

26 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND*WHEAT.

Extensive experiments similar to those recorded in 1907 were under-
taken in 1908 to test these results. Unfortunately the barley used
(Minnesota No. 195), though recorded as having considerable smut
in 1907, produced almost no smut in 1908, the control giving no smut.
The results were therefore useful only in connection with the data
on germination, and these were in accord with those shown in Table
VII. Experiments in regard to germination after the various treat-
ments made with Boehme’s white-bearded hull-less barley (G. I.
No. 533) gave similar results throughout.

The success of Jensen’s method hes without doubt in the soaking
in cold water. Soaked seed probably allows a more uniform con-
duction of heat through the embryo than dry seed. There is, how-
ever, another effect which is, perhaps, of even greater importance.
Soaking may stimulate to activity the contained smut mycelium.
Tt seems possible, therefore, that Jensen’s treatment on the one hand
is efficient merely because of the increased conductivity brought
about by soaking and on the other because it stimulates the mycelium
to growth, in which condition it is more easily injured by the hot-

vater treatment. In order to throw light on this point, and also to
devise, if possible, a method less injurious to the seed than Jensen’s
treatment the following experiment was undertaken in 1908: Some
barley was soaked in ice water at a temperature of 3° C., and some
in cold water at ordinary temperatures, viz, 20° C., for comparison.
The results are recorded in Table VIII.

TasLe VIII.—Results of experiments with Jensen’s modified hot-water treat-
ment on barley (Minnesota No. 142), St. Anthony Park, Minn., 1908.

Seed soaked in ice water Seed soaked in cold water
(8212): (202(Cay
}
Treatment. |
Germina-) 4; | Germina-| »-
| tion in ee Smut. | tioin | Number smut.
aeldee reads, Ald: of heads. |
Per cent. Per cent.
CODbLO MSc tec hk eae Ne toe sees EK 1,453 2.0 E 1,453 | 2
GBH 02 2 aoa sae elas ei oe eee eine Pose E 976 2.5 1) *1,000 0
oi Ks VS As is SORE oon is eto te ee a E | 996, ZED E *1,000 0
os ees PAS ok = EN I ash Ae Seer Stet eed E | 941 1.0 E *1,000 0
6=5= 54s ee ooh ee Oe Ee Ane ee E 1,115 9 E * 1,000 0
(IK Dae ile aT ans ace nia? Red Se ee 1D 844 1.3 F +1, 000 0
Say Le ee ee gn GL Se RIE || Oe Sa ll Els 6 Bp VP +1, 000 0
6=0-O0Re soe Se eal: Se eee ae sees 1D) 839 13a VP 1,000 | 0
G10 bbe ce. ales BE See cece ae lz 671 | 4 | 0. -° |sc86 eS See
(ibis eee ee eee ns SOT io ie ee VP... eee eee ee Okey. lien tones | eee ee
OOS a See Re et BS Se ol eral ae VP 521 7 0 BARE a Ghee ac -
)
* Approximate figures. + Less than 1,000.

The cold-water soaking treatments confirm those of 1907 in regard
to smut prevention and germination. ‘The ice-water soaking, how-
ever, is seen to be entirely inefficient against the smut and therefore

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. a7

valueless. This is probably best explained by the inability of the
low-temperature soaking to stimulate the dormant fungous mycelium
to any considerable growth. If this is true, the temperatures which
after the cold-water soaking are sufficient to kill the growing
mycelium without seriously affecting the germinating embryo have
little or no effect upon the almost dormant mycelium after the ice-
water soaking. A similar explanation might also be given for the
inability of the hot-water treatment without any previous soaking
(see Table VII) to prevent smut. In the experiments on wheat
(Table X), ice-water soakings for twelve and thirteen hours were
efficient in smut prevention, as were also soakings of six hours fol-
lowed by temperatures of 56° C. or more, but in the latter case
germination was seriously impaired by most of the treatments. These
facts suggest, furthermore, that the soakings in ice water for six
hours stimulate the mycelium, but to such a shght degree that it
requires high and injurious temperatures (56° C.) to destroy the
smut in its almost dormant stage.

HOT-WATER TREATMENT OF WHEAT,

The results of experiments with wheat are presented in Table IX
(1907) and Table X (1908). A bearded, hard spring wheat (Minne-
sota No. 188) was used in all the experiments. This variety devel-
oped considerable smut in 1906. In 1907 counts made in the fields
showed in general 3 to 4 per cent of smut, and in 1908 similar counts
showed as much as 5 per cent.

TasLe [X.—Results of experiments with Jensen's modified hot-water treatment
on wheat (Minnesota No. 188), St. Anthony Park, Minn., 1907.

| Planted soon after treatment. | Seed dried after treatment.
Treatment. ee [Fire eee |
Nadie tae ae ce Smut. it ion oie roe | Smut.
fsld.p oo eld fe eas:
| |
° Per cent. Per cent.
OOD CO) eed GCG DDE geOn A Aee HEROa aE aepa eet 2,856 11.0391 ae ee ates 2, 856 | 1.29
Maier eos coo SI ik amo ostsjereoeo'a'e 3 E 2, 060 1. 35 G 1, 752 | 2.16
Men A a heasl a ee anya wim cin aye wad aa Soa 3 G 1, 793 1. 72 r 1,596 | 1.25
REAM eee RA rie so stSsin se aleek Soca senses «ete E 2,307 | 0 E 2, 309 0
poll aa Ae ee ee E 2,450 | 0 Be ie Paes5e 0
REE I Sear e oad a sa loin sc/e nid) sin < njeya\eis (a = =\e)3,0!2 19) 1, 841 | 0 19; 1,716 0
MER OUR ar Ch aa te Paice cl da Naisls Saiwie wid se 2 KE 2, 160 0 1D 1,414 | 0
(yb ie ee Ee eC Ora eee 1D | 2, 306 0 1D 2, 102 0
aR PL Me reenter ary cia y oma oo utes ose 13} 1,873 0 I 1, 767 0
Mga de ts Ane AES Ain nee ee E 2, 454 0 I 1,998 * 0)
Moa a Sa ees ee ee ee E 2,416 0 E 2,383 *()
ISTEP SASS 2 a te tee E 2,444 0 E 2,050 *0
MEST EG NTe SScIe Cee icles Sen eee eae G 1,392 0 F 1, 164 08
Ao SU SUE ae e Sercp Oe eee ee ae G 1, 661 0 i 1, 422 -i4
SSG STOLE. Sethe °c ee F 1,517 0 I 554 (

* Soaked in cold water for twelve. hours.

28 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

TaBLE X.—Results of experiments with Jensen's modified hot-water treatment
on wheat (Minnesota No. 188) at Washington, D. C., and St. Anthony Park,
Minn., 1908.

Seed soaked in ice} Seed soaked in cold | Seed soaked in ice | Seed soaked in cold
| water (0.6°-1.5° C.).* | water (15° C.-17° C.).* water (3° C.).f water (20° C.).f
@ | ° & | 4 5 A & 5
Treatment. | § z & oe g Z| 8 ner s bo § ae
sag ae} ~ 35 =] or Frey (>) Lo} o
28/83 /28| . | 88] 8s |28! fa | 08 es | 28
£8 |e" (Fe! 3 | 62/8" |8s) = | 6° Ba)| 8 | eo | ee ies
3 =] eet la a) a 5 =} q 2) 5
ese ie lk ee al teal eeee Ore nl al te aA |S Zz a
PCE Es Ch: IP Cl. Pt. | Psict. Pct. | Pict. P.ct.| P. ct. Pict.
a?) 68 | 135 | 2.96 | 92.5 68 | 135 | 2.96 E 1,257 4.6 E 1,257 4.6
.0 80 | 159 | 3.12 | 94.5 81 | 162 61 E 1,771 2.9 E 1, 567 ok
.0 82 | 163 | 2.45 | 95.0 85 | 169 | 0 E TL S8o0)) coed E 1,200+ 0
5 7 158 | 3.16 | 95.0 79 | 158 | 0 E 1,572 | 3.2 E 1, 200+ 0
.0| 83) 166 | 3.01] 93.0] 82) 163 | 0 E) -) 1,587 .| 1.2) || leonora 0
FO) 73 | 145 | 2.75 | 92.5 75 | 150 | 0 E 1,368 | .8 E 1,200+ 0
NO) ezalet40|) W700 8050") (66) 131410 B. | d,407 | 23) Gs 1 eure eo
Ht) 74 | 147 | 2.72 | 81.5 66 | 132 0 E 1,298 ae) G 1,000 — 0
+5) | 270) | 189 | *.71 | 30:01 40! “80 | 0 G | 1,405:| 4) -ePalmigo00 Sane
>| 50 99 | 0 3.0 | (fi) 4B) Fo) F 794 O WP |S apace eerste
.0 50 | 100 | 0 Des somiecs|jeecalsmecee fee: 1,040 1.0 Ona aeeeeese Baoe rs
5 139) 25,70 OM iieees | ae ipcoaed Bepees bese el pesr a | ahs Scie lbaecee
.0 (VN tel eee ae Qi iciess lasers lie etches leae Late fa.ls Sueit Spares Morell sterara cell ee ene | Ne secitee
OW PSI G2 SB O2sS alk 182 163) 0) cee te Soe) ee ee SG:
Bao) 80 | 160 | 1.25 | 89.5 79),) S850 ghicce conde tees tome celal oe cel eee re
aay if rts || a) 88.5 (4) F470 0 ese eccee ee te ote 82S ee eee ee
.0 80 | 160 | 0 89.5 69 TSB eIKOUS eo oer eae tere os BREESE PS sot he os
5) 74 | 148 | 0 80.5 BS. lic 6s (10 bran ees ener. ee | RIN fa fn
45 66 | 131 | 0 72.0 49 al UBS area a Sleaeocelerecac|bcoar 3.) s54es-
oO ah | 0) 65.0 22 MBA SO Stat a) Be oe Sewer wot eer mee ses is seh
.0 32 63) (0 AOS ee tsk al ata con], aetehe econ tee eeietees 16 255 tee eee eee
.0 i 13 | 0 Ora eel eee Geno cel eser mn end gen Me enc 1/5. 2a; hell alae eee ee
Sy Peacoat loge ameter 2 De ned akelige Slee cecal Wieden cea taclids SE eee che Sere ieee
eS a ab em Cra (rede ie a een bee ee PRR EE el Sm cila ciate
etal ce re a ae OW Vbsd vewlelesdnal PAEEe|2 cobee alesees 5 a) See | Stabe eel
| |

* Treated at Washington, D. C., January 29, 1908; planted at St. Anthony Park, Minn.,
EE nenioa we St Antony Park April 17, 1908; planted at St. Anthony Park April 18,
ae anareee, Do.4, (C,

+4 51°-51,4° C.

The results of the treatments shown in Tables IX and X are seen
to be similar to those with barley. Wheat, however, shows ability to
endure longer soaking and slightly higher temperatures. Treatments
of ten minutes at 54° C., even after a soaking of twelve hours, gave
good results both in germination and smut prevention.

The most desirable treatment is apparently the following: Soaking
for five to seven hours in cold water followed by immersion in hot
water at 54° C. for ten minutes.

The ice-water treatments likewise gave results similar to those of
barley—i. e., they were inefficient against the smut except at high tem-
peratures injurious to germination.

EFFECT ON GERMINATION OF DRYING TREATED SEED.

In the experiments of 1908 with both wheat and barley, data on
the effect of the drying of the treated seed on germination were
obtained. Part of the seed was treated January 29, and tests for
germination were made in the Seed Laboratory on the following
dates: January 31. February 6 and 20, and March 5 and 19. The re-

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. 29

mainder of the seed was treated February 4, 1908, and laboratory tests
were made February 3, 13, and 20, and Meh 5 and 19. The seed
was planted April 16. The tests were made from seed from both
ice-water and cold-water soakings followed by the hot-water treat-
ments. The results with both barley and wheat and from both treat-
ments were similar. In all treatments which were not injurious to
germination the tests at the different dates gave practically the same
results (fig. 2, curves B and F). Where the treatment was injurious,

BAPLE

DAYS AFTER TREATMENT

&
8

“Se Sr a ne

a aD

2 Sa ee

5S, a a aD

So as

SS a

Beir en ae

=e

Sas aa

meses Se ete

Se mm 1

oS SS SS) | I

Mesen ess a en y e e

ha amma | 29 id ae |

ea oe a

ae recall | a oc a a ee |

2) Sea eee Se
ee 9 a
ym ee a A I |
a en ie

~

‘1G. 2.—Diagram showing the effect on germination of drying the seed of barley (Minne-
sota No. 195) and wheat (Minnesota No. 188) after the application of Jensen’s modi-
fied hot-water treatment for loose smut. The treatments were made January 29 and
February 4, 1908, at Washington, D. C. The germination tests were made the number
of days indicated after treatment. The first figures (1, 8, 16, etc.) give the dates after
the treatment of February 4; the second figures (2, 9 ,22, ete.), dates after that of
January 29. The seed was planted at St. Anthony Park, Minn., April 16, 1908. A,
barley, control (no treatment) ; B, barley, average of 19 tests, initial test between 100
and 76 per cent, inclusive; C, barley, average of 6 tests, initial test between 75 and
51 per cent, inclusive; D, barley, average of 11 tests, initial test less than 51 per cent;
i, wheat, control (no treatment); #’, wheat, average of 20 tests, initial test between
100 and 76 per cent, inclusive; G, wheat, average of 5 tests, initial test between 75 and
51 per cent, inclusive; 77, wheat, average of 11 tests, initial test less than 51 per cent.

however, the germination tests on different dates showed in general an
improvement in vitality as the length of time after treatment increased,
giving on the average the highest germination percentages on the last
date, March 19 (curves C, D, G,and H). These relatively high per-
centages were sustained in the field germination tests, though all of
the treated as well as all of the control seed, after having been kept
dry, gave field germination tests uniformly lower than in the Seed
Laboratory tests. This fact, as shown by the controls, was probably
152

30 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

due to field conditions. In some cases wheat which immediately after
treatment, January 31, showed no germination, on March 19 showed
30 per cent and in the field 40 per cent. The results indicate that
after the drying of the seeds after treatment a delay of one to two
months not only does not injure but improves the germination where
seeds have been severely treated. The detailed results of these tests
are shown in Tables XIII and XIV, inclusive.

EFFECT OF JENSEN’S MODIFIED HOT-WATER TREATMENT ON THE YIELD OF GRAIN.

The percentages of germination in the foregoing tables indicate
that from many of the treatments a decreased yield must result unless
allowance is made in planting for injury to the seed. Those treat-
ments selected as the best for barley (5-15-52) and wheat (5-10-54)
cause little or no injury to germination. Swingle’s method for wheat
showed that successful treatment for loose smut of wheat was accom-
panied by a loss of as much as 25 per cent of the seed. Results of
experiments to determine the effect of the treatments on yield are
shown in Table XI. Plats of one-twentieth acre at St. Anthony
Park, Minn., and of one-tenth acre at McPherson, Kans., were planted
in each case. These plats were close together on a uniform soil, thus
giving an accurate basis for comparison. In seeding no allowance was
made for injury to seed germination. In general the stand on the
treated plats appeared less uniform and slightly poorer than on the
control plats. The yields were tested in a manner similar to that
used for the testing of varieties at these stations.

In estimating the amounts of smut in fields which were too large
to permit a count of all the heads or plants the following method,
proposed by Mr. H. J. C. Umberger, has been found useful and accu-
rate and has been adopted throughout. In this method a point is
selected at random in one of the drill rows, and starting from this
point in the row 100 heads are counted. A hand counting register is
very useful in this work. Another starting point is then selected in a
different row at some distance from the first and another 100 heads
are counted. This is continued over the entire plat usually until the
sum of a thousand heads is reached. The exact number of counts
is determined by the size of the plat and the desire for accuracy. The
greater the number of counts the more accurate is the result. In
some cases only 600 heads were counted, in which case some of the
plats were again checked up.’ At other times as many as 2,000 heads
were counted in each plat. This method of estimating the preva-
lence of smut has some advantage over the hoop or square measure
methods, especially in speed, and is even more accurate than these
methods, by reason of the fact that the number of heads really ex-
presses comparatively the number of plants, which is not always the
case when other methods are followed.

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS.

31

TABLE XI.—Results of experiments with Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment

on wheat and barley, showing the effect on yield of grain.

ST. ANTHONY PARK, MINN., 1908.

'

Barley.

Treatment.

Yield

Smut. per acre. |

Minnesota No. 105. | Minnesota No. 195.

Yield
per acre.

| Per cent. | Bushels. | Per cent. | Bushcts.

CSL 0 OOS SERB OEE SEE Eee EEE OB RERC COAST SES BEDI Senos ose 2 37 | 1,4 | 40. 0
eee Re Sas aoe ee oie aie vacate ese onsace = Trace. Rye | 0 42.2
HOt So) G<e oe SIE ee See ee OSC oe Seer 0.1 33.9 | ay 33.7
| Wheat: Minnesota No. 188.
| |
Gontrol-~ ..-. eee Se 5 a See Be eee Scie tebe enemies ee 3.9 24.3 | 6+ 22.3
failio Pll. aka BREE Se Se por drececerooeueretr spacpecce + Trace. 20.6 | Trace. *K 21.6
Wolseilice 2a 20 16a ee SIS tees Sone ee ee ea 4.2 20 | 3 tT 20.3
Ms |
McPHERSON, KANS., 1908.
Spring wheat: Kubanka No. 2094.
Treatment.
Yield aianice
Smut. per acre. | Remarks.
Per cent. | Bushels. |
LOO N03 OR. Ae ee a aa ee | 0.25 | 13. 46
eee er ee tte nisl) \= = 22-1222 ccai4;0 == 0 11.63 | Temperature varied from 53.5-54° C.; 54° C. most
| of time.
MEPIS aia aleha'wiclnn och oar aiecin «''2 > Trace. 12.42 | Temperature varied from 53.5-54° C.; 54° C. most
j of time.
Barley: Caucasian No. 90.
ROENDEE ee afarerare ta eicerd eo siercies soso es 1225 35. 83
a Sly ee 0 26.15 | Temperature varied from 51°-51.5° C.; 51.5° C.
most of time.
CM Hah EMR OL eer. asco a. cls.sc2.e5.25 2 = 0 29.48 | Temperature varied from 51°-51.5° C.; 51.5° C,
| | most of time.
|

The uneven stand of the treated grain has already been noted.
The cold-water soakings gave uniformly excellent results in the pre-
vention of smut, leaving in no case more than a trace.
amounted to five heads or less in the whole plat, found by very care-
ful search. In barley, Minnesota No. 195, not a smutted head was
seen. The control in this case, however, had very little smut (1.4 per
cent). The ice-water soakings were less successful, especially in
wheat, where in one plat the treated grain had 4.2 per cent against

152

* For Minnesota No. 195, soaked 6 hours 20 minutes.

7 Five heads found in whole plat.

* Temperature varied from 52.8° to 54° C.; 53.8° C. most of time.
+ Temperature varied from 54° to 53.2° C.; 53.4° C. most of time.

*
2
!

This trace

32 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

3.9 per cent in the control. These results confirm those shown in
the previous table.

The yield at St. Anthony Park was slightly decreased by the treat-
ment after cold-water soakings, while at McPherson it was quite
seriously affected. In Minnesota barley it was practically equal to
the control plat (exceeding it in Minnesota No. 195). In wheat there
was a decrease in all cases, amounting to 15 per cent in one plat.
Treatment after ice-water soakings invariably resulted in a loss in
yield amounting in Minnesota No. 195 barley to 20 per cent. The
ice-water treatments should, therefore, be discarded as undesirable
in all respects.

Treatment after cold-water soakings, on the other hand, was suc-
cessful in the prevention of smut, although a loss in yield was evident
in most cases.

TEST OF THE JENSEN MODIFIED HOT-WATER TREATMENT ON A LARGE SCALE.

An attempt was made in 1907 and 1908 to test the Jensen hot-water
treatment under the difficulties present at an experiment station where
larger fields and more of them were planted than were found neces-
sary in the previously described experiments. This work was con-
ducted by Mr. H. J. C. Umberger, at McPherson, Kans., on the
cooperative experiment station of the Office of Grain Investigations.
There had been considerable smut at the station in 1906 in both wheat
and barley, and an accurate estimate of the amount in most of the
varieties in large plats was made in 1907. It was proposed to clean
the entire place of smut in one year. All wheats and barleys on the
station, with the exception of the hybrids, were treated in the fall of
1907. The hybrids, on account of a possible loss of seed, which could
not be replaced, were left untreated.

The a ala used in treatments was a 40-gallon galvanized-iron
tub and a 2-burner gasoline stove. This and all other material neces-
sary could easily be Shasta nice on an ordinary farm. The following
treatments were employed: For wheat, 7-15-54, and for barley,
6-15-52. The conditions at the experiment station were, of course,
even more difficult than on an ordinary farm, on account of the large
number of varieties which it was necessary to handle. All treated
seed was dried after treatment for at least a week previous to sowing.

The station farm comprised about 30 acres, fully one-half of which
was in wheat and barley. There were 59 plats of wheat and barley
of one-tenth and one-twentieth acre each, the majority being one-
tenth-acre plats. An accurate smut record of 45 of the 59 plats was
kept in 1907, while of the remaining 14 no record was taken, though
probably smut was present. The smut varied from a trace on some
plats to a maximum of 7.3 per cent on others, the average of the plats

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. 33

being 2.1 per cent. All computations were made by Mr. Umberger
according to the method previously described. In addition to the
large plats, 550 varieties and selections, comprising about 2,000 rows,
were individually treated. One man’s time, nine hours a day for
about two weeks, was consumed in this work. It was estimated that
40 lots of seed for as many one-tenth-acre plats were treated in five
hours. This rate can be considerably increased with larger tubs and
more heat and where only one or two varieties are handled, as under
ordinary farm conditions.

The results of these treatments became evident in 1908. Not a head
of smut could be found on the whole farm among the barley and
common wheats (7réticum vulgare). A few varieties of durum wheats,
however, had an occasional smutted head, constituting an exceedingly
small fraction of 1 per cent. This probably indicates that durum
wheats require a slightly more severe treatment than common wheats.
The untreated hybrids, which, as previously stated, were the only
untreated plants on the farm, contained 2 per cent of smut in 1908.
This is the only check on the amount of smut at the station for the
year. Conservatively estimated, it represents the percentage of smut
eliminated by the treatment. The injury to germination caused by
treatment was variable. It was not more than 25 per cent in any case
where the seed was properly dried and kept dry, and probably on the
average was less than 15 per cent under such conditions.

As shown by other experiments noted in this bulletin, the amount
of time given to the drying of treated seed was undoubtedly unfavor-
able to germination. The seed might better have been planted imme-
diately or allowed to rest for one to two months. It should also be
pointed out that the injury to germination did not necessarily mean
a commensurate decrease in yield. It seems probable that the yield
was not affected to the extent shown by the decrease in germination,
since the fewer plants had greater opportunities for stooling. This
attempt to clean the farm of smut in one year was without question
successful and demonstrated the possibility of using this method on a
fairly large scale.

Mr. A. H. Leidigh, of Hutchinson, Kans., successfully used the
modified hot-water treatment on his farm in 1907-8. In a letter to
the Office of Grain Investigations, he says:

During vacation last fall I treated some Tennessee winter barley (from
McPherson station) for loose smut as per specific directions from Mr. Umber-
ger, of your office. This was for a farm field of barley; the work was done with
ordinary farm equipment. I take pleasure in telling you that the modified hot-
water treatment as used is a success. As the loose smut is increasing rapidly
and is not to be controlled by ordinary methods, I consider our results of great
importance.

152

34 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.
ROGUING TREATMENT FOR THE PREVENTION OF LOOSE SMUTS OF WHEAT AND BARLEY.

Maddox found that by carefully picking out all smutted heads
in small plats seed almost free of smut was obtained in two years.
Experiments were undertaken in 1907 at St. Anthony Park to test
this method and to determine its practical possibilities. The results
are shown in Table XIT.

TABLE XII.—Results of experiments in the prevention of loose smuts of wheat
and barley by roguing the smut, St. Anthony Park, Minn., 1907 and 1908.

BARLEY.
1907. 1908.
Plat. Variety.
Treatment. i Smut. Smut.
|
Per cent. | Per cent.
Ce MinnesotasNoy l05sce = meee se eee Control}; noitreatment!.: 225-2 --ee-- eee *1.69 2.0
AVS als seers Omens one eee emer ees Rogtied =. Se mcenenne = acleetidas sis semis 1.69 2
Biel sanee OR noe eee a ee ae oe o8| shonmalin-erop ied se aeee a eee eee 1.16 fi
BPs. | Minnesota Now42e ey sa ecnee coos Controlinotreatment=-— 242-2) eseeeee * 4.62 2.0
Ds Sei ae ee (ole eee ete a ei ee Ree Hormalint Topued = aan. sence eee eee 4.62 1.0
|
WHEAT.
F Minnesota Nov 1882. -)..5---2- 262. 5. Controle 94 oe eae. eee eee 3 to 4 5.0
HM heya eeee (CYC RENE RSet eis Seen Am or hie Hormalinssrogued S) -sa. tee one cee -2 -5
Saeeeelgesar (6 oer Ai kOe RN es Se Oe ASI a pe Sa ene ere Prt es © 4.0 Ail

* Percentage from rogued plats.

Five plats (one-fortieth of an acre each) were laid off for the bar-
ley work. Three of these (A, B, and C) were sown to barley,
Minnesota No. 105, and two (D and E) to Minnesota No. 142. Both
barleys contained considerable smut in 1906. Plats C and E were con-
trol plats and were not treated. In plats B and D the seed before
planting was immersed for two hours in a formalin solution (1 pound
of formalin to 45 gallons of water) in order to test the efficiency of
this treatment for both loose and covered smut. In these plats, as
well as in plat A (which was not treated with formalin), all of the
smut was picked every day. By frequent roguing it was hoped -to
get the smut heads before they had a chance to distribute their
spores. The details of the pickings are shown graphically in figure
Lp 16.

The five plats of barley were grown together in a row in order to
test the roguing method under fairly adverse conditions. Roguing
was very thoroughly carried out, and in the three plats pickings were
made daily from July 2 to harvest (July 29). The time spent in
roguing averaged approximately fifty hours per plat, an amount of

@ Maddox, F. Loc. cit.

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. 85

time hardly allowable in farm practice. The test shows, however, the
possibilities of the method even under the adverse conditions brought
about by the close proximity of plats C and E to the rogued plats.
In plats C and E the smut was allowed to be distributed in a natural
manner and undoubtedly caused infection in adjacent plats. The
nearest large barley fields were 600 feet to the west of these experi-
mental plats. The percentage of smut in 1907 was 1.69 in Minnesota
No. 105 and 4.62 in Minnesota No. 142 in the rogued plats (A
and D). These were accepted for the controls, since the seed used
in plats C and E was from the same bulk as the seed for A and
D, respectively. In plat B (Minnesota No. 105) 1.16 per cent
of smut was present. The seed obtained from these plats was planted
in twentieth acres in 1908. The controls (C and E) were planted in
the barley variety series, while the seed from the rogued plats A, B,
and D was planted among the oat varieties remote from any barley
fields. The smut in each plat was computed as previously described
in connection with Table XI. The results show a decided decrease in
smut in every rogued plat from that recorded for 1907. The decrease
would undoubtedly have been greater if the rogued plats had been
completely isolated the previous year (see Table XII, plat S). The
results obtained indicate clearly that the smut can be greatly reduced
by roguing the smutted heads as soon as they appear. It is almost
certain, however, that this method would not prove practicable in
farm practice on account of the time necessary to rogue even a small
plat. It could be used only in connection with a seed-plat system.

Results similar to those obtained with barley were obtained with
the loose smut of wheat. Minnesota No. 188, a bearded hard spring
wheat, was used. Plats F and S were from the same bulk of seed.
Plat T was from a different lot of seed, and no control was planted.
T and S were one-tenth-acre plats both in 1907 and 1908, while con-
trol F was a large field at the station. Plat S was isolated among
the barley varieties in 1907, while plat T was sown among the wheat
varieties, with a plat of Minnesota No. 188 on one side and Preston
wheat on the other. It was hoped that plat T would give a test of
the roguing under unfavorable conditions, similar to the barley tests
described above, but the amount of smut in 1907 was only 0.2 per
cent as compared with 4 per cent in plat S and 8 to 4 per cent in the
large fields. This small amount of smut makes the results in plat T
of comparatively little value as a test for the roguing method. Plat
S, however, shows conclusively the possibilities of the method when
the rogued plat is isolated, since the decrease from 4 per cent in 1907
to 0.1 per cent in 1908 stands out in sharp contrast to the results in
the large field controls, viz, 3 to 4 per cent in 1907 and 5 per cent in
1908.

152

36 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

The above experiments show that picking out the loose smut heads
in both wheat and barley will decrease the amount of smut in the
following crop. The best results are obtained by isolation of the
plat (see Table XII, plat S), but a decrease is obtained even without
isolation when the picking is carefully done. The roguing can be
facilitated by pulling out the entire plant whenever a smut head
appears. This will avoid the necessity of picking out several other
smut heads later in the season. Planting the grain in rows 10 to 12
inches apart in order to allow walking between the rows also aids the
roguing process.

The necessity for isolation is well shown in another series of experi-
ments. From the treatment tests with Jensen’s method made in 1907,
Table VII, eight lots of seed of Minnesota barley No. 142 (1907
controls contained 6.9 per cent of smut), from which the smut had
been entirely eradicated by the hot-water treatment, were selected.
Since the treated grain had been sown in contiguous plats, the suc-
cessfully treated rows during the season of 1907 were subject to inocu-
lation by spores from the unsuccessfully treated and control plats
which were usually less than a rod away. This seed from the smut-
free rows when planted in 1908 gave in every case loose smut vary-
ing from 0.16 per cent to 2.4 per cent. The latter amount was equal
to the untreated control of 1908, in Table XII, and shows an infec-
tion equal to that in nontreated seed. The same number of lots of
wheat (Minnesota No. 188) was selected from successfully treated
seed (Table IX) in 1907 under conditions similar to those described
for barley. The results were in general the same. Although the
seed came from rows with no smut in 1907, every lot contained smut
varying from 0.1 per cent to 0.5 per cent in 1908. The increase in
the smut was not as marked as in the barley, since the field control
of the same wheat in 1908 had 5 per cent of smut, but in no ease did
the seed remain free from smut. Isolation is therefore very neces-
sary to the maintenance of freedom from loose smut in both wheat
and barley.

Just how far removed from a smutted field a plat must be in order
to prevent infection entirely can not be definitely stated at this time,
as no experiments have been performed to determine this point.
Evidence presented in this bulletin indicates, however, that sufficient
isolation of a seed plat can be obtained on an ordinary farm to avoid
any considerable infection, and the maintenance of such a plat will
soon reduce the smut on the farm to a mere trace and will ultimately
eradicate it. Wind-borne spores travel long distances, but the possi-
bilities of infection decrease very rapidly with the increase of the
distance of the seed plat from the smutted fields. An intervening

152

TREATMENTS FOR LOOSE SMUTS. 37

grove or strip of wood between the seed plat and the smutted field is
a very valuable protection.

In connection with the above-described treatments of barley for
loose smut, tests made with the covered smut showed that the latter
can be easily and completely destroyed by the hot-water treatments,
such as 5-15-52, or by immersion in a solution of 1 pound of formalin
to 45 gallons of water for two hours. Undoubtedly other treatments,
such as are eflicient for the bunt of wheat and the loose smut of oats,
would also be useful against this smut. The roguing method carried
on in connection with loose smut (see fig. 1 and Table XII) was
fairly successful against covered smut in one case (Minnesota No.
105, Table XII, plat A). In another case (Minnesota No. 142, Table
XI, plat C), where no covered smut appeared in the rogued plat in
1907, 1 per cent was present in 1908. The simplicity and efficiency
of the formalin treatment make the practical consideration of the
roguing method for the covered smut entirely unnecessary.

TABLE XIII.—£ffect on germination of drying the seed of barley after the appli-
cation of Jensen's modified hot-water treatment, Washington, D. C., and St.
Anthony Park, Minn., 1908.

| Germination tests of Seed Laboratory. Germi-
Date of ae nation in
Treatment. treat- | field,
ment. | January | February February) March | March | planted

i aero 6. | 20. by 19. April 16. -

|

| | Z

| Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
(CORRS) 2p Aa Sepa e ene ee 92.0 93.5 91.0 87.0) 93. 0 73.0
Deb 27 op ae Jan. 29 | 93.0 95.5 92.0 91.5 92.0 79.0
USGS SGY o Sees Saeed pee do-222- 87.5 88. 0 89.0 87.0 88.0 80.0
COO ha penetra eco iiciccyitercs lowe (0.40 erener, | 85.5 92.0 89.5 89.0 92.5 82.0
Sor eet ie do.....| 90.0 90.5 87.0 85.5 91.5 73.0
(OSS I Se ae ee Lae 2 ea 85.5 83.5 | 72.0 80.0 87.0 70.0
TSG ee a eee seo i ee 58.5 60.5 | 48.0 47.5 72.0 45.0
aR bo BOC oh. sis secseds- sce Ud ore | 70. 0 77.5 70.5 62.5 80.0 65.0
VOR SCS ee eee aero Ko Sea | 23.0 43.5 16.0 15.0 37.5 34.0
pon SU AT ee el ees gos. ep 7.0 3.0 2e5 20. 0 17.0
GA Meese ae sscn cis Son - cee he Oos-a\- LOOM ereseceea| 1 eee ae 25.0 18.0
ev tao Che ae eS Se eee ie ae dos... nes in leet ae ee OO) ees Saas 3.5 2.0
INTEC SSF er eS ee eee (0 (5 oe To) Sarees atee OF Wleseneeeoee 1.5 2.5
i say) = 8 SO 15200less 95.5 96.5 95.5 95.0 95.5 87.0
RIS ee otis «a a cie<2 0c oie cies euais aie s doles 94.0 94.0 93.0 90. 0 91.5 76.0
WOU LY WS a es Golee 92.0 94.0 94.0 92.0 93.5 77.0
Sin. 2 S65 235s ee Cee ee eee 0.2... | 94.0 92.5 91.0 91.5 93.5 73.0
Celts ae See ae a ee GO: ce. 80.5 79.5 79.5 81.0 85. 0 63.0
MAR PIRI, eee Stern cendc-ele we c.2 ee cae Mose. | 48.5 41.5 | 35.5 42.5 | 65.5 39.0
5 Ta ane See ae GOrseee es 37.0 | PAN 17.0 46.5 33.0
SUS Ly eee ee Feb. 4 BOE Olle ss. Seen 91.0 90. 5 95.0 75.0
Lon St 5085 an ee eee ee 0.2... - 89.5 77.0 79.0 86.0 88. 0 77.0
We SSS pe oe ee COs ee| 84.5 84.5 | 76.5 73.5 77.5 60.0
1 eS ye a eee ae doe. 4 | 87.0 93.0 | 85.0 81.0 89.5 76.0
DORIS SE a ee Bens Ko eee | 76.5 73.0 58.0 53.5 } 79.0 56.0
Ice 13-15-54....... erie ees Beal 58 Oss. 65 37.0 29.5 37.5 58. 0 38.0
Weigh 25 (eee Fah en ae do2-.< 73.5 73.5 58.5 56.0 75. 0 49.0
Mia aie ae oe ork c/2d oedianws a =|'a 0 (Voy aoe 22.0 24.0 10.5 12.0 31.5 20.0
ICG UB ANTS ee es | ees fale doi. 2.5 4.0 1.0 | 1.0 3.0 2.0
PANO OSeet se oe hclic-cetiyans av|S.- Hoses 4.5 0 5.0 | 0 6.5 5.0
1S Sy 5 Pe ae ee ae (ee (0 (oe S570 |||. a .eneeaae Bz. ONL eee 92.0 75.0
INS ee Ree eee ees eee dono: a SER an eee OG eee, oo Se 88.5 60.0
eee tier fa doe ed Cote on xn| =o 2 d0neas 84.5 63.0 BED acer toe te | 76.0 44.0
COTES Rie na eee ee GOs.22. 89.5 89.0 70. 5 74.0 86.0 68.0
UOT eee See ee oS eee Pe (2 Fo ae 56.5 32.0 10.5 20.5 40.0 24.0
SG nd eee ee a eee ae Lovee 4.5 9.0 2.5 3.5 13.5 3.0
Ib SS Sawer ee 1s Oxcaets 28.5 26.0 5.5 | 12.5 30.0 13.0

| |

38

THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

TABLE XIV.—Effect on germination of drying the seed of wheat after the appli
cation of Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment, Washington, D. C., and St.
Anthony Park, Minn., 1908.

Germination tests of Seed Laboratory. Germi-

Date of nation in
Treatment. treat- field,

ment January | February February} March March | planted

eile 6. 20. 5. 19. April 16.

Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.
Controle eesceresoeteaseece sees aceasta 92.5 94.0 94.0 95.0 92.5 68
[ce\5—-0-bl Serco amemee=eeeee ae Jan. 29 91.0 93.5 94.5 95.0 93.0 80
ces —l0=pbseee ae eee nea Bee (ones 90.5 91.0 91.0 95.0 92.0 82
OS GR lays Sec odsooSenceaasos lead OE 85.5 90.5 89.5 93.0 94.5 79
Teeib—-00 Oseeeee eee ee seer eee oe@Ozecc< 87.5 89.5 92.0 94.5 91.0 83
Tee 510-5315 1-2) ee eee --do 15.5 91.5 83.0 91.5 85.5 73
Tee |5—=15-53.5 2-2 nie ne = 2022222 53.5 76.0 70.0 79.0 80.5 71
ICR SES Gos soe e cascieeasoeEa see sen Oscere 68.5 81.0 79.5 88.0 92.5 74
Tee=0=b0'bs anos eee Bee loeene 39.5 PAR) 56.5 78.5 no 70
Gelb =l5-ObO)seeser ess eee eae (oe 20.0 34.0 34.0 37.5 36.5 50
Ie FS A atom ren nceeanecsaodelsse dorece 8.5 50.0 46.0 52.5 61.0 50
VSO cas Sh eoeeneceesane sor dori, 0 3.0 15.0 3.5 8.5 13
eta ea ononasaordoeekocberseme sec Goveces 93.5 94.5 94.5 94.5 94.5 81
Nase nose apoedacacsecee sae) sic dows: 89.5 96.0 91.5 97.0 95.0 85
olla sacebckocasseesnoodses| S06 GOtsene 91.0 94.0 91.5 95.5 95.0 79
REGS Phy Sopeccoroncsaraoedasaesbod doers: 87.0 92.0 92.5 92.5 93.0 82
GEESS Hiesaesoacr posscecsedunped sos doleeee 67.0 85.0 90.5 92.0 92.5 75
ET Aah bes deesescotanccsosne avs bac dol. 2175 62.0 62.5 67.0 80.0 66
Ge ier aap possacmebappsdaneellsec GO.2552 215 73.0 62.0 72.5 81.5 66
Sa i soda toe ooembeoosssenee| ban Gor. s- (| 12.5 9.5 12.5 30.0 40
Tce 13-5-51.5...-- SoS tee eee os | Feb. 4 89.5 93.0 90.0 92.0 91.0 81
Tea do] Osol pease es eee locke oeee 87.5 89.0 92.5 90.0 96.5 80
Icens=l5-oib-eeece. 22 oe ene [eeeOleees 93.0 95.5 82.5 94.5 87.5 78
ie ils =e Wien meee eene ac con ose aos doses 89.5 91.5 91.5 90.5 89.0 80
Tce Eee 2 Eee ele RR eae [Pn edOracer 85.5 80.0 83.5 67.0 82.5 74
Tee teeth—b0.b.5- s55-se ores ate we GObeen. 81.5 76.0 65.5 82.5 77.5 66
Tees pap Gis soa sasaces ae seer BOO secon 67.5 52.0 41.0 52.5 73.5 51
TeenS=l0 spout peaeee ec erie Sore Oe esor 21.5 12.0 6.5 4.5 15.0 32
TeesSal5—pOsee ase seein SCObse 4.0 a) 0 15) 1.0 7
(SER eee see cn/ee ee aetis= = sdO=e 93.5 93.0 95.0 93.5 92.5 82
Te SIONS Aeeseoeeocbes seems nOOsse a 93.0 86,5 89.5 94.5 89.5 79
TS SUB beet sere cies eteerat eee lo 55 88.0 88.5 91.0 92.0 88.5 74
(BBGEGS LT los sarer cates asoocue se moo aeee 90.5 88.0 90.0 91.5 89.5 69
i EGS UTNE oe Bape Sahel eater ae: =CLOsa ee HOO asecine MOSOsle sereigo ne 80.5 58
if SESS is oe mesos odoo sc eco =e Moses 74.5 58.5 47.5 60.0 72.0 49
1 Seeder aa peacopesee eee do.. 18.0 2.0 0 14.0 65.0 22

RECOMMENDATIONS.

According to the experiments previously described, two methods
gave a decrease of smut. The first of these, the roguing method,
although it decreases the smut does not eliminate all of it, and is,
moreover, impracticable in handling large fields or even in small
fields, on account of the work which it involves. It is useful, how-
ever, in nursery plats where hybrid plants and small quantities of
pedigreed seed are being raised and where injurious treatments would
mean a loss of seed that could not be replaced. An attempt to use it
in combination with a seed-plat method would require several years
at least to eliminate all of the smut. It can not, therefore, be recom-
mended as a treatment for general practice in preventing loose smut.

The second method is Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment. This
has been entirely successful. It can not at present be recommended
for the treatment of seed for large areas, however, but in combination
with a seed-plat system it is entirely practicable and its use can be

152

RECOMMENDATIONS. 89

urged for general farm practice.’ Its application requires care and
intelligence, and it can best be used with small lots of seed. In gen-
eral, the method to be recommended is the following: The keeping of
a seed plat the seed for which has been cleaned of smut by the
application of Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment and the use
of the grain from this plat for seed the succeeding year, when no
further treatment is necessary. If the farm is very large it may re-
quire several years to get the smut entirely eliminated from the whole
farm. This recommendation involves two processes, which will now

be described.

SELECTION OF THE SEED PLAT.

A good, clean, well-cultivated piece of land should be selected and
set aside for the raising of seed for the succeeding year. For this
plat seed should first be carefully cleaned and selected by the best
fanning and sifting processes. This seed should then be treated
as directed later. The plat ought to be large enough to provide at
least twice as much grain as will be necessary for farm seed the
following year, in order to allow for loss in cleaning and selecting.
This seed plat must not be placed next to fields of smutted crops of
the same cereals. The plat ought also to be located so that the pre-
vailing winds at flowering time will not carry spores to the seed
plat from a neighboring field of the same grain. The isolation of
this plat from smutted crops of the same cereal is absolutely neces-
sary, not only from crops on the owner’s farm but from neighboring
farms as well. <A strip of wood, a cornfield, a large meadow, or a
barley or oat field intervening between the wheat seed plat and fields
of smutted wheat will be useful, and similarly a field of corn, oats,
or wheat or a large meadow or strip of wood between the barley
seed plat and the smutted field will be a valuable protection. This
point can not be too strongly emphasized. and the cooperation of
neighbors may be necessary to carry it into effect.

TREATMENT OF THE SEED FOR THE SEED PLAT.

After seed for the plat -has been properly cleaned it must be
treated by the Jensen method to eliminate the smut. This can be
done according to the following directions: The clean seed should be
soaked for from five to seven hours in water at ordinary room tem-
perature, 17 to 22° C. (63 to 72° F.). It should be placed in small,

7Tt may be possible to construct machines to make a general farm practice of

treatment of large lots of seed possible, but none such is at present on the
market.
152

40 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

loose sacks or wire baskets containing not more than one-half peck
each and drained for a short time. It is of the greatest importance
that the seed be treated in small lots in order that all of the grain
may be quickly and uniformly brought to the desired temperature.
Two tubs or vats of water should be provided. In one tub (No. 2)
the exact temperature required should be maintained. The other tub
(No. 1) is used for bringing the grain to the temperature of the
treatment, so as not to lower the temperature in tub No. 2. Gal-
vanized-iron tubs of 20 to 40 gallons capacity and kerosene or gaso-
line double-burner stoves are sufficient for treatment. The drained
sacks or baskets of seed should be plunged into tub No. 1 for a
minute, then transferred to tub No. 2, and kept agitated while im-
mersed at temperatures and for the periods specified below, the
temperatures mentioned being maintained as nearly as possible:

For barley, 15 minutes at 52° C. (125.6° F.).

For wheat, 10 minutes at 54° C. (129.2° F.).

In treating barley, if the temperature should rise above 52° C.
(125.6° F.) the time of immersion must be reduced to ten minutes at
53° C. (127.4° F.) or five minutes at 54° C. (129.2° F.). Above 54°
C. (129.2° F.) there is no safe margin. If the temperature falls
slightly below 52° C. (125.6° F.) the time of treatment should be in-
creased in proportion. A temperature lower than 51° C. (123.8° F.)
will not be effective. In treating wheat, if the temperature should
rise above 54° C. (129.2° F.) or fall below 52° C. (125.6° F:), the
time for immersion must be diminished or increased accordingly.
Under no circumstances should a temperature of more than 55° C,
(181° F.) be allowed. Temperatures below 51° C. (123.8° F.) are
ineffective.” ;

Seed treated as indicated may be planted as soon as it 1s sufficiently
dry to run freely through the drills. Allowance must then be made
for the swollen seed and also for injury in treatment. The increase
due to swollen seed can be estimated by measuring seed before and
after treatment. The seed may be treated several months before
seeding time and then dried quickly and carefully. In many cases
the grain germinates as well or better when rested after treatment
than if sown immediately. The seed may be dried by spreading it
out in thin layers not over 2 inches in depth on a clean granary
floor ov on canvas and shoveling or raking it from time to time. It
must not be allowed to sprout. Care must be taken to prevent the
freezing of the grain when it is moist, as this will impair germination.

“Two men working together can easily treat one bushel of grain an hour, or
enough seed in one day to sow a seed plat from 6 to 10 acres in size.
152

SUMMARY. 41

A good thermometer should be used for all treatments.t| The use
of an instrument which is not accurate will result in injury to the
germinating power of the grain on the one hand or in failure to pre-
vent the smut on the other.

Several weeks before sowing, the seed should be tested for germina-
tion. This can be done by placing several small lots of grain of 100
seeds each between damp blotters and keeping them at a living-room
temperature for several days. The percentage of sprouted kernels
will show the power of germination. If this is low, a corresponding
inerease in the rate of seeding is necessary.

The seed plat should be maintained from year to year, at least as
long as any smut is present on the farm. Seed obtained from the
treated seed plat does not have to be treated the following year. All
fields that are free from smut must be kept separated, as previously
stated, from smutted fields of the same grain. Cooperation with
neighbors may be necessary to bring this about.

SUMMARY.

The loose smuts of wheat and barley demand treatment in many
sections of the United States on account of their wide distribution,
evident increase, and possible virulence, and on account of the diffi-
culty of preventing them.

The loose smuts of wheat, barley, and wild barley are distinct
species and are not interchangeable as to their host plants.

The loose smuts of wheat and barley infect the plant in the flower-
ing stage and enter the embryo inside of the ovary before the latter
ripens into the seed. An infected seed develops a smutted plant the
following year.

Varietal differences in susceptibility to these smuts have been
observed in both wheat and barley, but no immunity of marked
practical value has been discovered. There apparently is no constant
relationship between susceptibility and earliness of ripening.

“Thermometers may be submitted to the Bureau of Sinaaacds, Washington,
D. C., for test. A charge of about 50 cents will be made for testing at the two
points necessary. They should be graduated in single or half degrees—centi-
grade—directly upon the stem or upon a scale contained within the stem, and
should preferably read from 0° to 100°. The bulbs, at least, should be made of
a suitable glass, such as Jena “‘ Normal” thermometer glass or Corning Medium
thermometer glass, in order that the readings may not change with time, and
the general construction of the thermometer should be good. However, ther-
mometers with the Bureau of Standard’s certificates can be purchased directly
from manufacturers or large dealers, and this is generally a much more con-
venient way to secure them, because it avoids the risk and expense of shipping
them to and from Washington.

152

49 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

Artificial inoculations of flowers with loose smut from the time
when the stamens are still green to the time when the ovary is one-
third its mature size are usually successful. The optimum period
for artificial inoculation is at the time when the flower is in full
bloom or when the ovary is just commencing to develop after fertili-
zation.

The time of maximum smut in a field of wheat or barley corre-
sponds exactly with the full flowering period of the crop.

The partial smutting of plants and of heads is common; this is.
possibly associated with the time of inoculation or with weather con-
ditions. Sound grains on partially smutted heads are not infected
by the mycelium growing inside the plants on which the seeds are
formed.

The time of planting of spring wheats and barleys had no effect
on the loose smuts at St. Anthony Park, Minn. In winter barleys at
Amarilio, Tex., however, very late planting resulted in almost no
smut, while planting at the ordinary time or earlier in the season
resulted in a large amount of smut. The absence of smut on the
late plantings is probably due to a difference in optimum temperature
for the internal smut and the seed germinations.

The effects of Jensen’s method on the germination of wheat and
barley for different periods of previous soaking and for different
temperatures and time limits are shown in Tables V and VI. In
general the germination is injured, though variously, according to
the severity of the treatments.

The effects of Jensen’s method on the loose smut of wheat and
barley for different periods of previous soaking, different tempera-
tures, and times of treatment are shown in Tables VII and VIII.
The best treatments are the following: For barley, a soaking in cold
water for five hours, followed by a soaking in hot water for fifteen
minutes at a temperature of 52°C.; for wheat, a soaking in cold
water for five hours, followed by a soaking in hot water for ten
minutes at a temperature of 54°C. These treatments if carefully
carried out entirely prevent the smut and produce only slight injury
to the germination of the seed.

Thorough drying of the seed after the application of Jensen’s
modified hot-water treatment is not injurious to the germination.
When seed is injured by the treatment, the germination improves
after several weeks of drying, and continues to improve for at least
two months. (See Tables VIII, XIII, and XIV, and fig. 2.)

Soaking the seed in ice water previous to the hot-water treatment
is not as efficient against smut as soaking in cold water at ordinary
temperatures.

152

SUMMARY. | 48

The application of Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment will re-
sult in a decrease in yield, unless an allowance for slightly injured
germination is made in sowing. With the best treatments the decrease
is very small.

Picking out the loose smut of wheat and barley decreases smut even
without isolation of the plat; the decrease is more marked, however,
when the plat is isolated.’ The roguing method is nevertheless im-
practicable in farm practice on account of the time required and
because it does not completely clean out the smut. It is useful, how-
ever, in breeding plats.

The treatment of wheat and barley seed with formalin has no effect
on the loose smut. The use of formalin will, however, completely
prevent covered smut of barley and bunt of wheat.

All smuts of wheat and barley, including bunt and loose smut of
wheat and covered and loose smut of barley, were practically elimi-
nated from a 30-acre experimental farm in one year by the use of
Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment. This method can therefore
be used on a fairly large scale where accuracy and care are employed.

The following method for farm practice is recommended: Grow
seed in a small isolated seed plat, using clean, heavy seed of the best
quality and of pure stock. Treat this seed carefully by Jensen’s
modified hot-water method as recommended in this bulletin and sow
the seed according to germination tests. Plant the seed from the seed
plat the following year for the general farm crop. Maintain the seed
plat every year.

152

a EY Mets eee ee ai Vag

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45

n>

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

[The photographs for all plates were made by Mr. H. D. Ayer, Minnesota Agricultural
Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn.]

PLATE I. Heads of wheat and barley, showing the common smuts. a, Bunt or
stinking smut of wheat (Fife) ; head to the right with glumes removed to
show smutted kernels (smut balls) in place; two whole and two broken
smut balls shown below. b, A sound head of wheat (Minnesota No. 188),
with sound grains shown below. c, Loose smut of wheat (Minnesota No.
188); to the right a head front which all of the spores have been blown,
leaving the bare stalk. d, Two heads of covered smut of barley (Minnesota
No. 105). e, A sound head of barley. f, Loose smut of barley; to the right
a head from which the spores have been blown.

PLATE II. Loose smut of barley (Minnesota No. 105), showing the various
stages in the development of a smutted head. a, Head just appearing in the
boot (sheath); b, half out of the boot; c, mature in size, but not yet
distributing spores; d, smut mass broken and distributing spores; e, all
of the spores blown off and the bare stalk of the head left.

PLATE III. Loose smut of barley (Minnesota No. 105), showing various mani-
festations of smut. a, Sound head; b, partially smutted head, upper spike-
lets sound; c, completely smutted and mature head, showing powdery mass
of smut; d, smut head formed late in the season and never developing a
powdery mass of spores; e, a badly smutted head, showing a smutted bract
at the base of head.

Puate IV. Loose smut of wheat, showing the various stages in the development
of a smutted head as described for barley in’ Plate II. The smut is broken
into pewdery masses as soon as the head emerges from the boot. (Compare
with Plate II.)

PLATE V. Loose smut of wheat (Minnesota No. 188). a, All of the heads of
one sound plant—all sound; b, all of the heads of one smutted plant—all
smutted; c, a partially smutted head of wheat—upper spikelets sound.

Pratt VI. Loose smut of barley (Minnesota No. 105). Upper row—all of
the heads of one sound plant—all sound; lower row to the left—all of the
heads of one smutted plant—all smutted; lower row to the right—all of
the heads of a partially smutted plant—six smutted and one sound.

152

46

Bul. 152, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |.

—- ~

,
6
hy
t
Hf

Loos

ix

QUE
~ ~

Q

HEADS OF WHEAT AND BARLEY, SHOWING THE COMMON SMUTS.

Bul. 152, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Loose SMUT OF BARLEY, SHOWING THE VARIOUS STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A
SMUTTED HEAD.

<y A : r < - thie i’ = Je big i :

PP Ge a = e
a TAY (> re yf eS >, ‘ ip 3
. - " Pa eel - = . a >) “2
= hi a ve + i ' ay ‘i
a ‘ = - * b' ; \ C ;
, 7 amg ns = A ’
, ] = ob. = j - . i ba i) y i ‘
ES > = = . — ¥ > 5
a = j = ~ . - 7 < 7 = a
2 f. J 2 ae 2 my Y
j : oa z me . é
ri ; ee = 54 i ; be! y =
; ‘ee == > d 5 7 » ! ;
= C s = =

PLATE III.

Bul. 152, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Loose SMUT OF BARLEY, SHOWING VARIOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF SMUT.

Bul. 152, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Loose SMUT OF WHEAT, SHOWING THE VARIOUS STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A
SMUTTED HEAD.

t
Wa
‘4

PLATE V.

Bul. 152, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Loose SMUT OF WHEAT,

SHOWING HEADS FROM A SOUND PLANT AND FROM A SMUTTED PLANT AND A PARTIALLY
SMUTTED HEAD.

PLATE VI.

Bul. 152, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

AND A PARTIALLY SMUTTED PLANT.

Loose SMUT OF BARLEY, SHOWING HEADS FROM A SOUND PLANT, A SMUTTED PLANT,

INDEX,

Page.
Barley, germination, effect of drying seed after treatment.............-.. 28-30, 33, 37
hot-water treatmnentues- ce. -cce secon ec. e. 2I-24.83
hot-water treatment, experiments and results, 1907................-- 24-27
maoculation with Ustilago nuda, results. ......-2....-----..5---+-+--- 13-14
meme emit, comirol, importance: - i2o5 2. ssc255 122200 -.2.2 2202. esses 7,41
gdecciption, with plates=s5aus ls.22 2-5 3d... 0 2... 7-9, 44
relation of time of planting to smut development....................- 18-19
Pee HOM PLeVeNLON Of SIRUG: 05s 2aeseess2-- 2 = den ss sees es 20, 34-35
Tennessee Winter, planting experiments by A. H. Leidigh............ 19
varieties, smut resistance, comparison..........-...-....-.-..-.------ 9
wild, inoculation with Ustilago lorentziana, experiments............- 13
Barleys, winter, planting experiments and studies of smut................... 19
Bunt, stinking, of wheat, characteristics, with plate....................... 9, 12, 44

Covered smut. See Smut, covered.
0 OSG 1 11
Pormane treatment of covered smut... ..... 2.2.2.4. oles oec eee tee eevee : 37
Freeman, E. M., studies on smut infection of darnel grass..................-- 11
Germination, grain, effect of drying seed after treatment............... 28-30, 37-38
wheat and barley, effect of hot-water treatment............-- 21-24, 33
Grain, relation of time of planting to smut development.............-....---- 18-19
BrauL-inoculation experiments, 1906—7......--...----....-....-..--.-- 12-18
yield, effect of Jensen’s modified hot-water treatment........-....-... 30-33
SINCE EDIE, INICCTION =< <0. oa-e -.s aciee ce ace bese en ede sseeecee- 11
Hori, quotations on grain-smut studies in Japan......-....---.----------- 11, 19, 21
Hot water, directions and experiments in treatment for smuts.......... 20-33, 38-40
Ice water, effect of soaking, on barley smut, experiments.........-- 26-27, 28, 31-32
Infection, floral, of smuts, studies and historical notes..............-...-.--- 10-12
Inoculation of grain with smut, experiments, 1906-7..............----..--.-- 12-18
Japan, Matsuto station, grain-smut studies and experiments..........--..-..-- 11, 19
Jensen, J. L., hot-water treatment, effect on yield of grain...........-...-.-. 30-33
recommendations and directions. ........- 38-40
pay Et ay, Sint es Geel 8 Si 20
Pee Ena COMO eX Nermments: 5.22. 2-.-~ chee ete nee ese eee eee ete 30-33
Beeman and Swinple, studies on smuts.......1...-.....52-----2 e222 eee eee 20
Leidigh, A. H., experiment with Tennessee Winter barley..............-..-. 19
Bile IMeAAMICDe AMO TESWLS.. 2 beat. s ~~ ee eeee eene ee 33

Loose smuts. See Smuts, loose.

eee tulips On Oraln SINUS. 4-0-2. adaeur s+ ---- ee --- seen e ee 10, 20, 34
Minnesota, grain smut, control experiments, 1907..............-- 18, 25-31, 35, 37-38
INOCUIAMOM Ck PemMINeMtseesa ees. 2 2... sense see 12-18
Roguing, treatment for prevention of loose smuts of wheat and barley....... 20, 34-37
Seed, grain, effect on germination of drying after treatment.......-. 28-30, 33, 37-38
Temritierseed pint, Weaken ses. o.gste <2... --.- een eee ese one ORS
: plat, roguing for prevention of smuts of wheat and barley......-....-. 20, 35, 36
Belectionsior raising smut-ireeseede....-.-...---2.--.-------- een 39
wheat, effect on germination of drying grain after treatment. ..... 28-30, 33, 38

152 47

48 THE LOOSE SMUTS OF BARLEY AND WHEAT.

Page
Smut, -control:experiments, 1907, 1908. 25.22.52 oe ee ee 19-38
covered, of barley, characteristics, with plate.........:.........-- 8, 12, 17, 44
treatments with hot water or formalin............... 37
inoculation €xpemments, 1906=7... 2 22 oet Le hac see ee 12-18
variation of results, relation to flowering stage ............-- 14-17
loose, of barley, description, with plates............-.--------- Ae 7-9, 44
wheat description, with platess: 4-2 -s2.-e eee 9-10, 44
resistance, comparison of varieties of barley and wheat.....-...-..-.----. 9-10
spores, distribution, development and action...............---.------- 11-12
Smuts, barley and wheat, similarity and differences................---...--- 9, 44
floralmmtechionsiudiles, inustoniealmoOtess=ese =.= me se settee eee 10-12
hot-water treatment, directions and experiments......-......--------- 20-33
Imfection. wm ethOdec Ae = -srceceen nese ee ese enee ee ee 11, 41
intraseminal infection, studies, historical notes.......-..------------- 10-12
loose,,.damage and importance of controle: .. 2... 0) 2.-.). 645). 7,41
life-history studies. .......5.2t dik ioe ee ee 10-19
CHeAMENS esses ees So Ha hes ln ee 19-38
wheat, barley, and wild barley, not interchangeable............-..---- 13, 41
Spores, loose,smut of-barley, desenption.:- 2... -.2c 207s r 8
smut, distribution, development and action.............-.----------- 11-12
St. Anthony Park, Minn., grain-smut, control experiments, 1907. --. 25-31, 35, 37-38
inoculation experiments. .........:.-..-- 12-18
Nammary to bulletin. 22920. <2 oo. 2 ce ee eee oe ee er 41
Swingle and Kellerman, studies on smuts...............-2---20--++s-+:5025= 20
Texas, Amarillo, experiments with Tennessee Winter barley............--..-- 19
Thermometers, testing by Bureau of Standards... .......... 222.2 -- 2235 eeeee 41
Umberger, H. J. C., method for estimation of smut. --...-22 0-22 222 2a eee 30
test of Jensen’s smut treatment on a large scale........... 32-33
Ustilago lorentziana, wild barley inoculation, results......---.-.-------------- 13
Ustilago nuda, barley inoculation, results...---.---<:f=--cer- = oqs6 eee 13-14
See also Barley, loose smut.
Upstilago-spp., not.interchangeable:..-. 2... .222..22.242--- a2 o-oo) a 13, 41
Ustilago tritici, wheat inoculation, results_......2-2--.:-.-2-:2+--5-e ee 14
See also Wheat, loose smut.

Weather, effect on distribution of smut spores.........-...---------------+--- 16
Wheat, germination, effect of drying seed after treatment.....--.....--- 28-30, 33, 38
hot-water treatment, effect on germination.................----------- 21-24
experiments and results, 1907, 1908.-.........--- 27-28
hybrid, Turkey Red X Zimmerman, susceptibility to smut.......---- 10
inoculation with Ustilago tritici, experiments, results.............-..-- 14
loose smut; description, with. plates... J...8. 252... 4-4 ets. - eee 9-10, 44
importance:of control: 2.262 Ueloea SS 525 --- e 7,41

relation of time of planting to smut development.......-.---- Rees 18-19
roguing for prevention of smut...........-.---++-+----+---+-------=- 20, 34-35
Roumanian, susceptibility to smut........0--500-2--6 ses. ee gees 10
varieties, smut resistance, comparison..............-+--2++5----55- 0-5 9-10
Wheats, Japanese, smut resistance, comparison of varieties.....-----...------- 10
winter, planting experiments and smut studies.........-------------- 19

152

O

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 153.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED

DURING THE PERIOD FROM OCTOBER 1
TO DECEMBER 31, 1908:

INVENTORY No. 17; Nos. 23745 to 24429.

ISSUED JUNE 30, 1909.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1909.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops.
E7itor, J. E. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES.

FOREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge.
Frank N. Meyer and William D. Hills, Agricultural Explorers.
Albert Mann, Erpertin Charge of Special Barley Investigations.

_F.W. Clarke, Special Agent in Charge of Matting-Rush Investigations.
Frederic Chisolm, Expert.

Walter Fischer, R. A. Young, and II. C. Skeels, Scientific Assistants.
153

bo

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Piant InpustrRyY,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., April 14, 1909.

Srr: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend
for publication as Bulletin No. 153 of the series of this Bureau, the
accompanying manuscript, entitled ‘‘Seeds and Plants Imported
During the Period from October 1 to December 31, 1908: Inventory
No. 17; Nos. 23745 to 24429.”

This manuscript has been submitted by the Agricultural Explorer
in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction with a view to
publication.

Respectfully, B. T. GaLLoway,
Chief of Bureau.

Tion. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.

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B. P. 1.—467.

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED DURING THE
PERIOD FROM OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31,
1908: INVENTORY NO. 17; NOS. 23745 TO 24429.

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT.

It has been the custom for some time to mention in the introductory
statement a few of the new arrivals which seem to be worthy the
particular attention of the interested plant breeders and experi-
menters throughout the country. This does not mean that they will
in the end prove the most valuable, for often the promising introduc-
tions are ‘‘dead failures,’ while those which come in like poor emi-
erants with scarcely a letter of introduction frequently crop up later
somewhere in the country as new and valuable cultivated plants.

Those who are interested in the remarkable Chinese vegetables,
whose possibilities have not at all been tested as they should be in
this country, will find Mr. Meyer’s collection, which he brought back
personally from Peking, a most interesting one (No. 23932 and follow-
ing). There can be little doubt that the Chinese restaurants which
are scattered all over the country are creating a taste among Ameri-
cans for these new vegetables, and the next step in their introduction
will be their culture on a small scale to supply the growing demand of
these restaurants.

Mr. W. T. Swingle has called attention to the possibilities of the
Indian bael fruit (No. 23745), both as a possible new fruit which is
prized in India and as a dry-land stock for the orange, and living
plants of it have been secured.

Through Mr. Pink, a plant breeder of Queensland, a new raspberry
has been secured which he claims has already become a favorite in
Australia (No. 23478).

The Florida and California growers of the fruiting hedge plant
Carissa will be interested in the newly secured species from Calcutta
*(No. 23750).

A new green-manure legume from Sao Paulo, Brazil, is highly
recommended by Professor Hart (No. 23751).

A large collection of beans, cowpeas, squashes, field peas, and
garbanzos and some remarkable hard-stemmed bamboos, which are
quite different from the ordinary oriental bamboos, have been sent by
Mr. Husbands (No. 23755 and following; No. 24211 and following;
No. 24358 and following).

83020—Bul. 153—09

2 7

8 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

A number of additions to the strains or varieties of alfalfa have
been made from Peru, Australia, Spain, and Chile. These are
eagerly tried by the experts of the Department, who recognize the
ereat possibilities which lie in any strain of this important plant
which may fit into one of the many special conditions in the country.

A collection of seed from grasses representing the best grazing
species on the veldt of Rhodesia (No. 23920 and following) will be
tested by the agrostologist of the Department.

Mr. Meyer’s collection of Chinese hollyhocks, prince’s-feathers,
morning-glories, four-o’clocks, balsams, Chinese pinks, marigolds,
garden asters, etc., may have something of decided interest in it for
American florists (No. 23995 and following).

A number of Syrian pomegranates from Sidon have come in for the
experiments of the specialist of the Department, who is showing the
possibilities of this fruit in America, which has so far been neglected
by Americans.

A wild gooseberry from an altitude of 10,000 feet, which is used as
a hedge plant in the Szechuan Province of central China, and a wild
strawberry of good flavor from the same locality have been secured
by Mr. Wilson, of the Arnold Arboretum (Nos. 24156 and 24165).

Two wild and possibly valuable dahlias from Mexico were sent in
by Doctor Rose for the dahlia breeders (Nos. 24168 and 24169).

The Bahia Navel orange has been reimported by Consul Demers
direct from Bahia, scions being taken from trees that were grafted
on the ‘‘Laranja da terra” which are said to yield better fruits than
those grafted on the ‘‘Laranja tanga,” two different stocks in use
there.

A distinct variety of the Para grass which has been so valuable in
Texas has been secured from southern Brazil for trial in comparison
with that already introduced (No. 24402).

A collection of Stizolobium, or velvet beans, has been sent on
request by Director Treub, of the Royal Botanic Gardens of Java,
for the purpose of comparison with the.recently introduced species
from the Philippines which has proved so unusually promising.

The inventory covers a period of three months, from October 1 to
December 31, and includes 685 separate introductions. The prepara-
tion of the manuscript has been in the hands of Miss Mary A. Austin,
and the determinations of the material have been made by Messrs-
W. F. Wight and H. C. Skeels, of the Office of Taxonomic and
Range Investigations.

Davip FAIRCHILD,
Agricultural Explorer in Charge.

OFFICE OF FOREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION,

Washington, D. C., April 3, 1909.

153

INVENTORY.

23745. BrLtovu MARMELOs (L.) W. F. Wight. Bael tree.
From Savannah, Ga. Presented by Rev. Henry W. Hale. Received October
6, 1908.

See No. 22957 for description.

23746. BAMBOS SENANENSIS Franch. et Sav. Bamboo.

From Japan. Presented by the Yokohama Nursery Company, Yokohama,
Japan. Received October 2, 1908.
“ Misuzudake. This is a dwarf variety of bamboo growing wild at high altitude
in the province of Shinshiu.’’ ( Yokohama Nursery Company.)

23747. MANGIFERA INDICA L. Mango.

From Amritsar, Punjab, India. Procured from Mr. Theo. ©. Maller. Received
October 8, 1908.

Maller.

23748. RUBUS ROSAEFOLIUS ? X ELLIPTICUS ¢. Raspberry.

From Wellington Point, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Presented by Mr.
James Pink. Received October 3, 1908.

‘Federal. This is a cross between a variety received from Japan under the name
of Rubus flava (=R. ellipticus Sm.), a strange growing plant, but useless commer-
cially; this was the male parent, the mother parent being our native Rubus rosae-
folius Sm. I crossed the plants in 1901. I did not think much of the product till
the present season, when the variety has improved much by cultivation and has
become a great favorite in the markets; in fact, it is the only Rubus grown for com-
mercial purposes in Queensland. The fruit is larger than the English raspberry
and of a bright crimson color.’’ (Pink.)

23749. MEDICAGO SATIVA L. Alfalfa.

From Lima, Peru. Presented by Seftor Ignacio La Puente, through Mr. Charles
J. Brand. Received July 10, 1908.

“Senior La Puente states that this seed is from the latest crop, that it emanates
from the Department of Supe, and that the variety is one greatly prized in the coast
country of Peru. Kaerger in his paper ‘Die Landwirthschaft in Peru’ states that
in the coastal region of Peru, alfalfa, strange to say, will not grow in the height of
summer (January and February), even though it be given ample irrigation. The
esteem in which this variety is held may bear some relation to this fact.’”’ (Brand.)

23750. Carissa CARANDAS L.
From Sibpur, Calcutta, India. Presented by Mr. W. W. Smith, acting super-
intendent, Royal Botanic Garden. Received October 1, 1908
153 9

10 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23750—Continued. ;

‘‘A dense, spiny shrub or sometimes a small tree, flowering from February to
April (in India) and bearing a small fruit which is grape-green when young, chang-
ing to white and pink as it approaches maturity, and black when fully ripe. The
fruit ripens from July to August.

‘‘In India the fruit is made into pickle just before it is ripe, and is also employed
in tarts and puddings. For these purposes it is said to be superior to any other In-
dian fruit. When ripe it makes a very good jelly equal to the red currant, for which
purpose it is cultivated in the gardens owned by Europeans. The shrubs are also
crown for hedges.’ (Watt, Dictionary of Economic Products of India, 2: 165. 1889.)

“This ought to be of value in southern California where the red currant does not
thrive.” (W. F. Wight.)

23751. STIZOLOBIUM sp.
From Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Presented by Prof. J. William Hart, director,
Agricultural College. Received September 14, 1908.
‘‘T think this will prove one of our best legumes for green manuring.’’ (Hart.)
Grown from No. 21094. See this number for description.

23752 and 23753. Merpicaco sativa L. Alfalfa. —
From. Australia. Presented by Mr. Elwood Mead, The State River and Water
Supply Commission, Treasury Gardens, Melbourne, Australia, who procured
the seed from F. H. Brunning, Pty. Ltd., Melbourne, Australia, at the re-
quest of Mr. Charles J. Brand. Received August, 1908.
Seed of each of the following:
23752. Hunter River or Tamworth. ‘This comes from the chief alfalfa-crow-
ing district in Australia.’’ ( Mead.)
23753. Queensland. ‘This alfalfa was grown at Clifton on the Downs by aman
who is well up in the saving of a good strain of broadleaf alfalfa.”” (Brun-
ning.)

23754. KEpGEWORTHIA GARDNERI (Wall.) Meism. ‘Mitsumata.
From Yokohama, Japan. Procured from the Yokohama Nursery Company.
Received October 12, 1908.

See No. 9162 for description.

23755 to 23869. :
From Chile. Received from Mr. José D. Husbands, Limavida, Chile, October
7, 1908.
The following seeds and plants, descziptive notes by Mr. Husbands; native names
quoted:
23755 to 23759. PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. Bean.
23755. Extra fine. Grown dry in sandy soil, coast.
23756. ‘‘ Amidon” (starch). Extra good.
23757. ‘‘Coscorones Baya Pintado.’’ Extra good class for any use.
Good land.
23758. ‘‘Bayas Chico” (small bay).
23759. ‘‘ Mendez.’’ Grown in black clay, irrigated.
23760. VIGNA UNGUICULATA (L.) Walp. Cowpea.
“ Corregiiela.”’ Very good and extra prolific at the tops or points.
153

OCTOBER 1° TO DECEMBER 31, 1908.

24755 to 23869—Continued.

LE

23761 to 23834. PuHasreoLius vuLeartis L. Bean.
23761. Nameunknown. Exira fine class.
23762. ‘‘Coscorones Baya.”’ Extra fine class. Prolific.
23763. ‘‘Hntremetido Chico” (small meddler). A commercial bean

largely sown but not of the best quality. Stands droughts and

grows in any soil.

23764. ‘‘Blanco.’’ Extra good for any purpose.

23765. ‘‘ Barroso” (muddy). Extra good class.

23767. Extra early.

23768. ‘ Aparcido” (found). White pods.

The above (S. P. I. Nos. 23755 to 23768) grown by irrigation.

23769 to 23786. Grown dry about 10 miles from the sea.
23769. ‘‘Rosilos de Reigo.”’ Largely sown.
23770. ‘‘Rosilos de Rulo.”’ Largely sown.

23771. ‘‘Poratos Lacre” (red beans). Grown dry in poor sandy

soil.
23772. Grown in poor light soils.
- 23778. White. Extra fine class; grown in poor soil.
23774. Yellow. Grown dry on coast.
23775. Extra good class; grown in poor soil.
23776. Extra fine; grown in sandy soil.

23777. ‘‘Bayas Chico” (small bay). Grown in poor soil.

mixed.

23778. ‘‘ Mantequilla” (butter). Extra supertine class.

23779. Yellowand red. Grown in poor sandy soil.

23780. ‘Burro Claro” (light-colored donkey). Extra

class; grown in poor soil.

23781. Light yellow, medium size. Grown in poor soil.

Seed

good

23782. Cream and black. Medium quality; grown in bad soil.
23783. ‘Burro Oscuro” (dark donkey). Extra good class;

grown in poor soil.
23784. Light yellow. Grown dry on the coast.
23785. Small, white, good; grown in bad soil.

23786. ‘‘Amarillos Chico” (small yellow). Grown in poor soil.

23787 to 23828. Stringless or garden beans grown by irrigation.

23787. Mixed, grown in clay soil.
23788. Round, yellow.

23789 and 23790. (No description.)
23791. Very good and productive.
23792 to 23795. (No description.)
23796. Brown.

23797. Good class.

23798 and 23799. (No description.)
23800. “Palo” (stick).

i, SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED,

23755 to 23869—Continued.
23761 to 23834—Continued.

23787 to 23828—Continued.
23801. Good sort.
23802. ‘“‘Siete Semanas” (seven weeks). Good.
23803. (No description.)
23804. ‘‘Overos.’’ Good.
23805. Early and very prolific.
23806. Extra early and prolific.
23807. Can be grown dry in loose, sandy soil.
23808. Can be gfown dry in loose, sandy soil.
23809 to 23811. (No description.)
23812. A good class.
23813 to 23815. (No description.)
23816. Geese beans.
23817 to 23819. (No description.)
23820. Green color. Rare.
23821 to 23827. (No description.)
23828. An extra early bean; grows two crops per year when

irrigated.
23829 to 23834. Stringless or gard\n beans from the coast; grown
dry.
23829. ‘‘Trigo” (wheat). Extra superfine quality. Prolific.
23830. Extra prolific.
23831. ‘China Lejos Grande.’ ‘Grown dry in any soil.
23832. Allsorts. Grown dry in any soil.
23833. Grown in poor, sandy soil.
23834. No name.
23835 and 23836. PHASEOLUS CoccINEUS L. Scarlet runner bean.
23835. Pink.
23836. ‘‘Parjares.’’ Said to be different from other white classes.
Grown by marine dews only.

These beans grow in any soil without losing their size or merit. The dif-
ference between suitable good and bad land sowing is chiefly in the greater
or lesser yield.

23837 to 23840. CucuRBITA sp. Squash.
23837. Extra good class.

23838. Extra good; sweet, fiberless, prolific, meat solid; small cavity
for seeds.

23839. A very good class.
23840. Pinkish color, large, thick flesh, sweet, mealy, prolific, good.

23841. CucurBira MAxima Duch. Squash.
Extra good class.
23842 to 23844. CucuRBITA sp. Squash.

23842. Black skinned; thick, sweet, fiberless flesh; extra good. -
153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908, 13

23755 to 23869—Continued.
23842 to 23844—Continued.
23843. Extra good class.
The above (S. P. I. Nos. 23837 to 23843) grown by irrigation.
23844. Notas good as watered sorts.
23845. Cucursira MAxImA Duch. Squash.
Good class; sweet, thick, fiberless meat.
The above (S. P. I. Nos. 23844 and 23845) grown dry near the coast. The
squashes grown dry are of little merit when compared with the irrigated sorts.
Notr.—‘‘These squashes listed as Cucurbita sp. are probably Cucurbita maxima

Duch., but not determinable until grown. These seeds are very different from any
squash seeds found heretofore.”’—(W. F. Wight.)

23846 to 23851. Pisum AaRvENSE L. Field pea.
The following are common field peas grown dry in poor, sandy soil:
23846. A large, extra sweet field pea; fall sown.
23847. The most ordinary sort.
23848. The most ordinary sort; seed mixed.
23849. Ordinary white peas; grown in poor soil.
23850. Common peas; grown in poor soil.
23851. Grown in bad soil. _
23852 to 23855. CiceR ARIETINUM L. Chick-pea.
' 23852. ‘‘Garbanzos Chico” (small). Grown dry in red clay.
23853. ‘‘GarbanzosGrande” (large). Grown dry in loose soil near coast.
23854. ‘‘Garbanzos Negro” (black). Grown dry in red clay.
23855. ‘‘Garbanzos Grande” (large). Grown dry in clay soil.

These peas (S. P. I. Nos. 23846 to 23855) are not samples of the many best
classes that can be had elsewhere in Chile, but are samples of the common
hardy sorts that grow dry on hills whose soil is so poor that no vegetation of any
kind exists except a few stunted red oaks. These are sown broadcast upon
the ground and plowed in.

23856 and 23857. Laruyrus sativus L. Grass-pea.
23856. ‘‘Chicharos Grande” (large). Grow dry in any soil. Grow
larger or smaller according to the quality of the soil.

23857. ‘‘Chicharos Chico’’ (small). Grow dry in any soil. Always
small no matter what class of soil.

23858 and 23859. Lens ESCULENTA Moench. Lentil.
23858. ‘‘Lentejas Rosillos” (gray lentil). Grown dry in bad soil.
23859. Common lentils. Grown dry in bad soil.

23860. Pisum sativum L. Pea.
‘* Arvejones.’’ A class of stringless peas. Both peas and pods are eaten.
23861. HorpEuM VULGARE L. Barley.

‘*Poda.’’? Grain head has 8 rows. This is mixed with other classes having

2, 4, and 6 rows of grain, respectively. The 4-rowed is called ‘‘ Caballuna.”’

23862. HorbdeEvUM sp. Barley.

Common class grown in damp land; is discolored by the moisture of heavy
dews.
153

14 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23755 to 23869—Continued.

23863. JUGLANS NIGRA L. Black walnut.
Black walnuts long grown dry in Chile, but are not native of the country.
23864. CHUSQUEA VALDIVIENSIS E. Desv. Bamboo.

Colihue or bamboo. Solid stem, grows about 20 to 25 feet high, slightly
drooping, small scant foliage, short joints, very tough, grows dry on any poor
soil, extra hardy.

23865. CHUSQUEA VALDIVIENSIS E. Desv. Bamboo.

Colihue or bamboo. Solid stem, grows straight from 25 to 30 feet high, abun-
dance of small, long-leaved foliage, a good industrial class, grows dry on any
arid soil, extra hardy.

23866. ARUNDO DONAX L. Giant reed.

Colihue or bamboo. Hollow stem, grows erect, about 25 to 30 feet high; roots
extend on top of the ground. [rom top to bottom has a rank leaf growth, like
corn leaves, extending from two opposite sides; the second year it throws out
branches. A valuable commercial class, extra hardy, resists droughts. This
was found growing on pure sand which dries to a powder eight months of the
year.

All of the above (S. P. I. Nos. 23864 to 23866) are from the Coast Cordilleras
about 35 to 40 miles from the sea, are readily eaten by all animals; extra hardy.
23867. CHUSQUEA Quita (Poir.) Kunth. Bamboo.

Quila. A long-leaf-stem class about 20 feet long; grows drooping.

23868. CHUSQUEBA Quit (Poir.) Kunth. Bamboo.

Quila. A drooping class whose short leaves grow in bunches close to.the
stem from each joint. When the leaves are eaten they quickly grow again and
also sprout anew. A good forage class. From 10 to 20 feet long.

23869. CHUSQUEA QUILA (Poir.) Kunth.

Quila. Similar to S. P. I. No. 23867 in leaf; plant somewhat dwarfed;
grows from 6 to 12 feet long.

All of the above (S. P. I. Nos. 23867 to 23869) are from the Coast Cordilleras
about 40 miles from the sea, are extra hardy and grow dry in poorest arid soils.

23870. RuBUS PANICULATUS Smith. Raspberry.

From Jaunsar District, Chakrata U. P., India. Presented by Mr. H. G. Billson,
Deputy Conservator of Forests, requested by Mr. David Fairchild at the sug-
gestion of Mr. Henry M. Dumbleton, Victoria, British Columbia. Received
October 13, 1908.

‘This ‘blue raspberry’ grows sparingly in the forests in the Jaunsar District. The
bush is small and trailing; the fruit is about the size of a logan berry, but with a beau-
tiful blue bloom, and is excellent eating.’’ (Dumbleton.)

‘“This raspberry is the ‘Kala Anchu.’ It grows best below 6,000 feet and likes
- damp, shady ravines.’’ (Buillson.)

23871. MEDICAGO SATIVA I. Alfalfa.

From Elche, Spain. Presented by Dr. L. Trabut, government botanist, Algiers,
Algeria, through Mr. Charles J. Brand. Received February 14, 1908.
‘This sample of alfalfa was grown at Elche, Spain, where Doctor Trabut personally
collected it. It has unusually large leaves and Doctor Trabut regards it as being
distinct from Algerian alfalfa.’’ (Brand.)

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908.

23872 to 23881.
From Paris, France. Presented by Mr. E. Tisserand, Minister of Colonies,
Jardin Colonial. Received October 4, 1908.
The following plants:
23872 to 23874. Musa parapisiaca L. Banana.
23872. Chee Chwea (Cambodia).
23873. Primitivo (Colombia).
23874. Gabou (Réunion).
23875. Musa cavenpisuiu Lamb. Banana.
Sweet (New Caledonia).
23876 and 23877. COoLOCASIA ESCULENTA (L.) Schott.
_ 23876. Green. .
23877. Violet.
23878. BompBax mAcrocaArRPuM (Cham. & Schlecht.) Schum.
23879. PassIFLORA LAURIFOLIA L.
23880. PassIFLORA sp.
(Mexico. )

23881. AMORPHOPHALLUS BULBIFER (Roxb.) Blume.

23882. GARCINIA CORNEA L. (?)
From Buitenzorg, Java. Presented by Dr. M. Treub, director, Department of
Agriculture. Received October 15, 1908.

’ ““The Garcinia cornea L. is a small tree, with horizontal branches; leaves, leathery,
shining. Fruit the size of a small orange, bright red; seeds inclosed in a white,
juicy, very acid aril.’”’ (Hooker, Flora of British India.)
‘An evergreen tree; yields an inferior kind of gamboge; wood brown, heavy, of a
coarse unequal fiber, hard, rather close grained.’’ (Watt, Economic Products of India.)
‘Imported for use in solving the mangosteen problem.”’ (Fazrchild.)

23894 and 23895. RusBus CHAMAEMORUS L.
From Harrington Harbor, Canadian Labrador. Presented by Miss Edith Mayon,
Deep Sea Mission Hospital. Received October 17, 1908.

‘Plants and fruits of what is locally called the Bake apple; it resembles a yellow
raspberry in color and size, tastes of honey and bananas mixed, grows in moist
ground on a plant 4 inches high; the flower is white. It is very hardy, for our
winters are long and severe, the surface of the ground is still frozen (May 26) and
there is snow in all the hollows and shady places.’’ ( Mayon.)

23896. Mepicaco saTiva L. Alfalfa.

From Lima, Peru. Presented by Sefior Ignacio La Puente, through Mr. Charles
J. Brand. Received September, 1908.

_ “This seed probably originated in the vicinity of Supe, in the coastal plain region
of Peru.’’ (Brand.)
23897. CrRYPTOCARYA RUBRA (Mol.) Skeels. (PEUMUS RUBRA MOL.
Sace. Curt. 185. 1782.) (CryprocaryA PEUMUs NEEs.)
From Coronel, Chile. Presented by Mr. Teodoro Finger, Estacién Colico,
through Mr. O. W. Barrett. Received October 20, 1908.
83020—Bul. 153—09——2

16 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23897—Continued.

‘‘A beautiful Chilean tree, persistent leaves, produces a small pink fruit of the
size of a small olive; natives eat the fruit after boiling it. Very ornamental when
fruits are ripe. Requires wet soil, can stand frost, grows best in valley protected
from wind, in forests.” (Finger.)

23899. Uvaria ruFA (Dun.) Blume.

From Pampanga, Philippine Islands. ~ Presented by Mr. William S. Lyon, Gar-
dens of Nagtajan, Manila, P. I. Received October 20, 1908.

‘‘Small evergreen fruit tree, from sea level up to 2,000 feet, lat. 104° S.to 16° N.
Fruits oblong (5 em. X 3 cm.) in grape-like clusters, 10 to 30 berries. These are
edible and fairly palatable. Intense vermilion red, making tree in fruit very attrac-
tive.” (Lyon.)

23900. AcTinipiA ARGUTA (S. & Z.) Planch. (?)
From Marblehead, Mass. Received October 21, 1908.

‘From a 20-year-old vine on the place of Mr. Charles N. Parker, Marblehead, Mass.
This vine has borne fruit regularly since it was 8 to 9 years old, and I saw fruit on it.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that it is the female variety and a good bearer. The
fruit is of delicate flavor.’’ (Fairchild.)

23901. CECROPIA PELTATA L.

From Kingston, Jamaica. Presented by Mr. W. Harris, superintendent, Public
Gardens, Department of Agriculture, through Mr. P. J. Wester, Subtropical
Garden, Miami, Fla. Received October 23, 1908.

‘A variety of the urticaceous quick-growing Cecropias with edible, not very well-
flavored fruits; available as a shade tree, abundant in the warmer valleys and rain-
forests of Mexico. Introduced for testing at the Subtropical Garden, Miami, Fla.”
(Chisolm.)

‘

23902. Merpicaco sativa L. Alfalfa.
From Peru. Presented by Mr. T. F. Sedgwick, Lima, Peru, for Mr. C. V. Piper.
Received October 6, 1908.
San Pedro.

93913. PINUS DENSIFLORA Sieb. & Zuce. Pine.

From near Tungling, Chihli, China. Received through Mr. Frank N. Meyer,
agricultural explorer, summer of 1908.

‘“(No. 1172a, Noy. 29-08.) This pine grows all over northern China and seems to
vary a great deal.’’ ( Meyer.)

23914. NICOTIANA TOMENTOSA Ruiz. & Pav.

From Erfurt, Germany. Purchased from Messrs. Haage & Schmidt, at the re-
quest of Mr. A. D. Shamel. Received October 26, 1908.

‘“T know very little about this species, but it was purchased at Mr. George W. Oliver’s
suggestion in connection with our work in hybridizing tobacco. It is a very large
species, with large leaves and tall stem. At present it is mainly of scientific interest,
but on account of its leaf size would probably be valuable as a parent for a composite
cross in regions where the yield of tobacco is the main consideration.’”’ (J.B. Norton.)

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. t7

23915. Carica PAPAYA L. Papaw.

From Singerton, near Hectorspruit, Transvaal, South Africa. Presented by
Prof. J. Burtt Davy, government agrostologist and botanist, Transvaal Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa. Received October
26, 1908.

‘“‘These seeds were procured at an altitude of 1,200 feet, subtropical climate and
rather dry. The flavor was excellent, and though I can not say that it will prove
superior to that of some grown in the States, it is worth trying.’’ (Davy.)

23916. PHASEOLUS LUNATUS L.

From Rio Mucury, Brazil. Presented by Mr. Fred Birch, Casa do Correio,
Theophilo Ottoni, Minas Geraes, Brazil. Received October 26, 1908.

“We have become acquainted with a remarkable legume here. It is a vine which
grows to a length of 40 to 50 feet or more, straggling over 3 or even 4 trees of the size -
of orange trees. It bears its pods of (we have heard) ‘most delicious’ beans for 3
years in succession, and is very accommodating to a planter who is hard pressed for
time, for the beans will remain good on the vine for a long time after they are ripe.
Wherever the summer is hot enough, as in Florida, and there is no frost, it would
thrive, I think. The only thing it wants is a fertile soil and trees to climb over. One
plant will yield a large quantity of beans; on one I saw there were, I should think,
100 pods. The beans are so good that one friend said ‘Everyone is mad after them.’ ”
( Birch.)

23917. Carica sp. Wild papaw.

From Upper Rio Mucury, Brazil. Presented by Mr. Fred Birch, Casa do Correio,
Theophilo Ottoni, Minas Geraes, Brazil. Received October 26, 1908.

“Seed of a tree called the ‘wild mamau’ i. e., wild papaw, as it (the fruit) greatly
resembles a papaw in shape. The tree has a large, thick, quickly tapering trunk
about 2 feet 6 inches in diameter at the base and a comparatively small head, so that
one is quite a remarkable object in the landscape; naturally it only grows in rich forest
soil and usually on a slope. Whenever the natives find a young one in the forests
they always take it home and plant it near their door, as it is in great repute asa
medicine tree. They firmly believe that there is no finer remedy for aneemia than
its fruits. Do not forget that this fruit is a somewhat difficult one to eat. It has the
strange effect of scratching the tongue and sides of throat so much as to draw blood.
Whether this is due to minute spicules of flinty substance or a corrosive property of
the juice I have not yet found out, but I found that when my mouth and throat had
become hardened by eating 3 or 4 I could take them with impunity. The largest
fruits are quite small compared to the cultivated papaw, being only 4 inches long and
14 inches in diameter, of a bright orange color, with tender skin and of luscious ap-
pearance. The foliage is very ornamental, like horse-chestnut in miniature; it is
quite striking and unlike every other forest tree here.’’ (Birch.)

23918 and 23919.
From New York. Presented by Mr. George VY. Nash, head gardener, New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York City, at the request of Mr. Frank
N. Meyer. Received October 26, 1908.
Seed of each of the following:
23918. BerrBERIS AMURENSIS Rupr.
“Stock secured from Biltmore Nursery in 1903.’’ (Nash.)
**A densely branched shrub 4 to 5 feet high, quite variable, as seen in the
New York Botanic Garden. At the time of my visit, early in September,
153

18 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23918 and 23919—Continued.

1908, the bushes were most heavily loaded with bright scarlet berries, mak-
ing them extremely ornamental. Mr. Nash said that, in his expectation,
this particular variety may even replace B. thunbergii on account of its early
and ornamental fruiting capacities.’’ ( Meyer.)

23919. LiaustruM sp.

“This came to us as Ligustrum massaloungeanum.”’ (Nash.)

‘“A remarkable privet, with rather large leaves, of dark green, glossy ap-
pearance. Grows very densely branched and is of somewhat fastigiate habit.
May be of use in hybridization work when attempts are being made to create
a privet combining the hardiness of L. ibota with the leaf characteristics of
L. ovalifolium.”’ ( Meyer.)

23920 to 23929.
From South Africa. Presented by Mr. W. C.S8. Paine, through Mr. W. D. Warne,
Cecil Hotel, Umtali, Rhodesia, South Africa. Received July 20, 1908.
Seed of each of the following:
23920. ERAGROSTIS sp.
23921. ERAGROSTIS sp.
23922. BAmBos (?).
23923. TRISTACHYA BISERIATA Stapf.
23924. TRISTACHYA REHMANNI Hack.
23925. PoGoNARTHRIA FALCATA (Hack.) Rendle.
23926. Panicum sERRATUM (Thunb.) R. Br.
23927. Turmepa rorsKaLmt Hack.
23928. ANDROPOGON RUFUS (Nees) Kunth. (?)
23929. ANDROPOGON PLEIARTHRON Stapf. (?)

“The above selection I made from veldt cattle favor, although I can not claim
to state with any authority the specific value of the grasses. The soil is dioritic,
a sandy loam, varying in color from pinkish red, deep red, and chocolate.’ (Paine.)

23930 to 24113.

From China. Brought by Mr. Frank N. Meyer, agricultural explorer, direct
from China. Turned over to this office to be numbered for distribution Octo-
ber, 1908.

The following seeds:
23930. ASTRAGALUS SINICUS L.

“(No. 986a, May 31, 1908.) A few seeds of a most important leguminous
plant, which is grown and plowed under for manure on low-lying rice fields.
Sown in the autumn in rows or broadcast, plowed under in May or early June
just before the rice has to be planted. According to the Chinese, is not fit
as a cattle food. Collected on some bamboo boxes while en route to America
aboard 8.8. Ashtabula, the soil coming from near Hangchow, Chekiang, China.”’
( Meyer.)

23931. Merpricaco DenticuLATA Willd. Bur clover.

“(No. 987a, May 28, 1908.) <A yellow-flowered bur clover, grown by the
Chinese on low-lying rice fields as a winter crop, to be plowed under in spring,
serving as manure. Mostly sown in autumn in rows or broadcast after coming
up by itself. The cattle feed eagerly upon this crop. Collected on some

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 19

23930 to 24113—Continued.

bamboo boxes aboard 8. 8. Ashtabula, while en route to America, the soil
coming from near Hangchow, Chekiang, China.’’ ( Meyer.)
23932. LAGENARIA VULGARIS Ser Gourd.

From Chinanfu, Shantung, China. “(No. 988a, September, 1908.) A
small-fruited ornamental gourd, out of which the Chinese manufacture little
carved vessels for ornaments.’’ ( Meyer.)

23933. CucURBITA sp.

From Spask, eastern Siberia. ‘‘(989a, Oct. 20,1906.) An ornamental gourd,
producing remarkable quaint fruits which vary in all ways. Given to me by
a Russian farmer.’’ ( Meyer.)

23934. CucurRBITA PEPO L. Squash.

From Pangshan, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 990a, November, 1907.) A large
turban-shaped gourd, one part of which is orange-yellow colored while the
other part is green with orange stripes. Quite ornamental.’’ ( Meyer.)

23935. Cucumis sativus L. Cucumber.
From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No.991a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A Chinese cucum-

ber called Huang kua; grown on trellises in the open ground.’’ ( Meyer.)

23936. Cucumis MELO L. Muskmelon.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 992a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A small musk-
melon; grown on light sandy soil. Chinese name Hsien kua.”’ ( Meyer.)
23937. Lurra cytinprica (L.) Roemer. ;

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 993a, Mar. 25,1908.) A dishrag gourd,
the tender young fruits of which are eaten by the Chinese. Chinese name Shi
kua.’’ ( Meyer.)

23938. BENINCASA CERIFERA Savi. Gourd.
From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No.994a, Mar. 25,1908.) A gourd eaten by
the Chinese. Chinese name Tung kua.’’ ( Meyer.)
23939. AcTINOSTEMMA sp.
From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No.995a, Mar. 25,1908.) A very rare cucur-
bitaceous plant, called in Chinese Ly kua tze.’’ ( Meyer.)
23940 to 23945. LAGENARIA VULGARIS Ser. Gourd.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
23940. ‘‘(No. 996a.) Chinese name Yang hu lu.”’
23941. ‘‘(No. 997a.) Chinese name Yoh hu lu.’’
23942. ‘‘(No. 998a.) Chinese name Ko ko hu lu.”’
23943. ‘‘(No. 999a.) Chinese name Shoo yar yow hu lu.”’
23944. ‘‘(No. 1000a.) Chinese name Ta yar yow hu lu.”
23945. ‘‘(No. 100la.) Chinese name Ta pauw hu lu.”

‘‘The above Lagenarias are grown by the Chinese on trellises in their gardens;
the very young fruits are often eaten stewed as a vegetable; the old, well-
ripened gourds are used as bottles for oil, wine, and water, or when cut in two
lengthwise are used for water dippers and for pans in which to keep things.
The large round gourds serve the country Chinese for the same purpose as our
drawers in cupboards do, viz, to keep things stored in; and lastly these Lage-
naria seeds are often boiled with salt and sold as an appetizing delicatesse.”’
( Meyer.)

153

20 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23930 to 24113—Continued.
23946 to 23952. CucurBiTa PEpPo L.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
23946. ‘‘(No. 1002a.) Chinese name San kua.’’
23947. ““(No. 1003a.) Chinese name Nan kua.’’
23948. ‘‘(No. 1004a.) Chinese name Tau nan kua.’’
23949. ‘‘(No. 1005a.) Chinese name Tchoo tze kua.”’
23950. ‘‘(No. 1006a.) Chinese name Ba loeng woo kua.”’
23951. ‘‘(No. 1007a.) Chinese name Shi bin woo kua.”’
23952. ‘‘(No. 1008a.) Chinese name Hsi hu kua.”’

‘The above numbers include pumpkins and squashes and are used by the
Chinese as vegetables, either stewed or boiled. The seeds too are roasted or
boiled in salted water and then dried. The plants are mostly grown between
corn, sorghum, and other tall-growing crops, sometimes even on rather alkaline
soil.’? ( Meyer.)

23953 to 23956. DoticHos LABLAB L. Bonavist bean.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

23953. ‘‘(No. 1009a.) Chinese name Lung tsao pian doh. Black
colored.”’

23954. ‘‘(No. 1010a.) Chinese name Tze pian doh. Black colored.’’

23955. ‘‘(No.10lla.) Chinesename Ching pian doh. Browncolored.”’

23956. ‘‘(No. 1012a.) Chinese name Pai pian doh. White colored.’’

‘All the above hyacinth [bonavist] beans are grown by the Chinese against
sorghum-stem fences and between sorghum and corn crops, in which case they
use the stems of these last-named plants for their support. The pods when
green and juicy are sliced and eaten boiled as a vegetable; the leaves when dry
are boiled in soups and considered a rather expensive food.’’ ( Meyer.)
23957. PHASEOLUS COccINEUS L. Scarlet runner bean.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1013a, Mar. 25, 1908.) The scarlet
runner is grown sparsely in northern China against fences of sorghum stems and
on poles, apparently for ornament, though the fresh pods are sliced and eaten
boiled and the dry beans are sometimes cooked in soups. Chinese name Hua

. pian doh.’’ ( Meyer.)
23958. PHASEOLUS vuLGARIS L. /

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1014a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A form of garden
bean, loving a rich garden soil, but being able to stand much alkali. The
young pods are eaten boiled as a vegetable; the dry beans are cooked in
soups. Chinese name Yueng pian doh.’’ ( Meyer.)

23959. VIGNA SESQUIPEDALIS (Ga) W. F. Wight.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1015a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A longstring bean,
the pods of which are eaten boiled as a vegetable. Has to be grown on stakes
and is remarkably productive. Chinese name Chiang doh.’’ ( Meyer.)

23960. ABRUS PRAECATORIUS L.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1016a, Mar. 25, 1908.) The paternoster
bean; grown by the Chinese for medicine and for ornament, namely, they
manufacture beads and bracelets of the seeds by stringing them on strong
threads. Chinese name Yae ho hua.’’ ( Meyer.)

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908.

23930 to 24113—Continued.

23961. Ricinus communis L. Castor oil bean.
From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1017a, Mar. 25, 1908.) The castor oil

bean which is grown all over China, the oil being used for culinary purposes,

viz, all the doughnuts and small cakes which the Chinese eat for breakfast are

fried in it, and it seems to lose its peculiar medicinal properties after having

been heated. Chinese name Ja ma tze.’’ ( Meyer.)

23962. Cox LacryMa-soBI L. Job’s tears.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1018a, Mar. 25, 1908.) The well-known
Job’s tears, seeds of which are used for ornaments. Chinese name 7'sao choo
tze.”’ ( Meyer.)

23963 and 23964. Brassica PEKINENSIS (Lour.) Skeels. (Smapis PEKIN-
ENSIS Lour.) (Brassica pEeTsatr Bailey.) Chinese cabbage.
From Peking, Chibli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
23963. ‘‘(No. 1019a.) Chinese name Boo to pai tsai.”’
23964. ‘‘(No. 1020a.) Chinese name Shoo pai tsai.’’

“Sow the cabbages at the end of July or early in August, transplant in early
September in well-worked and heavily manured soil. Do not let them suffer
from lack of water. Harvest after the first heavy frost and store away in a cool,
frostproof cellar. Will do especially well in the irrigated sections of the United
States.’’ ( Meyer.)

23965. Brassica JuNCEA (L.) Cass. Chinese mustard.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 102la, Mar. 25, 1908.) Grown as an early
vegetable for greens, being sown very early in spring in a well-worked, light,
warm soil. Pulled up and sold in bunches; also picked for private use. Chi-
nese name Yvtsav.’’ ( Meyer.)

23966. Brassica RAPA L. Turnip.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1022a, Mar. 25, 1908.) Probably a long,
white spring turnip. As such, grow it in light, well-worked soil. Sow in rows
as early as possible in a protected place. The turnips stewed with milk form a
good dish in the early summer. Chinese name Pien lang.’ ( Meyer.)

23967. RapHaANus sativus L. Radish.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1023a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A red variety.
Sow in hills, distance 14 feet apart, in early August, on well-drained soil. Har-
vest before heavy frost. Store in cellar for winter use. Eaten stewed like
turnips. Chinese name Tung lung hong lou ba.’ ( Meyer.)

23968 and 23969. RapHanus sativus L. Radish.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

23968. ‘‘(No. 1024a.) Chinese name Tsui low poo (green radish-
turnip).”’

23969. ‘‘(No. 1025a.) Chinese name Hong swee low poo (red radish-
turnip).”’

“These peculiar roots are largely eaten by the Chinese as appetizers and
really are very pleasing to the taste and promote digestion. Sow in early
August in well-drained soil, in hills 14 feet apart in each direction. Harvest
before a heavy frost and store in cool cellars for winter use. Always eaten raw
and sliced lengthwise.’’ ( Meyer.)

mls

22

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23930 to 24113—Continued.

23970. Aprum GRAVEOLENS L. Celery.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No.1026a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A Chinese variety
of celery, much used in soups and in various other dishes, although quite strong.
May contain more of the active alkaloids than our own varieties and be of ©
use in celery-salt manufacture. Chinese name Hu dién mae hua.’ ( Meyer.)

23971. Daucus caRoTA L. Carrot.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1027a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A Chinese carrot.
Sow in rows in somewhat sandy though rich soil. Do not let them have any
lack of water. Chinese name [Tu lou poo.’’ ( Meyer.)

23972. CoRIANDRUM SATIVUM L.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1028a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A well-known
herb, the young leaves of which are used by the Chinese to flavor their soups
with. The seeds are also used in various kinds of candy. Chinese name
Hsien tsav.”’ ( Meyer.)

23973. Lacruca sATIvA L. ‘Lettuce.
From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1029a, Mar. 25,1908.) A Chinese lettuce

which does not form a head, but the stems get to be quite fleshy and are stewed

like asparagus. Quite tasty. Chinese name Sun tsai.’? ( Meyer.)

23974. Berta vuLearis L. Beet.
From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1030a, Mar. 2551908.) Probably a red

beet root, the young leaves of whjch are eaten stewed and also the roots when

about full grown. This is inferior to our own varieties. Chinese name Hong

pai tsar.”’ ( Meyer.)

23975. Capsicum ANNUUM L. Pepper.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1031la, Mar. 25, 1908.) A Chihli pepper
grown by the Chinese partly for ornament and partly for condiments. Chinese
name Shi tze cheeow.’’ ( Meyer.)

23976. SoLANUM MELONGENA L. Eggplant.
From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1032a, Mar. 25, 1908.) An eggplant
which may turn out to be more ornamental than useful. Chinese name Chieng
yen chi.”? ( Meyer.)
23977 to 23983. CELOSIA ARGENTEA L.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
23977. ‘‘(No. 1033a.) Chinese name Hong gee kuan hua.”’
23978. ‘‘(No. 1034a.) Chinese name Huang gee kuan hua.”’
23979. ‘‘(No. 1035a.) Chinese name Huang shoo gee kuan hua ”’
23980. ‘‘(No. 1036a.) Chinese name Tze shoo gee kuan hua.”’
23981. ‘‘(No. 1037a.) Chinese name Hong shoo gee kuan hua.”’
23982. ‘‘(No. 1038a.) Chinese name Pai shoo gee kuan hua.”’
23983. ‘‘(No. 1039a.) Chinese name Kuan shang chiar kuan.”’
‘“The above forms are grown by the Chinese as ornamental garden plants.”’
( Meyer.)
23984 to 23988. AMARANTHUS spp.
From Peking, Chibli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
23984. ‘‘(No. 1040a.) Chinese name Lo lie show.”’
23985. ‘‘(No. 1041la.) Chinese name Hong doo chuang hua.”

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 23

23930 to 24113—Continued.

23984 to 23988—Continued.
23986. ‘(No. 1042a.) Chinese name Sen doo chuang hua.”’
23987. “(No. 1043a.) Chinese name Tze doo chuang hua.”
23988. “(No. 1044a.) Chinese name Pai doo chuang hua.’’

“The above plants are grown by the Chinese in their gardens as summer
annuals.’’ ( Meyer.)
23989. PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM L, Poppy.
From Peking, Chihli, China. “(No. 1045a, Mar. 25, 1908.) A poppy grown
for its ornamental flowers in gardens in North China. Chinese name Hong
yeén swee hua.”’ ( Meyer.)

23990 to 23992. Papaver RHOEAS L. Poppy.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
23990. “(No. 1046a.)» Chinese name Hong yii mie ren hua.”’
23991. “(No. 1047a.) Chinese name Pai yii mie ren hua.”’
23992. “(No. 1048a.) Chinese name Ten yii mie ren hua.”’

“These flowering poppies are grown by the Chinese as ornamental garden
annuals. Sow early.”’ ( Meyer.)

23993 and 23994. Cassia occIDENTALIs L.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25. 1908.)

23993. “(No. 1049a.) Chinese name Huang whee tze.”’
23994. “(No. 1050a.) Chinese name Sing huang whee tze.”’

“The above are grown by the Chinese as ornamental garden plants.’’ *( Meyer.)
23995 to 23999. PoLtyGoNnuM ORIENTALE L. Prince’s-feather.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

23995. “(No. 105la.) Chinese name Swee ping hua.”’
23996. “(No. 1052a.) Chinese name Pai mow dan.”’’
23997. “(No. 1053a.) Chinese name Hong mow dan.”’
23998. “(No. 1054a.) Chinese name Tze mow dan.”
23999. “(No. 1055a.) Chinese name Ten mow dan.”’

“All the foregoing varieties of prince’s-feather are cultivated by the Chinese
of North China in their gardens as ornamental plants. The colors of the
bracts range from pure white to dark red. Plants are able to stand alkali
very well and may be of use in the Western States.’’ ( Meyer.)

24000. I_siscus sp.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘“(No. 1056a, Mar. 25, 1908.) An ornamental
plant grown in gardens in North China. Chinese name Huang tchu kwi hua.”’
( Meyer.)

24001 and 24002. Darura sp.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

24001. “(No. 1057a.) Chinese name Tze la ba hua.”’
24002. “(No. 1058a.) Chinese name Ta pai la ba hua.”’

“Both of these are apparently Solanaceze and are grown by the Chinese of
North China as ornamental garden plants. They may prove to be novelties.”
( Meyer.)

83020—Bul. 153—09 4

24

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23930 to 24113—Continued.

24003 to 24008. Matva sp.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24003. “(No. 1059a.) Chinese name Hong shoo show gee.”’
24004. “(No. 1060a.) Chinese name Ten shoo show gee.’’
24005. “(No. 106la.) Chinese name Pai shi gee hai tang.”’
24006. “(No. 1062a.) Chinese name Lang shi gee hai tang.”’
24007. ‘(No. 1063a.) Chinese name Hong shi gee hai tang.”’
24008. “(No. 1064a.) Chinese name Pai shi gee hai tang.”’
“The above are grown by the Chinese of North China as ornamental garden
plants.’’ ( Meyer.)
24009 to 24016. AxrrHara RoSEA (L.) Cav. Hollyhock.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24009. “(No. 1065a.) Chinese name Huang ta show gee.”’

24010. “(No. 1066a.) Chinese name Lang ta show gee.”’
24011. “(No. 1067a.) Chinese name He ta show gee.”’
24012. “(No. 1068a.) Chinese name Sen ta show gee.’
24013. “(No. 1069a.) Chinese name Pow ta show gee.”’
24014. “(No. 1070a.) Chinese name Tze ta show gee.”’
24015. “(No. 107la.) Chinese name Hong ta show gee.”’

24016. ‘(No. 1072a.) Chinese name Moo ho ta show gee.”’

‘The hollyhocks are favorite garden plants with the Chinese of North China,
thriving well in the semiarid climate of northeast Asia. Among these preceding
numbers there is one said to be black, No. 1067a (S. P. I. No. 24011), but in
all probability the seeds will appear to be very much mixed, as with nearly
all seeds to be-had in China. There may be hardier and more disease-resistant
varieties than those we possess at present among this lot.’’ ( Meyer.)

24017 to 24019. Datura sp.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24017. ‘(No. 1073a.) Chinese name Hong ba hsien hua.”’
24018. ‘(No. 1074a.) Chinese name Pai ba hsien hua.”’
24019. ‘“ (No. 1075a.) Chinese name Lang ba hsien hua.”’
“The above are grown as ornamental plants in North China.’’ ( Meyer.)
24020 to 24029. Iromora puRPUREA (L.) Roth.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24020. ‘(No. 1076a.) Chinese name Hong la ba hua.”’
24021. ‘(No. 1077a.) Chinese name Huang la ba hua.”’
24022. “(No. 1078a.) Chinese name Tze la ba hua.”’
24023. ‘(No. 1079a.) Chinese name Pai la ba hua.’’
24024. ‘(No. 1080a.) Chinese name Sen la ba hua.”’ «
24025. “(No. 108la.) Chinese name Lang la ba hua.”’
24026. ‘(No. 1082a.) Chinese name Hua la ba hua.”
24027. ‘“(No. 1083a.) Chinese name Lwo ching la ba hua.’’
24028. ‘“(No. 1084a.) Chinese name Noo ho la ba hua.”’
24029. “(No. 1085a.) Chinese name Shoo hong hua.”’

bt
ol
te

Se eS ND EN OE tes OS Dw aw

23930 to 24113—Continued.
24020 to 24029—Continued.

“The above are in all probability different varieties of Ipomoea purpurea;
grown by the Chinese in North China as ornamental garden climbers against
fences and walls. There are said to be all kinds of colors among these, but the
seeds are probably very much mixed.’’ ( Meyer.)

24030. IpoMOEA sp.

From Peking, Chihli, China. “(No. 1086a, Mar. 25, 1908.) <A species of
morning-glory grown in gardens in North China. Chinese name Lang chu ling
tze.’’ (Meyer.)

24031. Ipomora sp.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘“(No. 1087a, Mar. 25, 1908.) Chinese name
Hu lu pian doh, which name may be fictitious, as pian doh is the name for
Dolichos lablab. This Ipomoea is grown like the rest of the morning-glories as
an ornamental garden vine.”’ ( Meyer.)

24032. Iris eENsATA Thunb. (?)

From Peking, Chihli, China. “(No. 1088a, Mar. 25,1908.) Apparently an
Iris, grown as an ornamental plant in gardens in North China. Chinese name
Shir yong chieng.”’ ( Meyer.)

24033 to 24044. Mrrapiuis JALAPaA L. Four-o’clock.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

24033. ‘“(No. 1089a.) Chinese name Luaun hong mu lee.”’
24034. ‘“(No. 1090a.) Chinese name Luaun huang mu lee.”’
24035. “(No. 109la.) Chinese name Luaun pai mu lee.’
24036. ‘(No. 1092a.) Chinese name Luaun sen mu lee.’’
24037. ‘“(No. 1093a.) Chinese name Luaun tze mu lee.’’
24038. ‘“(No. 1094a.) Chinese name Luaun hua mu lee.”’
24039. “(No. 1095a.) Chinese name Huang mu lee hua.”’
24040. ‘“(No. 1096a.) Chinese name Lang mu lee hua.”’
24041. “(No. 1097a.) Chinese name Pai mu lee hua.”’
24042. “(No. 1098a.) Chinese name Sen mu lee hua.”’
24043. “(No. 1099a.) Chinese name Hong mu lee hua.”’
24044. “(No.1100a.) Chinese name Tchung tze hu mu lee hua.’’

““These twelve preceding numbers are varieties of the ordinary four-o’clock,
which is a great favorite with the Chinese of North China. They are able to
stand considerable alkali in the soil.’’ ( Meyer.)

24045 to 24058. ImpaTIENS BALSAMINA L. Balsam.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24045. ‘‘(No. 110la.) Chinese name Lang ting tung.”
24046. ‘‘(No. 1102a.) Chinese name Sen ting to tung.”’
24047. ‘‘(No. 1103a.) Chinese name Hong ting to tung.”
24048. ‘‘(No. 1104a.) Chinese name Te ting to tung.”’
24049. ‘‘(No. 1105a.) Chinese name Pai ting to tung hua.”’
24050. ‘‘(No. 1106a.) Chinese name Swuo ching ting to tung hua.”’
24051. ‘‘(No. 1107a.) Chinese name Hua pien ting to tung hua.”
24052. ‘‘(No. 1108a.) Chinese name Moo ho ting to tung hua.”’
240538. ‘‘(No. 1109a.) Chinese name Hong lung tsao tung hsien hua.”
153

26

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23930 to 24113—Continued.

24045 to 24058—Continued. ;
24054. ‘‘(No. 1110a.) Chinese name Hua lung tsao tung hsien hua.’’
24055. ‘‘(No. lllla.) Chinese name Tze lung tsao tung hsien hua.”
24056. ‘‘(No. 1112a.) Chinese name Lang lung tsao tung hsien hua.”’
24057. ‘‘(No. 1113a.) Chinese name Pai lung tsao tung hsien hua.”

24058. ‘‘(No. 1114a.) Chinese name Lang hua pien lung tsao tung
hsien hua.”

‘‘All the preceding numbers are apparently varieties of the ordinary balsam,
which is much grown by the Chinese as an ornamental summer annual, mostly
in boxes and earthen vessels. There are some fine varieties among them, and
as a whole they may prove to be somewhat hardier than our own strains.”
( Meyer.)

24059 to 24062. (Undetermined. )

From Peking, Chibli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

24059. ‘‘(No. 11l5a.) Chinese name Ta nai kong.”’

24060. ‘‘(No. 11l6a.) Chinese name Pai nai kong.”

24061. ‘‘(No. 11l7a.) Chinese name Hong sho yo.”
24062. “(No. 1118a.) Chinese name Sun kuan moo.”

‘‘These four numbers represent apparently a Salvia or some closely allied
genus of Menthacee; they are grown by the Chinese as ornamental garden
plants.’’ ( Meyer.)

24063 to 24066. DrantTHus cHINENSIS L. Chinese pink.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

24063. ‘‘(No. 1119a.) Chinese name Hong shir chow.”’
24064. ‘‘(No. 1120a.) Chinese name Ten shir chow.”’
24065. ‘‘(No. 112la.) Chinese name Tze shir chow.”’
24066. ‘‘(No. 1122a.) Chinese name Pai shir chow.”’

‘‘The above are apparently different varieties of Chinese pinks, which are
favorite plants in Chinese gardens.’ ( Meyer.)

24067 to 24069. (Undetermined.)
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24067. ‘‘(No. 1123a.) Chinese name Hong wan sho chii hua.”
24068. ‘‘(No. 1124a.) Chinese name Pai wan sho chit hua.”
24069. ‘‘(No. 1125a.) Chinese name Huang wan sho chit hua.”
‘“Grown es an ornamental garden plant in North China.”’ ( Meyer.)
‘“These seeds belong to a species of Asteracer.’? (H. C. Skeels.)
24070. HELIANTHUS sp.

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1126a, Mar. 25, 1908.) Apparently a
Helianthus or a closely allied composite. Grown as an ornamental garden
plant in North China. Chinese name Hong mi lou sung.’’ ( Meyer.)

24071 to 24073. HELIANTHUS ANNUUS L.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24071. ‘‘(No. 1127a.) Chinese name Huang kwi hua.”’
24072. ‘‘(No. 1128a.) Chinese name Cheeoo lien tung.”’

Prete

. i as

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908, i

23930 to 24113—Continued.
24071 to 24073—Continued.
24073. ‘‘(No. 1129a.) ‘Chinese name Tsau yang hua.”

“These sunflower varieties are cultivated in China for their seeds, which
are eaten as a delicatesse; for their leaves, which are fed to domestic ani-
mals; and for their stalks, which are used for fuel.’”’ ( Meyer.)

24074 and 24075. CrySANTHEMUM CORONARIUM L.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24074. ‘‘(No.1130a.) Chinese name Hoow tze kang.’’
24075. ‘‘(No.113la.) Chinese name Yae lié hsien.”’

““The above are grown by the Chinese in North China as ornamental garden
plants.’ ( Meyer.)

24076 to 24078. CRASSINA ELEGANS (Jacq.) Kuntze. Zinnia.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24076. ‘‘(No. 1132a.) Chinese name Hong chung mae hua.”’
24077. “‘(No.1133a.) Chinese name Huang chung ye mae hua.’’
24078. ‘‘(No. 1134a.) Chinese name Pai mu sié mae hua.”’

““The above are apparently varieties of Crassina elegans, which is grown
sparsely as a garden plant in North China.’’ ( Meyer.)

24079 to 24081. CALENDULA OFFICINALIS L. Marigold.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)
24079. ‘‘(No. 1135a.) Chinese name Ten hsi fan lien.”’
24080. ‘‘(No. 1136a.) Chinese name Hong hsi fan lien.’’
24081. ‘‘(No. 1137a.) Chinese name Chung tsaén tze hua.”’

“The above are varieties of the ordinary marigold, grown as an ornamental
garden plant in North China.’’ ( Meyer.)

24082 to 24085. Taceres EReEctTA L.

From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

24082. “‘(No.1138a.) Chinese name Hung chii hua.”’
24083. ‘‘(No. 1139a.) Chinese name Hong chii hua.”
24084. ‘‘(No. 1140a.) Chinese name Hong fu jung hua.’
24085. ‘‘(No.114la.) Chinese name Huang fu jung hua.”’

‘““The above are apparently varieties of ‘Tagetes erecta or a form closely allied
toit. They are.grown as ornamental garden annuals by the Chinese of North
China.” ( Meyer.)

24086. Lacruca sativa L. (?)

From Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 1142a, Mar. 25,1908.) A composite.
Grown as an ornamental garden plant in North China. Chinese name Hong
kwei hua.’ ( Meyer.)

24087 to 24109. CALLISTEMMA CHINENSIS (L.) Skeels. (ASTER CHINENSIS
L.) (CALLISTEPHUS CHINENSIS Nees.) China aster.
From Peking, Chihli, China. (Mar. 25, 1908.)

24087. ‘‘(No. 1143a.) Chinese name Huang chiang hsi la hua.”’

24088. ‘‘(No. 1144a.) Chinese name Lang chiang hsi la hua.”’

24089. ‘‘(No. 1145a.) Chinese name Hwei chiang hsi la hua.”’

24090. ‘‘(No. 1146a.) Chinese name //ua chiang hsi la hua.”
153

28

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

23930 to 24113—Continued.

24087 to 24109—Continued.
24091. ‘‘(No. 1147a.) Chinese name Tze chiang hsi la hua.’’

24092. ‘“‘(No. 1148a.) Chinese name Nan hong chiang hsi la hua.’’
24093. ‘“‘(No. 1149a.) Chinesename Moohojung tchuchianghsilahua.”’
24094. “(No.1150a.) Chinese name Hua yung tchu chiang hsi la.”’
24095. “(No. 115la.) Chinese name Fen yung tchu chiang hsi la.”’
24096. ‘‘(No. 1152a.) Chinese name Tze yung tchu chiang hsi la.”’
24097. ‘‘(No. 1153a.) Chinese name Hong yung tchu chiang hsi la.”’
24098. ‘‘(No. 1154a.) Chinese name Pai yung tchu chiang hsi la.”’
24099. ‘‘(No. 1155a.) Chinese name Pat hua pien chiang hsi la.”’
24100. ‘‘(No. 1156a.) Chinese name Tze hua pien chiang hsi la.”’
24101. ‘‘(No. 1157a.) Chinese name Chiang hsi chit.”’
24102. ‘‘(No. 1158a.) Chinese name Pai kwei choo chii.”’

241038. ‘‘(No. 1159a.) Chinese name Hong kwei chow chi.”
24104. ‘‘(No.1160a.) Chinese name Huang kwei chow chii.”’
24105. ‘‘(No. 1l6la.) Chinese name Lang kwei chow chit.”
24106. ‘‘(No. 1162a.) Chinese name Fen kwei chow chi.”’
24107. ‘‘(No. 1163a.) Chinese name Tze kwei chow chu.”’
24108. ‘‘(No. 1164a.) Chinese name Hua kwei chow chii.”’
24109. ‘‘(No. 1165a.) Chinese name Moo ho kwei chow chit.”’

‘“The above are apparently various forms and varieties of our ordinary garden
aster, which is held in high esteem by the Chinese as a garden flower. There
are said to be yellow-flowered varieties among this collection, but in general
the seeds will be found to be very much mixed.

‘As the garden aster is a native of northern Asia there may be found some
types among this lot that may be of value for breeding purposes or for rather
uncongenial climates.”’ ( Meyer.)

24110 to 24112. Panicum miuiaceum L. - Proso millet.
From northern Korea. (September, 1906.)
24110. ‘‘(No. 1168a.) A white-seeded drooping millet.’’
24111. ‘‘(No. 1169a.) A red-seeded-drooping millet.”
24112. ‘‘(No.1170a.) A black-seeded drooping millet.”’

‘‘Apparently rare forms of millet grown by the Koreans for food. These few
seeds were picked by me, while passing a few fields near the upper regions of
the Tumen River and I never came across them again later on.’’ ( Meyer.)

24113. Panicum sp.
From northern Korea. ‘‘(No. 117la, September, 1906.) A millet grown on
very low lying lands; used by the poor peasants, when ground up, as a gruel.

Try it on low river bottoms as a late fodder crop; it stools out enormously on
rich land.’’ ( Meyer.)

153

———

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 29

24114. ArRacuis HYPOGEA L. Peanut.

From Marseille, France. Procured by Hon. Robert P. Skinner, American
consul-general, at the request of Mr. W. R. Beattie and Mr. C. 8. Scofield.
Received October 27, 1908.

Gambia. ‘‘Pods medium size to small, light in color, closely netted, indentations
quite shallow, so that the exterior surface of pods is comparatively smooth; generally
two, sometimes three, and occasionally one pea in a pod; shells thin and quite firm
and strong; peas medium size, one-third larger than Spanish, crowded together in
pod and almost completely filling cavity, color of pea rather dark brown, outer skin
adhering very tightly; flesh of pea clear white color, germ considerably extended at
end of pea and easily removed.

“This pea will be exceptionally valuable for use in the manufacture of candy and
other products where shelled nuts are required.’’ (W. R. Beattie.)

“These peanuts were procured for testing in this country for their oil-yielding
properties in comparison with the American varieties.”’ (R.A. Young.)

24115 to 24121.

From Amani, German East Africa. Presented by Dr. A. Zimmerman, Biologic
Agricultural Institute, at the*’request of Mr. C. V. Piper. Received October
23, 1908.

‘The following seeds of legumes being tested here for their value as green fertilizing
plants.’’ (Zimmerman.)
24115. CroraLaria sp.
24116. CRrorTaLaria sp.
24117. CRroTaLaRiA sp.
24118. CRroOTALARIA HILDEBRANDTII Vatke.
24119. Croravaria striata Schrank.
24120. DoticHos (?).
24121. INpDIGOrERA (?).

24122 to 24127. ANpRopoGoN sorcHumM (L.) Brot. Kafir.

From Greytown, Natal, South Africa. Procured from Mr. T. Thresh, ‘‘Thorn-
ton,’’ Greytown, Natal, by Mr. E. Fitzgerald, Native Affairs Department,
Pietermaritzburg, Natal, presented by Mr. A. E. LeRoy, Adams, M.S., Natal.
Received October 6, 1908.

Seed of the following. Descriptive notes by Mr. Carleton R. Ball; native names
by Mr. LeRoy:

24122. Mehlo ka kuka. Blackhull kafir, apparently typical. Small head, 7
inches long; glumes, short, shiny black; seeds medium, white.

24123. Sibuyana. Blackhull kafir type; very compact glumes and seeds
slightly larger than normal, the seeds are white with distinct brownish
tinge, especially at tip.

24124. Simuktywana. Blackhull kafir type; head compact, very similar to
preceding (S. P. I. No. 24123), but seeds more deeply tinged with brown.

24125. Ngabani omhlope. Kafir type of head, but seeds large; whitish or
mostly pearly glumes two-thirds as long as seeds, these are greenish or, in the
case of those at the base of the head, reddish brown.

153

30 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24122 to. 24127—Continued.

24126. Ngabani obomou. Red kafir, apparently typical head, shorter and
more slender than normal for the United States.

24127. U Jiba. ‘‘The natives do not like the taste of this, but raise it be-
cause the birds do not trouble it. Birds trouble all other kinds very
greatly.” (LeRoy.) :
Related to Red kafir, but with very large seeds; glumes about two-thirds as

long as seeds.

24128 to 24130. ANDROPOGON soRGHUmM (L.) Brot. Durra.

From Egypt. Presented by Mr. Hubert 8. nee Gallowhill, Paisley, Scotland.
Received September 23, 1908.

Seed of the following. Descriptive notes by Mr. Carleton R. Ball; native names by
Mr. Smiley:
24128. Bahrel Bugger. Typical durra Ahmar or brown-seeded durra; glumes
shiny black; large seeds, pale and shiny red.

24129. Hamashi. ‘‘This is considered the best for bread making.”’ (Smiley.)

A form apparently intermediate between durra Ahmar and durra Beda the
white form; the seeds are pale brown, head is otherwise identical with durra
Ahmar.

24130. AHeygeri. Seeds white or brownish white; glumes shiny black and
naked.

‘‘These are typical Egyptian durras with very large and heavy ovate, extremely
compact, pendant heads; the same or very similar varieties tested by me in the last
few years always have immense stalks, 2 to 3 inches in diameter at the base, 8 to 13
feet high, and having from 20 to more than 30 leaves; they are mostly very late and
will therefore not mature in much of our dry plain region; they are not at all adapted
to the more humid region, because the compact heads become moldy in wet weather
and badly injured by worms.”’ (Ball.)

‘“This durra is sown as a rain crop in Berber, Atbara, Zeidab, and Shendi districts.
Directly the rains are over, the natives go out to the borders of the desert and sow the
grain on the poor, rocky soil. They then leave it, as it requires no cultivation, and
it receives no more water than that left in the soil by the rains. A good crop would
be about 6 ardebs per feddan. These sorghums are the principal foodstuffs of the
natives.’’ .(Smiley.)

24131. GARCINIA sp.

From Palawan, Philippine Islands. Procured by Mr. William 8. Lyon, Gardens
' of Nagtajan, Manila, P. I. Received November 4, 1908. -

‘“This species is from sea level, extending from coast inland 3 to 5 kilometers only;
is generally 14 to 15 meters, although sometimes larger, wide spreading and seemingly
arobust grower. Fruit edible by natives, monkeys, and parrots, but I balked at much
of it.’’ (Lyon.)

24132. BENZOIN sp.(?)

From Mokanshan, China. Presented by Rev. J. M. W. Farnham, See
China. Received November 4, 1908.

‘‘This shrub grows 8 or 10 feet tall. In September (here) the branches are covered
thick with beautiful, very bright red berries; a bush here and there among the
green shrubbery around a lawn would be pretty. Sow in the autumn, I suppose.’’
( Farnham.)

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 31

24134 and 24135.

From Florida. Grown by Mr. P. J. Wester at the Subtropical Garden, Miami,
Fla. Numbered for convenience in recording distribution November 9, 1908.

24134. CHRYSOPHYLLUM MONOPYRENUM Swartz.

“This belongs to the Sapotacez and is a native of south Florida, where it
grows to a small tree, attaining sometimes a height of about 18 feet. The leaves
are leathery and dark green, shining above and satiny beneath, something
similar to the star apple, with which many are familiar, only this is darker and
more lustrous than that species, making it more ornamental. The fruit is of
no value.’’ ( Wester.)

24135. THESPESIA POPULNEA (L.) Soland.

‘This is usually considered a native of the Old World, which has long been
naturalized to the West Indies and has probably drifted with the Gulf Stream
to the shores of Florida, where it grows wild on the Keys and occasionally on the
mainland. This plant will attain a height here of about 20 feet or more and
about the same spread under favorable conditions.’’ ( Wester.)

“These plants will probably be of value in southern California as ornamentals and
shade trees. Both stand slight frosts.’’ ( Wester.)

241386. CRINODENDRON PATAGUA Mol.

From Jamaica Plain, Mass. Presented by the Arnold Arboretum. Received
October 26, 1908.

“A tree attaining a height of 30 feet; pyramidal shaped; pretty foliage; very ele-
gant, lily-shaped, drooping, red flowers.’’ (Dr. F. Franceschi.)

24137 and 241388. Zera mays L. Corn.

From Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico. Presented by Mr. Elmer Stearns,
botanist, School of Agriculture. Received November 2, 1908.

Seed of the following:

' 24137. ‘Blue corn, is regular Aztec corn, very much used for tortillas.’’
(Stearns.)

24138. ‘‘White corn, used same as above (S. P. I. No. 24137).’’ (Stearns.)

24140 to 24145.

Collected near Simla, India, in the Himalayan foothills. Presented by Mr.
Evarard Cotes, Greenwood Court, Simla, India, through Mr. Frank N. Meyer.
Received November 10, 1908.

Seeds of the following. Descriptive notes by Mr. Frank N. Meyer:
24140. PruNuUS ARMENIACA L. Wild apricot.
Resembles the cultivated ones very much.
24141 to 24144. Amycpatus persica L. Peach.
24141. Probably an improved cultivated form.
24142. Very small pits, probably the genuine wild type.
24143. Small heart-shaped pits.
24144. The pits ~«eem to resemble those of the Chinese Honey peach.
24145. Pyrus sp. Pear.
A wild variety.
153

32 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24146. ASPARAGUS FILICINUS GIRALDII C. H. Wright.

From Florence, Italy. Presented by Mr. Pasquale Bauarini, director, Orto
Botanico del R. Instituto de Studi Superiori, via Romana 19. Received
November 13, 1908. .

‘‘The form known in gardens as variety Giraldii is characterized by its large, broad,
glossy, green phylloclades, usually borne in groups of five, and the solitary green
flowers produced on very slender pedicels much longer than the phylloclades. The
flower buds are brownish. This form has been collected in China in the Province of
Shensi by Pére Giraldi and in Szechwan and Hupeh by Dr. Aug. Henry.

“The species is a very variable one, and three varieties of it are enumerated in
Hooker’s Flora of British India, vi. 315, but the variety Giraldw has larger phylloclades
than either of these.’’ (Charles Henry Wright, in The Gardeners Chronicle, August 15,
1908.)

24147. MALPIGHIA GUADALAJARENSIS (Wats.) Rose.

From Ixtlan del Rio, Tepic, Mexico. Presented by Mr. Alfred Lonergan, through
Mr. Frederic Chisolm. Received November 12, 1908.

“* Manzanita or Manzana del Cerro (mountain apple). A low-growing tree, with
small edible fruits of a taste resembling that of the apple. Grows wild on the steep,
rough mountain sides in the eastern part of Tepic Territory and along the contiguous
western border of the State of Jalisco, Mexico. The bark is used in tanning, and these
fruits were imported to be planted at Brownsville, Tex., and Miami, Fla., to grow
trees for this purpose.’’ (Frederic Chisolm.)

24148 to 24154. Punica GRANATUM L. Pomegranate.

From Sidon, Syria. Procured by Mr. G. Bie Ravndal, American consul-general,
Beirut, Syria, from Mohamed Effendi Dada, gardener. Received November

13, 1908.
The following cuttings:
24148. Swneiny. 24152. Mawardi.
24149. Malissah. 24153. Mukl el Bagel.
_ 24150. Bint el Basha. 24154. Seify.

24151. Zaffan.

‘‘Perhaps the most popular varieties of sweet pomegranates grown here are the |
Malissah (S. P. I. No. 24149) and the Bint el Basha (S. P. I. No. 24150). The Mawardi
(S. P. I. No. 24152) is also rather sweet, but considered slightly inferior to the varieties
already mentioned, so also the Mukl el Bagel (S. P. I. No. 24153), the latter as well as
the Zaffani (S. P. I. No. 24151) is somewhat tart, but not as acid as the Suneiny (S. P. I.
No. 24148). The Seify (S. P. I. No. 24154) is well thought of in Syria. It is found in
the Damascus region, as well as in the vicinity of Sidon.

‘“When seeds are planted the trees will be wild and require grafting, while cuttings
will produce trees of the variety of the cuttings. Pomegranates out here thrive on
shade and water. Rats are very fond of the fruit and climb the trees for meals, leaving
the shells of the fruit hanging quite empty.’’ (Ravwndal.)

24155 to 24165.

From Szechwan Province, China. Secured by Mr. E. H. Wilson, of the Arnold
Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., in cooperation with this Department. Re-
ceived October and November, 1908.

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908, 33

24155 to 24165—Continued.

The following seeds:
24155. Rusus xanruocarpus Bur. & Franch.

*“(No. 806.) Subshrub 6 inches to 1 foot high; flowers white; fruits yellow,
of good size and flavor. Common in abandoned cultivated areas and stony
places generally in the valley of the Min River from 6,000 to 10,000 feet; abun-
dant around the town of Sungpan. Fruit ripe July to end of August, according
to altitude.”’ ( Wilson.)

24156. Rises sp.

*“(No. 836.) Bush 6 to 12 feet; fruit green and very acid. The common
ooseberry, abundantly employed as a hedge plant around Tatienlu; altitude

g y y emplo} p
8,000 to 10,000 feet.’’ ( Wilson.) :
24157. Triticum aestivum L. Wheat.

*“(No. 845.) A white awnless wheat; 3 to 4 feet high; ripening in May. A
common crop on the Yangtze banks, Szechwan Province.”’ ( Wilson.)

24158. HorpreuMm vuLcaRreE L. Barley.

““(No. 846.) Ordinary six-rowed barley; 2 to 3 feet high; ripening in May;
cultivated in the Yangtze Valley, Szechwan.”’ ( Wilson.)

24159. Horpevm sp. Barley.

““(No. 847.) A common six-rowed awned barley; ripe in May; abundantly
cultivated on the banks of the Yangtze River, Szechwan.’’ ( Wilson.)
24160. Triticum sgrstivum L. Wheat.

*“(No. 848.) A red wheat; 3 to 4 feet high; ripe in May. A common crop in
the Yangtze Valley, Szechwan.’’ (Wilson.)

24161. Horpeum vuLcare L. Barley.

““(No. 849.) A barley with purplish glumes, ripe in May; sparingly culti-
vated in the department of Weichon on the borders of the Chentu plain.’’
(Wilson.)

24162. Brassica JUNCEA (L.) Cass. Chinese rape.

*“(No. 851.) Large Chinese rape, Ta tsai yu; 4 to 6 feet high; abundantly
cultivated throughout the Yangtze Valley and the Chentu plain.’’ ( Wilson.)
24163. Brassica sp.

‘““(No. 852.) Small Chinese rape, Hsas tsai yu; 2 to 3 feet high; not quite
such a common crop as No. 851 (S. P. I. No. 24162), but very generally culti-
vated in Szechwan. For special use of these and all the Szechwanese economic
plants, see Consul-General Hosie’s report on the Province of Szechwan.”’
( Wilson.)

24164. Trinicum aestivum L. Wheat.

‘“*(No. 853.) A red awnless wheat; 3 feet high, with stout culms and ears;
cultivated by the tribesfolk in western Szechwan and ripening in July or August,
according to altitude. This wheat yields a very fine flour suitable for bread of
all sorts.’’ (Wilson.)

24165. Fracaria moscuata Duchesne.

‘“(No. 908.) Wild strawberry. Fruit red and of very good flavor, size and
shape variable, abundant around Tatienlu, 8,000 to 14,000 feet altitude.”
( Wilson.)

153

34 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24166 and 24167. MErELALEUCA LEUCADENDRON L.

Presented by Dr. John Gifford, Cocoanut Grove, Fla., through Mr. P. J. Wester,
in charge, Subtropical Garden, Miami, Fla. Received November 17, 1908.
24166. Seed from Australia.
24167. Cuttings from a tree 18 feet tall growing near Cocoanut Grove, Fla.
‘*The cajaput-tree of India and Australia. Reaches a height of 80 feet. Can be
grown on the edges of salt-water swamps where no Eucalyptus will survive; the
tree is believed to be valuable for subduing malarial vapors like Eucalyptus. The
lamellar bark is valuable for preserving fruit wrapped in it. The.wood is hard,
close grained, and almost imperishable underground. The leaves yield as much as
2 per cent of the well-known cajaput-oil, closely allied to that of Eucalyptus.’
(Extract from Von Mueller.)

24168 and 24169. Dauc.ia spp. Dahlia.

From Boca del Monte, Vera Cruz, Mexico. Presented by Dr. C. A. Purpus, of
Zacuapan, Mexico, through Dr. J. N. Rose, associate curator, United States
National Museum. Received November 19, 1908. C

Seed of the following:
24168. (Rose No. 08.314.) Flower orange or yellow.
24169. (Rose No. 08.315.) Flower purple; 6,000 to 7,000 feet altitude.

24170. MANGIFERA INDICA L. Mango.

From Province of Imos, Philippine Islands. Presented by Mr. Donald Mac-

Intyre, Moanalua Gardens, Honolulu, Hawaii. Received November 20, 1908.

Pico. ‘‘A variety of merit. It comes true from seed and by that method has
been reproduced in that country for generations.’’ ( MacIntyre.)

24172. ANnona sQuamosa L. Sugar-apple.

From. Antigua, British West Indies. Presented by Mr. A. 8S. Archer -to Mr.
P. J. Wester, in charge, Subtropical Garden, Miami, Fla., who forwarded a
small quantity to the Department November 9, 1908.

Variety purpurea.

24173 to 24192.

From Soochow, Kiangsu, China. Presented by Rey. R. A. Haden, B. D. Re-
ceived November 14, 1908.

The following seeds. Quoted descriptions by Mr. Haden; descriptions of varieties
by Mr. H. T. Nielsen:

241738 to 24175. Vicia FABA L. Broad bean.

‘These are varieties of the same bean, grown from about latitude 30° to 33°.
They are planted in the fall; it is said that planted in the spring they will
not produce. Plant 2 to 3 seeds in a hill, space about 1 foot each way. Stalk
bushy and about 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches high; foliage and seed pods quite
smooth; blooms light lilac, slightly fragrant; very prolific. Among earliest
plants to bloom in spring and these green beans are the earliest to be had in
the market. ‘These are cooked in the same way as butter or lima beans; when
dry they are also parched and eaten, and, too, they are soaked until tender,
the skin peeled off, and cooked, they are very good thus prepared.”’

24176. SoLANUM MELONGENA L. Eggplant.

‘“A white variety of eggplant, very fine. I send these because I have never
seen the white eggplant at home.’’

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. , 35

24173 to 24192—Continued.
24177 to 24179. Pisum ArveENsE L. Field pea.

24177. ‘Dark green English pea. Planted in fall with rye (October
and November here). Stalk 4 to 5 feet high, branching. Flowers
small, purple. Considered very prolific.”

24178. ‘‘Large white English pea. Planted as above (S. P. I. No.
24177); flowers white; stalks larger and more prolific; good.”’

24179. ‘Small white. Remarks on the above (S. P. I. No. 24178)
will apply to this.”’
24180 to 24184. Gtycine uisprpA (Moench) Maxim. Soy bean.
24180. ‘Plant bunchy.”
Looks like Nuttall, No. 17253, also like No. 19183.
24181. “Large yellow soy bean, early.”’
24182. ‘Green soy bean, early.”
Seed looks like Okute, No. 19986.
24183. ‘‘Small light green variety, early.”’
Seed similar to Haberlandt, Nos. 17263 and 19985, but is a little smaller.
24184. ‘‘Large yellow variety, medium early.”’
Seed looks like Haberlandt, No. 17271.
24185 to 24192. Viana unGuicuLata (L.) Walp. Cowpea.
24185. ‘Smallpox cowpea. This is a variety of what in Louisiana
used to be known as the cowpea; however, I never saw any there as

fineasthese. Rank grower; long vines, tangled and in masses; prolific

fruiter.”’ ;

Markings of seed like Whippoorwill, but shape different, having the
most pronounced keel of any cowpea I have seen; shape somewhat like
Unknown.

24186. ‘‘Large brown. Ranks in all respects with the above (S. P. I.
No. 24185) except that growth is not so rank.”

Shape similar to Unknown, but keel is longer and sharper and darker
colored.
24187. ‘‘Small brown. Very prolific; splendid fodder pea.”
Looks like an ordinary Clay, seed may be a trifle darker and smaller.
24188. ‘‘Large black-eyed spotted pea. I have not seen this growing;
it was a find and is said to be very good.”’
Looks something like Holstein, but all the black except a few spots is
around the hilum.
24189. ‘Black. Rank grower extensively cultivated; weevil very
bad in this.”’
Looks like our ordinary Black.
24190. ‘‘Black-Eye cowpea, large; not as extensively cultivated as
other varieties in this collection.”’
Looks just like our common Black-Eye.
24191. ‘‘Black-Eye cowpea, small; good.”’
Differs from our common Black-Eye only in having smaller seeds.
3 24192. ‘‘Brown-Eye cowpea, small; good.”
Seed looks like our common Brown-Eye, but a little smaller; looks like

Brown-Eye, No. 17855, from China,
153

36 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24193. Oryza SATIVA L. Rice.

From Chevy Chase, Md. Grown by Mr. David Fairchild on his place ‘‘In the
Woods.’’ Received November 23, 1908.

Grown from dry-land rice No. 19188.

‘Planted June 5; it matured a crop of ripe grain. I only planted a few kernels
and it received no irrigation whatever. One plant had 17 heads on it and though nct
as tall as irrigated rice it looks like a proimsing thing to me. I also planted the same
variety in April and got a good stand, somewhat better than the later planting, i. e.,
maturing earlier. I surmise that in such seasons as the last one (1908), May would be
the best time to sow this rice in Maryland.”’ (Fairchild.)

24194. CARISSA CARANDAS L.

From Peradeniya, Ceylon. Presented by Mr. John C. Willis, director, Royal
Botanic Gardeis. Received November 21, 1908.

See No. 23750 for description.

24195. ScHOENOCAULON OFFICINALE (Schlecht.) Gray. Cebadilla.

From Vera Cruz, Mexico. Presented by Mr. William W.-Canada, American con-
sul. Received November 10, 1908.

‘“The party who procured some of this seed for us in 1905 informs us that it is poison-
ous, containing Veratrum, and is therefore generally used in the form of a tincture
for destroying body lice, etc., as also ticks on cattle. There are other varieties of
the same species—the Zygadenus mexicanus and the Stenanthium frigidum, but these
are considered as inferior. The plant is indigenous to the soil in some parts of the
State of Vera Cruz. Cebadilla is a common commodity procurable of druggists in the
United States.’’ (Extract from letter of Consul Canada, September 18, 1905.)

24196. Cirrus NnosiLis Lour. (7?) ‘‘Naartje.”’

From Warm Baths, Transvaal, South Africa. Presented by Mr. C. A. Simmonds,
at the request of Mr. R. A. Davis, government horticulturist, Transvaal De-
partment of Agriculture, Pretoria. Received November 30, 1908.

Groenskil. ‘‘The word ‘Groenskil’ means green skin, and the fruit of this variety
bears more resemblance to the Emperor mandarin perhaps than to most others. It
hangs for a long time on the trees in good condition, and is the latest ripening variety
we have. It is also more hardy than the ‘Platskill’ (S. P. I. No. 243826).’? (Extract
from letter of Mr. Davis, February 13, 1908.) See No. 21551 for further remarks.

24197 to 24202.

From Biloxi, Miss. Grown by Prof. S. M. Tracy, special agent, who procured
the original seed from Prof. C. F. Baker, Experiment Station, Santiago de
las Vegas, Cuba. Received November 30, 1908.

Plants of the following; notes by Professor Tracy:
24197. CALOPOGONIUM COERULEUM (Benth.) Hemsl.

A slender vine, 10 to 15 feet, rooting freely, poor climber, nodules abundant,
no flowers.

24198. CaLopoGoNIUM oORTHOCARPUM Urb.
A slender vine, 3 to 6 feet, rooting freely, poor climber, nodules abundant,
no flowers.
24199. GavactiA TENUIFLORA (Willd.) W. & A. .
A slender, vigorous climber, nodules abundant, no seed.
153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908.

24197 to 24202—Continued.
24200. GatLacTIA striata (Jacq.) Urb.

A slender, vigorous climber, nodules abundant, no seed.
24201. TrramNnus uncinaATuS (L.) Swartz.

A dense mass of slender vines climbing poorly, nodules fair, no bloom.
24202. Brapsurya pLuMrIeRI (Turp.) Kuntze.

A slender, thrifty climber, nodules few, no bloom.

24203. CaNANGA oporRATA (Lam.) Hook. f. € Thoms. Tang ilang.

From Lawang, Java. Presented by Mr. M. Buysman. Received December 11,
1908.

For description and other importations, see No. 22744.

24204. Cucumis sp.

From Ragaa, Bahr el Ghagel, Sudan, Africa. Presented by Mr. Hubert S.
Smiley, Gallowhill, Paisley, Scotland. Received September 23, 1908.

“Seed of the Koreish Battekh (inedible oil pumpkin) is sown by natives among
their other crops, all of which depend on rain. The oil from this pumpkin is used
for cooking and other purposes, as is the better known ‘semsen’ oil. It is also used
by the military and other officials, with the addition of tobacco juice, to protect
their mules from the bite of the tse-tse fly. The oil is prepared as follows: Seeds
are extracted and roasted similarly to the coffee beans; after roasting the seeds are
ground up on a stove; after grinding they are thrown into a pot with oil and boiled.
The oil comes to the top and is skimmed off for use.’’? (Smiley.)

24205. ViciA LEAVENWoRTHI Torr. & Gray.

From Arizona. Presented by Mr. Vernon Bailey, Bureau of Biological Survey,
United States Department of Agriculture. Received December 3, 1908.

_ “These vetch seeds were collected September 23, 1908, at 8,500 feet altitude in
the White Mountains of Arizona. The plant is abundant throughout Transition
Zone, or from about 7,500 to 9,000 feet in the open yellow pine forest. It grows as
a spreading bush 2 feet high and in many places covers the ground as an almost
solid field of peas, loaded with fruit.

“Our horses were very fond of it and ate both pods and plant eagerly. For a
week they had no other grain and ate little else, but steadily gained in flesh.

“Wild turkeys and grouse also feed on both its pods and leaves. It seems to be
an unusually valuable forage plant.’’ (Bailey.)

24206 to 24310.
From Chile. Received through Mr. José D. Husbands, Limavida, Chile, De-

cember 4, 1908..

The following seeds and plants; notes by Mr. Husbands:
24206 and 24207. GreEIGIA SPHACELATA (R. & P.) Regel.
. 24206. “Very spiny.’’ (R.A. Young.)

24207. “Slightly spiny.”’ (R. A. Young.)

24208. PERSEA LINGUE (R. & P.) Nees.

This is a very valuable industrial forest tree of large size, handsome, com-
pact, evergreen, has glossy gray-blue-green leaves and is an extra quick grower;
here it is not a delicate plant but grows quickly in any soil that is wet or very
moist, also in water. The wood is light and tough like elm, but takes a very

153

38 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24206 to 24310—Continued.
24208—Continued.

high finish. Its lumber is highly esteemed and is lasting if protected from
the wet; used for furniture, bodies and poles of carts, ox yokes, ete. The
wood is the color of white ash, finished has a yellowish tinge, takes any stain.
Its bark is solely used for tanning and is largely exported to Europe. Every
station south is filled to overflowing with thousands of bags of broken bark
awaiting transportation. The forests are being stripped; in a very few years
this tree will be very scarce. It is an extra beautiful shade tree. Its leaves -
are poisonous to animals, especially sheep, who are very fond of them. Medic-
inally it is a powerful astringent.
24209. Juaians nicRA L. Black walnut.
The Bolivian black walnut is of Bolivian origin and is a notable, majestic
forest tree with handsome hanging foliage; a quick grower of great industrial
value. Its wood is exploited largely in Bolivia, is a hardwood beautifully
veined in dark and light grains, taking a very high finish and useful for any
purpose. I have seen treelets 8 months old that measured 1 inch in diameter
3 feet from the ground, and 8 feet high. The fruit is large, abundant, and
oily, but is not edible on account of its bitterness. These trees have been
recently introduced into Chile and few are bearing any considerable quantity
of fruit.
24210. Mepicago sativa L. Alfalfa.

From Huasco in the northern part of Chile. It is called by botanists Medicago
sativa, notwithstanding it is a new and very valuable strain still unnamed.
In past times both common central Chile alfalfa and ‘‘ Alfalfa Peruano” were
sown; this I believe to be a cross between the two which combines the merits
of both and is said to be the most valuable seed known.

24211 to 24225. Stringless beans grown by irrigation:
24211 and 24212. Puasrotus vuuearis L. Bean.
24211. Fair quality only; prolific.

24212. Very good class having large, good-flavored pods; pro-
ductive.

24213. ViaNA SESQUIPEDALIS (L.) W. F. Wight.
A curious bean, has pods from 12 to 18 inches long; ‘‘Monkey’s tail.”’
24214 to 24225. Puasroius vutearis L. Bean.
24214. ‘“‘Alqueado.’”’ Very good and extra productive.
24215. Cream-colored pods, good flavor, productive.

24216. Extra superfine class, extra fine flavor, early, very
prolific; a splendid bean to be eaten green.

24217. Green-colored pods, very prolific, medium quality.
24218. Early, good.

24219. ‘‘Cholos.’’ Extra good class; extra large pods of good
flavor; prolific.

24220. Early, good.

24221. Very good class.

24222. Cream-colored pod, extra early.

24223. Very good and extra productive.

24224. ‘‘Turruco.’’ Good, prolific.

24225. Good class, Thin pod, good flavor, very prolific.

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 39

24206 to 24310—Continued.
24226 to 24228. PuHasEoLus coccineus L. Scarlet runner bean.
Beans of the Lima class used both for food and their flowers:

24226. ‘‘Pallares.’”’ Extra good.

24227. Flowers bright crimson.

24228. Flowers pink and scarlet.

24229 to 24261. PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. Bean.

24229 to 24231. Field beans grown dry in the poorest soil:

24229. Grown dry but in better and more moist soil than the
other samples (S. P. I. Nos. 24230 and 24231).

24230. Grown on the coast. Yellow; prolific.

24231. ‘‘Chinalya.’’ Grown on the coast.

24232 to 24261. Field beans. Namesare unreliable; thesame beans
are known by different names in different sections; should there be
duplicates, they are grown under such distinct conditions as to water,
soil, etc., as to justify sending them:

24232. Unknown.

24233. Productive and extra fine.

24234. Unknown.

24235. Unknown.

24236. ‘‘Trigo” (wheat). Irrigated, extra fine, standard class.

24237. ‘‘Porotos Blanco” (white beans). Excellent class;
irrigated.

24238. ‘Baya Grande.’’ Productive, largely sown, extra good.

24239. ‘Baya Grande Pintado.’’ A very good and profitable
bean; irrigated.

24240. Nodata. I think it would grow dry.

24241. Noname. Irrigated; extra fine table class like Mendes;
there are two sorts in this lot.

24242. A white class very similar to others sent. These are
grown at a distance in distinct soil and conditions. Extra good.

24243. ‘‘ Mendes Blanco.”’ A first-class table bean; irrigated.

24244. Irrigated; grown in sticky black clay, extra fine table
class. ;

24245. ‘‘ Manteca Claro” (light-colored lard). An extra fine
class of standard table beans.

‘ 24246. ‘‘Coscorrones.’’ Extra superfine class, very productive

in good soil; irrigated.

24247. ‘‘Bayas Oscura” (dark bay). Largely sown for the work-
ing class.

24248. A valuable bean in every sense.

24249. ‘“‘Gentlemen.’’ A standard class, extra good; irrigated.

24250. “Burritos” (little donkey). Extra good; I think the
same as ‘‘ Burros Claro” (S. P. I. No. 24260).

24251. Irrigated; extra fine table variety.

24252. -‘‘Aparecido.’’ Largest sown and best bean in Chile for
laborers. Irrigated.

152

40

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24206 to 24310—Continued.

24229 to 24261—Continued.
24232 to 24261—Continued.
24253. ‘‘Rosillo.’? Productive and very good. Irrigated.
24254. Asplendid variety forrich and poor. Swell to good size.
24255. Extra early; yellow pods; noncreeper; productive and
extra good.
24256. ‘‘ Mendes.’’ Irrigated. A fine table variety, extra good.
24257. ‘‘Baya Chicha.’’ Largely sown, profitable and good.
24258. ‘‘Amarilla” (yellow). Extra fine and very productive;
a good bean. 5
24259. ‘‘Aparecido Pintado.’’ The largest sown and one of the
best beans for the laboring classes.
24260. ‘Burros Claro.’’ A first-class bean, white when cooked.
Irrigated. I think these are the same as ‘‘ Burritos” (S. P. I.
No. 24250).
24261. ‘‘ White Coscorrones.’’ Extra superfine variety, pro-
ductive in good soil. Irrigated.
24262. PisuM ARVENSE L. Field pea.
Exquisite flavor, sweet, medium late, prolific; white flower; extra fine
variety. :

24263. Cynara scotymus L. Artichoke.
“Ohileno.’’ Common sort.

24264. VicrA FABA L. Broad bean.
Very large and early. .

24265. CICER ARIETINUM L. Chick-pea.

‘‘Garbanzas.’’ Grown dry in poorsoil. Sown the same as beans in rows or
hills.

24266. LuPINUS sp.

A papilionaceous legume which grows wild in the sands near the seacoast.
Yellow flower. Might be made a food plant.

24267. LuPpINUS sp.

A papilionaceous legume which grows wild in the sands near the sea. Blue
flower. Said to be used roasted as a substitute for coffee, but I think it is bad
for this purpose. Might be made a food plant.

24268 to 24278. CucuRBITA sp. Squash.
24268. Mottled skin, black and red variety; large size; very good.
24269. Mottled skin, yellow and dark green; large size; very good.
24270. Extra good variety; thick, mealy, sweet flesh; large and

prolific.
24271. Extra good class, medium size; prolific; meat very thick,
mealy, and extra sweet.
24272. Light drab color; large size and prolific; medium quality.
24273. Oblong shape.
24274. Yellow and drab color; medium thick and sweet flesh.
24275. Flesh color and white; thick meat.

24276. Blackish green with white stripes; thick, mealy, sweet flesh;
prolifie; extra good.

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 41

24206 to 24310—Continued.
24268 to 24278—Continued.
24277. Thick, sweet flesh; productive; extra good.
24278. White skin; thick, mealy, sweet meat; good.
24279 and 24280. Cucursira repo L. Pumpkin.

24279. A distinct class of good quality, about 20 inches long and from
4 to 6 inches wide; prolific and a good keeper.

24280. A distinct class; sweet but fibrous; grows large.

24281 to 24293. CucuRBITA sp. Squash.
24281. A black-skinned variety having thick, mealy, sweet flesh;
good,

24282. Sweet, mealy, fiberless, and fleshy; good.

24283. Greenish white tint; thick, mealy, sugar-sweet flesh, no fiber;
extra good.

24284 and 24285. (No description.)

24286. Extra good class; medium size; thick, mealy, fiberless, extra
sweet flesh; prolific.

24287. Black skin, fine sort.
24288 to 24291. (No description.)

24292. <A very good variety, called here tin colored; sweet, thick,
fiberless flesh; large size; prolific; good keeper.

24293. (No description.)
24294 to 24301. Capsicum ANNUUM L. Pepper.

Aji Chielno. Various sorts in daily use; noted for their extra fine flavor.
Chile gave potatoes and red peppers to the world.

Ground or pounded with stones and mixed with finely chopped onions washed
in salt and water and afterwards squeezed dry and wet with vinegar, they form
a delicious seasoning sauce. In cooking it is used as “‘color.’’ Heat the fat or
butter until it is hot enough to sputter when a drop of water is dropped into the
same, put the pounded or coarsely ground peppers into the same, and leave
about a quarter of a minute; then add a little cold water, the object being to
extract the color and flavor of the peppers in the grease and not permit the fire
to so cook the peppers as to spoil the color or make the fat bitter or of bad flavor
from overcooking. This red grease is used in every kitchen to flavor all unsweet-
ened foods. The degree of hotness is determined by the amount of grease
employed. Anything fried or roasted is much improved by its use; meats,
fowls, and vegetables (especially onions) fried first in “color” and afterwards
made into soups, etc., are fine in flavor and attractive in appearance.

24294. Small size, hot kind.

24295. Common variety in daily use in every house.
24296. Common variety in general daily use.
24297. Pepper eaten green in soups, sauces, etc.
24298. Common hot sort.

24299. Medium hot, common variety.

24300. ‘‘White Chileno.’’ Eaten green as a relish in soups, sauces,
salads, pickles, etc., not nearly as hot as tabasco but better flavor.
24301. ‘Goat Horns.’?’ Common variety in daily use.
24302. SoLanuM sp.
153

42 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24206 to 24310—Continued.
24303 and 24804. Opuntia ricus-1npica (L.) Mill.
24303. Fruit of this is oblong and ripens in winter; the leaf is narrow
and 2 to 3 feet long.
24304. Fruit of this ripens in midsummer; the leaves are large and
thick; the thorns are very small.

24305. ANDROPOGON SORGHUM (L.) Brot. Durra.
A food plant recently found in Chile; unknown.

“White durra with small, semicompact heads; glumes very pale and densely
hairy, due probably to dry environment; seeds small, circular, and less flat-
tened than in our domestic variety; florets awned; resembles somewhat the
white durra of Syria.’’ (Carleton R. Ball.)

24306. CUCURBITA sp.
Aleayota, vegetable marrow; used for making preserves.
24307. CANNABIS SATIVA L. Hemp.

The ordinary Chile sort; about the year 1545 it was introduced by the Spanish
and has been largely grown since.

24308. HorprEUM VULGARE L. Barley.

_The common Chile sort; grown on dry hills in the worst class of red clay soil;
if this same seed is sown in better land it increases largely in weight and size
and grows cleaner. This seed is sent as harvested and thrashed by mares.

24309. Acacia CAVENIA (Mol.) Bert.

“ Espino de Chile.’? An exceedingly valuable wild thorn tree, grows abun-
dantly throughout central Chile, seeks the driest regions, and is generally used
for fences, is impassable and durable if cut when the sap is down; when green,
is flexible. It is used as a fence without posts, but more generally is woven
between three wires, thus making a very cheap and effective fence. The wood
is red streaked with black, extra hard, is used for cogs in mill wheels, and
spokes of the heaviest carts, coaches, etc., are made from it. This wood
makes the best, hottest, and most lasting charcoal, used exclusively for heating
dwellings. Grows quickly in worst dry soil of any class; the long taproot
reaches moisture at great depths in a few months. Sheep and goats are espe-
cially fond of the new leaf growth and the seeds. The seeds are sown with the
dung of these animals. They require a long soak. These trees, when cut,
quickly sprout anew. Their natural shape is half round; when pruned, they
grow round. It isa splendid shade tree. Leaves are very fine and beautiful.
Every part of the branches blooms (the females only) early upon the naked tree
before leafing, forming a dense mass of yellow flowers so deliciously fragrant
that the fragrance is extracted by the Paris perfumers.

24310. CrypTocaARYA RUBRA (Mol.) Skeels.
Peumo with crimson fruit.

24311. CITRUS AURANTIUM SINENSIS L. Sweet orange. -

From Brazil. Presented by Mr. Pierre Paul Demers, American consul, Bahia,
Brazil. Received December 11, 1908.

Bahia navel orange. ‘‘These scions were cut from very healthy orange trees,
namely, the navel orange grafted upon the ‘ Laranja da terra.’ I have eaten an orange
from one of these trees measuring 15 inches in circumference, and its flavor was deli-
cious. About one-third of these scions came from that particular tree.

153

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 43

24311—Continued.

“ According to planters here the scions grafted upon ‘ Laranja da terra’ give better
results than those grafted upon the ‘ Laranja tanga.’ For that reason the latter is not
much used.

“These scions come from practically the only regular orange grove in this city,
‘located at Cabula, about 3 miles from this place. The soil upon which the trees grew
contains 60 per cent, more or less, of reddish clay. Navel oranges retail here for 3 and
- 4centseach. They are not raised in sufficient quantities to supply the local demands,

a fact which is only attributable to the laziness of the natives.’’ (Demers.)

,

24312. ViTIS VINIFERA L. Grape.

From Beni Abbes, Africa. Presented by Dr. L. Trabut, Mustapha, Algiers,
Algeria. Received December 11, 1908.

“Large late grape. Reproduces itself from seed.’’ (Trabut.)

24313. I_tex PARAGUARIENSIS St. Hil.
From Buenos Aires, Argentina. Presented by Hon. Carlos Thays, director, Gov-
ernment Botanical Gardens. Received December 12, 1908.

For description, see No. 3035. For previous introductions, see that number; also,
Nos. 8953 and 19105.

24314 to 24325.

From De los Villares de la Reina, Salamanca, Spain. Procured by Mr. M. Fraile,
of this Department, at the request of Mr. Walter T. Swingle. Received Sep-
tember 15, 1908.

The following seeds, descriptive notes by Mr. Fraile:
24314. Pisum sativum L. Pea.
The common narrow-podded garden pea of Spain.
24315. Vicia monANnTHOs (L.) Desf.
This is used for making a food concentrate for animals, being ground and
mixed with coarser material, such as straw and the like.
24316. Laruyrus sativus L. Grass-pea.
** Muelas.’’ Used both as a food and for feeding animals.
243817. AveENaA sativa L. Oat.
Common variety of oats in the vicinity from which this particular sample
came, near the village of De los Villares de la Reina, in the Province of Sala-
manca.

24318. HorprumM VULGARE L. Barley.
In this particular vicinity this variety is used for feeding and not for brewing.
24319. Vicia eRvitia (L.) Willd. Bitter vetch.

An unknown variety. This vetch is ground like the algarroba (S. P. I. No.
24315) and mixed with roughage as a feed for oxen.

EeEE——E———————————————

24320. Lens ESCULENTA Moench. Lentil.
Used as a food and for fattening pigs.
| 24321. CiceR ARIETINUM L. Chick-pea.

One of the commonest articles of food among a large proportion of the popu-
lation of Spain.
24322. CICER ARIETINUM L. , Chick-pea.
This variety is prized for its greater endurance of untoward conditions than
the preceding (S. P. I. No. 24321) and giving higher yields.
Cc

q 153

44 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24314 to 243825—Continued.

24323. Triticum agstivum L. f Wheat.
Candeal (white or summer). A common variety of bearded wheat used for

bread making in Spain.

24324. Triticum puRumM Desf. Durum wheat. -
Rubion (red). A hard, bearded wheat, said to be used to some extent in

the making of macaroni and for fattening pigs.

24325. Triticum AESTIVUM L. Wheat.
Mocho. A beardless variety of wheat grown in Spain.

24326. Cirrus nosBiLis Lour. (?) ‘* Naartje.’’

From Warm Baths, Transvaal, South Africa. Presented by Mr. C. A. Sim-
monds, at the request of Mr. R. A. Davis, government horticulturist, Trans-
vaal Department of Agriculture, Pretoria. Received December 14, 1908.

Platskill. ‘‘The meaning of Platskill is flat or smooth skin and appears also to
apply to the shape of the fruit. The skin of this variety adheres closely to the
segments and there is never any of the puffiness which accompanies so many varie-
ties of mandarins. Although so closely adhering, it can be easily removed with the
thumb and finger, but it is not exactly what one would call a ‘kid glove’ orange.”
(Extract from letter of Mr. Davis, dated February 13, 1908.) See No. 21551 for further
remarks.

24327 to 24332. Oryza saATiva L. Rice.

From Honolulu, Hawaii. Received from Mr. F. G. Krauss, in charge of Rice
Investigations, Hawaii Experiment Station, December 14, 1908.

Seed of each of the following rices, descriptive notes by Mr. Krauss:

24327. Sample of our old type Japan seed, No. 153, which has been care-
fully selected for some years.

24328. Variety No. 144, originally received through your Bureau as §. P. I.
No. 12765. A very dwarf type of Japan seed; plant averaging less than 20
inches in height, fine foliaged and stemmed, of spreading habit, heavy tiller-
ing, 25 fruiting culms per plant; small seeded; matures in one hundred to
one hundred and ten days from sowing.

24329. Variety No. 161 (Omachi), 24 inches to 28 inches tall; slightly spread-
ing and inclined to lodge in heavy weather. Yields well and produces a
good kernel; one hundred and ten to one hundred and twenty days to ma-
turity. Similar to No. 153 (S. P. I. No. 24327).

24330. Variety No. 162 (Shimokaburi), 26 inches to 30 inches tall; of erect
growth; tillers well and bears heavily; kernel not of highest type.

24831. Variety No. 165. An opaque kernel type; 36 inches to 40 inches
tall; inclined to lodge; yields well; a kernel suited to the manufacture of
oriental cake flours; matures one hundred and twenty days.

24332. Variety No. 163. Japan type, received by Hawaii station from Dr.
G. Otsaka, Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station, Kumamoto, Japan,
fall of 1907. Said to be ‘‘the most prevailing variety in the southern pre-
fectures,’’ there called ‘‘Shinriki” or ‘‘ Sinriki.’’

Seed sown February 12, 1908; matured and was harvested June 25. Height
25 inches to 28 inches; fine stemmed; well foliaged; tillers well; quite spread-
ing, but not inclined to lodge. Yields prolifically a medium small kernel of
excellent quality. Recommended for further trial.

153

NE ee

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 45

24333. TuMION CALIFORNICUM (Torr.) Greene.
California nutmeg.
From San Francisco, Cal. Presented by Mr. Marsden Manson, Mechanics Bank
Building. Received November 21, 1908.

‘This is a rare and very beautiful ornamental tree, reaching a size of at least 3
to 4 feet in diameter and 50 to 75 feet in height, with handsome dark olive-green
leaves, somewhat like the leaves of the large fir. It requires a deep, moist, and
well-drained loam, and is a fairly rapid grower after once starting. The nuts sprout
quickest if planted in a paper or straw box and carefully hulled.’’? (Manson.)

24334. CERATONIA SILIQUA L. Carob tree.

From Miami, Fla. Received from Mr. P. J. Wester, in charge, Subtropical
Garden. Received December 14, 1908.

Grown from No. 6342. See No. 3112 for description.

24335 and 24336.

From Marandellas, Rhodesia, South Africa. Presented by Mr. J. H. Finch
through Mr. W. D. Warne, Umtali, Rhodesia. Received December 14, 1908.

The following seeds:
24335. ELeusIne coracaNna (L.) Gaertn. Ragi millet.
24336. PENNISETUM AMERICANUM (L.) Schum. Pearl millet.

24337. THESPESIA POPULNEA (L.) Soland.

From Miami, Fla. Received from Mr. P. J. Wester, in charge, Subtropical Gar-
den, December 16, 1908.

See No. 24135 for description.
24338. PINUS PEUCE Griseb.

From Bulgaria. Presented by Prof. C. 8. Sargent, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica
Plain, Mass. Received December 17, 1908.

‘This is one of the best exotic pines for the Northern States.’’ (Sargent.)

24339 to 24347.

From Pretoria, Transvaal, South Africa. Presented by Prof. J. Burtt Davy,
agrostologist and botanist, Transvaal Department of Agriculture. Received
December 15, 1908.

The following seeds:
24339. ANDRoPoGON sorGHUM (L.) Brot.

“Variety Roxburghii. The dark glumes are gaping and involute at matu-
rity; seeds much as the following (S. P. I. No. 24340) but more flinty; awned.”’
(Carleton R. Bail.)

24340. ANbRopoGcon sorGuHumM (L.) Brot.

“Probably variety Roxburghii. Seeds medium size, somewhat flattened,

flinty.’’ (Carleton R. Baill.)

24341. Viana uneuicuxata (L.) Walp. Cowpea.
24342. Pisum ARVENSE L. Field pea.
24343. ELEUSINE corAcANA (L.) Gaertn. Ragi millet.
24344. SrSAMUM ORIENTALE L. Sesame.
243845. ARACHIS HYPOGAEA L. Peanut.
24346. PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. Bean.
24347. Oryza sativa L. Rice.
153

46 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24348. DrIoscorEa sp. Yam.

From Manila, Philippine Islands. Presented by Mr. W. 8. Lyon. Received
December 16, 1908.

‘“Tongo. This is far the best yam in existence, in my opinion, which is based
upon experience with two or three of the alleged best varieties of both the East and
West Indies.

‘‘Habitat: Thin wooded or brush lands, growing in pretty stiff clay. Ripens and
stays dormant in the ground from October or November until the following May.”
(Lyon.)

24349. HIPpPEASTRUM sp.

From Caldera, Chile. Presented by Sefior Enrique E. Gigoux. Received De-
cember 18, 1908.

‘‘A yellow-flowered ornamental form.”’ (P. L. Ricker.)

24350. BAMBOS SENANENSIS Franch. & Sav. Bamboo.

From Japan. Purchased from the Yokohama Nursery Company, Yokohama,
Japan, through Mr. William D. Hills, agricultural explorer. Received No.
vember 27, 1908.

“Seed produced in Shinshu and Hida provinces only.’’ (ZHills.)

Suzu-Dake. “This bamboo also goes by the following names: Yama-Dake, Mi-
Suzu, and No-Suzu, and in several of the provinces is often called Hei- Jiku-Chiku.
It resembles Kuma-Zasa (B. veitchii or B. palmata, both of which go by this name)
but is larger. The nodes are not prominent and the largest stems attain a growth of
1 sun (inch) with a stature of 10 feet and more. ° The leaves are 5 or 6 sun in length
with a width of about 1 sun, narrower than those of the sasa and tapering off at the tip.
Seen from a distance the tree resembles Miscanthus sinensis (Xiphagrostis japonica
(Thunb.) Coville).

“ B. senanensis grows wild on mountains and open uplands and resists the greatest
extremes of cold. It spreads right into the deepest recesses and up to the highest
summits of the mountains. In some places it grows and spreads over an extent of
many square miles, being especially abundant at Suwa and Kiso, in the province of
Shinano, and the hills of Nambu in the province of Rikuchiu.

“Tn China this bamboo is said to be used for making arrows. It is tough and flexible,
so that crooked stems can be easily straightened, but the slender culms of those found
in the Kiso Mountains are perfectly straight and well formed. They are split in half
and plaited into baskets of various shapes and into mats, forming one of the products
of Shinano. Where this bamboo grows wild it hinders the development of trees and
obstructs the path of the mountaineer; but it is very useful for binding together the
crumbling sides of declivities and for thatching the cottages of the peasantry, in
mountainous parts of the country.

“Both in China and in the northern parts of Japan the young sprouts are pickled
and eaten. Furthermore, the seeds of this plant and of the sasa furnish the poorer
classes with food.

“Tn 1843 all the bamboos around the town of Takayama, in Hida, for a distance of
many miles seeded, and the population, young and old, assembled to harvest the crop
at the rate of 5 or 6 to (equals one-half bushel) per diem—in all, some 250,000 koku.
(the koku equals 5 bushels, nearly). This bamboo seed resembles wheat somewhat,
both in shape and taste, the common people calling it natural rice or bamboo corn.
It is eaten either parched or ground, the flour being made into small dumplings and
coarse vermicelli. Chemical analyses show that the composition is the same as that
of wheat or rye.’’ (Adapted from Satow’s Cultivation of Bamboos in Japan.) (Walter
Fischer.)

153

—— ae

—_——— Tite

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 47

24350—Continued.

“Tntroduced especially for the purpose of testirg its stems in the manufacture of a
matting woven for the purpose of taking the place of ordinary laths. If the stems
are suitable for lath-matting purposes it may be possible to grow this bamboo profitably
on steep hillsides in the South. Its use as a soil-binder is worthy of consideration,
but the effect on the development of trees should be carefully considered before the
plant is given a wide distribution.’’ (David Fairchild.)

24351. ALEURITES MOLUCCANA (L.) Willd. Candle nut.

From Honolulu, Hawaii. Received through Mr. J. E. Higgins; horticulturist,
Agricultural Experiment Station, December 17, 1908.

“Seeds procured for experiments in Cuba, Isle of Pines, and Porto Rico and for
the expression of samples of candle-nut oil for analysis and comparison with the
oils furnished by other species of the same genus.

“Aleurites moluccana (very generally known also under the synonym of A. triloba)
is at home throughout Malaysia and Polynesia and has been naturalized on the trop-
ical mainland of Asia, in Madagascar, and other tropical countries. It is abundant
in the forests of New Guinea, Queensland, Samoa, Tahiti, New Caledonia, Fiji,
and many of the Malayan Islands, extending to the Philippines. It is strictly an
East Indian or Polynesian plant and may not originally have been native farther
west than Java. The tree in its native haunts appears to prefer protected situations,
being common in woods and especially in narrow valleys and gullies. It grows
luxuriantly to an altitude of 3,000 feet, becoming gradually rarer to 4,000 feet, when
it falls off altogether. It is a rapid grower and gross feeder, and propagates itself
readily from seeds, which sprout in from 4 to 5 weeks. Its large, three-lobed leaves,
silvery pubescent underneath and glossy above, make it admirably suited for shade
and ornament in tropical countries, where it should be planted for its valuable seeds.

“The fruits resemble in size, and somewhat in appearance, the black walnut, with
a thick fleshy rind and one or two heart-shaped seeds about the size of a horse-chest-
nut. The seeds or nuts are very thick shelled, containing but 33 per cent of kernel.
The kernels yield approximately 60 per cent oil, making for the unshelled seeds 20
per cent of oil, which, owing to the thickness of the shells, is lower than that for
Aleurites fordii, although the percentage of oil in the kernel is higher than in the
Chinese species. The raw kernels are purgative, but are said to lose this property
when roasted; so, too, the half-ripe seeds are considered of delicate flavor when eaten
with salt, while the ripe ones are unwholesome. The Pacific islanders roast or cook
the nuts slightly, when the shells can be broken with a light tap. The kernels are
then threaded on bamboo splinters or cocoanut-leaf ribs, bound in leaves or bark,
and in this way beautifully bright burning, but sooty and disagreeably smelling
torches are obtained—herein the origin of the name candle nut.

“Candle-nut oil is known and sold under many names, which are used also to des-
ignate the tree or nuts which produce it: In Hawaii, kukui; in Ceylon, kekune; in
India, belgaum walnut; in Jamaica, Spanish or country walnut; in the Philippines,
lumbang; in French colonies, bancoul or noix de Moluques or chandelles (candle).
According to Louis Edgar Andés the oil compares favorably with linseed in the
durability of products made from it, but with some advantage over the latter in the
rapidity with which it dries. It can consequently be used industrially for the manu-
facture of the same products. Its present price however—due principally, it seems,
to the lack of cheap and efficient methods of shelling the nuts—does not allow it to

‘compete with linseed. Candle-nut oil is not imported into the United States, but

small quantities of the kernels find their way from Australia, various parts of Poly-
nesia and Malaysia and the Philippines to European ports, where the oil expressed
from them is used principally for soap making.’’ (Walter Fischer.)

48 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24353 to 24364.
From Chile. Received through Mr. José D. Husbands, Limévida, Chile, Decem-

ber 17, 1908.
The following seeds, with notes by Mr. Husbands:
24353. Mepicaco sativa L. Alfalfa. .
Imported from Switzerland.
24354 to 24357. CucurRsITa sp. Squash.

24354. Extra large; good for fodder.

24355. From Curico. A good table class.
24356. From Curico. A good table class.
24357. From Rancagua. A good table class.

24358. SoLANUM TUBEROSUM L. Potato.

““ Perhuenchas.’’ Named from an Indian tribe of the same name. Grown
without deterioration from the beginning of colonial days.

24359. PassIFLORA QUADRANGULARIS L.

“Pasionaria de Ecuador.’’ Was an edible fruit; I think it has a blue flower.
Grown in Chile.

24360. PASSIFLORA PINNATISTIPULA Cay.

“Pasionaria de Chile.’’ The wild residence of this plant is in the provinces
of Valparaiso and Aconcagua, near the sea. It belongs to the subgenus
Tacsonia of Passiflora.

243861 to 24364. ANoNA CHERIMOLA Mill.
24361 and 24362. (No remarks.)
24363. Somewhat small, with dark skin.
24364. A large variety, about 5 inches by 4 inches; a splendid fruit.

24365 and 24366. Matus spp.
From Jamaica Plain, Mass. Presented by Mr. Jackson Dawson, Arnold Arbo-
retum. Received December 19, 1908.
Seeds of the following:
24365. MALus SYLVESTRIS X BACCATA.
24366. Matus sBaccata (L.) Moench.

‘“These are extraordinary keepers, and, as most of our crab apples are not good keep-
ers, these therefore may be used in experimental work.’’ (Dawson.)

To be used in breeding or as stocks in cooperative experiments with the Mississippi
Valley Apple Breeders’ Association.

24367. MeEDICAGO SATIVA L. Alfalfa.

From Arabia. Purchased from Mr. H. P. Chalk, manager for the Hills Brothers
Company, in Bussorah, Persian Gulf, through Mr. William C. Magelssen, Ameri-
can consul, Bagdad, Turkey. Received December 5, 1908.

Arabian alfalfa or Jet. (See No. 12992 for description.) This has proved of great
promise in Arizona and California.

24368. Panicum suLtcatum Aubl.

From Miami, Fla. Received through Mr. P. J. Wester, in charge, Subtropical
Garden, December 5, 1908.

153

ui

OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 49

24368—Continued.

“This plant does exceedingly well here, and it has recently occurred to me that it
would be a successful and cheap substitute for palms for decorative purposes in the
North.’ ( Wester.)

“This is extensively grown in gardens in Mexico as an ornamental under the name
of ‘Hoja de vandera.’” (Frederic Chisolm.)

24369. Viana uNGuICULATA (L.) Walp. Cowpea.
From Biloxi, Miss. Procured by Prof. 8. M. Tracy. Received November 25,
1908.

*“*A variety of cowpea, the vines of which were 50 feet long, and it was stated by
the owner to grow 100 feet long. The plants were dead-when I saw them, but the
owner states that the plant is perennial. The podsare very large, measuring 10 inches
in length and 4 inch in width, while the seeds closely resemble those of the ordinary
Whippoorwill variety.’’ ( Tracy.)

24370 to 24401.

From Russia. Received through Prof. N. E. Ifansen, director, Agricultural
Experiment Station, Brookings, 8. Dak., December, 1908, while traveling as
an agricultural explorer for this Department.

The following seeds and cuttings:
24370. Rises niGrum L.
24371. Rrses sp.

““(No. 5.) <A wild black currant from near village Mali Ssusum, steamer
landing place on the Obi River, a short distance north of Barnaul, Tomsk,
western Siberia.’’ (/ansen.)

24372. Rises sp.

(Stat. Baljatakaija.)
24373. RIBEs sp.
24374. RreeEs sp.

““(No. 96.) A wild black currant from Taischet, between Krasnojarsk.
central Siberia, and Irkutsk, on Lake Baikal, Siberian railway. For iruit
breeding.’’ (//ansen.)

24375. Rusus sp.

*“(No. 1.) A red wild raspberry as found native at Besentsug, near Samara,
Volga River region, Russia. For fruit breeding.’’ (/ansen.)

24376. Rusus rruticosus L.

‘“(No. 6.) *A wild raspberry gathered near Gorodische, on Obi River, a few
miles north of Barnaul, Tomsk, western Siberia. Fruit much gathered by
peasants and sold at steamer landings.’’ (Hansen.)

24377. Rusus rruticosus L.

‘*(Nos. 30 and 31.) A wild raspberry much gathered by peasants in western
Siberia; this was procured at steamer landing Katschiskaya. For fruit breed-
ing.’’ (Hansen.)

24378. RuBus sp.

(No. 34.) Wild red raspberry from station Tiaschet, between Krasnojarsk,
central Siberia, and Irkutsk, on Lake Baikal, Siberian railway. For fruit
breeding.’’ (/H/ansen.)

153

50 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24370 to 24401—Continued.

24379. Rusus CHameamorvs L.

‘““(No. 95.) A wild red raspberry from vicinity of Irkutsk, near western
shore of Lake Baikal, eastern Siberia. May prove useful in plant breeding.”’
(Hansen. )

24380. Prunus papbus L.

‘““(No. 7.) A wild cherry gathered by peasants and sold at steamer landing
at Gorodische, on Obi River, a few miles north of Barnaul, Tomsk, western
Siberia.’’ (Hansen.)

24381. PruNus papus L.

(Bada. )

24382. Prunus pavus L.

(Bada.)

24383. Prunus papus I.

(Bada Baikal.)

24384. Prunus pomestica L.
24385. Rosa sp.

‘“(No. 19.) A wild rose as found between Ruchekowa and Koliwan, in
northern Altai Mountain Range, southern Tomsk province, western Siberia.”’
(Hansen. )

24386. Rosa sp.

‘“(No. 20.) A wild rose as found between Ruchekowa and Koliwan, in north-
ern Altai Mountain Range, southern Tomsk province, western Siberia.’
(Hansen. )

24387. Rosa sp.

‘“(No. 47.) Wild rose from a sand desert, an arm of the Gobi desert, at station
Charonte, Transbaikal region, a few miles over the Chinese border, on the
Siberian railway.’’ (Hansen.)

24388. Rosa sp.

““(No. 80.) A wild rose from the open steppe at Belaglasowa, southern Tomsk
province, western Siberia.’’ (J/ansen.)
24389. MAt.us sp.

‘“(No. 36.) From village Lisinsk, Semipalatinsk province, western Siberia.
Probably a variety of the Siberian crab, Pyrus (Malus) baccata. See No. 44
(S. P. I. No. 24390).”’ (Hansen.)

24390. Matus sp.

‘“(No. 44.) Same as No. 36 (S. P. I. No. 24389). Both from a lot sent to
the experiment station, Omsk, Siberia.’’ (ansen.)
24391. PyRus sp.

‘*(No. 45.) A small-fruited yellow pear sold by Chinese at fruit bazaar,
station Manchuria, Siberian railway. Said to come from Harbin.’’ (Hansen.)
24392. MALuUSs sp.

‘“(No. 48.) Seeds of a medium-sized subacid apple, yellow with red blush;
sold by Chinese at fruit bazaar, station Manchuria, Siberian railway. Said to
be shipped from Harbin district.”’ (//ansen.)

24393. Matus sp.
‘“(No. 49.) Same as No. 44 (S. P. I. No. 24390), but of a larger fruited va-

”)

riety.’’ (Hansen.)

153

4 OCTOBER 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1908. 5 i

24370 to 24401—Continued.
24394. Pyrus sp.

243895. CRATAEGUS sp. Hawthorn.
“(No. 62.) Native hawthorn from Irkutsk, near Lake Baikal, eastern
Siberia.’’ (//ansen.) :
24396. VACINNIUM sp.
““(No. 46.) As gathered wild near Chita, Transbaikal region, and sold on

fruit bazaar. The largest fruit of blueberry type I have ever seen, averaging
three or four times larger than ordinary blueberries.’’ (//ansen.)
24397. Fracaria vesca L.

*“(No. 2.) Seeds of a wild strawberry from near Syrastan, on the Siberian
railway, western Siberia, between Zlautoust and Chelabinsk. Jor fruit breed-
' ing.”’

24398. Rusvs sp.
“(No. 97.) Wild raspberry from station Bogotol, between Taiga and Kras-
noyarsk, central Siberia, on Siberian railway.’’ (J/ansen.)
24399. Fraaaria vesca L.
(St. Tajga.)
: 24400. Paronia sp.

; (No. 93.) As found wild near Stretinsk, near beginning of the Amur
; River, Transbaikal region, eastern Siberia. Here it gets extremely cold in
p winter. Of interest to breeders of Pzeonias.’’ +(/Tansen.)

24401. CoryLuS sp.

“(No. 70.) Probably C. heterophylla. The wild hazelnut from near Buch-
edu, in the Chingan Mountains, on the Siberian railway, in western Manchu-
ria, the farthest eastern point reached in my 1908 trip.”’ (//anscn.)

24402 and 24403.
From Piracicaba, Brazil. Presented by Dr. J. W. Hart. Received February 28,
1908. Numbered for convenience in distributing December, 1908.
The following plants:
24402. Panicum muticum Forsk. Para grass.
. Apparently distinct from the ordinary variety of Para grass grown in the
United States.
24408. CaprioLta DACTYLON (L.) Kuntze. Bermuda grass.

This grass is grown in Brazil under the name of “‘Graminaz fina.”’ The va-
riety is apparently distinct from the ordinary variety of Bermuda grass grown
in the United States.

24404. CopeRNICIA CERIFERA Mart. Carnauba palm or Brazil-
ian wax palm.
From Piracicaba, Brazil. Presented by Dr. J. W. Hart. Received December
26, 1908.

“This tree is not native to this section of Brazil and it may be possible that these
seeds will give you hardier plants than those grown in the hotter portions of the coun-
try.” (Hart.)

‘The stem of this plant furnishesstarch; thesap, sugar; the leaves, a rope fiber; the
pinne are woven into mats, hats, baskets, and brooms; the inner part of the leaf
stalks serves as a substitute for cork. and most important of all the young leaves are

153

52 SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

24404—Continued.

covered with a valuable wax harder than that of bees and used for making candles,
covering phonograph cylinders, etc. Each tree furnishes about 4 pounds of wax
annually.’? (Adapted from Von Mueller.)

24405 to 24413. EucaLyprus spp.
From Los Angeles, Cal. Purchased from Messrs. Johnson & Musser. Received
December 21, 1908.
Seed of the following varieties to be tested in south Texas, Florida, and the Gulf
Coast States on the recommendation of Messrs. Johnson & Musser:
24405. Evucatyprus cornuta Labill.
24406.-. EucALyprus cLADOCALYX F. Muell.
24407. EuvcaLyprus LEUCOXYLON IF. Muell.
24408. Evuvcatyprus tonetrouia Link.
24409. EucALyprus POLYANTHEMOS Schauer.
24410. Eucatyprus Ltoncrrostris Muell.
24411. Eucatyprus rupis Endl.
24412. EucaLyrrus stIpEROPHLOIA Benth.
24413. EucaLyprus vIMINALIS Labill.

24415. EucaLyprus ALBA Reinw.
From Buitenzorg, Java: Presented by Dr. M. Treub, director, Department of
Agriculture. Received December 4 and 21, 1908.

See No. 21394 for previous introduction and descriptive note.

24416. FRAGARIA sp. Strawberry.

From Shanghai, Kiangsu, China. Presented by Mr. J. M. W. Farnham. Re-
ceived at the Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal., December 16, 1908.
White.

24417 and 24418.

From China. Received through Mr. Frank N. Meyer, agricultural explorer, at
the Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal., 1907; numbered for convenience in
recording distribution December, 1908.

24417. Crnnamomum campHora (L.) Nees & Eberm. (?)

From Hangchow, Chekiang, China. ‘“(No. 736a, June 27, 1907.) <A very
ornamental evergreen tree, bearing leaves like the camphor tree, but darker
green and producing blue-black berries on red petioles. The Chinese chop the
leaves up very fine, let them steep in water with clay or soil, and obtain a very
good, weather-resisting cement in that way, especially used in plastering over
old coffins which are kept standing above the ground.’’ ( Meyer.)

24418. Saix BABYLONICA L. :

From Fengtai, near Peking, Chihli, China. ‘‘(No. 665a, Mar. 26, 1907.) A
weeping willow growing on very dry places; used as a shade tree in the streets
of Peking under trying climatic and other conditions; well worth giving a trial
in the western regions of the United States. Chinese name Tsa yang liu.”
( Meyer.)

1538

VUELyprm tf LU VEUCEMDED Yl, 10U0- VV

24419. GARCINIA sp.

From Buitenzorg, Java. Presented by Dr. M. Treub, director, Department of
Agriculture. Received December 30, 1908.

Variety pyriformis.

: 24420. TRIFOLIUM SUBTERRANEUM lL.

From Auckland, New Zealand. Presented by Mr. A. B. Leckenby, Central
Hotel, through Mr. C. V. Piper. Received December 21, 1908.
“ Abundant and useful in New Zealand.’’ (Leckenby.)

24421. ANONA CHERIMOLA Mill.

From Calabria, Valley of Messina, Italy. Presented by Mr. C. Sprenger, Vomero,
Naples, Italy. Received December 3, 1908.

Variety Calabrica.

24422 to 24428.

From Buitenzorg, Java. Presented by Dr. M. Treub, director, Department of
Agriculture. Received December 28, 1908.

The following seeds:

24422. STIZOLOBIUM sp. 24426. Mucuna sp.
24423. STIzOLOBIUM sp. 24427. Mucuna sp.
24424. STIzoLoBIuM sp. 24428. MucuNA sp.

24425. MucuNA sp.

24429. Cucumis MELO L. Muskmelon.

From Odessa, Russia. Presented by Mr. Alired W. Smith, American vice and
deputy consul. Received December 28, 1908.

“This is a variety of sweet melon grown here and cultivated in several colors. It
is known here as ‘ Kachanka’ and sometimes also called ‘ Tsesarka,’ on account of its
spotted surface, resembling a guinea fowl’s plumage.”’ (Smith.)

153

i
'.
:

P;

Arachis hypogaea, 24114, 24345. =

INDEX OF COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES.

Abrus praecatorius, 23960.
Acacia cavenia, 24309.
Actinidia arguta, 23900.
Actinostemma sp., 23939.
Aegle marmelos. See Belou marmelos.
Aleurites moluccana, 24351.
Alfalfa, Arabian, 24367.
(Chile), 24210, 24353. |
Elche, 23871. |
Hunter River or Tamworth, |
23752.
(Peru), 23749, 23896, 23902.
Queensland, 23753.
Althaea rosea, 24009 to 24016.
Amaranthus sp., 23984 to 23988.
Amorphophallus bulbifer, 23881.
Amygdalus persica, 24141 to 24144.
Andropogon pleiarthron, 23929.
rufus, 23928.
sorghum, 24122 to
24305, 24339, 24340.
Anona cherimola, 24361 to 24364, 24421.
squamosa, 24172.
Apium graveolens, 23970.
Apricot (India), 24140.

24130, |

Artichoke (Chile), 24263.

Arundo donax, 23866.

Asparagus filicinus giraldii, 24146.
Aster, China, 24087 to 24109.
Astragalus sinicus, 23930.

Avena sativa, 24317.

Bael. See Belou marmelos.
Balsam. See Impatiens balsamina.
Bamboo (Chile), 23864 to 23869.
Misuzudake, 23746.
Suzu-Dake, 24350.
Bambos sp., 23922.
senanensis, 23746, 24350.
Banana (France), 23872 to 23875.
Barley (Chile), 23861, 23862, 24308.
(China), 24158, 24161.
(Spain), 24318.
153

| Cabbage, Chinese.

| Candle nut.

| Carob.

| Bean (Atrica), 24346.

bonavist. See Dolichos lablab.
broad, 24173 to 24175, 24264.
castor oil. See Ricinus communis.
(Chile), 23755 to 23759, 2376 Lato
23836, 24211, 24212, 24214 to 24225,
24229 to 24261.
(China), 23958.
scarlet runner.
cineus.
Beet (China), 23974.
Belou marmelos, 23745.

See Phaseolus coc-

| Benincasa cerifera, 23938.
| Benzoin sp., 24132.

Berberis amurensis, 23918.
Peta vulgaris, 23974.
Bombax macrocarpum, 23878.
Bradburya plumieri, 24202.
Brassica sp., 24163.
Juncea, 23965, 24162.
pekinensis, 23963, 23964.
rapa, 23966.
Brazilizn wax palm.
fera.

See Copernicia ceri-

See Brassica pekin-
ensis.
Calendula officinalis, 24079 to 24081.
California nutmeg. See Yumion califor-
nicum.
Callistemma chinensis, 24087 to 24109.
Calopogonium coeruleum, 24197.
orthocarpum, 24198.
Cananga odorata, 24203.
See Aleurites moluccana.
Cannabis sativa, 24307.
Capriola dactylon, 24403.
Capsicum annuum, 23975, 24294 to 24301,
Carica sp., 23917.
papaya, 23915.
Carissa carandas, 23750, 24194.
Carnauba palm.
See Ceratonia siliqua.
Carrot (China), 23971.

See Copernicia cerifera

or
cr

56

Cassia occidentalis, 23993, 23994.
Cebadilla. See Schoenocaulon officinale.
Cecropia peltata, 23901.
Celery (China), 23970.
Celosia argentea, 23977 to 23983.
Ceratonia siliqua, 24334.
Cherry, wild. See Prunus padus.
Chick-pea. See Cicer arietinum.
Chinese pink. See Dianthus chinensis.
Chrysanthemum coronarvum, 24074, 24075.
Chrysophyllum monopyrenum, 24134.
Chusquea quila, 23867 to 23869.
valdiviensis, 23864, 23865.
Cicer arietinum, 23852 to 23855, 24265,
24321, 24322.
Cinnamomum camphora, 24417.
Citrus aurantium sinensis, 24311.
nobilis, 24196, 24326.
Clover, bur. See Medicago denticulata.
Coix lachryma-jobi, 23962.
Colocasia esculenta, 23876, 23877.
Copernicia cerifera, 24404.
Coriandrum sativum, 23972.
Corn, blue, 24137.
(Mexico), 24137, 24138.
white, 24138.
Corylus sp., 24401.
Cowpea (Africa), 24341.
Black, 24189.
Black-Eye, 24190, 24191.
brown, 24186, 24187.
Brown-Eye, 24192.
(Chile), 23760.
(China), 24185 to 24192.
Crassina elegans, 24076 to 24078.
Crataegus sp., 24395.
Crinodendron patagua, 24136.
Crotalaria sp., 24115 to 24117.
hildebrandtii, 24118.
striata, 24119.
Cryptocarya rubra, 23897, 24310.
Cucumber (China), 23935.
Cucumis sp., 24204.
melo, 23936, 24429.
sativus, 23935.
Cucurbita sp., 23837 to 23840, 23842 to
23844, 23933, 24268 to 24278,
24281 to 24293, 24306, 24354 to
24357.
maxima, 23841, 23845.
pepo, 23934, 23946 to
24279, 24280.
Currant (Siberia). See Ribes spp.
Cynara scolymus, 24263.

iRay33

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

Dahlia (Mexico), 24168, 24169.
Dahlia sp., 24168, 24169.
Datura sp., 24001, 24002, 24017 to 24019.
Daucus carota, 23971.
Dianthus chinensis, 24063 to 24066.
Dioscorea sp., 24348.
Dolichos sp., 24120.
lablab, 23953 to 23956.

Durra. See Sorghum.

Edgeworthia gardneri, 23754.
Eggplant (China), 23976.
white, 24176.
Eleusine coracana, 24335, 24343.
Eragrostis sp., 23920, 23921.
Eucalyptus alba, 24415.
cladocalyx, 24406.
cornuta, 24405.
leucorylon, 24407.
longifolia, 24408.
longirostris, 24410.
polyanthemos, 24409.
rudis, 24411.
siderophloia, 24412.
viminalis, 24413.

Four o’clock. See Mirabilis jalapa.
Fragaria sp., 24416.

moschata, 24165.

vesca, 24397, 24399.

Galactia striata, 24200.
tenuiflora, 24199.

| Garcinia sp.,24131, 24419.

cornea, 23882.
Glycine hispida, 24180 to 24184.
Gourd (China), 23932, 23937,

23940 to 23945.
Grape (Africa), 24312. _
Grass, Bermuda. See Capriola dactylon.
Para. See Panicum muticum.

Grass-pea. See Lathyrus sativus.
Greigia sphacelata, 24206, 24207.

23938,

Hansen, N. E., seeds and cuttings se-
cured, 24370 to 24401.
Helianthus sp., 24070.
annuus, 24071 to-24073.
Hemp (Chile), 24307.
iTibiscus sp., 24000.
Hippeastrum sp., 24349.
Hollyhock. See Althaea rosea.
Hordeum sp., 23862, 24159.
vulgare, 23861,
24308, 24318.

24158, 24161,

Sa

el Cle Or ee ee

Millet, pearl.

INDEX OF COMMON

Husbands, José D., seeds and plants se-
cured, 23755 to 23869, 24206 to 24310, |
24353 to 24364.

Ilang ilang. See Cananga odorata.

Ilex paraguariensis, 24313.

Impatiens balsamina, 24045 to 24058.

Indigofera sp., 24121.

Ipomoea sp., 24030, 24031.
purpurea, 24020 to 24029.

Tris ensata, 24032.

Job’s tears. See Coix lacryma-jobi.
Juglans nigra, 23863, 24209.

Kafir. See Sorghum.

Lactuca sativa, 23973, 24086.

Lagenaria vulgaris, 23932, 23940 to 23945.
Lathyrus sativus, 23856, 23857, 24316.
Lens esculenta, 23858, 23859, 24320.
Lentil. See Lens esculenta.

Lettuce (China), 23973, 24086.
Ligustrum sp., 23919.

Luffa cylindrica, 23937.

Lupinus sp.,24266, 24267.

Malpighia guadalajarensis, 24147.
Malus sp., 24389, 24390, 24392, 24393.
baccata, 24365.
sylvestris X baccata, 24366.
Malva sp., 24003 to 24008.
Mangifera indica, 23747, 24170.
Mango, Maller, 23747.
Pico, 24170.
Medicago denticulata, 23931. |
sativa, 23749, 23752, 23753, |
23871, 23896, 23902, 24210, |
24353, 24367. |
Melaleuca leucadendron, 24166, 24167. |
Meyer, Frank N., seeds secured, 23913, |

23930 to 24113, 24417, 24418.
See Pennisetum
num.
proso. See Panicum miliaceum.
ragi. See Eleusine coracana.
Mirabilis jalapa, 24033 to 24044.
Mitsumata. See Edgeworthia gardneri.
Morning-glory. See Ipomoea purpurea.
Mucuna sp., 24425 to 24428.
Musa cavendishii, 23875.
paradisiaca, 23872 to 23874.
Muskmelon (China), 23936.
(Russia), 24429.
Mustard, Chinese. See Brassica juncea.
153

AND SCIENTIFIC

america- |
i

NAMES. 57
‘“‘Naartje,’’ Groenskil, 24196.

Platskill, 24326.
Nicotiana tomentosa, 23914.

Oat (Spain), 24317.

Opuntia ficus-indica, 24303, 24304.
Orange, Bahia navel, 24311.

Oryza sativa, 24193, 24327 to 24332, 24347.

Paeonia sp., 24400.
Panicum, sp., 24113.
miliaceum, 24110 to 24112.
muticum, 24402.
serratum, 23926.
sulcatum, 24368.
Papaver rhoeas, 23990 to 23992.
somniferum, 23989.
Papaw (Transvaal), 23915.
wild (Brazil), 23917.
Passiflora sp., 23880.
laurifolia, 23879.
pinnatistipula, 24360.
quadrangularis, 24359.
Pea, chick. See Cicer arietinum.
field. See Pisum arvense.
garden. See Piswm sativum.
grass. See Lathyrus sativus.
Peach (India), 24141 to 24144,
Peanut (Africa), 24345.
Gambia, 24114.
Pear (India), 24145.
See also Pyrus sp.
Pennisetum americanum, 24336.
Pepper (Chile), 24294 to 24301.
(China), 23975.
Persea lingue, 24208.
Phaseolus coccineus, 23957, 24226 to 24228.
lunatus, 23916.
vulgaris, 23755 to 23759, 23761
to 23836, 23958, 24211, 24212,
24214 to 24225, 24229 to
24261, 24346.
Pine (Bulgaria), 24338.
(China), 23913.
Pinus densiflora, 23913.
peuce, 24338.
Pisum arvense, 23846 to 23851, 24177 to
24179, 24262, 24342.
sativum, 23860, 24314.
Pogonarthria falcata, 23925.
Polygonum orientale, 23995 to 23999.
Pomegranate (Syria), 24148 to 24154.
Poppy (China), 23989 to 23992.
Potato (Chile), 24358.

58

Prince’s-feather.
tale. :
Prunus armeniaca, 24140.
domestica, 24384.
padus, 24380 to 24383.
Pumpkin (Chile), 24279, 24280.
inedible oil, 24204.
Punica granatum, 24148 to 24154.
Pyrus sp., 24145, 24391, 24394.

Radish (China), 23967 to 23969.
Rape (China), 24163.

Chinese. See Brassica juncea.
Raphanus sativa, 23967 to 23969.
Raspberry, blue, 23870.

Federal, 23748.
See also Rubus spp.
Ribes sp., 24156, 24371 to 24374.

nigrum, 24370.

Rice (Africa), 24347.

dry-land, 24193.

(Hawaii), 24327 to 24332.
Ricinus communis, 23961.

Rosa sp., 24385 to 24388.

Rose (Siberia), 24385 to 24388.

Rubus sp., 24375, 24378, 24398.
chamaemorus, 23894, 23895, 24379.

fruticosus, 24376, 24377.

- paniculatus, 23870.
rosaefolius X ellipticus, 23748.
xanthocarpus, 24155.

Saliz babylonica, 24418.
Schoenocaulon officinale, 24195.
Sesamum orientale, 24344.
Solanum sp., 24302.

melongena, 23976, 24176.

See Polygonum orien-

tuberosum, 24358.
Sorghum, durra (Egypt), 24128 to 24130.
_ white (Chile), 24305.
kafir, Blackhull, 24122 to 24124.
(Natal), 24122 to 24127. |
Red, 24126.
undetermined (Transvaal), |
24339, 24340.
See also Andropogon sorghum.
Soy bean (China), 24180 to 24184.
ereen, 24192, 24183.
yellow, 24181, 24184.
See also Glycine hispida.
153

O

SEEDS AND PLANTS IMPORTED.

Squash (Chile), 23837 to 23845, 24268 to
24278, 24281 to 24293, 24354 to
24357.
(China), 23934.
Stizolobium sp., 23751, 24422 to 24424.
Strawberry (China), 24165.
(Siberia), 24397.
white, 24416.
Sugar-apple. See Anona squamosa.

Tagetes erecta, 24082 to 24085.
Teramnus uncinatus, 24201.
Themeda forskalii, 23927.
Thespesia populnea, 24135, 24337.
Trifolium subterraneum, 24420.
Tristachya biseriata, 23923.
rehmanni, 23924.
Triticum aestivum, 24157, 24160, 24164,
24323, 24325.

durum, 24334.
Tumion californicum, 24333.
Turnip (China), 23966.

Undetermined, 24059 to 24062, 24067 to
24069.
Uvaria rufa, 23899.

Vacinnium sp., 24396.

Vetch, bitter. See Vicia ervilia.

Vicia ervilia, 24319.
faba, 24173 to 24175, 24264.
leavenworthii, 24205.
monanthos, 24315.

Vigna sesquipedalus, 23959, 24213.

unguiculata, 23760, 24185 to 24192,
24341, 24369.

Vitis vinifera, 24312.

Walnut, black (Chile), 23863.
Bolivian black, 24209.
Wheat (China), 24157, 24159, 24160,24164.
durum. See Triticum durum.
(Spain), 24323 to 24325.

| Willow (China), 24418.
| Wilson, E. H., seeds secured, 24155 to

24165.
Yam (Philippine Islands), 24348.

Zea mays, 24137, 24138.
Zinnia. See Crassina elegans.

re Seid I
Me

¢
i |

is. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 154.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA,

BY

KARL F. KELLERMAN,
PHYSIOLOGIST IN CHARGE OF WATER PURIFICATION INVESTIGATIONS,

AND

H. A. WHITTAKER,

ScrentTiFIC ASSISTANT, WATER PURIFICATION INVESTIGATIONS,
IN COOPERATION WITH

Tue MINNESOTA STATE BoarpD or HEALTH.

Issurp Novemser 6, 1909.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1909,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops.
Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES.

WATER PURIFICATION INVESTIGATIONS.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.
Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in Charge.
H. A. Whittaker, Scientific Assistant.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BuREAU OF PLAnT INDUusTRY,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., May 10, 1909.

Srr: I have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 154 of the series of this Bureau a paper
entitled ‘‘Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota.”

This paper was prepared by Mr. Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in
Charge of Water Purification Investigations, and Mr. H. A. Whittaker,
Scientific Assistant, with the informal cooperation of the Minnesota
State Board of Health. The successful prosecution of this work has
been due to the laboratory facilities and assistance kindly placed at
our disposal by Dr. H. M. Bracken, Secretary of the Minnesota State
Board of Health, and his colleagues Dr. F. F. Wesbrook, Director, and
Dr. H. W. Hill, Assistant Director of the laboratories of the State
Board of Health, to the skillful and conscientious technical work of
Dr. A.J.Chesley in bacteriology and of Mr. M. G. Roberts in chemistry,
and to the keen interest and appreciation displayed at all times by
the Board as the investigations progressed.

Respectfully, iB. T. GALLoway,
” Chief of Bureau.

Hon. JAMES WILSON,

Secretary of Agriculture.

154

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.
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ee
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= 7 = > se
al el
;
=
ie
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=
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fe 4
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as
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ete man

Fia.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

pumetnnnn eecrar. WEU NOL he <2 oe ahaa aos adel seen weee deacon

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

Perrrab Or Ole WENNUNG: 2.ocanueNaatnescwieec ani of mar nein nd ateicn'ee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

vicinity of dug well No. 3..

. Sketch showing the aes and ihe location of buildings in the

CPL AG aN (G7, ap Os ee a

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

TIGL G0 Da | oe ee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

emeibyacinenie: WEIL NG NGE =o seem oe eo ciate ee a ne ee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

vicinity of dug well No. 7..

. Sketch showing the fone ae and the eecon of buildings in the

Brammer VIOMOMe WEIL INO: O- «.2scaeea-ne sen =~ 2 ona se shane isaeccc ns

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

een Gh QhU > WEL INO. Osten scree eeteeee fcc swans obs Sotelo eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings | in the

mores OL Gum well ING: OQ. 2 oo Goce errs fo oe See eect e esse

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

vicinity of dug well No. 11..

. Sketch showing the topography and the Igeation of buildings in the

vicinity of dug well No. 12..

. Sketch showing the topeccipliy ead ‘ve fieeation of buildings in the

\PIGESa DING One Gluing gelUlON eB Seon see ero Oo eae eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

vicinity of dug well No. 14..

. Sketch showing the Gaepiy a the feetion of buildings in the

MIeMbe OMONE WOU NG kOscsse load eaters 2 eon wen e eee eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

Seema CNS WELEINO: UO gsc n nae ee nes a ns ok ste ope 8

. Sketch showing the topography and the oeation of buildings in the

vicinity of dug well No. 17..

. Sketch showing the fiposiaphy aide the ication of buildings in the

vicinity of dug well No. 18..

. Sketch showing the eerily ‘and fie eeation of buildings in the

RRM U TORE WELL INO), Oe onto eee oi - s- = ote ag ee eden

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

SeRIeie meen Well NOL 20st scene a ae oe en enw ese oe See

. Sketch showing the topography and the location of buildings in the

MMT MECC WEIL ING, Abe coc sp Same. - ween eee enka ales

. Sketch showing the topography and the, location of buildings in the

eemmn re aUieClI” WELL ING. feta a.m sini a wae evans Su - 2 ne nee e eae ==
154 7

Page.

20

21

22

23

24

25

25

26

47.

48.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of buildings

in the

vicinity-of dug well: Nos 23.2 2-22cecec- seni Geo = eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

vicinity of dug wellWNow24 eto. 3 oe aeee tee Se ae ee Sees

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

vicinity of dug well Nol, 204-2202 7. s-blch eee re nee eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of buildings i

vicinity omdug well No. 267.2200 sean: ooo ee eee a eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of Luck

in the

vicinity of dug well No. 27........ ty Piles aite net oleae eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the lecamen

wicinity, of dug well No. 28. — 25. 250s2 seen ae ee eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the herhoa

vicinity of bored well No.. 1. .:.. 2 2..-262nae tee oe eo

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of buildings i

vicinity of bored well No. 2......-. wade caida ee hee Sao ee

. Sketch showing the topography and the hereon

of buildings

in the

Vicinityof bored: well-No. 3. ....2 0... Ss ssedteee see ee eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of bbiec ec

in the

VICInItyAOlboreduwellUNio, 4-)4e-ee--seee eee ee eee eee Eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the Teen dom

vicinity oi bored wells Nos. 5: and 6.2... -2.).16.ce- eee ee eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

vicinity of drillediwell No: 1... 22... -ass.2 4gs0- ee se nee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

vicinity of drilled well No. 22.......0..<- 3225.22.02 + 2+: eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the teen ear

of ‘buildin: 1

Vicinityiof drilled. well No.3. - 22 3s..222 sec. 52 ee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of buildings

in the

vicinity oidrilled well No.4. . 2222-225. 22-seeese 50 == 2 eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

vicinity ofidrilled well No. 5. ...2.. os .asias ee. eee sa ee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of buildings i

vicinity:of drilled well No: 6... 25220. 2c)s 2 s4hoe- 9: eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of buildings

in the

vicinity oi drilled well No.7 5.2.22. 2s. «22222. o.o s2 eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the heen

of buildings

in the

vicinity of drilled well. No. 82... 5-ce.- 22 4: os-esee So ees

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

vicinity of drilled well No: 9). 22.5... 2.c.ed.40-ees: eee

. Sketch showing the topography and the ecco

vicinity of:dalled well No: 10. . 2. -..2.-e6n. oo. eo ee

. Sketch showing the topography and the location

of puildines i

vicinity of drilled well No. 11......-. with viele Ge tine eee eee

' Sketch BONDE, the topeemapny and the location

. Sketch showing the tapeeeaet, and the location

of buildings

of buildings i

in the

vicinity of drilled well No. 13. 22. .sc2..se5.-0nc- eee eeeeeree

Sketch showing the topography and the location

of puildicaest

in the

vicinity onamven well No. lL... 22... 2e8 gas - eee a eee

Sketch showing the fopoerenhy and the location

of buildings i

yicinity of diven well No, 2... ..sc8-beesedes =e ee eee

154

Page.

34

35

35

36

37

37

38

38

39

40

40

41

42

43

44

44

45

46

46

47

47

48

49

49

50

50

Fia. 49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54,

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

a.

72.

73.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Sketch showing the topography and the location

of aoe i

MERU Che CREE VONS NOOUL ING. Sarat a caer SA gh sic wh owe ciel abide nates

Sketch showing the topography and the location
vicinity of driven well No. 4

Sketch showing the topography and the location
vicinity of driven well No. 5.

Sketch showing the topography ad the ‘Tocation

of buildings i

of puildings i

eeTOAN OD Creve: WEL ING Ge sc nis cen andar trace ecm b alcdesee <a

Sketch showing the topography and the location

RIGMIny Orarrven-well NOf 7. <5 ¢iercaennon since so daeedec cee esis

Sketch showing the topography and the location
vicinity of driven well No. 8. .
Sketch showing the topography and the location

Uninet MaCr TIMED WelL.NO. Dlr. 21. fy eaec eae sake a ene Se ede e nts

Sketch showing the topography and the location

of ealgnee i

the

mtibeye OE OTEVENL WELLING, WQS 5 Sccree neds qos e 5. cas ote cet be cece

Sketch showing the topography and the location
vicinity of driven well No. 11
Sketch showing the topography and the ipestion

of buildings i

the

of buildings i

the

Pity ON GEDVON Well INO WI2 6 2 ee sete Seen 2 ies 5c ie ea a dsc cene =

Sketch showing the topography and the eation

of buildings 1

the

MICmeewIOL OhiVeON Well-NO.1S> 4 0c ctacees . oo acco eos sa name

Sketch showing the topography and the loeation

of buildings i

ine

Matalin veer G@eLven well No. 44.22. she... 26s. be eee cd ecee ee

Sketch showing the topography and the Mention
vicinity of driven well No. 15. Sia Bs

Sketch showing the topography aa the ietion

of buildings i

; ane i

Pectin OF driven well No. 162-2. 52 2 oeee 2... = eee eee eee os

Sketch showing the topography and the location

felmnin OL Wrivenl well No wdy 252 feeees. 2. ec dee sews ewe

Sketch showing the topography and the location

OTS @ I Gh CUR ORE ee

Sketch showing the topography and the foes prion

miei y OnOrkvel well NO. 29" 25.45 seek... <- see sce essences nee

Sketch showing the topography and the ineaon c
vicinity of spring No. |
Sketch showing the Upearanuy and the Incaiion

of buildings i

the

Sy eeninl Ceqmmmi Men NOx Jo 2-2 CaS rei. won en Sales ph ae

Sketch showing the topography and the location
vicinity of river No, 3
Sketch showing the ae opie and the location

of buildings i

the

LEU Ug CR Ee

Sketch showing the topography and the location

“STIRS PYRG Che

Sketch showing the topography and the ieee

ete MENTNAOR CIAGETIUO NO poe to Soe, ook tastes GEER . . 2 ose ee ace dew nee

Sketch showing the topography and the location

TEAR GGL SUG aS ORE 2 ee =)

Sketch showing the topography and the location

Pat intern CMHCIRLCEDL IN On! O>\ cio <= ese eas Memes ~~ 5. nee seen eae

154

B. P. I.—471.

FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

INTRODUCTION.

The chances of the dangerous pollution of a water supply increase
as the surrounding or adjoining areas become more and more thickly
settled, and, very naturally, the theories and methods of the sanitary
control of water supplies have been developed in cities and from
the standpoint of a congested population. It is becoming apparent,
however, that even in this country, with its comparatively recent
occupation and sparse rural settlement, both farm and city are suffer-
ing from the careless management of rural sanitation.

Two recent examples of this fact may serve more effectively to
emphasize the moral that it is necessary to learn immediately whether
dangerous sanitary conditions exist generally throughout the rural
districts of the United States and to discover means of controlling or
preventing such pollution. The first example is the prevalence of
typhoid in the city of Washington, D. C., in spite of the fact that
the water supply is filtered and of good character. The inference
seems clear that this unfortunate condition is due to the presence of
typhoid cases on the farms supplying dairy and other products.

The second example is the report of the very high percentage of
typhoid fever cases in some of the rural districts of Maryland, reach-
ing two and one-half times the percentage found in Baltimore, the
largest city in that State.”

While it is recognized that in only a limited percentage of cases can
typhoid fever in rural districts be traced directly to the farm water,
the condition of each supply fairly typifies the general conditions of

@ Rosenau, M. J., Lumsden, L. L., and Kastle, J. H. Report on the Origin and
Prevalence of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia. Public Health and Marine
Hospital Service, Hygienic Laboratory, Bul. 35. 1907.

Horton, T. The Prevalence and Causation of Typhoid Fever in Washington, D. C.
Engineering News, vol. 56, No. 19, pp. 484-488. 1906.

Sedgwick, W.T. Comments upon Mr. Horton’s Report and upon the Typhoid
Fever Situation in the District of Columbia. Engineering News, vol. 56, No. 19, pp.
488-489. 1906.

The Causes of Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia. Washington Medical
Annals, vol. 7, pp. 33-122. 1908.

Magruder, G. Lloyd. Typhoid Fever in the District of Columbia. Washington
Medical Annals, vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 69-71. Mar., 1907.

b Cited from Maryland Medical Journal by Dr. G. Lloyd Magruder. Washington
Medical Annals, vol. 6, No. 1, March, 1907.

154 J

12 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

hygiene and sanitation upon the respective farms. Evidently, then,
the study of farm supplies involves many problems in addition to
the examination of the water actually in use. A complete sanitary
survey of some representative area of considerable extent with a
thorough investigation of all the factors bearing upon each and all of
the supplies is necessary before intelligent recommendations for
improvement can be made. Unfortunately such studies? have not
covered a sufficiently large area nor have a sufficient variety of
methods been employed to meet these exacting requirements.
Adequate knowledge of a single farm supply may require a study of
the conditions of a rural home and its surroundings, and occasionally
include the epidemiology of an entire neighborhood.

The scope of the investigations here presented is limited to a single
State. This State, Minnesota, exhibits a wide range of rural con-
ditions both from the economic point of view regarding mineral and
agricultural resources and from the purely agronomic point of view
regarding the variety of natural and cultural features incident to
factors of climate, topography, geology, and relative age of settlement.

THE SELECTION OF SECTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION.

In the investigation of large sections of the country it is highly
desirable to discriminate intelligently in the selection of the districts
to be examined. The knowledge of the investigator preceding the
investigation of a rural territory should include at least general
information of the data available on its topography, geology, and
hydrology.

The variation in these features makes possible the selection of
certain typical sections which may fairly be compared with each other.
It is, however, necessary at times to make examinations purely for
epidemiological purposes even if this requires the duplication of
certain lines of investigation. |

The economic development of the territory is worthy of attention,
and in interpreting data it must be kept constantly in mind, as it deals
directly with the distribution of population, wealth, and resources.

aThe Water Supply. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Bul. 66. 1905.

Miscellaneous Water Analyses. Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station, Bul.
67. 1905. :

Palmer, A. W. Chemical Survey of the Water Supplies of Illinois. Report for
the Years 1897-1902. University of Illinois. 1903.

Ladd, E. F. Waters of North Dakota. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bul. 66. 1905.

Bartow, Edward. Chemical and Biological Survey of the Waters of Illinois. Uni-
versity of Lilinois, Report for the Year Ending August 31, 1906, and Report, September
1, 1906, to December 31, 1907.

Dole, R. B., and Wesbrook, F. F. The Quality of Surface Waters in Minnesota.
U.S. Geological Survey Bul., Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 193. 1907.

154

FARM WATER SUPPLIES WITH REFERENCE TO POLLUTION. 13

The distribution of these factors has a marked influence upon the
sanitary condition of any community, as well as upon the feasibility
of urging expenditures when improvements are desirable. This is
especially noticeable in the field of epidemiology when the investigator
is dealing directly with the source and transmission of a disease.

TYPES OF FARM WATER SUPPLIES WITH REFERENCE TO
FACTORS OF POLLUTION.

Farm water supplies can be divided into two fairly distinct classes—
underground and surface. The underground supplies consist of dug
wells, bored wells, drilled wells, driven wells, and springs; the surface
supplies consist of rivers, lakes, surface reservoirs, and cisterns. In
Minnesota the supply in most general use is perhaps the dug well,
although the ratio of the different types varies with the location.
Springs are used to a limited extent, usually in cases where their
location is convenient. The use of surface supplies % varies with the
locality and depends mainly upon the availability or character of the
underground supply.

The dug well, probably the oldest type of well known, is usually a
round or square excavation several square feet in area, the depth
varying in different localities according to the distance of the water-
bearing stratum from the surface of the earth. Its construction
varies widely in different localities. The crudest form of a dug well
consists of a shallow hole in the ground which collects water both
from the surface and from the upper layers of the soil and has no
covering to serve as a protection. Water from such a well is usually
dipped, either directly or by means of a rope and bucket. In such a
well no attempt whatever is made to protect the water from pollution.
In the development of the deeper dug wells necessity demanded the
use of a casing to hold back the soil, and various materials have been
used for this purpose. In pioneer settlements logs are sometimes
used, while in many regions boards are found. Modern casings?
include a number of materials, such as stone, brick, cement, concrete,
and tile, installed in various ways. Casings are now meant to serve
as a protection from surface pollution in addition to holding back the
soil; therefore, not only the use of suitable material but also the
proper installation of that material is of the utmost importance.

Certain methods of drawing water from a dug well afford avenues
for pollution of surface origin. The old style of drawing water by
means of a chain or rope and bucket is undoubtedly a dangerous one;
most of the wells equipped in this way are entirely uncovered, per-
mitting the entrance of various kinds of organic and inorganic matter,

@Dole, R. B., and Wesbrook, F. F., loc. cit.
b For antiquity of wells and casings, see J. G. Swindell and G. R. Burnell, Well-
Sinking, pp. 1-5. London, 1886.
154

14 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

and as the bucket on leaving the hands of the operator passes directly
into the water an opportunity is given for polluting the well should
the hands of the operator be infected. The ordinary type of iron
pump is usually safe, although the so-called “priming” of pumps
affords an opportunity for direct infection if the priming water or the
vessel containing it is infected.

The covering of a dug well is also of great importance, and if
tightly joined to the casing may prevent the entrance of surface
pollution. Wood is used almost entirely for this purpose, but on
account of the frequent wetting and drying to which most coverings
are subjected, crevices soon form between the boards and foreign
matter is admitted with the waste water from the pump. The
covering of a well should be kept as dry as possible, and the surface
immediately surrounding a well should slope away in all directions,
in order to form a protection from surface water.

The bored well is used to a limited extent in various localities and
is dug with machines made for that purpose. It differs from the dug
well principally in size, the total area of the ordinary bored well being
about one square foot. The casing used for this type of well is made
of wood, tile, or tin. The tin casing used in certain sections is simply
a soldered tin pipe extending the entire depth of the well. Long
slender buckets with loose bottoms are used for drawing the water
where the method of drawing is confined to the rope and bucket.
The bored well is subject to practically the same criticisms of con-
struction as the dug well. The area of surface exposed to external
polluting influences is much smaller, yet it should be protected in the
same careful manner recommended in the case of the dug well.

The drilled well, as the name signifies, is installed by means of a
drilling apparatus. This type is usually found in sections where water
is obtained only at a considerable depth and where the penetration of
rock or some other hard stratum is necessary. The size of the shaft
varies from about two inches to several feet.¢ The casing in some
wells extends to the bottom and in others only to the rock formation,
beyond which point the rock itself serves this purpose; the casing
usually meets the base of the pump above the surface of the ground.

If a well pit has been excavated the casing extends only into that.
In any case it should be tightly covered in order to prevent the
entrance of surface pollution. Drilled wells very frequently have
well pits which are about the size of a dug well and are from 8 to 12
feet in depth. Well pits 8 to 12 feet in depth and 3 to 4 feet in
diameter are often sunk around the shaft for the purpose of pro-
tecting parts of the pumping apparatus from frost, and at times are
a prominent factor in the pollution of a well, serving as catch basins

a2 Vernon-Harcourt, L. F. Sanitary Engineering, pp. 62-78. London, 1907.
154

FARM WATER SUPPLIES WITH REFERENCE TO POLLUTION. Lo

for polluted water of recent surface origin. The depth of some wells
is increased by driving or drilling. In these cases the dug portion
really serves as a well pit and should be carefully protected against
pollution.

The driven well, a type of supply first used at the beginning of the
nineteenth century,” is usually found in localities where water is
secured relatively near the surface. The casing consists of sections
of iron pipe screwed into couplings so as to be continuous and water-
tight throughout. The lower end of the pipe is armed with a sharp
metallic point perforated with holes, which serves as a penetrating in-
strument during driving, and prevents the soil from entering the pipe.
The iron pipe used for casing is usually about 2 inches in diameter,
but varies in size from 1} to 10 inches.? Well pits are even more
common with the driven than with the drilled well. In the driven
well the shaft is usually not large enough to inclose the part of the
pump which requires protection from frost, and a well pit is practi-
cally necessary with the ordinary type of iron pump. The driven well
requires less care and is probably as safe as any type of moderately
shallow supply.°

Springs are used to a limited extent as a source of farm water sup-
ply, their use depending mainly upon their convenience. A spring
often may be made a safe supply by carefully protecting it against
surface pollution, although in general the same factors influencing
the safety of dug wells should receive consideration.

Cisterns are a very common form of farm water supply in certain
localities where the underground water is hard to obtain or is unfit
for use; historically they are perhaps the oldest form of artificial
supply.¢ They are used for the storage of water from various sources,
but usually for rain water. They may be constructed of brick and
mortar, concrete, stone, etc., usually underground, or of galvanized
iron, and placed wherever convenient. If well located and protected,
the latter type should be satisfactory. The temptation is great,
however, to locate this type on the surface, and in this case the
temperature of the cistern water during the summer season is
much higher than that in the underground type, and the growth of

@QOl|shausen, J. Schlagbrunnen. Gesundheits Ingenieur, 23. Jahrg., No. 17, pp.
278-280. 1900.

Sinking Driven Wells. Engineering Record, vol. 40, pp. 362-363. 1899.

Noyes, A. F. The Driven-Well System as a Source of or a Means of Obtaining a
Water Supply. The Sanitary Engineer and Construction Record, vol. 16, pp. 264-265.
1887.

bSinking Driven Wells. Engineering Record, vol. 40, pp. 362-363. 1899. See
also Vernon-Harcourt, loc. cit., p. 48.

eSutcliff, R. ‘‘Abyssinian” Tube Wells. Cited from Journal of Society of Arts
by Van Nostrand’s Engineering Magazine, vol. 23, pp. 281-285. 1880.

@ Larousse, P. Citerne. Grand Dictionnaire Universel, vol. 4.

154

16 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

organisms, which are usually present in waters collected from roofs,
is encouraged rather than discouraged. A roof which is the cotehe
ment area eae cistern water may also collect anything carried in the
air. The character of the materials deposited will of course depend
upon the section of the country and the season of the year. Some
of the most common are dust, dead insects, excreta from fowls of
the air, seeds and spores of plants, and even vegetable growths.
Sometimes a roof is constructed of material which can be partially
extracted by rain water, and the solution thus formed becomes very
objectionable at times, especially if the water collected is to be used
for drinking purposes.

After the water enters the cistern proper the opportunities for
pollution depend mainly upon the construction and protection of the
type of cistern in use. Leaks probably offer one of the greatest oppor-
tunities for pollution if the cisterns are located beneath the surface;
in this case ground water is often given free entrance. Ground water
in the neighborhood of cisterns is not infrequently polluted, for in
its passage through the small amount of surface soil usually covering
a cistern very little purification is effected. Priming is usually neces-
sary in cistern pumps, and when water-borne diseases are present in
the home this practice may prove a very dangerous factor in the
transmission of disease. The quality of cistern water can be much
improved by installing a device for turning away the water caught
during the first part of a shower; this secures a thorough washing of
the roof before any water enters the cistern.

Surface reservoirs are built in certain farming sections® for collect-
ing and holding surface water. The construction of the ordinary type
is very simple. A portion of the surface soil is removed, which leaves
a depression for collecting water from a small natural or artificial
catchment area. These reservoirs are usually located in a more or
less impervious soil, although clay is sometimes used to line a reser-
voir which would not otherwise hold water. Water for domestic
purposes is either dipped or pumped from these reservoirs. When
pumps are used they are suspended on a platform built over the water
which is connected with the shore by a board walk. The purity of
such a supply depends mainly upon the protection of the area from
which the supply is collected; the season will also influence the con-
dition. of the water, depending upon the temperature, rain, snow,
wind, and other atmospheric conditions.

Rivers and lakes are used to a very limited extent as a source of
drinking water for farms in Minnesota. Their potability depends
almost entirely upon the environment of the individual lake or river
in question. The pollution includes principally waste material con-
tributed by thickly populated communities. in tural communities

4 In Kittson County, Minn., this ewe is common.

COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 17

rivers and lakes are used more extensively during the winter season,
the temperature at that time making the water more palatable,
although probably no less dangerous.

METHODS OF COLLECTION AND EXAMINATION OF WATER
SUPPLIES.

The selection of farms for illustrating various conditions of rural
sanitation is best made by actual observation and from information
secured in the field. If possible, several types of water supplies are
chosen in each community, though these selections are of course
influenced by the sanitary environment of the different types, more
time being given to the investigation of unsatisfactory conditions.
The data secured in the present investigation and recorded in the
field are grouped under three general headings: (1) Identification
data; (2) general and structural water data; and (3) general sanitary
and epidemiological data. The laboratory determinations are
reported in Table IV, pages 78 and 79.

The identification data for various reasons have been sufficiently
abridged so that only the general location of the farms under discus-
sion can be determined.

The general sanitary and epidemiological data may be of direct or
indirect interest in reference to the water supply, but in either case
include a concise statement of the apparent character of the supply.
This statement may or may not uphold the results of the analysis
of the samples of water collected, but is essential for interpreting
correctly the chemical and bacteriological data.

The collection of field data and samples of water was made by Mr.
H. A. Whittaker, representative of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
Both chemical and bacteriological samples were taken from each sup-
ply investigated and were shipped immediately to the laboratories of
the Minnesota State Board of Health for examination. The chem-
ical and physical analyses were made partly by Mr. M. G. Roberts,
of the State Board of Health, and partly by Mr. Whittaker, in ac-
cordance with the recommendations of the committee on standard
methods of water analysis of the American Public Health Associa-
tion. The bacteriological counts and the tests for Bacillus coli were
made by Dr. A. J. Chesley, of the State Board of Health laboratories.
The method used in examination followed the recommendations of the
committee mentioned, with the following exceptions:

(1) Agar was used instead of gelatin for counts.

(2) Incubation was at room temperature and for four days from time of plating. If
less than four days were established as a limit, plates would often be received in the

laboratory so long after plating that the allowed incubation period would already have
been exhausted in transit.

1569—Bul. 154—09——2

18 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA,

(3) The colon tests recommended alternatively as procedure A and procedure B by
the committee on standard methods of water analysis of the American Public Health
Asscciation were both employed, the former on 100 c..c. samples enriched by quad-
ruple strength broth and incubated; the latter on 1 c. c. samples prepared in the
field, which is also an enrichment method.¢

(4) The preparation of media followed strictly the committee’s recommendations
except in the following details:

Plain nutrient broth. Sterilized in an autoclave.

Dextrose broth. The muscle sugar removed.

Milk. Owing to variability of ordinary milk the following substitute was used:
Nutrose (sodium-phosphate-casein) 2.6 grams, lactose 1 gram, distilled water 100 c. c.
Heat to dissolve casein, but do not boil; filter, tube, and autoclave fifteen minutes at
15 pounds. :

Potato. Not prescribed by the committee. This is prepared by cutting diagonal
half cylinders from good fresh potatoes and washing over night to remove acidity.
The half cylinders were dropped large end down into test tubes containing wet cotton
at the bottom. The potato tubes were autoclaved.

The order of procedure in the adjustment of acidity in nutrient agar and gelatin
media was slightly changed.

(5) From all the dilutions made those plates were selected which yielded counts of
not much above 200, all that were higher or lower being disregarded. If deep well
waters or other waters normally showed counts below 40 to each cubic centimeter,
several plates were made and the results averaged.

The traveling laboratory case designed by Dr. H. W. Hill, Assis-
tant Director of the Minnesota State Board of Health Laboratories,
as an improvement on the field outfit formerly in use for sanitary
studies of water supplies, is very complete and satisfactory for work
of this character, and at our request Doctor Hill has furnished the
following description:

The traveling laboratory case is a box made of half-inch pine, 18} inches long, 63
inches wide, and 162 inches high, outside dimensions. The front opens on strap hinges
at the base. The top is supplied with a comfortable handle and opens on strap hinges
at the back; it carries a hinged iron strap, which engages with a staple on the front and
is secured with a padlock. The box is treated inside and out with anilin black, and
the corners are protected by trunk shoulder plates.

A half-inch horizontal partition divides the box into two sets of compartments. The
lower set consists of three compartments 8 inches high and 6 inches deep; two of these,
adjoining, are 5 inches wide; the third is 6} inches wide. The 5-inch compartments
each carry ten Petri dishes, which are wrapped in filter paper before sterilization
to exclude dust and to prevent breakage in transit. The third compartment carries
a Barthel alcohol lamp, and inverted over the lamp is a copper dish (4 inches in
diameter, 5 inches high), for boiling water to melt agar media, and a tripod for sup-
porting the dish on the stem of the lamp. A small bottle for extra alcohol and one or
two towels also fit into this compartment. The upper set consists of one large com-
partment 6 inches deep, 7 inches high, and 104 inches wide, and a small one 6 inches

a Wesbrook, F. F. Laboratory Methods and Devices. Journal of Infectious
Diseases, Supplement No. 1, pp. 322-323. 1905.
b> Hill, H. W. Suggestions for Changes in the Schedules for Making Broth, Gelatin,
and Agar, etc. Journal of Infectious Diseases, Supplement No. 2, pp. 223-225. Feb.,
1906.
154

te ee

DESCRIPTION OF THE WATER SUPPLIES EXAMINED. 19

deep, 7 inches high, and 6} inches wide. The small compartment carries six cylin-
drical 4-ounce glass-stoppered collecting bottles and two rectangular 5-ounce rubber-
stoppered bottles for sterile dilution water. The large compartment contains two
wooden test-tube racks, supported by vertical guides at the ends, and constructed of
}-inch pine as follows: From the center line of a flat wooden base (14 inches wide and
10 inches long) rises a flat sheet of wood (5 inches high and 104 inches long); narrow
vertical strips of wood at each end of each side of this sheet coapt with the vertical
guides on the ends of the compartment, leaving a narrow edge of the ends of the sheet
exposed to slide in the slots of the guides. Two pins in each vertical strip permit rub-
ber bands to be stretched across each side of each sheet from end to end. The test
tubes are inserted between the sheet and the rubber bands on each side of the sheet,
resting on the wooden base. Each rack carries about twenty test tubes. The floor
of this compartment next to the back of the box is cut away along its whole length for
a width of 14 inches; through this opening pass pipette cases containing two ther-
mometers and about twenty pipettes, four pipettes to a case. Between the racks is
space for an envelope containing gummed labels, spare elastics, a lead pencil, a glass
pencil, ete., and cards for recording data on samples collected.

APPARATUS.

Petri dishes.—Twenty to twenty-two standard 4-inch dishes with porous tops.

Test tubes.—Forty to forty-five standard 6-inch by }-inch tubes; twenty to twenty-
two containing 10 c. c. each of standard agar for plating, the remainder plugged and
sterilized but empty, for making dilutions, etc.

Pipettes.—Six cases of four 1c. c. pipettes each; one case containing 5 c. c. pipettes.

DESCRIPTION OF THE WATER SUPPLIES EXAMINED.

In the course of the present investigation 28 dug wells, 6 bored
wells, 13 drilled wells, 19 driven wells, 2 springs, 1 river,” 2 surface
reservoirs, and 5 cisterns were examined. A brief statement of the
sanitary condition of each supply is made, based partly upon the data
secured from the chemical and bacteriological studies of water sam-
ples and partly upon the conditions shown by the sanitary inspection
of the environment of the various supplies.

The identification of supplies as either good or polluted can be
made only by laboratory investigations upon properly collected fresh
samples of the water, together with a personal inspection by a trained
expert of the environment of the supply.

Further explanation is perhaps desirable regarding the use of the
terms ‘‘good”’ and ‘‘polluted”’ in the following descriptions of the
various water supplies. A water supply to be described as good must
be so located that the apparent possibilities of dangerous pollution
are remote, and the samples of water taken for laboratory study must
conform to the definition ’ of a pure and wholesome water:

Unquestionably the term ‘‘pure and wholesome water” as ordinarily used relates

to water intended to be used for drinking. Such a water must be free from all poison-
ous substances, as the salts of lead; it must be free from bacteria or other organisms

«The Red Lake River, on which four of the supplies examined were located.
b Whipple, George C. The Value of Pure Water, pp. 3-4. New York, 1907.
154

20 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

liable to cause disease, such as the bacilli of typhoid fever or dysentery; it must also
be free from bacteria of fecal origin, such as B. coli. In other words, the water must
be free from poisonous substances, from infection, and even from contamination. By
this term is meant pollution with fecal matter. Contamination must be considered
as potential infection. Besides this, it must be practically clear, colorless, odorless,
and reasonably free from objectionable chemical salts in solution and from micro-
scopic organisms in suspension. Moreover, it must be well aerated. Color, tur-
bidity, odor, dissolved salts, etc., may be permissible to a small degree without throw-
ing the water outside of the definition of pure and wholesome waters. In these minor
matters local standards govern up to a certain point, and it is in regard to them that
differences in judgment and experience of analysts lead to diverse classifications.

Dug well No. 7 illustrates these conditions. The environment of
the well appears reasonably safe even though it is not entirely sat-
isfactory, and the analyt-

Se ca ag Pee ta ical data secured from
es yee the water samples indi-
eet ain 1 ‘ins cate a good water both
ys ZI] a ade chemically and _ bacteri-
iy “ ee He “ ologically. Dug well No.
a eas alg \ A ae 10 shows the opposite
wy 0 conditions; the environ-
par tas WA “ x ment is very unsatisfac-
i) / 4 tory, and the laboratory
\ studies show that the
Se fe see water is polluted.
EEE Aiea Raced od A gee Bo see, )~=— I the tollowane ade

Fic. 1—Sketch showing the topography and the location of scriptions of the sanitary
buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 1: 1, Farmhouse; 2, ee :
stone house; 3, hay barn with basement; 4, chicken house; condition of the water

5, granary; 6, storehouse; 7, privy; 8, dug well; 9, drilled well; su lies exami e
10, barnyard; 11, hay barn; 12, hay barn; 13, public road. PP - d Upon
various farms, the loca-

tion of the farms, for obvious reasons, is shown only in an approxi-
mate way. Arrows are used in the accompanying sketches to show
the slope of the ground.

DUG WELLS.

No. 1. A polluted supply. The dug well should be abandoned
and water taken from the drilled well.

Location of farm.—Merriam Park, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 3, 1908.

Size.—Eighty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—In general, slope of ground is away from house and from most of the
outbuildings. The barnyard slopes in the direction of the basement stable.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 1.) The well in use is adjacent to the stable and
barnyard; 28 feet in depth; casing, brick. The unused well, which is of the drilled
type, is located midway between the house and stable, 140 feet deep, with a 3-inch
iron casing well protected at surface. Strata: Dug well (No. 8), 23 feet surface
clay and 5 feet sand; drilled well (No. 9), 130 feet surface clay and hardpan, 5 feet

154

DUG WELLS. aT

rock, and 5 feet gravel. Yield: Dug well, abundant during wet season; drilled
well, abundant at all seasons. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method
of lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Dug well (No. 8) is only 15 feet from barn-
yard; however, surface of well is raised about 5 feet above level of yard. The
barnyard unfortunately has no drain, and the surface of the yard is covered with a
saturated mixture of water and manure most of the year. The danger to the shal-
low well is increased from the fact that the supply at times is scarcely adequate.
The possibilities of polluting the drilled well (No. 9) from its surroundings are lim-
ited on account of its depth and surface protection. This well would undoubtedly
make the safest supply, but as more effort is required to pump the water from
a depth of 140 feet and because of the added objection of a slight iron taste, it
has been almost entirely abandoned; it is now used only in case the supply
in the dug well is insufficient.

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and 2\)
springs.—None. 4 | | \

Sanitary condition of farmhouse
and outbuildings.—House fair;
stables poor; privy poor, un-

protected vault. 4
Milk.—Used on farm. Sanitary

care poor.
Water-borne diseases.—None re- 2°

corded.
Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 2. A polluted sup- 5
ply. It would be imprac-
ticable to attempt to ob-
tain a potable supply from
a” ting lane ear aaa bamiatas ose aay Siti hs RGN ae
Location of farm.—Minneapolis,

Minn. Fic. 2.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of
Date of visit.—July s; 1908. buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 2: 1, House; 2, barn

Rize Thirty a hie and stables; 3, well; 4, pond; 5, pond; 6, street.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography.—The well is in the center of a marshy field about 20 rods from the house
and barn. The barn is on dry land elevated several feet above the marsh. The
slope from the house to the well is very gradual.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 2.) The well is in the center of a marshy field sur-
rounded by ponds; 15 feet in depth; casing, wood. Strata: Soft marsh soil. Yield:
Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron
pump. Sanitary aspect: The well is probably in the poorest location possible to
select, and its mouth has little protection from surface washings. Cattle make the
well a resting place and considerable manure is deposited about the well ready to
be carried in by surface washings.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Several ponds adjacent to well. The surface of
these ponds is partly covered with a green growth, the odor from which would indi-
cate very stagnant water. Some of the water in these ponds undoubtedly finds its
way into the well.

154

ae FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House fair; stables poor; manure
is thrown out on two sides of the stable and the leachings flaw back under the stable
floor; privy poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—Retailed in city; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 3. Aslightly polluted supply. This pollution could be avoided
by installing a good casing and a tight covering.

Location of farm.—St. Paul, Minn.

Date of visit—July 16, 1908.

Size.—Twelve acres; 2 owned and 10 rented.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography. —The house is located on the highest ground, the elevation being about
5 feet above the well and outbuildings.

Source of water supply.—(See fig.
3.) The well is in a protecting
shed; 80 feet in depth; casing,
14-inch planks; area of well,
3 square feet. Strata: Un-
known. Yveld: Abundant.
Method of lifting: Iron pump;
windmill for power. Sanitary
aspect: Poor. Thecasing near
the surface is loose and affords

opportunity for entrance of

Fiag. 3.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of surface water. The well cover
buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 3: 1, House; 2, sta-
bles; 3, wagon shed; 4, pump house; 5, tool shed; 6, ice
house; 7, privy; 8, hogpen; 9, chicken house; 10, well.

appeared very unclean, as
the pump house had been

used for sheltering chickens.
Cisterns.—N one.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House and stables fair; privy poor,
unprotected vault.

Milk.—Retailed in city; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—The owner of the farm had a severe case of typhoid two years
previous to the date of visit. He was accustomed to visit the city of St. Paul
daily. The entire family drank this well water at the time, but no others became
infected. It would seem reasonable to suppose that the fever was contracted else-
where than on the farm.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 4. <A polluted supply. This supply could be very much
improved by the installation of proper casing, covering, and pump.

RD)

Location of farm.—St. Paul, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 16, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and forty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The general slope of the ground is away from the house in the direction
of the stables. The house is 3 feet above the mouth of the well and about 8 feet
above the outbuildings, and a pond is on a still higher elevation.

154

DUG WELLS. Bea

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 4.) The well is about 20 feet from the house and 30
feet from a marshy pond; 38 feet in depth, 3 feet square; casing, 14-inch wood
planks. Strata: Clay, 28 feet, and sandy gravel, 10 feet. Yield: Abundant in
summer, but scanty during the winter. This would seem to indicate that the well
was drawing from the pond, as this source of supply would be cut off during the
winter. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Old-fashioned
bucket, pulley, and rope. Sanitary aspect: The well is dangerously located. The
house is only 21 feet away and ona higher level; a stagnant marshy pond is within 30
feet on a higher level; the unprotected privy vault is on the same level and within
35 feet. The mouth of the well is protected only with the usual slant-roof covering
of bucket wells. At high-water periods the pond overflows and forms a stream not 15
feet from the well. The casing does not extend above the surface of the ground.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and

springs.—A marshy pond Zz o t
filled with stagnant water : | Mie aes Gy ,
during the entire year. 8
Sanitary condition of farmhouse at ea ES Z (zs
and outbuildings.—Very poor | | i Apes
in every way. | uf y
Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary aS
care poor. >, \ | ii

Water-borne diseases.—None re- Be
corded.

Analyses.—See page 78. Ss ~
No. 5. A slightly pol- \ \ |

luted supply. The char- oo ‘

acter of the water could \ SS

undoubtedly be im- ™

proved by better surface Sy

protection.

Location of farm.—St. Paul,

Minn.

Date of visit.—July 17, 1908. Fic. 4.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of
Size.—One hundred and sixty buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 4: 1, House; 2, stables;

c : 3, granary; 4, well; 5, pond; 6, chicken house; 7, chicken house;
8, privy; 9, hogpen; 10, cow stable; 11, pond.

1

acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The ground slopes away from the house in all directions. The house
is 3 feet above the barn and 14 feet above the well. The slope from north to south
is quite gradual at first and then becomes very abrupt.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 5.) The well is 200 feet from the stables and approxi-
mately 400 feet from the house. It was originally an ordinary dug well, but later
a 12-inch tile casing was placed down the entire depth of the well and stones of
various size filled around it The well is 25 feet deep. Strata: Clay entire depth.
Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting:
Ordinary wooden pump with wooden pipe extending to the bottom of the well.
Sanitary aspect: Fair. The tile casing extends above the surface, but does not
exclude the danger of seepage through the loose stone filling surrounding the tile.
Abandoned well: A well (No. 9) 160 feet deep was abandoned some years ago on
account of & bad odor, excessive iron, and extreme hardness of the water.

Cisterns: One, used for drinking and washing purposes; contains a filter wall and
appears to be in good condition.

154

24 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House in exceptionally good condi-
tion; stables well cared for; privy poor; unprotected vault.

Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—No record of any having occurred in recent years.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 6. Probably a polluted water, although the bacteriological
data are lacking. This supply could undoubtedly be made safe
by installing a pump, extending the casing above the surface, and
banking and trenching to protect from surface pollution.

Location of farm.—Gladstone,

RGR ee Minn.

Date of visit.—July 20, 1908.
—> ,
2 [¥] a Size.—Thirteen acres.
<_ SS, Kind of farming.—General.
ee Pe J \ 9 S Topography.—The slope of the

ground is generally in one

[el \ Ss direction; the total fall be-

tween privy and stable, a dis-

tance of about 150 feet, is

\ about 10 feet.
Source of water supply.—(See
| | | fig. 6.) The well ismidway
| between the house and the
stables; 22 feet deep, wooden
| | | casing. Strata: Clay, 9 feet,
and sand, 13feet. Yield.—
i Abundant. Use: Drinking
i ! ! | | and general farm purposes.
Method of lifting.—Rope and
oO? bucket. Sanitary aspect:

Fig. 5—Sketch showing the topography and the location of Bad; no protection whatever
buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 5: 1, House; 2, barn; has been provided against
3, well; 4, ice house; 5, privy; 6, wagon shed; 7, granary; 8,
chicken coop; 9, abandoned well; 10, hay barn. surface wash and the well

seems to bein bad condition.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—One small lake; also a creek leading into lake.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very poor; stables very
poor; privy poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—None.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid thirteen years ago, at which time a different
water supply was used.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 7. A good water. The mouth of the well.should be protected
from surface wash, and a good casing and covering should be installed.
In its present condition the supply is in danger of pollution.

Location of farm.—Gladstone, Minn.
Date of visit.—July 18, 1908. ;
Size.—Seventy-five acres.
Kind of farming.—Dairy.
Topography.—The slope of the ground is away from the house in all directions. The
well is3 feet lowerthan the house, and thestables are about 5 feet lower than the well.
154

DUG WELLS. 25

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 7.) The well is covered by the pump house; 20
feet in depth; casing, ordinary 14-inch planks. Strata: Gravel and clay. Yield:
Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Ordi-
nary iron pump; windmill used for power. Sanitary aspect; Fair. The location
is slightly below that of the surrounding

ground and the mouth of the well has no eee, raed
protection from surface wash. Slop from

the milk house is thrown on the ground : ——s
near the well and undoubtedly finds its Sees

way into the well.
Cisterns.—None.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Several ——>

Bioner

small ponds; one small marshy pond about are

20 rods back of house. eee oF
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuild-

ings.—House good; milk house fair; stables ee

poor; privy poor, unprotected vault.
Milk.—Retailed in St. Paul; sanitary care 6

fair. [] rs <a
Water-borne diseases.—No record of any for

—"

the past three years. ee
Analyses.—See page 78. S —__>

No. 8. A polluted supply. It is O)

. : Fia.6.—Sketch showing the topography and the

possible that this supply could be pro- location of buildings in the vicinity of dug

tected from pollution if a tight cas- well No. 6: ale House; 2, barn and stables; 3,
3 : 5 wagon shed; 4, well; 5, privy; 6, woodshed.
ing was installed; however, owing to

the dangerous location and shallow depth of the well this is doubtful.

Location of farm.—Hastings, Minn.
Date of visit.—July 22, 1908.
Size.—One hundred and twenty acres.
Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—tThe surface
slopes from the house in the
direction of the well and out-
buildings.

f 7 Source of water supply.—(See
x) fig.8.) The well is about 15
YJ feet from the barnyard on low

| ground; 18 feet deep; casing,
uncemented stone. Strata:

Gravel. Yield: Abundant.

Use: Drinking and general

NUN es

Wi a PA farm purposes. Method of
a lifting: Ironpump. Sanitary
Fic. 7.—Sketeh showing the topography and the location of aspect: Fair; well too near the

buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 7: 1, House; 2, milk
house; 3, pump house; 4, wagen shed; 5, tool shed; 6, ice house;
7, horse barn; 8, cow stable; 9, well; 10, wagon shed.

barnyard. The surface is
well protected with tightly
matched heavy planks. The

mouth of the well is raised about 6 inches above the cement floor of the pump house.
Cisterns.—Used for washing only.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings —Exceptionally good.
Milk.—Skimmed mi!k used on farm; cream shipped to St. Paul; sanitary care good.
Water-borne diseases.—N one recorded.
Analyses.—See page 78.

154

26 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

No. 9. The cistern supply is polluted. The well is satisfactory
and should be used for direct supply where water of good sanitary
quality is needed.

Location of farm.—Hastings, Minn.
Date of visit. July 22, 1908.
Size.—Forty acres.

Kind of farming.— Dairy and general. ,

Topography.—The house is
about 35 feet from the well
and about 3 feet higher; the
general slope is in the direc-
tion of the outbuildings.

=a Source of water supply.—(See
= 10 fig. 9.) The well is 35 feet
i SS from the house and 20 feet
ne from the stables; after dig-

Pe !

ging the well a6-inch tile cas-
ing was installed and the well

--------1 filled; 127 feet in depth.
Fic. 8.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build- Strata: Mixture of sand and
ings in the vicinity of dug well No. 8: 1, House; 2, stables; 3, gravel. Yield: Abundant.
stone house; 4, granary; 5, corncrib; 6, ice house; 7, privy; 8, LES?
pump and milk house; 9, well; 10, barnyard. Use: Drinking and general
farm purposes. Method of

lifting: Iron pump; windmill used for power. Sanitary aspect: Well fair; cistern poor.

Cisterns.—Well cistern located at corner of stable about 15 feet from the well; circular,
with flat bottom and arched top, cement bottom, sides, and top; capacity, 75 barrels.
The water is pumped from the well into the cistern as a reserve supply in case the
windmill fails to pump. Almost the entire supply, drinking included, is used from
this cistern. An ordinary iron hand pump is used to draw water.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—Good.

Milk.— Retailed in city; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—None re-

corded. e
Analyses.—See page 78. ro) 4
No.10. A polluted sup- 0 fos | |
ro)
. \

ew we ew www = & oe ee ee

ply. The well should be
condemned for domestic i. / | |

use and another sunk in

a more suitable place.
/

Location of farm.—Red Wing,
Minn Fic. 9.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of

tar buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 9: 1, House; 2, ice
Date of visit.—July 23, 1908. house; 3, privy; 4, stables; 5, milk and pump house; 6, cistern
Size.—One hundred and three well; 7, chicken coop; 8, hogpen; 9, well.

and one-half acres.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography.—The entire drainage from all the buildings and the barnyard reaches the
well, which is about 12 feet below the highest point of the yard.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 10.) Well at corner of barnyard; 15 feet in depth;
casing, uncemented stone. Strata: Ordinary black marshy soil. Yield: Abundant.
Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump, though
on date of visit the pump was out of order and the water was drawn witha rope and

154

~?

DUG WELLS. 27

tin pail.

privy vault is located above the well. The
ground surrounding the well is marshy and
is flooded during the spring season of the

year.
Cisterns.—None.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Many

springs in the marshy section on which the
well is located. Hay Creek, a small
stream, flows through the marsh 10 to 15
rods from the well.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuild-
ings.—House good; stables poor; privy poor,
unprotected vault.

Milk.—Retailed in city; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 11. A polluted supply. This
well might furnish a good supply
if great care was taken in pro-

Sanitary aspect: Bad; surface wash from the entire barnyard and stables
has ample opportunity for reaching the well in case of heavy rain.

The unprotected

Fic. 10.—Sketch showing the topography and
the location of buildings in the vicinity of dug
well No. 10: 1, House; 2, wood shed; 3, barn
and stables; 4, bridge; 5, milk house and
corncrib; 6, privy; 7, well; 8, hogpen; 9, barn-
yard.

tecting it from both surface and underground pollution by
installing a proper casing and a tight covering.

Location of farm.—Red Wing, Minn.
Date of visit.—July 24, 1908.
Size.—Three acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Level of well about 1 foot below that of house.

<<
i ea Y ‘

———

ee

Y ro
— x

Zz <—,

_—
¥ a
Cee ee.
30 x
Zz

Fic. 11.—Sketch showing the topography and
the location of buildings in the vicinity of dug
well No. 11: 1, House; 2, barn; 3, well. X,
High ground; Y, intermediate; Z, low ground.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 11.) Well
about 30 feet from the house; 10 feet in
depth; no casing. Strata: Surface soil and
sand. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking
and general farm purposes. Method of
lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad.
The mouth of the well is practically un-
protected and can receive polluted ‘sur-
face drainage.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuild-

ings.—House and stables good; privy poor,
unprotected vault.

Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care fair.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 12. A polluted supply. It
is very doubtful whether this sup-

ply could be made a safe one.

Location of farm.—Mankato, Minn.
Date of visit.—July 28, 1908.
Size.—One hundred and twenty acres.
Kind of farming.—Dairy and general.

Topography.—Low level ground in the Minnesota River Valley.

154

28 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 12.) Well at the side of the house porch; 25 feet in
depth; casing, uncemented stone. Strata: Sand, clay, and gravel, more or less
mixed. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and house purposes. Method of lifting:
Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad; polluted from upper strata and also from surface
wash. About July | the house cellar filled with surface water and the well water
could not be used on account of its disagreeable taste and odor. Covering of well in

5 good condition but on a

O] level with surrounding

ground.

Z
O Se) Cisterns.—One, used for
A (2) washing only. 4

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and
springs.—Ponds during
9 wet season. One spring,

Fic. 12.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build- used for watering cattle.
ingsin the vicinity of dug well No. 12: 1, House; 2, ice house; 3, Sanitary condition of farm-

tool shed; 4, tool shed; 5, chicken house; 6, barn and basement h i) bint
stables; 7, privy; 8, milk house; 9, well. ouse and outbur UTS

House very good; stables
very-good; milk house good; privy poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Retailed in city; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid. <A boy, aged 15 years, taken ill July 18;
doctor called July 19 and pronounced the case typhoid; temperature 101°. This
boy drank water in Mankato on July 5 and 12, which was during the course of a
severe typhoid epidemic. From the dates of other cases in Mankato and from the
fact that the trouble in that city is laid to the city water, which the boy drank, it
is reasonable to assume this as the source of infection.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 13. A polluted supply. By proper grading and draining and
by installing a good casing and tight covering this supply could be
made safe.

Location of farm.—Mankato, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 28, 1908.

Size.—Twenty-eight acres.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography.—The surface surrounding the house and outbuildings is generally level,
although several slight depressions hold
surface water during the wet season. 3 2

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 13.). Well @ 15)
about 25 feet from house; 12 feet in
depth; casing, uncemented _ stone.
Strata: Blue clay, 8 feet, and gravel, Fe. 13—Sketch showing the topography and the
4 feet. Yveld: During dry season sup- location of buildings in the vicinity of dug well
ply is uncertain. Use: Drinking and pp ae ae well; 3) deol stew ae
general farm purposes. Methodof lifting: fas :
Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad. Well receives surface wash from entire house and
barnyard. Covering poor and allows back flow of water from pump. Privy, with
old open vault, 25 feet from well. Pond polluted with alge is located some 25
feet from the well and at about the same level.

Cisterns.—N one.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Several ponds during wet season.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House fair; stables very poor; privy
poor.

Milk.—Retailed in city; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

154

5

DUG WELLS. 29

No. 14. A good supply, although it may become polluted by drain-
age from the upper strata.

Location of farm.-—Mankato, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 28, 1908.

Size.—Sixty-five acres.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography.—House and outbuildings on level ground.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 14.) Well about midway between house and stables;
27 feet in depth; casing, uncemented stone. Strata: Surface soil and blue clay.
Yield: Abundant except during a very dry season. Use; Drinking and general
farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Good, although well
is too near barnyard. Mouth of well slightly raised
and well covered.

Cisterns.—One, used only for washing. oy7g

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Ponds during wet

seasons. [2]

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—

House good; stables good; milk house good; privy

fair. 40) oe
Milk.—Retailed in city of Mankato; sanitary care 7

good. re!
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded. 2 we me

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 15. The house supply is polluted, a
condition which could be remedied by in-
stalling a good casing and a tight covering.

Location of farm.—Owatonna, Minn. Se

Date of visit.—July 30, 1908. ;
Re iSen Wundred acres. Fic. 14.—Sketech showing the topog-
raphy and the location of buildings

Kind of farming.—Dairy and general. in the vicinity of dug well No. 14:

Topography.—House and barn about 2 feet higher 1, House; 2, smokehouse; 3, tool
than intervening land. shop; 4, corncrib; 5, granary; 6, barn

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 15.) House sup- ee ee renee

cistern; 10, barn and stables; 11,

ply (No. 2) under house porch; 40 feet in depth; barnyard.
casing, stone. Strata: Blue clay. Yield: Abun-
dant. Use: Drinking and house purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump. Sani-
tary aspect: Poor. The well receives surface wash at times of excessive rain. The
open-vault privy is located some 40 feet away, which makes the location of the well
more unsuitable. Stable supply (No. 9) near stables; 40 feet in depth; casing, wood.
Strata: Sand, 15} feet, and blue clay, 244 feet. In this case a vein of water was
found in the blue clay which is not characteristic for this locality. Yield: Abun-
dant. Use: Farm purposes and at times for drinking. Method of lifting: Iron
pump; windmill for power. Sanitary aspect: Fair; near the stables but reasonably
well protected.

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House excellent; barn and stables
-excellent; privy poor.

Milk.—Sold to creamery; sanitary care excellent.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

154

“/

30 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

No.16. Apolluted supply. By draining the barnyard and outbuild-
ingsin another direction, which is possible in this case, and by installing
a tight casing and covering this supply could be made satisfactory.

Location of farm.—Owatonna,
=, pe Minn.

SS Date of visit.—July 30, 1908.

a Size. —One hundred and
— : ;
= thirty-six acres.
eK) cS he. Kind of farming.—General.

— Topography.—Surface gener-
E20 ally level, but barnyard
O — slopes quite abruptly to-
é ward the well; about 8 feet

difference in elevation be-

Fig. 15.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build- tween well and surround-

ings in the vicinity of dug well Be 15: 1, House; 2, well; as ing higher eround.
privy; 4, granary; 5, wagon shed; 6, barn and stables; 7, chicken

house; 8, silo; 9, well. Source of water supply.—(See

fig. 16.) Wellin barnyard

about 35 feet from stables; 30 feet in depth; casing, uncemented stone. Strata:
Unknown; judging from other wells in locality, blue clay. Yield: Abundant.
Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump; wind-
mill used for power. Sanitary aspect: Very bad. The entire drainage of the barn-
yard flows toward the well; puddles surround the well; the mouth is slightly raised
but at times surface wash enters.

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very poor; stables and barn-
yard poor; privy very poor, open vault.

Milk.—Sold to creamery; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—N one re-

corded.
Analyses.—See page 78.

» Ue

by trenching and banking

the soilaround the mouth
of the well to turn the

SS
No. 17. A pollutedsup- 8
ply. This supply could ™~
be made satisfactory by 2 .,
installing a good casing Se eae
and a tight covering and et ez. 127
|e
|

es 4
flow of surface water in Fic. 16.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of
=e c buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 16: 1, House; 2, privy;
the opposite direction. 3, granary; 4, toolshed; 5, barn and stables; 6, cornerib; 7, well;

Location of jfarm.—Austin, © barnyard.

Minn.

Date of visit—August 1, 1908.

Size.—Six hundred and forty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Surface level around house and outbuildings.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 17.) Well very near stables and surrounded by farm
buildings; 60 feet in depth; casing, tile. Strata: Yellow clay. Yield: Abundant,

154

~

DUG WELLS. §}

Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump; windmill
for power. Sanitary aspect: Bad. During heavy rains so much surface water enters
that well can not be used for several days.

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House excellent; stables good; milk-
house fair; privy poor, open
vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Sold to creamery; sani-
tary care good.

2

O

oe

Water-borne diseases.—N one re- me

/o SF

Se ae a

corded..

Analyses.—See page 78. ss

No. 18. A polluted sup- Lg }
ply. This well could un- [a] eal pf
questionably be made a
safe supply by improving
the construction of the
casing and covering.

Location of farm.—Austin,

Minn. Fic. 17.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of
Date of visit —August 1, 1908. buildings in the vicinity of dug well No.17: 1, House; 2, wood
0 al as Fe eee a oe houses, 10, petvys 11, ton
Kind of farming.—General. shed; 12, stables; 13, barnyard.

Topography.—House about 24
feet above stables; well on same level as house.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 18.) Well about halfway between house and stables;
28 feet in depth; 3 feet square; casing, wood. Strata: Surface soil, 2 feet; sand,
8 feet; hardpan, 4 feet; sand, 6 feet, and rock, 8 feet. Yveld: Abundant. Use:
Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary
aspect: Fair. Surface covered with loose boards; surface water at times undoubt-

edly enters; surface drainage

away from well except during
ered heavy rains.

F Cisterns.—N one.
mel s | 7 |

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and

RY ey ss / ie we springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse

ha and outbuilding s.—House
eri good; stable very poor; privy
te very poor, open vault, very
9 Be poorly protected and shows no
0 attention whatever.
/ :
Milk.—Made into butter; sani-
Fic. 18.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of tary care poor.

buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 18: 1, House; 2, Wqter-borne diseases.—None re-
milk house; 3, cow stable; 4, barn and stables; 5, corncrib;

6, hogpen; 7, granary; 8, well; 9, privy; 10, wood shed. corded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 19. A polluted supply. The polluting environment should be
removed or a well dug in a better location. In either case a proper
covering and a good pump should be installed.

Location of farm.—Oakland, Minn.
Date of visit—August 1, 1908.
154

32 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Size.—Seventy acres.
Kind of farming.—General.
Topography.—The surface surrounding house has been artificially raised about 1 foot
: above outbuildings; well
= is on same level as stables
ie’ se oe ee | and barnyard.
ao eee | Source of water supply.—(See
' A ! fig. 19.) Wellseveral feet
! 1 | 1 from barnyard and stables;
12 feet in depth; casing,
\! \ 2-foot tile. Strata: Black
L-----~-- J loam, 2 feet; gravel, blue
clay, and quicksand at

bottom. Yveld: Abun-

dant. Use: Drinking and

Fig. 19.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build- ,
ings in the vicinity of dug well No. 19: 1, House; 2, stable and general fae PIDs:
barn; 3, tool shed; 4, well; 5, wagon shed; 6, privy; 7, barnyard. Method of lifting: Wooden

pump. Sanitary aspect:

Bad, due to the filthy barnyard about 10 feet away. Surface wash is prevented by
a 1-foot extension of tile.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very poor; stables very poor;
privy very poor, uncared for, open vault.

Milk.—Sold to creamery; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid in October, 1901; several cases were in the
neighborhood about the same time.

Analyses.—See page 78.
No. 20. A polluted supply. It is ce

probable that even the best protec-

tion in the way of construction would 3 :

not preserve the purity of this sup-

ply. One should be secured in a [3]

better location. ' f i

Location of farm.—Oakland, Minn.

Date of visit—August 1, 1908. ~ \

Size.—Two hundred and thirty-five acres. | / |

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Elevation of ground between é
house and outbuildings about 14 feet,
with a very gradual slope toward house and
stables. an

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 20.) Well
partly under doorstep of house; 30 feet in py¢, 20.—Sketch showing the topography and
depth; casing, cemented stone. Strata: the location of buildings in the vicinity of
Surface soil, 3feet; remainderclay. Yield: dug well No. 20: 1, House; 2, privy; 3, barn

Abundant. Use: Drinking and general 24 stables; 4, tool shed, 6, Soren
; corncrib; 6, granary; 7, cattle well; 8, well;

farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron 9, old log house.
pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad. The house
cellar, about 4 feet distant, contained 2 feet of water. Well water has peculiar taste
whenever cellar fills, showing that there is chance of pollution from upper strata.
This well is undoubtedly dangerous during wet seasons,

154

DUG WELLS. 83

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House good with exception of
cellar, which contained water which as fast as pumped out flows in from surrounding
saturated earth; stables very good; privy poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Sold to creamery; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—N one recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.
No. 21. A good supply. This supply could be improved by install-

ing a tight casing.

Location of farm.—Rochester, Minn.

Date of visit—August 4, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The ground slopes from the house in the direction of the stables, which
are about 7 feet lower.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 21.) Well about 25 feet from house, 50 feet from
stables; 30 feet in depth; casing, unce-
mented stone. Strata: Surface soil, 3- / / 4
feet; clay, 10 feet; gravel, 17 feet. Yvield:. ~ hee

i= »)

Abundant. Use: Drinking and general : a 7
{j¢

L
oe

farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron
pump. Sanitary aspect: Good. Mouth ~
of well protected with tight board cover. 1G a9 we
Privy about 50 feet from well on same L_____ f Oo
level, but vault is well protected. x é /0
°
/

S
A
\
Lo]

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None. iy LY

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out- if
buildings.—House and stables excellent; yg, 21—sketch showing the topography and the

privy good, tightly boxed vault, well location of buildings in the vicinity of dug well

protected. No. 21: 1, House; 2, well; 3, hogpen; 4, stable
Milk.—Sold to dealer; sanitary care good. ha een quses ari 6, hee er
Water-b di N aaa stables; 7, granary; 8, corncrib; 9, tool shed; 10,

ater-borne aiseases.— None recorded. smokehouse; 11, privy; 12, barnyard.

Analyses.—See page 78.
No. 22. A polluted supply. A safe supply could be secured by
proper drainage and by improving the casing and covering.
Location of farm. —South Haven, Minn.
Date of visit—August 14, 1908.
Size.—One hundred and fifty acres.

Kind of farming. —General.

Topography.—The stables and house are on the same level; the well is about 2 feet
below. The surface flow from outbuildings and barnyard is partly in the direction
of the well.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 22.) Well about 20 feet from house; 14 feet in depth;
casing, 14-inch wooden planks. Strata: Clay, 13 feet, and gravel and sand, 1 foot.
Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting:
Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad. Surface drainage from house and outbuildings
enters in case of heavy rains. Mouth of well is poorly covered with rough boards.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—A stagnant pond lies about 50 feet away, but at a
much lower level; another stagnant pond is located about 200 feet in opposite
direction from well.

1569—Bul. 154—09—3

34 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Sanitary conditions of farmhouse and outbwildings—House and stables poor; privy very

poor, open vault, unprotected and shows entire lack of care.

Milk.—Entire supply made into butter; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid fever, a young woman 20 years old, occurred
on the place during the
early spring of 1908. She
had made several visits to
neighbors, but no record

Bias of any cases could be
We Tapas SS found among the people

ae sae nee P > she visited. It is impos-
oo Lone Ps Pa sible with the data at
CoS; (=a) : A hand to locate the source

we ee /2
Ss 2[]9 46 Sy \ of infection.

er, A, | \ \ Analyses.—See page 78.
~ \ N
~ No. 23. A polluted

\ “supply. This supply if

; protected could be im- |

Fia. 22.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build-
ings in the vicinity of dug well No. 22: 1, House; 2, well; 3, tool proved, but probably
shed; 4, granary; 5, cornerib; 6, cornerib; 7, wagon shed; 8, smoke- could not be made safe.
house; 9, tool shed; 10, stables; 11, chicken house; 12, corncrib; 13, :
pond; 14, barnyard; 15, pond; 16, privy; 17, hogpen. Location of farm.—St. Cloud,

Minn.

Date of visit—August 14, 1908.

Size.—Two hundred and forty-eight acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The ground surrounding the farmhouse and outbuildings is very level.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 23.) Well about 26 feet from house; 44 feet in
depth; casing, brick. Strata: Clay, hardpan, gravel, and sand. Yield: Abundant.
Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump. Sani-
tary aspect: Bad. The mouth of the well is poorly covered with rough boards and
receives surface wash.

Cisterns.—None. ZF
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None. rye teal
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out- 8 oy [] 4
buildings—House poor; stables poor; i oO
privy poor, open vault and unprotected. = [— mice /O
Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care | ‘ine
very poor. | 39 !
Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid ; 2 j
on this place some eighteen years pre- | | oO [aa
vious to visit. eS ail 30

Analyses.—See page 78.

Wao) o a Fig. 23.—Sketch showing the topography and the
N 0. 24, A polluted su pply . This location of buildings in the vicinity of dug well

supply could be made very satis- —_No. 23: 1, House; 2; smokehouse; 3, well; 4,

a S. , : 0 granary; 5, chicken house; 6, corncrib; 7, corn-
A Bi 7 s j ve a q ‘
factory by installing a good Casing crib; 8, barn and stables; 9, barnyard; 10, privy.
and tight covering.

Location of farm.—Sauk Center, Minn.
Date of visit.—August 17, 1908.
Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.
Kind of farming.—Grain.

154

DUG WELLS. 85

Topography.—Ground surrounding house and outbuildings is quite level. Well is
located on same level as stables, but 1 foot below level of house.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 24.) Well about 70 feet from house; 25 feet indepth;
3 feet square; casing, wood. Strata: Clay and sand. Yield: Abundant. Use:
Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Wooden pump. Sanitary
aspect: Bad. Surface wash and back flow from pump enter freely. Large fungous
growths project from the sides of well at Z
surface of water. Well is used for cooling s ee
milk and other articles of food. ; A

Cisterns.—None. fe] a

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None. X | |e

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuild- X
ings.—House very poor; stables poor; privy
poor, open vault and unprotected. Fic. 24.—Sketch showing the topography and

; : the location of buildings in the vicinity of
Milk.—Sold to creamery; sanitary care ver y
ne y> y of dug well No. 24: 1, House; 2, well; 3, tool

poor. shed; 4, stable; 5, privy.

-Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid, a
farm hand, appeared on this place August 7, 1908. The patient had not used water
from any other source for over a month. This being the busy harvest season, the
man had been confined closely to work for over a month and recalled no trips away
from home except a visit now and then to near neighbors. At that time no other
cases were present in the immediate vicinity. One case of typhoid was located some
3 miles from this farm, but no communication whatever could be traced from this
source to the patient or to any of the near neighbors. The patient lays the source
of his infection to the well, but although the sanitary surroundings of the well
are bad, it would be impossible to fix this as the infecting agent without more
' definite information.

Analyses.—See page 78.

o2

No. 25. A polluted supply. This supply could be made safe by
installing a good casing and adding the necessary surface protections.
Location of farm.—Crookston, Minn.

Date of visit—September 10, 1908.
Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.

2 é A Sat
g Oo | a L4 ] é Kind of farming.—Grain.

- Topography.—Level prairie; no natural
slopes drain the surface in any direction.
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 25.) Well
Os about 50 feet from stable; 40 feet in depth;
Fig. 25.—Sketch showing the topography and 3 feet square; casing, boards. Strata:
the location of buildings in the vicinity of dug Blue clay Vaslae 5 Ab inadant iiee:

well No. 25: 1, House; 2, privy; 3, granary; 4,

stables; 5, well; 6, tool shed; 7, chicken coop. Drinking and general farm purposes.

Method of lifting: Wooden pump. Sani-
tary aspect: Bad. The covering admits both surface wash from barnyard and back
flow from pump; casing broken in many places. Pieces of wood, fungous growths,
and other decomposing organic materials were floating on surface of water.

Cisterns.—None.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None permanent.
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very poor; stables very poor;
privy poor, open vault with very little protection.
Milk.—Made into butter and sold in Crookston; sanitary care very poor.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 78.
154

36 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

No. 26. A polluted supply. As there are many other much more
favorable locations within a few rods, it would be better to relocate
than to attempt to improve the structure materially.

Location of farm.—Huot, Minn.

Date of visit.—September 11, 1908.

Size.—Two acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—House and outbuildings located on level land with a very gradual slope
in the direction of the river and also away from the river. House about 25 feet above
Red Lake River. The slope right at river bank is very abrupt.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 26.) Well about 20 feet from river and 10 feet above
river bed; 12 feet in depth; casing, boards. Strata: Sand, gravel, and clay.
Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting:
Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad. Surface wash from steep bank above flows
directly into well. On date of visit well contained all sorts of organic material, both

living and dead. The

pump being out of order,

\ a pail and rope were used.

ON Bs The first pail drawn con-
\ Oo | tained two frogs, numer-
ous bugs, sticks, grass, and

=a considerable mud. The

people on the farm con-
tinue to drink the water.
- Cisterns.—None.

+ 4 {ol} 4 J | \ Lakes, rivers, ponds, and

springs.—Red Lake River

= flows by edge of farm.
The river water is used for
drinking purposes during
the winter season.

Sanitary condition of farm-
house and outbuildings.—House good; stables fair; privy poor, open vault and
unprotected.

Milk.—Buy milk from creamery.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid occurred on this farm during the spring of
1908. A man, aged 38, was taken ill Aprill. The patient had been at home for some
time previous to the infection and had taken care of his brother, who contracted the
disease February 28. He drank water from the river entirely from November 15
to date of illness. This case may be one of infection from the river water or by con-
tact in caring for his brother during his illness.

Analyses.—See page 78.

Fic. 26.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build-
ings in the vicinity of dug well No. 26: 1, House and general store;
2, stables; 3, privy; 4, beehouse; 5, Red Lake River; 6, well.

No. 27. A polluted supply. This supply could be very much
improved by installing a good casing, by banking the surface to carry
away surface water, and by the installation of a pump.

Location of farm.—Thief River Falls, Minn.

Date of visit—September 14, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and forty-five acres.

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Surface on which farm buildings are located is level prairie land.
154

DUG WELLS. 87

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 27.) Well about 20 feet from house; 13 feet in depth;
3 feet square; casing, boards. Strata: Blue clay. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking
and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Rope and tin bucket. Sanitary
aspect: Bad. Well receives surface wash from all directions; mouth surrounded
with decomposing straw. The well is used to cool food products, and just before
date of visit a can of milk had been

. . . Zz
spilled into it; odor and appearance of Oo
water very bad. The utensils used in
drawing water were very dirty.

Cisterns.—None. / [2]

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None. fap oF

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out- FiG. 27-—Sketch showing the topography and
buildings.—House very poor; stables the location of buildings in the vicinity of
hie: a ‘ it fe d dug well No. 27: 1, House; 2, privy; 3, sta-
air; privy poor, open vault and un- Seay ate
protected. This is really a primitive
farm and has been occupied only three years.

Milk.—Made into butter and sold in Thief River Falls; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 28. A polluted supply. This supply could be improved by
completing the casing and making a tight cover.

Location of farm.—Hallock, Minn.
Date of visit—September 16, 1908.
Size.—Three hundred and twenty acres.
Kind of farming.—General.
Topography.—Buildings are on level prairie. Drainage from farm buildings by arti-
ficial means reaches the Middle Branch River.
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 28.) Well about 40 feet northeast of house; 18 feet in
depth; casing, 10 feet brick
2 and 8 feet boards. Strata:
= Surface loam, 2 feet; yell
‘ , 2 feet; yellow
clay, 5 feet; gravel, sand,
and clay, 6 feet; hardpan,
5 feet. Yield: Insufficient
during months of March
and April. Use: Drinking
and general farm purposes.
Method of lifting: Rope and
bucket. Sanitary aspect:
Bad. Mouth of well cov-
ered with loose boards;

surface wash enters freely.
—— Cisterns.—None.

Fic. 28.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of Lakes, rivers, ponds, and
buildings in the vicinity of dug well No. 28: 1, Ilouse; 2, well;
3, granary; 4, stables; 5, tool shed; 6, privy; 7, Middle Branch
River.

springs. —Middle Branch
River flows near house.
Sanitary condition of farm-
house and outbuildings.—House poor; stables fair; privy poor, open vault and
unprotected.
Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care poor.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 78.
154

88 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.
BORED WELLS.

No. 1. A polluted supply. This supply could be made safe by
installing a tight casing and good covering.

Location of farm.—Chikio, Minn.

Date of visit.—August 10, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The ground on which the house and outbuildings are located is level.
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 29.) Well

aaa Sa ima about 50 feet from stables and at corner of

} } = barnyard; 55 feet in depth; casing, board,

oe /} 14 feet in diameter. Strata: Clay, 40 feet;

[4 / sand and gravel, 15 feet. Yield: Abun-

( dant. Use: Drinking and general farm

! teas purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump.

HAs Ceca tes 3 =! cy Sanitary aspect: Fair; too near barnyard.

- Fig. 29.—Sketch showing the topography and Mouth of well: is raised 23 feet above nee

the location of buildings in the vicinity of rounding surface; board covering in poor
bored well No. 1: 1, House; 2, granary; 3, tool repair.

shed; 4, barn and stables; 5, hogpen; 6, well;

Cisterns.—None.
7, privy; 8, barnyard.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House fair; stables good; privy very
poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Sold to butter factory; sanitary care fair.

Water-borne discases.—One case of typhoid, July 15, 1908. The patient, a hired man,
had not visited Morris or any of the surrounding villages for some time previous to
infection, which could not be traced. No other people on the farm became infected.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 2. A polluted supply. The installation of a good casing and

the proper draining or the removal ,
of the barnyard would make this a aa a

satisfactory supply. d ir

Location of farm.—Sauk Center, Minn. Ss 3
Date of visit.—August 17, 1908. L a!

A d (al, ee SSeS = 4
Size.—One hundred and twenty acres. uct eT
Kind of farming.—General. Fig.30.—Sketch showing the topography and the
Topography.—Surface adjacent to farm location of buildings in the vicinity of bored

buildings quite level. The house, how- well No. 2: 1, House; 2, well; 3, barnyard; 4,
; ar, stables: 5. er: 7 R .
ever, is elevated about 1 foot above the —_Parn and stables; 5, granary; 6, tool shed; 7,
x é chicken house; 8, privy.
level of the well; drainage from the house '
would be in the direction of the well and stables.
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 30.) Well several feet from barnyard; 27 feet in
ppy § ;
depth; no casing. Strata: Clay and sand. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and
i ? to} d fo)
general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Wooden pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad.
Location near barnyard and on same level makes contamination from that source
possible. Surface wash and back flow from pump enters well freely. Occasionally
water has a bad taste, which is probably due to wash from barnyard.
Cisterns.—None.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.
? ? vi d vf J
154

BORED WELLS. 39

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House poor; stables poor; privy very
poor, open vault and entirely unprotected.

Milk.—Cream sold to creamery; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 3. A badly polluted supply. This supply could be rendered
fit for use by installing a pump and protecting the well from surface
pollution.

Location of farm.—Argyle, Minn.

Date of visit.—September 12, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Suriace surrounding buildings about 12 feet above the bed of Snake
River; very level with the exception of an abrupt fall 50 feet from the house toward
the river.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 31.) Well about 30 feet from house; 10 feet in depth;
casing, 6-inch tin pipe. Svratum: Blue prairie clay. Yield: Abundant except
during dry season. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting:
Tin bucket with a loose

bottom. Sanitary aspect: ee
Very bad. One bucket of eee

water contained frogs, bugs, s \

sticks, straw, and mud. N \f
The covering of the well fmeatt) ok: aay,
consists of the top of a milk 2 ey

can, which evidently is Gy Oo

used only when the water

becomes unusually fAlthy. Fic. 31.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build-

Cisterns.—None. ings in the vicinity of bored well No. 3: 1, Ifouse; 2, tool shed; 3,

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and well; 4, stables; 5, Snake River; 6, privy.
springs.—One river.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very poor, a disgusting odor
making it almost impossible to remain inside; stable very poor; privy very poor,
open vault and entirely unprotected.

Milk.—The entire supply is used by the family; sanitary care very poor, all utensils
filthy.

Water-borne diseases.—Six cases of typhoid fever occurred in this family during the
spring months of 1908: A girl, age 18 years, taken ill March 25; a boy, 12 years,
April 15; a boy, 8 years, May 26; a girl, 15 years, May 30; a woman, 41 years, May
31; a boy, 18 years, June 1. The original case of this infection was brought from
Oslo, Minn., where the girl had been employed in a hotel as a servant. The other
cases were probably infected by contact, although the well, also, might have been a
means of carrying the infection.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 4. A badly polluted supply. The sanitary condition of this
supply could be improved by proper surface protection, and by
installing a good pump the water could be made safe as long as the
tin casing remained in good condition.

Location of farm.—Argyle, Minn.

Date of visit—September 12, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Surface surrounding farm buildings is level prairie.

154

40 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 32.) Well about 50 feet south of house; 13 feet in
depth; casing, 6-inch tin pipe. Strata: Blueclay. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking
and general house purposes. Method of lifting: Rope and tin bucket. Sanitary as-

pect: Poor. This well is so situated that

it receives surface wash whenever pre-

cipitation is sufficient to cover the sur-

face. No covering is used for protection,

6
Og dee CJ so the water necessarily receives consid-
f ina JZ, erable surface dust and organic pollution.
Cisterns.—None.
“| Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs —None.
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out-
buildings—House very poor; stables
Fic. 32.—Sketch showing the topography and good; privy has open vault and is un-
the location of buildings in the vicinity of bored “ acorn
well No. 4° 1, House; 2, granary; 3, stables; 4, Pp aA :
well; 5, chicken house; 6, tool shed; 7, privy. Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care very
poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 5. Probably a good supply. The supply should be farther
from the outbuildings.?

Location of farm.—Minneapo-

lis, Minn. Y Lieve
Date of visit—December, 1908. S 7a a 0
Size.—Two acres, : , Bs =i \
Kind of farming.—General. OG, Bay
Topography.—Land slopes Sie =

gently toward a marsh which
borders Maxwell Bay; house
and outbuilcines near edge
of marsh.

Source of waier supply.—(See
fig. 33.) Well near house
and barn; 21 feet in depth;
casing, 6-inch tile. Strata:
Few inches black earth; 20

feet hard bluish clay; water- - 7 \

bearing stratum, quicksand.

Yield: Abundant. Use: \ l

Drinking and general farm

purposes. Method of lifting:

Ironpump. Saniiary aspect: \

Good.
Cisterns.—None. Fic. 33.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and buildings in the vicinity of bored wells Nos. 5 and 6: A, House

springs.—None. ws farm No. 5; Bs well; C, privy; D, barn and wood sned; I,
Sanitary condition of farmhouse cae ee yards E, ee eae ae ey 1, eoyen Pn

fie No. 6; 2, well; 3, privy; 4, horse and cow stables; 5, chicken
and outbwildings —Ilouse wards

fair; barn poor.
Milk.—Occasionally supplied summer residents in the neighborhood; sanitary care
poor.

« Tata for this report furnished by Dr. H. W. Hill, of the Minnesota State Board
of Health.
154

DRILLED WELLS. 41

Water-borne diseases.—Two cases of typhoid fever, the first, a man 32 years old, taken
sick September 11, 1908, and the second, a girl 10 years old, taken sick October 20.
Source of infection for first case, Minneapolis; for second, contact or infected milk.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 6. Probably a good supply. The supply should be farther
from the outbuildings.¢

Location of farm.—Minneapolis, Minn.

Date of visit—December, 1908.

Size.—Two acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Land slopes gently toward a marsh which borders Maxwell Bay;
house and outbuildings near edge of marsh.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 33.) Well near house, privy, and stables; 21 feet
in depth; casing, 6-inch tile. Strata: Few inches black earth, 20 feet hard bluish
clay; water-bearing stratum, quicksand. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and
general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Good.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House fair; stable poor.

Milk.—Obtained from neighbor three-fourths mile away, except about 5 quarts,
taken at different times, from next door (see No. 5, fig. 33).

Water-borne disecases.—Two cases of typhoid fever; first, a girl 15 years old, taken sick
October 13, 1908; second, a boy 10 years

old, taken sick October 18. Source of | | i |
infection, milk or contact. | | i
Analyses.—See page 78.
DRILLED WELLS. 3 | Thee 1 | !
O
No.1. A polluted supply. The £ oe
pollution may be due to surface \ | | | | is fig x

water following the iron pipe to

the point where it touches the Fia. 34.—Sketch showing the topography and the
location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled

rock and possibly gaining entrance well No. 1: 1, House; 2, stables; 3, cornerib; 4,

there but is more probably due hay shed; 5, well; 6, chicken house; 7, privy; 8,
4 : < c cistern (well).

to leaks in the cistern holding well

water a short distance away. Both well and cistern should be pro-

tected from surface wash and seepage from the upper strata.

Location of farm.—Red Wing, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 24, 1908.

Size.—Eighteen acres.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography.—All the buildings are on a steep incline.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 34.) Wellin barnyard; 138 feet in depth; casing,
6-inch iron pipe to a depth of 17 feet, remainder rock. Strata: Clay, 17 feet; remain-
der limestone rock. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes.
Method of lifting: Iron pump, horse sweep used for power. Sanitary aspect: Fair.
Well in center of barnyard below level of stable. Casing attached to pump.

@ Data for this report furnished by Dr. H. W. Hill, of the Minnesota State Board
of Health.
154

49 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Cisterns.—Two. A cement cistern used to hold surplus supply for cattle is located
in barnyard near pump. This cistern is evidently very badly polluted, as the
water is discolored and has a very unpleasant odor. The house cistern is used
for washing purposes and for cooling milk.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings —House fair; stables poor; privy
poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—Retailed in Red Wing; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—N one recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 2. A badly polluted supply. The practice of using an unpro-
tected dug well as a surface reservoir is undesirable, to say the least.
It is an open question whether this supply is Tesponsiyg for the
three typhoid fever cases on the farm.

Location of farm.—St. Peter, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 27, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and twenty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The ground immediately surrounding the house has been artificially

3 raised about 6 inches to turn surface wash.
eal Source of water supply.—(See fig. 35.)

* g CH Well about 35 feet from house; 167 feet

9 in depth, dug 25 feet and drilled 142

feet; casing, 2-inch iron pipe; well pit,

25 feet deep, cased with uncemented

Y = stone. Strata: Surface soil and clay.
i Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and
/ general farm purposes. Method of lifting:
Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Very bad.

The well pit is used as a supply tank,

Fia. 35.—Sketch showing the topography and the ne ees beme pumped omnaue deep
location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled well by a windmill into the well pit.
well No. 2: 1, House; 2, granary; 3, stables; 4, The mouth of the pit is very poorly

chicken house; 5, cornerib; 6, cornerib; 7,

: protected with loose boards, which are
smokehouse; 8, well; 9, privy.

lower than surrounding surface. During

heavy rains water runs freely into well pit, and the privy, which is 75 feet away,

undoubtedly contributes to the surface wash which finally reaches the well pit.

- Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Shallow puddles during wet season, no permanent
ponds.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House good; barn fair; privy poor,
open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Sold to creamery; sanitary care fair.

Water-borne diseases.—Three positive cases of typhoid fever, a man and a woman
taken sick July 7, 1908, and a woman taken sick July 17. The history of these
cases shows visits to St. Peter; only one of these patients drank city water, how-
ever, and she was taken sick three days later, which allows too short a period for
the incubation of the disease. No other cases of typhoid have been reported
recently among the users of city water. No other cases have been reported in the
rural districts in that vicinity, nor have any of the patients visited homes or asso-
ciated with people known to have typhoid. All the patients were users of the
farm water supply.

Analyses.—See page 78.

154

DRILLED WELLS. 43

No. 3. A polluted supply. Extra precautions should be taken in
the case of this well to cover the casing properly and avoid the
inflow of back wash from the pump, which at times may cause a
serious pollution.

Location of farm.—Owatonna, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 30, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Gradual slope from the house toward the stables; difference in elevation
between house and stables about 2 feet.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 36.) Two wells (No. 3 and No. 10). Well No. 3,
near stables, 107 feet in depth; casing, 6-inch iron pipe. Strata: Blue clay and
small quantity of rock. Yield: Abundant. Use: For cattle only. Method of
lifting: Iron pump, windmill used for power. Sanitary aspect: Fair. This well
is quite near stables and barnyard, but its depth and especially good surface protec-
tion will undoubtedly keep it free from
pollution. Well No. 10, about 50 feet from ea Pee

house, 100 feet in depth, dug 40 feet and ;

drilled 60 feet; casing, stone in dug por- HU

: : : aes 3 ane 4 roe

tion, 6-inch iron pipe in drilled portion. Ta TB
{e)

Strata: Blue clay and 10 feet of rock at g
bottom. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drink-

ing and general farm purposes. Method of x ee
lifting: Ironpump. Sanitary aspect: Fair. Ne

little opportunity for surface wash.

Except in cases of heavy rains there is a im)
N

Cisterns.—One, used for drinking water.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None. » OW “

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuild- ha IS.
ings.—House fair; stables fair; PEIN Y Poor, Fig. 36.—Sketch showing the topography and the
open vault and unprotected. location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled

Milk.—Sold to creamery; sanitary care fair. well No. 3: 1, louse; 2, stables; 3, well; 4, sta-

bles; 5, granary; 6, henhouse; 7, corncrib; 8,
corncrib; 9, smokehouse; 10, well; 11, hogpen;
12, privy; 13, cistern.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid,
taken sick April 11, 1908. The patient
claims to have drunk no water except
from well No. 10. In one other case of typhoid, about a mile and a half from this
farm, the patient had just recovered. Neither patient admits having visited the
other at any time previous to infection.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 4. A polluted supply. This supply offers good opportunity
for occasional serious pollution due to improper construction. The
sanitary condition of the water could undoubtedly be improved by
extending the casing to the base of the pump, by properly protecting
the well pit, or by covering the mouth of the casing with a tight
cover.

Location of farm.—Owatonna, Minn.

Date of visit.—July 30, 1908.

Size.—Two hundred and forty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Difference in elevation between house and granary about 8 feet; well
located on level with house and stables.

154

44 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 37.) Well near corner of barn; 90 feet in depth;
casing, 6-inch iron pipe; well pit 10 feet deep, cased with boards. Strata: Clay,
40 feet; remainder gravel and sand. Yveld: Abundant. Use: Drinking and
general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump, windmill_used for power.
Sanitary aspect: Bad. Very near stables and surface wash sometimes fills the
well pit. The iron casing does not extend to the pump, so when the pit is full

this surface water may enter

2 ;
wa the well directly.
ee ve Po Cisterns.—One, used for wash-

ing
— £8 tine
[9 | ve 9 oO Vi ca Lakes, rivers, ponds, and
ON A
4 3 springs.—None.
O Sanitary condition of farm-
house and outbuildings.—
z House poor; stables good;
‘ a privy poor, open vault and
10 unprotected.
Milk.—Sold to creamery; san-
Fig. 37.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of itary care fair.
buildings in the vicinity of drilled well No. 4: 1, House; 2, wood jff/gter-borne diseases. — One
shed; 3, smokehouse; 4, chicken house; 5, granary; 6, barn f Bee
and stables; 7, well; 8, milk house; 9, hogpen; 10, privy. case of typhoid, a man,

taken sick October 12, 1908.

No other cases were known to be in the neighborhood at that time. Patient pre-

viously had visited a great many farms with a thrashing crew.
Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 5. A polluted supply. This pollution is due chiefly to inflow
of water from the dug portion directly into the deep well casing.
The water could be greatly improved by extending the casing, then
filling part of the dug portion—say,
to within 10 feet of the surface and [2}--- oe

using this as a well pit—and carefully ts 5 1 -o5
. . s . 10 t
installing means of excluding surface (eee rN \ 07

2 '
pollution.

: : ' 9 8
Location of farm.—Rochester, Minn. ate : Cy]
Date of visit—August 4, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and eighty-five acres.

Kind of farm ng.—General : ; Fig. 38.—Sketch showing the topography and

Topography.—Difierence in elevation be- the location of buildings in the vicinity of
tween house and stables about 3 feet; slope drilled well No. 5: 1, House; 2, barn and

stables; 3, stables; 4, stables; 5, well and milk
house; 6,chicken house; 7, granary; 8, wood
and wagon shed; 9, tool shed; 10, barnyard.

from house toward stables; stables on same
level as well.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 38.) Wellin
barnyard near stables; 60 feet in depth, dug 30 feet and drilled 30 feet; casing, dug
portion uncemented stone, drilled portion 3-inch iron casing. Strata: Sand and
clay, 30 feet; remainder limestone. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and gen-
eral farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump, windmill used for power.
Sanitary aspect: Bad. Mouth of well covered with loose boards. Surface imme-
diately around well has been raised, but not enough to prevent surface wash
into dug portion during heavy rains. Water from dug portion is said to flow into
the casing of drilled portion at times.

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

154

DRILLED WELLS. 45

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House poor; stables very poor;
milk house very poor; privy poor, unprotected vault.

Mil’.—Cream sold to butter factory; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—N one recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 6. A polluted supply. The protection of this well is appar-
ently good, yet the water is evidently polluted. The bad location
of the well and the poor protection of the mouth of the well may be
responsible for this pollution. It is also possible that pollution is
drawn from some underground source, as the well and the lake have
about the same level.

Location of farm.—Alexandria, Minn.

Date of visit.—August 12, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and forty-one acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—A small creek separates house from most of the outbuildings. The
depression formed by creek is very narrow, but about 6 feet deep. Lake Andrews
is located about 40 rods from house and

at a level 15 or 20 feet lower. Ee 9
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 39.) Well Fiza Z =

about 25 feet from house; 80 feet in depth; li 2

casing, 3-inch iron pipe attached to base Fiche

of pump. Strata: Gravel, 10 feet; few [6 ] Rebs

feet red clay; 50 feet blue clay; and 10 ae

feet of sand.and gravel. Yield: Abun- Bae

dant. Use: Drinking and general farm ij+<

purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump. =a

Sanitary aspect: Fair. Mouth of wellsey-
eral feet below level of house and of sur- Fic. 39.—Sketch showing the topography and the

rounding ground; covering very poor. location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled
Cisterns.—None well No. 6: 1, House; 2, well; 3, hogpen; 4, corn-

é . erib; 5, chicken coop; 6, barn and stables; 7,
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Lake granary: 8, tool shed; 9, privy.
Andrews 40 rods away; flowing spring
near stables; small creek leading from spring to lake.
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House fair; stables fair; privy poor,
open vault and unprotected.
Milk.—Cream sold to butter factory; sanitary care poor.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
‘Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 7. A polluted supply. The location of the well is bad, yet
with good surface protection the supply might be made safe.

Location of farm.—Alexandria, Minn.

Date of visit—August 12, 1908.

Size.—Two hundred and twenty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The house is elevated slightly above level of stables; other outbuildings
on same level with house. The surface slopes very abruptly from stables on side
away from house. Drainage from stables and barnyard empties into a pond about
8 rods distant.

154

46 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 40.) Well about 15 feet from house; 60 feet in
depth; casing, iron pipe. Strata: Clay and sand. Yveld: Abundant. Use:
Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary

aspect: Bad; toonear privy. Coveringin

poor condition; waste water from pump
9 f 5 3
mS ‘ sinks into ground around the casing.
~ Cisterns.—One, used for washing.
~ N Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Several
e x ponds.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out-
buildings.—House very poor; stables fair;

4 é

7] Oo 4 privy poor, open vault and unprotected.
2 Milk.—Cream sold to creamery; sanitary

60 care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—About one year pre-
vious to date of visit an infection of

2 . .
oO typhoid occurred on this farm and gave
Fic. 40.—Sketch showing the topography and the rise to eight cases of typhoid. The at-
location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled tending physician lays the source to a
well No. 7: 1, House; 2, ice house; 3, privy; 4, shallow well then in use by the family,

outdoor kitchen; 5, well; 6, barn and stable; 7,

wagon shed; 8, granary: 9, pond. which has since been filled.

Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 8. A good supply. If the well pit was tightly cased it would
give greater protection against back wash from the pump and inflow
from the upper strata.

Location of farm.—Sauk Center, Minn. J
Date of visit.—August 17, 1908. \
Size.—Three hundred and thirty acres. ay, \
Kind of farming.—General. 2 03
Topography.—The house is about 2 feet (]
above granary and well and about 4 feet N De
above barn.
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 41.) Well

about 40 feet from house; 153 feet in aS aS

depth; casing, 4-inch iron pipe; well pit 317
about 3 feet square, 10 feet deep, cased

with boards. Strata: Yellow clay, 30 feet; |

hardpan, 12 feet; sand, 15 feet; clay, 90
feet; and about 5 feet, of sand. Yield: Fic. 41.—Sketch showing the topography and the

= ot ao ; location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled
é fap. 1D) c Q
Abundant. Use: Drinking and general well. No. 8: 1), Hlouse!/2 gmmmenyssa neue

farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron privy; 5,ice house; 6, barn and stables; 7, corn-
pump, windmill used for power. Sani- crib; 8, hogpen.
tary aspect: Good. Mouth of well pro- :
tected by tight covering. A small quantity of back flow enters well pit as drainage
from pump cylinder.

Cisterns.—N one.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House good; stables fair; privy
poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Cream sold to creamery; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

154

A STI 4 ot a

DRILLED WELLS. 47

No. 9. A good supply.

Location of farm.—Crookston, Minn.

Date of visit—September 10, 1908.

Size.—Two hundred and forty acres.

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Level prairie.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 42.) Wellin combination ice and pump house; 200
feet in depth; casing, 2-inch iron pipe. Strata: Blue clay. Yield: Abundant.
Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump, windmil!
used for power. Sanitary aspect: Good.

A double board covering protects the
10-foot well pit from surface wash and 2
back flow, and casing extends to base of a os
pump. More than the usual precautions ce a= y
are observed in protecting this well. ma eae
Cisterns.—One, used for washing.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None. Ovo
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out- Fic. 42.—Sketch showing the topography and the
buildings —House good; stables fair; location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled
privy has open vault, slightly protected. well No. 9: 1, House; 2, woodshed; 3, privy; 4,

chicken house; 5, well and ice house; 6, stables;
7, machine shed; 8, chicken coop; 9, machine
shed; 10, hogpen.

Milk.—Sold in Crookston; sanitary care fair.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 10. A polluted supply. The field observations show this to be
a more offensively polluted water than is indicated by the analytical
data. By carefully protecting the mouth of the well with a good
covering and discontinuing the use of the well pit as a refrigerator
as the supply could be rendered safe.
Location of farm.—Crookston, Minn.

Date of visit—September 10, 1908.
Size.—Three hundred and twenty acres.
Kind of farming.—Grain.
°2 §=Topography.—Level prairie.
Fig. 43.—Sketch showing Source of water supply.—(See fig. 43.) Well about 50 feet

meee ey sud the from stables; 180 feet in depth; casing, 2-inch iron pipe.
location of buildings in

the vicinity of drilled Strata: Unknown, probably blue clay. Yield: Abundant. *
well No. 10: 1, House; Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting:

2, well; 3, granary: 4,

a Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad. The 2-inch iron casing
stables; 5, privy. ‘ 5

is carried to within 14 feet of surface and there empties its
overflow into a well pit, which is cased with an iron casing about 2} feet in diame-
ter. The well pit contained several feet of water, on which were floating decom-
posed cream and other contaminations of surface origin.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings—House very poor; stables fair;
privy poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—Two cases of typhoid fever occurred during the summer of 1898.
The same water supply was used at that time. The family having moved away, no
definite data could be found regarding these cases.

Analyses.—See page 78,

154

48 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

No. 11. A polluted supply. The city of Crookston is located sev-
eral miles from this farm, and a well sunk there for a municipal supply
drained the well under discussion. This would seem to indicate that
this well is connected with an extensive underground supply which
may be polluted at a more or less distant point. Without consider-
able investigation it would be impossible to determine whether or not
this supply is perfectly safe.

Location of farm.—Crookston, Minn.

Date of visit.—September 10, 1908.

Size—One hundred and sixty acres.

Kind of farming. —Grain.

Topography.—Level prairie.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 44.) Well about 30 feet from corner of stables; 203

feet in depth; casing, 24-inch iron pipe. Strata: Blue clay, 20 feet; red clay, 150

D6 feet; mixed sand and clay, 27 feet; rock,
aS:

3 feet; and fine sand, 3 feet. Yveld:

Abundant. Use: Drinking and general

farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron

7 male | L|4 ump. Sanitary aspect: Fair; near barn-
1 punip y asp
1 ) yard and stable, yet fora well as deep and
7 | as carefully protected as this one little
Beh ks danger could be expected from that
O74 : P
!

source. Casing extends to base of pump.

es =e Water rises to within 17 feet of surface.
Fic. 44.—Sketch showing the topography and the Ci O di hi
location of buildings in the vicinity of drilled usterns.— ARS See Wee ing.
well No. 11:1, House; 2, stables; 3, well; 4, Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.
chicken house; 5, granary; 6, privy; 7, barn- Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out-
yecd: buildings—House poor; stables very
poor; privy poor, open vault and unprotected.
Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care fair.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 78.

No. 12. A polluted supply. Although the surface protection of
this well is good, the environment is bad; the pollution is probably
due to seepage from the upper strata down the outside of the casing.
For domestic use a well should be sunk farther from. the stables and
barnyard.

Location of farm.—Hallock, Minn.

Date of visit—September 17, 1908.

Size —Four hundred and eighty acres.

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Level prairie.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 45.) Well about 5 feet from stables; 75 feet in
depth; casing, 24-inch iron pipe. Strata: Hardpan and a clay mixture. Yveld:
Abundant, except in very dry seasons. Use: Drinking, when the supply of cistern
water gives out, and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump, windmill
used for power. Sanitary aspect: Fair; too near stables. Surface of well is thor-
oughly protected from surface wash and back flow.

Cisterns —One, used for drinking, but was empty on date of visit.

154

eee eee

os
7

Ritind

DRIVEN WELLS. 49

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—A few ponds, dug for collecting surface water for
watering cattle.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House poor; stables good; privy
poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases —None recorded. Os

Analyses. —See page 78.

No. 13. A good supply. It is ad-
visable to prevent collection of 2
water in the well pit.

Location of farm.—Anoka, Minn.

Date of visit—September 29, 1908.

Size.—Two hundred and thirty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Level, sandy surface. Drain-
age is carried artificially in several direc-
tions.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 46.) Well
in pump house about 25 feet from house;

112 feet in depth; casing, 3-inch iron pipe; 5

well pit 10 feet in depth, cased with
wood. Strata: Sand and gravel. Yield: iq. 45.—Sketch showing the topography and
Abundant. Use: Drinking and general the location of buildings in the vicinity of
i Mod of Weg Teen a ecen Louse; 4, barn an stable; 6, wll, 0
pump, gasoline engine used for power. privy.

Sanitary aspect: Good. Well is protected

from surface wash, yet a small quantity of back flow enters well pit; about 1 foot
of water in well pit on date of visit. Casing extends to base of pump, so there is no
opportunity for direct pollution.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings—House good; stables good; milk
house good; privy good, open vault quite
well protected.

Milk.—Cream shipped to St. Paul; sanitary
care good.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 78.

Ce
cet

f DRIVEN WELLS.
Fig. 46.—Sketeh showing the topography and

the location of buildings in the vicinity of N N | : ] ey ts f :
drilled we:l No. 13: 1, House; 2, wagon shed; 3, o. 1. J good supply, exce pt Ol

pump house; 4, well; 5, chicken house; 6,gran- the temporary pollution of the stor-
ary; 7, granary; 8, barn and stables; 9, granary. ¥
age tank.

Location of farm.—Excelsior, Minn.
Date of visit—June 30, 1908.
Size.—One hundred and forty acres.
Kind of farming.—General.
Topography.—Surface is irregular, sloping gradually toward the creek. The low, flat
land surrounding the elevation is subject to overflow during the spring season,
1569—Bul, 154—09——4

50 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 47.) Wellabout 30 feet from house; 150 feet in depth;
casing, 3-inch iron pipe. Strata: Surface clay, 10 feet; hardpan, 100 feet; gravel, 40
feet. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lift-

ing: Iron pump with wind-

on eae eee s: mill and gasoline engine
Fp See Sie eg ree Be ce oe for power. Storage tank:
ele ae ee oe ee SE ak Wood, capacity 3,800 gal-
7 ee Os BF GL NE Roar n ne Sa on pl lons. Sanitary aspect: Good,
goes E ee ere ee oe arr The well pit is dry and well
Pdi UE os a & n= [] aie: 4 protected from surface
eae ea < ° wash. A short time before

“el hes ‘ a date of visit the storage

ee fae “\ / J tank began to leak and the

/ y \ "owner emptied several

4 — \ x J pecks of meal into the tank.

J ae re x The meal soon decomposed

pease and gave the water a bad

taste and odor. The cess-

\ pool is a considerable dis-

tance from the well.
Fic. 47.Sketch showing the topography and thelocation of build- Cisterns.—One, used for wash-
ings in: the vicinity of driven well No. 1: 1, House; 2 and 3, ing.
pump house and elevated water tank; 4, ice house; 5, cesspool; Lakes, rivers, ponds, and
6, cesspool outlet; 7, farmhouse; 8, shed; 9, chicken coon; 10, springs.—One lake, several
privy; 11, barn; 12, shed; 13, cornerib; 14, road; 15, creek; 16, x
hridze. springs, and one creek on

farm.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings —House very good; stables fair;
privy good, connected with cesspool.

Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—F or both well water and tank water, see page 79.

No. 2. A polluted supply. This could be made a safe supply by
protecting the well pit
from surface wash.

Location of farm.—New Brigh-
ton, Minn.

Date of visit—July 3, 1908.

Size.—Forty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The land in
general slopes away from the
house and outbuildings and
toward the well. The yard
and basements ofstables are." =~ a
approximately 64eet lower... stile) 2 cute. 2

Fic. 48.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of

than surface of well. buildingsin the vicinity of driven well No. 2: 1, House; 2, ice

Source of water supply.—(See house; 3, tool shed; 4, tool shed; 5, hay barn; 6, hay barn;

fiz. 48.) Well surrounded 7, stables; 8, privy; 9, public road; 10, well; 11, cornerib; 12,
g. P §

: oatate corncrib; 13, barnyard.
by farm buildings; 160 feet

in depth; casing, 2-inch iron pipe, wel! protected at surface. Strata: Unknown.
Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting:
Hand pump and windmill. Sanitary aspect: Fair. Slope toward well very gradual;
in wet weather well pit fills with water.

154

rp GFA Page’ eR

%

ES - _ -.

DRIVEN WELLS. 51

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings —House fair; stables very poor; privy
poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded. Ks x

Analyses.—See page 79.

; pe

No. 3. A polluted supply. This pone ele3
well is in as bad a location as could ae ae ca
be found on the farm and should
be abandoned. he, got Ne
Location of farm.—St. Louis Park, Minn. ae is re a
Date of visit—July 6, 1908. teem ay os Aa]
Size. —Sixty acres. ae Oo w aah
Kind of farming.—Dairy. gh SN P e
Topography.—The land surrounding build- Ny / a oe | -

ings slopes abruptly from house and out- 7 (2

buildings in direction of stable and well. / - ¥ Ks

Well is about 3 feet lower than stable ea —

and 25 feet lower than house. / f J

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 49.) Well ri / \
is 10 feet from corner of stable; 60 feet in 2 hae rae pais Gia ed
depth; casing, 2-inch iron pipe. Strata: the focation of buildings a cerns ot
Unknown. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drink- driven well No. 3: 1, House: 2, storehouse
ing and general farm purposes. Method _and tool shed; 3, privy; 4, ice house; 5, sta-
of lifting: Hand pump and windmill. esc out: Geter cad” hogpen;
Sanitary aspect: Very bad. Well is sur-
rounded by manure heaps. The well pit, which is 10 feet deep, contained about
6 feet of manure leachings and surface wash; it sometimes completely fills. It
seems that a worse location could scarcely be chosen for a well to be used for
drinking purposes.
Cisterns.—None.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—A few ponds scattered

—_ 2
“3 about the farm.
_ . vas . .
05 Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—Uouse
—s . .
~? [3 very poor; milk house very bad; privy poor, unpro-
A tected vault.

= od . . 3 .
Milk.—Retailed in city; sanitary care very poor.
aye 7 — -» Water-borne diseases —None recorded.
et Analyses.—See page 79.
—_
Fic. 50.—Sketch showing the No. 4. A polluted supply. Both well and
topography and the location of : eS |
buildings in the vicinity op Stables should be removed to higher ground.
driven well No. 4: 1, House; 2,
barn and stable; 3, milk house;
4, privy; 5, well.

Location of farm.—Minneapolis Minn.

Date of visit.—July 8, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and eighty acres.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography.—The surface falls abruptly from house to stable, a difference in eleva-
tion of about 20 feet.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 50.) Well in corner of cow stables; 20 feet in depth,
driven 10 feet and dug 10 feet; casing, wood and iron, Strata; Surface soil, 3 feet;

154

52 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

and sand, 17 feet; a ledge of rock forms bottom of well. Yield: Abundant. Use:
Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Hand pump and gasoline
engine. Sanitary aspect: Very bad. The well pit usually contains from 1 to 2
feet of washings from under stable floor and back flow from pump.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings—House poor; stables fair; privy
poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—Retailed in Minneapolis; sanitary care fair.

Water-borne diseases —None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 5. A polluted supply. By good surface protection the condi-
tion of the water could be much improved, though for domestic
use a well should be sunk in a more sanitary location.

-f--------- 1 Location of farm.—Richfield, Minn.

\ | Date of visit—July 10, 1908.
9 J

! — io Size.—Ninety acres.

L----= si N f Kind of farming.—Dairy.

_7 Topography.—Drainage from most of the outbuildings
G- Meet finally reaches the barnyard at several points near the
y/ vi y p

YE ee well.
7(] 5{ ps Source of water supply.—(See fig. 51.) Well about 10
x feet from corner of stables and same distance from
8| | fp. Vi ‘ barnyard; 50 feet in depth; casing, 14-inch iron pipe.
Strata: Unknown. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drink-
02 ing and general farm purposes. Method of lifting:
Iron pump; windmill for power. Sanitary aspect:
Fig. 51.—Sketch showing the Bad. Seepage and surface water from all directions
topography and the location of flows directly into the well pit, sometimes standing

buildings in the vicinity of : “ :
aniveniwell’ No. 6:1 abuse; 2, several feet deep. The water pumped from the well

privy; 3, corncrib; 4, barn and had a decided odor.
stables; 5, milk house and store- Cisterns.—One, under house, but not used.
house; 6, well; 7, stone house;8, Takes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Lake Grass, a small
ice house; 9, barnyard; 10, wagon
shed. shallow lake used only to water cattle.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—
House fair; milk house poor; stables poor; privy poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—Retailed in Minneapolis; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases—Last year three typhoid patients were cared for on this farm
but all lived in Minneapolis when taken with the disease. The data at hand indi-
cate that the typhoid was contracted in the city. It seems strange that the disease
did not spread to those living on the farm.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 6. A good supply. There are other places in this yard that
would be more suitable for the water supply.

Location of farm.—Minneapolis, Minn.

Date of visit—July 10, 1908.

Size.—Two hundred and thirty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The house is about 5 feet above the outbuildings. The drainage from
most of the outbuildings is in the direction of the pond in the barnyard.

154

he ae

|

DRIVEN WELLS.

53

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 52.) Well within a few feet of barnyard and about

15 feet: from barn; 40 feet in depth; casing, 14-inch iron pipe.
Use: Drinking and general farm purposes.
Sanitary aspect: Fair.

Yield: Abundant.
Hand pump; windmill for power.
outbuildings form a rather dangerous envi-
ronment. Thesurface of the well is quite
well protected and the well pit was per-
fectly dry en date of visit.

Cisterns.—One, used for washing.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Lake
Wood, used at times to water cattle.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuild-
ings.—Good.

Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases —None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 7. A polluted supply. Good
protection against surface wash and
seepage from the upper strata would
greatly improve this supply. It is
too near the stable, however.
Location of farm.—St. Paul, Minn.

Date of visit —July 15, 1908.
Size.—Three acres.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.
Topography.—Low, level ground.

Strata: Sandy soil.
Method of lifting:
The barnyard and other

pare!
: y
|
!
! A
1 Al
13
ae, |
(eg
ae !
oe Rae
<a oé
a
a
am
i

Fic. 52.—Sketch showing the topography and
the location of buildings in the vicinity of
driven well No. 6; 1, House; 2, horse barn;
8, corncrib; 4, well; 5, ice house; 6, granary;
7, cow stables; 8, wood shed; 9, privy; 10,
sheep shed; 11, stone house; 12, storehouse;
13, barnyard; 14, pond.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 53.) Well in combined pump and milk house; 30
feet in depth; casing, 14-inch iron pipe. Strata: Unknown; probably sandy loam.

Yield: Abundant.

house.
Cisterns.—N one.

NK

ay ia

Use: Drinking and general farm purposes.
Iron pump, windmill for power.
well pit 3 feet square cased with ordinary wood casing ex-
tends to a depth of about 8 feet and contains several feet
of surface wash and back flow from the pump.
of the well pit is at a lower level than the stables and the

Method of lifting:
Sanitary aspect: Bad. A

The mouth

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

ra Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House poor;

Fic. 53.—Sketch showing
the topography and the
location of buildings in
the vicinity of driven
well No. 7: 1, House; 2,
hay barn and stables; 3,
milk house; 4, privy; 5,
stone “house; 6, wood
shed; 7, wagon shed; 8,
well; 9, tool shed.

the pump.

No. 8. A polluted supply.
made safe by installing a tight casing for the well
pit and fitting a good cover around the base of

stables fair; milk house fair; privy poor, unprotected vault.
Milk.—Retailed in St. Paul; sanitary care fair.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses. —See page 79.

This supply could be

Location of farm.—St. Paul, Minn.

Date of visit—July 15, 1908.

Size.—Ten acres.
Kind of farming.—Dairy.
154

54 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Topography.—The surface slopes very abruptly from the points marked z (see fig. 54)
in the direction of the outbuildings which are located on the level marked y. The
difference in elevation between x and y is about 25 feet; a fall of probably 6 feet was
noted between points y and z. The house and privy are located at a point inter-
mediate between x and y, probably 15 feet above the other outbuildings.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 54.)
wee py X — Well in combined pump and milk
house; 119 feet in depth; casing, 24-
inch iron pipe. Strata: Sand, 25 feet;
the remainder clay and gravel. Yield:
Abundant. Use: Drinking and general
farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron
pump. Sanitary aspect: Fair. Well pit
7 feet deep, cased with wood. The
mouth of well pit is quite well pro-
tected from surface wash. The well is
too near the stables and privy, and
Fig. 54.—Sketch showing the topography and the during wet seasons it would seem

location of buildings in the vicinity of driven well almost impossible to prevent seepage
No. 8: 1, House; 2, cow stables; 3, horse stables; 4, into the well pit from these sources.
well and tank house; 5, stone house; 6, storehouse; Cisterns.—None.
iG cow stables; 8, hay shed; 9, privy; 10, silo; 11, Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None
old windmill base; 12, well; 13, stone house. , ? , : s
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out-
buildings.—House very poor; stables fair; milk house-very poor; privy poor, open
vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Retailed in St. Paul; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 9. A good supply.

Location of farm.—St. Paul, Minn.

Date of visit —July 17, 1908.

Size.—Eighty acres.

Kind of farming.—Dairy.

Topography.—The house is about 3 feet above the well and about 12 feet above the
stables. The general slope is away from
the house in the direction of the well and

outbuildings. I
x - om Z —
Source of water swp ply. —(See fig. 55.) Well mae O <i
about 20 feet from house; 57 feet in depth, Pe 2 “\ OND
22 feet dug and 35 feet driven, dug part 2 \ o \ Sees \ :
filled to about 10 feet of surface; casing, ee 3 \
13-inch iron pipe. Strata: Clay, 50 feet, = a OY

and sand, 7 feet. Yield: Abundant.

Use: Drinking and general farm pur- Fic. 55.—Sketch showing the topography and the

poses. Method of lifting: Tron pump, location of buildings in the vicinity of driven
indmill used for power. Sanitary as- well No.9: 1, House; 2, privy; 3, outdoor kitchen;

eee i R y 4, tool and wagon shed; 5, horse barn; 6, cow

pect: Good. stables; 7, milk house; 8, well; 9, silos; 10, tool

Cisterns.—None. shed.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House good; stables in bad location
and receive little attention; milk house well cared for; privy poor, unprotected
vault.

Milk.—Retailed in St. Paul; sanitary care good.

154

~~ . e

———

DRIVEN WELLS.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 10. A good supply.
Location of farm.—Red Wing, Minn.
Date of visit—July 23, 1908.
Size—Seventy acres. :
Kind of farming.—Dairy and general.

5d

Topography.—The house is located on a level strip of ground sloping in three directions

and is about 10 feet above the outbuildings.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 56.) Well in milk room at
back of house; 20 feet in depth; casing, 14-inch iron pipe;
well pit, 10 feet deep and 3 feet in diameter. Strata: Surface
soil, 5 feet,and sand, 15 feet. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drink-
ing and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump.
Sanitary aspect: Good. The wash water and soluble wastes
from the house are carried by a tile drain pipe to the edge of
the marsh some 4 rods distant.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs—Hay Creek, a small creek
near back of house.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings —House good;
stables poor; privy poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—Sold in Red Wing; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases —None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

‘No. 11. A good supply. This may, however, be-
come polluted unless the well pit is kept clean and
dry.

Location of farm.—Morris, Minn.
Date of visit.—August 10, 1908.
Size.—Two hundred and forty acres.
Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The well is about 14 feet above house and stables.

is away from the well in all directions.

Fig. 56.—Sketch show-

ing the topography
and the location of
buildings in the vi-
cinity of driven well
No. 10: 1, House; 2,
ice house; 3, well;
4, stables; 5, milk
house; 6, barn and
stables; 7, privy.

The general slope

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 57.) Well about 25 feet from stables; 182 feet in

depth;

casing,

24-inch iron

pipe.

Strata: Clay, 70 feet, and gravel and

on

Fic. 57.—Sketch showing the topography and the
location of buildings in the vicinity of driven well
No 11: 1, House; 2, barn and stables; 3, well; 4,

privy; 5, ice house; 6, tool shed; 7, barnyard

full of water.

sand, 112feet. Yield: Abundant. Use:
Drinking and general farm purposes.
Method of lifting: Tron pump, windmill
used for power. Sanitary aspect: Fair.
The well pit, which is 12 feet deep and
cased with boards, is used as a storage
reservoir and is constantly over half
The water from the pit
is used for cattle only. There is always
danger of a filled pit leaking into the
well through defective casing. The
covering is of loose boards.

Cisterns —One, under house, used for

washing and at times for drinking, but owner stated that they never drank this

water unless it had been boiled.
154

56 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Two ponds which contain water all the year.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House excellent; stables good;
privy poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid on this farm eighteen years previous to date
of visit, but a different source of water supply was used at that time. No definite
data could be obtained regarding the case.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 12. A good supply. This supply must be given exceptional
care, especially against surface wash from the barnyard. The use
of the well pit for refrigeration is inadvisable. It would be best to
sink a well for domestic supply some distance from the barnyard and
outbuildings.

Location of farm.—Henning, Minn.

Date of visit August 11, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and sixty acres.

Topography.—Perfectly level.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 58.) Well 25 feet from house and 175 feet from
stables at edge of barnyard; 24 feet in depth, 16 dug and 8 driven; casing, 2-inch

; boards in dug portion and 2-inch iron

[6| 5|4| pipe in driven portion. Strata: Clay, 8

pez feet, and sand, 16 feet. Yield: Abun-
(ee dant. Use: Drinking and general farm
9 purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump,
windmill used for power. Sanitary as-
pect: Fair. As the number of animals
SS SS SS a eae = = /0 cared for in the barnyard increases the
5 “well may b luted. Th :

y become polluted. e cover

ing is in poor condition; the planks are

Fic. 58.—Sketch showing the topography and the left loose so that they can be removed
location of buildings in the vicinity of driven and pails of milk, etc., suspended in the

= T 9. “f° . ane . aye) .
well No. 12; 1, House; 2, rock shed; 3, granary; well. On date of visit the dug portion
4, hogpen; 5, wagon shed; 6, chicken house; 7,

barn and stables; 8, well; 9, barnyard; 10, contained several feet of water.
privy. Cisterns.—One, used for washing.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings —House good; stables good; milk
house excellent; privy poor, open vault and unprotected. :

Milk.—Cream sold to butter factory; sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—Two cases of typhoid fever have occurred on this farm; a girl,
age 16, taken sick July 14, 1908, and a boy, age 14, taken sick July 25. The entire
family, numbering seven persons, had attended two circuses a short time previous
to the infection of the first case. The first circus attended was at Wadena, Minn.,
June 27, on which occasion all the family drank water from several sources in Wadena
as well as on the train, and also drank circus lemonade. The second circus was at
Henning, July 10; on this occasion both of the infected people drank water from
several sources in Henning. Judging from the date of the first appearance cf the
infection, it would seem reasonable to think the disease was contracted at Wadena.
The second case might have been infected from the original source, but more prob-
ably was infected from the first case.

Analyses.—See page 79.

154

:
:
:
4
:

DRIVEN WELLS. 57

No. 13. A polluted supply. This may be due to bad water used
for priming, but is more probably due to a too rapid inflow from the
river. Sinking a well at a greater distance from the river and install-
ing a good pump would give a good supply.

Location of farm.—Crookston, Minn.

Date of visit—September 11, 1908.

Size.—Three hundred and twenty acres.

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Surface very broken; slope in direction of Red Lake River. Elevation
of principal buildings about 25 feet above river.

Source of water supply.—(See fig.59.) Well about 25 feet from Red Lake River, surface
elevation about 20 feet above bed of river; 12 feet in depth; casing, 14-inch iron
pipe. Strata: Sand, 4 feet; clay, 4 feet; and sand, 4 feet. Yield: Insufficient.
Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Cistern pump. Sanitary
aspect: Fair. Far enough
from buildings to be safe
from such pollution and
surface well protected ex- [6]
cept for priming the pump.

This well may receive a ay —
direct flow from the river, NS Set
as the water supply follows
very closely@ts rise and fall. 2 a SS

Cisterns.—None. \ Gale Niet (|

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and o7™\
springs.—Red Lake River \ \
flows through farm and is \ \
used for drinking and other
purposes. ed

Sanitary condition of farm-
house and outbuildings.—
House good; stables very \
poor; privy poor, open vault
and unprotected.

Milk: —Cream sold to butter FG. 59.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build-
factory; sanitary care fair. ings in the vicinity of driven well No. 13: & House; 2, granary;

Rep” iscases’ — Tro 3, hogpen; 4, well; 5, stables; 6, granary; 7, privy; 8, Red Lake

River.

cases of typhoid fever oc-

curred on this farm in the spring of 1908, a girl 19 years old taken sick February 10,
and a boy 13 years old taken sick March 10. The first patient had not been away
from the farm for at least six weeks previous to the infection, as during the cold
weather the people in this back country move about very little. The water used in
the winter for drinking purposes is taken from the Red Lake River and no well water
is used. Thesecond patient had been around the neighborhood but not to any
adjoining towns during the period of infection. The physician and family lay the
source of infection to the river water, and judging from other cases in the same
vicinity this is undoubtedly the source. The second case might be contact or from
the original source, the river, for the family drank the river water until February 25.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 14. A polluted supply. Thorough surface protection might
make this a good supply. It would be better, however, to sink a

well farther from the stable and barnyard.
154

58 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Location of farm.—Crookston, Minn.
Date of visit—September 11, 1908.
Size —One hundred and sixty acres.
Kind of farming.—Grain.
Topography.—Level prairie.
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 60.) Well about 5 feet from stable; 25 feet in depth,
dug 20 feet and driven 5 feet; casing,
14-inch pipe. Strata: Blue prairie clay.
5 Yield: Insufficient during dry season.
re een 4 Use: Drinking and general farm purposes.
Method of lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary
aspect: Bad. The poor covering allows
1 fE\2 surface wash to enter. The dug portion
I 2) Oo ; contains several feet of water and gives
ie A a a off a bad odor when cover is removed.
[4 | 6 From the color of the pump water it is
Rego See ecan chon cont emir and Gite evident that this offensive water from the
location of buildings in the vicinity of driven dug portion reaches the well proper.
well No. 14: 1, House; 2, granary; 3, granary; Cisterns.—None.
4, stables; 5, privy; 6, well; 7, barnyard; 8. Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—One pond
pond. in barnyard.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very poor; stable very poor; ;
privy very poor, open vault and unprotected.
Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care very

poor.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 15. A good supply.

Location of farm.—Gladstone, Minn.

Date of visit—July 20, 1908.

Size —Forty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—The ground surrounding house and
outbuildings is level with the exception of a
slight incline near shore of lake. House isabout
14 feet above lake.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 61.) Well 3 feet
from house and 35 feet from lake; 65 feet in
depth; casing, 14-inch iron pipe; well pit, 10 feet
deep, in good, dry condition. Strata: Unknown.
Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general
farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron pump.

Sanitary aspect: Good. FiG.61.—Sketch showing the topography
and the location of buildings in the
vicinity of driven well No. 15: 1,

7
:
4
i
;
,
i

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Round Lake, a House; 2, stables: 3,stablesy 40wranon
small circular lake probably 40 rods at greatest shed; 5, well; 6, Round Lake; 7,-wood
width shed; 8, stable; 9, privy.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House good; stables good; privy,
open vault and unprotected.
Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care good.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 79.
154

DRIVEN WELLS. 59

No. 16. A good supply. The location of this supply is too near
the house and privy, yet the natural sand filter will keep it safe
under the existing conditions. Improved surface protection is advis-
able, especially if the draft upon the well is increased.

x
5 ear
ES] |

(
g

Location of farm.—Anoka, Minn.

Date of visit.—September 29, 1908.
Size.—One hundred and eighty acres.
Kind of farming.—General.
Topography.—Level ground of a sandy

surface character. Surface adjacent to
house is artificially elevated about 1
foot above surrounding ground. Drain-
age in all directions away from house
and well.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 62.)

Well about 5 feet from house; 36 feet in
depth, dug 28 feet and driven 8 feet;

\

2
La
\

casing, dug portion bricked, driven por-
tion 14-inch iron pipe. Strata: Sand.

Fic. 62.—Sketch showing the topography and the
location of buildings in the vicinity of driven well
No. 16; 1, House; 2,ice house; 3, privy; 4, well:

5, wagon shed; 6, chicken coop; 7, hay barn; 8,
stables.

Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and
general farm purposes. Method of lift-
ing: Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Fair. Privy 50 feet away on slightly lower
ground. Back flow from pump enters dug portion of well. Covering in poor
condition.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs —Round Lake touches one side of farm, and a small
river, outlet to the lake, flows through part of farm.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings—House good; stables fair; privy
very poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Sold
good.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

to creamery; sanitary care

s ; No. 17. A good supply. | The
1 7 ; surroundings are very unsanitary,
; and although the natural filtration
L------ 4 of the upper strata may protect

Fig. 63.—Sketch showing the topography and the
location of buildings in the vicinity of driven
well No. 17: 1, House; 2, privy; 3, granary; 4,
wagon shed; 5, stables; 6, well; 7, barnyard.

the water indefinitely it would be

advisable to sink a well in a better

place for domestic use.

Location of farm.—Anoka, Minn.

Date of visit.—September 29, 1908.

Size.—One hundred and forty-five acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Level prairie; surface soil sandy.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 63.) Well in farm barn; 40 feet in depth; casing,
14-inch iron pipe. Strata: Sand. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general
farm purposes. Method of lifting: Iron cistern pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad.
Well is located in stable directly between the horse and cow stalls, and the drainage
from the dirt floor of the stables forms a puddle around the well pipe.

154

60 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Several ponds, permanent throughout the year.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings——House poor; stables poor; privy
poor, open vault and unprotected.

Milk.—Cream shipped to St. Paul; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—One case of typhoid. The patient, a man 38 years old, was
taken sick October 10, 1907, while repairing the public road near his house. Pre-
vious to his illness he drank water at several of the neighboring wells, though no
other cases of typhoid developed in the neighborhood. On September 19, 20, and
21 the patient attended a street fair at Anoka and drank water from the city foun-
tain several times. Several cases of typhoid were present in the city of Anoka and
were supposed to have derived their infection from the city supply. The water
supply of Anoka is taken from the Rum River, which has been found to be polluted.
One of the State insane asylums is located a short distance above the city and turns
its sewage into the river after partial purification.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 18. A good supply. This supply will eventually become pol-
luted unless the mouth and well pit are given better protection
against surface wash and drainage

ri ae from the upper strata.

\ /0 Location of farm.—Anoka, Minn.
1 Date of visit—September 29, 1908.
Size.—Two hundred acres.
Kind of farming.—General.
2 Topography.—Level prairie; sandy surface.
au Artificial drainage in several directions.
Fic. 64.—Sketch showing the topography and the pou of Water SPE oe fig. oy ee
location of buildings in the vicinity of driven in pump house; 28 feet in depth; casi
well No. 18: 1, House; 2, wood shed; 3, privy; 14-inch iron pipe; well pit 10 feet deep,
4, tool shed; 5, tool shed; 6, granary; 7, hog- cased with wood. Strata: Sand and
pen; 8, stables; 9, barn and stables; 10, barn- gravel. 7ield: Abundant. Use: Drink-
yard; 11, well; 12, tool shed. 5
ing and general farm purposes. Method
of lifting: Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad, located at edge of barnyard. Drink-
ing tank for cattle about 5 feet from well and surrounded by mud. Well pit
contains about 1 foot of water as back flow and surface wash.
Cisterns.—None.
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None.
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings——House poor; stables poor; privy
poor, open vault and unprotected.
Milk.—Cream retailed in Anoka; sanitary care poor.
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.
Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 19. A good supply. This supply is in danger of becoming
polluted by seepage from the well pit. A good covering should be
installed, and a drain ditch should lead off the water from the cattle
trough.

Location of farm.—Anoka, Minn.
Date of visit—September 29, 1908.

a Determination made by Minnesota State Board of Health.
154

* eh oe

SPRINGS. 61

Size.—Thirty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Level ground of a sandy surface type. Drainage in no special direction.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 65.) Well about 40 feet from house; 25 feet in depth;
casing, 14-inch iron pipe; well pit 10 feet deep, cased with wood. Strata: Sand
andegravel. Yield: Abundant. Use: Drinking and general farm purposes. Method
of lifting: Iron pump, windmill used for power. Sanitary aspect: Fair. Well
about 30 feet from barnyard. Watering
trough for cattle a few feet from well / no as
and surrounded by mud. Covering in Ge
very poor condition, so back flow from
pump enters freely. Well pit contains

oh

several inches of water. é
Cisterns.—None. pees eee as [fe |
Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—None. 7
Sanitary condition of farmhouse -and out- ' '
buildings.—House good; stables poor; ba - n-ne =

privy poor, open vault and unprotected. Fic. 65.—Sketch showing the topography and the
Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care good. location of buildings in the vicinity of driven

‘ A well No. 19: 1, House; 2, privy; 3, tool shed; 4,
Water-borne diseases.—None recorded. corncrib; 5, chicken house; 6, barn and stables;

Analyses.—See page 79. 7, barnyard; 8, well.

SPRINGS.

No. 1. A polluted supply. This supply could be made safe and
attractive by proper protection against water from the surface and
upper strata. The privy should be moved to a greater distance and

preferably to a lower level.
Location of farm.—Minneapolis, Minn,

™ Se $ Date of visit.—July 8, 1908.
\o — : 5 ’
6 os Size.—Thirty-five acres.
ee “™ OU 2 Kind of farming.—Dairy.
=a > Be es Topography.—The surface slopes from house
Bee Sk and outbuildings toward the barn; a differ-
itt a / ence in elevation of about 8 feet. The
“~ ~~. SN . os » i
~ land on the opposite side of the barn from
os te he house is low and marshy
=e =e = the house 1s low and marshy.
Source of water supply.—(See fig. 66.) Spring
pa on sloping ground surrounded by outbuild-
Fic. 66.—Sketch showing the topography and ings; dug down about 10 feet and cased
the location of buildings in the vicinity of with wood. Yield: Abundant. Use:
| aaa poe a at ae eat Drinking and general farm purposes. San-
3, wood shed; 4, milk house; 5, spring; 6, tool x = - 5
shed; 7, outdoor kitchen; 8, privy. itary aspect: Bad. The spring is so located

that with care good water could be secured;

unfortunately, however, the privy is only about 20 feet away and the spring is poorly
protected.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and wells.—None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings —House good; outbuildings fair;
privy poor, unprotected vault.

Milk.—Retailed in Minneapolis; sanitary care fair.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

154

62 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

No. 2. For a description of this spring, see cistern No. 3, under the
heading ‘‘Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs,” page 66.

RIVERS.

No. 1. A polluted supply. It is impracticable to try to purify
polluted river water for farm use. Wells should be used for the
domestic supply at least.

The main supply for this farm is a dug well, although the river
water has been used during the winter season. For description, see
No. 26, under the heading ‘‘ Dug wells.”

No. 2. A polluted supply. It is impracticable to try to purify
polluted river water for farm use. Wells should be used for the

domestic supply at least.

a 6 a] 3 Location of farm.—Huot, Minn.
iN a a Date of visit—September 11, 1908.
\ Size.—One acre.
Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Drainage from the farm build-
ings is chiefly away from the river.

ot CC Nowuree of water supply —(Seefiege.,) We;

see report No. 26 under ‘‘Dug wells” for

description of well which was also used
Fic. 67.—Sketch showing the topography and by this family.
the location of buildings in the vicinity of

river No. 2: 1, House; 2, blacksmith shop; 3, Cisterns.—None. 5
chicken house; 4, wood shed; 5, chicken house; Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Red Lake

6, privy; 7, stable; 8, Red Lake River. River forms the southern boundary of the
property and served as a water supply
during the winter until typhoid fever developed.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very poor; stables very poor.
privy very poor, open vault entirely unprotected.

Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care very poor.

Water-borne diseases.—Three cases of typhoid fever occurred on this place during
February, March, and April, 1908. The first, a boy 10 years old, was taken sick
about February 15; the second, a man 40 years old, February 28, and the third, a
boy 7 years old, April 19. All of these people drank river water from the Red Lake
River from September 30 until March 15, on which date the doctor in charge decided
the river water to be the source of infection.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 3. A polluted supply. It is impracticable to try to purify
polluted river water for farm use. Wells should be used for the
domestic supply at least.

Location of farm.—Thief River Falls, Minn.
Date of visit.—September 14, 1908.
Size.—Seventy-seven acres.
Kind of farming.—General.
Topography.—House and outbuildings 20 feet above Red Lake River. Entire drain-
age from yards is in direction of river.
154

aes 3 es *

CISTERNS. 63

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 68.) Red Lake River.

Cisterns.—None.

Lakes, wells, ponds, and springs. —None.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings. —House very poor; stables very poor;
privy very poor, open vault and unprotected. This is a typical pioneer residence.
The property was formerly part of the Red Lake Indian Reservation and has recently
been taken up by settlers. .

Milk.—Sold to creamery; san- Laney hates
itary care very poor. sri Sa
Water-borne diseases—None 6 alts
recorded. a 3
Analyses.—See page 79. / ERAS e
No. 4. A polluted sup- O Ze

ply. Itis impracticable

to try to purify polluted

river water for farmuse. \ A ’ | | \ ta
Wells should be used for

the domestic supply at

eee MOR reeset EON et
least. a ae ae

The main supply for Fic. 68.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of
this farm is a driven buildings in the vicinity of river No. 3: 1, House; 2, chicken
house; 3, stables; 4, privy; 5, Red Lake River.
well, although the river

water has been used during the winter season. For description, see
No. 13, under the heading ‘‘ Driven wells.”

SURFACE RESERVOIRS.

No. 1. For a description of this reservoir, see cistern No. 1, under
d )
the heading ‘‘Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs,”’ p. 64.
No. 2. For a description of this reservoir, see cistern No. 2, under
the heading ‘‘ Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs,”’ p. 65.

CISTERNS.

No. 1. A polluted supply. The roof is the source of pollution,
and unless sufficient water for a thorough rinsing of the roof can be
wasted at the beginning of each rain it will be impossible to improve
the water supply. Under such conditions the water for drinking
should be boiled or otherwise disinfected. .

@Moore, G. T., and Kellerman, K. F. Methods of Destroying or Preventing the
Growth of Algze and Certain Pathogenic Bacteria in Water Supplies. Bureau of
Plant Industry, Bul. 64. 1904.

Kraemer, Henry. The Copper Treatment of Water. American Journal of Phar-
macy, vol. 76, No. 12, pp. 574-579. 1904.

Lewis, Frank C. The Sterilization of Water. Public Health Engineering, vol. 16,
No. 415, p. 350. London, 1905.

Maignen, P. A. Different Methods of Purifying Water. Proceedings of the
Engineers’ Club of Philadelphia, vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 1-69. 1907,

154

64 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Location of farm.—Kennedy, Minn.

Date of visit—September 15, 1908.

Size.—Twelve thousand acres.

Kind of farming.—General and grain.

Topography.—Farm buildings located on level prairie land.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 69.) Cistern under farmhouse kitchen. Type: Dug,
with brick casing lined with cement; circular, with conical arched roof. Capacity:
Two hundred barrels. Use: Drinking and general house purposes. Method of
lifting: Cistern pump. Sanitary aspect: Fair. There are two openings, a circular
manhole at the top and a small 4-inch opening in the side near the roof. The
manhole is well protected with a tight board cover. A small well-protected pipe
for carrying water into the cistern leads to the opening in the side, which pipe
affords the only means of ventilation. An odor was complained of which could pos-
sibly be eliminated by better ventilation.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—A second source of water supply for this farm isa
shallow surface reservoir. This reservoir was scooped out of the surface soil and

allowed to fill with surface water during
the spring dit titut -
he spring season, and it constitutes a sup

ply for general farm use. It is about 60

[3] feet long and 40 feet wide. The water is

partly filtered by being passed to a well

Vv pit through a ditch dug in the clay and

s oe filled with gravel; however, this im-

* proves the condition of the water very

é—> little. The water is pumped from the

well pit. The sanitary aspect is very
bad; the water is entirely unprotected
and is grossly polluted. On the date of
Fic. 69.—Sketch showing the topography and the eee ae Paamociva lee Gis of
location of buildings in the vicinity of cistern VISIG 1G CONLATRS C12 AT Cee
No. 1: 1, House; 2, granary; 3, wagon shed; 4, etable growth.
feed house; 5, barn and stables; 6, well pit; 7, Sanitary condition of farmhouse and out-
reservoir; 8, cistern. Stee
buildings—House good; stables very
good; privy good, open vault well protected.
Milk.—Used on farm; sanitary care good.
Water-borne diseases.—N one recorded.
Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 2. A polluted supply. The roof is the source of pollution,
and unless sufficient water for a thorough rinsing of the roof can be
wasted at the beginning of each rain it will be impossible to improve
the water supply. Under such conditions the water for drinking
should be boiled or otherwise disinfected.

a7 oe

\

Location of farm.—Kennedy, Minn.

Date of visit—September 15, 1908.

Size.—One thousand acres.

Kind of farming.—General and grain.

Topography.—Level prairie land.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 70.) Cistern under kitchen of farmhouse. Type:
Dug, with brick casing lined with cement; circular, with conical arched roof.
Capacity: One hundred and fifty barrels. Use: Drinking and general house purposes.
Method of lifting: Cistern pump. Sanitary aspect. Fair. Surface in good condition
and opening for entrance of water well protected,

154

2 Paes,

ani r “4

CISTERNS. 65

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—A surface reservoir is used for an additional supply
for cattle, and in case of necessity for drinking. It is dug in clay soil, and its approxi-

mate dimensions are 60 feet long, 35 feet ,

wide, and 6 feet deep. It is allowed to we ED

fill with surface water during the winter 5 <

and spring, and the heavy clay soil holds (2) Pe
‘the water throughout the summer. The Polis

* 8
sanitary conditions surrounding this sup- [«| s []
: U

ply are very bad. Surface wash from the
barnyard enters freely; decaying vege-

table growths could be seen in water on =
date of visit. The water is pumped di-
rectly from the reservoir by means of a ay

wooden pump suspended on a platform Fia. 70.—Sketch showing the topography and
built overthe water. These surface water the location of buildings in the vicinity of

supplies are necessarily used on account cistern No. 2: 1, House; 2, privy; 3, wood

of the impracticability of a deep ground shed; 4, reservoir; 5, tool shed; 6, pump; 7,
barn and stables; 8, granary; 9, chicken coop;

supply or of a suriace well. The deep 10, granary; 11, hogpen; 12, cistern.
ground waters of this area are very salty
and in most cases have a strong alkaline taste, which renders them impossible for
domestic or farm use.
Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings.—House very good; stables very good;
privy good, open vault well protected.
Milk.—Used by family; sani-
tary care very good.
Water - borne diseases.—None
recorded.
Analyses.—See page 79.
No.3. A polluted sup-
ply. The roof is the
source of pollution, and
unless sufficient water
for a thorough rinsing
of the roof can be wasted
at the beginning of each
rain it will be impos-
sible to improve the
water supply. Under
such conditions the wa-
ter for drinking should
be boiled or otherwise
disinfected.

02

Location of farm.—Hallock,

Fic. 71.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of Minn.
buildings in the vicinity of cistern No. 3:1, House; 2, privy; Date of visit —September 16
3, stables; 4, creek; 5, cistern. 1908 ; ;

Size.—Two hundred and forty acres.

Kind of farming.—General.

Topography.—Surface undulating; buildings on banks of creek; house about 5 feet
higher than barn, 30 feet higher than creek.

1569—Bul. 154—09 i)

66 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 71.) Cistern at side of house. Type: Dug, with
galvanized iron casing; circular, with flat top. Capacity: Sixty barrels. Use:
Drinking and general farm purposes. Method of lifting: Ironpump. Sanitary aspect:
Good. Cistern appears to be well protected in every way; surface of galvanized
tank tightly covered with boards; top projects some few feet above surface of ground
and thus eliminates all danger of surface water entering.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—An interesting feature on this farm is a salt spring.
It is very troublesome, as it flows into a small creek near the farm buildings and com-
pletely ruins the water for all farm purposes. The flow is probably no more than
several barrels an hour, but even this small quantity is sufficient to impart a bad
taste to the creek water. This spring water is quite similar in taste and appearance
to the water in the few wells in that vicinity. A sample was collected for the pur-
pose of studying the ghar-
acter of these disagreeable
ground waters of the Red
River Valley district.

Sanitary condition of farm-
house and outbuildings.—
House good; stables fair;
privy poor, open vault en-
tirely unprotected.

Milk.—Made into butter;
sanitary care good.

Water-borne diseases.—None
recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 4. Thisis a badly
polluted supply. The
roof is the source of pol-
lution, and unless suffi-
cient water for a thor-
ough rinsing of the roof
can be wasted at the be-

ginning of each rain it
Fic. 72.—Sketch showing the topography and the location of build-

ings in the vicinity of cistern No. 4: 1, House; 2, ice house; 38, will be impossible to
privy; 4, tool shed; 5, stables; 6 granary; 7, creek; 8, cistern;9, improve the water sup-

ves ply. Under such con-
ditions the water for drinking should be boiled or otherwise disinfected.

Location of farm.—Hallock, Minn.

Date of visit—September 16, 1908.

Size.—Six hundred and forty acres.

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Drainage from the farm buildings flows in the direction of the creek.

Source of water supply.—(See fig. 72.) Two cisterns in cellar of house. Type: Gal-
vanized iron tanks; circular, with flat bottoms. Capacity: One hundred barrels
each. Use: Drinking and general house purposes. Method of lifting: Water dipped
from tanks with pails. Sanitary aspect: Poor. The tanks were in excellent condi-
tion, but lacked coverings to protect them from dust and such other material as might
fall from the floor above. The tin pipe leading from roof to tanks is provided with
a sort of filter, consisting of a rectangular tin box 12 inches by 5 inches by 5 inches,

154

CISTERNS. 67

with a conical bottom. Bags of charcoal the proper size to fit this box are placed
in it, and the water in flowing to the tanks must necessarily pass through this filter.
The bags are removed after each rain and replaced by clean bags of the same
material.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—One creek.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings. —House fair; stables fair; privy poor,
open vault, entirely unprotected.

Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care fair.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

No. 5. A polluted supply. The cistern needs a thorough cleaning.
With proper covering the condi-
tion of the cistern could be im- .| CI Ee
proved, and by wasting the first |
rinsing from the roof at the begin-
ning of each rain the water might
be kept in good condition. Oe

Location of farm.—Hallock, Minn.
Date of visit.—September 17, 1908.

Size.—Four hundred and eighty acres. ;

Kind of farming.—Grain.

Topography.—Level prairie land. Fic. 73.—Sketch showing the topography and the
Source of water supply.—(See fig.73.) Cis- location of buildings in the vicinity of cistern

tern under kitchen. Type: Dug, with No. 5: 1, House; 2, granary; 3, tool shed; 4,
; brick casing lined with cement; hogpen; 5, stables; 6, wood shed and privy; 7,
2 . : cistern.

round, with conicalroof. Capacity: One
hundred barrels. Use: Drinking and general house purposes. Method of lifting:
Iron pump. Sanitary aspect: Bad. The covering is in very poor condition and
the water has a strong odor of decaying organic matter.

Lakes, rivers, ponds, and springs.—Several ponds have been dug to collect water for -
watering cattle.

Sanitary condition of farmhouse and outbuildings——House very poor; stables good;
privy poor, open vault, entirely unprotected.

Milk.—Made into butter; sanitary care poor.

Water-borne diseases.—None recorded.

Analyses.—See page 79.

154

68 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

TABULATION OF SANITARY SURVEYS.

The following tables give full information in regard to the sanitary
surveys, including analyses:

TaBLeE I.—Location, size, and other details of farms in Minnesota on which an investigation
of water supplies was made.

DUG WELLS.

Topography.
No. Location. Date of | size. | Kind of farming.
Character of Drai
surface. ee
1908. Acres

ia Mernampb ark sm oeeeeeee: ere July 3 80 | General......... Rollingss.seees Fair.
Dal MININGANOliS: 2. seeceee eee eee July 8 36) |PDAalveeeee eerie Levels ee Poor.
StiStybaule. Sons. cheese eee July 16 | eee GOkee eases Undulating..... Good.
7 ee (Ko ars ee eae Aare ee dOkces 1405| Generale seen oalieeee do. eee Do.
Berea 0 (eRe seb acinknamaaacet | July 17 1605 |e Ona ae esate Irregulars 2532-5 Fair
6) iGladstoness2is--eceeeeeraeee July 20 Loe pees COPE se aseece sees Ose decent Good
7 Al sea Ol See eainoee eee eens July 18 75, | sDaitye ae essen Rollingsesesces Do.
Sii| lastings eee ice homer ees cc July 22 1207) MGeneraleee see eec leases co Lope Poor.
OMe (6 (0 nae EE Re Se 23 oe Lea GOs eee AO) Dairy2cs=Ssee Mevelleeh pares Fair.
10 i d i

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22 5
23: ("Sts Cloud aasss-aseeccaceos Be sO Oke 5- PE SS eS Ose eekeee hevel= | sce enes Poor.
24 5 i d Do.
25

26

27

mwNre

| ReAMWin gia accs wien cee ie2 July 24 Tsp Darya sees Trregular........ Good.
2! Sit. eterzscucseas cere ace se = July 27 120) «General cee oee Level ..N: .Sseasee Poor.
30 (Owatonna oo 2 emereee cee July 30 160i eee 6 (ORR ee ner latte (0 (ere a. Fair
Alesse Olas cise oo Ceeteptseeeise'sse% =e COss =o DAO Rene OS Shoe se Rolling sees 2s Good
‘jal PROCHEStersasoecee eae eceee Aug. 4 Ia ease QO ese rawininalle leme don. stereos Fair.
63| Alexandria see seesee coe eee Aug. 12 TAs Se dos oe Irregular.......- Do.
7 d eae d

8

9

B= -

Ss

TABULATION OF SANITARY SURVEYS. 69

TaBLeE I.—Location, size, and other details of farms in Minnesota on which an investigation
of water supplies was made—Continued.

DRIVEN WELLS.

| Topography.
No. Location. Dato of | size. | Kind of farming.
epareeier of Drainage.
1908. Acres
Lo], US OES GS a a ee June 30 140) |General... 2. .-. - Irregular........ Good.
ae) NeW Brenton... o..c22-26 5550 July 3 40 |..... Goeaee acces Rolling nay Fair.
pale. OuisePark 2... ccc. canon July 6 60) PDalrye ee. 2c. Irregular........ Poor.
PiveMunneapolis\..... = =2<c/2-5s.0-- July 8 1-00) eee doo ees Undulating..... Do.
PIP RMCDHOIG’. 6 sce c cc etecc cee cn July 10 (010 eee lth ae eae Rolling s 2 eee Do.
Gipeaitnricapolis’ 2. c< 250 coc. Loe Bees a 230) (General... 2.2 - everest scs.cee Do.
P| Sus (SS a ae July 15 Os || AEE ee os, a aeaillae eee GOjss se eetesne Do.
a ESE Ot ae acer Cae eae nee ec Onste JO} Otero mart Irregular........ Do.
9 Undulating..... Fair.
Bap On so nae Soe do
cp Levels oo.
ee ah do..
.| Irregular
.| Level
Sab ddanee Sane do
Rel eeiaeriatcic| "Sita do
ee ecee ae Bee do
Sr enone Geaee do
Sh oe ees do
SPRINGS.
WP MUNCADOLSE oo o:< caccc es s5 5 July 8 Son PD alnyes snore 5, Irregular...2 . =. Poor.
Oo] ISIC Go) aa ee re Sept. 16 240 | General......... Undulating..... Good.
RIVERS.
PM EROME Sete Dudes cin caccreacases Rept. il 2: Generale occ. irreguiar= 2 -2o2 Fair.
eeinct 0 ele aS Ieee cc ie eet (eee US | Rees AO sree at. | sae dO0ec oncocenc|') | DO:
3 | Thief River Falls............. Sept. 14 (el asiere OS oa ooeneee Eevelicease cs ee Do.
AOROOUSEON = 1s 2. ooi2,< 5. xia Sirreicce scree Sept. 11 S2ONGTralo seen oes: = Irrepnlar:s 2/22: Do.
SURFACE RESERVOIRS.
WV ROENNOGY = cones bcc ccciecc ces ac Sept. 1 125,000) |/:Grain. #2555. ..2 evel oes aateaee Fair.
er GSE Sec seteeccws cs aacstces|a-G0 once TOOGn Pease Oeacee ae occta 2 s00sso-c0c.0-| | Do.
CISTERNS.
TO PIGRUMNOUY 322 <Pciectaajiciatiecs Sept. 15 12) 000s Graine=- S522 =. Tevele-se-o tee Fair.
eet GA et Cee eee ee col dOs 1 OOO) Perec One eececed| 6.25005. canine -o-|) ) DOL
RPPIMEISND OG ee roe cts = cae wiionee, Sept. 16 240 | General......... Undulating....- Good.
a ee AO a aaa ahd atala mu ec nelleree do 2552 640) (Grain v2 sce,. Irreguilar=.--.-.. Do.
iY eee CU Apes Sere see ae ee es Sept. 17 480i ceo dows | Levels. 3osc.52- Poor.
154

FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA,

70

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154

un

TABULATION OF SANITARY SURVEYS.

‘STTUM GauNoOd

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154

FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

72

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154

73

TABULATION OF SANITARY SURVEYS.

SOUaNT «ote tn das sae DUG fs CLUE CULTS DOO AN swine to ai a ea OD ime uae Beane a ODE 5-9 Aq cevAq) 0g) i;2-aenaueloeyy |-------ODs=*|; > =o OP2 al; armen O Dee alee
MEIOISIO ate [TuIpurAA |--""*- (shragael wang Pee eos sosodind uriey [eroues) |-*- > 7-7 ABIO |779 Aq OF Aq 09 |--=------- The Oy ie UIvY GRE inVat |isee Coe 100g | T
P9T
“IOMOg *pomow
“ULIG] F : % 4 *19]BM : “0019800 ;
WO JayVAM JOYIO seg SUISED 9218 edeys Jo oo1nog edkL ly Sonata oN
“BUTI JO SURAT
“SUIOAUASAY AOVAUNS
SIGAAW Gs cae eae a OD Rar | ices eae ODEs eal cee on ore seas SOD elem UNO re lacscce se “10D een gees 2 Ee ty 7 OD eg wecitk Gi ae aa “U0JSHOOIO | F
‘od Pia cea ec: 5 for Aca ie Maa AEE Cae ore LODE nial Ee POG Wes cee ODshiied gies esses ae OD aaa "oro tos ss sssecsrie aT JOAIY JOIL | &
SQUONK [uses eae op Opa POSE) oy aa a ee One ODS Sra Ge eee ae eee 9 3) oo Zz
TOM. [Pea cese= an puvy Se MOAG TUT AGAIC iT |= TOA OHV POM) ty > i stam de haan ee jonyy |
“IOMOg “pomen “ULIR] :
“ULIRY STq} aA0ge *poysioq 5; P ;
UO 19} JBTIO sf) JOALI WO SoBe | -BA\ JO JoJORIeYO ves 4q1800T oN
“BUIYJI] JO SURO “TIA JO Soy,
“SUAAIY
“Yeoro ‘Uleqsig |--- "77-77" ODpeewal\cr sca ae OD Sales ae. o aaah = (e1qeyxulipu 11) > Stig OD ta | abe aes ouON | T Leila Saati trend [los Aysaey |-----*" Opr lez
*sosodin
SSO Nilnas es vis pu +." 5S qyoyong | wuey [eloues pue sulyuqg |*---- SUBDURO Gn ee ates SDOOMAKOTeg w Li erciie ce cee ere = [los Ayjeawiyy |-----* 100g | T
“pad
“IOMOT “poyqoy “SUISeO “yydeq
“UIIR] 7 - hia “Surids “MOI}BOOT JO | .
U0 JajVM IOTIO. 9s. PIPIA | punoze sovjins Jo JojyoRvreyO gajorreyg | ON
“BUIgsI[ JO SuBOTY “qid 3utidg =
|
“SONIUdS

FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

74

anew? +

'* >.
——————_—

gpuog [osceeeecropssss [te tdumad morsio 00000 OD wien: queue pus HOA | “JOOI [ROTMOD ‘IV[NOTL OO aneooorfa(qinlr san oe 00g | ¢
*yoolD, Opie ee eee ODsscun 002 SOOCRS UT Poe. ned | ¥
-yooro pue suds wor poztUeVatey | 7” dovaep ‘semong | 09 ft. Opel poox) | &
‘od Ga? ahs ot eae a Qo OCs | liom ODas|ieeoes eile
“qHoAraser ooBFINS | pueyH |" dumd ui04si9 yuoureo pue AOE |” doy poyore ‘seman | 002 Snqila so neq | 1
"s/9LLDT
ULI] Paes pees “HOT}BOOT
go zoyea\ 1OYO ‘as “SuIsep -edevus -Ayrondeg “od AL jo yojORIVYO ON
“sus Jo SuBOW |
1
“SNUALSIO

“ponuryu0yj—spou som uo}

pbysarur Ud Yoym fo njossumpy sayddns Jaypn ay? buu

a0U09 $]VD}aP [DLNJONAIS pun

poooT— II S18V\L

154

SURVEYS. 75

TABULATION OF SANITARY

|
Lad doeinstal mae ss QUON [7777777 otttttopttes|otsttttopess|sctet etree ttopesess|esee sees poon frrcicrccctececee[seeeeeestopeesee| esses opeesee| p
“UUTTT ‘O[SO Jo o8eTITA | 9 SPOUCA inss ae WLIGTAWO)/ POS) Ine ss uss OD ea alltess esas ae eee ODimmaan loses WOOGRANO IAs Ecc cirr mine onion or: OOM AIO ||P 59 "= "5 --OPse ce €
oer i a aT ON |e gos (0) oes faeeee's TOO | ce cee Soc (0) 01 Sat taht Ris OOM pega tie eae eee TOOT 100g | Z
“uMOoUyUy | T Si PIOU CANIS |p ea totes eae 12) Cre) WP ESCORT CHR agai q[NVA poyojorduy |--------- DOOE | han Se regs scl hee ee ae UB rover es eq | 1
STTUM GAUOEd
sat faces Po stecegpeec|s stress eeesopertes]e sete ope se stettgpes ese) s-
aires cin esais Sosa OUON |: > 2 anes POS OJIN: |= = > == 00d: 100g |
*IOAIY OFT poy | T ACH OY (0) 3 (6 (7. fl CA IES SETS ~"" TUE ON, pooy >
Bie = Sesicle = les smicis SHON glue panna aeO Die cs cae uO Des pee notin ===)
og I vesseeegpgr [orc ec cece c cet plog |-----toptcs ccrcts eter eee op----- [eee Sesence ee ee ee) Cee
od I SRICESECAy IRC ORR GERET iG opr ---- RFRA 0) 0) Piero ERAS AIS coi GOD aaa || ab keen tas O Dect | alasakcis a mame Fag eee O Piero alae
“od T Be PIOU GANG, | soe sPTOS MOI Gialgan as TOO | pase qINVA payoojorduyg |--------"- 100g
Si eed ae Ste OP cay | aint nn ee OD wames eee OP aaa eis come ae] TG AG pOloo Ole, Aieviamaed OL btn |i acca aoe 1 aoe
Se Se a me OUO NG pelea O Paar pam DOON) i lia cans usa e uOP a ir cle soc. <2 = OOS)
“uMOUyU LS) | T Sp DIOUCLANTE rename tare ce SPOR gata Dear anna coe cn crea, CO Digganaieil | ap-antasetn iO Dic nga iain eauiaummnaiad
Se een cay OD ier nea DIOSMOMILE hase OU i larga tre samo et OP sc sales s- istOO
apes ses couse O Dn om tae sere O Dmeniet naeeeee DOOX) Nara a aa nar ee AOD Ens scien < - <0 = POON)
BASE RT (0) Oi ROR DOCG OS) OEP FN EDO S210) 8 | PARISI RR SOAR 21067) cao Ciara erin (310 Pf
lable SOS S50 Dineal pe ALOUIBOXO OND IOS! nena Dae meee A poyIO]OLGW()alans pe asgODeoaea|s was sae aa eee oe
SESE EEG Tae OP na al immners wade Dee aeeg| Sean DOOM) me ata put [DGA\ Palo! Olga == -— +>" a NOOk).
Cite de ae Seg OUO NG torte gaa er O Dicmaa|| es sO G6 || geacmate pete 2 TOD sec ples oss OO R,
“19je8M AiO OyeYURA | T ==DPIOUGAUN har uate oe DIOS) |S DOG ki lama reas es om OD satus ate aa OD ices as | hea cane
Sein sarees Smeal O Diane | eaten CLG T/1LO) DOS) etertaieent ST | epee OD ga cacao ss OOK)
Sinigic Sseininie Soap OL cea laa eee open OD cates | eerie cOOTS | ane 0 LLG AY DO] 0d) OLGA Ui) || aee eens COOE,
Sees sgrcergpra*|ns--222=-822sepioge == =-*st0pet |= --7 27227 teeraecnopaa nn fen= oto“ Opee n-[-7 eae esope nn [tren apen eft
Tae Sipe OD seas picts cme POOF haang: ara tPOOM ko Son> OP mal
Ge FS Steel ome auon |-o---oe oe pjog fos aeg [ott cope tf ee aeg \ooct poo [----77 7-7"
“uMoUyU Ly) | T ict a) (0) 0 (0 HN OSE OR pea OCs. tga 010) Ny fe esc I ORES}, ICICI OCOD 2 (0)0)5 fl Pee PORE SS CB OB OA. HOOMM IS ooo so os
BS ance) overerat| ere Op scot wrosefeeseeeesenog [ovecececeeeeeeeefeee esses spoog foot ee
Bee ate -+---guoN weeee|ersseeses goog [eorceteeceeesecefeseeses ss goog forsee
[ned 49 wor A[qeqolg | T = DIOUMA les + eae os ODS 2s eee OD elie cate ee eer OD eee ae ce 240 Ft (lf IS OC AE: Oa eee ae
WEE ere eed (es ee Opt *|-c72 eee pyog |e--ttttoprs-|-seeeee reese ropreeee|eete es ope fee teteeree|ecee ee esgperces|esee eres
PES SET TIS eeee CUO NG en eC Up ONES 0am oie pam OOr tl amma L1G AS POLOOIOUCLUY ul sine cc ce LOO] [sie sn aes yy nem ee tm eTT IB ppc =o t=baraIs Coc
“MOT}O9JUT JO soINOg Gea ton ny “asBasiqy *jesodsiqy ecivaas “AAW “sayqRig -asnoy XII “asnoyy{ c-
7 -Ajddns jo ;
—______|q00dsv Arejtueg | ON
“SOSBASIP VUIOG-191B \\ “TUN “SSUTP[INGINO pure ssnoyurIRy JO UOT]IpuoD AreyIURS
STTGUM DONG c

‘apo som uoynbysarur uv ynyn fo njossuuyy ur sayddns sayom ay) Buvusaauos vyop poorbojovwapida pun funpung— [[] ATAVL,

154

FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

76

«
METS SE Te ee roe ODAay ea sae ULIGP IO Pasha: car DOOD Rit kemuaae be Get eee AOD EEE im coe: ON ili wrke set.. coleerd rae DOOD): |p s5see 23 Iteat
SRS Pe easier GUON A taseeien s arabe shin Rcketr” BOD h sag soo aaie an ee Oe seal OD ees | paves ee a at| oeke cat OD abi ar. ret ODS ee rs
"19jVM JOAIY uNy ! T See POLOQUCLANT) 4 in amine POs wleveIg | -- >"> SOOT ke ackae sacanene = oe See QD ogee Geeta Colo)? [ial ae he ORS Ge Se TOO AN Rso esa a ee 100q
Y peamiate aha cecal OD gan esos arses Se TOG) mie ePOOR Mist tans cance mak sue OD ade $3 |e acl ae Ee bak Laie kee ODE ea ope re a OL
AGERE AS 3/32 S 20D Jail aoe SILO ONDOSHIA| pes ed Game | meine aren eee ROP eae nape ee POOL)! perro eee ese 31 IMe eS DOORN IET ars" “pOOs)
ia em Sins | eae ih OITO Niall ese 21D [OSLO ALi | een LOO Hn ie ua Soe ne ODE ra aleane = oa O Dam eum esses ears Sree cdOOd le paar, dO.
*IOjVM JOATY OYV'T Poy | Z BOD 210) Nae | pasar TO Sta ieee Ciba (ee Pe ee Ont OS OD Ee goo Se ane STOOFT a ag APR Ee ite ODE lke ee ODsee a
‘uu ‘euepeM YeSNOID |S an eral Laeaee PlOs WIBOID |" - ">> Opigeg ea eee OD BARE SF Sena on OD EAP ES eas aes ney 5), [PA ee Os Ope sss baa OT sain
‘umouyUy) | T SPIOUGAT) nanan ao pros 1oy9nNg |--" ~*~" ODA ee sane ears (0) 0) eS Fer DOOM) Ne. Pease fee Sees OP 3e2s5|iwiees ee Ney
Dor es OD salle eee sO Dictie alee OD ers Maer ge anes sae ODFanon tyes a SOD apes one ras eae eee SOPs sale Ee ODy So
Saree Bar ogy ios ODaal | see OD aeae dine er DOOS) ale rine ae teas OD gacc || oie 5 ae dOOd ale woes MOOD nay POOR |S eon SPOOR)
Pigs Ghee ssi eases) OR ge ngs aesines ail aecetaa [rans e 2OOF alPo sea was soeO Dace | = ise ODe rales ne eOOde | tor. SODr oe rene oS eee,
ebaiauans 9-2) Sey SS Misia ODi aidlpmaas soa sae IOC lean a ceOTC Th Gane AU po Oo OCU) aman e IGM comes ecole” men aun eae lOOd! | iii cin Pea glOOc,
RUBE GE AGA ROrr SUON || pases ULE LOND Os() |e sDOOS) ns pcamnree | [MGA Do) 00) Oleic cmanaiae s DOOS)) edie os aac cman sa (i\) panne DOOD) || sent came POO)
‘syodeouulyy JO AUD | > DIO AGT eae Satis ame (1) 0) Sat RSS TOO el | hc are pa ah sane, Opiates |e S/S Saas AGT PP ODsehasl ie se LUST g | = teen ODses
pg rics irate eae ake OD sisal res aes aeRO orl ae eee rine Bs a OD Ss Seales Ie Teer OD ce ga, cp ae sae OMe ie: wae ODES |
in alee are es aE ODnaos| cance aaan te TOS lene ODis al hipatsoiaing rive rare OD maaan pn sn re) Pitee eel ea or eee eo OORT sees OO ET lige soe bie aneas 100g
shat Passa lca ee OD isa all licen meas AOD naanial|eans LOOT eee TTL AN PO? O00 OL CL )im catenin ncmicear 1OOr|i | ies mains uses uaa tear eam DemmuTT Tie ann tains mec A LM OE
Deer aaa ok cack SUO Nil peas ET ETSLO NOS (i (aes DOO) ia | ene eas nies claITTO TD OMA nin cia seein OON) (aaa tea naga Gln oeee me DOO)! iano tmene OOK)
“STTHM NHAIYG
BS ee Oe ---**-Qp---|---->-"*pjos ureal9 | SeSS—DOOL) ols a5 ran eT eAC para) Olin isan tana ae Sasa DOOD) sme ae DOOD: ten mae DOOONILET
Se saigsric!= SCHReIO Deka] soso selon TO De aye so OO din | eee ee Pee seer OPee ails SORA aa SRS isi) Iria esa O pipers soos = FS QP esse slew
SPE ASA 3° eros OULONid | aa sh as Se sO Dee ace oh EU in || ee re es PODS rele Saas siMineinistslegiescisint cir Stes One sera |oceoses=<Sareir |p
‘od z Sproudayy |rr> sss DIOS JOIN |osos > OORT |S pae See = a OD ee Ss ASSO Die allieers oF ae eS a a OO WN a eer ee aces 100d | OT
PT ASE Re cP ese OD gare oa OD aaseanes Sons AUB A eee SOD an a/R pia tgiciosotet-fererinie(iafainel| Riri = QE mal etal Sn Oise a5 116
Bea asin SA OTION | a2 See ee OD es aS DOOD Merete ae eee Open eae Siti lekacieleizisiisi#.73e1> | sire DISes HOO Rye SS Sse DOO hn Ce
‘od 8 --proydAy, esate OD mail. oe ee OLE 2 x take Bc, ts hie ae ee OD am eee nO Die ot a eatane eer ow |e he na oe ea COO igitte sa ror 100d Z
eee reer 2a ees D ae er ie eee OD eae ODae | sis Sey (0) o) ck Sis ater sce USA 9 (ch UN sed a eae cee aac ao ir ATG co ers ae APIO
eee e poe FSSSRS GUO Nid |e aoe (CES Ee OO Gad eres Ts Sines OD 7s 335 (PE e100 See TOOT ieee Oe ate gree Gur at) Sheeeae G
“uMouyUy) | T stearic!) Yaa | Winger a teats OPssiteea peat OD aalizs canes sr OSS (0) 0}a eas gate ete s5s ieee T) OO Ko seg etches ee a Sohal eae a LOO dG ake aaa ae 100g | F
“roqystou wrory A[Qeqold | T 7 SASSO DWE rani mgr Sa7 O Dink se pei pe ghO Pier yrds Ss eee ores OD sana ital seceeeis [mee alles Sti s oiminio o/ainins 2 Ris anise B25 bal aetna rer meq | ¢
. “uMOoUyU Ly) | € =“ DIOGMANT, [Passa sSars OD insane es SIE GW ea aca ae OD sak pee meet Bie i ine aes SSS pe eee hi DOOY) d's taeer as 100d |Z
peaks es Scie OU1O) Nil lima enn OCT ates LOO Ti | mina [MG Ac 1009 Oo ON CLL 1) i | lane ees aiciaiainieisiol= aictcisrse\s||= step cic Sirsa Ss esis = area | ip
3 ‘seseo jo | . ‘ *a1v0 f 3 r i
WO OoJUT JO 9oINOg yaquinN aseasl(] jesodstqy Areas AAG selqeis asnoy ATLA asnoyy seas .
: yoodse Areques | N
*SOSBASTP VUIOG-19}2 \\ AI - “SZUTP]INGINO pusB ssnoyULI] JO UOTIpuoD AreqyUBS

‘STTUM CATTIIUG

‘ponurju0j—apow spn uoynbysaaur up yoryn fo pjosauuyy ur sayddns sap ayy buyusaouod vyop joo bojovmapida pun hunjvupg— TTT ATHY L,

154

—

17

TABULATION OF SANITARY SURVEYS.

Beco hi eee ta OD ass” Se OD aera eee OOM gee eset coe OD
Saree ae op***|"" >>" uLIRy UO peasy. SoG act th meicmee cs OD ae
Sal ke aealser ee Op" -"}""" "7 >" pyos teqyng |------Op-~-|-----4ynea pojooqjordu a,
Soe el nS Ops 2s) tea ays OD et cay (a SaRO Dina ede o vae ey re ODS so
See i OUON |" ~~" UlIvJ UO Posy |-*--""pooOyH |-~~- ~~~ -4[NBA poqoo}OIg
“SSNUALSIO F
5 |
RAOPSE NT Cleo ae OD ikea |iaaeeea Pua Daan bana OD waar |e Sameera | [LS De).009 Olen risa sy ODe cg oe). co sn oboe Sees ci ite ios irae a ae = OD aan
ie ee gallica ouUON |"" ~~~ Wey UO peasy | -~---pooy |--~~-4[neVa pozoojoridug |*-*--*----pooy |-**---*-""pooy “oop res caved ee eee OO TT
“SSHIOAUHSHYN AOVANNS
‘od Z ~-proyd y, ete eee op eee sae “ITB ee op p
ogg er aa aces BUOOND |v pete are DION artes (OD aril deems ios; SOD £
‘od Coe Wo lee OpEss a eres ULIvJ UO pesy |" *” TOCAMl aes eee op 100g 100g op 1%
“IOATY OYVT poy | 1 ~proyda yy, | tee eed a Score > SIIPOLON |ioae 7 ynea poqoojoiduy |-*--**--7- Ee 7 0) apnea sd aan a Ine ek oe PODE lien wane > 100g I
| 1
“SUMAIU
9S Ghee ae (a OD 5 shi aera DI COWO1 Len nomen OCT its aati ODE ae antes Soa OP mre aa (rac se == rains scm ser ese Opes celqiaecoe Ops ool ie
bes ee | ae aa OUON |-°-° 7 pfog [7 - tare |->* > -4INVA paqoojo1dagQ ete e ee eit mek aa) sy 4) t- POOL eo 4: . AOU. IT >
——— ba
“SONTUdS

—— ES ———

78

FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

TaBLE IV.—Analytical data concerning the water supplies in Minnesota of which an
examination was made.

DUG WELLS.
|
Physical exami- : seins Bacteriological
Rio Chemical examination. eamationta
; Le) S) Mss
‘: a = a a Bie Bacil-
S) g Senile < ze Bits lus
4 = iS) > |aa| g | ad coli
Ss a B 2 5 3° Z 2 . 5g aes!
~ Sod n
5 3 us| a is, q =| Ky o q Gales |
Ae) = ww | = = g oe S| 3 B . o eo g
a & S $ mw [es 3 s Be) g a 2 Soe 1 | 100
B 4 S ys) iS) Stee las = Rs Rs fa zg cy Bie, Oates O-
Fall ead } eH | 4 |< & Zi aoe S) alm a)
1d) 0 0 e1 | 520! 268 '0.056 | 0.006 10.005 | 37.00 3720) eine 26 580 | — | +
26 28 | 140 e3| 930] 830 | .34 |62.00 | .007 -20 | 115.0 | 8.00 90 | 2,550 | + | +
3b 1 4 ed2| 172/ 194] .024| .026].001 | 1.10 4.0] .90 5 135 | — | +
4b 4 24 e2 64 82 | .29 SOR 40s . 30 BL35 |) 30 20 | 7,580) + | +
5b} 1 16 e2 | 500{ 438 | .14 .014 | .002 | 22.00 66.0 | .10 80 785 | — | —
66 1 10 mel} 340; 310] .084/ .028 | .008} 6.00; 115.0] Tr. 22)" eee ee een
76 0 0 el) 2538) 228"). 032 |) = 016.) Lr: - 50 1:0) .20 5 40; — | —
8b 0 14 e2)| 353 | 279) | ..25 -056 | .012 | 11.00 30.0 | .70 36 | 1,050) + | +
gb 0 3 el] 215] 210] .024) .012] .00 1. 40 eam ele Uhl eye Ge 900 | + |) +
106) Tr. 11 del} 407] 350] .21 .048 | .02 | 16.00 DLz0) |) Lr: 51 | 2,200) + | +
116 2 22 emi1j| 310) 279 | .34 .067 | .07 | 11.00 TSO) atx) 45 89} 4+ ,4+
126 0 1l e3| 555| 411 | .088 | .016 | .002 | 21.00 74.0 | .40 14| 2,450) + | +
136 0 17 d4{| 740} 613 | .26 $83) |-016:)" 12605) 210350) 50: 74} 1,450) + | +
14b 0 8 e3 |1,000 | 385 | .25 2036: | 0081 582003) 9 17.570) ares 41 93) + )+
15) 1 11 el {1,900 | 301 | .19 -016 | .011 /145.00 | 630.0 | .60 37 555 | +] +
166 3 16 el, 500} 394| .14 .008 | .002 | 6.00 53.0 | .80 24 435 | + | +
176 0 5 OZ 607s eesl6) |. 12 .03 | .005 | 45.00 48.5 | .10 40 400 | + | +
TE Ne eae ol ee cl le, SI ee 378 | 244 | .028 | .012} .005 | 27.00 28.0] .10 20 500 | + | +
196 1 4 el | 278} 254] .032; .012 | .001 . 80 Dry lO 14 600; + | +
206 3 28 d4{ 500| 222 | .38 742) ||| «20 +||'52:00))| 30050), 540 61 | 1,000} ++ | +
215 | 4 8 e2 | 420] 336 | .062 | .066 | .036 | 14.00 32.0)| .30 35 210; +/+
22 ¢ 0 0 v3] 429] 228] .11 .04 | .045 | 30.00 4530) ||| 3105 28 325 | + | +
23 6 ON ears vi 383] 216 | .046| .012].001]| 5.00 9.0 | .40]) 100} 24,300 | + | +
24¢ 5 35 We2) | L820) 3785) 2292) 30061100 . 00 12.0 | 1.60 23 | 1,635 | + | +
25 ¢ 5 10 v2 830] 688.054} .012] .08 | 20.00 40.0 | .00 51 | 23,400 | + | +
26 ¢ 15 40 v2| 450] 374] .474) .154] .07 | 35.00 SON08 |e irs 36 | 2,000} + | +
27 ¢ 15 10 d3| 443} 400] .458 | .120] .010 . 00 1010) | vir: 51 | 10,000 | + | +
28 ¢ 5 20 e271 69bN! 5400) 330" 10725) 025 3550) 18510) 40 20} 2,600} + | +
BORED WELLS
16 3 12 d4 /3,800 | 545 (0.24 | 0.092 |0.05 | 1.20 11.0 | 0.50 39 570 | + | +
2c 15 20 Wale e265!! 480) || 1076) |). 120) eins 00 -8 | 2.00 58 495} + |] +
3¢} 400 10 e3 | 760] 540 | .256 | 3.380 | .02 00 85.0 | 1.20 50 | 10,000 | — | +
4c 20 0 e2| 479} 312.710) .200 | .003 Drs) 11030) 100) 25 | 10,000 | + | +
Bea eee Serge chases frctch yet ell Sesto oe Were) aS 2) | Siete royal erty | Re eee Pee ear | ns |e 130 | + | +
BS oS) pares Sl ee ea ee ell epee oc. e. ciel he cree Bas se oll eee emma eee ene Sse eles ee 380; + | +
DRILLED WELLS.
16 4 6 elj| 218] 221 |0.01 | 0.012 |0.000 | 0.50 1.5 | 0.50 7 755} — | +
26 0 7 e2] 800 | 322 /1.20 -01 | .007 | 28.00 6350s 19 785 || 9) +e
SiO || athe 4 e1| 470| 270] .08 .026 | .001 | 10.00} 102.0] .10 10 220); + | +
4b 21 10 ed 3} 338] 388] .07 Slo |POLS, alo Ay || BE IW) 26 705 | — | +
5b 2 0 p4] 393] 306 | .056 Tr. | .002 | 9.00 O75 al) HO) 15 330 |} + | +
6b 1 12 m2] 610] 394] .08 - 086 | .028 | 6.20 S40 |= we) 26 | 2,210} + | +
7b 2 il m2] 785] 354] .092 |) .068|.45 | 28.00 RON eens 35 760 | + | +
8c} 300 55 el| 286} 460] .052] .814 | Tr. 00 8.0 |25.00 98 150°} — |) —
ge 5 20 es} ) 150) 268)|'54825) 1.38745 |" Ar: -00 | 100.0 | 1.20 28 7}-—)|—
10 ¢ 0 10 Waealeoro, | A520 e525) ees O84. |ilO) 15200 65.0] Tr. 70 540 | — | —
lic 0 10 el] 130] 224] .086] .700 | .004 OOM eal. elas 9 255 | — | —
12¢ 50 25 el! 550| 304] .306|] .630|.100| 3.50) 655.0 | 2.80 40 850} +] +
13 ¢ 25 20 el 205 200 | .060 . 030 rt - 00 2.0 | 2.80 20 10 | — | —

154

a Bacteriological examination by Dr. A. J. Chesley.
+b Chemical and physical examinations by Mr. M. G. Roberts.
¢ Chemical and physical examinations by Mr. H. A. Whittaker.

TABULATION OF SANITARY SURVEYS. 719

TaBLe I1V.—Analytical data concerning the water supplies in Minnesota of which an
examination was made.—Continued.

DRIVEN WELLS.

; Physical exami- “a gies Bacteriological
ation Chemical examination. caatiiitione
: g = a | | 2 5 Bacil-
4 I sa| 8 ins 5D lus
- ° . = iS) - oli
$ che SEES BE a a a eg] oa |
Pee eae yaa) a | ge) 2) o® | &8
CSS IS RS ER eS ee: ed OA Oe
6 5 irs) yo] ° = - m Pl = ira ° baal a |e. c.|c. ec.
7|& Oo fe) a <q |< fy Z Z 'S) a |e 9
eelfe-s: 32 m2 | 303 | 338 |0.038 | 0.072 0.005 | 0.02 2.5|1.90| 29 160) | +: | +
peters 8| md2]| 303 Ale WoT SealleLO 3 02 2.5] 6.40) 33] 80,000} + | +
2b 2 22 m2j| 250] 280] .02 .44 | .00 15 T.0 | 1.30 3 256 | — | +
3b 0 0 e2| 310} 246] .026| .04 | .003] 3.80 4.0| .20 15 350 || = |) =
4b 0 0 el| 560] 319] .072| .21 Gra el SsOOU ee aLONON|) 25) (108 24a ale 550) |e lke
5o| 18| 95 el| 435] 248] .37 .31 025 | 2.40 4.0| 6.80] 20 PA) Ne)
6b 6| 48 e2| 445] 234] .028| .048| Tr Ne 3.0 | 2.20 13 || = |] <=
7 0 0 e2| 200] 236 | .02 .004 | .00 | 2.30 3.5] .20 11 170 | — | +
8b| 12 30| emi! 220] 218| .04 01 003 | 4.40 6.0 21.00 10 550 | — | +
gb 0 0 e1| 190] 248] .026| .003 | .00 22 Or, tr: 7 eh] | =
106 2 is e2| 281} 260] .010} .002| Tr 25 Mii 40 35 25 ales |
11>} 200 4 d3 |2,000 | 363 | .084} 1.50 | .001 Tr 3.0 \62. 00 49 1@ |) =
126 3 10 e1}| 253} 193] .026| .004] Tr.| 5.40 3.0 50 6 100
13¢ 0| 30 e2} 500| 412) .444/] .022| Tr.| 2.50 5.0 | .00 ZS || SalaD Ae) e | oe
l4c 0} 120 d2]| 770 | 828 |2.340 |13.400 | .220 | 35.00 | 165.0 | 1.20 90] 1,153] + | +
150 3 TAG), nid 2) |). 225. 175 | .024| .006} Tr.| 3.40 2.0 | 1.40 6 5 ee
16¢ 0 0 e1| 300} 200] .060| .022 | .001 | 30.00] 22.0 10 11 A ee
17¢ 0 0 v2 620} 260] .036 | .030 | .020 | 35.00 14.0] Tr 14 250 |e
18¢ 0 0 v2 190} 180 | .084 | 1.260 | .002 30 PAW) ||) tre 21 10) le
9c} 15 | 15 vi1| 243] 200|.068| .240| Tr 00 2.0 | 1.80 18 10 .—
SPRINGS
1b 0 0 m2] 179 | 176 |0.048 | 0.024 |0.009 | 6.00 3.5 | 0.05 Sulee 3200) es |e
Qe 5 15 vil /1,110 | 328 | .238 | 1.050 | ..033 00 |2,350.0 | 1. 60 B2F| OOO!) = 11) 72
RIVERS.
es 10"), 50 v3 176} 140 |0.580 | 0.026 | Tr. | 1.00 a0) Ore SEA alySaiGs | 2% | se
Qe 10} 50 v3| 176] 140|.580| .026| Tr. | 1.00 RO) |) Or Cl! SRO en) Se
3c 15} 25 v2| 176| 146 H 084} .390|0.00| 0.00} 5.0] Tr. 8 | 10,000 | + | +
} |
SURFACE RESERVOIRS.
le} 160| 40 v2 /1,530 | 112 |3.014 | 0.860] Tr. | 0.00 |4,100.0 | 8.00 | 62 | 2,000) + | +
Qe 5| 30 v3| 457] 176 [1.346 | 1. 410 [0.080 -00 | 505.0] .00 | 23 890} + | +
CISTERNS.
eat
ike 0 | 30 vil | 22 36 lo 235 | 0.260 \0.007 | 0.30 5.0} 0.00; 3] 1,600) +] +
Bic 5! 30 sur 2 We 8218 B00))|) 6230/02 00 ROOM LGNON|..00'| 1i- 1,000)
3c 5| 20 vl 30 Sao adores . 00 TORO) 2 40) | 95°15 1; 000K" 1/42
4c 5| 55 v2} 40| 12)|.504) .490).005) .00/ 50.0] .00| 13] 80,000} + | +
5c 5| 30 v2| 64) 36 | .560] .042 | .00 . 00 ay Tr.| 7{ 1,000| +] +
| | | |

a Bacteriological examination by Dr. A. J. Chesley.
+’ Chemical and physical examinations by Mr. M. G. Roberts.
¢Chemical and physical examinations by Mr. H. A. Whittaker.

A review of the foregoing data shows that of the 79 supplies ex-
amined 20 furnished water of a satisfactory quality, while 59 were
more or less seriously polluted. It must be remembered, however,
that, other conditions being similar, bad supplies are of greater inter-
est to the sanitary investigator and are selected for study, as it is

154

80 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

these supplies which indicate the dangers to be avoided. Therefore,
the percentage of unsanitary supplies is much larger than would be
found if examination had been made of all the rural water supplies
of any large area. The actual proportion of polluted supplies in
rural districts may at present be assumed to be about 35 per cent.¢

The distinction between good and bad supplies is of course an
arbitrary one. In accordance with the modern ideas upon this sub-
ject the greatest dependence is placed upon personal inspection of
the environment of any supply in question,’ the bacteriological data
being next in importance.

Interpreted in the light of the field observations the bacteriological
examination gives the best evidence of actual pollution, in spite of
the difficulty of determining the significance of the so-called sewage
organism, Bacillus coli. The more or less ubiquitous character of
this bacillus* does not, however, entirely destroy its value as an
indicator of pollution. It must be remembered that typhoid fever,
popularly the most dreaded disease, is by no means the only one that
the water sanitarian is called upon to prevent. The great decrease
in death rate, exclusive of deaths from typhoid, which follows the
installation of'a bacteriologically pure water supply @ shows the neces-
sity for extending the idea of a polluted water beyond the mere
possibility of its serving as the carrier of typhoid bacilli. With the

@ Kellerman, K. F., and Beckwith, T. D. Bacteria of the Dairy Wells in the
Vicinity of Washington, D. C., and Their Possible Relation to Typhoid Fever at Wash-
ington. Engineering News, vol. 57, No. 6, p. 152. 1907.

6 Leighton, M.O. The Futility of a Sanitary Water Analysis as a Test of Potability.
Biological Studies by the Pupils of W. T. Sedgwick, pp. 36-53. Boston, 1906.

Dole, R. B.” Sanitary Inspection vs. Sanitary Analysis. American Public Health
Association, vol. 31, part 1, pp. 59-67. 1905.

¢ Dyar, H. G., and Keith, 8. C. Notes on Normal Intestinal Bacilli of the Horse
and of Certain Other Domestic Animals. Technology Quarterly, vol. 6, pp. 256-257.
1893.

Moore, V. A., and Wright, F. R: Observations on Bacillus Coli Communis from
Certain Species of Domesticated Animals. American Medicine, vol. 3, No. 13, pp.
504-507. March, 1902.

Eyre, J. W. H. On the Distribution of Bacillus Coliin Nature. The Lancet, vol. 1,
No. 10, pp. 648-649. 1904.

Johnson, George A. Isolation of Bacillus Coli Communis from the Alimentary Tract
of Fish and the Significance Thereof. Journal of Infectious Diseases, vol. 1, No. 2,
pp. 348-354. 1904.

Prescott, 8. ©. The Occurrence of Organisms of Sanitary Significance on Grains.
Biological Studies by the Pupils of William Thompson Sedgwick, pp. 208-222. Bos-
ton, 1906. :

Flint, J.M. Notes on Distribution of BacillusColiCommunis. Journal of American
Medical Association, vol. 26, pp. 410-411. 1896.

d Yazen, Allen. Purification of Water in America. Transactions of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 54, part D, pp. 131-154. 1905.

Whipple, George C. The Value of Pure Water, pp. 9-12. New York, 1907.

154

RURAL TYPHOID FEVER. 81

assumption, therefore, that minor and indefinite or undescribed in-
testinal disturbances play a considerable part in the death rate due
to polluted water, that much-discussed organism Bacillus coli may
still fairly be taken as representing by its presence a more or less
objectionable pollution, as it is essentially an intestinal inhabitant,
whether of human or other animal origin. The degree of pollution
must be determined from the total count of bacteria, supplemented
by the chemical analyses, and from the field observations.

RURAL TYPHOID FEVER.

The vital statistics of the country are even less satisfactory than
those of the city, and in spite of the emphasis that has recently been
given to the importance of rural typhoid ®¢ it is at the present time
impossible to determine whether typhoid fever is essentially an urban
disease, as has been generally supposed, occasionally transmitted into
other districts, or whether rural typhoid exists as such, independent
of city infection. In the Minnesota studies the origin of many cases
was untraceable, perhaps because typhoid fever is a disease carelessly
or irregularly reported to the State Board of Health by the attending
physicians, and for practical purposes it is necessary for the present
to assume that in any rural district typhoid fever may suddenly
develop.

During this investigation 23 of the farms examined showed a record
of typhoid fever. On 11 of these farms it was found impossible to
locate the source of infection, on 2 possible sources were determined,
and on 10 farms the data seemed to locate definitely the source of
infection. The water supplies furnishing data which more or less
definitely located the source of typhoid infection will be briefly noted.

Farm No. 12, under dug well type. One case during 1908, a boy
15 years of age, taken sick July 18. For some weeks before the boy
became ill the city of Mankato, Minn., had been suffering from a
severe typhoid epidemic, due to an infected city water supply.’ The
boy, who delivered milk in the city, drank water from the city supply .
on a number of occasions before his illness. He was immediately
removed to the city hospital and no other cases developed on the
farm.

Farm No. 3 under bored well type. Six cases during the spring of
1908. The first case was brought from Oslo, Minn., where the patient
had been employed as a servant in one of the hotels. The secondary
cases may have been due to contact or to water pollution.

Farm No. 5 under driven well type. Three cases during 1907;
apparently infected in Minneapolis.

a@ Whipple, G. C. Typhoid Fever, pp. 112-114. New York, 1908.
6 Established by extensive investigations made by the Minnesota State Board of
Health.
1569—Bul. 154—09——6

82 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.

Farm No. 12 under driven well type. Two cases during 1908;
the first, a girl 16 years old, was taken sick July 14, and the second,
a boy 14 years old, was taken sick July 25. Both of the infected
people attended a circus at Wadena, Minn., June 27, on which occa-
sion they drank city water, water on the railroad train, and circus
lemonade. On July 10 they attended a second circus at Henning and
drank water from several sources. The data collected indicate
quite clearly that the disease was contracted during attendance at the
Wadena circus, June 27.

Farm No. 17 under driven well type. One case during 1907, a
man taken sick October 10. September 19 to 21 he had attended a
street fair at Anoka, Minn., and drank water from the city drinking
fountain. Several cases of typhoid were present in the city of Anoka
and were supposed to have been infected by the city supply.¢

Farm No. 2 under drilled well type. Three cases during 1908;
the first two, a man and a woman, taken sick July 7, the third, a
woman, taken sick July 17. The well on this place is badly located
and receives surface wash from the entire yard. The privy is so
located that during heavy rains, which occurred at the period of the
year previous to the infection, the surface wash from that direction
reaches the well.

RURAL TYPHOID EPIDEMIC FROM THE RED LAKE RIVER.

A small rural epidemic occurred during the investigation in the
Red River Valley and included three farms in a sparsely populated
region.

Farm No. 13 under driven well type and farm No. 4 under “ Rivers.”
Two cases in 1908; a girl 19 years old, taken sick February 10, and a
boy 13 years old, taken sick March 10. The girl had not been away
from the farm for at least six weeks preceding her illness and no other
cases of typhoid were present in the community. During the winter
season until February 25 the water supply was the Red Lake River,
- which flows near the house. At a point called Huot, several miles
up the Red Lake River from this farm (see farms No. 2 under “‘ Rivers”’
and No. 26 under ‘‘Dug wells’’), four cases of typhoid occurred dur-
ing the spring season; the first, a boy 10 years old, taken sick Febru-
ary 15; the second, a man 40 years old, taken sick February 28; the
third, a boy 7 years old, taken sick April 19. None of these patients
had visited any other district before or after their infection. The
other case of this infected group was‘a man 38 years old who was taken
sick April 1. (See farms No. 1 under ‘‘Rivers” and No. 26 under
‘Dug wells.”) From February 28 until the date of illness he had
remained constantly with his brother. (See farm No. 2 under

a Data furnished by the Minnesota State Board of Health.
154

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 83

“‘Rivers.’’) He drank Red Lake River water from November 15
until the date of his illness. This case may be one of contact or of
direct infection from the original source, the Red Lake River.

The cities contributing sewage or drainage above the point of
infection are St. Hilaire, Red Lake Falls, and Thief River Falls.
During the winter season there are lumber camps scattered along
the Red Lake River beyond Thief River Falls, and these also might
play some part in the pollution. The river also flows through a part
of the Red Lake Indian Reservation.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

(1) Both farm and city are suffering from the careless management
of rural sanitation.

(2) Previous investigations of rural water supplies have been more
or less unsatisfactory, due either to the local or fragmentary character
of the investigations or to the use of a single method in studying the
supplies in question.

(3) Exhaustive data upon 79 carefully selected and typical rural
water supplies show that 20 were good and, usually because of careless
or ignorant management, that 59 were polluted.

(4) Of the polluted wells, 11 are so located that even extreme care
would not make them safe; 10 are poorly located, but 1improve-
ments in the protection from surface wash and infiltration would
make them safe; 25 are bad only because of poor surface protection
and could easily be made safe; 1 is polluted from unknown, probably
distant,sources. Onespringsupply is polluted because of poor surface
protection and could easily be made safe. The rivers, surface reser-
voirs, and cisterns are polluted, and it is doubtful whether satisfactory
supplies can be secured for farm use from such sources. Where their
use is necessary, water for drinking should be boiled or otherwise
disinfected.

(5) During this investigation 23 of the farms examined alowed a
record of typhoid fever. On 11 of these farms it was found impossible
to locate the source of infection, on 2 farms possible sources were
determined, while on 10 the data seemed to locate definitely the
source of infection. The water supplies upon 5 of these farms were
not polluted and the infection was traceable to outside sources; the
water supplies of the remaining 18 farms were polluted.

(6) The protection of farm supplies by common-sense methods
obvious to anyone who will try to discover the dangers incident to
his own water supply would render safe the majority of the farm
supplies which are now polluted. Exhaustive studies of rural con-
ditions at the present time, therefore, are warranted only in connec-
ou with epidemiological ended

Bd

INDEX.

Page
Alexandria, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of drilled wells. ......- 45-46
Anoka, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of drilled well.............- 49
driven: wells==--2--2----- 59-61
Argyle, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of bored wells............-.- 39-40
Austin, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of dug wells..............-- 30-31
Paria col, indicator of sewage pollution:........-..-.-------0--+---02-s00- 17-18
Chikio, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of bored well. ...........-.- 38
Sisters examined, analytical data, table......--..---.--2---.0.--02---eeceee 79
data 3s) to locations size; ete., table:2..-...:.--.-.25.2--.¢ 69
description and sanitary condition....................... 63-67
local and structural details, table.......-. Els Cease e Ses eae 74
sanitary and epidemiological data, table.................- an
WEE ore WEN? illo Oberon cca cto oe OSonE Ee COU OEE GO eee Eee nee 15-16
Crookston, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of drilled wells. ........ 47-48
driven wells.......... 57-58
chupswelll eras ser cccee 35
Red Lake River, source of water supply.............---.-- 57
Drinking water. See Water, drinking.
Excelsior, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of driven well..........- 49-50
Farm water Beats. See Water supplies.
Fever, typhoid, Maryland, percentage of cases in rural districts and in Balti-
MNOS Soda vegoseegnsdubernob COG 0s Dae eee 11
prevalonce ul Wastineton, DC. 2c. 5... 252... 2c eee ee 11-12
ROLaALONRO lew Alen AUD Piva see eee ee opelera = ofa = o(aie wie oxic ces ose 11-12
Hiren) See nc oo See este.) ect OECD SECS eee re 81-83
Gladstone, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of driven well. .......-..- 58
dug wells .2...<223.2.2 24-25
Hallock, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of cisterns.............-.-- 65-67
dmilled) welle22-s>---6-— 48-49
dugiwellls 52 ances" 37
ROO eatery aes 5 2) 66
Hastings, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of dug wells.........-..-.. 25-26
Henning, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of driven well............ 56
Paul, H. W., feaenes of traveling laboratory case. ry 5 Se Sera 18
Fist, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of due elle Ba eee 36
Redmtake Rivers:-2-.-.556 36, 62
SG U8 00 LE Ge 11-12
Kennedy, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of surface reservoirs and
Mua eatin: @RMiScr bee aor Oe SO EE Oboe B: GEOr ee ee 63-65
Laboratory, description of traveling case for chemical analyses..............-- 18-19
[oS SA US OTSN EU GLENS 9) 2] 97k ce ee cae, re ye ea 16
Mankato, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of dug wells...........-..- 27-29
Merriam Park, Reins investigation of sanitary condition of dug well. ......-- 20-21

154 85

86 FARM WATER SUPPLIES OF MINNESOTA.
Page
Minneapolis, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of bored wells......... 40-41
driven wells....... 51-53
dug well. ...622eee 21-22
SOUUMIEG Sei SMR 61
Minnesota, farm water supplies, conditions, resources, etc....... ...---.-.-- 12-83
See also Water supplies.
Morris, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of driven well.............. 55-56
New Brighton, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of driven well..-..-.-. 50-51
Oakland, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of dug wells..-.......-...- 31-33
Owatonna, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of drilled wells. ........ 43-44
dug swells: 2) ase 29-30
Pollution of farm water supplies, effect of type of supply-.....-----.-.--.....- 13-17
See also Water supplies.
Ponds. See Reservoirs. .
Pump, ‘‘priming,’’ relation to pollution of water supply...............-.---.. 14, 16
Red Lake River, Minn., source of water supply, investigation of sanitary con-
Gutiontandotet ypnovdke pid erm ce se sete eet 36, 57, 62-63, 82-83
Red Wing, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of drilled well.-.......-.- 41-42
driven wells =eeeeeee 5d
dug wells. ...2<cs-emes 26-27
Reservoirs, surface, examined, analytical data, table.............-.....--.--- 79
data as to location, size, etc., table............ 69
description and sanitary condition..........-- 63
localtand structurallidetails tablesse===e=eeeee 73
sanitary and epidemiological data, table....... Ui
use for water supply 2:...-22.. 245-6 eee 16
Richfield, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of driven well.........-- 52
Rivers examined, analytical data, table: -.- 2... .252:-. 425-2 eee 79
datarasito location. sizes ete. tables---- se eeeer eee eee 69
description and sanitary condition. .......-...- 36, 57, 62-63, 82-83
loealvandstructuralidetailsstabless sso. ee ee 73
sanitary and epidemiological data, table.................-- 77
use for watersupply.cces osc aes eee ieee ie 16
Rochester, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of drilled well.........-- 44-45
dugiwella.. ee eee 33
St. Cloud, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of dug well.............- 34
St. Louis Park, Minn., investigation-of sanitary condition of driven well...-.-. 51
St. Paul, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of driven wells. .......... 53-55
duciwellsssss-—-a- eee 22-24
St. Peter, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of drilled well........... 42
Sauk Center, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of bored well......-.-- 38-39
drilled well......... 46
dup welli2s--5-s=se— 34-35
South Haven, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition of dug well........-- 33-34
Springs examined, analytical data, table: 5.052. -\ 2h. .2--52 eee -- = << eee 79
Gatanas co Locations SIZesnetCe ba Olena ier eee ene ee 69
deseniption and! sanitary conditioness-sees. seis eee 61-62
localtanid structural details\tables---ssss-eeceee se eee 73
sanitary and epidemiological data, table.............----- 77
source of water supply, protection from pollution.......-........-.-- 15
Summary and concltsions/of bulletin. ....2. -..< 2.4. 045-o26 eke eee eee 83
Thief River Falls, Minn., investigation of sanitary condition.................- 62-63
of dug well....... 36-37

154

~

INDEX. 87

Typhoid fever. See Fever, typhoid. Page.
Washincton, D..C., typhoid fever, prevalence.....-......-------.-0-.--00-- 11-12
Water, pollution, relation of method of drawing from well..............------- 13-14
todensity of popwlation...-. .--6-.-.5 scien ween sane ce- Unt
pure and wholesome, specifications............-. 22-2 .sssseseeeeeeeese 19-20
supplies, farm, Minnesota, analytical data, table.....................-- 78-79
cause of rural typhoid fever................ 81-83
description of laboratory case for study...... 18-19
investigated, description. .2.2.-2.....-..- 19-67
investigation of sanitary condition, results,
| OLE ae te a ee ee 68-79
local and structural details, table........... 70-74
methods of collection and examination. .... 17-19
proportion polluted in rural districts... .... 79-80
sanitary and epidemiological data, table. ... 75-77
selection of sections for investigation... ....- 12-13
tabulation of sanitary surveys........-..---. 68-81
underground and surface, description and
GOMEDARINOM ers eee sein fo etc na cecie es 6 13-17
types with reference to pollution..................-... 13-17
BaD BOOM, ROCUMITOMICHUG: fee aah agi arc eee oie eee ence ee ee 19
Wells, bored, examined, analytical data, table: tlie OCG SS ee Ere 78
data as to location, size, etc., table.................- 68
description and sanitary condition.................. 38-41
local and structural details, table. ......-.2.........- 71
sanitary and epidemiological data, table...........-. 75 |
dnileds examined ranglyticalkdata, tables. :2.c2--6.0:0-.-l2eseccescees 78
data as to location, size, etc., table...............2. 68
description and sanitary condition...........-..... 41-49
local and structural details, table................... 71
sanitary and epidemiological data, table..........-. 76
gniven, oxamined, analytical data, table..-.:...<-.-.-.-.-. 20200 s0ce0 79
dataas to location; size; etc., table.......:.........- 69
description and sanitary condition................-. 49-61
local and structural details, table.................... ie,
sanitary and i ee i data, tablet s<. 202 ssc20 76
dug, examined, analytical data, table-. sUbo66 USSD EE EE eee eee 78
data as to location, size, ae Dahle: 2 ee tee eee <e 68
description and sanitary cones RE is Seep as ee 19-37
local and structural details, table...................... 70
sanitary and epidemiological data, table............... 75
TVS St Ge stoi ho Gr (oo ea PO eS a 13-17
PRPC CIAGEMIRO HA POUUGON 2 52ers Gao cc siice coe aes - Canes ences nee eee 14-15
154

Doo DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 155.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

THE CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT
OF THE GRAPE.

BY

C. L. SHEAR, Paruotoaist,
AND
GEORGE F. MILES anp LON A. HAWKINS,

ScimNtiric Assistants, Frurr DisEAsE INVESTIGATIONS.

Issurp Auausr 30, 1909.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1909.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY.

Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops.
Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES.

FRUIT DISEASE INVESTIGATIONS.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge.
C.L. Shear, Pathologistin Charge of Small Fruit Disease Investigations.
W.M. Scott, Pathologist in Charge of Orchard Spraying Experiments and Demonstrations.

P.J. O’Gara, G. F. Miles, W. A. Ballard, Lon A. Hawkins, Mrs. Anna K. Wood, T. W. Ayres, Clara
H Uasse, and F. V. Rand, Scientific Assistants.

F.W. Faurot, Agent and Expert.
155

2

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BurEAvU OF Puant INpDusTRY,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., May 10, 1909.

Srr: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled ‘“‘The
Control of Black-Rot of the Grape,” a report of three seasons’ spray-
ing experiments by Dr. C. L. Shear, Pathologist, and Messrs. George
F. Miles and Lon A. Hawkins, Scientific Assistants, of this Bureau,
and recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 155 of the series of
the Bureau of Plant Industry.

The paper contains the results of grape spraying experiments con-
ducted in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. The
work shows conclusively that the most serious epidemics of black-rot,
such as prevailed in Michigan, can be satisfactorily controlled by
thorough and proper methods of spraying. It also indicates that
smaller quantities of copper sulphate and lime than have heretofore
been thought necessary in the preparation of Bordeaux mixture will
give just as satisfactory results as the stronger mixtures.

Respectfully,
B. T. GALLoway,
Chief of Bureau.

Hon. JAMEs WILSON,

Secretary of Agriculture.
155

CONTENTS.

Doe Sati ingot ok OSse.5 oe One Bees ae me eo etn, SEL erase 2 ae
(ig CORRES, GUE CET oY ip ea a
SINE ere SS Pee eee EEE ois oe Gee sccls ce aciedeek 52 2 -

Method of mixing...

EE MNS OMT No sn =f a= ~~) =) Sas) Nats Bape make Geiss sein Sets eee ieee eo
EMR RoE RAN 2p go aioe ace cise Heat Ieee 2 ie nds els bee ee wee
SN IGUNTAC7 S Pe A Ae eee er
eMEMMTIONIY NOOR OE. toe es Soars oe ease aed ois wis Sse Dene eae oe

RM MME DENS aio. 5 5 = 1a at) hh st =eomrersiciadb jac s one else yee ee Hosen ne
ES SUG Re ae oe eRe oh ee eo
SCI oo ES EES ee ae OE Ge ee

WOnkr MMM DIOR 3. ci. 52s ase Sess cle 2 ey es ah Ass Ao ae
RGN pa Ss J Pp a
ODS SEBO: SSeS Oe a a

Experiments in Mrs. Smith’s vineyard, near Paw Paw, Mich........
Experiments in Mr. Towers’s vineyard, near Paw Paw, Mich......-.-.
Experiments in Mr. Giddings’s vineyard, near Lawton, Mich......-.

I MN Pe ot ee as tie gs. 22 et eee

Experiments in 1908..

Comparison of results obteinad = dueerent fe ules er Bordeaux ee a
EE a eg se

ILLUSTRATIONS:

PLATES.

Puate I. Fig. 1.—Portion of a Niagara vine with the leaves removed, showing
sprayed fruit, Kendaia, N. Y., 1907. Fig. 2.—Portion of an un-
sprayed Niagara vine with the leaves removed, from check plot,
Kendaia. Noy o1907) >. sso. Seca es oe eee ee er

Il. Fig. 1.—Carbonic-acid-gas sprayer used in spraying experiments in
1907 and 1908 in the vineyard of Mrs. Emma R. Smith, Paw

' Paw, Mich. Fig. 2.—Mixing platform and geared traction sprayer
used in spraying experiments in the vineyard of Mr. J. M. Towers,

Paw Paws Michi. im L908)... .<.2.c2b echoes ce ore eee eee

III. Fig. 1.—Part of a Concord vine sprayed with 5-5-50 Bordeaux
mixture, Mrs. Smith’s vineyard, Paw Paw, Mich. Fig. 2.—Con-

cord vine from unsprayed and neglected vineyard in the same
neighborhood and photographed on the same day as the vine
shown sin siputre W... ...kee Bee weet ce ctioc in hee ae eee

IV. Fig. 1.—Grapes on plot sprayed with 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture in
the vineyard of Mr. C. C. Giddings, near Lawton, Mich. Fig. 2.—
Grapes on unsprayed check plot in the same vineyard and photo-
graphed on the same day as the vine shown in figure 1......-...-.

V. Fig. 1.—Portion of a vine sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, Vineland,
N.J., 1908, showing practically no loss from black-rot. Fig. 2.—
Portion of an unsprayed check row in the same vineyard as the

vine shown in figure 1, 1908, showing 31 per cent of loss from black-

rot and about the same amount of loss from rose-bugs........-.--

TEXT FIGURES.
Pre —The.black-rotiungus..255 2.4595. 2 eee oeee Seee eee eee
2.—Gasoline-engine outfit used in spraying at North East, Pa., in 1907... .
155
6

Page.

20

24

26

34

36

B. P. I.—472.

THE CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE
GRAPE.

INTRODUCTION.

Ever since the beginning of commercial grape growing in the eastern
United States, black-rot has been one of the most serious enemies
with which vineyardists have had to contend. It is now more than
twenty years since the introduction of spraying for grape diseases in
this country. During this period much work upon this subject has
been done by the Department of Agriculture and the State agricul-
tural experiment stations, and as a result many improvements have
been made in the formulas and the preparation of fungicides, and in
the methods of applying them. These have resulted in much more
efficient work and also in a reduction of the cost of the operations.

The continued success of commercial grape growing in any of the
humid portions of this country has heretofore largely depended upon
the successful control of the fungous diseases. Virginia, North Caro-
lina, Florida, southern Ohio, Missouri, and New Jersey have each
during the last seventy-five years been important grape-growing cen-
ters. Grape growing has arisen and flourished in various parts of
the eastern United States only to decline and be largely abandoned
after having passed through a severe epidemic or series of epidemics
of black-rot. Notwithstanding the success which has been attained
in recent years by the Department of Agriculture and the agricul-
tural experiment stations, these outbreaks are not usually satisfac-
torily controlled by the growers. Black-rot still causes heavy losses
and continues to threaten the industry in various localities.

Unsatisfactory results from spraying are according to our obser-
vations most generally due to lack of thoroughness in the applica-
. tion of the fungicide. In many cases improperly prepared mixtures
and poor apparatus are also important causes of failure. Without
an opportunity to observe in actual operation the various processes
connected with the proper preparation and application of fungicides,
it seems to be difficult for many persons to carry out satisfactorily
the most successful methods of spraying. One who undertakes spray-
ing for the first time and does the work, as he thinks, in accordance
with the best method and yet only meets with indifferent success or
failure is quite likely to lose confidence in the treatment or to con-
demn it entirely. It is therefore very important that the subject

87023—Bul. 155—09——2 if

8 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

should be thoroughly understood and the work properly carried out
from the beginning. ©

Owing to the failure of many vineyardists in their efforts to pre-
vent black-rot, a series of investigations was undertaken to demon-
strate the efficiency of the best methods at present practiced and at
the same time to improve, if possible, both methods and mixtures
and also to secure more accurate knowledge of the life history and
habits of the black-rot fungus and of the other parasitic fungi which
are more or less destructive to the grape. This work was commenced
in the spring of 1906 at North East, Pa. In 1907 it was extended to
central New York and Michigan, and the past season, 1908, it has
been carried on in Pennsylvania, New York, Michigan, and New
Jersey. In order to determine the various factors influencing the
black-rot fungus aiid its successful control, as well as the relative
importance and relation of these factors, it seemed necessary to carry
on the work at different points which should represent different soils
and climatic conditions as well as with different varieties of grapes
and methods of training and cultivation.

THE CAUSE OF BLACK-ROT.

Black-rot is caused by a parasitic fungus known botanically as
Guignardia bidwellui. It is a vegetable organism which reproduces
and spreads by means of minute microscopic bodies called spores.
These are borne in small black globose bodies which may be seen
covering the surface of mummied grapes which have been destroyed
by rot. This parasite produces two well-known spore forms, as shown
in figure 1. These are somewhat similar in appearance and differ chiefly
in the way in which they are produced. The so-called summer spores
are borne on the ends of small, slender threads, and when mature are
set free and escape in white tendril-like masses through an opening
at the apex of the minute spore case. This form usually occurs first
upon the grape leaves in the shape of small black pustules scattered
over a reddish or whitish more or less circular dead spot. If a little
later the weather conditions are favorable the fungus may be found
attacking the flower buds or very young fruit, which may be de-
stroyed at any time from the setting of the fruit to near the maturity
of the berries. Fruit which is attacked when very young turns
black and soon drops off, and this stage of the disease is frequently
called blight or blast. Later, when the berries are one-third grown
or larger, the disease usually starts in the form of a sordid white
spot, which increases more or less rapidly in size until the whole
berry is affected and begins to shrivel, and sooner or later becomes
covered with the minute black pustules of the black-rot fungus.
What is frequently called ‘‘bird’s-eye,” or anthracnose, by growers in
New York and Pennsylvania is a condition of development due to

155

THE CAUSE OF BLACK-ROT. 9

the black-rot fungus and is not the true anthracnose. <A form of the
disease in which the berries rot rapidly and become soft is sometimes
called soft-rot. Besides the leaves and fruit the fungus also attacks
the young shoots, producing numerous small, reddish brown spots.

During the autumn and winter the fungus continues to grow when
conditions are favorable, and the second spore form is produced.
These spores, sometimes called winter spores, grow inside of a minute
sac and are usually eight in number, as shown in figure 1,c¢. These
sacs with their spores are produced inside of small black pustules
very closely resembling those which contain the free summer spores.
There are several points in regard to the life history of this fungus and
the various means by which infection is accomplished which are not
yet thoroughly understood, and much more work is needed to verify
and extend our knowledge of these matters.

Fig. 1.—The black-rot fungus (Guignardia bidwellii): a, A portion of an affected grape, showing the
pustules in which the spores are produced (slightly magnified); b, a section of one of these pustules
very highly magnified, showing the manner in which the summer spores are produced and dis-
charged; c, a sac containing winter spores; d, single winter spores very highly magnified.

The first infection of the young foliage and buds in the spring is
believed to come from the winter spores which are expelled from the
mature fruiting pustules of the fungus and are driven by the wind
and rain to the young growing parts of the vine. These spores are
usually produced upon the old black-rot mummies from spring until
late summer whenever sufficient moisture in the form of rain, fog, or
dew is present, and they are regarded as a source of infection during
that period. The fungus having gained entrance to the leaves,
shoots, or young fruit may immediately begin to produce the summer
spores which, when discharged and distributed to the fruit and other

155

10 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

parts of the plant, may produce further infection and disease.
So far as known at present, after the fungus has gained entrance to
the tissue of the leaf or has gotten beneath the skin of the berry its
further development under favorable climatic conditions can not be
prevented by any practical means; hence, all measures to be under-
taken against the disease must be directed toward preventing the
fungus from gaining entrance to the plant and reproducing itself. The
winter spores borne upon the old mummied grapes are regarded as
one of the chief sources of early infection, and any practical means
of destroying or preventing the distribution of these spores should
tend to restrict the spread of the disease. That this is a matter of
great importance has been shown by observations made during the
course of this work. Vines located near unsprayed plants in an adjoin-
ing vineyard which had an abundance of black-rot mummies were
much more seriously affected by the rot than those which were farther
removed from this source of infection. Where black-rot is serious
it will be found profitable, in the opinion of the writers, to destroy or
bury all the old mummied grapes in the vineyard. At the time of
pruning, all diseased grapes which are still hanging on the vines
should be picked and burned or buried deeply and all the mummies
on the ground should be either raked up ana burned or else buried
deeply by plowing. All the prunings from the vineyard should also
be destroyed by burning, as the diseased shoots may produce spores
of the black-rot fungus.

Having destroyed or removed as far as practicable the source of
infection, the next step is to protect the entire plant as nearly as
possible from any spores which may reach it, and this is accomplished
in practice by spraying with fungicides. These are composed of
chemicals which prevent the germination of the fungous spores with
which they come in contact. If, therefore, every portion of a grape
plant which may form a point of entrance for the fungus is covered
with a film of a fungicide like Bordeaux mixture, any spores which
may be present at the time the fungicide is applied or any others
which may fall upon the plant before the fungicide has been washed
off or removed in any way will be destroyed; hence, what is desired
in spraying is to cover the plant as nearly as possible with a very
thin film of the fungicide and to keep the plant covered during the
portion of the season when infection is likely to occur. In order to
accomplish this, the very best nozzles and spraying machines must
be used and handled by persons who are very careful and thorough
in their work. The fungicides used must be carefully prepared
according to the best methods and formulas. ;

The technical investigations of the various problems have not yet
been completed; therefore, only the results of immediate practical
importance are reported at this time.

155

So on ts on

Eg

THE FUNGICIDES USED. jal

THE FUNGICIDES USED.

In the trial of various fungicides several purposes were kept in view:
First, the efficiency of the fungicide; second, its economy as deter-
mined by the cost of material and its preparation and application;
and, third, in the case of nonstaining applications, efficiency as
compared with cost and injury to the fruit by staining. Following
are the formulas of the different preparations used:

Bordeaux mixture—Commercial copper sulphate, fresh stone lime,
and water, in the order given, were prepared according to the follow-
ing formulas :*

6-3-50 (For first application only, before buds burst.)
5-5-50

54-50

5-3-50

44-50

4—3-50

4—2-50

3-3-50

3-2-50

3-1-50 (For final application only.)

According to recent investigations of the chemistry of Bordeaux
mixture made by Pickering, the addition of a greater quantity of
lime than is sufficient to neutralize the copper sulphate and render it
slightly alkaline interferes with the efficiency of the mixture as a
fungicide. He maintains that any excess of lime must first be
oxidized and disappear before the copper can be acted upon and
become effective; thus, any excess of lime tends to retard the fungi-
cidal action of the mixture and should never be added except for the
purpose of protecting foliage which would be injured by mixtures
not containing an excess of lime. Experiments made by Kelhofer °
to determine the difference in the adhesive qualities of mixtures made
with different quantities of lime gave the best results when two parts
by weight of copper sulphate were used with but one part of lime.
Such a mixture would be represented by our 4—2—50 formula. To
the weaker solutions of Bordeaux mixture resin-fishoil soap was
added for one or more of the applications to improve their adhesive
qualities.

Burgundy mixture-—Three formulas were used: (1) Composed of
14 pounds of copper sulphate and 2 pounds of sodium carbonate to 50

« Whenever formulas for Bordeaux mixture are given in this paper the first number
indicates the number of pounds of copper sulphate used; the second, the number of
pounds of stone lime; and the last, the number of gallons of water.

» Pickering, Spencer. Interaction of Metallic Sulphates and Caustic Alkalis. Proc.
Chem. Soc., vol. 23, p. 261. London, 1907.

¢Kelhofer, W. Ueber einige Gesichtpunkt bei die Herstellung der Bordeauxbrithe.
Inter. Phytopath. Dienst., vol. 1, p. 65. 1908.

155

12 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

gallons of water; (2) composed of 1 pound of copper sulphate and 14
pounds of sodium carbonate to 50 gallons of water; (3) composed of

t pounds of copper sulphate and 13 pounds of sodium carbonate to
50 gallons of water. The ingredients were dissolved separately and
mixed in a dilute condition.

Perdeux mixture.—This is a preparation which was found in use in
France and was very highly recommended. An analysis of a sample
by the Bureau of Chemistry showed that it consisted of a mixture of
pulverized copper sulphate and sodium carbonate, being essentially
a form of Burgundy mixture. Preparing this in about the same pro-
portions as indicated by the analysis, we have the following formula:
5 pounds of copper sulphate, 2 pounds of sodium carbonate, and 50
gallons of water. As might be expected from comparison with the
formulas of the same constituents used in the Burgundy mixture, it
was found impracticable to use this mixture on account of its severe
injury to the foliage.

Sodium benzoate Bordeaux mixtures.—These mixtures were prepared
as follows: (1) 2 pounds of copper sulphate, 1 pound of lime, and 1
pound of sodium benzoate to 50 gallons of water; (2) 1 pound of
copper sulphate, 1 pound of lime, and one-half pound of sodium
benzoate to 50 gallons of water. The ingredients were dissolved
separately and mixed in a dilute condition.

Copper borate mixture-—Mixtures of this fungicide were prepared
according to the following formulas: (1) 14 pounds of copper sulphate,
2 pounds of borax, 50 gallons of water; (2) 14 pounds of copper sul-
phate, 2 pounds of borax, 50 gallons of water; (8) 1 pound of copper
sulphate, 2 pounds of borax, 50 gallons of water. Resin-fishoil soap
was also added to most of these mixtures to improve their adhesive
qualities and to determine the benefit to be derived from this source.

Ammoniacal copper carbonate-—This spray was prepared with 5
ounces of copper carbonate and 3 pints of ammonia to 50 gallons of
water.

Copper chlorid mixture.—Prepared according to the following for-
mula: 4 ounces of copper sulphate, 2 ounces of calcium chlorid, 50
gallons of water, with the addition of 1 pound of resin-fishoil soap.

Normal. copper acetate solution.t—Prepared with one-half pound of
normal copper acetate to 50 gallons of water.

Neutral copper acetate solution.-—Prepared by dissolving 1 pound of
neutral copper acetate in 50 gallons of water.

« The copper acetate used in some of the experiments was supplied under the name of
normal copper acetate.

6 In the work of 1908 all material used was purchased from the same source and
labeled “neutral copper acetate.’’ This form of copper acetate, the writers believe,
is least apt to injure foliage and gives very good results as a fungicide.

155

WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA. Lz

Basic copper acetate (verdigris solution).—Prepared by dissolving 5
ounces of basic copper acetate in 50 gallons of water.

Copper sulphate solution.—Prepared with 3 pounds of copper sul-
phate to 50 gallons of water. Used as a dormant application only.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur.—(1) Prepared by mixing 8 pounds of
flowers of sulphur with 15 pounds of stone lime, with the addition
of hot water, diluting the whole to 50 gallons; also (2) 10 pounds of
sulphur to 15 pounds of lime, with the same quantity of water.

“A” brand concentrated lime-sulphur.—This mixture was used in
two strengths: (1) 1 gallon of the concentrated preparation added to
50 gallons of water, and (2) 1 gallon added to 75 gallons of water.

“B”’ brand concentrated lime-sulphur.—Prepared with 1 gallon of
the concentrated solution added to 50 gallons of water.

METHOD OF MIXING.

The writers have practiced in all cases the method of preparing
Bordeaux mixture which has heretofore been described in many of
the publications of the Department of Agriculture and which is given
in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 284 in connection with the treatment of
fungous diseases of the grape.

The copper sulphate and the lime are each diluted separately and
thoroughly mixed together in a dilute form. Modifications of this
method -are said by some American and European pathologists to
give equally good results, but the writers have not tested them as
yet sufficiently to express an opinion.

WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA.
EXPERIMENTS IN 1906.

For several years preceding 1906, the time this work was com-
menced, an epidemic of black-rot had prevailed in the grape belt in
northwestern Pennsylvania, the center of which is North East. The
work at this point was undertaken through an understanding with
the Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Experiment Station and
at the earnest solicitation of the grape growers.

The vineyard selected for the work consisted of 12 acres of Con-
cord vines about 17 years old. The’ plots were 1.6 acres each and
consisted of 10 rows, running east and west. There had been some
loss from black-rot the preceding year, but it was not severe. The
mixture used just before the leaf buds had opened was 6—4—50 Bor-
deaux, applied on May 5. Other fungicides used during the season
were 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture, Perdeux mixture,? Burgundy mix-

a These are commercial preparations generally obtainable.
b The composition of these mixtures is given on pages 11-13.

14 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

ture and 1 pound of resin-fishoil soap, and ammoniacal copper car-
bonate solution. Lead arsenate was also added for rootworms which
_ were affecting the vineyard.

Seven applications of Bordeaux mixture were made on one plot,
six on another, and four on another. Five applications of the Bur-
gundy mixture and the ammoniacal copper carbonate solution were
also tried.

The season was rather dry and unfavorable for the development
of black-rot, so that there was no appreciable loss from this cause
on the unsprayed check plot. There was, however, some injury
from powdery mildew, which began to attack the foliage early in
July, so that the principal benefit derived from the spraying was
apparently due to the prevention of injury from this mildew. There
was so little difference in the fruit of the different plots at picking
time that it did not seem advisable to attempt to pick and sort
separately the crop from each of the plots.

Plot 5, which had received four applications of 5-5-50 Bordeaux
mixture, was picked and graded separately and compared with the
fruit picked from the check plot. The check plot produced 2,195
4-pound baskets, and the sprayed plot 2,170 4-pound baskets. The
principal profit apparently derived from spraying is indicated by the
small quantity of culls or wine grapes present. On the check plot 15
per cent of the fruit consisted of culls, while on the sprayed plot there
were only 8 per cent of culls. The fruit on the sprayed plot was
also firmer and of much better keeping quality, according to the
report of the buyer who packed and handled it. It will be noted,
however, that on the check plot there were 25 baskets of fruit more
than were on the sprayed plot. This was perhaps due to the fact
that the check plot happened to contain some more vigorous and
productive vines than the sprayed plot. This is always a source of
some error in computing results. Even where the vines are of the
same number and the same age there will always be some which are
naturally more productive than others. The spraying outfit used in
this work was a geared traction sprayer.

The following table shows the treatment of sprayed plot 5:

TasLe I.-—Treatment given plot 5 at North East, Pa., in 1906.

Date of spraying. | Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
|
= = r 2 2
JUNG 'B 2-02 =o s21-=)2 = | 5-5-50 Bordeaux MURUIC 2. 2 Jose en eee | Just before blooming.
June 26. ...----| 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture plus lead arsenate... -- | Berries all set.
JUL Wap eae eee 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture plus lead arsenate and | Berries size of peas.
soap.
DULY 2p sree asa ee | 2 pound copper sulphate to 50 gallons of water...) Berries three-fourths grown.

155

eS a ae eee

WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA. 15
EXPERIMENTS IN 1907.

The work was continued in the same vineyard in 1907. The fol-
lowing fungicides were used: 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture; 4—4—50 Bor-
deaux mixture; Burgundy mixture No. 1, plus 1 pound of resin-fishoil
soap; Burgundy mixture No. 2, plus 1 pound of resin-fishoil soap;
copper borate mixture No. 1; basic copper acetate solution, 5 ounces
to 50 gallons of water;
and copper chlorid
mixture with 1 pound
of resin-fishoil soap.

The first applica-
tions were made with
a gasoline-engine out-
fit, as illustrated in
figure 2. Subsequent
applications were
made with geared trac-
tion sprayers.

The weather condi-
tions during 1907
were also dry and un-
favorable for the de-
velopment of black-
rot, so that there was
no loss from this cause
on the check plot.
There. was, however,
some injury from
powdery mildew, as in
1906.

Plot 4 was selected

for comparison with
the check plot. This Fic. 2.—Gasoline-engine eae spraying at North East,

plot had been sprayed

with 44-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds of resin-fishoil soap
added for the first four applications. From the check plot 1,024
8-pound baskets were picked, and 1,220 8-pound baskets from sprayed
plot 4. This shows an increase of 15 per cent of fruit on the
sprayed plot. The percentage of culls, according to the report of
the packers, was the same from each plot, and the additional quan-
tity of fruit on the sprayed plot could not perhaps be justly attrib-
uted entirely to the effect of spraying. The same difference of
productiveness of individual vines probably enters in this case as
in that already referred to in 1906.

87023—Bul. 155--09——3

16 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

The following table shows the treatment of plot 4:

TasLe Il.—Treatment given plot 4 at North East, Pa., in 1907.

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. | Stage of growth.
June 15-17. ..--..- 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus 2 pounds ofsoap-.-| Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.
July 910s 2. s. fecal eeens WO) eee snot eta tee eters Soak Maan ce cinerea Just before blooming.

Aol hia O Es oe See 44-50 Bordeaux mixture. ..-..-----.--.=-....-- Just after blooming.
ANIBUSTO: Soo sa5 28 Copperiberatemixture.. 22.22 ee. - ses. Berries three-fourths grown.

EXPERIMENTS IN 1908.

Work was continued in the same vineyard in 1908. The plots
used covered four-fifths of an acre. Three applications each of the
following mixtures were made: ‘“‘A’”’ brand concentrated lime-
sulphur, 1 gallon to 50 gallons of water; Bordeaux mixture, 4—4—50,
4—3-50, and 3-2-50. The lime-sulphur burned the foliage and ap-
parently can not be safely used in this strength on grapes. This
opinion is also corroborated by the writers’ experience in New York
and Michigan.

This season, also, weather conditions were not favorable for the
development of rot, and the benefit derived from the spraying con-
sisted chiefly in the prevention of powdery mildew.

The yield from six of the plots was as follows:

Tase III.— Yield of grapes from six four-fifth-acre plots at North East, Pa., in 1908.

| Yield
NO: of | Fungicide used. 8-pound
plot. | baskets.
j= — —
1 | “A” brand lime-sulphur, 1 gallon to 50 gallons of water..........--..-- omer 432
2: || 4-450 Bordeaie mimburec: Os 5. - cen nscseheeeReeee kee ans secs cece cee eines 554
3) | ¥4=3=50"BoOrdealemeGUTO s = Yai Some at ek Bee Seamer Seti corte ee ee Fy 479
q) 4-92-50 Borgeawxmixture..526 .yoS 2 cece Pt ot Se cee eee see oans fake veces pee 479.
07) (83-2550 BOLdea Wx TH RGUTO. oo ch eee = hem sont ecek Ree eee eee siemccth ence =i ee 430
6: (Check, cunsprayed a testes: cate cece cna.) Seem meses PEEERG scp icicheeins stelle ahaa 404
7 | 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture. ..-.....- Reece Pepe cee eed eck Hes us ec as e8 Sone eee eee ee (*)
Ba3=2—p0 vB OG CATER AKL LILG ote ey) te ecto Hee eee eee meee eee aise aan eee (*)

* No record.

It will be noted Ahat the largest amount of fruit (554 baskets)
came from plot 2. All sprayed plots produced greater amounts of
fruit than the check; the increase varied from 26 to 150 baskets.
Here, again, it is probable that the difference in production of indi-
vidual vines. has affected the result, though there was a decided
benefit to the vines on all of the sprayed plots, as shown by the
healthy foliage, freedom from mildew, and the general vigor and
thriftiness of the plants.

159

oe Fe

WORK IN NEW YORK. 17

The following table shows the treatment of plot 2:

Tasie 1V.—Treatment given plot 2 at North East, Pa., in 1908.

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
(0) 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus 6 pounds of arse- | Shoots 8 inches long.
nate of lead.
Ace er 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture. ....................-- Through blooming.

Ch 2 1 ae Osan ste ee elas aoe Sesh ornata neat says aero | Berries about three-fourths grown.

From the point of view of the prevention of black-rot alone the
experiments conducted at North East gave no important results, but
it is believed that they have considerable significance on account of
their bearing upon the question of the desirability of annual spraying
as a regular practice and as a matter of insurance.

It is the belief of some of the best grape growers, as well as of the
writers, that the spraying in this vineyard has proved profitable.
Though the actual amount of profit each season in dollars and cents
may not have been great, the general effect upon the vineyard is
very noticeable when it is compared with other vineyards of about
the same age which have been treated in about the same manner
with the exception of spraying. The general health, vigor, and
productiveness of the sprayed vineyard is very noticeable, and this
condition can probably now be preserved with perhaps only three
applications each season.

The so-called ‘“dead-arm,”’ or necrosis as it has been named by
Reddick,’ is a more serious matter in the Pennsylvania grape belt at
present than black-rot. This disease has been under investigation
for several years, but the work is not yet completed. Our experi-
ments indicate that spraying alone is not likely to prove an effective
means of controlling this trouble.

)

WORK IN NEW YORK.
EXPERIMENTS IN 1907.

The investigation of grape diseases, with spraying experiments, was
commenced in the spring of 1907 in a large vineyard of Niagara grapes
in charge of Mr. ©. E. Smith at Kendaia, N. Y. The plots were 1
acre each, and the vines about 20 years old. The rows ran north and
south. The vineyards in this region had suffered greatly from black-
rot for several years and the growers had lost faith in the efficiency
of the ordinary methods of preventing the disease. This work was

@ Reddick, Donald. Necrosis of the Grapevine. Bulletin 263, Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station. 1909.
155

18 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

part of a general plan for a thorough investigation of the grape
diseases of the country and their control, and especially their relations
to different varieties, soils, and climatic conditions. This locality
afforded exceptional opportunities for the study of certain of the grape-
disease problems, especially in their relation to the Niagara grape.
An urgent invitation from the growers was accepted, and through an
understanding with the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station the work was commenced. The results of the spraying ex-
periments for the seasons of 1907 and 1908 are here given. The tech-
nical pathological investigations are not yet ready for publication.

The fungicides used were Bordeaux mixture, 5—5—50 and 4—4—50,
with and without the addition of resin soap; Burgundy mixture, No.
1 and No. 2, and 1 pound of resin soap; copper borate mixture No. 1
and 1 pound of resin soap; normal copper acetate and one-half pound
of resin soap; copper chlorid with 1 pound of resin soap. Wherever
soap is mentioned the resin-fishoil soap, which was used as an adhe-
sive, is meant.

Ten plots of 1 acre each were selected for the spraying experiments.
Plot 7 was a check and received no treatment. The following table
shows the treatment of the different plots:

TaBLe V.—Treatment given nine plots at Kendaia, N. Y., in 1907.

PLOT A.
Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.

May lQssercsseese2 6—-3-pONBordeatix mixiuress-neeee Eten anes eee Buds swelling.
Mia 2252 kee Sa. 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture. --..:.22-52-222-------- Buds ¢ to 1 inch long.
Afpiet SS SE Besse benac COPE ae ana este ere eer code sees Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.
JUNEZB® wa. ses 2522) 2o5 CO Ge se Msesanscee eS access ineeee ne eoee teas Beginning to bloom.
ALD) git ese ae ecickiar| moose GO era 28 ocean Scar ett e aciccemoseeneeeene eee Berries size of small peas.
Gly oes oe eee al oeree GOr es Asse couse bse eee Meee Seer Berries one-half grown.
PATICUISUD EEE oe selene OL Gs SA ae Sea Sane Ea AGEe Saba Oeorooewar ac Berries three-fourths grown.
ATIPTIST Masao eee = Bureundy mixture NO. 2c... aseee eee eee cee Berries grown.

PLOT 2.
Mayl0i sss ecuere: 6-3-50 Bordeaux mixture.-....-..--.-...-- Saas | Buds swelling.
May 225) see ae ences 44-50 Bordeaux mixture...........-..-.-.--.-.- | Buds # to 1 inch long.
Jue dt eee telecon GO meee tear vere ee ereecca parece s = S=2=-| SHOOLS SiNehes ton oomones
UNOS Sees ce cee pee COP Re aie Se och. Ae pote = Oe a eee nee Beginning to bloom.
Waly U3 5222 see see |e ba GOS aaron ei ciielnelie sole bin sbisaiem ee eee eeiee nae | Berries size of small peas.
DAU 2a sees es Saas COPA rata Ree tole hep ern aciellemie ke ine eiten eee letee | Berries one-half grown.
ATISTIS tA se spat eee TOE OS Se clogs Oe eee ee ee Berries three-fourths grown.
MITONST ABE Stee Normal copperiacetate:\. o.2 06-5 .nces eee eee eee Berries grown.

|

PLOT 3
MaylO ye oce tien ae oe 6-3-50 Bordeaux mixture............-.--.------- Buds swelling. |
May 2l eo pasnseeues 44-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds of soap. .| Buds ¢ to 1 inch long.
JUNG Wee eee ee 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture.........3.2..cec-c-ees Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.

...| Beginning to bloom.
..-| Berries size of small peas.

.| Berries one-half grown.
Berries three-fourths grown.
Berries grown.

155

WORK IN NEW YORK. : 19

TaBLe V.—Treatment given nine plots at Kendaia, N. Y., in 1907—Continued.

PLOT 4.

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.

Buds swelling.

Buds } to 1 inch long.

Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.
Beginning to bloom.

Berries size of small peas.
Berries one-half grown.
Berries three-fourths grown.
Berries grown.

MENG LO Cc. a= 256s 6-3-50 Bordeaux mixture.................-.-.-- Buds swelling.
INC \ 7s Biurpundymilxtire NOs 220: . sei ctcitesale cet aeres Buds ? to 1 inch long.
a7 i Ae eee! pees GOs oom ann ante aides Sareinnisccidue sta geeiottaacs< Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.
Aihis eS A (Coe ee SO EOS sic cee aOR aE BEE meee Beginning to bloom.
SU cal ss es GON est ess eee ease oo ecise asus See sews Berries size of small peas.
Wes ee el ee 6 (0 pA I ary ee eis Eee a ee Berries one-half grown.
JTC) ee ae GUNS eich an canis Se miamte waite apie Sodas sates Berries three-fourths grown.
AUPGUSETS.:....... PBUTP UNG V TOLR CULE; ONLY. 2.2 2 steele com ene soe seins Berries grown.

PLOT 6

.| 6-3-50 Bordeaux mixture .| Buds swelling.

3} Copper-ehlorid: mixtures ooo j2co- 22 242 8a5¢ .-| Buds ? to 1 inch long.
A eee COE aya eee wc ce Actas eens we Aeon sa.2 Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.
bee Rorpita O Sterccerateae acces a-sencialeeieemisciecese= eb eses | peginning to bloom.
fo hy 1: ee Qe cee canes AOS eeceee coc ceaseeeed Berries size of small peas.
ai! Oeste secten srises -eccerns metaterias cece ¢o<s 001 Berriesione-half prown.
Sones Oe eee see eo eee seems see ctt- eee ec ni berries three-fourths grown.
} oe Preece Oa eae ca miatioem cs Ree gee eaten sd sie cide cok Berries grown.
PLOT 8
{
Ut ee 5-09-50) Bordeaux mixture... uj. ocien-ciciiesas ss. Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.
A Pie PS ee eee (0 oe Sn ee ae NR cy Se en ee ee ee Beginning to bloom.
tbh 6 Se See ee 410 08 Re a ere eee nce Aen ee cee ae nee Berries size of small peas.
Eee ae ao scsi alles 2 Gdmemna ress secs so ceases sos candela es seals Berries one-half grown.
PTEBUAG near eg ace |= oer Geer ters eto oa: ao latane weet atch elandls.e elem ers Berries three-fourths grown.
PLOT 9.

44-50 Bordeaux mixture and 2 pounds of soap..| Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.

Hanes OO i eat eeaees salons caeesrereeeee sce) Beginning to bloom.
ae aed QO ee ae eee ee een canee neta sense se |) Berries'size of small peas:
Pee eke orate nit ste oot Ch \s = it Cn ROMA Be a x Oe ries ate Sate Berries one-half grown.
44-50 Bordeaux mixture........-..:.......---. Berries three-fourths grown.
PLOT 10
RUBS Ae. occ f. eubper porate mixture: <3. 2-5 cescecce ess nets Shoots 8 inches to 1 foot long.
Jie lO ase ee eee MOM ae a Rahal cr rate a ai marnaraak oe eee ote. Beginning to bloom.
CUS eas eee eel OM re Mee rinn hic ee cnacnu watineaeeescee Berries size of small peas.
(ie) 671 SR ee ee | | (in aes Rane Sa ietees Ste Sens Bas Pane Berries one-half grown.
ANGE 2: oss 3 nee (Dok he ee A li ye OR EES OT a Oe Berries three-fourths grown.
Pet 4b) Se Normal copper ACELATO NG eo see te ae ona enon Berries grown.

The weather conditions during the season were not so favorable
for the development of rot as they had been the year previous. On
the unsprayed check plot the first indications of disease were found,
as shown by spots on the leaves, on July 11. There was an out-
break of rot on the fruit and foliage from July 22 to July 25. The

total amount of rot on the check before picking was 23.8 per cent.
155

20 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

The following table shows the results of the applications to the
different plots:

TaBLE VI.—Results of spraying experiments on nine plots of Niagara grapes at Kendaia,

NENA IO Te
ea Number
o. of | of appli- aie
plot. | cations Fungicide used. Rot.
given.
Per cent.*

1 8 | 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture, and Burgundy mixture No. 2 for last application. 8.8

2 8 | 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture, and normal copper acetate and one-half pound of
soap for last'application:=....%¢ -<.-26sse4.cce ose. eee een eee oe 8.0

3 8 | 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture plus 2 pounds of soap, and copper borate No. 1
and) a pound of soap for lastiapplcation=--- 2.25 5sses- seer ee eee 6.2
4 8 | Copper borate mixture No. 1 and 1 pound ofsoap .......-...-..-.---------- 10.1
5 8 | Burgundyamixture No. 2'and J pound of soap =922-ss----seese eee eeeeeeene 11.4
6 8 | Copper chlorid mixture and 1 pound of soap ..-..........-2----.-----.----- 12.8
Tol rachis eee Check, nunspraved)- 75.6 1. s.c cou aawee mane eee one me eae ane ERR ee 23. 8
8 5-|':5-5-50 Dordesux-mixture\s. co 2dsi 5% ste eesee eee ae eee eee 6.3
9 5) | 44-00 Bordeaux mixtureiand Soap.---+- 2.26 seeees sae eee eee t arate Cate 7.2

10 6 | Copper borate and 1 pound of soap, and normal copper acetate for last ap-
plications asses oo oe sc ee Ee eee ee ee 8.3

Ordinary spraying with Bordeaux mixture as heretofore practiced in the

LAU GCs 721146 ae Sh ee Ae, Manet = Se Cae Re ee A tee Rms = noes onc 12. 072

* Determined by count of rotten berries.

The percentages of rot given were determined by an actual count
of the diseased berries found on 2,500 clusters from vines showing the
average condition of the plot and by comparing this number with
the average number of berries usually produced upon the same
number of clusters. (See PI. I, figs. 1 and 2.)

It will be noted that Bordeaux mixture gave the best results and
that five applications proved just about as effective as eight. There
was scarcely any difference in the results from the use of the 5—5—50
and the 4—4-50 formulas. There was 2 per cent less rot on plot 3
than on plots 1 and 2, apparently attributable to the addition of the
resin soap, but in other cases the benefit from this was not evident.

EXPERIMENTS IN 1908.

The work in New York was continued in the season of 1908 in the
same vineyard and on the same vines used in 1907, but the plots
were reduced to five-sixths of an acre each.

The following fungicides were used:

Bordeaux mixture, 4—4—50, 4-3-50, and 3-2-50 formulas.

Copper borate mixture No. 3.

Neutral copper acetate solution. This was used chiefly as a nonstaining preparation
for final applications.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur, prepared with hot water.

“A” brand concentrated lime-sulphur solution, 1 gallon to 50 gallons of water;
also | gallon to 75 gallons of water.

Resin-fishoil soap was also added in some cases, as indicated in the tables which
follow.

The spraying was done, as in the preceding season, with a gasoline-
engine outfit. Stationary nozzles were used for the earlier applica-

155

.

Bul. 155, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. { PLATE |.

Fic. 1.—PORTiON OF A NIAGARA VINE WITH THE LEAVES REMOVED, SHOWING SPRAYED
FRUIT, KENDAIA, N. Y., 1907.

FiG. 2.—PORTION OF AN UNSPRAYED NIAGARA VINE WITH THE LEAVES REMOVED, FROM
CHECK PLOT, KENDAIA, N. Y., 1907.

WORK IN NEW YORK. 21

tions, and three fixed nozzles and trailers with two nozzles each
directed by hand were used for the fifth and sixth applications. Plot
7 was a check and received no treatment.

The following table shows the treatment given each of the plots:

Taste VII.—Treatment given ten plots at Kendaia, N. Y., in 1908.
PLOT!

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.

Shoots 10 inches to 1 foot long.
Just beginning to bloom.
Through blooming.

Berries one-third grown.
Berries one-half grown.
Berries nearly grown.

Shoots 10 inches to 1 foot long.
Just beginning to bloom.
Through blooming.

Berries one-third grown.
Berries one-half grown.
Berries nearly grown.

Shoots 10 inches to 1 foot long.
Just beginning to bloom.
Through blooming.

Berries one-third grown.
Berries one-half grown.
Berries nearly grown.

PLOT 4
WMO. 62 ck. con 3-200 LD OLGGaIx IMIXTUTG 2. <-2..2 oe ec senses Shoots 10 inches to 1 foot long.
AQeha CaaS ee LU eee ayo yates Foe a ee Ss Just beginning to bloom.
TUES: oa ae (lee coded de Bawa e AOR Gn Ren noac ac ae EL eeere Through blooming.
Ut eS See ae ees Clee Sop aes OO APE TEC rea ec oa Berries one-third grown.
vet 72.3 he CR ea) | Sara (BC). a a SER Ae Seen ones _ eee = ee pe Berries one-half grown.
August 12. ........ Neiiral:copper acetate. 2225 2. doco cc cek wee woes Berries nearly grown.
PILOT 5:
UCI NA ee 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds ofsoap.| Shoots 10 inches to 1 foot long.
AA aYLI 12/0 a (he). Be Sn cote che sobre ade bane aor erae Just beginning to bloom.
Ast Ce ane OS ae Ct ern Sea ae Et ooo ps ere Through blooming.
USE wie a Sales aoa (OKO is = See le, Ne ele ae te a Berries one-third grown.
ial se ae 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture............-....--1--. Berries one-half grown.
August 12)........ INeutralicopperiacetates . 352. 02.6. cc encwce sane Berries nearly grown.
REO G-
3-2-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds of soap.| Shoots 10 inches to 1 foot long.
iS Aared Ones saeee re nee ae tea ewan eae s.| JUS beginning to: bloom.
aacias CGaren eee ee ee ne eee soe ee |) Torough blooming.
See COs eee en eee eee toon! Berries one-third grown.
3-2-0900 BOYVGeaUR MUNTUTG = ccc. ccccgccse+ss | Berries one-half grown.
| Neutral copper acetate. eco 5 Gen sac cama sce gees | Berries nearly grown.
|
PLOT 8.
WUNOU2 os .0.0.- 22 | 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture. .................-..-- Just beginning to bloom.
Wine 26. o 2.222 9: | Copper borate No. 3, with 1 pound of soap ....- - Through blooming.
U0 eee er aan ep Ae aA ee a ne Berries one-third grown.
Why 23x. soe 5225 one lee ee Ae Ska aaa de terns Berries one-half grown.

IMGT qn Eh IE he i ARE CORON See a en nS © OR a ge | Berries nearly grown.

155

22 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

TaBLe VII.—Treatment given ten plots at Kendaia, N. Y., in 1908—Continued.

PLOT 9.

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
DUN 2S eae eee Ap 3- HO BOLrdeaux aI xtOnesee se eee eee ceeae aces Just beginning to bloom.
gune26,. 32s cees oe Neutral copper acetates... s22c cn sscne) dacong. mee Through blooming.

‘Uh ae Sheetsea sel laanae LOK wget ete vs ee See ea reo ae ta eee Berries one-third grown.
AUD iy PR acta eRe ra elena (ol oie pe ae ges ew eS ert eee Oe Sn So ls ate Berries one-half grown.
AUCUSEMD ec be callacess COE Fase eos oe seo eee eae Cen ease eee Berries nearly grown.
PLOT 10.
VUNOW2e tee ee sea 4-3-0) BOLdeallRAMUREITO= 455 so eee ene anes ee Just beginning to bloom.
VUNe 262s <n eee Self-boiled lime-sulphur No. 1, 8-15-50........-... Through blooming.
Au git ey ae ee ee th oe Ore Pe rst ots ee acrsicte Ac wicsite Span cee Berries one-third grown.
ANPP aos aeoemsoe Self-boiled lime-sulphur No. 2, 10-15-50.....-.... Berries one-half grown.
AUPUSCI2 32 2 cee “4”’ brand lime-sulphur No. 2, 1 gallon to 75 gal- | Berries nearly grown.
lons of water.
PLOT 11.
WINE Ds aes See A-3-50) Bordeaux Mixtures -. << 2 s2c- 2-2 eee eee Just beginning to bloom.
JUNO 26s ceeeeseue as “4” brand lime-sulphur No. 1, 1 gallon to 50 gal- | Through blooming.
lons of water.
Daly Os. 4 .cehouse. ulpeents GOVSe Re cise saeeseecs SoR Ee See opiate cee ee Peee Berries one-third grown.
Daly 238i eos sees os eee eee: eect. fas we Shs ede e ae eae ne Berries one-half grown.
AMIPUISGIZEe. eee “‘A”’ brand lime-sulphur No. 2, 1 gallon to 75 gal- | Berries nearly grown.
lons of water.

The plot which had been used as a check in 1907 was sprayed this
season. The first signs of disease were noted on June 25, when spots
caused by the black-rot fungus began to appear on the leaves.

The following table shows the results of the treatment of the dif-
ferent plots:

Taste VIII.—Results of spraying experiments on ten plots of Niagara grapes at
Kendaia, N. Y., in 1908.

No. of | Number vi Yield of
sty of appli- Fungicide used. Rot. market wine
plot. | cations. grapes. | &T8Pes.
Baskets | Baskets
Percent.*| (41b.). (20 1b.).
1 65} 44-50 Bordeatimsmixpune pice see. cess ee eee eet 1.9 758 157
2 61), 4-3-50'Bordeaiix mixturecs on. ce Su. See eee ce eee 1.06 800 131
3 6i)| 42-50 onrdealixmtcbUleae. +s nee cecs ssc ecee eee -79 610 136}
4 6) "S=2-o0eBordeaixmixbune a2 see emesis .79 608 1424
5 6 | 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture and 2 pounds of resin-fishoil
SO@D soe ease wn ieee hci noe See Seat cee chs eee -49 523 148
6 6 | 3-2-50 Bordeaux mixture and 2 pounds of resin-fishoil
SOAP Sat sack bes sec cbs Seehces soomecat ate com cme mr rcces 1.6 696 160
(Gl ce aeCe ne Check mumsprayieds oot ees ces cttec eee seer se ene 17.44 505 112
8 5 | 4-38-50 Bordeaux mixture, first application only. Fol-
lowing applications, copper borate No. 3, with 1
poundiohsoapr sss 2 eens ee eee eee ee et eee ce 3.48 957 145
9 5 | 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture, first application only. Fol-
lowing applications, neutral copper acetate, 1 pound
TODO Pallonsiof waters esse 2. seas eae aes acbee 1.01 685 105
10 5 | 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture, first pale eee only. Fol-
lowing applications, self-boiled lime-sulphur Nos.
(Lys ea ley Fi se be eR EER PEE Ny hele ERE ee ips 319 150
11 5 | 4-38-50 Bordeaux mixture, first application only. Fol-
lowing applications, ‘‘A’’ brand lime-sulphur Nos.
QTC Ree rot curiae clae s nictain asl asic ere taal mene Bete Reece 37 863 | - 115

* Determined by count of rotten berries. ‘
+ Neutral copper acetate used in last spraying on plots 1 to 6, inclusive; also on plot 9.

From this table it will be noted that the smallest percentage of rot,
as determined by counting the diseased berries, was upon plot 11,
which was sprayed first with 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture, followed

155

WORK IN NEW YORK. 23

by three applications of “A” brand concentrated lime-sulphur solu-
tion, one gallon to 50 of water, and a final application of 1 gallon of
the same material to 75 of water. It was intended to treat this plot
throughout the season with the concentrated lime-sulphur solution,
but the material was not received in time to be used for the first
application. The concentrated lime-sulphur solution, when used at
the rate of 1 gallon to 50 of water, caused such severe injury to the
foliage that for the final application it was reduced to 1 to 75. Hence,
from the facts that this plot was not treated with the concentrated
lime-sulphur solution alone, and that the injury to the foliage was so
great as to preclude its future use in the same strength, the results
do not justify positive conclusions in regard to either the efficiency
or the practicability of using this preparation for black-rot. It
remains to be determined whether this concentrated lime-sulphur
can be diluted sufficiently to avoid injury to the foliage and still
retain the necessary fungicidal properties. The plot treated with
self-boiled lime-sulphur was also sprayed the first time with Bor-
deaux mixture, and as the lime-sulphur was made by the use of hot
water it also caused some injury to the foliage. The fruit was also
rather badly stained by the self-boiled lime-sulphur solutions.

The yield in select market grapes and wine grapes is also given.
The yield from the various plots does not always bear a direct rela-
tion to the treatment and to the amount of rot present, as the num-
ber of vines in the rows varied somewhat and there was also some
variation in the vigor and productiveness of the individual vines.

The following is an itemized statement of the expenses connected
with the spraying and shows also the returns from the fruit and the
gain per acre due to spraying:

Cost of spraying plot 2, five-sixths of an acre, at Kendaia, N. Y., in 1908, returns from
plot 2, and returns from the five-sixths-acre unsprayed plot.
Plot No. 2 (sprayed):

Sucre pound. baskets, at W2\Cents:....2-222s<..cnccca-2-- seen ae $96. 00
Paleau-pound baskets) at 30 cents...2220.2..2.c---2-5+- ee ee cee 39. 30

PROPAIERCCCIDUSsere eames ont okie nen vet eerie tas soc ee se 135. 30
Man, team, and sprayer, each application............... $0. 35
Bluestone, 8 pounds, at 6 cents; lime, 6 pounds, at five-
minths Cent......... tales ORR n Ae ey ae .514

One application of Bordeaux mixture, 4-3-50..........-. . 864

Five applications of Bordeaux mixture, 4-3-50, at 864

ern eeta = aiale Siaalo oe Sina 6 6 ave wlaidic,Swelelejoe e.ctersSi-- = = 4, 32
Resin-fishoil soap, 3 applications, 12 pounds, at 3$cents. —. 42
One additional application of copper acetate, 2 pounds, at
45 cents, plus 35 cents for application .............--- 1. 25
Extra help hafidling trailers, two applications........... . 60
PIRES S275. SNE IEMR ee eee file
Oiesier sO DUCAWONSG es jaeeaeee sen fee sees c see. -c----5- 1454
JUSS ERD SS So aaa ye velo Jee Oe 8) ao a nr rr ra $120. 96

155

24 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

Net. receipts, brought forward ..2.: 4252 2.5- 2s) seer ee ere $120. 96
Plot ale. it ( Aunspeeaeee

Total receiptss22 25-44. Post a caee Pena: eee eee eee 94. 20
Packing. sos se Ge ee ee ee See ee eee 16. 00

Net teceiptsi: 2. 232e:.. 3 Pos ee od. Soe eee See See 78. 20

Gain from spraying five-sixths‘of an acre.........2..2.22.-2--2oee 42. 76
Gain per acre at same Tate. 10... : ee a51.31-

WORK IN MICHIGAN.

The principal grape-growing district in Michigan is located in the
southwestern part of the State, Paw Paw and Lawton being the prin-
cipal centers. Until a few years ago fungous diseases had not caused
any very serious losses in this region. As is usually the case, it was
only after grapes had been grown for a number of years and the vine-
yards had become quite extensive and numerous that the diseases
began to be very serious. For two or three seasons previous to 1907
many of the grape growers suffered severe loss from fungous troubles,
especially black-rot. This was apparently due to a conmematam of
circumstances. The fungi causing the diseases had had sufficient time
to become thoroughly established and distributed, and under the very
favorable climatic conditions which prevailed—excessive heat and
moisture during the growing season—proved very destructive.

Most of the growers had had no practical experience in spraying
and were hoping that the troubles were of a more or less temporary
character, and would perhaps soon pass away. This did not, how-
ever, prove to be the case, and during the seasons of 1906 and 1907
the losses were so general and so great that many growers were
becoming disheartened. At the time the writers began work in this
region few spraying outfits were in use. Some spraying had already
been done there under the direction of Professor Taft, of the Michigan
Agricultural Experiment Station, but few of the growers had taken
up the work. The work of the Bureau of Plant Industry was under-
taken in accordance with an understanding with the director of the
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. The spraying experi-
ments have received continuous personal direction and supervision in
every detail throughout each season, and advice and assistance have
been given growers whenever desired. The chief purposes of the
spraying experiments were to make a comparative test of fungicides
and to determine the most efficient methods of treatment under the
prev vailing climatic and ¢ cultural conditions, and incidentally to demon-

a Six Auaniad lien: of Bordeaux mixture were used for the six applications on
the five-sixths acre. Ordinarily this amount would be sufficient for an acre, and the
gain would thus be increased to $52.62.

155

Bul. 155, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

_ Fig. 1.—CARBONIC-AcID-GAS SPRAYER USED IN SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS IN 1907 AND 1908
IN THE VINEYARD OF Mrs. EMMA R. SMITH, PAW Paw, MICH.

Fic. 2.—MIXING PLATFORM AND GEARED TRACTION SPRAYER USED IN SPRAYING EXPERI-
MENTS IN THE VINEYARD OF MR. J. M. Towers, PAW Paw, MICH., IN 1908.

WORK IN MICHIGAN. 95

strate the practicability of controlling black-rot even in the case of a
very severe epidemic.

In 1906, so far as the writers could learn, but six sprayers were in
use in the Lawton grape belt. Interest in spraying and confidence in
its results have so increased that most of the growers have secured
sprayers and are in nearly all cases satisfactorily controlling the black-
rot. In the summer of 1908 at least two hundred spraying outfits
were found in use, and perhaps there were others of which the writers
did not learn. Thirteen different kinds were represented.

EXPERIMENTS IN 1907.

The work of 1907 was commenced in two vineyards in the vicinity
of Paw Paw, but in one vineyard, that of Mr. J. M. Towers, it was
discontinued on account of partial loss of the crop by frost and insects.

The work in the other vineyard, that of Mrs. Emma R. Smith, was
continued throughout the season. This vineyard consisted of Concord
vines about 25 years old, trained after the Kniffin system, with the
rows running north and south. The fruit the previous season had been
almost totally destroyed by rot. Four plots adjoining each other
were selected. The three sprayed plots contained about 0.46 acre
each, and the check 0.115 acre.

The fungicides used were as follows: 3-50 copper sulphate solution;
5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture; 4—4-50 Bordeaux mixture; 3-3-50 Bor-
deaux mixture. For the sixth and seventh applications, Burgundy
mixture No. 2 was used in order to avoid too much staining of the
fruit. The work was done with a carbonic-acid-gas sprayer. (See
Pl. II, fig. 1.) The first applications were made with fixed nozzles,
and the last three with trailers, the nozzles being directed by hand.
In order to determine the percentage of rot present on the different
plots, counts of the sound and the diseased grapes were made between
September 23 and October 2, 1,000 bunches from each of the sprayed
plots and 100 from the check being taken. The check, which received
no treatment, was plot 3.

The following table shows the treatment of each plot:

Taste 1X.—Treatment given three plots in Mrs. Smith’s vineyard, near Paw Paw,
Mich., in 1907.
PLOT.

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.

| A ee eee 3-50 copper sulphate solution .-| Dormant.

Fea ek Sete os 3-3-50 Bordeaux mixture............... .| Just beginning to blossom.
.| Just after blossoming.
Grapes about size of peas.

July ae aes es Ca oie 3-3-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds of | Grapes about one-third grown.
soap.

AUSUSE2.<.....25- IBUTPUNO y AOIKbUILe INO: Zin. conan an stances so Grapes about one-half grown.

IMEC ih ee ae (3.01 F ice ne Ree OOS Sit Re Grapes about three-fourths grown.

26 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

Taste 1X.—Treatment given three plots in Mrs. Smith’s vineyard, near Paw Paw,
Mich., in 1907—Continued.

PLOT 2:

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.

May 5: 422 ss02conse 3-50 copper sulphate solution...................- Dormant.
Re LOR eee 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture.................---.--- Just beginning to blossom.
TULY IGS nese cee eee GOW S222 tastes sas cldcsiese codecs eect ciaeneeees Just after blossoming.
DULVHG ue coos eae ee GO ber emise aaron Meeren che ee Enlaces Grapes about size of peas.
IWS Ss sasoeee = 44-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds of | Grapes about one-third grown.

soap.

AUPLUSE 2. ese mee Burgundy mixture INO: 2) aoe es cee ore eee Grapes about one-half grown.
ANISH Ua. e eo secn| sees GOERS cei eiiseclsccchie cc on seioaene sore: aoe Grapes about three-fourths grown.
PLOT 4.

May. 0). go -cnceeece 3-50 copper sulphate solution.............---..-- Dormant.

DUNE QO eee eet ne 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture ..| Just beginning to blossom.

DULY 6. skeen CO SRR eetas nite ccs see seen seemaeet .-| Just after blossoming.

dil yel Gi Sessa ae eee GOkwta een cisisise ac cece Zeeeec cesses Grapes about size of peas.

UY 23. ee cece COS eee ae act cnlelrowione Grapes about one-third grown.
ANTONIS een ae ese Burgundy mixture No. 2 .-| Grapes about one-half grown.
AUeust Lioeo> seas cleeeere Ome seat snes ere: Wit necben ooeqmes eee eeeee Grapes about three fours grown.

The amount of rot on the plots at the close of the season was
determined by actual count of the number of sound and affected
berries on 1,000 average bunches from each plot, as already stated.

Just across a roadway at the south end of this vineyard was
another which was very severely injured by black-rot; in fact,
most of the crop was destroyed before the fruit was much over half
grown. In order to get some idea of the effect of this apparently
serious source of infection upon the portions of the experimental plots
nearest to this vineyard, counts were made of the affected grapes at
both ends of the rows, those adjoining the neglected vineyard and
those farthest from it.

The following table shows the percentage of rot at both ends of
each plot, and also the difference between the two ends:

TasLe X.—Comparison of the amount of rot on the ends of plots adjoining and those
farthest from an unsprayed vineyard near Paw Paw, Mich., 1907.

Rot.
Sie f Fungicide used.
South end.* North end.}) Difference.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
1 | SBordeatix mixtures 3-3-00s--~ + se- ont eeeeee hee eee tome 56. 4 31.2 25.2
2 | Bordeaux mixture, 44-50. . . 34.9 23.8 11.1
3 | Check, no treatment.......- 91.7 86.1 5.6
4) Bordeaux mixiwreb-b-50 o. --. cee eine atin oa Be ee a Pape 32.7 23.1 9.6

* Adjoining unsprayed vineyard severely affected with black-rot.
+ Farthest from unsprayed vineyard.

Bul. 155, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. \ PLATE III.

Fig. 1.—PART OF A CONCORD VINE SPRAYED WITH 5-5-50 BORDEAUX MIXTURE,
Mrs. SMITH’S VINEYARD, PAW PAW, MICH. PHOTOGRAPHED SEPTEMBER 8, 1907.

FIG. 2,—CONCORD VINE FROM UNSPRAYED AND NEGLECTED VINEYARD IN THE SAME NEIGH-
BORHOOD AND PHOTOGRAPHED ON THE SAME Day AS THE VINE SHOWN IN FIGURE 1.
THE CROP WAS ENTIRELY DESTROYED AND THE VINE NEARLY DEFOLIATED BY BLACK-ROT.

WORK IN MICHIGAN. oT

The average percentage of rot for the four plots is as follows:

TaBLeE XI.—Results of spraying experiments on three plots of Concord grapes near Paw
Paw, Mich., in 1907.

Nos of Number

plot of appli- Fungicide used. Rot.
* | cations.
Per cent.*
1 fa leosebo Es OFC OAlEk MER DOLE) S <a soo seine o awe ctetnete se asa cla d'stemiaele dia 60 Pae.cijetie 43.7
2 7 | 44-50 Bordeaux mixture.......... Bee 28.7
Selene os. =: Chegk Hs prayed min sce it. tate edie aire e minis eiciai- ol AA Bee sass weiss ealS 89.2
+t 7 | 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture 28.3

* Determined by count of rotten berries.
ft Soap was used in fifth spraying on plots 1 and 2 and Burgundy mixture No. 2 for the sixth and seventh
sprayings on all plots.

Although only 89.2 per cent of the fruit on the unsprayed plot was
found by actual count to be destroyed, it was not considered prac-
ticable to try to harvest any of it because the expense of separating
the small quantity of sound fruit would have been much more than
its value. The crop on the unsprayed plot was therefore practically
a total loss. It will be noted that there was scarcely any difference
in the amount of rot on the plot sprayed with 4—-4—50 and on that
sprayed with 5—5-50 Bordeaux mixture. Part of a vine from the
latter plot and a typical vine from a neighboring neglected vineyard
are shown in Plate III. On the neglected vine the fruit was not only
completely destroyed, but the plant was defoliated and thus pre-
vented from properly maturing the season’s growth of wood.

The following itemized account shows the gain due to spraying
on plot 2 (five applications with 4—4-50 Bordeaux mixture and two
with Burgundy mixture, or 475 gallons in all, on 0.46 acre) and the
corresponding gain per acre estimated upon the same basis:

Receipts and expenditures, plot 2, Paw Paw, Mich., 1907.

PimPOumiE grates, A p40 a tON....-..5-.----.26<-----+--------4----- --- ©$40. 20
Man and team to spray, 8? hours, at 35 cents............--.-......-. $3.06
Man and horse to haul mixture, 8} hours, at 25 cents........-- 2. 19
Two men to carry trailers for last three sprayings, 54 foe at 15 ) irene

Sit, Laajeir Ciel 34 Ot oe Bp ee ee os eens Bee Ce Ome BOE eee ena il.
PVC MMUOSUUMEIOn PAN WAL P2.00--' 062 -2s-54sec- seca ee ee wee cece ees 1k.
Copper sulpnate 26 pounds, at 8 cents..-.--...../..---..---.----- 2.
Resin- fishoil soap, 11 Epeunes Ait Ore COnibbeeSooce 1 ane nee

io’ 6)

co bp Or on
C aon

TM
NG
m
ro
e
2
ron
i =
5
=]
i=]
Q,
B
~
ct
wo
°
®
5
et
mam
no

Saimirommenriving On O46 SCFO. 222.522 -c. eee eee wee eee eee 28. 95

Prete iere at bamMe Tate seen ee eee ee ee eee 62. 93

@As no fruit was harvested on the nnephayed plot at ce Paw, Mich., in 1907,
this amount is all attributed to spraying.
155

oe

28 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE. i
EXPERIMENTS IN 1908.

The work in 1908 was carried on in three different vineyards: Mrs.
Emma Smith’s, as already described; Mr. J. M. Towers’s, near Paw
Paw; and Mr. C. C. Giddings’s vineyard, near Lawton. The work
in Mrs. Smith’s vineyard was conducted on the same plots used in
1907 and with the same spraying outfit and, as before, trailers with
nozzles directed by hand instead of fixed nozzles were used for the
last three sprayings. It was found that in order to satisfactorily
cover the foliage and fruit at the time of the later applications the
nozzles, or part of them at least, must be thus manipulated.

EXPERIMENTS IN MRS. SMITH’S VINEYARD, NEAR PAW PAW, MICH.

The treatment given the different plots in Mrs. Smith’s vineyard
is shown in the following table. Plot 2 was a check and received
no treatment.

TaBLeE XII.—Treatment given three plots in Mrs. Smith’s vineyard, near Paw Paw,
Mich., in 1908.

PLOT 1.
Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
May 19 oe se sncice 44-50 Bordeaux mixtures. .---o.s5--s-e56 ese -see = Shoots about 6 inches long.
Mia 29) Se So eee eee (C(O oo Se Ee eRe, Ieee ee ene Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
June 22-2 -- 422 ee dese LO Bee ereimsare Geis acs bisa syterse e Se ce ane coe SR eee Shoots 20 to 28 inches long.
JuNe Wb. =. ose 525 | eee COS Ses ela: nia kaki eos scene Benes eee eee Just after blooming.
June 242.5 5<5-.ccce|peees MOR Bere sce eo os Secs nis Se OUR SOE ee eR Grapes about the size of peas.
Jitly; 3isc2es wae ce aoe CORRE ee ais AE Eee eeeeeemes Grapes about one-half grown.
D222 as fer, Pee 4-2-H0NBOLGealLS IMT KLUTCL one cece eceeeoe ee noes Grapes about four-fifths grown.
PLOT 3.
IMayal9 sie eee 43-50 Bordeaux mixture.........-------------- Shoots about 6 inches long.
May? 29225. 3 ocseccalsesels Ore Rec aR oe ne at ae aE HOR nears Aa EEA Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
VUMGI2 eo) taisins = cio SER CLOR Severe e See e oes Se ea Cee eee ee Shoots 20 to 28 inches long.
JUNSMD ES Se So aioe GO essen he See cee ecole oboe eee ne ene Just after blooming.
june 2422 = cesses | see. GO eee oe ok oe Seis eee ee one eee Grapes about the size of peas.
Jlyisiaem asks eee pee CORR eee aoe he sonncek Seve tes See oeesene oe Grapes about one-half grown.
PUVA se eee ee sees 6 (ota HCO O REE HER Se eee acer seSoniotoseS Grapes about one-half grown.
Uy 22S see eee A=2-S0SBOLdealxXoIMEXRTUTCE ese sees eee Grapes about four-fifths grown.
PLOT 4.
May 19)2.S55t eee 4-2-5) PBOrdeaix IMLxtUrea.- 2 seer eerie ee ates Shoots about 6 inches long.
May 29) twine em ceael eae DOs a eis aae aud ete o eeeee See te eee Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
tfibray ee ears Leo lee One eee ccs ao skece eee ee eee Shoots 20 to 28 inches long.
June wd Seccces cece |e GO eA eae oe a8. oa paseo cin se eee eee Just after blooming.
Wine: 245... ee ae eee CO Mee nes Tyee ace oes eae ee Grapes about the size of peas.
July Ghe=- ee elsaece GOm eo eece ce ccisic ae alata Sepia oes eee eee irapes about one-half grown.
July 22). 22sec ce leaacr COP eet an cnic- st rk ciclo eee Cee eee Grapes about four-fifths grown.

The following table shows the percentage of rot as determined by
actual count, as in the preceding season’s work:

155

WORK IN MICHIGAN. 29

TaBLe XIII.—Results of spraying experiments on three plots of Concord grapes in Mrs.
Smith’s vineyard, near Paw Paw, Mich., in 1908.

Number
Spot of appli- Fungicide used. Rot.
P cations.
Per cent.
1 hare Teas ONOOMILR ANURUNTG + eee eee sete eee at foo ck cc sou cus cess emcns 0. 197
Sega] CEE ee Cheekjunsprayed (butisprayed)inil907) i222. bs cc ccks Swe ciene acne oweltnc don 17.257
Bens as SA ot OPO GRIER UNG qs 5 etree ae mac iatatte arora) s) clonic ac ain or cieaig aciom'aeinlsaa sare - 034
In ae faa | pao OU OLG EAI TMERb ULE s,s celeste tse nee ae ce ae we a eelacas aialvaels rece epee .178

The small amount of rot on the check plot was believed to be
largely due to the fact that this plot was sprayed in the season of
1907. It would have been better, perhaps, for purposes of compari-
son, to have used the same check as in 1907. As the amount of rot
in a neglected vineyard near by was as great in 1908 as in the pre-
vious year, there seems to be no reason to suppose that the rot
on this unsprayed plot would not have been about as great also,
except for the treatment given it in 1907.

It will be noted that in this experiment the plots sprayed with
4—3-50 Bordeaux mixture showed the least amount of rot. The
very small percentage of rot on all the plots illustrates very clearly
what may perhaps be called the cumulative effect of spraying. The
disease having been largely brought under control the first season can
generally be much more easily handled during succeeding seasons.

The following is an itemized account of the work, showing the
gain on, plot 3, 0.46 acre, which received seven sprayings with 4—3-50
Bordeaux mixture and one with 4—2-50, 500 gallons in all:

Receipts and expenditures, plot 3, Mrs. Smith’s vineyard, near Paw Paw, Mich., 1908.

Yield from plot 3, sprayed, 660 8-pound baskets, at 11.66 cents... .-- $76. 96
Memematenacre al came TAte.: 20.2... ..2-.---.-------.--5--------- ..2- $167.30
Yield from check plot, 1,134.75 pounds, at $20.64a ton............-- ih 7Al
MnNENIeR Were Al GAMO tiiG.2-..2..-. 5.2. /2.5-...--.2.-.--- 2 eee ene 101. 83
BEMMMDEDRCTG\QUC TO Bplay = 2.6. nee ee eect eee eee 65. 47
Man and team to spray, 10 hours, at 35 cents..........----.-- $3. 50
Man and horse to haul mixture, 10 hours, at 25 cents........-- 2, 50
Two men to carry trailers for last four sprayings, 6 hours, at 15
BEM GACH Ee cee io, ocho wae eS sdccuae dene ose 1. 80
Copper sulphate, 40 pounds, at 6} cents..................... 2. 70
Stone lime, 30 pounds, at two-thirds of a cent..............-- . 20
Five-sevenths tube of gas, at $2.35...................--..-.-- 1. 68
Total cost of spraying plot, 0.46 acre.................... 12.38
ieawiee prying acre at Same vate.....4....c...--.-..-.----..--¢a-. 26,91
eupa per acre due to spraying. .i......2c.-.20...-.--.-.--------- @ 38. 56

@ Grapes in same vineyard sprayed five times showed no appreciable difference in
amount of rot. Difference in net gain this year was due to extra sprayings and to
less loss on check as result of previous treatment (1907),

155

30

CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

EXPERIMENTS IN MR. TOWERS’S VINEYARD, NEAR PAW PAW, MICH.

In 1908 spraying experiments were again started in Mr. J. M.
Towers’s vineyard, near Paw Paw. This vineyard consisted of Con-
cord vines about 8 years old, with the rows running north and south.
Nine plots, 0.488 acre each, as nearly uniform in character and condi-

tion as possible, were selécted.
traction sprayer shown in Plate II, figure 2.

used is also shown in the same figure.
The following fungicides were used: Bordeaux mixture, 4—4—50,
4—3-50, 4-2-50, 5-5-50, 5-4-50, and 5-38-50; also sodium benzoate

Bordeaux mixtures Nos. 1 and 2.

The work was done with the geared

The mixing platform

Six applications were made, as

shown in the accompanying tables, the last one consisting of 4—2-50

Bordeaux mixture.

Plot 4 was a check and received no treatment.

TABLE XIV.—Treatment given eight plots in Mr. Towers’s vineyard, near Paw Paw,

Mich., in 1908.

PLOT 1:

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth. .
May 208 -ctsci ea e-ciee 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture...................--.-- Shoots about 8 inches long.
May SQ bee = cen 221i Seen LO eee Ne). hot Was es Oe ee ae ee Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
UG OYE IY Aiea nlf OOS se deas akeens ve Cone espa aaa San sae Just after blossoming.

UME 29 ok 5 oe eee CLO Meant ee reign tone ees an ee eee Grapes the size of peas.
a Gh Ae ae eee Sellen oa GO Rr e er etre aa em eee aie peeiele sk Es ee eee Ue ee Grapes about three-fourths grown.
MUlybeaseeceeccce 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture..........------+-------- Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 2.
May 20. Shoots about 8 inches long.
May 30. -| Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
June 17- .| Just after blossoming.

June 29.

Grapes the size of peas.

July 13. -| Grapes about three-fourths grown.
July 25 Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 3.
Maye 200 ee ce areata A-2= 60) BOLGCAIK MIEXtULC= = en see ee ee eee cere Shoots about 8 inches long.
Manta! e ose ee eee Glo 38 5 gos So qesqe sae nen ee eee coentsie Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
MUMe Wes eee aero CO aa eee nice sere Sem ee Meee cree eee Just after blossoming.
MRTG IS Oe e-store COE Se Eee een Ra mars Moen et Satin ie eee Grapes the size of peas.
NUD VALS oe ste eeree Sete ic Eee CORR Pee a ot cee mest ae Reece Ee Bee eee Grapes about three-fourths grown.
July, 2hee eco. toes | Gees GO ee renee bele tee a em anon ee Mone mise eee Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 5
Mary 20 5 aesee ee oe 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture.......---0-----0------- Shoots about 8 inches long.
May: 30: = ssw ciaecise| aoe CGO Rie nse main icinas ene steele weenie ee ee ee eee Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
Wranevi7222 tS eee ee Se GO eee asc os a ctice ais sc keen CCE EE eee Just after blossoming.
Vue SOS sees Naclade GO Re eee crete ce chee eee nee peers Grapes the size of peas.
July-W3e sae ose ees eae GOB er emensei ick eek Soe Sec ceee Be eee eee Grapes about three-fourths grown.
WU 2bse eee 4-2-S0Bordesum mixture. 2... 2c.s.-sss-- ce ences Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 6
May 20 4.25425 sane A-- HO BORdeaAux MIXtUTE --/ - nee ose cve bincte oe Shoots about 8 inches long.
May 300 c52.~ basal eee CD sermon ec cies Me cbee AMR eee eee eReer Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
JUNC Tc acn eee leeee COMME hick. voc oe teens Oe recent eeaee Just after blossoming.
JUNE G0. eee eee ae 2 9G ORI RES ee EIS 5 SESS Cie Grapes the size of peas.
JULY UB ees oe cc cea Seen LO ERR Siar vist e orbin n cc pele ee Eee emeee Grapes about three-fourths grown.
July25se see eee 4- 5°50 OFGeaX MIXtUIE -. os dt eee A eeeees Grapes nearly full grown.

WORK IN MICHIGAN. on

TaBLeE XIV.—Treatment given eight plots in Mr. Towers’s vineyard, near Paw Paw,
Mich., in 1908—Continued.

PROT,

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
itil 5-3-50 Bordeaux mixture... .... 20. ...ccceceesees Shoots about 8 inches long.
OS a (ee (6 es OA aA at se Cake ee ale ate ae ae Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
OU ea 6 (0s Feet a CER See Sees pee ae Ae ee ee Just after blossoming.
Oe oe GOES Pee ce ce sont Ostrcaetee = aciemae ate Grapes the size of peas.
lv) 12} ee OG Goe eps anet ene at a vance mbetiek aaa tetas Grapes about three-fourths grown.
i? 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture............-<-2.-s.000- Grapes nearly full grown.

¢
PLOT 8.
icy ee Sodium benzoate Bordeaux mixture No. 2, | Shoots about 8 inches long.
1-1-}-50.

UO ie Se ee ees LE eyes ss dreista cai Nc leprae ei and Cae es Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
CR re C0, ee nee a ee Falak Se TET OS Ren NE Just after blossoming.

SUEEIBIOUW co 5 are cece | s wie ss OR ae tld cals nein cin dew yee a tape Saiteacee leis meas Grapes the size of peas.

Uh ot et Neo, cee 35S Re Si a coca ay a i a Grapes about three-fourths grown.
why. 2625 205-2 ---.- 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture... ....-.2ce0c.-<ccscee Grapes nearly full grown.

PLOT 9.
PEEVE ON a mele cS oe ou, 2s Sodium benzoate Bordeaux mixture No. 1, | Shoots about 8 inches long.
2-1-1-50.

TO 2 Tees (10) Aan Re ein Peo, Sete en es ae are ees Shoots 16 to 20 inches long.
MUNG UG ye 2a 5 2-5 2 | ey Ce (aa enn er ee in ere ten ne mee Just after blossoming.

DTC SU Ae oe (0G) = SS Se eo ECO Men is, SR Sena see yey eo Grapes the size of peas.

(lit a 3 Aaa GOS eta a epaik es olaais «tise sinie ma eee Meine on ers Grapes about three-fourths grown.

Ul 747 eee | 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture. ..........2---222--00 Grapes nearly full grown.

The results of these experiments are shown in the following table:

TABLE XV.—Results of spraying experiments on eight plots of Concord grapes in Mr.
Towers’s vineyard, near Paw Paw, Mich., in 1908.

Number ;
oo of appli- Fungicide used. Rot.
cations.
Per cent.*

1 ea 6 | 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture, first five applicationst...................-:-----| 0. 03
Pee 6 | 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture, first five applications...................-...-.-- 0. 097
Geena Ga eae OS OLCCAUEASLIER DHE OG ee eer ee esas, tele tiawcicsiciesie ww cea. nwemisiies as | 0. 042
(el Cee CHIC, (its sie tol BARS 5 Sk ARG AR Da AS ote re ee 7. 36
Bae tte 6 | 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture, first five applications.......................---- 0. 051
(eee 6 | 5-4-50 Bordeaux mixture, first five applications.....................--.--- 0. 07
ensnte xe 6 | 5-3-50 Bordeaux mixture, first five applications....................-2:-.--- 0. 064
eee Gissodiun! benzoate Bordeaux mixture NO. 2- sce. 2 occ. + ce be ce nctccecee 0. 083
Eanes 6 | Sodium benzoate Bordeaux mixture No. 1............-.-.-202ceeeeeeeceeee | 0. 127

* Determined by count of rotten grapes.
' + Bordeaux mixture 4-2-50 was used in sixth spraying on all plots.

The percentages of rot given were obtained by actual count of the
rotten grapes on clusters showing the average condition of each plot,
as in the other cases. It will be noted that the smallest percentage
of rot was found on plot 1, treated with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture.
The difference in amount of rot, however, on the various plots was so
slight in most cases as to give no very decided indication of the
comparative value of the different mixtures. The amount of rot on
the check plot was also small.

EXPERIMENTS IN MR. GIDDINGS’S VINEYARD, NEAR LAWTON, MICH.

Mr. Giddings’s vineyard consisted of Concord vines about 14 years

old. Eleven plots of one-third acre each were used in the experiments.
155 ;

32 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

The work was done with a geared traction sprayer, fixed nozzles being
used for the first three applications, and trailers, with the nozzles
directed by hand, for the last three applications. Plot 5 was a check
and was not sprayed.

The following table shows the treatment given each plot:

TaBLE X VI.— Treatment given ten plots in Mr. Giddings’s vineyard, near Lawton, Mich.,

in 1908.
PWOM A:
Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
Mayet 2 sacs eee ce 44-50 Bordeaux Mixture)... 26 a. cn62-e eee ee Shoots about 8 inches long.
TUNED 5. Se eee eS Ose een coe: ee ee ee co eee ee Shoots about 18 to 24 inches long.
INC M5 =e eee ae pees ClO Gos Gan eR Oe oa Naa eceen sence Just after blossoming.
Ue 5 Bee tee eeee pence CRS Se ae a er ae ep ee A Grapes the size of peas.
AULA isa se mae sas Sac ORME eee sailae seca cone eee CER Pee Grapes about one-half grown. fi
DU 2Ste ne eee oe A-J=H) Ord ealtix MIXtULOL eee ee | oe eee ee Grapes nearly full grown. ;
PLOT 2 ‘
_ ‘
May; 2s 2 <asee coe A=3—y() SOLGCAUK MIXbULO = 2.22 cena ne seen ee Shoots about 8 inches long.
TIO! ee eee re fell eee (110). SOR So ae aces Cee at eace ELAR Oh eee ee Shoots 18 to 24 inches Inog.
JUNOW Oy ef2 a= ios el eneee OEE chy. be csaGe co gue cine ae cee Rene aee Seee Just after blossoming.
SIMIC 20ers ree ate el eee GOS suetne sh sne be sucs sae arasarsossouescess0ec Grapes the size of peas.
MUL ier see celle eee (60), - ee Se a ee Sanaa Grapes about one-half grown.
Mliys 280 no as eee A=2=50 (BOLGCAUX MIXGCUIO N.oah nee eae Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 3
Miayi2)l <1 crises 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture..........-.----------- Shoots about 8 inches long.
VUMO Deo a2. eee aaleeeee GO areas cence oo se eee teen Jee emo aenes Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
JuUMewWs- eo. ce eee |seere GO eee sowie oe eee Seats ei eeriiaats Just after blossoming.
VUNEW asec ccere Tee OM re eeen Ga. eden oe och eee ne nasal eee omer Grapes the size of peas.
A hai emery eeaes 4 (faeias GOS eres occ rane doom ter nob ae se seeee eee Grapes about one-half grown.
Dl 23s Be ae ees eee CLOSE hemos rigs seme aS e ea onan e eee Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 4
Mayol 2S oee eee 3-2-00 Bordeatix mixture: > - = - se 2a eee | Shoots about 8 inches long.
TUNED soe eee cee (6 (0) Sie ee ee See eee B Se cm Ame Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
Ajbist-yily Sener s ab | Pe os LO ioe aee ee hme Sees Aina eet eians ke Just after blossoming. :
WING 25 bs sles ne cae eee Ol) aoe ea eee o Man eat esos sore cososds Grapes the size of peas.
Puly7BiCSoS oe al ee Om rset hiss oe ee neste ae ete Grapes about one-half grown.
Diy 28a aera 4-925) BOLgealixMUKiUles seem see eee nase ae Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 6.
May Qi tee encn sete 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds of soap.| Shoots about 8 inches long.
June oe a peers cee men (AS Sb ae Meee nmr coats ete clayton Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
June oo jo ecee vel ee GO) Se A Ae Cae ae eee Seo SSE bea teeta Just after blossoming.
MUMS 2 bee eects |e MUG TOTS). CN pee ERM eee RS nis aA Sic Grapes the size of peas.
Jilly Shoe wees | see G10) pe AS See eaooe Seaemeee acrAcotoaer.. sce Grapes about one-half grown.
Wily23 ee eee Z£9=50)bordesiex mix bure) 2- 52.2 cee ee Grapes nearly full grown.
PIO Ti.
IMigiy 21S cyeteretere eet 3-29-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds of soap.| Shoots about 8 inches long.
Tune! ne soe eee AOMMEINE. ow. keine oe oe ee Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
ifbbsr Wb yee yee geaecleesce COMMER AR as onc oom celnccenince temas ene Just after blossoming.
June 25... seal Eee alee Ly Me oan clo mciatele cle eine ete elntoatni es Grapes the size of peas.
IML 'B saat ace eee [HOMER See clon win clelele sr oloplin eee ore eee ee Grapes about one-half grown.
DUliyi23= ete eee 4-29-50 Bordeaux mixture.......-...------------ Grapes nearly full grown.

WORK IN MICHIGAN.

338

Taste XVI.—T'reatment given ten plots in Mr. Giddings’s vineyard, near Lawton, Mich.,

in 1908—Continued.

PLOT 8.
Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
Maw oles ce ncc-- Copper borate mixture No. 2 Shoots about 8 inches long.
1 (Sle as Ro eee be Nes Nets re sa'cis cats Save miaraidiow' «iste .| Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
SDC Eis ee eee 0 RA re SERGE OEE EE IEA ROR AEE eae Just after blossoming.
GCS es Bae OOS GRE Cement UOnE SAS AA Re EEE anor Benne Bosna Grapes the size of peas.
OT a a ee C6 eh Ne A OP 8 ply ee ae eee Grapes about one-half grown.
ol hues Se 4=2-S0 OLGGRtUS: MME UUEG 5. <<a sac 25a cise iye Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 9
UC \ )) Seo | Neutral copper acetate. 0.522222 .< secices-ccccis es Shoots about 8 inches long.
Meee ao. 3. Paes 6) A aS Geen iesenees teecren rece cena Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
1 ee Re MOM caer s 25.2 Sede ee esate toads saeco as Just after blossoming.
S55: 27 eee eee Pa CON shee Hania Salsas Seem Sptae ala nelee mans ms Grapes the size of peas.
ir Veo: ee eee eee LOM acre ae cca eae ia ceg Shit ald so bs galoies Grapes about one-half grown.
TORY 20 ae-cce e525 AJ) OLGeaUX: MIXWUT> <a 2-65- 205-2 2--ee ro < Grapes nearly full grown.
PLOT 10
NEGRO ca... Self-boiled lime-sulphur No. 2...........-...--- Shoots about 8 inches long.
A(Sha Os 2h ee ee WO orate aca nae woes sein eee See sk ee sects Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
D360 a a MGetee ga cece ee seers ae aoa eae ee ae Just after blossoming.
US ns ee (00. oe ihe ie Seta aon ae eine aera Grapes the size of peas.
Colt Ses re be a Ora orcia x sen aan ie 2 ete eens ea ace eian Grapes about one-half grown.
WE oe mee ceca ns = 459-50iBOrdestixsmixture.. - 2: ----.-2se-neea=- ee Grapes nearly full grown.
POR we
Uy 2 <“B7~brand lime-swiphur, 1 tors0.- 222.22... - Shoots about § inches long.
Uns ee GOSEe eta sciea seca casaeais sins demicemaneee Shoots 18 to 24 inches long.
DEE Uae SegCesee Beeee CE ie i SEP ao SRG E aE Eee toe Care aeCoe Just after blossoming.
Upce eh See ao ys Seo Sacer hae the chicas suds socetesessees Grapes the size of peas.
UNG U5 os aa Gem seein anne eisieie s eeralo -iu eee aes eae Grapes about one-half grown.
oe A2—H0 Bordeaux, MIKtUre =<... 2. 2 2s ee em ee == Grapes nearly full grown.

As the grape berry-moth was causing considerable loss in Mr. Gid-
dings’s vineyard, an arsenical preparation made in accordance with
the directions of Prof. A. L. Quaintance, of the Bureau of Entomology,
was added to the Bordeaux mixture for the second, third, and fourth
applications on all the plots.

The following table shows the results of the treatment of each plot:

TABLE

XVII.—Results of spraying experiments on ten plots of Concord grapes in Mr.

Giddings’s vineyard, near Lawton, Mich., in 1908.

Naot Number
plot of appli- Fungicide used. Rot. Yield.
* | cations.
Per Baskets
cent.* (8 1b.).
1 CaS —4— HO POLGOMUENNIURGUILO UT a/o.0:cia/sja nies sisi eraieeieceecla vices <sis'cie class == 0. 051 187
2 Gr\84—3—b0 BOLUGAIA MLR DULG a. os a. soece tact aeseeh acc cosce-e-cseens 0. 043 166
3 Gn 4-2-0 DOrdeasirx mixtures. 5 2. sa sccmareeaescijniciacwscscecuse 0.15 148
4 Gi sg=2—O0 POLGEALL TIMUR UGS a0) cus aas cece sen nance sesssccnceceas 0.17 120
{| ee CHSC THE DIB yee tte 9 ae ee ye Ae ee ee Se ikl 28.317 78
6 6 | 4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds ofsoap................-- 0. 411 137
7 6 | 3-2-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 2 pounds ofsoap ...........-.---- 0. 531 140
8 6 | Copper borate mixture No.2, with 1 pound ofsoap.............-. 2. 464 125
9 GO) Neniral copper acetate, Wloo0s. = 2-e.- 6. a= fee en sas --- neon 1. 088 134
10 6) | Sel polled lime-salpnaniNGso-nns sess cc sulecee es Hele ccs ce sa ae cans = 2. 413 102
11 Gri S eu i ranouinle-cll DN Ur) Lito nae wes are seein ce os cce sae eae ac 3. 383 (f)

* Determined by count of rotten berries.

+ Bordeaux mixture 4-2-50 was used for the sixth application on all the plots.

t Record wanting.

CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

co

The percentages of rot were determined by actual count of the
diseased berries on 1,000 average bunches, as in the previous cases.
The yield in 8-pound baskets is also given for each plot except the
last, the record of which is missing. The smallest percentage of rot,
as indicated in Table XVII, was found on plot 2, treated with 4—3—50
Bordeaux mixture. The difference between this plot and plot 1,
treated with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture, is, however, very slight. A
portion of a vine from plot 2, showing the condition of the fruit, is
illustrated in Plate IV, figure 1, and a portion of a vine from the
unsprayed check, showing the general appearance of the fruit, is
illustrated in Plate IV, figure 2. The lime-sulphur mixtures pro-
duced decidedly less satisfactory results than the Bordeaux mixtures.
The self-boiled lime-sulphur, which was prepared with hot water,
injured the foliage somewhat, and the “B”’ brand concentrated solu-
tion at the rate of 1 gallon to 50 gallons of water burned the foliage
still more seriously, and therefore is unsafe to use in this strength.
The results of the treatment with lime-sulphur were so much less
satisfactory in this case than in the New York experiments in 1908,
in which the first application was made with Bordeaux mixture,
that considerable doubt is thrown upon the part played by lime-
sulphur in controlling the rot in that case. Further experiments
are needed to determine whether lime-sulphur solutions in any form
or strength in which they can be used will prove a desirable substi-
tute for Bordeaux mixture. The neutral copper acetate solution, 1
pound to 50 gallons of water, gave better results than any of the
other applications except Bordeaux mixture.

The following account shows the expense of spraying and the gain
from plot 2, one-third of an acre, sprayed six times with 4—3—50 Bor-
deaux mixture, 258 gallons being applied, and the estimated gain
per acre at the same rate:

Receipts and expenditures, plot 2, Mr. Giddings’s vineyard, near Lawton, Mich., 1908.

Yield from plot 2, sprayed, 166 8-pound baskets, at 124 cents...........-....-- $20. 75

Yield from check plot, 119 8-pound baskets, at 124 cents... oe See oa ee ee Aeris
Gain due tosprayine:.......1. 2.0 Bee Sea eee ee 5. 874

Manrand team, 2 hoursyatoo,cemts. . =. sen ee en eee ee ee eee $0. 70

Two men to carry trailers for last three sprayings, 1 hour, at 15 cents

GACH: fee te ria iewes sc oo Sod vlc kc Slate ache Res ey ae . 30

Copper sulphate, 20% pounds, at 6:cents. 202 tee eee eee 1. 24

Stone lime, 154 pounds, at two-thirds ofacent..........-......----- . 10
Total cost of spraying plot, one-third of an acre................---.---- 2. 34
Net gain due to spraying on one-third of an acre....... dott Sane ee 3. 534

Ns tigain perdere atsame rates... 2.22.7 aces See eee ee eee 10. 604
15

Bul. 155, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fig. 1.—GRAPES ON PLOT SPRAYED WITH 4-3-50 BORDEAUX MIXTURE IN THE VINEYARD
OF Mr. C. C. GIDDINGs, NEAR LAWTON, MICH. PHOTOGRAPHED SEPTEMBER 12, 1908.
THE LOSS FROM BLACK-ROT WAS LESS THAN FIVE ONE-HUNDREDTHS OF ONE PER CENT.

Fia. 2.—GRAPES ON UNSPRAYED CHECK PLOT IN THE SAME VINEYARD AND PHOTOGRAPHED
ON THE SAME DAY AS THE VINE SHOWN IN FIGURE 1. MORE THAN TWENTY-EIGHT PER
CENT OF THE FRUIT WAS DESTROYED BY BLACK-RoT.

WORK IN NEW JERSEY. 35

There was an additional loss on the check plot of 15.6 per cent, due
to the berry-moth, making a total loss of 43.9 per cent. As this
loss was almost entirely prevented on the sprayed plots without
additional cost except for the poison used, the above statement does
not show all the profit due to spraying.

WORK IN NEW JERSEY.
EXPERIMENTS IN 1908.

In former years the Concord grape was rather extensively grown
in New Jersey, especially for the manufacture of grape juice. The
black-rot soon became troublesome, owing to some extent, no doubt,
to the climatic conditions which favor its development. Some of the
earliest experiments in spraying to control the disease in this country
were undertaken at Vineland, N. J., by the Department of Agricul-
ture, in 1887. The results obtained were very satisfactory, consid-
ering the fact that spraying had only recently been introduced and
that mixtures and machines were in a very crude and unsatisfactory
state.

In recent years the Concord grape has been largely abandoned in
New Jersey and other more disease-resistant varieties introduced.
Many of these varieties, however, are not so productive or as well
adapted to the manufacture of juice.

At the request of those interested in the industry and in cooperation
with the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station the Depart-
ment of Agriculture has undertaken to demonstrate that by proper
methods of spraying practiced in connection with better methods of
pruning, training, and cultivation, the Concord grape can still be
successfully and profitably grown in that region. The part of the
work pertaining to pruning, training, and cultivation was undertaken
by the Office of Field Investigations in Pomology of the Bureau of
Plant Industry and carried out under the immediate direction of
Mr. George C. Husmann, Pomologist in Charge of Viticultural
Investigations.

A small Concord vineyard, one of the very few still remaining in
this region, located on the grounds of the New Jersey Training School
for the Feeble Minded, at Vineland, was very kindly placed at the
disposal of the writers by Professor Johnstone, superintendent of the
school. The total area was about 0.75 acre. Three rows, which
were pruned according to different methods, were sprayed for com-
parison with a single unsprayed check row, which was pruned accord-
ing to the ordinary system that had been followed in the vineyard.
This was a modified Kniffin system. The spraying was done with. a
hand pump attached to a barrel which was drawn in a cart.

The following table shows the treatment of the vineyard. As rose-
bugs are usually very troublesome here, 3 pounds of arsenate of lead

155

36 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

were added to the Bordeaux mixture for the second and third appli-
cations.

TasBLeE XVIII.—Treatment given a vineyard of Concord grapes at Vineland, N. J., in

1908.

Date of spraying. Fungicide used. Stage of growth.
Mayra eitaate oe selene 4-350) BOLAC AUX: WU KUUILC =. ecicaeaeee eee Shoots 6 to 8 inches long.
Mavi20 © eeceesee 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture, with 3 pounds of | Flowers almost ready to open.

arsenate of lead.
TUNES Aco. Sec ee ele es GOR ee ee 8 oe A a eae eR eee Just passed blooming.
JUNE 26 cesee ese | 4-3-50 Bordeaux mixture..._.............. oases Fruit about one-third grown.
Hullys27ae sarees oe 3-1-50) Bordeaux mixture. -....-2-.5----0.sse---8 Fruit nearly grown.

The last application, of 3-1-50 Bordeaux mixture, left very little
stain on the fruit and showed no signs of injury to the foliage. It
gives some promise, therefore, of success as a final application when
too much staining of the fruit is objectionable.

The results of the spraying were as follows: Row 1, pruned and
trained according to a modified Munson system, produced 347
pounds of sound fruit; row 2, treated the same as row 1, produced
267 pounds of sound fruit. Half of row 2, pruned and trained accord-
ing to a modified Munson system, produced 157 pounds of sound fruit;
the other half, pruned and trained according to the Kniffin system,
produced 110 pounds. This appears to show a difference of 47
pounds of fruit apparently attributable to the method of pruning
and training. Row 3, which was the check row, received no spray-
ing and was pruned according to the ordinary practice of the neigh-
borhood. This produced only 114 pounds of fruit. It was esti-
mated, however, that half of the loss on this row was due to rose-bugs
which destroyed the young fruit immediately after the blossoms fell.
The rose-bugs, however, were picked by hand from both the sprayed
and the unsprayed rows.

There was practically no loss from black-rot on the sprayed rows,
as only occasionally could. a diseased berry be found. Comparing
each of the sprayed rows with the check row, the following results
are obtained:

TasLe XIX.—Results of spraying and pruning experiments on a vineyard of Concord
grapes at Vineland, N. J., in 1908.

No. of row. Production. | Total loss. ane Loss by black-rot.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Per cent.
Li(SPLeB Ved) epee ceine = ctatiete eieleteteie stetslat= siale=/ 347 | (No loss.) | (No loss.) | (No loss.) 00. 0
3i(cheolk)" «cs cc cee see eee 114 233 1164 1164 Sil
2\ (Sprayed): 2 <0 2 coe eee meee seer sete he 267 | (No loss.) | (No loss.) | (No loss.) 00.0
B (CHECK) is ex isiam ae eee cee iiinisieniotela|='a'= 6 114 153 763 764) 31.9

The average of the crops from the two sprayed rows is 307 pounds.
The crop on the check row being only 114 pounds shows a loss of 193
pounds; allowing one-half of this for loss by rose-bugs, the loss of

155

Bul. 155, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

FIG. 1.—-PORTION OF A VINE SPRAYED WITH BORDEAUX MIXTURE, VINELAND, N. J., 1908
SHOWING PRACTICALLY No Loss FROM BLACK-RoOT.

]

Fic. 2.—PORTION OF AN UNSPRAYED CHECK ROW IN THE SAME VINEYARD AS THE VINE
SHOWN IN FicurRe 1, 1908, SHOWING 31 PER CENT OF Loss FROM BLACK-ROT AND
ABOUT THE SAME AMOUNT OF LOSS FROM ROSE-BUGS.

RESULTS OBTAINED WITH BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 37

96.5 pounds, or 31.4 per cent, was caused by black-rot. In other
words, the sprayed rows show practically no loss from rot and the
unsprayed check row shows over 31 per cent, or a total loss of over
62 per cent, when the injury from rose-bugs, which was also largely
prevented by the spraying, is added.

A portion of a sprayed vine showing the condition of the fruit is
illustrated in Plate V, figure 1, and a part of an unsprayed vine from
the check row is shown in figure 2 of the same plate.

COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED WITH DIFFERENT
FORMULAS OF BORDEAUX MIXTURE.

The following table gives in condensed form the results of the tests
of different formulas of Bordeaux mixture:

Taste XX.—Comparison of results secured from use of different formulas of Bordeaux
mixture.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Number
Formula used. Year. | of appli- | Results.
cations.
Yield,
. baskets.
BERTON TS PLEA ERS TREE ILE LO = teats vaca tc ole aralm nin laine Stas =m ainsi oe eroeieistee.o = 1908 3 554
a-3-o) Bordeaux mixture... ------ 2-2-2 en en eee ee 1908 8 479
NEW YORK.
Rot, per
cent.
A450 Bordeaiix Mixture, With SOap.-.. 2. 2<<--- 2. --cc cence sce nteeseeeee 1907 7 6.6
FeapaH MEME Re TER CLIT Oey oom os | coc ome acictiaca ance slaatnaajnjs aa'eia'siaraataa’s onc 1907 5 6.3
Hong OTGGateR MN KtULG, With SOAP... <<< -2 sc. cnnen dower ce cece cecieeseee 1907 5 (ne
MMe OrOeat emi x ture, With SOAP. ..-.s-.-5----<ecccccere ee neieeceeeceees 1908 6 0.49
Sone SGT Stybh dpa’ nse a ee a iy Sn ae 1908 6 0.79
De) DUS ACUTE sai his oP ee 1908 6 0.79
BEE OLOGE RATER UITOS <1. okt o5.0 oa c.ck wna Sonal ac ateials amayafoa sacs aaraclas os = 1908 6 1. 06
PIRPEOMRENCIC CIA es TIL GULL Ose aie-ac ceo < e a.cia eee ciciete de cit, oS clea eid- aisles dlwiuide ce eees 1908 6 1.9
MICHIGAN (MRS. SMITH’S).
Pap DUEOLOCAULR KOURUUILG,. . 0s cutee e cine = ¢ cise sala ce niacin sts CROs CSAS 1907 7 28.3
A-s-WEOLGGAUs MIXbULG, WILL SOAP... vo. < oe feo cere ee cece eer een eees 1907 7 28.7
Eee EEUU Gv Getie aah 6 op) VIG ee eI ee ir a 1908 7 0. 034
FE arIBETOPEIOG LEADS GUL Os aera jana nts Aisin sans Sanne eles oc Ma euetentene te eecese 1908 7 0.178
Fee ELTASE Coe TU OTT LUE NC ste ectee re eee wre marc cam ete nee cin Sen yatta ae an 1908 if 0. 197
MICHIGAN (MR. TOWERS’S),
ETRE ETT OAT ES MULR ULL O cos cic (c waic'ain cian alc wdave avjece oiv.c Seveseseemeececcceees 1908 6 0. 03
IPM EIST UOUIL ROTM EK UULG oN ere oo oa on Se ene aR clt civ ok oMicamplneine Sate Cais S000 1908 6 0. 042
PpreERELDECIGHUER IER UUING «sot oe ae as ones tac eae alan aoe ae Oe eae} .--| 1908 6 0. 051
PPEIBLTON CERI Ne KUL LIILG cee oc cae aires a wees cule at Sams eaaeeidas © cans +> 1908 6 0. 064
ee tee ee Saree Sie Sly Seo Seca Soe ORS dele Hood duseycew ws cies ace 1908 6 0. 097
MICHIGAN (MR. GIDDINGS’S).
EERO GOES THER UUIEO | =o oan aaicieaa tale eda vce een eee ee aecale « Eacestt 2008 6 0. 043
44-50 Bordeaux mixture. eee ee eee = <f|' LAOS 6 0. 051
4-2-50 Bordeaux mixture..........-. | 1908 6 0.15
3-2-50 Bordeaux mixture............-...-....- we | 1908 6 0.17
7 HUE GTUGHU MEX PULTE, WILL SOBD.c=--.o5--5--- cc csc ccc teeccceerscee---- 1908 6 0. 41

155

88 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

From a comparison of these tables it may perhaps be justifiable to
draw some tentative conclusions in regard to the best formula for
Bordeaux mixture as a preventive of black-rot.

In the cases in which the 4—4—50 formula was used in comparison
with the 5-5-50 formula, the former proved best in New York in
1907 and in Michigan in 1908, and gave almost equally satisfactory
results in Michigan in 1907, there being only four-tenths of 1 per
cent difference shown.

In the cases in which the 4—3-50 formula was compared with the
4—4—50 formula, the former gave slightly better results in New York
in 1908 and decidedly better results in Michigan in Mrs. Smith’s
vineyard in 1908, and slightly better results in Michigan in Mr. Gid-
dings’s vineyard in 1908. There was very little difference in the
results in the other cases in which these formulas were used—Pennsyl-
vania in 1908 and Michigan, Mr. Towers’s vineyard, in 1908. The
4-3-50 mixture gave entirely satisfactory results in the New Jersey
experiment also.

The 4—2-50 formula gave better results than either the 4-4—50 or
the 4—3—50 formula in one case, New York, 1908, and was second best
in two other experiments, Michigan, Mrs. Smith’s vineyard, 1908,
and Mr. Towers’s vineyard, 1908.

The 3-2-50 formula did not stand above third place in any of the
cases in which it was used.

The 44-50 formula is found at the head of the table in three cases,
and the 4-38-50 in two cases. The writers believe, however, that the
4—3-50 formula, which was not used in all the experiments in com-
parison with the 4-4—50, will prove the best for general use, in view
of all the circumstances and the results thus far obtained.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

When fresh stone lime is used in the preparation of Bordeaux
mixture, as should always be done if possible, 3 pounds of lime will
be ample to more than neutralize 4 pounds of copper sulphate, and
since according to recent investigations already mentioned a great
excess of lime is likely to prove detrimental rather than beneficial
this quantity is preferable.

Of the mixtures other than Bordeaux which have been used, none
has shown sufficiently good results to give promise of being a profit-
able substitute for it. Of such mixtures, neutral copper acetate gave
the best results in Michigan, Mr. Giddings’s vineyard, 1908, and also
in New York in 1908. Neutral copper acetate solution also promises
to be one of the most valuable fungicides for use as a final application
when there is need of a nonstaining preparation. It will, however,

155

SUMMARY. 39

be desirable to compare this carefully with the ammoniacal solution
of copper carbonate to determine more accurately their relative value.

In nearly all of their experiments the writers have tried to deter-
mine the value of adding an adhesive preparation, or ‘‘sticker’’ as it
is sometimes called. Resin-fishoil soap has been used for this pur-
pose. The percentage of rot on the plots on which this was used
has never been sufficiently reduced to justify the additional expense
and trouble involved.

A study of the tables giving the results of the spraying experi-
ments will show that where different numbers of applications were
made in the same series, five applications made at the proper times
gave nearly or quite as satisfactory results as six, seven, or even eight.
Unless a vineyard has been neglected or rot has destroyed the greater
part of the crop the preceding season, an application before the buds
open, judging from the experiments of the writers, is not profitable;
neither does spraying when the shoots are less than 6 inches long
seem to materially improve the results.

Different forms of spraying outfits have been used in these experi-
ments, as has already been pointed out. It is impossible to state
that any one kind is best, as the conditions under which the work is
to be done and other circumstances must always be taken into con-
sideration. The writers have done very satisfactory work with
geared traction outfits, with carbonic-acid-gas sprayers, and with
gasoline power sprayers. It has been found necessary in some cases
to modify the outfits somewhat, especially the arrangement and the
number of the stationary nozzles.

In cases where the rot is severe and the season favorable for
its development, in order to secure the most satisfactory results it is
necessary to use trailers or long leads of hose which can be handled
by persons walking behind the machine and directing the nozzles so as
to thoroughly cover the fruit and foliage. This can not be done
satisfactorily by stationary nozzles when the foliage is very heavy.

SUMMARY.

Bordeaux mixture prepared according to the 4—3-50 formula has
been found to be as effective in preventing black-rot as the formulas
in which larger quantities of copper sulphate and lime are used.

Five or six applications, beginning when the shoots were 8 inches to
1 foot long, gave generally as good results as when one or two ad-

ditional earlier applications were made, showing apparently that no
_ particular benefit is derived from dormant applications or from
applications made when the shoots are less than 8 inches long.

Where unsprayed grapes were a total loss from black-rot in 1907
the rot on the sprayed plots was reduced to 28.3 per cent. The next

155

40 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

season, 1908, when the rot was almost equally bad on unsprayed
vineyards, the rot on the same sprayed plots was reduced to much
less than 1 per cent, showing apparently the great cumulative effect
of treatment for two seasons.

The gain due to spraying varied in the different vineyards, accord-
ing to the severity of the rot, the number of sprayings, the pro-
ductiveness of the vines, and the cost of materials and labor, from
$10.60 to $62.30 per acre.

The experiments have shown the necessity of covering the vines
thoroughly with a fine spray of properly prepared Bordeaux mix-
ture. When the black-rot is serious or the foliage is very heavy it is
necessary to use trailers and have the nozzles directed by hand, as
fixed nozzles will not properly cover the foliage and fruit.

The tests of various lime-sulphur preparations have not yet been
sufficient to determine their value as a preventive of black-rot.

Neutral copper acetate, 1 pound to 50 gallons of water, has been
found to be the best nonstaining preparation tested in these experi-
ments for final applications.

155

INDEX.

Acetate of copper. See Copper. Page.
DEERE OC CerOrm(Ol DIACK=TObs -=- sac 5%.clus.s ooh ~ See nee eels Se emis ee te oe 8
Arsenate of lead. See Lead.

Benzoate of sodium. See Sodium.

Berry-moths. See Moths.

Saree-ove disease, 2 form of black-rot......2.-2....2--....2026 eee tees 8
Pieen-s0u, cause, description, and control. .-......2.. 05-2222... eee e de eens 8-10
MUS Ws, CEG K es IES EES Sebeobtac Ot Gene et k= Sea ane See te ee 26
percentage on grapes after spraying....... 20, 22, 26, 27, 29, 31, 33, 36, 39-40
spraying experiments, results and cost, 1906, 1907, and 1908........ 13-37

Borate of copper. See Copper.
Snes bre. LOTMNAN Soo cic. sleet nee et dees ee lee oot ae aby!
GOMpPIFISON On Tediltes 65224002222. -. eee eck 37-38
Serre r MU TO;, FOPIOUIAS 5 2) 3 52 5 ois als oo clens oon dose esi os oe ee te ee eels 11-12

Carbonate, ammoniacal copper. See Copper.
Chlorid of copper. See Copper.
Concord grapes. See Grapes.

mente cOMtion, formulas... 220-22 --250- 5 ce nee ee eee eee cence 12-13

neutral, value as a nonstaining spray......-...--.-.-- 38, 40

Pare OnmiuLas Tor Mixture sts one sae eer ae ses acl se os kde tesee sees 12

PAHOA veyaAMMOnaCcal LOTMUlasasesee eee yee ete. S22 SS e2 steele 12

value as a nonstaining spray.....-........-... 39

diléinte | tremble wos E RE eee eR Des ae Cel a er ee 12

mixtures for fungicides, formulas and directions...............-..----- 11-13

SLE A Cea) OM ray Uo be ee A 13

wead-arm, grape disease, investigation.....-...-.2--.--.--.+--5-6--.00--- 17
Experiment Station of Pennsylvania State College, cooperation in spraying

i ED Gee SUES en OE ES ne 13

mousee, injury by lime-sulphur spray....-..-..---......-..-.-...........- 16,23, 34

Meperttee, LOPDIMIAS ANC. GITECHONS. 22 = <5 5 re oo mya wayne ee ee eee ee 11-13

FPACTNOG A OLINENI eaten pena rest aS. 5 25 seas e obsess 13

theory of protection against black-rot infection............--.-.-.-.-- 10

Fungus causing black-rot, description and control...............-...---------- 8-10

Grapes, Concord, spraying experiments........--- satoeese-- LG-17 324-37

mummied, destruction to prevent eal a Eatection SS aL CCEA Oe ee Oe 10

Pia emia ib a: CX PCMMeONIH. coc. sas sae aes 2-. oe se ec oe 17-24

Bice s GOHb HUG RCRUEN Ss fea. oe ncn aap ae saint eee 23, 27, 29, 34, 40

SE PSMIMCMis, F90G, 1007 BUG NOUS comme csc eee. one e ce ens 13-37

growth in various experiments ......... ety. ee Nis.

17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36

yield after spraying. . Dy oc ajew <= LAG AG) Be Sao

Guignardia bidwellii, cause nf Back bt; ‘deseniption acid, control Sade eee 8-10

Insects, control by addition of arsenate of lead to sprays...........---- 14, 17, 35, 36

155 41

42 CONTROL OF BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.

Page
Kelhofer, W., experiments with Bordeaux mixture..............--.-....----- 1
Kendaia, N:, Y., spraying experiments; 1907, 1908-2. -2 2 oe eee 17-24
Lawton, Mich., spraying experiments, 1908...........-.....- roe: at eee 31-35
Lead arsenate, addition to sprays, for insect control.................--- 14, 17, 35, 36
Tame, proportion’ in Bordeaux mixtures... 222 -.-<-2->-,.9e0Cen es -<-<- eee it
Lime-sulphur; concentrated, brands *"A’’ and)"B 2. 224-2 --2 =. 22 y2\- eee 13
injliky co Toliape>. 0022. 206 eee ee ee eee 16, 23, 34
seli-bowled sformula:: 2:52 4825 S605. ce 5 eee eee 13
Michigan, Sprayie experiments..22 eos Senco a ee 24-35
Mixtures, Bordeaux, Burgundy, and Perdeux. See Bordeaux mixture, Bur-
gundy mixture, and Perdeux mixture.
Moths,, berry, addition to sprays for'control..>-:.....-.2. 7. 2---.- 7. eee 33, 35
Necrosis, erape, imvestigation......20...22 4.505.250) nea k= ee ee Ay.
New Jersey, spraying experiments, 1908....2-.-2.-2. 2 6-7 42 35-37
New York, spraying experiments, 1907,)1908.. 2.22 .2-- 22 2. oe oe 17-24
Niagara grapes. See Grapes.
North East, Pa., spraying experiments. . beiais Fie enn ae ee erence el
Nozzles, hand- Poedisdl necessity in ree bees foliaee oh nae 21, 28, 32, 39, 40
Paw Paw, Mich., spraying experiments, 1907, 1908... .- eae eee 24-31
Pennsylvania, spraying experiments, 1906, 1907, 1908....-....------- eats f. 13-17
Perdeux mixture, formula, injurious:to foliage... -.2..-- == ee eee 12
Pickering, Spencer, studies on chemistry of Bordeaux mixture.......-.------ 11
Resin-fishoil soap. See Soap.
Rose-bugs, injury to grapes, control by use of arsenate of lead....-..-...-.---- 35-36
Rots, black and soft. See Black-rot and soft-rot.
Soap, resin-fishoil, addition to spray mixtures....---------- 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 22, 39
Sodium benzoate in Bordeaux mixtures, formulas.......-.-- SEE BOA ioe - 12
Soft-rot; a form ot black-rot:2 ..2 (5 lee cee Jee ss ee 2 ee ee 8-9
Spores, black-rot fungus, description, production, and spread.........-----.--- 9-10
Spraying, cost and returns from grapes sold ......-.-.-------------- 23, 27, 29, 34, 40
experiments, results and cost, 1906, 1907, and 1908........-...-.--- 13-37
SUMMALY =: ae:a2 = sn os ae eee ee eee 39-40
outfits used in experiments. .....--- cenece eee. 1415; 205255 2853250
theory of protection of fruit eae piece rot infection... oa eeeee 10
unnecessary when vines are dormant......-.----------------------- 39
Sprays, methods, of mixing.........------2s¢s2-<-- 2-25-22) ~ eee 13
Sulphate of copper. See Copper. ©
Trailers with hand-directed nozzles a necessity in spraying heavy foliage..... 21, 28,
32, 39, 40
Verdigris solution, formula:...........--..+.3: Lyall c pewe ese Coe ore rs 13
Vineland, N. J., spraying experiments, 1908......--..---------------------- 35-37
Vineyards, spraying experiments, 1906, 1907, 1908......-....---.------------- 13-37
155

O

Pos) DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 156,

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau.

A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN
COTTON.

BY

O. F. COOK, ARGYLE McLACHLAN, anp
ROWLAND M. MEADE.

IssvED JuLy 24, 1909.

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WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

L909,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops.

Editor, J. &. RocKWELL.
Chief Clerk, JAMES EH. JONES.

BIONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.

G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanists.
H. Pittier, J. H. Kinsler, and A. McLachlan, Special Agents.

R. M. Meade, Scientific Assistant.

156
2

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department or AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Piant [npustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., May 8, 1909.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled “A
Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton,” by Messrs. O. F. Cook,
Argyle McLachlan, and Rowland M. Meade, of this Bureau, and
recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 156 of the Bureau series.

This Bureau has conducted experiments with Egyptian cotton at
Yuma, Ariz., for several years past, under the direction of Mr. T. H.
Kearney. The results have been increasingly favorable. In the
season of 1907 the cotton was so good, both in yield and in quality,
as to justify our calling attention to this crop in Bulletin No. 128 of
this Bureau as likely to prove suited to cultivation in the irrigated
districts of Arizona and adjacent States.

In the season of 1908 the results were somewhat less favorable,
though by no means discouraging. The planting of the cotton in
other localities in Arizona and southern California showed that
the acclimatization, which appeared to be well advanced at Yuma
last year, is not sufficiently complete to insure normal behavior of
the plants in other places. And even at Yuma the cotton of this
season showed an appreciable deterioration, affecting the yield as
well as the length and uniformity of the fiber.

_ As soon as these unfavorable tendencies became apparent Mr.
Kearney asked that they be made the subject of special study to
ascertain their nature and causes. Mr. Cook and his assistants were
assigned to this work because they had become familiar with the
behavior of cotton during the period of acclimatization, in con-
nection with the weevil-resistant Central American cottons recently
introduced into Texas. The present report contains the results of
their investigations. It shows that the deterioration can be traced
to the existence of several forms of diversity among the plants, and
that cultural practices as well as factors of breeding and acclimatiza-
tion must be taken into account in order to secure the necessary
uniformity of the product.
Respectfully, B. T. GatLoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James WILson,
Secretary of Agriculture.
156 3

—-"

GONTENTS. ?

TSE EU OE = Es Se SpA gE ee ee ae Oe ae
FPgyptian cotton related to American varieties .......-........---.-.--------
Nature of diversities aroused by new conditions .....................-.-----
Diversity of recognized Egyptian varieties. ...............--....---200-eeees
Diversity of newly introduced Jannovitch cotton ...........-.-.--------
Diversity of newly introduced Mit Afifi cotton.......................-.-
Aberrant types in imported Jannovitch and Mit Afifi cottons..........--
Hybrid nature of the aberrant Jannovitch and Mit Afifi plants .........-
Mit Afifi cotton more diverse than Jannovitch................2.-..2.2--
Pvernnn ut tae) Dale Keyptian cottom 322-221... 2. ccccee coccl ee ccace cee
Diversity in later generations of Mit Afifi cotton...........0..........--
Duveramyanected by methods of breeding ..--.............--2-.......-----
Relation between diversity and external conditions. ...................-----
Ppouanee Or Nabits Of branching. + -..--..2-..--.-.-..2---.2--+2-2---
Diversity affected by differences of local conditions................-..--
Sueey 1 Povptian-Upland hybrids........:..-2-2-...a2.-.+...-..-2---
Sree OL CrOss ACLellizaniOM =. . 22s 25 cckdins- dec -cieesecccccesneseens
Pemmmahive characters. Ot Ny brids..--.2.--.----.---2------.0ce--s-secece
Stature and methods of branching of hybrids...................----
Pemmevaarancnes. Of My bridSs. 22.0226 -ac5s- sees .a-s--- 02 ncac cece
Siron=iertile-pranches of hybrids. -°.2...2..<..------s--cs02s0-

ERE ELAM OR tara (0 01 04 SS se es eee

Remedi tibhy Obie y OMY OMGS a. oa aoe eae soot a cine ase ss ace we esas

pime ame texture of bracts im hybrids. 2.--.--.....-.......-.ss--2s
Semeuae tore, oO: bracts of hybrids. 22.5222... 2... ose ccc elec acne
Merman Ol OTA CHS OL DY OEIGS: aes oo on oe op ann cae ciee sacencccneccves

Pe enIniE Gh tacts Of My ORMOSeso-2-csc9s.c- 65.2 -52-.nn-eocsncceoes
PmoLmablOrinis OL bracts IMiiy bride 222562. .2. cece ssc aecsnccecses
mercer calys lobes of hy DMs s2ts.. 2-50... 2 eco eee cece eee ene

Mp eomaped tidwers On Ny DMOS) 22-22 2-22-5222. --0..- ec cecneeceaen
Parkenme or old flowers of hybrids......-.....---.---..--..--<----
Longer stamens of hybrids........-- EE ne ae eel
A Re GTS Se
iiickened etyles of hybrid flowers) .2.-2...-..2---0---2-=.----.----
Pon erOenenormion My Oras... 552s ase esos. o2+sce cece cceepanveued
Five-locked bolls of hybrids....................-..- Sat ee een
Two-locked bolls of hybrids..................- BOE ee eS

LN NGAN? SEES Gir Lis). 10 (AE he ee
“Ds, DilLailce oi ee a

Cn soe) Teta Dao teh clip 45 ee cr
Principal characters for distinguishing hybrids ..................-...---
Spe aiaome an characters im NVDFIGS:5---524e5..2--.-----secaneesceccue
SRHOne OF principan typecioL hy bDrds.. 2.2 se.-.5------.-.-2--- nsec
UREN Sete ae ea 6 eG le

LAWS. sengeed nse poe deo SEAORE APA ee Bose ere

25

45

PLATE I.

ite

JOB

Al

IGLUST RAD Ns

Fig. 1.—Fertile plant of Egyptian cotton, showing strong central
stalk and long fruiting branches. Fig. 2.—Plant of unproductive
type of Egyptian cotton, showing numerous vegetative branches
and veryssmallotroitin®: branches 252s) — ee =)

Fig. 1.—Moderately productive plant of Egyptian cotton, with both
vegetative and fruiting branches well developed. Fig. 2.—Very
productive Egyptian cotton plant, with abundant fruiting
branches'2 (222280. deel acteceeee eee Oo eae

Fig. 1.—Egyptian-Upland hybrid. A small plant of the Upland
type. Fig. 2.—Egyptian-Upland hybrid. A moderately large and
fertile plamtys 29522... oocc aac sae ee

. Bolls and involucral bracts of Mit Afifi Egyptian cotton grown in

Avizonalss: cosas oso oe Soe ae oo eee ne ae ee

. Bolls and involucral bracts of Egyptian-Upland hybrid cotton with

strong resemblance to Upland parents=22.-5-525-55--—-ee-eeeeee
Fig. 1.—Flower of Egyptian cotton and flower of Egyptian-Upland
hybrid. Fig. 2.—Stamens and stigmas of Egyptian cotton.
Fig. 3.—Stamens and stigmas of Egyptian-Upland hybrids. -----
156 *s
6

Page.

56

56

56

56

56

56

—

ee ee eee ee eee ee ee ae

—

B. P. 1.—474.

A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN
COTTON.

INTRODUCTION.

The diversity found in the Egyptian cotton in Arizona appears
to be of four different kinds, evidently arising from different physio-
logical factors. Precautions which may tend to avoid one kind of
diversity will not be fully effective unless other factors are taken into
account at the same time. Methods of acclimatization, breeding, and
culture have all to be adapted to the special needs of the case if the
full possibilities of the new crop are to be definitely ascertained.

The first and most striking kind of diversity is due to hybridization.
The cross-fertilizing insects are much more abundant and active in
our Southwestern States than in any other cotton-growing region
thus far investigated. This will render it impossible to maintain a
culture of pure Egyptian or other high-grade cotton unless all other
kinds of cotton are excluded from the localities in which superior
stocks are planted. Though the lint of the hybrid plants is often
superior to that of the pure Egyptian plants, it is sufficiently different
to interfere with the commercial uniformity of the product.

The second kind of diversity that affects the Egyptian cotton is
evidently due to incomplete acclimatization. As with other types of
cotton, transfer to new conditions induces great variation, not only

in the habits of growth and other vegetative characters of the plants,

but also in fertility and in the abundance and length of the lint.
This form of diversity is to be eliminated by the selection each year
of the plants that approach most nearly to the normal form of the
variety, are the most fertile, and have the best lint.

The third kind of diversity is more directly connected with differ-
ences in the physical environment which cause or call forth differences
in the individual plants. It is shown most strikingly in comparing
the behavior of the plants in the different localities, but includes
also some of the differences that occur in the same locality or in
different parts of the same field. This form of diversity is familiar
in all branches of agriculture, but is greater with a newly introduced
variety, and may be expected to decrease as a better adjustment to
the new conditions is attained. The second kind of diversity repre-
sents incomplete acclimatization, while the third kind is more closely
connected with the phenomenon of accommodation.

156

=I

8 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

The fourth kind of diversity is shown in the different parts of the
same plant and is often very pronounced, especially in the characters
of the lint. If the plants become too luxuriant, fruiting is deferred
till late in the season or the early bolls remain poorly developed and
produce a very weak fiber. To avoid this form of diversity, a proper
relation has to be established between the habits of growth of the
plants and the methods of culture and irrigation. Sudden changes
in the rate of growth are particularly to be avoided as tending to
produce fluctuations in the fertility of the plants and in the commer-
cial quality of the lint.

The principal reason why diversity has such serious effects upon
the yield of lint is found in the habit of the cotton plant to produce
two types of branches which are quite distinct in form and function.
Slight differences of external conditions which might have very
little direct effect upon the size and vigor of the plant are able to
induce relatively great differences in the yield by inducing a prepon-
derance of the sterile, vegetative form of branches over the fertile
form.

EGYPTIAN COTTON RELATED TO AMERICAN VARIETIES.

The cultivated varieties of cotton appear to fall into two series.
Varieties native in America find their nearest relatives in other New
World varieties, and all appear to be widely distinct from the in-
digenous species of Asia and Africa. Though very different from the
Upland varieties of the United States, the Egyptian cotton and the
Sea Island cottons are also native of tropical America and are not
so fundamentally different from the Upland cottons as is often
supposed.

No varieties have as yet been discovered which are exactly inter-
mediate between the Egyptian and the Upland types, but many of the
Central American and West Indian varieties which are obviously
related to our Upland cottons show some of the characteristics of the
Egyptian and the Sea Island series. At the same time it has been
found that the West Indian and Central American relatives of the
Sea Island and Egyptian cottons show many Upland characters.
Only a little additional evidence is needed to prove that the native
American types of cotton form a continuous series, without any larger
breaks than those which serve to separate the very numerous local
varieties still kept in cultivation among the agricultural Indians of
tropical America. The results of the present study of diversity in
Egyptian cotton tend to emphasize the relationships of the American
varieties and make it evident that the Egyptian cottons have the
same wide range of variation that other American cottons have been
known to display.

156

DIVERSITIES AROUSED BY NEW CONDITIONS. 9

NATURE OF DIVERSITIES AROUSED BY NEW CONDITIONS.

Transfer to new conditions has the effect of bringing back into
expression many ancestral characters which do not appear when a
variety is growing under conditions to which it is thoroughly accus-
tomed. This tendency toward increased diversity under new condi-
tions is not confined to cotton, but is widely prevalent among culti-
vated varieties of other plants. It is practically recognized in the
fact, well-known among gardeners and florists, that the highest grade
of seed of many varieties is produced only in the locality where the
variety was developed. Everywhere else it appears to deteriorate by
reason of the diversity that shows itself in the second or third genera-
tions, if not in the first.

The usual statement that the deterioration is due to unfavorable
conditions is not a sufficient explanation of the diversity which often
constitutes the deterioration. It is not reasonable to suppose that one
set of new conditions can be directly responsible for the large number
of differences that often appear. It is easier to believe that the new
conditions are indirectly responsible for the diversity and that they
bring it about by disturbing the heredity of the plants; that is, they
disturb the internal adjustments which control the development of
the individual plants and thus allow each of the individuals to de-
velop ina different way, as they often appear to do. Even when a
whole planting of a newly imported stock appears to change over to
a new type quite different from the normal form in the previous
environment a notable amount of individual difference is usually to be
found, and this diversity may even appear to increase for two or three
generations, or until the variety becomes readjusted to normal be-
havior under the new conditions.

That the new conditions are not directly responsible for the diverse
characters that appear is also shown by the fact that different sets of
new conditions often call forth closely similar examples of diversity.
Different plantings of the same stock bring out the same series of
diversities, and there is even a general correspondence between the
ranges of diversity shown by different stocks. Features supposed to
characterize only one variety are found to crop out in many related
varieties. It becomes evident that the diversities, though they may be
very extensive and very complex, are not entirely indefinite or at
‘andom but fall into parallel and related series, so that it is possible
to think of the many newly aroused diversities as representing not
new characters but returns to old characters, as though the new
conditions had caused the plants to wander from their usual path of
development: and thus to fail to reach their normal goal.

156

10 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES.

Varieties of Egyptian cotton seem to have been known chiefly by
differences in the fiber rather than by differences in the plants.
Though the Egyptian type of cotton as a whole seems to have a range
of variation parallel to that of our Upland series of varieties, only a
few varietal forms have been separated and given distinctive names.
Much less attention has been given to differences in the vegetative
characters of the plants than with our Upland varieties. The larger
size and the more open habit of growth make it more difficult to
become familiar with the vegetative differences in the Egyptian cot-
ton than in the Upland cottons. In the smaller and more compact
Upland plants individual differences can be seen and compared much
more readily and are of the greatest assistance in acclimatization
and breeding.

Unless we know the normal form of the plants as they grow under
accustomed conditions we can not be sure that the selection that we
apply to them is really calculated to favor the most prompt adjust-
ment to the new conditions. In the absence of sufficiently definite
knowledge of this kind, fertility and the characters of the lint are the
only standards of selection that can be applied. If we select too nar-
rowly we may preserve variant forms rather than the usual type of
the variety, while if we retain good plants of many forms the inter-
mingling of these may tend to prolong the condition of diversity.

A study of the range of diversity of the newly introduced Egyp-
tian cottons was made for the double purpose of being able to judge
of the extent of acclimatization and of securing a better basis for dis-
tinguishing hybrids. The same schedule or set of characters was
used as a guide in the study of diversity in the plots raised from
imported seed as was later employed in the study of the acclimatized
stocks and the hybrids. The characters which received the most
attention are indicated in greater detail in the latter part of the pres-
ent report, where the hybrids are considered. The general plan of
working with a series of the more definitely contrasted characters in
mind had already been developed in the study of hybrids from the
standpoint of the Upland types of cotton in Texas, and the work in
Arizona was greatly facilitated by this preliminary practice.

It is not improbable, of course, that this method of procedure may
have led us to overlook some forms of diversity that did not come
within the range of our schedule of characters. On the other hand,
it may be claimed that our work was able to give us more definite
conclusions because the results of the study of diversity took a form
which adapted them directly to the purposes of our inquiry.

156

ee ee ge ee a

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES. 11
DIVERSITY OF NEWLY INTRODUCED JANNOVITCH COTTON.

Fortunately for the purposes of the present study, plots of two of
the most prominent commercial varieties of Egyptian cotton were
grown this year at Yuma, Ariz., from newly imported seed obtained
by Mr. David Fairchild, through the kindness of Mr. George P.
Foaden, Secretary-General of the Khedivial Agricultural Society of
Cairo, Egypt. A study of these plants has enabled us to gain an
idea of the range of diversity which the Egyptian cottons are able
to show before they have had an opportunity to be hybridized with
Upland cottons in the United States. Doubtless these plants are
more diverse than the same varieties would be under accustomed con-
ditions in Egypt. <A similar increase of diversity is known to take
place in Mexican and Central American varieties of cotton when
planted for the first time in Texas.

It has not been possible to find any single character in which the
newly introduced Jannovitch cotton is uniform and constant. The
habit of growth, the form and color of the leaves and flowers, the
size and shape of the bolls, the fuzzy coating of the seed, and the
length, strength, abundance, and color of the lint are all shown to be
capable of pronounced variation.

Some of the plants had fertile branches near the ground, while on
others all the lower branches were transformed into sterile “ limbs ”
and produced no bolls or were only beginning to do so at the end of
the season, near the top of the plant. The color and texture of the
foliage vary considerably, some of the plants having a much lighter
and more yellowish shade of green than the others. The lobes of the
leaves are much longer and narrower on some plants than on others.

The flowers show a wide range of color. The prevailing tint is a
rather deep, almost orange-yellow, though many have a lighter lemon
shade and a few are pale and creamy, scarcely darker than those of
Upland varieties and with the dark basal spots on the petals faint and
broken, much as in hybrids with Upland cottons. And yet these pale-
flowered plants showed no other approach to Upland characters.

The bolls vary in size and shape, some being rather short and
rounded and others long and-pointed and with the sides more or
less flattened. The end may be drawn out into a distinct beak or may
be abruptly shortened. The surface varies from a very dark blackish
green to a much lighter green, more like that of the leaves and bracts.
The oil glands which are scattered over the surface of the bolls also
vary much in the different plants. Some bolls have very numerous
small glands and others larger glands standing farther apart. The
number of locks or compartments of the bolls varies from two to five.
Two-locked bolls are not uncommon, some being present on nearly
every plant. The great majority of the bolls have three locks, many

156

12 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

of the plants having no bolls with four locks and many only a few.
Five-locked bolls were found on one plant, although they were not
supposed to occur at all in Egyptian cotton.

Some plants have the seeds almost completely naked, while others
have them more than half covered with dense, closely adherent fuzz.
The color of the fuzz also varies between a light seal-brown and a
rather bright bluish green. Both the brown and the green fuzz may
be combined with somewhat more woolly, whitish fuzz, especially at
the upper or more rounded end of the seed. Seeds completely covered
with white fuzz were also found in the original stock of seed imported
from Egypt. These variations of the fuzz are of special interest in
view of the fact that Egyptian cotton is sometimes supposed to have
only smooth seeds, whereas completely naked seeds are very rarely
found,

The lint varies in the different plants as much as any other feature.
Not only the length, but the abundance, strength, fineness, and color
of the fiber are subject to change. Some of the short lint is less than
half the length of the longest ; some of the seeds produce only half as
much lint as others; some have the very strong lint for which Egyp-
tian cotton is noted, while others have the lint so weak as to be almost
worthless. Some have very fine, silky lint, while others have the fiber
relatively coarse, coarser, in fact, than some of our Upland cottons.
Some plants have lint as white as Upland cotton, while others show
the distinctly pale brownish cast which is reckoned as one of the
special characteristics of Egyptian cottons.

In addition to these more obvious differences, similar variations
may be found in other details. Most of the plants have the calyx
completely truncate or with scarcely appreciable, broadly rounded
lobes, but some plants have the lobes more distinct and prominent.
There is usually a rim of rather sparse hairs above the internal nec-
tary of the calyx, though the hairs are sometimes lacking. ‘The
stigmas are usually very long and project far beyond the stamens,
but in rare cases the stigmas are short and scarcely emerge from
among the stamens, as in some of our Central American types. The
stamens also vary considerably in number and arrangement. Instead
of the usual compact mass of stamens arranged in five double rows
there may be only a few stamens, and these may be widely separated
in two groups or bands, one at the end of the staminal tube and the
other near the middle, with an open space between. Three plants
were found in the block of newly imported Jannovitch cotton which
were well outside the range of diversity for the variety in having
small white flowers, with petal spots pale or lacking altogether.
These plants will be considered later in connection with similar aber-
rant plants which occurred in imported Mit Afifi cotton,

156

pa

a

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES. 13
DIVERSITY OF NEWLY INTRODUCED MIT AFIFI COTTON.

Newly introduced Mit Afifi cotton, like the Jannovitch, showed a
considerable range of diversity at Yuma in 1908, not only in the
habits of growth, but more especially in the features of flowers, bolls,
and lint. The plants are distinctly shorter on the average than those
of the adjacent Jannovitch plot, but the diversity inside the varieties
is too great to make it possible to distinguish any other obvious
general difference between them. In other words, the characters of
most of the Mit Afifi plants are not sufficiently distinctive to sepa-
rate them from the Jannovitch if the two varieties were mixed to-
gether. Nevertheless the diversity of the Mit Afifi cotton seems
broader than that of the Jannovitch, so that some of the plants might
be recognized by distinctive features not shared with members of the
Jannovitch series.

The habits of growth appear less diverse than several other char-
acters. The plants are usually erect and from 6 to 8 feet tall. Some
are prostrate, but these have merely broken over by the weight of
the limbs and continue growing in a prostrate position. The pros-
trate plants are as long as those that have remained erect. Grow-
ing in the shade of the others the prostrate plants have large, dark
green, crumpled leaves with broadly rounded lobes. The leaves of
the upright plants have lighter shades of green; they are also more
sharply lobed and smaller, with more even surfaces. The widths and
lengths of the lobes differ somewhat among the upright plants.

The main axis is not well differentiated from the numerous long,
upright basal limbs, which equal it in height. Usually the plants
have three or four large limbs that rise from the lowest nodes, but
some put out many more, and sometimes from nodes as high as a foot
above the soil.

All fruiting branches are, as a rule, borne above the middle of the
plant. There is only a slight difference between plants as to the
height at which these branches begin to appear. In cases where the
fruiting branches are from the lower nodes they are weak growths
and retain very few bolls. Bolls retained on the lower branches are
also undersized, as if they had been poorly nourished.

All plants agree in being practically devoid of hairs on all their
parts. The veins of leaves and of bracts occasionally bear a few
short, stellate hairs, but hairiness may be said to be lacking in Mit
Afifi cotton.

The bracts differ widely. The usual type is rather long and slender,
with short teeth. The three apical teeth grow from a median pro-
longation of the bract,and stand apart from those on either side. The
number of the teeth commonly varies from seven to eleven, Bracts can

156

14 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

be found, however, which depart from all these typical characters.
Thus there are broad, coarse bracts with teeth more pronounced and
without the usual specialization of the apical teeth. Other bracts
have the teeth notably reduced in size and in number. Some of the
bracts become red when old or on exposure to the sun, but most of
them remain light green.

Three features of Mit Afifi bracts appear to be nearly constant.
The mature bracts have a stiff, brittle texture. The young bracts are
not so stiff, but are smooth and shining. The second constant feature
is the close appression of the bract to the bud and boll. The bracts
of Egyptian cottons, unlike those of Upland varieties, have no dis-
tinct bulging at the base, no external indication of the place where the
bract separates from the enlarged extremity of the peduncle. In-
stead of being deeply notched at the base, with the corners extending
back on either side, as in Upland cotton, the base of the bract is more
nearly a straight line, making the general shape of the bract triangu-
lar rather than cordate.

The calyx is normally longer than in Upland cotton, and has a
nearly. even, truncate margin, though variations are frequently met
with. The calyx may be considerably shortened or may show broadly
rounded and irregular lobes. Sometimes the calyx has a large lobe
on one side, while the other side is correspondingly abbreviated. It
has been observed by Mr. F. L. Lewton that the calyx of the Egyp-
tian cottons does not fit so closely about the bases of the petals as in
the Upland cotton. This permits a large species of carpenter bees to
steal nectar from the Egyptian cottons without going inside the
flowers.

‘The internal nectary of the calyx is usually accompanied by a rather
indistinct band of hairs along its upper margin. The length and
abundance of these hairs differ on different plants, while on a few
the hairs are altogether wanting. Upland cottons have a very dis-
tinct ring of hairs surmounting the internal nae in some cases
quite prominent.

The color of the flowers of Mit Afifi cotton is a bright lemon-yellow,
with dark reddish purple spots at the base of the petals. Partial
abortion or failure of flowers to open is frequent in Mit Afifi plants,
though not found in Jannovitch. In the diversity of its flower char-
acters the Mit Afifi cotton shows greater range than the Jannovitch.
Few of the flowers are as deep a lemon-yellow as the deepest of the
Jannovitch flowers and many are paler than the palest Jannovitch.
The pale flowers of the Mit Afifi plants have about the same shade of
color as the pale-colored flowers of Upland hybrids. The petal spots
show considerable range also, from large or dark spots to small and
light. One plant bearing deep yellow flowers had petal spots so

156

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES. ~ 15

faint as to be barely distinguishable. The shade of the petals and the
depth of the color of the spot are not correlated in any way. The
shade of purple in the petal spots is the same in the three imported
stocks of Egyptian cotton growing at Yuma.

The petals of the Mit Afifi cotton usually appear somewhat shorter
and smaller than those of the Jannovitch. The average length of the
petals is about 2 inches, while the range is from 14 to 2} inches. The
style may protrude more than half an inch beyond the staminal tube
or it may barely extend above the stamens. Stable Upland varieties
do not show this irregularity, but as a rule this part of the pistil is
consistently short. In Mit Afifi cotton grown for several years in
Arizona the style is more uniformly short and thicker than in plants
from newly introduced seed. No variation was detected in the color
of the Mit Afifi pollen, which is a golden yellow.

One of the most distinctive flower features of Mit Afifi, as well as
of Jannovitch cotton, is the arrangement of the stamens in five double
series, which is apparent as one looks into the open flower. This
appearance is due partly to the short staminal filaments. It occurs
also in the Asiatic cottons which have similar short stamens. Opposed
rows of stamens rising from each of the five ridges of the staminal
tube lean toward each other to form the double series. This is not
a constant feature in the Mit Afifi cotton growing at Yuma; some of
the flowers have no indication of the arrangement of the stamens,
though their stamens may be as short as in other flowers which have
the feature well marked. In flowers of Upland cotton, where the
filaments are much longer than in Egyptian, this arrangement of the
stamens is never apparent.

Perhaps the greatest diversity in the imported Mit Afifi cotton
appears in the shapes and sizes of bolls. The most common type is a
well-filled boll 14 inches long by 1 inch in diameter, with a rather
blunt point. Some plants bear long, narrow, pointed bolls, while
the bluntness of the usual type is occasionally exceeded by the very
short, nearly spherical bolls found on some of the plants. The range
of these boll characters is greater than in imported Jannovitch cotton,
though the Mit Afifi bolls average shorter and thicker than those of
the Jannovitch. The bolls are of a dark, shining green and are pitted
with large black oil glands which lie close to the surface and deepen
the dark green color. In rare cases the bolls are lighter green, with
dull surfaces or with the oil glands somewhat more deeply buried
under a layer of green tissue.

The predominant number of locks or carpels is three. The most
frequent deviation from this is to the two-locked boll. Nine plants
out of ten on which a census of the number of bolls and their locks
was taken bore two-locked bolls, one plant having as high as 43

85597—Bul. 156—09——2

16 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

per cent of the two-locked bolls. A few of these had also one or
two four-locked bolls, but it seems a general rule that when two-
locked bolls are borne in any considerable numbers (15 per cent or
more) it is to the exclusion of four-locked bolls, and vice versa. One
plant had 33 per cent of four-locked bolls and no two-locked bolls.
On the other hand, when the bolls of a plant are nearly all three-
locked, both two-locked and four-locked bolls may be found in small
numbers. The plant having the high percentage of two-locked bolls
grew in the same row and next to the individual with the abundance
of four-locked bolls. Diversity in this particular is evidently in-
herent in the plant rather than dependent upon differences in soil
and moisture.

The lint varies to nearly as great an extent as the boll. The usual
color is hght buff. This is more constantly the case than in Janno-
vitch cotton, but many shades of buff are found; a few plants have
the lint nearly white. The texture also varies from silky to harsh,
the latter approaching the short-staple Uplands. The range of length
is from 1 inch to 14 inches, but the majority of plants have staple
about 14 inches in length. In Upland cottons the fibers on different
parts of the seeds are sometimes of different lengths. It is usual to
find long fibers at the end of the seed and short fibers at the base,
giving the “butterfly ” appearance when the lint is combed out
on the seed. The Mit Afifi seed may also bear fibers of different
lengths, but the long fibers seem usually to come from the middle of
the lint-bearing area of the seed and the short fibers from the ex-
tremities. The Mit Afifi seeds are never as well covered with lint as
seeds of the best Upland cottons, the lower half or third of the seed
often having no lint. There is also much difference in the quantity
of fiber borne by seeds of different plants. Some have heavily linted
seeds, while others have seeds nearly bare. The fibers are also much
stronger on some plants than on others.

The seed of the Mit Afifi cotton usually has a tuft of greenish or
brownish fuzz at either end, and the tufts are often connected by a
line of fuzz along the ridge of the angled side. All degrees are
found on the one hand between such seeds and those that are per-
fectly smooth or nearly so, and on the other hand the fuzz may be
more abundant and longer, until a close likeness to the fuzzy Upland
seed appears. The rounded surface of the seed, opposite the flat side,
is least likely to become fuzzy, especially the portion of it near the
base of the seed. Differences also appear in the color of the fuzz,
some seeds showing more green than others, but green fuzz is not so
noticeable as in Jannovitch seeds, a large proportion of which have
bright green fuzz. The range of diversity in seed characters of Mit
Afifi cotton grown in Arizona for a single season can hardly be said

156

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES. 17

to be greater than in imported seed from which it is grown; the
most that can be said is that the quantity of fuzz averages somewhat
larger in the seed grown in Arizona.

Of the Mit Afifi seed imported in 1908 about 62 per cent had the
usual fuzz tufted at both ends and sometimes extending along the
raphe; in most cases the fuzz was green, though greenish brown and
brown fuzz also occurred. About 6 per cent was naked or with only
a minute trace of fuzz at the base. After the typical seeds and the
naked seeds had been taken out the remainder were divided accord-
ing to differences in the amount of fuzz into “ nearly naked,” “* mod-
erately fuzzy,” “ almost completely fuzzy,” and “ completely fuzzy.”
The first of these classes represented 21 per cent of the general total,
and the other three classes, taken together, 11 per cent. Seeds that
are completely fuzzy are represented by the smallest percentage
0.16 per cent. All these stages and degrees of fuzziness were found
in seeds of otherwise typical shape, size, and color; that is, of a full
oval or oval-pointed form, 9 mm. long, weighing 10} to 113 grams
per 100, and of a uniform chestnut-brown color.

Though apparently independent of the amount of fuzz, many dif-
ferences of shape, color, and markings could be found among the
imported Egyptian seeds. About 25 per cent of all the imported
seeds had longitudinal grooves for about one-fourth the distance or
less from the base. These grooves were light colored, as if there had
been checking of the surface as a result of shrinkage. Between
the grooves the surface was black, darker than usual, and with a
somewhat charred appearance. In a few cases the whole surface was
checked or covered with a rough tissue like charcoal.

Some of the imported seeds were also aberrant in shape, size, or
color. Some had very hght or very dark seed coats, some were extra
large, weighing 14 to 15 grams per 100, which is from 4 to 5 grams
more than typical seeds, and others very small and weighing only
54 to 64 grams per 100. Long, flat, and round seeds were also selected.
The long seeds were 1 mm. longer than the typical and with diameter
much less in proportion to length than in typically shaped seeds.
The flat seeds resembled apple seeds somewhat in shape and had the
raphe along one edge. Blunt seeds, shorter than those of normal
shape and for this reason more rounded, were described as “ round.”
Altogether sixteen distinct seed types were selected for separate plant-
ing to determine whether any definite correlations exist between the
characters of the seeds and the plants they produce.

While a considerable amount of this diversity among seeds has
already been recognized in Egypt, it has not yet been found to be
correlated with diversities in the plants, though it is evident from
the reports of Mr. Balls that diversities are found in Egypt in the

156

18 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

flowers, bolls, and lint very similar to those that have appeared in
Arizona.?

ABERRANT TYPES IN IMPORTED JANNOVITCH AND MIT AFIFI COTTONS.

The most extreme forms of diversity in the plantings of imported
seed were shown in a few plants that seemed to stand well outside
of the general range of diversity of the varieties in which they ap-
peared. Three cases of this kind were studied in the Jannovitch
plot and three in the Mit Afifi. While there were notable differ-
ences between them, they had also a more general resemblance to
each other than to the varieties in which they appeared. The flowers
were in all cases of a very light creamy tint, the same as in our
United States Upland varieties, and the petal spots were very faint
or lacking altogether. The vegetative differences were much less
conspicuous and might easily have been overlooked if the pale flow-
ers had not drawn special attention to the plants.

The three Jannovitch plants represented two types. Two of these
plants agreed in habits of growth and in flower characters. They
displayed a more pronounced tendency toward branching at the base,
and the long basal branches were unusually slender. The main axis
was no stronger than the branches. The leaves of one plant were
small and narrow lobed, while in the other they were large, shghtly

crumpled, and with broadly rounded lobes, the two extremes of Jan-

novitch leaves being represented by the two plants. The bolls,
though of the usual dark, shining-green color, were unusually small
and nearly round. In the number of their locks they did not differ
from the other plants in the same block, one bearing 17 two-locked
and 178 three-locked bolls, the other 4 two-locked, 170 three-locked,
and 3 four-locked bolls. As in the case of the other Jannovitch
plants grown from imported seed no fruit was borne below the
middle of the plant. The bud and flower characters alone were the
distinguishing features.

The bracts were small and quite distinct from Jannovitch cotton
in shape and in the distribution of their teeth. They were fre-
quently much broader than long, and with the margins evenly
rounded; the teeth were small and uniformly distributed, without the
separation of three at the tip of the bract common to Jannovitch
cotton. The flowers behaved as though proterogynous, the stigmas
protruding from the tip of the half-grown buds. This was due to
the incongruous combination of the long Jannovitch pistil with very
short petals, the petals being barely half as long as the average for
the variety. In the open flowers the petals were about as long as the

“Report of the Khedivial Agricultural Society for 1906, pp. 49 and 65.
156

| i

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES. 19

bracts and the stigma often extended beyond both, a very infrequent
condition in cotton flowers.

On one plant the flowers had no petal spots and on the other the
spots were barely apparent in some of the flowers. Such correlation
of light petals and faint petal spots have been known to occur only
in cases of hybrids; the palest flowers of norma! Jannovitch cotton
have petal spots as dark as those with darker petals. Nevertheless,
there was no indication that this plant was a hybrid with an Ameri-
ean Upland cotton. The usual correlation of characters common to
Egyptian-Upland hybrid flowers—bell-shaped white flowers with
sharply lobed calyx and long stamens with light-colored pollen—did
not occur in this white-flowered Egyptian plant. The pollen was as
yellow as in typical Jannovitch cotton and the stamens were even
shorter than usual for this variety.

The lint of one plant was nearly white, while that of the other was
light buff. In both cases it was of good length and quality and of
medium strength, the buff lint being stronger than the white. On
the plant bearing white lint, only one or two seeds developed in a
lock. Furthermore, these seeds sometimes failed to turn black.

The third of the diverse Jannovitch plants, representing the sec-
ond type, was like the other two in approximating the Egyptian style
_of growth and foliage. The limbs were more spreading than usual
and the leaves hghter green. In other respects it differed as widely
from the other white-flowered Jannovitch as from the normal Jan-
novitch cotton. The bracts were of stiff Jannovitch texture, but were
broad and cordate. The flower was about the size of the normal
Jannovitch flower, but pale, with pale red spots. The calyx was
sharply lobed, one or two or the lobes being greatly elongated. The
internal nectary bore a distinct band of long, abundant hairs. The
bolls were light green, larger than Jannovitch bolls, round, with a
prolonged beak. Of the bolls 74 were four-locked, 23 three-locked,
and 7 five-locked. The lint was tinged with buff and was abundant,
short, and silky. The seeds were more nearly round than in normal
Jannovitch cotton, and even larger than in American Upland varie-
ties. Many of them were about two-thirds covered with a dense,
green fuzz. Others were not so fuzzy, but all bore more fuzz than is
usual for Jannovitch cotton. The naked surfaces of the seeds were
black and irregularly pitted.

The three aberrant white-flowered plants in the block of newly
introduced Mit Afifi cotton resembled the two already described as
the first type in Jannovitch. In all but flower and boll characters
these plants were indistinguishable from the normal Mit Afifi cotton.
The flowers were white in all three cases and had no petal spots. The
petals were much smaller than the average for Mit Afifi. The flowers

156

20 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

differed from those of the similar type in Jannovitch plants in not
being proterogynous. Though the petals were short the pistil was
likewise abbreviated ; even in the open flower the pistil did not extend
beyond the petals as in Jannovitch cotton. Differences only slightly
marked in normal plants of the two varieties were accentuated in
these white-flowered types. In all the white-flowered Mit Afifi
plants the style protruded but slightly beyond the stamens, while in
the Jannovitch plants the corresponding portion of the style was very
long. The staminal tube of the white-flowered Mit Afifi plants was
constantly longer than in the Jannovitch cotton. This accounted to
some degree for the shorter extension of the style beyond the stami-
nal tube in the Mit Afifi cotton, though the style is absolutely shorter
in this variety than in Jannovitch. The point of origin of the
staminal zone was higher above the base of the flower in Mit Afifi,
and the zone itself was longer than in Jannovitch cotton.

The white-flowered Mit Afifi plants differed further from the two
similarly aberrant Jannovitch plants in having a faint’ hairy rim
above the internal nectary of the calyx. There was also a much
larger percentage of four-locked bolls than in the aberrant Janno-
- vitch plants, and two of the three plants bore a few five-locked bolls.
The shapes of the bolls of the white-flowered Mit Afifi plants were
diverse, varying from round to blunt-oval. There were also differ-
ences in size, the largest being 12 inches long by 14 inches in diameter.
On one plant the bolls were hght green and lacked the shining smooth-
ness of surface usual in Mit Afifi cotton. Similar diversities in boll
characters did not appear among the white-flowered Jannovitch
plants.

One of the three Mit Afifi plants showed great degeneracy. Very
little fruit had been retained, though the flowers were produced in
normal abundance. The few bolls that reached maturity had sunken
carpels and only one or two -poorly linted seeds.

HYBRID NATURE OF THE ABERRANT JANNOVITCH AND MIT AFIFI PLANTS.

In some particulars the white-flowered Mit Afifi type is intermed1-
ate between the two Jannovitch types. - In style of growth and in
flower characters the white-flowered Mit Afifi plants are close counter-
parts of the first of the white-flowered Jannovitch types, except that
they bear five-locked bolls like the second Jannovitch type. Their
resemblance to the first type in Jannovitch is so marked that a similar
foreign influence is naturally to be suspected.

But if hybridization is responsible for the diversity it also seems
probable that the cross is of long standing. The preponderance of
the Egyptian characters is large and the lint averages the same as
that of normal plants except in a single individual. Two of the

156

—— a ih.

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES. 21

white-flowered plants in the Jannovitch plots and the three in Mit
Afifi differ less among themselves than do many of the normal plants
of these varieties. Furthermore, indistinct varietal characters of
normal plants are consistently accentuated and made prominent
features of the aberrant plants, as often occurs in hybrids.

The combinations of characters found in the Jannovitch plant that
gave the strongest indications of hybridity ditfer sufficiently from
those observed in the known Egyptian-Upland crosses to make it
reasonably certain that the source of contamination was not Amer-
ican Upland cotton, but seem to indicate that the foreign parent re-
sembles Upland to some extent. The correlations of flower characters
are the same as those that appear very frequently in the Egyptian-
Upland hybrids. The petals are white, the petal spots faint, the
calyx lobes pronounced, and there is a distinct hairy rim above the
internal nectary.

The accentuation of the lobes of the calyx to such an extent as in
one of the suspected Jannovitch hybrids finds no counterpart in the
several generations of Egyptian-Upland hybrids which have been
studied, and this plant also bears five-locked bolls with large, green-
fuzzy seeds and short lint. The peculiar rounded shape of the seeds
and their large size and partly naked, rough surface do not corre-
spond with anything found among plants known to be Egyptian-
Upland hybrids.

Considering the white-flowered Egyptian plants as hybrids, the
most probable source of infection seems to be the “ Hindi” cotton,
an inferior, white-linted type not now planted in Egypt, but which
persists as a weed and mixes with the Egyptian cotton to the great
detriment of the fiber, as several investigators have reported. The
Hindi cotton has white flowers without petal spots, and five-locked
bolls, characters which in the plantings of newly imported Egyptian
cottons at Yuma were peculiar to the aberrant plants alone. At the
same time these plants do not have seeds like the Hindi cotton, which
are said to be long, narrow, and free from fuzz, and thus easily
recognized. A considerable effort has been made by the Khedivial
Agricultural Society, of Cairo, to eliminate the Hindi plants by cull-
ing out the seeds from the commercial varieties, Mit Afifi in particu-
lar. Even in the best samples there is said to be an admixture of 2
or 3 per cent of Hindi seed.*

This precaution has not been found adequate to eliminate all the
plants with Hindi characteristics, which makes it evident that the

@¥oaden, George P., secretary-general of the Khedivial Agricultural Society.
“The Selection of Cotton Seed,” in Yearbook of Khedivial Agricultural Society
for 1905.

156

22, A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

Hindi peculiarities of the seed are not always obvious. This has also
been appreciated in Egypt, as the following statement ¢ will show:

Finally, I may say that even in fields which have been picked free from
Hindi, both on the seed tables and at thinning out, I have this year found a
large percentage of plants bearing one or more inconspicuous Hindi peculiari-
ties shuffled into the pack of Afifi characteristics.

It is evident from this statement that the only method of keeping
the undesirable Hindi characteristics in abeyance is to maintain a
still more efficient selection, based on more general knowledge of the
characters that enable the Hindi hybrids to be detected.

MIT AFIFI COTTON MORE DIVERSE THAN JANNOVITCH.

While the plots of newly introduced Jannovitch and Mit Afifi
cottons at Yuma fall far short of the standards of uniformity usually
applied to Upland varieties, it seems that Jannovitch cotton ap-
proaches this standard more nearly than does the Mit Afifi. The
flowers of Jannovitch plants are darker yellow and show less varia-
tion of color than do the flowers of Mit Afifi. The basal spots of
the petals likewise are nearly always large and dark in Jannovitch
plants, while in Mit Afifi there is more variation and all degrees
from very dark to very pale spots. The portion of the pistil extend-
ing beyond the staminal tube is longer and more constant in length
in the Jannovitch cotton. Only a few plants are found with the
pistils abbreviated, a condition of rather frequent occurrence in
Mit Afifi. The Jannovitch cotton also has a more regular form of
boll, long and pointed, about 13 inches in length by 1inch in
diameter. Blunt bolls are sometimes found, but the range of diver-
sity is not so wide as in Mit Afifi. Here the usual shape is rather
blunt, with an abrupt, short point, but some of the Mit Afifi bolls
are even more pointed and narrower than those of the Jannovitch
cotton.

DIVERSITY IN THE DALE EGYPTIAN COTTON.

A third type of Egyptian cotton planted at Yuma was the Dale, a
variety of unknown ancestry only recently brought forward in Egypt
and now planted for the first time in America.” It differs from both
the Jannovitch and the Mit Afifi varieties in peculiarities of its vege-
tative characters and habits of growth, quite as marked as the vege-

,

4Balls, W. Lawrence. ‘“ Seed Selection,’
cultural Society for 1906, p. 81.
> Grown from seed sent to the Department of Agriculture by Mr. Alfred
Dale, Mansurah, Egypt, with the following remark: “A special quality I have
cultivated on my farm for the past year, which has given splendid results both
in quality and quantity.”
156

in Yearbook of the Khedivial Agri-

ti

DIVERSITY OF RECOGNIZED EGYPTIAN VARIETIES. 23

tative characters that distinguish Upland varieties. The range of
diversity is also much greater than in the other Egyptian varieties,
and in some respects is fully as great as would be expected in a series
of hybrids.

Many of the plants have abnormally short fruiting branches like
the “cluster” varieties of the Upland type. The bolls are often
borne on very long peduncles and in clusters of three to six, or even
more. The plants which bear their bolls in this manner are tall
and spike-like, with coarse, dark foliage, characters also frequent in
Upland cluster cottons. Other tall plants bear their bolls only at the
ends of the branches, but not in clusters. Still other plants, inelud-
ing the tallest of all, are completely sterile. All the tall plants have
long basal limbs, but the main axis is always strongly developed. A
fourth style of plant is more nearly like the Upland, with normal
fertile secondaries and bearing some of the fruit below the middle of
the plant. This type of plant also resembles the Upland in bearing
five-locked bolls. Indeed, it appears that five-locked bolls are of more
frequent occurrence in the Dale type than are two-locked bolls, though
plants bearing two-locked bolls also occur. The two-locked bolls were
found on two small plants of a type rather aberrant in other respects.
One of them had perfectly smooth seeds and very sparse, weak lint.
The majority of the plants bear three-locked and four-locked bolls,
the three-locked bolls being predominant. The locks were counted
in the bolls of twelve plants and the percentage of four-locked
bolls was about 15.

The range of diversity in the size and shape of bolls is much greater
than in the other Egyptian varieties, and this is true also of flower
characters. Large and small flowers, lemon and cream colored petals,
and dark and pale petal spots are all represented in the planting.
Even in the same flower the petal spots may range from dark to very
faint on the various petals.

The bracts do not resemble those of the other Egyptian cottons, but
are broad (some broader than long), more stiongly laciniate, with
the laciniz longer and broader than in Jannovitch or Mit Afifi cotton
and without the Egyptian arrangement of three laciniw at the apex
of the bract. There is also a notable frequency of abnormal bracts
intermediate in form between ordinary leaves and fully specialized
bracts. This series of abnormalities has a botanical interest in afford-
ing apparently conclusive evidence of the nature of the modifications
that have been made in specializing leaves into bracts. The stipules
become greatly enlarged, the blade correspondingly reduced, and the
petiole eliminated entirely. The three large teeth in the middle of
the bract represent the lobes of the leaf, the other teeth being borne

156

24 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

on the enlarged stipules. The nectary at the base of the bract corre-
sponds to the nectary on the midrib of a normal leaf.

DIVERSITY IN LATER GENERATIONS OF MIT AFIFI COTTON.

Experiments with recently introduced Central American types of
cotton have made us familiar with the fact that an even greater
amount of diversity is often shown in the second and third genera-
tions than in the first, depending upon the extent to which the char-
acters of the variety are disturbed by the transfer to new conditions.

That the total diversity should be greater in the second generation
of a stock than in the first generation is easily to be understood from
the fact that the seeds which produce the second generation must
develop under the new conditions, whereas those which produce the
first generation have been developed under conditions normal for the
variety. A variation that takes place in a seed or a seedling is to
be compared with the variation of a bud or branch rather than with
the variations that occur when new conjugations take place.

That new conditions are even more likely to disturb the processes of
heredity at the time of seed formation than during the previous period
of vegetative growth is shown by the many instances of carefully
selected varieties of vegetables and flowers which will produce one
generation of normal plants under new conditions, but show marked
diversity and deterioration in the second generation. Some of Mr.
Kearney’s special selections from individual plants have attained a
uniformity notably greater than that of the new plantings of the
Egyptian varieties, but in the bulk plantings, and especially in plant-
ings made under conditions different from those in which the original
breeding was done, a wide range of diversity is still to be found, in
some respects even wider than in the plats raised from the newly
imported seed. Nevertheless, it does not appear that this persistence
of diversity is in the nature of a failure of acclimatization or that it
indicates any special resistance to acclimatization on the part of this
type of cotton.

The effect of the selection thus far applied can be fairly judged
only by the selected stocks themselves, which are often very uniform.
Apart from hybrids the diversity of the bulk plantings is largely
explained by the diversity between the various selections whose seeds
were combined in the bulk plantings. Considerable diversity could
be ascribed very properly to the mixture of the seed of the different
selections and the crossing of the selections among themselves. In-
deed, it is a more difficult problem to explain the uniformity of the
selections, unless we consider that some of them represent mutative
variations which are sometimes notably prepotent and constant in

156

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ws

ee rs ae, crys

DIVERSITY AFFECTED BY METHODS OF BREEDING. 25

their progeny even when freely exposed to crossing with the parent
form.

The fact that the Arizona-Egyptian plants were grown in large
numbers and in several different localities under different conditions
would also tend to increase the impression of diversity by giving
more numerous opportunities for differences to appear. Finally, the
presence of numerous and diverse Upland hybrids would itself tend
strongly to establish an impression of diversity, even if the Egyptian
plants themselves were more nearly alike than they are.

Differences in fertility, rather than in other special characteristics,
is the most serious form of diversity and that which shows most
definitely that acclimatization is still incomplete. Inequalities in the
yield and the quality of the lint are frequently out of all proportion
to any differences of natural conditions reflected in the stature or
apparent vigor of the plants. This form of diversity was found to
depend on the fact that the cotton plant bears two distinctly spe-
cialized kinds of branches, one fertile and the other sterile, as will
be explained in later chapters.

DIVERSITY AFFECTED BY METHODS OF BREEDING.

The practical work of acclimatizing a foreign variety like the
Egyptian cotton consists simply in the selection in each season of
those plants that behave in a normal manner or in a manner which
most nearly approaches the normal. The primary object of acclima-
tization is not to change or improve the variety, for which selection is
often used in other cases, but to preserve the variety and rescue it
from the agricultural deterioration which results from too great

and indiscriminate diversity. Instead of attempting to bring about

changes of characters our efforts are directed toward securing greater
stability in the expression of the characters.

Even without any special selection there is often a distinct tendency
to return toward the normal adjustments. Even when the first
generation of a newly introduced cotton is nearly sterile each suc-
ceeding generation tends to be more fertile and productive. Never-
theless, it is hardly to be expected that there would be any complete
return of the variety to its normal characters without the assistance
of selection. The diversity which the new conditions arouse may be
thought of as representing the same diversity that was suppressed
when the variety was originated by selection. The new conditions
having disturbed the adjustments and released the old diversity, a new
selection is required to restore the previous uniformity, that is, to

156

26 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

separate again the lines of descent that have the strongest tendency to
express the desired set of characters.

The process of acclimatization in the strict sense would be finished
when the variety had been restored to a condition of stability, so that
crops as normal and uniform as those of other varieties that are
being planted in the same region could be raised. This has been ac-
complished in Texas with several strains selected from Central
American stocks introduced four years ago.

The diversity aroused by the new conditions is likely to afford
novelties which attract the interest of the breeder and furnish him
very promising material for the development of valuable new types.
Some of Mr. Kearney’s best selections show vegetative characters
quite different from the average form of the Egyptian plants and ap-
parently quite superior. At the same time it has to be considered
that the behavior of these new types may not be quite the same as if
the normal, typical form of the parent variety had been retained.
Among the Central American varieties at least, those strains seem to
be most promptly acclimatized which are nearest to the ordinary
form of the parent stock as it grew in Central America. Selections
of such individuals often yield a very uniform progeny, whereas se-
lections of other types continue to show a larger amount of diversity.
Such instability may be compared to the instability of hybrids, in
that the forms secured in this way represent new combinations
of characters, or at least unaccustomed combinations. It is easy to
understand that such new combinations may be less stable and less
promptly reduced to uniformity than combinations that have been ex-
pressed with regularity for many generations.

Not only is there a distinction to be drawn between acclimatization
and breeding, but a practical difference. of methods may need to be
used, at least in the case of cotton. If selections were kept inside of
the varietal type and had only the minor fluctuating differences in
degrees of fertility or lengths of lint, crossing between these selections
might have no serious effect in retarding acclimatization. But where
each selection is likely to represent a diversity equivalent to a dis-
tinct variety, the crossing of such selections may prolong the condi-
tion of instability, if it does not have a further tendency toward a
deterioration or mongrelizing of the type. Free crossing among
numerous varieties of the same species often leads the composite
group back to the characters of the wild type and may produce a se-
rious deterioration, particularly when the characters of the varieties
represent the results of special selection.

The bearing of these facts upon the problem of acclimatizing the
Egyptian cotton is not difficult to understand. To secure the most

156

DIVERSITY AND EXTERNAL CONDITIONS. 27

rapid progress of the work of acclimatization it ought to be consid-
ered as entirely distinct from the work of securing improved types
of Egyptian cotton. The selections for these two purposes should
be conducted on separate lines and by different methods. The diverse
forms, whether superior or not, should be removed from the stock
that is being acclimatized. The normal form and habits of growth,
combined with the normal fertility and the lint characters, should
constitute the standards of selection, if prompt acclimatization and
attainment of commercial uniformity are the principal objects. The
development, testing, and substitution of new and improved types
may be considered as representing a later stage in the development of
an established industry. Even though distinct improvements can be
made later on, it is likely to be an advantage to begin with the near-
est possible approach to methods already tried and to products
already in demand.

RELATION BETWEEN DIVERSITY AND EXTERNAL CONDITIONS.

It is a most familiar fact that plants of the same kind will show
different characteristics when grown under different conditions. This
power of the plants to adapt themselves to different conditions is
very important in an agricultural species or variety if it 1s not to be
restricted to one locality or set of conditions. Cotton is one of the
most adaptable of plants, able to thrive and produce an abundance of
seed under a very wide range of natural conditions, and able to make
notable changes of form and habits of growth in accord with the
needs of many different surroundings.

Nevertheless, this readiness of adaptability is not without its dis-
advantages, especially in such a plant as Egyptian cotton, where the
uniformity of the product is quite as important as the amount of
the yield. In changing the characters which have to be varied for
the sake of adaptation to different external conditions, other charac-
ters are likely to be changed or to fall out of adjustment. Each fully
developed plant represents a balanced combination of many char-
acters.

Selection is our means of compelling a variety to repeat the par-
ticular combination of characters that we desire, but the adjustments
established by the selective breeding of a variety under one set of
conditions are often lost or diminished when the plants are trans-
ferred to a new set of conditions. Though new conditions may be
equally favorable, or even more favorable, the close adjustment of
the varietal characters are likely to be disturbed whenever there are

156

28 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

any changes or substitution among the characters which are affected
by the external conditions. Even when a variety continues to be
grown in the same place, seasonal differences of temperature and
‘ainfall are often sufficient to disturb the adjustments of the charac-
ters, so that different years may bring great differences in the uni-
formity of the same crop.

The experiments with the Egyptian cotton at Yuma and at Sacaton
may be viewed as an example of such a loss of adjustments. The nat-
ural conditions at Sacaton did not appear to be less favorable than
at Yuma as far as they could be judged by the size and productive-
ness of the plants, nor did the total amount of diversity among the
plants appear to be greater at Sacaton than at Yuma. Nevertheless,
the effects of the selection for long lint which have been made at
Yuma were notably less apparent at Sacaton. Very few plants, if
any, showed as long lint as many of the better selections at Yuma.
Most of the Yuma plantings had the advantage of an additional year
of selection, which might have been expected to have a favorable
effect upon the average of the lint, but can hardly be thought to
explain the almost complete failure of even individual plants at
Sacaton to attain the Yuma standards. Further experiments must
determine, of course, the extent to which this difference represents a
phenomenon of acclimatization. It is possible that the Sacaton con-
ditions may be less favorable to long fiber than those at Yuma, but
the general behavior of the plants does not lead us to expect any
permanent difference of this kind.

This relative inferiority of the Egyptian lint at Sacaton made the
hybrids appear more definitely superior to the pure Egyptians than
at Yuma, though there was no indication that the Sacaton hybrids
were really better than the Yuma hybrids. They seemed in fact to be
not quite as good, and yet they gave a stronger impression of supe-
riority over the pure Egyptians.

In this particular case the transfer of the plants to new conditions
appeared to shorten the range of diversity rather than to increase it,
there being less of the long lint shown at Yuma. But if acclimatiza-
tion had been complete at Yuma, so that the long lint had become a
more uniform character, the transfer to Sacaton would doubtless
have caused the diversity to appear greater by allowing many of the
plants to fall back to the short lint, after short lint had ceased to
appear at Yuma.

IMPORTANCE OF HABITS OF BRANCHING.

The most marked eflects of different conditions of growth are
exerted through their influence upon the methods of branching. The
156

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DIVERSITY AND EXTERNAL CONDITIONS. 29

branches of the cotton plant are of two definitely different forms.¢
Fertile branches are horizontal or drooping. Each joint bears a
fruit bud, and the internodes are twisted to bring the buds to the
upper side. Sterile branches, or “ limbs,” are upright or ascending,
with long straight joints and no fruit buds. The sterile limbs are to
be thought of as subdivisions of the main stall and have the same
function. Like the main stalk they can produce other branches which
are fertile, but are themselves unable to set any flowers or fruits. If
all of the lower branches are of the sterile, upright form the flower
buds can not begin to form till the second generation of branches has
been put forth. This delay contributes to the lateness of the crop,
which is usually reckoned as a characteristic of the Egyptian type
of cotton.

Nevertheless it appears that in Arizona, at least, heavy yields
depend largely upon the size of the contribution made by the fertile
branches formed on the main stem within 2 or 3 feet from the ground.
The plants seldom attain any satisfactory degree of fertility unless
they begin by putting forth many of the short horizontal fruiting
branches from the lower part of the main stem. Reference to Plates
I and IJ will enable the reader to gain an idea of the intimate rela-
tion between fertility and forms of branching.

‘@Tn view of the practical importance of recognizing the two distinct kinds of
branches, it may be well to add a summary of facts stated in a former publica-
tion. (Weevil-Resisting Adaptations of the Cotton Plant, Bulletin 88, Bureau
of Plant Industry, pp. 19 and 20.)

Two buds are formed at the base of each leaf of a cotton plant. The bud
that comes from the middie of the base or true axil of the leaf grows into a
vegetative branch, never into a fruiting branch. These vegetative, axillary, or
primary branches are like the main stem in that they produce fruiting branches,
but they never produce directly any flower buds or bolls. The fruiting branches,
as well as the flower buds they bear, arise in an extra-axillary position at the
right or the left side of the true axillary bud. Thus each cotton stalk or vegeta-
tive branch is either right-handed or left-handed with respect to the arrange-
ment of the fertile branches, conforming to the direction of the spiral in which
the leaves are inserted.

Exterval conditions may affect the development of the branches in two prin-
cipal ways—by inducing the formation of an abnormal number of primary
branches or by leading the secondary branches to behave like primary branches.
Although axillary buds do not produce fruiting branches the extra-axillary
branches often assume the form and behavior of vegetative branches. It is the
regular habit of some types of cotton to keep the axillary buds in a dormant
condition and to form vegetative branches by vegetative transformation of
fruiting branches. After this change takes place there is no return to the
fertile form. <A branch that begins to grow without producing flower buds on
the basal internodes never produces any flower buds. Unless branches of the
fruiting type are formed no flower buds can be put forth and the plant remains
completely sterile, no matter how large and luxuriant it may be. (0. I’. C.)

156

30 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

If the plants have too strong a tendency to vegetative growth early
in the season too many of the branches take on the sterile form.
(Pl. I, fig. 2.) The plant may then fail to develop any of the lower
fruiting branches or may leave them small and stunted. (PI. I, fig.
i.) And even after a promising development of the fruiting branches
has taken place and goodly numbers of bolls have been set, they may
fail to attain a normal growth if the plant falls later on into the con-
dition of too great vegetative luxuriance. Not only is there a cessa-
tion in the formation of more bolls, but even those that are already
formed may shrivel and drop off, or may be able to form only ab-
normally short and weak lint. This direct evidence of the change
of the plant’s activity from the reproductive to the vegetative
side is very common. Sometimes all the bolls of the lower part of the
plant are inferior, and sometimes the lowest are notably better than
those farther up, which could not have been so far advanced when
the change of tendencies took place.

The unusual liability to change greatly intensifies the influence of
the external conditions in determining the fate of the individual
plants. A plant whose characters are more stable may resist all the
influences that upset its less stable neighbors, which may yield to
the disturbing influences at different stages of development, depend-
ing upon their different degrees of adjustment.

The fact that so many of the plants show normal tendencies of
growth in the early part of the season indicates that high tempera-
ture is one of the decisive factors, but it is evident that conditions of
soil and water supply are often very important in assisting or hinder-
ing the change. Rich soil and abundant water predispose the plants
to greater luxuriance, while poorer and drier soils tend to hold them
back, and thus favor greater uniformity. In the drier parts of the
fields at Yuma all the plants (even including the hybrids) appear
much more alike than where moisture is abundant. Thus it is prob-
ably an aid to acclimatization to keep the plants as far as possible
under moderate conditions, to avoid an unnecessary intensification of
the instability, and yet to allow the unstable plants to show them-
selves and be weeded out.

It might be argued that selection will be more efficient if the plants
are placed under extreme conditions, so that their powers of maintain-
ing the normal adjustments of their characters may be tested more
thoroughly. The danger is that all of the plants may be changed
beyond the range of normal behavior, and that this may increase the
difficulty of bringing even the best selections back to a condition of
practical uniformity. When the changes are too great and too gen-
eral it also becomes more difficult to tell whether some plants are more
normal than others. The plants that prove to be the most fertile in

156

DIVERSITY AND EXTERNAL CONDITIONS. al:

the first seasons, when the work of acclimatization is carried on under
extreme conditions, do not necessarily represent the best types for
agricultural purposes.

The fact that the condition of the Egyptian cotton, with reference
to fertility and acclimatization, can be determined from the way in
which the branches develop in the early part of the season shows that
this feature is of great practical importance. And after acclimatiza-
tion has been accomplished the development of the fertile branches
will be the chief issue with the farmer. Their behavior, more than
anything else, will influence the choice of methods of culture as well
as the times of planting and irrigation. It is already apparent that
the application of too much water at the wrong time may not only
diminish the crop but may actually injure the growing bolls.

Though writers on the behavior of Egyptian cotton in Egypt do
not seem to have recognized the different types of branches and their
relation to external conditions, they have not failed to report that
too much vegetative vigor has an adverse effect upon the crop.

It is noticeable that, speaking generally, the best lint from the cotton grader’s
standpoint is not produced by the largest and strongest plants, so that in popular
expression “running to wood” is objectionable. * * * The provinces of
Menoufieh and Gharbieh produce the best cotton in the country, though the
climate is less suited to mere growth of the trees than in those provinces which
lie farther south. * * * A similar result, though the operating cause is
apparently different, is obtained by the ‘** Sea Island cotton ” growers in America,
who apply salt marsh mud to their crops. This apparently acts by checking
root absorption and consequently growth.

Further indications of the methods used in Egypt to hold the vege-
tative growth in check and induce earlier fruiting have already ap-
peared in a bulletin of this Bureau.

There has been during recent years a distinct tendency toward early planting,
it being contended that during a series of years the largest yields, as well as
the best qualities, are produced by early planters.

EKarly-planted cotton grows more regularly and evenly and does not tend to
produce such coarse growth (weed) as that planted later. It also branches
better from the bottom.

It is generally accepted that as long an interval as is consistent with the
health of the plant should elapse before the first watering is given; otherwise
the plant is not encouraged to root well, but tends to grow too rapidly. Too
frequent waterings during the early growing period prevent the proper branch-
ing of the plants from the bottom. They grow too rapidly, producing their
forms at the top rather than from the bottom, and are spindling.

The basis of the mixture of chemical manures employed is superphosphate.
* * * Tt checks the tendency to coarse growth and thus encourages ripening,
while it greatly improves the quality of the fiber.

“Balls, W. Lawrence. Yearbook of the Khedivial Agricultural Society for
1906, pp. 38-39.
85597—Bul. 156—09——3

32 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

The use of fresh stable manure causes rank growth, late maturity, and an
inferior fiber.

The same difficulties have been recognized among the planters of
Sea Island cotton, and the measures of prevention used by them
have been noticed in another publication of this Bureau.

This ridge system gives better results in two classes of cases, as follows:
* * = (2) When, on account of the land being rich and well fertilized, Sea
Island cotton grows too much to weed under level culture. In such cases the
grower is compelled to adopt measures to turn the energies of the plant from
vegetative growth to fruiting. This is done by restricting the root development,
(1) by maintaining a compact subsoil, which the Sea Island planters accomplish
in their deep, sandy soils by pasturing with cattle during the year of rest;
(2) by regulating the moisture supply by the high beds; and (8) by root
pruning by deep cultivation if the cotton needs it.

It is advised that planting be begun as early as the season permits. This
varies in different years and sections from March 15 to April 10. Harly-planted
Sea Island cotton is found to make a more compact and fruitful plant, while
late cotton tends to form a larger and coarser weed.?

DIVERSITY AFFECTED BY DIFFERENCES OF LOCAL CONDITIONS.

From indications already given regarding the nature of the diver-
sity of the newly introduced varieties it is easy to understand that
they are especially susceptible to the influence of adverse conditions.
Inequalities of soil or water supply which would affect thoroughly
acclimatized varieties only to the extent of making the plants a little
larger or smaller may disturb the adjustments of other characters
in a partially acclimatized stock and bring about serious deterior-
ation.

Many striking illustrations of this were found at Sacaton, where
series of good and fertile plants would often be succeeded in the same
row by considerable numbers of others which were notably inferior
and unproductive. The definite groupings of the good and bad plants
made it evident that something in the soil or water supply must have
been the exciting cause of these differences. The inequality might
have been extremely slight and temporary, but it was evidently suf-
ficient to start the plants on different courses of development. That
the change so generally affects the quality of the lint is not surprising
if we consider the fact that the long lint of the Egyptian cotton is a
highly specialized character likely to be affected by any disturbance
of the process of development, whether by external conditions or by
other forms of variation.
4@¥Woaden, George P. Notes on Egyptian Agriculture, Bulletin 62, Bureau of
Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1904, pp. 22-24, 28.

4’Orton, W. A. “Sea Island Cotton: Its Culture, Improvement, and Dis-
eases,” Farmers’ Bulletin 302, U. S. Department of Agriculture, pp. 24 and 25.

156

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 33

That otherwise imperceptible differences of conditions in the same
fields have been able to exert such notable effects upon the cotton
plants affords additional testimony to the fact of instability. It
appears more reasonable to believe that the general shortening of the
lint at Sacaton may be largely due to the change from Yuma to
Sacaton rather than to any directly unfavorable factor in the natural
conditions at Sacaton that will prevent the production of longer lint
in future years.

A similar deterioration has been observed in Texas, even in the
standard varieties of Upland cotton, when carried to different local-
ities. Thus the Triumph cotton bred by Alexander Mebane at Lock-
hart, Tex., showed notably greater diversity and a lower average in
lint when first taken to a higher elevation at Kerrville, Tex. That
this deterioration represented the result of the change of conditions
rather than of essentially unfavorable conditions was shown by
experiments made at the same time and place with plants of the same
stock, but raised from seed of normal plants grown at Kerrville in
the previous year. The second generation plants were notably supe-
rior to those raised from the new Lockhart seed. In a series of such
experiments the differences in yields ran between 10 and 20 per cent
in favor of the second plantings of the same stocks over first plant-
ings. The improvement in the quality of the lint was even greater,

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS.

To judge of the degree of acclimatization that has been attained
as evidenced by the present extent of diversity in the Egyptian cotton
is rendered much more difficult by the presence in the fields of many
hybrids between the Egyptian cottons and various Upland varieties.
These hybrids not only afford endless gradations and combinations
of the parental characters, but the characters are often exaggerated
in the hybrids and carried beyond the extremes of the parental types.
Primitive characters not commonly represented in the parent stocks
may also be brought back to expression in the hybrids.

Instead of being intermediate in size between the large Egyptian
and smaller Upland plants the hybrid plants are usually much larger
than the Egyptian. The seeds of the hybrid may be larger than
those of either parent and they may be more fuzzy than the Upland
parent or more completely naked than those of the Egyptian. The
most important feature of all, the lint, does not obey the customary
rule of intermediate expression of parental characters. Instead of the
long Egyptian lint being shortened by combining with the short-
linted Uplands there is usually a definite increase in length and
strength, especially in the first and second generations. This supe-

156

34 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

riority of the fiber of the hybrids was readily appreciable in the
general field plantings, especially at Sacaton, but was less pro-
nounced in the specially selected stocks at Yuma.

The notable superiority of the lint of hybrids over that of pure
Egyptian plants is one of the most interesting facts established by
the present study of diversity. Together with the problem of learn-
ing how to prevent and eradicate the hybrids, we have also to con-
sider the still more interesting and important possibility of learning
whether superior hybrids can not be grown in regular commercial
quantities and utilized as a practical means of producing cotton of
very high quality.

FREQUENCY OF CROSS-FERTILIZATION.

The experiments with Egyptian cotton in Arizona confirm the

results of our Texas experiments in showing that cross-fertilization
takes place in a much larger proportion of cases than previous writers
on the subject have supposed. The large, showy, open flowers of the
cotton: plant invite the visits of insects, so that a large amount of
cross-fertilization has to be expected whenever different varieties or
types of cotton are grown in the same vicinity close enough together
for the same bees to visit the flowers of more than one kind.
« As the amount of cross-fertilization depends entirely on the num-
ber and activity of the bees or other insects that visit the flowers
different localities might be expected to differ greatly in the amount
of cross-fertilization, and even the same locality in different parts
of the season. Thus at the time of our visits to the fields at Yuma
and Sacaton there was a notable difference in the activity of the
insects at the two places. Several species of large wild bees that
were industriously visiting the flowers at Yuma in September were
not seen at all at Sacaton.

The fact that cotton flowers readily set seed from their own pollen
has led several writers to suppose that cross-fertilization takes place
only rarely, but the fact seems to be that foreign pollen is very often
brought to the stigmas by the bees before the pollen of the same flower
‘an reach them. This is particularly true of the Egyptian cotton,
where the long styles carry the stigmas well up beyond the reach of
the short stamens. In Upland varieties which have the stigmas
shorter and the stamens longer the opening of the anthers brings
the pollen against the stigmas without external assistance, but a
long-styled Egyptian flower might remain unfertilized unless visited
by insects. The pollen grains of the cotton plant are too large to float
about in the wind and also have their surfaces moist and sticky. At

156

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 35

the same time they are covered with spines which keep them from
adhering too closely to each other and yet help to hold them on the
hairs of the bees, as well as on those that cover the stigmas.

The idea that cross-pollination is not frequent has probably been
strengthened by the fact that hybrids are easily overlooked in ex-
periments where only Upland varieties are being planted. This is
because many of the hybrids have a rather close resemblance to one
or the other of the parents or are merely intermediate between them.
No such range of diversity appears as when two widely different
types of cotton are crossed. Hybrids between the two related Upland
varieties are generally much less different from the parents than the
diversities that arise in the parent varieties without hybridization.
And since the usual effect of hybridizing similar varieties of Upland
cotton is to shorten the lint, many such hybrids may be thrown out
in the process of selection without their true nature being recognized.

When Upland cotton is hybridized by an Egyptian or Sea Island
variety the lint does not deteriorate in the first generation, as com-
pared with the long-stapled parent and the hybrid character of the
plant usually becomes obvious at once by reason of its greatly in-
creased stature, which equals or exceeds that of the Egyptian
parent. The large size naturally draws attention to the many other
features of the Egyptian cotton which are predominant in hybrids
with Uplands. This predominance of the Egyptian characters, which
makes it so easy to detect Egyptian hybrids in Upland varieties, has
the opposite effect of increasing the difficulty of recognizing all the
plants of Upland parentage in a field of Egyptian cotton. In the
first generation it is still very easy to distinguish them in the great
majority of cases. In spite of the general resemblance to the Egyp-
tian parent in stature and habit of growth there are many unmis-
takable features which enable nearly all of the hybrids to be detected
without difficulty; but there are others which only those who have
made a special study of the subject can hope to recognize, and some
in which the most careful inspection has failed to detect any certain
indication of a mixed parentage even when known to exist. If only
the first generation of the hybrids had to be feared it is possible that
the purity of a variety might be safely guarded, but when hybrids
have been diluted for several generations of crossing back upon one
of the parental stocks it becomes well-nigh impossible to separate
them.

Even the most skillful selection can not eliminate hybrids from a
cotton variety unless they are taken out before they begin to blossom.
Rejection of the seed of the hybrid plants does not dispose of the
other seeds borne by other plants which have been fertilized by the

156

36 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

hybrid pollen. And even though the plants raised from these seeds
should again be rejected, the process of forming hybrids may still
continue. The foreign blood would become more attenuate, of course,
with each generation and the hybrids.would more and more resemble
the pure stock.

Many plants in the Egyptian experiments show such slight and
indefinite departures from -the Egyptian type that it is often very
difficult to settle upon the non-Egyptian characteristics of partic-
ular individuals. But when the abundance of these doubtful cases
is taken into account it becomes in itself a sufficient evidence of
the fact of hybridity, when a planting is considered as a whole. The
objection to these dilute or doubtful hybrids is not alone that they are
hkely to produce a slightly different lint, which lessens the uniform-
ity of the commercial product, but that they are likely in later gen-
erations to give rise to distinctly degenerate plants, which will show
some obvious hybrid character and a marked deterioration of lint.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF HYBRIDS.

The facts already stated regarding hybrids show that it will always
be necessary to guard against hybridization and to recognize it at
once if it occurs accidentally, in order to prevent its extension in dis-
tricts where Egyptian cotton is being grown. The farmer who grows
Egyptian cotton, as well as the specialist who studies the crop, will
need to be informed regarding hybrids. Thus it seems worth while
to place on record some of the more salient facts established by our
studies of diversity among the hybrids of the Upland and Egyptian
types of cotton, in order to show. something of the relative importance
of the different characters as evidences of hybridization.

STATURE AND METHODS OF BRANCHING OF HYBRIDS.

Many hybrid plants are conspicuous by reason of their more robust
stature. Having greater vegetative vigor than the plants of unmixed
descent they grow to larger size. Many robust plants are tall, so
that they stand out, even at a distance, but in others the large size is
attained by putting out more numerous spreading limbs.

The range in the size of hybrid plants is very wide. Small Upland-
like plants 2 to 3 feet high are found (PI. ITI, fig. 1) beside huge
overgrown plants from 5 to 10 feet high (Pl. ITI, fig. 2).

A similar wide diversity occurs in the shape of the hybrids. Up-
right, symmetrical plants of the Upland type are found, but the tall,
overgrown plants are constructed on an entirely different plan,
usually having basal limbs as long as the main axis.

156

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 37
PRIMARY BRANCHES OF HYBRIDS.

Hybrids often diverge from the pure Egyptian habits of growth
in showing a more definite tendency to develop primary (axillary)
vegetative limbs instead of forming vegetative limbs by modification
of the secondary (extra-axillary) branches that would otherwise bear
the fruit. The growth of two branches from the same node is more
frequent in the hybrids than in pure Egyptian plants.

Many Upland plants put forth the primary limbs after the fruiting
secondaries have developed. The usual habit of the Egyptian cotton
seems to be to transform the lower secondaries into vegetative limbs,
leaving the primaries entirely undeveloped, unless there has been a
severe check or injury or the plant assumes more vigorous habits
of growth after fruiting branches have already put out from the
lower joints of the stem.

STRCNG FERTILE BRANCHES OF HYBRIDS.

Upland cotton has relatively stronger and more horizontal fer-
tile branches than the Egyptian. Hybrids often show this feature
in a notable degree and then appear very different from the Egyptian
plants. (PI. III.) The latter usually have short and rather weak
branches, which become drooping or pendent if they attain any con-
siderable length. The branches of the Upland cottons and the strong-
branched hybrids are borne down, of course, when the bolls become
heavy, but this does not keep their relatively greater development
from being apparent.

The greater tendency of the Upland cotton to put forth fruiting
branches from near the base of the main stalk is often shown in the
hybrids, even when the Egyptian tendency to develop limbs becomes
predominant in the later growth of the plant and causes the lower
fruiting branches to appear small and stunted. The unmixed Egyp-
tian plants may also put forth small fertile branches at the base of
the main stalk, especially if the plants do not grow too luxuriantly
in the early part of the season. These low-fruiting branches often
remain small and stunted if the plants change their habit of growth
a little later, but some of the hybrids make this change less readily
than the Egyptian cottons and thus show a larger development of
the fruiting branches near the base of the central axis of the plant.

FOLIAGE OF HYBRID PLANTS,
The hybrid nature of many plants is made apparent by their leaves.

Frequently the leaves have a distinct reddish tint, a character of
156

38 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

Upland cottons. This color is often notably hghter than in the un-
mixed Egyptians.. The light-colored plants usually have the leaves
of rather thin texture and with broader, shorter lobes, usually borne
in a more definitely horizontal position. This is likely to be true also
of other hybrids whose leaves offer no other obvious marks of dis-
tinction except that they may have longer and more numerous hairs,
especially on the lower surface. Hybrids can not be definitely distin-
guished from pure Egyptian plants by the texture of their leaves.
The leaves may be thin and flexible, as in American Uplands, or even
more thick and rigid than in pure Egyptian. Often they are of the
texture of Egyptians.

The shape of hybrid leaves varies considerably, not only on the
different plants but on the same plant, a condition of diversity more
or less common to all cottons. The leaves on the main stalk and limbs
are larger than those on the fruiting branches. Some leaves are more
deeply cleft than others and the margins of some are crenate, which
gives them a wavy outline. In some leaves the lobes are rounded,
while in others they are acute.’

Three-lobed, five-lobed, and seven-lobed leaves occur, those on the
main stem usually having the greatest number of lobes. The bases
of the three-lobed leaves are generally oblique to the petiole and
straight, while those of the five and seven lobed leaves are either
rounded, cordate, or overlapping.

Few of the hybrids have either very hairy or entirely glabrous
leaves. Many plants have the leaves hairy on the lower surface, but
few bear leaves with hairs on their upper surface; occasionally a
plant occurs with entirely smooth leaves. On sparsely hairy leaves
the hairs are generally stellate, but on those more densely covered
the hairs are simple. Marked hairiness on leaves or other parts of
the plants is a clear indication of hybridity. It is considered in
Egypt that a reddening of the base of the leaf is an indication of
hybridization with the Hindi cotton.

Mr. H. M. Leake, of India, has investigated the leaf forms of hybrids
between varieties of Indian cotton by means of what he calls the ‘“ leaf-
factor,’ the ratio of length to width in the middle lobe. As a result of
over 10,000 measurements he decides that the average ratios for the hybrids
are intermediate between those of the parent types in the first generation.
The application of this method to the second and later generations would be
still more laborious, owing to the greater range of variation in these genera-
tions, and could have no practical value in the detection of hybrids, at least in
the series studied by us, because many of them repeat the parental peculiari-
ties or even exceed them. See Leake, H. M., Journal and Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, January, 1908, p. 14.

156

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 39
VARIED PHYLLOTAXY OF HYBRIDS.

The normal arrangement of the leaves and branches of both Egyp-
tian and Upland cottons is a three-eighths spiral. Each leaf is
separated from the leaf directly above it by eight joints of the stem.
A spiral connecting the two leaves and passing through the bases of
the intervening leaves makes three turns around the stem. Hybrids
may show any one of four different spiral arrangements. Plants
with a one-third, two-fifths, or five-thirteenths spirals should be
taken as hybrids, though many hybrid plants may have the three-
eighths arrangement as in the parent types.

This arrangement is characteristic of the main stem and of the
vegetative branches. The leaves on the fruiting branches appear to
alternate in a one-half arrangement on all plants, due to the twist-
ing of the internodes to bring all the flowers on the upper side of
the branch.

SIZE AND TEXTURE OF BRACTS IN HYBRIDS.

There is a great range in the size of the involucral bracts of hybrid
plants. They vary from small bracts, which are often red and which
approach most closely the Upland type in texture, to the large, green,
bullate bracts with the stiff, brittle texture of the Egyptian plants.
The enlarged bracts greatly exceed in size the bracts of either parent,
corresponding with the overgrown condition of the hybrid on which
they occur. Only the small hybrid plants which adhere closely to
the Upland type in other characters bear bracts of pure Upland tex-
ture. The mature bracts of most hybrids are rather stiff and brittle,
though frequently more pliable in the younger stages of growth than
young Egyptian bracts. Because of their Egyptian-like texture the
mature bracts on drying have a tendency to curl in like Egyptian
bracts, and in this condition are hardly distinguishable from the

Egyptian type.

CORDATE FORM OF BRACTS OF HYBRIDS.

Some of the most reliable characters for the ready distinction of
the hybrids are to be found in the larger size and the broader and
more cordate form of the bracts of the involucre. The bases of the
bracts are extended downward each side of the flower stalk into
broadly rounded lobes, so that the flower stalk appears to be in-
serted in a deep notch. In the Egyptian cotton the bracts have no
such conspicuous broadening at the base and seldom extend much
below the line of attachment to the flower stalk. (PI. V.)

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40 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.
LONG TEETH OF BRACTS OF HYBRIDS.

The marginal teeth of the bracts of hybrids are longer, broader,
and more numerous than in unmixed Egyptian and are often hairy, at
least along the margins. Conversely, the notches between the teeth
are narrow and sharp in the hybrids instead of being broad and
rounded as in the Egyptian cotton. Hybrids with well-developed
bracts usually have from 12 to 14 teeth, while the normal number of
teeth on the bracts of Egyptian ranges from 6 to 10. They are
usually uniformly distributed, each tooth standing by itself, though
infrequently three of them may be grouped at the apex, as in the
Egyptian parent. The veins of the bracts are also more numerous
in hybrids, to correspond with the larger number of teeth, and are
generally more prominent, especially on the outer surface, while in
the pure Egyptian plants the veins are more prominent on the inner
surface of the bracts. (Compare bracts shown in Pls. IV and V.)

Though the numbers and forms of the teeth usually afford the
best means of distinguishing hybrids they may give little assist-
ance in difficult cases that approach closely to the Egyptian type.
Sometimes the Egyptian forms and numbers of the teeth are -pre-
served, the only sign of hybridity being the greater length of the —
teeth. In rare cases hybrids may even reduce the number of teeth
below that of the Egyptian parent instead of increasing it. Thus
at Yuma a hybrid plant was found in which some of the bracts had
only 3 or 4 teeth, though others had 6 or 8, like the Egyptian parent.
And yet in several other respects this plant showed distinctly Up-
land features. Even the bracts themselves, with the reduced num-
bers of teeth, were hairy on the outside, as in the Upland cotton.

REDDENING OF BRACTS OF HYBRIDS.

The outer surfaces of the bracts of many hybrids have a dull pink-
ish or reddish color, especially those exposed to the sun.. This red-
dening often appears when the bracts are quite young. Sometimes
it deepens with age, but on other plants only the young bracts show
the reddish tinge. The tendency comes from the Upland cottons,
where it is often very pronounced, while among the Egyptian cottons
there is seldom any definite trace of it, though an occasional bract
mav appear somewhat reddish. Thus it may be said that any obvious
reddening of the bracts gives reason for suspecting hybridity, and
that any decided tendency to the red color is a fairly sure indication
and likely to be accompanied by other obvious Upland features.

ABNORMAL FORMS OF BRACTS IN HYBRIDS.
Abnormalities in the form of the bracts are not infrequent in

hybrids and are to be considered as one of the evidences of hybridity,
156

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 41

especially when many abnormal bracts occur on the same _ plant.
These abnormalities take many forms, but they all appear to represent
intermediate stages between normal leaves and normal bracts. It
often happens that the leaf at the base of the flower stalk takes on
more or less the character of a bract. The slightest and most frequent
indication of the change is seen when one of the stipules is enlarged.
Sometimes both stipules are enlarged, and one or both of them may
be joined to the reduced and shortened blade of the leaf, the petiole
being more or less completely suppressed. Finally, bracts which
are quite normal in other respects may have one or both of the lateral
divisions, which represent the stipules, separated to the base, or the
bracts may be in irregular positions or may be abnormal in number.

Involucres composed of only two bracts occur on some of the
hybrids, but are not as frequent as in the pure Egyptian stocks raised
from newly imported seed. Two-bracted involucres may or may not
be accompanied by two-locked bolls. The four-bracted involucres
which occur occasionally in Upland cottons have not been observed in
the hybrids.

Next to the lint itself, the involucre probably represents the most
highly specialized structure of the cotton plant. It is therefore not
surprising that hybrids should show these irregularities in the forms
of the bracts. Indeed, it seems rather remarkable that such irregu-
larities do not appear in a larger proportion of the hybrids, in com-
parison with the parent stock. The plants grown from the seed
obtained from Mr. Dale showed more frequent and striking examples
of abnormality in the bracts than any of the hybrid stocks.

DISTINCT CALYX LOBES OF HYBRIDS.

In many hybrids the calyx, instead of having the nearly straight,
even rim of the Egyptian parent, is definitely lobed, as in the Upland
cotton. (Pl. V.) Sometimes the lobes are even sharper than in some
of our Upland varieties. As in the Upland cotton the largest lobes
are those that bear nectaries, those that stand opposite the openings
between the bracts. A lobed calyx affords only corroborative evidence
of hybridization, since it seems always to occur in connection with
other more apparent hybrid characters, such as the broad, long-
laciniate bracts. With white, bell-shaped flowers of the Upland type
the calyx is constantly lobed, and these also have a prominent hairy
rim above the internal nectary of the calyx, as in Upland cottons.
The absence of lobes can not be accepted as evidence of pure blood,
for plants with other distinctive features of hybrids may have no
lobes on the calyx or only the very broadly rounded, scarcely ap-
preciable scallops frequent among pure Egyptian cottons.

156

42 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

A stronger development of the ring of hairs above the internal
nectary of the calyx is also to be considered as an indication of Up-
land*ancestry. This character seems to be especially prepotent in
hybrids with Kekchi cotton.

LIGHT-COLORED FLOWERS OF HYBRIDS,

Many of the hybrid flowers share the pale, creamy white color of
the Upland parent. This renders pale-flowered hybrids very con-
spicuous among yellow-flowered Egyptian plants and affords a ready
means of separation. But, unfortunately, not all of the hybrids have
the creamy flowers. In some of the hybrid plants the flowers are of
a pale yellow, while others have them as dark as any of the Egyptian
cottons.

PALE SPOTS ON THE PETALS OF HYBRIDS.

Many of the hybrids lack the dark reddish purple spot found at
the base of each of the petals of Egyptian cottons, others have faint
or broken spots, while still others have the spots as dark as in any of
the Egyptians. The variations of the spot seem to be quite independ-
ent of those of the color of the petals. Though spots are most fre-
quently absent in the light, creamy flowers, the pale flowers may also
have very dark spots, or the deep yellow flowers may have faint spots,
or none at all. If, in addition to this variability among hybrids, we
consider the fact that pale petals and faint spots sometimes appear
among the newly imported Egyptians, it becomes apparent that these
color characters alone are not to be relied upon for distinguishing
hybrids, except as they add to the evidence afforded by other features.

LARGE PETALS OF HYBRIDS.

Measurements show that the petals of hybrids are not only much
larger than those of Upland cottons, but are generally larger than
those of pure Egyptian plants. At Sacaton the petals of hybrids
ranged from 24 to 34 inches long by 1} to 2% inches broad, while those
of the pure Egyptian petals averaged distinctly smaller, ranging
from 2 to 2% inches long by 14 to 2 inches broad. At Yuma the petals
averaged smaller both in the hybrids and in the pure Egyptian flowers
and the differences between the two were less. Though the hybrid
flowers are usually larger than the Egyptian, large flowers are not
2 positive indication that the plant is a hybrid. Some hybrids have
flowers which are smaller than many of the Egyptian flowers.

CUP-SHAPED FLOWERS OF HYBRIDS,

Hybrids with pale petals also share the Upland shape of the flower.
The petals spread more widely apart near the base and give the

156

‘DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 43

flower a more open, cuplike shape, obviously different from the more
eylindrical or tubular form of the Egyptian flowers, which never
open so widely as those of the Upland cotton. This wider opening of
the pale flowers increases the resemblance to the Upland parent, while
hybrids with flowers of a deep yellow color usually have the complete
Egyptian form as well. (PI. VI.)

DARKENING OF OLD FLOWERS OF HYBRIDS.

The flowers of the Upland hybrids, though usually paler when
fresh than the Egyptian flowers, turn darker with age, first becoming
pink and then deepening into dull purple as the corolla shrivels and
dries, whereas the old flowers of the Egyptian cotton usually remain
yellow or darken only a little. This difference was very noticeable
at Yuma, where Mr. Kearney had made use of it for distinguishing
the hybrids, but at Sacaton it was found to be much less reliable, for
many apparently pure Egyptian plants were found in which the old
flowers had turned to a dull purple or were blotched and spotted with
purple to nearly the same extent as in Upland varieties and hybrids
at Yuma.

LONGER STAMENS OF HYBRIDS,

‘Many hybrids, and especially those with pale flowers, have the fila-
ments or stalks of the stamens like those of the Upland cotton, much
longer than in the pure Egyptian. (PI. V.) These longer filaments
require more room than the narrow tube of the Egyptian flower
affords. This fact may help to explain the apparent correlation
between the hight color and more open Upland shape of the flowers.
As the light flowers almost always have long stamens the more open
shape may follow as a mere mechanical necessity.

Hybrids that have long stamens like the Upland parent do not show
very plainly the regular Egyptian arrangement of the stamens in five
double longitudinal rows. Other hybrids have the numbers of the
stamens greatly reduced, and in these the rows may be very apparent.
More or less complete abortions of the stamens are rather frequent in
hybrids. The anthers may fail to develop to the full size or may
appear to be fully formed and yet fail to open. With the long fila-
ments of the Upland parent anthers of the smaller Upland type are
usually associated.

PALE POLLEN OF HYBRIDS.

Pollen grains of very irregular sizes are often found in the anthers
of hybrids, and sometimes there appears to be a distinct diversity of
color, though this is not easy to determine, because the apparent color
of the grains differs so much in different lights, even when the color

156

44 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

is really uniform. Pale-flowered plants usually have the pollen also
of a pale creamy or yellowish shade, while the pollen of yellow-flow-
ered plants often shows the deep orange of the Egyptian parent.

THICKENED STYLES OF HYBRID FLOWERS.

The style is uniformly thicker in white-flowered hybrids; nearly
as thick as in the Upland type. In some hybrids the styles are as
short as in the Upland cottons, while in others they are intermediate
in length between the Upland and the Egyptian. They are seldom as
long as in pure Egyptian. (PI. VI.)

PEA-GREEN BOLLS OF HYBRIDS.

Many hybrids can be distinguished at once by the hight pea-green
color which renders the bolls obviously different from the dark-green
bolls of the Egyptian. The lighter shade of green is largely due to
the fact that the oil glands are fewer in number or more deeply sunken
and covered with green tissue, as in Upland cotton, instead of being
exposed on the surface as in the Egyptian. (PI. V.)

Bolls that have the light color almost always show something of
the. large size and more broadly pyramidal shape of the bolls of
Upland cotton and thus appear the more distinct from the narrower
and more cylindrical bolls of the Egyptian. Nevertheless, there
appears to be a complete series of gradations in sizes, colors, and
shapes. Plants shown by other characters to be hybrids may bear
bolls which by themselves would appear genuinely and typically
Egyptian. As already noted in the discussion of the Egyptian
varieties, they show a much greater amount of diversity in boll
characters than would be expected in any well-bred Upland variety.
This adds, of course, to the difficulty of using boll characters as a
means of distinguishing hybrids, except in the cases where the lighter
color and different texture of the surface are obvious.

FIVE-LOCKED BOLLS OF HYBRIDS.

The bolls of hybrid plants are able to show the complete range of
diversity of the parent types. Many hybrids have 2 to 4 locks, like
the Egyptian parent, while others have 3 to 5 locks, like the Upland
parent. Five-locked bolls are so rare a phenomenon in Egyptian
cotton that they are always to be considered as an indication of
hybridity. Nevertheless, it has not been necessary to reckon any
plant as a hybrid because of this character alone, for it seems never
to appear in a hybrid except in connection with other obvious Upland
features. Five-locked bolls seldom appear singly ; where one is found,
several others are to be expected if the plant is at all productive.

156

eee,

fe ot a

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 45

Sometimes the number of five-locked bolls nearly equals that of the
four-locked, but such cases are not common. Plants with numerous
five-locked bolls are likely to have very few with three locks or none
at all. When there are no five-locked bolls an absence of three-locked
bolls or any notable preponderance of the four-locked bolls over the
three-locked may serve to call attention to a hybrid. There is said
to be a popular impression in Egypt that even four-locked bolls are
found only on hybrids. This may be true in districts where the
plants attain only small size,

The representation of five-locked bolls among the Egyptian hybrids
in Arizona appeared to be distinctly less than in the hybrids between
Kekchi cotton and Egyptian, which had been studied previously in
Texas. Some of the long-staple Upland varieties have very few five-
locked bolls, but there had also been opportunities of crossing with
big-bolled varieties, where five-locked bolls are usually more numerous
than in the Kekchi. It is possible that the five-locked tendency is
more effectively inherited from the Kekchi cotton or that the differ-
ence represents an influence of the external conditions, which have
been found to have definite effects upon the number of locks.

TWO-LOCKED BOLLS OF HYBRIDS.

Hybrids often exceed the pure Egyptian plants in the proportion of
two-locked bolls. At Sacaton the bolls of pure Egyptian plants were
quite consistently three-locked, the proportion of two-locked bolls
being notably less than on many plants which were obviously hybrids.
It seemed at Sacaton that any large number of two-locked bolls was
as good an indication of the hybrid nature of a plant as a similar
abundance of four-locked bolls. An average of 4.6 per cent of two-
locked bolls was found on seven pure Egyptian plants. The highest

percentage for any one plant was 12, and this plant also had the

ereatest number of two-locked bolls. Some of the hybrids are as
consistently three-locked as any of the pure Egyptian plants.

At Yuma Messrs. Kearney and Peterson had formed an impression
that the number of two-locked bolls was greater in 1908 than in pre-
vious seasons, which would accord with other indications of less
favorable conditions for the cotton. Seven of ten plants of accli-
matized Mit Afifi at Yuma were found to have two-locked bolls in
the average proportion of about 5 per cent, nearly the same as at
Sacaton. Of ten plants taken at random in a plot grown from im-
ported Mit Afifi seed nine had two-locked bolls—in the general pro-
portion of 13.4 per cent. Similarly striking reductions in the numbers
of locks of the bolls have been found to take place in Central Ameri-
can varieties when first introduced into Texas.

156

46 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.
FUZZY SEEDS OF HYBRIDS.

A majority of hybrid plants have their seeds covered with long
dense fuzz. The color of the fuzz varies from green through the
different shades of brown to white. A large proportion of the hybrids
can be distinguished by the long dense fuzz, but this is by no means
a safe guide in all cases. Very fuzzy seeds were found, as already
described, in the newly imported Egyptian cotton, and on the other
hand many hybrids have seeds more completely naked than the seeds
of the pure Egyptian. Indeed, Mr. Kearney has noted among some
of his special selections that the smooth seeds of hybrids fall into a
rather distinct class. There appear to be very few hybrids with the
same amount of fuzz that is usual in the Egyptian cotton. Those
that have less fuzz than the Egyptian usually have much less or
none at all.

A plot grown by Mr. E. W. Hudson at Sacaton, Ariz., from care-
fully selected smooth seeds contained nearly as large a proportion of
obviously hybrid plants as a row that had been planted from a selec-
tion of the fuzziest seeds. Many plants grown from the fuzzy
seeds showed no definite indications of hybridity, and the seeds of
these plants in many cases bore as little fuzz or less than those of
pure Egyptian plants. Plants were also found in other fields that
had densely fuzzy seeds, but no other hybrid characters. The full
range of diversity in seeds of hybrids is from perfectly smooth to
densely fuzzy, fully covering the range of diversity for both the
parent types and extending beyond.

Plants that appear distinctly degenerate in the strength of the
fiber or in the number of seeds in the lock often have seeds that are
completely devoid of fuzz. On the other hand, many of the very
smooth-seeded hybrids at Yuma had fiber that was excellent in
strength and in all other characters, comparing very favorably oa
the average with the lint from the fuzzy-seeded hybrids.

SIZE OF HYBRID SEEDS.

The seeds of hybrids range in size from that of Egyptian to an
accentuated size larger than that found in Upland cottons. Hybrid
seeds which come within the range of diversity for fuzziness in the
seeds of newly imported stock may exceed the imported seeds in
weight by 1 or 2 grams to the hundred. The majority of fuzzy seeds
are of the size of Upland seeds, but some are of enormous size, nearly
twice as large as those of Upland. In Kekchi x Egyptian hybrids the
seeds are very large and have green fuzz in the first generation, these
features tending to disappear in the second and third generations.*

4C@ook, O. F. “ Reappearance of a Primitive Character in Cotton Hybrids,”
Circular 18, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1908.
156

SS Sa

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 47

It seems to be a general rule that fuzzy seeds attain a larger size
than those that have less fuzz. The largest of the fuzzy seeds were
selected from six different lots and found to average larger than the
largest of the seeds that remained.

Weights of fuzzy and normal seeds.
[Stated in grams per 100 seeds. ]

Weight of | Weight of
Weight of | largest of || Weightof | largest of
selected | remaining | selected remaining
fuzzy seeds not | fuzzy seeds not
seeds. unusually || seeds. | unusually

fuzzy. | fuzzy.

|

Grams. - Grams. Grams. Grams.

17. 06 14. 46 17. 55 14,11

16.91 14.78 | 17. 67 13.93

17. 96 14.48 | 15. 93 | 15. 30

In five of the six cases there was a notable difference in favor of the
fuzzy seeds. It is perhaps worthy of note that the figures showing
the smallest inequality were derived from a plot which consisted
largely of hybrids. Here the fuzzy seeds were smaller and the non-
fuzzy larger than elsewhere.

SUPERIOR LINT OF HYBRIDS.

' One of the notable peculiarities of the hybrids lies in the fact that
the lint of the first generation hybrids is often superior to that of the
pure Egyptian plants. The proportion of first generation hybrid
plants having very long, fine, strong lint is also notably higher than
among the pure Egyptian plants. At the same time hybrids are fre-
quently to be found which are as bad or worse than the poorest of the
Egyptians, with very short, very sparse, or very weak “ perished ”

dint.

The superiority of the good hybrids is so striking as to lead all ob-
servers to raise at once the question of establishing a hybrid stock as a
substitute for the pure Egyptian. At the same time it has to be
admitted that there is nothing to warrant the hope of practical success
in this direction. The diversity among the hybrids is too great and
experiments have not yet shown that uniformity can be secured, even
by many generations of selective breeding.

Nevertheless, another possibility of utilizing hybrids in the produc-
tion of cotton of very high grade remains to be considered. E-xperi-
ments with crosses between Egyptian cottons and Central American
varieties belonging to the Upland series have shown that the lint of
first generations of hybrids is superior to that of the subsequent gen-
erations and very much more uniformly good in the individual plants.
These facts suggest that a culture based on first generation hybrids
might have better prospects of practical success than the attempt to

85597—Bul. 156—09——4

48 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

develop hybrid stocks. With a type of cotton so different from the
Egyptian as the Kekchi, it would not be difficult to produce first gen-
eration hybrids on a commercial scale. The small size of the Kekchi
plants and their broad-lobed hairy leaves would enable them to be
separated very readily from the more robust and smoother hybrid
plants, so that only hybrids need be allowed to grow to maturity.

The quality and uniformity of the crop might be still further
guarded, if necessary, by selection in the field, for the larger size and
greater fertility of the hybrid plants would make field selection very
easy and expeditious. Indeed, such field selection of lint would
involve much less difficulty than the careful selection of seed plants
required to maintain the superiority of any carefully tried variety
of cotton like the Sea Island or Egyptian.

The most serious objection to the staple furnished by the hybrids
is that it usually lacks the brownish tinge, which is one of the com-
mercial characteristics of most of the grades of Egyptian cotton that
are imported into the United States. If this feature is important
enough to make a difference in the price it may be possible to obtain
darker hybrid lint by using a brown strain of the Kekchi cotton as
the female parent of the hybrids.

Observations made by Mr. Kearney upon hybrids between the
Egyptian cotton and several varieties of the Upland series appear to
indicate that such crosses have less uniformity in the seed characters
in the first generation than has been obtained in our experiments
with the Kekchi cotton. Thus, of 280 Egyptian-Upland hybrids re-
corded at Yuma 124 had smooth seeds, while 156 had fuzzy seeds.
No such proportion of smooth seed has been noted in the Kekchi-
Egyptian hybrids, where smooth seeds are very rare in the first gen-
eration.

It has been noted already that smooth-seeded hybrids often have
weak lint, whereas fuzzy-seeded hybrids, like those formed with the
Kekchi cotton, generally have strong lint. Even when the lint be-
comes short or sparse it usually remains very strong. Fuzzy-seeded
hybrids with weak lnt were not noticed in the field at Sacaton, but
Mr. Kearney’s records show a case of this kind from Yuma. The
character of the very fuzzy seeds of the Kekchi cotton seems to be
much more strongly prepotent in hybrids with the Egyptian cotton
than the corresponding character of the Upland varieties, though the
presence of smooth seeds in some of our Upland types may help to
explain this apparent difference.

PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS FOR DISTINGUISHING HYBRIDS.
For practical purposes it 1s possible to give a list of several char-

acters which are sufficiently definite to serve as guides in eliminating
156

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 49

hybrids. Any one of these characters affords a sufficient ground for
rejecting a plant as a hybrid, but in addition to the plants which
may be recognized by these characters it will be good policy, in the
interest of maintaining a pure stock, to reject any individual that
shows a notable difference from its neighbors either in habits of
growth or in any definite detail of form or color of foliage, flowers,
bolls, seeds, or lint.

Breeders may have more difficulty than practical farmers in dis-
carding hybrids. ‘The farmer who is interested only in keeping his
stock pure can at once rogue out any unusual plant, while the breeder
will need to be very careful to avoid the danger of discarding a valu-
able sport on a mere suspicion that it may be a hybrid.

Following is a list of the most obvious and reliable characters for
distinguishing hybrids:

(1) Cordate, hairy, involucral bracts, with numerous (12 to 14) teeth.

(2) Large, cup-shaped, white flowers, with pale petal spots or no spots at all.

(3) Large pea-green bolls.

(4) Bolls with five locks or a large percentage of bolls with four locks (25 per
cent or upward).

(5) Densely fuzzy, large seeds.
(6) Hairy leaves, leaf stems, or branches.
(7) Calyx with triangular pointed lobes.

CORRELATIONS OF CHARACTERS IN HYBRIDS.

An effort was made to detect correlations of characters in the hy-
brids as a further means of deciding the question of hybridity in
doubtful cases. If in all plants known to be hybrids or definitely
recognizable as such a character were always found to be combined
with some other character, there would be less reason to believe that a
plant was a hybrid when only one of these characters appeared.
Such correlations might assist in determining whether any particular
plant represented a first generation hybrid or a later generation, for
the study of other cotton hybrids has shown that fairly definite corre-
lations may appear in the first generations which are broken up in
later generations.*

In first generation hybrids between Egyptian cotton and the
Kekchi cotton of Guatemala the seeds are almost always larger than
those of either parent and these larger seeds are always covered with
very dense bright-green fuzz. In later generations this grouping
of characters is broken up. The seeds return to normal size and the
green fuzz tends to disappear, giving place to the white fuzz of the

“That external conditions may also have a notable influence upon the expres-
sion of characters in hybrids has been shown in a previous report, “ Suppressed
and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids,’ Bulletin 147, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1909.

156

50 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

Kekchi parent or to the naked black seed of the Egyptian parent.
Whether because the Egyptian is the female parent in the present
hybrids or because the fuzzy character of the Upland cotton is less
prepotent than that of the Kekchi cotton the coordination of seed
characters appears not to be so definite.

Nevertheless, it appears to be possible to group a large proportion
of the hybrids into a few series characterized by fairly definite com-
plexes of characters. AI] that can be claimed for the present is a
probability that the different combinations of characters stand in
fairly definite relations to fertility and lint production. As a basis
for further study of the subject, brief descriptions of a few of the
principal types have been drawn.

SYNOPSIS OF PRINCIPAL TYPES OF HYBRIDS.

The following are the principal types of hybrids:

(1) Limbs stiff, erect, very upright, with short internodes; bolls small and
lint inferior.

(2) Limbs upright, somewhat spreading, with long internodes; bolls large,
3-locked, 4-locked, and sometimes 5-locked; lint abundant and usually long.

(3) Limbs spreading, main axis generally strong and erect; bracts broadly
cordate; flowers pale; bolls of Egyptian type; lint usually buff and like Egyp-
tian in quality.

(4) Plants lower and more spreading or prostrate, with long internodes;
bolls numerous, 4-locked and 5-locked; lint long; seed well linted.

(5) Plants of Upland habit of growth; bolls mostly 4-locked and 5-locked ;
seed usually large and fuzzy; lint abundant, but short.

TYPE I OF HYBRIDS.

The plants of Type I are tall and strictly upright. The basal
limbs equal or exceed the main stem in length, are stiffly erect, and
make a compact growth. The leaves are generally large, not deeply
lobed. and often wrinkled or bullate. The fruiting branches are
slender, short, and infertile, and usually bear only one or two small
bolls with only a few seeds. The lint is short and very sparse, and
covers only a small area at the upper end of the seed. The bracts are
broad, deeply cordate, with rather short but narrow laciniz. The
flowers are pale, with faint petal spots or none at all. These might
be called “ degenerate hybrids.”

TYPE Il OF HYBRIDS.

Type II is distinguished by excessive vegetative growth, long in-
ternodes, large five-lobed leaves, long ascending fruiting branches,
and broad, cordate bracts of the Upland type. The plants may be
either very productive or nearly sterile. The bolls are long and
pointed like Egyptian, but are mostly four-locked and much larger

156

ant oe

DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRIDS. 51

than Egyptian, and differ further in their pale pea-green color. The
seeds are large and well covered with rather long lint, which is
usually longer and less abundant on smooth than on fuzzy seeds. The
flowers are larger than in Egyptian, petals pale yellow, and their
basal spots faint. The filaments of the stamens are long, as in Up-
land, and the stigma is often shortened, protruding only slightly
beyond the long stamens. The calyx is shorter than Egyptian and
sharply lobed like Upland cotton.

Three forms of plants might be distinguished in this type, differ-
ing in the development of the basal branches as compared with the
main axis:

(1) The first class has short, weak, spreading, basal limbs, but a very strong,
upright, main axis. Sometimes late in the season primary limbs develop from
the main axis near the top of the plant and bear branches.

(2) The second class differs from the first only in having two or three longer,
more upright basal limbs. These first two types have strongly developed fruit-
ing branches and are very productive.

(3) The third type has several very strong limbs, as long as the main axis.
The fruiting branches are weak and bear few bolls.

TYPE IIt OF HYBRIDS.

_ Of the five types of hybrids Type III is the most like Egyptian.
The plants are Egyptian in form, having the strong, shghtly spread-
ing basal limbs as long as the main axis. The bolls are three-locked
and dark green. The lint is buff. The hybrid plant is distinguished
from the Egyptian mainly by its larger size, broad, cordate bracts,
and rather pale flowers. The bolls are enlarged and the seeds are
large and generally fuzzy. Such plants are usually infertile.

TYPE.1IV OF HYBRIDS.

Type IV includes the most productive and the most abundantly
linted plants in the hybrid series. The plants are more spreading
than the Egyptians, having a strong main axis with long, widely
spreading or prostrate basal limbs. The fruiting branches are hori-
zontal. All internodes are long. The leaves are rather large, five-
lobed, and generally hairy on the lower surface. Other distinguish-
ing features are broad, cordate bracts, faint petal spots, a predom-
inance of large, four-locked and five-locked bolls, and large seeds.
The lint is abundant and fine; smooth seeds bear a longer staple
than fuzzy seeds. Most of the plants have red stems, but a few
green-stalked plants occur. Some of the plants are more upright
or more compact than others, but apart from these slight differences
there is a very consistent agreement in characters, often extending to
minute particulars,

156

52 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.
TYPE V OF HYBRIDS.

The fifth type includes the small Upland-like plants which can be
easily detected as hybrids by their small size and hairy Upland-like
leaves. Only the main axis and the fruiting branches are developed
to any extent, the basal limbs being suppressed or remaining short
and spreading. The bolls ‘are large, four-locked and _five-locked,
light green, and with shallow gland pits. The seeds are large and
usually fuzzy, with abundant, rather short, but often fine lint. The
flowers are as ight as Upland, with either faint or dark spots, very
large anthers, cream-colored or whitish pollen, and stigmas protrud-
ing only slightly, if at all, beyond the stamens,

CONCLUSIONS.

The general practical conclusions regarding the nature and causes
of diversity have already been stated in the introduction as the best
means of indicating to the reader in advance the point of view from
which our studies were made.* The following paragraphs constitute
a somewhat more detailed summary of the facts that have been
established, with indications of their bearings upon the problems
to be solved and methods to be used in this and other similar investi-
gations.

The Egyptian and Upland cottons belong to the same general series
of American types and are capable of showing similarly wide ranges
of diversity, especially when grown under new and unwonted condi-
tions. This community of origin and parallel behavior warrants a
tentative application to the Egyptian cotton of facts and principles
learned in the study of the acclimatization of tropical American
cottons in the United States.

Studies of Egyptian varieties grown at Yuma from imported seed
show many forms of diversity that would not be expected to appear
in carefully selected varieties and would usually be ascribed to
hybridization. In the plantings of Arizona-grown Egyptian seed
this diversity appears to have increased rather than to have dimin-
ished, even after the exclusion of all individuals that can be dis-
tinguished as hybrids.

The difficulty of acclimatizing Egyptian cotton is increased by the
fact that the varieties have been distinguished thus far by lint char-
acters alone, with little or no reference to the vegetative features.
Selection for long lint has not reduced the diversity of forms, and

“The practical aspects of the experiments with Egyptian cotton in the season
of 1908 have been treated by Messrs. Kearney and Peterson in Circular No. 29
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, published April 16, 1909.

156

CONCLUSIONS. 53

the crossing of these varied forms with each other tends to prolong
the condition of diversity instead of hastening the completion of
acclimatization.

To secure prompt acclimatization, selection should have reference
to the normal behavior of the plants rather than to new characters
or to special excellence in particular characters. Acclimatization
is to be distinguished both in aims and in methods from the selective
breeding by which new and improved varieties are obtained.

Incomplete acclimatization renders the plants unusually susceptible
to differences of external conditions. Different parts of the same
field often show serious differences in the fertility of the plants, as
well as in the length, strength, and abundance of the lint. These
discrepancies appear out of proportion to the differences in the
conditions as shown by the size and vegetative vigor of the plants,
but can be understood if we remember that fertility and early bear-
ing depend upon the habits of branching which the individual plants
may adopt and that such habits are readily influenced by external
conditions.

Additional diversity is occasioned by the appearance in the Egyp-
tian fields of numerous hybrids between the Egyptian cotton and the
Upland. The presence of so many hybrids is explained by the fact
that the cotton flowers at Yuma are visited by insects which are ap-
parently more numerous and active than at any other points where
cotton experiments have been described, either in the United States or
in foreign countries. Such insects will render it practically im-
possible to maintain pure stocks of Egyptian seed if Upland cotton
is grown in the same localities.

Hybrid plants, at least in the first generation, are usually more
fertile than the pure Egyptian plants and produce longer and
stronger lint. In spite of the diversity of vegetative characters
among the hybrids their lint is commonly more uniform in length
and strength than that of the pure Egyptian plants, though dis-
tinctly different from the pure Egyptian fiber. In later generations
of hybrids degenerate plants occur, infertile and inferior in lint.

The very high grades of lint that may be obtained from first gen-
eration hybrids and their extreme vigor and productiveness warrant
the consideration of means for obtaining hybrid seed in commercial
quantities. A possibility of producing fields of hybrid plants lies
in the fact that certain of the characters of Egyptian cotton are
strongly prepotent, especially in the first generation. Thus, if the
Egyptian were crossed on the small Kekchi type of Upland cotton the
young hybrid plants could readily be distinguished from the Kekchi
plants and the latter removed in the process of thinning the seed-

156

54 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

lings. To recognize the young hybrids among Egyptian seedlings
would be much more difficult, if not actually impossible.

This possibility of utilizing hybrids should not be allowed to ob-
secure the fact that hybrids are a distinct disadvantage in fields of
Egyptian cotton because they interfere with the uniformity of the
. lint. The elimination of hybrids is rendered very difficult by the fact
that many of them show no perceptible differences in their vegetative
characters and habits of growth to distinguish them from the pure
Egyptian plants before the involucres and floral buds have de-
veloped. Nevertheless, it is necessary that the hybrids be eliminated
as soon as they begin to flower; otherwise their pollen will infect the
next generation. To reject the seed of hybrid plants does not com-
pletely purify an Egyptian stock that has once been hybridized.

The preceding considerations make it evident that Upland cotton
must either be excluded from regions when Egyptian cotton is to be
grown, or local sources of supply of pure, acclimatized Egyptian seed
must be established and very carefully guarded from contact with
Upland cotton if commercial cultures of Egyptian cotten are to be
permanently maintained in Arizona and the neighboring States.
Even if a culture based on hybrids should prove feasible it would
still be essential to maintain pure stocks of the parent types to con-
tinue the production of the hybrid seed.

The diversity in the behavior of Egyptian cotton at the different
places where it was grown this year shows that it may not suffice to
complete the process of acclimatization in any one locality if this
seed is to be planted afterwards in any other localities. It should not
be supposed that the possibilities of growing Egyptian cotton in a
new locality can be judged from a single planting. Even after
acclimatization has been completed and the industry established, it
will still be necessary to take into account the need of adjustment to
local conditions whenever the crop is to be extended to a different
district.

156

eS te a ee.

55

—.—

i

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

The illustrations used for these plates were furnished by Mr. Kearney. The photographs
were taken at Yuma, Ariz., at the end of the season (October 7-13, 1908), when the plants
were fully mature.

PuATe I. Fig. 1.—Egyptian cotton. An acclimatized plant showing the form
taken when a strong central stalk is developed. Vegetative branches rather
small; fruiting branches large. Fig. 2.—Egyptian cotton. A plant from
newly imported seed showing the form taken when there is a strong devel-
opment of the vegetative branches. Fruiting branches small and unpro-
ductive; no fruit on lower half of plant.

PuaTE II. Fig. 1.—Egyptian cotton. <A plant showing an intermediate develop-
ment of branches, the central stalk and vegetative branches both bearing
numerous fertile branches. Fig. 2.—Egyptian cotton. A large and very
fruitful plant bearing more than 300 bolls. Branches equal to main stem,
but likely to be bent or broken to the ground by the weight of the fruit.

PuatTe IIT. Fig. 1.—Egyptian-Upland cotton hybrid. A small plant with the
babit of growth of Upland cotton. Bolls pea-green in color, borne mostly
near the bottom of the plant, smaller than usual in hybrids; lint very
abundant. This plant represents the fifth type of hybrids. Fig. 2.—
Egyptian-Upland hybrid. A tall, vigorous, fertile plant, showing long
fruiting branches and greater fertility at the base of the plant; also showing
Upland features of pea-green bolls and green fuzzy seeds. This plant repre-
sents the second type of hybrids.

Piate IV. Egyptian cotton, Mit Afifi variety, grown from newly imported seed.
Bracts and bolls from several different plants to show range of difference
in shape and markings. The bracts show the typical Egyptian form with
the three middle teeth somewhat abruptly prominent. The calyx of the
boll with the bracts is split and is not to be confused with the lobes of the
calyx of the hybrid shown in the next plate. (Natural size.)

PuLate V. Mature unopened bolls of first generation hybrid of Egyptian and
Upland cottons at Yuma. The larger size, more pyramidal shape, smaller
and more shallow pits, and pea-green color afford ready distinctions. (Nat-
ural size.)

PLATE VI. Fig. 1.—Flower from an Egyptian plant and a flower from a hybrid
plant, showing a broader and more cup-shaped, shorter corolla. Fig. 2.—
Staminal columns of Egyptian flowers, with short filaments and long styles.
Fig. 3.—Staminal columns of hybrid flowers, showing the longer filaments
and shorter, thicker styles characteristic of the hybrids. (Natural size.)

156
56

ian »

Bul. 156, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |.

Fig. 1.—FERTILE PLANT OF EGYPTIAN COTTON, SHOWING STRONG CENTRAL STALK
AND LONG FRUITING BRANCHES.

FiG. 2.—PLANT OF UNPRODUCTIVE TYPE OF EGYPTIAN COTTON, SHOWING NUMEROUS
VEGETATIVE BRANCHES AND VERY SMALL FRUITING BRANCHES.

Bul. 156, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

FIG. 1.—MODERATELY PRODUCTIVE PLANT OF EGYPTIAN COTTON, WITH BOTH
VEGETATIVE AND FRUITING BRANCHES WELL DEVELOPED.

Fic. 2.—VERY PRODUCTIVE EGYPTIAN COTTON PLANT, WITH ABUNDANT FRUITING
BRANCHES.

PLATE III.

Bul. 156, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

A SMALL PLANT OF THE UPLAND TYPE.

Fic. 1.—EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HysBribD.

FIG. 2.—EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HyBrRiD. A MODERATELY LARGE AND FERTILE PLANT

7

f
ont
F
‘ -
a
oe
a
~ bs
ay
wefan,
Fa a
f 43 a
a ee
a
~ hy.
4
a*
‘
ra =
Pr
pd etn
ae = ey
war
7
7
~—
=
‘ ‘ai
ee
£
--*
4

Bu. 156, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

BOLLS AND INVOLUCRAL BRACTS OF MIT AFIFI EGYPTIAN COTTON GROWN IN ARIZONA.

(Natural size.)

Bul. 156, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE

BOLLS AND INVOLUCRAL BRACTS OF EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HysriD COTTON WITH
STRONG RESEMBLANCE TO UPLAND PARENT.

(Natural size.)

4

*

FIG. 1.—FLOWER OF EGYPTIAN COTTON AND FLOWER OF EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HYBRID.

(Natural size.)

Fic. 2.—STAMENS AND STIGMAS OF EGYPTIAN COTTON.
(Natural size.)

Fia. 3.—STAMENS AND STIGMAS OF EGYPTIAN-UPLAND HysrIDs.
(Natural size.)

INDEX

Page.
Meena hloOn = calises OD delay << <a8s.52 s- ones -4s5es eee nce se amas scenes 24
(SSG MOOS) tease cto ecise 2 Sco ao Seo See eee 30
distinguished from breeding.......----.----- see the ek er 26
mcom plete; a sourcevoh@diversityes=--...--5---25-+5---+----- 7
oii Mee Ae ae er eee ci ci Sat et 28
Mec OUS eee aee ee eee e e202. 2i—a0; 02-00

SU a Gc ee 27
rele nVOvoL [HOMO NINTSE! <0, Bo. Cb o.oo eee eee eo eee 27
eae LOCHINO MCOULON a aes Seetie ae eres ose =o eo cec sf 2 cece cielnc 28
Wa lpioy ell Coia We ae a tc.4 oo ees 3
DEmnnCIICnEGULLOn Tanenes. 2.) 20-2225 sees aces. +s c- eee eee eens 29
Babe WwW bawrenee, statements quoted _-.._.5.._-..........-...........-.. 22,31
Peeper. CREAN MCCAY. 2-25 oe occ chee coe ieee eee eee eee 14
See, 5) RR es Se a a 44
TER OWT RE COUN BRE oS ee kane Eb oot eee 11
LUT AM GOtHRON See eke cadS Saag Ge So: 2500S see eee 15
Bracts, aberrant plants.........--- Sat SHS shee eee 18
DS REA So Gee Oe ee 23
UGA, LSP eSeasebese Geo iiescc eueeee 66d ae 39
Hamas hii ae seo eeebenesok Acpesnc Renee eee 40
Di A AivI VOUNOOE - Je oR GN noo chhode pedi cectnea SS 13
DiMmMiechMoOnMahloni in canmovitch cotton -.2--2-.-22-2s.-.-----.------------ 11
IMD AMIN GOO bh eS aoe oe ee eee 13

PAM Cen mClnMrAl SIOMINCANCC =. 22 cns a. 5 2 Sess sec ees eases e sees nsec 3
ls Ge Geiss 2a Bee SA eee 23
LS ol ute oa Gees 5 ee 37
Oo STL SMS) ee 29
types a source of diversity .-......... 3 b56t25 06 eee 8
8 VSS Sea eh Ga Se ee a re 28
Brecaine Gistiuenished from acclimatization...-.:....-.-.....---.-.-..----- 26
Loo. 2 wlth 36. LS epee eee ae 41
0 AGUA 2 12
WUE Mite GOON Gotpee eset BBS peeps onoe ceeee ee 14
Central American varieties related to Upland type..............------------ 8
Characters, ancestral, recurrence through new conditions ........--.--.------ 9
Doo Gi cch eh agieGe geen Soret. 18
aM SINNER OIE (NM seer. ro hw. ctoos. cee ou weieccucies-----.------- ea 52
Doremuonn er Characters in hybrids...-.......-----.-+---+-----.----------- 21,49
Cotton, Egyptian, aberrant types............... Jo ee 18
TeLedetOrAMerCalyVanletles) G-n2 ss 266... --.----+-------- 8
Das BA yas CGH AGN G01) (1 i Oi 22
WEIS GH OIG) s.6h be epesossue Serene Hed5n 4 or 22

ol

156

58 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

Diversity affected by methodsof breeding’-+. 2. -42--s.2 2-5-2) eee eee
and ‘environment iste. = 2s. coc haces oss ae eee eee eee

local conditions’ = =-5 5-222 qc60cs beset ee eee

veretative vigor. 5.2 uc of ...o nae ence See ee ee

caused by change in rate of growth.-....----.--.----- pes Sr eh ee
conclusions revardingp...2 22 2 cee eee eee eee eee

due-toshy bridization... 8255 2ee eg ee eee eee
iIncompleteracclimatizatlon. je] ee ee eee oe eee oe eee eee

four kimdsts Soe ee epee So ee ee eee ee

greater thanwnibiey pt: - 22 Hg2 haces tee eee ee a ee

methods Of study ~sets4.. 2222.5 4540 see Se ee

new conditions not) direct CAUSC esses sae ee ee a ee

ofthy bridsteeaeseeeet =e. saan aero eee er
Jannoyitch cotton... + ..2.5.22s2ce-n2e-seeeee tee

Mit AvifiCottonisze. cc i. jcc cise ceits 22 Spee ee eae ee

recognized Heyptian varieties... 22-5222 2222520: -< Shee

successive generations of Mit Afifi cotton.....-....----..---..--

prolonged. ‘by.selection......-. 22.222 5254) 52. oe

solirceef new types....: -~-22+ -.skscdho as

Fertility a standard of acclimatization’ . ..2: «<<<: -=-2<s-cee=55> 4
Hertilization, cross. irequent im Arizona. ss sse ses = =e a
of cotton wise... 25. -.- 222-36 See

Hlowers, aberrant plants. +24. 22.22 = hae. oo) ee ee ee ee ee
hy bridge Pet ae Lia eeelnds Sone eee ee ee
Jannoviteh.cotion: 2 <. < 2.6. aoss.e ete sore ae eee
Mit:Anii cottons sxcce22 525-55 gocineaee eee eee

TOMO LET O Say OWS ee era ase ae

Foaden, George Pe sender of cotton seed. .-- = 2-25. 2+ a-- ear ane
statement quoted .....---- hhswoas 36 dee eee ee

Growth, vegetative: excessive:..-.22.. si 2. -2-222+- 22ers 2
Hairs:of Mit Atiiilicotton 525. ...222=-- 52 ee eee eee ee eee
* Heredity disturbed) by new conditions. .-2--5-2------— = 2-=-s5e-- ==
Hindi cotton; redwleaf bases)... .2.: 2 <--- si a2. eeee
hy bridstineiigy pt: <2 ./s. 2. =. 2 sages ae eee
Hudson,‘E: We, experiment: 22:2... -: 35-22-5686 5-9) eee ee
Hybrid nature of aberrant plants ..-..-...-----------------+------+---------
Hybridization a cause of diversity. -+... 2.222052 == eee ee
invimported: Kgyptian cotton==-=.--- - 92-2. ---- =

Hybrids; arrangement of leaves =... s.r ee
attenuated’ sees ss. em- sent. a wy Scoe SOS Ee Sa tee See ee

between Wipland varieties. 22.2.2. 6. 2 ee

OG ee ee es rrr SS hee Sone ousoseccs

branches aces so 5 5 doc cc aslslneseeere ee ae etn cera ees ee

Cr eS re ery Oe RSet 2 Ss

GIshiNCetlVe --<-saccseeeeee= Sys bw SS a OS eee

for distinguishing ....------ 2 tii aoe ae
culture proposed ..-. 3... 05.2. 22 dienes epee es ae a
degeneraticmecn... 2 = 52)- 22%. 22 tiee | eer pe ee ee ee ee
Gétectlomeseeenee oc os oes cece ce clone nee eee eee ee eee ee
diversity, CAUSees. -2-2 2-5-2 2c cine oe elem elles = <i ia eee
ClimiNaAtOMpeee= «<<< a: 6 ook Se cto ieee Re ree eee eee reetetenare
OWENS Seeeerae: =. os = doe eS ce lose cele eee) ie eee reee eee tiae

AAA aa

INDEX. 59

OE SCE COSMET UG\ oh e er e 48
cree ese ater ee eee amet te 2s UE stot ake tone aeons 37

Calls S151 wap) Sai ee se 43

TEATMIRD, MON Boek a See pate SA: aE ae ieee esto es a oe 36
EA Ee AE RS ee ee gt 28 Te ee 28

Meee DPMIANAN a. as wi vant jwhe se eee ht ee sey oedel ve eats 5 50-52

RTE eater alate ac ic ona 8 cS Oe SO ape gee ern KG eG Ee as Ne ai eel 35

See ROMROO. WONG <2 Syn rae these: ~ bse SMe yates. Gatto dd

2 EE Ero) em peep Ei eae up A ot pe mE oi 43

(Pec SS STE 00 aR a ee etm RS = orks re cS 44

TRO LOR ECE OLS, << (i-.t i are teeta tae ahs S10 ds Reig sew 45

urtee numbers) Of locks) (oe ase ee se foc OD ieee as d4

Insects, cross-fertilizing, abundant in Southwest...................2...-.-.. 7
EEE MICH ULES CHATACLEIG... oan cece. Se ke ar oe ees loe ne Boop
ET CSL a aa ye ee 7
mma eattion, aberrant plants .....2.4.02.62---. -...0. 0... 222--e eee 18
GULYOTSELY: 2) a> sore ean os Sol Et eee tf

lessiGhian Miibeieererees 5. cee eo lk sce 22

ueetrmer atenins: El. SelectiOng... <4. e624 seas ken kee eee 26
STALLS = eee ce 2 ee eee 45, 47, 48

mencnt ty brids casily distinguished -..../..22-2-.-.--..-.-..2-----.-----5. 48
PUR CMDR CLULLURG oer ete = 2 oo se ee 53

Ge abe OF SE ee 8 NE ee 46
IS WB ee ee er 38
ememeer ear Slatemient Quoted =. ...2-- 2... --ceneee- +. 2 es enna nee se seen 38
SU Te et at 18:
Oo OS ee ae ae A 37
Pawiioneeermbr .OOSeLVAbION ON DCS). o-- 552-5 <ccee cece o cs cease eee ces 14
Pumaren veretainye branches. ...------- <2. 2-22 -- 8202 ee cece eee eee 29, 37
ion depreciated by vegetative vigor ...............-.....-.---.-----2--205- 31
On a elapse Sars eae 19
Peeper rane (ACKINng IM UNifOrMIby. =~ 222-2 222-5.--2.--..-.--2220000- 7
TSG SULT ah ee Sel a ar Se rE. 5. = es teae 33

Sh ENC Ge oem knoe ROS EEO ee 7,47

CLS Ca 8 ge Sue ee 12

Lbs A G1 TE ae aay EE oes ee 16
ILOHes: TTD Gs Ona eee oe See Oe See ee 18
RGM e REC OLLOM 2. anaes ene on se ww 16

Seed eee DMR en 2 ee eee oe ee es 19, 20

OL SO ee OO 23

eS Gd | oe Oe ese et a 44

JRIUGN SES 2} Cobo et GE SOeennDees Sedaka: ta 6aC hese ae 45

Pep riuee sien AVEMTANL PIAMIS. ..- 9 2.. 25 222.22 esos2.-------------------- 18
[CREEL G a MCh) ae RO ie 5 13

diversity greater than Jannoyitch .....-. Bente woh nw Sina nokia 13-22

[EN Ca Oe ee 2 SE a 13

HONS Sak Dos eee, 3

OWNAGE) See Gopoeocooe so Ce! COUR cc cl SUR SE ee eee 15

RAE ean NUE COLON aa oaeetees ean aae ee ee =... eee e ann 14
Orton, William A., statement quoted....................... eo epg as oes ite 32
ranean WV ora a Ege med (UOLC one eee. 3.2. eee 45
VO tas vec My MGS ie aaicde c= cimiclesia= see aise ae cris ~ = LR aioe de 39

156

60 A STUDY OF DIVERSITY IN EGYPTIAN COTTON.

Page

Pollen, by bridsjigiqee oe as ews st ee eee 43
NOt CaPTIed Wye WHIMS acoder nwie, o Santee BU 384

sticky and \SplMyess = o.2c oo2- serieaee ode e ee ee ee 34
Pollination of cotton... ese - eo: 3) ce ee eee 34
Relationship: of varteties, = Se. ch. gsc anion eos eee eee eee 8
Reversions 4 cause Of diversity... 2 id= coccinea eee ee oe ee 9
Sacaton, Ariz., experiments: 2... 22.05 2 .edsGee eee ee 28, 46
Sea Island cotton, culture...--. gis Je se ho mest on eee em ee Ee ee ee oe,
Seed characters ef hybrids =. 2% «,22.. 222s. 2sesee 22 ae eee ee eee 49
Seeds.of hybrids: ....c2e6es- sa: 2.06 6 3-eece eeeee 46
Jannovitch cottoms--- 2-2 4. - .5-- sash sues heel 12

Mit Atti Cottoniee soc ine cee see See ee eee eee 16
Selection, danger of foo marrow’ .....3 {2c..<l2. - 4. oes see eee 10
function. In acclimatization... 2.2554 220 52 5-250) eee 25

Shade; effect on leayestinesa-n ee oon sees ee See eee 18
Stamens ‘of hybrids, longs. oo. 5. -..2.4.05. ste eon eae ee 43
Mit: Afi cotton). 2... ...20.6 (2s See oe 15
Temperature:a.cause ofinerease in diversity )-.<-2-2525-.- s2-52-Seeeeeeeee 30
Triumph.cotton, local adjustment _-. 2 .45...222-5s202-2eeee = see 33
Variation in Neyptian warieties._: 2... .s-.22-2e2 Soe ee 10
West Indies, varieties related'to Upland types_..---.--+-..-..---.5-se-=eeeee 8
Yuma, Ariz., EXCHIME Nts ase wm cle Ss aeenieee Smee eee es Pe et 11, 28

156

O

PLATE I.

Bul. 157, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(LO6L ‘2% snsny poydrasojoyq)

“SGNV7] LYSSSQ SHL 4O 1WVOldAL NOILVLADAA SAILVN SHL DSNIMOHS ‘LOSPOY¥d NOILVWV103SY NOSYVO-3SSNONY | SHL NO MIA

_—

> UEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 157.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. \

THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT
FARM.

BY

CARL S. SCOFIELD, Acricutturist In CHARGE,
AND

SHOBER J. ROGERS, Farm SurerinTENDENT,
WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.

Issurp AuGust 11, 1909.

ATION
WANN

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1909,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEvERLY T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERrY F. Woops.
Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES.

WESTERN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge.
Frank B. Headley, Scientific Assistant.
William A. Peterson, Superintendent, Yuma Experiment Farm.
Stephen H. Hastings, Superintendent, San Antonio Experiment Farm,
Shober J. Rogers, Superintendent, Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm,
157
z

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U.S. DerartMent oF AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Puant INpustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., May 7, 1909.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report entitled “ The
Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm,” by Mr. Carl S. Scofield and
Mr. Shober J.. Rogers, and to recommend that it be published as
Bulletin No. 157 of the series of this Bureau.

The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm has been established at the
request of the Reclamation Service of the Department of the Interior
and is one of the several field stations recently established on certain
of the reclamation projects in the western United States. It is the
purpose of these field stations to enable the investigators of the De-
partment to carry out experiments and investigations bearing upon
the agricultural problems of these irrigated sections, to test new
crops, and to aid the farmers in successfully meeting their new con-
ditions.

The present report deals with the agricultural situation on the
Truckee-Carson project and with the lines of work so far undertaken
on the experiment farm.

Respectfully,
B. T. GatLoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Witson,
Secretary of Agriculture.

157

4m,

CONSENS.

NE a oars OS er ere SE a ectc hel caecs aces
SESE ie. a a ee
ta a SE Ee an So a
OY SL en Stiyatotly ie chee Se A Se i ee ee
emacs and underground waters... .. .. 2-2. --------.--se05-- eee ee ee
ENGL eat EQat SACUlUes. 25> esas ein Ss oo ee
NO: Re neo Be ee
a eee ee dt eo
LG 2g a Se Se Ee
tanned leveling the land 252252 o eee Sasa + eee ee eee nee eee
GS 8 62 ne ee
PE CIEIINEUT A) IMCUGILICS .--2. -. 45454528 ooo se nes <- = see eee eee cee ne

7 Addi [areola oe oe See ee or
a SW ge A eR So se
Smee er minds; 2 Ole Clay, flats” 24 os sneec see oe so cs tae tke ee see
EE ae Ao OES Sr
IER REET ICEIINCDIIS 2 a2 52 ae eee eee ee eee eee
anace ang oneen-manure ClOpS 2-22 465 - oss sc ess ---2-- esse eee

oh SPP CC Lost soee pot ta eebes Dee Gooner

Ce) 04 cial nies ee) ae atone eons a a a
OI eR SSS Ser oer ie ene

8 eo Ea ci ode Res Se nee A

0 SL LIDS ee ee ee
ES ee oe Aa OES ee ee
ES OCS Ee a
Mirericaacomposiion or the alkali --22.5.2---..---.--2------------
veshnin @v0jo) BIC Aes oe ee Soe seo aso boe. ee

PM IDEamEROCOMIMeENGeG) oso 2424022 sneeee cH ae----------.----2-e-

Dopo ehito ORME: 5c SGceuer sete sen: SBGr oot pone Dee
eo eee
a a

167. 5

PEE Skea Tones.

PLATES.

Page.
Puiate I. View on the Truckee-Carson Reclamation Project, showing the native

vegetation typical of the desert lands 2-2-2 .2._----- 222s Frontispiece.
II. Fig. 1.—A turning and slicing harrow, followed by a corrugated
roller, in use in preparing a seed bed on the ‘‘ hard land’’ of the
Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. Tig. 2.—Surface of the “hard
land,’’ showing how the soil bakes and cracks when it dries
UNGIstuebed atten ionic atiOm==se n= ees oe ee 20

TEXT FIGURES.

Fia. 1. Map showing the location of the Truckee-Carson Reclamation Project
and! adjacentiterritory.-<<..<.222: eee s2 soee eee eee 8

2. Diagram showing the location of the fields and farm buildings on the
Truickee-Carsonwx-periment. Hanme.. 2s" eee = 18

157
ra)

B. P. I.—478.

THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

INTRODUCTION.

The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm was established in the -
autumn of 1906 by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United
States Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the United
States Reclamation Service and the Nevada Agricultural Experiment
Station. The farm is located 1 mile south of Fallon, Nev., the prin-
cipal town on the Truckee-Carson Reclamation Project.

This experiment farm is intended to serve as a place where the
agricultural problems of the Truckee-Carson Project may be worked
out under the direction of the specialists and experts of the United
States Department of Agriculture and the State experiment station
of Nevada. In so far as these experts and specialists are acquainted
with local problems and are prepared to make definite reeommenda-
tions, these recommendations are carried out on the experiment farm
as demonstrations. Every effort is made by the management of the
farm to keep in close touch with the farmers of the community, to
understand their problems, and to bring these to the attention of the
specialists best qualified to deal with them. It is also the aim to
help the farmers in every way possible by securing information for
them, by carefully testing varieties of crops, trying new crops, and
by comparing different methods of tillage and irrigation.

It is not the aim to operate this as a model farm, nor primarily as
a demonstration farm. The region is new, agriculturally, and the
body of knowledge available is too limited to warrant extensive
demonstrations which are unsupported by experiments.

In the following pages there is given a brief description of the
region from an agricultural standpoint, something of its agricultural
possibilities and limitations, and an account of the lines of work
under way on the experiment farm.

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION.

The Truckee-Carson Project lies near the western edge of a great
valley in western Nevada, a depression that was once the bed of a
lake similar to the Great Salt Lake of Utah. This lake bed has been
named by geologists the Lahontan basin. All that now remains are

a few small isolated lakes and marshes. The major portion of this

157
a

8 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

lake bed is a desert. It lies close to the eastern slope of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains, which, rising to a height of 12,000 feet or more,
eatch much of the moisture borne inland by the air currents from the
Pacific Ocean. So effectual is this mountain barrier in intercepting
these moisture-laden currents that the rainfall in the valley is little
more than 2 inches a year.

The valley floor lies at an altitude of about 4,000 feet above sea
level. The topography is somewhat rough, being broken by high
buttes and small groups ef hills, which are often skirted by shelving
terraces, while in the intervening flats there are many small sand
hills formed by the wind.

Irrigable lands GUN

SCALE
kd $ ip mies

A : “Te
+ /

RR. -
ca:
¥

Fic. 1.—Map showing the location of the Truckee-Carson Reclamation Project and adja-
cent territory.

Into this valley from the west flow two important rivers, the Carson
and the Truckee. These are fed by the rain and melting snow of
the high Sierras. The combined water of these two rivers is used to
irrigate the body of land known as the Truckee-Carson Project.

The construction work necessary to distribute this water for irriga-
tion has been done by the Federal Government under the authority
of the reclamation act, approved June 17, 1902. Of the 350,000
acres of irrigable land included in this project, some is held in private
ownership by early settlers, some is offered for sale by the Southern
Pacific Railroad Company—being a part of the land grant to that
company—some has been filed upon by new settlers under the home-
stead law as modified by the reclamation act, and some is still open for
entry. The accompanying map (fig. 1) shows the location of the

157

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION. 9

project and some of its more important topographic features, as well
as some of the cities and towns included or adjacent.

CLIMATE.

Table I, compiled from the records of the United States Weather
Bureau, shows approximately the temperature conditions that exist in
the region under discussion. It will be noted that the maximum
temperature recorded for four years is 103° F., while the minimum
is —2° F. During the winter of 1907-8 the lowest temperature
reached was 12° F.

TasLe I.—J/ean, maximum, and minimum temperatures at Fallon, Nev., for
four years, 1904-1908.¢

1904. 1906. 1907. 1908.
|
= M M M Maxi-|

say, | Maxi-| Mini- i Maxi- | Mini- ~ Maxi-| Mini- ss Maxi-| Mini-

Mean. | um. mum, | Mean. mum, | mum, |!8?-) mum. mum.|"- mum. mum.

——————s —— —
TLE AN Si Cons Co OF Cums Sey tt AONE. Cons oo Soae
SONURTY...--.- 26.9 | 56 ON Sie 60 Gilt 80:77 64}; —2| 34.8 56 12
February ....- 38. 2 65 9} 40.7 69 11 | 45.4 72 225 3816 71 16
REANOR: -035)-- 43.8 69 LB) sjnSis = a2 Sereiss| Seuss ete 42.4 70 12 42.6 78 | 15
i 49.4 83 20 | 50.5 84 18] 54.8 81 29| 52.6 89 | 18
AC} ee 58.4 85 28 | 56.6 84 31 6.3 88 29 1.6 80 | 25
Vi aoe eae 66.0 93 39 | 63.4} 90 38 | 62.0 93 85) | 622781) goa 35
SB UO /e Senne 73.7 98 48 78. 2 101 53 | 72.0 99 44 76.4 101 | 51
PAULUSC..- .. 2: | OE AES ee oe Sones 74.6 98 42 69.2 99 40) 72.2 | 108 36
September ....! 2 | 62.8 90 | 34] 60.1 95 29) ||), 61.5) 94 26
October ....-.. Heats: owe BoeSe escapees Peeereele scene loco. .|. 48u6 82 15
November .... 37.8 81 —1| 39.8 76 8 | 40.7 68 6
December..... | 30.9 | 59 —2)| 37.7 Wa 15 | 28.8 56 —2
|

«The records of temperature at Fallon for 1905 are not obtainable.

The length of the summer period between frosts is shown in Table
II. The stations to which the records apply are located in different
parts of the region (see map, fig. 1), and it will be noted that there
are some marked differences in the frost dates recorded. The varia-
tion in topography may account for some of these differences, but it
is probable that there are also errors in observation due to the inex-
perience of the observers.

TABLE II1.—Dates on which the last killing frost in spring and the first killing

frost in autumn occurred, as reported by voluntary observers at points on the
Truckee-Carson Project, 1905-1908.4

|
Year. Frost. ee Restville, thal | Fallon. | Hazen, |Fernley.
1 RAG BO ee LN teeta Sees cre eee ee ears wn n= aicbic woo rus lap aenee sina eWnmanoeia
yu: eee! Brppeec ace |Sloo-5- || Sea Resoeneee Och BSse.
POO ade cee seek su sccsncks Santas s LASh 2 css| Scsccerle soceeee a wemew sss. May 81] May 28 |...
Pirstsss.o0¢ Sept/ 4] Oct. 4] Oct. 18| Oct. 4| Oct. 18
Rn cigoe sc dadedak&sanscacsice Mast,...25: FG oy) AO. yes | May 14} Junel15| June 14
Hirst. .... Octi 29} Sept. 19 | Sept. 18 | Sept. 19 |.......... Oct. 4
LU RBA E or Bee aeons ASD eels May 15| May 9] May 16] May 30).......... May 8
First... 5- | Sept. 26 | Sept. 26 | Sept. 25 | Sept. 25 |..........| Sept. 26

@ Compiled from official reports of the U. S. Weather Bureau.

88554—Bul, 157-09 —2

10 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

The rainfall of the region is so slight as to be negligible as a factor
in supplying moisture for crops. The records available show an
annual mean precipitation of about 2.5 inches, of which the major
portion falls in the winter months.

Observations as to the atmospheric humidity are too inadequate to
be of value, but it may be said that the air is usually very dry.
During the past year observations have been made as to the quantity
of water evaporated from a free-water surface. The results are given
in Table IIT.

TABLE II1.—Quantity of water (inches in depth) evaporated from a free water
surface near Fallon, Nev., 1908.4

e : |
| May. | June. July. | August. |September.| October. | November.) December.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
7.91 | 10. 22 11.74 10. 84 5. 50 4.00 | PPP 0. 65
| |

«The figures shown in Table III were obtained at the experiment farm from a tank
installed for the purpose of measuring the evaporation. - This tank is made of galvanized
iron, 4 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep. It is embedded in the earth only a few inches.
The water in the tank is kept about 18 inches deep.

The wind is often an important factor of the climate in a desert
region, particularly where the soil can be easily blown, as is the case
on the Truckee-Carson Project. There are no accurate records of
air movement for this section, but it has been found by experience
that the winds are not of sufficient strength and frequency to justify
the use of windmills for pumping the farm water supply, although
the wells are all very shallow. Notwithstanding this fact, wind-
storms of considerable violence are likely to occur during the spring,
and they may cdo considerable damage in drifting the soil from
newly leveled or otherwise unprotected fields. On this account new
settlers on the lighter soils find it necessery to use care in removing
the brush and leveling land.

Wind-breaks of tamarisk’ and cottonwood should be started on
new farms as soon as water is available and before any large pro-
portion of the native brush cover is removed. Both of these trees
are well suited to this locality. They may be propagated by cuttings,
and grow vigorously from the first.

WATER SUPPLY.

The water supply used in irrigating this project is obtained from
the Carson and Truckee rivers, which rise on the eastern slope of the
Sierra Nevada. The water of the Carson River is directly diverted
for use on the project, and the water of the Truckee is carried through
a long canal and delivered into the Carson at a point in that river
above the dam diverting to the irrigation ditches. The Carson River

157

DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION. ya

drains the lower foothills of the mountains, and its water supply is
usually exhausted by midsummer. The Truckee, on the other hand,
takes its rise in Lake Tahoe, high in the mountains, and consequently
its discharge is more regular throughout the season. Both rivers,
however, are subject to high floods, so that a considerable quantity
of water is wasted in the spring months. Additional construction
work is contemplated to provide storage reservoirs in order to save as
much of this flood water as possible to supplement the midsummer
flow of the streams. At present the irrigable land on the project
somewhat exceeds the water supply during the late summer.

The system of water distribution on the project carries the water
to each farm unit. The farm units are usually 80 acres in size, except
near the towns, where they are 40 acres. A prospective settler select-
ing a farm unit, not already filed upon, will make homestead entry in
the usual way, paying the usual fees and commissions and one in-
stallment of the charges which are assessed to cover the cost of the
construction by which the water is furnished, and the cost of main-
taining the distributing system. The construction cost on the project
is now $30 per acre of irrigable land, which is payable in not more
than ten annual installments. In addition to the construction charge
there is an annual charge for maintenance and operation of 60 cents
per acre of irrigable land. When the usual requirements of the home-
stead law have been compled with and one-half of the irrigable area
has been reclaimed and the construction and other charges are fully
paid, the homesteader secures a patent to his land and owns also the
permanent water right which attaches to it.

DRAINAGE AND UNDERGROUND WATERS.

The main body of the irrigable land lies in the valley of the Carson
River. This stream previous to its use for irrigation purposes flowed
out into the desert, emptying partly into Carson Lake and partly
into Carson Sink, where the waters évaporated. The river’s course
was a meandering one, and its channel changed from time to time as
a result of flood modifications. In addition to the channel flow there
Was a very considerable movement of underground water through
porous strata a few feet below the surface of the ground. This
underflow has become a factor of considerable importance. In the
lower places it is often so near the surface that capillary connection
is established, and evaporation from the surface soil leaves deposits
of salt. Since the normal flow of Carson River has been supple-
mented by water from the Truckee and both are distributed over the
land for irrigation, this underflow has been somewhat increased and
the underground water table has risen slightly, causing considerable

157

12 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

anxiety among settlers on the lower land on account of possible
trouble from alkali. When the system of distribution was installed
a system of drainage ditches was also put in throughout the lower
lands. When this drainage system is perfected it will probably be
adequate to keep the water table below the point where it can cause
serious and extensive damage.

MARKETS AND RAILROAD FACILITIES.

In view of the fact that a relatively large body of land, hitherto
unused, is rapidly being made productive, the need of suitable mar-
kets for the agricultural products becomes acute, and consequently
the question of the railroad facilities of the region is an important
matter.

The Truckee-Carson Project lies immediately adjacent to the main
line of the Southern Pacific, between San Francisco and Ogden. A
short branch line of this railroad extends from Hazen, which is a
junction point on the main line, to Fallon, the principal town of
the project. From Hazen a railroad also runs south into the Gold-
field and Tonopah mining districts, and thence southeastward to
connect with the San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad.
Direct railroad communication is therefere possible, not only with the
large markets of California, but also with the large mining towns
of Nevada. These mining towns have practically no agricultural
lands immediately adjacent to them; hence, they are good. markets
for all kinds of agricultural products, and prices are high. There
are also a number of mining camps in the hills south and east of the
project to which the railroad has not yet been extended. These camps
also, having no local food supply, are good markets for products
raised on the project.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS.

The agricultural lands of the Truckee-Carson Project may be con-
veniently divided into two distinct classes. One class consists of the
lands lying close to the river and slough channels and along the bor-
der of Carson Lake. All these lands, regardless of their mechanical
texture, carry a considerable amount of organic matter and are conse-
quently very fertile and, where not too wet, are capable of immediate
crop production. The other class comprises the more truly desert
lands, which are conspicuously devoid of organic matter and which
require special treatment before they reach a condition of maximum
crop production.

Two distinct soil types are found in the desert lands. One type
is a very sandy soil which, when exposed, is easily drifted by the

157

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 13

wind. The other is known locally as “ hard land,” or “ clay flats.”
There is, of course, considerable variation in the mechanical texture
of both types. Some of the soils are nearly pure coarse sand, while
others carry a large quantity of fine material and verge on a sandy
loam. The soil of the hard lands, or clay flats, is often a mixture
of rather coarse sand and clay, containing some cementing material.
Both soil types are irregularly distributed throughout the project,
sometimes occurring in small areas side by side. But the sandy soil
is by far the more extensive in the aggregate, sometimes occupying
large areas to the exclusion of the hard lands. A soil survey of the
project is about to be started by the Bureau of Soils. When that is
completed more exact information will be available on the classifica-
tion, location, and extent of the soil types.

While the soils along the river channels and lake bed present few
obstacles to securing immediate crop production the reverse is true
of the desert soils. These latter do not respond immediately to
tillage and irrigation as desert soils are popularly supposed to do.
It is true that a part of their apparent infertility may be due to a
variety of extraneous causes; for instance, crop failures are sometimes
due to windstorms or nonadaptability of the crop tried. It is cer-
tainly true, however, that considerable care is necessary in handling
these desert soils to insure crops the first season or two. After they
have been irrigated and cultivated for a time they become very pro-
ductive.

NATIVE VEGETATION.

The soils along the river channels and around Carson Lake sup-
port a relatively luxuriant native growth, the most conspicuous
features of which are the cottonwood trees, the willows, sagebrush,
rabbit brush, wire-grass (species of the genus Carex), a number of
sedges, and some tules, chiefly cat-tail. In a few areas some clovers
(species of the genus Trifolium) and one or two species of vetch
occur. There are considerable areas occupied almost exclusively by
tall grasses, chiefly Elymus.

The vegetation of the desert is much less abundant, both in amount
of growth and in species represented, than that of the river-bottom
land. No trees occur on the desert soils. The chief elements of the
vegetation are greasewood (Sarcobatus), sagebrush (Artemisia), and
rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus). There is also a considerable variety
of small annuals which spring up and flourish after the rains, among
them the so-called desert verbena (Abronia), one or two species of
Astragalus, and a few grasses. (See PI. I.)

157

14 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.
EARLY SETTLEMENT.

The first agricultural development of this region began about the
middle of the last century, when there was some use of the Carson
River water on the land immediately adjacent to it. This agricul-
ture was limited in extent, and was mostly connected with stock
raising on the range lands in the adjacent hills. The irrigated land
was held in large bodies, and was used chiefly for the production of
hay and grain. As the Carson River usually went dry before mid-
summer, 1t was unsafe to depend upon crops requiring water late
in the season.

Upon the completion of the present irrigation project, in 1906, a
considerable extension of farming immediately took place. New
settlers came in, some of whom bought land which had previously
been under ditch and others took homesteads on the desert land. The
recent extension of mining enterprises in the adjacent hills has made
a good market for vegetables and truck crops, while the presence of
the work stock used in the valley for ditch construction and for open-
ing the new lands for farming has caused large demands to be made
for grain and forage, so that up to the present prices for agricultural
products have been good. The extension of farming to the desert
lands has brought up many problems of the utmost importance to
the new settlers, some of which may be solved by experience else-
where, but many others must be worked out locally to insure correct
solution. It is for the purpose of helping these new settlers that
the Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm has been established.

CLEARING AND LEVELING THE LAND.

One of the problems which confronts a new settler, after his land
has been selected and his buildings put up, is the clearing and level-
ing of his land. There are a number of ways in which this can be
done, depending upon the equipment available. One of the most
economical ways is first to go over the land with a railroad rail, with
a team at either end. This breaks down the brush, snapping off the
brittle stems of the desert shrubs. This brush can then be forked
into piles and burned, or hauled off the field, to be used as fuel. The
land is then plowed with a heavy breaking plow, or sometimes lev-
eled with a scraper without plowing.

There is a diversity of opinion as to the best method of preparing
land for irrigation. The most economical method on this project
is to throw up borders which conform somewhat to the natural
topography, forming checks of various shapes which can be flooded
from the ditch which is carried along the high contour line. Some
of the land is so nearly level that regular checks can be made by

157

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. 15

throwing up borders and smoothing off the occasional sand _ hills
which occur. In view of the danger from wind action mentioned, it
is very important to leave uncleared any land which is not to be
immediately leveled and irrigated. On the sandier soils it will often
be found advisable to clear and level the land in relatively narrow
strips, leaving the brush-covered land between to break the force of
the wind until artificial wind-breaks may be provided.

The matter of wind-breaks should be given the earliest attention
by the new settler. Not only should trees and shrubs be planted
to shelter the fields, but the house and the corral should also be pro-
vided with a shelter of trees. These will furnish shade and _ pro-
tection from the wind, both of which are very necessary to comfort,
besides improving the appearance of the place. Cottonwoods, honey
locusts, black locusts, Russian olives, and tamarisks should be used
abundantly both around the farmstead and along the ditch lines.
Not only are trees valuable for wind-breaks and shade purposes, but
they will soon furnish fuel, which is now and probably will con-
tinue to be very high priced. Indeed, the fuel situation is so acute
that every effort should be made by the farmers, both individually
and as a community, to secure the planting of extensive areas to trees.
Seattered over the project there are a number of areas of relatively
little value for agricultural purposes upon which trees would grow
rapidly, and time should not be lost in getting trees started where-
ever possible.

THE FIRST CROPS.

The first crops on new land in this region are usually grain, alfalfa,
and vegetables. Alfalfa, though often a little difficult to start,
thrives well when once established and ranks as the most important
crop of the region. On land which contains any appreciable quan-
tity of organic matter there is little or no difficulty in growing alfalfa
if the land is in good tilth when the seed is sown. Alfalfa can be
sown at almost any season of the year, but does best when sown
either in April or in August. On new land, where organic matter is
deficient or absent, and particularly where there is danger from sand
storms, the best success in starting alfalfa is secured where wheat or
barley is sown as early in the spring as weather conditions will per-
mit, which is some time in March. When the grain is a few inches
high the alfalfa is sown in it with a drill. The grain serves as a
protection to the young alfalfa plants, both from the wind and the
sun, and also tends to prevent crusting of the surface soil, which is
a serious matter, particularly on the hard lands. For the best
results with alfalfa it is desirable to cut the grain for hay before
it is quite mature. This early cutting gives the alfalfa a chance to
make good growth before cold weather sets in.

157

16 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

Wheat, oats, and barley are all used for grain. Winter wheat
can be sown in the fall, and it is probable that some varieties of
winter barley may be found that will thrive well, but so far no ade-
quate tests have been made upon which to base recommendations as
to the best varieties of this or of any other cereal. Where land is
not ready for seeding in time for wheat or oats, sorghum or millet
could be grown for forage. The amber varieties of sorghum and the
German millets promise the best results.

POSSIBLE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES.

In considering the possible agricultural industries of this, as well
as of any other region, the most important factors, aside from the
natural conditions, are the present and future marketing facilities,
labor supply, and the inclinations of the people themselves. The
present indications are that some form of live-stock industry must
occupy a large place in the future agriculture of the Truckee-Carson
Project.

TRUCK CROPS.

For the present and for some little time to come truck crops of the
heavier class, such as potatoes, onions, cabbage, and the root crops,
will be important features. However, these are relatively intensive
industries, and there is hardly a sufficient market at hand or in sight
to justify the use of the major portion of the irrigated lands of this
project for such crops. It is hardly probable that these crops can be
produced to compete in the California markets with similar crops
grown in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, and certainly it is
not to be expected that under existing conditions they can be profit-
ably sold in the markets farther east.

STOCK RAISING AND DAIRYING.

Some form of stock farming, however, may be expected to provide
use for all the land now irrigable in this region, and even for a very
considerable extension. With dairying, for instance, as the major
industry of this project a number of subsidiary industries might very
well be given considerable emphasis. Butter is a concentrated and
high-priced product on which freight is a relatively small item.

With the increase of forage production on the project it would be
more profitable for farmers to feed their forage and grain to dairy
cows than to attempt to ship it out of the country. Once an abund-
ant supply of forage and grain can be provided, cooperative cream-
eries should be organized when the necessary cows are available. It is
very important, however, that this industry should grow up gradually.
Many costly mistakes can be made by rushing into the dairy business

157

POSSIBLE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. VF

too rapidly. Dairy cows must be bred on the project. They can not
be profitably purchased in sufficient numbers to warrant the establish-
ment of a large industry. Men must learn 'to cooperate in the cream-
ery business before they can hope to succeed, and, above all, good
machinery and good butter makers must be secured. Without these
it is useless to expect high prices for the product. It is also necessary
before any extensive dairy business can be built up to provide pastures
in addition to the alfalfa hay lands. For this purpose the proper
kinds of grasses must be found and proper methods learned for estab-
lishing the pastures. There is every indication that good grass pas-
tures can-be established and maintained on the project. These
pastures, supplemented by corn, barley, oats, and root crops, all of
which can be grown profitably, will furnish a food supply for dairy
stock which should be both cheap and adequate. With the dairy in-
dustry as a center a number of intensive subsidiary industries may
be developed.

FRUIT RAISING.

In addition to the truck crops already mentioned there is every
reason to believe that a considerable number of small fruits can be
produced with profit, and the meager information at hand would
‘indicate also that a number of orchard fruits, such as apples, pears,
and plums, might be profitable as side lines on many farms. It is
important to keep in mind, however, that these industries to be most
profitable must be subsidiary to the main farm operations. It is
hardly to be expected that the Truckee-Carson Project will prove ex-
ceptionally well suited to fruit or truck-crop production for some
time to come.

SUGAR BEETS.

Another industry which at present, at least, should be considered as
a subsidiary one is the production of sugar beets. Experiments indi-
cate that sugar beets of excellent quality can be grown on this project.
Sugar-beet growing, however, demands the erection of an expensive
factory, and it also requires a considerable amount of hand labor, so
that it is hardly to be hoped that sugar-beet production on an exten-
sive scale will be developed on this project in the near future.

SUBSIDIARY PRODUCTS.

There are many other lines of production, both of crops and of
live stock, that suggest themselves as being of good promise in a sub-
sidiary way. The production of early lambs and hog raising are lines
that go hand in hand with the general farming to which this region
seems best adapted. At the present time the supply of eggs and other
poultry products is far below the demand. Growers who make a

88554—Bul. 157—09 3

18 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

specialty of the fancy truck crops are also needed to supply the local
and adjacent markets. Every farmer should keep in mind that
prices of farm products are regulated by the law of supply and de-
mand. Specialization and rapid extension in the production of any
but staple products are likely soon to flood the market and result in
much wasted effort.

THE EXPERIMENT FARM.

The experiment farm is located 1 mile south of the town of Fallon.
It includes 160 acres, and its soil is typical of a large part of the
desert land of the project, both the sandy and clay lands being well
represented. None of the river-bottom or slough land of the project
is included in the
farm. The topog-
raphy is rough
and probably one-
fourth of the land
les above the level
of the supply ditch.

When work was
begun on the farm
in September, 1906,
; there were no
TRUCKEE - CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM fences or improve-

ae a ments of any kind
and the land lay
untouched in its
native desert con-
dition. Since that
time 40 acres of
land have been lev-
eled and put under
ditch. The farm
has been fenced and equipped with two small dwellings, an office
building, and a barn and machine shed. A working equipment of
farm machinery has been purchased and the necessary work animals
have been hired as needed.

The accompanying map of the farm (fig. 2) shows the fields that
were available for use during 1908 and the location of the farm
buildings. Additional land is being leveled and prepared for use
as opportunity offers. The working force of the experiment farm
consists of a superintendent and two or three laborers.

Tig. 2.—Diagram showing the location of the fields and farm
buildings on the Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm.

THE “ HARD LANDS,” oR “ CLAY FLATS.”

In view of the fact that the clay flats which occur on the farm and
elsewhere throughout the project appeared to present one of the most

157

THE HARD LANDS, OR CLAY FLATS. 19

serious difficulties likely to be met with by the new settlers, experi-
mental work was begun on 15 acres of land on the farm, which lie
on this soil type. The land was first leveled and put into checks of
one-half and one-fourth acre each, and a number of different methods
of treatment were used in preparing the seed bed and putting in the
crops. <A large variety of crops were also tried the first year, many
of which failed completely. Through these experiments much was
learned as to what to do and what not to do in handling this soil.
In its native condition this soil is almost entirely devoid of vegetation,
that which does occur being limited to the small sand knolls which
are found here and there.

Table IV gives the results of the mechanical analyses of a number
of samples of soil taken from various parts of the hard land of the
experiment farm. A number of these samples show a large percent-
age of fine gravel and coarse sand, and correspondingly small per-
centages of the finer materials. These samples represent the sand
knolls, and though the figures show a marked difference in the physi-
eal structure of the soil this difference can hardly be detected in work-
ing the soil in the field, particularly so far as initial productivity is
concerned. In fact, the lack of correlation between the results ob-
tained from the mechanical analyses and the behavior of the soil in
‘the field makes it evident that there is some cause other than mechan-
ical texture which makes this soil so difficult to handle.

TaBLE IV.—Results of the mechanical analyses of samples of soil typical of
the clay flats on the Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm.¢

-

Fine Medium Fine’ Very fine

Depth. | Hole gravel bane cto sand (0.5 sand (0.25 sand (0.1 OMe | (Out
: a (2-1 nN & to 0.25 to0.1 | to0.05 eae all fa bss
mm.). Goer). mm.,). mm.). mm.). eta) AUS

|

Inches. | No. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

0-12 1 5.3 24.4 23.7 32.4 3.9 3.2 | 6.4
0-12 2 1,2 9.5 7.3 30. 9 16.0 18.4 16.3
0-18 a 7 7.0 8.2 Sede oso) | © a7. 2 14.1
0-32 9 9 5.5 5.38 21.1 6x8. || 27k98 || saps
0-20 | 19 2.0 10.2 9.4 41.5 | 9.4 | 7.9 19.4
0-12 | 22 3.1 16.4 12.9 ET | aKiRG) a ee 2)
0-12 | 23 8 8.2 12.4 49.7 10.5 6.2 | 124
0-24 | 24 2.9 6.5 5.2 DOES Acie e 11.9 26.1 23.9
0-32 | 25 4 2.4 2.9 30.4 22.4 22.6 19.2

“ Analyses made by the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

It has been noted that the desert soils, of which the experiment
farm is typical, are generally deficient in organic matter. It is be-
heved that much of the apparent infertility and other difficulties
found on the hard lands are due to the lack of this constituent.
Analyses made of four samples of soil from different parts of the
hard land on the experiment farm showed the following percentages
of organic matter:

157

20 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

Tasre V.—Results of analyses, showing the percentages of organic matter in
samples of soil from the clay flats of the Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm.%

|
Depth of | Organie
sample. Hole. matter.

Inches. No. | Per cent.

0-12 | 0.19
0-12 | 2 31
0-32 | 9.| | 156
0-20 | 19 Sly

«These determinations of organic matter were made by Miss J. R. Pearce. The soil
samples were first digested with strong HCl to remove the carbonates, then heated to red-
ness in the presence of oxygen, and the CO, formed was collected in caustic potash and
weighed.

In order to make a comparison, it may be said that fertile soils
rarely contain less than 1 per cent of organic matter, while rich
prairie soils often contain much more. According to Hilgard,’ the
prairie soils of North Dakota contain in the first 6 inches from 15 to
26 per cent of organic matter, with a humus content ranging from 4
to 7.8 per cent. Soil samples from Dalhart, Tex., where the climate is
semiarid and the soils are regarded as deficient in organic matter,
show by the same method as that used in analyzing the Fallon soils
slightly over 1 per cent of organic matter.

A chemical analysis, after acid digestion made upon seven samples
of soil from a typical tract of hard land near the experiment farm,
shows the following results, the figures being the average of those
‘obtained from the seven analyses which were made by the Bureau
of Soils: Phosphoric acid (P,O,), 0.17 per cent; lime (CaO), 1.71
per cent; magnesia (MgO), 1.40 per cent; potash (K,O), 0.82 per
cent.

The prompt subjugation of this hard land, where no troubles with
alkali are involved, will require the use of some farm implements not
usually found on western farms. The aim should be to get a good
mellow seed bed established without turning up the raw subsoil, and
particularly to keep the surface soil mellow and fine until the crops
are high enough to shade the ground. This latter aim is very impor-
tant. For preparing a fine, mellow seed bed, the disk, a turning and
slicing harrow, and the ordinary spike-toothed harrow make a very
satisfactory combination of implements. Sometimes the corrugated
roller (see Pl. IT, fig. 1) will do much better work after the turning
and slicing harrow than the smoothing harrow. For keeping the soil
surface mellow and warm after the crops are planted and until they
are high enough to shade the ground the corrugated roller and the
steel-toothed weeder do the work very well. The corrugated roller

» Soils, p. 133.

da

—————

Bul. 157, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Fic. 1.—A TURNING AND SLICING HARROW, FOLLOWED BY A CORRUGATED ROLLER, IN USE
IN PREPARING A SEED BED ON THE ‘‘'HARD LAND” OF THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERI-
MENT FARM. (PHOTOGRAPHED AuGusT 25, 1908.)

This land had been previously irrigated by flooding and a hard crust had formed, which these
implements are effectually breaking up.

Fic. 2.—SURFACE OF THE “HARD LAND,’ SHOWING HOW THE SOIL BAKES AND CRACKS
WHEN IT DRIES UNDISTURBED AFTER IRRIGATION.

Small plants are either killed or severely injured in this soil unless this baking and cracking can be
prevented by cultivation.

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THE HARD LANDS, OR CLAY FLATS. yl

seems to be absolutely essential for this work. The harrow or the
weeder alone will not do. The roller can be used without injury to
the small grains until the plants are 4 or 5 inches high. Following
the roller the weeder does very excellent work, fully repaying its
cost even on a small acreage.

It has been found that in order to get satisfactory results from this
soil it should not be stirred deeper than is absolutely necessary to
get a seed bed. Deep plowing or removing the surface soil for level-
ing purposes results in bringing to the surface soil which is very
infertile and difficult to work. If the surface soil is not buried in
the preparation of the seed bed, much better results are secured.

The hard land takes water very slowly, and during an ordinary
flooding is not penetrated to a depth of more than 6 or 8 inches. It
was found, in fact, that on some plats after an entire summer, during
which the land was irrigated at intervals of two or three weeks, there
were places where moisture had not penetrated beyond 18 inches and
where the soil was so hard that holes could be dug only with the
greatest difficulty.

In some cases the soil on these clay flats contains alkali, but this
is by no means always the case; in fact, the larger part of the trouble
with these soils seems to be due to their mechanical rather than to
their chemical composition.

The relative impenetrability of soils of this hard land is well illus-
trated by an investigation made in an alfalfa field adjacent to the
experiment farm. The field as a whole was fairly good, but it con-
tained a number of spots irregular in size and shape, where the alfalfa
plants were only from 3 to 6 inches high, while on the remainder of
the field the plants grew to a height of 30 inches or more.

The boundaries of these areas of poor growth were found to be
sharply defined. Thus, in a distance of 4 feet plants would increase
in height from 3 to 30 inches. An examination of the poor spots,
as compared with the areas where the growth was good, showed that
in the poor spots the alfalfa roots did not penetrate beyond 10
inches, while on the land where the alfalfa was good the roots pene-
trated to a depth of 3 feet or more. The roots of the small plants
were apparently unable to penetrate the hard soil beyond the depth
of 10 inches. At this point many of the taproots branched and
spread out irregularly, instead of pushing on into the subsoil as they
usually do.

A careful comparison of the soils on the good and poor spots in
this field showed that the soil of the poor spots was very slightly
finer in texture, containing a larger proportion of clay. It was
apparent, however, that the chief difficulty on these poor spots was
that the irrigation water had not penetrated beyond the depth to

157

22 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

which the roots were found to have extended, and only the upper 8
inches was found to be wet. Below this depth a layer of soil about
1 foot thick was very hard, the particles being cemented together.
Below this hard layer the soil was more open, and at a depth of
about 4 feet the underground water was reached.

An examination of this soil to determine the salt content in the
good and poor spots brought out the fact that in the good soil the
percentage of soluble material was very much lower than in the poor
soil, and particularly was this difference marked at the lower limit
of water penetration. The indications were that in the poor spots
the irrigation water had failed to penetrate the soil to join the water
table, and thus carry down the excess salt.

The best results in handling these clay flats are likely to be secured
where they are first heavily irrigated, to secure thorough penetration
of water, and afterwards given a thorough cultivation. There is
apparently nothing to be gained and much to be lost by deep plow-
ing this land, at least until the soil is thoroughly subdued. After a
thorough irrigation the soil may be worked into good tilth if the
proper implements are used, and if care is taken in getting the crop
started there should be little difficulty in securing a fairly good
stand of grain or alfalfa on the land the first year.

The aim should be to get organic matter into these soils as rapidly
as possible. Green-manure crops and coarse manure should be worked
into the soil, and the surface tilth should be kept good to aid decom-
position and humus formation. The greatest care should be used
in the irrigation and tillage of the hard lands. If possible, the crop
should be planted after an irrigation, and should be allowed to grow
enough to shade the ground before the second irrigation is given.

Unless the ground is shaded, the crust formed after an irrigation,
or even a light rain, is very hard and impervious, and seems to choke
the young plants and almost completely check their growth. (See
Pl. II, fig. 2.) In breaking this crust when the plants are young the
corrugated roller, followed by the horse weeder, does very effective
work. ‘These instruments can be used to advantage even when the
grain or alfalfa is several inches high.

In view of the obvious need of this hard land for aeration and
organic matter it would seem the best p ractice to get alfalfa started
on it as soon as possible. Once established, alfalfa does fairly well,
and after this crop the land will certainly be much improved for
other crops.

THE SANDY SOILS.

The sandy soils on the experiment farm, as elsewhere in the project,
present a very different set of problems from the hard lands. They
157

COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS. 93

respond to tillage and with a few exceptions appear to be immediately
fertile. They are generally deficient in organic matter, and can be
greatly improved by manure or a season or two in alfalfa. They are
hable to wind injury and must be kept covered by crop or stubble
after the native brush cover is removed. Their water-holding capac-
ity is low and they require frequent irrigation. Water moves through
them rapidly, and where the underground water is close to the sur-
face there is danger of the surface accumulation of alkali.

Even the sandy soil forms a thin crust after irrigation unless cul-
tivated, and the evaporation of water from the soil surface after
irrigation is very rapid unless the ground is stirred and a surface
mulch is made. This surface mulch is extremely important, not only
in checking the rise of alkali, but in keeping up the temperature of
the soil. A moist soil surface cools the soil just as a moist wrapping
cools a water jar. Many crops are extremely sensitive to low tem-
peratures in the spring, and make very slow growth while the soil
remains cold. Thorough cultivation as soon as possible after irriga-
tion practically stops evaporation from the soil surface and permits
the soil to warm up.

Farmers are inclined to do no more cultivating than is required
to keep down weeds. The necessity for weeding is slight on this new
land, and it is a serious mistake to limit cultivation to that object
alone. The land should be cultivated after each irrigation, when-
ever possible, whether there are weeds to kill or not.

COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS.

Much of the experimental work on the farm is conducted in co-
operation with, and under the direction of, various experts and
specialists in the Bureau of Plant Industry, in the Forest Service,
and in the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station.

The results of these experiments and investigations will in many
eases be published by the men in charge of the work. It will suffice
here to give a brief account of the lines of work thus far undertaken.
with such of the results as ‘are immediately and directly applicable
to local conditions.

FORAGE AND GREEN-MANURE CROPS,

In view of the apparent need of putting organic matter into the
soils of the experiment farm, almost the first efforts made in crop
production were in the direction of producing forage and green-
manure crops, including grasses. These experiments were made in
cooperation with Mr. C. V. Piper, of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

157

24 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

A considerable number of these crops were planted in the spring
of 1907 on the clay lands of series 1 and 2 (see fig. 2). Redtop, rape.
and sweet clover were the most promising of the series. None of the
crops tried was thoroughly satisfactory, and it was apparent that
on the clay lands only the three mentioned can compete with alfalfa
in vigor of growth. It now seems certain that in subduing the clay
land the best results may be expected where spring grain and alfalfa
are sown and the alfalfa is later plowed under after a good stand has
been secured.

In view of the need of pasture lands for work stock and cattle a
number of mixtures of grasses were tried in 1907, and again in 1908.
The most promising single grass so far tried is redtop. This appears
to do very well, not only on the clay lands, but it makes a vigorous
growth along the ditch banks and almost anywhere where the mois-
ture supply is adequate. Mixed with perennial rye, slender wheat-
grass, and white clover or alsike clover a very good pasture may be
established. There are indications, though no absolutely definite
information, that artificial inoculation for clover and possibly also
for alfalfa will give beneficial results.

SUGAR BEETS.°

In the spring of 1907 an acre of land was planted to nineteen va-
rieties of sugar beets. This land was typical of the clay lands, al-
though not of the heavier and most difficult type. In 1908 beets were
planted both on the clay land and on the sandy soil. Those on the
sandy soil were badly injured by sand storms early in the season and
their later growth was seriously checked. On the clay land, however,
the growth was good, although the stand was cut down by the ray-
ages of rabbits. This made it impossible to cbtain accurate informa-
tion as to the comparative yields of the varieties, though estimates
based on a plat of a quarter acre indicated a yield of about 12 tons
per acre. Samples of each variety were analyzed and the results of
these analyses are given in Tables VI and VII.

4The work with sugar beets was conducted in cooperation with Dr. C. O.
Townsend, of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
157

—

COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS.

25

TaBLE VI.—Results of analyses of sugar beets grown on the Truckee-Carson Experiment

Farm, 1907.4

Weight | . -
Variety. Source of seed. after El iis Purity.

topping. J 3

Ounces. | Per cent. | Per cent.
SePeIPIti MCI WANZICDEN. «<<< -.- <n saccade dwevinnewccesccccdesseveces 13 20. 40 82.90
MGR Ones RICIN WANZIGDON. <5 <scccoccualnacercueccecscacccecesdeccches 11 24. 60 84. 20
SeMremer: ME IEINWANZICDEM «ova. coe cacclecsoces cccnn satacccventuucneces 15 23. 40 87.00
ISQGs EPA i Washington State .......... 19 18. 70 80. 26
RPE MMLEVALG EET IN Oot 2009S scm on oe ease (oe dee cele emis ace cceicieciee cic 16 PPG 87.30
peinal” Kleinwanzleben, No. 17968...) -...-cccscess+ssccecenccecese 12 19. 80 88. 80
Peeters ESIC CIN NOLL 1009 oe cwraicic occ ouc||ecincne aiccne cacecmincacmsmcane 10 20. 80 90. 85
DMR ee eases ho faictac am sadacncnciecaes LDS yoy oC 3) vols Gee ee eee ee 16 19.00 85. 95
MeL EN: NO. LI90 2 - o sc ais cicccnsvaneleescedeet qecec cuciweec 16 19.00 89. 20
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17973 Lehi, Utah 18 22.10 87.70
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17974 Sugar City, Idaho 15 21.70 89. 30
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17975...........-.... Herning & Co., Germany... 14 22.00 88. 00
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17976 Mette & Co., Germany...... 13 19. 40 86, 22
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17977 Germany: ccooscdmecicawiceqee 14 21.00 90.13
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17978 BOnemMi se cccees ss se acnecees 15 22.70 92. 66
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17979 15 coy ll Fy o%0 bo Atee Conese ace 13 (b) (b)
Kleinwanzleben, No. 17980 Briensted, Germany........ 12 23.30 88. 87
EOTEG HELGA 1G Io la 28 5 pn] ae ee 12 22. 60 86. 69
Knaw’s Mangold, No. 18835............... bestictas ocanmindeexite ama h seca cess 13 23. 70 86. 68

« Analyses made by the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

® Juice lost.

It will be noted that of the nineteen varieties tested
20 per cent or more of sugar in the juice.

Taste VII.—Results of analyses of sugar beets grown on the

Haperiment Farm,

1908.4

thirteen have

Truckee-Carson

Weight

Sugar in

Variety. Source of seed. Soil type. after juice. | Purity.
topping. :
| Ounces. Per cent. | Per cent.
z : se if 4 35
Kleinwanzleben, No, 21839 ...| Lehi, Utah.............2.-- Hany — | 4 get Site
Kleinwanzleben Bremstedts, | Para bs Olaiyi S22 <5 21 18.7 | 90.3
No. 21840. }iarz, Germany...........-. hoe. 5 19.2| 89.8
pe enaiehen Mette, No. \Quedlingburg, Germany... {G04 cece 1? ur } oe
Zuckerreichet, No. 21842...... | Prague, Bohemia........... eae sae= 6 poral ate
Aderstedts, No. 21843.......-.- | Magdeburg, Germany ....-- ieee Sono | 1 | ang ani
1 i Braune, No. \ prendorf Gantieny igiey ica 3 | : oe 86,2
a | i ae ie a Sandy ....| 5 iff 82.5
= ie ’ y 9. =p 25
Bee ttaleben Bieine, No: \Hadmersleben, Germany... See ea Ae cf es So
P ra orada coer 8 ct je 24 | 16.6 84.6
Kleinwanzleben, No. 21846...| Fairfield, Wash............. {Sana} ; zi] 18.5 s02
: Tn 6 > CIRY cose ce 2: 9, 92. 4
Kleinwanzleben, No. 21847... ..... G22 Se ace aee Rt eee nose. {Sandy sez 6 | 20.6 93.2
“Old Type,” No. 21848 {Klein Wanzleben, Ger- {ean B interare 2 | 18.8 87.0
e » SEY Stet ca many. Sandy .... 1 20.2 89.8
eNOS enOe Lanhalt, Germany........... oe ad
ee en zlehen, No. | Naarden, Holland.......... leer “fH 2 4 Eee
ee pee eben, No, Magdeburg, Germany ...... fey Sean = he mite
) Be erick andy .... ne 21.0 90. §
3. a Kleinwanzleben, |wisenleben, Germany ...... teeny ekeay 5 | coe aoe
Jaensch, No, 21853......-..--. Ascherleben, Germany..... ee ea “ci | ee are
“Original’’ Kleinwanzleben, hee Wanzleben, Ger- |{Clay...... 24 | 20.0 89.5
No. 21854. /. many. /\Sandy ....| 11 | 20.1 | 91.3
tee Bpecialitate, No. fNordhausen, Germany..... ‘saree 5 roam a he | es
“Pioneer’’ Kleinwanzleben, bee Wanzleben, Ger- |fClay...... 24 18. 2 |} 89.2
No. 21856. many. \Sandy .... 5 20.5 87.5
Wohanka Kleinwanzleben : Gites. < 24 | 16.8 | 83.7
» | pPrapue, bohemia... .......-- ea orice
No. 21857. } ; {Sandy sael 4 20.3 91.8
Dippe’s Elite Kleinwanzleb- ||, , , [Olay :...2- 20 18.4 92.0
GC; O; Townsend .... 2... ese -
en, No. 21858. et \Sandy ....| 5 1A pee
Kleinwanzleben, Idaho, No. nate (Olay. 2.) 24 19.2 87.6
21859. |sugar City, Idado .......... \Sandy ....| 6 19.5 91.8

4 Analyses made by the Bureau of Chemistry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture,

157

26 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.
HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS.

No experiments with horticultural or fruit crops were undertaken
in 1907. In the spring of 1908 a number of varieties of orchard
fruits and small fruits were sent to the farm by Prof. P. Beveridge
Kennedy, of the Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station.

POTATOES.

The work with truck crops was begun in the spring of 1908, and in
addition to the fruits just mentioned five varieties of potatoes were
planted, the seed being furnished by Prof. L. C. Corbett, of the Bu-
reau of Plant Industry.

The varieties under trial were Rural New Yorker, Delmany Chal-
lenge, Peachblow, and two unnamed varieties, Nos. 475 and 476. The
potatoes were irrigated every ten days. Of the varieties mentioned
Delmany Challenge and Rural New Yorker yielded larger crops of
marketable potatoes than did the other varieties. Owing to the lack
of uniformity in stand and to the fact that these potatoes were not
grown under comparable conditions, no estimate can be given of the
yields per acre.

Seeds of a number of varieties of vegetables, also furnished by
Professor Kennedy, were planted, but the land used was but newly
leveled, and the many irregularities in the plats made it impossible
to judge of the relative merits of the varieties.

Wherever possible, potatoes should be planted following alfalfa,
This practice is followed in the vicinity of Greeley, Colo., where
excellent results are secured. The present indications are that pota-
toes planted on new land will not yield so well nor will the appear-
ance and quality be so good as where they are planted after alfalfa,
or even on old land after grain. In the Greeley region a five-year
rotation is used with conspicuous success, consisting of three years
of alfalfa, followed by potatoes, followed by grain with which alfalfa
is seeded.

Potatoes will probably be a most important truck crop for new
settlers. The quality of potatoes produced on the project is usually
very good, but much influenced by the treatment given. This makes
it important that each farmer give the matter of irrigation and culti-
vation careful study, since not only the yields but the quality of the
crops are very markedly influenced by this treatment.

CORN.

In 1907 a number of varieties of corn were planted on the clay
lands of series 1 and 2. A few of these varieties matured, but none
made good growth or yielded well. It is apparent that corn can not

157

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ems

bap

ee

ALFALFA EXPERIMENTS. OF

be profitably grown on this heavy soil while it is new and before
a considerable amount of organic matter has been put into it.

In 1907 seventeen varieties of corn were planted on the sandy land
of the farm, the seed being furnished by Mr. C. P. Hartley, of the
Bureau of Plant Industry. These varieties were planted May 11.
Several severe frosts occurred after this date, and the growth was
very slow during May and early June. The stand, however, was
fairly good, and after June 15 the growth was rapid. The plants
appeared healthy and vigorous. All of the varieties eared well,
and at the time of the first killing frost (September 26) all but three
or four of the latest ones had matured.

Considerable injury was inflicted on these corn varieties by black-
birds, so that comparative yields could not be secured. Had the
experimental field been larger, or had there been a considerable quan-
tity of corn in the neighborhood, this injury would have been, of
course, materially reduced. The indications are that a considerable
number of rather early maturing varieties, such as Leaming, Iowe
Silver Mine, and the earlier strains of Reid’s Yellow Dent, will give
good results. While larger yields may be obtained in some years
from the heavy-yielding, late-maturing varieties the danger of early
frosts is sufficiently great to make it desirable to use only the early-
maturing varieties at present. There is apparently nothing to be
gained by planting corn before May 15 or 20, as the early corn is
often severely checked by the cold weather in late May and early
June.

As has been suggested for potatoes, the best results with corn may
be expected where the crop follows alfalfa. In fact, such crops as
sugar beets, potatoes, and corn should invariably be planted on old
alfalfa land, and wherever possible this alfalfa land should be given
a top-dressing of manure in the winter or early spring, plowed in
April, and put into the best possible tilth before the crops are planted.

ALFALFA EXPERIMENTS.

In addition to field experiments where alfalfa is used both as a
forage crop and to improve the soil, experiments with this crop plant
are being carried on under the direction of Mr. C. J. Brand, of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, in which thirty-two strains and varieties
of alfalfa gathered from as many different sources, both in this
country and abroad, are being studied.

Three different methods of planting were used with each variety.
Plats 1 rod by 2 rods were planted in drill rows 6 to 8 inches apart.

»

Single rows of each variety were planted, the rows being 36 inches

@The field work was done under the direction of Mr. L. L. Zook, who has
contributed the report which follows,
157

28 THE TRUCKEB-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

apart to permit intertillage. Also seed of each was planted in hills
36 inches apart each way, and later thinned to one plant in each hill.

It is the aim to observe the relative behavior of these strains planted
in these different ways in order to note the reactions of each to the
different conditions presented, and from these studies to learn the
causes of the success or failure of each.

TREE PLANTINGS.

Tn the spring of 1908 about 5 acres of the sandy land of the experi-
ment farm was planted to trees in cooperation with the Forest Service.
These trees were one and two year old seedlings from a nursery in
Nebraska and included cottonwood, honey locust, black locust, wil-
low, and Russian olive. The trees were set 6 feet apart each way,
irrigated by flooding, and cultivated from time to time. Late in the
season the rabbits caused considerable damage by girdling some of
the trees. This was effectually checked by painting the trees with
white lead. The cottonwoods and honey locusts did the best in the
field planting, while the Russian olive, which was set along the ditch
banks, made very rapid growth. Tamarisk cuttings, obtained locally,
were set along some plat borders and made a growth of 6 to 8 feet
the first season.

EXPERIMENTS ON ALKALI LAND.?

Alkali occurs in various parts of the Truckee-Carson Project, espe-
cially in low places where the ground water is near the surface of the
soil and where the drainage from surrounding higher ground has
accumulated by seepage. The greater part of the alkali is found in
the heavier soils, but some of the light sandy soil is also more or less
salty.

As arule it will be possible to get rid of the alkali by drainage and
heavy flooding. This will be comparatively easy to accomplish in the
lighter soils, provided the ground water table can be kept down. In
the heavier soils, however, the physical condition of the soil is a seri-
ous obstacle to its reclamation on account of the puddling effect of
the alkali salts, making the penetration of water difficult.”

The addition of organic matter is one of the most effective means of
improving the physical condition of heavy alkali soils. This can be

«The chapter describing the alkali conditions and the experiments with crops
for alkali land has been prepared by Mr. T. H. Kearney.

> Certain types of alkali, unless present in excessive amounts, probably cause
as much damage indirectly by their effect upon the physical condition of the soil
as by their direct physiological action upon the plants. Not only do the alkali
salts, when present in heavy soils, hinder the penetration of water, but they help
to form a hard crust on the surface, which seedling plants find difficulty in
breaking through,

157

a

EXPERIMENTS ON ALKALI LAND. 29

done by disking in coarse farm manure or by growing and plowing
under a green crop, using some specially alkali-resistant species.

Under ordinary conditions the growing of resistant crop plants is
not to be recommended as a final solution of the alkali problem, but
they will often aid in preparing the way for more valuable crops.
In places where the local conditions will not permit reclamation by
drainage, or where the cost of drains is for any reason prohibitive, it
may be necessary to continue growing resistant crops. Seeding such
land, especially if the water table is near the surface, to some of the
perennial meadow and pasture grasses which will stand considerable
alkali, is probably the best solution of the problem which can be
offered at present.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ALKALI.

The alkali found on the project is a less harmful type than that
which occurs in many localities, the predominating salt being sodium
sulphate with sodium chlorid and sodium bicarbonate occurring as
secondary components. Alkali of this type is generally Jess harmful
to plant growth than that in which sodium chlorid is the principal
salt. Black alkali (sodium carbonate) occurs in places on the project,
although usually forming only a very small percentage of the total
salts. Where this salt is present in such quantity as to amount to one-
twentieth of 1 per cent of the dry weight of the soil, it becomes a
serious menace to plant growth, through its corrosive action on the
plant tissues. Sodium carbonate, more than any other salt, tends to
puddle the surface of the soil and prevent leaching under irrigation.
In places where an excess of this salt occurs, treatment with land
plaster (calcium sulphate) may be necessary in order to neutralize the
free alkali.

Where sodium carbonate is absent, or present only in small quanti-
ties, a considerable variety of crop plants can be grown with proper
management in the presence of an average of one-half of 1 per cent
of alkali in the first 3 feet of soil. The chief precautions necessary
are to wash the alkali down out of the upper few inches of the soil

@BHxperiments in the greenhouse with a considerable number of different
grasses and leguminous forage plants grown in alkali soil from Fallon and from
other localities in the West, showed the Fallon alkali to be less harmful with
the same percentage of salts to dry weight of soil and the same concentration of
soil solution than the one in which the bulk of the alkali was sodium chlorid.
Where only 0.2 per cent total salts to dry weight of soil was present, and the
percentage of soil moisture was about the optimum for plant growth in the type
of soil used, the Fallon alkali had an actually stimulating effect on the germina-
tion of grasses.
157

80 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

at the time of seeding and to prevent the soil becoming very dry at
any time during the growing season.“

RESISTANT CROP PLANTS.

As a result of the experiments in 1907 and 1908, it was found that
a number of species are decidedly more resistant to alkali than others.
One of the most resistant crop plants is the sugar beet, and some of
the cereals are also able to make a limited growth and even ripen a
small amount of seed in the presence of as much as 1 per cent of
alkali. But in both of these classes of crops the value of the product
is injured by an excessive amount of alkali. In the case of the sugar
beet, the purity coefficient is seriously impaired, even though roots of
good size are formed. The seed ripened by the cereals in strong
alkali soils is generally small and shrunken, and hence of little value.

On the other hand, with forage plants it is only necessary to get a
good development of leaf and stem to make them valuable. If this
is accomplished they may serve for pasturage and hay, and also as
green-manure crops, which can be plowed under and thus greatly im-
prove the physical texture of alkali soils. Often the improvement of
texture thus brought about by making the soil more permeable to
water insures its being easily reclaimed by washing out the excess of
salts.

Among the forage plants found to make a good growth in the
presence of large amounts of alkali, some of the grasses take the
first rank. Western wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale), tall
meadow oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius), smooth brome-grass
(Bromus inermis), tall meadow fescue (/estuca elatior), and Italian
rye-grass (Lolium italicum) were found to be especially tolerant of
alkali. With proper management a good stand of any of these
grasses can probably be secured in the presence of from one-half of
1 per cent to 1 per cent of total salts in the first 3 feet of the soil, in
case there is no considerable amount of black alkali present. Italian
rye-grass seems to be especially promising as a rapid-growing lawn
and pasture grass for alkali soil. Unfortunately, it is a short-lived
grass and will have to be reseeded every year or two.

Other grasses that are probably less resistant than the preceding,
yet should do well in the presence of nearly or quite one-half of 1
per cent of total salts, are slender wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum),
redtop (Agrostis alba), orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), and

aThe harmfulness of a given percentage of salts to dry weight of soil of
course depends largely on the amount of moisture present, which determines the
concentration of the soil solution. One-half of 1 per cent of salts may be pxrac-
tically harmless to a given species in a moist, but fatal in a dry, soil.
157

—

ee

EXPERIMENTS ON ALKALI LAND. ol

perennial rye-grass (Lolium perenne). In fact, it would appear that
most of the standard meadow and pasture grasses are more or less
alkali resistant.

The German or Hungarian millet proved to be decidedly alkali
resistant, and was found to make a practically normal growth and to
head out where there was one-half of 1 per cent of alkali in the first
foot of the soil, and 1 per cent in the second.

Considerable tolerance for alkali was shown by some of the sorgos
and milos. Dwarf milo was able to make about one-half of its nor-
mal growth and to mature small heads in the presence of very nearly
1 per cent of total salts in the first 3 feet of the soil. Amber sorgo
made a corresponding growth and headed out in places where the
alkali content of the first 3 feet of the soil amounted to one-half of
1 per cent.

The leguminous forage plants are much less resistant than the
grasses. The best results were obtained with sweet clover (J/elilotus
alba). This plant made a good growth where there was three-tenths
of 1 per cent of alkali in the first foot of soil, and 1 per cent in the sec-
ond foot, about three months after seeding. A smaller but still healthy
growth was made in the presence of seven-tenths of 1 per cent in the
first foot, 25 per cent in the second, and more than 3 per cent in the
third foot. Two-year-old plants, 4 feet high, were found to be
ripening seed where there was nearly three-tenths of 1 per cent of
alkali in the first 3 feet of the soil, with considerable black alkah
present.

Canada field peas and horse beans (Vicia faba) were found to be
fairly resistant to alkali in the young stage of growth, but neither of
these species seems to be able to siand the hot summers at Fallon.
The plants rapidly dried up after the first of July. The hairy vetch
(Vicia villosa) can endure the presence of one-half of 1 per cent
of salts in the first 3 feet of soil, but remains in a dwarfed state under
these conditions. Where the alkali does not exceed 0.2 or 0.3 per cent
this vetch will probably be found to be one of the most successful
leguminous forage plants.

Among the most alkali-resistant plants tested were Essex rape
and thousand-headed kale. A good stand and fair growth of both
these species can be secured in the presence of nearly or quite 1 per
cent of total salts in the first 2 or 3 feet of the soil.

Certain native grasses of the project, notably slender water grass
(Leptochloa fascicularis) and barnyard grass, the seeds of which
are widely distributed with the irrigation water, are able to stand
a considerable amount of alkali, and are of some value for wild-grass
hay and pasturage,

157

ays THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

CROP PLANTS RECOM MENDED.

Wherever conditions make it feasible, it is desirable to reclaim
alkali land by washing out the salts rather than to rely upon re-
sistant crop plants for its utilization. During the process of reclama-
tion, however, it is preferable to grow something on the land rather
than to leave it fallow, especially as the addition of organic matter
to such land improves its texture, and thus not only facilitates
washing out the salts, but makes the conditions more favorable for
seeding to less resistant crops after reclamation is completed. Ger-
man millet, rape, kale, and sweet clover are the most promising
green-manure crops for alkali soils. Resistant crops that can be
intertilled, and thus also aid in reclamation, are sugar beets, kafir,
milo, and the cane sorghums. If for any reason reclamation by
flooding and drainage is impracticable, it will probably be most
advantageous to seed the land to some of the perennial grasses men-
tioned, either singly or in mixture.

INDICATOR PLANTS,

In selecting land for farming in irrigated districts it is very
important to ascertain whether there is any considerable amount of
allkali present, either near the surface cr at lower depths in the soil.
In the latter case there is always danger that the application of irri-
gating water for a number of years and the consequent raising of
the water table will bring the salts to the surface.

The best indicator of the presence of alkali in the virgin land is
the character of the native growth upon it. Where such compara-
tively short-rooted species as salt-grass (Distichlis spicata), blueweed
(Teliotropium curassavicum), mintweed (lva axillaris), and salt-
wort (species of Sueeda) occur, the surface soil is usually moist and
the alkali salts are already accumulated there. It then becomes a
question of determining the.amount of salts present and the possi-
bility of getting rid of them by drainage. The presence of certain
larger, deeper rooted species, even though associated with small,
shallow-rooted plants that do not indicate the presence of alkali, is
a warning that considerable amounts of soluble salts occur at greater
depths in the soil, and the possibility must always be borne in mind
that this alkali is hkely subsequently to come to the surface, pre-
venting the growth of crops. Native plants in the latter category
are the larger saltbushes (species of Atriplex), rabbit brush (species
of Chrysothamnus), and greasewood (Sarcobatus vermicularis and
S. baileyi). The presence of greasewood is an almost certain indi-
vation that alkali occurs somewhere within reach of its roots.

157

ee

SUMMARY. 838
SUMMARY.

The Truckee-Carson Irrigation Project lies near the western edge
of the Lahontan basin, in western Nevada. The water supply is
drawn from the combined flow of the Truckee and Carson rivers.

The climate is one of moderate temperatures, low rainfall with low
atmospheric humidity, and few cloudy days.

The good railroad facilities and the mining camps in adjacent hills
provide an outlet to good markets for the agricultural products.

There are three important classes of soils on the project, the river
and lake bottom lands, which contain an abundance of organic matter
and are immediately fertile where the alkali is not injurious, the
sandy desert soil, and the clay desert soil. The desert soils are defi-
cient in organic matter. The sandy soils are easy to work, but are
likely to be blown about by the occasional windstorms. The clay
soils are at first difficult to work, but once put in good condition by
the addition of organic matter they bid fair to be very valuable.

There has been some agriculture on the project along the Carson
River for half a century. The present agricultural development,
however, dates from 1905, when the present irrigation works were
completed. :

The earlier agriculture of the project was centered around live-
stock production, and present indications are that some form of stock
farming must have a large place in the future agricultural develop-
ment. Heavy truck crops, fruits enough for local needs, and sugar
.beets are promising as subsidiary lines.

The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm, located 1 mile south of
Fallon, Nev., is operated by the United States Department of Agri-
culture in cooperation with the Nevada Agricultural Experiment
Station and the United States Reclamation Service. The farm in-
cludes 160 acres, of which about 40 acres are now under crop.

The experimental work is for the most part conducted under the
direction of experts and specialists in the Department of Agriculture
and the Nevada State station.

Experiments in subduing the clay land show that it should not be
plowed deep at first, and that special farm implements and careful
irrigation are necessary to get crops started.

The sandy soils show the need of great care in preventing the
exposure of new land to the action of wind during the spring.

Experiments with forage and green-manure crops show that red-
top, rape, and sweet clover are best adapted to the heavy soils, when
first broken.

Two years’ experiments with sugar beets show that good crops of
beets of a high sugar content may be expected.

157

34 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

Potatoes of excellent quality can be produced, and good crops of
corn are possible. Either winter or spring wheat may be grown, and
oats and barley yield well.

Alfalfa, the most important crop of the region, yields two or three
cuttings each year, besides improving the land for other crops.

The region is nearly timberless, and extensive tree plantings should
be undertaken, not only to provide wind-breaks, but also for fuel.
The cottonwood and the honey locust do well, while the tamarisk
makes quick growth along ditch banks and field borders.

Experiments with alkali land to find the plants most resistant to
alkali show that such crops as sugar beets, sorghum, and some grasses
may be grown on such land with proper care in tillage and irrigation.

157

INDEX.

Abronia. See Verbena.
Agropyron occidentale and A. tenerum. See Wheat-grass, western, and Wheat-
grass, slender.

Agrostis alba. See Redtop. Page.
mitaits, oxperiments with different varieties.............-.--+:----s-eseeeeee 27
PANG NG oe ek or Be oo 2g 2 A a es 27-28

first crop on new land, directions for planting...................---- 15
MER ben iONON i anand sland ere eee cere Noe es ec ees ee 21-22
memeuton wenn) Potatoes and STAIN. .2-22---2.2.- 222-26 bass eee nee ease 26
PARINMUeR nO Clann laid bee tule so Ses 2h st sce os eee see eee 24
mmnemerrenmicn | COMmpOsItION. .2..2-.-.-2--05--225-24-- 20-2 vee eee eee eee eee 29
land drainage, necessity of thoroughness....................---.----- 29

2 SUERTE SUE ORG a SSA og ah ee Oe ee 28

Arrhenatherum elatius. See Oat-grass, tall meadow.
Artemisia. See Sagebrush.

IIIT IOC OM RCO CG x 19h 8 Ses one ale win on ose os eee a 13

Atriplex spp. See Saltbushes. i

Barnyard grass, alkali tolerance and value for forage....................-.-- 31

SEMEN SerUGAY LONCTATICG.9 012 30cm eens eee eee eee cee eee 31

MMMM MAIL TOSIMANCO tc ne te ese ee eee ee tee 30, 32
SARC iyghase* Cece era NanVeye (2)o ea Seen Eas Eke Oe rare 24
imjury by alkai-to roomrand seed. 2 coc... ee eae ee es 30
possibilities of industry in Truckee-Carson region ..........----- hy
varieties, testing for sugar, analyses............-..-......---.--. 24-25

iveweed.-an, madication of alkalisoil.......-...-..2..:-..--+---.----------- 32

mmome-etass, smooth, alkali resistance: _........:-:--+----+--+-+---------+---< 30

Bromus inermis. See Brome-grass, smooth.

PRESCHOOL ESIrUCHIONG =. osc08 oe concen cas ee occ see aece- tee neee 14

Canada field peas. See Peas, Canada field.

Carbonate of sodium, See Sodium carbonate.

feo naver, location.and description..........-.....-..------:-....-+-- 10-11, 14

J iste, @ ROTTEN Che Le I ee en ee 13

Chlorid of sodium. See Sodium of chlorid.

Chrysothamnus. See Rabbit brush.

Clnxy, determination of organic matter in soils...............--.....-.----.-- 20
Seis, description and analyses of soils............-.......-..---.--- 13,19-23

PUM AeTM Elion Ol, CLOPSs (<5 aes ae hee ose eine wick nc ee ss i eee ee LOS

Sueemien ema tot wrieation, methods.........-<<..<cn.0-- 42-2. 2 eee eee eee ens 14
mumaie. ballon, Nev., tables for 1904—-1908..--...-.2..................-2----. 9-10
RMREIMOP tA HEd i LOleraiCG. .....-.\.- 5-24. .0 aa an nts ln nase sae eee erence 31
To REE, GCI ee AER ES A Se eae Se ane a a rr 13
Gorn, experiments with different varieties...........................--.-..-.. 26-27
a TRE Ap LET 511 aa gn 27

35

157

36 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERIMENT FARM.

Page
Cottonwood trees; occurrence". =. see. ees es See ee See ee 13
value for wind-breaks, propagation methods. ........ 10, 15, 28, 34
Crop plants, alkali-resistant, results of experiments....................--.--- 30-31
rotation, SUgseStIONS oe. fee ae. ap seks foe lees oe ee 26, 27
Crops allali=resistantneconmmendationter== ae a eee ayy
forage and green-manure, experiments and results... .........-...--...- 24
green-manure, for alkali soils, reeommendation.................-.---- 32
MECESSILY: IM TECIONS earns eee Se ee 22, 23, 29
management on hard lands”? 2.3.2 222252 -s2 se eset Jae ee 20-23
new land. directionsior planting eee see. see ee a ee 15
rotation, SUSPeStIONS! =. 2... setaes cece s woe eto ae 26, 27
truck, experiments...2 42.20.92 asec selon ae tee tee oe 26-27
possibilities of industry in Truckee-Carson region.........-....-- 16
Cuttings, propagation of cottonwood and tamarisk trees................-...-.-- 10,28
Dactylis glomerata. See Orchard grass.
Dairying, possibilities of industry in Truckee-Carson region.............---.-- 16-17
Desert, soilstypes.s. fos). Ss esse ae ae ee oe oe 12-13, 19-23
Distichlis spicata. See Salt-grass.
Hlymiis, Oecurrenc®. = 228s. = s222 2. esses s nate ge cae one 13
Kvaporation.rateat Mallon New.) L008 22— =e ee nih 10
Experiment farm, description, eae cooperative experiments, Cle .£2 2 aaa 18-32
Experiments, cooperative, with various crapss-- =)... 2...° 2.2.02 23-25
Fallon, Nev., climate, temperature, frost dates, and evaporation rate...-....-- 9-10
Fescue, tall aneadow; alkali resistamcesse.-- soe Seeeee eee see ee eee 30
Festuca elatior. See Fescue.
Frosts, killing, at points on Truckee-Carson Project, 1905-1908 ...........---- 9
Fruit, possibilities of industry in Truckee-Carson region.........------..------ 17
Fuel, need and valuerot trees. --..2 5522224 2 cee ese ae eee 15
Grain, Bowing onmew land. 32.2.2 122s 5022 sce ee ce ee ee 16
Grasses; alkali tolerancejand value forforage==s:s-- 4-55-22 eee oe eee 30, 31
mixtures for pasture, experiments: ...2-5-4.5--5 ceo... +> 24
native, onmertilevand: desentelamdsysta- ese 5 eee lis; 3ae
Greasewood, occurrencelan indication) of alkalines -- sass 5 ee = eee 13; 02
Green-manure crops. See Crops, green-manure.
“Hard lands}? crop aiamag emer cre acre cee ae ees eee ee 20-23
Heliotropium curassavicum. See Blueweed.
HMomesteads, entriesiunder reclamation projects. -s-— eee ee 11
Humus; necessity onvalkalisland.¢) 020.2. 2st ee ee ‘rae geen 28
Shard lands? 122i. .0...52 ao seed Roe See ee eee ee
Implements for “hard lands”... .. 222.252 sea fossen sia ees eee eee 20-21
Industries, ‘agricultural, possible mm region: ..02-) 252) soso 16-18
Iva axillaris. See Mintweed.
Kale, thousand-headed: allkaliresistamee ss. - esse: == ee ee 31
Tahontan basin, location and description). -....2 52-380.) 22 oe: sae eee 7-8
Land. clearing and leveling, methods: 224 - 2: 0255. 542 2225 oe 14-15
preparing for irrigation, methods.....5.22- 22.82 ee <= See eee 14-15
Lands, desert, description and analyses of soils......................... 12-18, 19-23
SOMMER ORG Ss =. - ysis vere Sisto Reeve nce es ee ere tee 12-13, 19-23
“hard.’’ See ‘‘ Clay flats.”’
Sandy; GesGuup wien oa a. clash. Bie ncn Sind erie peeete noe ee ote eee 13, 23
Lead, white, use in painting trees for protection against rabbits......-..------- 28
Leptochla fascicularis. See Water grass, slender.
157

abated

INDEX. 37

Page
Live stock, possibilities of industry in Truckee-Carson region...........-.-.-- 16-17
MocusinEnecs:. Value tor WiNd-breakS..-.-<..5- 22.2 is. seece oh Jee Seneca cs 15, 28, 34

Lolium italicum and L. perenne. See Rye-grass, Italian, and Rye-grass, peren-
nial,
Bummtemrcen, Necessity IM TesION: 22-226... 2.00) ceee ain eneee----. 2. 22,23,29

PERLE EIG ATH FOCION 2 ce ee Se Gas ois es cole Ah Rs ten iek 224 12
Melilotus alba. See Clover, sweet.
SnnneraT. .2KA11. resistance... os =a). 22 Sake owe dee ee dees 31
Reels VAT TOleTaANCG.s. a0 eee ee oe i cn ech nce ba cet ete 31
ammert an Indication of alkalisoil.°2....2.2.-.2 222.022... 2. eee eee eee 32
Mulch, surface, use and necessity in region................---.......-- 20; 21,22; 23
North Dakota, prairie soils, comparison with “hard lands’’ in Nevada.....-... 20
ueeran tall meadow, alkali resistance. ......-..5....-./..-.2.2-.-...-1.-- 30
Serve trees, Hussian, value for wind-breaks:........-............--2.-,..-... 15,28
PupmnIMemmrice nal LOLeTANCGoe. a esa ote eee eee ence ee ee eee ee 30
mpitre, eran MAIXtures, experiments..-...:......-------------+2-++---+--8a 24
muenmmnn fold, alkali toleramce----.--2.--:-...--+.-.-.----+.---.--0- a8 31
Plants, forage, alkali resistance, experiments...............-........-----+-- 30-31
MYCnea rors Olali<allicsoillistas sarees mee fc. fee. eke ke ws eee 32
nro. 10% Nardlands: 2225s. ce ot 22... ee ee ee PAL GR
Buenaretan. Am POrtanes in Tegion:= <.==.--2227-2-0--4----2--------+-+- 5 ues 26
Potatoes, experiments with different varieties.....................-.---+----- 26
rotation with alfalfa and grain. =a ere oer A ate 26
Poultry, possibilities of industry in enekee ¢ AEAOOMOCUOU Sone. Zane on ole e 17
Rabbit brush, occurrence an indication of alkali....................--.....- igi ey
Sumnnimumey to trees, Prevention... .. 2-2-2 -c seco - + ee eee tee eee enews 28
ohne S. TESDINT TGR ee ae a 2 etn a ee re ee 12
TE EWE IIE U2 a 31
Redtop, alkali tolerance................- Des nie 2c. 5 Bt) Doce Soe 30
value as pasture crop on on y coe wit joe ee 24, 33
SSSR GG UTS 1]
eermeruented, wseon- hard lands,’ ..........-......---------------- 20-21, 22
eres neaivan, wlicali Tesistanece.-...2-.22---<-- 2-2. ects se - +e eee esses 30
YEU (Ne SMG STG ot ee ie On ee ere 31
MINIT RO LCUITTCNICE 2... . 28.0 422 2.5.5) 222. doe cs.e.t-.-------- tae 13
Salt, excess, cause of poor spots in “hard lands”................-.-- Leen ed leas
PaeMaeseanieimndication olalikali soils... ++.-.2.-2-<-sce-2-----0-- 2+ see ene 32
mere ane indication of alkali soil. ..2.22.5..+-.-=.-2--2-----2----+e-5s- 32
Pennie aiemcication ofallkkaliisoilc..3. 22. .cccce cc e see eee eee eee ence 32
Sarcobatus, 8S. baileyi, and 8. vermicularis. See Greasewood.
NIE IRERE RSG ee Ree er Si Ss A are ea es cede = ee ss ome 13
DecnLOnaLe injury to land... 2.2.:..-.-.-. <2. 2s. 22. eee eee ee 29
mien mivuriols emect On land. -...2.-.. 2... 2-....-s----- +. sence 29
LETS) Ds cee OSS ee 3
Souls, clay and sandy types, description, etc.......-...-----.----------- 12-18, 19-23
ERENT aTIUNI CR oti A es wil yee cee ele +e ee eee 19-20
SMMIMIEIES RIRMLD (OlCTANCE © .0.502...-6--- <2 2-2 8k 4-------- oe eee eee 31
Sugar beets. Sce Beets, sugar.
RTM Tee koe ns Sos aac tae ep Hae se ~~ + --- oo ee es Sood
Tamarisk trees, value for wind-breaks, propagation by cuttings .......-- 10, 15, 28, 34
Memperatures, Fallon, Nev., tables, 1904—-1908.............-...-----------.55 9
Texas, soils, semiarid regions, comparison with “hard lands’’ in Nevada....-. 20

157

38 THE TRUCKEE-CARSON EXPERJMENT FARM.

Page

‘Trees; planting, experiments and resulits....2. 5-25-22 oo ee eee 28
protection against rabbits by use of white lead.......................- 28
useful for-wind=breaks:=554 eee ao ee ee 10, 15, 28, 34

Truckee-Carson Reclamation Project, location, description, water supply, etc. 7-16

region, agricultural conditions: -..s5adee aaaee eos oe eee 12-16
Truckee-Carson region, agricultural development................-.-.-------- 14
industries possible, discussion.........---- 16-18

possibilities ini dairying... 242 2.5.2.2. 16-17

growing ffults.\.-.2.2..h- sees =e eee 17

sugar beets. 5.22525. oe 17

raising live.stocks..2..2.:-... 2 ee eee 16-17

poultry.s-4 be. 17

Truckee River, source and description. -2.4.. seccesjsc -e see et iit

Vegetation, native, of fertile and desert lands.:.....:. 2.25.2. .-2:5-5e eee 1B} A

Verbena. desert; occurrences = as2c<coacnc acon cee eee 13

Vetch, haary, alkaly toleramee: -<..6..<01,-.44 dc cenceed 2Oeet Um ne ee ail
OCCURFENC Gs o5 5.352 oes ae = aie Baier we eelo ne SO 13

Vicia faba and V. villosa. See Beans, horse, and Vetch, hairy.

Water grass, slender, alkali tolerance and value for forage.................-.-- 31
Irrigation, cosito CONSUMeTS 0.502.052. 505- Ssh Stews ope 1G.
supply, TEruekee-Carson-Project...... 2..22022..525.-lais: 3-2 ee 10-11
Waters, drainage; management... ss..--c.50. 225 see oe ee 11-12
underground, management by drainage.................--------+---- 11-12
Wheat-grass, slender, alkalijtoleranceés. -..<4 2.2.2.4. .o5/208!.22> eee 30
westerns alikaltiresis tan Ce. 15-5 ee ave oes heen Peay ae 30

Willow: trees, oceunrence ss .-:,.3.2<< scene oes see ee ee ee 13

Wind-breaks; necessity, formew farms... 2.24 22<-..0--e-- oe 2 - ene ee 10, 15, 33

trees suited! to) Nevadae <5. 2.08 eass aes ee ae eee 10. 15, 28, 34
Windstorms, ‘damagerccast.a: 2. ot. 22 hs eee a ee Cee ee 10, 13
Wire=prass, \OCCURFEN COLE es oc55.24 s(t eee eee 13
157
O

6 re

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 158.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. l

THE ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO CAUSED
BY THIELAVIA BASICOLA.

BY

W. W. GILBERT,

Assistant Parno.uocist, Corron AND Truck Disrase INVESTIGATIONS.

fod

IssureD OcroBER 7, 1909.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

beO

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops.
Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONES.

CoTTON AND TRUCK DISHASH INVESTIGATIONS.

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.
W. A. Orton, Pathologist in Charge.
W. W. Gilbert and L. L. Harter, Assistant Pathologists.
Adeline Ames, Scientific Assistant.
158

a)

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U.S. DeparTMENT or AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Puantr Inpustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., June 5, 1909.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith and recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 158 of the series of this Bureau the ac-
companying paper, entitled “ The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused by
Thielavia Basicola,” by Mr. W. W. Gilbert. This paper has been
submitted with a view to publication by Mr. W. A. Orton, Pathol-
ogist in Charge of Cotton and Truck Disease Investigations.

Within the last few years this disease has become increasingly in-
jurious to tobacco, particularly in the Connecticut Valley, where
tobacco is the principal money crop. <A study of the fungus causing
the disease has been made, and the methods of seed-bed sterilization
herein described provide a means of controlling it in the seed beds.

Respectfully,
B. T. GaLitoway,

Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James WItson,

Secretary of Agriculture.
158

=

CODE Binel S:.

ASOT ae ae oe Dr ee ee ee eee
Description of root-rot............ Boas A A ROO Ss an Pete See
SREEICCAUE HIT UHC RCEM DGC a2 serps ee I ec oe cin ee ool nie Oh coc ele
NMMINEREIEE ONL) ne Sn ee Se ei hs. Se Ses Ses
CTT oS Ue SE POE pe OS ee é

2 ENE U0) fs ey ree
Seeeriprion of the fungus causing root-rot....-......---...2--.-----.see ee eee
(SOP) ETT 3 cone Aes GEER Ens Gro SGeo EoU Lotte SOE
GIES a oe ee ee ee ea
NRSERCISULLOON rie 2th de ana ed oo as Sk RR oeiseee ak
LT Ta SIE ee ee cre rey pce ce et es ee ae
RPE AOP OI 2 ojo et) ee te as 2s eines es
0 its’ SRR einer rivet oe td i rr
MEAT OI oy) 58 5 = Swe isinlietinra Sam ae eos + ae eo + Mad Saar ds
IMIR INOUE S222 oe 5S aes eet eee Seek Gon hc 4-2 see Seba
Suma Mnboms OL VayIOUS WYiters....2.2--2-.2-0.0sc- a 02-020 02- 22-4202 2425
Mermoucitation Of parasitism of Thielavia........-.....2-.------+--s---565
PEC IMPORTA) rcac = Se Ore eee eee OLS 2 oS lee eee 2
STEGER SI fe ee eS ae a
ENGIN TOOb-FOb=..02502 52512225 cae toee eee st nase ee cee eens
Discovery of Thielavia on tobacco in the United States............------
Discovery of Thielavia on other hosts than tobacco in the United States. -
meeavery Of Phiclavia on. tobacco im Hurope........-.-...--.------.---
Prevalence of and injury caused by Thielavia in Europe...........
EE OSLO DGS Na eee els 4a ae part ee eee ee
nee NG NOUAGIONSHE DS. to >) a2 aa Aon una e ee eee nase. ns 5.5 eee

Beemrcrmeciluuresiol THIClAVIaH.....c0c.n.- 202s ose stones tee cee se cegneeetee

1 SM 1 GBICNS eee ane eee eelo elem bet SME ene AERTS oe Ree ee a a cre
ENE GSS USE Se Sretted ey a ne care ee ek ee
Wile GG Lig 2S Se Se ee
Mani erreim Clarice UCLISUICH Se ee cece Sasa iain eee cine cnccns sss ae
Crow. ob. various agars, vegetables, ete... ..2-2--0-0---22----5----2-
(Cogn yypuligmia ats e100 OTeN GS I ee pense eee ee bce CUE ee eee
rowan memural-salesMediteas soso ecco er eee foc cose cc as sae scene

Oo SS TEE OT ae SRE A SS ee
158

22

CONTENTS.

Conditions influencing ‘attacks of Thielavia--.:-2./--scseenc-s sone oe eee
Conditions in: the seed “beds< 2 5: 220%. es ee

General conclusions of various writers................----.-----------
Results of seed-bedvexamimations: 9-5-2222 ese sas a eee en
Excessive fertilization =... 2.8.5-es se oe eee eee
Ventilation. 2.2. 2ccctenct tole ees Cee eee eee eee
Sash compared with cloth-covered beds..................--
Crowading-of.plamtss 2. .< 22 ssc: a0, 2-3 See eee
Temperapure... 2 ooo cc snes oe Jiao he ne eee ee
Severe wihtensost< - Au con suisse ae one ee ee
Severe:dryine. 22.052 $462 fens eka pee doe Oe
Continuous: usetot. beds... .ccnc-32 se os roe See eee

Greenhouse experiments:..........)..c-02. 052 oe ss ee
Effect upon root-rot of heavy and of light watering and of a sur-
face layer of, sand. ... . 025 2-0s..nb act ese emt ee Oe

Conditionsnr the fiélds..2..0- 3200 sees bee bese ee eee

Clay-.soil compared avith sandy; loam: ..222. 22. 5: . 25s ee ee eee
LOW BPO6B =). etctiepscames< cc eece dt eck eeec eee eee See
High fertilization 5. on. - ote ctoen. wee sccen eee ot Leo
Rotation of. erepse... 0... soc so tescaet hee thee lee
Pxperiments sss. oc. ccescccccn sh vee cceeeeeceet >= ceeee eae
Result of setting diseased plants in the field.............-...-----
Result of setting healthy plants in infected soil........-........--
Conclusions. .0: sien cdcecmeew Bacco (ees | ee

Remedial treatmentiimiheiseedsbedeo 2. sseeo- ee oes | eee
Preventivesmeasures: <. 2.2 ocho oce cone he ooteoe eee eee

Steam sterilization. ...2...:<iie9-s242 dawn ebe 2s eee ee
Ordinary greenhouse method. :.....2422.04-2 2 ese ee ee eee
Steam-rake method 25.252 o.<cckecsn. Scece sds ee
Inverted=pan. method... j2.c.cccsscse 2 case ese ee

Surface tinge oo. tise vs ba des os Wee ee ee eee ee
Bireetifirings. 5.22. 0252.2 90.20 cao eee oe
Pan firings 2c. ise eed Uae ain ae te

Formalin. stertlizations 2 .5.5-2 2 se2e62t tenet. Rees ee

Comparative experiments with steam and formalin sterilization. .....
Steam: sterllizatione: ..2 vc 25 a Sane ce eee ee eae Se

39

a ee

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Puare I. Microscopic characters of the root-rot fungus in various stages... --
II. Two dishes containing growing tobacco seedlings, affording a dem-
onstration of the parasitism of Thielavia: A, Inoculated; B, not

aE CGE Wee = ee le re

III. Tobacco plants affected with root-rot. Fig. 1.—Plants inoculated
at two months. Fig. 2.—Diseased root from field. Fig. 3.—
Seedlings from soil inoculated with Thielavia: A, Sterilized with
AorHialin, (f to:200) and,.4s, untreated << -- 2... 5-2 eee

IV. Fig. 1—A tobacco bed badly diseased with root-rot. Fig. 2.—
Tobacco plants in the same bed shown in figure | after it had

been sterilized with steam. Fig. 3.—Seedlings grown in dis-

eased soil: A, Not sterilized; B, steam sterilized ........-.......--
V. Fig. 1.—A diseased spot in a tobacco field. Fig. 2—A tobacco
bed being sterilized with steam by the inverted-pan method -....

158

Page.
50

50

50

50

B. P. I.—482.

THE ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO CAUSED BY
THIELAVIA BASICOLA.

INTRODUCTION.

During the last few years a root-rot of tobacco has caused con-
siderable loss to growers in certain sections of the United States, and
the disease has become so prevalent. that it must be reckoned with
and some means of checking its ravages adopted in order to cultivate
the crop successfully. Fortunately the area over which the disease
is severe, so far as our present knowledge goes, is not very large,
being confined to Connecticut, but the loss in individual cases is never-
theless great. Many instances are known where the entire crop of
seedlings raised by a farmer had to be discarded because of the root-
rot and healthy plants purchased to take their place, thus entailing
not only the loss of his total outlay of work and fertilizers, but in
addition the extra expense of buying healthy plants.

In some communities where the trouble has been general there has
been considerable difficulty in securing healthy plants, with the result
that the excessive demand caused an advance in price, making the
actual loss much greater. Before the effects of the disease were more
generally understood, additional loss was caused by the setting of
diseased plants in the fields. Even though the conditions were the
very best for the plants, some were not able to get a foothold and
had to be reset, while in many cases the entire crop, after remaining
two or three weeks at a standstill with occasional plants dying, has
been plowed up and the land reset with plants from other sources.
These operations involve a great deal of labor that is absolutely
wasted, to say nothing of the time lost to the crop. No small amount
of loss has also been occasioned by the fact that healthy plants, when
set, have been attacked and the crop so stunted that 75 to 100 per cent
has been rendered unmarketable.

DESCRIPTION OF ROOT-ROT.

The root-rot of tobacco is characterized by the blackening and
decay of the taproot and lateral roots of seedlings and of larger
plants in the field, caused by the growth in their tissues of the fungus

9

10 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

Thielavia basicola Zopf. The macroscopic effects of the disease
upon the plants attacked vary considerably with the conditions under
which they are grown, but an unhealthy appearance of the leaves is
almost always to be noted.

THE DISEASE IN THE SEED BED.

Damping-of —lf attacked while very young, the seedlings are
sometimes killed when not more than one-third to one-half inch high,
in much the same manner as by “ damping-off ” fungi except that
the fungous hyphe penetrate not only the portion of the plantlet near
the soil line, but also the rootlets and the stem above, spores having
been seen protruding from the stem of a seedling all the way from
the soil to the cotyledons, as well as on the rootlets.

Effect on roots——In other cases, when conditions do not favor as
severe an attack, the roots alone are directly invaded by the fungus
and the plants are stunted. If one of the slightly diseased plantlets
is very carefully taken up and the adhering soil washed away, it will
be noted upon examination that the tips of a number of the rootlets
present a brown or black appearance, according to the length of
time the fungus has been working. The browning of the tissues is
caused by the disintegration of the root by the fungus living in it
parasitically and the black color by the subsequent production of
spores. The disease progresses up the roots, both taproot and
laterals being attacked, until the entire root system is destroyed, and
if such a plant is pulled all the roots break off and remain in the
soil, the blackened base of the stem alone showing where the roots
were attached. The end of the taproot is most commonly attacked
first and then the laterals. (Pl. III, fig. 3, B.)

As the root system thus becomes reduced, the plantlet usually puts
out numerous lateral roots to take the place of those rendered useless
by the disease. These serve to nourish the plantlet for a time, but
eventually become diseased and decay.

Effect on leaves.—The appearance of the leaves of diseased seed-
lings varies with the soil and with the plant food available. When
the beds are made of rich soil, heavily fertilized with quickly avail-
able materials, such as hen manure or sodium nitrate, the plants may
present a very vigorous appearance, though the leaves are usually of
a darker green than is customary with perfectly healthy plants.
However, such plants exhibit root systems very badly diseased, not
infrequently the taproot breaking off just below the surface of the
soil; this has been noted even with plants 4 to 6 inches tall.

In other cases, where the soil is poor and little quickly available
fertilizer has been used, the plantlets are distinctly stunted and the
leaves have a sickly yellow color, which appears first at the tips, but

158

DESCRIPTION OF ROOT-ROT. T4

gradually pervades the whole leaf. Few, if any, new feeding roots
are produced, and the plant makes little appreciable growth. ‘The
beds present a very uneven appearance, the plants being large in some
spots and in others small and scattered.

In any case the result is the same; the plants are rendered unfit
for setting and the beds are a total loss, the farmer being obliged to
purchase healthy plants when his own beds should have produced
more than enough plants to set his fields.

THE DISEASE IN THE FIELD.

When badly diseased plants are set in the field they generally
remain for two or three weeks without any apparent growth, some
yellowing, wilting, and dying during that period. Finally a large
portion of a field set with diseased plants has to be reset. If the soil
is of a light, open texture the survivors may eventually gain the
ascendency over the disease and under favorable circumstances pro-
duce a fairly good, though late, crop, but in the heavier soils the dis-
ease persists, and the tobacco, though making some growth, is perma-
nently crippled and produces few, if any, marketable plants. Cases
have been observed where diseased plants have reached maturity at a
height of 8 to 15 inches, the root systems being a mass of decayed
rootlets, all breaking off to within a few inches of the base of the
stem when the plants were pulled. (PI. III, fig. 2.)

In the spring of 1906 three cases came to the attention of the writer
in which fields of from 1 to 4 or 5 acres were set with diseased plants,
and after ten days or two weeks plowed up and reset, because the
plants were so badly affected that they made no growth whatever and
gave no promise of it. In one case, in a field of several acres, the
majority of the plants were so badly diseased and stunted that the
crop was not worth harvesting. More generally, however, the trouble
is worse in spots over the field. (Pl. V, fig. 1.) It matters little
whether diseased plants are set in a field where no infection is present
or whether healthy plants are set in a field already diseased; the
result is the same, and where the conditions are favorable for the
development of the disease the crop is seriously injured.

When large roots are attacked by the fungus, the tissues, being
older and tougher, are not as easily penetrated as those of smaller
roots, and the growth, except in very severe cases, is generally con-
fined to the outer surface, where a brownish, scurfy appearance is to
be noted, and sometimes an enlargement of the root at the point
attacked.

Where whole fields become infected in the manner described, the
problem becomes complicated, since methods that might be practical
in the treatment of restricted areas used for seed beds would be far
too costly for use in large fields.

158

12 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.
DESCRIPTION OF THE FUNGUS CAUSING ROOT-ROT.

Thielavia basicola, the fungus which causes the root-rot of tobacco,
belongs to the ascomycetous family Perisporiacee. It is character-
ized by the production of three kinds of spores, known, respectively,
in the order of their appearance, as endoconidia, chlamydospores,
and ascospores.

MYCELIUM.

The mycelium consists of much branched hyphe, generally much
septate, but sometimes sparingly so, hyaline at first, but later becom-
ing shghtly brown. The fungous threads are very small, the diameter
of the cells varying in culture from 3 to 7 microns. Moreover, some
hyphee are strictly linear, while others are very irregular in outline.
When young the cells of the mycelium are filled with granular pro-
toplasm, but in old cultures the protoplasm is less abundant.

The manner of branching is quite characteristic in that it is in
many cases almost dichotomous, the branch being thrown out from
the apex of a cell of the main hypha, where a slight enlargement takes
place and a cell wall develops, cutting off the branch from the main
hypha.

ENDOCONIDIOPHORES.

Arising from the mycelium at various points, sometimes singly,
sometimes in clusters, are hyaline to dingy brown thin-walled
branches, which form endoconidiophores of a few to several short,
plump, barrel-shaped cells, terminated by a long tapering cell within
which the endoconidia are produced. Zopf has given these endoconi-
diophores the characteristic name “ pistolenférmige Conidien-bil-
dungen,” pistol-shaped conidial formations. (PI. I, figs. 4 and 5.)

ENDOCONIDIAL CELL.

The terminal or endoconidial cell is slightly swollen at the base
and gradually tapers to the long, almost linear delivery tube through
which the conidia are discharged. In length the cells vary from
90 to 170 p, with a basal diameter of 5 to 6 yw, and they are 3 to 5 p
in diameter at the mouth of the delivery tube. (PI. I, fig. 4.)

The endoconidia are produced from the copious protoplasm within
the terminal cell, which opens by a bursting or dissolution of the tip,
and the conidia are slowly pushed out by the growth of the proto-
plasm in the swollen basal portion of the cell, new conidia being
formed continuously in the rear of those being ejected. It is some-
times difficult to perceive that the conidia originate within the terminal
cell and are not formed by its direct septation, as the walls of the

158

DESCRIPTION OF THE FUNGUS CAUSING ROOT-ROT. 13

conidia and of the delivery tube are so thin and transparent and fit so
closely together that a high power is necessary to discern this point.
Quite frequently, however, a conidium will be found projecting part
way out of the delivery tube, or, again, in old cultures the last conidium
may have been knocked out, leaving the end of the delivery tube
empty, so that the fringed or notched orifice is visible. In young
cultures the conidia are produced in great numbers, giving a silvery
white appearance, the conidia being pushed out in long lines or, in
case the conidiophore is erect, falling in little piles. Aderhold has
counted 160 conidia which came from a single endoconidial cell, and
the writer has seen 40 in drop cultures twenty-four hours old.

ENDOCONIDIA.

When young the endoconidia are hyaline, thin walled, linear, and
very slightly rounded at the ends. When about to germinate they
swell and assume an ovoid shape. The contents of the conidia are
very transparent, with a large vacuole in each end. In old cultures
conidia have been observed of a slightly brownish color and with
thickened cell walls. Conidia vary from 8 to 23, in length by 3 to
5 » in diameter, the average being about 15 by 4 ». This fructifica-
tion is the most characteristic of Thielavia, since such a conidial
formation is of very infrequent occurrence. (PI. I, fig. 1.)

In corn-meal cultures conidia are produced in profusion in two to
three days, and they doubtless serve as the most prolific means of
dissemination of the disease, as they may germinate at once, while the
chlamydospores and ascospores produced later require at least a
short period of rest before being able to start new growth.

CHLAMYDOSPORES.

The chlamydospores, second in order of production, are often borne
on the same hypha as the endoconidiophores, on short lateral branches
put out from just below them; or they may be produced from any
portion of the mycelium. They are sometimes borne singly, but
more often in many - branching clusters. These spores are much
thicker walled than the conidia and are more richly supplied with
protoplasm and reserve food material in the form of oil globules,
and thus are adapted to serve as resting spores. In color they vary
from a brownish black to an olive-brown, in mass usually giving a
dull black color. Most writers have considered them as _ single
spores borne in chains of three to six, but they are more properly
treated as compound spores made up of two to three basal cells sur-
mounted by one to eight fertile segments. The basal cells are thin
walled, hyaline, and sterile, while the fertile cells are dark brown

158

14 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

and surrounded by thick walls, and eventually separate into short
cylindrical individual cells, each one of which is capable of germina-
tion.

The compound spores are club shaped, usually tapering slightly
from the rounded terminal cell to the first sterile basal cell, and then
more abruptly to the hypha, on which they are borne. In length the
chlamydospores vary from 25 to 65 p, the majority being about
45 », with a diameter of 10 to 12 », the individual segment measuring
from 5 to 18 » in length. There are slight constrictions at the points
of division between the segments, the cross walls being almost inva-
riably perpendicular to the long axis of the compound spore. The
exterior of the spores is slightly roughened. Many forms of branch-
ing are found. Sometimes a main hypha bears spores singly on all
sides at close intervals; in other cases they are borne in clese, broom-
like clusters, several spores emanating from one place, or one spore
from a sterile segment at the base of another, a third from the base
of this, and so on until a dense bunch of spores results. In some
instances one, two, or three spores have been observed to originate
from another compound spore. (PI. I, figs. 5 and 6.)

ASCOSPORES.

The ascosporic stage, the last to develop, is found abundantly on
old diseased roots of tobacco, but the writer has never succeeded in
getting it in pure cultures. Peglion (37) alone, of all who have
studied the fungus in culture, reports having obtained it on old po-
tato cultures to which was added sterilized water acidulated with
0.6 per cent of tartaric acid and the tubes kept in the thermostat at
25° C. for a week.

The perithecia are borne in the midst of the other spore forms.
The writer was fortunate enough to observe a perithecium attached
to the same hypha which bore an endoconidiophore. The perithecia
are round, dark brown, rough, and thick walled, and without any
aperture for the escape of the ascospores. (PI. I, fig. 8.) In diameter
the perithecia vary from 80 to 100 », and within them are produced a
number of fragile, egg-shaped asci, in each of which are developed
eight oblong, nonseptate, shghtly spindle-shaped spores, of a chocolate-
brown color when ripe, thick walled, and provided with a large central
oil drop. (PI. I, fig. 9.) The spores measure 8 to 10 » by 4 to 5 » and
are set free within the perithecium by the deliquescence of the asci
walls before the spores are ripe. It is therefore exceedingly difficult
to observe the asci. The ascospores are released by the disintegration

«The numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the end of the
bulletin.
158

te TEP 9 real

PARASITISM OF THE FUNGUS. 15

or rupture of the perithecium, which takes place soon after the ripen-
ing of the spores; consequently, spores are rarely found in the perithe-
cium on old diseased roots, but free. These spores have never been
observed to germinate by the writer. Although hundreds of exami-
nations of both fresh material and microtome sections cut for the pur-
pose have been made by the writer, thus far no asci have been found.

They are, however, figured by Zopf (58), and the writer has no rea-

son to question their existence.

MEANS OF DISSEMINATION.

From the observations of Sorauer (48) it would seem probable
that Thielavia is rather widely distributed in soils of abundant
humus content, and particularly in leaf mold. This is borne out by
the fact of its known occurrence in at least seven countries of the world.
Its introduction into tobacco seed beds may occur in a number of
ways. Leaf mold is sometimes used in the preparation of the beds,
and the fungus may thus be brought in. Infected soil clinging to
the feet of men or animals or to tools and the custom of buying
seedlings for setting which may have the disease so slightly as not to
be noticed are probably common agencies in the transmission of the
trouble from one seed bed to another. Instances have come to the
writer’s notice where a single spot in a seed bed showed the disease
one year, but by the next the entire bed and others adjacent had
become infected, the spores having been scattered when the beds were
prepared and through watering and subsequent cultivation and
weeding.

PARASITISM OF THE FUNGUS.

Investigators of Thielavia almost without exception have acknowl-
edged its parasitic nature to a degree, some, however, believing it to
be a very weak parasite very largely dependent on conditions, and
a few being in doubt as to its true nature.

CONCLUSIONS OF VARIOUS WRITERS.

It was Berkeley’s (5) opinion that the fungus “ was either destruc-
tive of the plant on which it grew or was developed on it in conse-
quence of previous disease.”

Zopf (59) characterized it as an undoubted parasite attacking the
root systems of a number of plants, causing serious injury, and in
some cases even their death.

Sorauer (48) concluded from his study of Thielavia causing the
root-brown of cyclamens, that, though it was quite generally to be
found living saprophitically in soil rich in humus, it could not always
attack plants, but only when they were especially susceptible from

158

16 : ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

some other reason, such as excessive manuring, too abundant water-
ing, or too high temperature.

Peglion (33), while recognizing the parasitic as well as the sapro-
phytic mode of life of the fungus, stated that the extensive injuries
to young tobacco plants might probably be attributed in part to im-
proper cultural conditions, especially excessive watering, the -pres-
ence of too much humus, and the too close proximity of the roots to
the manure used for making the hotbeds. The tender rootlets being
thereby injured were readily attacked by the fungus.

Selby (48), Benincasa (3), and Campbell (11) all considered the
fungus an active parasite of tobacco, while Aderhold (1) concluded
from his inoculation experiments with several plants not reckoned
among its hosts that it was not vigorously parasitic and caused much
injury only under certain conditions. Galloway (25) likewise held
that it was only a weak parasite on violet stems and roots, and that
loss could be avoided by the exercise of special care in the selection
of soil and in transplanting.

Clinton (19), though fully satisfied as to the parasitism of Thiela-
via in the seed beds, was doubtful whether or not “ the very conspicu-
ous trouble in certain of the tobacco fields of Suffield, Conn., was
primarily and chiefly due to the attacks of the fungus.”

After a detailed study of the fungus in field, laboratory, and green-
house extending over three years, the writer has no doubt of the para-
sitism of Thielavia on the tobacco plant in seed bed and field, though
the virulence of its attacks, like those of other fungi on their hosts,
varies considerably with the conditions of its environment.

DEMONSTRATION OF PARASITISM OF THIELAVIA.

Petri-dish experiments.—To demonstrate the parasitism of Thiela-
via, the following experiments were carried out: Four large petri
dishes were fitted with double layers of white blotting paper moist-
ened with Koch’s nutritive solution and sterilized in the autoclave.
All were then sown to tobacco, the seed being scattered rather thickly
over the surface of the upper layer of blotting paper and the dishes
placed in the thermostat at 30° C. for one and one-half days and then
transferred to room temperature and placed in the light. After four
days, when the seeds were beginning to germinate, two dishes were
watered with sterile water which had been thoroughly inoculated
with Thielavia, the remaining dishes receiving the same amount of
sterile water. A few days later the seedlings in the inoculated plates
were beginning to go down in a manner similar to that of plants at-
tacked by damping-off fungi, and at the end of two weeks every plant
had been killed. Examination of the plants attacked showed the

presence of Thielavia in every instance. The check dishes showed no
158

HISTORICAL DATA ON ROOT-ROT. y iby

traces of Thielavia, and the plants remained perfectly healthy until
the termination of the experiment. This experiment was repeated
several times, and almost identical results were secured in every
instance. (PI. II.)

Pot experiments—To further demonstrate the parasitism of the
fungus under more natural conditions, on November 26, 1906, six 8-
inch greenhouse pots were filled with rich soil from a badly diseased
Connecticut seed bed and autoclaved one and one-half hours at 117° C.
On November 28 all were sown to Connecticut Havana tobacco, and
on November 30 one pot was inoculated with Thielavia by mixing a
considerable quantity of spores from a pure culture with a beaker of
sterile water and watering the pot therewith. On January 2, 1907, a
second pot was inoculated in the same manner. On January 12 a
number of plants were found damped-off in several of the pots, both
inoculated and uninoculated. Upon examination Thielavia was
found in the dead plants from inoculated pots, but the trouble in the
uninoculated pots was due to some other cause, no Thielavia being
present.

On April 4 the experiment was terminated, the plants in all six
pots being examined, with the following results:

The plants remaining in the four check pots, uninoculated, were
found perfectly healthy, roots clean and white.

The plants in the pot inoculated November 30 were very badly
diseased, the majority of the roots being blackened and rotted in some
degree; Thielavia abundant.

The plants in the pot inoculated January 2, 1907, were even more
severely diseased, the roots of every one being blackened and dead to
the stem and in some cases up the stem one-eighth to one-half inch.

The experiment was repeated several times under slightly different
conditions with virtually the same results in all cases. (PI. IV, fig. 3.)

HISTORICAL DATA ON ROOT-ROT.
DISCOVERY OF THIELAVIA ON TOBACCO IN THE UNITED STATES.

It is not definitely known just how long the root-rot has been prev-
alent in tobacco sections of the United States, but data from farmers
warrant the belief that it has been causing loss for at least eight or
ten years. The amount of loss has been greater within the last three
or four years than ever before because of both the wider distribution
and the greater virulence of the disease.

Prof. A. D. Selby (43), of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, was the first to report this disease of tobacco in the United
States, specimens of White Burley seedlings affected by the trouble
having been sent to him from Neville, Clermont County, Ohio, in the

89994—Bull. 158S—09--—2

18 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

spring of 1899, and the trouble reported again from Germantown in
1903. In Connecticut the root-rot was first brought to public atten-
tion by Mr. A. D. Shamel (45), of the Bureau of Plant Industry, in
the spring of 1906, a note calling attention to the serious injury
caused in the seed beds of the Connecticut Valley being printed in
the Hartford Courant for May 28 of that year. Specimens of the
diseased plants were sent to the mycologist of the Bureau of Plant
Industry, Mrs. F. W. Patterson, and the fungus 7hielavia basicola
causing the trouble was identified by her. About June 1 of the same
year the writer was delegated by the Chief of the Bureau of Plant
Industry to make a complete study of the trouble with a view to the
determination and introduction of some means of reducing or elim-
inating the loss occasioned. The trouble has since that date been
personally located and studied in the seed beds or the fields of 24
tobacco farmers in the Connecticut Valley, with reports of occur-
rence from numerous other points. and has also been found at one
place in Kentucky.

DISCOVERY OF THIELAVIA ON OTHER HOSTS THAN TOBACCO IN THE UNITED
STATES.

Thielavia was first reported as a parasite in America by Thaxter
(51) in 1891, who found it affecting the roots of violets. Galloway
(25) in 1899 studied the trouble on violets and was able to avoid
serious loss from its attacks by paying special attention to cultural
conditions. About the same date Dr. Erwin F. Smith (46) reports
having noted the occurrence of Thielavia in some of his greenhouse
experiments, where it attacked cotton and cowpea seedlings, caus-
ing rotting of the stems at or beneath the surface of the soil

DISCOVERY OF THIELAVIA ON TOBACCO IN EUROPE.

In Europe root-rot of tobacco was brought to. the attention of
scientists earlier than in America, as Peglion: (33) first reported it in
1897 as prevailing in the seed beds of the tobacco agency at San
Sepolcro in north central Italy and stated that the tobacco plant
had not up to that time been reckoned among the host plants of
Thielavia. Subsequently the trouble was studied and reported from
Italy by Benincasa (3), Cappelluti-Altomare (12), Campbell (11),
Buttaro (8), Wuiovich (55), and others.

PREVALENCE OF AND INJURY CAUSED BY THIELAVIA IN EUROPE.

Comparatively few definite data have come to the writer’s atten-
tion relative to the prevalence of and the amount of injury caused
by Thielavia in Italy. The trouble has been reported by Peglion

158

HISTORICAL DATA ON ROOT-ROT.

19

from San Sepolcro, in the vicinity of Florence, in north-central Italy ;

by Buttaro and Benincasa from Pontecorvo, in southwestern Italy,
| not far from Rome; by Bruni and Barbatelli from Scafati, south

of Naples, from several other points in Italy, and from Sardinia.

Peglion gives no note of the distribution of the disease or of the
amount of injury caused, but states that the mortality of the seed-
lings is a constant factor, shown especially in some of the more
delicate and exotic varieties. Campbell (11) states that the loss
caused by the rot of seedlings in the beds is known to all tobacco
growers, forced as they are at times to greatly reduce their planting
through lack of young plants to set out.

Benincasa (3) gives very little with regard to prevalence, but
notes in 1902 that injury in the seed beds at Pontecorvo, even to the
most resistant varieties, had never been as severe as that year, and
adds that the disease would have reached the proportions of a dis-
aster had not a remedy been found in the planting of later nurseries
and the giving of more space to the plants. The injury in the field
reached the highest limits and growth was much retarded. These
reports would indicate a rather general distribution of the trouble
and no small amount of injury therefrom.

HOSTS AND DISTRIBUTION.

which Thielavia has been found, together with the locality and

'
| To give some idea of the wide range of its hosts, a list of plants on
f authority, 1s given:

Plants on which Thielavia has been found, with locality and authority.

Name of plant. Locality. Authority.
Aralia quinquefolia (ginseng)....| Ohio........-------.--- Selby.
2 INGiy em On Kes) sets sees Whetzel.
nen TUPTA-.=--.-.......-.- OG set eee ce aun ers Selby.
0 ee Genmoaminyee ee eect ee Zopt.
Wabaipa speciosa...-..----.--..- ORG =e so aaa Selby.
Cochlearia armoracia (horse-rad- | Kazan, Russia.........- | Sorokin.

ish). |
Rte... =| Germany.-........:..-. Sorauer.
Gossypium herbaceum (cotton). ..| Washington, D. C...-.-. | Smith, E. F.
LL OOO Halle, Germany........ | Zopt.
Lupinus angustifolius.........--- Halle, Germany........ Zopt.
minus litteus....-.............| Halle, Germany........ Zopt.
Dirginus thernmis.................| Halle, Germany........ Zopt.

Dinaria canadensis.........-..---

158

Connectieut......:.-.-..-

Gilbert & Stewart.

20 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

Plants on which Thielavia has been found, with locality and authority—Continued.

Name of plant. Locality. Authority.

Nemophila auriculata.......-..- King’s Cliffe, England..| Berkeley & Broome.
Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)...-. italy sce eee eee Peglion, Campbell, But-

taro, Wuiovich, Benin-
casa, Cappelluti-

Altomare.
Nardinia: eos. see Gafaro.
OHIO4 Feo. oe ae eee Selby.
Connecticuiteeses= ease Shamel, Clinton, Gil-
bert.
Kentuckyaessssoee seers Gilbert.
GCubat sate: eee ree Bessey, E. A.
WNCOlLOnG. TUBER os eee || (Cl) ares hoes eae ene Kirchner.
Onobrychis crista-galli ..........-| Halle, Germany........ Zopt.
Oxalis corniculata, var. stricta ...| Connecticut............ Gilbert & Stewart.
Pisum sativum (pea)-.....------- King’s Cliffe, England..| Berkeley & Broome.
Halle, Germany........ Zopt.
Gembloux, Belgium. -.-.-.| Marchal.
Phaseolus vulgaris......--------- Cp Se apo get hele RAAT a | Kirchner.
Phaseolus multiflorus........-.-- A asc teaeae e PR RE 4 | Kirchner.
ISEMLEC1O CLEQU NR erect RM «2 os Berlin, Germany. ...-.. | Zopf.
dimgonellaicocmiled = eee ee | Halle, Germany.......- Zop.
Vigna sinensis (cowpea).-------- Washington, D.C...... Smith, E. F.
Vaolatodoraia--eee eee eee eee Connechicnie-e seal eee Thaxter.
Takoma Park, Md...... Galloway.
Washington, DiC ass-—- Smith, E. F.
Trifolium repens (white clover)..| Connecticut........-..-- Gilbert & Stewart.

=

In addition to the above list Aderhold (1), by means of inoculation .

with pure cultures, secured a limited development of the fungus on
Scorzonera hispanica, Daucus carota, Beta vulgaris, and Apium (?),
and a more vigorous growth on roots of Phaseolus vulgaris.

In 1905 specimens of tobacco seedlings, noted above as affected by
Thielavia, were sent to this Department by Mr. Paul Ackerly, of
Havana, Cuba, and the fungus was identified by Dr. Ernst A. Bessey.

SYNONYMY AND RELATIONSHIPS.

When Berkeley and Broome (5) in 1850 gave the name Z’orula
basicola to the fungus which they found at the base of the stems of
peas, they saw only the chlamydospore stage, which is by far the

158

O'neee eweeeeE —h

HISTORICAL DATA ON ROOT-ROT. 21

most conspicuous as the fungus is found in nature. Though class-
ing it as a Torula, they nevertheless seemed somewhat doubtful of its
exact identity, as they state that “it is a very curious species, distin-
guished from most Torule by its articulations not being constricted.”

Apparently no further observations were made on the fungus until
1876, when both Zopf (56) and Sorokin (50) report having found it,
the former in Berlin in 1875 on the roots of Senecio elegans, and the
latter at Kazan, Russia, on rotten roots of Cochlearia armoracia
(horse-radish). Sorokin found only the chlamydospore stage, and
thinking it a new fungus named it elminthosporium fragile. Zopt,
however, made a more complete study of the fungus, and describes
two conidial forms of fructification, a pyenidium with stylospores
and the perfect or ascospore stage, which placed it in the Ascomy-
cetes. No one has since observed the pycnidia mentioned by Zopf,
and as he does not note their occurrence in his later publications on
Thielavia, it is to be supposed that he was mistaken in his first ob-
servations. Zopf placed the fungus in the Perisporiez and, consid-
ering it different from existing genera, created a new genus, naming
it Thielavia, after one of his favorite professors at the University
of Breslau, Dr. F. von Thielau. He retained the specific name
basicola given by Berkeley and Broome, having recognized the iden-

tity of their Torula with the second fruiting form of Thielavia.

In 1882 Saccardo (39) recorded Zopf’s work, but in 1886, noting
the observations of Sorokin, did not agree with him in calling the
fungus described Helminthosporium, believing it to be far distant
from that, and placed it in the genus Clasterosporium, though with
some trepidation, as he questions whether it should not be placed
among the Torule.

Saccardo thus failed to note the identity of Sorokin’s Helmintho-
sporium fragile with the chlamydospore stage of Thielavia and with
Berkeley and Broome’s 7'orula basicola. Sorauer (47), in the same
year, was the first to discover this.

The name of the fungus, with its synonymy as now recognized, is
as follows:

Thiclavia basicola (B. & Br.) Zopf, Sitz. Bot. Ver. Proy. Brandenb.,
vol. 18, pp. 101-105, June 30, 1876.

Torula basicola (B. & Br.), Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Series II, vol. 5,
No. 380, p. 461, 1850.

Helminthosporium fragile Sor. Hedw., vol. 15, No. 8, p. 118, August, 1876.

Clasterosporium fragile Sacc. (Sorok.) Sace. Syll. Fung., vol. 4, p. 386,
1886.

Nearly all writers agree in placing the genus Thielavia in the
family Perisporiee of the Perisporiaceew, thus bringing it into close
relationship with Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Perisporium and
with the family Erysiphee. Tubeuf and Smith (52) state that

158

22 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

this is the only genus of the Perisporiez which causes a really seri-
ous plant disease. Jaczewski (27), however, in 1894, in an essay
on the natural classification of the Pyrenomycetes, places Thielavia
in the family Spherellees and tribe Thielaviees, other genera closely
related being Leptosphaeria, Trichothecium, and Ascospora.

Fischer (21) in 1897 considered Thielavia as a genus of the family
Aspergillacese of the Plectacinex, along with Aspergillus and Pen-
icillium.

Only two other species of the genus have thus far been reported—
Thielavia bovina, found growing on cow dung in Sicily, and 7/hie-
lavia soppittii, found at the base of dead stems of Carduus palustris
at Halifax, England.

ARTIFICIAL CULTURES OF THIELAVIA.
HISTORICAL DATA.

Peglion (33) in 1897 reported having grown Thielavia in pure
culture on various sterilized media, among which were sterilized
potato, must agar, and must gelatin. The fungus grew readily upon
these, developing both the endoconidia and chlamydospores. The
ascospores, however, Peglion was unable to obtain until three years
later, when they were produced in 3-year-old potato cultures revived
by the addition of a 0.6 per cent tartaric acid solution and kept in a
thermostat at 25° C. for a number of days. No one has since re-
ported the occurrence of perithecia in culture.

In the summer of 1903, Aderhold (1) undertook a series of inocula-
tion experiments with Thielavia, and he states that the fungus grew
easily on sterilized pear and carrot and on bouillon gelatin with pear
and carrot juice or grape sugar.

Clinton (20) reports having grown the fungus on potato agar and
on sterilized horse dung, though he had some difficulty in obtaining
his original cultures.

ISOLATION OF THE FUNGUS.

The writer experienced considerable difficulty in isolating the
fungus because of the fact that the chlamydospores taken from old
diseased tobacco roots failed to germinate before being overgrown
with bacteria and, further, because the fungus does not grow well
upon plain beef agar. Cultures were finally secured from conidia
obtained from freshly diseased rootlets, the medium used being a
beef agar to which a 0.2 per cent solution of sodium nitrate was
added.

Method used.—Sections of diseased rootlets showing little, if any,
decomposition but presenting an abundance of spores were soaked
for forty-five seconds in a 1 to 1,400 solution of mercuric chlorid and

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ARTIFICIAL CULTURES OF THIELAVIA. 23

then thoroughly rinsed with distilled water. Under sterile conditions
they were macerated in a watch glass containing a little sterile water.
Tubes of sodium nitrate agar were inoculated from this material,
dilutions made therefrom, and plates poured.

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS.

The fungus Thielavia has been grown on a wide range of culture
media and under various conditions, and exhibits considerable difter-
ence in development under changed environments.

On practically all media the mycelial growth was confined almost
entirely to the surface and immediate substratum, sometimes pene-
trating 5 to 10 millimeters into the latter and occasionally entirely
filling it with hyphe, but producing practically no aerial growth.
So far as the writer’s observations have gone, endoconidia were pro-
duced aerially only, but chlamydospores have been noted to occur all
through the substratum, as in the tobacco roots they are produced
within the cells of the plant as well as on the surface.

In slant cultures the excess of liquid gathered at the bottom, and
in all cases the growth of the fungus was quickest and most vigorous
there and the production of chlamydospores most abundant.

Growth on various agars, vegetables, etc—On beef-agar slants at
the end of five weeks, during which time the cultures were kept at
room temperature (18 to 24° C.), the growth was rather scant, gray
except at the bottom of the slant, where it was denser and blacker
and a more copious production of chlamydospores was evident.
Hyphe penetrated the agar to a depth of 7 to 10 millimeters, and
chlamydospores were produced therein. Z

In beef bouillon the fungus produced a ae grayish black
floating mass of mycelium, sparingly spore bearing, nearly filling the
liquid.

In asparagin water the growth was less vigorous and nearly trans-
parent, very few spores being produced.

On soil-solution agar and tobacco-root agar, growth was very scant
and pale gray, the few chlamydospores produced being of a very
light color.

On tobacco-leaf agar the fungus covered the slant and was quite
vigorous and gray-black.

On corn meal in flasks growth was very vigorous, the production
of endoconidia being very abundant two to four days after inocula-
tion and covering the mycelium with silvery masses of spores, these
being hidden later by a dense black growth of chlamydospores.

When a 0.5 per cent sodium nitrate solution was added to the corn
meal the fungus was even more vigorous and produced more quickly
an abundance of jet-black chlamydospores.

158

94 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

Steamed pear slants produced a very scanty, scattered, gray-black,
sparingly spore-bearing growth.

Gelatin with beef bouillon was an even poorer medium, the fungus
developing but slightly on the surface.

Steamed carrot and potato slants proved the best media found,
as the fungus invariably grew vigorously and produced abundantly
both conidia and chlamydospores. The mycelium penetrated and
blackened the substratum in both cases and formed layers of myce-
lial growth from the medium to the walls of the tube over the surface
of the liquid.

On corn-meal agar and pear-juice agar spore production was not
great, being more abundant in the former and somewhat restricted
to spots, but not covering the surface of the medium in either case.

On steamed rice growth was slow and not very dense, gradually
penetrating the medium and producing chlamydospores sparingly in
little clumps, the conidia being equally scarce.

On 1 per cent grape-sugar agar a very dense growth was produced
on the surface and penetrating 5 to 10 millimeters into the sub-
stratum. An abundance of jet-black chlamydospores was present,
giving the slant a shiny black appearance.

Growth in acid media.—A 0.05 per cent oxalic-acid agar gave a very
vigorous development of the fungus on the surface and penetrating
10 to 15 millimeters into the substratum, the color being a dull black.
However, when 0.2 per cent oxalic acid was added to the agar no
growth could be secured, though several attempts were made.

On 0.1 and 0.2 per cent nitric-acid agar, growth was gray-black,
well over the slant, shghtly less in 0.01 per cent and much more
vigorous and more highly spore producing in 0.02 per cent agar.

Growth in neutral-salt media.—The addition of 0.1 per cent sodium
sulphate to beef agar gave.a sparing development of the fungus over
the surface of the slant, while 0.2, 0.5, and 1 per cent added to agars
produced a denser, darker colored growth, but in colonies rather than
evenly covering the surface.

On 0.1 per cent potassium-nitrate agar the fungus nearly covered
the slants with a gray-black growth, but on 0.2 and 0.5 per cent agar,
development was denser and blacker, -in the latter case being in
colonies.

On 0.1 and 0.2 per cent sodium-nitrate agar eventually an abun-
dant growth was produced, but on 0.5 and 1 per cent the development
was more scant and spore production not as great.

Growth in alkaline media.—On 0.1 and 0.2 per cent potassium-car-
bonate agar a spreading, scant, gray to black growth was produced,
while agar containing 0.5 and 1 per cent potassium carbonate gave no
development of the fungus whatever.

158

»rs wrt

ARTIFICIAL CULTURES OF THIELAVIA. 25

A 0.5 per cent calcium-hydroxid agar gave slightly more vigorous
growth than an agar containing 1 per cent of the salt.

Summary.—Summarizing the results here obtained, it would seem
that the presence of the various acids and salts up to a certain point,
different in the case of each ingredient used, is favorable to the
growth of Thielavia, while beyond that point it tends to retard,
restrict, or even kill the fungus.

Moreover, the abundance and color of the chlamydospores varies
with the medium employed. Oxalic-acid and grape-sugar agars and
corn meal plus 0.2 per cent sodium nitrate gave notably jet-black
chlamydospores in profusion, while pear and potassium-carbonate
agars and pear slants produced light gray. to olive colored spores.

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT JMPERATURES.

Differences in temperature also produced marked variations in
growth, especially with regard to rapidity of spore formation. Cul-
tures of Thielavia on carrot slants, kept in an ice box at a tempera-
ture of from 8° to 11° C., grew very slowly, at the end of the third
day showing only a very faint white growth along the line of inocu-
lation, and the first sign of chlamydospore development appearing
after six days.

The lower limit of growth was determined by means of the ice
thermostat to be between 7° and 8° C. No growth was made in cul-
tures kept at 1.3° C., but when these were brought into room tempera-
ture vigorous growth resulted.

At room temperature, 18° to 24° C., after two days a white, cottony
growth covered two-thirds of the slant, spreading from the line of
inoculation, and chlamydospores began to appear the third day.

In the thermostat at 30° C. spore formation was slightly earlier
and growth considerably more vigorous and rapid. This temperature
was clearly the optimum for the development of the fungus.

In cultures kept at 34° C. a curious phenomenon occurred. The
fungus, instead of spreading over the entire surface of the carrot
slant, as in other cases, confined its growth to a limited space adjacent
to the line of inoculation, producing a dense, fluffy, gray-black mass
of mycelium and spores, 2 to 6 millimeters wide along the length of
the incculation and heaped above the surface of the medium to a
height of 1 to 3 millimeters, in this particular being quite different
from any other cultures.

At 37° C. no growth could be secured on carrot slants. The upper
limit of growth, then, is between 34° and 37° C.

SPORE GERMINATION.

Germination of both endoconidia and chlamydospores was observed

in hanging-drop cultures of beef bouillon. The former germinated
158

26 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

in eighteen hours, and in one case a spore after putting out a single
hypha six cells long began the production of new conidia in large
numbers, the last cell of the six functioning as an endoconidial cell.
(PI. I, figs. 2, and! 3.)

The chlamydospores were from an old tobacco root and germinated
after eighteen to twenty-four hours. (PI. I, fig. 7.)

CONDITIONS INFLUENCING ATTACKS OF THIELAVIA.

The conditions prevailing in tobacco seed beds are so different
from those encountered in the field, and the possible means of pre-
vention of root-rot in the two cases are so distinct because of both
the limited seed-bed space and the diverse conditions under which
the plants grow, that the subjects will be treated separately.

CONDITIONS IN THE Seep Bens.

In so limited a space as the tobacco seed beds, especially those in
northern tobacco districts made in the most up-to-date manner with
steam heat and sash covers, the various environmental factors are
very largely under control, and preventive measures can be more
easily carried out than in fields.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS OF VARIOUS WRITERS.

Sorauer (48) in his study of the “root-brown” of cyclamens
observed that certain conditions, especially heavy manuring, too
abundant watering, and too high temperatures seemed to favor the
attack of Thielavia, and he states that by changing the affected plants
to a sandy, less rich soil and giving them abundant ventilation,
plenty of sunlight, and not too much water, an increase of the dis-
ease was prevented. Peglon (33) further states that in hotbeds
the stratum of manure may be so near the surface as to injure the
roots and to predispose them to the attacks of Thielavia.

Benincasa (3), while recognizing these facts, believed that “ more
than all, certain weather conditions favor the development of the
parasite. When the season is humid, the environment in which the
young plants are compelled to live, while predisposing them to the
attacks of disease, is extremely favorable to the development of
the fungus. Scarcely any expedient is successful under such cir-
cumstances, either in preparing or cultivating the nursery.” In addi-
tion to the measures recommended by Sorauer (48) for checking the
trouble, Benincasa (3) notes the use of a 0.6 per cent KNO, solution
for watering the plants, to stimulate the development of new sec-
ondary roots. On the other hand, solutions of manure aggravate the
trouble.

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—e =e

CONDITIONS INFLUENCING ATTACKS OF THIELAVIA, o%
RESULTS OF SEED-BED EXAMINATIONS.

In the writer’s experience the worst root-rot has been found in seed
beds containing soil with an abundance of humus and a considerable
percentage of clay, highly fertilized either with chemicals or manure,
and excessively watered. On the other hand, many seed beds with a
light sandy soil containing little humus and not highly fertilized
have been examined, and with very few exceptions no root-rot has
been found.

EXCESSIVE FERTILIZATION,

The fact that an abundance of humus and quickly available nitro-
genous fertilizers, high temperatures, and abundant watering will
produce large plants in the shortest space of time has led many to
use these conditions of excessive and rapid growth in the production
of tobacco plants, often going to the extreme in the quantities of fer-
tilizer and water used. The result is that the plants are made weak
and especially susceptible to the attacks of Thielavia, while at the
same time ideal conditions are furnished for the growth of that para-
site. Many cases of serious seed-bed injury observed by the writer
were connected with excessive fertilization; in some instances with
chemicals containing large quantities of quickly available nitrogenous
ingredients, such as nitrate of soda; in others, large quantities of hen
manure were used. In addition to this fertilization previous to
seeding, the practice is quite prevalent of watering the young seed-
lings from time to time with dilute solutions of NaNO, or manure
water to hasten growth, and this in all probability aggravates the
trouble.

VENTILATION,

The ventilation of the seed beds also has an effect upon the develop-
ment of root-rot, though just how great it is difficult to determine
because of the large number of factors which are to be considered.

Sash compared with cloth-covered beds.—It was thought at first
that the disease would be found much more severe in beds covered
with sash than in cloth-covered beds, because of the fact that the air
becomes humid and heated by the sun, thus furnishing ideal condi-
tions for the development of the fungus. The results of the examina-
tion of a considerable number of diseased seed beds, both sash and
cloth covered, bears out this inference with very few exceptions.
Nearly all of the worst diseased beds were glass covered, and the num-
ber of diseased sash-covered beds as compared with cloth-covered ones
was more than two to one.

In one case where a cloth-covered bed was more severely attacked
than an adjoining sash-covered one, though the disease was bad in

98 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

both, the former had been diseased quite badly the previous year and
thus was very heavily infected with the fungus, while the latter was
attacked for the first time and the infection was consequently not as
great.

Benincasa (3) states that he has seen root-rot develop in its most
virulent form in seed beds covered with glass or oiled paper. All
things considered, it seems reasonably sure that sash-covered beds
unless very carefully ventilated are lable to more serious attacks of
root-rot than are cloth-covered beds.

Crowding of plants——The crowding of plants in the seed beds by
too heavy seeding furnishes favorable conditions for the develop-
ment of root-rot, at the same time causing the seedlings to be spin-
dling and tender and thus more susceptible to the disease. This re-
sults not only from the lack of sunlight and a free circulation of air
about the plants themselves, but because the dense mass of foliage of
the crowded plantlets produces a damp blanket over the soil and
prevents proper aeration and circulation, thus aiding fungous
development.

Too heavy seeding of tobacco beds is a common fault and not alto-
gether without cause, for the reason that tobacco seeds are so very
minute that it is difficult to sow a small enough quantity. Moreover,
if any wind is blowing, the seeds are apt to be unequally distributed,
resulting in crowding in some spots, while others are nearly or quite
bare. The best method to avoid crowding and to insure even seeding
is to mix the seed thoroughly with several times its bulk of meal,
ashes, plaster, dry sand, or soil and go over the bed twice, once
lengthwise and the second time crosswise, sowing as small a quantity
as possible each time. After a little experience with this method of
sowing, even distribution of the seed can be obtained and too heavy
seeding prevented, thus insuring more vigorous plants.

Benincasa (3) states that in 1902, at the tobacco agency at Ponte-
corvo, Italy, excessive injury from root-rot was avoided, even though
the disease was more than ordinarily severe, by sowing the seed beds
later and giving the plants more space.

TEMPERATURE.

The few data available from actual practice have not shown that
steam-heated, sash-covered beds are more susceptible to root-rot than
those which rely solely on the sun’s heat. One iarge group of steam-
heated, sash-covered beds was examined quite carefully in the spring
of 1906 and comparatively little root-rot found in two or three beds.
The soil, however, was of a medium light texture, and therefore not
especially favorable to the development of the trouble.

158

ail oman

CONDITIONS INFLUENCING ATTACKS OF THIELAVIA. 29

Severe winters.—By some the virulence of root-rot is thought to
be measurably affected by the character of the preceding winter, a
severe season causing a considerable diminution of the trouble, but
no direct evidence is available on this point, as no experiments have
been carried out to determine the effect of freezing on the viability
of the spores. However, the evidence at hand from practical men
supports the statement.

SEVERE DRYING.

The result of long-continued desiccation of seed beds during the
summer was in one case an increase of root-rot the following spring.
As an experiment one farmer left the sash on a portion of one of his
worst diseased beds all summer. The soil became so dry that every
weed in the bed died and the earth was baked by the sun all summer
long. The following spring the bed was prepared as usual, and the
disease appeared even worse than in the previous season.

CONTINUOUS USE OF BEDS.

The result of using seed beds year after year without sterilization
or change of soil is an increase of root-rot. If the bed is infected
at a particular point and the conditions are favorable, the fungus
will spread by growth through the soil and be scattered in the spad-
ing and preparation of the beds in the spring, so that in the course
of a year or two at the most the entire bed will become infected.

NEW SOIL IN OLD BEDS.

By taking the infected soil from the beds to a depth of 10 to 12
inches and supplying fresh soil, a fairly good crop of seedlings has
in some cases been grown the first year, but the spores of the fungus
left about the sides or in the soil below were sufficient to infect the
new soil, and by the second season at the latest the disease had reap-
peared in serious proportions. In one instance, however, that came to
the writer’s attention, new soil was added in part and mixed with old
soil where the trouble was severe, with the result that the disease
caused serious loss the first season.

NEW BEDS.

Even the preparation of entirely new beds every season does not
insure immunity from attack, as the fungus may be introduced in so
many different ways that it is almost impossible to guard against it
by other means than soil sterilization, especially in sections where the
disease is at all common.

158

30 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

GREENHOUSE EXPERIMENTS.

EFFECT UPON ROOT-ROT OF HEAVY AND OF LIGHT WATERING AND OF A SURFACE LAYER
OF SAND.

Four large flats were filled with rich soil. Three were artificially
inoculated with Thielavia by mixing a number of vigorous corn-meal
cultures with the soil; one was left uninoculated as a check. All were
kept at greenhouse temperature. Flat A was watered excessively,
flat B scantily—just enough to keep the plants from wilting—and
flat C received a moderate amount of water and a surface layer of
sand one-half inch deep.

The experiment was terminated six weeks after sowing the seed,
and out of 587 plants examined in flat A every one was badly af-
fected with Thielavia. The disease, while. present in all the remain-
ing flats, including the check, was in no case as severe as in flat A.
Next to the check, flat B showed the smallest amount of disease, 62
per cent of the plants being quite badly attacked and the remainder
but slightly. In flat C none of the roots in the sand were diseased,
save where the fungus had run up on a root from the infected soil
below. However, a large percentage of the roots which entered the
soil below were more or less diseased.

CoNDITIONS IN THE FIEeLpDs.
CLAY SOIL COMPARED WITH SANDY LOAM.

Root-rot in the field causes by far the greater loss on soils con-
taining a large percentage of clay and lacking in drainage; in some
cases the entire crop is rendered unmarketable.

In the medium light, sandy loams the injury, though often consid-
erable, rarely, if ever, amounts to a total loss of the crop. The loss
in these cases is due to the necessity of having to reset a larger per-
centage than usual of plants that were too weak and were overcome
by the attacks of disease, and to a retarding of the development of
the affected plants, thus resulting in a reduction in the yield and in
injury to the quality of the crop. In some instances the retarding of
the newly set plants has been such as to cause farmers to plow up
whole fields and to reset them with healthy plants. In other cases,
however, the loss is hardly appreciable, though some delay is noticea-
ble in the starting of the crop.

LOW SPOTS.

The greater injury to tobacco in low spots in fields is attributed
by some growers to the burning of the roots by an excess of some con-
stituent of the commercial fertilizers used which by washing and
seepage has accumulated there. A grayish white incrustation was

158

CONDITIONS INFLUENCING ATTACKS OF THIELAVIA. 31

found quite general on the soil in badly diseased spots. An analysis
of this made by the Bureau of Soils, in comparison with soil from
2 to 4 inches below the surface and soil from a healthy portion of the
same field at a similar depth, gave a very large excess of soluble
nitrates, sulphates, and chlorids in the first case and a considerable
increase in the second above the content of healthy soil, the percent-
ages of these soluble salts being, respectively, 0.7 per cent, 0.2 per cent,
and 0.06 per cent. Professor Whitney, who made the analysis, fur-
ther states that this examination would indicate that an excessive
accumulation of soluble salts is the probable cause of the trouble
with the tobacco plants grown on this soil.

The presence of this excessive amount of soluble salts may be in-
jurious to the plant roots and thus render them more susceptible
to the attacks of the fungous parasite. The cultural experiments
described have shown that Thielavia grows more vigorously in the
presence of 0.2 per cent of various salts than in the presence of smaller
amounts, and therefore that the excessive use of fertilizers also favors
the growth of the fungus.

HIGH FERTILIZATION.

Just what relation the high fertilization of tobacco fields in vogue
in many places has upon the development of root-rot can not be
answered conclusively at this time, though work is being done along
this line by Dr. L. J. Briggs, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. As
the result of fertilizer experiments already completed, he concludes
(6) that the root-rot “ fungus attacks the tobacco roots most severely
when the soil has become alkaline, due to the use of too large amounts
of lime, ashes, or fertilizers containing carbonate of potash.”

ROTATION OF CROPS.

Numerous field observations have been made on the effect of crop
rotation upon the virulence of root-rot of tobacco. In a field of a
number of acres comprising one portion previously in tobacco and
another which had been in corn, there was a distinct line of demarca-
tion between the two portions of the field—that previously in tobacco
having the disease much worse than the other, the plants being
stunted and sickly and exhibiting considerable Thielavia on their
roots, while tobacco on the corn land was larger and more vigorous
and healthy in appearance and was little affected by Thielavia.
The same marked difference has been noted between old tobacco fields
and new lands adjoining just brought into cultivation. The growing
of grass on tobacco land for one year has likewise caused a striking
decrease in the amount of root-rot and an increase in the vigor of the
resulting crop.

158

32 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

In one instance a field which had been in tobacco continuously for a
number of years and showed considerable root-rot was enlarged by in-
cluding a strip of land 5 to 15 feet wide on two sides which had not
been cultivated but had borne a growth of weeds. The tobacco on this
fringe was distinctly larger and more vigorous and had less Thielavia.

EXPERIMENTS.

Result of setting diseased plants in the field—A point of great prac-
tical importance to the farmer with diseased beds is to know whether
or not the injured plants may be set in the fields with fair prospects of
a crop. Benincasa (38) says that the transplanting of the young dis-
eased plants does not insure success in the cultivation, and observations
by the writer bear out the statement with few exceptions.

To determine the effect of setting diseased plants in a field free from
the disease, the following experiment was carried out with the assist-
ance of Mr. J. B. Stewart, of the Bureau of Plant Industry:

Four hundred and fifty Havana Broadleaf plants, every one affected
in some degree with root-rot, were selected from a diseased bed, and
a like number of perfectly healthy plants of the same variety was
secured from another source. These were set by machine in two long
rows side by side in a field of medium light, sandy loam, the healthy
plants being set first to avoid danger of infection. The diseased row
was at first noticeably retarded, no growth being apparent for a
period of ten days to two weeks. The plants finally gained the
ascendency over the disease, and, although slightly behind the healthy
row for most of the season, caught up at the last, and shortly before
harvesting time little, if any, difference was apparent in either the
size or the vigor of the plants. The diseased row yielded 1 pound
more of cured tobacco than the healthy one and from a smaller
number of plants, as quite a number of mosaic plants were discarded
from the diseased row. The mosaic disease was much worse in the
diseased row than in the healthy one. However, we have no conclu-
sive evidence that the presence or absence of root-rot has any con-
nection with the virulence of the mosaic disease. Upon examination
of the root systems of full-grown plants from the diseased row, the
lower portion of the taproot was found to be shriveled, black, and
dead from Thielavia attacks, but a vigorous production of lateral
roots which were perfectly healthy and showed no signs of root-rot
had taken place above.

Although in point of yield the two rows may not be strictly com-
parable, as the plants were doubtless of slightly different strains,
though of the same variety, and were also from different sources, the
experiment showed that under the particular conditions in which
the plants were grown the disease did little appreciable damage.

158

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CONDITIONS INFLUENCING ATTACKS OF THIELAVIA. 33

An instance with a like result came to the writer’s notice during
the season of 1906. A farmer pulled from his beds sufficient plants
to set half an acre, but upon finding them so badly diseased that the
root systems were largely rotted off decided not to set them, placing
the seedlings in the cellar instead. After three or four days the plants
developed new roots, and they were set in one corner of a large field
of quite light, sandy loam. They made no growth for ten days to
two weeks, and healthy plants set in the adjoining field some days
later started off much more rapidly. However, at the end of the sea-
son no appreciable difference could be noted in either vigor, yield, or
quality. The roots exhibited the same appearance as in the case
already noted.

Result of setting healthy plants in infected soil—A second experi-
ment was made on a smaller scale in which diseased seedlings were
set in a noninfected field and healthy ones in a diseased seed bed after
the removal of the seedlings. In the first case the result was almost
identical with the experiment already noted, the soil being very simi-
lar. In the latter case, however, the healthy seedlings became ‘quite
badly diseased, were notably stunted, and a large percentage failed
to produce mature plants that were marketable.

In the greenhouse sixty-six plants of Connecticut Havana tobacco
were grown in pots of uninfected soil until 4 to 6 inches high, and
then twenty were inoculated by mixing some infected soil from a
Connecticut seed bed with the soil in which they were growing. The
remaining plants were kept for checks. At the termination of the
experiment the inoculated plants were without exception from 4 to 6
inches shorter than the check plants and showed considerable root-rot
besides a general unhealthy appearance.

Conclusions—While these experiments would indicate that some-

times diseased plants may be set in the field without danger of loss,

the writer would not recommend such action. All the soils in which
these experiments were carried out were of very light texture and un-
favorable to the development of root-rot. On heavier soils the dis-
ease has caused large losses, due both to the stunting and to the kill-
ing of the plants. Moreover, the initial retarding of the plants delays
maturity, and delayed maturity always affects the quality of the crop
injuriously. It also increases the danger of the crop being caught by
frost. In a large field the percentage of plants that have to be reset
because of irreparable injury due to Thielavia is in most cases much
larger than ordinarily, while in a number of cases that have come to:
the writer’s attention whole fields have been plowed up and reset.
with healthy plants.
89994—Bul. 158—09—_—3

34 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

REMEDIAL TREATMENT IN THE SEED BED.

Sorauer (48) seems to have been the first to devise methods of
reducing the injury from Thielavia, the host attacked being in his
case the cyclamen. Since that time Selby (44) and Clinton (20)
in America and several workers in Italy have experimented with
methods of reducing or eliminating the loss occasioned by Thielavia
in tobacco beds.

The measures which may be employed may be divided into two
classes, preventive and palliative. The former relates to all methods
of eliminating the disease by killing the fungus which occasions it.
Under the latter are included all those means which tend to reduce
loss because of the partial or total elimination of conditions of soil,
air, and temperature favoring the development of the fungus or
because of the production of plants resistant to the disease.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
STEAM STERILIZATION.

The preventive method which promises best results to those who
have the conveniences for applying it is that of sterilization of the
seed beds by steam.

In addition to the killing of the fungus, this method, in common
with surface firing, to be described later, has several advantages over
formalin treatments. The weed seeds in the soil are very largely
killed, and this alone, according to the testimony of the farmers
who have used sterilization, pays for the cost of treatment, as the
beds do not have to be weeded and thus a large amount of hand labor
is obviated. The physical texture of the soil is altered by the heat
and made more suitable to root development and, moreover, consider-
able plant food is made directly available to the seedlings. Further-
more, the heating of the soil just before sowing in the spring has an
appreciable effect in starting the seedlings off quickly.

With the elimination of the fungus it is possible to employ those
methods of forcing the plants by extra fertilization, increased water-
ing, and higher temperatures which would otherwise be unsafe as
favoring the development of the root-rot fungus.

Ordinary greenhouse method.—The method of sterilization to be
used will depend to some extent on the size, the location, and the
permanency of beds and the cost of application.

The method in general use for the sterilization of soil in green-
house benches might advantageously be employed in beds that are
to be used year after year without change of location, as the equip-
ment would be more or less permanent. ‘This consists in placing 1

158

Po

REMEDIAL TREATMENT IN THE SEED BED. 35

foot below the surface of the soil a system of 14-inch pipes which
are perforated with 4-inch holes on their under side at intervals of 6
inches throughout their entire length. The pipes should run length-
wise of the bed, 18 inches apart, and be connected with a steam boiler
‘apable of producing 80 to 100 pounds pressure. Before treatment
the soil should be thoroughly spaded up and pulverized to permit
ready access of the steam to all parts, and all fertilizers except com-
mercial ones should be applied at this time, since fresh spores of the
fungus might be carried in if manure were added after sterilization.
Commercial fertilizers, however, contain no Thielavia spores and may
be applied subsequently. Preferably, however, they should be ap-
plied before sterilization and the seed sown the following day.

The bed to be treated should be covered with several thicknesses of
old burlap or blankets to confine the heat to the soil. The steam
should be applied at a pressure of 80 to 100 pounds, as at high pres-
sure it is much drier and the soil is not wet as much as when low-
pressure steam is used. A treatment of from one to two hours is
usually sufficient to thoroughly sterilize the. soil to a depth of 18
inches. A few potatoes laid in the surface soil will indicate the
thoroughness of the treatment by the degree to which they are cooked.
The blankets might advantageously be left on for some time to make
the treatment more thorough.

While this method offers some advantages for seed beds of limited
area. in that the pipes may be left in the ground and used year
after year with little extra labor and may also be used for subirri-
gation, the initial cost of installation, especially on large seed-bed
areas, may be prohibitive.

Steam-rake method.—The method of sterilization by a steam rake
has not proved successful in practice. The implement is in the form
of a rake made of hollow, perforated pipes, which are forced into the
thoroughly pulverized seed-bed soil and through which the steam is
applied. The difficulty is that the steam, instead of permeating the
soil, follows the path of least resistance and escapes up the side of the
teeth.

Inverted-pan method —The method which has given the best re-
sults in practice, and which because of its simplicity and small cost
recommends itself for use on large or small areas, is the invention of
Mr. A. D. Shamel, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and was de-
vised by him to sterilize nematode-infested soils in Florida. The
apparatus consists of a galvanized iron pan, 6 by 10 feet and 6 inches
deep, which is inverted over the soil to be sterilized and the steam
admitted under pressure. The pan is supplied with steam hose con-
nections, has sharp edges, which are forced into the soil on all sides
to prevent the escape of steam, and is fitted with handles for moving

158

36 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

it from place to place, the weight of the entire pan being not over
400 pounds.

The soil is prepared as in the greenhouse method, a few potatoes
being buried at a depth of a foot to gauge the degree of heat attained.
A soil thermometer may also be used if desired. The steam should
be kept at as high a pressure as possible, 80 to 100 pounds being best,
and the treatment should continue for one to two hours, depending
on the pressure maintained. In experiments conducted in the spring
of 1907, one hour’s steaming at 80° C. under 100 pounds pressure
gave best results in killing both the fungus and the weed seeds. When
one section of the bed is treated the pan is lifted and carried to an un-
sterilized portion and the operation repeated until the entire bed is
steamed. (Pl. V, fig. 2.)

SURFACE FIRING.

The surface firing of seed beds has been a common practice for
years in some tobacco sections, particularly Kentucky and the South,
the end in view being the improving of the tilth of the soil and the
killing of weed seeds rather than of any fungous disease, though in all
probability this custom accounts for the fact that little trouble is
known to occur in such sections from root-rot. In Italy, as well,
burning is now considered a part of the regular method of seed-bed
preparation, it having been resorted to as a preventive of root-rot.

Direct firing.—Two methods of surface firing are in vogue, the first
by direct firing and the second requiring the use of a pan. In direct
firing, the land to be sterilized is first thoroughly pulverized and
manure applied. It is then covered with straw, brush, and wood
sufficient to make a hot fire. This is ignited and allowed to burn for
an hour or so, and then moved along to a new adjacent spot. The
ashes are raked into the surface soil and the seed is sown.

Pan firing —The second method consists in the use of a sheet-iron
pan, 3.by 9 feet, under which a fire is made. This is set in the middle
of a 9-foot bed and the soil on one side to a depth of 6 inches is
shoveled in and heated, great care being taken to keep it moist,
otherwise the humus would be burned out and the physical texture
irreparably altered. After an hour this soil is put back and that
from the other side of the pan subjected to the same treatment and
then the pan moved along to a new place. The soil underneath the
pan itself is thereby subjected to heat for two hours.

FORMALIN STERILIZATION,

The use cf a formalin solution for the sterilization of greenhouse
soil and of tobacco seed beds against Rhizoctonia has been in vogue
for some time with excellent results, and furnishes a very simple

158

ee

REMEDIAL TREATMENT IN THE SEED BED. 37

means of combating the root-rot. The method is as follows: The
beds are thoroughly prepared the same as for the other methods of
sterilization described and are then drenched with a formalin solu-
tion composed of 1 part of commercial formalin to 150 to 200 parts
of water, three-fourths to 1 gallon of this solution being used to the
square foot of bed space. The solution should be put on with a
watering pot with a rose and distributed as evenly as possible over
the bed, so as to thoroughly wet the soil to the depth of a foot. It
will in most cases be necessary to put this solution on in two or three
applications, as the soil will not take in this quantity of water imme-
diately. The beds should then be covered with heavy burlap or a tar-
paulin to keep in the fumes for a day or so, and then aired for a week
before sowing the seed.

Spring applications of formalin are open to the following objec-
tions: The addition of such a large quantity of water to the soil
keeps it wet and cold for some time longer than would naturally be
the case, thus delaying germination as well as subsequent growth;
the necessity of airing the beds to remove the formalin fumes and
to allow the soil to dry out also causes delay in seeding. To obviate
this difficulty the beds should be treated in the fall, before freezing
weather sets in. In this case a stronger solution, 1 to 100, may well
‘be used, as there will of course be no danger then of injuring the
seedlings.

COMPARATIVE EXPERIMENTS WITH STEAM AND FORMALIN STERILIZATION.

Numerous greenhouse experiments have been made to determine
the comparative merits of steam and formalin sterilization, and a
seed-bed trial was carried out in cooperation with Messrs. A. D,
Shamel and J. B. Stewart, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, involv-
ing a comparison of steam sterilization, surface firing, and formalin
drenching as means of preventing the tobacco root-rot.

Steam sterilization—To determine the effect of different degrees
of heat and different lengths of steam treatment of soil upon the
development of Thielavia the following experiment was made: Six
8-inch pots were filled half full of good greenhouse soil, and suflicient
soil to fill them was added from a badly diseased tobacco seed bed
in Connecticut. They were then autoclaved one and one-half hours
at 20 pounds pressure at 126° C. On the following day four of these
were again autoclaved in the same manner, and two again on the
third day. Two unsterilized 10-inch pots of the same infected soil
were used for checks, and all were sown on the same day with Con-
necticut Havana seed. Germination was rather uneven in all the pots.
After three weeks a considerable number of seedlings in the check pots
damped-off with Thielavia, but those in the steam-treated pots were

158

38 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

perfectly healthy, and a week later were two to three times as large
as the survivors in the check pots. These remained much smaller
and were sickly in appearance throughout the experiment. (PI. IV,

At the end of eight weeks the plants in all the pots were pulled
and found in the following condition:

Check pots: Plants distinctly stunted and foliage a sickly yellow color charac-
teristic of root-rot. Roots of all plants badly diseased with Thielavia.

Pots autoclaved one day: Plants deep green, vigorous, and healthy. A small
amount of Thielavia on the roots of one plant.

Pots autoclaved two days: In one pot no germination occurred; in the second
pot the plants were quite vigorous and healthy and no Thielavia was found.
Pots autoclaved three days: Plants fairly vigorous and healthy, though some-

what crowded. Root systems perfectly healthy.

The result of this experiment was that in five sterilized pots one
plant only was slightly attacked by Thielavia (doubtless owing to
chance reinfection after sterilization), while every plant in the two
untreated pots was badly diseased.

The experiment was repeated with the same pots, the soil being
reinfected by mixing it with infected soil and cut-up, diseased tobacco
roots and allowed to stand two days before treatment.

Two pots were autoclaved one and one-half hours at 102° C., 1
pound pressure; two pots were autoclaved one and one-half hours at
108° C., 5 pounds pressure ; two pots were autoclaved one and one-half
hours at 126° C., 20 pounds pressure; two pots were left for checks.

All pots were sown on the same date with Connecticut Havana
seed. Germination was good in all. As in the previous experi-
ment, by the end of the fifth week a very large majority of the plants
in the check pots had been killed by the attacks of Thielavia, only
a few scattering, stunted plants remaining, while in the sterilized
pots no signs of Thielavia were to be seen. At the end of eight
weeks plants were pulled from the sterilized pots, and the roots were
found perfectly healthy. When the few plants left in the check
pots were pulled, all were found to be diseased.

Formalin sterilization.—To test the effect of different strengths of
formalin solution used as a drench to prevent root-rot, the following
experiments were made:

Three boxes 10 by 82 by 6 inches were filled with rich potting
soil and thoroughly inoculated with Thielavia by mixing with the
top 2 or 3 inches of soil a considerable quantity of a pure culture of
Thielavia on corn meal. One was kept for a check, and the other
two were treated the next day with formalin solution as follows:
Box A was drenched with a 1 to 200 formalin solution, three-fourths
gallon being used to the square foot of surface; box B was treated
in like manner with a 1 to 300 formalin solution. The boxes were

158

REMEDIAL TREATMENT IN THE SEED BED. 39

allowed to stand for several days to permit the formalin fumes to
escape and the soil to dry out.

At the end of two weeks the plants in the treated boxes were
healthy and vigorous, while the check showed poorer germination,
the plants were not as vigorous, and some Thielavia was to be found.

At the expiration of three weeks the plants in the treated boxes
had continued their vigorous growth, while the check showed plants
small, much diseased, scattered, and sickly in appearance. Many were
dead from root-rot. The experiment was terminated at the end of
six weeks and the plants pulled and examined (see Pl. III, fig. 3),
with the following results:

Check box: Plants very scattering, sickly green in color, 1 to 2 inches tall; 148
plants examined and every one found diseased with Thielavia.
Box A, treated with 1 to 200 formalin solution: Plants vigorous and healthy

lod

in appearance, 5 to 7 inches tall. About 500 plants examined and Thielavia

found on the roots of one plant; roots of the remainder perfectly healthy.
Box B, treated with 1 to 300 formalin solution: Plants healthy in appearance,

6 to 8 inches tall. Out of 268 plants examined 95 were found perfectly

healthy and. 175 diseased by Thielavia—some very slightly, some badly.

The experiment was repeated with slightly different results, as
follows:

. Check box: Plants very badly diseased with Thielavia.

Box A, treated with 1 to 200 formalin solution: Considerable Thielavia present.

Box B, treated with 1 to 300 formalin solution: There was a very little Thie-
lavia on 8 roots out of the large number of plants in the box, the remainder
being entirely healthy.

The disease in box A may have been due to reinfection from the
check or from some other source. Owing to the absence of the
writer the experiment was run much longer than it should have been,
and the plants being excessively crowded in the box made a very
weak, spindling growth, thus rendering them especially susceptible
to the attacks of Thielavia.

Seed-bed trial of sterilization methods.—To test thoroughly the
steam and formalin methods of sterilization, together with that of
surface firing, under actual seed-bed conditions, the following experi-
ment was carried out in the spring of 1907 at Simsbury, Conn., in a
seed bed which had been badly diseased the preceding year. (PI. IV,
fig. 1.)

It should be stated at this point that while the plans were outlined
by the writer, all material from the several beds examined by him
from time to time, and the conditions of the beds noted at the termi-
nation of the experiment, the work of preparation, treatment, and
subsequent care of the seed beds was done by Mr. J. B. Stewart,
owing to the fact that other work prevented the writer from giving
the experiment personal attention.

158

4() ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

A diseased bed, 62 feet long and 6 feet wide, was divided into 7
sections, which received different treatments, as illustrated in the

following diagram:

Section 1 (10 Section 2 (8 | Section 3 (8 | Section 4 (8 | Section 5 (8 | Section 6 (10 } Section 7 (10
feet). feet). feet). feet). feet). feet). feet).
Open wood | Check. Un-| Formalin, ; Formalin, | Steam. Soil | Steam. Soil | Steam. Soil
1 Tey yee! treated. 1 to 200.| 1 to 300. heated to heated to heated to
hour. Three-| Three- 290° F. for 175° I’. for 150° F. for

fourths; fourths 3 hour. 1 hour. 14 hours.
gallon per j;. gallon per

square square

foot. foot.

The soil was thoroughly spaded up and fertilizers added before
treatment. The sections were separated by 1-inch boards inserted
several inches into the soil and extending 4 to 6 inches above it.
The various sterilization treatments were given April 15 and the
Havana Broadleaf seed put to sprout in moist apple-wood punk and
sown four days later. The beds were then covered with cheese
cloth, which was kept on during the early part of the experiment
until warm weather set in.

On section 1 a fire of brush and wood was burned for an hour
and the ashes raked into the topsoil.

On sections 3 and 4 the formalin solution was applied with a
watering pot with a rose. The solution was put on in several in-
stallments, as the soil would not take it all up at once.

Sections 5, 6, and 7 were steam sterilized by the inverted-pan
method (described on p. 35). Section 5 was treated for a half
hour after the soil had reached a temperature of 200° F. as indicated
by a soil thermometer inserted 6 to 8 inches below the surface of the
soil. Section 6 was treated one hour at a temperature of 175° F.,
and section 7 one and one-half hours at a temperature of 150° F.

The following notes made by Mr. Stewart give the condition of
the beds on the dates stated :

April 26. Plants coming up on all steam-sterilized and check sections, but none
showing on formalin or open-fire burnt sections.

April 30. Plants on all steam and fire sterilized and check sections up and
growing nicely, but plants on formalin-treated sections are not coming up; only
very few plants can be found, and these are small and weak.

May 6. Plants on all sterilized beds except formalin treated doing nicely.
Steam-sterilized and check sections look best; plants are largest. Then comes
the open-fire section. On formalin sections plants just coming up. ;

May 14. Plants all doing very nicely for cloth beds. Steam-sterilized and
check sections about same in advancement, and fire and formalin treated about
the same. Formalin-treated beds brisking up, though plants are thinner than
on other sections.

May 21. In steam-sterilized sections plants too thick;
sections too thin; check and fire-sterilized sections about right.

158

in formalin-treated
Steamed sec-

ae

REMEDIAL TREATMENT IN THE SEED BED. 41

tions at least one week ahead of others. These were thinned and whole bed
fertilized with one-third pail of a special fertilizer and well watered down.
No disezse showing as yet.

On May 30, plants from several beds were sent by Mr. Stewart to
the writer, who examined them with the following results:

7

Section 7, steam sterilized one and one-half hours at 150° IF’. No disease.
Section 1, open-fire sterilized. A few plants slightly diseased.

Section 3, formalin treated, 1 to 200. One.plant slightly diseased.
Section 2, check. A few plants diseased.

Mr. Stewart’s notes continue as follows:

June 7. Plants in steamed sections ready to set; show no disease. In
formalin-treated sections, one week behind. No disease yet definite. Check,
all plants diseased.

On June 12, about 100 plants from each bed were pulled and sent
to the writer, who examined them with the following results:

Section 1, fire sterilized. Plants 2 to 8 inches tall, healthy in appearance.
No Thielavia found.

Section 2, check. Plants one-half to 2 inches tall, stunted and badly diseased.
Thielavia abundant.

Section 3, formalin treated, 1 to 200. Vlants 8 inches tall. Thielavia found
on quite a number, though not bad as yet.

Section 4, formalin treated, 1 to 300. Plants 2 inches tall. Thielavia found

on a considerable number; none bad enough to be noticeable to the naked eye

without careful examination.

Section 5, steamed one-half hour at 200° F. Plants 2 to 3 inches tall, healthy.
A very small amount of Thielavia found. The great majority of roots per-
fectly healthy.

Section 6, steamed one hour at 175° F. Plants 3 to 4 inches tall, healthy.
No Thielavia found.

Section 7, steamed one and one-half hours at 150° F. Plants 4 to 6 inches
tall, healthy, and with good root systems. Practically free from Thielavia,
though a few rootlets were found showing the trouble in slight measure.

The following notes are also by Mr. Stewart:

June 20. Five thousand plants pulled for setting from three steamed sections.
June 27. Eleven thousand plants taken from same sections and some from
open-fire section. No plants were pulled for setting from either formalin-treated

or check sections, _
On July 9, about 100 plants were pulled from each bed and sent
to the writer, who examined them with the following results:

Section 1, fire sterilized. Out of 106 plants examined, 40 were perfectly
healthy and 66 diseased—a few quite badly, the majority moderately.

Section 2, check. Ninety-nine plants, all diseased from moderately to very
badly.

Section 3, formalin treated, 1 to 200. Wighty-five plants badly diseased.

Section 4, formalin treated, 1 to 300. Ninety plants, all more or less diseased.

Section 5, steamed one-half hour at 200° F. Sixty plants badly diseased ;
25 slightly, if at all.

Section 6, steamed one hour at 175° F. Seventy plants healthy, 18 slightly
diseased.

158

42 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

Section 7, steamed one and one-half hours at 150° F. Plants very healthy
in appearance, 80 with healthy root systems, 20 slightly diseased.

On July 12 the beds were examined by the writer and found in
the following condition, which also summarizes the results of the
trial, the sections being treated in the order of their excellence.
None of the beds were weeded during the experiment.

Section 6, steamed one hour at 175° F, Best bed in every respect, all
plants dark green and healthy, almost entirely free from disease. Hardly a
weed in the plat. (See Pl. IV, fig. 2.)

Sections 5 and 7, steamed one-half hour at 200° T°, and steamed one and a half
hours at 150° F. About the same in appearance as section 6, although slightly
more disease present in both plats, but not enough to do any real harm. A
very few weeds were left in both beds.

Section 1, surface-fire sterilized. Not as healthy in appearance as steamed
sections. Considerable disease to be found all over the plat. Somewhat weedy.

Section 4, formalin treated, 1 to 300. Disease found on most plants, some-
times quite bad. Plants sickly in appearance. Badly overgrown and choked
by weeds.

Section 3, formalin treated, 1 to 200. Disease found on every plant; on some
very bad. Choked by weeds; even worse than section 4.

Section 2, check. Plants very scattering, many dead, very badly overgrown
by weeds. Remaining plants all more or less diseased, many very badly.

To summarize, the steam treatments gave excellent results, the
surface-fire treatment fair returns, while the two formalin-treated
plats were little better than the untreated check plat.

Several reasons may be advanced to account for the failure of the
formalin treatment. The seed was probably sown too soon after
the treatment, so that the fumes of formalin had not fully escaped
from the soil, and retarded and injured the germinating seedlings.
Moreover, the soil had not dried out sufficiently, so that the bed was
wet and cold. Both of these conditions would tend to produce weak
plants easily attacked by the fungus from the adjoiming check plat,
which was separated by a -board partition only. Fall application
of the formalin would obviate both of these difficulties and, moreover,
a stronger solution, 1 to 100, could advantageously be used with
greater certainty of securing good results.

However, until further experimentation has fully adapted the
formalin treatment to practical usage, steam sterilization stands as
the best means of preventing tobacco root-rot.

PALLIATIVE MEASURES.

The measures now to be cited are purely secondary to the pre-
ventive remedies above described, and serve merely to reduce to a
greater or less degree the amount of disease.

Soils containing a good proportion of sand should be used for seed
beds and heavy clays avoided or lightened by the addition of sand.

158

—_

SUMMARY. 43

Excessive fertilization and watering should be avoided, and if
sash are used thorough ventilation should be given.

The making of new beds each year has in some cases obviated the
trouble, though some instances have been noted where the disease
has been bad in perfectly fresh beds.

The use of fresh soil in old beds is a doubtful expedient, as spores
ere inevitably left on the sides of the beds and in the soil beneath,
and these may readily infect the new soil and render the work futile.
Several instances have come to the writer’s attention in which this
has been done, with the result that the disease has been as bad as or

worse than during the preceding year.

Special care should be taken to avoid too heavy seeding of the
beds and subsequent crowding of the plants.

Several Italian writers, Peglion, Benincasa, and Campbell, report
differences in resistance to root-rot in the varieties of tobacco in
cultivation. At both the Pontecorvo and the San Sepolcro tobacco
agencies the varieties Brasile Beneventano and Seedleaf showed the
greatest resistance to root-rot, while the Kentucky and the Burley
were especially susceptible. Moreover, Benincasa states that “it is
an established fact that the indigenous varieties offer a resistance to
root-rot much greater than that of exotic varieties, the seed of which
ds imported every year from their native country.”

So far as known, no observations have been made along this line
in this country.

SUMMARY.

Root-rot of tobacco is a disease causing the death or dwarfing of
the plants in the seed bed and in the field. The trouble has been
especially serious for the last few years in the tobacco-growing sec-
tions of Connecticut, where it has caused considerable loss.

The disease is due to the attacks of the fungus 7hielavia basicola
upon the roots of the plants.

The fungus belongs to the family Perisporiacee and produces
three kinds of spores, by means of which it is disseminated. It has
been found in seven countries parasitic on twenty-five different host
plants.

Thielavia has been grown in artificial culture on a wide range of
culture media and its life history studied.

The conditions conducive to serious injury from root-rot are:
(1) Infection of the seed bed or the field with 7Vhielavia basicola;
(2) a fairly heavy soil rich in humus; (3) excessive fertilization:
(4) heavy watering in the beds; (5) lack of ventilation in the beds.

The sterilization of infected seed beds by the methods herein
described furnishes an effective means of preventing the disease.

158

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

A bibliography of all known literature on the disease caused by
Thielavia basicola, with a summary of each citation, follows:

1. ADERHOLD, RupotF. Impfversuche mit Thielavia basicola Zopf. Arb. K,
Gsndhtsamt., Biol. Abt., bd. 4, hft. 5, pp. 4683-465. Berlin, 1905. (Ab-
stract. Centbl. Bakt., abt. 2, bd. 15, no. 9, pp. 276-277. Jena, 1905.)

Aderhold made pure cultures and carried on inoculation experiments with
several hosts. He found the fungus only feebly parasitic on the hosts employed.

2. BARBATELLI and Stazi. [Note of occurrence of Thielavia at tobacco agency,
Scafati, Italy.] Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 3, p. 152,
Seafati, 1902.

3. Brenrncasa, MicuEeLre. Ricerche sui mezzi per difendere i semenzai di tabacco
dal “‘marciume radicale” causato dalla Thielavia basicola Zopf. Bol.
Tecnic. d. Coltiy. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 1, pp. 24-83. Scafati, 1902.

Experiments with different characters of seed-bed soil in their relation to
tobacco root-rot, and with various preventive methods.

4. ——— Come si coltiva il tabacco. Roma, 1907.

See pt. 2, pp. 16, 30-31, fig. 10. Describes and illustrates methods of burning
seed beds as the only means of preventing Thielavia root-rot.

See pt. 8, p. 157. Note on the relative resistance of Burley and Maryland
tobaccos to root-rot.

5. BERKELEY, M. J., and Broome, C. E. Notices of British fungi. Ann. and Mag,
Nat. Hist., s. 2, vol. 5, no. 30, p. 461. London, 1850.
This paper describes and figures the chlamydospore stage of Thielavia basicola
Zopf as a new species, Jorula basicola B. and Br.
6. Briecs, LYMAN J. The field treatment of tobaceco-rot. Bu. Plant Ind., U. §.
Dept. Agr., Cir. 7. Washington, 1908.

As the result of fertilizer experiments with tobacco on Thielavia-infected
soil, Doctor Briggs concludes that fungous attacks are most severe upon soils
made alkaline by large applications of lime, ashes, or fertilizers containing
carbonate of potash.

Brunt. [Occurrence of root-rot at Scafati, Italy.] Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiy. d.
Tabacchi, an. 6, no. 3, p. 189. Seafati, 1907.

a |

&. Burraro, G. [Note of occurrence of root-rot at Pontecorvo, Italy.] Bol.
Teenie. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 2; p. 94. Scafati, 1902.

The disease is ascribed to unfavorable conditions due to excessive rains, too
high temperatures, ete.

2
|

[Varieties of tobacco resistant to Thielavia, Pontecorvo, Italy.] Bol.
Teenic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 3, p. 159. Scafati, 1902.

Buttaro notes that Kentucky and Brasile Beneventano tobaccos are very re-
sistant to the root-rot, and Burley tobacco very susceptible.

10. —-—— [Thielavia at Pontecorvo, Italy.] Bol. Teenic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi,
an. 1, no. 4, p. 234. Seafati, 1902.
The disease caused considerable delay in tobacco setting.

OO ——————— ———

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 45

11. CAMPBELL, C. Moria delle piantine di tabacco nei semenzai. Italia Agr.,
an. 38, no. 23, pp. 540-542, 1 pl. Milano, 1901.

Campbell describes tobacco root-rot and Thielavia basicola causing it. Ree.
ommends better preparation and care of seed beds and also burning to prevent
the disease. Figures by a colored plate a diseased plant and the three spore
forms of Thielavia.

12. CAPPELLUTI-ALTOMARE, G. I semenzai di tabacco e la ‘‘ Thielavia basicola
Zopt.” Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no, 3, pp. 137-146,
Seafati, 1902.

Details an experiment to demonstrate the usefulness of burning compost for
seed beds in preventing Thielavia root-rot.

13. ——— [Thielavia at Foiano, Italy.] Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an,
1, no. 2, p. 92. Scafati, 1902.

Notes reduction of loss by burning seed beds.

14. ———— [Death of plants in seed beds at Foiano, Italy, due in most instances
to Thielavia.] Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 3, p. 155,
Seafati, 1902.

15. ———— [Transplanting at Foiano, Italy, delayed because of injury to seed
beds due to Thielavia.] Bol. Teenic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 4, p,
232. Scafati, 1902.

16. ———— [Notes on results of burning beds at Foiano, Italy, to prevent root-
rot.] Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 4, p. 251. Scafati,
1902.

17. ———— [Root-rot in seed beds at Foiano della Chiana, Italy.] Bol. Teenie,
: d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 2, no. 3/4, p. 237. Scafati, 1903.

18. — - [Extraordinary dying of tobacco plants in seed beds at Cava dei
Tirreni, Italy, due to attacks of Thielavia, assisted by unfavorable soil
and atmospheric conditions.] Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabaecchi, an. 5,

no. 1/3, p. 161. Scafati, 1906.

19. Ciinton, G. P., and Jenkins, E. H. Root-rot of tobacco. Conn. Agr. Expt.
Sta., Bul. Immediate Inform. 4. New Haven, 1906.

A preliminary description and report of the disease in Connecticut, with
recommendations for the treatment of affected beds.

20. Ciinton, G. P. Root-rot of tobacco, Thielavia basicola (B. and Br.) Zopf,
Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. 30th Ann. Rpt., 1906, Rpt. Botanist, pp. 342-368,
New Haven, 1907.

A complete report of Clinton’s investigations of root-rot in. Connecticut in
1906, containing a description of the fungus, a discussion of the disease in its
various aspects, and reports of experiments, with recommendations for the pre.
vention of the disease in seed beds.

20a. ——— Root-rot of tobacco—II. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. 31st Ann. Rpt., 1907,
Rpt. Botanist, pp. 8638-868. New Haven, 1908.

A further report on cultural work and seed-bed treatments with steam and
formalin, from which Clinton concludes that fall applications of formalin, 1 to
100, furnish a very efficient and convenient method of preventing root-rot and
that steam treatment is fully as effective but more cumbersome and expensive
The steam-rake method was used.

21. Fiscuer, Ep. Thielavia, Zopf. Engler, A., and Prantl, K. Die natiirlichen
Pflanzenfamilien, teil I, abt. 1, p. 299. Leipzig, 1897.

Fischer describes Thielavia as a genus of the Aspergillacee in the Plectasci.
nee. IT igures all spore forms, a perithecium, and an ascus.
158

46 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

22. FRANK, A. B. Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen. [Aufl. 1.] Breslau, 1880.
See p. 586 for brief description of the fungus Thielavia basicola.

23. ——— [Idem, aufl. 2.] Breslau, 1895-1896.

See bd. 2, p. 278, for a fuller description of the fungus.

24. Gararo. [Reports plants of Kentucky tobacco attacked by root-rot at Sas-
sari, Sardinia.] Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 6, no. 3, p. 203.
Seafati, 1907.

25. GALLOWAY, B. T. Commercial violet culture. [Ed. 1.] New York, 1899.
See pp. 170-174, fig. 51. Galloway describes a stem-rot of violets due to
Thielavia and gives a method of holding it in check.
26. ——— |[Idem, ed. 2.] New York, 1903.
See pp. 174-178, fig. 53.

27. JACZEWSKI, A. de. Essai de classification naturelle des Pyrenomycetes.
Bul. Soc. Mycol. France, t. 10, pp. 13-48. Paris, 1894.

A short description of Thielavia as a genus of the tribe Thielaviées, family
Sphaerelées, of the Pyrenomycetes, is given.

28. KircHNeR, ©. Die Krankheiten und Beschiidigungen. unserer landwirt-
schaftlichen Kulturpflanzen. [Aufl. 2.] Stuttgart, 1906.

See pp. 126, 1388, 232, 336. Kirchner describes Thielavia as occurring on
various hosts, particularly tobacco.

29. Marcuat, E. Rapport sur les maladies cryptogamiques étudiées au Labora-
toire de botanique de Il’Institut agricole de Gembloux, année 1900.
Bruxelles, 1901. (Abstract. Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank., bd. 12, no. 4, p. 239.
Stuttgart, 1902.)

See pp. 9-10. Notes Thielavia causing death of peas grown in Sach’s solution,
and its occurrence in other legumes and composites.

30. ———— In Belgien im Jahre 1901 beobachtete pilzparasitiire Krankheiten.
Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank., bd. 12, no. 1/2, p. 48. Stuttgart, 1902.

31. Orton, W. A. Plant diseases in 1901. U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1901,
p. 672. Washington, 1902.
Notes occurrence of Thielavia in seed beds.
32. ———— Plant diseases in 1903. U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1903, p. 554.
Washington, 1904.
Reported occurrence of Thielavia on tobacco in Ohio, making necessary selec-
tion of new lands for seed beds.
33. Peetion, V. Marciume radicale delle piantine di tabacco causato della
Thielavia basicola Zopf. Atti R. Accad. Lincei, an. 294, s. 5, Rend. Cl.
Sci. Fis., vol. 6, semestre 2, fasc. 2, pp. 52-56. Roma, 1897.

34, ———— [Idem.] Centbl. Bakt., abt. 2, bd. 8, -no:-21/22, pp. 580-584. Jena,
1897.

Peglion gives a complete description of the disease and of Thielavia. At-
tributes virulence of root-rot to poorly prepared seed beds and to too heavy
fertilization and watering.

35. — Le malattie crittogamiche delle piante coltivate. [Hd. 1.] Casale
Monferrato, 1899.
See pp. 185-188. Marciume radicale delle piantine nei semenzal.
36. ——-— [Idem, ed. 2.] Casale Monferrato, 1905.

See pp. 203-206. <A description of the disease, with recommendations for
treatment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 47

37. Peeuion, V. La moria delle piantine nei semenzai. Ricerche intorno ii
mezzi de defesa. Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital., vol. 33, fase. 3, pp. 221-237.
Modena, 1900.

Reports having obtained ascospores of Thielavia in pure culture on 3-year-old
potato slants revived by the addition of 0.6 per cent tartaric acid. Advises the
burning of seed beds to prevent root-rot.

38. Rostrup, E. Plantepatologi. WKjébenhavn, 1902.
See p. 437. Brief description of root-rot of various legumes due to Vhielavia
basicola, taken from Zopf.
39. Saccarpo, P. A. Thielavia basicola, Zopf. Sylloge fungorum, vol. 1, p. 39
Patavii, 1882.
A brief description taken from Zopf. Notes Torula basicola Berk. as one of
the spore forms of Thielavia.
40. ——— Torula basicola. Sylloge fungorum, vol. 4, )). 257. Patavii, 1886.

Description taken from Berkeley's account.

41. ——— Clasterosporium fragile (Sorok.) Saecc. Sylloge fungorum, vol. 4, p.
386. Patavii, 1886.
Describes Sorokin’s Helminthosporium fragile here, not recognizing its identity
with the chlamydospore stage of Thielavia basicola.

42. Secsy, A. D. Investigations of plant diseases in forcing house and garden.
Ohio Agr: Expt. Sta. Bul. 73. Wooster, Ohio, 1896. (Abstract in Ztschr.
Pflanzenkrank., bd. 8, no. 2, p. 91. Stuttgart, 1898.)

See p. 228. Selby found Vhielavia basicola on the roots of Begonia rubra
attacked by nematodes.

43. ——— Tobacco diseases and tobacco breeding. Ohio Agr. Nxpt. Sta. Bul.
156. Wooster, Ohio, 1904.
Root-rot (black-root). See pp. 95-97, figs. 1 and 2. This paper reports havy-
ing received specimens of Thielavia-diseased tobacco seedlings from southern
Ohio in 1899, and again in 1908 from southwestern Ohio. Advises making beds
on new soil each year.

44. ——_ Soil treatment of tobacco plant beds. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Cire. 59.
Wooster, Ohio, 1906.

Fall applications of formalin 1 to 200, 1 gallon per square foot, are advised

to prevent black-root (Thielavia), based on successful experiments with the
bed-rot (Rhizoctonia).

45. SHamer, A. D. Another blight strikes tobacco. Hartford Daily Courant,
May 28, 1906.
Shamel here reports a serious outbreak of root-rot in the tobacco seed beds of
several Connecticut towns. Advises sprinkling beds with 1 to 2,000 formalin
solution once a week.

46. Smiru, Erwin F. Wilt disease of the cotton, watermelon, and cowpea
(Neocosmospora noy. gen.). Div. Veg. Phys. and Path., U.S. Dept. “rx,
Bul. 17. Washington, 1899.

See pp. 35, 38. Smith mentions the occurrence of Thielavia basicola on cow-
pea and cotton seedlings in experimental pots causing the rotting of stems at or
beneath the surface of the soil.

47. Soraver, P. Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten. [Aufl. 2.] Berlin, 1886.
See bd. 2, pp. 332, 333. Short note on fungus. Recognizes identity of
chlamydospores of Thielavia with Vorula basicola of Berkeley and Broome and
Helminthosporium fragile of Sorokin.
158

48

48.

49.

51.

56.

57.

58.

59.

ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

Soraver, P. Ueber die Wurzelbriiune der Cyclamen. Ztschr. Pflanzen-
krank., bd. 5, no. 1, pp. 18-20. Stuttgart, 1895.
Details of a root disease of cyclamens caused by Thielavia basicola are pre-
sented.
—— [Note of occurrence of Thielavia.] Ztschr. Pflanzenkrank., bd. 6,
hft. 3, p. 815. Stuttgart, 1896.

. SoroKIN, N. Ueber Helminthosporium fragile sp. n,. Hedwigia, bd. 15,

no. 8, pp. 118-114, fig. A. Dresden, 1876.
Chlamydospores of Thielavyia found on rotten horse-radish roots at Kazan,
Russia, are described as a new species.
THAXxTER, R. Fungus in violet roots. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta., Ann. Rpt.,
1891, pp. 166-167. New Haven, Conn., 1892.

The occurrence of Thielavia on violets in Connecticut is noted; this is the
first report of the presence of the fungus in America.

. Tusprur, K. von, and Smitrn, W. G. Diseases of plants induced by erypto-

gamic parasites. New York, 1897.

See pp. 182-183. <A short account of the fungus is given, and it is stated
that it is the only species of the Perisporiee which causes a really serious
plant disease.

VrerpurA, O. [Bad outbreak of root-rot in tobacco nurseries at Cori, Italy.]
Bol. Teenie. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 1, no. 3, p. 158. Scafati, 1902.

Winter, G. Thielavia. Rabenhorst. Kryptogamen-flora von Deutschland.
Aufl. 2, bd. 1, abt. 2, p. 53. Leipzig, 1887.

This paper is a scientific description of the fungus.

WoutovicH, M. Sulla costituzione e sul trattamento dei terricci da adope-
rare nei semenzai. Bol. Tecnic. d. Coltiv. d. Tabacchi, an. 6, no. 3, pp.
162-166, 2 pls. Scafati, 1907.

A discussion of experiments with various soils for tobacco seed beds, burned
and unburned.

Zorr, W. Thielavia, genus novum, Perisporiacearum. Verhandl. Bot. Ver.
Prov. Brandenburg, j. 18, Sitzungsber. 30 Juni, 1876, pp. 101-105. Ber-
lin, 1876.

— [Idem.] Hedwegia, bd, 16, pp. 114-117. Dresden, 1877.

Zopf describes the fungus found on roots of Senecio elegans as a new genus of
Perisporiex, giving it the name Thielavia after Doctor Thielau and placing
Berkeley and Broome’s Torula basicola under it. Mentions four spore forms.

———Die Pilze. Breslau, 1890.

See pp. 36, 81, 96, and 113, fig. 61. Notes on morphology of Thielavia.

Ueber die Wurzelbratine der Lupinen, eine neue Pilzkrankheit.
Ztschr. Pilanzenkrank., bd. 1, no. 2, pp. 72-76, figs. 1 and 2. Stuttgart,
1891.

Describes a brown-root of lupines as a new disease due to Thielavia and
gives a description of the fungus and a list of its hosts.

158

49

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PLate I. Microscopie characters of the root-rot fungus (Thielavia basicola
Zopt). 1.—Endoconidia. 2.—Different stages in the germination of the
endoconidia. 38.—Endoconidia germinated and producing new endoconidia.
4.—Endoconidiophore, enlarged, showing formation and ejection of endo-
conidia. 5.—(A) Mycelium. (B) Endoconidial cell. (C) Endoconidin
being pushed out. (1D) Chlamydospores. (EK) Endoconidium germinating
in situ. 6.—Chlamydospores breaking up into segments. 7.—Chlamy-
dospore segments germinating. S.—Perithecium. 9.—Ascospores.

PuavE II. Demonstration of parasitism of Thielavia. Both dishes shown
were fitted with moist blotting paper and sterilized in an autoclave.
Tobacco seed was then sown, and four days later, when the seed was
germinating, dish A was inoculated with a pure culture of Thielavia.
Dish B was left uninoculated. The photograph here reproduced was
taken two weeks after inoculation.

Puate III. Fig. 1—Root-rot on a small tobacco plant grown in sterilized soil
and inoculated at the age of two months with a pure culture of Thielavia.
Many small rootlets are blackened and dead. Fig. 2.—Badly diseased root
system of a tobacco plant from a field at Suffield, Conn., showing all the
roots rotted off close up to the stem. Fig. 8—(A) Root systems of tobacco
seedlings grown in sterilized soil inoculated with pure culture of Thie-
lavia and subsequently treated with a formalin solution 1 to 200. (B) Root
systems of tobacco seedlings in the same inoculated soil untreated with
formalin, badly diseased with root-rot.

Prate ITV. Fig. 1—Tobacco bed at Simsbury, Conn., badly diseased with Thie-
lavia root-rot in 1906. Plants scattered, stunted, and sickly in appearance.
Vig. 2.—Tobacco plants in the same bed in 1907 after it had been steam
sterilized for one hour at 175° F. by the inverted-pan method. Note the full
stand of vigorous, healthy plants and the absence of weeds. No weeding
had been done in this bed.- Fig. 3.—(A) Tobacco seedlings grown on soil
from a badly diseased bed at Simsbury, Conn. The root systems are all dis-
eased with root-rot. (B) Seedlings on the same soil which had been steam
sterilized for one and one-half hours at 120° C. The root systems of all
plants are perfectly healthy. Pots A and B were sown on the same day.

Puate V. Fig. 1.—dA spot in a tobacco field at-Simsbury, Conn., badly diseased
with Thielavia root-rot. Note the stunted condition of the plants in the fore-
ground as compared with those on the left. The root shown in Plate IIT,
figure 2, was from such a spot as this. Fig. 2.—A tobacco seed bed being
sterilized with steam by the inverted-pan method. The steam is conducted
from the boiler on the right, underneath the pan, by a hose. Note the soil
thermometer at , inserted 6 or 8 inches below the surface of the soil.

158
50

PLATE |.

of Agriculture,

Bul. 158, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Dept.

ws
SS

>

oN
C/

W.W. GILBERT AND J F BREWER

\)

Microscopic CHARACTERS OF THE ROOT-ROT FUNGUS IN VARIOUS STAGES.

PLATE II.

Bul. 158, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Two DISHES CONTAINING GROWING TOBACCO SEEDLINGS, AFFORDING A DEMONSTRATION OF THE PARASITISM OF THIELAVIA.

A, Inoculated; B, not inoculated.

PLATE

Bul. 158, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Fig.

1.—Plants inoculated at two months.

F

io

rs
ig.

2.—Disez

A,

sterilized with

{
es 5

=

Bul. 158, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fi@. 2.—TOBACCO PLANTS IN THE SAME BED SHOWN IN FIGURE 1 AFTER IT HAD BEEN
STERILIZED WITH STEAM.

Fic. 3.—SEEDLINGS GROWN IN DISEASED SOIL.

A, Not sterilized; B, steam sterilized.

« Sey Laila

> oy 1G
raya :

Bul. 158, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fic. 2.—A TOBACCO BED BEING STERILIZED WITH STEAM BY THE INVERTED-PAN METHOD.

PN IVEX:

Page.
~ Aderhold, Rudolf, opinion as to parasitism of Thielavia..............--..-... 16
TT GUST SLES Do eS 23
mraua Guingiefolia, host plant of Thielavia......-:2-....-.-...---.-.-..---- 19
mecospores, Gescription and germination.~-/.2._........-------- 2-222. eee. 14-15
maperoilius, cungus related, to Thidlayia. 2-52-29... -..-.-----.------ +. 21-22
Bed, seed. See Seed bed.
Peeinintnre: Nosh plintior Lmielayia...0-- 2275... ---.-.-.-2 2222s eee 19
Beene La O: Uilelivian ce ee eee eee 2 2-2. - 19
Benincasa, Michele, opinion as to parasitism of Thielavia...............-..-. 16
remarks on disease of tobacco seedlings................- 19
IMiGhnaby eine) 6 er 26-28
tobacco root-rot and remedy........-....... 19
Berkeley, M. J., opinion as to parasitism of Thiclavia.................-...-. 15
Su Roman EOL LODSCCOMOOUTOU--- >= == ---2------- eras ------ 2 ee eee eee 44-48
Brasile Beneventano tobacco, resistance to root-rot ..................-------- 43
Burley tobacco, susceptibility TORROORRINME I ee. se ee 43
Campbell, ©. opinion as to parasitism of Thielavia.-..........2.....-.------ 16
remarks on disease of tobacco seedlings. ...............-.----- 19
Gatalpaepeeioes, nost plant of Thielavia.............5---..-.----- 2-22-22... 19
Cell, endoconidial, description and characteristics... ...........------------ 12-13
@hiainy ospores, description and permination.....2.........-......-.--.-.-. 13-14
Perera Hee SVHONVIY - 2... 2.-..--222--------- 2-2 eee ke eee 21
Clinton, G. P., opinion as to parasitism of Thielavia.......................-. 16
Cochlearia armoracia (horse-radish), host plant of Thielavia .........-.--.---. 19
Bomrenrodue: of endocomidial cell _. 25.22.22 5......-......2.5.22.-.-2-- 13
Connecticut, appearance of root-rot fungus on tobacco... .....----.--------- 18
Havana tobacco, inoculation with infected soil, experiments... .- 33
OE YeG Cine G20)! Ele oes: 6 9
sterilization methods in seed beds, experiments and results... .-- 39-42
Crops, rotation, effect on virulence of tobacco root-rot..........---...-------- 31-32
elie Mle ae Et tel er) a 31
Cuuenes, conm-meal. jor production Of Comidia. .........-.-...-...---------. 13
Thielavia. See Thielavia, cultures.
uemimemar Neen piail OF LMNs Vide fc o-0-a5-2-----.-.-..--..-.----------- 15, 19
Damping-off, description and effect on roots and leaves of plants. .......----. 10-11
emeeation, Reed Dead, Cilech OM TOOL-TOt=_-...)...........--.-------2+.+-.- 29
Disease, field, result of setting diseased tobacco plants.........-..----------- 11
See also Root-rot.
Drying, seed beds, relation to Thielavia attacks.............-.-------------- 29
Mndoconidia, description and germimation-----.......-.:-.-..-----------+---- 13
Endoconidial cell. See Cell.
mdoconidiophores, description.2....-...-.71-..-......---- ep OTe 12
Erysiphex, fungus family related to Thielavia........--- Fig eee Nee 21-22

158 : 51

52 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO.

Page
Europe, occurrence of Thielavia and injury to tobacco...............-------- 18-19
Fertilization, high, effect on root-rot development, experiments.............- 31
seed-bed, excessive, relation to Thielavia attacks............-.. 27
Fertilizer, commercial, excessive use injurious to tobacco plants. ........---- 30-31
danger im Us802)..0 235-0) 22.2228 Be Bes eee ee oe 10-11
effect: on tobacco affected with root-rot_.:... <2. .<.0222...4-2 jee 10
Hields;-conditions: relation to: Dhielavia attackss-<-- sees: - eee =e eee 30-33
experiments, conclusions... 2/32. ..92-b..=sn2seee ee Se eee 33
Setting diseased plants... 2-22. i a te a 32-33
tobacco, conditions, experiments setes- sas sns5 = == eee eee 30-33
Firing, surface, of seed beds, remedy for root-rol.. ©. 2... 4; --- 2-2 = eee 36
Formalin sterilization. See Sterilization, formalin.
Fungus causing tobacco root-rot. See Thielavia.
Galloway,..B. T., opinion as to parasitism of Thielavia.........-..:------eeee 16.
Germination, spore; in Whielavia.-. 2.25. gs.n5¢ ass: = 35-2 25
Gossypium herbaceum (cotton), host plant of Thielavia..................-.-. 19
Greenhouse experiments, root-rot of tobacco..........-..-....---------------- 30
Helminthosporium(ifragile, fungus... 2.2. =). ache 2 see 21, 22-23
BYNODYMY,.o a0. sccescosh os: sce + ee ee eee 21
Hosts other than tobacco, discovery of Thielavia --.............-.--------2--- 18
Thielawiaiatalplesen 2... yee ree See Rie oe ey ee ede 19-20
Humus in soils, rele tion to occurrence of Thielavia..................-.------ 15
Infection: reot-rot, meansiof spreada-.--4---eses eee ee eee oe eee 15
Inoculation, Thielavia, effects of water and surface layer of sand, experiments. 30
Introduction to bulletin... - 2. 2...20.022 4-84 5520555 s-= see 2 Poe eee 9
Inverted-pan sterilization to prevent root-rot. See Sterilization, inverted-pan.
Isolation, Thielavia,mlethod).. 2 sac-.c 5. eee ecee ee De eee eee 22-23
Italy, observation of Thielavia on tobaceco- 7. =. 5.2. 525- eee ee eee 19
Kentucky, discovery of root-rot fungus on tobacco...-..-............---+----- 18
tobaccos resistance to Troot-tOts--sers-— = — 25 eee 43
Leaf mold, agency in/spread of root-rot.... 2-2 5-5-~ 2 3) ---e 15
Leaves stobaceo, effectsioimoot-robes-..- sesseee eee eee ae ee ae ae 10-11
eptospheeria, fungus-related to Thielavia. 222. 2 =.=. =.= 3-o5- a -aeeee oe
Linaria, canadensis, host plant of Thielavias-2-5 = <2 228. -- = =e ee 19
Lupinus albus, host;plantiot Thielavia x: -22 22 J=3 oe ee ee eee 19
angustifolius; host plant,of Thiclayia=--——- >: - 422.22. 5. = = eee 19
luteus; host plamtof Thielavia..... 22.7262...) o> =r 19
thermis; host plantiot Thielavial...2-5---2---5 =.= - = 19
Media, acid, srowth of @hielawia 2... 22: -2.01~ Soeeme ee ee ae So 24
alkaline, growthof M@htelavia:...2..2-2-s2s04- <2 -senee 0 ee eee 24
neutral-salt, growth of ‘Thielavia... ic: 2: ccs ge- 2 ee ee 24
Mycelium, description and characteristics... 2.220. 2 eo eee 12
Nemophila auriculata, host plant of Thielavia....- Rocke vi oak eee ee 20
Nicotiana’ rustica, host plamtiol Thielavia.-.<- 233 222.0 see ee 20
tabacum (tobacco), host plant of Thielavia.....................--- 20
Ohio, appearance of root-rot fungus on tobacco. .......-.--------------=--- 17
Onobrychis crista-calli host plant of Thielavig.c 8 2 ce. aeee eee = eee 20
Oxalis corniculata, var. stricta, host plant of Thielawia®.-------- = ose eeeee 20
Parasitism, Thiclavia,.demonstration. - . 2... =. Js nase8 soe ee eee 16-17
GISCUSSIOMG @. 2 ss > 2.320 S2Ge See See ee eee 15-22
Peglion, V., opinion as'to parasitism of Thielavia. .<...- ~-4<92- --- eee 16
remarks on root-rot of tobacco seedlings..........-......-...-..- 19

158

INDEX. 53

Page.
ui, canpus related to Thielavia ... 5... - 2.62.2 e te eee eens e een ee 21-22
Perisporiaceze, fungus family to which Thielavia belongs ................- 12, 21-22
femcoonum, fansus related to Thielavia...-...--.--2<-.2ceeceee sees ee eee eee 21-22
ARES Qa) Saher te) cts (26: | | hn ee 16-17
Mnaseolus multifiorus, host plant of Thielavia................-.....-...-..-- 20
jalearrs, Host plant of Thiclavian 4 5.2.-2.--0225-022.600-- esses ee 20
eum sativum (pea), host plant of Thielavia..........-.............-..-.--- 20
Plants, tobacco, diseased, loss from setting in fields.......................-- 11
ODJECHONE fo MEE, TEMAMES (ooo as Snis a2 a 'e,s eee aoe 33
result of setting in field, experiments... ....... 11, 32-33
healthy, result of setting in infected soil, experiments... ..... 33
Mmirection andidestructionsby root-rot.----....-+---.-----.-- 9-49
ES ECTICL TON g ae cl iste eee ere eh 49
VESTN Sg (Ue Lag alec pe Sg eet iri
Rem etOMaCCOm DUDIMOSTAD MY Ges en) ectek ene oes oe Se Secs nsec seen eecete 44-48
CAs GupyabhrelavlaMASIGOltei. - ne a-c a. <2 2-05 aise a 9-49
conditions in fields influencing attacks, experiments, etc... 30-33
CTO ERG ae SP ee Se ae CRO ee 10
(EGR DLT ON 5 As Sao ke 9-11
SV SS Set ee ee 12-15 -
discovery in United States and historical data. ........... 17-18
- effect of setting diseased plants in the field................ 32-33
healthy plants in infected soil.....-...... 33
Citas WSR DS ae eet Seo ORE er 10-11
HOUR ame Se AS ce ISI 6 oes en eS ee ee 10
; preenhouse experiments... -. ==... .2--....-..5- 17, 30, 33, 37-39
PUNE, CEL 7 0' ae eR ee See ee ee 17-22
MsGuGUMelG) C@enChipuON i. 222-2... 5 2225s-------02e-deers 11
Bea ad MeneM POM. e aosscese sc. se + Sola e enews LOFT
PalliagivermMeAsUres. 2... ......<.ccd<-c-5-2 42-43
pPreventiveimeasures=.....-+-s..<sc525--¢- 34-42
MeMeqialunenumMeNibe =o =..2 2-4 eesnees~ eee 34-43
macroscopic effects upon diseased plants. ...........--.-- 10
AWN HIN CLEA OCS oe BAe 4) eee 42-43
puevaremeeun Conmechicuhe = 2 -... - 1-5. os. ee ee eee cease 9
preventive measures, experiments..................--.--- 34-42
eWNGOM 4 2 so oge cdees cheno ee 19, 43
spread and present distribution, remarks .........-....-..- 15
symptoms of disease ........-. nd ee 9-11
See also Thielavia.
iuoote, topacco, effect and progress of disease.....................-.-----.--- 10
Rot. See Root-rot.
Rotation, crop, effect on virulence of tobacco root-rot.................-.------- 31-32
WVU orn ufo BN Ey OMS Ce <r 31
Sand, layer on surface, relation to Thielavia attacks. ................--..------ 30
Saprophytic habits of Thielavia. Sce Thielavia.
Sash-covered seed beds. See Seed beds.
peed bed, appearance and effect of root-rot.............--.-----------2----- 10-11
Conditions aliecting Thielaviaattacks............-..........-.-- 26-30
crowalne or plants, etrect on Thielavia....-......-..-.:.......-- 28
Grune felaiionito Diniclaviaattnekes... 0... .......0-.-----2-- eee 29
relation of continuous use to Thielavia attacks. ...........-...-.-- 29

158

54 ROOT-ROT OF TOBACCO. -

Page

Seed bed, remedial treatment for root-rot= =). 222-2222 725. --: a2 eee Af 34-43

root-rot, cause, soil conditions, experiments, etc......-------.-..-- 27-29
beds, sash-covered, compared with cloth-covered......-.-.-..-....------ 27-28
leaf tobacco, fesistanceto:root-rot 5. - 2 = ae eee eee 43

Selby, A. D., discovery of root-rot fungus on tobacco. .........------:------- 17
Opinionyas to parasitism of Thielawiass4e5-- = 22-4 16

Senecio elegans, host: plant of Thielavia...._.22 5. 32-2e-n5--- + ee 20

Soil, clay and sandy loam, root-rot losses, comparison.........-.------ ee 30

infected, effect on healthy plants, experiments.................-.------ 33
infection, relation to Thielaviaiattacks: 9222 5-2 Sos. ee Rime
new, in old seed beds, relation to Thielavia attacks..........-.-...-...- 29
relation to rOot=f0bs ci ee oes ooo aa ee ee eee 10, Te, 15
texturevandetiect-on tobacco ToOt-toteeeee a = 11

Sorauer, P., opinion as to parasitism of Thielavia.-: .. _-- 5.2.2.2 eee 15

remarksonm, Thielawia attacks: = 222 2-22 == see 26

Spheerellees, fungus family to which Thielavia was erroneously assigned... ... pe

Spore germination, Thielavia, experiments. ..2:-.-......2-.2. 2. 25-26

Spores, Thielavia, production, kinds, and description ....-.......-------- 10, 12-15

Steam-rake sterilization to prevent root-rot. See Sterilization, steam-rake.

sterilization. See Sterilization, steam.

Sterilization, formalin, of/seed beds to prevent root-rot-. = Jo. 4. | = eee 36-42
epeanonee: advantages, methods, and results....-.- eee 34-35
inverted-pan method, results of experiments. ........---- 35-36, 39-42
methods to prevent Thielavia injury, experiments. ...........-- 34-42
soil; satecuard against root-rot- = -22=- 32-2 > 352 >- = eee 29
steam, of seed beds to prevent root-rot compared with formalin

sterilization... isa else ac. oe ee 37-42
methods and results, experiments. . - .-- 543 ee 34-36, 37-42
rake, of seed beds to prevent root-rot, unsuccessful in

Practices 222 ..St eae es eee eee 35

Summary of bulletim. 23. 2.20.2 25-222 sass e see sas: 2 ee 43

Surface firing. See Firing.

Synonymy, Thielayia basicolas. 2: 3. - 2 Sa enee ae a 21

Taproot, tobacco, attack: by: root-rot +. 5-2-6 eee ee ee 9, 10

Temperature, effect on growth of Thielavia..-. ..:-.-..----- += 25
seed bed, eect on Troot-rote a2-e sess. 22 ee 28-29

Thielavia, artificial culture, experiments, methods, and characteristics. - - --- - - 22-26

basicola, bibliography 222.2: .2-22 20005 5-ee oe ae 44-48
description, synonymy, and relationships. . ty 12-15, 20-22
fungus, cause of tobacco root-rot, effects, treatment, exper-

iments, €t@) 5.4 0. d2!.2 ieee ace ete see ee 9-49

bovina, fumeus=:2-. 2252.22.56 Soe ge a ee ee 22

conditions influencing attacks in tobacco fields, comparison of soils,
GbC 5 rice eke So ee eee
seed beds: Eas 26-30

culturalieharacterishics::. “222822 soa ee eee 23-25

culture media, growth, results of experiments..........-..-.------- 23-24

cultures artificially ®..9 2. ss22c5. 058 eae oe ee ee ee 22-26

historical: data 32. --S-ce eee ee oe eee 22
discovery on tobacco and other hosts in the United States.........- 17-18
prevalence and injury in Europe. - - --- 18-19, 20-22

INDEX. D0

Page.

Thielavia, growth, effect of different temperatures..................--.-.------ 25

pie bun ata Nt ee oe ee ee 24
WIRAIMOCMediaA: Ieee eee noe eS aan oe Se. o- 2. 24525
TLE UIGESU Rec rINe CUS seein eras a Pree ke 24
(ulagara, -verctalles; C16... = 5-62 fa oe onsen sccm ses. 29-24
host plants and distribution, fable. 3 SO ee ee ee 19-20
inoculation, effects of water and sand on root-rot, experiments... . . 30
PC eDOMP ee D NOC ta eas eer ern cee we opens te By vy D008
means of dissemination and widespread occurrence.......-..-.-... 15
methods of reducing injury to tobacco, experiments.............-- 34-43
parasitic enemy of tobacco, prevalence, introduction, and spread... 15-17
nature, experiments and results. .-----..-..-..2...2--2.-- 15-17
[LUA TUSETERG Te SS) fo' a Vases pe Beco iteh one Ns SAG Pa vel ae 15-17
presence in tobacco sections of United States, historical data... ... 17-18
root enemy of greenhouse and other plants.............-.......... 18
2 DOG REM TES CCIE Sra Salve oe Naser oe 15
Oa) Va A pS a ee Ee 22
SUIS MENON YeR ULOIDL preter Ste PIS eS aks Ts uaa is aid <= + win 25-26
See also Root-rot.

Tobacco, Brasile Beneventano, resistance to root-rot....................--.--. 43
See MUBCeMULbilntyeto LOOttOle gel Se ce ene - ++. 5-2 nase 43
Peamicky, susceptibility.to root-rot.......:...-.-......- 25.2 eens 43
RaelE OC eC NUSe, CESCIIUlOMN ClCs. ose la aeees cage eee ee ee ee = 9-49

See also Root-rot and Thielavia.

Meemlese resistin Goo TOOt-lOte. 6 cece a8 cs) cc ee ee ee Se bbe es 43
TG TP an 1h a a 21
Treatment, remedial and preventive, in seed beds.-.-...........--....-.---- 34-43
Reemonnectum. iinous related to Thielavia..-..:.......-...-......-......65 22
Trifolium repens (white clover), host plant of Thielavia...................... 20
Trigonella coerulea, host plant of Thielavia............:...-....-.----.----.- 20
Ventilation, seed-bed, relation to Thielavia attacks............... Spee 27-28
Vigna sinensis (cowpea), host plant of Thielavia.............................. 20
fer O0Orata, host plant of Thielavia......-2............--.-.--- Ye tee eee 20
Seeeetine. relation to Thielavia attacks........................-5...-- anne 30
meetsepevercelrect, On LOOt-TOb. 5. .2c.02- 22 o2e occ ce ce eel ae eee bees 29
Zopt, W., opinion as to parasitism of Thielavis eon ee 15

158

O

iS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 159.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau,

LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON
VARIETIES.

BY

O. F. COOK,

Brionomist, BurEAvu oF PLant INDUSTRY.

IssureD SEPTEMBER 28, 1909.

<7 <>
Woes S>

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1909,

wes

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Breyerty T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT I. Woops.
Editor, J. H. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES FE. JONES.

BIONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.
O. EF. Cook, Bionomist in Charge.
G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Assistant wotanists.

H. Pittier, J. H. Kinsler, and A. McLachlan, Special Agents.
R. M. Meade, Scientific Assistant,

159

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U.S. DevarrMentr or AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Puanr INpustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., June 25, 1909.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled * Local
Adjustment of Cotton Varieties,” by Mr. O. I. Cook, and recommend
its publication as Bulletin No. 159 of the special series of the Bureau
of Plant Industry.
' By maintaining local adjustment, crops can be improved, even
without improving varieties. That new conditions and unfavorable
seasons may render varieties less uniform has been known in horti-
cultural plants. The present study shows that such facts have a
practical application in field crops and that they must be taken into
account in problems of heredity and breeding.
Respectfully,
B. ‘T. GaLLoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. Jaxius Witson,
Secretary of Agriculture,
159 3

Vs

COMEE NT Sz

ERROR Soc At, = AN EP Le BE es es Shae He cee es O4
er eennmnne a MeW-place CHett. 2-25 |. fee a2 ode ea coc dnte eee eeseceees
New-place diversity distinct from fluctuating variation ................-.--
New-place diversity distinct from accommodation to external conditions. .
Relation of new-place diversities to heredity................---..-.-...------
Peo pamnon of diversity in two localities..-..................2.+--00--0-s-
eat of wheritance of divergent characters......-...-...:..------0..0.e--22e0-
Re ONOUb Uy DTIGI7atION - 25... 2.2.0 --2 52 = cas Se et en ee ee ee eee eee
Seetemen wieids irom local adjustment......22...22.225.5-------2e. ees ences
SESE EASES TS] oc) 0] ae ne i nr ce
8 TOSI ro 1] 212) eee ee ene ee
MRE AMN UID nee ote ct ee ae cic os oe a a in. SRI a ee
Vai crey? LoZ TINE, co ig chloe ts CARR eg A ea
Latger proportions of five-locked bolls .....................2.2.2.2.2000-
mMernEsInG GIMeETeNCe Of CrOPS:.~ 22 <-22-.2-2- oc ese eee eee eee sees
MimemarreereHLine COLON Varleties....-2-.-.2.6.-- 2-6-2222 eee ee eee ee nee eee
Methods of introducing MGW) VAMC MICS Sse ere ree cree Sus ake oa es She Meee

Correlation of Betas i new-place effects. . es

Environmental changes accompanied by increased dix CISULY wee eis 3
Effect of seasons and times of planting --.-. atc eee REO, ee AE
Peace and promiscuous Mutations. ....-.-.----.---+-0--.-255+-- see

ierion of selection to local adjustment.........--......------+--+---6-
MMMENINME OR OCH AG ;UHtMENLs . 5.5. 225.26. ae ce ec ke eee ee eee dees ee
Differences between local adjustment and breeding...................-.-----
Peeeeiniment, as 4 farm operation......-.-.-<-.--------<+-.-6-s--- eee eee
Beemeumaniny On WOme-prown SCC0.-.-.-- <2. -.2-206e-.. cee eee e eel eee nee
SrmmemisiOnd.-..-...2-.2.....----- 2 PO, Sieg iy, 0 a ia a Serre ee
es hee ORE See nee ee Cuts: Sat oo

46

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54
56
62
63
65
69

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B. P. 1.—490.

LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON
hee lSl od dlowey

INTRODUCTION.

A variety of cotton planted in a new place usually behaves in an
abnormal manner. The abnormal behavior is generally proportional
to the change of conditions, though different varieties respond in dif-
ferent ways to the same set of new conditions. Central American
varieties of cotton grown for the first time in Texas usually show 2
definite alteration of the habits of growth and a notable decline in
fertility. To lead an imported variety back to the regular expression
of its normal characteristics and productiveness is called acclimatiza-
tion. Varieties that do not remain entirely sterile under the new
conditions can usually be brought back to their normal characteristics
and fertility in from three to five generations.

When our Upland varieties of cotton are carried from one part of
the cotton belt to another, or otherwise placed under new conditions,
they also show deviations from their normal characteristics. Though
the changes in the characters of the plants are very much less than
with the imported varieties, they often have a serious effect upon the
quantity and quality of the crop. To avoid this kind of deteriora-
tion, a process of local adjustment is required, analogous to acclimati-
zation, but more readily accomplished.

Though local adjustment, viewed from the biological standpoint, is
a much less striking phenomenon than acclimatization, it has a much
‘greater and more general agricultural importance. The difficulties
which have to be surmounted by acclimatization are met only in the
introduction of new varieties from remote regions. It is only when
we consider the advantage that might come from the successful intro-
duction of better types of plants or of plants better adapted to special
conditions or uses that acclimatization becomes a subject of general
interest.

Local adjustment is of practical importance in quite a different
way. The failure to make use of local adjustment does not result in
a rare or occasional expense, but causes a very general and regular
loss to the cotton industry, a loss that would be represented by enor-
mous annual totals if the facts could be definitely known. Even at

159 7

8 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

a low estimate of 10 per cent, which is certainly far below the average,
the increased crop which could be secured by attention to the facts of
local adjustment would have an annual value of $60,000,000. With
very slight expense of time and effort in the selection of seed for local
adjustment, and with no other change, either in varieties, lands, or
methods of culture, it would be possible to add 10 per cent to our
cotton crop or to reduce the acreage and expense of production by
a similar amount without reduction of the yield.

Our experiments in Texas lead us to believe that the losses oc-
casioned by the boll weevil can be well-nigh made good if the ad-
vantage of local adjustment be added to those that can be gained by
using better varieties and better methods of culture. This indication
may not apply in the more humid districts in the eastern part of the
State, but appears to have ample warrant in the western and southern
parts, where our experiments have been made. Rainy weather during
the growing season favors the rapid multiplication of the weevils
and may enable them to ruin the crop in wet seasons, even in regions
that usually escape serious injury, but these more severe attacks are
usually confined to rather limited areas and are not likely to occur
every year, whereas a continuous advantage can be gained from local
adjustment. To maintain uniformity by local adjustment is espe-
cially important in weevil-infested regions as a means of securing
the earliest and most uniform development of the plants, and thus
allow the largest possible crop to be set before the weevils become
destructively abundant.

The reader may be unwilling to believe that so simple an expedient
as local adjustment should have been so long neglected if it has any
such importance as claimed. The fact that notably increased yields
of cotton, as of other crops, can be secured by selection of seed has not
remained unknown, but the reasons why such improvements occur
are not fully understood. The benefits that can be obtained at once
from local adjustment have been confused with the much slower and
more gradual changes that accompany the selection of carefully
tested, exceptionally superior individuals. The emphasis that is often
laid on special skill, precaution, and persistence as necessary qualifica-
tions for the successful breeder has tended to keep the average farmer
from undertaking to improve his own crops by selection.

Local adjustment can be viewed as something quite apart from
breeding for improvement; its object is merely to keep a variety as
it is, instead of allowing it to deteriorate by becoming diversified as
a result of changes of external conditions or of unfavorable seasons.
No matter how superior a part of the plants may be it is certain that
the highest yields can not be secured unless all of the plants are

kept as near as possible to the standards of the variety, The better
159

INTRODUCTION. 9

the variety is the more serious the loss that comes from neglect of
local adjustment, for the greater is the probability that every change
from the characters of the variety will be in the direction of inferiority.

To know that yields can be increased by selection is a useful fact,
but it is still better to have an adequate reason for it. A fact illumi-
nated by reasons, so that the mind can follow and understand its rela-
tions, is what we call a scientific fact; a fact without a reason is called
anempirical fact. It is often possible to utilize a fact without under-
standing it, but facts that we can understand are still more likely to
be utilized. The art of farming includes large numbers of empirical
facts that have come down to us as customs and traditions, but we
take up very slowly and unwillingly any new method or operation
unless a positive necessity or a very definite advantage can be shown.
As long as the issue is not clear or the results are not so definite and
invariable as to leave no room for doubt, the new requirement is likely
to be avoided.

As soon as the farmer appreciates the fact that lessened uniformity

is one of the chief causes of deterioration in cotton varieties he will
also be convinced that the selection of his own seed is just as essential
and necessary a part of his farm operations as the planting, cultiva-
tion, and harvesting of his crop.
_ It may be that local adjustment has not the same importance in
other crops as in cotton, but here, at least, it is evident that the selec-
tion of seed for local adjustment is quite as important as any other
work with the crop. A small amount of labor has a large effect on
the final returns. Except for the picking of the larger crop it takes
no more work to raise a well-adjusted strain of cotton than one that
is deficient in adjustment. The selection of seed for purposes of local
adjustment requires a certain degree of care and skill, but nothing
beyond the ability to be found in the average farmer’s family. The
wife or the children may prove more capable than the farmer him-
self, and their assistance need not be refused, since the work is easy
and enjoyable.

In thus pointing out the practical advantages that are to be ex-
pected from local adjustment, there is no intention to imply that the
results will always be the same as those that have appeared in our
experiments. The factors that are involved in local adjustment are
highly variable, in the very nature of the case, since they have direct
relation to variable external conditions. The details of the experi-
ments given in this report are introduced as illustrations of the dif-
ferent -ways that the factors of local adjustment have appeared to
work, not as adequate demonstrations of local adjustment, even for
the varieties and the conditions under which our experiments have
been made. If the facts of diversity and local adjustment were rare

720—Bull. 159—09

»)

10 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

or exceptional there might be need to establish them by more elaborate
evidence, but they are readily accessible to observation, if not already
familiar to students of cotton. A more general recognition of their
practical importance may be expected to secure for them the careful
attention of experimenters.

DIVERSITY AS A NEW-PLACE EFFECT.

When a high-grade variety of cotton or of any other cultivated
plant is grown in a new place and fails to give as good results as in
its home locality, it is usual to draw the conclusion that the conditions
of climate or soil of the new locality are unfavorable to the variety.
Even when no unfavorable factors are known, it is still usual to trust
to the assumption that some peculiarity of the variety renders it less
suited to the new surroundings than to the old. It does not surprise
us that a carefully selected variety fails to appear to the same ad-
vantage outside of the region in which it was developed. The selec-
tion of plants for purposes of agricultural improvement must always
have reference to the external conditions under which the selection
is made. Nevertheless, it is as distinctly a mistake to ascribe too
much to the special adaptations of varieties as to leave this factor
out of account. We must learn what we can regarding the nature
of the changes that take place under new conditions, and of the
possibility of avoiding them.

When a variety of Upland cotton planted in a new district fails
to attain the standards of the variety, it is usually very easy to show
that inferiority of the new conditions is not the only cause of the
failure, or even the chief cause. Comparison of the individual plants
with each other will soon make it evident that they are much more
unlike among themselves than any reasonable supposition of in-
equality in’ the conditions would explain. Many individual plants
are likely to be found which have not fallen below the previous
standards of the variety.

The best of the plants, rather than the worst or the general aver-
age, represent the proper test of the possibilities of the variety under
the new conditions. The unequal behavior of the plants will often
be found to be a larger factor in the low general average than any
definite limitation set by the external conditions. If the best plants
are as good as in the home locality of the variety we may have an
assurance that the new conditions are not in themselves directly and
essentially unfavorable, for in that case none of the plants would be
able to attain the fully developed characters of the type. The crop
may be damaged as much by changes that arise in the plants as a
result of new conditions as by factors that actually limit the growth
of the plants, but the nature of the damage is different in the two
cases.

159

DIVERSITY AS A NEW-PLACE EFFECT. it

The more carefully the matter is studied the more evident it be-
comes that the failures of many individual plants to show the true
characteristics of their variety when grown in a new place are con-
nected with differences in the plants themselves and are not directly
connected or proportioned to the differences in the conditions occupied
by the various individuals. The greater diversity shown among the
members of the variety in the new place explains the apparent de-
terioration. To avoid this diversity and thus maintain a more gen-
eral conformity to the normal characters of the type is the object of
local adjustment.

External conditions that are actually unfavorable to the growth
of the plants may be less conducive to undesirable new-place effects
than conditions that are distinctly better for an acclimatized or locally
adjusted stock of the same kind of plants. This was conspicuously
shown in an experiment with imported types of Upland cotton at
Falfurrias, Tex., in 1907. In the rows that ran out into drier and
more sterile soil a large proportion of the smaller plants in the dry
soil kept nearly the normal characteristics, whereas among the larger
plants in the better soil only a few individuals remained small and
normal. The few small plants in the moist soil and the few large
plants in the dry soil showed that individual differences in the plants
were able to fully counteract the differences in the conditions.

The inspection of even a few fields with such distinctions in mind
is likely to convince any person who is at all familiar with such
cotton that diversity among the plants themselves is a factor of prac-
tical importance in the diminution of crops and deterioration of
varieties. Something in the way of special training or of natural
aptitude may be required to give one a full appreciation of this
diversity as a concrete, scientific fact, and to enable comparisons to
be made between amounts of diversity that are present in different
stocks of cotton or in different localities. Some persons appear to
be as distinctly lacking in the necessary powers of perception of minor
differences of form as others are of shades of color, but it is believed
that most people will be able to recognize the forms of diversity that
figure in the local adjustment of cotton varieties.

NEW-PLACE DIVERSITY DISTINCT FROM FLUCTUATING VARIATION.

The chief difficulty that has interfered with the recognition of the
phenomena of diversity by scientific students and experimenters is
not that they are not readily visible, but that they have been confused
with other types of variation, such as the ordinary fluctuating differ-
ences, accommodative changes, direct effects of environment, and
diversity due to hybridization,

159

12 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

Diversification under new conditions represents a fourth group of
facts quite different from the other three and much more related to
the phenomenon of mutation, as described by De Vries. The progeny
of divergent plants may be expected to show fluctuating differences
like the members of other varieties, and mutative changes may affect
the same characters that are subject to accommodation, but such facts
need not prevent the recognition of essential differences. That seed-
ling plants are able to become more diverse among themselves when
grown in a new place, even in the first season, and that these diversi-
ties have a relation to external conditions are facts not commonly
recognized.

The recognition of these new-place diversities does not depend upon
the systems of measurements that: have been applied to fluctuating
variations. Careful measurements of large numbers of plants or
animals may lead to the recognition of differences that would not
otherwise be detected, but in this case the differences are readily ap-
preciable by direct observation. If the cotton plants that show diver-
sity had to be detected by elaborate systems of measurements, local

adjustment would be altogether impracticable. A considerable body.

of scientific workers would be needed for a whole season to give an
adequate statistical account of the diversities of a single field of cot-
ton. It may be obvious at a glance that the leaves of a plant are
narrower than those of its neighbors, but many hours might be
required to measure, record, and compute with proper care the data
that are necessary for a mathematical determination of the actual
differences of proportion that are responsible for the general im-
pression. The leaves of the same cotton plant are so. variable among
themselves that a large number would need to be measured before
general averages could be established.

And even after a statistical difference has been ascertained it might
still convey a very inadequate idea of the diversities that figure in
local adjustment. Mutative changes seldom appear to affect one
character alone, and do not obey the law of regression established by
Galton. Unlike the fluctuating variations which may be thought of
as mere deviations from the same course or standard of heredity,
mutative changes render the plants essentially different throughout,
often quite as different as the members of distinct species, or even
more so. Indeed, one of the serious objections to the idea of muta-
tions as new species lies in the fact that the members of mutative
varieties of domesticated plants are much more alike among them-
selves than are the members of wild species living under natural
conditions.

To describe the mutative variations of our cotton varieties as new
species would be a very formidable undertaking and may be left to

159

DIVERSITY AS A NEW-PLACE EFFECT. 13

those who believe that mutations are really species. The present
report is intended only to call attention to the fact that such varia-
tions are of frequent occurrence in cotton, that their numbers are
still further increased by changes of external conditions, even to the
extent of injuring crops and causing varieties to deteriorate, and,
finally, that these dangers are to be avoided by continued selection
for local adjustment.

NEW-PLACE DIVERSITY DISTINCT FROM ACCOMMODATION TO EXTERNAL
CONDITIONS.

Changes of characters that have definite relations to external con-
ditions are usually called adaptations or accommodations. Writers
en evolution and heredity have recorded many examples of plants and
animals that show accommodations to different conditions. Among
the most familiar instances are the amphibious members of the butter-
cup family that have ordinary rounded leaves when growing on land,
and very narrow, finely divided leaves when growing in water. The
same individual can be induced to change the form of its leaves by
planting it in water or taking it back to dry land.

The larger, thinner leaves that the coffee plant produces in the
shade will not endure exposure to the sun, so that shade-grown seed-
lings usually lose all their leaves when planted in open places. If
the change is not too severe the plant is able to adapt itself to the new
conditions by putting out smaller, narrower leaves of firmer texture
able to endure exposure to the sun.

Similar changes occur in the stature and habits of growth of the
cotton plant in response to differences of environment. In one local-
ity every individual will be larger and have more numerous vegeta-
tive branches than any individual of the same variety as it grows in
some other locality. In localities where the winds are strong some
varieties develop stiffer stems that resist the wind, while others avoid
the need of such resistance by assuming a prostrate habit of growth
and sending their branches out along the ground. Two selections
from the same stock of Mexican cotton showed the same habits of
growth at Victoria, Tex., but at Del Rio one of these developed
a stronger central stem than at Victoria, while the other became
notably prostrate.

Our experiments with the acclimatization and local adjustment of
cotton varieties have made it certain that there is another class of
changes of characters, those that accompany changes of external con-
ditions, and yet stand in no such direct relations with the external
conditions as do the adaptive or accommodative changes. Though
accommodative changes may often appear to make members of the

same species unlike they are not thought of as rendering them more
159

14 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

diverse or individually different. An accommodative change may be
shared by all the plants with as much uniformity as any other feature.

Many of the changes of characters that occur in new places, instead
of rendering the plants better fitted for the new conditions, render
them less fitted. This is certainly true of the instances in which the
plants that change their characters are rendered unproductive or
completely sterile. A wild plant that behaved as many of our newly
imported varieties of cotton have done would have no prospect of
surviving. And yet several of the varieties that were nearly sterile
in the earlier generations have returned to normal habits of growth
and fertility after a few years of acclimatization.

Experience with these more profound changes that attend the
process of acclimatization has made it easier to appreciate the nature
of the diversity that necessitates the careful adjustment of varieties
to local conditions, even in our United States Upland type of cotton,
where the stage of acclimatization was long since passed.

Since many of the changes of characters that occur under new con-
ditions obviously do not serve purposes of adaptation, and often result
in wide individual differences, even under the same external condi-
tions, it is evident that they ought not to be considered as due to
accommodative changes of characters, but rather as resulting from
loss or disturbance of adjustments of heredity previously established
by selection or by mutation. We may inquire, therefore, into the
nature of the adjustment of characters that is disturbed when a
variety is planted in a new place, to gain an indication of the possi-
bility of restoring the adjustment and regaining a uniform expression
of characters under the new conditions.

The fact that the diversity that appears under a new environment
is not the same as a regularly established accommodation does not
compel us to deny that new-place diversity may have an adaptive
value, since it allows a species to make tests, as it were, of the many
forms that its members are able to assume. The forms that prove
to be best adapted to the conditions are most likely to survive, and the
species may thus secure a better footing than if compelled to keep to
a form less suited to the new surroundings. Thus we may consider
new-place variations as experiments in accommodation or as afford-
ing the materials from which the more definitely accommodative
characters may be developed.

It is often assumed that natural selection must have the same
tendency as artificial selection to reduce the members of a stock to a
condition of uniformity in their environmental relations. Natural
selection, however, is a composite of many factors often completely
opposite. A dry season that gives the plants a selection for drought
resistance may be followed by a wet year that tests their progeny for

159

RELATION OF NEW-PLACE DIVERSITIES TO HEREDITY. 15

ability to endure excessive moisture. The advantage would not lie
with the lines of descent that specialized exclusively on drought
resistance or on flood resistance, but with those that kept the two
contrasted qualities represented in the family, either by producing
progeny of two kinds or by combining the two qualities in the same
individuals. Even though all the drought-resistant individuals were
wiped out in a particularly wet season the drought-resistant charac-
teristic need not be lost to the species, but might continue undimin-
ished in transmission.

Much emphasis has been placed upon natural selection as an agency
for producing greater uniformity through the weeding out of the
lines of descent that yield weak or defective individuals, but this is
not a reason for holding that the survivors are made more uniform
among themselves by natural selection. The tendency is rather to
preserve and combine all the different characters that give increased
abilities or powers of resistance.“

RELATION OF NEW-PLACE DIVERSITIES TO HEREDITY.

The agricultural superiority of a carefully selected variety depends
largely upon the greater uniformity that follows persistent selection.
Wild or unimproved types differ from our high-grade varieties not so
much in a complete lack of the desirable characters as in a failure
to produce the desirable characters with sufficient regularity. Sue-
cess in the art of breeding is largely a matter of securing uniform
progeny from desirable parents.

With seed-propagated field crops like cotton, uniformity of char-
acters is established by persistent selection. The breeder reduces and
eliminates the individual diversity that renders a wild or unimproved
stock inferior for agricultural purposes to stocks that have been im-
proved by selection. By rejecting all the individuals that express
other than the desired set of characters, much higher averages of the
desirable features are secured by the breeder. <A still more effective
method is to preserve only those individuals that bring the desired
characters to the highest degree of expression.

It is often supposed that a sufficiently thorough course of selection
is able to completely eliminate the undesirable diversity of characters
from a domesticated variety, but it is very doubtful whether the
ancestral diversity is ever destroyed, in the sense of ceasing to be

“For a better appreciation of these tendencies of natural selection to main-
tain diversity in species and preserve the extremes of expression of environ-
mental characters, the writer is indebted to Mr. A. F. Woods. The point has an
evolutionary bearing, since it suggests a way in which natural selection may
assist evolution by preserving diverse tendencies among the members of the
same species and thus allowing the most advantageous combinations to be
built up.

159

16 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

transmitted. With the most favorable conditions and in varieties
that have been bred with the utmost care, individual examples of di-
versity continue to appear more or less frequently. No complete
uniformity is ever attained. Even in vegetative varieties of plants
grown only from cuttings or in varieties of wheat that are regularly
self-fertilized, variant individuals are still to be found. That the
original diversity of characters has continued to be transmitted, even
in these most uniform types, is also shown when hybrids are made,
and a large number of the ancestral diversities reappear at the same
time and under the same external conditions.

These considerations make it quite unnecessary to suppose that the -
diversities that crop out among the members of a variety in a new
place are impressed upon the plants by the external conditions. We
are fully warranted in believing that much of the diversity represents
inherent transmitted characters which have been able to come back
into expression because the change of conditions has disturbed the
previous adjustments that selection had established. It is not neces-
sary to suppose that the diversities shown in the new place are dif-
ferent in any essential respect from the relatively rare individual
sports or mutations that appear in the varieties, even under accus-
tomed conditions. The chief ditference is that the new conditions
call forth many of these variations at the same time. Instead of
sporadic mutations of single individuals, we often obtain in a new
place a simultaneous promiscuous mutation of many individuals,
sometimes of all the individuals, each becoming definitely unlike any
of its neighbors, even when large numbers are carefully compared.

Viewed in this way it is possible to understand what our experi-
ments show to be a fact, that even a relatively large disturbance of
heredity shown by a variety of cotton planted in a new locality does
not afford a sure indication that the conditions are unfavorable. And
where the conditions are not unfavorable it ought not to be considered
impossible to restore the previous uniformity of the stock by renewing
the process of selection that established the uniformity in the first
place. Experiments have also shown that such readjustments are
readily established, at least in the cotton varieties with which experi-
ments have been made.

A COMPARISON OF DIVERSITY IN TWO LOCALITIES.

To gain definite information regarding the nature and extent of
the diversity which is aroused by planting a variety of cotton under
slightly different conditions, a careful comparison was made between
two fields of Triumph cotton—one at Lockhart, Tex., the other at
Kerrville, Tex., in the season of 1907. Both of these localities are in
the west-central part of Texas. Lockhart lies 63 miles northeast of

159

COMPARISON OF DIVERSITY IN TWO LOCALITIES. 17

-San Antonio, at an altitude of about 500 feet, while Kerrville is 71
miles to the northwest, with an altitude of about 1,700 feet. The
soil conditions as far as they affect the size of the plants do not
appear to be seriously different. .

The Triumph cotton is known to breeders as one of the most
regularly uniform varieties. It was originated at Lockhart by Mr.
Alexander Mebane, and has been carefully selected by him for a con-
siderable series of years. It would be difficult to imagine better
examples of uniformity in a variety of seed-propagated plants than
are afforded by Mr. Mebane’s fields of Triumph cotton. <A careful
inspection of about 50 acres of Mr. Mebane’s cotton resulted in finding
only three plants that appeared to be definitely different from their
fellows.

Immediately after this test of diversity had been applied at Lock-
hart, and with the uniformity of the Triumph cotton at that place
as a basis of comparison, a similar study was made of a much smaller
field of cotton raised at Kerrville, Tex., from seed grown by Mr.
Mebane at Lockhart. The difference in diversity between the two
places was very striking. Adjacent individual plants were often
obviously unlike, and a considerable percentage of the plants could
be reckoned as showing distinct departures from the Triumph type.

If the facts were to be interpreted in the usual manner, any
observer would have felt fully justified in saying that the conditions
at Kerrville were much less favorable than at Lockhart, for many
of the plants were distinctly inferior in size and fertility and many
of the smaller individuals remained quite sterile. It would be very
natural, of course, to use these small and unproductive plants as
examples of unfavorable conditions, but other facts showed that this
explanation was insufficient. In addition to many small plants that
remained completely sterile, there were numerous others that had
unusually small bolls, different from those of the Triumph cotton.
Other peculiarities of habits of growth rendered these small-bolled
plants closely similar to inferior plants that appear among our Cen-
tral American cottons during acclimatization. Moreover, these pecu-
liar plants with the small bolls were notably later than those that
kept the normal Triumph characteristics, so that no ripe seed could
be obtained.

In addition to the small-bolled plants there were many other indi-
viduals that showed less violent departures from the normal Triumph
characters, but still very definite differences. The nature of these
differences is indicated in the following notes that were made on a
series of selections of variant plants, in order to test the inheritance
of their divergent characters:

(1) Plant tall; bolls rather varied in size and shape, broad but
long pointed, sometimes with groove in the middle of the carpel at

720—Bull. 159—09——3

18 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

the tip; lint abundant, long. The next plant in the row, apparently
normal, had lint only half as long.

(2) Plant very open; basal internodes of the branches very long;
lint long; seed smooth.

(3) A very small, low, short-jointed plant, with two branches
at each node, possibly a result of injury to the main stem.

(4) Rather larger than its neighbors. Branches all rather long,
only one from a node; bolls rather large, all but one with five locks;
seeds very large, smooth, with a light-brown ridge along one side.

(5) Plant vigorous; bolls large, not notably different from
Triumph; seed rather small, greenish; lint very fine, silky, especially
in one boll.

(6) Small plant, about 1 foot high, with light foliage; small bolls,
rather narrow and pointed; fruiting branches very short, with only
two or three internodes, three of the branches with only one leaf and
a boll; lint fine, medium; seed small; bracts connate at base.

(7) Plant large and vigorous, notably more fertile than neighbors;
branches long; lint very abundant and of good length; seed green,
‘rather small,

(8) Plant medium, open, either not vigorous or very early and
determinate. Most of the leaves already moribund (determinate).
Leaves rather long pointed, but some entire without lobes; bolls small,
narrow, pointed, some with only three locks, others with four and
five; seed smooth.

(9) A small, low, spreading, double-branched plant. Seed with
short green fuzz in upper part and long white fuzz below.

(10) A very large plant with long, simple, and double branches
and long basal internodes; large Triumph-like bolls; seed very smooth
with a small brown tuft at base; lint of medium length, fine.

(11) A large, open plant with long branches, ripening more bolls
to date than any of its neighbors, perhaps also determinate; lint not
long, but abundant; numerous aborted seeds with lint developed.

(12) A small, open plant with four rather long slender vegetative
branches; fertile branches of one or two internodes; only one boll,
very small. ;

(13) A vigorous, long-branched plant; very hairy, notably more
so than any of its neighbors, on the stalks, branches, petioles, pe-
duncles, and bracts, and on the veins of the lower surface of the
leaves.

(14) Plant vigorous, but not oversized; leaves rather gray-green
with long, rather narrow lobes; very short primary branches pushing
out at all the nodes and giving the main stem a leafy appearance;

159

COMPARISON OF DIVERSITY IN TWO LOCALITIES. 19

stems unusually hairy, but somewhat less than in the preceding; bolls
small; lint short; more fertile than the neighboring plants.

It became evident that the diversity alone would account for a
considerable diminution of the crop at Kerrville without resorting
to the idea that the conditions were really less favorable than at
Lockhart. Many individual plants that retained their normal char-
acters were also as fertile as at Lockhart. A further test of the
possibilities of normal behavior for the Triumph cotton under the
Kerrville conditions was afforded by the adjacent experiments with
cotton of the same variety which was being grown for the second
time at Kerrville. In this there was no such amount of diversity and
no such obvious disparity of yield among the individual plants as
in the plot grown from the seed newly brought in from Lockhart.

The fact that our Upland varieties of cotton are not uniform,
but usually show a large amount of diversity among the individual
plants, has been generally remarked by breeders and experimenters.
Stress has usually been laid upon the idea that breeders of varieties
have not been sufficiently careful and persistent in selection or that
there has been a relapse to diversity through admixture of seed in
ginning or through cross-fertilization with other varieties in the
field. The following conclusions were reached by Dr. J. F. Duggar,
director of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, where <
long series of tests of cotton varieties has been made:

Man has done quite as much as nature to increase the confusion as to the
varieties of American Upland cotton. The chief difficulty that has been
encountered in the attempt to describe and classify cottons grown at Auburn
under several hundred different names has been the absence of uniformity
among the plants of a single variety. While this variability is partly due to
natural agencies, it is also largely due to the failure of growers to avoid the
mechanical admixture of the seed of other varieties, which so easily occurs
at public gins. Worse still, in the case of many, perhaps most, of the so-called
varieties, there has been no long period of selection through successive years
with a view to fixing a uniform type.%

But whatever the causes of diversity in other varieties, it is evident
in the case of the Triumph cotton that a variety which has been
brought to a notable degree of uniformity in its home locality may
at once become diverse when transferred to another district, at no
great distance, and even under conditions that are not really unfavor-
able to the variety, as shown by the readiness with which it returns
to uniformity after selection for local adjustment.

“Descriptions and Classification of Varieties of American Upland Cotton.
Bulletin 140, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, July, 1907, p. 24
159

20 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

TESTS OF INHERITANCE OF DIVERGENT CHARACTERS.

As a further means of determining the nature of the differences
that appeared in the Triumph variety as a result of the transfer
from Lockhart to Kerrville, seed was saved separately from four-
teen plants that seemed to show the most definite divergence from
the varietal characters of the Triumph cotton. The seeds of these
individual selections were planted at Kerrville in 1908, but a late
frost killed most of the seedlings, in some cases all. Nevertheless,
enough of the plants remained to make it very evident that some of
the divergent characters were definitely inherited.

Plants noted as having branches with unusually long basal inter-
nodes and very open habits of growth (Selection No. 2) gave progeny
of the same kind, very definitely contrasted with the progeny of low,
compact, short-jointed plants, which showed a similar fidelity to
parental characteristics. Some of the tall plants were noted by Mr.
Rowland M. Meade as having the leaves and branches arranged in a
one-third spiral instead of the usual three-eighths spiral, which would
account for their more open form.

A plant (No. 9), selected because of a pronounced tendency to pro-
duce two branches from each node of the main stem, gave progeny
in which this character was similarly pronounced, much as in the
weevil-resistant Kekchi cotton from Guatemala. If this peculiarity
had not been noted in the first generation, the second generation might
have been suspected of being a Kekchi hybrid.

Another case of the same kind was found in a plant selected for
unusual hairimess of leaves and stems, giving a distinct suggestion
of approach to the more hairy Central American types of cotton,
which was definitely repeated in the second generation (Selection
No. 13). Another mutation with the hairy characteristic definitely
expressed and as definitely inherited also had leaves with somewhat
narrower lobes than in Triumph cotton and more commonly 5-lobed,
as often happens in the Kekchi cotton. It also showed in both gener-
ations a distinct tendency to develop a short primary branch at each
node, giving the main stalk an unusually leafy appearance (Selection
No. 14).

Many other examples might be given in which mutations of our
Upland cottons showed interesting resemblances to the Central Amer-
ican Upland types, as though to indicate a common ancestry for the
whole Upland series. One of the most frequent approximations of
this kind occurs in small, broadly branching, tree-shaped plants with
very small bolls, as already noted in the general account of the Tri-
umph mutations at Kerrville. From the only small-bolied plant
which afforded ripe seed only one plant was raised, and this had

159

TESTS OF INHERITANCE OF DIVERGENT CHARACTERS. 21

notably small bolls, though it retained the Triumph character of short
fruiting branches, as the parent plant had also done.“

Peculiarities of the lint and seeds were also definitely inherited in
the progeny of the Triumph mutations, though not with complete
regularity. Notably long-linted parents gave notably long-linted
progeny, short-linted parents short-linted progeny. The smooth-
seeded character was retained in several instances, though not in all,
while the tendency to a green color in the fuzz of the seeds was less in
the second generation than in the first.

None of these mutations of Triumph at Kerrville were as con-
spicuously different from the parent stock as a plant that was pointed
out to us by Mr. Mebane in one of his Triumph fields at Lockhart in
1906. This individual was about twice as tall as its normal Triumph
neighbors and large in proportion. Its vigorous upright habit of
growth and its foliage, of a somewhat lighter, fresher green, rendered |
it quite conspicuous. The bolls were as large as those of the Triumph
variety, but the plant seemed much less fertile than the parent stock.
A few seeds that happened to be ripe were saved, not only to test the
inheritance of the variation, but to learn whether its fertility would be
increased in subsequent generations. Six plants were raised from
these seeds at Victoria, Tex., in 1907, all closely similar to each other
and to the parent plant. The progeny of 1908 still kept closely to the
parent form, but a report from Mr. John H. Kinsler indicates that the
fertility is distinctly increased in the third generation.

Better fortune attended another experiment of the same kind at
San Antonio. A similar series of selections of divergent plants was

“A very striking instance of approximation to the Kekchi cotton in a mutation
of an Upland variety was observed by Mr. F. J. Tyler at Auburn, Ala., in 1907,
and described by him in a letter to Mr. F. L. Lewton, under date of October
15, as follows:

“Tt is a Guatemalan cotton mixed in with Sunflower long staple. Of course
it is a mutation or reversion, but it could hardly be more like Kekchi or Pachon
as they look when grown in Texas for the first time. It is a large, rounded
bush filled with sterile limbs, very late, nearly as pubescent as Kekchi and has
the little bracts at the sinuses of the involucre. It is just beginning to bloom,
and there is no hope of obtaining seed, as frost may be expected in a couple of
weeks. It doesn’t resemble Sunflower in any way, but must be a Sunflower
plant. In 1905 Professor Duggar selected some seed from the best plants of
Sunfiower, and the seed cotton was carefully ginned and put away until this
spring, so the seed was two years old. They have never had any Guatemalan
cotton seed here at the station. On each side of this plant in the same row are
typical Sunflower plants with bolls mostly open. I have taken a couple of
photographs of the plant.”

The photographs fully confirm Mr. Tyler’s statement of the very close simi-
larity of this mutation to the newly introduced Kekchi cotton. The shape of the
plant and its method of branching, as well as the shapes, positions, and texture
of the leaves, appear indistinguishable from those of the Kekchi cotton.

159

22 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

made in the season of 1907 in a plot of King cotton. Seven plants
which seemed to show the most definite individual peculiarities were
selected, their peculiarities noted, and their seed saved separately to
see whether the same peculiarities reappeared in the progeny. The
nature of the differences manifested in the selected individuals and
the extent to which they appeared in the progeny can best be shown
by following the original notes made at San Antonio in 1907 and 1908.

Behavior of original stock.—As a basis of comparison of the
behavior of the mutations another planting was made in 1908 from
seed held over from the same stock in which the various mutations
had appeared. This row grew next to the mutations and consisted of
very uniform, rather low open plants about 2 to 24 feet high. Only
one plant seemed to differ in any definite way from the others. It had
numerous sterile involucres consisting of only one or two bracts.
There were also many simple leaves and a few with unusually narrow
lobes.

Variant with strong basal limbs.—The plant selected in 1907 was
unusually large for that season. It was about 30 inches tall, and
was also more vigorous and leafy than the average. There were
3 long, strong, sterile basal limbs and 22 bolls, maturing late. The
plants were notably larger and stronger than original King, and bore
a distinctly larger crop of bolls.

The progeny of this plant in 1908 were very uniform among them-
selves and differed notably from the row of original King in their
larger size, larger leaves, more compact habits of growth, and stronger
development of basal limbs. They produced a larger crop of bolls
and a more uniform quality of lint. They were also larger than the
parent plant of 1907, but this was generally true in all kinds of cotton
grown at San Antonio.

More detailed comparison with the original King row established
the fact that there were several other differences that had not been
noted in the individual selection of the previous year. The leaves
had somewhat longer and more pointed lobes. The lint was notably
superior to that of the original King row, being longer, more abun-
dant, and more uniform. The lint was also superior to that of the
other mutations, though most of these appeared better than the
original King, perhaps because of a greater degree of uniformity.

Variant without basal limbs.—Selection of 1907 a plant of medium
size (2 feet tall), with the main stalk naked at the base for 8 inches
and no sterile basal branches. Leaves relatively few, with shallow
lobes. :

The progeny of 1908 showed a marked contrast with the preceding
row, especially in the habits of growth. Instead of the more compact
form and larger leaves, these plants were much more open and had

159

TESTS OF INHERITANCE OF DIVERGENT CHARACTERS. 23

fewer, smaller leaves. There was a general lack of sterile basal limbs,
leaving the stalks naked for several inches above the ground. This
peculiarity was even more obvious than the unusual development of
such limbs in the preceding row. The greater luxuriance of the
plants brought, as might have been expected, a greater tendency to
produce basal limbs than in the parent plant of the year before.
Such branches were present on several of the plants, but to no such
extent as in any of the other rows. There could be no doubt that the
form of branching was definitely inherited, following a definite
variation in this character in the preceding year,

One plant appeared somewhat different from the others, in having
more abundant, longer lint and a tall, erect habit, with short fruiting
branches, most of them with only one boll. It also had two strong
basal limbs, and developed many new vegetative shoots late in the
season.

Variant with numerous primary limbs——The plant selected in

1907 was next to the largest (30 inches tall). There were sterile
basal branches, but a primary limb developed at nearly every node,
along with a fertile branch, as in the Kekchi cotton of Guatemala.¢
Of the nodes 11 produced 2 branches each. Of the 17 bolls more
than half were deformed and decayed before opening; only 1 perfect
boll remained.
- The progeny did not follow the parent in the lack of sterile basals,
but there was a much stronger tendency than usual toward the de-
velopment of primary limbs. This would naturally be accompanied
by a smaller development of limbs in plants that were less vigorous,
like those of last year. Sterile basal branches, or “ limbs,” come from
internodes which do not produce fertile branches, because the limbs
represent transformed fertile branches.

Compared with the preceding series this row of plants appeared
quite low, rather spreading, very leafy, and compact. They were
not quite as uniform as the more upright and taller plants of the
preceding mutation. The bolls did not appear defective, showing
that this feature was probably only accidental in the preceding year.

Variant with compact habit of growth.—Selection of 1907 a small,
productive, early, large-bolled plant; 15 inches high; 18 bolls; no
basal limbs.

The progeny of 1908 appeared not greatly unlike those of the next
preceding series, but they averaged distinctly smaller and kept more

“Jn the Upland type of cotton the vegetative basal limbs (also called wood
limbs) can usually be looked upon as modified fruiting branches since they
arise from extra-axillary buds, as do all the fruiting branches. The axillary
buds may not develop or may do so only late in the season, but axillary buds
are always found to produce only vegetative limbs that do not produce fruit
directly, but may give rise to a new series of fruiting branches.

159

24 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

uniformly to the low, compact, leafy form. Later in the season these
differences appeared still more notable. Most of the plants appeared
to have strong limbs, but in many cases these were found to arise
from primary buds that had started late in the season, instead of
being transformed fruiting branches, which usually form the “ limbs ”
of our United States Upland cottons. Early in September this row
showed a great abundance of strong new shoots, more than any of the
preceding rows, which still appeared relatively dormant. This might
be connected with the greater earliness noted in the parent plant.
The bolls continued distinctly larger than in original King, but
mostly because of larger seeds; the lint was only a little better.

Variant with entire leaves——Selection of 1907, a sturdy plant, 14
inches high. No sterile * limbs,” but 3 small primary branches, each
from a node that also had a fertile secondary. Fertile branches be-
ginning close to the ground. Bolls 21, larger than usual in King.

The progeny raised in 1908 appeared closely similar to those of
the previous selection in the next row in size, habit, and general ap-
pearance. They differed, however, in the much greater frequency
of entire leaves, though this feature had not been noted in the parent.
The habits of branching were much as in the last row. Some of the
plants had basal limbs formed from sterile secondaries, but many
of the apparent limbs were true primaries. The lint averaged dis-
tinctly better than in the last selection and also better than in original
King, but not as good as in the first mutation.

Variant with smooth seeds.—Selection of 1907, a large plant, 30
inches high, with 3 good-sized basal limbs and 21 average King
bolls. Seeds smooth and black, except for a brown tuft at the beak.

Progeny of 1908, 30 plants—5 with smooth seeds, 8 with seeds
nearly smooth, 10 intermediate, and 7 with fuzzy seeds. The hab-
its of branching appeared to be quite as varied as the characters of
the seeds. Axillary limbs were sometimes developed, though many
plants had none, but had instead two or three large extra-axillary
limbs. Several of the plants had no lmbs except as some of the
axillary buds had grown out into fresh shoots late in the season.
This is distinctly different from the behavior of the other rows where
mature limbs were found at many of the joints, along with the
fruiting branches.

Variant with narrow leaves—The plant selected in 1907 was
nearly 3 feet high, twice as tall as any other plant in its row. It
had 2 long, sterile basal branches and narrow-lobed leaves, varying
from small, entire, and lanceolate to those that were distinctly okra-
like, deeply cleft into 3 to 5 narrow lobes. There were 7 empty
involucres, composed of 1 or 2 bracts, and 20 very small late bolls.

159

TESTS OF INHERITANCE OF DIVERGENT CHARACTERS. 25

The progeny of 1908 consisted’ of 34 plants, with a general simi-
larity to the parent in size, habits of growth, and other characters,
but also with distinct differences among themselves. Sterile extra-
axillary limbs and axillary limbs seemed to be indiscriminately de-
veloped; the primary limbs were often as large as the others. Some
plants had no limbs developed, others no large primaries; many had
both kinds of vegetative branches graded in size, the lower axillary
limbs nearly as large as the extra-axillary limbs.

The forms of the leaves showed equally definite variation. Of the
34 plants 1 had leaves of an extreme okra type, 13 had leaves of in-
termediate form but still distinctly okra-like, and all were more
deeply cut than m Egyptian cotton. Finally there were 20 plants
with normal broad leaves. In spite of much diversity in the size
and shape of the leaves of the individual plants this separation of
the plants into groups appeared to be very definite. Three persons
picked out independently the same 20 plants as belonging to the
broad-leaved group, though some of them showed, on careful inspec-
tion, a prolongation of the lobes beyond anything found in the
original King row.

The empty involucres of the parent plant were definitely repre-
sented by irregular formations of the bracts, especially on the narrow-
leaved plants. Among the 20 broad-leaved plants several had
involucres with only 2 bracts mere or less distorted and unequal,
though only 4 had completely sterile bracts. Among the okra-leaved
plants aborted buds were much more common, though 4 of the 18
intermediate plants did not show them.

In addition to this series, many other mutative variations of King
and Upland varieties have been tested, with the same general results.
Some have proved remarkably constant from the first, while others
show less constancy or readier response to admixture with the parent
stocks. One of the cluster variations of King, which are of very fre-
quent occurrence, was tested at San Antonio in 1907, the progeny of a
very prolific single plant raised at Victoria in the preceding year.
The progeny showed the cluster habit in a very definite manner and
were as uniform and as fertile as any other row of King, with the
possible exception of a San Antonio selection. A few of the plants
seemed to have definite differences, one having the very small, late-
maturing bolls that mark a not infrequent form of degenerative
reversion in many Upland types. It was also noted that the plants
at the ends of the row, those that had a better supply of water, showed
the cluster habit more distinctly than other plants more stunted by
drought.

720—Bull. 159—_09—4

26 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.
DIVERSITY WITHOUT HYBRIDIZATION.

The relation of these diversities of the King cotton to change of
conditions is not so definitely established as in the case of the Tri-
umph, for there was no previous opportunity to observe the degree of
uniformity attained by the King under its original conditions. The
King is also much more inclined than the Triumph to show definite
forms of diversity, often accompanied by the cluster habit or shorten-
ing of the branches. On the other hand, this more variable tendency
of the King gives greater significance to the fact that the variations
are definitely inherited and do not behave after the manner of
hybrids, though it is usual to ascribe the diversity of King to care-
less breeding or to admixture of seed. The fact ought also to be
taken into account that the King cotton originated in North Carolina
and is the most northern variety now being planted in Texas. The
fact that a native Texan variety as uniform as the Triumph is also
subject to similar diversities ought to be taken into account in at-
tempting to understand the behavior of King.

Numerous plantings from the same stock of King seed in Texas
in different localities and different seasons have shown different
degrees of diversity. The most extreme instance of diversity was in
Guatemala, where a planting of King yielded only two or three indt-
viduals with the usual characters of the variety. The others were as
distinctly diverse among themselves as they were different from the
normal type. The diversity was conspicuously greater than in any
other United States variety included in the experiment; in fact, it
exceeded the diversities of all the other Upland varieties taken
together. While none of our Texas plantings of King has given an
equal display of diversity, they have given us numerous examples
of the same kinds of differences in individual plants. Similar facts
are reported by Dr. D. N. Shoemaker, who has had much experience
with this variety in Texas. .

The possibility that the peculiarities of the selected plants of King
cotton were due to hybridization seems to be excluded by the notable
uniformity with which the peculiarities were repeated in the off-
spring. Such uniformity in hybrids is quite unknown. [f the plants
selected in 1907 had been first-generation hybrids their offspring of
1908, representing the second generation, should have displayed a full
range of the differences of their grandparents. Instead of this, the
progeny of different selections are often strikingly uniform among
themselves, though differing notably as groups.

Such facts do not permit us to doubt that the changes of charac-
ters aroused in a variety of cotton when grown in new localities are
of the same nature as the relatively rare mutative variations or

sports that may appear without transfers to new localities. With
159

DIVERSITY WITHOUT HYBRIDIZATION. ry |

greater changes of external conditions there are larger possibilities of
arousing diversity. The definite inheritance of these changed charac-
ters in the next generation shows that the deterioration of a variety
through the diversity called forth by a transfer to new conditions is
not spontaneously corrected, but must be eliminated by new selection.

A large proportion of the diverse characteristics are not those of
other recognized varieties, but are such as to render the plants un-
suited to agricultural purposes—characteristics that would never be
preserved by selection in an agricultural variety. Thus the small-
bolled, late-maturing plants which appeared in considerable numbers
in the Triumph field at Kerrville, Tex., were quite unlike any of our
Upland varieties of cotton, though they are very similar to the dwarf,
depauperate forms that occur very frequently during the period of
acclimatization of the Kekchi and other Central American relatives
of our Upland cottons.

While such facts do not show that hybridization may not have
taken place farther back in the history of a variety, they show that
the possession of the diverse characteristics is not to be explained by
the theory of hybridization alone; the existence and continued trans-
mission of characters not regularly expressed in our agricultural va-
rieties has to be recognized. To account for all diversities by hybridi-
zation is to assume that there was an original, ancestral condition of
uniformity when all the members of the stock had one and the same
set of characters, and that this ancestral set of characters would have
remained uniform if no hybridization had occurred. As soon as we
recognize that diversity, rather than uniformity, represents the origi-
nal condition there is less necessity to resort to remote possibilities of
hybridization when diversitics appear.

The tendency of many different types of cotton to show repeated
mutations of the same kind or in parallel directions is an interesting
phenomenon that has already been recognized in other plants by
Mr. W. W. Tracy, sr., of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Mr. Tracy’s
extensive acquaintance with many varieties of garden vegetables has
convinced him that there are general tendencies to variation run-

ning through whole natural orders of plants quite independent of
the characters that have been used as the basis of selection in
developing useful varieties.

The different plants of the same natural order tend to vary along parallel
lines. Fruit of the variety of tomatoes known as Early Conqueror, those of
the pepper known as Squash or Tomato-Shaped, and of the Scarlet-Fruited
eggplant could be selected, which would be as much alike in form as fruits
from a single plant of any one of them; and I have seen a ‘“ potato ball” of
the same form. I have found fruits of squash, muskmelon, watermelon, and
cucumber each having the peculiar forms and markings generally confined
to one of the others. Thus, last year, I found a plant of watermelon whose

159

28 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

fruit was distinctly warted, and in form would pass for a fairly typical one
of Summer Crookneck squash. I have seen muskmelons as flat and deeply
scalloped as a fair sample of White Bush Scalloped squash—squashes as well
netted and distinctly ribbed as a Bay View muskmelon. And it is taste and
usefulness rather than limitation of variant tendency which determines the
common shapes of these vegetables. I believe that hybridization is often
credited with variation which is due to this common variant tendency.

Thus, the Lima bean, originally a climbing plant, continued so for many
years, during which time several distinct races were developed, but no dwarf
form appeared ; then, within three years, dwarf forms of all the different racial
types appeared, and in several different places simultaneously. The sweet pea,
cultivated for many years and closely watched by many enthusiasts, gave
only climbing plants until 1892, when the “ Cupids,” or dwarf forms, appeared
in at least three locations and different stocks and five individuals, and since
then they have appeared in a great many different stocks and places, and
often where there could not have been pollen influence to induce the sport.
In most vegetables, if any new form, no matter how distinct from those com-
moniy cultivated, appears in one stock and place, there is almost a certainty
that practically identical variations will appear elsewhere. For instance, the
Navy Blue sweet pea was a very new and distinct shade and appeared in the
fields of two cultivators the same year, the only discernible difference in the
two sports being that the seed of one had a greater tendency to skin-crack than
that of the other. This tendency to sport into new forms developing in the
species rather than in any particular stock is often the cause of much annoy-
ance to seedsmen, two or more of them being accused of sending out a new
form under different names, when each supposed that he had the only origina-
tion of that type.%

While the theory of hybridization does not enable us to explain
these parallel tendencies of mutations, they are not in conflict with
the idea of a persistent transmission of ancestral diversities. The
occurrence of similar variations like the small-bolled cotton plants
through a whole series of diverse varieties is itself a reason for
believing that this characteristic is present in the ancestry of many
different kinds of cotton. Vigilant selection is able to prevent the
continued expression of this character in any of our improved varie-
ties, but it does not appear that there is any way of preventing this
characteristic from reappearing in occasional mutative variations.
The small-bolled character in cotton may be compared to the red
vars of corn that continue to appear even in our most carefully
selected varieties, or to the black sheep that appear occasionally in
the most careful pedigreed stocks that are known to have been bred
for large numbers of generations without the preservation of a single
black individual. :

It is not necessary to suppose that all of the forms of diversity
that appear without hybridization are in the nature of reversions or
reappearances of characters of remote ancestors. Many of the pecu-
liarities of mutations may be viewed as examples of the suppression

«Tracy, W. W., sr. Variant Tendency and Individual Prepotency in Garden
Vegetables. Memoirs of the New York Horticultural Society, vol. 1, p. 76. 1902,
159

DIVERSITY WITHOUT HYBRIDIZATION. 29

of characters. Characters that continue to be transmitted may sud-
denly fail to come into expression. If the normal color of a plant
or animal depends on the formation of a green or black pigment in
the cells the failure to produce this pigment results in the formation
of an albino. Large numbers of white varieties exist among animals,
for in these organisms the pigment is not indispensable, but plants
can not grow without their green pigments, or chlorophyll, unless
they are parasites or saprophytes. Albino seedlings occur, as in the
Voorhees Red variety of sweet corn, but never grow to maturity.
When albinism is limited to stripes or spots the plants may survive,
as in ornamental varieties with variegated foliage.

The process of leaf development requires a very fine adjustment
of the processes of growth among the different kinds of cells that
form the upper and lower surfaces. If these adjustments are dis-
turbed the plants are unable to develop leaves with even surfaces,
but produce leaves that are irregularly crumpled or swollen out
between the veins (bullate). Such irregularities in the formation
of leaves are a frequent characteristic of mutations in many dif-
ferent families of plants, as in cotton, coffee, tomatoes, and cap-
sicum. ‘They are also characteristic of many varieties of lettuce and
cabbage.

It is likewise apparent that the symmetrical building up of regu-
larly columnar internodes or joints of the stems of plants requires
nice adjustments of the process of growth. If heredity becomes dis-
turbed so that normally straight internodes are not formed, the stems
of the plants are unable to maintain their usual upright position, but
can only trail along the ground or droop. This trailing or drooping
tendency, like the bullate leaves, is. a frequent characteristic of muta-
tions of plants that usually have upright habits of growth. Numer-
ous instances of prostrate cotton plants have been observed, and the
same tendency is shown among the variant forms in many other
families of plants.

Internodes may also become abnormal by failure to develop to a
normal length, as in our “cluster” and “limbless” varieties of
cotton. Such varieties of cotton apparently correspond directly to
the bush varieties of beans, squashes, and dwarf peas mentioned by
Mr. Tracy, and afford another instance of a familiar form of muta-
tive change that extends through many different families of plants.
The shortening of the internodes in cotton is usually confined to the
extra-axillary branches that bear the fruit, and does not affect the
axillary vegetative branches which share the functions of the central
stalk.

“TIalsted, B. D. Experiments in Crossing Sweet Corn. Bulletin 170, New
Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 19. 1904.
159

°

30 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

INCREASED YIELDS FROM LOCAL ADJUSTMENT.

To ascertain the amount of injury to the crop that might come
from these changes of characters under new conditions, as distin-
guished from really unfavorable factors of climate or soil, adjacent
plantings were made of seed raised and selected in the new place in
the previous year and of other seed from the same original stocks of
seed held over from the same lots, from which the previous year’s
planting had been made. Very definite differences were found in such
plantings, showing that the selection of seed from plants that do not
show changes of characters in the first year secures more uniform
progeny in the second year. It is easier to understand this if we
recognize the fact that the planting of a variety in a new place is
in the nature of a test of the stability of the characters of the differ-
ent individuals under the new conditions. The fact that the changes
of characters are definitely repeated is itself a reason for expecting
that the plants that do not change their characters in the first year
will also have less tendency to changes‘of characters in the second
year, and this seems to be the fact, at least with the Triumph cotton
and some other varieties that have been tested in the same series of
experiments.

The differences between the first-year and second-year plantings
at Kerrville in the season of 1907 were in every case in favor of the
second-year planting over the first, though the advantage gained in
some of the varieties was much greater than with others. The Haw-
kins variety showed 5 per cent, King 9, Cook’s Improved 11, Tri-
umph 18, Parker 26, and McCall 33. In the case of the Triumph
the actual yield from the Kerrville-grown seed was 37 per cent
in excess of the yield from seed of the same original lot planted for
the first time, but the stand of the latter was not complete, so that
the percentage had to be estimated. The average rate of increase
favoring the Kerrville-grown seed was 16.4 per cent. It was also
plain before the cotton was picked that the second-year rows were
superior in the size and fertility of the plants, especially in the cases
of the Triumph and Parker varieties. The rows contained about
50 plants each and yielded seed cotton in amounts of from 3 to 6
pounds. These rows were alternated in such a manner that no
inequalities of conditions could be supposed to have unduly influenced
the results. The second-year rows were better whether they were
above or below the first-year rows on the gentle slope where this series
of plantings was made.

The careful comparison of rows of plants grown close together
gives the best opportunities of ascertaining their inherent differences.
With cotton grown under field conditions it is impossible to protect

159

OTHER TESTS OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT. 31

large numbers of plants against inequalities of soil. In this experi-
ment at Kerrville, for example, it was very evident that the com-
parison of larger plots would have given much more unequal results.
The Triumph cotton in the row tests was distinctly superior to the
Triumph cotton grown in the closely adjacent field planting on the
land which would have been used if a system of large plots had been
employed to test the yields on a more extensive scale. Even on the
level prairies of Texas the texture and composition of the soil is
often extremely irregular, and the plants often reveal the existence
of serious differences not visible before. The experiments suggest
that the most satisfactory way of making yield tests of cotton in
Texas is to plant two kinds in repeated alternation so that the
inequalities between rows of the same kind can be compared with
those of rows of different kinds. The same standard, locally adjusted
variety may be used as a basis of comparison for different tests, but
only by growing it in each case with the variety to be tested. Such
yield tests ought to be made quite apart from breeding experiments,
for the amount of cross-fertilization is likely to be very large.

Tt was noticed by Mr. F. L. Lewton in 1906 that the Hawkins and
McCall varieties succeeded much better at Kerrville than in any of
the other points in Texas where experiments were made. This fact
may indicate that the Kerrville conditions were more similar than
those of other localities to the home of these varieties in Georgia
and South Carolina. Normal behavior of a variety in a new place
means that the gain from local adjustment would be small, as proved
to be the case with the Hawkins variety with respect to the yield,
though the lint was distinctly better in the second generation at
Kerrville.

A fairly satisfactory measure of the yield can be obtained by count-
ing the numbers of bells on the plants, without waiting for the actual
picking of the cotton. First-year plants at Del Rio, Tex., showed on
September 8, 1908, an average of 63 bolls per plant, while second-year
plants at the same place had an average of 88 bolls. The counting of
the bolls before they are ripe may not be a safe index of the crop, for
the plants are often unable to ripen all the bolls that are set, but there
is no obvious objection to the use of the number of bolls as a measure
of the tendency to fertility from the standpoint of local adjustment.

OTHER TESTS OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT.

In addition to the decrease of diversity and the increase of yield,
several other standards for judging the progress of a variety toward
local adjustment have been suggested by facts observed in these
experiments.

159

on LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

While the yield is the most important test of local adjustment, it
has not proved very convenient in connection with our experiments,
because of the necessity in most places of making two or more pick-
ings if all of the cotton is to be secured. Some varieties are likely
to lose much more cotton than others if the crop is allowed to stand
too long before it is gathered, and even in the same variety the earlier
ripening of a locally adjusted row might result in an apparent lessen-
ing of the crop if stormy weather “ scattered ” some of the lint from
the earliest bolls.

IMPROVED QUALITY OF FIBER.

The effect of local adjustment on the quality of the fiber is some-
times quite as striking as the general superiority of the plants in
uniformity and yield. In the Kerrville experiments, where the in-
creased yields were obtained from the locally adjusted rows, there
was also a very distinct gain in the quality of the fiber. The method
followed in judging of this improvement was to compare each plant
of a row grown from Kerrville seed with its nearest neighbor in a
row grown from the same original stock of seed held over for such
experiments,

In some of the varieties the differences between the rows that
represented first and second plantings of exactly the same stock were
very striking, almost all the plants of the second-year rows showing
better lint than those of the first-year rows. This was true particu-
larly in the King, McCall, and Hawkins varieties, but in the Parker
rows there was so little difference in the quality of the lint that the
‘superiority of the second-year row appeared doubtful. In the McCall
and Hawkins rows it was noticed that the plants in which the cluster
habit was most pronounced never had long and abundant lint. On
the other hand, such plants were often distinctly inferior, with only
short and sparse lint.

INCREASED EARLINESS.

Increased earliness is an important factor in its bearing upon the
yield to be obtained in regions infested with the boll weevil. It is
quite possible that the larger yields of locally adjusted varieties at
Kerrville were due, at least in part, to greater earliness, which allowed
them to mature and to set more bolls before the boll weevil became
destructively numerous. It is possible, however, to test the question
of earliness apart from the question of yield by observing the times
when the plants begin to flower or the bolls begin to open. Countings
were made at Del Rio, Tex., in 1907, of the numbers of open bolls on
first and second year plantings as a means of determining whether

159

—————————

OTHER TESTS OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT. 33

there had been a gain in earliness in maturity of bolls. Though the
conditions at Del Rio were distinctly less favorable than at Kerrville
for the display of local adjustment differences, the second-year rows
showed larger proportions of open bolls at the date of our visit, Sep-
tember 30.

In the King variety a first-year row of 22 plants showed an average
of 11.6 open bolls to the plant, while a row of 26 second-year plants
gave an average of 12.8 open bolls. In the Hawkins variety 24 first-
year plants had an average of 5.8 open bolls, while in the second-year
row the average was 6.9. In the Parker variety the average for 25
first-year plants was 9.2 open bolls, while for 22 second-year plants
the average was 11.4. In the first-year Triumph row only 8 plants
had survived, but these gave a higher average, 9.37, of open bolls than
16 second-year plants, whose average was 6.06. In this case it ap-
peared that unfavorable conditions had not only reduced the numbers
of the plants and stunted their growth, but had also brought about
a premature opening of the bolls on some of the plants that remained.
Two of the first-year plants had 16 and 17 open bolls, respectively,
whereas the two highest plants of the second-year series had only
15 and 16 bolls. Both these rows of Triumph were very much inferior
to a third row, representing a selection made at Victoria in the pre-.
eeding year, which showed at the same date an average of 15.75 open
bolls per plant. In the season of 1908 countings of first-year Parker
plants at Del Rio showed an average of 8.8 open bolls, while an ad-
joining second-year row gave an average of 13.5.

For the benefit of those who may wish to make special selections
for earliness in view of the advantage of early cotton in avoiding
injury from the boll weevil, it may be well to notice the fact that there
are several different. factors of earliness that have different values

‘in relation to the boll weevil. Early opening of flowers or of ripe bolls

is not the form of earliness that is most needed as a protection against
the boll weevil. The essential factor is the early setting of the bolls

end prompt development to mature size, beyond the danger of weevil

injury. Experiments with Central American varieties of cotton have
shown that there are great differences in the readiness with which the
different types open their bolls. In some varieties the bolls are opened
as soon as they are mature, while in others the mature bolls may be
held without any apparent change for a considerable period without
opening. Some of the East Indian varieties of cotton do not open
their bolls, the cotton being shelled out by hand after the bolls have
been gathered. After a boll has passed the period of susceptibility to
weevil injury there is no particular advantage in having it open early.
The cotton of very early bolls is likely to be lost or damaged unless
the number of pickings is increased.
720—Bull 159—09——5

34 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

The influence of local adjustment upon earliness is increased by the
fact that the number of bolls that can be produced early in the season
is directly dependent on the method of branching followed by the
plant. The main stalk of the cotton plant produces two distinct
kinds of branches, the fertile branches that bear the bolls and the
vegetative branches that produce other fertile branches, but no bolls.
If the young plants begin the formation of vegetative branches in-
stead of fertile branches there is a definite postponement of fruiting,
for no flower buds can be set until the fertile branches are formed.
The study of the new-place diversities shows that changes in the
methods of branching are one of the most frequent forms of variation.

LARGER BOLLS.

Progressive increases in the sizes of the bolls have been found by
Mr. F. L. Lewton in successive plantings of cotton representing
different generations of the same original stock in the same locality.
In the Parker cotton raised at Winfield, Kans., in 1908, a ten-boll
sample of seed cotton produced by a first planting weighed 55 grams,
the ten bolls representing the second season at Winfield weighed 65.8
grams, while ten of the third season weighed 72.9 grams. The
Hawkins variety showed 58.8 grams for the ten-boll sample of the
first season, 53.8 for the second, and 61 for the third. In the Tri-
umph and McCall varieties it was possible to compare the bolls only
for the second and third seasons, but in both cases there seemed to be
a distinct increase, in the Triumph from 95.6 to 99.2, and in the
McCall, 53.4 to 63.5. The proportions of 4-locked and 5-locked bolls
were so nearly equal in these samples that this factor can not explain
the results.

LARGER PROPORTIONS OF FIVE-LOCKED BOLLS.

Experiments in the acclimatization of types of cotton new to the
United States have shown that the number of locks in the bolls is
often greatly reduced in the first planting and gradually returns to
normal proportions as acclimatization proceeds. The most striking
example of this fact was brought to my attention at Falfurrias, Tex.,
by Mr. Rowland M. Meade. Countings of the bolls of 42 of the
Kekchi plants showed a total of 42 three-locked bolls, 202 four-locked
bolls, and 6 five-locked bolls. On the other hand, 7 piants of an
acclimatized stock of Kekchi cotton grown close by yielded 5 three-
locked, 81 four-locked, and 91 five-locked bolls. In the acclimatized
stock about half of the bolls, 51 per cent, had five locks, a proportion
similar to that of our United States Upland varieties, while in the
planting of imported seed the 5-locked bolls had been reduced to less
than 3 per cent.

159

AGE OF SEED AND DIFFERENCE OF CROPS. 85

Similar tendencies toward a reduction of the numbers of locks in
varieties grown in new places have been shown in our United States
Upland varieties, though to a very much slighter extent, as might be
expected. Countings of locks of Parker cotton made by Mr. C. B.
Doyle at Del Rio, Tex., in 1908, gave an average of 31 five-locked
bolls per plant in a first-year row and 47 per plant on the second-year
row, while the 4-locked bolls had advanced only from 32 to 41.

AGE OF SEED AND DIFFERENCE OF CROPS.

The method of testing the second and third generations of a variety
of cotton in a new place has been to compare these generations with
plantings of the same original stock of seed held over for this purpose,
While it is difficult to see how a direct test could be made in any other
way the plan might be open to objection if it could be shown that
plants raised from old seeds were more diverse than those that come
from seeds raised in the previous year. Though no formal test of the
relation of age of seed to diversity has been made, it may be said that
neither from our experiments with cotton nor from what is known
regarding other plants is there any indication that old seeds are likely
to yield more diverse progeny than are new seeds.

The evidence, such as it is, seems to be more favorable to the
opposite idea that less diversity appears in plants raised from old
seed. Our nearest approach to a definite test was at Kerrville, Tex.,
in 1907, where a row test with old Lockhart seed of Triumph cotton
stood adjacent to a field planted with new seed from Lockhart. The
plants raised from the old seed appeared distinctly better and more
uniform than those from the new, though the experiments were not
of such a character as to completely exclude the possibility of influ-
ence from differences of soils or dates of planting.

It has also happened in several of our experiments with the Central
American types of cotton that seed 2 or 3 years old gave more fertile
plants than had been secured from the first plantings of the same
stocks in the same places. Though the possibility that more favorable
seasons may be responsible for these differences is not to be excluded,
the better results from the old seeds are at least worthy of note. If
the undesirable diversity can be avoided or diminished by merely
holding over old seed, an advantage might be gained in the acclima-
tization or local adjustment of varieties.

Tt seems rather remarkable that this question of differences between
old and new seed has not been more carefully tested. The idea that
old seeds are better, at least in the sense of being likely to yield more
uniformly productive plants, is firmly established in the popular
mind, especially among growers and dealers in the seeds of melons
and cruciferous plants. The difficulty is to distinguish between the

159

36 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

possible influence of the factor of age and that of the factor of
difference between crops of seed of the same variety.

It is stated by Mr. W. W. Tracy, sr., that seed dealers often come
to recognize particular crops of seed as setting standards of excellence
which later generations of the same stocks are not able to attain. A
particular crop of seed of a variety of Savoy cabbage which came
under the personal observation of Mr. Tracy gave progeny of greater
and more uniform excellence than any other stock of seed that could
be secured, not excepting the seeds grown from progeny of this same
original lot, even when grown ii the same field. The second genera-
tion, or grandchildren, was never equal to the first generation that
‘ame from the special stock of seed.*

Whether the retention of the later lots of seeds to an equal age
would have given them the same excellence was not determined.
Indeed, such a test would be very difficult in view of the fact that
differences of age could never be equalized. Even though the popular
idea of the superiority of old seed should be found to rest on the
superiority of particular crops the continued excellence of these
superior crops would still show that the increased age of the seed
should not be supposed to make the progeny more diverse. It is to
be expected that different crops of Triumph cotton raised at Lockhart
might show differences of behavior at Kerrville, or even at Lockhart,
but there is no reason to believe that this factor is of serious impor-
tancé in comparison with local adjustment. The amount of diversity
that appears at Kerrville is out of all proportion to the diversity that
appears at Lockhart.

A similar idea, that uniformity increases with the age of the stock,
is said to exist among breeders of new varieties of potatoes, who
believe that bud variations are much more hkely to occur in new
rarieties recently developed from seedlings than in old, long-
established. varieties.?

a* Seed of the same stock and equally well grown, by the same cultivator,
in the same location, differ in the variant tendency and the degree to which their
product will be of the desired type in different seasons. The crop of seed of
Green Globe Savoy cabbage produced by a certain grower in 1898 gave much
more evenly typical plants and heads than any subsequent crop produced by
him of the same strain, though he took the greatest care in selecting stock and
growing the plants, even setting them in the same field that gave the superior
crop. I have known a practical seedsman, one not likely to waste money on a
mere theory, to pay treble the market price for a certain strain of peas pro-
duced by him four years before, though he had an abundance of seed of the same
strain grown by himself in succeeding years—none of these later crops giving
such good results as seed of that particular season.” See Tracy, W. W., sr.,
Variant Tendency and Individual Prepotency in Garden Vegetables, in Memoirs
of the New York Horticultural Society, vol. 1, p. 77, 1902.

> Bast, E. M.: A Study of the Factors Influencing the Improvement of the
Potato. Bulletin 127, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 1905.

159

a

METHODS OF TESTING COTTON VARIETIES. 37

Still further back, we find a similar idea in the theories and methods
applied by the Belgian horticulturist Van Mons to the breeding of
pears and other fruits a century ago. Van Mons made a practice of
sowing the seeds of the first fruits of his seedlings, which were sup-
posed to deviate more readily from the parental type than seedlings
obtained from mature trees. Though horticulturists admit that Van
Mons was able in this way to produce a large number of superior
varieties, some of which are still popular, the value of the system
has remained in doubt. Some have believed that it did produce a
rapid amelioration as claimed, while others have ascribed the results
to accidental hybridization as likely to be of frequent occurrence in
his gardens, where large numbers of different types of fruits were
crowded together with no protection against cross-fertilization by
insects. |

To explain the supposed worthlessness of the seedlings of old and
superior sorts; Van Mons advanced the idea that the improvement had
distinct limits and then suffered a sudden and complete decline. This
idea appears to have been based largely on the inferiority of seedlings
of some famous old southern varieties which had been carried into
more northern regions. It is quite conceivable from the standpoint
of the behavior of cotton that the change of conditions might render
the seedlings of southern varieties inferior to those that Van Mons
was able to derive from native Belgian stocks. A statement made by
Downing in his discussion of Van Mons, that there was a marked and
unexpected decline in the quality. of seedlings raised by colonists in
New England, also suggests the possibility that factors of acclimatiza-
tion and local adjustment may have to be considered in the breeding
of fruits as well as in annual crops.‘

METHODS OF TESTING COTTON VARIETIES.

Failure to take into account the factor of local adjustment may
Vitiate any test of varieties. A new variety not really superior, but
carefully selected and locally adjusted, may appear to be better than
a really superior old variety, if the seed of the latter is brought in
from a distance and the comparison is made without the precaution
of local adjustment. Conversely, a really superior variety brought
into a new place may suffer by comparison with inferior stocks which
have the advantage of better local adjustment.

a“ The first colonists here, who brought with them many seeds gathered from
the best old varieties of fruits, were surprised to find their seedlings producing
only very inferior fruits. These seedlings had returned by their inherent
tendency almost to a wild state. By rearing from them, however, seedlings
of many repeated generations, we have arrived at a great number of the finest
apples, pears, peaches, and plums.’ See Downing, A. J., The Fruits and Fruit
Trees of America, 1845, p. 7.

159

38 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

It is not safe to assume that any single planting can determine
whether a new variety is suited to any particular set of local condi-
tions. The only evidence that first plantings can give us is to show
the extent to which new conditions can disturb the usual expression
of characters of varieties,

The failure of tests of cotton varieties to yield practical results
does not arise from any difficulty in finding differences between the
behavior of different varieties of cotton when planted side by side.
The trouble usually is that differences are too great and too frequent.
A variety which in one year appears to be among the best may appear
in the next year among the worst. The experimenter gains the
impression that varieties of cotton have an extreme sensibility, not
only to local differences, but to seasonal changes. This appearance of
very great delicacy of adjustment makes testing appear almost in
vain, especially in regions where the seasons are capricious, as in
Texas. The experimenter gains no confidence in the uniformity of
his results and is unable to give the farmer the practical advice that
he desires.

The need of making allowances for local adjustment shows that
any practical test must. require at least two or three years before we
can hope to ascertain whether a new variety is really well adapted
to local conditions or not. Nor is it reasonable to suppose that the
mere repetition of the usual tests for two or three years will furnish
the desired information regarding the value of varieties. To make
the test effective the experimenter must be acquainted with the normal
form and methods of growth of the varieties so that he can select the
plants that best conform to the varietal standards. It is only by the
selection of the plants that fail to be disturbed by the new conditions
that the possibilities of the variety can be ascertained.

The recurrence of diversity in a variety as a result of new condi-
tions has some of the same effects as hybridization. The stock is no
longer “ pure,” in the sense that it no longer yields uniform progeny.
As the plants that have undergone definite changes of characters now
differ in the same way as distinct varieties, a stock containing such
mutations can no longer be said to represent a single variety; it has
become a mixture of varieties and of crosses between them. Just as
we would not think of beginning a variety test by mixing our seeds,
so we ought not to consider that we can make a fair test of any
variety after it has split up into other varieties.

The behavior of a variety in new places may very properly be
tested from the standpoint of new-place variation to learn the nature,
number, and extent of the changes that occur, and the practicability
of avoiding them by acclimatization and local adjustment. Not until
local adjustment has been accomplished, so that a variety behaves

159

METHODS OF TESTING COTTON VARIETIES. 39

with a normal degree of uniformity, does it become possible to make
an adequate final test of the variety—a test which determines whether
the variety is really adapted to the conditions and is really better or
worse than other varieties also adjusted to the conditions.

It may be that some relation can be discovered so that we can
judge from the first behavior of a variety what its later behavior
will be. It appears reasonable, on the surface, to suppose that a
variety which shows many changes in a new place will continue to
be less stable than another variety that behaves much more normally
in the first year. But a little further thought robs us of even this
logical assurance, for it is easy to understand that the behavior of a
variety in a new place may have more relation to the place from
which the variety has come than to its inherent possibilties of becom-
ing adjusted to the new place. A variety brought from similar
conditions, so as not to be upset by the transfer, might appear at
first distinctly superior to another variety which had not had any
previous opportunity to gain adjustment to such conditions.

To judge from indications of the first season it would have ap-
peared quite hopeless to expect any normal behavior from some of
our imported varieties which showed complete changes of habits of
growth and became almost completely sterile. And yet these same
varieties have later returned to normal characteristics and fertility.
‘In view of such facts it would seem that the minor aberrations of
our domestic varieties can hardly be taken seriously as indications of
special, exclusive adaptation to the conditions in which they happen
to have been bred. These wider possibilities of adaptation give new
importance to the testing of varieties, though at the same time they
appear to greatly increase the difficulty of the work. °

Not only must the tests be maintained for longer periods, but this
very fact multiplies another element of difficulty, namely, that of
protecting the varieties against admixture by cross-pollination while
the tests are being made. This danger differs in different regions
with the numbers of insects that visit the flowers, but in many loeali-
ties it is quite unreasonable to suppose that a variety will remain pure
after it has been grown for two or three years in close proximity to
other kinds of cotton.

Thus it seems necessary to admit that very little practical impor-
tance can be attached to either of the two systems of testing cotton
varieties that have been depended upon in the past. The farmer’s
planting of a small amount of seed of a new variety can not be
relied upon to give him any true idea of the value of the variety,
or even to place him in adequate possession of the variety. Neither
does the assembling of a large number of varieties by the experi-
menter for tests of yields enable him to decide which is the best
stock, even for the region in which the experiment is made.

159

40 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

A first application of the facts of local adjustment in the testing
of cotton varieties has been made in connection with the Central
American and Mexican types recently introduced because of their
weevil-resisting adaptations. Astonishing claims of superiority for
the new varieties could have been made if we had waited until aceli-
matization had been completed and then tested them in comparison
with United States Upland varieties which had not been locally ad-
justed to the places where the imported varieties had been acclima- -
tized. The differences are much less striking when the imported
varieties are compared with the best of our Upland stocks which
have received the same selective attention that the new types have
had, and in the same places. Nevertheless, if the new sorts con-
tinue to hold their own or to excel under such circumstances their
general use can be advised with much better justification.

If the imported varieties had been distributed for general plant-
ing without these more thorough tests and without taking the facts
of local adjustment into account, the result would doubtless have
been the same as in many other instances where new varieties of
plants in the hands of the practical farmer or gardener fail to show
the distinct superiority claimed by those who have originated or im-
ported them. Such discrepancies are commonly explained as due to
misrepresentation by the dealer or to the overenthusiasm of the
breeder, but the phenomena of local adjustment show that differences
of this kind may also have a basis of actual fact.

METHODS OF INTRODUCING NEW VARIETIES.

The bearing of local adjustment on the introduction of new
varieties is quite as serious as upon methods of testing varieties. No
matter how superior a variety may appear in ‘one locality, where it
may have been carefully bred and adequately tested, it is not safe to
assume that it will show its superiority in other regions until it has
passed through the process of local adjustment. Nor is it any
longer possible to believe that the farmer can ascertain the true
value of a new variety by the traditional method of making a small
trial planting and saving the seed of this to use in later years for
general crop purposes.

The. facts of local adjustment show us that the first planting of
even a carefully selected high-grade variety in a new place is likely
to result in an immediate deterioration of from 10 to 20 per cent in
the yield, and as much, or more, in the quality. Unless this deteriora-
tion is avoided by removing the changed individuals from the stock,
subsequent generations may be expected to show a gradually increas-
ing deviation from the standards of the variety.

159

METHODS OF INTRODUCING NEW VARIETIES. 41

Unless the farmer takes special precautions to isolate his new
variety, which he is not likely to undertake for a small sample of
seed, and may be unable to accomplish at all when his neighbors are
growing other kinds of cotton, the new stock will be badly infected
with hybrids by the time he has multiphed it and secured enough
seed for regular field plantings. And if, on the other hand, the
farmer does isolate his new cotton he will not be able to make a direct
comparison with the variety he has previously grown.

And even if the farmer succeeds in avoiding mixture of pollen by
insects, there is still to be encountered the almost equally serious diffi-
culty of avoiding mixture of seed at the gin. It is difficult to imagine
a system that would more effectively conspire against the mainte-
nance of pure-bred varieties of cotton than our American cotton gin,
where the seed from each farmer is likely to receive an admixture from
any other farm or from many farms together. Unless the farmer
takes the unusual pains to see that the gin machinery is thoroughly
cleaned out before his special stock is ginned, he has no reason to
expect that his new variety will escape admixture, no matter what
his previous precautions may have been. And to have even the op-
portunity to have the gin cleaned, he will usually be compelled to
store his cotton till the end of the season.

These difficulties will in general conspire to prevent any real test
of a new type of cotton, for by the time this test can be made the
variety will have become seriously deteriorated, both by variation
and hybridization. In addition to this, it is to be recognized that
even if an individual farmer were to take the necessary precautions
of carefully selecting and isolating his new stock, the prospects of
his being able to secure any direct advantage from his efforts would
still be very unfavorable. Unless he is a very large producer, and is
thus able to market his crop separately, he is not likely to secure any
advance in price. Ordinary buyers would not give him a better price
than they were giving his neighbor who had made no improvement in
the quality of the product.

- Thus it appears that an entirely different system of introducing
new varieties of cotton is needed if their full value is to be secured
for the farmer. The work must be planned from the standpoint of
whole communities, instead of from that of individual farmers. The
seed must first be locally adjusted to the new place and must be grown
exclusively in the region if it is to be protected from mixing with
other varieties. If the full value of improved strains is to be gained,
whole communities must unite in their production, so as to supply
special markets or to secure special attention in the trade.

The present multiplicity of cotton varieties is recognized as a very
unfortunate condition from the commercial standpoint, as well as
from the agricultural. A very large proportion of the varieties are

159

49, LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

known only in restricted regions, to which they are supposed to be
specially adapted. Reasons for this opinion have been found in the
fact that these local favorites often fail to distinguish themselves
when carried to other districts and yet are able to hold their own at
home, even in comparison with high-grade varieties from other places.

While it is certainly to be expected that cotton varieties, like other
kinds of plants, are really different in their adaptive characters, so
that some are better suited than others to a particular set of condi-
tions, the facts of local adjustment show us that it would be very
easy to overestimate these special adaptations. Not until a new va-
riety has reached the condition of local adjustment can the question
of special adaptation to the local conditions be fairly tested, as has
been seen in the preceding chapter. And until the importance of the
factor of adaptation has been determined in this way we can not be
sure that there is any practical necessity for the present multiplicity
of varieties.

The number of varieties is increasing annually through the efforts
of seedsmen to satisfy the popular demands for novelties. Superior
new varieties should be welcomed, of course, but there is seldom any
general agreement that the new varieties are better than the old.
Though often widely disseminated by advertising, they are seldom
able to supplant the old in any complete manner. No progress is
made toward the desirable policy of uniformity for the whole com-
munity.

From present indications it appears quite possible that the factor
of local adjustment may often prove to be larger than the factor of
special adaptation. If this should be the case, much may be gained
by extending a few of the best varieties over larger areas and dis-
couraging the cultivation of all of the local varieties that can be re-
placed with others that are as good or better. Varieties that have an
essential superiority will tend, of course, to maintain themselves and
to spread into adjoining districts from the center where their supe-
riority is definitely recognized. The problem is to facilitate such ex-
tension of good varieties by more definite determinations of their
value in the outlying regions. A local variety called “ Beat All,”
which has been grown and carefully bred in southern Georgia for
nearly fifty years, is reported by Mr. F. J. Tyler as more popular in
its home district than any other. Mr. Tyler considers this variety
the best in the district, especially for poor lands, and states that it is
fast replacing all other varieties. But when the same variety was
tested (under the name “ Hart’s Improved”) at the Georgia station,
only 100 miles away, it stood at the bottom of the list. So great a
contrast would not be hkely to appear if tests were made between
locally adjusted stocks.

159

METHODS OF INTRODUCING NEW VARIETIES. 43

Local adjustment may be looked upon as a plan for the estab-
lishment of many local strains of each of the more desirable varieties
of cotton, but these strains are to be kept as much alike as possible
in their commercial characters instead of each locality carrying on
an independent selection based on an independent standard of its
own.

Instead of taking it for granted that each locality must grow a
different type of cotton, we ought to begin with the opposite idea
of extending a few of the most desirable types as widely as possible
through the cotton belt. Real limitations will doubtless be found
after the varieties have been studied from the standpoint of local
adjustment, but we should not assume that the limits have been
reached until they are really encountered and we can learn what
they are. Many experimenters with varieties of cotton and other
crops have been content with the simple idea that the varieties are
different, and have not felt any further obligation to ascertain the
nature of the differences. Nevertheless, the need of more adequate
knowledge in this field has also been clearly appreciated by some
of our students of agricultural science. A very definite statement
of this kind was made over twenty years ago by the late Dr. E. L.
Sturtevant:

The true study of a variety, to be of value, must embrace the properties of °
the plant, whereby certain adaptations are attained which render the variety
better fitted for certain conditions of culture. Thus we would know of grain
whether stiffness of straw or weakness of straw, whether ability to endure
high cultivation or thin seeding or hardiness, etc., are an inherent property of
the variety. We would know whether some varieties are more resistant to
drought than others or can withstand wetness. We would know the relations
of the plant toward conditions apt to occur in cultivation, and the better we
know these, the more reliable become the conclusions which are derived and
disseminated as an aid to the cultivator. * * * For us to say at the
present stage of agricultural study that one variety is best, and inferentially
that such a variety should be adopted by all, would savor of quackery. The
best reports we can offer are the results of trial under conditions as noted
and memoranda of variety peculiarities or such of them that we are able to
definitely record.@

In this experimental study of cotton varieties from the standpoint
of this distinction between local adjustment and adaptation to special
conditions, so as to determine the true values of the different varieties
in different parts of the cotton belt, the farmer is in particular need
of the assistance of the Department of Agriculture and the State
experiment stations. It is not to be expected that the efforts of in-
dividual farmers will be able to make adequate tests of this kind, for
the number of varieties is too great and too much time and labor are
required.

@ Sturtevant, E. L. New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Fifth An-

nual Report for 1886, p. 71.
159

44 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

RELATION OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT TO OTHER VARIATIONS.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERS ALSO HEREDITARY.

Tt is usual to think of the characteristics of plants and-animals as
contributed by two general factors, heredity and environment, some
characteristics being assigned to one factor and some to the other.
Much effort has even been spent in attempting to determine whether
characters supposed to come from the environment could become
hereditary. Some writers have considered that the environment was
partly or wholly responsible for the evolutionary development of
plants and animals, while others have denied even the possibility that
characters acquired from the environment could become hereditary.

In the light of our. present knowledge the distinction between
hereditary and environmental characters appears less serious. The
only difference seems to be that the so-called environmental charac-
ters are more readily changed and adjusted to external conditions,
not that they are less hereditary than other characters. The readi-
ness with which many characters can be accommodated to changes
of environment have led many writers on evolution to suppose that
such characters are not hereditary. It might with equal propriety
be alleged that they are more truly and effectively hereditary than
-other characters, since their powers of accurate accommodation to a
particular condition do not appear to be impaired by long periods of
disuse or by varied experiences of other kinds which notably disturb
the adjustments of characters that have less direct relations to the
environment.

It is not necessary to suppose that any of the characters of plants
or animals are directly due to the environment, or that any characters
are entirely independent of environment. Changes of characters
following changes of environment can be thought of as representing
responses or accommodations to external conditions, or influences
of the conditions upon the processes of heredity. These relations are
sensitive in many different degrees with different organisms and with
different characters. Some characters are greatly affected by changes
of external conditions and others very little. .

Changes of accommodation, like the round leaves which give place
to narrow-lobed leaves when amphibious buttercups are grown in
water or the changes from fruiting branches to vegetative branches
in cotton, can be considered as regular reactions or responses to
changes of external conditions. 'To recognize a change of characters
as a response is not the same, however, as to suppose that the charac-
ter itself is in the nature of a response to a condition. The narrow
leaves are not thought of as being caused by additional water in the
plant, but as being put forth by the plant as a consequence of the

159

———————————————— x —
,

RELATION OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT TO OTHER VARIATIONS. 45

change of conditions. The internal machinery of the plant that
enables it to put forth the two kinds of leaves is something quite dif-
ferent from the air or the water in which the leaves may grow. The
change of expression of the characters is an internal process, of which
we know nothing except the visible result, that the plant takes on a
different method of growth. While we do not understand the inter-
nal mechanisms that enable one environmental character to be sub-
stituted for another, there is no reason to consider this fact any more
mysterious or any more significant from the standpoint of heredity
than the further fact that characters may also change and alternate
in expression without any regularly corresponding changes in the
environment. In some kinds of plants, such as the juniper and the
eucalyptus, the same individual may bear at the same time two very
different kinds of leaves, showing that such differences lie, first of
all, in the plants themselves, rather than in their environments.

CORRELATION OF CHARACTERS AND NEW-PLACE EFFECTS.

The phenomenon of correlation may also assist us in understand-
ing the fact that new conditions call forth diversity. Correlation it-
self is only inadequately understood, but many examples have been
collected by students of heredity. By correlation we mean that two

-or more characters tend to be brought into expression together. Cor-

relation is said to be complete if one of the characters never appears
without the other. Or there may be lesser degrees of correlation
where the characters are more often found together than apart. As
an example of a kind of correlation that is very general in cotton
there may be mentioned the tendency of longer lint to accompany a
narrower, sharp-pointed boll. This correlation not only apples to
different species and varieties of cotton, but appears to hold even be-
tween individuals of the same variety. It is always to be expected
that a plant with more pointed bolls than its neighbor will have longer
lint. There is no obvious reason why this should be true, for the lint
does not lie extended in the bolls, but is packed around the individual
seeds. There is no apparent reason why a rounded boll should not
contain long-linted seed as well as a pointed boll.

New-place effects observed in imported types of cotton appear to
be regularly accompanied by correlated characters.. Thus if the
plants grow abnormally large and robust, the fertility is not only
greatly reduced, but the number of locks in the bolls may be dis-
tinctly lessened as well as the amount, length, and quality of the lint.
Such facts show that the changes called forth by the new conditions
are not confined to characters that are usually supposed to be directly
related to the environment. When great individual diversity ap-
pears, however, we are carried beyond the idea of correlation as

159

46 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT- OF COTTON VARIETIES.

usually understood, and have to fall back upon the idea already sug-
gested that the changing of the accommodation characters may carry
with it a disturbance of the internal relations which control the
expression of the other characters.

The phenomena of correlation are worthy of careful consideration
in our attempts to understand the workings of the internal machinery
of heredity. The general correlation or tendency for smaller and
more rounded bolls to produce short lint may render the lint lable
to deterioration through any external agency that affects the shape of
the bolls. At Yuma, Ariz., in 1908, a considerable series of Upland
types of cotton included in our experimental plantings showed a very
general tendency to small rounded bolls, and there was an equally
general shortening of the lint.

It also appears to be a rule with the Upland cotton that luxuriant
growth tends not only to reduce fertility and make the crop late, but
also to render the lint inferior. Thus at Del Rio, Tex., in 1908, sev-
eral selections of the Parker and other types of Upland cotton, which
grew more luxuriantly than in 1907, showed distinctly inferior lint.
Tn some cases the progeny of plants that yielded notably good lint in
1907 gave not a single plant with good lint. The advantage which
appeared to have been gained in the year before from local adjust-
ment was much less apparent in 1908, as far as the lint was concerned.
It was noticed in several cases that the plants with the best lint were
at the ends of the rows where there was more exposure to light and
less competition of roots. Thus it appears that luxuriant growth
does not necessarily conflict with the production of good lint, but that
overgrowth, along with overcrowding and overshading, is regularly
accompanied by deterioration of the staple. That unfavorable condi-
tions might reduce the number of bolls on the plant would not be
surprising, but there is no obvious external reason why the lint inside
the bolls should be so definitely affected by the external conditions,
unless it be through correlation with the form of growth adopted by
the plants. If we can determine the extent to which the lint of dif-
ferent bolls of the same plant may be affected directly by differences
of temperature and sunlight a better idea of the importance of this
correlation may be gained.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES ACCOMPANIED BY INCREASED DIVERSITY.

When we study with greater care the changes that occur under the
new conditions, we find that they are not confined to characters that
are directly connected with the external conditions, those that are
shared by all the plants in the new environment. We find that these
more general changes of accommodation to external conditions are

159

RELATION OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT TO OTHER VARIATIONS. 47

often accompanied by even more definite changes in the individual
plants that greatly increase the amount of differences among them.
To transfer a variety from a moist to a dry region may result in
the plants being more hairy, but it is also likely to result in some
plants becoming more varied in other characters of their leaves than
they were in the previous locality. The increase of diversity is just
as concrete a fact as the change of accommodation, and often more
important for agriculture, since it is this diversity that lessens the
crop rather than the general change of characters in the direction
of accommodation to the new conditions.

The undesirable increase of diversity may be considered as an in-
direct result of the change of conditions incidental to the more regular
accommodative changes of characters which changes of environment
call forth. It does not seem unreasonable to suppose that the making
of one readjustment among the characters should disturb another
adjustment in mechanisms as delicate and highly complex as organ-
isms. But whatever the explanation, the facts remain that diver-
sity is increased by new conditions and that this diversity causes
deterioration and decrease of the crop, and that these injuries can be
avoided in later years by renewed selection to establish and maintain
the local adjustment of the variety.

_ Changes of accommodation that are shared by all the individuals
can be related to different factors of the environment, heat, hght,
moisture, or substances in the soil. To investigate these relations is
more the object of the science of ecology. The diversity shown by
the different individuals constitutes another group of phenomena, less
directly related to ecology than to the science of heredity itself. The
same internal instability is likely to be aroused by a very different
external change. It has been observed that the mutations that arise
in one place are no more alike among themselves than those that
arise in a very different place. In seeking to understand such diver-
sities we study first the behavior of the plants themselves, rather than
their environmental relations. We no longer hope to explain the
origin of particular characters by particular conditions, but accept
the organisms and their varied characters as already existing. We
must seek to know the facts of behavior before attempting to change
them.

EFFECT OF SEASONS AND TIMES OF PLANTING.

An unfavorable season may have the same effects upon variation
as a transfer into a new region, as already noted. The seasonal
differences in the same place may even exceed those of different places
quite widely separated. An excellent example of this has been noted
by Mr. F. L. Lewton. A white-seeded Mexican cotton grown at
Victoria, Tex., in 1906, and at Falfurrias, Tex., in 1907, retained the

159

48 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

white-seeded character without variation, but in the season of 1908
the same stock planted again at Falfurrias showed a considerable
number of distinctly greenish seeds, and still larger numbers of seeds
slightly tinged with green or brown, and only a small proportion of
seeds of the original white color. This change occurred not only in
plants grown from seed raised at Falfurrias in 1907, but also in those
raised from some of the seed of 1906, the same stock of seed that had
produced’ only white-seeded plants in 1907. Thus there seems to be
no room for doubt that the conditions at Falfurrias in 1908 were able
to effect a change which had not been called forth by transfer from
the Mexican State of Durango to Texas.‘

A similarly general change in the habits of branching of the
Parker variety of Upland cotton occurred at Del Rio, Tex., in 1907.
No less than six plantings of different stocks of seed of this variety
showed a distinct tendency to depart from the normal long-branched
habit of this variety and go over to the semicluster habit, as a result
of a shortening of the joints of the fruiting branches, as already
described in a previous report.’

Though there could be no doubt that the conditions were responsi-
ble for strengthening this tendency to shorter branches there is also
no reason to suppose that the shorter joints represent a character that
came in from the environment. It is a matter of observation that the
tendency to vary in the direction of shorter joints is very general, not

«Two cases of differences in the seed characters of the same individual plants
in different parts of the season have been noted by Mr. Lewton. In a picking
of a selected plant of Mexican cotton at Del Rio, Tex., October 8, 1907, all the
seeds were coated with olive-green fuzz. Another picking made October 22
showed about half of the seeds nearly smooth. In the bolls picked from a
selected plant of the Pachon cotton from western Guatemala at Yuma, Ariz.,
November 11, 1907, there were 42 per cent of smooth seeds, while in an earlier
picking from the same plant (September 9) almost all of the seeds were fuzzy,
though in neither case were the seeds as heavily coated with fuzz as is usual
with the Pachon cottons.

That changes in the color of the fuzz are likely to occur as a result of transfer
from Guatemala to Texas was also shown by a plant of Kekchi cotton at Kerr-
ville, Tex., which produced 42 per cent of grayish green seed. This plant was
from a stock of seed specially selected by Mr. Lewton in Guatemala, where the
Kekchi cotton has the seeds densely covered with white fuzz with great regu-
larity. Large amounts of seed from numerous localities in the Cahabon district
of eastern Guatemala have been examined by Mr. Lewton without finding any
smooth seeds or colored fuzz. Many examples of colored fuzz have occurred in
the second generation of the Kekchi cotton in the United States, but the possi-
bility of hybridization was not excluded. Hybrids usually have green fuzz.
See Reappearance of a Primitive Character in Cotton Hybrids, Circular 18,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

b Cook, O. F. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. Bul-
letin 147. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 1909.

159

RELATION OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT TO OTHER VARIATIONS. 49

only among varieties of cotton but in many other plants. The ten-
dency is more frequently manifested as a definite change or mutation
of an individual plant growing, it may be, with hundreds or thou-
sands of otliers that do not change. The behavior of the Parker
cotton at Del Rio is of interest as showing that external conditions
may at times interfere to accelerate or intensify a tendency to change
that under other conditions would remain entirely latent.

Even the time of planting may have a definite effect upon the
habits of growth and fertility of the plants, as can be easily seen
when the same kind of cotton is planted in adjoining rows at differ-
ent dates. Very early plantings, if they are not actually killed by
frost, may be seriously injured by cold weather so that the plants
make very slow growth. Many individuals may remain permanently
stunted, or if they finally grow to full stature may do so only late
in the season and produce no early bolls.

Plantings made somewhat later, that begin their growth while the
weather is still cool, but without being stunted, have a distinct tend-
ency to produce fruiting branches low down on the stalk, and are
thus able to set an early crop of bolls. Late plantings, that begin
their growth in warm weather, become too luxuriant at first and
produce sterile vegetative branches at the base of the plant, instead
of fruiting branches. The result is that the cotton that is planted
too late in the season may require a longer time to set ‘the same
number of bolls than an earlier planting of the same cotton in the
same place.

These facts explain the failure of experiments that have been made
with very late plantings, in June, in order to “ starve out ” the boll
weevils in the spring months. Even if no boll weevils were present
these very late plantings could not be expected to vield as well as the
earlier plantings. In the presence of boll weevils there may be a
total failure of the crop.

The facts also explain why in southern Texas plantings made in
April and May often yield larger crops than plantings made in
March. Conspicuous examples of this were observed at Del Rio, Tex.,
in 1907, where fields planted in April and May were distinctly better
than March-planted fields, in spite of the fact that weevils were pres-
ent in abundance early in the spring in cotton that had survived the
winter. In an experimental field planted May 22 the crop was
uninjured even as late as October 2. Most of the plants remained
entirely untouched by the weevils, showing no punctures on squares
or bolls.

The ability of later cotton to overtake and outyield earlier plant-
ings, even in the presence of the boll weevil, was definitely shown
in a succession of plantings of Triumph cotton at San Antonio, Tex.,

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50 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

in 1907. A planting made on March 8 was not only outyielded by
adjacent plantings of March 23 and April 7, but the later plantings
actually ripened larger proportions of their crop before the 1st of
September. The yields for the three dates of planting stood in the
proportion of 1,109 pounds per acre, 1,220 pounds, and 1,190 pounds,
whereas the corresponding percentages of cotton ripened before
September 1 were 65, 69, and 76. The more rapid development of the
April and May plantings produced buds and bolls faster than the
weevils were able to destroy them. The growth of March plantings
may be so seriously retarded by the effects of cold weather that the
production of weevils overtakes the cotton, especially if one or more
of the early crops of buds are blasted and “ shed,” as often happens
when the plants are checked by unfavorable weather.

AGGREGATE AND PROMISCUOUS MUTATIONS.

The behavior of the Parker cotton at Del Rio shows that it is
sometimes possible for external conditions to induce a change in the
expression of a character that can also change without any apparent
relation to external conditions, as when a single individual mutation
occurs among many hundreds or thousands of plants that remain
without change. The simultaneous mutation of all the individuals
of a planting shows that the conditions of that planting have favored
mutation. Though they do not prove that sporadic individual mu-
tations that occur in other places are caused by external conditions.
they do show that the two kinds of changes are not so essentially
distinct as often supposed. Clocks that are able to strike by their
own mechanism may also be induced to strike by external interference
with the mechanism, though the striking itself may be the same in
both cases. It is not necessary to suppose that there is any funda-
mental difference between mutations that take place spontaneously
as the result of changes in the organic mechanism itself and those that
appear to have more direct relations to external conditions. Whether
many mutations occur, or a few, or a single one, the nature of the
mutations may be much the same. Nor need we think that the re-
lations to the external conditions are fundamentally different in cases
where many plants mutate in the same.direction from cases where
they mutate in different directions.

Both aggregate and promiscuous mutations have been described
in the same species, the garden tomato, the former by Dr. C. A.

@ Another experiment at the San Antonio Experiment Farm in 1908 gave
similar results. Plantings of March 14, March 27, and April 25 yielded at the
rate of 1,040, 1,099, and 1,142 pounds per acre, respectively. See Headley, F. B.,
and Hastings, S. H., The Work of the San Antonio Experiment Farm in 1908,
Circular 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 16.

159

RELATION OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT TO OTHER VARIATIONS. 51

White,* of Washington, D. C., the latter by Prof. E. P. Sandsten,
of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. In Doctor
White’s experiments whole plantings changed in the same direction,
as in the case of our Parker cotton at Del Rio. In the Wisconsin
experiments great individual diversity appeared, as in newly im-
ported Central American cottons:

The results of this excessive application of fertilizers soon became apparent.
Ilardly two plants in the bed of ninety-six were alike in all particulars. The
stems in many plants were more or less decumbent, in others the internodes
were elongated. A few plants were more or less dwarfed. The leaves showed
marked variation in size, shape, and subdivisions; the whole bed giving an
appearance of a variety test. The variation became more marked at the time
of flowering. In many instances the blossoms were abnormal, both as to size
and form. The stamens were greatly modified in several of the plants, and
in one instance to such an extent as to become almost aborted. On the other
hand, the pistils were greatly thickened and overgrown. One plant in particu-
lar, which showed marked modifications in the floral parts, was labeled and
carefully watched. As the fruit grew it was noticed that the pistil and fleshy
part of the ovary developed abnormally and there appeared to be no evidence
of seed formation. During the process of growth and ripening of the fruit
this fact was further emphasized, and when the first fruit was cut it was
found to be seedless. The growth habit of the plant, while not excessive, showed
a marked deviation from the ordinary type. The leaves were more divided
and somewhat curly; they were also much smaller, and the general habit of
the stem and branches was more or less decumbent.?

An aggregate mutation of many plants in one direction has greater
resemblance to a change of adjustment or accommodation than has a
promiscuous mutation, where each plant appears to change in a dif-
ferent direction, but the promiscuous mutation appears rather less
remarkable than the aggregate if we consider that the external con-
ditions have only disturbed the previous adjustments of the char-
acters, without inclining them toward any particular new adjustment.
Asa matter of fact, the two forms of mutation are often closely asso-
ciated in the phenomena of acclimatization. An aggregate mutation
of all the plants to a different habit of growth is usually accom-
panied and followed by many and very promiscuous changes in
other characters. A serious change in a character that is affected
by the external conditions may be followed by changes in many other
characters that have no apparent connection with external conditions.

The facts of mutation forbid any reliance in practical agriculture
upon the idea that a stock which has been rendered uniform by
selection will remain uniform if selection is relaxed. This idea cer-
tainly does not rest upon the observation of varieties as they are, but

«The Mutations of Lycopersicum. Popular Science Monthly, vol. 67, p. 151.

b Sandsten, BE. P. Excessive Feeding as a Factor in Producing Variations in
Tomatoes. Twenty-second Annual Report of the University of Wisconsin
Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 801-304. 1905.

159

59 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

is an inference from the theory that evolution takes place by sudden
changes of characters, like those that distinguish a mutation from the
parent variety or from another mutation. An open-fertilized plant
like cotton is more readily variable and hence more susceptible to
new-place effects than a strictly self-fertilized plant lke wheat or
barley.. Nevertheless, it appears that self-fertilized plants are far
from being immune to variation. Even in vegetative varieties the
different stocks derived from the same original individual may become
very diverse as a result of bud variation, or may show different
degrees of vigor and fertility.

Acclimatization appears to be especially difficult with carefully
selected, line-bred, self-fertilized varieties, such as those of wheat and
barley. Specialists in these crops consider that the carefully selected
stocks are much less likely to become acclimatized or adjusted to a
new place than the types that have not been so carefully selected. A
whole planting may show the same variation at the same time, an
ageregate mutation instead of a promiscuous mutation, giving only
one chance of adjustment to the new conditions instead of the vast
number of chances afforded by promiscuous mutation. It is possible
that something might be gained in such cases by making the experi-
ment of acclimatization or local adjustment with cross-fertilized seed
as affording a better opportunity for the display of a useful diversity.

RELATION OF SELECTION TO LOCAL ADJUSTMENT.

One of the reasons why the phenomena of local adjustment and
acclimatization have been so largely overlooked and left out of
account as factors of practical importance in agriculture is to be
found in the general popularity of the idea that selection brings
about the progressive improvement of plants and animals, as held
by many writers on evolution. But for general scientific purposes
as well as for practical reasons it is important to understand how
the beneficial effects of selection are exerted. Ever since Darwin’s
first writings on the subject of natural selection were published the
chief objection to his doctrines has been that they did not explain
how selection could bring into existence the new or improved charac-
ters shown in the evolutionary progress of species. It has to be
admitted that selection, whether natural or artificial, must deal with
‘ariations as accomplished facts. Selection gives one variation or
characteristic a great advantage over other aiternative character-
istics, and thus allows it to become more quickly the character of a
whole variety or species. Thus, natural selection might assist in
diversifying two parts of a species that were living under different.
conditions, just as artificial selection may develop two or more differ-
ent strains from one variety by saving in some groups the variations

159

RELATION OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT TO OTHER VARIATIONS. 53

that are rejected in the others. But in all such cases selection still
deals with differences as they appear, and does not help us to under-
stand the nature of the differences themselves, or the factors that are
responsible for their appearance.

Selection for local adjustment deals, like natural selection, with
forms and characters that already exist in the plants; the question
of improvement by further changes is not involved. The benefit that
is secured when local adjustment is accomplished through selection
is simply that of bringing the variety back to its previous standard
of uniformity. Instead, therefore, of saying that local adjustment
and acclimatization are to be explained by reference to selection, we
ought rather to recognize that the facts of local adjustment and
acclimatization throw light on the workings of selection. We must
recognize the influence of external conditions to call forth diversity
before we can understand the effect of selection to improve the vari-
ety again by restoring it to uniformity of expression. The Triumph
cotton had already had the advantage of persistent selection, and
shows the result in great uniformity. But when new or unfavorable
conditions disturb this uniformity, a new “improvement ” becomes
possible through selection for a new adjustment to uniformity of
expression of characters. It is this secondary selection that becomes
_ particularly necessary to restore the uniformity of varieties in new
places that we call local adjustment. The name, of course, is quite
incidental to the recognition of the fact that changes of such great
practical importance occur in our varieties and that they may be so
easily corrected.

The fact that the selective improvement of domesticated varieties is
a process of reducing or eliminating the individual diversity found
among the members of wild species agrees completely with facts
revealed in other lines of study. The individual diversity among the
members of a wild species is generally very much greater than among
the members of a domesticated variety. A progressive approxima-
tion to uniformity is attained through selection. The indication that
the diversity is never entirely eliminated by selection, but is merely
suppressed and is able to reassert itself after many generations, is
also in full agreement with all the numerous facts of atavism and
reversion. It is possible to understand that most of the changes
which we ascribe to selection represent changes in the expression of
characters already existing in the plants, and do not require the
origination of any new characters not already developed in the more
diverse ancestral groups from which our domesticated stocks have
been derived.

It is sometimes supposed that uniformity represents the natural
condition of reproduction and that all deviations must be due to

159

54 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

hybridization. Nevertheless, the scientific world now generally recog-
nizes the fact that sports or mutations do occur, that is, definite
changes in the expression of character in members of otherwise uni-
form groups, without any admixture of blood. What has not been
recognized hitherto is the fact that such changes are not necessarily
confined to rare individual variations, but may take place simul-
taneously in large numbers, following changes of external conditions.

LIMITATIONS OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT.

The process of local adjustment may be said to have been completed
when a variety has become as uniform in a new locality as it was in
the district where it originated or improved by selective breeding. It
is not to be expected, however, that diversity will cease entirely. It
does not appear that any amount of selection can prevent the trans-
mission of the ancestral diversities or prevent the return of some of
them to expression in occasional individuals. The most careful and
persistent breeders have never succeeded in putting an end to the
appearance of mutative variations. And even if we consider that
the characters of the plants should remain uniform as long as the
conditions remained the same, there would still be the difficulty that
conditions are always differing, even when we try to make them as
nearly alike as possible.

The effects of an unfavorable season may greatly overbalance the
advantage that can be gained through selection for local adjustment
in a favorable season, and may even increase the amount of diversity
beyond that of the first year. It is accordingly to be expected that
the second year of a new variety will sometimes be found inferior to
the first year, in spite of an attempt at local adjustment.

Change of the crop from one soil to another may have its effect
upon local adjustment, even in a favorable season, or may intensify
the effects of an unfavorable season. The advantage that could be
ascribed to local adjustment m our experiment at Del Rio, Tex., in
1907, was very slight in comparison with that shown at Kerrville,
Tex., in the same season. In some of the varieties no advantage at all
could be detected. Some of the selections brought from San Antonio
or Victoria were better than those made at Del Rio in the preceding
year. A change of the location of our Del Rio experiment from a
gravelly slope, recently leveled for irrigation, to the deep silty soil of
the river bottom gave a reasonable explanation of the discrepancy of
results with respect to local adjustment. The Del Rio crop of 1907
was very much better than that of 1906, but the Del Rio selections
trom the crop of 1906 showed little or no superiority in 1907 to those
brought from other places.

The conditions of the experiments of the two years at Del Rio were
as essentially different as though they had been in distant localities.

159

LIMITATIONS OF LOCAL ADJUSTMENT. 55

The failure of the local adjustment effects to appear should be consid-
ered as confirming the reality of the phenomenon. On the other
hand, it ought not to be thought that the excellent behavior of some
of the Victoria and San Antonio selections under the very favorable
conditions at Del Rio in 1907 would have been shown if they had
been grown under the Del Rio conditions of 1906.

A bad season or an unfavorable location should not lead the farmer
to suppose that his efforts for local adjustment must necessarily fail.
Even though none of the plants in the field attain the full stature
and fertility of the variety, the opportunity of selection is not nec-
essarily destroyed. Plants that excel their neighbors under unfa-
vorable conditions are likely to yield progeny that will show a
corresponding excellence under better conditions.

Professional seed growers appreciate the fact that somewhat un-
favorable conditions may render the work of selection more efficient
than conditions that are ideal from the standpoint of crop produc-
tion. Unfavorable conditions invite the appearance of unfavorable
tendencies and thus facilitate the removal of the lines of descent in
which these tendencies are strongest.

Very unfavorable conditions during the period of sced production
may also prove to have an influence in local adjustment, since the
adverse effects might not appear till the next generation. It is easy
to understand that plants may develop normally while conditions are
favorable, and yet fail to set equally normal seeds if the conditions
became unfavorable. Many crop plants will complete their develop-
ment in an apparently normal manner under conditions where they
produce only inferior seed. The fact that the period of seed produc-
ticn is very long in cotton enables this plant to furnish even more
definite evidence of the influences of external conditions, for the seeds
and lint are often found to differ notably on the same plant.‘

Instances may also be found where efforts at local adjustment will
fail to bring a variety to a satisfactory degree of uniformity. It
is not to be expected that a variety that fails to respond to local
adjustment and return to a uniform behavior will equal a well-
adjusted variety. If a variety fails to respond to local adjustment
after a fair opportunity, it will be reasonable to consider the condi-
tions are really not favorable; that the stock has been hybridized, or
that it has never been brought to a condition of uniformity.

In view of the wide differences of soils and seasons that may be
encountered on the same farm, ability to withstand changes of condi-
tions without being injuriously affected is a factor of great importance
in a field crop like cotton. There is no reason to suppose that the

@A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. Bulletin 156, Bureau of Plant
Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1909,
159

56 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

injurious changes of characters are entirely confined to strains of
cotton that have been carried recently to new places. An unusual
season may render conditions quite as exceptional as a new place and
may have the same effect of arousing diversity.

In considering the use of local adjustment as a means of removing
or reducing these undesirable diversities there is no need to lose sight
of the fact that varieties of cotton and other plants undoubtedly differ
greatly in their relation to the local adjustment factor. Varieties
that can not have their conditions changed without becoming injuri-
ously diverse must be reckoned in the same general class as those that
are narrowly adapted in other respects and refuse to thrive or to bear
fruit outside of some particular district. Other things being equal,

‘arleties less subject to disturbances of expression relations are always

to be preferred. With cotton it would be very desirable if only one
variety of cotton were grown over a large district, since the uniformity
of the product is a factor of commercial importance.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LOCAL ADJUSTMENT AND BREEDING.

Though the work of local adjustment may be considered as a part
of the art of breeding, in the largest sense of the word, the process of
local adjustment is quite distinct and in some respects is even opposed
to the processes that are usually given prominence in the improvement
of varieties by breeding. The breeder seeks for new characters or
new combinations, or to obtain still higher degrees of expression of
desirable features, for something exceptional and different from the
recognized varieties. By local adjustment, on the other hand, we do
not seek to change the variety, but to prevent change by rejecting all
the lines of descent in which changes appear.

When the commercial seed grower pulls out the “ rogues ” or * off ”
plants that do not “come true” to the characters of the variety he
is not usually thought of as engaged in breeding, but only as pre-
serving his stock from deterioration. The work of local adjustment
is exactly analogous to the “ roguing” of a variety. We are simply
recognizing the fact that the transfer of seed to new conditions is
likely to produce such large numbers of rogues that it is necessary
to extend the roguing process from the hands of the seedsman to
those of the farmer. The seedsman who does not practice roguing is
reckoned as dishonest, because he does not sell “pure” seed, but
allows seeds of rogue plants to be mixed in with the variety that he
offers for sale. The farmer who neglects local adjustment need not
be considered dishonest because he may not injure anybody but him-
self, but he is at least depriving himself ef the advantage that he
expects to secure from the seedsman.

159

6s

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LOCAL ADJUSTMENT AND BREEDING. 57

Seedsmen not only pull out rogue plants that show definite dif-
ferences in the characteristics of the leaves, flowers, or fruits, but
they also take into account differences of behavior of the plants with
respect to such qualities as vigor, fertility, and earliness. They
know that the extent to which a variety may adhere to these desir-
able qualities depends largely upon the conditions under which it is
grown. They recognize that even a slight departure from the nor-
mal qualities of the variety is likely to arouse more persistent dif-
ferences in later generations, especially if the influence is repeated.
A careful study of the behavior of varieties of garden peas with re-
spect to the quality of earliness has been made by Mr. W. W. Tracy,
sr., who states the following conclusions:

Seedsmen commonly believe that, in the case of peas the character of the
soil has a marked influence over the character of the plant, and that this in-
fluence extends to and is carried by the seed, but that such soil influence is
decidedly cumulative in its effects, so that in practice they attach little im-
portance to it for one season, but carefully avoid the use of stock seed which
has been submitted to such influence for consecutive years.@

It is sometimes said that farmers ought to be as much interested in
the breeding of their domestic plants as in the breeding of their do-
mestic animals, because the practical importance is as great in the
one case as in the other. This is undoubtedly true of the work of
breeding as a whole. Local adjustment, however, is a subject which
appears to have much more importance with plants than with ani-
mals, for plants are more susceptible than animals to changes of ex-
ternal conditions. Temperature is undoubtedly one of the chief
factors that induce changes of characters in plants, whereas all of
the higher animals and birds maintain their own temperatures with
great constancy and have thus eliminated one of the chief agencies
that disturb the hereditary processes of plants. Plants have to ad-
just themselves to wide extremes of external conditions of climate
and soil, while many animals have large liberty of choice of en-
vironment.

The possibility of obtaining desirable variations by placing plants
under conditions that call forth a wide range of diversity is worthy
of careful consideration from the standpoint of the breeder, as an
alternative of hybridization. The fact that a great majority of the
variations are undesirable does not preclude the possibility that indi-
viduals of special excellence may sometimes be found, from which
superior new varieties may be obtained, as from other mutations. The
Triumph cotton itself is said by Mr. Mebane to have originated from
a single peculiar plant of the Texas Stormproof variety, a plant that

@Tracy, W. W., sr. The Influence of Climate and Soil on the Transmitting
Power of Seeds. Science, n. s., vol. 19, p. 739. 1904.
159

58 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

had all the present characteristics of the Triumph definitely devel-
oped, While there is nothing to show that the subsequent selection
has changed or “ improved ” the variety, it has served the important
purpose of maintaining its uniformity and productiveness,

Diversities that can be secured without hybridization may be found
more valuable than the others, especially in seed-propagated plants,
where the persistent diversities of hybrids seriously interfere with
their utilization. This difficulty of “ fixing the characters ” is avoided
in the case of the mutations, which are often constant from the first.

In local adjustment we have no interest in these possibilities of
obtaining new varieties. Divergent plants, even though they may be
as good or better than the regular stock of the variety, should not be
retained unless they are to be separated for breeding purposes. To
keep them in the field and allow their progeny to become crossed
with each other and with the parental type is only to lose the new
strains without making the old one any better. The same result is
to be expected as when distinct varieties are crossed. The first gene-
ration may not be inferior, but later generations are likely to call
forth a degenerative diversity similar to that which we seek to avoid
by local adjustment.

In acclimatizing imported varieties it has appeared that the selec-
tion of types that depart from the usual form of the stock in its
previous habitat is hkely to delay acclimatization, for these are not
as likely to “ breed true” as plants that return more nearly to the
accustomed form of the variety. There may prove to be a relation
between the stability of new variations and the constancy or uni-
formity which has been attained in the stock in which variation
appears. The constancy of the new forms is likely to be greater in
local adjustment, for they appear to be more closely of the nature of
mutations. Our experiments have not been carried far enough to
determine the point, but it has appeared thus far that some of the
variations that are aroused in new localities are likely to be as con-
stant as the parent stock, or even more so. ’

The failure in the past to distinguish local adjustment from breed-
ing is undoubtedly responsible for some of the apparently contra-
dictory facts that have been reported... Local adjustment enables
us to understand why large increases of yield can be secured at once
by simple selection in the first year or two, and also why no similiar
rate of “ improvement ” is obtained in later years, after the variety
has been brought to a condition of approximate uniformity.

The methods of breeding which are supposed to bring about true
improvements of varieties by individual selection usually need to
be practiced on a larger scale and with greater precautions against
accidental errors than most farmers are willing to apply. Either the

159

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LOCAL ADJUSTMENT AND BREEDING. 59

work is found too difficult and expensive or the numbers of plants
that can be tested become so small as to seriously reduce the prospects
of success. If we narrow our stock to progenies of a few individuals,
these progenies have to be most carefully tested, for if a wrong
selection be made permanent damage is done. The best stock may
be lost by mere accident, and the accident may go unnoticed unless
elaborate precautions are taken to equalize the conditions of the
tests.

The more unstable or degenerate a variety is the more frequently
will it show a marked response to selection. It is often assumed that
the true value of a selected stock can be shown by comparing it with
an unselected stock of the same variety, but the difference between
the two ought rather to be looked upon as an index of the extent
to which the unselected stock has degenerated. The true value of the
selected stock can only be judged by comparison with equally selected
and locally adjusted stocks of other varieties, to see which will show
the best and most regular performance under the given conditions.
Other things being equal, a stock ought to be considered better that
does not “respond” to selection, for this indicates that all the in-
dividuals are nearly equal in their inherent qualities, whereas a stock
that regularly shows a marked improvement from selection gives at
the same time evidence of a more prompt and persistent recurrence
of diversity, as a more frequent factor of deterioration and_ loss,
unless more stable strains can be separated by selection.

The wide differences in yield which breeders have found among
the progeny of individual members of carefully selected stocks are
usually cited as proofs of the value of continued selection, but exces-
sive variability of yield may also indicate that the stock is deficient
in local adjustment or that it has reached a condition of serious
degeneration. An interesting example of diversity in yields among
a series of selections of cotton grown under the same conditions has
been published by Mr. A. M. Ferguson in the Texas Stockman and
Farmer for March 31, 1909. Out of 28 selections 12 gave total
yields at rates of from 1,218 to 1,529 pounds per acre, while 13
selections fell below 1,000 pounds per acre, 8 below 900, 4 below 800,
and 1 below 700, the figure in this case being 674 pounds. The yields
from the first of the two pickings were even more unequal than the
totals, ranging from 127 pounds per acre to 1,348 pounds.

If a large proportion of the progeny regularly prove to be defi-
cient the only remedy may be to secure a better stock, one that is
more uniformly fertile. A stock that gives us too small a proportion
of high-grade plants may be less desirable than one that gives a larger
proportion of plants of less conspicuous excellence. Many of our
carefully selected stocks, both of animals and of plants, fail to main-

tain the standards of fertility that would be expected among normal
159

60 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

individuals of an ordinary “ mixed population.” It is often assumed

among breeders that strict uniformity in other varietal characteristics
carries with it an equal uniformity of vigor and fertility, but this
relation has not been established as a fact outside of varieties that
are propagated by line breeding, and even these may deteriorate.*

Vigor and fertility represent physiological standards of organic
efficiency. They are not to be looked upon as characters in the same
sense as the minor details of color, shape, or function, but are rather
to be considered as cooperative results of the activities of other char-
acters and functions. It has yet to be shown that greater vigor or
fertility can be attained in groups that are restricted to the expres-
sion of a single set of characters than in groups of greater individual
diversity.

A further difference between local adjustment and breeding may
be found in the fact that the diversities which make local adjust-
ment a necessity are in some important respects different from those
with which the breeder must deal in establishing an improved strain
from a stock which has not been previously subjected to careful
breeding. Though we may think of the diversity that arises in a new
place as a return toward the diversity that existed before the variety
had been rendered uniform by selection, the new diversity does not
appear to be altogether the same as that of a group that has never
been closely selected.

In an unselected wild stock the plants are individually different,
but the differences are harder to detect because of the presence of
many intermediate gradations. Ordinary “mixed populations” of
animals or plants obey Galton’s law of regression and tend to resemble
their immediate parents instead of their remote ancestors. In a wild
type the law of regression would aid natural selection in bringing the
more favored characters into expression in larger and larger propor-
tions of the freely interbreeding population. Mutations, on the
other hand, do not appear to obey the law of regression, but may go
back definitely to a character of a remote ancestor and show no
influence from the immediate parents or grandparents.

In addition to bringing back the normal diversity of the wild type
into expression mutative variations have two other very important
elements of diversity. The first element is the diversity of more
remote ancestors that would not tend to appear or to remain in expres-
sion under conditions of regression and free interbreeding. The
second element is the suppression of many normal characteristics and
coordinations, as in the cluster habit and the bullate leaves or the loss
of fuzz or of lint. Darwin and many other writers have noted the

“The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. Bulletin 146,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1909,
159

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LOCAL ADJUSTMENT AND BREEDING. 61

general tendency of plants recently introduced into cultivation to
“ break ” into diverse varieties.

In strictly self-fertilized varieties like those of wheat and other
cereals, selection can be said to have only one effect; it makes a stock
more uniform in proportion as the diversities are rejected. Condi-
tions of reproduction in the lines that are preserved are in no way
affected by the taking away of the other lines. In plants that are
subjected to frequent cross-fertilization, as in cotton, the selective
restriction of descent to narrow limits or to a single line has an indi-
rect effect upon the heredity of the plants that remain. It renders
them much more uniform than before; that is, much more regular or
“ fixed * in the expression of their characters. While never attaining
exact likeness, the great majority of them may differ only in the
extremely slight details, usually termed “ fluctuating variations ”
by writers on heredity. Plants that have attained this condition of
uniformity, so that they show only fluctuating differences mS pro-
duce progeny of equal uniformity, are said to be “ pure” or homo-
zygous, in the technical terminology of Mendelism. They baa more
regularly to bring into expression only one set of characters instead
of the indiscriminate diversity of wild species or of “ unimproved ”
domesticated stocks.

Writers on Mendelism look upon self-fertilization as a means of
separating the lines of descent that are uniform or homozygous from
those that are diverse or heterozy gous, as in the case of Mendelian

= = _

G48 While Epeuific stability under constant paaicions appears to be the rule in
nature, it is widely different in cultivation. When a plant is brought under
cultural conditions it maintains its type for some time unaltered, then gives
way and becomes practically plastic. From my experience at Kew, where I
saw the process continually going on, I hazarded the generalization that any
species, annually reproduced from seed, could be broken down in about five

years,

“Tn nature we deal with a host of individuals; in cultivation with a very
limited number. In my view specific stability is maintained partly by the
weeding out of unfavorable variations, partly by wide interbreeding. Now,
it is obvious that under cultivation the latter agency is inoperative, and
cultural conditions bring other influences to bear, especially as regards nutri-
tion.

“The races of Gnothera which De Vries has raised are nothing more than
what a horticulturist would expect; and it may be conceded that if such races
could hold their own in nature, distinct species might originate in this way.
But there is no evidence that they do; and the probability of their being able
to do so is against them.

“Cultural mutations seem, as a matter of fact, to have little, if any, capacity
for holding their own in the struggle for existence. I can not call to mind a
single instance of one which has been successful, and even in cultivation there
is some reason to think that they are short lived; but this is a point on which
we are in urgent need of carefully ascertained facts.” See Thiselton-Dyer,
W. T., Specific Stability and Mutation, Nature, November 28, 1907, pp. 78 and 79,

159

62 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF UUvLTON VARIETIES.

hybrids. It ought also to be recognized that self-fertilization and
other forms of restricted descent serve to establish the homozygous
condition so that uniform progeny are produced instead of diverse
progeny. The persistent application of a standard of selection tends
to establish that standard for larger and larger proportions of the
progeny unless degeneration ensues. Even the variations of homo-
zygous stocks usually remain homozygous, though the act of variation
is in itself a violation of the rule of homozygous uniformity.

A line-bred variety tends to become “ pure” or homozygous in
all its characters, whereas broad-bred, cross-fertilized varieties may
become homozygous in only a part of their characters, those that
are specially selected. It appears to be possible to secure a consider-
able degree of uniformity in a desirable character without establish-
ing uniformity in all other respects; that is, without placing the
variety on a basis of complete line-breeding, which is a practical im-
possibility in open-fertilized plants grown as field crops, like corn and
cotton. Varieties of corn attain a highly characteristic uniformity of
ears without enforcing a requirement of uniformity in the plants.
Egyptian cotton also has a high commercial reputation for uni-
formity, but has not been made uniform in vegetative characters to
any such extent as some of our Upland and Sea Island varieties.

Selection for local adjustment of established varieties is much more
practicable for the farmer than selection for breeding in unimproved
strains. It is much easier to detect an aberrant individual in a group
of plants otherwise closely similar to each other than to appreciate
individual differences in a group where the diversity is general and
indiscriminate. Variations that take place in varieties that have been
bred previously into a uniform or homozygous condition are much
more definite and hence more easily perceptible than the less definite
differences found in unimproved varieties. Too much diversity will
greatly increase the difficulty of selection for local adjustment, unless
the farmer is thoroughly familiar beforehand with the normal type of
his variety. Unless we are able to distinguish the type of the variety
our efforts will only result in the saving of a collection of varieties,
and the further mixing of these together can only mongrelize the
stock still more.

LOCAL ADJUSTMENT AS A FARM OPERATION.

The facts of local adjustment will have a practical value to the
farmer in proportion as they are able to convince him of the necessity
of selecting his own seed. If by the light labor of selecting his seed
from normal fertile plants he can increase the quantity and quality
of his product from 10 to 20 per cent, he must recognize the fact that
such selection is quite as practical a farm operation as planting, culti-
vating, or harvesting the crop.

159

SUPERIORITY OF HOME-GRUWN SEED. 63

The labor of such selection is very slight. It is not necessary to
establish any absolute standards or score cards, and in almost every
family there are men, women, and children well qualified by natural
acuteness of observation to recognize the plants that are more fertile
than their neighbors and to avoid those that deviate from the char-
acters of the variety or have short, weak, or sparse lint. Normal
characters and habits of growth, fertility, and good and abundant
lint are the only features that need to be taken into account in main-
taining the local adjustment of a variety. Selection for this purpose
is a matter quite apart from the breeding of new varieties or of
special strains by careful comparison of single individuals and the
progeny derived from each.

Differences in vigor or fertility that can not be distinguished in
the individual plants themselves will become apparent when the
progenies of these individuals are compared. Selective breeding by
means of progeny rows is a further step beyond local adjustment that
will give the farmer a further improvement of his crop if he will
take the additional pains that this system requires in raising the
progenies separately, and keeping the stock pure. It is a mistake,
however, to suppose that even the progeny row is a full substitute for
local adjustment as a means of guarding a superior stock against
deterioration. No matter how excellent a variety may be or how
skillful the selection of the professional breeder who may have per-
fected it; the farmer will still need to maintain its efficiency by his
own selection if he is to get the best possible results of productive
efficiency.

SUPERIORITY OF HOME-GROWN SEED.

In thus urging upon the farmer the necessity of maintaining the
local adjustment of whatever variety of cotton he may prefer to
grow there is no intention of pronouncing any general conclusion on
the much debated question of the superiority of home-grown seed over
imported seed. One or the other of these alternatives is often argued
as a general principle or policy of agriculture, whereas the question
is reaily very complicated. Different principles have to be considered
in relation to different crops. The growing of the seed of many
highly specialized varieties of ornamental plants and garden vegeta-
bles, such as cauliflower and radishes, is confined to a single locality.
By very careful treatment on the part of the grower the problem of
local adjustment can often be avoided. A single crop can be secured
from the imported seed, even under conditions where no good seed
can be raised for a second generation, but with a field crop like
cotton that can not be protected against variations of climate and
soil the case is very different.

159

64 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

And even with cotton itself it is not to be expected that local
adjustment will give equal advantages in all cases. Some localities
may profit by the regular importation of seed from other districts.
Experiments with newly imported cottons have shown in a few cases
larger crops in the first year than have been obtained in later plant-
ings of the same stocks. In such cases the transfer to new conditions,
instead of throwing the plants out of adjustment and producing an
injurious range of diversity, seems rather to give an unusual stimula-
tion of growth, without inducing the sterility which usually accom-
panies such stimulation. Two instances were found at Del Rio., Tex.,
in 1908, where seed brought from Falfurrias, Tex., produced rows of
plants that were distinctly larger than rows of the same varieties
(Parker and Cook’s Improved) grown from seed raised at Del Rio.
But in both these instances the greater size was accompanied by a
decrease of fertility, or at least of earliness. Thus no practical benefit
was shown for such an exchange of seed.

With a forage plant or other crop grown for vegetative tissues
alone a response of the same kind might afford a distinct advantage.
If it can be found that the bringing of seed from one region to
another uniformly results in such a desirable stimulation, and espe-
cially if it is accompanied by increased yields, such transfers of seeds
between particular regions will need to be recognized as a regular
feature of the agriculture of particular crops. This is a very different
idea, however, from that of general advice for or against “ change
of seed.” ss

Just as the diversity which arises in a new place may be com-
pared to the diversity which comes by crossing, so it may be that a
useful increase of vigor can be secured merely by placing plants under
new conditions, like the vigor that comes from crossing. In both
cases it is possible to think of the vigor as attending a change of
characters, and this fact may be connected in turn with the further
fact that varieties held rigidly and long to one uniform set of char-
acters appear to suffer an eventual deterioration.

Though future experiments must determine the value of local
adjustment in its application to particular varieties and conditions,
our present facts are certainly sufficient to show that the usual meth-
ods leave out of account a physiological factor of great practical
importance. Every farmer who plants the same variety for even a
second year from seed of his own raising will find it to his distinet
advantage to take the fact of local adjustment into account. He need
not think of the advantage of selection of seed as connected only with
a policy of slowly improving his stock by a persistent selection
through a long course of years. He may secure a very distinct and
practical advantage by selecting his seed for a single season, even if

159

CONCLUSIONS. 65

he intends to stop farming the year after, or to discard the variety
he is now planting. While there is every reason to expect that a slow
improvement may be wrought by persistent selective breeding, the
neglect of local adjustment means that we forfeit the chance of
making an immediate gain or of protecting ourselves against an
immediate loss.

The selection of seed has seemed, even to the progressive cotton
planter, as something out of his line of work, something to be done
by the special grower or the seed dealer. Intelligent planters appre-
ciate the importance of good seed, but they are usually content to show
this appreciation by bringing in some well-recommended variety
from a distance, growing it for a series of years until it appears to
“run out,” and then replacing it by another new stock. The fact
that the new sort is often found to be better than the old is still |
accepted as proof of the value of this custom, notwithstanding all
the evidence of experiments and demonstrations that better crops of
cotton can be grown from seed raised in the same place than from
seed newly brought in from a distance. The advice of the seed
dealer to change the seed has appeared to the farmer to have quite
as good reasons behind it as the advice of the experiment stations to
make his own selection of seed.

‘Unless a fact is properly understood we can not separate it from
its apparent contradictions. New seed may be better than home-
grown seed if no selection has been practiced, but, on the other hand,
the best new sort may fail to show its full possibilities when planted
for the first time in a new place. Even the very best variety may need
to be selected in the place where it is grown to get the best crop.
The superiority of new seed and the superiority of home-grown
seed are both facts, and they are not contradictory as they have
long appeared to be. They help‘ to explain each other when viewed
in the proper light. The farmer can raise better seed of his present

variety for himself than he can possibly buy from a dealer, but this
does not mean that he is not to look for better varieties. It means
rather that promising varieties must have fair chances to show what
they can do by testing them for two or more years instead of judging
their possibilities by the results of the first planting.

CONCLUSIONS.

The growing of a variety of cotton in a new locality is likely to
bring about a distinct reduction in the yield as well as in the quality
of the fiber. This deterioration has been found to be connected with
an increase of diversity among the individual plants. Even when a
carefully selected, uniform stock is used for the experiment a much
greater amount of diversity may appear in a new place than when

159

66 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

the same stock is grown under accustomed conditions of the previous
locality where the variety was improved by selection.

The diversity that reappears in the first season when a variety of
cotton is grown in a new place can be greatly reduced in later seasons
by selecting seed from the plants whose characteristics have been least
disturbed by the transfer to the new place—those that are the most
fertile and have the best lint. This process of selection to restore
the uniformity of a variety in a new place is called local adjustment.

Selection for local adjustment is distinct in objects and methods
from breeding for improvement or for originating new varieties.
The object of local adjustment is to preserve varieties already exist-
ing and guard them against recurrence of diversity. Practical ad-
vantages can be secured by simple selection for local adjustment
without the separate testing of individual lines cf descent, as required
in breeding for improvement of a variety or when new breeds are to
be developed.

The phenomena of local adjustment are of general scientific inter-
est as illustrating one of the influences of external conditions upon
the expression of characters in organisms. The recurrence of di-
versity in a previously uniform variety serves with other facts to
show that ancestral diversities continue to be inherited, even when
their expression is avoided by efficient selection. That changes of
conditions can induce a return to diversity shows that the environ-
ment is able to influence the expression of characters and that its
influence is not limited to characters that vary directly and regularly
with changes of environment.

Apart from the effects of conditions which limit or inhibit the
growth of the plants, two kinds of changes are found to follow trans-
fer to new places: (1) Changes of accommodation to different con-
ditions and (2) diversification or loss of uniformity. Changes of
accommodation do not directly increase diversity, for they are shared
by all the individuals, but changes of accommodation are often ac-
companied by changes of other characters which render the individual
plants much more unlike than before.

It is not necessary to believe that the diverse characteristics that
appear in the new place come into the plants from the external envi-
ronment or that they represent direct effects of the environment upon
the plants. It is more reasonable to suppose that new conditions
induce diversity in an indirect manner by disturbing the processes
of heredity, and thus allowing ancestral characters that had been
transmitted in latent form to return to expression, or characters pre-
viously expressed to become latent. Recurrence of diversity may be
quite independent of hybridization, although some of the results are
very similar.

159

CONCLUSIONS. 67

The phenomenon of local adjustment only strengthens the many
other evidences that the uniformity of a variety of cultivated plants
‘an be maintained only by persistent and vigilant selection. The
decrease in the agricultural value of a variety that results from a
return to diversity is as real and important as the agricultural im-
provement that is made when diversity is reduced by selection.

The facts of local adjustment go far to explain the apparently
capricious behavior of cotton varieties in comparative tests, the same
varieties often standing in entirely different relations to each other in
different seasons. It becomes evident that the adaptation of a variety
to a new place can not be fairly tested in a single season. Not until
a new stock has passed through the process of local adjustment and
returned to a normal degree of uniformity can the extent of its
adaptation to the new place be definitely ascertained.

The facts of local adjustment indicate that our superior varieties
may be found adapted to much wider regions than they now occupy.
Varieties of real value should have their range extended through
local adjustment, instead of being discarded because they fail to show
their superiority in the first season. The wider extension of a few
superior types of cotton would make it possible to abandon many local
varieties and would constitute an important step in the progress of
the cotton industry. Greater uniformity in the crop over large areas
would increase its commercial value and simplify commercial prob-
lems of grading and marketing.

159

¢

a

eit
Bc ory Sarto
iat:

INDEX.

Page.

iecmattzation and local adjustment.., .:.--..--0-0 2-2-2 00s0eecesene sense es =e 14
CSR OED tees ete ah ee ree ey yw RI Se TS ACE, rte aon 7

dimmeult with elose-bred varieties... ..<:-.....<--.---:se--cs 52

CVSS ACM ata see of) yo) 2) C0 I a ae eS 34
Accommodation, changes distinct from new-place diversity.....-.........-..-- bile i
EY GREAT CEE sofa a aa Na or SS ae ao Dro 44

CET [ES Sa EM i ee et eee 13

PerapesiOn. GOOUMIMION .... 25. .6502s eee ences AD oem ase = Sete eer ae 13
Adjustment, local, a means of preventing change....................-.:.-.-- 56
Se VAN TAO COnIMOQUE ss aoe Fe ne oo Fon 5k eine ise eG 8

Band, DEESCIINE, JOUMOLCMECER. f26 icc cg sk kee ce eee one de 56-62

Sesh tT OMT ANON er ear A les = Ace <idarne cin ¥ 4g tem nin 6 62-63

Galea Olamercased yields=. 5 too. . 2. 25h. aaa es aeae ape nine 30-31

conmpared. with accliniahizagOle. 2... .-2--.- 22. Yak gong se 7

COmUped with elec WOne ee eseeecer =... 5 =,-- 4.6.4 8

distinct from breeding for improvement.............-....-- 8

ere GOT Si Veta pe eee ee An Pee Mee 9

fORMis OL GLVeratby OD VIOUS sc 2 sss... - oan ee cade baasae 11

LITeSN US plete ieee Sree nt aR 5) > en meen as! 5

most important with superior varieties..................... 9

BL UUUN Ce of aseiniaictereine a5 ain foie a ears acbeboteye o's 3: 21s 6 ote 3G Se hrs ge 53

ONC. dos bod eee dd dhe Te seo. Se eee Be ety 8

Melton to) OlMeravanla those. as eee. 2. a0 ss oo .e er oon 44-54

ROLCG Gl Olea ett Ree ec oar205, 2a ath 2 oye 52-54

time Necessary... me | so. cy SEE DEC SR IIA EE Soe 38

USSU EAC AON NA AEE OCAE Poe nn ho ae ere eye 31-35

SUNOS SNe Sct AS at I ie ie a ee ete aie 7-8

Pe eOcernes ON PLO Ue esses ge es oe en es a4 te one nee 29

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, experiments with cotton. ......... 19
oo nS in, TMS Ske toe | og Seen e tone le Bee co oe eee eee ee 29
Ancestry, common, of Upland series of cotton..-:.............---.-.---------- 20, 21
ear RHI CAINEN DAN UE powe x oreo nrate, a/c as wn yet ory - ee ce a wins es ae ns age 28

Boll weevils. See Weevils, boll.
Bolls, cotton, five-locked, larger proportion due to local adjustment. ......... 34-35

increased size due to local adjustment. ..................-.... 34

opening. 1m Central American varreties. ....-.......4-.-+-.-4-- 33

Baste Gane VAMIOULCS eter «<< hee acayapole ee cele oe 33

sharp-pointed, correlated with longer lint...................... 45

tendency to smallness and roundness at Yuma, Ariz .......... 46

Abe) Tuemul eve oraW Oe) Sid, Sashes eae SGC ne ee eee eee orien) 25
aneres cotton abnormal, ‘Triumph variety. .2.....------5-6-s-0e--+-- ee 20
(CIESSTHICTO) Me! Seda on aoe eS 5 oe er ene Sewer te 23

GliniG eM LainGEe | Sie 6 cae he ac ole 2O RE eee eee Dens cre. 34

GIGI S Segede saat pedcoe Sec —aeeeeee oer ee aeae 13

SHON PEIMArYy,- REM pUL VARICUY 2... ene ee ln een 20

159 69

70 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

Page.

Branching, form definitely imberited. 2. -...2\. 5 laze iacee oe oe eee eee ee "23
importanee ot method: -s.... 2-2. Js 2 ante ee eee ee eee 34

Breeding and local adjustment, differences.-- -2- gar 2-4 =) eee eee 56-62
for improvement distinct from local adjustment..........--.---..-- 8
Wabbace.smutationssssacesae see ccte< fe onto = See eye meee ar eta 29
seed), sUpPErionityiim certain *years..: 2.2. <2 sees oe oe ee 36
Oshabontdistrict, Guatemalascottom=sssse ser oe meee 48
Capsicum: taUtations foe 5 cto 2c. sles Som se 2 ee er 29
Changes, mutative sand accommodation. 40.<%- =... 22 eee ee 12
Galton’s laiWe.S3c.- <1 Poe. oe ow cars ee 12

eenebale soi cc ghes ss teeter a eae eee or 12

Characters, correlation, and new-place effects. ...........-.......----------- 45-46
divergent, tests of inheritance:<.-<. 222... -y0-2es =: 95-3 oe 20-25
environmental hereditary nature: 22-2. 3-22 .s- ee) ee 44-45

expression controlled! by selection’ <--.----.--2.-- ee 28

in species of animals and plants, appearance...-..--....---------- 52
suUppression.a cause! of mutation ...-. 2.22»... 7 29

Cluster habit associated with moist condition. ...25-.-=.---.-.--25---2===eee 25
short. ints Gscn- soca see a 32

NG huCalesh Obst one maner Berar aoa we eats Scia aae ge bse et ocs 29

Coitee plant; diversity im:leaveg.-22--- 2.2. sane ee gn 13
MNUtAtlONSssccosccen he kece ccs eee ree ees cme ee see ee 29

oN crete eormtan eal tera po er 5 ee sae 29
Gonclusions. of bullletimaiaacess hoe iene creiele oe eee a ee 65-67
Cor, sweet, albinoseedlingst <2 <2 jo... 2-2 o eee: see 29
uumiformuty of Gams=e cea. © laren ees tes ee =e 62
Correlation of characters and new place effects. .........-------------------- 45
MENA be atts SS oe Or cco aeatc memes iee cee aee Sse sce 45

Gotton; Beat All: steste*tnyGeonrsian< s2.5c.<ca aoe eae Jo ee ee ate 42
Central American and Triumph, comparison . Sete Meer Sheet: 117

hairy type, similar to ieee Soe 2 Seeeee 20

varieties, opening of bolis...2.-2..2. 2.722 eee 33

Cook’s Improved, improvement by local adjustment..-.......-------- 30

East Indian’ varieties; opening of bolls..<..-.2.-. 2-2. 4-- 33

Hey ptian, uniiormityae- <i... tems. qe eee 9 on ee 62
Hawkins, bolls, opening in first and second year plants....--..----.--- 33

BIZG ies <o2 set 2a se eae tinea seer ee a 34

Aiber. ua s « ... haS 2 oa S i areiaes ee eaere ace eee Aen 2 ees 32

improvement by local adjustment.......-.....--.--------- 30

Kekchi, numiber‘ofiloeks.. 3.2.2 5.'s5 to See ee 34

SOGdS 2M pepe no hace ei viele oocke See = Cte ae ee 48

similamty tonsunflower mutation ..----o-- - = -- eee 21

Mriumph mutation = 22-2. -c--9>- ae 20

King, behavior of original stock". :\-- 2222-2 -2e- 2 - -ee oer 22

bolls, opening in first and second year plant’. .....--.--.-.----- 33

GIVersily: Gate see es = 2-2 oon ct = oe aie cee a aera 26

EXPCHIMEMIS nee. -<-.< <2 cece ss eee 2 eee ae a 22

fiPOrs MMA aeee <n <a a as = Sp rad al ee 32

mutations absence of basal limbs See sees see a eee 22-23

limb. superiority... .2.)2.-.4_- 4 eo eee ee 22, 24

pmumary limbs... 6% 5.252 oeeee eee ee 23

MUbatiOnseeertee. < + -c: occ ease see ee ERE re eee eerie eer 22

159

INDEX.

Cotton, King, occurrence of leaves of okra type................--0+0---.----

Qvigin. 5 he ee Gee, tees tine Basco te Mots ae Sei sd

POE EN OUS A GRAG ore eatess See eRe Mo hls bien. Sed wea arom
experiments at Kerrville, Tex- eT on ee

fiber, quality. . Ln Nath ic tack ow ations sedeps 3 ats

improvement a ioe al edvaciment oe ee ae Sp OOD A Ree

BUGCESSAbUINCEIVINLG: HhOX 0 ean cee ee See re sa ease

Mexicaniea tel ell ilorind: Victoritnw Ox. ee esa oS teese oats artes

fpoelocalkvraiiatede ste 0rd i Ai cee Se Sie se ee. 2

Waal NTS ho IG eee ee ae he ee aTON Oe eS Ce ee

LPG XELECOTIL, EGG Rte Ae sn ene aoe ee i Ae Corse ae OO Senay SB bo Oe

Similarity to Sunflower mutation. 22/5... c..d-moseueeecess

Percer-e ate) CSE Om NOME Sei A See ere io Los ci eit Mary ae ieee

(ALOK CST COE MN Sars Srna es heart A es ee See ee
habits of branching.......-..- Ae

improvement by local adjustment. BE Sct ap agen eee sane
LeroliS Sayin oiea kee ee ee Se orn Sore ee

plant, elaborate measurements impracticable... ...... :
StGpie LISTER TARO SURO UNSY el PONT INYS SOE 3 See le ae Sd es Oe eg ee es
Sunflower mutation, similarity to Kekchi cotton ...............--...--
esas stormprool, source of Uriumph cotton. —.....-:.-.2-2:-----s.s--<
Triumph, abnormal plant at Lockhart, Tex., description. .......-.-..--
and Central American varieties compared...........-.-----
SUP IN CHV LGN OXse terrier EPA os 'z.od Suars 1c tele s eet) Sapte
bolls, opening in first and second year plants.....-.......--
1.6 a a te et RE, ow phate Nea eo Sea
[5c EVEL NG Tit Rat = ae ee Se A oe =: 2 ce es
“UNECE (00519 1 ci ee 8c ee
improvement by local adjustment..........2-...2.-¢2.-4--5
NMG eR POMUIARIIICR fey eee Ge see oe els aes dea eea ees oe
AUST a Ss RE ne Pe nS assay et Says - =e oa
RECUMRAD CAN CUCHN CTSUGWia ee a teMe re rans xic ssa nie cies shasta oe ac
first and second year, comparison...............-----
taken from Lockhart to Kerrville, Tex................
PRIS OREN Ol RANI tee oe ae SS nis ge Sle
lager Gikerent CONGMONS=oc (425-6. - +. bie cee eee ss hbe ses
Winieiimitives. eapeeceotepcon she: ote ean Cee See a aes ae
Wiplemd series, common ancestry .~....-...2.....-.5-5.sden ses eee ee

See also Bolls, Varieties, and Weevils.

aupemommerence, and age of s¢ed..-.22-2-- 220 ccses---- et neers ce esse eee
SS RGSS er
Becd asian aid: tOacclimatizatioNes.....--2--a22 06s -aae
MERRILL GT ate ese Lee oe eee. - = - 2s oa doa ct abe ee aee
Darwin, observation on newly introduced plants. ...........----------------
Del Rio, Tex., agricultural conditions compared with those at Kerrville, Tex. .
comparison of cotton crop of different years.......-.....------
conditions unfavorable for local adjustment differences... ....-
Cawinyines Gi DEE: see igen sloe cleo. 2. eek eines en ees aera
[ores ” sae ARE SE aoe SS 2 eS ee Pre C ae eas,
SUG ney a hasta ae ee er ee

13

16
17
20-21

35-37
31
52
39
60
54
54
33
32

72 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES..
Page.
Del Rio; Tex., experiments with cottom... 2/0)... i 222 SL ee 31-33, 35, 46
failure ioflocal adjustment... 52223226286 225s oe oe ee 64
Mexican: cottons experiments. ::27.272t4teece 6o eet eee 13
Parker cotton, experiments... ..-- bee RS Serge gn eae 48-50
Drversitiess new-placemandmiltations=>-s- 52 = eae See ee 16
relation to heredity +2255 2.80 eee eee. aes oe eee 15-16
Biversityray cause olson sylelde es 2. Sie tore cee ee Cn ee . 0
accompanied by environmental changes..............-..--.-------- 46
asa) New-placeCleCt.22)..2..22i wart nbs ee ee ee nae oe eee 10-15
avoidancebylocalvadjustment +: <--s5-s ae 2 11
conditionsitfavorable.< s:2 42:7: 222s: accu $228 2G cone ee 11
eliminated by selections: <2: {64 9_. Sele See eee 27
in Kine cottonia tae ees eases ee eee eee 26
Triumph cotton at Merville; Text 20k eS 2. 2 eee 18
twovlocalities:compareds.. 2. 2525 582 ses) ee oe ee 16-19
wild species: 222.2 2.2422 ed oclt cate Sates, Gal OIRNG er oe 53
increased, accompaniment of environmental changes...-............ 46-47
inherent: . 222. Usteesiet Jos eee ce ee a 11
new-place, adaptive walue...24-:.2--.2ce22e0 eee ee 14
andsterility.. 2222 oe ee eee 14
as experiments in accommodation.........---...------- 14
loss ofadyjustment: 522 1255.2 8 eee 14
material for breediney!** 255... -25- S9n-e = eee 57
compared) with mypriditzations se. see eee 38
distinct from accommodation to external conditions. ...-. 13-15
Huctiatine: variaihOne-e es s=: see eee 11-13
magnitudes 222252. ee ee eee ie
notadaptationlas=tesss. once oe Gaee oone ae eee 14
not an indication of unfavorable conditionSs.. s54562- eee senate 16
caused: by environment =5 5 7 22)5 2329.0 3 ee ee 16
destroyed by'seleetion=. 02422-2222. 204-2: tee ee oo ee 15
due to reversions... 25.4: 2.6 sokeceec! 2222 SP ee 28
explained by differences of environment.......-.-.------------- 10
result olearelessiselection’.<2=.8-2 .2 2.2 eee ne ee ee 19
transmitted in uniform types..-.-...-.----- Pe eet os ois sic: 16
without hybridization. .....: 02222223 As). a ie oo
Downing, A+J;,*quotationt 2.2 - <2 5.5.5.8 ee eee By
Dugear; J. Fs, quotations sere oa: : . 222. 28 RSs ee ee 19
Parliness,;cause of mereasedsyreld. =< 22: «235552 soc ee a 32
distinct kind s*qaeee 2s ses Lae ee ee ee 33
increased |bivalocaleadi stm Cmte sepa ae ae 32-34
valuie*againat.bolisweevils:2 222-20 t.coe. fee eee 6212 33
East, E. M., reference to work on potato breeding-:.............----.-.--.--- 36
Beology; object: 8-2 35-.252-ceek. 6 MS eas ce ee 47
Besplant, mautatoms teats 5. - once JO Saree 27
Environment, changes accompanied by increased diversity ....--.-..-------- 46-47
direct effects distinct from diversity under new conditions -...- tut
Eucalyptus; diversedi@avesseers--..-. 0.2.0. 552 2 ein ema eee 45
Falfurrias, Tex cottonzexpemments..:..... 52:2. 2-8 see eee | ee 11, 34
Mexieankeotton experiments. ..2. 92 2 ae eee 47,48
Perouson, At. aMictobsenvattOlme 2... <2 5...6 <p) Saee Gee een eee eee 59
Fertility reduced by luxuriant growth..........- PLO 5 PG Oe ae of 46

159

es ee

INDEX. 13

Page.
ee ACrE Re Le t Ol, MUTUONS ey: pease air eee sls noe, ac beau tien bedi o dni ely « 51
Fibers, cotton, quality improved by local adjustment........................ 32
Fuzz, green color, decrease in second generation...............-.----------- 21
ees vend mUtatLVe CHADSCR. 1 fone cases ws nace ccabereecelcee 12
Georgia, conditions compared with those at Kerrville, Tex..........-....-..-. 31
os Pg SYS tr I e200 eg Se tg ci aa oy a ee 42
onecanton: aanrer of mixing seed: .......-.--.- 2: see ccs cece cece cs es snes 41
Halsted, B. D., reference to work with sweet cormm.................--...----.- 29
Maree cmproved, synonym of Beat All cotton..............-.-.-.-..2--.-0--- 42
IMIDE CULE SO he a yt Meee oh ata ys ape eves irs hehe min a as 47
2 EUPIA Sn SU tear TS cy eae en ea Oa eae 46
woaiion. to new-place diversities... 2... ..-22:--262+-s---eeeeeenssee 15-16
Peeiamanion, Cause Ol diversity. ....--- 22 -- 62 -6- +. eee eee ee eee eter cneee 11
comparison with new-place diversity............-..-...-.-... 38
POT ASS ote NUE IG 0) ge 11) 131 pe a 26-30
Papemioged,erowth 26 an adjustment_..........-.......------- 2 seed ee eens 29
shortening confined to extra-axillary branches. .................- 29
MenmeemaNNCaTOEII PUMOUIN. .. <2. 55 2 erie we cee ce ene e eee esses Sree 7-10
eMUNIEIIO MERGES 2 ae eos ae Stein = 2 ayeree eae ee eee Se ese 45
Kerrville, Tex., conditions compared with those at Del Rio, Tex......-......- 54
BORON, Cee OEMRCH Ia dace mre Sits vce s..- 5 So so se ene ee “8 30, 32
waite @alllsvamnety. 2- =a. 555. -.--.. sa5 2-1 31
seeds of different ages. .............-- 35
Mrumiphevanety.1-2..-cs22-.- IG Ui PAU AY
EGC PT ee arene oie ete 2 a a es eet rrr 17
Pocrineligin, 4), TB ls (a) SCT PE HRC) 01a ee tear ey ca 21
emcee Mune Im Kano MUTAtONs ..4- 52 2c sec o2 oi. eases sti esasuteeceedes 24
PMID COGN ELUM NVCOULOM: ve oo ste - =. no ede oe a eenene 20
MEER TAMULUEOM fer ot ot a ee ew Scene ewer eeoes 24
TOT ee Ra ean ee cS eS lA pc ea AH 29
Lewton, F. L., observations........ S Ae Te SCE eee ere SES Sees coe celiac ts}
Limbs, basal, absence in Rei a ee 22-23
OILS TL SG AT eS Se ie et See 22
PME oth Rater MUA GION sc soca cae Se ee we ene See babe eee 23
Minnestrieena, OL TOWS OL COLLOM) 552252 -c cee cc ese e eee e ee eee ces eee ce eee 46
PURCMEMROMUMONVICUAL DIAIS. cic ona ee alae - = v2 see cee sca ce te eae 55
inferior, associated with luxuriant growth 16
Banertetanp-pouibed WOR 08 2 oo. 2 ween -- 2 ee wee vew een een ee 45
mea aMMUN LU ON SUL PELIOM Uys an acess asa yo... wee ae see cee ee eee ey oe
eemelertinice WM: TTiMi pn COLON. 22-52. -n sean 2-2 eee eee ne ee ecto ae ese 21
Local adjustment. See Adjustment, local.
Lockhart, Tex., experiment with Triumph cotton..................-..- ee 16
RG Cal CMe ees eran EPONA. ooo 2 Sle sales Cele «cee 16
TRIAD Ae Ser ke IIT Ce eI - aa ee icine elo e tues 34
Meer mC AG Wie ODSCr Va OHS-cesigeniee se = ease Nee - ee eee oe ee wee 20, 34
Mebane, Alexander, originator of Triumph cotton. ...............-.....----- 17
MERINO Se Bade eee a eee - aia oa twain waa meen 61
Miiation catised by suppression of characters..-..........-.-.-...+----.+.--- 29
Dee PRRC IEC EC OLN DION: fant cant Sota merie ee = eo wie eee wile ced 27
SUPIRERrO ere COUCOR re Soke acct said fete incts - wiain e s oe ee weds elem nals 21
rameenentee CAMERA OFLU nine ee aia = = 0 ace ona cea ecees eeeei 27

159

74 LOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF COTTON VARIETIES.

Page.

Bfutationsand "Galltom’s law see oe. eo ee eee 60
a8 Ne w-place dineriileses ¢.- 4,221 «22s 2a ae tee ee ee 16

SPeCled sme he ee enn. o-oo t e en eae ee 12

CAUISC = «5.2 2s See espe seme ae eye ee ee: eee rae 50

CIV EIsity =. - ao eoeae ee oo rare cre, SS On ee ee 47

in}.cotton and ‘tomatoes compared <)> 5..-=- ea: 4 ee oe eee 51
differentity pes. - 2S. 2h 02202 oe eee eee ea ee PH

Kango eee See See or ean Se he ag ee Oe oe 22

increased pyachanredscondilionsssss-se esse eae eee 13
INHeRtANCE Seo wstise Ack te ose eA ne ae ee eee 25
promiscuous andlacoreraleeea a = = se ees. eee ee ee 50-52

Peas, sweet, simultaneous appearance of dwarf form.........................- 28
Phyllotaxy, abnormal in. Eriimiph) Coutom)=- 22s: sss eee ee ae 20
Plantimezat.diiterentG datessssy te) dieser eee es re ee 50
time and) seasons. ,enection. vara llOme essere oe: ae ae ee 47-50

effect. onifentilitye .. . nyse Nees tere ee 49

Plants and animals, cause of evolutionary development..................---. 44
behavior methodiothobsenvatoness 5 eer 2 on see nee ee 30-31
diversity: asa mew-place etiect.: 92-22-22 .22-2)-2-5- 2. re 10-15
inheritanceiot divergent characters, tests=---.---.---------» - =. se eee 20-25
isolation mecessaryaion localvadjustments- == -essess5- 5) 4]
open-fertilized, new-place effects pronounced. .... Sood och Ee B2
Potatoes,,old varieties, stability. ...c2.. e252 3... see eee aha) 2s 36
iReeression, law amdemiintativerch an tess mam =e see eee ae 1
Reversion 2,.cause of diversity: --.s2.5.2-ess.s 12s ee ee 28
Rogwing a form of local adjustment... 2.22 os. 22. se 2 56
Sam Amionion Dext, exp eminne mits vy lta COU lO Ws ae eee 21, 22, 25, 49
Kame* s Sse 256 eee eee 22

Tritim ph. :<2-5 2240525 eee 49

Sandsten., Prof, HoP>. quotation -- 22-2 esse eee oe 51
Seasons and time of planting, effect om variation.--:------.----------2--s55e" 47-50
Seed, age, ‘and difference of crops. ....2--2-852=--c6 i 5) - seen 35-37
change dn colotts-. sh Sacer: oo see eee ee ee 48

not benelicialie st << «1-- 22 oo See eee oe h4.

diversity in individual plaints... 22282 s5..250- ee 55
préen.in, Mexican, cottone. . .¢:t:.25..b0 5.2 ease. eee ee 48
home-grown, superiority. ---- Comin nec ae oe Se are eee 63-65
peculiarities in /Erimmpbrecottons 22. essa pera ee Se hes: 21
smooth in- King mutation=......3. chi) oe ae ee ee 24
Selection» children capalbleroten rac term oe spree ae eek 9
contused wath! localfadjustment= eo soe- oe es eee eee 8
CONTINMER, MEGCessalyatOr: WANTON yaaa ee ee 51

controls charactemexpresslon ss. eee eso sea 28

efiectsion) cross-renulazed plantsseeee= se see nee ee ee eee 61
deficiency, dieltommmiavoralblesconGiiions sess ee 55

natural, opposed to artificial selection. ~~. -.2-... 2-5. .-- ---- = eee 14
preservesydiversities..\.05 22g. eee oe ae 15

of little effect in self-fertilized varieties.........-...-....-.----.--- 61

seed imiportamit een. - <=. 30 cvs oe a ileeioee alee ore ae ee eee 9

relation. to OCayaGiStMent. sess sc ee eee ae 52-54

unable tordestroyadiversity = -/...2cec2 \e ae eae eee | eee 16
Shoemaker,-D Ni sobsenvanlome..... .-< .- cece ater oe eee eee ne ee eee 26

159

INDEX. 75

Page.

mueyrcnange, efiect on local adjustment.....-..... 2.2... ccs c eee een eee 54
Pmemiarity 4: BOURCE Of GiVOrsthy 0s occ acc co Waals toe eee ene cee 31
South Carolina, agricultural conditions compared w th those at Kerrville, Tex. 31
TE I I ee a 2 ae pee 27
Sturtevant, Dr. E. L., quotation. ...... 2S Caine ie SR eI OO 43
emeneerrer. Vy. L., Quotation. - 222.22. feccce eee eee dae dees ceseccues 6]
MM MCA GLOSS 0283 SRG Sate ae a Ee ae ie res oo are Sin xn Fw Sd ew eS 27, 29
Tracy, WwW. W., er., observation. .............. 3p BRE aed coe Wak ae 36
ro WRT Ya’ a MM iad ec Rp rk tS Mek OR ae GE AD een 27-28

WORKAON, BRUGON. MEAN eh ier whoo es Sse selec seas 57

NICSTRE UID] eI CEI. a af ae ee 29

ermine OSCIy SULODS§. aoe. Sosa S este ee ec ee oe ecm obisas conse eee 21, 42
inion cesinaubility. 1m Community = -2 2.64. .222-2--. cao lee ees eee. 42
. [Cup TRC Se eed eo Med fote fates syora eee 15

Bh SUG GH ES GU Tigi SB an oo oe ea 62

“i PESELA. pe Be eee ce tye Re SS ae ee eee eae &
MicreREUREIIT) CONMUMON «ck eee nw se oes oad She dew eee 53

(0 AIRC ise ap See oo er ae 15
Rietmmnionemimicinod Ghoreedinos 22.5. S ec ce ccc sc ciie cae bei eee ese see see ts ay
Variation, fluctuating, distinct from new-place diversity...................-. 11-13
emeenrmcotran ,limbless, Natures... .c-.--2--ssechen---- eee e eee eee. 29
PC ULOUS OUUCSUIN Ce merase eee eee ci Ce ese ae seo ee 37-40

(MSU Ole Seon anode ee eek. eee ee 43

Hew MCUIOUs.OF IMEVOGUGCHON...-20..<.ccnaed- -- +. 2 eee eo cece ee 40-43
MPReeIN ALC OMNMGLDIICELY 2 - cy Gio ec = lu Gs... 2 sence on ociaeyins 41
LE GIES TUG 07 Dil
Mien es-, experiments with cotton..-....--2/.2..-----22-+--eeeeee- 13.21 47
Memmi Cansepmet,. ...22... 22 bese eae 13, 47

Weevil-infested regions, importance of local adjustment.............--...-.-. 8
Mveevsils. pall, eficect of late planting of cotton-...--...........--.-.-.--.-----: 49
injuny to} young bolis--.--.-...=--- BS 2.0: Soe. yt Re ee 33

losses made good by local ad pochaient = ers eet ae Slee 8

rainy weather favorable to development..............-...------- 8

MER WOE OM LONIALGES.- J. 0.2 soe ees ew ee ee ee ee 51
Mmmeld, Kans., experiment with cotton......-.--22.-..-. 20.2.2. eee eee eee 34
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, experiment with tomatoes........ 51
TI EE TCR ON SO tee a Ie oa Sete ees = 5 ole cine se a ns tae 15
wieiioamrom: dimerent dates of plamtine. <2 5.-2-22-5-5----.--- 0. sse eee scnscte- 50
miereureri yy Ocal A0jUStmIONG. ce -cesnsee cess. eee eee cea aves SOO)

Lt napel CAE GRANTS shave Oe Oe See ee oe 2 Lr eee aoe 31

of OR SCGT ARC en) ea Se a Se ere 59

uma, Ariz., experiments with Pachon cotton...........--.......--------.-- 48
pouoency 10 small, rounded POlss. 22 re. -.--- 2... ene e encase 46

159

3,

too. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 160.

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. \

ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR
BY-PRODUCTS.

L—THE ITALIAN LEMON INDUSTRY.

BY

G. HAROLD POWELL,
PoMOLOGIST IN CHARGE OF FRUIT TRANSPORTATION
AND STORAGE INVESTIGATIONS.

Ii.—THE BY-PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON IN ITALY.

BY

E. M. CHACE,
Assistant CHIEF OF THE Division or Foops,
BurEAU OF CHEMISTRY.

IssuED OcroBeER 6, 1909.

oy ie.

q —

134
iS

/
y
,

Y
4
Y

AANA

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1909,

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Bnvmrty T. GALLOWAY.
Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops.
Editor, J. B. ROCKWELL.

Chief Clerk, JAMES KH. JONES.

WinLp INVESTIGATIONS IN POMOLOGY.
SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

William A. Taylor, Pomologist in Charge of Fruit Marketing Investigations.
G. Harold Powell, Pomologist in Charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage In-
vestigations.
George C. Husmann, Pomologist in Charge of Viticultural Investigations.
A. D. Shamel, Physiologist in Charge of Citrus Fruit Breeding Investigations.
A. V. Stubenrauch, Vapert in Fruit Transportation.
H. P. Gould, Pomologist in Charge of Fruit District Investigations.
L. 8S. Tenny, Pomologist in Fruit Marketing, Transportation, and Storage Investigations.
8S. J. Dennis, Hapert in Refrigeration.
George W. Hosford, Assistant Pomologist in Fruit Marketing, Transportation, and Stor-
age Investigations.
Andrew W. McKay, Hapert in Fruit Storage.
William I. Fletcher, Scientific Assistant in Fruit District Investigations.
H. M. White, Scientific Assistant in Fruit Marketing, Transportation, and Storage Inves-
tigations.
Burr B. Pratt, Scientific Assistant in Fruit Transportation and Storage Investigations.
J. Etna Buck, Expert in Viticultural Investigations.
EF. L. Husmann, Viticultural Superintendent.
Cc. A. Reed, Special Agent in Pecan Investigations.
160
2)

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. DerartMEeNT oF AGRICULTURE,
Bureau or Puiant Inpustry,
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF,
Washington, D. C., June 17, 1909.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled
“Italian Lemons and Their By-Products,” consisting of two papers,
“ The Italian Lemon Industry ” and “ The By-Products of the Lemon
in Italy,” and to recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 160
of the Bureau series. These papers have been prepared by Mr. G.
Harold Powell, Pomologist in Charge of Fruit Transportation and
Storage Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, and by Mr. E. M.
Chace, Assistant Chief of the Division of Foods, Bureau of Chemis-
try, with a view to publication.

The observations summarized in the first manuscript were made by
Mr. Powell, who went to Italy in the fall of 1908 to study the methods
used in the development of the lemon industry. During the trip
through Sicily he was accompanied by Dr. Arthur S. Cheney, Amer-
ican consul at Messina, who was killed in the earthquake in December,
who rendered the greatest service to the Department of Agriculture
on this trip on account of his familiarity with the lemon industry
and with the people. The paper on “The By-Products of the
Lemon in Italy ” was prepared by Mr. Chace, who investigated these
products, especially the oil of lemon, in Sicily in 1908 for the Bureau
of Chemistry. The Bureau of Chemistry also received much assist-
ance from Doctor Cheney in connection with its work.

The lemon industry is increasing rapidly in the United States.
The crop in California now amounts to from one-third to two-fifths
of the total quantity used in the United States. The remainder of
the supply is imported chiefly from Italy. The by-product business
has not yet assumed commercial importance in California, but there
is an increasing interest developing in this branch of the industry.

The observations made in this bulletin should be helpful to the
American lemon industry in showing the status of the industry in
Ttaly and the methods used in growing, marketing, and distributing
the crop.

Respectfully, B. T. GaLtoway,
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. James Wrtson,

Secretary of Agriculture.
160 3

I.—The Italian lemon industry

Che BAN ys)

PEEL UES e cal em Gene dare Choc tev bus ae eaee uedewwegaaes
The extent and location of the Italian lemon industry -.........-..-.-.--
The commercial importance of the Italian lemon industry -..........---
mucaepore of lemons from Italy. ..2 0. 6s5--2-.5.. ce. ce odeesscetase
The imports of lemons into the United States ...................-.....-
The districts from which Italian lemons are exported to the United States.
The distribution of foreign lemons in the United States ............--.--
The methods of handling foreign lemons in the United States...........
iennoae of secunme the lemons. ---2.-..2---..-2--.-%-2-2esescocce
Methods used in’ selling the lemons...-..----...:...---.---.-------
The exports of lemon by-products from Italy............-......-.-.----
aime mparie cmeitvateor liME.s-25.--.2 o52.-------0---6-l-csen=~=
The imports of citrate of lime into the United States.__..-......-...-
The exports of essential oils from citrus fruits ...................-.-
The imports of lemon oil into the United States ............-..-----
The exports of concentrated lemon and citron juice....-------.-----
Tre expos of aw citron and lemon juicé.................-2----.-
The exports of lemon, orange, and other citrus-fruit peel .......----
The rates of duty on lemons and their by-products entering the United
Ce te SE ee Sn eee a
iieseason Of lemon tipening in Italy 2-2. -.............-.-.-.-..2.---
The character of the lemons in different regions of Italy...-..-...--..--
The character of the lemons exported to different markets .-.....-..-.---
Terms applied to lemons ripening at different periods. ..........--------
PREM CROCUUMLE OURS =r eee tae PE Ede cate Sac cm bee cues
See MPMR ECR CRICN es tt ee ee ia on oS sence ceed
mrecmonl proves OF pardens of Italy.._-.2.-....-.------------+-------
Semmanemmnt tie feNNOn PATO Gie see Os. co nes cees cee eke ee eee cee eee
uN aE oe ee ee eS ee ni ape
ii init! 20 st Goaep ete bon ceo sede esto As
TMi, oe he ieee eaGege sete. CCE oC GE a. eee
Co ne cease A eg eS =, i re ee
Ce oes See See 2 Ee Se ae
PAC OLCC BORA AMSG INOS amen ne eee tere o ob voc oot eke cleecewe ce
FISRCHiies PROMOMON GROPlass-eeeseee ons eae = oso ose ce eos ewe ee csee
olin ep Tay ey tiles beeps ete Oe OS eS ee ee re
MGtGoa UseGhiM tne: CanMens esc ec esc. . laden cn ccet new ecvices
Methods used in the packinig Houses. --2:................--..----.-
Pheicost of producing lemons im ltaly-...-- 22... ...-.---22c-- sees ee eee
160 5

II.—The by-products of the lemon in Italy
Introduction
Geographical distribution of the by-product industry ---..-....---------

The industry in the Mina district.2.222225262-- eases ee
The industry in the Messina district-: -252-.4.-60- 6-2 see ee eee
The:industry in the Palermo district: 2. =23-22..22---=---2-----ee eee
The industry 10 the Syracuse. district ...5 2222522225222 2 eee
The industry in the north-coast towns. <2. .2.2. 22) se cee ae eee
Manufacture-ot by-products... 35 2--2-22J222 .--<06 >see eee eee
Equipmenbion by-product factories... 5.-2..2.2-2292.55 02 --=5 5 =e
Preparation. of the:iruite! 2 -V tb. s0Ja8- 2ie ono oe
Extraction’ of the essential otl...22..32222.-5. 4.022.202 eee
Treatment ofthe residues: _ <2. 252 o.0--0 --s2ee02o0 02) 0s
Machine-made essentialoil.. ....).222-22226 ede eee scdu. 2s.
Citrate.of limes. .2.. 29 gle Pose beck oie ee eee
Costof prodiuctoniotiby_products==se-=-—-seseseoee eee eee

CONTENTS.

Description’ of plates? aq 2.22 e515 a es ase Sa eee eee
THdEX oo none ekcescheecedee piece ekee leu staes chet coco eee
LU Sai A ONG os
PLATES.
Puatr I. Lemon groves on the Amalfi coast. Fig. 1.—Terraces on the moun-

Fia.

tole

100k

tain side. Fig. 2.—Terraces rising from the sea......---.-.---.-
An Italian and an American lemon grove compared. Fig. 1.—A
grove at Mascali, Sicily, showing a distributing furrow and basins
around the trees. Fig. 2.—A grove of low-headed trees in Cali-
fOTMIAS sso Fee owe oe oes eee ee Se eee ee
A lemon-picking scene and a packing-house interior. Fig. 1.—Pick-
ing and grading the fruit, Palermo. Fig. 2.—Interior of a pack-
ine house, Catamiay.¢ = 2c. eee ose eee ee eee

. Preparation of citrate of lime. Fig. 1.—A crushing machine.

. Preparation of lemon oil. Fig. 1.—Paring lemons, 3-piece method,

Palermo. Fig. 2.—Interior of lemon by-product factory, Syracuse.

. Lemon-oil machinery. Fig. 1.—A lemon-oil machine used in Cala-

bria. Fig. 2.—Disks used in Calabrian machines.....----.------

TEXT FIGURES.

il; Maprot italy andvadjacent coumtmes Ss ssseees= ae ee ee eee eee eee
2. A trellis over'a lemon grove.+:t...---2 525225. -55s Seee eee
3. Wemon trees|crowinemnder/atrellisi;- {22 2eese- eee eee
4. Map of Sicily, showing the regions where lemon by-products are pre-

pared {cee eee. ao oi Sas aelacinisee eee eo eee

5. “A Jemon-orl still used: on residues; Palermo-22-.2-. --ceeceseeeeneeee

160

Page.

52

52

52

36
47

ti jl

\
B. P. I1.—493.

ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

I—THE ITALIAN LEMON INDUSTRY.

By G. Harotp Powertt, Pomologist in Charge of Fruit Transportation and
Storage Investigations.

INTRODUCTION.

The lemon is grown in nearly all parts of Italy, from the provinces
of Lombardy and Venetia on the north to the island of Sicily on the
south. The distinction acquired by Italy as the lemon-growing
center of the world is due principally to the fruit and by-products
from the groves in the southern Mediterranean region, especially on
the Sorrentine peninsula, across the bay from Naples, in the province
of Calabria, and in Sicily. There are few parts of the world where
horticulture has been more highly developed, where the products
enter more widely into commerce, and where, on the whole, an indus-
try has thrived more and has contributed to the welfare of a greater
number of people.

In the provinces of the northern and the central part of the coun-
try the climatic conditions preclude the development of an extensive
commercial lemon culture. Though a comparatively large industry
was developed there in the past, lemon culture has been on the decline
during the last decade in this part of Italy. The trees suffer too
often from frost, from high winds, and from driving rains, predis-
posing them to disease and making lemon growing there a precarious
undertaking. In southern Italy and in Sicily the climate is milder
and more like that of southern California. The number of lemon
trees in that part of Italy is at least fifteen times the number in
California.

THE EXTENT AND LOCATION OF THE ITALIAN LEMON INDUSTRY.

It is difficult to obtain exact statistical information on the lemon
industry of Italy. In 1904 there were about 17,000,000 citrus-fruit
trees of all kinds in Italy, at least 8,000,000 of which are said to be
lemons. Probably three-fourths or more of the lemon trees are lo-
cated in Sicily. In 1898 there were over 6,000,000 lemon trees in

160 7

8 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

Sicily. The next most extensive regions are Reggio di Calabria and
the Sorrentine peninsula, both on the mainland, the former having
about a million trees and the latter 500,000 or more.

On the Sorrentine peninsula the most extensive groves, or gardens
as they are called in Italy, are located on the Amalfi coast, at Majori,
Minori, Amalfi, and to a smaller extent at other places from Cetra to
Positana. The trees are planted on walled terraces on the mountain
sides that rise abruptly from the Gulf of Salerno, as shown in Plate
I, figures 1 and 2. The trees are covered with straw mats placed on
trellises late in the fall, to protect them from frost during the winter
months. There are many groves also on the side of the Bay of
Naples in the vicinity of Sorrento, and other plantings in the vicinity
of Naples, the trees in the Naples district in 1898 numbering 180,000.
There are also many groves in the vicinity of Cosenza and Catanzaro
and at Reggio, in the province of Calabria, the by-product industry
having reached the highest development in the latter district. A
map of Italy and adjacent countries is shown in figure 1.

Sicily is the heart of the lemon industry of the world. The groves
are located near the coast along the northern and eastern sides of the
triangular island, usually in a narrow strip, but sometimes extending
inland into the fertile valleys and up the slopes of the hills and
mountains a thousand feet or more in elevation. The groves are
locally distinguished as the upland and the valley, or lowland, groves,
though the term “upland groves” is often applied to trees planted
on heavier soils irrespective of altitude and the term “lowland
groves ” to trees planted on lighter soils. On the north coast of Sicily
the groves extend from Messina to Palermo somewhat irregularly,
with a distinct break between Termini and Santo Stefano, where the
mountains reach the sea, and beyond Palermo to a limited extent to
Trapani. The principal lemon-growing center between Messina and
Santo Stefano is Barcelona, with smaller centers around Bauso,
Naso, Santa Agata di Miletello, and other smaller places. Near
Palermo the most important districts on the coast are Bagheria and
Ficarazzi. On the eastern coast there is an almost continuous nar-
row ribbon of groves close to the Strait of Messina, with inland
valleys, like the Alcantara, reaching from Messina to Catania. In
the Catania region, located on the lava beds of Mount Etna, the most
important districts are Acireale, Giarre, Mascali, and Fiumefreddo.
In the district extending northeast beyond Giardini the gardens are
almost unbroken to Messina, the most important districts lying
around Letojanni, Santa Teresa, Roccalumera, Galati, Tremestieri,
and Gazzi, with Messina as the center from which the fruit and
by-products are shipped. There is another district on the southeast
coast around Syracuse, extending from Augusta to Avola, where it

160

EXTENT AND LOCATION OF ITALIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. 9

is less mountainous than in other parts of the island and where the
industry is farther inland. Syracuse is the most important center
of this region. The industry is developed most extensively in the
province of Palermo, in which is located the Conco d’Oro, or the
Place of Gold. This beautiful valley extends inland from Palermo

Wy ¥ 3
Z eet

o oe
¥ ea °

Z_qk- i aR

an
yarn 4 ne

te ; go ! nent NS a 4 \. x ei,
il \\TUS CAN Yomaxo — \
va Y ; fo \

a“ \

S

X e x
=
BZ OM aFa
—ZAND Se ) S
fae S
Feuer, 7 %
sfc ASS
oc 7. at Ne
@ a ek yee — a ane
EM RAE NE # wy Focal — \
Weer, jf “a )
: a @ Ne
hs GS fF
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“) _ORATANZARO
C py
YB Cy JZ A
sof
N £ ALN
s EA

SP ey EA Ww
A F Reon ¢ A S EA

© Maas

Fic. 1.—Map of Italy and adjacent countries.

to Monreale and is planted with several thousand acres of lemon
groves and other fruits. Hardly second in the extent of the industry
are the provinces of Messina and of Catania, with the provinces of
Syracuse, Trapani, Caltanissetta, and Girgenti, mentioned in the
order of their importance, containing fewer trees.

160

10 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

The fresh fruit export industry centers in the province of Palermo,
with the city of Palermo as the port of export. Before the earth-
quake in December, 1908, Messina was the center of the lemon oil,
citrate of lime, and other citrus by-product industries. There was
some fresh fruit exported from Messina before the earthquake, the
exports going chiefly to European countries. There is also a limited
shipment of fresh fruit and by-products from Catania and small
shipments from Syracuse.

In 1898 the distribution of lemon trees in the provinces of southern
Italy, including Reggio di Calabria and Sicily, was as follows:

Reggio di Calabria________ 1, 232, 765 | Sicily—Continued.

Sicily : Caltanissetta —-_----=== 8, 210
Messing -2 2) =). eae 1, 634, 231 Girgenti-- eee 56, 379
Palermo 2222 ee 2, 488, 475 Trapani =. 2325s" 216, 160
Cataniat ole aa 828, 640 a
Syracuse: 2-2 =e 460, 125 otal. 2. - = ee 6, 924, 985

The total number of trees in the provinces of central Italy in 1898
was 798,214, while in the northern provinces there were 564,559 trees,
making a total of 8,287,758 lemon trees for the country as a whole.
Detailed statistics since 1898 of the different kinds of citrus fruits
in Italy are not available, but from the general data at hand it is
probable that the number of trees in southern Italy has at least not
decreased and has probably increased.

THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE ITALIAN LEMON
INDUSTRY.

From careful inquiries made by Dr. Arthur S. Cheney, the Ameri-
can consul who lost his hfe in December, 1908, in the earthquake at
Messina, it was estimated that the crop of 1907 in Sicily and Calabria
amounted to 6,900,000,000 lemons. It is estimated in Italy that one-
. third or more of the crop is usually converted into by-products, such
as citrate of lime, lemon oil, and lemon peel, principally for export.
Expressed in terms of boxes of 330 lemons each, the Sicilian and
Calabrian crop would equal more than 20,000,000 boxes, or an equiva-
lent of about 64,000 California carloads of 312 boxes each. The
quantity that is converted into citrate of lime alone amounts to over
20,000 carloads of fruit, the product of 1907 equaling 23,000 pipes of
672 pounds each. It requires about 100,000 lemons, or the equivalent
of nearly a carload of fruit, to make a pipe of citrate of lime. It is
estimated by some Italian writers that nearly 2,000,000,000 lemons are
required annually for domestic consumption, while the remainder of
the crop, or a little over one-third of the total, is exported to different
countries in the form of fresh fruit. These figures should be con-
sidered only as approximations of the extent of the lemon industry
in Italy. The estimate of the domestic consumption is probably too

high.
160

THE IMPORTS OF LEMONS INTO THE UNITED STATES. 11
THE EXPORTS OF LEMONS FROM ITALY.

The exports of fresh lemons from Italy have increased more than
75 per cent in the last ten years, or from 325,000,000 pounds in the
calendar year 1898 to more than 559,000,000 pounds in 1907. Of the
total exports of fresh lemons, the largest proportion is shipped to the
United States, it having received from 29 to 41 per cent of the exports
annually in the last ten years, the proportion running above 35 per
cent in six years out of the ten.

The United Kingdom has received from 17.7 to 25 per cent annually
in the last ten years, and Austria-Hungary from 14.4 to 22.8 per cent
annually. The remainder of the exports are distributed to Canada,
France, Australia, Germany, Russia, and to various other countries
in smaller quantities.

The following table, compiled from official statistics,s shows the
exports of fresh lemons from Italy in quantity and in value during
the calendar years 1898 to 1908, inclusive. The proportion exported
to the United States has been determined from figures published by
the same official source.

Taste I.—H«xports of lervons from Italy, 1898 to 1908, inclusive.

|
Calendar year Heaperts Calendar year | Beports
‘ended Quantity. Value. United ended Quantity. | Value. United
December 31— States, || December 31— | States
‘ |
Pounds. Per cent. Pounds. | Per cent.
MEME c So eters es 325,504,061 | $3,419, 486 Aro N90 esc cake e 514,137,472 | $3,600,745 | 37.3
a Si ee 369, 473,041 3, 234, 489 BOS He | el Qowe esos oe. 452,903,655 | 3,171,899 | 32.1
Ls es 311,563,577 | 3,000,286 29-0) LO0Gi2. cc < 55 550,524,096 | 4,337,525 | ote
1 368,801,294 | 3,228,610 ON deel HL OO ia. 2<.c on miata one 559,549,378 | 4,408,653 | 37.8
11 2 SS 490,053,960 | 3,432,077 OIG) LOUSsboceccecss 540,332,790 | 44,257,229 32.7
Le 459,622,020 | 3,218,948 31.2
|

@ Value for 1908 fi Ttalian fade Srneieiicn subject to revision in 1909.
THE IMPORTS OF LEMONS INTO THE UNITED STATES.’

The total imports of fresh lemons into the United States during the
fiscal years 1898 to 1908, inclusive, practically all of which are re-
ceived from Italy, are shown in the table following. The figures
for 1908 represent the general imports, which are somewhat in excess
of the imports for consumption. The reader should bear in mind
that the figures from Italian sources cover calendar years, while the
American figures cover fiscal years. They are therefore not com-
parable.

“Jor 1907 and previous years: Movimento Commerciale del Regno d'Italia.
For 1908: Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione
del 1 Gennaio al 31 Dicembre, 1908.

>United States Imports: Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United
States, Bureau of Statistics,.U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor.

160

12 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

Taste II.—Total imports of lemons into the United States for consumption,
1898 to 1908, inclusive.

Fiscal yearended | Quantity. | Value. Fiscal yearended |) Quantity. | Value.
Pounds. Pounds.
1 oS Sea EOP 133, 347,050 | $2,521, 985. 32 1906 fgeneral tariff._) 138,689,148 | $2,934, 195. 34
1 SOG A SS oes otras ares 208, 634, 448 4,399, 160.72 || ~~“ qe ~\from Cuba.... 1, 122 26. 80
OOO Meco eere eee cheers 159, 384, 389 3, 655, 946, 85 | —
LOOLE Rs See Sa 148, 334, 112 3, 516, 877. 29 138, 690,270 | 2,934,222. 14
il Peete 5 See aera aT ny 162, 962, O91 3, 318, 908. 82 |
19032 sc) ae ee Sees 152,775, 867 | 3,087,244. 22 1907 ee Gh tariff. .| 153,930,739 | 4,254, 230. 56
‘----\ from Oubae ns. 34,519 1, 236. 00
1904 fgeneral tariff...) 164,042,415 | 3,507,679. 55 |
= 7 \irom'Cubas.o- 410 6.00 | 153,965,258 | 4,255, 466. 56
164, 042,825 | 3, 507,685.55 |] 99g {peneral tariff. .| 178,437,835 | 4,388, 247.95
| | ==> trom (Cubar=s- 21, 298 393. 00
1905... .fgeneral tariff. .| 139,079,003 | 2,904,975. 44 | =
----)from Cuba... 3, 528 71.00 | 178,459,133 | 4,388, 640.95
139, 082,531 | 2,905, 046.44 |

The general imports into the United States exceed in variable
quantities the imports for consumption from year to year, as the im-
ports for other countries, such as Canada, pass largely through
American ports.

About 50 per cent of the total imports are received in the United
States from May to July, inclusive, the heaviest shipments in recent
years arriving in June. From 70 to 80 per cent of the total imports
arrive from March to August, inclusive.

Of the imports of lemons into the United States during the last
ten fiscal years, from 82.29 to 89.85 per cent of the total have been
received in the customs district of New York; from 3.02 to 8.07 per
cent of the total in Boston and Charlestown; from 1.67 to 9.44 per cent
of the total in New Orleans; from 0.35 to 1.65 per cent of the total
in Philadelphia; from 0.29 to 1.67 per cent of the total in Baltimore;
and from 0.26 to 3.34 per cent of the total in other customs districts.

THE DISTRICTS FROM WHICH ITALIAN LEMONS ARE EXPORTED
TO THE UNITED STATES.

The lemons exported from Italy to the United States are forwarded
principally from Palermo, Messina, and Naples. The fruit shipped
from these ports may not have been.grown in the vicinity of the
ports, as the exporters in one district frequently buy fruit in another
and have it shipped in for packing. The exporters in Palermo, for
example, may ship lemons from the districts of Messina or Catania
which have been forwarded by rail to Palermo to be prepared for
export at that point. When shipped, these lemons are recorded as
Palermo fruit. The shipments from Naples include most of the
lemons from Sorrento, from the Amalfi coast, and from other points
in the Sorrentine peninsula,

160

METHODS OF HANDLING FOREIGN LEMONS, 13

The following figures, furnished by Mr. Victor L. Zorn, president
of the New York Fruit Exchange, show the number of boxes of
lemons from these districts received at the port of New York from
1903 to 1908, inclusive:

TaBLe IIl.—Bowres of lemons received in New York from Italian ports, 1903 to
1908, inclusive.

Ports of export.
Year ended December 31— - : Total.
Palermo. Messina. | Naples.
ET tn eS 5 Sk os 2 a os nk See dep acces ed 1, 506, 850 339, 000 57, 850 1, 903, 700
Bo pineal cig QS As a a is a 1,581, 500 316, 900 71, 950 1, 970, 350
ET te ee oe ciaicls aicicine os weeodex ws 1, 298, 250 98, 100 35, 600 1, 431, 950
BHM et ore ew oialsip. cic o.s e c te San nines cee 1, 468, 800 159, 100 75, 600 1,703, 500
LM Ac. 4 So aE Re eee ae 1,647, 925 101, 400 211, 100 1, 960, 425
NaN oe Wad Bee So een 1, 625, 525 85, 250 117, 350 1, 828, 125

From these figures it will be seen that from 80.2 to 90.6 per cent of
the total exports of lemons to New York since 1903 have been for-
warded from Palermo, from 4.6 to 17.8 per cent from Messina, and
from 2.5 to 10.8 per cent from Naples. The shipments from Messina
in the past have gone largely to Germany, Russia, Austria, Canada,
Norway, and Sweden.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF FOREIGN LEMONS IN THE UNITED
; STATES.

The trade in foreign lemons is confined largely to the eastern half
of the United States. In the territory west of the Missouri River,
including central and western Texas, the trade is supplied almost
exclusively with California lemons. In the Middle West, especially
in the territory north of the Ohio River, where the competition be-
tween the domestic and foreign lemons is close, probably from 50 to
60 per cent of the lemons handled are imported from Italy. In the
South Central States, including eastern Texas, the trade is supplied
largely with Italian lemons distributed from New Orleans, and in
the territory east of the Alleghenies the trade is supplied principally
with foreign fruit distributed from New York, and in smaller quan-
tity from the ports already mentioned.

THE METHODS OF HANDLING FOREIGN LEMONS IN THE UNITED
STATES.

METHODS OF SECURING THE LEMONS.

The lemons imported into the United States are usually secured
from Italian sources in one of four general business methods, which
are believed to be stated in their order of importance as follows:

(1) The purchase of the fruit by the importer in America from
the shipper in Sicily at a fixed price, generally including freight.

160

14 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

It is probable that at least half of the lemons imported are purchased
by the importer in this manner. Purchases of this kind are gener-
ally made on letters of credit issued through an American bank, the
letter of credit usually equaling a little less than the purchase price.
The shipper and the buyer agree that the fruit shall consist of certain
grades and sizes. In making the letter of credit the buyer includes
the specifications covering the purchase, as, for example, 60 per cent
first grade and 40 per cent second grade, and 50 per cent 300’s and 50
per cent 360’s, and specifies what proportion of the total payment is
to be advanced. The shipper presents this letter of credit with a bill
of lading to the correspondent of the bank issuing the letter after
the fruit is loaded for shipment, the bill of lading specifying the
grades and sizes covered by the letter of credit. The money is then
paid by the bank to the shipper.

(2) The shipment of fruit on commission on the strength of an
advance by the importer of an amount less than the market value
of the fruit at the time of shipment. The advances vary from $1 to
$1.75 a box, depending on the condition of the market. The finan-
cial transaction is handled through letters of credit, as just de-
scribed.

(3) The shipment of the fruit for the joint account of the shipper
and the importer. Under this method the shipper and the importer
agree on a price that represents the cost of the fruit f. 0. b. in Italy.
The importer advances to the shipper through a letter of credit an
amount usually about 25 cents less than the agreed cost price per box.
When the fruit is sold, the profit or loss is shared equally by the
importer and the shipper.

(4) The shipment on commission without an advance from the con-
signee in the United States. This method of shipment is limited in
extent.

METHODS USED IN SELLING THE LEMONS.

The lemons imported are generally sold at public auction, soon after
arrival at the port of entry, by companies who unload the cargo,
prepare it for display on the pier or in the auction room, and sell it
at public sale under fixed rules and regulations. Some lemons are
received each year at the port of New York to be shipped to other
points in the United States or to be forwarded in bond to Canada,
and small quantities may be received at other ports, to be reshipped
in the same manner.

New York is the principal selling point for the foreign lemons
used in the eastern half of the United States, with the exception of
the Gulf States and the adjoining territory, which are supplied from
New Orleans. The fruit for the eastern and interior markets, distrib-
uted from New York, is usually purchased by the dealer through resi-

160

EXPORTS OF LEMON BY-PRODUCTS FROM ITALY. 15

dent New York brokers, but occasionally the dealer attends the sale
and purchases the fruit in person.

THE EXPORTS OF LEMON BY-PRODUCTS FROM ITALY.

The principal products made from the lemon are citrate of lime,
essential oils, concentrated and raw lemon juice, and green or pre-
pared lemon peel. The by-product business is confined largely to
Sicily and Calabria. This business holds the same relation to the
lemon industry of Italy that the evaporating industry holds to the
apple industry of western New York and of other parts of the United
States or that the canning and drying industries hold to the deciduous
fruit business of California. It makes it possible either to convert
the low grades of fruit into useful products or to use a variable pro-
portion of the better grades of fresh fruit in this manner during the
months when prices are low or when the foreign demand for fresh
fruit temporarily decreases.

THE EXPORTS OF CITRATE OF LIME.

Citrate of lime, or calcium citrate, is the most important by-product
of the lemon and is an intermediate product in the manufacture of
citric acid. Citric acid is not made in Italy. The citrate of lime is
exported to different countries and is there converted into the acid.
The exports of citrate of lime from Italy have increased from about
3,000,000 pounds in 1899 to nearly 17,000,000 pounds in the calendar
year 1908. The United States is the heaviest buyer of this product,
having received from 32.5 to 40.7 per cent of the total exports from
Italy in the last ten years except in 1904, when the proportion dropped
to 26.8 per cent. France and the United Kingdom are the next
heaviest importers, the quantities received sometimes nearly equaling
the exports to the United States.

The table following, from Italian statistics, shows the total exports
of citrate of lime from Italy during the calendar years 1899 to 1908,
inclusive, with the percentage of the total exported to the United
States:

Taste 1V.—Fxrports of citrate of lime from Italy, 1899 to 1908, inclusive.4

|

Calendar year Exports || Calendar year ; | d Exports

ended Decem-| Quantity. Value. to United|| ended Decem-| Quantity. | Value. to United
ber 31— States. ber 31— | States.
| |

Pounds. Per cent. | Pounds. | Per cent.
PR Seete ce o 3,142,248 | $151, 296 BON SEL O04e. ace 2.8 o 12, 193, 764 | $1,067, 483 26.8
BRAND rs aco a nena 3, 743, 448 196, 628 Wen LOO s noc ena aa 9, 096, 050 875, 929 37.9
EM ora aoc .in 3, 120, 202 147, 502 35.8 || 1906...........| 11,353,362 | 1,292,085 40.7
Mei cncttscs| » 1,017,541 | 329, 055 eed) Wk Qie ce secs csc | 13,598,990 | 2,142, 902 34.6
1 | 7,229,617 632, 905 | 38.0 | DoS pecie x cus wots 16, 997,856 | > 2,678, 489 | 31.3

\ |

“Wor 1907 and previous years: Movimento Commerciale del Regno d'Italia. For 1908:
Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione del 1 Gennaio al 31
Dicembre, 1908.

» Value for 1908 in Italian trade statistics subject to revision in 1909.

1587—Bull. .i60-—09———2

16 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

THE IMPORTS OF CITRATE OF LIME INTO THE UNITED STATES,

The total imports of citrate of lime into the United States for the
fiscal years 1894 to 1908, inclusive, are given in the table following:

TaBLE V.—Imports of citrate of lime into the United States for consumption,
1894 to 1908, inclusive.4

|
Fiscal year ended June 30— | Quantity. | Value. Fiscal year ended June 30— | Quantity. | Value.
Pounds.

1 ee ASAE an SAC arae a Cx 443, 981 $52, 137 $293, 293
PROG Ser mite epee ss seers 608, 214 59, 458 240, 466
TROBE ete ee ease Zoe aie 668, 106 66, 388 274, 130
BOT. ee. ote ee a ees 496, 291 42,090 355, 728
1898) a2 RSS feces asene eae 1, 026, 467 84, 789 534, 977
S995 Bo eerecek eine eee eres mete 1,577, 804 157, 432 726, 626
NQOOK secs ae ee come cae 1,944,863 | 204,243 580, 293
OOS se icse cbr ee eee nee en ate 2,416, 088 299, 583

«United States Imports: Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States,
Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor.

THE EXPORTS OF ESSENTIAL OILS FROM CITRUS FRUITS.

The exports of essential oils of all citrus fruits, including lemon,
orange, and bergamot, are usually lumped in Italian statistics. From
1900 to 1905, during which time the statistics were separated, the
lemon oil comprised from 62.5 to 84 per cent of the total exports of
citrus-fruit oils. The total exports have approximated 1,000,000
pounds a year during the last ten years. From 24.9 to 38.8 per cent
of the total exports of essential oils have been sent to the United
States during that period.

The following table, from Italian statistical sources, shows the total
exports of essential oils of lemon, orange, and other citrus fruits
from Italy for the calendar years 1898 to 1908, inclusive, with the
percentage of the total exported to the United States:

TABLE VI.—Exports of essential oils of lemon, orange, and other citrus fruits
from Italy, 1898 to 1908, inclusive.%

Calendar year | Exports || Calendar year Exports
ended Decem- | Quantity. Value. | to United)} ended Decem- | Quantity. Value. | to United
ber 31— } States. ber 31— States.
Pounds. Per cent. Pounds. Per cent.
(SeSecttest wie: 1,010,491 | $1,150,003 DAO) I) 1904: sees ge eee 1,419, 695 | $2,485, 697 38.3
TSODLS Aiea 1,298,130 | 1,590,997 265163) |) LO05Se ee eee 1,292,136 | 2,262,358 31.1
1900s aie fees! 1,100,812 | 1,541,900 D788) ||s190Gbe eee 971, 334 935, 373 36.7
iI) atari eee 1,101,504 | 1,398, 226 Sell 0 (oes eee | 1,034,816 | 1,358,870 41.5
LOOM Fae eRe | 1,425,438 | 1,871,814 BSe8i ||P LO0S Cee | 1,051,256 | ¢1,380, 458 33.2
{90S Ree hee | 1,233,210] 1,619,391 34.8 |
| | |

@¥For 1907 and previous years: Movimento Commerciale del Regno d'Italia. For 1908:
Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione del 1 Gennaio al 31
Dicembre, 1908.

> Since 1905 all the exports stated are lemon oil.

¢ Value for 1908 in Italian trade statistics subject to revision in 1909,

160

EXPORTS

OF LEMON BY-PRODUCTS FROM ITALY.

ef

The quantity of lemon oil included in the exports shown above,
from 1900 to 1908, inclusive, is given in the table following:

TABLE VII.—LHxrports of lemon oil from Italy, 1900 to 1908, inclusive.

Calendar year ended December 31—

Quantity. |

Pounds.
743, 024
826, 446

1,197,213 ||

970, 565

886, 990

Calendar year ended December 31—

Quantity.

Pounds.
840, 417
971, 334

1,034, 816
1,051, 256

* Wor 1907 and previous years: Movimento Commerciale del Regno d'Italia.
Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione del 1 Gennaio al 31

Dicembre, 1908.

®’ Value for 1908 in Italian trade statistics subject to revision in 1909.

For 1908:

THE IMPORTS OF LEMON OIL INTO THE UNITED STATES.

The following table shows the total imports of lemon oil into the
United States for the fiscal years 1898 to 1908, inclusive:

TABLE VIII.—Total imports of lemon oil into the United States for consump-
tion, 1898 to 1908, inclusive.@

Fiscal year ended

Tune 30— Quantity.

Value.

Pounds.
160, 264
237, 302
261, 978
268, 341
391, 485
361, 210

$117, 021. 00
185, 728. 00
211, 800. 00
231, 040. 78
282, 092. 00
233, 487. 00,

\|

Fisc ence d Quantity. Value.
Pounds.
U2 0 as ee ee 2 eee 294, 568 $174, 649. 00
LO ee Se ee eet eee 310, 056 175, 852. 00
1 A ene a eae a aa 370, 270 218, 749. 00
WOW Ss acacaaewtdscee ses 487,717 423, 133. 00
WOU S iere:s Spa stern oY este mide me 440, 326 | 592, 533. 00

“United States Imports: Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States, Bureau
of Statistics, U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor.

THE EXPORTS OF CONCENTRATED LEMON

AND CITRON

JUICE.

The exports of concentrated lemon and citron juice, which are

lumped together in Italian

5,000,000 pounds in 1899

United Kingdom and France

to

Th

statistics, have decreased from about
about 1,400,000 pounds in 1907.
are the largest receivers.

The

e propor-

tion of the total exported to the United States has varied from 1.1 to
In the last five years the proportion has

10.6 per cent in ten years.

varied from 5.6 to 10 per

cent,

18 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

' The following table shows the total exports of concentrated lemon
and citron juice from Italy for the calendar years 1898 to 1908,
inclusive:

TABLE [X.—Hzports of concentrated lemon and citron juice from Italy, 1898 to
1908, inclusive.

Calendar year Exports Calendar year | Exports
ended Quantity. | Value. |to United ended Quantity. | Value. | to United

December 31— States. December 31— States.
Pounds. Per cent. Pounds. Per cent.
5,205, 333 | $273, 415 S503 W904. oe coaseee sees 4,728,694 | $269,078 10.0
5, 496,784 | 288,724 Debi | LOO dearer stereretersverere 2,462,019 | 150,339 6.0
4,407,921 | 231,531 SiS st) L0G oo ssa siee =e 2,074,109 |} 118,023 6.9
4,117,182 | 233, 465 ZEON lOO teem apie setae 1, 443, 146 94,753 7.6
4,989,941 | 270,838 PSU L908. ee cc aece coe. 1, 844, 387 | > 121,098 10.6
3, 180, 829 175, 430 5.6

«For 1907 and previous years: Movimento Commerciale del Regno d'Italia. For 1908:
Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione del 1 Gennaio al
31 Dicembre, 1908.

> Value for 1908 in Italian trade statistics subject to revision in 1909.

THE EXPORTS OF RAW CITRON AND LEMON JUICE.

The exports from Italy of raw citron and lemon juice combined
have varied from 1,357,827 to 4,474,044 pounds in the last ten years.
The proportion exported to the United States has varied from 4.1
per cent of the total, the lowest, in 1900, to 16.1 per cent, the highest,
in both 1899 and 1902.

The table following, from Italian statistical sources, shows the total
exports of raw citron and lemon juice from Italy during the calendar
years 1898 to 1908, inclusive, and the percentage of the total shipped
to the United States:

TaBLeE X.—Haeports of raw citron and lemon juice from Italy, 1898 to 1908,
inclusive.@

Calendar year Exports | Calendar year Exports
ended December | Quantity. | Value. |to United ended December | Quantity. | Value. |to United
31— - | States. | 31— States.
Pounds. Per cent. | ' Pounds. | Per cent.
1898 Fes ence ese eae 1, 725, 337 $18, 125 3) || O04 ee eee cece 2,322,790 | $23,385 5.7
Ce eee Sees or 1,842,844 19, 359 11.6 | 1905 3i cece bees 1, 883, 409 18, 961 9.9
L900 a AR ect ectet 2,307, 137 24,237 AMA L906. jaeececemeniee 4, 474, 044 34, 974 8.4
VOD TER cae eee 1, 357, 827 14, 264 6233/90 ees e eee 1, 872, 606 21,311 10.9
VO02 eee are ce seer 2,250, 919 23, 646 16210 |) 1908. oer- oe 2; 039} 275 || 0285208) |eso-eeanee
ODS 2. cern eee eee 2, 035, 307 20, 490 13.8 |
|

“For 1907 and previous years: Movimento Commerciale del Regno d'Italia. For 1908:
Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione del 1 Gennaio al 31
Dicembre, 1908.

» Value for 1908 in Italian trade statistics subject to revision in 1909.

THE EXPORTS OF LEMON, ORANGE, AND OTHER CITRUS-FRUIT PEEL.

The exports of lemon, orange, and other citrus-fruit peel, green or
dried, which are combined in Italian statistics, have increased from
1,598,351 pounds in 1898 to 7,842,273 pounds in 1908. The propor-

160

RATES OF DUTY ON LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS. 19

tion of the total exports shipped to the United States in the last ten
years has varied from 0.2 per cent, the lowest, in 1900, to 6.2 per cent,
the highest, in 1904. The heaviest importer is the United Kingdom.

The following table shows the total exports from Italy of lemon,
orange, and other citrus-fruit peel, green or dry, during the calendar
years 1898 to 1908, inclusive, and the proportion of the total exported
to the United States:

TABLE XI.—Hwrports of lemon, orange, and other citrus-fruit peel, green or dry,
from Italy, 1898 to 1908, inclusive.¢

Calendar year Exports Calendar year | Exports
ended December | Quantity. | Value. | to United|} ended December | Quantity. | Value. | to United
31— States. 31— States.
Pounds. Per cent. Pounds. | Per cent.
EO Sani Rciaamc 5 aioe 1,598,351 | $34,981 ONGE |e lO04aas eater 22 4,615,376 | $101,011 6.2
ROO Ae octets aa/s == 6,184, 406 135, 351 ONG) | OOS EI = Stare cto mec 3,737,496 81,798 1.9
HR iets eereecrciera’=ic's 3,802,312 83,217 OF2E LONG ee eet 5,859,885 | 128,248 1.8
12 Re 4,498, 531 98, 454 ey |WAQOT. cc sae cee ..--| 5,475,179 | 119,829 | 1.6
UC Tae eee 3,172,451 69, 432 2a On| PLOOS oa eters cae 7,342,273 | C1605692))|- oa.
R00 ee ae 2,798,106 | 61,239 fies |

¢ Yor 1907 and previous years: Movimento Commerciale del Regno d'Italia. For 1908:
Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione del 1 Gennaio al 31
Dicembre, 1908.

° Value for 1908 in Italian trade statistics subject to revision in 1909.

A glance at the figures shown in the foregoing tables brings out
clearly that the two most important items of the Italian lemon industry,
namely, the export of fresh fruits and citrate of lime, have increased
steadily in the last ten years. The essential-oil business has _ re-
mained nearly stationary, the exports of concentrated lemon and citron
juice have decreased, the exports of raw juice have not varied widely.
while the exports of citrus-fruit peel have shown wide variation and
on the whole have increased.

The relation of the United States to the Italian lemon industry is
brought out in the figures. Over one-third of the fresh fruit has
recently been shipped to the United States, about one-third of the
citrate of lime, and one-third, more or less, of the essential oils.

THE RATES OF DUTY ON LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS
ENTERING THE UNITED STATES.

Under the tariff act of 1897 the rate of duty on lemons entering
the United States is 1 cent per pound. Under the reciprocity treaty
with Cuba, December, 1903, the tariff was made 1 cent per pound,
less 20 per cent on fruit from that country. The tariff on citric
acid is 7 cents per pound, the imports of which in 1908 were 171,795.6
pounds, valued at $62,804. Citrate of lime and lemon oil are entered
free of duty. There is no duty on lemon and orange peel not pre-
pared, but there is a duty of 2 cents per pound on similar material
preserved, candied, or dried, the imports of which in 1908 were
613,834.5 pounds, valued at $40,342.

160

20 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

THE SEASON OF LEMON RIPENING IN ITALY.

There is a wide variation in the season of ripening of the lemons
of Italy and an equally wide variation in the character of the fruit
from different sections, as well as in the fruit that is harvested at
different periods of the year in the same section.

The lemon season is considered to begin on October 1 in Italy
and ends on September 31 following. The earliest fruit ripens in
the Syracuse district, where the first picking is made from October
1 to 15. The harvesting in the Catania and in the Messina districts
begins about ten days later than in Syracuse. The Palermo harvest
commences from December 1 to January 1, and occasionally by
November 1. The soil is heavier in this district and the fruit can be
held on the trees longer than in other districts. The fruit on the Sor-
rentine peninsula, including the Amalfi coast, is the latest to ripen,
the harvest beginning about February 1. There is also a summer
crop of lemons in the Messina and Catania districts, called the “ Ver-
delli” lemon. The methods of producing this crop will be described
later.

The harvesting season in each district covers a period of seven to
ten months, more or less, depending on its character. The heaviest
yields of each locality usually occur during the second, third, and
fourth months in the season, though in some regions, hke Palermo,
where the altitude and soils are variable, the fruit may be harvested
practically throughout the year. The fruit gathered in the first
harvest in each section is somewhat inferior in keeping quality,
usually on account of its immaturity and irregularity in condition.
The fruit harvested in December and January is supposed to have
the best keeping quality, and considerable fruit was stored before the
earthquake in the Messina district in cellars for shipment in March
or April to European markets, especially to Russia, Austria, Norway,
and Sweden. Practically no stored fruit is shipped to the United
States, though small quantities are sometimes sent to Canada. The
fruit harvested in October and during the period from May to
September, inclusive, is practically all used for. export. That har-
vested from November to April, inclusive, is used principally in the
manufacture of by-products, with some of it entering the export trade
as fresh fruit. In the Palermo district the heaviest exports to all
countries occur from March to July, in the Messina and Catania dis-
tricts from November to February, and on the Sorrentine peninsula
from June to September.

160

CHARACTER OF LEMONS EXPORTED. 21

THE CHARACTER OF THE LEMONS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF
ETAT.

There is a wide variation in the character of the fruit grown on
different soils and in different regions. The lemons produced on the
lighter soils are rougher in texture and poorer in quality than the
lemons from the heavier lands. They ripen earlier and are said to
have poorer keeping qualities. The soil along the eastern coast is
generally gravelly and light in texture, except in the upper valleys
between Messina and Giarri. Only a small proportion of the fruit
harvested near this coast, that cut in October, and the Verdellis are
exported; the rest of it is converted into by-products. On the other
hand, from 80 to 90 per cent of the firm, finer textured fruit in the
upland valleys on the same coast is-generally used for export. There
is often a difference of 50 to 75 cents a thousand in the price paid for
the upland or heavier land lemons in comparison with the fruit
grown on the lighter soils near the coast. The fruit grown on the
north coast of Sicily enters largely into the export trade. Probably
as much as 90 per cent of the lemons of the Palermo district is ex-
ported, two-thirds of the exported fruit going to America. Of the
total exports from the Messina district less than one-half is usually
sent to America, the rest of the fruit going to European markets,
especially Germany, Russia, Austria, Norway, and Sweden, with
lesser quantities to Australia and Canada. The fruit in the Palermo
district is smaller and better in texture than the lemons from Mes-
sina. While the crop at Messina averages two-thirds of the 300 lemon
per box size, not over one-third is usually of that size in the Palermo
district, the 360 size predominating in the latter section.

THE CHARACTER OF THE LEMONS EXPORTED TO DIFFERENT
MARKETS.

Of the lemons exported to the United States, a large proportion
are of the highest grades, that is, the finest in texture and free from
blemishes. Of the fine-textured lemons the sizes packing 300 and
360 to the box are shipped largely to the United States, the 300 size
predominating in the shipments to the northern markets and the
360 size in the exports to the southern districts. The largest lemons,
the 200 size, predominate in the shipments to England. The English
markets receive large quantities of the coarser grades of fruit. The
German markets take a large lemon, but smaller than England.
France takes a lemon medium to small in size, similar to the United
States, and uses a good deal of coarse fruit, while a 330 size is fre-
quently sent to Russian markets, this size including a mixture of

160

22, ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

300 and 360 lemons. The size of fruit shipped to a country depends
somewhat on the form of the duty existing in that country. Where
the duty is based on weight, the medium to small sizes are generally
exported; where it is based on the number of lemons the large sizes
are exported.

TERMS APPLIED TO LEMONS RIPENING AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.

There are several terms applied to the lemons that ripen at dif-
ferent periods in Italy, though the terms are not always applied con-
sistently to the same kind of fruit. The lemon trees bloom normally
in April and May in southern Italy. There may be more or less
blossoming through the year, and the terms are usually applied to the
fruit that results from the blossoms that appear in different seasons.

The term “ Limoni” is applied to the main crop of fruit maturing
from the normal flowers of the preceding season.

The term “ Maggiolini,” or locally “ Bianchetti,” is applied to the
fruit that ripens in April and May and which is produced from
irregular bloom following immediately after the normal blooming
season. The Maggiolini lemons are somewhat hght in color. They
are high-grade fruits and are largely exported.

The term “ Bastardi” is applied to large irregular lemons, usually
flattened at the ends. The texture of the skin is medium in quality,
and it adheres firmly to the flesh. The fruit is acid, generally seed-
less, and is produced from blossoms that appear irregularly late in
the season. The Bastardi lemons usually ripen in August.

The term “ Basterdoni” is often applied to the largest Bastardi
lemons. They ripen in September.

The term “ Verdelli” is applied to a crop of lemons that ripens in
the summer. The crop is produced artificially by withholding the
water from the trees during June and July. About the first of
August the trees are stimulated by a quick-acting fertilizer and an
abundance of water. Two weeks later the trees begin to bloom and
the fruit is harvested during the following summer.

THE VERDELLI LEMONS.

The Verdelli lemons are of enough importance to warrant a special
description. In producing the crop of these lemons the object is to
have the fruit mature in June or July, during the season of highest
prices. They are usually grown not oftener than every other year
in the same grove, as an annual production is said to be detrimental
to the vitality of the tree, but on some of the lighter soils the Verdellis
are produced annually. The Verdelli crop is produced principally in
the region between Messina and Giardini, on the east coast of Sicily,
though the system is practiced to a limited extent in the districts on

160

LEMON GROVES OR GARDENS OF ITALY 23

the northern coast. The crop of Sicily matures with the later part
of the normal crop of the Sorrentine peninsula.

METHOD OF PRODUCTION,

On the heavier soils the earth is removed from the base of the tree
about June 1 until the larger roots are exposed to a depth of a foot
in a diameter of 6 to 10 feet. On the sandy soils the earth may not
be removed from the roots. No water is applied to the trees for sixty
days. At the end of the drying-down period the foliage is wilted,
but is not supposed to have begun to shed. The aim then is to stimu-
late the tree to the greatest possible extent. This is accomplished
by adding a quick-acting fertilizer, like composted manure, or a
chemical fertilizer, usually of sulphate of ammonia, at the rate of
2 to 24 pounds per tree. Occasionally nitrate of soda is used. The
manure or fertilizer is mixed with the soil that was removed from
the basin, or it is dug into the sandy soils where the basins are not
made. ‘The basins are then filled with the soil and the fertilizer, and
water is applied around each tree once a week, or oftener if the soil
absorbs it, for a period of two or three weeks. If the tree responds,
the blossoms begin to appear with the new growth in two weeks, and
the old foliage gradually drops off.

It is easier to produce the Verdellis on the lighter soils and on
young trees. Sometimes the trees, especially in the older groves, do
not respond to the treatment. If the weather is cool and there is an
abundance of dew following the blooming season, the young lemons
may be killed by the wet, wilted blossoms which adhere to them for
some time. Under these conditions the old blossoms are often re-
moved by beating the branches with poles. It is quite common to pro-
duce a Verdelli crop on a grove which failed to set a satisfactory crop
in the spring.

THE LEMON GROVES OR GARDENS OF ITALY.

The lemon gardens of Italy are variable in size. The majority
contain not more than a few trees or a few acres each at most. There
are some groves of several hundred acres each in the territory between
Messina and Catania and in the Palermo district, a few of the largest
plantings amounting to 1,500 to 2,000 acres. The larger groves are
usually under the direct management of the owners, while the smaller
ones may be worked by the owners or by tenants who lease them from
the owners or from one who already holds a lease.

The trees in the gardens on the Sorrentine peninsula, and to a
lesser extent in other sections, are frequently planted irregularly,
without reference to their position in rows or to the distance apart.
This is especially true of many of the gardens in the rough lava beds
on the slopes of Etna, in the Catania district, where the lemon trees

160

94 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

are often planted in small walled-up pockets containing a dozen or
more trees. In other sections where the areas of adaptable land are
larger the trees are planted with regularity. There is a wide varia-
tion in the distance apart of planting the trees. In Sicily and in
Calabria they vary from 12 to 18 feet apart each way; on the Sorren-
tine peninsula and in the vicinity of Naples, from 8 to 12 feet, and in
the districts farther north the trees are planted even closer together.
The yield of fruit also varies widely. In the well-cared-for irrigated
groves of Sicily the trees bear from 800 to 1,200 lemons each, and
sometimes an unusually well-handled grove produces from 1,200 to
2,000 lemons per tree. On the Sorrentine peninsula, where there is
a short water supply and where the trees are planted closer together
and are smaller, the average is not over 400 lemons per tree, while the
yields are still smaller in the gardens farther north.

HANDLING THE LEMON GARDEN.

PROPAGATION,

There are no extensive nurseries in Italy where lemon trees are
grown as they are in the United States. The stocks of bitter orange
(Citrus bigaradia) are usually grown by the owners in small seed
beds under the bearing lemon trees. The bitter orange grows wild
in Sicily and in the mountains of Calabria, and is now used univer-
sally as a stock on account of its resistance to the gum disease, which
devastated the groves of Sicily about thirty years ago, when the trees
were propagated on lemon stocks.

The orange seeds are sown in the spring in a well-prepared bed,
and the seedlings are usually transplanted when a year old at a
distance apart of 10 inches or a foot in small clumps under the bear-
ing trees or in distinct areas. When the trees reach a diameter of
1 to 2 inches and a height of 5 to 6 feet they are transplanted to the
garden or grove. They may or may not have been budded or grafted
with the desired type of lemon before transplanting. The lemon
bud is usually inserted from 2 to 3 feet from the ground and the top
of the lemon tree is started from 4 to 6 feet from the ground. As
the trees grow older the lower shaded branches die and, like the
apple trees of the eastern United States, the main branches lose the
lower bearing wood and the tree becomes increasingly high headed
and spreading. In many of the old groves in Sicily the lowest fruit-
bearing branches are from 6 to 10 feet from the ground. <A high-
headed grove is shown in Plate IT, figure 1, while a low-headed lemon
grove in California is shown in Plate IT, figure 2, for comparison.
Many of the closely planted lemon trees are irregular in form in both
trunk and top, the trunks of many of the trees assuming a crooked,
almost tortuous, outline.

160

HANDLING THE LEMON GARDEN. 25

While the lemon trees are young it is a common practice to grow
cereals or vegetables between the rows. This crop may be grown
by the owner or by the tenant, or the land may be sublet to a second
or third party for this purpose.

PRUNING.

The lemon trees of Italy are not pruned systematically as they
are in California. Pruning in Sicily means the cutting out of
dead wood and the shortening of the vigorous suckers every year
or two, and the opening of the top when the tree becomes dense.
The object of pruning is similar to the general practice of pruning
orange trees in California, though much more roughly done; an
ax is often used in cutting out the wood. No system of pruning
has been developed the purpose of which is to hold the tree low
headed, to modify the density of the tree, to stimulate the produc-
tion of new bearing wood, or to modify the growth of the bearing
wood in different parts of the tree. The growers generally believe
that the low, dense-headed tree produces a tender, poor-keeping lemon
and that the scale insects and diseases are much less serious in the
trees with the high, open, spreading form which admits the air and
sunlight to the greatest extent.

TILLAGE.

The tillage of the Italian lemon groves is practically all done by
hand labor; occasionally it may be done in the larger groves with
oxen and a primitive one-handled plow, though plowing in the
lemon groves in Italy is a rare operation. The land is generally
turned over from 5 to 10 inches deep with a short, heavy hoe twice
a year, in February or March and again in September, and twice
lightly, 3 inches or more deep, in May or June and in November,
to turn under the weeds. The relation of tillage to the conservation
of moisture and to the liberation of plant food is not understood.

FERTILIZING.

The principal fertilizer used in the lemon groves is composted
sheep, goat, or cow manure. Chemical fertilizers have come into
use to a limited extent in recent years. Sulphate of ammonia is the
principal source of nitrogen, with nitrate of soda used to a less
extent; sulphate of potash and ashes are used chiefly for potash;
and bone meal, slag, and ground rock are among the sources of
phosphoric acid. The commercial fertilizers have been experimented
with in recent years in connection with cover crops and with manure.
Several factories have been organized in Sicily for the manufacture
of commercial fertilizers.

There is no definite system of fertilizing used by the Italian lemon
growers. There seems to be the same lack of exact knowledge

160

26 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

among the growers as to the fertilizer requirements of the trees as
there is among the lemon growers of the United States. There
is no agreement as to the kind of fertilizers or the quantity to use, or
the time or method of application. The fertilizer that is advocated
most plausibly is likely to be used most generally, and different
erowers using different kinds of fertilizers are likely to get equally
good results if the land is kept in good physical condition. All
are agreed that the trees need to be fed liberally, though they are
not fertilized as regularly or to the extent practiced by the growers
of California.

There is a general agreement among the growers that the physical
qualities of the soil must be maintained by the frequent use of manure
or by turning under a cover crop of weeds. As in California, some
of the growers have an impression that stable manure makes the
fruit coarse in texture and of poorer keeping quality. The manure
is applied generally in the spring, but sometimes in the fall. It is
dug into the irrigating basin around the tree or in the bottom of
the irrigating furrows. In some groves the manure is applied in
the basin around the tree every other year, and, in the years between,
farther away from the tree in the bottom of deep furrows, in order to
reach the fine, distant feeding roots. It is not practicable to discuss
the fertilizing question further, as there is an endless variation in the
methods of application and in the quantities of manure and commer-
cial fertilizer in use. The variation in the quantity of manure per
tree will run from 40 to 150 pounds, and in chemical fertilizer from
2 to 10 pounds, depending on the nature of the fertilizer, the con-
dition of the trees, and the general practice of the grower.

IRRIGATION.

Irrigation is practiced more or less in most of the lemon-producing
sections of Italy. There is said to be an abundance of water in
many parts of Sicily, but‘no comprehensive system of water develop-
ment or of commercial water management, such as the California
citrus-fruit growers have developed, has been attempted in Italy.
Water is therefore likely to be scarce in dry seasons. In the fall
of 1908, following a prolonged drought, the groves on the Sorrentine
peninsula and in many parts of Sicily were suffering from lack of
water. The landowner may lead the water from the mountains
in terra-cotta pipes to reservoirs or wells on his place, or the water
may be distributed directly from the mountain supplies to the groves.
The excess water not needed by the large landowner is sometimes dis-
tributed in canals to tenants or independent landowners who pur-
chase the land and a right to the water from him. In other sections
the water may be pumped by the grower from dug wells located on
the place. The water is sometimes raised in bucket pumps driven

160

HANDLING THE LEMON GARDEN. 27

by steam power, but more often by oxen operating a windlass. It
may be distributed directly from the pump to the land or pumped
first to a reservoir and distributed later by gravity flow.

The water is distributed in the groves in a variety of ways. Usu-
ally there are brick or terra-cotta tile ditches in which the water is
carried to the heads of the rows. A few cement ditches, similar to
those used in the groves in southern California, have been constructed
in recent years. If the land is sloping, a main furrow is run between
the rows at right angles to the ditches mentioned. The water is run
from the ditch into this furrow and is led out to a square basin con-
structed around each tree or around two trees, or to short side furrows
in place of the basins under the trees. The basins are shown plainly
in Plate II, figure 1. The method of distributing the water in the
grove depends on the nature of the land, its contour, and on the
supply of water. The basin system of irrigation 1s used when the
water supply is comparatively abundant. The furrow method is more
economical of water. The distributing furrows are made by hand or
occasionally with a plow after the spring cultivation, and the basins
are formed by banking up the earth, as shown in the illustration
(Pl. I, fig. 1). In some sections where the winter rainfall is excess-
ive the basins and ditches are reshaped in the fall to carry off the
excess of water not absorbed by the ground.

The irrigating season begins in Italy in April or May and ends in
September or October, depending on the ending and the beginning of
the rainy seasons. The rainfall in Sicily is more abundant than in
southern California, the annual rainfall in the Messina district for
ten years past, according to data gathered by the late Doctor Cheney,
amounting to 30 to 40 inches.

Cultivation, however, is not practiced in Italy to conserve moisture.
The land is not hoed after each irrigation, and the loss of water from
evaporation is large. The bearing trees are flooded every week or
two on the sandy soils, and every two or three weeks on the heavier
land. On the heavier soils around Palermo some of the growers
irrigate the trees only when the foliage begins to wilt. Under such
conditions the trees may not be irrigated oftener than three times
during the season.

PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

Occasionally the Italian lemon crop is badly injured by frost,
especially when the trees are in bloom in April or May. The tem-
perature on the mainland on the Sorrentine peninsula generally
drops below freezing every winter, and it often freezes in Sicily. In
the former section an elaborate system of trellises is built over many
of the groves, and mats of straw or of fine chestnut twigs are used
to cover the trellises from November to April or May, when the mats

160

28 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

are removed. Occasionally they are rolled up and are left on the trel-
lises during the summer. On the Amalfi coast, where the lemons are
grown on terraces one above the other, the trees on each terrace are
covered with a trellis from 8 to 10 feet in height, as shown in figure 2.
The new wood is not allowed to grow above the trellis, but the fine
wood and smaller suckers are tied to it once a year. The strong-
growing suckers and the excess of wood are pruned off. The tree
assumes a flat, umbrella shape, as shown in figure 3, and the lemons
hang down and are largely picked from beneath the trellis. This
form of tree training produces a partial shade, and the lemons grow-

Fic. 2.—A trellis over a lemon. grove. Walnut trees are growing through the trellis.
Straw mats are fastened to the trellis for protection from frost from November until
April or May.

ing in it are comparatively fine and smooth in texture. <As the trees

bloom late in the spring, the fruit matures largely in the summer

months. The fruits known in the market as the “ Sorrento ” or the

“ Majori ” lemons are grown under this system. No systematic at-

tempt is made to protect the groves against frost by the use of fires or

smudges.
HANDLING THE LEMON CROP.

SELLING THE FRUIT.

There are several methods of selling the lemon crop in Italy. Prac-
tically none of the fruit is exported by the grower except occasionally
160

HANDLING THE LEMON OROP. 29

in the case of lerge, experienced producers. There are no cooperative
handling or marketing agencies similar to the marketing organiza-
tions that have been formed by the California lemon producers. The
grower sells his fruit usually through a broker to the exporter or to
the manufacturer of by-products. The broker acts as an agent for
both parties in the final settlement of the transaction, often shipping
the fruit for the grower, receiving the money, and depositing it or
using it in purchases for the grower, as there are few business trans-
actions between the producer and the Italian business man, on account
of the bargaining that must be done before a sale of fruit is made.

Fic. 3.

Lemon trees growing under a trellis, showing the flat, umbrella form of the trees
caused by tying down their branches.

The lemon crop may be sold by the grove as a whole for the season,
the purchaser taking all the fruit, or each picking may be sold sep-
arately by the thousand lemons, a thousand, as understood in the Ital-
ian industry, meaning 1,040 lemons, weighing 120 kilos, or about 260
pounds. In the by-product districts of Syracuse, Messina, and Ca-
tania the crop is generally sold as a whole for the season or, to a lesser
extent, at an agreed price per thousand lemons for the crop of the
season. In the upper valley or highland regions of the same dis-
tricts, where the lemons are finer in grade and better for export, the
fruit is usually sold by the thousand lemons at each picking. In the
Palermo district the fruit is generally sold by the thousand at each

160

30 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

picking or, to a less extent, by the thousand for the season, or as a
whole crop on the trees. The buyer usually picks the fruit when it
is sold by the season. The grower usually picks it when sold at each
picking. In the Messina district considerable fruit is brought to the
city by the growers to be sold there either through a broker or directly
to an exporter or manufacturer. The price paid the grower for the
fruit has varied from $1.50 to $3.50 per thousand in the last few
years.

The handling of the lemon crop of Italy previous to the season of
1908 was based on a system of money advances extending from
the exporter of the by-product. or the fresh-fruit handler down
through the various parties through whose hands the fruit or by-
product passed until it reached the producer. The advances were
made before the fruit was harvested, usually at the time of closing a
contract between the parties having to do with the product in ques-
tion, to defray the operating expenses of the different parties. The
system had grown to such an extent that each party in a series of
transactions became a banker for the next lower party depending on
him financially. An attempt was made to abandon the system before
the season of 1908 by the exporters of by-products, with the result
that the lemon trade was in an uncertain and demoralized condition
when these observations were made in September. Contracts for
by-products and for fresh fruit had not been made with the pro-
ducers at that time on account of the uncertain market conditions in
foreign countries, and at least a year’s supply of citrate of lime that
had been bought at high prices was on hand in the Messina district.
Many of the producers who previously had made contracts earlier in
the season and had received an advance on the contract were in need
of financial assistance at that time. The citrate of lime in the Mes-
sina district is said to have been destroyed by the earthquake.

METHODS ‘USED IN THE GARDENS.

On account of the broad-spreading, high-headed trees it is neces-
sary to use ladders in picking the lemons. The fruit is placed in
padded baskets. From the picking baskets the fruit may be placed
in larger padded baskets, in which it may be carried out of the grove
to the packing house. On the Amalfi coast it is common to see
women carrying the baskets of lemons from the groves to the packing
houses, often a distance of several miles.

If to be used for by-products, the lemons are pulled from the trees.
Tf the fruit is to be used for export or for export and by-products,
the picker, generally a man, breaks off the stem with the thumb and
finger, leaving a stem attached to the fruit an inch or more in length.
For export a man can pick about 5,000 lemons a day; for by-products,
from 8,000 to 12,000. The fruit is picked by size, as in California.

160

HANDLING THE LEMON CROP. ou

If the fruit is to be used in a by-product factory, it is drawn there in
bags or in baskets loaded into donkey or ox carts.

The fruit that is used both for export and for by-products may be
taken to a packing house on the place, where the stems are cut close with
shears by either men or women. It is then roughly graded by women
into export and by-product fruit, the rough lemons and low grades
going for the latter purpose. Sometimes, as shown in the picking
scene in Plate ITI, figure 1, the stem clipping and grading is done in
the grove. In this case the lemons are piled on straw, the stems are
cut short, and the fruit is roughly graded, after which the export
fruit is delivered to the packing house on the place or, if near by,
to the packing house of the exporter. On the Amalfi coast the lemons
are often drawn in hand carts from the groves to the packing houses.
The women carry the lemons out of the high groves in covered
baskets to the carts and then draw them to the packing houses. When
the fruit is packed on the place it is allowed to wilt for two or three
days or longer, after which the lemons are wrapped, generally by
the women who grade them. The packing is done by men. The
boxes are then delivered to the packing house of the exporter, where
the fruit is always regraded before shipping.

METHODS USED IN THE PACKING HOUSES.

The handling of the fruit after it reaches the packing house is
simpler in some ways than the American method of lemon handling.
The sweating or coloring of the lemons is not practiced, and none of
the fruit is washed. The lemons are comparatively clean as they
come from the tree. The fruit hangs too far from the ground to be
affected with brown-rot, if the disease exists in Italy, and the lemons
are not covered with the dust arising from cultivation and from a
loose soil, as the California fruit is likely to be. If the lemons are
dirty, they are sent to the by-product factory. The fact that the ex-
ported lemons are not washed probably adds to the keeping quality
of the fruit after it reaches the market.

Comparatively few of the Italian lemons are stored. The bulk of
the fruit is shipped soon after picking, only the best grades entering
the export trade to the United States. There may be from three to
five grades selected for export to different countries. The tree-ripe
lemons are shipped to other countries or are used in making by-
products. The quick shipment of the fruit that corresponds only to
the silver-green or the light-yellow lemons of California probably
adds to the keeping quality of the Italian lemons. The dark-green,
as well as the tree-ripe fruit, is not considered of good enough keep-
ing quality to be shipped to the United States.

The methods of grading and packing Italian lemons are more com-
plicated than the American methods. If the fruit has not already

1587—Bull. 160—09——3

32 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

been wilted in the garden, the lemons are generally allowed to stand
a few days on arrival in the house, either in the packages or in piles
on the floor. There are many differences in the details in handling
the fruit in the packing houses. The packing-house operations are
not systematized to the extent practiced in American houses. In a
house in Palermo the lemons were in a pile on the floor 3 feet deep
cr more, probably containing a thousand boxes. The fruit had been
roughly graded by the grower, but it was regraded by the exporter.
The grading was done by women. Other women wrapped the fruit,
twisting the wrapper at both ends of the lemon except the fruit for
the top tiers of the box, which is wrapped after the American method.
The wrapped lemons were then placed in baskets. The fruit was of
the 300 and 360 sizes. The lemons of one size were then placed in
the boxes by boys as rapidly as the men who do the packing could
place them in position in the box. In the United States the packer
sizes, wraps, and packs the fruit. In Italy the packer’s work is con-
cerned only with arranging the fruit in the box. A good workman
will pack 70 boxes a day.

The interior of a packing house in Catania is shown in Plate ITI,
figure 2.. The padded bins are used in grading, sizing, wrapping,
and packing the fruit. The method of packing differs from that
followed in America principally in the double twist on the wrapper
and in the use of bright-colored pictures on the wrappers and often
on the paper that is used in lning the boxes; also in the use of
shredded paper, gold and silver colored tinsel, ete., for embellishing
the package. There have been several sizes of boxes in use in the
export trade, but an effort is being made to use for the United States
boxes similar in size to the California box.

In the Messina district considerable of the fruit of the November
and December crop is stored in cellars for export to European mar-
kets in the spring. The fruit is wrapped und packed in boxes before
storage. When ready for export the decayed fruit is removed and
the fruit is regraded and rewrapped. The losses that occur from
blue mold are recognized by the shipper to be due principally to the
rough handling of the fruit before it is stored; an unwrapped lemon
stored under these conditions would. shrivel slightly and lose the
fine texture of the skin. The very green fruit picked in October is
not considered of good storing quality, as it may shrivel while in
storage, while the fruit maturing in January and later loses in keep-
ing quality as the harvesting season progresses.

THE COST OF PRODUCING LEMONS IN ITALY.

It is difficult to obtain accurate figures on the cost of producing a
crop of lemons in Italy on account of the variable conditions under
which the fruit is grown and the lack of information on the part of

160

COST OF PRODUCING LEMONS IN ITALY. 33

the growers themselves. No attempt will be made in this publica-
tion to give an itemized statement of cost. An observer may easily
gain widely different impressions by questioning producers who
work under different conditions and in different parts of the country.
In the fall of 1908 the wages of labor used in the groves in different
parts of Sicily and on the mainland varied from 40 to 70 cents a day
of ten hours. The usual price was about 50 cents a day; a higher
figure was found only rarely. In the packing houses the men were
paid from 50 to 60 cents a day. A man with a team of oxen was paid
$2 a day. The women were paid from 30 to 40 cents a day and occa-
sionally as high as 70 cents, and the boys from 20 to 30 cents. In
some sections the daily wage includes a bottle of wine. Where this
occurs the wine represents the equivalent of about 6 cents in the wage
and is deducted from it. Previous to 1908 the wages were lower,
but there is said to be a growing scarcity of labor in Italy on account
of the heavy emigration and it was expected by all classes of business
men that there would be a further advance in wages in the future.

A fair estimate of the cost of producing a crop on a bearing grove,
including cultivation, irrigation, fertilization, pruning, and other
operations up to the time of picking, is from $25 to $60 per acre,
though the latter figure is unusually high. This does not include
taxes or interest on the investment. This estimate is based on the
cost of producing the fruit in the larger, well-managed groves.
The cost is less in the groves that are not so well managed. In
one of the large groves in the Alcantara Valley, near Giardini, the
cost of cultivation and pruning in 1908 was 10 cents a tree, fertiliz-
ing 10 cents, and irrigation 2 cents, making a total of $25 per acre
for 100 trees. This grove was representative of the better groves
on the eastern coast of Sicily. The cost of production will prob-
ably not equal more than one-half as much as the cost in the United
States.

The cost of handling the fruit from the tree to the point of ship-
ment is equally difficult to estimate. It is fair to assume that the
cost of the labor used in the different operations will not equal one-
half the cost of similar labor in the United States. The investment
in the equipment of a packing house is smaller than in California.
These general statements are based on the comparative wages paid
in the two countries and not on the efficiency of the labor. The
Italian lemon box costs about the same as the American box. The
freight rate on lemons, per box, from Sicily to New York or Boston
was ls. 3d., or 31 cents, in the fall of 1908. The box is estimated to
weigh 82 pounds.

169

Meee BY-PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON IN ITALY.

By E. M. Cuacr, Assistant Chief of the Division of Foods, Bureau of
Chemistry.

INTRODUCTION.

The relative importance of the industry which has to do with the
utilization of the by-products of lemon culture is controlled, as a
whole or in any single district of Italy, by several well-defined factors.
Of these, the quality of the fruit is of the greatest importance, for in
regions where it is uniformly good the problem of the disposal of the
few culls is solved by local consumption. In other regions, however,
the nature of the fruit itself practically prohibits its exportation, and
it is here that the so-called * by-products ” become the source of the
chief industry of the district. Where there is any question of the
purpose to which the fruit is to be put, the anticipated profits will be
the controlling factor and the relative price of citrate of lime and
lemon oil will be compared with that of the fresh fruit.

The price of labor and conditions of transportation are also im-
portant minor factors, as it is manifestly less costly to sort and pack
the fruit than to transform it into oil and citrate, but, on the other
hand, it is less difficult to transport these final products than the orig-
inal fruit, which requires such careful handling and is subject to
decay. The financial condition of the operator is also a factor, for
the by-products offer a more tempting field for speculation, citrate
of lime keeping indefinitely, while large quantities of the oil remain
over from crop to crop. Lastly, local custom plays a much more im-
portant part than would be possible in this country. Changes in
methods of operation are much more conservatively received, and the
working classes as a whole do not adapt themselves so readily to new
tasks.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BY-PRODUCT INDUSTRY.

In northern Italy one or more of the factors mentioned render the
production of by-products unprofitable and it is not until the south-
ern part of the southernmost provinces of the mainland is reached
that this branch of the industry begins to flourish. Across the
straits of Messina in Sicily it reaches its zenith, and along the south-
eastern coast of that island it is the principal resource of the people.

160 35

36 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

In the province of Calabria another essential-oil industry shares
the attention of growers and materially lessens both the lemon cul-
ture and the production of lemon oil; the manufacture of citrate of
lime, however, is relatively increased, as it is also a by-product of
bergamot culture. The world’s supply of bergamot oil for the manu-
facture of perfumes comes exclusively from this comparatively re-
stricted region, so that much higher prices are obtained for it than
for lemon oil, which has to compete with the output of Sicily. It has
been estimated by competent Messinese brokers that only a small per-
centage (certainly less than 5 per cent) of the total lemon oil produc-
tion comes from this region.

cS
eee
ONTES,
Sy. CREME T/eReg
Dy SCALETTA
AL/

FRANCAVILLA ©

y

Ko)
GARONTE)*

MOUNTETN,

© GEAGENT/

Fic. 4.—Map of Sicily, showing the regions where lemon by-products are prepared.

The adjacent island of Sicily, separated from the mainland by only
a few hundred yards at the nearest point, is the largest lemon-grow-
ing region of the world. Here the lemon-producing belt lies along
two sides of the triangular coast line, interrupted with few exceptions
only in the spots where the hills advance into the sea. This belt is
naturally divided into four parts, and one of these is best divided
again in districting the island. A map of Sicily showing the by-
product regions is shown in figure 4.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE ETNA DISTRICT.

The Etna district begins on the south at Catania, a city of con-
siderable importance, second in size in Sicily, around it being clus-
tered several important gardens from which arises considerable trade
in both fresh fruit and by-products. The former is exported prin-

160

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BY-PRODUCT INDUSTRY. 37

cipally to Austrian ports, while the by-products go to Messina for
exportation. The city contains but one lemon-oil factory of con-
siderable size, but many smaller ones are situated in the suburbs.
These latter places are crowded into the narrow streets and alleys
under the most sordid conditions, the fruit being prepared in the
street and the oil extracted in the living rooms and stored in the
sleeping quarters of the house. The only place given over exclusively
to the manufacturing process is the room devoted to the citrate of
lime, and even this often serves as a stable. These operators buy :
few culls from day to day, every member of the family taking part
in the work of converting them into the final products.

In this district the next center farther north is Acireale, a small
thriving city, the most important of the by-product industry in the
Etna district. There are a dozen or more factories here, and it is
also headquarters for the Essential Oil Producers’ Association, an or-
ganization of comparatively recent formation, the membership of
which seems to be confined to producers in the Etna district.

North of Acireale, 6 miles distant, is Giarre, with one factory of
fair size and several of minor importance. About 2 miles nearer the
foothills of Mount Etna, at the railroad station for Mascali, is a
small village called Carrubba, whose inhabitants, men, women, and
children, are employed in a group of large factories situated there.
One of these factories is the largest and best equipped in Sicily, em-
ploying at the height of the season over 300 hands, producing several
hundred pounds of oil a day. Even here the advances which have
been made do not seem to have changed the character of the methods
employed, the improvements often seeming more apparent than real,
and being certainly greatly emphasized by the crude conditions sur-
rounding them.

Mechanical carriers are used for conveying the fruit from one part
of the factory to the other and for carrying off the waste products,
but no devices for halving the lemons or removing the pulp from
them have been attempted. A battery of machines for extracting the
oil from the peel had, however, been installed, but later abandoned.
It is not strange that the device was a failure, for the peel required
the same preparation as in the present methods of handling, and
each machine needed an attendant, who handled separately every
half lemon rind. As the rate of production was not greatly in-
creased, the apparent saving was the difference in cost between the
hire of a boy or girl attendant and that of a man sponger minus the
cost of power necessary to operate machines. After all, however, the
place is exceedingly well equipped when compared with other Sicilian
factories, having cement floors and tanks, an electric lighting plant,
steam ovens for drying citrate of lime, and many other improvements
not usually seen on the island.

160

38 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

The two neighboring factories are of the usual type, but well ar-
ranged and roomy, employing about 50 hands each. They produce
in the neighborhood of 100 pounds of oil daily.

Several miles northwest of this point, on the first of the foothills
of Mount Etna, is the town of Mascali, containing several small fac-
tories of minor importance, drawing their fruit from the upland
valleys of the vicinity. The other two centers in the district are
Fiumefreddo and Giardini. The former contains several factories
of a daily capacity of 50 to 100 pounds of oil; the latter, one large
factory and several very small ones; there being in addition several
small places between the two towns. Giardini is the northern limit
of the district and draws its supplies from the south, being cut off
from the Messina district on the north by a steep range of hills, over
which hauling is difficult even on the fine military road which skirts
the coast. Fiumefreddo is 6 or 7 miles farther south and is sur-
rounded for miles on all sides by lemon gardens. The whole region
from Catania to Giardini les at the foot of Mount Etna, many of the
fruit orchards being on its decomposed lava beds.
~ Oranges are also grown in this district, but are as a rule farther
inland in the foothills. Aderno, Paterno, and Bronte, situated well
up on the slopes of Etna, have considerable of this trade, as has
Francavilla, farther north, nearer Giardini, the large factory at the
latter place producing considerable quantities of both sweet and bitter
orange oil from the fruit grown here.

The season begins in the Etna district in December and is prac-
tically over by April 1, although a few small operators continue into
May. As the growing of Verdelli lemons is less practiced in this
region than in the Messina district or in parts of the north coast, the
inducements for summer work are not the same. The output of the
district is marketed at Messina, being shipped to that point by rail,
the exportation of oil and citrate of lime from Catania being less
than the production of that city alone.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE MESSINA DISTRICT.

The Messina district, the second largest in Sicily, is practically a
continuation of the Etna district on the south. The lemon-producing
land lies along the coast, extending into the few valleys which run
back between the hills as in that district. The soil, however, is prob-
ably quite different, as it is much farther from Mount Etna, no lava
streams having entered the section for many hundred years.

The largest center at the southern end of the district is Santa
Teresa, from which the oil of the neighboring town Roccalumera is
also shipped. There are eight or more factories in the two places,
one of which is considerably above the average size, employing a
hundred hands or over, the others varying from those employing

160

mx

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BY-PRODUCT INDUSTRY. 39

less than a dozen to those which have upward of fifty. Northward
toward Messina, the next center of importance is Scaletta Zanglea,
where are located three or four factories of very small size. At the
northern end of the district, from Galati to Messina, the coast belt
is much narrower than toward the south; the towns here stretch
continuously along the military road, there being scarcely a visible
boundary between them. When riding along this road the whole
region seems an extension of the city of Messina.

The chief centers are Galati, Tremestieri, Mili, and Contesse, all
small towns having direct railroad connections with the city. The
factories are, taken as a whole, better equipped than elsewhere in the
island. All are of moderate size, some employing less than twenty
hands, while one, with over two hundred, is second or third in size
‘in Sicily. This factory is one of the very few to produce concentrated
oil by fractional distillation of the usual product. Owing to the
size of the factories and the narrowness of the coast strip here, a
large quantity of the fruit consumed is drawn from farther south,
and during the bergamot season from Calabria, on the mainland.

Messina itself is hemmed in on all sides by high hills upon which
no lemons are grown; fruit in large quantities must therefore come
from some little distance. For this reason there is but one factory
of any considerable size in the city; it employs, however, over two
hundred hands, being situated on the north side of the city in an
isolated group of gardens.

Messina, like Catania, contains many very small places where oil
is made in the dwellings of the lower classes, the output in any single
instance being small, but the total of some importance. There was
also at one time a quantity of by-products produced here from
the culls of stored fruit; this practice has, however, almost ceased
at present, as storage fruit has given way before the Verdelli lemon.

On the north coast, not far from Messina, are two centers of minor
importance, Bauso and Rometta. There seems little reason for
classing them with the remainder of the Messina district except for
the fact that they employ methods of production similar to those
used on the south coast, while the center nearest them on the north
coast employs a somewhat different process in obtaining oil. Un-
doubtedly, however, as far as the oil is concerned its composition
here is more nearly like that of the north coast, no matter what
process is used in its production. The factories in these towns are
quite small, especially at Rometta, Bauso containing one of the
average size, employing nearly fifty hands.

As in the Etna district, the produce of the entire Messina region
is disposed of through Messina brokers. The season also is the same
as in that district. >

160

40 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE PALERMO DISTRICT.

Palermo, the third district of importance, is the most westerly
of the five. As in the other north-coast regions, lemon cultiva-
tion occurs in large isolated groups of orchards, with the exception
of the Conco d’Oro, where the whole valley is given up to it. This
valley is of exceptional fertility, and it is said that at one time
considerable sugar cane was raised here. The fruit being above the
average quality, the greater part of it is shipped fresh. The culls for
by-products go both to Palermo and to the small city of Monreale,
beautifully situated above Palermo in the hills. Here are some half
dozen poorly equipped factories of small size, employing from a
dozen to thirty hands each.

Palermo itself is the largest city of Sicily and contains several
important factories, situated largely in the suburbs; the output of
oil is not, however, larger than that of some of the small towns of
the south coast. Information about the factories here is much harder
to obtain than in other parts of Sicily; there are at least six of
average size, the city being free from factories of the smaller type
such as are found in Catania and Messina.

Toward the east, the principal center is Ficarazzi, where there
are several factories, one of which may be said to be large. There
are also other towns to the west of Palermo which contain manu-
facturing plants, but they are small and relatively unimportant.
At Partinico, on the Trapani railroad line, are two or three, at
Carini one, and at Cinisi another; taking it all in all, they are the
crudest of the island.

While this district produces a large quantity of oil and citrate of
lime, the industry is not so well developed as in the two districts
already described, these commodities here being in every sense of
the word by-products.

The production of summer lemons is universal in this region and
affects to a considerable extent the composition of the essential oil.
This is probably due to admixture of oil produced from the Verdelli
lemons left upon the trees until the following season. Ordinarily
the amount thus produced is small; when, however, the price of
summer fruit is low it is very often left unpicked until the following
natural crop is gathered, when it is sorted out with the other culls.
In some factories this fruit is discarded, no attempt being made to
produce oil from it. In the majority of cases, however, it is worked
up as usual. It would seem that the former is far the better policy,
as the yield both of oil and of citrate of lime are extremely low, added
to which is the further disadvantage of the inferiority of the result-
ing oil. Where this fruit forms a considerable proportion of that

160

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BY-PRODUCT INDUSTRY. 41

from which it is being produced the resulting product is not market-
able except in admixtures with normal oil.

The season begins here later than in any of the other districts,
often two months later than at Syracuse, and extends later into the
warm weather, the month of June often finding several factories still
in operation. Although this district contains the largest seaport and
city of commercial importance in Sicily in the city of Palermo, only
a comparatively small quantity of the by-products is shipped from
that point, this exportation going to England, that coming to the
United States being confined to fresh fruit.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE SYRACUSE DISTRICT.

The fourth by-product district is on the opposite side of the island,
southeast of Palermo, and is but slightly less important than that
center. The Syracuse district differs in many ways from the others
of Sicily; the country not being mountainous, the fruit is cultivated
farther inland than usual and the problem of irrigation is more
difficult. Lemon culture is not the chief occupation here, for the
country was one of the finest wheat-growing regions of ancient times,
and at present besides this cereal both almonds and grapes are exten-
sively cultivated.

The climate is very mild, the gathering of lemons beginning several
weeks earlier than in the other districts. October 15 to April 15 is
a liberal estimate of the manufacturing season, while fifteen days
might be cut from each end and more nearly represent the actual fact.

The district contains several isolated centers of production, the
gardens not being continuous, as in the lemon belt proper, but clus-
tered in large groups about the several towns. Three of these centers
are of considerable importance, the cities of Syracuse, Floridia, and
Avola, all containing six or more factories and each employing 20
hands or more.

At Syracuse there are no factories on the island which forms the
old city, all being on the mainland in the newer suburbs. Comparing
favorably in size with the average factories in other districts, they
are In equipment above those at Palermo, but not so well equipped as
those near Messina. Floridia is some 12 miles inland from Syracuse,
situated in a very fertile valley of lemon groves, the half dozen fac-
tories here varying in size, two being of considerable importance;
all are, however, devoid of mechanical improvements. The output
of this town is carted to Syracuse, as it has no railroad connections.

South of Syracuse city no lemons are grown until Avola, 15 miles
distant, is reached. Here is situated another large group of or-
chards; the factories, as usual clustered about the town itself, are

160

42 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

below the average size and have no special equipment. Some orange
oil is prepared in this district and large quantities of peel are dried
and sold for the preparation of the liqueur curacao.

The other centers in this district are Augusta, with one factory
of average size; Priolo, with two small places; and Melilli, with one.
Augusta is 18 miles north of Syracuse, on the coast, and is the center
of the salt industry; Priolo is between Syracuse and Augusta, some
miles from the railroad, while Melilli is farther inland, situated
well up in the low hills.

The lemon products of the district find their way to market
through Messina, with which there is direct railroad connection.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE NORTH-COAST TOWNS.

The remaining district to be considered is the heterogeneous col-
lection of towns on the north coast. Here, again, as in Palermo and
Syracuse, the cultivation of the lemon takes place in isolated groups
of orchards around the central towns, the country being very moun-
tainous and having no cultivated strip of coast land, as on the south.
The fruit is grown in the valleys between the spurs of hills, all of
the large towns being near the Messina-Palermo railroad line, which
winds along the seacoast.

By far the most important center, in fact the only important one
of this region, is Barcelona, a small inland city not far from the
seaport of Milazzo. Here are some three factories, employing from
30 to 50 hands each, and a few more of smaller size, all with-
out mechanical equipment. The methods employed are, as has been
stated, similar to those of the Palermo district, the old method of
production being used and distilled oil manufactured from residues.

The small city of Patti, the next largest by-product center, is west
of Barcelona, 2 miles from the railroad station of the same name.
There are but two factories here, both employing approximately
30 hands and, as at Barcelona, producing considerable sweet and
bitter orange oil.

Farther west there are no other factories until Capo d’Orlando is
reached, at which place are several of small size, which is also the
case at Santa Agata di Miletello. The factories in ail of these places
use the so-called new or two-piece method of manufacture, which is
peculiar, inasmuch as they are situated between two larger districts
using the other method. At Santa Agata di Miletello the factories
do not produce citrate of lime, the lemon juice being concentrated in
copper kettles and sold to liqueur and bitters manufacturers in
northern Italy.

The commerce of the north-coast towns, as far as lemon by-prod-
ucts are concerned, is carried on through Messina, although there
is a thriving local seaport town, Milazzo. While the district covers

160

MANUFACTURE OF BY-PRODUCTS. 43

a much greater territory than that covered by either the Palermo
or Syracuse districts, it produces less oil and citrate than either.
The season is more nearly like that of the Palermo district, although
manufacturing begins somewhat earlier and ceases sooner than in

that district.
MANUFACTURE OF BY-PRODUCTS.

There are two chief by-products of lemon culture—the essential
oil of lemon and citrate of lime; besides these, lemon peel in brine
and concentrated lemon juice are of lesser importance. Oil of lemon
is used very largely for flavoring purposes. It finds application also
in perfumes and to a limited extent in pharmaceutical preparations;
the greater part of that imported into this country, however, is used
in the preparation of the ordinary extract of lemon, well known to
every housewife. Citrate of lime, or, more properly, calcium citrate,
is an intermediate product in the manufacture of citric‘acid. In the
lemon juice itself the acid occurs in the free state, together with
sugars and mucilaginous bodies. It is in order to free it from these
that it is combined with lime, for the compound thus formed is insolu-
ble and precipitates from the juice, being finally separated by filtra-
tion. This product must then be again treated in order to free it
from lime and obtain the citric acid once more in the free state.
There are no factories in Sicily for this purpose, although the Italian
Government was, before the recent earthquake, making efforts to
establish a plant by subsidy. The product is now shipped to Ger-
many, England, and the United States, where the lime salt is decom-
posed with sulphur:c acid, filtered through boneblack, and crystallized
from solution in water. The process is one of some difficulty, con-
siderable loss arising from the decomposition of the citric acid by the
sulphuric acid present.

The salting of the lemon peel is usually confined to those districts
of Sicily where the towns are upon the seacoast situated near slop-
ing beaches, so that sea water is easily obtainable. It is not usually
packed in the interior, although a few towns near Messina have some
little trade in this line, the product being repacked in that city. Pro-
ducers in Sicily claim that there is a demand for three séparate kinds
of stock; first, that from which no oil has been removed; second, that
which contains approximately half the oil; and, lastly, a completely
exhausted product. All classes are consumed in the bakers’ and con-
fectioners’ trades. Where the rinds are to be used for packing, the
lemons are divided lengthwise, the pulp removed in the usual way,
and the peel packed by hand as firmly as possible in large hogsheads,
which are afterwards filled with sea water and reenforced by the
addition of salt.

The production of concentrated juice is not extensive, the factories
being small and the methods of evaporation extremely crude. In

160

44 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

those at Santa Agata di Miletello the juice is pressed from the pulp
and filtered, as in the manufacture of citrate of lime, and then
pumped into shallow tanks supported over a crude fireplace. Here
evaporation takes place over a wood fire until the required consistency
is obtained, this point being ascertained by cooling a portion of the
juice and inserting a spindle. The final product, a very dark semi-
sirup, of acid, bitter, and smoky taste, is sold to liqueur and bitters
producers in northern Italy. Besides the two factories at Santa
Agata di Miletello, there are one or two on the Calabrian mainland.
Altogether the industry is of minor importance.

EQUIPMENT OF BY-PRODUCT FACTORIES.

It has already been hinted that in the great majority of cases the
factories in Sicily are very poorly, even crudely, equipped, the nature
of the operations which take place requiring but very simple appa-
ratus. In the preparation of oil, machinery is not used except in
the few factories which are situated in Calabria.

For the manufacture of citrate, a crusher, as shown in Plate IV,
figure 1, a filtering device for juice and another for citrate, a pre-
cipitating tank supplied with a heating coil, an oven or heating room,
and a small juice pump only are necessary. This apparatus is usually
arranged to fit into quarters originally intended for other purposes;
the crusher and filter presses on substantial foundations near the room
where the cutting of the fruit takes place, near the latter a juice tank
and pump, while the precipitating tank is also near by, as the pump-
ing is usually done by hand in the heating room wherever convenient.

In many of the smaller factories a loft is floored off and the space
thus provided used for extraction of the oil, the room often being
scarcely 6 feet high in the center, dark, and ill ventilated. On the
north coast, where the work takes place at night (from midnight to 8
or 9 o’clock in the morning), this place also serves as sleeping quarters
for the sponge men. The custom of preparing the oil at night seems
confined to the Palermo and north-coast towns. The explanation
given for this method of operation is that the sunlight has a dele-
terious effect upon the oil, but a more probable cause is the fact that
the sponging operation can take place at night with less trouble than
any of the other processes in by-product manufacture and that the
same workmen can thereby work during both daylight and darkness.

PREPARATION OF THE FRUIT.

The preparation of the fruit differs somewhat in the different dis-
tricts, and while the variation seems slight it undoubtedly affects the
length of the operation and perhaps the quality of the oil produced.
In the Syracuse, Etna, and Messina districts and in Patti and Santa
Agata di Miletello, north-coast towns, a method known as the “ two

160

EXTRAOTION OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL. 45

piece” is used. In Palermo and Barcelona the process used is called
“ three piece,” although some factories in the latter city use the other
method. The difference between the two lies in the manner of re-
moving the rind from the fruit. In the former the lemon is halved
and the pulp removed from these halves; in the other the peel is
pared off in three longitudinal strips. The three-piece method of
preparing the fruit is shown in Plate V, figure 1. When the fruit
arrives at the factory it is dumped into large bins, around which sit
the cutters, who divide the lemons in halves or pare them, according
to the method used. An ordinary cheap kitchen paring knife is used
for this purpose, the operators being women, girls, and boys on the
south coast; on the north coast women and children are seldom em-
ployed. The work is carried on very rapidly where the fruit is
halved crosswise, the lemon being cut and tossed into the tub with a
single motion of the arm. Where the peel is to be salted down, the
fruit is divided from end to end, and the time consumed is relatively
longer, as is also the case where it is pared. The next step in the
process is naturally omitted where the latter method is used. The
half lemons are thrown upon shallow troughs, on each side of which
stand the operators provided with baskets for holding the peel. The
instrument used consists of a sharp, slightly concave disk firmly
fastened on the end of a stout sickle-shaped wire, provided at the
opposite end with a wooden handle. The disk is skillfully slipped
between the pulp and rind of the lemon, held in the left hand, and
forced toward the end with a circular motion of both the instrument
and fruit. When sufficiently far advanced, a quick jerk removes
the pulp, the separation being complete and the rind unbroken.

The operators are usually paid by the basket of resulting peel, the
women making from 20 to 40 cents a day, while the children, who do
the cutting, rarely make over 15 cents, often as low as 5 cents. Where
the lemons are pared the separation is much less complete, there
being always considerable pulp left on the rinds and some little rind
at the ends of the pared fruit. Asa result of this, some little lemon
juice becomes mixed with the extracted oil, and after the extraction
of the oil from the peel the latter has to be mixed with the fruit pulp
in order not to lose the considerable portion of the part of the fruit
clinging to it.

EXTRACTION OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL.’

In both methods of operation the peel is thrown into large wicker
baskets, which, when full, are dipped into a reservoir of cold water
and thoroughly shaken to remove the excess. This washing is said

2See also the article by the same author, entitled “The Manufacture of
Flavoring Extracts,’ in the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for
1908, pp. 383-342.
160

46 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

to wilt the rind and render a complete extraction of the oil possible.
However this may be, it is certain that fruit treated in this manner
and allowed to stand for several hours yields relatively more oil than
that worked up immediately after separation from the pulp. At
this stage, the pulp and peel having been separated, the former is sent
to the crusher to be converted finally into citrate of lime, the latter
to sponge men, who extract the oil.

The extraction or sponging process is not essentially different with
the different forms of peel, the operators sitting upon low stools with
an earthenware bowl between the feet, a pile of peel in front of them,
and a basket for the exhausted material at one side. The bowl is
about a foot in diameter, provided with a deep lip, directly beneath
which is a small, round, coneave depression which serves when the
bowl is tilted forward, in pouring out its contents, to hold back the
settlings of juice and precipitated matter. Across the top is placed
a stick so notched as to fit tightly on the sides; resting upon it are
the sponges, which differ somewhat according to the manner of pre-
paring the peel. Where the fruit is cut crosswise, a large, flat sponge
is surmounted by a smaller concave one, shaped somewhat like a
brimless slouch hat, the half lemon being placed within this sponge
when pressed. When the lemon is cut in the other direction, a large,
heavy sponge rests upon the flat one and the fruit is. pressed, colored
sidé down, into it. This method is also followed where the rind has
been pared from the fruit. With the first method the half rind is
held in the right hand between the thumb and first two fingers and
inserted in the wide aperture of the concave sponge, whereupon the
latter is pressed upon with the left hand, the weight of the body
being thrown into the motion. The pressure is relieved, the peel
turned partly over with the right hand, and the pressing repeated.
The same operation is carried on once or twice more, the rind thus
receiving three or four pressings. Where the concave sponge is not
used, the peel or slices are pressed face downward on the other sponge
with the right hand, the left being used to keep the sponge in place,
the same amount of force and number of pressings being required in
either case.

The sponging process is somewhat varied where the three-piece
method is used, owing to the quantity of pulp left adhering to the
rind. <A shallow, glazed bowl is placed upon the one ordinarily used
and the notched stick fitted to it so that the mixture of juice and oil
is received directly here. At the end of the operation the sponges
are thoroughly squeezed out by hand and the lemon oil separated
from the juice by tilting forward the glazed bowl over the other and
violently blowing the breath upon the surface of the mixture until
the oil has been carried over into the lower bowl. In this operation
some juice and residue are found mixed with the oil, and this is sep-

160

TREATMENT OF THE RESIDUES. 47

arated finally in the larger bowl by carefully tilting forward and
repeating the blowing operation. The small amount of juice and
residue now present is caught by the depression in this bowl and the
oil is received in a measuring bottle. The operation where the two-
piece method is used is very similar; the oil and what little moisture
and residue are extracted are caught in the earthenware bowl and
separated as indicated.

The oil in either case is allowed to settle for twenty-four hours or
longer, filtered through paper, and stored in large copper containers ;
that made by the three-piece method is said to keep longer without
becoming turbid.

TREATMENT OF THE RESIDUES.

The treatment of the residues resulting from both methods is differ-
ent; with the two-piece method they are passed through a conical
cloth filter and the oil and
water received in an earthen-
ware bowl, where they are
separated in the usual way.
The filter is tied at the top
and placed under a _ hand
press, where the last traces of
oil and water are expressed.
The residues from the three-
piece process, which are rela-
tively greater in amount than
by the other method, are
placed in small copper stills,
diluted with water, and dis-
tilled. The still is made in
two parts, the pot being about
2 feet high, narrowing ab-
ruptly to a 3-inch aperture at
the top, over which the con-
densing part fits tightly, the
joint being cemented each
time with clay. The latter
part is a basin, whose straight

‘ a i Fig. 5.—A lemon-oil still used on residues, Palermo,
sides are continued a short dis- The oil produced is inferior to the hand-pressed

tance beyond the concave bot- P™'""*

tom, after which they converge similarly to the sides of a funnel. It

‘is provided with two spouts, one of which enters under the bottom

into what becomes the condensing chamber of the still; the other

enters above and is used to draw off the water placed in the basin

in order to cool the vapor comirtg in contact with it during the dis-
1587—Bull. 160—09——-4

48 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

tillation. The condensation is further aided by wrapping the other
spout with rags, over which the attendant pours cold water from
time to time. A still is shown in figure 5.

The oil obtained by this process is water white, of disagreeable odor
and abnormal chemical characteristics; having no sale in the pure
state it is invariably mixed by either producer or broker with the
hand-pressed product. The filtration method undoubtedly gives the
best results, for if the residues are treated immediately the resulting
oil can scarcely be distinguished from the original. Distilled oil is
produced only at Barcelona and Palermo; in all other districts the
residues are filtered.

MACHINE-MADE ESSENTIAL OIL.

The manufacture of lemon oil by machine is confined to the main-
land of Italy, in the province of Calabria. As has been said, large
amounts of bergamot oil are made here, and it is with the machine
used in this industry that lemon oil is produced. The bergamot is
shaped more like an orange than a lemon, being nearly round, so
that the apparatus has to be shghtly modified in order to use it on
the latter fruit. The modification consists in removing the flat disks
and substituting concave ones for them.

The machine itself, shown in Plate VI, figure 1, consists of a stand
supporting two upright arms united by a crossbeam at the top. On
the inside of one of these uprights is hung a large cogged wooden
fly wheel geared against a cylinder, the sides of which are upright
spokes fitting into the cogs of the fly wheel. ‘To the under side of
this cylinder is bolted a corrugated disk, shown in Plate VI, figure 2,
fitted so as to revolve above a like stationary one at the bottom of
the machine. An arrangement for raising and lowering the upper
disk is provided for by an arm fastened to the cylinder and extending
over a crosspiece at the rear. This arm is so weighted as to regulate
the pressure brought to bear upon the fruit which is placed between
the upper and lower disks. When it is lowered, the upper disk is
raised and the lemons, which must be of uniform size, are placed
within. The lever is then raised, lowering the disk upon the fruit,
and the outside fly wheel is turned by hand. After two minutes it
is stopped and the fruit removed, each lemon being carefully wiped
otf with a sponge. The grated rind and oil are received in a large
pan set beneath the machine and subsequently filtered through cloth
filters, the residue being placed under hand presses to express the last
traces of oil and moisture.

Oil manufactured in this way is not in the least inferior to the
hand-pressed product and has the added advantage of a much richer
color, being used chiefly for the purpose of bringing up the color of

160

CITRATE OF LIME. 49

the latter. The machine is not used on lemons until after the close
of the bergamot season, fruit ripening before that time being sold to
Sicilian buyers.

CITRATE OF LIME.

After the pulp of the lemon has been removed from the rind it is
conveyed to a crusher, sometimes power-driven, but in a vast majority
of factories run by hand. A crushing machine is shown in Plate IV,
figure 1. ‘The ordinary type consists of a hopper leading into wooden
rollers and a small chute for carrying off the crushed pulp, the whole
being placed over, or very near, a juice tank, into which the drippings
flow. ‘The crushed pulp is shoveled into large, circular, straw filter-
ing mats and pounded down firmly with wooden rams. These mats
are closely woven of coarse straw and have a circular opening at the
top; after being filled they are placed one upon another in stacks of
4 to 12 under hand presses of large size. The presses are set, often
by the aid of a windlass, and the combined pressing and filtration
proceeds until the flow of juice ceases, the presses being set down
several times during the operation. A press and filtering mats are
shown in Plate IV, figure 2. The juice is led into the juice tank,
from whence it is pumped, usually by hand, into a large vat pro-
vided with suitable heating arrangements consisting of direct fire,
steam coil, or, in one or two instances, leading steam directly into the
juice. In this tank the acidity of the juice is neutralized by means
of lime water, the point of neutrality being ascertained by the use
of litmus paper, and after heating for several hours the juice is run
off into the filtering tank while still hot. The latter tank is pro-
vided with a false bottom of wooden latticework, over which is
spread a special filtering cloth; the citrate of lime, which is deposited
in a voluminous white powder, is retained by this cloth, while the
waste liquor runs through and is discarded. When this liquor has
sufficiently drained off, the deposit is shoveled into a small filtering
bag and placed in stacks beneath a small press, where the excess is
further removed. It is usually readily removed from these sacks to
iron pans in which it goes to the drying oven. This oven is a small
room, ventilated at the top, around the sides of which are built tiers
of iron frames for holding the pans. In the center of the room is a
gigantic charcoal burner, which supplies the heat for the evaporation,
from six to forty-eight hours’ drying being necessary, depending
upon its size. The thoroughly dried cake, containing over 60 per
cent of citric acid, is broken into small pieces and packed in hogs-
heads holding about 675 pounds each. An interior view of a by-
product factory is shown in Plate V, figure 2.

The method of disposing of this product is very similar to that
used with essential oils; small or large lots are offered to brokerage

50 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

firms, accompanied by a certificate of analysis showing the actual con-
tent of citric acid. | Exportation is nearly always through one of these
houses, and there seems to be little or no effort to market the oytput
cooperatively. The product is purchased on the citric-acid content
by the large chemical supply houses in Germany, England, and the
United States.

COST OF PRODUCTION OF BY-PRODUCTS.

The quantity of the by-products obtained from a given number of
fresh lemons will depend upon the quality of the fruit, the season of
the year, the time which has elapsed between the gathering and
working up, and the efficiency of the latter process. When allowed
to ripen upon the tree, the lemon loses a considerable part of its
acidity and the oil is also less in quantity and of an inferior grade.
Where the fruit is broken or bruised in handling, the yield of oil is
diminished, and this is also the case where a number of days are
allowed to elapse between picking and working up. The content of
citric acid is not lessened by these faults, however. On the average
quality of fruit, 100 pounds of oil and 675 pounds of citrate of lime,
containing 430 pounds of citric acid, can be produced from 100,000
lemons. The average price for these substances varies from $80 to
$100 for the oil and $75 to $95 for the citrate. At the time of writing,
owing to the recent earthquake disaster in Sicily, the prices are firm
and somewhat higher.

The cost of production is very difficult to estimate and will, of
course, vary in every locality and almost with every factory. In
the consular reports of the late Doctor Cheney he estimates the aver-
age value of lemons to the grower in Sicily at $150 per 100,000. The
fruit going for by-products is the lowest grade, however, and will
not average over $100 per 100,000, leaving a gross profit to the by-
product producer of from $50 to $100. One sponge man can produce
between 2 and 8 pounds of oil per day, for which he receives about
30 cents, making the cost of extracting the oil from 100,000 lemons
from $10 to $15. Other processes about the factory are much
cheaper, and it would seem, at the usual wages of workmen, that
$5 to $10 additional would be a liberal estimate for other expenses,
leaving a profit of from $30 to $70 jointly on 100 pounds of oil and
a pipe of citrate of lime. It is believed that the above estimates
are very conservative and that the actual profits are considerably
higher than the figures given.

160

PLATES.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PLATE I. Lemon groves on the Amalfi coast. Fig. 1.—Terraces of lemon trees
on the mountain side near Majori. Masonry walls are built to keep the
land from sliding. Fig. 2.—Terraces of lemon trees rising from the sea.
The larger trees are olives. There is a trellis over each terrace for frost
protection.

PLATE II. An Italian and an American lemon grove compared. Fig. 1.—One
of the better types of groves at Mascali, Sicily, showing the high-headed
trees, a distributing furrow between the rows, and basins around the trees.
Fig. 2.—A grove of low-headed trees in California.

PLATE III. A lemon-picking scene and a packing-house interior. Fig. 1.—Pick-
ing and grading the fruit, Palermo. The lemons are being graded roughly
for by-products and for export. Fig. 2.—Interior of a packing house at
Catania, showing the padded bins used in grading and packing.

Pate IV. Preparation of citrate of lime. Fig. 1—A crushing machine. Mills
are not used for extracting lemon juice in Sicily. Fig. 2.—A lemon-juice
press. This press acts also as a filter.

PLatTe V. Preparation of lemon oil. Fig. 1.—Paring lemons, 3-piece method,
Palermo. This method is used only in the Palermo district and at Barce-
lona. Fig. 2—Interior of lemon by-product factory, Syracuse. This shows
one of the few factories in Italy using mechanical devices in handling the
fruit.

PLATE VI. Lemon-oil machinery. Fig. 1—A lemon-oil machine used in Calabria.
This machine is confined in its use to the Calabrian district, where it is
also employed in the production of bergamot oil. Fig. 2.—Disks used in
Calabrian machines. The surface of these disks is not unlike that of a burr
mill.

160
52

Bul, 160, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE l.

Fic. 1.—TERRACES ON THE MOUNTAIN SIDE.

FiG. 2.—TERRACES RISING FROM THE SEA.

LEMON GROVES ON THE AMALFI COAST.

Bul. 160, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Fic. 1.—A GROVE AT MASCALI, SICILY, SHOWING A DISTRIBUTING FURROW AND BASINS
AROUND THE TREES.

Fig. 2.—A GROVE OF LOW-HEADED TREES IN CALIFORNIA.

AN ITALIAN AND AN AMERICAN LEMON GROVE COMPARED.

Bul. 160, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

FiG. 2.—INTERIOR OF A PACKING HOUSE, CATANIA.

A LEMON-PICKING SCENE AND A PACKING-HOUSE INTERIOR.

PLATE IV.

of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Bul. 160, Bureau

Fig. 1.—A CRUSHING MACHINE.

PREPARATION OF CITRATE OF LIME.

7 ae

aie FR

Fig. 2.—A LEMON-JUICE PRESS.

Bul. 160, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE V.

~
x

L Re ce : qs =e Ce 2 _

Fic. 1.—PARING LEMONS, 3-PIECE METHOD, PALERMO.

Fic. 2.—INTERIOR OF LEMON By-PRoDUCT FACTORY, SYRACUSE.

PREPARATION OF LEMON OIL.

PLATE VI.

ire

Dept. of Agricult

S

U

au of Plant Industry

160, Bure

Bul

Fic. 1.—A LEMON-OIL MACHINE USED IN CALABRIA. Fia. 2.—DiskS USED IN CALABRIAN MACHINES.

LEMON-OIL MACHINERY.

INDEX.

Page

memmciie, not manuiactured in Tialy.......-..........6..c00ceccs cee enae 15, 43
recovery from citrate of lime, process in Italy.................-- 43

famiineraves wUMULCOMS tates. Ge oe \. nbs oc kato. Soe eee Bee ae ol ae 19

Ammonia sulphate as source of nitrogen for lemon fertilizing................ 23, 25
Ee s erenviniZeGMOnleman Candens: =o sc25. 2... . 205 - ea ee cece ence ae cn nceeae 25
arceonaeiciwy lemon-o1l factories... ...2... 5.222... eee 42
Pasinminmenionelemonivardens, Italy s..2:.: 2.22.2... -.0.e eee alca cee eens 27
Bastardi lemons, Eee ae Be ce Re Eee 22
Basterdoni lemons, description.......-- 2 2 hkl Sen Re Sa a a) a 22
Bergamot, description and extraction of oil. Sees BEE Ps cn Ree 48
SIACGINO MOAMRDM Ae acdt= iiss 2.0. os - weve. she eke ele aces 36, 48

ment sisupply from) Calabria: 22.2002... 0.025... .5c2-se-204 36
Peummnimmemubettingin CeseripuOn.- 222.2222. - 22-2222 st ee eee eee eee bbe enee 25
Bone meal, fertilizer for lemon gardens, Italy... Be ee ee ME ear eee 25
By-products, lemon, cost of production in Healy. RR a peca ce na eee 50
anion ie ee Ben Ae nis Boe ae eres 15-19

factories, location and deenition CD, Ses Sousa eee Ay, 35-43, 44

mraces Or truihased ii VMaly.0.:......:22.-:-)- 15, 21, 31, 39, 40

RIMS CP DM DOne. rests Gora. wie ieee stele vie Hee tea Some 35-50

industry, Italy, geographical distribution................- 30-43

manufacture and disposal in Italy...................-.- 43-44

Guanutyeor tmnt usedim Ttaly:........---..----22s nese. 10

Hani Tarbes a Wmived States. 22.2 22n 2... ets le eb as 19

Somutiemerramot Ol manufacture...............-.-.--22-2- eee eee ee ee eee 36, 48

iermommpy—praducn INGUsiTy.*:.02-:-.--2.-.0:--2----.-22-.----- 8,15, 36,48
Calcium citrate. See Lime, citrate.

Benner NeMMON-OUlfaetOrves. = 2 ec Shas s sl oa. c ss. cede eee eee eee teens 37
ee ee PTC IM te SS een oe de cent ee eee eee eee 8, 9, 20, 23

Gill TEXAN OS -cesorlecton 2b eS OE AGES BSE aGn Eee See 37
Chace, E. M., paper entitled ‘“‘The by-products of the lemon in Italy”’ ...... 35-50
Cheney, Dr. Arthur S., collection of statistics in Italy, 1908...........--. 10, 27, 50

Citrate of lime. See Lime, citrate.
Citric acid. See Acid, citric.

Citron and lemon juice, concentrated, exports from Italy, 1898-1908 ........-.- 17-18
raw, exporus irom Maly, 1898-1908. .:-............-.- 18

Citrus bigaradia, use as stock for lemon grafting in Italy ........-- ch ee 24
fruit by-products, tariff rates, United States..............--.......2.--- 19

peck ex porta trom ltaly, 1898-1908... 2... s elas esse .. 18-19
preparation for by-product manufacture in Tisily eee th athe eM, 44-45

trees, Italy, number, estimate................- 5 a ete Lire eer, - 7

fruits, essential oils, exports from Italy, 1898-1905................----- 16-17
MuMmrErGe ONG AlGUNOn MOC AMINE neurteese sa 2-2 se eb eee cee eee eecceeee- 9,40

160 53

54 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

Page.
Cost of producing lemons in Italy. . Deane neat beats 32-33
Earthquake, Messina, destruction oi denonn pod tiers ce leer Hi ed for chia:
MENG a2 5 Sec en seehee tte CRS Se hes ne eee tee cee Ree eee 20, 30
Etna district, lemon-oil factories, location and description......:........... 36-38
Europe, imports of lemons from Italy by different countries, character of fruit. 21
Exports, lemon by-products, from. Italy, 1899-1908, 1894-1908, and 1900-1908.. 15-19
, lemons, from Italy, 1898-1908, percentage to United States.......... inh
prineipal sourced:.s.-... 2.4.5 e a. eee Zi
Kina district; Italy, lemon by-product imdustry.....¢:>._f>2--... 2 eee 36-38
Factories, lemon by-product, Italy, equipment...-.......-...........-.-.-<. 44
oil, Sicily, description and location - = -s..-.-... 35-48, 44
Fertilizers, commercial, introduction into Italian lea pandeant Be Te de 25
for Italian lemon gardens...-.....-. 240: imes ee ee 23, 25-26
Frost,-protection of lemon ‘treesain Waly. ...::.2qgeu:4 22222). ee oo ee 8, 27-28
Fruit stored in Messina, destruction by earthquake, 1908...................- 20
See also Citrus, Lemon, Orange, etc.
Eurrow irrigation, lemon gardens in Italy ...--...22- ..-.- 62 5 =e 27
Gardens, lemon, care and management in Italy............--.-..-..-.-...... 24-30
description, size, number of trees, and yield in Italy....... 8, 23-24
Grading lemons; Ttaltanimethods:. :-. . 2. ..22455- 4255644 5-6 31-32
Grafting lemons, Italian«method=---:-..-.--.- ssa. ae 24
Groves, lemon. See Gardens.
Guim) disease; resistance lol ibitteriorange:---- 2255-2 -2-- ee 24
Harvesting lemons, Italy, seasons and methods..............--....-.--.--- 20, 30-31
Imports, lemons, into United States, from Italy, 1898-1908, ports of entry and
OMeXPOTtbic. siesta es ete ne Hae hee eee Cee 11-18
Insects:seale> control by, prumine methodsrlitalive. sae aos ste ee =e eee 25
Introduction: to paper on ‘‘The by-products of the lemon in Italy” ......-...-. 35
‘The Stalian lemonandusiry.” -.2-2:22_. . 22a 7
Irrigation, ‘lemon ‘gardens, Maly !2s22.23.25e ont) JE oat ee 26-27
Italy, by=productsiof the lemon ie parpen= = ere =e eee 35-50
lemon industry, papers -2 255525 gee os eae eee 7-33
See also Lemons.
Juice, lemon and citron, concentrated, exports from Italy, 1898-1908.......... 17-18
raw, exports from Italy, 1898-1908... ....... 25.02... 18
concentrated: manutactureandiise:--eeee= = 22 eee 42, 48-44
Tabor, cost; lemon’ oil factories; Jitaly225 26 ee = ee 44, 50
lemon industry, Italy, scale of wages, men, women, and boys. ......-.- 33
avai beds, Mount) Hina. lemon/erowine ey. se 5 se) e eee ee eee 8, 23
Lemon and citron juice, concentrated, exports from Italy, 1898-1908.........- 17-18
raw, exports from Italy, 1898-1908. ........:........ 18
by-productsiim Italy, papens2 2 sae. <5. = 2 se ieee 35-50
See also By-products.
crop, handling, selling, harvesting, sorting, packing, and shipping,
Ttalyds cn.cd ica: la ae A ae BE A tees eee 28-32
Ltaly,, 1907, estimate: 0-622 c- -.ce cee eee ee eet 10
gardens, Italy, foauilizarion: irrigation, pruning, etc .<..:-.:- <a 23-26
prowing,, ltaly.icost per acre, estimates seme saci fae ete eee 33
propagation, pruning, tillage, irrigation, etc.......... 24-80
repions, Dtaly.! ..2...- 2 soni02 Seectieen ccs —=. eee 7-10, 23
industry, Italian, articleby G: Harold Powell... ....5..-).)22eeeeeeee 7-33
COMMMELCIAlMMpPOLTAMCCe rete sere eee 10-11
extent and locations....-02 526% ose eae eee eee 7-10

160

INDEX. 5D

Page
Seemmarmioation, Italian methods: -...- . 2223 /..<208 coc adlacacwsdeudecsssess 26-27

oil. See Oil, lemon.
ae wee NOES methods, Lily. /.. i... 6e. Seba sae sce us do ey OY 62 cee ee- 31-32
Mem ox ports from Ttaly, 1896-1906 42.525 08.08. oe nce 2. ee e2k: 18-19
LCT Ea ar ads aera eee PCN Toe Wo, a SOY Aen ee 43
pulp, use in manufacture of citrate of lime.......................-. 46, 49-50
SPE IPOA ONG: ois note eit Sel See eee toss Wokes 47-48
Peete conterr, Italy. ole ies. 0. Wisc ck ae eo Boe eR eas Skee 10, 12-13, 20

: trees. See Trees.

nernL, CEROTEDUION . Saas a) 8S a2 2.5. . oe Sodas ea te ss Meee 22
PEA ONT. COMSTIUPPLOM carte ee oe slia= bs bey os cee DE eek a ans ales 22
BIG NGLtL OCRCYeDUIOM) <o-ttke eins... oles Ss Sa wee oe os hy oe 22
classification based on time of ripening. ........................... 22
MEMO EUG CLOMID UALY ote seulas co cSk So. - eee eee ele he ee 32-33
cenmeniic CONSUMPLION, CStlmaAte = =. Se ee eee ce see 10

exported to United States from Italy, superior grades................ 21,31
exports from Italy, 1898-1908, percentage to United States........... 11

Pecipn, dieinibution in United States..:........-----.......2---2- 13
mepmods|of handling ims Umited States. :....0........2..8.2. 13-15
merent.rates, Italy to United States.2...........--...-22-- 22 ceess 33
grades sent to different markets.-..0...2.20...22-22-2 2022-0020 ea ee 21,31
naavestino seasons» and methodsan.-2- 1-254 220222). . 2500. ce ee 20, 30-31
imports into United States, with ports of entry and ports of export.. 11-13
Italian, handling in the United States, buying and selling. ......... 13-15
Italy, character of fruit exported to different markets. .............- 21-22
grown in different localities................. 21

NOTICE 8 2s es big Ciccone 25-26
HONS oe Gord oe REE CO a NRO oer ST eee cee ee 26-27
MERE NONE Aner ac te sect e okt ek eno Scie Gee e aan 24-25

Pen PRION AORTA IOShs, 2.35.2 =. owas toe ccs ee beeies aoclve 27-28

pies RRRRE re 2) ay Wea ine Ui me eS Wis sik aX ws ees eee be 25
Baeee TEE CUMELPICRING org t pe gl cet cial ate Je ted tebe ce eee 20
MICE. che sea see bdo cee eed oe ee ee eee eee 25
PeNRRRTEPECIROMUPTLOU 2s er fk pe since s wie p SR SE ae Sans wale dl eee 22
eI EN INI ie Torrie ee eee 58 Le LL 5 cap eie se Sa » olaleg = 22
ra Pil MOGNOUSs=— 6k fe. 2 bk Stee eek weedeeee 31-32
peeling for oil extraction, Italy, methods and cost ...............-.. Ad
Deen MUBUREPReM lr TMM ETHOOS 7. Se 22-555 55.. 22s 2s artis eae ae ee 30-31
Seeperme tor oi oxtraction, [Maly .--.....2..--.0 2... 2. enone eee eeee 44-45
price per thousand in the gardens, Italy..........-............-.-- 30
ripening season, harvesting, and shipping in Italy..................- 20
Beane Gueierop in. Italy, methods. ..-.:.-.~-.-- <<... 62 scene neces 28-30
BIminAnC WEIN) PEL LNOUMAIG s fs eu. 8 oon sc ae ois a ee eee ee eee 29
(ain Tees Wii ISeUGSL oad 2 en eee ae 19
terms applied to fruit ripening at different periods in Italy......... 22
UD SG UCL Se 30, 50
Verdelli, description and methods of production............-..----- 22-23
Peo cimace, export irom Italy, 1899-1908... =... 2. --s------- 2 eee 15
imports mo United States, 1894-1908... ......---.----.-.-...- 16
manufacture, amount of fruit used, and product, 1907, Italy... i)
Me RI ee ees ce eg eee ens 43, 49-50

Messina, destruction by earthquake, 1908..............-------- 30
leis PE ge le | 50
FULCRUM eI Ch OUS eee A Seley skidee ss ctu te des wae ees a 49-50
ROUNG OO CHUNG IMME tne ales ce. mis wiale cnc. woewersiececesince 15, 43

160

56 ITALIAN LEMONS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS.

Page.
Limoni lemortis,; descriptioni.s:222. 24.25) 225 «2 Se oe eee on
Maggiolini lemons, descriptions: / 52252202202 cee ee 22
Majori lemons, growing under trellises, Italy... 5222.25. --cee) eee 28
Manure, composted, use on lemon gardens, Italy....-....- yee eS gS 5b) | 23, 25
green, valuein Jemon) gardens; Italy: ..2:.. 2 te eee eee 26
quantity per tree in lemon gardens, Italy....-22-.--..2.-..-J.2.)2e2 26
use in lemon gardens, methods of application, Italy...............-- 26
Messina, destruction of lemons and citrate of lime by earthquake............. 20, 30
district, Italy, lemon by-product industry. ......-.-:.:+--.-222256 38-39 .
lemionvexport:tradessess=ase ee oe 10, 12-13, 20, 21, 38, 39, 42
prowling ss. e eyes eee, Ae. 2 ee 8, 9; 10; 20; 21, 23
Mount: Etna lava beds, lemom prowings 22. 2......-.. 22) eo eee 8, 23
Naples, lemon industry 22 7-322 5-28 eek ee 8, 12-13
Nitrate of soda. See Soda.
Oil, bergamot, manufacture and machine extraction, Calabria...............- 36, 48
See also Oils, essential.
lemon, distilled, inferior quality J. 2. s..2 2387. Snes 48
essential; extraction, Ttaly...22: .224ie ae B35. eee 45-47
machitie-made, Ttaly. . ii .¢Jieos 2 ee eee 48-49
exports from Italy 51900-1908... 220d oe 17
extraction, night work, Italy, reasons assigned.................... 44
process, [taly..........25: ei ee 45-7
factories, Sicily, description, location, and equipment... .-.--- 35-48, 44
iImportsamtonUmibeds States. 1898-1908 he see =.= ss: eee Ny
machine-made; tally qe ot Sse te eee 48
prices in, Italiy.2 ts asi Aeacne-2tet ek. Sees ee 50
See also Oils, essential.
orange, manufacture, Sicily eees- -e sese eso cee eee: 38, 42
See also Oils, essential. '
residues, treatment 55 2h. 2s ee eee re ep noe oe 47
Oils, essential, extraction process, methods im Italy.....-........-..:-22:---- 45-48
from citrus fruits, exports from Italy, 1898-1908. ............. 16-17
Orange, bitter, use as stock for lemon grafting, Italy. ...........-.....-.---- 24
oilsmanufacturesiSicily a2 eer ence ee ae ee eee oe ne ee eee 38, 42
peel, exports from Italy, 1898-1908... 252.022. 2 2 18-19
Packing lemons; Italy, methods: > te. 2-2..22.-20 20052-1222) ee 31-32
Palermo) district, italy, lemon by-product industry 22 5 5255-- aes eee aes 40-41
lemon. exporitrade sc ocasr ee ee ee ee eae ees 10, 12-138, 20, 21, 41
STO WING cok. ee eee, Se eos Bete DEE eee 8, 9510; 20; 21523
Peel, citrus fruits, exports from Italy, 1898-1908 ................2.....1....-- 18-19
lemon, exports from Ttaly, 1898-9082) = 22 2s eee ee 18-19
Salting, Ttally:. 22 2 es one ge ss cee 2 43
orange, exports irom Italy, 1S98=1908- 4.5.5.2 5.26225.) eee 18-19
Peeling lemons for oil extraction, methods and cost of labor, Italy............ 44
Picking lemons iin‘ ltaly, methods) 22 i0-- see es se eee cee eee eee - eee 30-31
Ports, Italian, shipping lemons to United States. ...............-.-...- 10, 12-13, 20
Potash, sulphate, fertilizer for lemon gardens, Italy...........-........------ 25
Powell, G. Harold, paper entitled ‘‘The Italian lemon industry” ............. 7-33
Prunine® lemon) trees litalianemethod 2-6 cee erase eie ee aaa ee ee 25
Pulp, lemon, use in manufacture of citrate of lime, Italy.................- 46, 49-50
Rainfall tannualSieilyae oe tastes st be Bae soe oe eee ne ae ee ee 27
tock, eround, fertilizer for lemon pardens, taly2o--2a-s2 2522 a eee 25
Sanita Meresas lemon oll tactoriess =o. +. 02 oo ee eee ee ioe se ee eee 38

160

INDEX. 517

Page

meeremone:. in Tally methods, --saven-: legos Sec Coke ee = oe ede esaene 28-29
Shipping lemons in Italy, seasons and methods. .........................--- 20, 31
eile tomon by-product industry. -...------+-2-<-5-2s2-see--es =: 8, 10, 15, 35-43
growing districts, description, seasons, etc....-......-........ 7-10, 20

ING USiry MMP OraMeest Tn. «aes a et ee nee oo: 7-10, 21, 35-43

oil manufacture, districts and factories, description............. 35-43

Seren AG! COM perature 1. cavsc win SoS toe eee es eR eo Sela 27
Plawseruilizer for lemon gardens, Italy.............-..--2-20520seee ee eee eee 25
Soda, nitrate, as nitrogen source for lemon fertilizing......................... 28525
Sorrentine peninsula, lemon growing. .............---..------------ 8, 20, 23, 27-28
Serento lemons; growing under trellises-.......--.-..-....2--2s2--e00---505- 28
Sponging process for extraction of lemon oil......:....-.......-..----------- 46
uemamion. oul, Ltaly, Gescripton...-2.<2sj.0s-26.------2eceeec- RS ok ee 47
Syracuse district, Italy, lemon by-product industry...............-.......... 41-42
ROUEN UU Scio. = wo te Seis oa ne Meee en 8-9, 20

Tariff rates on lemons and their by-products entering United States. ......_.. 19
Terraces, lemon growing, Sorrentine peninsula..................-.2.2...---+- 8, 28
Malimecmeerion purdens, Italy. ..--...2---.2..--.-0----- se eee eceee eens. 25
rectus iri, Ltaly, number, estimate. -...-.-...2-2202-.-.-5- cesses 7
lemon, Italy, distribution and total number, 1898.................... 10
faINIMCR LISTON eG ae oe oe ol nie ee ca ee ge ow 24

yieldun ditterent localities: * ...).... 22. --.2222..s2- dee 24

Trellises, lemon groves, description..... sor nt, Jao a ee a Ree 8, 27-28
Uritede states, distribution of foreien lemons. ..-....--.---------.--+22---0:0 13
districts from which Italian lemons are exported. ...-......... 12-13

PM pOni aon Clorabe Ol LINObys 2 2S. sa. 5). algo te ees beet e ee 16

Le Mn OMG eos tae eres ee eins Powe ie fa toe Some ee 17

LETMOTS peso ee oe es eas Be eiete Boake tna Ss oh 11-12

miethodsof handling toreion lemons: ...2-.---------+----=---- 13-15

rates of duty on lemons and their by-products...............-. 19

Verdelli lemons, description and methods of production. .......-.........-.-. 22-23

160

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WAR I 1930

a

AD » me 1 DI ,

SB U.5. Bureau of Plant Indus-—
19 try, Soils, and Agricultural
A35 Engineering

no. Bulletin

151-160

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